Library of 
 
V J-^ V \y-\-^.<^ U^ ^ ^\i^J V >\ - : / 
 
STUDIES 
 
 IN 
 
 GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 BY 
 
 MARY D. SHELDON, Bfil^NES 
 
 rORMBRLT PROFESSOR OP HISTORY IN WELLE8LET COLLEGE, 
 AND TEACHER OF HISTORY IN OSWEGO ' 
 
 NORMAL SCHOOL, N.T. 
 
 2Dead)er*!a; JHanuaL 
 
 ■ It is impossible that the history of any state should possess any interest 
 unless it show some sort of development." — J. R. Seeley. 
 
 BOSTON: 
 D. C. HEATH & COMPANY. 
 
 189(>. 
 
• • • • "• 
 • • •" • 
 
 COPTRIOHT, Fbb. 11, 1888, 
 Bt MARY SHELDON BARNES. 
 
 EDUCATION DEPT, 
 
 Nortoooti )9rt00 : 
 
 J. S. Gushing & Co. — Berwick & Smith. 
 
 Boston, Mass., U.S.A. 
 
TO 
 
 My best of Masters, 
 
 This book is most gratefully 
 dedicated. 
 
 543094 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 THEY say my " Studies" are hard, and I am glad to hear 
 it, for so in truth they should be, since history itself is 
 hard. Our text-books in this subject have been mostly manuals 
 of the results of this study, presented in more or less attrac- 
 tive literary form. They have given no chance for any genuine 
 work ; and yet the study of history demands most serious work ; 
 like mathematics, it involves logic ; like language, it demands 
 analysis and fine discrimination of terms ; like science, it calls 
 for exact observation ; like law, it needs the cool, well-balanced 
 judgment ; beyond all these, it requires the highest, fullest use 
 of the sympathetic imagination. In fact, no study is more dif- 
 ficult ; none calls more completely on all the mental powers, ijone 
 affords the mind more generous play. 
 
 It is indeed easy to read and then repeat: "Magna Charta 
 laid the foundation of English liberty " ; " The Athenian peo- 
 ple were brave, patriotic, magnanimous, and highly-cultured " ; 
 "The government of Lewis XIV. was arbitrary, corrupt, un- 
 just, extravagant " ; but to read, or even to learn such sen- 
 tences as these by heart, is not to study, or even to touch the 
 study of history ; these are mere statements of the results of 
 historical research ; before he can name his work " study," the 
 pupil must have found out some results for himself, by exercis- 
 ing his own powers upon the necessary "raw material" of 
 history ; let him read Magna Charta ; let him see the Athenian 
 people in action in their contemporary world ; let him have the 
 facts of French organization and administration under Lewis 
 XIV. ; let him look, and look again, like Agassiz* famous 
 pupil at the fish, until he sees the essential spirit, purpose, or 
 character displayed within these words and deeds and figures ; 
 thus he becomes a genuine student. By such practice, he 
 
• ''* Vi ' • * • * PKEFACE. 
 
 learns, as a practical historian, to interpret social and political 
 forms and facts, as the biologist learns to interpret living 
 organisms by the actual dissection of a few typical forms, or 
 as the mathematician fits himself to wrestle with new complica- 
 tions by conquering well-set, formal problems ; in each case, 
 actual work is done ; and nought but actual work knits us to 
 reality. 
 
 In teaching history in higher grades, three points must 
 always be in mind : first, to give each student independent 
 work ; next, to subject the results of solitary, individual thought 
 to the freest criticism and discussion in the class-room ; last 
 of all, the accepted results of tlie collective labor must be 
 arranged in compact and logical order, and stowed away in 
 memory. By the solitar}' study of the individual, the mind 
 gains power and originality ; by the " free lance in a free 
 field " of class-room work, the mind gains courage, sharpness, 
 speed, and generous temper ; by the strict, close sifting of 
 stu^iy and discussion, it gains concentration, clearness, and 
 breadth. 
 
 This mode of instruction is, in its essence, the famous 
 *^ Seminary" method, first employed in Germany, and of late 
 introduced into our own leading colleges. To render its advan- 
 tages available for large classes with limited libraries, and a 
 limited course of historical stud}', I have made these two books : 
 the Student's edition contains the material and the problems for 
 independent study ; the Teacher's Manual contains the answers 
 to these problems, embodied in tabulations, and a running com- 
 mentary' of text, which may serve as suggestive for the discus- 
 sions and the summaries demanded by the class-room. 
 
 As for the advantage of this method to the teacher, I can 
 only say that I can but hope it will save him the tedium of the 
 treadmill ; that it will bring him day by day the living, sympa- 
 thetic touch of youthful thought and feeling; and that, in 
 time, the world may read with fairer, clearer meaning to 
 himself. 
 
 MARY SHELDON BARNES. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGS 
 
 Preface v-vi 
 
 Civilized World Before 776 B.C 1-7 
 
 Introductory 1-3 
 
 A. Study on Egypt 3-4 
 
 B. Study on Tigro-I^uj^rates Valley .... 5 
 
 C. Study on Phoenicia 6 
 
 D. Study on Judsea . . ^ r 7 
 
 Hellas .....* 8-35 
 
 A. Study on Heroic Age 9-13 
 
 B. Study on Historic Greece 13-21 
 
 C. Study on the Persian Wars 21-27 
 
 D. Study on the Athenian Leadership ; Age of Perikles . 27-33 
 
 E. F. Study on Period 431-338 33-35 
 
 The Hellenistic, or Alexandrian Conquests and King- 
 doms . . . . 36-39 
 
 Rome 39-83 
 
 Introductory 39-40 
 
 A, B.l. Study on Regal Rome and Prse-Punic Republic . 41-46 
 
 B. II. Study on Republican Rome, Punic Period . . 46-52 
 
 B. III. Study on Republican Rome, Post-Punic Period . 53-58 
 
 C. I. Study on Pagan Empire, Augustus to Diocletian . 58-65 
 
 Teutonic Barbarians before 476 a.d 65-68 
 
 C. II. Christian Empire, Constantine to Charlemagne . 68-83 
 
 A. Christian Empire under Roman Control . . 69-75 
 
 B. and C. The West under Barbarian Control ; Empire 
 
 of Charlemagne . 76-83 
 
Vlll TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PASS 
 
 European History, 814-1880 84-167 
 
 Introductory 84-85 
 
 A. Early Mediaeval Period; Charlemagne to the Cru- 
 
 sades, 814-1095 86-94 
 
 B. Study on Crusading Period 94-100 
 
 C. Study on Later Mediaeval Period .... 100-114 
 
 D. Renaissance and Reformation Era .... 115-127 
 
 E. Modern Europe 128-167 
 
 L The "Old Regime," 1648-1789 . . . . 128-140 
 
 Aa, In Europe in General .... 128-134 
 
 Ah. In France 134-140 
 
 II. French Revolution and Wars of Napoleon . 141-149 
 
 French Revolution 141-144 
 
 Napoleonic Rule . . . . . . 145-146 
 
 Prussian Revolution 146-149 
 
 III. The Nineteenth Century 150-167 
 
 In General 150-162 
 
 Special Study on Germany .... 162 
 
 Special Study on Italy 162-166 
 
 Socialism 166 
 
STUDIES IN GENEEAL HISTORY. 
 
 Eeacijer's iWanual. 
 
STUDIES IN GENEEAL HISTORY. 
 
 [N.B. — All page references are to the Students' Edition.] 
 
 THE CIVILIZED WORLD BEFORE 776 B.C. 
 
 Before the " Studies " are begun at all, the teacher should 
 have a preliminary discussion of the meaning of the word 
 " civilization." I have found it a very good plan to give the 
 students for the first day's lesson this requirement for home 
 work, — "Make a list of all the reasons you have for calling 
 yourselves civilized." You will find when the answers are 
 brought the next day that you have plenty of material for dis- 
 cussion and analysis. Since the greatest masters hesitate to 
 define the word civilization, it will probabty be best in the 
 class-room work simply to aim at some general, but clear ideas, 
 which may strengthen and elucidate its meaning. The material 
 brought by the pupils in answer to your question will probably 
 enable you to make some such anal3'sis as follows : — 
 
 CIVILIZATION. 
 Proofs of. 
 
 Houses, clothing, furniture, etc. 
 
 Railroads, roads, telegraphs, post-offices, etc. 
 
 Books, pictures, schools, etc. 
 
 Churches, societies, etc. 
 
 The family and the home, etc. 
 
 Government, courts of law, etc. 
 Directions of. 
 
 Material, industrial, and commercial. 
 
 Intellectual and aesthetic. 
 
 Religious. 
 
 Social. 
 
 Political. 
 Present Area of European (progressive) Civilization. 
 
;2! :■;';.'.'; ■ : bttoies in general history. 
 
 In discussing the present area of European (or Aryan) 
 civilization, the teacher may ask the pupils how this civilization 
 is different from that of China and India, and note that Euro- 
 pean civilization is marked by progress as opposed to immo- 
 bility. With some classes of pupils it may not be amiss to ask 
 what classes of people in Europe and America are most civil- 
 ized, requiring some proof for the answer given, and calling 
 attention to the fact that in the most civilized countries, civili- 
 zation in its higher directions is most widely diffused among all 
 classes, although even in these countries, it is far from being 
 equally so. 
 
 This whole discussion should be treated simply and largely, 
 giving room and freedom for all opinions, without any anxiety 
 for particularly close or definite results, which are indeed un- 
 desirable in dealing with such a subject. 
 
 The pupils are now ready for the questions on p. 3. They 
 will note that Egypt, the Tigro-Euphrates valley, Phoenicia, 
 and Judaea, were each so protected from easy invasion, b}' 
 mountains, rivers, deserts, and seas, and at the same time so 
 fortunate in climate and so easily supported by agriculture or 
 commerce, that men in these countries could devote a part, 
 at least, of their time and strength to the various arts of 
 civilization. This Oriental civilization would first enter Europe 
 in the South, both because here Europe is easily reached from 
 the East, and fairly protected from invasion, being peninsular 
 southward and guarded by mountain-barriers northward. 
 
 If there be time, it will be interesting just here to notice the 
 various modern states of Europe and see how far their political 
 boundaries have natural defenses, Prussia being a very good 
 example of a state without, and England of a state with, natu- 
 ral boundaries. If the pupils have difficulty in seeing that 
 civilization will grow fastest where the protection from inva- 
 sion is greatest, other things being equal, simply ask them to 
 name some of the things which civilized people make and do, 
 and they will soon see that time and quiet, and therefore a cer- 
 tain amount of peace, are necessary to civilization. This 
 
STUDY ON EGYPT. 3 
 
 point being made, they are ready to see how the deserts and 
 mountains, rivers and seas, were so placed as to allow an early 
 civilization along the Nile and Euphrates valleys, while their 
 fertile soil, capable of feeding thousands with little toil, gave 
 whole classes leisure for varied industries. It has been sug- 
 gested to me, moreover, that the rivers that traverse these 
 great valleys made an easy means of communication between 
 the various parts of their respective lands, — a point of great 
 importance. 
 
 A. STUDY ON EGYPT. 
 
 The answers given to the questions on pp. 7 and 15, and on 
 p. 3 concerning Egypt, may be summarized as follows : — 
 
 EGYPT, 4000 (?) -1250 (?) B.C. 
 
 Natural Advantages for Early Civilization. 
 Protection from invasion by 
 desert. 
 
 seas. 
 Abundance of food easily procured, by reason of 
 
 climate. 
 
 fertile soil. 
 
 level surface. 
 
 annual inundation of the Nile. 
 Easy internal communication by means of the Nile. 
 Organization of Society (Oriental) : aristocratic, theocratic, and 
 monarchic, centred at Memphis and Thebes : — 
 King : ruler, general, builder, ^ 
 
 Priests : scholars, authors, and officials, >■ land-owners. 
 Nobles : soldiers and officials, ) 
 
 Common people : traders and artizans : embalmers, stone-cutters, 
 
 engravers, jewellers, scribes, carpenters, cabinet-makers 
 
 weavers, potters, glass-makers, etc., etc. 
 Serfs, slaves, and captives: worked the land and served in 
 
 the household, hewed and carried the stone, and made 
 
 the brick for great public works. 
 
4 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 Egypt. — Continued. 
 
 CharacteristicB of People and Civilization. 
 
 Political : 
 
 absolutism; centralization of industrial, religious, and 
 political life in the king, supported by land-owning 
 privileged classes. 
 Social: inequality. 
 
 Industrial : high material development. 
 Moral : 
 
 obedience and kindne'ss most admired, 
 standard of morality high. 
 Religious : 
 
 polytheistic nature-worship, with monotheistic tendencies, 
 absolute trust in immortality, 
 belief in the ability of the gods to help men. 
 close union of religion with the state, as shown in — 
 importance of temples and privileges of priests, 
 sacredness of king. 
 Intellectual : 
 
 attainment of culture in — 
 literature. 
 
 mathematics; geometry, 
 astronomy, 
 medicine, 
 great inequality of culture. 
 Esthetic : 
 
 admiration for solidity and size. 
 Enduring Remains of Civilization. 
 Monuments : pyramids, temples. 
 
 Objects of fine and industrial art : sculpture, jewelry, etc. 
 Knowledge : geometrical, mathematical, medical. 
 Literature : theology, morals, poetry, fiction, historic records. 
 
 In summarizing these results the teacher will find it necessary 
 perhaps to give such terms as Oriental, monarchic, aristocratic, 
 theocratic, absolutism, polytheism, monotheism, but in each 
 case he should first give the pupils themselves the chance to 
 apply the term. And when given, the word should be defined 
 as exactly as possible by the pupils, in order that the teacher 
 may be sure of its being understood in its application. 
 
STUDY ON THE TIGRO-EUPHEATES VALLEY. 5 
 
 B. STUDY ON THE TiaEO-EUPHEATES VALLEY. 
 This study may be summarized as follows : — 
 
 TIGRO-EUPHRATES VALLEY. 
 Natural Advantages for Early Civilization. 
 
 Same as in Egypt, the Tigris and Euphrates taking the place 
 of the Nile. 
 Organization of Society. 
 
 Similar to that of Egypt (Oriental). 
 Characteristics of People and Civilization. 
 Political and Social : 
 
 as in Egypt, but centred at Babylon and Nineveh. 
 Industrial : similar to that of Egypt. 
 Moral ; 
 
 admiration for power, 
 desire of wealth. 
 Religious : 
 
 polytheistic belief. 
 
 belief in the power of the gods in human affairs, 
 close union of religion with the state. 
 Intellectual : 
 
 attainment of culture in 
 literature, 
 mathematics, 
 astronomy, 
 inequality of culture. 
 Esthetic : admiration for the rich and brilliant. 
 Enduring Remains. 
 
 Objects of industrial art. 
 Astronomical knowledge. 
 Historic records (clay cylinders). 
 Reliefs and sculptured figures of deities.^ 
 
 In summarizing B^ particular attention should be called to 
 the fact that the king is very positively the centre, not only of 
 religious, but of industrial and intellectual life ; in fact, the 
 king, his palaces and temples, embody and include the civiliza- 
 tion of Babylon and Nineveh. 
 
 * The object of the stone lions and bulls was not so much aesthetic as 
 protective, magic qualities evidently being ascribed to them. (See p. 18.) 
 
6 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 a STUDY ON PHCENIOIA. 
 In this study the trade and commerce of the Phoenicians must 
 be emphasized, and the pupils will see that ship-building, navi- 
 gation, and some manufactures are necessary to a people living 
 by trade ; that the Phoenicians would find the best markets 
 among civilized peoples, whose wants were greatest, and that by 
 virtue of their occupation they were at once the greatest learners 
 and the greatest teachers of antiquity : on the one hand, observ- 
 ing the geography, the manners and customs, the arts and 
 industries of all the people among whom they traded ; on the 
 other, diffusing this knowledge by interchanging from land to 
 land the various products of the Mediterranean basin. There 
 is much proof that through their agency civilization began to 
 urge its way into Europe along the line of the Greek coasts and 
 islands. Summarize as follows : — 
 
 PHCENICIA. 
 Natural Advantages of Position. 
 
 Protected from invasion by mountains and the sea. 
 On the road from Egypt to Mesopotamia. 
 Character of People and Culture. 
 
 Industrial and commercial, centring in coast cities of PhcB- 
 
 nicia, and in trading-posts (colonies). 
 Great variety of occupations, as in Egypt and Mesopotamia, 
 adding navigation, ship-building, lumbering, and mining ; 
 slave-dealing, dyeing, ivory-carving. 
 Enduring Remedns of Civilization. 
 
 Objects of industrial art throughout Mediterranean region 
 
 (glass, pottery, metal-work). 
 Knowledge of navigation, its methods, and routes.^ 
 The leading Alphabets. 
 
 In discussing the general questions on p. 25, let the interpre- 
 tation of answers be very generous, simply maintaining this 
 point : that the Oriental civilizations were prominently material, 
 with germs of higher types appearing in their midst. 
 
 1 The finding of tin for bronze was, according to Lenormant and Cheral' 
 lier, one of the chief aims of PhccDician commerce. 
 
STUDY ON JUD^A. 7 
 
 D. STUDY ON JUDllA. 
 
 In this study the teacher will of course be careful to work 
 entirely from the historical standpoint, avoiding an}" possible 
 theological or sectarian discussion. I have taken special pains 
 to present Judaea just as I have presented Egypt or Phoenicia, 
 in order that the student may see its historical relations. 
 
 The following summary may be useful as a guide : — 
 
 JUD^A. 
 Advantages of Position. 
 
 Protected from invasion by mountains, deserts, and the sea. 
 Vicinity to Phoenicia and Egypt. 
 Organization of Society : theocratic, monarchic. 
 Characteristics of People and Culture. 
 Political : 
 
 close union of church and state. 
 
 predominance of priestly and prophetic influence. 
 Religious : 
 
 monotheism, mixed with polytheism. 
 
 close relation of religion and practical life. 
 Moral : 
 
 high moral standard imposed by faith. 
 
 great admiration for mercy and justice. 
 Enduring Remains of Civilization. 
 The monotheistic faith. 
 Books of the Old Testament. 
 
 With the material easily accessible in the Old Testament, the 
 teacher may, if he thinks it desirable, carry this study still fur- 
 ther, and note that the Jews were eminently a race of shepherds, 
 farmers, warriors, and priests, with a serious, poetic tempera- 
 ment easily seen in all their literature. 
 
 In discussing the answers to the questions on p. 29, the 
 teacher should allow the utmost freedom of opinion, simply 
 requiring that any position taken should be sustained by facts. 
 It is well to allow the pupils to feel that oftentimes there is a 
 reasonable difference of opinion, while at the same time he 
 should be led to understand that only those opinions are respect- 
 
6 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 able which have some sound basis in realit3-. Thus, while there 
 can hardly be a question but that among the Jews, the pure and 
 upright priest, or the righteous valiant king were the popular 
 ideals, and that among the Assyrians wealth was regarded 
 above all things, it may very justly be questioned whether piety 
 or power was the ruling ideal among the Eg3^ptians ; probably 
 both ideals should be admitted. 
 
 The following questions and topics are given as suggestions 
 for essays or for dictation for examination : — 
 
 What can a watch teach us of its makers ? What characteristics of 
 Egyptian art still strike us as admirable ? Aside from religion, name 
 two or three points in which our civilization is superior to that of the 
 Egyptians. What can the Temple of Solomon teach us historically ? 
 The greatness of Rameses. The palace of Sargon. The Phoenician 
 sailor. The captive Jew in Babylon. Our Oriental debt. 
 
 HELLAS. 
 
 STUDY ON MAP OF GREECE. 
 
 After the preliminary study of the map of Europe, the pupils 
 will easily answer the questions on the geography of Greece, 
 and will see that while agriculture and grazing may be found 
 throughout the countr}', Laconia is especially fitted for agricul- 
 ture, Arcadia for grazing, while Attica, adapted to fishing and 
 Tnining, most naturally invites, by its position, the trade of Asia 
 and the islands. As for the actual relations of Greece and the 
 civilization of -Asia and Egypt, the myths (see pp. 33 and 34) 
 indicate that Greece owed her start in civilization to the older 
 countries. 
 
 From the answers given by the pupils the teacher summarizes 
 somewhat as follows : — 
 
 GREECE. 
 Geographic Advantages. 
 
 Small states with natural defences. 
 ; Eastward opening harbors. 
 
STUDY ON HEROIC AGE. 
 
 Vicinity to older civilizations. 
 Vicinity of eastward leading islands. 
 Insular and temperate climate. 
 Variety of products, .*. ^ 
 Variety of occupation. 
 
 Agriculture (Laconia). 
 
 Fishing, grazing (Arcadia). 
 
 Quarrying, mining, trade (Attica). 
 
 A. STUDY ON HEROIO AGE ; HOMERIO GKEEOE. 
 
 The teacher should not undertake to summarize any of the 
 work in A until the studies on pp. 37, 39, 42, and 46 have been 
 thoroughly mastered and discussed ; he may then tabulate as 
 follows : — 
 
 A. HOMERIC GREECE. 
 Peculiar Institutions. 
 Amphictyony : 
 
 Bound together by kinship and faith. 
 Amphictyonic Council : 
 
 Religious league, with Delphic Oracle as its centre. 
 Political Organization (Monarchic). 
 King: 
 
 Leads in council. 
 Leads in war. 
 Law-giver and priest. 
 Supported by 
 plunder, 
 gifts. 
 
 produce of his own lands, 
 sale of war-captives as slaves. 
 Council of Elders : 
 
 Advises and persuades 
 king, 
 people. 
 Hears proposals. 
 Judges the people. 
 
 1 .♦. = therefore, wherever used. 
 
10 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 Homeric Greece. — Continued. 
 
 General Assembly of people (Agora; market-place meeting): 
 Hears announcements of king and princes. 
 Expresses public opinion 
 
 by shouting (approval), 
 by silence (disapproval). 
 Social Organization : Aristocratic and patriarchal, consisting of 
 Classes : 
 
 Nobles ; chiefs. 
 
 Freemen (common people). 
 
 Slaves 
 
 bought, 
 stolen, 
 captured. 
 Patriarchal,^ monogamic families. 
 Characteristics of Civilization. 
 Political : 
 
 Participation of all free men in the government. 
 Value of public opinion. 
 Social : 
 
 Patriarchal power tempered toward women by 
 public opinion, 
 religion, 
 affection. 
 Slavery, mild. 
 
 Amusements, healthful and developing, consisting of 
 physical contests, 
 music, 
 dancing, 
 story-telling. 
 Habits of equality, simplicity, hospitality. 
 Industrial and commercial : 
 
 Sources of material civilization, — Oriental, notably Phoe- 
 nician and Egyptian. 
 Great variety of occupation and interest (see list of gods, 
 
 p. 36). 
 Eapid growth of trade between various parts of Greece, 
 encouraged by easy water communication and 
 varied productions. 
 
 * In the case of the absence or death of the father, the son takes his 
 place, as in the case of Telemachus. 
 
STUDY OK HEROIC AGE. 11 
 
 Religious : 
 
 Belief, polytheistic and anthropomorphic, — 
 Gods thought to be 
 immortal . 
 
 of superhuman power, 
 subordinate to Zeus. 
 
 influential and interested in human affairs, 
 persuaded by 
 hymns, 
 sacrifices, 
 prayers, 
 obedience. 
 Future life regarded as 
 
 shadow of the present, 
 undesirable and gloomy. 
 Close relation of religion and life. 
 Intellectual and sesthetic : 
 
 Cultivation of music and poetry through religion. 
 Beginning of sculpture and architecture. 
 Permanent Remains of Homeric Age. 
 Homeric poems : Iliad and Odyssey. 
 
 Fortifications at Mycenae, in the Troad, and at other pre- 
 historic sites. 
 Objects of industrial work (pottery, metal-work) found at 
 above sites. 
 
 The teacher may find that the work on the Homeric age 
 occupies what seems a disproportionate part of his time. My 
 own experience has proved to me that a sloio and thorough be- 
 ginning made here pays^ and that time is actually made by lei- 
 surely conscientious work at the opening. In looking over the 
 summary, the teacher must realize that the mind of the pupil for 
 the first time entering history, finds many new and great ideas 
 to assimilate ; fundamental ideas, also, several of them asso- 
 ciated with new and difficult terms, with which he needs to 
 be familiar through all his work. I cannot sufficiently empha- 
 size this point. 
 
 In the Amphictyony, for instance, he meets with a thoroughly 
 characteristic organization of antiquity, namely, a society held 
 
,12 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOKY. 
 
 together by the bonds of a common faith, and a common kinship, 
 real or assumed. He should be helped to understand it by 
 reference to the Scottish clans, and to the churches and families 
 of his own vicinity. By such reference he may be led to imagine 
 the strength and value of these ancient bonds of union, as giv- 
 ing real fighting power. In the political and social organization 
 he should clearly apprehend in its large and simple features 
 the little aristocratic state, where neither the king nor the slave 
 is far removed from the mass of freemen ; by comparing the 
 size of the Greek states with that of Egypt or Assyria, he will 
 readily see that in a small state the king cannot easily remove 
 himself from the very presence of the people and the consequent 
 pressure of their opinions in regard to his actions ; while such a 
 small state cannot well enrich itself nor its king by any other 
 means than those of honest labor, since it cannot seize upon 
 the wealth acquired by larger powers. Special pains should be 
 taken that the Agora, or General Assembly, is understood as the 
 actual democratic meeting of all adult freemen in the market- 
 place, on any occasion when the presence of the whole people is 
 required, either to give notice of an expedition or a danger or 
 to announce a law ; the imagination should be stimulated to con- 
 ceive clearly of a state of affairs where all common news comes 
 by hearsay, and all common interests must be discussed by word 
 of mouth ; in short, of days when there was neither a newspaper, 
 a telegraph, nor a post-office. The importance of the Agora as 
 the safeguard of liberty will then appear double, and it will be 
 clearly perceived that it was the oi-gan of public opinion. The 
 point may be illustrated by the meeting of boys in the play- 
 ground to talk over some common project or expedition. 
 
 In discussing amusements, great stress should be laid on their 
 admirable effect in developing physical and artistic excellence. 
 
 In studying religious characteristics, note that the gods are 
 like men : (a) Physically ; they have the parts of the human 
 body, and feel physical needs, {h) Emotionally ; they hate, 
 ;^ear, love, (c) Socially ; they also live in the patriarchal st3'le. 
 la other words, the Greek gods are of the complete anthro- 
 
STUDY OF HISTORIC GREECE. 13 
 
 pomorphic type. Although itself below the more spiritual and 
 ideal type of the Hebrew Deity, it may be well to note in 
 passing its superiority to the conceptions of Egypt or Assyria 
 in its influence on human life. So far as possible, the joyous 
 nature of the worship, and its influence on the temper of the 
 people, should be emphasized. 
 
 In general, the Greek migrations are southward and east- 
 ward ; the early movement toward Thessaly is perhaps explained 
 by its comparative size and fertility. 
 
 Topics and Questions for Examinations and Essays. — What 
 is the historic value of the Homeric poems ? A comparison of Homeric 
 Greece and of the Jews in patriarchal times (Abraham and Ulysses) . 
 What was the probable, and what was the certain, influence of the 
 Trojan War on civilization? What traces of nature-worship in the 
 Greek mythology, and what evidences of divine power seen in each of 
 the natural objects thought to be under special divine dominion ? A 
 scene at the Lion-gate of Mycenae, 1000 b.c. Agamemnon's departure 
 from Mycenae. What points of resemblance between the Greek and 
 Jewish faith ? What fundamental difference ? 
 
 B. STUDY OF HISTORIO GREECE, OR HELLAS, 776-500. 
 
 The map, pp. 44, 45, at once reveals that the Greeks 
 were of essentially maritime habit, settling the coasts of every 
 richly productive land within their reach, while their locations 
 at river-mouths and on easily accessible shores show that their 
 colonies were in reality trading-posts. The varied produc- 
 tions of the Greek lands and the varied occupations of the 
 Greek people encouraged the calling of the merchant and 
 sailor, while at the same time it scattered the Greeks here and 
 there along the fertile Mediterranean coasts, preventing any. 
 strong political or territorial unity, but making them a strong 
 civilizing force among the barbarous nations. 
 
14 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 The whole study on p. 47 should be treated very freely and 
 conversationally, a number of the questions admitting of more 
 than one answer. Here, if he has not done so before, the 
 teacher should impress upon the pupils that, to early traders, 
 the water-ways are by far the easiest, cheapest, and safest 
 roads for travel and commerce. 
 
 So far as it is desirable to summarize the answers to these 
 questions, they will be found embodied in the following general 
 tabular view of B. 1 : — 
 
 GENERAL HELLENIC DEVELOPMENT, 776-4%. 
 
 Organizations and Institutdons of Period. 
 
 Colonies : trading-posts, imited to mother-cities by kinship and 
 
 worship. 
 Aristocratic tribal states : examples, Sparta, Attica ; bonds of 
 
 union, common descent (kinship) and worship. 
 Olympic games,^ forming the centre of a loose religious Hel- 
 lenic union (c/. Delphi). 
 CharacteristicB of Period. 
 
 Growth of colonies and commerce 
 
 about Black Sea and Bosphorus {Byzantium). 
 about iEgean. 
 
 in Magna Graecia {Syracuse). 
 Tendencies to Hellenic union seen in 
 religion : 
 
 games, — Olympic, Pythian, Nemean, etc. 
 Delphic Oracle, 
 amphictyonies. 
 sacred war. 
 language and literature ^ (Homer). 
 
 ^ In reckoning Olympiads, it is to be remembered that the first Olym- 
 piad does not count for four years ; and so, to find the date of the fifteenth 
 Olympiad, one must multiply four by fourteen, instead of by fifteen, and 
 subtract the result from 776 b.c. 
 
 2 If the pupils do not think of this, it may be well to remind them that 
 all outsiders were called by the Greeks " Barbarians,'* that is, men who 
 " babble/' or speak so that they cannot be understood. Tell them, too, that 
 Homer web recited and sung in every city and village of Greece. 
 
STUDY OF HISTORIC GREECE. 15 
 
 Tendency to Spartan leadership seen in 
 
 Olympic games. 
 
 Spartan conquests. 
 
 Lydian request for Spartan alliance. 
 Revolt against oligarchy, ending in " tyranny." 
 Intellectual, industrial, and artistic impulse 
 
 seen in 
 
 poetry (lyric). 
 
 science {philosophy). 
 
 architecture and sculpture. 
 
 working in metal, stone, clay, 
 developing along the lines of Greek life and history, .•. 
 
 original and national. 
 encouraged by 
 
 religion. 
 
 the " Tyrants." 
 General diffusion of excellence 
 
 throughout Greek settlements of Asia Minor and the 
 
 Islands, 
 among all free citizens. 
 Strong influence of religion seen in 
 Delphic Oracle, 
 games. 
 
 art and literature, 
 founding of colonies. 
 Ideals of the period : 
 the gentleman. 
 
 the athlete (victor at Olympia). 
 the good and honored citizen, 
 the poet, singer, and thinker. 
 Type of civilization, — commercial, intellectual, artistic. 
 
 All these points might also be summarized under the head- 
 ings, political, social, religious, etc., and it might be well to 
 ask the students so to arrange the various points as an exercise 
 in classification. 
 
 In general, it should be strongly impressed upon the mind of 
 the pupil that the bonds of Greek union during this period 
 were worship and kinship ; that these bonds not only united 
 them in tribes, classes, cities, and araphictyonies, but that they 
 
16 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 separated them from barbarians, the men of foreign speech 
 and faith ; nor is it perhaps unsafe to follow Curtius in assigning 
 great importance to the cohesive force exercised by the Delphic 
 Oracle, which was a centre of knowledge as well as of faith. 
 
 But no cohesive force could stand against the strength of 
 local interests. It will be noted through this whole time that 
 each little state, centred in its own little city, acted for itself, 
 fought for itself, and founded its own colonies ; Sparta alone 
 sometimes interfered in general Greek affairs, and thus asserted 
 her superior strength. 
 
 It will be readily perceived that all the tendencies and organ- 
 izations of this period followed naturally from those of the 
 Homeric age, with a strengthening of the commercial, relig- 
 ious, and intellectual spirit. The heroes of the Trojan War 
 and the Argonautic Expedition were the precursors of the 
 adventurous traders and colonists ; and the men who never 
 fought a battle but with the favor of the gods, the ancestors of 
 those who founded their colonies by the advice of Apollo. 
 
 B. II. 1. SPARTA, 776-490 B.C. 
 Political Organization. 
 
 In form : a limited monarchy. 
 
 In reality : an oligarchic democracy, bound together by religion, 
 kinship, and training. 
 Social Organization. 
 
 For {Spartans : communistic, and entirely subordinate to the 
 state and the army. 
 Results of the Lycurgan Organization and Institutions. 
 Political : 
 
 Spartan leadership in Greece for that period. 
 Social : 
 
 Subordination of the individual and the family to the state. 
 Importance and influence of women. 
 Simplicity, and even rudeness of manners. 
 Personal : 
 
 Scorn of any labor other than military. 
 
 High physical development, — strength and l>eauty. 
 
 Spai'tan ideal, — the warrior, athlete, and patriot. 
 
STUDY OF HISTORIC GREECE. 17 
 
 111 the above study, the phrase, " oligarchic democracy," 
 may seem hke a gemiine " Irish bull," nor cau I say that I at 
 all approve of it, since it is only clear to one who knows what 
 it means. What it does mean is this, — that, while the Spar- 
 tan body within itself was as pure a working democracy' as the 
 world has ever seen, yet, since that bod}' was limited in num- 
 ber, and ruled over a large population of Laconians, who had 
 absolutely no share in the government, it was, as regarded 
 these Laconians, an oligarchy ; and throughout the Greek his- 
 tory it will be seen that the Spartan spirit and the Spartan 
 sympath}^ is aristocratic. Even in this period, we find her 
 always opposed to the man of the people, the " Tyrant." 
 
 B. II. 2. ATHENS, 776-490 B.C. 
 
 Before Solon, 776-594 B.C. 
 
 Political organization : 
 
 Aristocracy of clan-elders (Eupatrids), distinguished from 
 other tribesmen by birth and worship. 
 Social organization : 
 
 Tribal, the people bound together by kinship and wor- 
 ship into 
 
 families, forming 
 clans, in turn forming 
 brotherhoods, in turn forming 
 Four Ionic Tribes, political units of the City-state. 
 [N.B. — Tribesmen alone form the state.] 
 Changes of Solon, 594 B.C. 
 In organization : 
 
 Aristocracy of birth changed to a timocracy; that is, 
 wealthy as well as high-born tribesmen admitted 
 to power. 
 Community of worship given to all tribesmen. 
 Slavery for tribesmen abolished. 
 Publicity and sacredness of common law. 
 In tendency : 
 
 Development of equality. 
 Limitation of individual by the state. 
 Liberation of individual from family. 
 
18 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 Athens. — Continued. 
 
 Recognition of value of wealth and industry. 
 Encouragement of labor and trade. 
 Development of unity and freedom by 
 
 loosening of the fixed bonds of birth, 
 extension of a common worship. 
 The PisiBtratid Tyranny (Demagogism). 
 
 Organized according to forms of Solon's constitution. 
 Based on 
 
 local jealousies of Mountain, Plain, and Shore.^ 
 personality of Pisistratus, — 
 eloquence, 
 geniality, 
 tact and intellect, 
 ignorance, sympathy, and superstition of the multitude, 
 wealth of Pisistratus. 
 hired military forces. 
 Justified by 
 
 public improvements in 
 roads, 
 trade, 
 patronage of art, science, poetry. 
 Caused to fall by 
 
 abuse of the tyrannical power, 
 reaction against it. 
 ambition of the Alcma^onids. 
 opposition of Delphi and Sparta. 
 Changes of Clisthenes. 
 
 In organization (^Democracy) : 
 
 The kinship bond abolished in politics. ^ 
 The tribe of demesmen replaces that of kinsmen in politics. 
 The deme, or parish, instead of the family, becomes the 
 fundamental unit, its men united by a common 
 residence and a common worship. 
 All free inhabitants become citizens. 
 
 ^ The local jealousies, of course, were strong, because of local interests ; 
 to this was added, in the case of the Mountaineers, the desperation of poor 
 men who have nothing to lose. 
 
 2 In social life, of course the kinship bond always remains; and in 
 Greece probably, as well as elsewhere, the "first families" had many 
 things after " their way." 
 
STUDY OF HISTORIC GREECE. 19 
 
 tendency : 
 
 Development of democracy. 
 Development of unity by 
 
 introduction of new worships, 
 abolition of distinctions of birth between loniang 
 and Perioeki. 
 General Character of Athenian History, 776-490 B.C. 
 
 Constant changes toward equality, democracy, and unity. 
 Parallelism of political, social, and religious distinctions. 
 Widening distribution of political power. 
 Growth of the state in size, numbers, and interests. 
 Gradual liberation of individuals. 
 
 In this, the pupil meets with his first serious study of consti- 
 tutional development, and the teacher should by no means be- 
 grudge the time necessary to a complete understanding of each 
 stage. The student must have clearly in mind that before the 
 time of Clisthenes the four Ionic tribes form the Athenian 
 state, without reference to the Metics, that the changes of 
 Solon apply simply to Ionic tribesmen, and that in every 
 development of the constitution the place and form of the old 
 Greek bonds of union, kinship and faith, are still respected, 
 though constantl}^ enlarged and loosened, while of these two 
 the common worship is the stronger and gives presumptive 
 evidence of common kin. While these ideas are in reality 
 simple, yet their novelty makes them at first hard to " sense," 
 and time is the one element necessary to their understanding. 
 Thorough work here will save time in all the following constitu- 
 tional studies. 
 
 In Pisistratus, we have a study of that interesting phenome- 
 non, the "man of the people" turned "Tyrant"; the most 
 important point to discuss is the relation between the Tyrant, 
 the ignorant mass, and the constitutional form ; and it should 
 be clearly understood that a Tyrant of this type alvrays finds 
 his counterpart in the ignorance or stupidity of his supporters, 
 and that constitutional forms avail little without general intelli- 
 gence to use them.^ To come no closer home, it will be well to 
 
 1 " I hold all Rome guilty of this Nero." — ThorndaU. 
 
20 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 cite the parallel case of Napoleon III. The full-grown Tyrant, 
 however, is a political teacher, and he never appeared twice in 
 the same Greek state. In Athens, he called out the institution 
 of ostracism, as local party conflicts forced into the constitu- 
 tion the separation of the demes of the same tribe. 
 
 In the constitution of Clisthenes we meet with the most 
 radical constitutional change known to antiquity. Before his 
 time, the men born into the same clan belonged together, no 
 matter where they dwelt ; unity existed alone in faith and 
 blood-relationship. But he drew neighbors together into the 
 same parish, so that men who dwelt together irrespective of 
 blood-relationship should be called by a common name and 
 worship at a common shrine. In other words, he made the 
 land, the common father-land^ the bond of unity. Though this 
 was his fundamental change, he dared not ignore the old Greek 
 bonds, and so gave to each of his new tribes, mixed of 
 lonians and Metics, a local hero for common worship, from 
 whom it took its tribal name, as if in direct descent. From 
 this time on, then, we find Ionian and Ionic merged in the 
 larger names of Athenian and Attic. 
 
 Before the time of Solon the ''Homeric Assembly of 
 Elders " had crowded out of power both the King and the body 
 of freemen ; from Solon's time power is turned more and more 
 into the channels of the *' agora." But throughout the consti- 
 tutional development, we never lose sight of the primitive 
 Homeric organization ; the magistrates replace the King, the 
 Areopagus and the Senates replace the Assembly of Elders ; 
 while the market-place meeting grows into a thoroughly com- 
 pacted Ecclesia, with large and definite powers. 
 
 Snggestions for Essay and Examination Work. — The landing 
 of the Greeks in Illyria. Journal of a Greek sailing from Athens to 
 Phasis. The importance of Byzantium. Which most strongly unites 
 men, religion or commerce, and why? Why is common speech a 
 bond of union? In what ways were the various contemporaneous 
 nations and tribes real barbarians compared with the Greeks, 776- 
 500 B.C. ? A day at Olympia. Letter of a Milesian merchant from 
 
STUDY ON PERSIAN WARS. 
 
 21 
 
 Delphi. Was the Greek Tyrant a good or an evil? (Debate.) By 
 what marks would you have known yourself in a Greek state had 
 you been suddenly placed in Athens, 510 B.C., not knowing the 
 language? What geographical fact accounted for the political con- 
 figuration of Greece and its leading business interest? How far is 
 Sparta a suggestive model ? Dialogue between a Spartan and Athe- 
 nian. The civilizing forces at work, 600 B.C. What would have 
 been the fate of Solon and Clisthenes respectively, had they changed 
 places with each other in time, but not in principles? What lesson 
 can we Americans draw from the story of Pisistratus ? 
 
 C. STUDY ON PEESIAN WAES, 490-479 B.O. 
 
 The study on p. 72 is so exceedingly easy that it may be well 
 simply to make an informal conversation of it, without asking 
 for any home study upon it. Its results, together with those of 
 studies on pp. 76, 80, 82, 85, 87, may be summarized some- 
 thing as follows : — 
 
 GENERAL COMPARISON OF ANTAGONISTS. 
 
 
 Hellenic. 
 
 Persian. 
 
 Territory is 
 
 maritime, colonial, scat- 
 
 agricultural, continental, com- 
 
 
 tered, with natural divi- 
 
 pact, with arbitrary divi- 
 
 
 sions. 
 
 sions. 
 
 Population is 
 
 of one race, speech, and 
 
 mixed of many races, tongues. 
 
 
 faith. 
 
 and faiths. 
 
 Civilization is 
 
 Occidental ; that is, diffused. 
 
 Oriental ; that is, centralized, 
 exclusive. 
 
 Governments 
 
 democracy and local inde- 
 
 despotism, centralization. 
 
 tend to 
 
 pendence. 
 
 
 Soldiers are 
 
 citizens fighting for their 
 
 subjects fighting to gain more 
 
 
 own possessions and inde- 
 
 wealth for their king. 
 
 
 pendence. 
 
 
 [N. B. — This table can only be started after the study on p. 72 ; it 
 must be extended and completed by means of the study on p. 76, 
 where additional points are made. At its close, the clear impression 
 
22 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 should be left on the mind of the pupil that the Persian empire was 
 an enormous heterogeneous compound, massed together by conquerors 
 as a great estate, from which to draw revenues and forces for their 
 private ends ; while Greece, or Hellas, was a loose union of citizen- 
 communities, bound together by common sympathies and modes of 
 thought, but full of independent, individual life, each community 
 existing and gathering resources for its own citizens.] 
 
 FIRST PERSIAN WAR. 
 
 Causes of the "War. 
 
 Desire of Darius for wealth of Naxos and Athens. 
 Desire of Darius to punish Athens. 
 Desire of Hippias for restoration to power. 
 Independence of Athens. 
 
 Important Events of the War. 
 
 Ionian revolt, and Athenian alliance with it. 
 
 Persian invasion of Greece. 
 
 Battle of Marathon, 490 b.c, won by Miltiades. 
 
 10,000 Greeks (Athenians) conquer 100,000 Persians. 
 Retreat of Persians ; end of first war. 
 
 Character, Relations, £ind Tendencies of the Hellenes, as shown 
 in this "War. 
 
 General tendency to democratic governments, seen in 
 
 Naxos. 
 
 cities of Asia Minor. 
 
 Athens. 
 Democracies opposed by 
 
 aristocracies (Naxos). 
 
 tyrants (Miletus, Athens). 
 
 Darius (Ionian revolt). 
 Leadership of Sparta and Athens among the Greeks. 
 Love of independence (Sparta, Athens, Asia Minor). 
 
 Special Athenian Characteristics displayed. 
 
 Generous sympathy with Greece. 
 Unselfish patriotism (conduct of generals). 
 Unshrinking courage. 
 
 Special Spartan Character shown. 
 
 Strict observance of law (refusal to march). 
 
STUDY ON PERSIAN WARS. 23 
 
 INTERVAL FROM FIRST TO SECOND PERSIAN WARS, 
 MARKED BY — 
 
 Development of Athenian Naval Po-wer, through 
 wisdom of Themistocles. 
 patriotism of the Athenians, 
 natural advantages of Athenian situation. 
 Persian Preparations for invading Greece 
 urged on by- 
 Persian desire for revenge. 
 Pisistratid ambition, 
 marked by 
 
 union of great masses under single lead, 
 lack of any inspiration of patriotism, 
 difficulty of provisioning. 
 Attempted Union of Hellenes, incomplete through 
 jealousy (Syracuse, Argos). 
 fear (Corcyra). 
 Nobility of Athenian Spirit, shown in 
 
 patriotism for all Hellas (Pan-Hellenism), 
 generosity of Themistokles to Aristeides. 
 hoping against hope, — courage in extremity. 
 
 SECOND PERSIAN WAR. 
 
 [Add to the table of " Comparison of Antagonists " the point of 
 " Spirit," — the Hellenic spirit being that of independence, giving 
 strength ; the Persian, that of servility and fear, producing weakness.] 
 
 Causes of "War (see second point under Interval). 
 Critical Battles of the War. 
 
 Thermopylae (hero Leonidas). 
 Salarais (hero Themistocles). 
 Platsea and Mycale. 
 Character displayed in this "War, by — 
 Spartans under Leonidas : 
 Dogged courage. 
 
 Absolute obedience to law, and regard for religion. 
 Individual independence of a leader. 
 Spartans in the fleet : 
 
 Caution and selfishness. 
 
24 STUDIES IN GENERAL HLSTORY. 
 
 Second Persian War. — Continued. 
 
 Athenians (including Themistocles and Aristides): 
 Regard for the gods. 
 Good judgment (statesmanship). 
 Strategy (Themistocles). 
 Unselfish patriotism (Aristides, Plataea). 
 Pan-Hellenic interest. 
 Greeks in general : 
 
 Regard for the gods. 
 
 Love of independence. 
 
 Tendencies to local and party jealousies. 
 
 Regard for Sparta and Athens as leaders. 
 
 Consciously united by 
 
 religion (Delphi). 
 
 speech. 
 
 blood. 
 Led by persuasion. 
 Persian hosts : 
 
 Cowardice. 
 
 Dependence on leaders and on fear (scourge). 
 
 In the previous studies, we have seen the development of the 
 Spartan and Athenian constitutions into their completed forms ; 
 in the Persian wars, we see these completed forms at work, 
 acting in large and various circumstances. Up to this point, the 
 aim of our work has been thoroughly to understand forms ; now 
 it must be thoroughly to feel the spirit, the life which animates 
 them ; furthermore, to note how far the}^ meet, and when they 
 fail to meet the needs of the hour. Perhaps beyond all else, it 
 should be noted that both Athenian and Spartan constitutions 
 were good primarily because they were worked, b}' a mass in- 
 deed, but by a mass composed of intelligent, self-reliant, patriotic 
 individuals. We admire the heroism of the Spartans at Thermo- 
 pylae, the patriotism of the Athenians in voting that their pub- 
 lic moneys should be expended in a fleet, and again and again 
 we marvel at the excellent judgment and courage shown in the 
 decisions of the Greek assemblies ; but we must always remind 
 the pupil that while the free constitution called forth the powers 
 of the citizen, the intelligence of the citizen gave the free con- 
 
STUDY ON PERSIAN WARS. 25 
 
 stitution power. To enforce the point, let the student but once 
 imagine that the Athenian Ecclesia was composed of ignorant, 
 selfish men, many of them resident in Attica only for a year 
 or two, and he will see at once that under such circumstances, 
 the free constitution, acting in a time of war and danger, when 
 the state demands the highest courage and the greatest sacri- 
 fices, may become a source of positive injury. Further, let him 
 note that when the Clisthenean arrangement of Strategi was 
 tested for the first time at Marathon, this part of the constitu- 
 tion would have failed entirely had it not been for the generosity 
 of Aristides and his companions, joined to the wisdom and 
 daring of Miltiades. Again, the advantage which the ostracism 
 gave, in uniting the forces of the state under a single lead, 
 depended for its value on the good sense of each Athenian 
 citizen and his readiness to submit to law. Other instances will 
 be seen throughout the period. In short, the working power 
 of the Greek constitutions depended on the fact that they were 
 worked by men, quick-witted, generous-hearted; every unit 
 counted one. Throughout the study it must be kept in mind 
 that the whole theory of Greek political life was, that persua- 
 sion, the moving of men's thoughts and feelings by reasons and 
 motives, is the only legitimate force by which either men or 
 measures are lifted into leadership. 
 
 Although during the Persian wars, the individuality of the 
 various states stood strongly forth in distinct and local colors, 
 yet it is to this period that we owe the first appearance of that 
 political form so interesting to all Americans, — the union of 
 independent states for concerted action in affairs of common 
 interest. The Amphictyonies were religious in their motive, 
 and the old Homeric league of chiefs in the Trojan war was 
 perhaps too unconscious and informal to be reckoned as politi- 
 cal. But during the Persian wars, we find the Greek states, 
 under the urging power of Athens, striving, though weakly and 
 with ill-success, to form a true Pan-Hellenic union against the 
 Barbarian. The want of centralization must have been strongly 
 felt when fighting against a foe, whose greatest strength lay in 
 
26 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 his ability to handle masses simply and easily from an absolute, 
 though despotic centre. The value of this power of centralized 
 force in time of war should be as thoroughly understood as cir- 
 cumstances permit, and receives fine illustrations from the risks 
 which the Greeks ran from disunion in the second Persian war, 
 notably at Salamis. In this power lies the strength of despot- 
 isms ; in its lack, the weakness of free governments, unless for 
 a time they know how to subject and consolidate themselves 
 under a single will. It is interesting to note, also, in this con- 
 nection, that Delphi became a more thoroughly acknowledged 
 centre of Greek affairs, and in some cases was even recog- 
 nized as able to hold the various states responsible for a com- 
 mon agreement. 
 
 At the close of the whole study on the Persian wars it will 
 be well to call attention to the fact that the great deeds, that 
 the great results of this period, were due entirely to moral and 
 intellectual forces ; that the disastrous and complete defeat 
 suffered by the Greeks at Thermopylae became through its 
 moral grandeur, not only a glory but an inspiration ; and that 
 the one state in Greece which displayed these qualities in the 
 highest degree, namely Athens, not only deserved the leader- 
 ship of the Hellenes, but obtained it. 
 
 The geographical advantages of Thermopyhne and Salamis are 
 in realit}' the same, since on the one hand the narrowness of the 
 mountain-pass, and on the other, the narrowness of the straits, 
 enabled a few brave men to keep at bay a multitude, whom they 
 could only encounter a few at a time. 
 
 Suggestions for Essay and Examination TATork. — It has always 
 been my habit, in reaching this point in the work, to give the pupils a 
 chance to try their own hand at the making of a tabulated summary. 
 According to the ability and experience of the class, they can either 
 be allowed to make it without any help or suggestion on the part of 
 the teacher, or the principal headings may be dictated to them to fill 
 out. In either case, the teacher should be exceedingly careful not to 
 hold his students to any rigid form, but to allow as wide differences 
 of arrangement as the " logic of events " allows. The following topics 
 and questions are suggestive : — 
 
STUDY ON THE ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP. 27 
 
 What changes did the Persian wars produce in Hellas ? Were they 
 a good or an evil? Was Aristeides or Themistokles the better 
 citizen ? (Debate.) The military strength of goodness, as illustrated 
 in these wars. Why is courage a cardinal virtue ? Persia v. Greece. 
 The citizen v. the subject. The comparative influence of the aims of 
 glory and wealth on character. The story of a soldier at Marathon ; 
 at Thermopylae. "I perceive that, in all things, ye are too super- 
 stitious." Journal of an Athenian citizen, 480-479 B.C. Why should 
 the Greeks call ^^ Persuasion'' a goddess? The Greek victory at 
 Thermopylae. 
 
 D. STUDY ON THE ATHENIAN LEADEESHIP; AGE OF 
 PEEICLES; 479-431. 
 
 In dealing with the age of Pericles, it is generally too much 
 ignored that we are studying, after all, the development of 
 Athens alone ; and while for the time being it seems to concen- 
 trate all Hellenic history within its own walls, yet it is but a 
 single city among the Greeks. Hence, in the following tabula- 
 tion, it has seemed best to emphasize this fact by considering 
 Hellas in general, as well as Athens. No part of this summary 
 should be given until all the work on the Athenian Leadership 
 has been discussed ; and if the students have sufficient ability, it 
 may be well here also to ask them to tabulate their own results, 
 
 THE ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP; AGE OF PERICLES. 
 
 Organization of 
 
 Hellas in general : 
 
 Local self-governing cities, with attempts at Hellenic union 
 in Confederacy of Delos (maritime dominion), 
 in Spartan leadership (continental dominion). 
 Athens ; 
 
 Completed democracy at home, with tendencies to dema- 
 
 gogism. 
 Imperialism abroad, under lead of 
 Cimon. 
 Pericles. 
 
28 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 The Athenian Leadership. — Continued. 
 Characteristics of Period in 
 
 Hellas in general : 
 
 Party strife within cities. 
 
 Aristocrats favored by Sparta. 
 
 Democrats favored by Athens. 
 Jealousy of cities, notably of Athens, leading to 
 
 Peloponnesian War. 
 Development of Athenian leadership by 
 
 superior naval force- 
 Pan-Hellenic spirit. 
 
 literary and artistic supremacy. 
 Development of Athenian empire by 
 
 neglect and indiiference of allies. 
 
 Athenian ambition and strength. 
 Athens : 
 
 Development of trade and wealth. 
 
 Development of arts, in original (Greek) directions. 
 
 Sculpture > Parthenon. 
 Architecture > 
 Drama, — 
 
 ^schylus. 
 Sophocles. 
 Euripides. 
 General intelligence and patriotism shown in 
 use of public nioney (Parthenon), 
 character of drama and popular amusements, 
 leading men of the state, — 
 Aristides. 
 Cimon. 
 Pericles. 
 Development of philosophy, — natural science, mentai 
 
 and moral philosophy, theology. 
 Growth and influence of oratory. 
 Ideals, — statesman and general, poet, philosopher, orator, 
 
 good citizen ; or 
 Ideal character, — cultured, brave, genial, patriotic, 
 
 eloquent. 
 Production of great men, — Pericles, Socrates, Aris- 
 tides, etc. 
 
STUDY ON THE ATHENIAN LEADERSHIP. 29 
 
 Existence of religious parties, — 
 
 Liberal thinkers (Socrates). 
 
 Orthodox Greeks (his prosecutors) ; or 
 Growth of free thought, endangering the state, — 
 
 Trial of Socrates. 
 
 The instant the Persian wars are over, we find that the Hel- 
 lenic world has widened, that its movements are larger, its 
 wars and alliances farther-reaching than before. This is seen 
 at once in the feeling that Sestos and Byzantinm are keys to the 
 Greek world, and as such should be so held by Greeks as to 
 prevent any repetition of the invasions of Darius and Xerxes. 
 But it is seen most largely in the fact that from this time on, 
 the Greek cities tend to appear in groups, under the lead of one 
 or another. During this period, of course, it was the Athenian 
 group that led ; in the beginning, the Confederacy of Delos was a 
 free league of the older Greek type, in which Athens was simply 
 the first among equals ; but a most noteworthy change soon oc- 
 curred, in that the chief bond of union became that of a common 
 interest. Again, this league was formed, not to meet a special 
 crisis, but to carry out a settled purpose of conscious Hellenic 
 union ; from this point of view, it was necessary that the members 
 should be held responsible to some single member, or some cen- 
 tral body. Hence, after the treasury was transferred to Athens, 
 and the allies gradually allowed themselves to pay a money-tax, 
 instead of performing active personal duties, we find them be- 
 coming uneasy, and the stress of present danger over, Athens 
 was compelled to hold them together by main force. Hence the 
 Greek world became undermined by part}' strife, mutual jeal- 
 ousy, and dislike, until the " logic of events " drove the states 
 upon the Peloponnesian War. Yet, while the Confederacy of 
 Delos failed of achieving a Greek political union, it must not 
 be forgotten that it proved eflfective for the time being, in 
 making the ^gean thoroughly Greek throughout its coasts and 
 islandg. Nor must it be forgotten that Athens, at this time 
 purely democratic, and under the most democratic leaders, was 
 able to carry out a foreign polic}^ as energetic and decisive as 
 
30 STUDIES IN GEKEEAL HISTORY. 
 
 any despot. Only to the mind of Pericles does it seem to have 
 occurred that it might be possible to apply the representative 
 principle to Greek affairs in general, and so to form a demo- 
 cratic union of states as well as one of citizens. 
 
 While the list of great men and works shows very positively 
 that Athens was the intellectual centre of Hellas, and that the 
 Greek genius culminated in her free citizens, it also shows that 
 the whole Greek world was pervaded by the same intellectual 
 and artistic impulses ; and that these impulses always played 
 about Greek forms and themes, so that the Greek history, 
 mythology, and life, became the inspiration of the Greek art. 
 
 Not only does a state express its own peculiar genius by 
 original works of art, but also in living characters. Thus 
 Leonidas and Themistocles were as distinctively products of 
 Greek life, as the Venus of Melos or the Parthenon. In Athe- 
 nian history many such type-characters have been preserved for 
 us with all the freshness of their living deeds and words ; and of 
 these, two predominate, — Pericles and Socrates. Pericles is, 
 however, more typically Athenian, having the versatility which 
 enabled him to be at once general, admiral, orator, statesman, 
 scholar, artist, and gentleman. This versatility was rendered 
 effective by a persistent will, a diligent use of time, and an 
 upright character. His mode of life and habits of thought, his 
 tastes and desires, were all Athenian, and thus he was chosen, 
 year after year, as its representative man by the Athenian 
 P^cclesia. He had moderation, wit, spirit, and, above all, 
 that spherical development of the whole man, which he himself 
 described (p. 106) as typically Athenian. If desired, the 
 teacher may make some such tabulation as follows for the 
 facts concerning Pericles : — 
 
 Advantages of Pericles for Leadership. 
 
 Honorable birth. 
 
 Athenian training. 
 
 Dignity of manner. 
 
 Versatile tastes. 
 
 Intellectual and oratorical talent. 
 
STUDY OK THE ATHENIAN LEADEESHIP. 31 
 
 Noble character, — 
 
 upright. 
 
 economical. 
 
 firm. 
 
 religious, without superstition. 
 
 patriotic, public-spirited. 
 
 merciful, kind. 
 Means used by Pericles to acquire Leadership. 
 Improvements A«rrought by Pericles. 
 
 Although Socrates did not, like Pericles, gather up in his 
 own person all the tendencies and influences of the Athenian 
 history and culture, still he represents the culmination of one 
 set of these tendencies and influences, and probably could not 
 have lived and worked sympathetically with so large and enthu- 
 siastic a following at any other time or place. The long course 
 of Greek thought, which had dealt from the time of Homer 
 with the larger problems of the destiny of man, the nature of 
 the Deity, and the relation of each to the other and the exter- 
 nal world, produced its consummate flower in the words and 
 character of Socrates. Socrates may fairly be called a Pagan 
 Christian, since we find in him not only the belief in a Deity 
 who rules our lives, who can be reached by prayer, and who 
 rewards the good and punishes the evil-doer, but also in him 
 we find the hope of immortality, and, above all, the clear per- 
 ception that the highest and most worthy life of man is spir- 
 itual, and that purity, truth, and obedience to the gods are the 
 noblest aims of existence. This being the teaching of Socrates, 
 it has often seemed strange that he should have been deemed 
 worthy of death by the Athenians. But, if we have hitherto 
 interpreted Greek history aright, the pupil will readily see that, 
 in the Athenian state, religious unity was essential to political, 
 and that any freedom of thought which would tend to free men 
 from allegiance to that oldest and strongest of Greek political 
 bonds, the tribal and national faith, must seem fatal to the 
 firmness of the state. Here we have a grave political reason, 
 which must have seemed plausible to the Athenians of that 
 
S2 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 day, for the condemnation of Socrates; the more plausible, 
 since the number of his sympathizers, judging from the votes 
 cast, must have included a very large minority of the Athenian 
 citizens. 
 
 It may be said that this study of Socrates is misplaced, 
 since, in point of time, he belongs in the period of the Pelo- 
 ponnesian War. This fact caused me to hesitate before placing 
 him with the men of the age of Pericles ; but, on the whole, he 
 seemed properly to belong with that great group, each of which 
 represents the culmination of a long ''stream of tendency." 
 For a similar reason, though more doubtfully applied, the ex- 
 tracts from Aristophanes are placed among those illustrative of 
 this age. 
 
 The extracts from the dramatists, taken in connection with 
 the trial of Socrates and the life of Pericles, indicate that, in 
 the refined Athens of that age, there were three distinct trends 
 of religious thought : that of orthodoxy, or the holding by the 
 material myth and the material faith ; that of skepticism or 
 doubt ; and that of philosophic theology, personified in Socrates. 
 That the third of these tendencies was regarded as more dan- 
 gerous than the second may be easily explained by the fact 
 that a positive, earnest belief has a strength which mere doubt 
 can never possess. 
 
 I am sorry that the necessary limit set at present to the 
 expense of a text-book has made it impossible to illustrate more 
 fully or perfectly the culmination of Greek art into sculpture 
 and architecture. But with the specimens given, it may be 
 noted that its products were simple, natural, well-proportioned 
 and harmonious, full of living repose. 
 
 SuggeBtions for Essay and Examination Work. — The great- 
 ness of Pericles. The greatness of Socrates. What can the Parthenon 
 tell us of Athens ? The Periclean v. The American. Indifference a 
 political vice in a republic. The education of the Ecclesia. "In- 
 spiration comes only to the disciplined"; illustrate from Athenian 
 history and biography. The imperfections of the Athenian democracy. 
 The political value of morality, illustrated from Athenian history and 
 
STUDY ON PERIOD 431-338. 33 
 
 biography. The visit of an Egyptian to Athens under Pericles. 
 Pericles v. Pisistratu6. 
 
 E. F. STUDY ON PEKIOD 431-338. 
 
 The studies on pp. 115, 117, and 118 may be summarized as 
 follows : — 
 
 PELOPONNESIAN WAR, AND FALL OF GREECE BEFORE 
 MACEDON. 
 
 Characteristics of Period. 
 
 Dependence of individual states on foreign aid. 
 Persia. 
 Macedon. 
 Succession of Hellenic leaderships, or leagues, under 
 
 Athens, — caused by naval and intellectual superiority. 
 Sparta, — caused by superior military strength and foreign 
 
 aid. 
 Thebes, — caused by native patriotism and culture. 
 Macedon, — caused by royal ambition, interference in 
 Greek affairs, diplomacy. 
 Mutual jealousies and constant wars. 
 Gradual weakening of important states through 
 lack of union (fault in organization), 
 lack of Hellenic patriotism and local unselfishness (fault 
 in spirit). 
 General Characteristics of Hellenic History. 
 
 Local individual development from conmion Homeric basis : 
 
 Of constitutions, into tyrannies, democracies, aristocracies. 
 . Of ideals, into statesmen, generals, poets, artists, philoso- 
 
 phers. 
 Of religion, into Socratic philosophy, popular superstition. 
 
 The opening of the Peloponnesian War shows us the Greek 
 world in all its relations within and without : two strong groups 
 of states within, engaged in a long-threatened conflict, and repre- 
 senting the opposing principles of aristocracy and democrac}^ as 
 embodied in their leading cities ; these cities gradually weakened 
 
34 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 and deserted by their allies, the strength of their respective con- 
 federacies broken, and passing, in some measure, to Thebes ; 
 meanwhile, the relation toward the barbarian had so far changed 
 that Persia was enabled to interfere very effectively in Greek 
 affairs, the Greek bitterness towards her being very mate- 
 rially softened. The Persian sympathy was naturally at first 
 against Athens, who had proved her most dangerous and 
 persistent foe in the Persian wars ; but when Athens was 
 weakened, the Asiatics attacked Sparta, and the whole Greek 
 world was undermined by mutual jealousy and foreign intrigue. 
 Philip of Macedon, therefore, found it comparatively easy to 
 follow the lead of Persia, and to develop still further that 
 policy of aiding one Greek state against another to the mutual 
 injur}^ or ruin of both, while he himself held all his forces 
 in his single hand, to obey his single will. If Athens had 
 had the spirit to follow the lead of Demosthenes, and Greece 
 the spirit to follow the one lead of Athens ; or if, in the 
 preceding generation, Pericles had been able to form that 
 Hellenic Union, which the best Athenians desired, then Greece 
 might have become the leading power of the Eastern Mediter- 
 ranean. But the maritime power of Athens had been thoroughly 
 broken at iEgospotami, and with it her power of holding her 
 old allies ; the influence of Persian gold was strong in Sparta 
 and the smaller Grecian states ; neither the spirit nor the 
 organization existed capable of resisting such a power as 
 Philip possessed. For Philip possessed not only material 
 powers, such as Persia held ; but by becoming a Greek unto 
 the Greeks, he was able to disguise their national subjection 
 under national sympathies and forms. His wars were Greek 
 wars, in which he led Greek against Greek, and even at the 
 fatal day of Chseronea, it was as an elected general of Greek 
 forces that he subdued the last independent cities ; and when 
 he called a Hellenic congress at Corinth, and was chosen cap- 
 tain-general of Hellenic forces against the Asiatic, there must 
 have been many of the Greeks who believed that their race was 
 just about to enter on a still greater career. 
 
STUDY ON PERIOD 431-338. 35 
 
 From the siege of Troy to the day of Chaeronea, the course 
 of Greek history is clearly evolutional and singularly free from 
 outside influence. In politics, from first to last, the constant 
 tendency to Hellenic union is overborne by the stronger ten- 
 dency to local independence. This latter tendency, of course, 
 had its advantage, in that it gave each local character opportu- 
 nity to develop itself completely and distinctly. Each Homeric 
 ideal culminates in the fifth century b.c. ; — Achilles into the 
 Spartan warrior ideal ; Ulysses into the Athenian who is at 
 once general and statesman ; the bard has grown through gen- 
 erations to the full stature of the Athenian dramatists. That 
 these types tended to culminate so variously in Athens is to be 
 attributed, perhaps, mainly to two facts : one, her free trading 
 and commercial life, which took her citizens to and fro through 
 the contemporaneous world, quickening their minds with new 
 ideas, enlarging their hearts with new sympathies ; the other, 
 her free constitution, which educated every man to hear, to 
 think, to decide in regard to matters of larger import than the 
 petty round of merely individual life can furnish. 
 
 Suggestions for Dictation and Examination. — Illustrate from 
 Greek history the saying, "He who will save his life shall lose it." 
 The military value of unselfishness. We say now-a-days, "The pen 
 is mightier than the sword"; what would an Athenian have said 
 instead, and how might he have illustrated it? When did the fall of 
 Greece begin, and how? Why should Athenians be quicker to seize 
 opportunity than the Spartans ? Why should they be more patriotic 
 than Persians? Than other Greeks? Why should they be more 
 interested in Greece as a whole than other Greeks were? What had 
 made the Athenians, as a whole, politically acute ? Demosthenes?'. 
 Philip. The real causes of the Peloponnesian War. Its results and 
 effects. Letters of an Athenian to a Milesian, 405-338. The Spartan 
 V. the Athenian spirit. Influence of the Greek ideas and ideals in our 
 own time. 
 
36 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 THE HELLENISTIC OR ALEXANDRIAN CON- 
 QUESTS AND KINGDOMS, 338-146 B.C. 
 
 The general results of the work on pp. 119-127 may be sum- 
 marized as follows : — 
 
 THE HELLENISTIC OR ALEXANDRIAN CONQUESTS AND 
 KINGDOMS. 
 Organizations formed. 
 
 Military monarchies or despotisms, supported by standing armies. 
 Results of Conquests and the Foundation of the Ne^v King- 
 doms. 
 
 Development of trade. 
 
 New trade-routes opened to the East : 
 Canal from Nile to Red Sea. 
 Trading posts in Indian Ocean. 
 Foundation of new trade-centres : 
 Alexandria. 
 Antioch. 
 
 Seleucia (near Babylon). 
 Pergamos. 
 Development of art, science, and literature, in new directions, 
 with Alexandria, Antioch, and Pergamos, as centres. 
 Natural science, especially 
 medicine, 
 astronomy, 
 physics. 
 Poetry, — pastoral and elegiac. 
 Drama, — new comedy. 
 Spread of Greek language, in Egypt, Macedon, Syria, Asis 
 Minor, and eastward toward India. 
 Character of Civilization (Hellenistic) affected by previous Egyp- 
 tian and Oriental culture. 
 
 Dependent on courts for development and support. 
 Practical in its tendencies, seen in 
 new schools of ethics, — 
 Epicureanism. 
 Stoicism. 
 
ALEXANDRIAN CONQUESTS AND KINGDOMS. 3T 
 
 new forms of literature, — 
 
 new comedy. 
 
 pastoral and ) , 
 
 , . [ poetry, 
 
 elegiac ) 
 
 new directions of thought, — 
 
 scientific. 
 
 It should be distinctly felt that the conquests of Alexander 
 owe their importance to the fact that they were the conquests 
 of Hellenism ; by Hellenism, meaning the spirit of Hellenic 
 culture, rather than its body. For it will be seen that the 
 Alexandrian art, poetry, thought, and activity, ran after all in 
 new channels, determined by the contact of the versatile Hel- 
 lenic mind with new circumstances and with old, firmly-fixed 
 civilizations, fitted rather to give than receive impressions. 
 The spirit of local patriotism yielded to the cosmopolitanism of 
 an empire ; and the seriousness of Socrates, ^schylus, and 
 Aristophanes, changed to the practical observations and ethics 
 of men of the world. That Alexander felt and made him- 
 self the representative of the Greek world is clear enough ; 
 chosen general-in-chief of Greek forces by a congress of Hel- 
 lenic states, sanctioned by Delphi, sacrificing to the Greek 
 deities, dedicating his spoils to the Athena of the Acropolis, 
 and establishing Greek political forms in the cities he founded 
 and conquered, the pupil of Aristotle and the lover of Homer 
 seemed to be Greek in all but name.^ That the Greeks 
 themselves were uneasy under the Alexandrian rule militates 
 not in the least against this view, since throughout their organ- 
 ization and history, their little city-states were always uneasy 
 under any attempt at centralization, whether native or foreign ; 
 and during this very period, we find their most hopeful attempts 
 at political union, the Greek leagues, — the famous forerun- 
 ners of modern confederacies such as are our United States, — 
 marred by their partial character ; while all the attempts to regain 
 
 1 It is interesting to note in this connection the modern Greek claim to 
 the old Macedonian land, as a just part of the Greek territory. 
 
88 STUDIES IN GENERAL. HISTORY. 
 
 independence are too local to have the least worth. In fact, 
 the whole Greek history is an illustration of particularism., a 
 term which the teacher may do well to introduce as the antithe- 
 sis of centralization. 
 
 It will be noted in the progressive history of the Aryan world 
 that states and empires increase in size ; thus, the Alexandrian 
 empire exceeds the Persian in this respect, and is itself exceeded 
 by the Roman. This Alexandrian empire illustrates, too, both 
 in its conquests and its foundations, the fact that the ancient 
 world was held and characterized by its great metropolitan 
 centres of wealth, population, and art. It was not the desire 
 of land that drew Alexander eastward with his Greeks ; the 
 heaped-up splendors of Tyre and Sidon, of Jerusalem and 
 Damascus, of Memphis and Babylon, were richer boot}^ than 
 the rough North and West could offer, and their possession meant 
 the absolute possession of all their subject lands ; since with- 
 out their walls was neither wealth, nor will, nor leadership for 
 resistance ; the land was but their great dumb feeder. So to 
 establish his own power permanently, Alexander felt that he 
 must found cities, that should stamp and rule all the surround- 
 ing land and folk ; hence, the noble foundations of Alexandria, 
 Antioch, Pergamos, Candahar, Smyrna, enduring, living monu- 
 ments of Hellenistic sagacity and power. But from this very 
 fact of strong and widely separated centres, the Alexandrian 
 empire, though continuous in territory and with the same gov- 
 erning people, could not hold together. The interests of each 
 centre were too strong and too strongly supported by old his- 
 toric divisions of language, faith, and spirit, to allow of any- 
 thing more than the most fleeting union. Of these new foun- 
 dations, Alexandria is justly considered greatest, since it com- 
 manded the commerce of the Nile, and all the caravan routes 
 of Southern Asia. In our own times, it has gained a new 
 importance by the opening of the Suez Canal. 
 
 Since Alexander is of the small number whom all men call 
 *' Great," it will be wise for the teacher to dwell on the force 
 of the adjective as here applied ; of course Alexander's work 
 
ROME, 753 (?) B.C. - 800 A.D. 39 
 
 was great since it effected the union of the Greek and Orient 
 worlds ; but that the man himself was great is shown by the 
 very facts of his eastward march ; by the net of conquest which 
 he drew about Asia Minor, by securing all the strong cities of 
 her coasts, thus holding the outlets and inlets of the country ; 
 by the courage and perseverance with which he pushed across 
 hostile, desert, and unknown lands, to discover what and where 
 the wonderland of India was ; by the unbroken daring with 
 which, in the face of mutiny, he built a fleet in order to send 
 Nearchus back a new way ; by the boundless energy and wis- 
 dom with which he dotted his march with towns. 
 
 Suggestions for Essay and Examination "Work. — Was Alex- 
 ander the Conqueror or the Representative of the Greeks ? (Debate.) 
 Journal of a Greek soldier in the Alexandrian army. Letter of a dis- 
 contented Macedonian soldier from an Indian encampment. The 
 debt of civilization to the Alexandrian despots. Alexander compared 
 with Xerxes. The advantages and disadvantages of individualism as 
 illustrated by Greek history. Compare the Greek invasion of Asia 
 with the Asiatic invasion of Greece. The influence of the Orient on 
 Greek thought and action in Alexandrian times. 
 
 3>*:c 
 
 ROME, 753 (?) B.C. -800 A.D. 
 
 The answers to the questions on p. 130 may be summarized 
 as follows : — 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 Geographic Character and Position. 
 
 Large, fertile plains, with easy, natural separations : 
 
 Valley of the Po. 
 
 Plains eastward of the Apennines. 
 
 Plains of Campania. 
 Variety of soil and production. 
 Protection from invasion by 
 
 Alps. 
 
 Seas. 
 
40 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 Italy. — Continued. 
 
 Central position in Mediterranean, commanding commerce of 
 
 Spain, the Rhone valley, the African coasts, and all 
 
 eastern commerce passing by it westward.^ 
 Nearest civilized neighbors at 776 b.c. : 
 
 Carthage (Phoenician). 
 
 Greece. 
 Race Distribution, determined by mountain barriers and river- 
 basins. 
 
 Kelts, in Po valley. 
 
 Italians and Etruscans, in centre. 
 
 Latins, centred about Rome. 
 
 Samnites, in mountains. 
 
 Etruscans, in Tuscan plain. 
 Greeks, in south and in Sicily. 
 
 Results of Geographic Character and Position of Italy. 
 
 Natural political divisions larger than in Greece. 
 Beginning of civilization later than in Greece. 
 Natural occupation and support, — 
 
 agriculture and commerce. 
 Sources of foreign civilization, — 
 
 Greek and Phoenician. 
 
 Special Advantages of Rome. 
 
 Central position in Italy. 
 Commands the Tiber water-way. 
 Unites seven hill-fortresses. 
 In the midst of a fertile plain. 
 
 While the geographical advantages and peculiarities of Italy 
 should be clearly appreciated, too much stress must not be laid 
 upon them, since all history teaches that while geography is a 
 great primary factor in starting a people, it soon becomes over- 
 laid and involved with many other factors as powerful, so that, 
 in time, it loses much of its influence. 
 
 1 Of course this command would only come with the mastery of Italy 
 and Sicily by a single power; this acquired, Italy is easily mistress of all 
 the Mediterranean commerce passing her eastward or westward, by virtue 
 of the narrow seas between hergclf and Africa. 
 
STUDY ON REGAL ROME. 41 
 
 A. B. I. STUDY ON KEGAL EOME AND PEH-PUNIO 
 EEPUBLIO. 
 
 The studies, pp. 130-151 inclusive, may be summarized some- 
 what as follows : — 
 
 REGAL AND PR^-PUNIC REPUBLICAN ROME. 
 
 Organizations of the Period within (Roman). 
 Patrician monarchy. 
 
 Power centred in a king, limited by a body of patricians, 
 bound together by birth and worship, 753(?)-510(?) B.C. 
 Patrician aristocratic republic, 510 (?) B.C. 
 
 Developed by patrician revolt against the oppression of 
 royalty in 
 
 concentrating power, 
 in use of public money, 
 imposition of public burdens. 
 Based on bonds of kinship and religion. 
 Characterized by 
 
 concentration of power in hands of senate, 
 division of royal power among magistrates. 
 Patricio-plebeian republic, 264 B.C. 
 
 Developed by party strife of patricians and plebeians, 
 caused by 
 
 social and) class distinctions, 
 political ) 
 harsh debt-laws, 
 unjust distribution of land, 
 strengthened by 
 
 military power of plebeians, 
 traditional and organized rule of patricians, 
 neutralized by 
 
 common interest and needs in 
 defence and 
 conquest. 
 Based on bonds of common interest and residence. 
 Rigid social classes (patricians, plebeians) 
 
 formed by distinctions of birth and worship, 
 distinguished by exclusive patrician privileges. 
 
42 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 Regal and Tr.il-Punic Republican Rome. — Continued. 
 
 composed of patriarchal families, forming clans and 
 tribes, as with the Greeks. 
 Organizations of Period -without (Italian). 
 
 The Roman military and agricultural colony. 
 The Latin league. 
 The Italian allied towns. 
 Developments and Tendencies of People and Time. 
 Democracy. 
 
 Equal distribution of political power. 
 Social equality. 
 Political parties. 
 
 Patricians v. plebeians. 
 
 Rich V. poor (compare with aristocrats and democrats, 
 the Eupatrids and the " Many " of the Greek 
 cities). 
 Constant and consolidated growth of dominion. 
 Caused by 
 
 order of conquest, — 
 
 Latium, Etruria. 
 Samnium. 
 South Italy, 
 mixture of Romans and Italians in 
 residence, 
 religion. 
 
 government and law. 
 superiority of Rome to neighboring peoples in 
 defences, 
 position, 
 organization. 
 Resulting in uniting Italy in 
 language (Latin), 
 law, habits, religion. 
 Introduction of foreign culture (from Greece and Phoenicia). 
 Original development in 
 architecture, — 
 
 arch, 
 government, - 
 
 constitution of Rome, 
 management of conquests. 
 
STUDY ON REGAL ROME. 43 
 
 Characteristics of Period. 
 
 Close union of politics and religion (church and state). 
 Polytheistic faith. 
 Utilitarianism, seen in 
 
 religion. 
 
 public works. 
 
 attitude towards art and literature. 
 Domination of individual by state. 
 Strict regard for form and order, seen in 
 
 politics. 
 
 religion. 
 Patrician dignity, pride, patriotism. 
 Severity and simplicity, seen in 
 
 law. 
 
 manners. 
 
 style of life, — 
 
 agricultural, 
 military. 
 Ideals of period, — 
 
 warrior. 
 
 law-giver. 
 
 farmer. 
 
 Just here, in the study of the Roman constitutions, the teacher 
 will find the advantage of having taken time for the thorough 
 understanding of the constitutional development of Athens ; if 
 this has been mastered, he will find that the work on the develop- 
 ment of the Roman constitution may be made little more than 
 a quick review and application of what the pupil already knows. 
 For, although more complex and extended, the constitutions 
 of Rome are, after all, of the antique type, and follow from 
 stage to stage the antique development. As in the Athenian, 
 so in the Roman state, these marked revolutions occur. Within 
 an original society, composed of the king and his tribal nobles, _ 
 known as Eupatrids or Patricians ("the well-born," the 
 " fathers"), the oppressions of the king, and the power of the 
 nobles, result in the overthrow of monarchy, and the establish- 
 ment of a state, exclusive and aristocratic to the outside world, 
 
44 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 but within itself pervaded with political and social equality. 
 This aristocratic republic, in turn attacked by those without its 
 pale of birth and worship, is compelled little by little to yield 
 a place and name in the state, to the real powers of wealth, 
 labor, plebeian numbers and fighting value, until at last, a final 
 stage is reached by the constitutions of Clisthenes, and the 
 Patricio-Plebeian Republic, in which all dwellers in the state 
 are citizens endowed, by law at least, with equal powers and 
 rights. 
 
 While this is the general course of the development of the 
 ancient state, attention should be called to more detailed com- 
 parisons ; as that the Roman curies correspond to the old Ionic 
 tribes of the time of Solon ; that the centuries are divided like 
 the Solonian tribes according to wealth ; while the tribes of 264 
 B.C. are the Roman equivalent for the tribes of Clisthenes; 
 again, the division of the people into adverse parties on account 
 of distinctions of birth and wealth, and oppressive laws of debt, 
 is duplicated from the Hellenic cities. It is well, also, to allow 
 the pupil to foretell the probable changes in the Roman state 
 from Greek analogies as well as from the actual Roman condi- 
 tions ; thus, he should be able to foresee from both points of 
 view, that the first revolution will result in the transference of 
 power from the king to the nobles. Here too, as strictly as 
 in Sparta, the military organization was identical with the politi- 
 cal ; a fact which enabled the evidently large plebeian popula- 
 tion of Rome to win its wa}* into the state as its necessar}- 
 defenders. 1 This hold which the plebeians had upon the patri- 
 cians is well illustrated by the story from Livy on p. 136, which 
 admirably shows the temper of either party, — the plebeian 
 impatience of patrician lordship, the patrician fear of plebeian 
 desertion, — while we see both impatience and fear first yield- 
 
 1 This is by no means a necessary relation, except in states of the mili- 
 tary type ; in industrial communities, workers are worth as much as sol- 
 diers to the state. 
 
STUDY ON REGAL ROME. 45 
 
 ing before the pressing need of defending their common city, 
 and then culminating in the affair of the Sacred Mount, by 
 which the fixed determination of the plebeians gained a place in 
 the magistracy of the city, in spite of the obstinate tenacity of 
 the nobles. 
 
 The characteristic features in the growth of Rome's dominion 
 are best seen in contrast with the imperial growth of Athens ; 
 Athens stands as a single city among equals who consent to 
 follow her leadership ; the one word that expresses the power 
 and character of Roman rule is unity ; Rome peoples her sub- 
 ject lands with her citizens ; her colonies are no commercial 
 outposts of traders who always remember they are Greeks 
 among barbarians ; they are communities of soldier-farmers, 
 who seize and settle the land, become " sons of the soil," and 
 little by little force upon the people their own standards of law 
 and faith and speech, through the power of their fixed and 
 dominant relation. 
 
 After the studies on the constitution and the dominion of 
 Rome, the pupils are fairly ready to understand the historical 
 force of the words " growth" and " development" ; the former 
 applying exactly to the increase in size of the state, while the 
 latter describes the unfolding of its various parts or organs to 
 their complete relations and force. 
 
 In studying the life, the art, the works of Rome, it is appar- 
 ent that whatever is of use in the house or the farm, in the 
 camp or the forum, is accepted and admired, and that any 
 superfluous thing is rejected as effeminate ; in their assemblies, 
 men are expected to vote independently and decisively, without 
 listening to discussions or speeches which might sway their 
 minds ; the native art hardly goes further than to commemorate 
 a great deed by a tablet, or a great man by an attempt at a 
 portrait-statue, or to build a mighty wall against invasion ; hence, 
 so far as it goes, that art has the mere stamp of simplicity and 
 effective strength. Even in their faith, the gods are evidently 
 regarded first of all as powers whose favor it is well to gam by 
 
46 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 prayer and sacrifice and festival, because they can give plenti- 
 ful harvests and abundant victory ; the deities, like the folk, 
 live and move and have their being in the visible working circle 
 of the hearth, the field, the tent, the forge. 
 
 Better than anything else, the Twelve Tables reflect the 
 temper of that early Roman polity ; absolute justice and equal- 
 ity among citizens ; protection for the very slave of Rome ; but 
 for the outsider, the " foreigner," no law*, no recognition ; even 
 for the citizen, no escape from the rigors of the harshest pen- 
 alty ; the state dominates all ; here, as in a mirror, we see the 
 stern, harsh life of the warlike, superstitious, exclusive, strong- 
 handed city. 
 
 Suggestions for Essay and Examination Work. — Geographic 
 influence on Roman character. Comparison of Roman and Athenian 
 environment; same of development. Roman character as seen in 
 Roman faith. Speech of a plebeian to his fellows on the Sacred 
 Mount. Visit of an Athenian to Rome about 400 B.C. Same of a 
 Spartan. The gods of Greece versus the gods of Rome. How far 
 was Rome a civilized state at 264 b.c.V Pericles and Cincinnatus. 
 What was the use of a dictator to Rome? 
 
 B. 11. STUDY ON EEPTOLIOAN ROME, POTIO PERIOD. 
 
 In the study on the Punic period the military type of state 
 is brought sharply into contrast with the commercial type ; this 
 one fact marks the difference, — Rome conquers her neighbors, 
 while Carthage pays them tribute. This by no means says that 
 the Romans were the braver folk, but simply that their living 
 was partly dependent on war, and the gains of war, while for 
 theirs, the Carthaginians demanded leisure, and friendly rela- 
 tions with as many peoples as possible. 
 
 The studies on pp. 153, 155, 158, 1G2, 164, 1G6, 169, may 
 be summarized somethino: as follows : — 
 
STUDY ON REPUBLICAN ROME. 
 
 47 
 
 PUNIC PERIOD, 264-146 B.C. — ROME AGAINST CARTHAGE. 
 Comparative Vievsr of Antagonists, 264 B.C. 
 
 
 Rome. 
 
 Carthage. 
 
 Territory : 
 
 Continental, — 
 
 Italy, 
 
 Maritime ; colonial,— Sicily, 
 
 
 south of Apennines. 
 
 African and west Medi- 
 
 
 
 
 terranean coasts, Spain 
 
 
 
 
 (Cadiz), Sardinia. 
 
 Armies : 
 
 Citizens. 
 
 
 Mercenaries, and subject 
 peoples. 
 
 Basis of life, occupa- 
 
 Agriculture. 
 
 
 Commerce. 
 
 tion : 
 
 
 
 
 Material civilization : ^ 
 
 Primitive. 
 
 
 Highly developed. 
 
 Ideal : 
 
 Soldier and law 
 
 -giver. 
 
 Wealthy merchant and skil- 
 ful navigator. 
 
 Comparative Power among states, — about equal, as shown by the 
 
 affair of the Mamertines. 
 Growth of Home during Period. 
 In dominion. 
 
 By First Punic War, — 
 
 Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, alliances in Spain and Gaul. 
 By Second Punic War, — 
 
 Spain, dependent alliance of Carthaginian Africa. 
 By period from Second to Third Punic War, — 
 Cisalpine Gaul. 
 Macedonia and Greece. 
 Western Asia Minor. 
 By Third Punic War, — 
 
 Carthaginian Africa, as a province. 
 [Note that this conquest is steady and progressive, new possessions 
 being adjacent to old.] 
 In wealth : 
 
 The tribute of Carthage, Macedonia, and Sicily. 
 In fighting power : 
 
 Tributary troops of Carthage, Macedonia, and Sicily ; 
 
 1 After the preliminary study on Phoenicia, this comparison should be 
 made almost without thinking on the part of the student. 
 
48 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTOBY. 
 
 PcNxc Period, 264-146 b.c. — Continued. 
 
 Allied troops of Western Asia ; 
 The formation of a fleet; .*. 
 
 Becomes leading military power of Mediterranean. 
 In influence : 
 
 Becomes leader and arbiter of Mediterranean lands. 
 In organization : 
 
 Beginning of provincial governments (imperial type). 
 In civilization : 
 
 Influence of Greece and the Orient, seen in 
 literature, 
 art. 
 life. 
 Character displayed during Period. 
 By Carthage : 
 
 Avarice, — mistaken prudence; at the last, patriotism. 
 Dependence on great generals, and their personal power 
 over mercenaries {Hannibal).^ 
 By Hannibal : 
 
 Patriotism, perseverance, determination, ingenuity, cour- 
 age, personal power, good judgment. 
 By Greece : 
 
 Disunion, jealousy, love of freedom. 
 By Rome, before the close of Second Punic War : 
 
 Reliance on whole body of citizens, on law and patriotism. 
 Patriotism, determination, courage, perseverance. 
 Strong regard for religious forms. 
 Native genius, — military, legal, engineering. 
 Concentration of life at city of Rome : 
 
 Legal and military, in hands of patricians. 
 Literary and artistic, in hands of foreigners 
 (Greeks). 
 
 1 Note that Hannibal's single qualities, acting through a body of loyal 
 soldiery, match the collective qualities of the Roman state, acting through 
 a body of patriotic citizens. Hannibal has within himself those elements 
 of success which Rome possesses, and which Carthage lacks ; but finally, 
 he lacks the independent power to develop his own genius to a victorious 
 issue. It is a significant contrast that Carthage concentrates her greatness 
 in a single man, while Rome obtains greatness from the diffusion of great 
 qualities among her citizens. 
 
STUDY ON KEPUBLICAN ROME. 49 
 
 By Rome, in later Punic period, 201-146 B.C. 
 Growth of new aristocracy on bases of 
 military \ 
 
 official >■ superiority, 
 monied ) 
 Tendency to subject law to the individual (Scipio, 
 
 Fabius). 
 Growth of demagogism, — games, corn distributions. 
 Growth of popular power (Roman rabble). 
 Political corruption. 
 Harshness, cruelty, and injustice to allies, provincials, 
 
 and slaves. 
 Influx of Greek and Oriental culture 
 brought in by 
 
 triumphs. 
 
 returning soldiers and officials, 
 opposed by Cato and old-style Romans. 
 Ideal, — the successful general with plenty of booty. 
 Taste for coarse and cruel amusements, — low comedy, 
 
 gladiatorial fights. 
 Tendencies to atheism, together with superstition and 
 
 formality. 
 
 Decay of small farmers 
 
 caused by 
 
 large estates worked by slaves, hence 
 
 no demand for free labor. 
 
 distributions of cheap or free provincial 
 
 grain at Rome, hence 
 no Roman market for grain, 
 resulting in 
 
 drift of landless men to Rome. 
 
 selling of the suffrage. 
 
 idle Roman populace, dependent on foreign 
 
 bread, 
 dangerous country population of slaves. 
 
 The chief point to be noted in regard to organization during 
 this period is the formation of an imperial relation. This rela- 
 tion really begins with the acquisition of Sicily and the estab- 
 lishment of provincial government, personified in proconsuls, 
 
60 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 whose absolute rule abroad introduced the imperial principle 
 into the Roman state. This point, though simple, must be 
 emphasized, since the whole fabric of the empire had this for 
 its excuse, the necessity of some organization by which a city 
 could rule far-distant peoples and lands, and the emperors were 
 always the rulers of the provinces rather than of Rome. The 
 events of the later Punic period show very clearly how it was 
 that when Rome had once made herself decidedly stronger than 
 her neighbors, they naturally sought her alliance and her influ- 
 ence ; thus, as the keeper of the peace, or as the champion of 
 one party, people, or prince against another, tlie chosen arbiter 
 and protector of the various Mediterranean lands became their 
 administrator and conqueror. Even in this period, it is to be 
 noted, that while the subject peoples of Rome were forced to 
 accept absolutism at her hands, yet it was perhaps a lesser evil 
 than their own chronic condition of civil war and anarchy. 
 Just here, the pupil should be able to foresee something of the 
 necessary future growth of Roman dominion, and at least to 
 forecast the completion of the Mediterranean circle. If the 
 teacher think best, he may at once ask for a comparison of the 
 map on p. 157, with that of the finished empire, when the pupil 
 will see that the natural process of growth only ends when 
 great natural boundaries are reached, — the Rhine, the Danube, 
 the ocean, the Sahara. 
 
 The details of the Second Punic "War are remarkably instruc- 
 tive, since by the very nature of the case they give us a con- 
 stant comparison of characters and tempers and organizations. 
 The citizen army versus the mercenary band, the popular con- 
 trol of military movements as opposed to the absolutism of a 
 great general, the respective play of moral forces in the indus- 
 trial and the commercial state — all these are well worth study- 
 ing. In the text I have called attention to a few detailed 
 points, as to that unfortunate Roman organization which divided 
 the command of the army between two consuls at the crisis of 
 Cannae, when, if ever, Rome needed the absolute rule of a 
 dictator to ensure prompt decision and consistency of action. 
 
STUDY ON liEPUBLICAN ROME. 51 
 
 The teacher will find it well worth his while to take all the time 
 necessary to a fair appreciation of the changed conditions of 
 Roman life and the consequent change in Roman character that 
 are found in existence in the later Punic period, since thorough- 
 ness here means the easy comprehension of the Empire. The 
 fundamental change of all is due to the new ideals that entered 
 the popular mind. The successful general, returning with 
 plenty of mone}' and with hosts of strange and beautiful objects, 
 easily became the popular hero, and could have what he would 
 from the admiring crowd whose man he was willing to be. He 
 could not oppress the Roman populace, it is true, for he had 
 competitors who might outbid him to-morrow in glory or gener- 
 osity ; unfortunately, competitors of his own kind, for, b}^ that 
 constitutional fault which Pericles found it well to correct in 
 Athens, no poor man could afford to hold office, since public 
 officers were unpaid. ^ Hence arose a class of men, who wrested 
 victories and tributes from abroad to become kind, indulgent 
 demagogues at home. Perhaps Scipio may fairly stand as the 
 first of the line which ended only with the firm establishment 
 of imperialism. 
 
 In the midst of her rapidl}" growing dominion, Rome was 
 threatened by new dangers from within. Those arising from 
 the oppression of slaves and allies are too evident and too 
 temporary to require more than a simple passing notice ; but 
 the most careful attention should be given to the land-question, 
 since it is one of our pressing modern problems, and since, in the 
 later republic, the actual facts are so well known, and the logic of 
 events and conditions pressed so relentlessly on to its fatal end. 
 By the importation of foreign slaves into Italy, the market for 
 rural labor was destroyed, since the wealthy non-resident 
 Roman landlords found it cheaper to work their country- 
 estates b}' slaves ; by the importation of foreign grain, which 
 rival demagogues cheapened or even gave away, the market for 
 wheat was taken from the farmers of Italy, and without capital 
 
 1 Compare modern constitutions, British and American. 
 
62 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 they found themselves quite unable to compete against the 
 masters of large slave- worked estates, as raisers of stock or 
 keepers of vineyards. So the small country holdings and the 
 multitudinous country interests that held the men of Italy bound 
 in close relations to her soil gradually died out, and the country 
 population became one of slaves, mostly imported from abroad, 
 with no interest, native or acquired, either in the soil or its 
 labors. As for the owners of these estates, they mostl}' lived 
 at Rome, using their country places for revenue and pleasure ; 
 meanwhile, the old country population crowded to the city, 
 where it formed an idle, helpless herd, corrupting the decisions 
 of the Forum by its mercenary votes, sold to the highest bidder 
 for amusement or food. Thus the living union of the soil and 
 the man perished, the respect for labor vanished when it was 
 no longer free, and the people of Italy became largely depend- 
 ent on the provinces for food. Thus a natural relation arose 
 between successful conquerors or rulers of provinces and suc- 
 cessful and popular magistrates in Rome, and again the inevi- 
 table course toward imperialism was confirmed. 
 
 The last question on p. 169 calls for a classification of the 
 dangerous tendencies of Rome into those that are politically, 
 socially, and religiously so. But I have purposely- set this 
 question in order to call attention to the fact that it is almost 
 impossible to make such a classification since the social, politi- 
 cal, and religious life, all make the complex organism of the 
 state, and are inextricably mingled in its structure. The varied 
 classifications made by the pupils will easily elucidate this point. 
 
 Suggestions for Essay and Examination Work. — The military 
 versus the industrial character. (Debate.) The debate at Messana 
 over the Roman or Carthaginian alliance. The end of Greece. The 
 citizen army ; its defects and excellencies. The causes of the growth 
 of the new aristocracy at Rome. When was Rome greater, at 264 or 
 146 B.C. ? At what time would you have been proudest to have been 
 a Roman citizen? Draw parallels between any modern conditions 
 that you know and the condition of affairs at Rome in the later Punic 
 period. Account of a Spanish soldier to his village-comrades of the 
 Italian campaign with Hannibal. A Roman soldier's first visit to 
 
STUDY ON REPUBLICAN ROME. 53 
 
 Athens. What tendencies and characteristics of the later Punic 
 period seem to you legitimate developments from the earlier Roman 
 character ? 
 
 B. III. STUDY 0J5f EEPUBLIOAN EOME, POST-PUNIO PEKIOD. 
 The work from pp. 170-192 should reach the general results 
 indicated in the following summary : — 
 
 ROMAN REPUBLIC, POST-PUNIC PERIOD, 146-27 B.C. 
 
 Organization, — Military, Imperial, Democratic. 
 
 Imperial, through the Mediterranean basin, excepting Italy. 
 Democratic, in Italy, centering 
 at Rome. 
 
 in military leaders, or Imperators (Emperors). 
 Characteristics. 
 
 Constant party strife, — over questions, over persons, between 
 people and senate (democracy v. aristocracy). 
 Italians and Romans, 
 poor and rich. 
 Social and political discontent 
 displaying itself in 
 
 dissensions of the Gracchi, 
 servile revolts. 
 Social War. 
 resulting in 
 
 agrarian laws (to check the growth of large estates), 
 extension of suffrage to Italy. 
 Progressive growth ^ of Roman dominion to natural limits of 
 
 seas, rivers, mountains, deserts. (See map.) 
 Progressive centralization of power 
 
 in persons of successful generals, — 
 Marius. 
 Sulla. 
 Pompey. 
 Julius Caesar. 
 Augustus Caesar Imperator (emperor) . 
 
 1 The easy and natural course of this progressive dominion, as com- 
 pared with the long and endless civil disturbances, indicates that the real 
 strength of Rome lay in her armies rather than in her constitutions. 
 
64 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 Roman Republic. — Continued. 
 
 developed by necessities of the state for 
 provincial order, 
 frontier defence, 
 military organization, 
 based on popular favor, secured by 
 games, grain-distribution, 
 eloquence in favor of popular measures, 
 generous use of money, 
 actual command of armed forces, 
 military success. 
 Corruption and weakness of Roman government, 
 consisting in 
 
 bribery, extortion, injustice, inefficiency, stupid 
 selfishness (treatment of allies), 
 seen in 
 
 the Jugurthine War. 
 the conspiracy of Catiline, 
 the prosecution of Verres. 
 
 constant civil wars and disturbances, and their 
 difficult suppression. 
 Growing love of wealth and pleasure. 
 Development of native Italian talent 
 
 in oratory -^ 
 
 in poetry (under Greek influence) >- new.^ 
 in history ) 
 
 in engineering, law, politics, war, — as before. 
 Growth of skepticism among cultured, of superstition among 
 masses, 
 
 resulting in 
 
 adoption of Greek philosophy 
 
 deification of Csesar. 
 
 identification of religion with the state. 
 
 * It is to be noted that when the Italian genius began to display itself 
 in a literature truly Latin, it still declared itself a practical genius, choos- 
 ing facts and contemporary life and incident for its material, even when 
 dependent on the Greeks for form. The direction which the native genius 
 was to take in all its original work is well' marked out by the list of 
 subjects on which the Elder Cato wrote, p. 163. 
 
STUDY ON REPUBLICAN KOME. 55 
 
 The above tabulation is so very general that it can only be 
 given after the full completion of the work. During its prog- 
 ress, the teacher may wish to sub-summarize the results of 
 some of the special studies something as follows : — 
 
 " Dissensions of the Gracchi." 
 Caused by 
 
 unequal distribution of land, 
 unequal political status of Italians and Romans.^ 
 exclusive judicial power of senate, 
 discontent of 
 poor, 
 knights. 
 Italian So 
 Resulting in 
 
 formation of parties : 
 
 Democratic (radical, reforming party, embodied 
 
 in popular assembly). 
 Aristocratic (conservative party, embodied in 
 senate), 
 more violent agitation (Drusus, and Social War), 
 establishing of precedents of violent and illegal action 
 in city government. 
 
 The last point in this summary is of prime importance ; froni 
 the time of the Gracchi onward, neither the people nor their 
 leaders serioush' hesitated to use force or to override the con- 
 stitution in order to achieve their alms. Thus Marius and 
 Sulla ruled the Forum by force of arms, disregarded or t3Tan- 
 nized over elections, while Sulla, as dictator, assumed not only 
 the powers of a general, but those of the Roman assemblies as 
 well, in disposing of the lands and lives of citizens. 
 
 Perhaps there is no one series of events so instructive in 
 regard to all the political relations at Rome as that of the 
 
 1 The Roman franchise meant to the Italians cheap grain, a share in 
 the conquered lands of the rapidly growing dominion of Rome, oppor- 
 tunity for glory, wealth, and political power. The Romans naturally 
 delayed to grant it, since division of the spoils meant a smaller share for 
 themselves. 
 
56 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 Jugurthine War. At its opening, we see just how it was that 
 Rome became so easily mistress when once she became medi- 
 ator. Numidia, nominally independent, was in realitj* the 
 absolute subject of Rome, and declared herself so in the alter- 
 nate appeals of her princes. As soon as actual interference 
 began, we see in turn the moral weakness of Rome, the inabil- 
 ity of her senators and generals to maintain an acknowledged 
 right against the power of the bribe, the insubordination of her 
 armies, the unwillingness of her generals to displease the mob 
 of the forum or the camp. Again we see the close relation 
 existing between success on the field and official success in 
 Rome, the rivalry of the Italian and the Roman, of the senate 
 and the tribes. The whole history is not so significant as being 
 the story of the conquest of Numidia as in being the account 
 of the subtle ruin which Roman citizens, generals, and senators 
 were all bringing upon their native city. 
 
 The provincial government of Verres injured Rome by dimin- 
 ishing her revenue, reputation, and consequent power, b}' wast- 
 ing and depopulating her grain-growing estates, by shaking 
 that religious faith which always formed a basis of political 
 power in antiquity. The speech of Cicero, moreover, shows 
 that the case of Verres was typical, and that provincial oppres- 
 sion and greed of provincial office for the sake of provincial 
 spoils was no uncommon thing. 
 
 In the rise of Julius Caesar we have another of those special 
 studies that throw light for us on the whole contemporary life 
 and action of the state. The prominent qualities of his charac- 
 ter were resolution, hardihood, unscrupulousness, daring, mixed 
 with prudence, patience, temperance, generosity*, intellectual 
 taste and power, personal vanity and ambition, warm and ready 
 sympathies with those who aided or did not withstand his power ; 
 add to this the genius of Rome's greatest general, and an elo- 
 quence equal to that of the best, and you find combined in this 
 one man every quality needful for success in a government fallen 
 into the hands of a spoiled city populace, ready to be bought 
 by the magnificent expenditures which Cajsar well knew how 
 
STUDY ON REPUBLICAN ROME. 57 
 
 to make, and ready to be intimidated by troops invincibly 
 attached to a leader who was the personification of good fellow- 
 ship and soldierly quality. Fortunately for Rome, however, 
 Ciesar was greater than a mere demagogue. He aspired not 
 to be greater because of Rome, but to make Rome greater be- 
 cause of Ctesar ; hence, to his name and suggestion may be 
 traced many of the noblest measures of the early empire. The 
 latest follower of the Gracchi, he stood for the rights of the 
 provinces as they had stood for those of Italy. He had a 
 higher ambition than to give the citizens of Rome new peoples 
 for slavery and new lands for plunder ; he had a vision of a 
 strong and thoroughly-welded state, that should be comprised 
 of provincials as well as Romans, but through which the Roman 
 genius should interpenetrate a living growth by transmarine 
 and transalpine colonization. Hence, we find that the enemies 
 of Caesar are Romans, while the universal provincial mourning 
 for him shows the cosmopolitan sympathies which he felt and 
 aroused. Perhaps the time has not yet passed when every one 
 has a right to his own opinion as to the effect of Caesar's death on 
 Rome. To us, his assassination seems but to prolong the death- 
 agony of the republic, and delay the inevitable birth of empire. 
 Throughout these studies, the constant evolutional relation 
 between the tendencies and character of the later Punic period, 
 and the tendencies and character of the last age of the republic 
 should be kept in view. 
 
 The *' General Study" on p. 189 should allow the freest dis- 
 cussion and the largest possible range of opinion, at the same 
 time that certain positive generalizations are made, as that, 
 from beginning to end, the Romans had one unchanging ideal, 
 the militar}', and one unchanging taste, for the practical. In 
 the later republic we see the new ideals of wealth and pleasure 
 arising from new resources brought to Rome b}" her victorious 
 armies ; meanwhile, the old admiration for a simple, even 
 severe, type of morals and manners gives way before the charms 
 of the Greeks and the lawlessness of popular heroes. In fact, 
 
58 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 regarding the native Roman genius as practical, legal, military, 
 the most Roman age of all her history would seem to be that 
 of the earlier republic, culminating in the epic of the second 
 Punic war. But here opinions would justly differ. 
 
 Suggestions for Essay and Examination Work. — What essen- 
 tials for good republican government did Rome lack in the first cen- 
 tury B.C.? Dialogue regarding their respective miseries between a 
 Greek slave and an Italian farmer, 100 b.c. Julius Caesar, the ^venger 
 of the Gracchi. The political importance of the murder of Tiberiu* 
 Gracchus. Journal of a Roman citizen, 88-78 b.c. The popular ori- 
 gin of the emperors. The Greek versus the Roman genius. (Debate.) 
 The relation between Roman tastes and amusements, and the develop- 
 ment of the Roman character. Letter written home by a Gallic soldier 
 and senator on the occasion of Caesar's death. The Roman roads and 
 the Roman Empire. Reflections of Adherbal on Rome. Reflections 
 of Cato on the past and the present. 
 
 C. I. STUDY ON THE PAGAN EMPIRE. —AUGUSTUS TO 
 OONSTANTINE, 27 B.C. - 323 A.D. 
 
 Discussion of Map-Questions. — The questions on p. 192 are 
 so easy and general, that the teacher may introduce a pleasing 
 variety by allowing their discussion to come up in a class-room 
 conversation without any previous preparation. 
 
 Even from the first, the division of the Empire into a Latin 
 half and a Greek and Oriental half was predestined. From 
 Trieste eastward, the bulk of the towns were founded and 
 inhabited by Greeks and Orientals, and were mistresses of 
 lands and peoples stamped for centuries by Greek and Oriental 
 culture. From Trieste westward, the towns were mostly of 
 Roman foundation, and set in the midst of a barbarism un- 
 touched even in the days of Pericles. The only exceptions 
 important to note are the southern parts of Spain and Italy, 
 where the Greek and Oriental mixture always strongly modified 
 the Latin element. 
 
 The two facts of the large number of cities in the Empire, 
 and of their position, almost without exceptioDj on the coast, 
 
STUDY ON THE PAGAN EMPIRE. 59 
 
 or on river-courses, indicate the general commercial activity of 
 the Empire ; but " All roads led to Rome." 
 
 The studies on the Pagan Empire may be summarized some- 
 what as follows : — 
 
 PAGAN EMPIRE, 27 B.C. -323 A.D. 
 
 Central Organization : Imperialism, tending to hereditary despotism. 
 Centralized in 
 
 person of emperor. 
 
 city of Rome (citizens of Home have the highest rights 
 and privileges possible under the Empire). 
 Supported by 
 
 standing army, substantial basis of power, 
 general taxation, severest in the provinces.^ 
 adulation and adoration (deification) of emperors, 
 republican forms and titles. 
 Dependent for excellence on 
 
 character of emperors ; e.g., Nero and the Antonines. 
 Bonds of union : 
 
 Language, — 
 
 Latin in West. 
 Greek in East.^ 
 Law and government. 
 Worship (adoration of emperor) .^ 
 Easy communication by roads, seas, rivers. 
 Local Organizations : Municipal, republican, democratic, similar to 
 the organization of republican Rome, which the cities of the 
 West largely copied. 
 Tendencies and Characteristics. 
 
 Growth of Greek and Oriental influence, seen in 
 literature and art. 
 language, 
 religion (Christianity). 
 
 1 Indeed, to use the telhng phrase of Prof. Seeley, the provinces were 
 " the great estates " of Rome, whose revenues fed and clothed her citizens. 
 
 2 Note that the East roughly corresponds to the old Alexandrian Empire. 
 
 3 Jews and Christians were monotheists, and so could not join the body 
 of the Empire consistently in this regard; hence, one reason for their 
 constant persecution. 
 
60 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 Pagan Empire. — Continued. 
 
 Practical bent of Roman mind, seen in 
 
 native forms of literatui'e, — history and contemporary 
 
 criticism, 
 public works, — baths, bridges, aqueducts, amphitheatres. 
 Growth of Christianity, — 
 seen in 
 
 imperial persecutions. 
 
 growth of Christian literature (compare third cen- 
 tury with first), 
 importance of heresies, threatening disunion, 
 favored by 
 
 unity and peace of Empire, 
 decay of old religions. 
 Progressive civilization and equalization of the provinces,^ 
 seen in 
 
 origin and education of great men. 
 universal suffrage given by Caracalla. 
 Differentiation of East and West in 
 language, — 
 
 Latin (West). 
 Greek (East), 
 municipal foundations and populations, 
 civilization, — 
 
 Latin (West). 
 Greek and Oriental (East), 
 thought (note Eastern origin of heresies). 
 Development of nmnicipal centres of influence and culture. 
 Rome. 
 Alexandria. 
 Antioch. 
 Carthage. 
 Comparative peace and order. 
 Decline of third century seen in 
 
 deterioration of literature and art. 
 constant civil war. 
 
 1 That Spain came first into prominence was probably due to her 
 earlier conquest by Home, and possibly to her still earlier contact with 
 Phoenicians. 
 
STUDY ON THE PAGAN EMPIRE. 61 
 
 growing difficulties with barbarians, indicated by 
 
 new defences of Rome. 
 
 frontier wars, 
 development of hereditary despotism, — 
 
 Diocletian. 
 change and deterioration of population. ^ 
 Ideals : 
 
 among the Pagans, — wealth, leisure, pleasure. 
 
 among the Christians, — a pure, upright, brave, modest, 
 
 industrious, self-denying. Christlike man. 
 
 Permanent Remains of Civilization. 
 
 Literature, — history, poetry. 
 
 Roads. 
 
 Laws. 
 
 The Christian religion. 
 
 Languages, — French, Spanish, Italian. 
 
 Cultivated lands of Latin countries. 
 
 Architectural forms, — arch and dome. 
 
 The first question on p. 205 is intended to test the student's 
 understanding of the word "constitutional," as applied to 
 organic changes in government ; such changes occurred in the 
 transference of municipal elections from the assemblies to the 
 Senate, under Tiberius ; in the introduction of provincials to 
 the Senate, under Claudius ; in the new powers given b}' 
 Hadrian to the Council of State ; in the extension of citizen- 
 ship to every freeman of the Empire by Caracalla. These 
 changes were all in the line of a natural development of the 
 imperial constitution, and culminated at last in that radical 
 step taken by Diocletian, — the division of the Empire between 
 despotic rulers of the Oriental type. It is worth noting that 
 equality grew with despotism ; or, to put it more justly, sub- 
 jects ceased to rise, as rulers gained more universal power ; and 
 the provincial basis of the power of the emperor received new 
 illustration from the fact that, in the process of equalization, 
 
 1 As the Roman populations decay, barbarian elements arc substituted 
 for them, especially in the army. 
 
62 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 the provincials gained. Indeed, the provincials were the chief 
 gainers by the whole imperial system ; no emperor would for a 
 moment have tolerated such bad management as that of Yerres 
 and his fellows ; to rule the province well for the emperor 
 meant that it should be protected from invasion and disorder, 
 that its internal resources should be fully developed, and that 
 its people should, on the whole, be contented with their Roman 
 master. 
 
 With the universal loss of actual freedom, with the growth 
 of great armies under rival generals, and the increasing custom 
 of deciding the imperial succession by civil war, it was per- 
 haps well that the hereditary i:)rinciple should gradually come 
 to be recognized; for, while it subjected the Empire to the 
 chance of birth, this was perhaps no worse a chance to run 
 than that of the decision of war, while at least it relieved men 
 from the confusion and anarch}^ of this latter method. Under 
 either method, the great fault of the constitution was, that, 
 resting as it did on a purely military basis, it neither repre- 
 sented nor developed, but, on the contrary, repressed the moral 
 and intellectual strength of the Empire, and that, too, in the 
 direction of government, where such forces were most sorely 
 needed. 
 
 In the lists of great men and works in the imperial period 
 we find simply the natural development of the practical Roman 
 genius. We see that works on histor}*, science, law, biography, 
 far outweighed in number and general value the productions of 
 the poet or philosopher. The one great original poet, Horace, 
 was clever rather than great, and acquired popularity by the 
 graceful ease with which he satirized the actual world ; while 
 Virgil appealed to the pride of the Roman race by singing in a 
 half historic form their own ancestral glories. 
 
 In art the same tendency is to be noticed ; whenever Rome 
 broke away from the influence of Greek subjects, she at once 
 left the company of gods and heroes, and sought to delineate, 
 without idealizing, the famous men, the striking scenes and 
 characters of contemporary life. 
 
STUDY OK THE fAGAK EM1»IRE. 63 
 
 The study on p. 218 is intended rather to bring fresh proofs 
 in support of previous points than to convey any new informa- 
 tion. The extract from Virgil, p. 212, shows how easily an 
 emperor like Augustus was regarded as a god, since, like the 
 Roman deities in general, he procured for the people material 
 blessings. The extract from Epictetus shows us, in a word, 
 what these blessings were, and that, though the Romans had 
 no longer either liberty or courage (see Tacitus) , they had, at 
 least, peace and order, and freedom of movement. This, in 
 fact, was the sole glory of the Empire. 
 
 Even these material blessings were not unmixed ; Tiberius 
 felt it when he pointed out to the Senate (p. 213) the absolute 
 dependence of Italy on the provinces for her daily food. But 
 the great faults of the imperial period were, after all, moral ; 
 they are seen in that indifferent, selfish temper, which made 
 " all Rome guilty of this Nero" ; in that avarice and jealousy 
 of the legions, in that flattery and cowardice of citizens and 
 senators alike, to which Otho owed the purple ; in that atmos- 
 phere whose interest centred in horses and gladiators ; in that 
 good-natured, fashionable contempt for labor, voiced by Pliny. 
 All these influences were constantly educating a new generation 
 into the typical Roman life of the period, while, according to 
 Tacitus, they were strengthened rather than opposed b}' the 
 educational surroundings of the child. 
 
 It is a grave question how far the individual was to blame 
 for all this demoralization. A society organized on a slave 
 basis, by A^rtue of that very fact cannot respect labor ; and 
 the centralization of power in the hands of one man always 
 tends to weaken the minds and morals of those subjected to 
 it, — two mighty causes of wide-spread evils. 
 
 At the close of all the discussions and summaries of this 
 period, the teacher may, if he think best, thus summarize the 
 contrasts between the Roman Empire and the Christian Church, 
 considering both simply as historic organizations, brought into 
 sharper and sharper contrast as the fourth century ap- 
 proached : — 
 
64 
 
 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 
 Roman Empire. 
 
 Christian Church. 
 
 Founded on 
 
 force of arms. 
 
 force of ideas and faith in 
 them. 
 
 Bonds of union 
 
 government, law, language, 
 
 belief in the fatherhood of 
 
 
 formal worship of the 
 
 one God, and the brother- 
 
 
 emperor. 
 
 hood of all men. 
 
 Social distinc- 
 
 based on birth, wealth, and 
 
 none ; equality of all classes 
 
 tions 
 
 occupation. 
 
 and races before God, a 
 predominant teaching. 
 
 Morality 
 
 based on selfishness. 
 
 based on unselfishness. 
 
 Ideals 
 
 the emperor, the wealthy 
 man of leisure, the high 
 official. 
 
 the Christlike man. 
 
 It will be noted in this contrast what mutually destructive 
 agencies were arrayed against each other. Christianity entered 
 the ancient world to maintain the manhood and brotherhood of 
 the slave or the alien ; to preach the existence of one God and 
 of no other; to preach a morality based on love and self- 
 denial. By virtue of these facts alone it attacked the whole 
 framework of ancient societ}*, which rested so firmly on bonds 
 of kinship and a polytheistic worship, which had come to 
 regard a standing army as the condition of life itself, and 
 whose best moralit}^ was an enlightened selfishness. Since 
 that framework was largely wrought in favor of privileged 
 classes, we see at once why Christianity was so fiercely attacked 
 by the empire and so fondly and rapidly embraced by "the 
 Many." 
 
 Suggestions for Essay and Examination "Work. — The debt 
 of Rome to Alexander. The debt of France and Spain to Rome. 
 Parallel between the Emperor Augustus and the Greek " tyrants." 
 Suppose that Brutus and Cassius had won at Philippi, instead of 
 Octavian, what then ? A journey from Rome to London, 100 a.d. 
 The Roman citizen the aristocrat of the Empire, 100 a.d. Journal of 
 a (iallic soldier who was sent from the Rhine frontier to ^Memphis. 
 Did the provinces conquer Rome, or Rome the provinces? The 
 power behind the imperial throne. Reflections of a Christian in the 
 
STUDY ON THE TEUTONIC BARBARIANS. 65 
 
 Colosseum, 90 a.d. When did the changes formally made by Diocle- 
 tian begin in reality ? Where did political liberty still exist at 300 
 A.D. ? The foreign debt of Roman literature. The Roman road v. 
 the Phoenician ship. What is the most universal bond of union you 
 have yet found in your study of history ? 
 
 STUDY ON THE TEUTOMO BARBARIANS. 
 
 The general results of the study may be tabulated as fol- 
 lows : — * 
 
 THE TEUTONIC BARBARIANS. 
 
 Organization: Tribal — aristocratic and local. 
 Units and bonds of union : 
 
 patriarchic family, — kinship-bond. 
 
 village community and mark-moot, — political unit with 
 kinship-bond and bond of common property; 
 supported by agriculture, 
 warrior-band, — bonds of loyalty to a leader and a com- 
 mon interest ; supported by booty of war. 
 Classes of society and occupations (believed of divine origin) : 
 serfs, — hard manual labor, 
 freemen, — artisans and directors, 
 nobles, — warriors. 
 Magistrates : 
 
 kings or chiefs, chosen for birth ; supported by gifts, 
 chieftains, heads of warrior-bands ; supported by plunder, 
 judges, chosen by the people for ability. 
 Assemblies : 
 
 mark-moot, — general village assembly, purely local, 
 assembly of chiefs, — deliberative. 
 
 general assembly of f reeborn warriors, — declares war, 
 makes law, elects leaders and citizens, judges. 
 Characteristics. 
 
 Bases of life : 
 
 war, seen in vocabulary and songs, and in warrior-band, 
 agriculture, seen in vocabulary and in village community. 
 Independent, local, democratic tendency in politics. 
 
66 STUDIES IIJ GEItEKAL HISTORY. 
 
 The Teutonic Barbarians. — Continued. 
 
 Love of independence. 
 
 Insecurity of society. 
 
 Strength and influence of women. 
 
 Generous hospitality ; scorn of manual (serf) labor. 
 
 Ideal, — warrior. 
 Race-Relationship, Aryan: seen in organizations, vocabulary, myths, 
 
 ideas. 
 
 Although this is a short study, it should be treated with 
 marked care, since we now meet a fundamentally new type of 
 societ}'. Ancient Greece and Rome were "city-states,"^ the 
 powers of modern Europe are " country-states."^ The history 
 of the former began in an Acropolis or Capitol ; that of the 
 latter starts from the village and the canton ; the city-state 
 was an independent unit ; the village and the canton are related 
 b}' their organization to a larger area and population than their 
 own. These differences developed greater, but at first the 
 resemblances between the primitive groups of Teutons, Greeks, 
 and Romans were more pronounced than their differences. 
 Even that fundamental fact in the Teutonic village, the com- 
 mon possession of land apportioned b}' the majority votes of 
 the marks-men, seems to be matched by the division of public 
 lands among the Roman citizens ; although, in the former case, 
 the matter was far more closely connected with the very foun- 
 dation of the state, and the land was not only divided, but 
 managed by the mark-moot. But positive and unquestioned 
 resemblances are to be found in the assemblies. Thus the 
 Teutonic assembly of chiefs matched the Homeric assembly of 
 Elders, the Areopagus, the various senates ; to the mark-moot 
 corresponded the Agora, the Ekklesia, the Centuries, and the 
 Tribes ; everywhere appeared the kinship-bond and the patri- 
 archal family. Between magistrates it is more difficult to draw 
 the parallel, since the god -born king among the Teutons seems 
 at first subordinate to thef warlike chief whom a tribe may 
 
 1 These terms are borrowed from Prof. J. R. Seeley. 
 
STUDY ON THE TEUTONIC BARBARIANS. 67 
 
 choose to follow. This determination of rank by might in 
 war finds illustration again in the fact that admission to the 
 full political and military status of a Teuton was onl}' won by 
 proved ability in arms, although Teutonic birth gave the first 
 right to the Teutonic name ; and the kinship-bond had been so 
 purely preserved, that, to Tacitus, the people appeared of pure, 
 unmingled race. Once admitted to full Teutonic privileges, 
 however, the individual found himself a free and equal member 
 of a democratic community. 
 
 Throughout this work the teacher should keep it well before 
 the mind of the pupil that, in a more special sense than before, 
 he is studying the origin of his own people and kin-folk, of his 
 own ancestors in direct lineage. The following little table will 
 show him how we stand in the great Aryan relationship : — 
 
 EUROPEAN ARYAN STOCK. 
 
 Keltic: Irish, Scotch, Welsh. 
 
 Teutonic : Germans, English, Scandinavians, Americans. 
 
 Slavic : Russians, Servians, and other Christian peoples of the Balkan 
 
 peninsula, to a greater or less degree. 
 Greeco-Italian : The Greeks and Romans of antiquity. 
 
 Since the directions and dates of the early Aryan migrations 
 'ire still in the field of theory, it is best for the teacher, 
 while allowing surmise, to discourage positive statements. 
 That the migrations must have antedated 1000 b.c. is sure 
 enough, from the fact of the then-established Greek, Italian, 
 and Keltic peoples, fully separated by speech and habits. 
 Geographical distribution, again, points with apparent clearness 
 to a general movement from the region of the Black Sea, although 
 the question of the original home of the Aryans is by no means 
 settled. For a complete and recent discussion of the whole 
 Aryan question, see Dr. O. Schrader's "Prehistoric Antiqui- 
 ties of the Aryan Peoples." Translated by Jevons, London, 
 1890. We have some evidence in the common vocabulary of 
 the house and field for maintaining that, before their separa- 
 
68 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 tion, the Aryans already had in common possession the arts of 
 agriculture, and some primitive form of navigation ; that tlieir 
 flocks supplied the wool they wove and wore, while their herds 
 performed for them the labors of the field, and furnished them 
 the products of the dairy, which, with ground grain, made the 
 staples of their food. 
 
 Suggestions for Essay and Examination "Work. — A visit to 
 the primitive Aryans before their separation into the various Em'o- 
 pean races. The mark-moot and the New England town meeting. 
 Compare the Teutonic ideal of womanhood with our own. Reflec- 
 tions of a Teutonic prisoner of Julius Caesar on what he saw at Rome. 
 The Aryan bonds of union. 
 
 C. 11. THE CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. — OONSTANTINE TO 
 CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 This division of the imperial history at the name and date of 
 Constantine is popular rather than accurate ; although, as the 
 founder of Constantinople, he appeared to the popular mind as 
 the founder of the Eastern Empire, yet Diocletian had in realit}' 
 been the first thus to divide the Roman dominion. Led to 
 victory and converted, as he maintained, by the sign of the 
 cross, and the first of the emperors to give Christianity high 
 rank in the faiths of the Empire, Constantine has naturally been 
 considered the founder of its temporal power, although it did 
 not become the legal faith of Rome until the days of Theo- 
 dosius. But since great and stirring events and influential 
 myths have gathered about the name of Constantine, and since 
 the great changes attributed to him did in reality receive from 
 him their greatest impetus, it has seemed best for the purposes 
 of a popular text-book to take advantage of the popular 
 tendency to link the great events of an age with its greatest 
 name. 
 
 After 476 no more attention is paid to the Eastern Empire 
 than is necessary in order thoroughly to understand the general 
 
CHRISTIAN EMPIRE UNDER ROMAN CONTROL. 69 
 
 history of Europe ; for, from that time, it follows its inevitable 
 tendency to become an Oriental state, tempered and colored bv 
 the Greek culture. 
 
 II. A. THE OHEISTIAN EMPIEE UTOEE EOMAN OONTEOL. 
 
 The studies on pp. 231-250, inclusive, may be summarized 
 as follows : — 
 
 CHRISTIAN EMPIRE. — CONST ANTINE TO ODOVAKER AND 
 THEODORIC. 
 
 Organization of State : Oriental despotisin. 
 Centred 
 
 at Rome and Constantinople, 
 in persons of ijie emperors. 
 Supported by 
 
 forced taxes, 
 barbarian armies. 
 
 favor of privileged, powerful classes, — 
 officials, 
 soldiers, 
 clergy. 
 Organization of Church : Parallel to, and united with that of the state. 
 Centred 
 
 at Rome and Constantinople, 
 in hands of bishops and emperors. 
 Based on and supported by 
 
 the belief and trust of men. 
 conversion of barbarian masses. 
 Goths. 
 Visigoths. 
 Irish, 
 imperial edicts ^ (suppression of Paganism), 
 favor of the poor, oppressed, neglected majority. 
 
 1 As Pontifex Maximus, the emperor was naturally regarded as the legal 
 and temporal head of the church. 
 
70 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 Christian Empire. — Continued. 
 Marked by 
 
 internal unity, resulting from 
 suppression of heresy, 
 orthodox standard of faith, — 
 Council of Nice, 325 a.d. 
 acquirement by bishops of 
 privilege, 
 wealth. 
 
 judicial power, 
 spirit and forms of democracy. 
 Characteristics of Period: 
 
 Growth of Teutonic power 
 caused by 
 
 constitution of armies, composed of and officered 
 
 by barbarians, 
 settlement of Teutons as laborers, and owners of 
 imperial soil in Gaul, Italy, Spain, and the 
 lands of the Danube, 
 culminating in so-called " Fall of Western Empire." 
 shaped by Roman influence in 
 
 religious organization and faith, 
 military and political organization, 
 ideals (see speech of Adolphus, p. 249). 
 Pervading influence and power of Christianity, 
 seen in 
 
 organization. 
 
 persecution of Paganism. 
 
 law. 
 
 predominant taste for religious literature. 
 
 Arian controversy.^ 
 
 1 The intensity with whicli men were interested in theology is best seen 
 in that large fact of the irreconcilable hostility of the Arian barbarian 
 and the orthodox provincial. That this hostility was primarily religious 
 is proved by the fact that in Gaul, during the next period, the orthodox 
 barbarian Franks easily mingled witli tlie ortliodox provincials. This vio- 
 lent hostility thoroughly justified to the men of that time the attempts of 
 emperors and councils to enforce that unity of belief which meant both 
 peace and power. Compare with the feeling often roused in modern times 
 between Protestants and Catholics, 
 
CHRISTIAN EMPIRE UNDER ROMAN CONTROL. 71 
 
 the new saint-ideal, resulting in monastic organiza- 
 tion. 
 new materials (biblical and religious), in 
 art and literature.^ 
 mingled with pagan and heathen ideas, 
 employed to 
 
 humanize law. 
 
 modify absolutism (Theodosius and Ambrose), 
 protect the poor and oppressed. 
 Intellectual leadership of East, 
 seen in 
 
 predominating proportion of literary centres, — 
 Alexandria, Athens. 
 Antioch, Caesarea. 
 origin of literary men. 
 origin of monastic ideal and of heresies. 
 Moral decay of Kome, 
 seen in 
 
 imperial absolutism (see laws), 
 corruption (bribery) and extravagance of courts ; .*. 
 corruption and extravagance of fashionable life, 
 servility, superstition, idleness, 
 gluttony and luxury, 
 resulting in 
 
 hatred of Rome by her own subjects, 
 oppression of over-taxed provinces. 
 
 All the facts of this obscure but most important period 
 clustered about three centres, — the church, the Empire, and 
 the barbarians. These three centres were, however, connected 
 in vital relations. The church and the barbarians took to 
 themselves all that'was yet alive and of worth in the decaying 
 Empire. Her intellectual and moral energy passed to the 
 church ; her military and political power to the barbarians ; 
 
 1 Although in its beginnings Christian art could claim neither beauty 
 nor truth, it was nevertheless original in its materials and impulses. In 
 this originality lay the promise of the new development and inspiration 
 which was to culminate in Raphael and Michael Augelo. 
 
72 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 this receives fine illusti'ation from the fact that in the fourth 
 and fifth centuries of her history, the great names were either 
 those of bishops and popes, or those of war-chiefs and generals. 
 The bishops and popes belonged to the civilized provincials, 
 while the generals and war-chiefs were pure barbarian leaders.^ 
 This one fact shows how the force of the Empire, leaving its 
 old forms, deadened by despotism, and its old populations, 
 spoiled and lielpless through luxury and moral decay, was 
 urging its way into fresh forms and among new peoples. 
 
 So long as the Empire had appeared to rule for the greatest 
 benefit of the greatest number, the sting of despotism was con- 
 cealed ; but in the fifth century it was, in the sight of all men, 
 an organization managed in behalf of the ease, wealth, power, 
 and pleasure of the emperor and his officials. In this regard, 
 it was a striking contrast to the Athens of Pericles, or to Punic 
 Rome, where the state was organized in behalf of the whole 
 body of citizens. This contrast was still further heightened b}' 
 the fact that it was precisely on the whole body of citizens that 
 the burdens of government fell; the " curiales," the " decuri- 
 ons," the free, but untitled citizens of Rome were just those 
 whom she deprived of arms for self-defense, and from whom 
 she extorted the taxes demanded to support the pomp and waste 
 of four courts, and the establishments of countless officials, to 
 say nothing of the justifiable charges of a goverament defending 
 an enormous frontier b}' professional troops. 
 
 When the imperial government became so thoroughly a 
 matter of routine, its excellence still depended partly on the 
 personal character of the emperor, but more on his power to 
 select men fit to serve him as generals, secretaries, judges, 
 since by these subordinates the business of the Empire was 
 chiefly done. 
 
 1 Yet it is interesting to note, that on the military greatness of the bar- 
 barian, Rome depended for her strength ; while the intellectual and moral 
 superiority of the Roman bishops was to spread civilization through the 
 wider barbarian world. 
 
CHRISTIAN EMPIRE UNDER ROMAN CONTROL. 73 
 
 So long as her soldiers remained true and obedient, and her 
 lands productive, the Empire could hardly perish ; since, with 
 money and troops, with the favor of the bishops who led opin- 
 ion and of the officials who executed law, it possessed essential 
 strength. But as her soldiery was drawn more and more from 
 barbarian peoples, and so became less and less in sympathy with 
 the habits and ideas of the Empire, and as, by slave-culture, 
 absentee landlords, and a constantly increasing tax-pressure, 
 the utility of her lands was gradually destroyed, the change of 
 476 was inevitable. 
 
 The teacher must not allow the popular ideas of the ' ' Fall of 
 the Roman Empire " to influence him too strongly in his views 
 of this change, which was in its reality a change in the propor- 
 tions of population, and a shifting of power rather than a con- 
 quest. As soldiers and as laborers, the barbarians had long been 
 entering the Empire, until, at 476, they composed the better and 
 stronger part of her fighting and working people. For, as the 
 love of leisure and pleasure had rendered the arduous labors 
 of the camp distasteful to the Romans, these had fallen natu- 
 rally to great warrior bands, who gladly entered a service so 
 congenial to their love of warfare. So soon, however, as the 
 strength of conscious organization was felt by armies practi- 
 cally barbarian, they naturally demanded recognized place and 
 power in the Roman territory and among Roman officials, nor 
 was there any force to withstand them. Although, in reality-, 
 political as well as military power had now passed into the 
 hands of the Teutons, and the leadership of Western Europe 
 was acknowledged to be theirs, still to a contemporary Roman 
 this change could not have seemed so profound or startling as 
 we now know it to have been ; he would have stated the superfi- 
 cial apparent fact that through the weakness of the western gov- 
 ernment and the influence of the soldiery of Odovaker, both parts 
 of the Empire were again united under the eastern emperor, 
 who had now commissioned barbarian generals not only with 
 the command of the legions, but also with the political manage- 
 ment of the western provinces. By the provincials, indeed, 
 
74 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 such a change could not have been greatly deplored, since the 
 Empire had become their oppressor rather than protector, and 
 since, according to Salvian, at least (p. 248), many of them 
 had already expressed their preference for barbarian rule. 
 
 In all this, Rome but reaped as she had sown. The new 
 ideals of life and morals, which entered Rome in the first 
 century b.c, naturally culminated in such a picture as that 
 drawn by Ammianus (p. 244) , and in the transfer of her power 
 to the monk and the barbarian ; in other words, to men whose 
 ideal was the self-denying saint, or the warrior who could die 
 on the hard- fought field. 
 
 Nevertheless, Rome had so long mastered the civilized world 
 with law and the barbarian hordes with fear, that even in the 
 midst of the weak confusion of the fifth century she seemed to 
 the church the earthly prototype of the *'City of God," while 
 barbarian ambition looked to her as the shining centre of the 
 world, the proudest source whence it could win its titles of com- 
 mand. This name that had gathered to itself for more than a 
 thousand years all that the world contained of strength and 
 beauty and order, did not easily lose its deeply rooted power ; 
 a power that must be reckoned with at least to the days of 
 Charlemagne. 
 
 In considering the organization of the church, two funda- 
 mental facts must constantly be remembered ; one is, that 
 Christianity became the state faith of the Empire, the historical 
 successor of Paganism.^ The old temples were turned into 
 churches ; state privileges and revenues passed from the old 
 orders of priests to the new ; the whole organized framework 
 of the Empire, with its central powers at Rome or Constanti- 
 
 1 The extract given from the "City of God," p. 246, gives a curious 
 illustration of the fact that, to the men of the fourth century, not only had 
 one church and belief displaced another, but that actual supernatural 
 powers, strong to work mischief to men, — deified evil spirits, in fact, — had 
 been overthrown by the one true, beneficent God. Men no longer wor- 
 shipped these old gods, but they still believed in them and feared them ai 
 devils and demons. 
 
CHRISTIAN EMPIRE UNDER ROMAN CONTROL. 75 
 
 nople, with its municipalities acting as mediators between the 
 provinces and the emperor, with its imperial Pontifex Maximus, 
 with its network of roads and posts, became the framework of 
 the church ; from this point of view, the church appeared like 
 a centralized hierarchy. But this other fact must always be 
 remembered, that the strong officials of the church, the bishops, 
 owed their power to popular elections, so that the government 
 of the church might be described as a democracy, acting through 
 a strongly organized centralization. 
 
 That Rome should become a more strongly pronounced centre 
 than Constantinople is not surprising when we notice that 
 Rorfie had not a single powerful, long-established cit}' in the 
 west as her rival, unless we except Carthage, while Constanti- 
 nople was the child of yesterday to Antioch, Alexandria, or 
 Damascus. Again, the power of the emperors after Constan- 
 tine more decidedly centred at the eastern than the western 
 capital ; hence the power of the Roman bishop, left uutram- 
 meled by the imperial presence, grew more freely and strongly 
 than that of the bishop of Constantinople ; and again, the name 
 of Rome carried with it through all the West a power of mighty 
 and ancient tradition, in which the " New Rome," Constanti- 
 nople, was entirely wanting. 
 
 Suggestions for Essay and Examination Work. — Complaint 
 of a decurion. The power of the church at 476 a.d. compared with 
 that of the Empire. Constantine and Julian. The political value of 
 a fixed creed. Famous barbarians of the later empire. What had 
 the barbarian to give to the Empire ? Journal of a Roman Christian, 
 ransomed by St. Ambrose from the Germans beyond the Rhine. 
 St. Anthony. What resemblances between the saint-ideal of the 
 fourth and fifth centuries and the warrior-ideal ? The conquests of 
 the church. Private reflections of Claudian on his patron Stilicho. 
 Compare life at Rome, in the days of Ammianus, with that in the 
 days of Cincinnatus. 
 
76 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 II. BandC. THE WEST UNDER BAKBAEIAN OONTKOL; 
 EMPIKE or OHARLEMAaNE. 
 
 Summarize the studies, pp. 250-285, somewhat as follows : — 
 
 CHRISTIAN EMPIRE, 470-814. — ODOVAKER- CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 Organization of State, 476-800 a.d. 
 
 In East : Oriental despotism, centred at Constantinople. 
 In West : Delegation or abandonment of imperial power to 
 bishops of Rome. 
 
 barbarian kings and generals in Spain, France, Italy, 
 Britain, Africa.^ 
 Organization of State under Charlemagne. 
 
 Restoration of name and style of Western emperors. 
 Union of spiritual and temporal powers of pope and emperor in 
 " Holy Roman Empire." '^ 
 Organization of Church. 
 
 Development of centralized papal power. 
 Development of monasticism {Benedictine order). 
 Characteristics of Period in the Empire. 
 Growing separation of East and West.^ 
 
 1 Ahhough this power was a delegated one, the barbarian leaders, as gen- 
 erals of well-disciplined forces, held the actual military power of Europe ; 
 while, as titled officers of the Empire, they gained the traditional power of 
 its name; add to this that they were generally the chosen or hereditary 
 native commanders of their armies. 
 
 2 The mosaic of St. John, in Lateran (p. 275), shows pictorially the fun- 
 damental ideas that underlay this Holy Roman Empire. By their size and 
 relative position pope and emperor appear as equals, inferior to their Lord 
 Christ, from whom they take their different powers as his delegates on 
 earth. The account of the "Crowning of Charlemagne " a<;ain (p. 274), 
 clearly shows that to himself and the men of his day Charlemagne was the 
 '•anointed of the Lord," and the source of his power divine, like that of 
 the warrior-kings of Israel. 
 
 ^ After the Mohammedan conquests we find Islam dividing, like the 
 Roman Empire, into an eastern and a western part. Is it not possible that 
 the old differences thus made themselves once more felt ? 
 
THE WEST UNDER BAliBARIAN CONTROL. 77 
 
 Favored by 
 I difference in language ^ and culture. 
 
 inability of East to hold and govern the West ; .*. 
 imperial abandonment of Rome to ecclesiastic and 
 barbarian control. 
 Culminating in 
 
 crowning of Charlemagne by pope, 800. 
 Predominance of ecclesiastical power in the West. 
 Caused or favored by 
 
 imperial weakness and neglect, 
 conversion of barbarians ^ (" conquests of Christian 
 Emjjire"), — 
 Goths. 
 
 Vandals. ^ 
 
 Irish. 
 Franks. 
 Burgundians. 
 Saxons in England. 
 Saxons in Germany (Charlemagne). 
 Scotch, 
 protective attitude of church toward poor and 
 
 oppressed, 
 monopoly of Roman civilization, centred in 
 monasteries. 
 Resulting or appearing in 
 
 temporal power of popes and bishops, — 
 political, 
 military, 
 legal and judicial. 
 
 1 Although modern languages began to assert themselves, still Latin 
 was the tongue of the thinking and governing classes and the language of 
 literature. 
 
 2 It is not generally sufficiently insisted upon that while the "barbari- 
 ans " overran the Empire, Christianity almost at once permeated the bar- 
 barians, thus subjecting the strongest peoples of Europe to the religious 
 organization and faith of the later Empire ; this subjection was aided by 
 the impression which the Roman Empire and the Roman church still made 
 upon the barbarians through its splendor, wealth, and titles (see p. 273, 
 Conversion of Clovis). 
 
78 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 Christian Empire. — Continued. 
 
 development of asceticism, embodied Jn monas- 
 tic organization, — 
 
 idealizing self-denial and benevolwnce. 
 opposing violence and selfishness^ 
 encouraging labor and learning. 
 union of West in 
 faith, 
 language, 
 law. 
 
 ideals (monastic, saintly), 
 religious character of intellectual interests, 
 civilizing influences (largely monastic) ia direc- 
 tion of 
 
 literature (chiefly monkish history and lit- 
 erature), 
 music.i 
 
 law (humanizing it), 
 industrial and decorative arts, science, 
 morality and humanity, 
 agriculture. 
 Hindered by 
 
 mixture and corruption of Christianity by 
 paganism (demonology), and heresy, 
 misunderstanding of its teachings {Clovis). 
 Culminating in establishment of 
 "Holy Roman Empire." 
 Romanizing of the Teuton in 
 religion — Christianity, 
 language and literature, 
 law. 
 
 military tactics. 
 
 agriculture and industry (monasteries). 
 Provincial confusion and misery. 
 Caused by 
 
 weak government. 
 
 barbarian attack, invasion, and change. 
 
 1 It will be noted that music, painting and the arts of decoration owe 
 their modern impulse to the mcdiseval clmrch. 
 
THE WEST TJNDEU BARBARIAN CONTROL. 79 
 
 Saracenic invasion. 
 
 prevalence of personal rather than territorial law.i 
 Resulting in 
 
 weakness of art and literature. 
 
 corruption of Lathi (begins to change to French, 
 
 Italian, Spanish), 
 strengthening of Teutonic provincial governments. 
 Growth of vital power in West, seen in 
 
 production of great men (bishops and warriors), 
 military and political vigor of the Teuton, 2 culminating 
 
 in Charlemagne, 
 appearance of Western tongues in literature, — 
 English ^ 
 
 French > indicating 
 Irish ) 
 intellectual advance of peoples, 
 attempts at legal order. 
 Rapid growth of Mohammedan faith and empire. 
 Caused or favored by 
 
 simplicity of belief. 
 
 heretical disaffection of Egypt and Syria toward 
 Constantinople.^ 
 Resulting in 
 
 imperial loss of 
 
 Syria, — Damascus, Antioch. 
 Egypt, — Memphis (Cairo), Thebes. 
 Africa. Carthage. 
 Checked by Spain. 
 
 orthodox defenders, — 
 
 Leo at Constantinople. 
 Charles Martel at Touks. 
 
 1 According to personal law, a man is judged by the law of his own 
 people, wherever he may be ; according to territorial law, he is judged by 
 the law of the land in which he dwells, no matter whence he came. 
 
 2 This vigor had a double source, — the unbroken, warlike tastes of the 
 Teuton and his heritage of Roman military tactics. 
 
 ^ Compare the cases of Africa and Spain, which had been or were still 
 under the power of Arians, who could easily accept the bare monotheism 
 of Mohammed, 
 
80 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 The points made from study to study in regard to Moham- 
 medanism had better be tabulated, as far as possible, by them- 
 selves, in order to preserve unity of view. The following is 
 offered as suggestive : — 
 
 THE SARACENS. 
 Conquests, Religious. 
 Government, Despotic Theocracy (Omar, Haroun ; see relation of 
 
 palace and mosque, p. 281). 
 Religious Doctrines. 
 Monotheism. 
 Divine inspiration 
 
 of prophets, — Moses, Christ, Mohammed. 
 of Koran, — revealed to Mohammed. 
 Fore-ordained necessity of all events (fatalism ).i 
 Immortality of the soul. 
 
 Future rewards and punishments (of material sort).^ 
 Religious Duties. 
 
 Prayer, fasting. 
 Alms-giving, pilgrimage. 
 
 Moral life according to Moslem standards, which 
 allows polygamy, .-. 
 produces subjection of women, modified by 
 
 natural and religious feeling, 
 condemns drunkenness and gaming, 
 condemns cruelty to animals, 
 preaches charity,^ faithfulness, justice, resignation. 
 Civilization, at first simple, pastoral, and religious (Omar), becomes 
 highly artistic, scientific, and material (Haroun-al-Raschid), 
 Centering at* 
 
 Bagdad. Cairo. 
 
 Damascus. Cordova. 
 
 1 To these doctrines are generally ascribed a good part of tlie lighting 
 energy of the Saracenic forces. 
 
 2 The practical effect of this morality may be seen in the moderate 
 treatment of Eastern Christians (see pp. 279, 280). 
 
 * Note also the Mohammedan possession of Antioch and Alexandria, 
 and of Assyria, Egypt, and Persia, with their old civilized centres. 
 
THE WEST UNDER BARBARIAN CONTROL. 81 
 
 Developing 
 
 Moorish architecture and ornament, — 
 
 horseshoe arch, dome (compare St. Sophia). 
 
 minaret (spire), arabesque.^ 
 
 trefoil and quatrefoil. 
 scientific study of 
 
 mathematics.2 
 
 astronomy. 2 
 
 medicine.2 
 
 philosophy (Aristotle), 
 commercial intercourse of East and West, 
 industrial and agricultural activity ; weaving, embroidery, 
 
 metal-work, pottery, dyeing, inlaid work in wood 
 
 and marble, horticulture, leather work (Morocco), 
 
 manufacture of figured silk (damask). 
 Springing from 
 
 Greek and Oriental sources. 
 
 Two things beyond all others marked this age. The first 
 was the pervading and progressive power of religion ; in the 
 West, the church predominated as a political and legal as well 
 as an intellectual and moral influence ; in the East, political 
 differences were confirmed by heresies, until at last all were 
 alike swept away by the irresistible tide of Mohammedanism 
 and its simple monotheistic faith. The second thing was the 
 mixture of influences produced by the constant mixture of 
 peoples ; the church gave to the barbarian the civilization as 
 well as the faith of Rome, and her monks, travelling as mission- 
 aries or envoys, from end to end of Europe, did much to create 
 
 1 The beauty of the arabesque, and of Moorish work in general, de- 
 pends not only on the skilful and intricate mingling of symmetrical 
 mathematical forms, but also upon delicate and brilliant combinations of 
 color ; the former quality pleasing the mind, and the latter the sense. The 
 strict observance of the second commandment having prevented any 
 development of sculpture or figure painting, the whole artistic talent of 
 the Moors was turned to the lesser arts of pure decoration, in which, per- 
 haps, they have never been excelled. 
 
 2 Compare the Alexandrian civilization. 
 
82 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 a united Christendom ; of these monks, there is no better type 
 than Theodore of Tarsus, a Greek, sent by the Roman bishop 
 to found the English Canterbury (p. 262). While the church 
 penetrated the wilderness, the peoples of the wilderness con- 
 stantl}' penetrated the Empire ; invasion, settlement, conversion, 
 mingled old and new, culture and barbarism, good and evil ; 
 the church alone being fixed, little by little mastered the con- 
 fusion. Perhaps no one thing better showed the varied influ- 
 ences of the time than AVestern law, which based itself alike on 
 the written codes of Rome and on Teutonic custom, while both 
 were modified by the ever-present advice and aid of the 
 bishops. 
 
 In the East, on the other hand, Islam was the mingling power, 
 which carried rude pastoral tribes into ancient and highly 
 civilized lands, whose finest culture they made their own, though 
 ''with a difference," and whence they conveyed it to the 
 farthest West, which was still inferior to the East in all material 
 and artistic ways.^ 
 
 In the West, the crowning of Charlemagne was the culmina- 
 tion of the growing separation of the East and the West, of the 
 developing temporal power of the Western church, and of the 
 actual Teutonic as opposed to the nominal imperial rule ; for 
 although the name of Roman emperor was heard again in the 
 West, still the " Holy Roman Empire" embodied a revolt, and 
 Charlemagne's title was usurped ; the new Empire covered new 
 territories unknown to Roman rule, embraced the heart of 
 modern Europe with the Rhine vallc}' for its centre, comprised 
 new populations and tongues, held its power as the temporal 
 arm of the church, and as a gift from its spiritual head. In 
 
 ^ Historians often contend that the Moors had no original civilization, 
 since they took their architectural and decorative " motives " from Con- 
 stantinople, Damascus, or Persia, their science from Alexandria and Syria, 
 their philosophy from Aristotle. Without insisting on a decision, it may 
 be noted that they so advanced or modified or mingled what they took, 
 that they left upon it such a distinctive mark of character as to demand a 
 separate name for what is Moorish or Arabian. 
 
THE WEST UNDEK BARBARIAN CONTROL. 83 
 
 spite of these fuudamental differeuces, the tradition of Rome 
 was still so strong as to force her name on any ruler who could 
 pretend to hold the West together ; hence the value of receiving 
 the imperial title from the Bishop of Rome, the only man left 
 in Europe, except the Eastern emperor, who could be said to 
 represent in historic line the authority of the ancient Empire ; 
 thus received, too, the imperial title gained the sanction of 
 religion, and the Empire could, as "Holy," claim the alliance of 
 all Christendom ; from this time on, the names of Roman and 
 Christian were synonymous in the West, and from this point of 
 view we see the necessity which Charlemagne felt of convert- 
 ing the Saxons before incorporating them into his empire. 
 
 Although artistic, poetic, or pure intellectual genius was rare 
 in this period, the fact was probably due to the circumstances 
 of obscurity and confusion, which marked the time, since of 
 greatness there was no lack, but it was a greatness that dis- 
 played itself in action, feeling, and character rather than in 
 vision. Nevertheless, I have chosen the motto on p. 228, be- 
 cause, in spite of the clang and movement of the age, its real 
 strength lay in quiet, germinal, partly unconscious powers, 
 moving like leaven amid the troubled mass. 
 
 Suggestions for Essay and Examination Work. — " And after 
 the fire, a still small voice." Clovis, patrician of Rome. What causes 
 made the way of the Mohammedan conquests into the Empire compara- 
 tively easy ? The strength of the pope. The visit of St. Augustine 
 to Britain. Comparison of Augustus, emperor, with Charlemagne, 
 emperor. Was the so-called " conversion " of the Saxons justifiable ? 
 (Debate.) Why should Pope Gregory be called " Great " ? Reasons 
 why a Goth became a Benedictine monk. Visit to Monte Cassino. 
 Why should Justinian be the most famous emperor of this period? 
 The Mohammedan bonds of union. The character of Omar. Journey 
 of Theodore of Tarsus to England. The court of Charlemagne. Why 
 should Charlemagne become the hero of western Europe? Compare 
 Omar and Haroun-al-Raschid. 
 
84 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 EUROPEAN HISTORY, 814-1880. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 Before the ninth centur}-, the centre of political interest lay 
 at Rome or Constantinople ; but with the death of Charlemagne, 
 the power of Rome began to fade, political interest began to 
 gather about various national centres and national heroes, and 
 the modern states of Europe began to appear in undefined and 
 nascent forms. Within two centuries, France, England, Ger- 
 many, Spain, and Italy were known and feared as powers. 
 From that time on, the history of Europe has presented a 
 complex, continuous development along original lines, though 
 starting from those of antiquity. For this reason, the history 
 of more than a thousand years is massed under the single title 
 of European a-s opposed to Greek and Roman history. 
 
 From the beginning through, the teacher should have well in 
 mind tlie great trends and marks of the long and complex 
 period. First, then, we have to do with constantly enlarging 
 political areas. Cities are no longer the political units of 
 history, but countries,^ and countries that grow first to their 
 full natural boundaries in Europe, and then begin to possess 
 and assimilate the lands of America, Asia, and Africa. Cities 
 still exist, not as rulers, but as condensed centres of the popu- 
 lation and labor of their various countries. 
 
 Not only are the units larger^ hut they differ in their origin. 
 In antiquity, the tribe, bound together by the tradition or reality 
 of a common descent, was the original unit, which grew by 
 successive adoptions of aliens. A group of related men formed 
 the historic kernel of the state. From 800 on, a parcel of land 
 possessing common interests forms this historic kernel, and 
 
 1 For this distinction I am indebted to Prof. J. R. Seeley. 
 
EUROPEAN HISTORY. 85 
 
 gradually draws its inhabitants together into the nation-unit^ 
 which holds men together by attachment to a common father- 
 land, as of old they were held together by attachment to a com- 
 mon ancestor. 
 
 A third point to be noted is the development of this unit. 
 This parcel of land, held at first by many nobles, under the 
 nominal lead of a king, is, during the mediaeval period, the 
 cause of long and hard contention between its rival claimants. 
 In the age of the Renaissance, this contention culminates in 
 the formation of strong, centralized monarchies in France, 
 England, and Spain ; while in Germany and Italy, a multitude 
 of strong cities and rival princes rise, weakening their country 
 in behalf of their separate individualities. In the modern 
 period, both phases have given place in various ways to 
 strong, united nations, tending more and more to popular 
 constitutions, with a growing tendency to make the state the 
 agent of all common service, in government, education, trans- 
 portation, and even in more radical ways. 
 
 The fourth and last point to be held in mind is that, along 
 with this development of individual nations, has gone the 
 development of a European commonwealth. By the constantly 
 increasing complex of international relations, weaving together 
 inextricably the interests of neighboring states, a Christianized, 
 European, Aryan unit has been formed as against less civilized 
 continents, held b}^ other faiths and peoples. 
 
 These four points all relate to the political development 
 of Europe; I have not thought it necessary to call special 
 attention to the other marked tendencies of the whole period, 
 such as the growth of knowledge and free thought, the devel- 
 opment of a popular material civilization, the acquisition of 
 freedom in various forms ; for while these movements are of 
 the highest importance, they are easy to see and simple to 
 understand. 
 
STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY, 
 
 A. EAELT MEDiaiVAL PERIOD. —CHARLEMAGNE TO THE 
 ORtJSADES, 814-1095. 
 
 The studies from p. 291 to p. 318 inclusive may be summa- 
 rized as follows : — 
 
 THE CIVILIZED WORLD, 814-1095. 
 
 Organizations of Period. 
 
 Feudal units (fiefs), — 
 
 bound together by 
 loyalty, 
 interest. 
 
 possession of and residence on common land. 
 forming weak monarchies in 
 France. 
 England. 
 Spain. 
 
 Italy and Germany. 
 Holy Roman Empire, — 
 
 temporal, imperial powers embodied in emperor, 
 spiritual, sacerdotal powers embodied in pope. 
 Oriental despotisms in 
 
 Byzantine Empire, 
 caliphates. 
 
 CharacteristicB of Period. 
 In feudal monarchies. 
 
 Land, basis of power, seen in 
 , change of law from personal to territorial. 
 
 service of the inferior dependent on land-grants 
 
 from the superior, 
 theory that king is the land-owner of kingdom, 
 government co-extensive with estates. 
 Growth of landed aristocracy,^ with strong class-distinc- 
 tions (great inequality). 
 
 * Curiously enough, this aristocracy has survived in its purest feudal 
 form in England, where it was at first constitutionally most subject to the 
 king (from 1066 onward). 
 
EARLY MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 87 
 
 Decentralization of power, 
 seen in 
 
 wars of feudal lords against kings, 
 control of kings by feudal lords, 
 numerous feudal units, 
 resulting in 
 
 constant petty warfare (" Truce of God ") . 
 Partial, arbitrary, and conflicting law.i 
 Insecurity of trade. 
 Loss of individual liberty. 
 In Holy Roman Empire. 
 
 Weakness of imperialism (no land). 
 
 Power based on religious faith (see imperial style and title). 
 
 Centralization of power in hands of pope, culminating in 
 
 Hildehrand. 
 Closer definition of German frontier, caused by invasion 
 and threatened invasion. 
 In Islam, 
 
 Development of extravagant Oriental courts and mon- 
 archies. 
 Growth of a scientific, material civilization, based on 
 
 Oriental and Greek culture. 
 Formation of new Mohammedan powers, — 
 Turkey in Asia. 
 Egypt. 
 In England. 
 
 Royal power strengthened by 
 
 constant foreign invasion, uniting king and barons 
 
 and people into a nation, 
 "immediate" oaths demanded by William the 
 Conqueror.2 
 Growth of English independence of continent seen in 
 literature (English). 
 
 1 Hence it often happened that in order to gain justice from a power- 
 ful baron, it was absolutely necessary to employ force against him, since 
 there was no executive strong enough to compel men to obey any general 
 law, even were such a law in existence. 
 
 2 Before the time of William the Conqueror, the thanes seem to have 
 had more constitutional power of interfering with general politics than the 
 French barons. This power they seem to have retained while the "imme- 
 diate " oaths demanded by William deprived them of absolute independence. 
 
88 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 The Civilized World. 814-1095. — Continued. 
 In general. 
 
 Great confusion 
 
 arising from 
 
 barbarian invasions and attacks from 
 Northmen in 
 
 Sicily, Italy. 
 France, England. 
 Turks and Hungarians in 
 
 Holy Roman Empire. 
 Byzantine Empire. 
 Islam, 
 feudalism, 
 causing 
 
 insecurity of trade, 
 insecurity of travel (pilgrims), 
 little intellectual and artistic life, 
 mixture of barbarism and civilization. 
 Formation of new states and powers, — 
 
 Hungary, Normandy, Austria,^ Prussia, ^ Kingdom 
 
 of Two Sicilies, in Europe. 
 Turkey 2 in Asia. 
 
 General mixture of European blood, — 
 
 in France : Roman, Kelt,^ Frank, Norman. 
 
 in England : Kelt, Saxon, Normaiv. 
 
 in Italy: Roman, Kelt, Greek, Lombard, Norman, 
 
 Arab, 
 in Spain : Kelt, Roman, Goth, Arab. 
 
 1 I have asked what would account for the long succession of strong 
 rulers in these two states ; may not the answer be found in the fact that 
 the founders of the Houses of Austria and Brandenburg were necessarily 
 the picked men of their whole generation for vigorous physique and 
 positive character ? 
 
 2 Compare the entrance of the Turks into Islam with that of the Teu- 
 tons into the Empire. In both cases the conquerors were, in turn, subdued 
 by the faith and culture of their subjects. 
 
 * It should here be noted that previous to the Roman conquests the 
 Kelts were the leading people in France, Spain, and England, while the/ 
 had a strong hold on tlie best part of Italy. 
 
EARLY MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 89 
 
 Complete separation of East and West,i — 
 
 in government: '■'■Holy Roman Empir-e." 
 in religion: " Schisjn of the Church." 
 Traces of Greek influence in West, seen in 
 literature (John Scotus). 
 architecture (St. Mark's). 
 The church strongest power in Europe, — 
 because of 
 
 unity of government (strong papacy) . 
 
 unity of language (Latin). 
 
 unity of faith (new barbarian kingdoms, 
 
 Christian), 
 possession of civilization, — 
 literature, art. 
 law, industries, 
 hold on the minds of men through fear of 
 excommunication, .*. 
 eternal damnation, 
 democratic spirit and organization 
 seen in 
 
 relation to temporal powers (see titles of 
 
 emperor and kings), 
 assumption of military and governmental 
 powers (see " Truce of God " and call to 
 the crusades), 
 prevalent impulse to pilgrimage. 
 Traces of secularization, seen in 
 
 tendencies of clergy to worldly pleasures and 
 
 occupations, 
 secular developments in literature, history, poetry, 
 
 philosophy, etc. 
 influence in temporal affairs. 
 
 1 This separation was inevitable from the first ; differences in language, 
 culture, thought, style, had long been preparing the way for differences in 
 faith and worship ; and when at last this difference became pronounced, 
 and the " Holy Roman Empire " an established fact, no bond of union any 
 longer existed between the parts of the Empire, and they broke apart as 
 naturally as the ripe fruit falls. No effort on the part of pope or emperor 
 or patriarch could any longer sustain even the name of union. 
 
90 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 The Civilized World, 814-1095. — Continued. 
 
 Tendency to revolt against the chui-ch, — 
 
 in government (Investiture quarrels), 
 in thought (John Scotus).^ 
 Spirit of church, — 
 humane, 
 democratic (offices open to all classes ; see Hilde- 
 
 brand). 
 intolerant of heresy (requiring unity), 
 reformatory, 2 — 
 
 restoration of asceticism, 
 celibacy of clergy required. 
 
 The teacher cannot be too careful to have his pupils thor- 
 oughly understand the feudal organization, since it is the great 
 secular foundation of European society and politics from the 
 days of Charlemagne onward, and onl3' began to lose its hold in 
 the latter part of the seventeenth century. Its central fact was 
 this, the union of political, military, and legal j^ower with the 
 ownership of land; the land-owner was the land-?orcZ. In theory, 
 the king was landlord over all. In need of men and money, he 
 delegated his lands, and with them his powers to subordinate 
 holders, who paid again by the use of land for service of body 
 and purse. The possession of land was the measure of military 
 and financial power ; at once, then, we see the cause of the 
 weakness of the earl}' mediaeval king as against a combination 
 of two or three strong barons ; we understand how the emperor, 
 
 1 Although both Anselm and Scotus both wished to found theology on 
 sound reason, yet when the two were in conflict, Anselm taught that reason 
 should yield to authority, while the bolder spirit of Scotus announced that 
 authority itself was "derived from reason." The letter from the poju? 
 concerning Erigena (p. 313) is interesting, as showing how thoroughly the 
 former felt responsible for the purity of the faith, and therefore claimed 
 the right to regulate European thought. 
 
 2 Of course this spirit was only felt by the strongest and best, and cul- 
 minated in Hildebrand, whose measures were the logical outcome of his 
 desire to save the churcli from the cares and burdens and pleasures of the 
 world, in order that it might more effectually rule and help the world. 
 
EARLY MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 91 
 
 gaining his title as a successor of tlie old Roman emperors, 
 whose power was supported b}' taxation, found himself in pos- 
 session of the name of ruler alone ; for the feudal theory 
 expected a sovereign "to live from his own," namely, lead his 
 own vassals to war, and gain support from his own domains. 
 The emperor, then, as emperor, had only such recognition as the 
 temper and belief of the period might accord. From this point 
 of view, we understand how important the question of investi- 
 ture was to Henry lY., and how the emperor could only pre- 
 serve imperial power in those countries where he was also king, 
 in German}" and Italy, while France was practically lost to the 
 Empire when she became an independent kingdom. 
 
 As for the effects of feudalism on libert}', equality, peace, 
 and unity, he who runs may read ; the effect on manners is 
 more questionable. Guizot, in his History of Civilization, con- 
 siders it good ; l)ut Ordericus Vitalis hardh" encourages such an 
 opinion for this age ; during this period it is not safe, perhaps, 
 to say much more than that class distinctions produce class 
 manners, and that in a society of superiors and inferiors, for- 
 malities will necessarily arise, with tendencies to condescension 
 on one side and servility on the other. 
 
 I have not called special attention in my Students' Edition to 
 the resemblances between the Teutonic warrior band and the 
 feudal unit ; the feudal lord is the chosen chief, his superior vas- 
 sals are his bravest companions, who still are bound together by 
 a common loyalty and a still stronger common interest, but whom 
 he now rewards, not, as in Caesar's day, with spear and steed, 
 but with permanent titles to land. In the feudal courts, again, 
 we see the mark-moot, but with the all-important modification, 
 that the war-leader has become a political and legal ruler, and 
 thus destroys the village democracy ; while in the feudal code of 
 justice we find each man still his own defender and avenger. 
 The teacher, however, must act his own judgment as to how far 
 he should discuss the origin of feudalism, since the facts on 
 which any theory can be built are fragmentary. 
 
 The extract given from Byrhtnoth's Death (p. 310) illustrates 
 
92 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 primitive feudalism perhaps at its best. Here we see England 
 invaded by a Danish warrior band, evidently attracted thither 
 by the comparative wealth of the land, now long settled by an 
 agricultural people. Against them is arrayed the feudal unit,^ 
 led by Byrthnoth, who adds to sure confidence in the Christian 
 faith, an English courage and determination to protect and keep 
 his own. Nor are his followers unworthy of their chief ; when 
 he is slain, they fight on as before, undismayed, while the very 
 soul of bravery speaks in Byrhtwold's noble words, "Courage 
 should be the greater, the more our forces lessen." 
 
 Although the imperial power was inferior to the royal, from 
 the feudal point of view, still the emperor held the power of the 
 Roman name, a name which yet stood for the mightiest empire 
 men had known, and for the language, law, and learning of the 
 West ; again, he held the power of the Christian name, and as 
 "Protector of the Catholic Faith" could demand the service 
 and homage of all Christian men. In this latter regard, how- 
 ever, he was the inferior of the pope, who was proved to be the 
 strongest force in the Empire by the bitter strife of Hildebrand 
 and Henry. How thoroughly the Empire was regarded as a sort 
 of "church militant" is shown by the imperial title, which 
 clearly marks the imperial office as that of a general of the 
 faith, and by the fact that new peoples could only enter the 
 Empire by acknowledging themselves the subjects of the church.^ 
 While the church claimed a peculiar right to the imperial ser- 
 vice, still in the call to the crusades the popes claimed a right 
 to the arms of all Christendom in defense of the Christian faith, 
 a claim which was not denied though often neglected. In fact, 
 the boundary of civilized Europe was one with the boundary of 
 Christian Europe. Throughout Europe the church was still the 
 
 1 Note the traces of Teutonic organization in this unit ; the loyalty to a 
 loved chief ; the kinship bond ; the duty of vengeance. 
 
 2 Compare the case of Normans in France, who were, like the Hungari- 
 ans, allowed to settle on condition of accepting Christianity. The weak- 
 ness of civilized Europe is indicated by the fact that in both cases the 
 invaders seize and hold most desirable territory. 
 
EARLY MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 93 
 
 prime civilizer ; the monasteries were still the centres of learn- 
 ing and authorship ; Gerbert gave an impulse to science and 
 mechanical industry ; the archbishops taught and advised the 
 monarchs ; as new peoples were assimilated, they were per- 
 suaded to the habits as well as the creed of Christianity; thus 
 in Bulgaria we see the church opposing polygamy, superstition, 
 and cruelty. 
 
 Although there is little that is striking in the intellectual life 
 of this age, there is much that is significant, since tendencies 
 then began which culminated only in the Renaissance ; the 
 Greek influence entered the West ; the courts of England and 
 France became intellectual centres ; in England, France, and 
 Spain national subjects or national languages appeared in liter- 
 ature, and Italy already began to gain artistic and scientific 
 leadership. Europe, however, was still too harassed by inva- 
 sion, too confused by feudalism, to permit of great results in 
 scholarship or thought ; her greatest names were still of warlike 
 kings and chiefs, among whom the Normans appeared pre- 
 eminent. 
 
 Attention should be called to the fact that the Moorish civili- 
 zation, which culminated in this age, was developed along lines 
 marked out from the first. The Arabs were the latest heirs of 
 the wisdom of the East as modified by the Alexandrian influ- 
 ences ; they were the mediaeval authorities in astronomy, 
 medicine, mathematics, and the Aristotelian philosophy ; but 
 their own authorities were confessedly Ptolemy, Galen, Hippo- 
 crates, Euclid, and Aristotle. 
 
 It is of the greatest interest to note how, in St. Mark's and 
 the Ducal Palace all influences built themselves in marble ; 
 Greek and Oriental columns, Roman and Gothic arches, Orien- 
 tal domes, Moorish ornament and color, all combined into a 
 new beauty, neither Gothic, classic, nor Oriental, but Venetian, 
 a beauty rich in detail and daring in cosmopolitan combination. 
 
 Suggestions for Essay and Examination Work. — The political 
 power of a belief or myth, as illustrated by the " Holy Roman Em- 
 pire." The " Marches " of the Empire. Of what use was the short- 
 
94 STUDIES IN GENERAI^ HISTORY. 
 
 lived empire of Charlemagne? The influence of foreign invasion or 
 attack upon internal unity, as illustrated in the English and German 
 history of this age. How a baron spent the day, 900 a.d. Same of a 
 serf; a bishop; a king. What were the elements of Otto's power? 
 What progress has been made by the barbarians during this age? 
 The losses of Constantinople. Alfred the Great and Charlemagne. 
 The Norman war-chiefs. A group at Charlemagne's court. What 
 characters of the period had lives that deserve the terra "romantic"? 
 Life in Normandy, 1000 a.d. The nobility of the age. Journal of 
 Greek sent on an embassy to Bagdad. Gerbert in Spain. 
 
 B. STUDY ON ORUSADING PERIOD. 
 
 This study should be opened by a class conversation along 
 the lines indicated by the questions on p. 318. The word 
 *' divisions," in the first of these questions, refers to the feudal 
 divisions indicated on the map, and named in the key, in the 
 upper left-hand corner ; the most casual glance at them will 
 show how feudalism had cut Western Europe into many 
 petty little states, without specially natural boundaries ; nor 
 will the teacher, perhaps, find a more suitable time than this in 
 which to call attention to the natural boundaries of the various 
 European states, and to the fact that countries like England, 
 Spain, Italy, and France, become more quickly consolidated 
 and defined than countries like Germany, which has no well- 
 defined natural barrier eastward, and so must depend the more 
 on fortresses and arms. 
 
 If the teacher find himself behindhand with his work, but has 
 been thorough with the precediug period, he may pass over this 
 study very sketchily and hastily, since much of the work consists 
 in the application to new circumstances of tendencies and organ- 
 izations with which the student is already familiar. But enough 
 attention must be given so that the relation of the crusades to 
 the earlier and later mediaival period ma}- not be missed. As 
 the Persian wars were to Greece, and the Punic wars to Rome, 
 
STUDY ON CRUSADING PERIOD. 95 
 
 SO were the crusades to mediaeval Europe, — an enlarging, enliv- 
 ening movement, which brought young peoples into contact with 
 ancient civilizations. 
 
 Throughout his study the student should be encouraged to 
 summarize his own results as far as possible. But this sort of 
 work is rather difficult, and, with most classes, the teacher will 
 find it well to watch his opportunity to give practice on easily 
 classified material, such as the crusades furnish. He may ask 
 his pupils to tabulate their work on the crusades, under the 
 following heads : Comparison of Antagonists, Causes and 
 Motives, Leaders and Instigators, Routes, Leading Events, 
 Results, Uses and Effects. The results reached by the study 
 on the whole period, however, will need a longer and more 
 complex summary ; the following may serve as a guide : — 
 
 CRUSADING PERIOD. 
 
 New Organizations and States formed. 
 
 "Orders of knighthood. ^ 
 Latin ^ kingdoms of East, — 
 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 Edessa. 
 Latin ^ Empire of Constantinople. 
 Lombard League (of Italian cities) .^ 
 
 Relative Conditions of Various European Powers. 
 
 Papal and ecclesiastical power strengthening, seen in 
 leadership and direction of crusades.* 
 delegation of temporal power to ecclesiastics by crusa- 
 ders. 
 
 1 Those points marked " a " are expected to be obtained from the mate- 
 rial, pp. 325-329. 
 
 2 The use of this adjective "Latin" in connection with these new Eastern 
 states is an incidental proof of the way in which the men of the West 
 were still regarded as belonging to the Latin half of the Roman Empire, 
 
 ^ Notable as the first important example of these city-leagues, so influ- 
 ential in the later mediaeval history of the Empire. 
 
 * This leadership gave the pope, for the time being, command of new 
 material forces of men and money. 
 
96 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 Crusading Period. — Continued. 
 
 •' Concordat of Worms," and other papal victories in 
 
 Germany, 
 interference in temporal affairs, as in 
 conquest of Ireland. 
 
 quarrel of John of England with his barons, 
 "continued monopoly of art and literature. 
 Imperial power weakening, seen in 
 " Concordat of Worms." 
 new and successful opposition of cities, — 
 Italy. 
 Germany, 
 battle of Bouvines. 
 Royal power strengthening in France, ^ through 
 
 union of king and people against barons (note Bouvines). 
 acquisition of new land by king.^ 
 Development of municipal power, seen in 
 
 successful strife of cities with emperor, 
 burgher victory of Bouvines. 
 
 Characteristics of Age. 
 
 French leadership in crusades.^ 
 
 Uneasiness under papal and ecclesiastical rule, seen in 
 
 strife of Guelph and Ghibelin. 
 
 attempt of Arnold of Brescia. 
 
 ^ The royal power was also growing stronger in England, but not so 
 evidently, since what had been gained against the pope and barons by 
 preceding kings, was temporarily lost by John. 
 
 2 Normandy would, in any case, have finally come to France, to w^hich 
 it naturally belonged, both by geographical position, and by unity of 
 speech and general civilization. 
 
 ^ The French became the natural leaders of the crusades, because 
 there was no serious disaffection in France against the pope, such as had 
 been developed in Germany by the investiture quarrels ; moreover, the 
 French were the oldest and most securely Christianized people of the 
 West, not even excepting Italy, since the Normans in the South, and the 
 Lombards in the North, were later acquisitions to the faith than the war- 
 riors of Clovis. The fact of their predominance in the crusades finds an 
 interesting confirmation in the Eastern use of the name " Frank " for all 
 Europeans. 
 
STUDY ON CRUSADING PERIOD. 97 
 
 investiture quarrels in 
 Germany. 
 France. 
 England, 
 heresies of Southern France, — 
 Albigenses; Waldenses. 
 affair of Thomas Beket. 
 Gradual loss of crusading energy, 
 seen in 
 
 indifferent or irrelevant results of later crusades, 
 greater inducements offered to later crusaders (see 
 
 p. 332). 
 doubt felt at Antioch. 
 caused by 
 
 ill success in East. 
 
 growing acquaintance with dangers and difficul- 
 ties of undertaking, 
 loss of horror for the Infidel. 
 Constant contact of Greek, Oriental (^Moorish), and Latin 
 
 civilizations. 
 "Growth of intellectual energy, 
 "centering at 
 
 Paris (Abelard). 
 Cordova (Averroes). 
 Bologna, 
 monasteries, 
 "seen in 
 
 widening circle of intellectual interest,— 
 theology, 
 law. 
 
 medicine, 
 philosophy, 
 history, 
 growth of French as a literary language. 
 
 Tendencies of Crusading. 
 
 To weaken feudalism through 
 
 unredeemed mortgages on feudal land, 
 
 destruction of knights in crusades, .*. 
 
 relative weakness of noble class in numbers, tending 
 
98 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 Crusading Period. — Continued. 
 To strengthen 
 
 kings. 
 
 cities. 
 
 church (increasing its property by mortgaged or deeded 
 lands of crusaders). 
 To create new routes and demands for trade. 
 To increase knowledge, — 
 
 geographical. 
 
 commercial and industrial. 
 
 historical. 
 To introduce Oriental products and luxuries to the West. 
 To increase respect for and value of industrial pursuits and 
 
 artisan class. 
 
 If the teacher choose, he may add still another heading, 
 Effects of Crusading ; ,this, however, can only be filled out 
 after the student has done the work on the later mediaeval 
 period. (See p. Ill of this manual.) 
 
 On comparing the West and the East at the opening of the 
 crusades, it is easy to see that the West was comparatively still 
 uncivilized ; in the military art, the siege of Antioch had much 
 to teach the crusaders, who were as yet unaccustomed to invest 
 walled cities ; in comparing the various captures of Jerusalem 
 by Omar, by the first crusaders, and by Saladin, the Moslems 
 are seen to be the more humane ; ^ while the impressions of the 
 astonished crusaders show how unaccustomed they were to the 
 aspect of cultivated lands, and of cities strongl^'-built and 
 adorned with the beauties of art. 
 
 From this astonishment the Venetians were exempt, accus- 
 tomed as they were to trade eastward ; to them, the crusades 
 gave a chance for a great speculation, from which they gained 
 
 1 Some excuse may be found for the crusaders in the general hostility 
 of all Christians against the Jews, as being the people at whose hands 
 Christ suffered death. It was evidently the belief of many of the first 
 crusaders that it was a part of their duty to massacre tliese unfortunate 
 people, wherever found. 
 
STUDY ON CRUSADING PERIOD. 99 
 
 not only new wealth and territory, but also a chance to plunder 
 from Constantinople some of those " monuments" whose value 
 they understood somewhat better than did their rude compan- 
 ions. It is significant of their long trading habits that they fur- 
 nished neither men, money, nor ships, " for the love of God," 
 without due recompense in pay or booty ; and their bargaiji 
 with the crusaders would show how considerable and wealthy a 
 power Venice had already become, even if the rich beauty of 
 St. Mark's and the Ducal Palace did not furnish material evi- 
 dence of the fact. 
 
 The whole story of Thomas Beket, to its every detail, is 
 very significant of the age; the main facts, given on p. 323, 
 show at once the legal and political influence of churchmen, 
 and the tendency of the age to revolt against this temporal 
 power where it clashed with national government and unity ; 
 while in Beket's saintship and Henry's penance we see the 
 still predominating hold of the spiritual power of Rome. But,* 
 strong as the church was growing, developing along the lines 
 marked out b}' Gregory, it is significant that the revolts against 
 her grew more frequent and daring, although, as yet, their 
 most serious effort was to check her assertion of legal and 
 political power. Intellectual revolt was still rare, and when it 
 appeared, as in Southern France, was speedily suppressed in the 
 interests of that unit}" of belief so essential to the papal power. 
 
 The appeals of Pope Urban, and still more the Papal Bull 
 issued for the second crusade, are convincing proof that the 
 crusading energy was due in part to other motives than those 
 derived from desires to avenge the enslaved, persecuted, or 
 murdered pilgrims, save Jerusalem from the infidel, and make 
 of Palestine a Christian kingdom. That these motives were 
 strong is seen in the enthusiasm with which Urban's appeal to 
 them was met ; but they were strengthened by the love of 
 adventure, the passion of warfare, the hope of salvation, the 
 desire for plunder, the charm of license, and in many cases, 
 perhaps, by the power which was given to escape from the bur- 
 dens of debt and the legal consequences of crime. On Saladin's 
 
100 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 side, also, the motives were undoubtedly mixed ; but that they 
 had a strong element of religious fervor, is clearly to be felt 
 from Saladiu's letter (p. 334). 
 
 The power of faith, even when it appears in the form of 
 superstition, receives a striking illustration from the story of 
 the " Sacred Lance," which, for the time being, served as well 
 as if it had had genuine supernatural virtue, inasmuch as it gave 
 absolute confidence, and all the strength which such a confi- 
 dence inspires, to the weary and doubting crusaders. 
 
 The whole period is marked by no great distinguishing ten- 
 dency or characteristic ; it is a time of action in which old forms 
 and ideas are tried, while new ones are suggested, — an age at 
 once of culmination and of obscure, but originating change. 
 
 Suggestions for Essay and Examination Work. — The geo- 
 graphical advantages of England. The geographical disadvantages 
 of Poland. Reflections of a Bulgarian upon the crusaders. Journal 
 *of a follower of Godfrey of Boulogne. The Christianity of Saladin. 
 A French crusader's account of the taking of Antioch. Richard the 
 Lion-heart, considered as an English king. When was the whole 
 Roman Empire under " barbarian " rule ? How would a crusader 
 have justified the massacre of the Jews? What would be the natural 
 relation of Moslems and Jews? What facts given in lists, pp. 325- 
 329, prove this relation to have existed? Proofs that the civilization 
 of the West was still Roman. 
 
LATER MEDIEVAL PERIOD. , , -JOl 
 
 C. LATER MEDI51VAL PERIOD, 1215-1492. 
 
 The following summary embodies the general results to be 
 obtained from the studies on this period : — 
 
 LATER MEDIAEVAL PERIOD. 
 
 Organizations of Period. 
 
 Feudal kingdoms growing into centralized national units by 
 
 increase of royal power (consolidation and enlargement 
 
 of royal domains), 
 summoning to one place and for one purpose the assem- 
 blies of estates, — 
 nobles, 
 clergy, 
 commons, — 
 
 merchants (in England and on the continent), 
 landed proprietors outside the noble class (in 
 England), 
 formation of national codes, — 
 St. Lewis. 
 Edward I. 
 Alfonso of Castile, 
 foreign wars : ex. Spanish wars with Moors, wars of 
 English and French. 
 The Empire ^ (Italy and Germany) greatly weakened and disin- 
 tegrated by 
 
 grants to nobles and clergy, 
 strife of Guelph and Ghibelin. 
 "great interregnum." 
 loss of Poland, 
 loss of Sicily. 
 
 formation of Swiss league, 
 formation of city leagues against nobles, — 
 Hanse. 
 Rhine. 
 
 1 The imperial name at this time furnishes an excellent illustration of 
 a " dignity" since it still held the respect of men by its antiquity, associa- 
 tions, and traditions, while all its real power was rapidly vanishing. 
 
10^ STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 Later Medieval Period. — Continued. 
 
 wars and disturbances throughout Germany, 
 wars and leagues of Italian cities. 
 The church, thoroughly centralized hierarchy, culminating in 
 papal office, — 
 
 powerful through 
 
 unity, obtained by 
 
 persecution of heresy (Inquisition), 
 censorship of literature, 
 independence of secular courts and impe- 
 rial election. 1 
 wealth (note cathedrals), 
 command of military orders, 
 command of learning, 
 judicial power. 
 
 presence in assemblies of estates (political power), 
 privilege and rank (the untaxed second estate). 
 electoral nature of papacy. ^ 
 threatened by 
 
 " Schism of the West." 
 growing tendency to heresy. 
 
 growing dissatisfaction, most pronounced in Ger- 
 many and England, with ecclesiastical govern- 
 ment, doctrine, and morality, seen in 
 attitude of kings. 
 German electors, 
 popular literature. 
 Lollard and Hussite movement, 
 heresies. 
 The guilds, democratic, local, co-operative societies of the third 
 estate (merchants and artisans), — 
 formed for 
 
 mutual protection and aid. 
 advancement of trade, .*. 
 favorable to 
 
 morality, peace, public health and cleanliness, 
 high standard of workmanship, and 
 
 1 Since the papal election was transferred to the College of Cardinals. 
 
 2 The papal office was thus freed from the chances of birth and the 
 family quarrels to which an ordinary monarchy is subject. 
 
LATER MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 103 
 
 opposed to 
 
 monopolies. 
 
 inequality of advantage or opportunity, 
 united by bonds of 
 
 mutual interest, 
 kinship (often).i 
 The towns, democratic,^ local governments, 
 power based on wealth. 
 bonds of union, 
 
 common local interests, 
 common residence, 
 opposed to 
 
 irregular, arbitrary, and outside interference in 
 local affairs, 
 favoring 
 
 local independence, 
 trade. 
 Orders of knighthood. 
 Their duties, — 
 
 to defend the church -y 
 
 to defend the king >• military, 
 
 to defend the weak and defenceless ) 
 to hold to the Christian faith 
 to be loyal to their king 
 to do justice • 
 
 to be honorable, courteous, brave, 
 humble, truthful, persevering 
 Characteristics of Period Special to England. 
 
 Prosperity of farming gentry (stock-farmers, raising sheep), 
 seen in 
 
 presence in third estate, 
 tax on wool. 
 Successful establishment of constitution (compare with result 
 of constitutional struggle in France), embodied in 
 
 1 The guild privileges were freely open to the sons and daughters of 
 guildsmen ; the trades thus became largely hereditary. 
 
 2 Within the hodtj of citizens, democracy was the ruling principle ; but 
 this body could not be said to include men of what has been called the 
 fourth estate. 
 
 spiritual 
 
 and 
 
 social. 
 
104 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 Later MEDiiEVAL Period. — Continued. 
 Great Charter, demanding ^ 
 
 " No taxation without representation." 
 jury trial (judgment by peers). 
 *' Habeas corpus " (no delay in justice). 
 Characteristics Special to France. 
 
 Strife of king and towns and nobles, ending in 
 
 victory of king over nobles, and accompanied by 
 steady enlargement of royal domain.^ 
 substitution of king's law for 
 
 trial by battle and arbitrary judgments. 
 Close relations with papacy, seen in 
 papal offer of Sicily to Anjou. 
 removal of papal seat to Avignon. 
 Characteristics Special to Spain. 
 
 Superior strength of royalty (large domain). 
 Characteristics General through "Western Europa 
 
 Growing prosperity of middle trading-classes, seen in 
 formation and powers of third estate, 
 formation and powers of guilds, 
 buildings and defenses of towns ; 
 political and military power of towns, evinced in 
 Flemish and Parisian revolts, 
 wars of Italian towns, 
 formation of powerful leagues. 
 taxes imposed on third estate (wool-tax in England), 
 growing prominence of manufacturing industries. 
 Growth of nationalities, displaying itself in differentiation of 
 language, history,^ intellectual interest, and in codifica- 
 tion of national law. 
 
 1 These demands indicate the directions in which Englishmen had felt 
 oppression. 
 
 2 This enlargement, of course, under the "Old Regime," meant the 
 enlargement of the king'* resources. Here we see the special reason why 
 the desire for territorial possession should be the moving cause of the 
 long wars of the French and English kings. 
 
 * It will be noted that, from the time of the crusades on, the history of 
 Europe cannot be treated in the mass, since each country begins its own 
 proper development. 
 
LATER MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 105 
 
 Strife of the nearly balanced powers of towns, kings, nobles, 
 popes, resulting in 
 
 multiplicity of def enses,^ — 
 castles, 
 town walls. 
 victories of towns and princes in 
 
 Germany and Italy. 
 royal victory in France, 
 general instability and insecurity. 
 
 Growth of popular ^ liberty (as a purpose or a fact), 
 seen in 
 
 growth of electoral principle in 
 towns, 
 guilds. 
 
 College of Cardinals, 
 electors of Empire, 
 attempts at political independence or liberty, — 
 Cola di Rienzi. 
 Marcel, 
 demands of estates 
 
 in England, France, and Spain, 
 increase of local freedom (towns), 
 participation of all classes in literary and artistic 
 movements, 
 favored by 
 
 needs of kings for money from the third estate, 
 growing intelligence of people. 
 
 Social uneasiness and agitation among those of the lowest class 
 (fourth estate), 
 seen in 
 
 Jacquerie. 
 
 Wat Tyler's revolt. 
 
 Hussite War. 
 
 1 Compare with the standing armies of the nearly balanced powers of 
 Europe to-day. 
 
 2 It must, however, be remembered that the word "popular" does not 
 apply to men below the station of the third estate. 
 
106 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 Later MEDiiEVAL Period. — Continued. 
 
 Intellectual and artistic activity among all classes.^ 
 seen in 
 
 t poetry \ 
 
 literature -3 history >- , Italy and England leading. 
 
 ( travels ) 
 theology and philosophy, France leading, 
 science, Italy leading, — 
 confused, 
 undifferentiated, 
 aiming at 
 
 prolonging life and renewing youth, 
 changing other metals to gold, 
 foretelling the future. 
 laying foundations for 
 
 chemistry J (^j^hemy). 
 mineralogy > 
 astronomy (astrology), 
 painting and sculpture (led by Italy and Ger- 
 many), — 
 
 original ^ in subject (Biblical), 
 architecture (led by France and Germany), — 
 original 
 
 in structure (pointed arch, Gothic), 
 in decoration (stained glass), 
 influenced by 
 
 Greek, Roman, and Moorish forms, 
 learning (universities), Italy and France leading, 
 heresies, 
 inventions, 
 patrohized by 
 church, 
 princes, and 
 wealthy merchants. 
 
 1 Here, as in political life, " all classes " refers to the three estates, the 
 lowest class not yet appearing as an intellectual or social element in the 
 state. 
 
 3 Following out the lines indicated by the early church. 
 
LATER MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 107 
 
 influenced by 
 
 Moors, in science, philosophy, and art. 
 
 Greeks, in science, philosophy, and art. 
 
 Romans, in law and literature. 
 rendered influential and general by 
 
 printing and engraving. 
 
 comforts and contrivances for giving men leisure, 
 comfort, and quiet, 
 characterized by 
 
 European interchange of thought and knowledge. 
 
 versatility and variety. 
 Organization, — of tendencies, occupations, classes ; of 
 chivalry in knighthood, 
 faith in new monastic orders, 
 learning in universities, 
 trades in guilds, 
 classes and occupations in estates, — 
 
 nobles. 
 
 clergy. 
 
 third estate. 
 Centralization, — of feudalism in kings, of the church in 
 
 papacy, of third estate in town organizations. 
 Growth of new ideals, — 
 the knight, 
 the " Doctor." 
 the wealthy merchant, 
 the author and artist. 
 
 It should be thoroughly understood that the assemblies of 
 estates were quite different from our modern legislative bodies. 
 The interests they represented were those of classes, not of the 
 whole people ; they were called together at the will of the mon- 
 arch, and primarily in his interest, either because he wished 
 their advice, their moral support, or their money. Naturally, 
 then, they were composed of the rich, influential, and intelli- 
 gent classes, and included the third estate, not as a matter of 
 justice, but because this estate contained the wealthy merchants, 
 and could bring to the royal service a heavy purse. Originat- 
 ing thus in the needs of the monarchs, the estates, especially the 
 
108 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 commons, found a means of enforcing attention to their claims, 
 and of winning new privilege and political importance. In 
 other words, the king often found himself obliged to buy their 
 aid ; thus, in England, he paid for it by charters, favors, and 
 promises, tending to give wider liberties and juster govern- 
 ment ; in France, the history was the same, but there the king's 
 strength finally proved superior to that of the estates ; and 
 thus, while in England, Magna Charta laid the foundation of 
 constitutional government, in France the equally wise demands 
 of Marcel and the Parisians ended in the triumph of royalty. 
 
 To the modern student, the subject of guilds is of especial 
 interest, since it was the mediaeval solution of the ' ' labor prob- 
 lem," and a solution not merely successful, but brilliant. Their 
 study is at once so easy and so suggestive, that the teacher will 
 find in it an admirable place for much conversational work, such 
 as would grow out of the question as to the value to the guilds- 
 men of morality, peace, public health, and cleanliness. In 
 talking this over, the teacher should be careful to keep in mind 
 the tradesman's point of view ; for each of these conditions 
 had its own special value to the trader and artisan, as ensuring 
 him quiet and favorable conditions for work, while at tlie same 
 time they rendered his place of labor or residence secure and 
 attractive to the buyer. For the same reasons we find that, in 
 the assemblies of estates, the third estate always inclined to 
 vote for peace rather than war. 
 
 The most vital point of the guild organizations was this : 
 they ivere built upon the x>rinciple of co-operative instead of 
 upon that of competitive industry. All the men of the same 
 calling within the same town- walls, worked together for a 
 common good, inspired by common interests, and by a common 
 pride in the honor and excellence of the guild. Thus, in their 
 relation to the outer world, the}' may be described as monopo- 
 lists of labor, since no man could successfull}' follow any busi- 
 ness outside the ranks of a guild ; within those ranks, however, 
 monopoly, and even a disproportionate command of men and 
 other means of labor, were strictly prevented. 
 
LATER MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 109 
 
 The power of the guilds evidently underlay that of the towns, 
 those great mediaeval fortresses of labor, whose increasing re- 
 sources caused the comparative decline of the noble class, and 
 acted as a check on needy kings, who were glad to buy the 
 right of taxation with charters of liberty. These charters 
 plainly show that the towns had suffered much from the arbi- 
 trary judgments and irregular interference of kings and nobles, 
 and that liberty meant to them the power to judge and manage 
 in regard to their own local affairs. Hence we see why the 
 towns always favored the power of kings rather than that of 
 nobles, since the former at least represented a central, stan- 
 dard authority. 
 
 The success of the trading-class, and the quickening of popu- 
 lar thought, could hardly fail to rouse the consciousness of the 
 great " fourth estate," composed of untrained laborers. This 
 class, both in England and in France, now first urged its w^ay 
 into notice by bloody, unintelligent, and ineffective revolt. 
 There is an indication that this class was more intelligent in 
 England than in France, in the fact that Wat Tyler and his 
 followers appealed to the king as the fountain of justice, while 
 the ' ' Jacquerie " was a blind protest made in fire and murder ; 
 this, of course, is but conjecture, and I have called attention 
 to the point chiefly for the sake of making the student realize 
 the difference between an indication and a proof. But while 
 revolt accomplished nothing for the poorest class of all, the 
 ''Black Death" did much to free man from the soil, and 
 change the serf into a wage laborer.^ At a moderate calcula- 
 tion, a third of the people perished by this plague ; in conse^ 
 quence, labor was so scarce, that the surviving laborers were 
 able to enforce their demands for money payments, or for 
 higher wages. This movement is, however, important to 
 
 1 The slave could be bought and sold at the will of his masters ; the 
 serf could only be bought or sold with the land which he cultivated, and 
 the home where he lived ; the wage laborer is bound neither to a man nor 
 a field, but sells his labor as freely as the circumstances of the market 
 permit. 
 
110 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 notice, as a beginning of the long agitations of the laboring 
 classes, rather than as a strong mark of this period. 
 
 Woven tlu'oughout the texture of European society, the eccle- 
 siastical power saw itself threatened with dismemberment, as 
 distinct nationalities began to gather about new centres, and 
 Rome began to be forgotten as the common mother. The unit}- of 
 the church, and its traditional relations to the temporal powers, 
 was diametrically opposed to the formation of independent 
 kingdoms within the bod}' of Christendom ; this, as well as the 
 legal power of the church, and the ecclesiastical control of 
 large amounts of land, tlu-eatened the peace and unit}' of 
 states. Thus the inevitable conflict of the temporal with the 
 spiritual power approached, and most rapidly in Germany, 
 where the conflicting claims of pope and emperor had already 
 caused centuries of conflict and confusion. 
 
 The whole period is marked by the strife of nearly balanced 
 powers ; but classes, rather than nations, were the opposing 
 forces ; the noble checked the king, and the town checked both, 
 while obscure but significant movements were felt in still lower 
 strata. 
 
 If "number is quality," then these centuries should rank 
 high in human history for their great number of famous men. 
 Not only is the list a long, but a varied one, and in this regard 
 it contrasts curiously with the lists of the Christian Empire 
 and the early mediaeval period, which belong to a one-sided 
 development correspondingly intense. Men were now trained 
 for achievement not only in the cloister, but in the camp, the 
 court, the workshop, and the studio ; and it is interesting to 
 note that, perhaps without exception, the training had a direct 
 relation to the man's life-work. 
 
 Even before the invention of printing, the increasing wealth 
 and culture of laymen is evidenced by the production of a 
 great secular literature in the various national tongues of 
 Europe ; the subjects of this literature reflect the learning, the 
 thought, the feeling of the age ; and such a list as that of 
 Caxton*8 first editions is an admirable index to the intellectual 
 
LATER MEDI-^VAL PERIOD. Ill 
 
 life of the time, since it gives a practical gauge of literary 
 popularity. 
 
 This period is so alive and complete, so full of old powers 
 waning and new ones waxing, that it is perhaps impossible to 
 say, with any certain t}-, just what part of its new life Europe 
 owed to the crusades ; it is easy to reason out relations be- 
 tween these movements and the new impulses in science, art, 
 and trade ; but such reasoning must always be tempered by 
 the memory of the Moors in Spain, and of the close relations 
 of the East with Venice and the other great Italian marts. 
 
 In the study on p. 378, I have tried to show in some detail 
 how pictures may be used in the study of histor}-. 
 
 In a, 6, c, d, we see an architecture quite different from that 
 of Greece, or Rome, or the East ; the spire, the pointed arch, 
 the tower, have succeeded the pillar, the rounded arch, and the 
 dome ; the basis of decoration is found in the openings of the 
 walls, in the windows and doors ; stained glass has become an 
 important material in decorative art, while its subjects are drawn 
 from Christian scripture and tradition ; in the portal (c) the 
 forms emploj'ed are again the forms of human beings, as in the 
 Greek temple, but the forms are now of saints, and not of 
 athletes. And yet throughout we see the influence of the 
 earlier civilizations ; the Greek pillar, the Roman arch, the 
 Moorish ornament, are all present, but modified and subordi- 
 nated by a new spirit, expressing itself in an architecture 
 essentially new. The most Gothic of these four pictures, the 
 most purely original to this period, is, perhaps, c ; and yet even 
 there the presence of some little Greek pillars, used as part of 
 the decoration, betraj's the ineffaceable influence. As for the 
 beauties of a, 6, c, and d, every one must judge for himself; 
 such structures at least proclaim the wealth of the church, and 
 its close relation with and command over the artistic resource 
 of the age. 
 
 The castles, as well as the cathedrals, bear their witness. 
 Comparing e and/ with Fountains Hall, p. 413, we realize at 
 once that the world had suffered change between the days when 
 
112 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 a noble built his castle on a forbidding height, surrounded it by 
 inhospitable moats, challenged all comers before giving them 
 the narrow passage of the drawbridge, shut himself within 
 thick walls, peeped suspiciously at the outside world through 
 high and narrow slits, kept guard and watch on his castle 
 towers, — and the days when this same knight made himself a 
 pleasant house in the open country, with generous doors and 
 windows, and surrounded it with the attractions of wood and 
 field and garden ; the castle was the necessary product of an 
 age when each man stood on his own defence, while Fountains 
 Hall was built in an age of kings, when the feudal quarrels 
 had been suppressed, and the military resources of the country 
 were massed in a single hand, thus rendered strong enough to 
 keep the peace, and enable men to live more freely and care- 
 lessly than before. 
 
 The third estate, meanwhile, is represented by such noble 
 guild-halls as that of Ypres, p. 377, which, were it our only 
 evidence, would tell us of the wealth, importance, and taste of 
 the merchant class, besides giving us a very good list of the in- 
 dustries of the age. 
 
 The study of laws often tells us quite as much of injustice 
 as of justice ; that is, a law generally tells us of some unjust 
 or unfortunate state of affairs which it was intended to obviate. 
 Thus, Magna Charta clearly indicates that the English king 
 had made excessive and arbitrary demands for money, had 
 seized men's property for his own use, had over-ridden the 
 ancient liberties of the towns, had sold and delayed justice ; 
 that the nobles had unreasonably oppressed their retainers for 
 more than the customary feudal dues ; that no man was safe 
 from arbitrary arrest and imprisonment, and that men were 
 often condemned without a fair hearing. Magna Charta is 
 sometimes represented as the work of the great nobles, but that 
 it equally represented the third estate of free, untitled men, is 
 proved by articles 20, 46, 48, p. 379. In the parallel French 
 demands (p. 381) we see also the union of the nobles and com- 
 mons against the arbitrary power of the king. 
 
LATER MEDIEVAL PERIOD. 113 
 
 pp. 380, 381, we see the royal power 
 evidently directed to quell the power and violence of the nobles, 
 and for this purpose allying itself with the commons of the 
 realm ; while e, p. 382, shows the result of this struggle in 
 establishing a monarchy possessing unchecked control over the 
 composition of the army and the raising of the taxes, and thus 
 enabled to become a genuine absolutism. Thus, while England 
 advances in political civilization, and finds herself possessed of 
 advanced constitutional principles, tending to work themselves 
 out in practical forms, France finds herself retrograding toward 
 the simpler form of absolute monarchy. 
 
 The laws on p. 383 are rather indicative of social than politi- 
 cal conditions ; we see a state dependent for defense on the 
 arms of its free citizens, acting as volunteers ; a country still 
 insecure, uncleared, and full of disorder ; a city where all politi- 
 cal power is in the hands of traders, while two of these ordi- 
 nances throw a curious light on the sincere interest and belief 
 of the age in the experiments of alchemy. 
 
 The literature of this period indicates clearly enough that its 
 wrongs and abuses sprang chiefly from two classes, the aristo- 
 cratic and the clerical; the nobles were the oppressors, — the 
 monks, the scandals of the age ; the arbitrary; petty wars, the 
 confused and unequal laws, which had their origin among the 
 former, the extravagance, luxury, and immorality of the latter, 
 called forth much complaint and invective, humorously voiced 
 by Chaucer, but sternly by Dante, whose feeling was intensified 
 by his identification with the Ghibelins^ in the long mediaeval 
 strife of papal and imperial powers. 
 
 Chaucer gives us the picture and the temper of the later 
 mediaeval period, while Dante gives us its serious feeling and 
 thought. In the extracts, pp. 386-388, the condition of the 
 Holy Roman Empire is vividly set forth. We see at once that, 
 in Dante's mind, the ancient union still existed ; but that its 
 ruinous condition was attributed to the imperial neglect of Italy 
 and the seizure of the temporal power by Rome. 
 
 1 In his youth Dante had been a Guelph. 
 
114 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 In the extracts from Chaucer we see how thoroughly the early 
 mediaeval saint ideal of the church had given way to desires 
 for politeness, culture, pleasure, and luxury ; while the warrior 
 ideal of the Teuton has softened to the "very perfect, gentle < 
 knight," in fact, to the ideal ''''gentleman" and the gay young 
 squire, thoroughl}^ trained for the graceful accomplishments of 
 the court, as well as the strenuous duties of the field. ^ 
 
 If the teacher himself regard this age a "dark" one, he 
 may find means of impressing this opinion on the minds of his 
 pupils ; to my own view, it appears as one of the most rapidly- 
 moving and important of historical epochs. While England 
 led in politics, Italy in art, and France in courtesy and mate- 
 rial elegance, still the whole of Europe " marched," its various 
 states essentially abreast. 
 
 Suggestions for Examination and Essay "Work. — The guild 
 
 and the trades-union ; their resemblances and differences. The assem- 
 blies of estates and modern representative chambers. Review the 
 development of papacy. The town aristocrats. Why should the 
 trading classes desire the suppression of the nobility? What were 
 the great historic sources of the civilization of this period. Why 
 should the houses in European towns, dating back to the fourteenth 
 and fifteenth centuries, be so built that the people must live in the 
 second and third stories ; and why should the streets of those same 
 towns be so narrow? What reasons would a man living in the 
 fifteenth century have for thinking the ruin of Europe near? What 
 reasonable grounds might he see for improvement? Journal of a 
 Parisian merchant living in the first half of the fifteenth century. 
 Same of a French noble. Same of an English wool-grower for latter 
 half of the same century. The advantages of kings to trade. Wiclif 
 and St. Francis of Assisi compared as reformers. The debt of the 
 later mediaeval period to Rome. To Greece and the Orient. The 
 secularization of the church. A day in the castle of Pierrefond. 
 "Piper's day" at castle St. Ulric. The mediaeval versus the Greek 
 beauty. 
 
 ^ Compare the Hst of the squire's accomplishments with the list now 
 required for an " accomplished " young lady. In both cases the education 
 is a social one. 
 
REFORMATION AND RENAISSANCE ERA. 115 
 
 D, EErOEMATION AND EENAISSANOE ERA. 
 
 The general results of the studies in this period may be thus 
 summarized : — 
 
 REFORMATION AND RENAISSANCE, 1492-1648. 
 
 Great Movements and Achievements of the Time. 
 
 Geographical discovery, — 
 
 eastward, led by Portugal, 
 westward, led by Spain, 
 caused by 
 
 desire to discover routes to India, 
 desire to gain new landed possessions, 
 resulting in 
 
 circumnavigation of Africa, 
 foundation of European colonies in India, 
 discovery and settlement of America, 
 development of maritime powers, — ^ 
 
 Holland. 
 
 Spain. 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 England. 
 
 France, 
 great increase of commercial activity, 
 change of commercial centre from Mediterranean 
 
 to Atlantic,^ .-. 
 decay of Italian commerce. 
 
 1 Note that Spain held as strong a command over all the westward com- 
 merce of the Mediterranean as Constantinople over that of the Black Sea ; 
 this, combined with her own free access to transatlantic shores, made her 
 one of the leaders of the new commerce. "Without this command, France, 
 Portugal, England, and Holland had the freedom of access ; and in the 
 case of Holland, her connection with Spain during the period of discovery 
 very probably gave her her first commercial experience and impulse, 
 strengthened by her own half-maritime life and the poverty of her inter- 
 nal resources. 
 
 2 The opening of the Suez Canal in our own time may tend to restore 
 the commercial activity of the Mediterranean lands < 
 
116 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 Reformation and Renaissance. — Continued. 
 Revolt against the church, 
 caused or favored by 
 
 intellectual dissent from her doctrines 
 
 (England and Europe in general), 
 desire of monarchs for entire independence 
 
 (England), 
 disapproval of her methods and morals 
 
 (Germany and Europe in general), 
 internal corruption, — • 
 avarice, 
 luxury, 
 immorality, 
 ignorance, 
 mediaeval quarrels of church and state > ^ 
 independence of Teutonic character ) 
 resulting in 
 
 formation of national churches, 
 formation of various Protestant sects, 
 internal reform (the Jesuit movement). 
 Production of masterpieces, — 
 
 in painting, Italy, Germany, 
 in dramatic literature, England. 
 Overthrow of the feudal monarchy in England, 
 caused by 
 
 taxation without representation. ^ 
 intolerance toward dissenting sects.^ 
 For results, see next period (note colonizations). 
 
 Facts of Organization. 
 
 Formation of the strong centralized feudal monarchies of th* 
 " Old Regime " 
 in France, 
 in England, 
 in Spain. 
 
 ^ The first of these grievances evidently antedated Magna Charta; 
 while the second began to be oppressive under Elizabeth ; constitutional 
 measures on the part of the king, and tolerance on the part of the people, 
 might have averted the Civil Wars. 
 
REFORMATION AND RENAISSANCE ERA. 117 
 
 brought about by 
 
 consolidation of lands in royal hands, through 
 inheritance, 
 conquest, 
 marriage, 
 formation of standing armies, 
 common interests of king and people in 
 religion, 
 commerce. 
 Formation of independent national churches in 
 England. 
 Scotland. 
 Switzerland, 
 various German states. 
 Formation of national units (France, England, Spain), 
 bound togther by 
 language, 
 faith. 
 
 loyalty to a single king. 
 
 common interests of natural geographical units, 
 represented by national, hereditary monarchs. 
 Foundation of extra-European, Christian colonies 
 in Asia, 
 in America. 
 Weakness and disintegration of the Empire,^ 
 seen in 
 
 difficulty in quelling peasants' war. 
 territorial gains of France and Spain, at the ex- 
 pense of the Empire, 
 along the Rhine, 
 in Italy, 
 sovereign political power held by princes. 
 peace of Westphalia, 
 caused by 
 
 inherent weakness of imperial office, 
 dissensions of Catholics and Protestants. 
 
 1 Under Charles the Fifth, who was such an extensive land-owner by 
 his ancestral heritages, the Empire temporarily revived. 
 
118 STUDIES m GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 Reformation and Renaissance. — Continued. 
 culminating in 
 
 Thirty Years' War. 
 imperial loss of 
 
 Switzerland. 
 Holland.i 
 loose confederation of sovereign states, nominally 
 under the emperor. 
 
 Characteristics of the Age. 
 
 Leading interests, religion, and trade, seen in 
 
 r civil wars of France, Germany, 
 causes of war > J England, 
 
 treaties of peace > ' 1 " Great Armada." 
 
 ^ Thirty Years' War. 
 objects of Columbus and other explorers, 
 missionary enterprise, 
 religious intolerance, 
 literary productions, — 
 
 translations of Bible, 
 popular satires, 
 artistic subjects. 
 Change of the noble from a military to a courtly and cultured class, 
 caused by 
 
 massing of political and military power in royal 
 
 hands, 
 employment of gunpowder and standing armies, 
 resulting in 
 
 their appearance in 
 literature. 
 art. 
 
 adventure.^ 
 use of feudal wealth in art and display. 
 Dissatisfaction of the fourth estate, seen in 
 German peasant wars, 
 outcry against enclosures in England. 
 
 1 Italy went piecemeal, being common booty for France, Spain, and 
 Austria, from the opening of the sixteenth century till the days of Victor 
 Emmanuel. 
 
 2 Note the earl^ leader? of discovery. 
 
REFORMATION AND RENAISSANCE ERA. 119 
 
 Intense and varied intellectual activity, seen in 
 Reformation movement, 
 revival of learning, — 
 
 Latin language and literature. 
 Greek language and literature, 
 favored by Reformation.^ 
 new forms of literature, — 
 drama, 
 essay. 
 romance, 
 revolt against, Aristotle ^ in 
 Platonic movement, 
 inductive philosophy of Bacon, 
 study of natural science. ^ 
 
 appeal to reason and observation as bases of truth.'* 
 Increase of domestic comfort and safety. 
 Strong influence of classic antiquity, seen in 
 art. 
 
 education. 
 
 literature (translations, imitations, themes). 
 International action and reaction, seen in 
 
 international w^ars. ' 
 
 * importation or travel of artists from country to country, 
 translations. 3 
 Italian influence 
 
 in English literature.^ 
 on French manufacture. 
 
 1 The same intellectual impulse which urged men to the study of nature 
 in science, urged them to the study of the Greek and Hebrew originals in 
 theology. (See Luther's letter, p. 424.) 
 
 2 The first two statements are in reality but particulars under the third, 
 which marks the age in religion, art, and thought. The original source, be 
 It the revealed truth, the natural form, or the untranslated classic, is the 
 object of desire. In this desire, Italy herself led, though it was beyond 
 her power to achieve. 
 
 ^ The translations of the great works of antiquity and of the Middle 
 Age undoubtedly had their influence in unifying Europe, since they gave 
 her a common body of literary material from which to start, — an in- 
 fluence greatly facilitated by the new invention of printing, which likewise 
 quickened the influence of one country on another, as of Italy on England. 
 
120 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 It has been the custom, in many of oui' text-books, to date 
 the beginning of modern history at 1453, or at 1492 ; but al- 
 though new elements then appear, still the great events, the 
 characteristic forms of the Renaissance, seem to be the culmi- 
 nation of the whole feudal, mediaeval period. From the long 
 struggles of king and baron, strong-handed monarchies emerged ; 
 from the long quarrels of temporal and spiritual powers within 
 the Empire, and the long-felt intellectual revolt against an 
 ancient, detailed creed, the Reformation sprang ; Columbus was 
 the greatest of a line of daring Italian travellers and navigators 
 who prepared his way ; in Raphael and Michael Angelo, bloomed 
 the Christian art which Italy had never failed to cherish through 
 all her mediaeval confusion.^ 
 
 Meanwhile, the absolutely new, the modern impulses that 
 began in these centuries did not characterize them, but awaited 
 their development in a later era. For these reasons, then, it 
 has seemed best not to use the word "modern" nntil 1648 
 be passed, and to treat this period as the climax of that 
 Catholic and feudal civilization which had slowl}- formed the 
 states of Europe during the mediaeval age ; the m9re so since 
 such a view gives significance and meaning to all the struggles, 
 imperfections, and confusions necessary to develop the strong, 
 clear forms of the sixteenth century. 
 
 In comparing the map on p. 397 with that on pp. 316, 317, 
 the most striking changes noted are the respective enlargement 
 of the French and Spanish territories, and the obliteration of 
 their feudal divisions ; this at once tells the story of the royal 
 strength within their boundaries, and their appearance as fully 
 formed national count7"y -states^ as opposed to the tribal city- 
 states of antiquity. Here, again, the teacher should enforce 
 the point, that landed possession lay at the foundation of all 
 political and military power under the feudal system. Thus 
 Charles the Fifth became the strongest monarch of his age, 
 
 1 It must not be forgotten that Italy was, par excellence, the land o/ 
 the church and the popes. 
 
KEFOEMATION AND RENAISSANCE ERA. 121 
 
 through his inheritance of family titles to European lands ; al- 
 though America was also included in his empire, still its unmanage- 
 able distance, and the fact that it was neither cultivated nor settled, 
 and so unable to yield either taxes or troops, made it of little 
 value as a basis of political power, although from the first it 
 was a rich source of the raw materials of commerce.^ From 
 this desire for land, Italy was the greatest sufferer ; divided 
 among many pett}' powers, incapable of union, and yet too 
 strong to be subdued, under the nominal rule of an emperor 
 who had more than he could rightly manage on the northern 
 side of the Alps, — Italy was, as Dante named her, an " inn of 
 grief " ; indeed, the events of the sixteenth century- (c) show 
 that her possession was one of the great ambitions common to 
 the European powers or, to speak more justly, to the European 
 monarchs, for within this age, the monarchs were indeed the 
 powers of Europe, with their standing armies and consolidated 
 territories. Proof of this is seen in the arbitrary rule of Philip 
 the Second of Spain, of Francis the First in France, of Henry 
 the Eighth of England. Nothing more thoroughly displayed their 
 strength than their ability to deal absolutely' with the strongest 
 interest of the age, religious faith, and to impose at will the 
 Catholic or Protestant creed upon their subjects ; ^ the same fact 
 shows how thoroughly the monarchies embodied the spirit of 
 centralization, of national unity, and it may perhaps be argued 
 that the high-handed intolerance with which Jews and Moors 
 were driven from Spain, Huguenots massacred in France, Dis- 
 senters suppressed in England, was a historic necessity in the 
 formation of self-sustaining national units, ^ considering how 
 
 1 To France and England, America soon added to this advantage that 
 of serving as an asylum for rehgious refugees. 
 
 2 In France, their difficulty was enhanced by the fact that the religious 
 parties revived the historic antagonism of king and noble. 
 
 3 One must not say too much, however, on this point, unless he wishes 
 logically to find himself on the side of Bismarck, in his attempt to drive 
 the Poles from Prussian Poland. In illustration, however, of the royal 
 side of the question, see Queen Elizabeth's letter, p. 482. 
 
122 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 high the feeling ran between men of opposing creeds. Thus 
 the censorship of tlie press was felt almost from the beginning 
 to be a necessity both by the pope, and by the various absolute 
 monarchs, since their centralized powers depended too thoroughly 
 on men's universal approval to render wide-spread intellectual 
 dissent and free discussion safe. To the centralization of 
 wealth and power in the hands of their kings, the countries of 
 Western Europe owed, however, much of their material and 
 commercial progress. In England, France, and Spain, the 
 court was the centre of impulse for discovery, colonization, art, 
 and literature. If the teacher have the time, he will find that 
 a very valuable sub-study may be made in this connection of 
 Queen Elizabeth, whose reign displayed absolutism, perhaps, 
 at its best, although its more objectionable features were not 
 so much absent as overshadowed.^ In the reign of James the 
 First, on the contrary, these were the more decided features ; 
 the expenses of the court devoured the earnings of the land 
 which in justice should have been spent for the good of its 
 people (see member for Oxford's speech, p. 433) ; taxes had 
 been imposed without consent of Parliament ; worst of all, the 
 king attempted to suppress the free speech of its members. It 
 was the old feudal contest with the old feudal weapons all over 
 again ; the king was poor, and must have money from his 
 estates, who, on their part, would grant nothing without con- 
 cessions of justice from the king. In the debate accompanying 
 the Petition of Right, pp. 433, 434, it is plainly evident that 
 men's minds yet clung to the feudal theory of a king's support, 
 and felt that he should meet his own expenses from his own 
 domain, the modern system of paying him a regular annual sum 
 from a civil service list, whose charges are met by popular 
 taxes, not yet having been invented. 
 
 ^ At least he should stop to note, that as a strong and noble nationaltj 
 calls forth the ardent patriotism of its citizens, so a strong, wise, truly 
 "paternal" monarch calls forth the warm loyalty of his subjects (see 
 i&ndj, p. 430). 
 
KEFORMATION AND RENAISSANCE ERA. 123 
 
 These causes of the EngUsh civil wars, however, would seem 
 to have been subordinate to those arising from religious dis- 
 sent ; judging from Hobbes' "Leviathan," and the "Solemn 
 League," this was the cause which drove men on to war. 
 
 The Scots' "Solemn League and Covenant" is one of the 
 most significant documents of the age ; it breathes a solemn 
 biblical intensity of faith ; it holds by an absolute union of 
 church and state, in which the state shall be composed of the 
 church, with the king for its executive servant ; ^ it is of neces- 
 sity intolerant of Catholics and members of the established 
 church. In all these ways it reflects the spirit and thought of 
 the time, from the Puritan point of view, as Hobbes' " Levia- 
 than " reflects it from the Royalist standpoint. 
 
 It is generally felt that the Reformation is a rather delicate 
 subject to deal with, so closely does it touch our own living 
 interests. It is true that the movement is too often solely 
 regarded from the Protestant standpoint, and explained exclu- 
 sively as a great theological revolution. But a comparison of 
 the decrees of the Council of Trent and of the Augsburg Con- 
 fession will show that the theological differences were minor, 
 while the practical questions of the marriage of priests and the 
 relation of church and state were revolutionary ; the Protestant 
 position of a "free church in a free state" was indeed so 
 opposed to the whole European system from the earliest times, 
 that not even the Protestants themselves knew how in that age 
 to achieve it. Moreover, a due remembrance of the tendencies 
 and facts of later mediaeval history will show that the Reforma- 
 tion was the inevitable culmination of the secularization of the 
 church, of national revolt against centralization, of intellectual 
 revolt against authority. Luther came in the ".fulness of 
 time," the successor of Wiclif and Huss, and with a body of 
 long-gathering popular favor to sustain him. The facts that 
 
 1 Compare Cowell's " Interpreter," where the king is regarded as the 
 source of law and above the law ; in the Puritan and Scotch view, the 
 king is but the executive of fixed law. 
 
124 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 the strongest spirits of the age were his upholders or fore- 
 runners, that half the people of Europe were his admirers or 
 followers, and that for more than a century the questions 
 voiced so boldl}' by Luther shook Europe with war, prove 
 clearly that he was a representative man, a man who spoke 
 for half the world, a necessary man, demanded by the stress 
 of contemporary thought and feeling. If time and cir- 
 cumstance favor, the teacher can make a most admirable char- 
 acter study on Luther, whose power largely consisted in his 
 honesty, directness, independence, and passionate love of truth. 
 Even in the extracts given, pp. 423, 424, it is plainly to be 
 seen that he was eminently a conservative, and that his respect 
 for the authority of the church was only exceeded by loyalty to 
 the best truth he could discern. 
 
 That the church was in need of reformation was clearly 
 proved by the calling of the Council of Trent, and the earnest, 
 wide-spread Jesuit movement ; within her precincts occurred a 
 true reform, whose effects have lasted to the present time ; 
 while the so-called Reformation was more of the nature of a re- 
 volt, ending in the secession of the Teutonic races from that Latin 
 church which had claimed to be the head and heart of Christen- 
 dom. So thoroughly, however, had the church made itself 
 one with all the secular interests of Europe, that this secession 
 could only be accomplished either through great political dis- 
 turbance, or by an appeal to arms ; and even then, as seen in 
 the peace of Augsburg, it was still thought necessary for each 
 prince to settle the religion of his own subjects ; unjust as 
 this seems to modern ideas, we must always remember that 
 differences in religion then meant civil war. In fact, of the 
 two leading interests of the age, religion and trade, religion 
 was the stronger, as proved by the facts, that, in opj^osition to 
 all commercial considerations, such useful industrial popula- 
 tions as the Huguenots in France, or the Moors in Spain, were 
 expelled or massacred ; while the ruling motive of the most 
 important wars was decidedly religious difference. That this 
 motive affected peoples as thoroughly as kings is proved by 
 
REFORMATION AND RENAISSANCE ERA. 125 
 
 the fact that it was the motive of popular revolt and civil war 
 as well as of international contest.^ One of the most interesting 
 and picturesque illustrations of this prevailing spirit of the 
 ase is to be seen in all the events connected with the Great 
 Armada. Its first object purported to be the recovery of 
 England from heresy ; its second, to cripple forever a foe 
 already felt to be dangerous to Spanish commerce and coloniza- 
 tion. On the side of the English and Dutch, meanwhile, the 
 strongest defence against this mighty fleet was believed to be 
 national prayer, and its misfortune and defeat were felt to be 
 surely due to divine interposition. 
 
 These wars of the Reformation essentially ended with the 
 Thirty Years' War, one of the most important conflicts of 
 modern times, not only on account of its magnitude and length, 
 but because it made important changes on the European map ; 
 while, during its progress, religious differences wearied them- 
 selves out, or were settled with sufficient tolerance to render 
 Europe quiet. It is significant to note in this connection, that 
 France under the lead of Cardinal Richelieu already subordi- 
 nated religious to political interests, since she entered the war 
 on the side of the Protestants, in order still further to weaken 
 her neighbor, the emperor, and disunite the Empire. 
 
 At the opening of the sixteenth century the kings of the 
 West had pretty well escaped from the tyranny of the feudal 
 nobles ; not so the peasants. Their complaints in Alsace- 
 Lorraine, and the account of their state given in More's Utopia, 
 show that they had been deprived of their ancient use of the 
 land, and of their old common rights to forest and waste, 
 which they had inherited from their Teutonic ancestors. In 
 England, the practice of the landlords of turning their lands 
 into sheep-farms greatly injured the poorer agricultural class, 
 
 1 In the Peasants' War, the program of the peasants clearly shows how 
 thoroughly social and political change seemed to them the natural accom- 
 paniment of religious reform, since, in all their experience, these elements 
 were inextricably involved in the consolidated structure under which they 
 had always lived. 
 
126 STUDIES IN GENEEAL HISTORY. 
 
 ''for," as More says, ''one shepherd ... is enough to eat up 
 that ground with cattle, to the occupying whereof about hus- 
 bandry many hands were requisite." These "hands" being 
 driven from their accustomed labor, unconsciously revenged 
 themselves upon the state by becoming paupers, vagabonds, and 
 thieves, thus changing from a valuable to a mischievous popu- 
 lation ; nor did the sheep-pastures help to ameliorate this state 
 of things by cheapening any necessity of life, since the land- 
 lords were so wealthy and few that they easily monopolized the 
 trade in wool, holding the prices where they would. 
 
 The discoveries of the period were as pureh' commercial in 
 their character as any of its undertakings. Yet the letter of 
 Columbus^ (p. 421) shows how thoroughly zeal for the spread 
 of the Catholic faith was mingled with the more secular objects 
 of conquest and trade. From the very first, moreover, as is 
 seen from the letter of Raleigh, national jealousies began to 
 arise over these new-world possessions, England fearing lest 
 Spain should become " unresistible " through these wealthy 
 lands. 
 
 The special original art of the Renaissance was painting, an 
 art which reflected the three strong intellectual tendencies of 
 the age. It borrowed its subjects from religion ; it sought its 
 principles from Greek antiquity ; it drew its immediate inspira- 
 tion from the direct study of nature ; these facts are illustrated 
 by nearly every work of Raphael and Michael Angelo. In 
 architecture, also, the antique forms appeared in the new combi- 
 nations. In the court of the Borghese palace are mingled the 
 Roman arch, the Greek pillar, and the medineval statue, while 
 in St. Peter's, a similar combination is overtopped by the 
 Oriental dome. While it is to be noted in this connection, that 
 
 * If the teacher have the time and material at hand, he can make a 
 most interesting study of Columbus, whose Hfe and character embodied 
 much of the circumstances and spirit of the age. Even in tlie extract 
 given, we see the loyalty, zeal, and modesty of this wonderful man, who 
 has become too much of a name " to conjure by," instead of being present 
 to our minds as a genuine and noble reality. 
 
KEFORMATION AND RENAISSANCE ERA. 127 
 
 the fine arts of the Renaissance owed their development to the 
 patronage of courts and wealthy Italian merchants, still it must 
 be remembered that opportunity and not inspiration was thus 
 supplied. 
 
 Suggestions for Essay and Examination Work. — The map of 
 
 Europe, the political pictm-e of the age. General view of the miity of 
 the church from 325 to 1648. The political view of the Reformation. 
 The three emperors, Augustus, Charlemagne, and Charles the Fifth. 
 Famous monks. Why did not Italy and Germany become feudal 
 monarchies like France and Spain? " The ships of Tarshish." Was 
 religious toleration, as we understand it, possible in the Reformation ? 
 (Debate.) In what ways was the Renaissance the culmination of 
 mediaeval civilization? The crimes of the sixteenth century. Extracts 
 from the diary of a Protestant Dutchman, who emigrated to Manhattan 
 Island. Same of an English Catholic emigrating to Maryland. The 
 history embodied in the Escorial. Was patronage necessary to the 
 development of the Renaissance art? How could literature become 
 somewhat free from patronage in this age ? How did the discovery of 
 America aifect religious energy. Bacon v. Aristotle. Effect of gun- 
 powder on the occupation of the knight. What was the significance of 
 the appearance of Don Quixote ? The palace u. the castle. How does 
 the public lighting of a city indicate a great advance in civilization ? 
 Luther and Socrates. Observations of an Italian travelling in Eng- 
 land in the time of Elizabeth. 
 
128 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 E. MODERN EUEOPE, 1648-1880. 
 
 I. Aa. General Study on ** Old Regime ^' in Europe ; Age 
 of Louis XI v., Frederick the Great, Anne and the 
 Georges, Maria Theresa, Peter the Great, 
 
 A word should be given in explanation of the phrase, " Old 
 Regime " ; strictly speaking, the term should be applied to 
 feudal as distinct from constitutional governments ; but I have 
 used it as applying to the absolute monarchies and aristocratic 
 societies developed from feudalism, whose power culminated or 
 began to be broken during this period. 
 
 The studies, pp. 446, 451, 458, may be summarized as 
 follows : — 
 
 GENERAL VIEW OF "OLD REGIME," 1G48-1789. 
 
 Organizations of Period. 
 
 Absolute governments in 
 
 ranee [ developed from feudal royalty. 
 
 Austria \ 
 
 Sardinia > developed from feudal imperial " marches." ^ 
 Prussia ) 
 Russia. 
 Military despotism in England, under constitutional forms, 
 appearing as the 
 
 commonwealth, — republican form. 
 
 protectorate, — limited autocracy of Cromwell.^ 
 
 ^ These imperial marches were geographically so placed as to be 
 involved in all European affairs. Thus, Savoy was always a felt power 
 in all wars involving Italy, Germany, France, and Spain ; Brandenburg 
 lay between the Northern and Western groups of European states, while 
 Austria was still the bulwark of Europe against the Turk. The strength 
 of the Empire lay in its separate members, not in its body. 
 
 ^ Although in form limited, the powers assumed by Cromwell differed 
 little from those of the monarchs of the " Old Regime " ; the source of 
 his power, however, was popular rather than hereditary, and Parliament 
 alone could raise taxes or grant supplies — notable differences. 
 
MODERN EUROPE. 129 
 
 Constitutional monarchy in England, 
 limited or checked by- 
 fixed income of the king, 
 parliamentary control of 
 law. 
 finance, 
 army, 
 ministerial responsibility and majority (party) 
 influence. 
 Republics in 
 
 America, Switzerland. 
 England (see military despotism). 
 Holland. 
 Temporary European leagues, for purposes of 
 maintaining " Balance of Power." 
 securing international justice, 
 obtaining favorable commercial terms. 
 Great Movements of Age. 
 
 International and colonial wars, 
 caused by ^ 
 
 ill-defined boundaries. 
 
 commercial inequalities. 
 
 disputed successions to various thrones. 
 
 desires of Lewis XIV. and Frederic the Great for 
 
 more territory. 
 Turkish invasion. 
 
 limited harborage and coast-line of the Baltic. 
 " Balance of Power " system, 
 waged in the interests of 
 
 kings and merchants. 
 
 1 These causes may be grouped under the two very general heads of 
 " A desire to win, keep, or increase royal power of the feudal type," and 
 "A desire for commercial advantage"; after gaining the points given in 
 the summary, the teacher might set the question, " Reduce these causes 
 to two general statements," as an exercise in generahzation. On compar- 
 ing these causes of war with those of the preceding period, it will at once 
 appear how decidedly men's minds had passed from religious to secular 
 interests. Of course, so far as these wars grew out of desire for terri- 
 tory, they naturally resulted from the feudal organization, which associ- 
 ated dominion with land-ownership. 
 
130 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 General View of "Old Regime." — Continued. 
 resulting in 
 
 development of groups ^ of European lands, — 
 
 Western: Spain, France, England, Nether- 
 lands ; Germany, Italy, and Austria, 
 involved. 
 Northern : Scandinavia, Denmark, northern 
 
 states of Germany, Russia, Poland. 
 South-eastern : Turkey ; Austria and Russia 
 involved. 
 colonial and commercial annoyance and disturb- 
 ance, 
 devastation of European lands, 
 misery of common people through 
 disturbance of occupation, 
 ruin of land and home, 
 military service, 
 taxes. 
 Revolt, or tendency to revolt, against " Old Regime " in 
 England, America, France. 
 
 Relative Strength of European States. 
 
 France strongest in age of Lewis XIV., > , i 
 
 Austria second in rank, > 
 
 territorial gains ; European alliances against them. 
 
 Brandenburg most rapidly growing state, proved by 
 value and power in military affairs, 
 comparison of territory at beginning and close of period. 
 
 Italy weakest during whole period, proved by her constant ter- 
 ritorial loss. 
 
 Poland most rapidly losing power, proved by 
 
 her comparative share in affairs at beginning and end of 
 
 age. 
 her first partition. 
 
 1 Note that the leaders of the Western group are the lands of the 
 Rhine and the Atlantic seaboard. The Northern group lias tlie Baltic for 
 its commercial centre, the Soutli-eastern group has the Black Sea, with 
 Constantinople for its Gibraltar. Again, the Western group was bound 
 together by its historic relations with Home. 
 
MODERN EUROPE. 131 
 
 England first commercial and naval power i > note treaties and 
 Holland second commercial and naval power ) wars. 
 
 Characteristics of Age. 
 
 Absolutism of monarchs, displaying itself in 
 disposal 2 of European lands ; note the 
 " Chambers of Reunion." 
 seizure of Strasburg. 
 treaties of Utrecht and Rastadt. 
 divisions of Italy, 
 seizure of Silesia, 
 partition of Poland, 
 arbitrary ^ declarations of war on their own behalf. 
 Decrease of religious intolerance, seen in 
 changed causes of wars, 
 spirit and material of literature. 
 Growth of republican, democratic, revolutionary ideas in litera- 
 ture. 
 Growth of positive intellectual interests. 
 Natural science, — 
 chemistry, 
 physics, 
 astronomy. 
 
 botany. y New. 
 
 zoology. 
 Political economy. 
 Philosophy of history and politics (common to 
 
 England and France). 
 Mental and moral philosophy (common to all 
 Europe). 
 Development of literature as a political, social, religious, and 
 moral power, seen in 
 
 close relation of English literature, politics, and religion 
 of seventeenth century. 
 
 ^ The English possession of Gibraltar, giving her the command of the 
 Mediterranean, was one of her most important commercial acquisitions. 
 
 2 These may be regarded as euphemisms for actions which, in private 
 life, and on a petty scale, would be described as dishonest, mean, cruel, or 
 unjust. 
 
132 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 General View of "Old Regime." — Continued. 
 
 new, popular classes of literature, — 
 periodicals, 
 novels. 
 
 satirical attacks (note caricature also). 
 
 influence of English politics on French thought. 
 
 censorship of the press. 
 Foundations for truth, sought in 
 
 nature. 
 
 reason. 
 
 history. 
 Growth of philanthropic spirit. 
 General material and intellectual progress, favored by 
 
 royal interest and patronage. 
 
 enormous development of popular literature. 
 
 invention of machinery {the steam-engine). 
 
 invention of apparatus. 
 
 Nothing more strongly marks the political progress of this 
 age than the drawing together of the states of Europe into a 
 single commonwealth of nations, conscious of mutual relations 
 and interests. This consciousness expressed itself in constant 
 attempts to preserve the "Balance of Power" by temporary 
 alliances against any state which, for the time being, threatened 
 to become too strong for her neighbors, or by such compro- 
 mises as that by which Poland was first divided between the 
 jealous powers about her. 
 
 While a general system of European politics was thus develop- 
 ing, England was leading the way to the modern system of govern- 
 ment, that depends for its support on popular suffrage, and 
 organizes itself in representative forms. Even the restored 
 Stuarts belonged rather to the modern than the old regime ^ 
 and from the fall of Charles the First, England could no 
 longer be properly classed as a feudal state, although many 
 feudal forms remained, notably the old assembly of the first 
 estate in the House of Lords. From that time, the House 
 of Commons became the sti'ongest political power in Eng- 
 land, although at first it used that power so timidly, that 
 
MODERN EUROPE. 133 
 
 often the king still had his way ; but that Parliament was in 
 reality the stronger is proved by the inability of either of the 
 restored Stuarts to carry their measures quite against its will. 
 But with the " Declaration of Rights," Parliament became visi- 
 bly the chief political power, since it held in its own hands the 
 constant control of the law, of the treasure, of the army. In 
 this expressed change consisted the accompHshed "Revolution 
 of 1688," a revolution which the Commons could easily main- 
 tain by the absolute dependence of the executive upon them 
 for financial support. Shortly after this revolution, two new 
 features of the constitution became decidedly visible : one, the 
 development of a responsible ministry in sympathy with the 
 majority of the popular vote ; ^ the other, the development of 
 rival parties in the country ; each part}' striving to educate 
 public opinion according to its own standards and desires ; and 
 each party driving or driven in turn to the various political 
 reforms called for by actual circumstance or b}' popular theory. 
 When one notes how all the tendencies, interests, and posi- 
 tive growths of this time are those which are still in our own 
 century, urging their way to culmination, he may perhaps feel 
 justified in including the age in the modern period, in spite of 
 the completed feudal forms it presents in leading states. But 
 the states' system of Europe, the appearance of popular repre- 
 sentation in government, of religious toleration,- of free speech 
 and popular agitation in regard to the gravest affairs, — of 
 machine work in industry, of the novel and the newspaper in 
 literature, the development of natural science, the growth of 
 philanthropy, — all these things unite the age with ours by 
 close organic ties. 
 
 1 But it must be remembered that the " popular vote " of the whole of 
 this period was ver}-^ limited, according to present standards, and that the 
 House of Commons was essentially aristocratic in composition and feeling. 
 
 2 It must be noted that religious toleration was a tendency rather than 
 a fact. The acts of the first freely elected parliament of the Restoration 
 show how intolerant the majority of the English people still were ; while 
 James was driven from the throne quite as much on account of his atti- 
 tude toward papists, as on account of his arbitrary government. 
 
134 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 Subjects for Essay and Examination Work. — The political 
 
 crimes of the eighteenth century. Was the Navigation Act a per- 
 manent advantage to England? (Debate.) Why should the Baltic 
 be a cause of war ? The mediaeval causes for the weakness of Italy 
 during this age. Views of a peasant in the Palatinate on the policy 
 of Lewis XIV. Views of a French peasant on the same subject. 
 Relation of colonial affairs to international European wars. Review 
 of the growth of Brandenburg into the kingdom of Prussia. ^ Imagin- 
 ary dialogue between Russia, Prussia, and Austria on the partition 
 of Poland. Value of Constantinople to Russia. 
 
 I. Ab. Special Study of the ** Old Hegitne " in France 
 {Eighteenth Century Type). 
 
 The results of this study may be embodied in some such 
 summar}' as the following : — 
 
 "OLD REGIME" IN FRANCE (EIGHTEENTH CENTURY). 
 
 Organization, Absolute Feudal Monarchy (compare later Roman 
 Empire and Oriental despotisms). 
 Supported by 
 
 the favor of its privileged classes, — 
 officers of army and state, ) 
 the officials of the church, v opposed to reform, 
 an hereditary nobility, } 
 the revenue from 
 feudal dues, 
 arbitrary taxes. 
 
 the sale of offices, privileges, and titl«s. 
 borrowed money, 
 a standing army. 
 Producing, or marked, 
 
 in administration, by 
 confusion, 
 injustice and inequality. 
 
 * Similar subjects may be given in connection with the growths of Savoy 
 and Austria. 
 
MODERN EUROPE. 135 
 
 strong centralization, 
 corruption and favoritism, 
 official neglect and idleness, 
 attempts at reform, ^ 
 aiming at 
 
 equality 
 
 of taxation, 
 of opportunity, 
 before the law. 
 religious toleration, 
 legal uniformity, 
 freedom of trade, 
 freedom of thought and speech, 
 economy at court, 
 failing, through 
 
 selfish interests of privileged classes, 
 arbitrary laws, taxes, etc. 
 repression of 
 
 free speech and 
 a free press, 
 neglect of local interests, — 
 roads, 
 schools, 
 churches, etc. 
 in finance, by 
 
 extravagance, insufficient revenue to meet ex- 
 penses ;2 .-. 
 debt, dishonesty, 
 in law, by 
 
 venality (buying and selling of office, and of jus- 
 tice itself), 
 unequal punishments, based on class distinction, 
 barbarous punishments, 
 uncertain, tardy, and varied justice. 
 
 1 Compare these attempted reforms with modem ideas, and with the 
 actual changes brought about in France by the Revolutionary period. 
 
 2 This is the prime difficulty which hampers the government, but gives 
 to France her one effective means for forcing reform. (Compare England 
 before the Civil Wars.) 
 
136 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 " Old Rkgime " in France. — Continued. 
 in the church, by 
 
 close union of church and state ; 
 intolerance, 
 corruption, simony, 
 inequality, based on class distinctions. 
 in the army, by 
 
 corruption. 
 
 inequality and injustice (class distinctions), 
 compulsory and oppressive enlistment, 
 no chance for honorable promotion, 
 in trade, by 
 
 government interference, 
 exclusive guild monopoly ; .*. 
 careless work, 
 high prices, 
 in society, by 
 
 hereditary status ; .*. 
 unequal opportunity for 
 official position, 
 acquirement of wealth, 
 acquirement of education, 
 dependence of talent on royal or aristocratic favor. 
 The Life of France. 
 At court, 
 
 marked by 
 
 extravagance, in behalf of pleasure and pomp. 
 immorality. 
 
 neglect of state interests, 
 love of pleasure, 
 supported by 
 
 bad debts to the bourgeoisie, 
 oppressive feudal taxation, 
 resulting in 
 
 the formation of corrupt and mischievous ideals, — 
 pleasure, 
 idleness, 
 splendor, 
 careless and mischievous administration, 
 financial embarrassment. 
 
MODERN EUROPE. 137 
 
 Among the bourgeoisie, 
 marked by- 
 honesty. 
 
 domestic virtue. 
 
 industry and intelligence. 
 
 public interest, 
 resulting in 
 
 prosperity and comparative wealth. 
 
 disapproval of the court. 
 
 desire for government reform.^ 
 
 comparative political importance. 
 Among the peasants, 
 marked by 
 
 extreme poverty. 
 
 extreme physical misery. 
 
 extreme ignorance and superstition. 
 
 oppressive taxation and overwork. 
 
 no protection for property or labor. 
 
 enforced monopolies (gahelle, etc.). 
 resulting in 
 
 inferior development of French resources, 
 
 blind dissatisfaction and unintelligent revolt 
 
 development of dangerous classes, 
 
 physical degradation of peasant, 
 
 desire for destruction of " Old Regime." 
 
 Thought and Feeling. 
 
 Of the supporters of royalty, — 
 
 belief in divine origin and support of kings; ••• 
 feeling that disloyalty is irreligious, 
 belief in arbitrary right of the king 
 
 to change or neglect the law. 
 
 to claim and use the property of the realm.'^ 
 
 ^ The bourgeoisie would try to reform rather than destroy the " Old 
 Regime," since violent change is always opposed to the interests of trade ; 
 while to the peasant, revolution could only mean change for the better. 
 
 2 These beliefs in regard to the king had their historic reason. The 
 idea of his " divine right " arose partly from the Scriptural presentation 
 of Hebrew royalty, and partly from the close relations of the heads of 
 church and state during the Middle Ages ; his relation to the law as its 
 
 ,1 
 
138 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 "Old Regime " in France. — Continued. 
 servility and dependence. 
 
 fear of Voltaire, Rousseau, and their followers.^ 
 sentimental sympathy for the poor.^ 
 Of Voltaire, Rousseau, Helvetius, and their followers, — 
 revolt against absolutism of king, 
 admiration of English thought and government, 
 demand for free thought and speech, 
 demand for popular power to change laws, 
 demand for equality before the law. 
 demand for equal education (opportunity), 
 belief in common right to the land, 
 belief in happiness as standard of morality, ) 
 
 belief in experience as only source of knowledge, i 
 loss of any fixed standard of right-doing. 
 
 A thorough understanding of the '' Old Regime" is essential 
 to a clear understanding of the Revolution, which was by no 
 means a single revolt against a single thing, but a complex 
 turmoil arising from the clash of strong and wealth}' classes, 
 of inexperienced thinkers, of ignorant and desperate masses, 
 against an ancient, rigid sj'stem, which had spread root and 
 branch through every institution, every industry, every habit of 
 French life. It is therefore necessary to look fairly at this 
 system, and understand just its relations to each great class of 
 society, and again, to examine as far as we can into the status 
 of each of these classes, in order that we may understand the 
 elements as well as the causes of the inevitable Revolution. 
 
 source and chief executive, gave rise to the feeling that he was above the 
 law ; while the whole feudal system rested on the theory that all land- 
 titles derived their first validity from royal grants. 
 
 1 No fact more thoroughly proves the influence of Voltaire and Rous- 
 seau than this fear practically expressed through a severe censorship of 
 their writings. 
 
 ' That this sympathy was sentimental, was proved fast enough by the 
 strenuous opposition made by the upper classes to the genuinely helpful 
 reforms proposed by Turgot and Necker. ' 
 
MODERN EUROPE. 139 
 
 For the Revolution was inevitable ; the king could no longer 
 force money from the third estate and the peasantry ; long- 
 wars, and the fetters imposed on industry by the feudal regime, 
 had exhausted or bound fast the resources of France ; and large 
 masses of men, even 'the king himself, had come face to face 
 with the primal question, "How to live?" Aside from this, 
 men everywhere found themselves hampered and embarrassed, 
 if not absolutely wronged, b}- an unavoidable subordination to 
 an unwieldy mediaeval system. There is no more striking 
 example in all history of the power of an organization to shape 
 the life of men unfortunately than is furnished by this ' ' Old 
 Regime " ; the nobles, shut out by law or custom from commer- 
 cial and professional careers, became a mass of idle, pleasure- 
 loving landlords, dependent on the king for their occupations 
 and honors ; the peasants necessaril}^ starved and deteriorated 
 under a system which held them fast to the land, and, at the 
 same time, demanded a disproportionate share of taxes and of 
 heavy physical toil ; the bourgeoisie, m6re healthfully situated, 
 free merchants of the towns or cities, with an assured market, 
 were the soundest men of France, — thoughtful, industrious, and 
 somewhat fitted for citizenship. 
 
 Among such materials, the ideas of Voltaire and Rousseau 
 might well be feared by those who wished to uphold the ' ' Old 
 Regime," since in their pages its ver}^ foundations were attacked ; 
 according to them, the law, the land, the very constitution, were 
 primarily for the good of the people, and should be under their 
 control. That law and government should emanate from popu- 
 lar sources is an idea now considered fundamental, but in the 
 France of the eighteenth century it was revolutionary, although 
 naturally called forth by the abuses of an absolute and 
 arbitrary rule. Rousseau went further, and affirmed that 
 the land should belong to all the people, a demand easy to 
 comprehend when we remember that absolutism had abused its 
 power here also, and had devoted large tracts of French terri- 
 tory to the purposes of idle pleasure, while no hard-working 
 peasant was secure in its use or possession. 
 
140 STXJDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 Thought was indeed the most dangerous enem}' of the '^ Old 
 Regime " ; its financial support, and the mass of its standing 
 army, were drawn from classes that would with reason desire 
 thoroughly to change or destroy it, the instant that their eyes 
 and minds were opened to its injustice, awkwardness, and 
 weakness. The difficulties in their way were meanwhile great, 
 — the powerful landed interests of the clergy and the nobles; 
 their own ignorance or inexperience ; the dangers with which 
 revolution always threatens property ; the practical hindrances 
 to united action found in bad and uncertain roads, and in the 
 natural inertia of men in regard to great and general affairs. 
 That in spite of all, the Revolution came, proves that France 
 had a vital need for "' Liberty^ Equality^ Fraternity'' ; — for free- 
 dom of trade, of thought, of speech ; for equalit}' before the 
 law ; for equal chances to learn and labor ; for a truly sympa- 
 thetic fraternity between class and class. The whole of conti- 
 nental Europe was full of misery, but France saw light ; for 
 in England and America the day had dawned. 
 
 Suggestions for Essay and Examination Work. — Stupidities 
 of the "Old Regime." Did they originate in stupidity? Defend 
 your position . Why should the peasants of France become e/jra^rerf, 
 rather than thoughtful, under the "Old Regime"? Account by a 
 common French soldier of his experiences in the army. Reminis- 
 cences of an " Invalide." What were the "prospects " open to young 
 Frenchmen of each class during the eighteenth century ? Reflections 
 of Necker on the usefulness of a French minister. Why should 
 thoughtful Frenchmen admire England? Why should the ideal 
 prevalent at court not spoil the "Bourgeoisie"? A i)easant's notion 
 of reform. A noble's. A merchant's. 
 
FRENCH REVOLUTION AND WARS OF NAPOLEON. 141 
 
 E. II. PKENOH EEVOLUTION AND WAKS OF NAPOLEON, 
 1789-1815. 
 
 Each of the studies, 1,2, and 3, should be summarized and 
 finished before passing on to new work. The following tabula- 
 tions may prove helpful : — 
 
 1. FRENCH REVOLUTION. 
 
 Caused by : 
 
 Arbitrary absolutism of " Old Regime ; " . • . 
 
 Oath of Tennis-court. 
 A standing army under absolute royal control; .•. 
 
 formation of " National Guard." 
 Feudal oppressions of nobles; .-. 
 
 destruction of title-deeds. 
 Instability of law and government ; . • . 
 
 demand for a signed constitution as a received and 
 understood standard of government.^ 
 Exemption of nobles and clergy from taxation ; .-. 
 
 resignation of feudal privilege by the nobles. 
 
 confiscation of church property to state use. 
 Degradation and ignorance of lowest classes; .*. 
 
 cruel and unintelligent action in revolution. 
 Suppression of free thought and religious intolerance; .-. 
 
 reaction to worship of " Reason." 
 
 Favored by : 
 
 Weakness of " Old Regime," seen in 
 
 inability to suppress revolution or preserve order, 
 attempted flight of king, 
 " emigration " of nobles, 
 sudden completeness of its fall. 
 
 1 The demands of this first constitution show what wrongs the middle 
 class — the third estate — had most keenly felt ; namely, taxation without 
 representation, arbitrary and uncertain law, and the exhaustion of French 
 blood and treasure in foreign wars, waged at tlie will of the king. 
 
142 STUDIES IN GENEEAL HISTORY. 
 
 French Revolution. — Continued. 
 
 General French sympathy i with the Revolution, strengthened by 
 
 attacks of foreign powers. 
 
 vacillation and weakness of king. 
 Marked by : 
 
 (1) Rapid succession of constitutional changes. 
 
 (2) Popular suspicions of league of European kings, .*. 
 
 determination to execute Lewis XVI.^ 
 popular energy in foreign wars. 
 
 (3) Despotism under republican forms, Sept., 1792 to July, 1794, 
 
 embodied in 
 
 Parisian clubs and committees, 
 demagogic autocrats (Robespierre), 
 proving its nature by 
 
 arbitrary imprisonment and massacre. 
 " Reign of Terror." 
 imposition of revolutionary worships, 
 supported by 
 
 terrorism, — 
 
 imprisonment, 
 assassination. 
 
 condemnation without trial, 
 mob violence. 
 
 (4) Reaction against mob-rule, and gradual restoration of order, 
 
 embodied in 
 
 Directory. 
 
 constitution of year VIII., Napoleonic rule, 
 supported by 
 
 national forces, led by 
 
 Napoleon Bonaparte. 
 
 (5) Foreign conqu^t, accompanied by 
 
 (6) Proclamation of republican principles, and 
 Enforcement of republican constitutions in conquered territory. 
 
 1 Had the body of the people been attached to the " Old Re'girae," of 
 course it could not finally have been overthrown, since perhaps even the 
 peasants would have made a good defence, judging from their energy in 
 the Vendean War. 
 
 2 The whole government of the " Old Regime " had been so absolutely- 
 centralized in the person of the monarch, that to the peasants and the 
 populace, at least, the execution of the king would mean the fall of the 
 whole system. 
 
PREKCH REVOLUTION AND WARS OF NAPOLEON. 143 
 
 Results of Revolution. 
 
 Military autocracy of Napoleon.^ 
 Uniform system of published law (Code Napoleon). 
 A published constitution, open to popular criticism. 
 Established recognition of the representative principle. 
 Destruction of feudalism ; .-. 
 
 equality before the law. 
 
 uniform system of taxation substituted for feudal dues. 
 Formation of a national army. 
 Development of French patriotism, through 
 
 common sufferings and achievements. 
 
 foreign attack, and 
 
 Napoleon's victories. 
 
 Although the " Old Regime " apparently fell at a blow before 
 the first attack of vigorous revolution, we must still remember 
 with Taine, that its spiritual forces, its habits of thought and 
 action, were powerful factors throughout the Revolutionary age ; 
 perhaps indeed the}" still possess a governing force in France. 
 America was too recent and distant an experiment to have any 
 practical lessons to teach, while English kings still managed 
 by various forms of bribery and trickery to govern more in 
 sympathy with the old than with the coming political system 
 of Europe. France herself only knew by experience one way 
 of government, the way of centralized despotism, and throughout 
 her attempts at political liberty, this political habit clung. The 
 most ardent defenders of the *' Rights of Man," when they 
 obtained the power and responsibilit}' of government, could not 
 see their way clear to solve the problem of securing order at 
 home and victory abroad, without recourse to force, and the 
 representative machine was far too imperfect and ill-adjusted 
 to work out desirable results, especially in a period so full 
 of rapid and critical dangers. Taine has clearly shown that 
 the despotisms of the "Old Regime" were to blame for the 
 despotisms of the Revolution ; but perhaps he does not suffl- 
 
 1 The comparison between Cromwell and Napoleon is a natural and strik- 
 ing one; but it applies rather to their circumstances than their characters, 
 
144 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 ciently emphasize the '•''dire necessity^'' which day after day 
 forced on bold but inexperienced men to some sort of great 
 and decisive action, involving the movements of troops, the 
 wholesale judgments of courts, the suppression of disturbance, 
 the defence of legislative bodies, the conclusion of treaties. 
 Even a modern state, with a smoothly working representative 
 system, with railway and telegraph and newspaper at com- 
 mand, in such a time of foreign and domestic stress, would find 
 itself urged to some form of easily and rapidly acting autocracy. 
 It is beyond all doubt that France could not change in less than 
 a generation, if, indeed, so quickly, from the " Old Regime " to 
 a genuine republic of any sort. How badly even the most 
 advanced republicans understood the spirit the}' had evoked 
 was shown by the enforcement of republican forms and names 
 upon countries prepared neither to understand nor be grateful 
 for them. Under these conditions, it was fortunate for France 
 that the Directory, driven for self-preservation to the protec- 
 tion of Napoleon, found in him a master for itself and France ; 
 a master of sufficient genius to hold France firm to the acknowl- 
 edged principles of the Revolution ; a master who knew how 
 to give France law and order and peace under the new forms 
 which she herself could not yet use ; and a master representative 
 in his own person of popular government. 
 
 The constitution of the year VIII. diifered vastly from the 
 " Old Regime," in that it recognized the people as a part of the 
 government of France, and brought the whole country under a 
 uniform standard of law. Although in France, as in England, 
 revolution did not at once change the reality of various politi- 
 cal relations, yet it gave men new forms and new tools, better 
 fitted to the spirit and tendency of the age. Little bv little the 
 new forms were to become inspired with the breath of i)opular 
 life, and little by little the new tools were to gain edge and 
 temper and strength, as the awkward grasp of the people 
 became surer and finer. 
 
 The Revolution is even more striking from the social than 
 the political standpoint ; and its political results may almost be 
 
FRENCH REVOLUTION AND WARS OF NAPOLEON. 145 
 
 regarded as a necessary outcome of its social changes. Its 
 essential fact was, that it overthrew feudalism, or a society 
 based on hereditary status, and gave to France instead a nation 
 of citizens and a society based upon equal relationship to a 
 common soil. 
 
 2. THE NAPOLEONIC RULE. 
 
 Developed by : 
 
 Necessities of France for 
 domestic peace, 
 foreign victory. 
 Military genius of Napoleon. 
 Supported by : 
 
 Patriotism of France, and 
 
 Loyalty of armies to Napoleon. 
 
 Napoleonic recognition of republican principles and forms.i 
 
 Resulting in : 
 
 Recovery of Rhine frontier for France, (Compare with boun- 
 dary of ancient Gaul.) 
 
 Growth of Napoleonic Empire. (Compare with Empire of 
 Charlemagne.) 
 
 Fall of " Holy Roman Empire." ^ 
 
 European opposition to Napoleon ^ and revolutionary principles, 
 caused by 
 
 fear of his military genius. 
 
 1 Note Napoleon's recognition of the principle of manhood suffrage in 
 his own elevation; but in his arbitrary disposal of the various parts of his 
 empire, he followed the spirit and example of the " Old Regime." 
 
 2 In order to call attention to this rather uninfluential event, the teacher 
 should remind the class that it was the title of Augustus Caesar, which 
 came to its end in 1806 ; and that from this Holy Roman Empire have 
 been formed Italy, Germany, Austria, Poland, Holland^ Belgium, and 
 Switzerland. 
 
 ^ It is interesting to note how neighborly jealousies sometimes over- 
 came the common fear of Napoleon, as when Austria and Prussia joined 
 him against Russia. In the early part of the Revolution, also, France 
 was often indebted to various European jealousies or rival ambitions. 
 
146 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 The Napoleonic Rule. — Continued. 
 
 spread of the republican principles which he 
 
 claimed to person if y.^ 
 fall of Napoleon. 
 
 national reactions against foreign influence or 
 rule, in 
 Spain. 
 Russia. 
 Prussia, 
 resulting in 
 
 readjustment of Europe at Congress of Vienna. 
 
 The Congress of Vienna proved itself the representative of the 
 '' Old Regime," not only by its restorations of old dynasties, 
 but by its arbitrary disposal of pAiropean lands and peoples. 
 
 3. PRUSSIAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 Developed by : \ 
 
 Necessity of Prussia for 
 
 forces ^ 
 
 funds > to cope with Napoleon. 
 
 patriotism ) 
 Failure of " Old Regime " to meet this necessity, because of 
 
 inequality and inadequacy of taxation. 
 
 entire separation of people and government. 
 
 fixed nature of occupations;^ .*. 
 
 loss of free energy. 
 
 fixed tenure and status of land; .-. 
 
 inadequate development of Prussian resources. 
 
 popular sympathy with French Revolution. 
 Genius of Stein and his associates. 
 
 1 The formation of the "Holy Alliance" proves how thoroughly the 
 monarchs of Europe realized that Napoleon was not their iinal foe, but 
 rather the ideas which he liad nominally represented. 
 
 2 For the historic origin of the three classes of Prussia, with their corre- 
 sponding occupations, see " Studies," p. 226. 
 
FRENCH REVOLUTION AND WARS OF NAPOLEON. 147 
 
 Resulting in 
 
 Formation of a national army, 
 
 Abolition of serfdom, 
 
 Free trade in land, y 
 
 Reforms of Stein, Scharn- 
 
 horst, and their associ- 
 
 -^ , . ™ ^- ^ i> I ^-t^s. Compare with 
 
 Free choice oi occupation to rrus- rp , . 
 
 sian citizens, j 
 
 Nationalization of Prussia; .-. 
 Growth of patriotism, developed by- 
 reform of the state, 
 example of Spain. i 
 agitation of secret societies, 
 active efforts of enthusiastic patriots, — 
 Arndt, poet. 
 Jahn, gymnast.2 
 Fichte, philosopher, 
 statesmanship of Stein. 
 War of Liberation. 
 Recognition of constitutional jirinciples.^ 
 
 The French and the Prussian Revolutions were caused by 
 similar needs, and effected similar ends ; both were forced on by 
 the demand of the government for money, which an exhausted 
 land could by no means yield, and for popular sympathies, 
 which an oppressed peasantry and a neglected middle class 
 could by no means give ; and both ended in most radical change, 
 — in the destruction of the rigid feudal state, with its classes, 
 lands, and occupations, fixed by distinctions of birth, and in 
 
 1 From the extract given on p. 488, it will be seen that the national 
 movement in Spain was greatly intensified by a spirit of religious zeal 
 against the " heretic." 
 
 2 Although there is a touch of romance about the attractive figure of 
 Jahn, his idea was nevertheless far more practical than one at first might 
 think ; the splendidly trained peoples of antiquity show what the physi- 
 cal culture of the individual may accomplish for the race ; while in the 
 Prussian army we have the modern application of the same principle. 
 
 ^ These, however, did not begin to work so quickly in Germany as in 
 France ; but the seed was planted ; and its life was in it, " after its kind," 
 from tjie day that Stein called together again the old mediaeval estates, 
 which were in their spirit and origin popular assemblies. 
 
148 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 the erection instead of the mobile modern state, with its free 
 citizens, lands, and trades. But while the French Revolution 
 was precipitated upon an unprepared, inert, and helpless gov- 
 ernment which must needs fall before its onset, the Prussian 
 Revolution was the result of strong and simple statesmanship, 
 whose measures were carried out by government itself, and 
 carried out so peacefully that men were scared}- aware that 
 Prussia as well as France and England had entered the world 
 of modern states. The revolution was the less marked because 
 the fundamental change was social, as in France ; and here it 
 was unaccompanied by any agitation for those political changes 
 with which France had terrified Europe. For the time being, 
 Prussia felt no need of such political change. The Prussian 
 monarchs had attended to the duties of their office and the 
 interests of their people far better than the kings of France ; 
 the changes of Stein and his associates met the need of the 
 hour ; the freeing of serfs and the reform of the army gave 
 Prussia at once a free citizen army, enlivened throughout by 
 the breath of hopeful emulation ; free trade in land rendered 
 every acre available to capital ; and free choice of occupation 
 allowed every man to serve the state according to his best or 
 favorite capacit}' ; thus the Prussian resources began to gather 
 force and volume from farm and shop and counter ; and the 
 free citizens became better and better able to bear the burdens 
 of taxation. Meanwhile, all these reforms made Prussia a 
 country to be loved, so that the revolution at home, and 
 admiration for Stein, began to neutralize the effects of the 
 Revolution in France and admiration for Napoleon. 
 
 From the day that Stein noticed the power of the Spanish 
 revolt, he regarded the passion of patriotism, the sentiment of 
 nationality, as the mightiest foe that could be evoked against 
 Napoleon ; hence his eagerness to spread the news of it, and to 
 rouse the national pride to enthusiasm by poetry and stirring ex- 
 ample. That Napoleon entirely agreed with Stein's opinion, is 
 easily inferred from his demand for Stein's dismissal ; that Stein 
 was wholly right was proved by the event. Even in Yorck, the 
 
FRENCH REVOLUTION AND WARS OF NAPOLEON. 149 
 
 brave old general, the love of his land overcame his life-long 
 habit of military obedience. 
 
 I cannot forbear adding that the development of Prussian 
 nationality is a most significant lesson as to the wide popular 
 effects which the conscious purpose and action of a few united 
 and devoted patriots may achieve. 
 
 Suggestions for Essay and Examination Work. — Does the 
 Revolution show the French people to have been eager or slow in 
 regard to political change? Why is a "national guard" the most 
 effective national defence, other things being equal ? How did it hap- 
 pen that France, during the Revolutionary period, was so well able to 
 meet foreign invasion? How was the "Old Regime" to blame for 
 the excesses of the Revolution ? The inconsistencies of Robespierre. 
 Journal of an " Emigrant." Letters of a Norman noble, present in 
 the national assembly from its opening to Aug. 5, 1789. Letters of a 
 Lyons merchant present during the same period. IMob-rule v. the 
 " Old Regime." Reflections of a Roman citizen on the French procla- 
 mation of a Roman republic. Same of a Venetian aristocrat on the 
 proclamation of a Venetian republic. What are the uses of a writ- 
 ,ten constitution? 
 
 The working of the " Balance of Power" system during the Napo- 
 leonic era. Napoleon and Charlemagne. What popular ideals and 
 desires did Napoleon personify or accomplish? What old historic 
 idea appears in the phrase "Holy Alliance"? How far have the 
 arrangements of the Congress of Vienna remained permanent? 
 
 What does the history of the Prussian Revolution show as to the 
 value of personal effort for a great political object? What would 
 have been the opinion of practical, common-sense men as to the 
 advisability of Prussia's making any attempt to resist Napoleon after 
 the Treaty of Tilsit? How did the reforms of Stein increase happi- 
 ness? Energy? Napoleon v. Stein. Value of secret societies as 
 instruments of agitation. (Debate.) 
 
150 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 E. III. THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 On page 491, a blank space is left after ''chief contemix)- 
 rary and original sources," in order that the teacher may have 
 an opportunity to test the pupil's power to recognize the true 
 sources of historical knowledge when he sees them. If he has 
 noted these sources as they have been indicated throughout the 
 work, he will now be ready to see that the contemporary world 
 is full of the original "raw material" of nineteenth century 
 history ; that it is appearing in newspapers, in new laws, 
 in contemporarj' literature and art, in declarations of war and 
 treaties of peace, in statistics, in investigations and inventions, 
 in amusements and manners ; and, above all, in the organizations 
 into which men are crowding the forces of numbers and knowl- 
 edge, or from which they are silently withdrawing these forces. 
 If the class be sufficiently mature, there is no better place than 
 this to enter upon some discussion of the comparative value of 
 historic materials, and to note the tests by which this or that 
 should be rejected as useless. But even with the most mature 
 pupils that are likely to use this book, it may not be well to 
 enter further into the matter than to note, that in all the mass 
 of actions, facts, opinions, and objects, which enter into the lives 
 of men, some enter so widely into the lives of the generality so 
 as to become positive forms or forces in society, and so rise to 
 be of general typical historic value ; and while the student should 
 respect every action, fact, opinion, and object as significant, 
 he should be led to feel a sense of proportion in regard to their 
 relative value. 
 
 The " Studies" on 1 and 2 may be summarized somewhat as 
 follows : — 
 
THE N^INETEENTH CENTURY. 151 
 
 NINETEENTH CENTURY. 
 
 Political Organizations. 
 
 ^monarchical (England). 
 
 Constitutional governments, ■< republican (America, France). 
 
 (imperial (Germany), 
 composed of 
 
 an executive head, — 
 
 non-representative and irresponsible (Ex. : 
 
 English monarch). 
 
 representative and responsible (Exs. : prime 
 
 minister, president) . 
 
 legislative chambers, — 
 
 upper house : 
 
 hereditary, elected, or appointed. 
 
 lower house : 
 
 elected, more popular than upper. 
 
 courts of justice. 
 
 a democratic body of citizens, bound together by 
 
 common interests in 
 
 government. 
 
 law. 
 
 defence and commerce. 
 
 education. 
 
 religion. 
 
 common residence on national soil. 
 
 based upon popular approval. 
 
 characterized by 
 
 majority rule. 
 
 universal suffrage, or strong tendency toward it. 
 
 systems of checks. 
 
 legal and political equality of citizens. 
 
 publicity of measures. 
 
 representative system, applied to 
 
 magistrates (Ex.: English premier). 
 
 assemblies (Ex.: Reichstag). 
 
 citizen-armies. 
 
 aided or rendered possible by 
 
 railroads, telegraphs, steamships, etc. 
 
 newspapers, public education. 
 
 public spirit and interest of citizens. 
 
152 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 Nineteenth Century. — Continued. 
 
 The nation-state, bound together by ties of 
 common race and speech, 
 common religion, 
 common government and interests. 
 
 Exs. : Italy, Germany, France, Russia. 
 Imperial, colonial union (England), 
 composed of 
 
 Europeans, and 
 undeveloped or native races, 
 developed through 
 
 commercial interests, 
 modern means of communication. 
 European congresses, conferences, etc., 
 tending to 
 
 unify Europe. 
 
 substitute arbitration for war. 
 protect weak states, 
 preserve the " Balance of Power." 
 Political parties, embodying 
 
 public opinion in working organizations of citizens. 
 Secret societies, 
 
 agitating for 
 
 national independence (Germany, Italy, Greece). 
 changes in government, — » 
 
 constitutional (Germany, Italy), 
 communistic or socialistic (France, Ger- 
 many), 
 anarchic (Russia). 
 
 Other Organizations. 
 
 The free church in the free state (America). 
 Combinations of labor, — 
 
 trades-unions. 
 
 secret societies. 
 
 international unions. 
 
 co-operative unions (Ex. : building associations). 
 
 political parties (German socialists). 
 Public schools. 
 Citizen-armies. 
 
THE NINETEENTH CENTUEY. 153 
 
 Voluntary societies for 
 
 management of charities, 
 agitation of reforms, 
 'pursuit of learning, etc., etc. 
 
 Great corporations for carrying on business enterprises (bank- 
 ing, manufacturing, transportation, telegraphy, etc., etc.). 
 
 G-reat Movements and Tendencies of Age. 
 
 r Asia (England, Russia). 
 Europeanization of other J Africa (England, France), 
 continents, ( Australia (England), 
 
 in interests of 
 
 commerce. 
 Christianity. 
 Development of nationalities, 
 completed in 
 
 Germany, Italy, 
 Greece, Holland, Belgium, 
 agitated for in 
 
 Hungary, Poland, Ireland, 
 proceeding in 
 America. 
 Formation of popular constitutional governments in 
 France, Germany, Italy, 
 Austria, Spain, etc. 
 European wars,i 
 
 in behalf of 
 
 nationality. 
 "Balance of Power." 
 colonial interests, 
 resulting in 
 
 formation of national units, 
 constant checking of greater powers.'^ 
 arbitrary disposal of weaker peoples (in some 
 cases). 
 
 ^ Perhaps no one war outranks in importance the Franco-Prussian, 
 which at one blow made France a republic, completed the independence 
 and freedom of Italy, and bound the states of Germany into imperial 
 union. 
 
 2 Notably Russia ; on whom Europe has long kept constant watch. 
 
154 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 Nineteenth Century. — Continued. 
 
 Abolition of slavery and serfdom (England,* Russia, Prussia, 
 
 America). 
 Socialism, 
 
 embodied in 
 
 political parties, 
 secret societies, 
 aiming at^ 
 
 state ownership of means of labor, 
 more equitable distribution of profits of labor, 
 greater leisure and culture for laboring classes, 
 reorganization of states in the interests of labor. 
 
 Characteristics of Age. 
 
 Democracy. 
 Individual freedom of 
 
 occupation, labor, movement, 
 residence. 
 
 speech and thought. 
 Appearance of lowest classes as 
 
 members of society (through abolition of slavery and 
 
 serfdom), 
 members of the state (through universal suffrage, citi- 
 zen-armies, and public schools). 
 Industrial development, 
 favored by 
 
 new means of transportation and communication 
 
 (railway, telegraph, steamship), 
 introduction of machinery, 
 opening of Oriental markets, 
 development of new lands. 
 Scientific investigation. 
 General diffusion of intelligence, comfort, and freedom. 
 
 1 In England the slave-owners were paid for their property by the state ; 
 in America, through the pressure of circumstance, this property was re- 
 garded as " contraband of war." 
 
 2 I have purposely stated these aims in tlie most general terms, since 
 the name of socialist covers so many theories and desires. A more defi- 
 nite list miglit be made for class-work by paraphrasing the demands made 
 on pp. 637, 638. 
 
THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 155 
 
 Strained relations of church and state. 
 Religious toleration, seen in 
 
 Christian and JVIohammedan equality in Turkey. 
 
 repeal of corporation and test acts in England. 
 
 Catholic relief act in England. 
 
 disestablishment of Irish ' ' church." 
 Cosmopolitanism, or diffusion of common thought and knowledge 
 
 of agricultural, commercial, and mechanical resources. 
 Increasing number and power of social organizations. 
 
 The British constitution is a government machine worked by 
 the people. The powers of the monarch are so hedged about 
 by those of the premier and the commons, the premier is so de- 
 pendent on the following of the commons, the latter are so readily 
 displaced by the popular vote, and this again is so easily led by 
 argument or personal influence, that no part of the government 
 can long act in a way which people in general regard as foolish 
 or wicked without experiencing a change of heart or a fall. 
 Although in its essential spirit democratic, yet the British con- 
 stitution is more picturesque than the plainer and severer forms 
 of France and America, since its legislative assemblies find 
 their title and origin in the mediaeval assemblies of estates, 
 while the monarch and the court preserve the memories of the 
 "Old Regime." Of these historic forms, the House of Lords 
 and the king appear unnecessary to an American eye, since 
 the real work of government is carried on by the more distinctly 
 modern and representative parts of the constitution, the prime 
 minister and the House of Commons. Although the House of 
 Commons is a representative body in theory, and largely so in 
 fact, it can never be the thorough tool of the democracy until 
 its members are paid for their services, thus allowing the 
 trading and laboring classes to send personal representatives. 
 This imperfection, however, is partly counterbalanced by the 
 superior independence of men, whose living does not depend on 
 their expressed political opinions. The central figure of the 
 government is, of course, the prime minister ; he embodies 
 popular will and trust ; he is the responsible executive of the 
 
156 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 nation ; and so thoroughly is his power felt to be the leading 
 one, that in common speech the prime minister and his fol- 
 lowers are called ''the government." 
 
 Nothing more strikingly illustrates the great change that has 
 passed over France within the century than to compare her 
 present constitution with that of the "Old Regime" ; heredi- 
 tary distinctions in society have vanished ; the whole people 
 share in the government ; the church has ceased to be a dis- 
 tincti\e part of the state. France indeed has. become a more 
 thoroughly modern state than her leader, England, since every 
 part of her government is directly representative of the will of 
 the majorit}^ of her citizens, and since her citizens include all 
 eligible Frenchmen at home, or in the colonies. By this last 
 inclusion, France has succeeded in binding her colonies to her- 
 self in organic union, and thus in forming a genuine " Greater 
 France." 
 
 Germany differs from England and France in that it is a 
 complex of historic states, where the problem of representation 
 has been more difficult, because not only citizens but govern- 
 ments must be represented. These governments, too, differ 
 widely in spirit, form, history, and power ; while one of them, 
 the Prussian, maintains among the others a leadership almost 
 amounting to autocracy. But the elastic fitness of the English 
 constitution to modern political needs receives no better illus- 
 tration than the fact that it has been made the successful work- 
 ing basis for the governments of two states so widely different 
 as German)' and France, — the former the home of particu- 
 larism, the latter thoroughly stamped with centralization. 
 
 Not only the principles but the forms of these modern con- 
 stitutions run parallel. To the king corresponds the emperor 
 and the president ; the latter, however, adds to his power the 
 responsibility of a prime minister. This responsibility and a 
 limited term of office give him checks felt neither by king nor 
 emperor. With the premier ranks the chancellor ; the House 
 of Lords is copied by the French Senate and the German 
 Bundesrath ; while the purely nineteenth century parts of the 
 
THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 157 
 
 constitution, the lower houses and the citizen body, are very 
 nearly alike. 
 
 The modern state thus stands before us, the complete, ad- 
 justable organ of popular will. It has secured itself against 
 domestic tyranny b}^ a cunning system of constant and bal- 
 anced checks ; against foreign invasion hy citizen-armies and 
 a central responsible chief. It embodies within itself the 
 representative principle discovered b}' the towns in the feudal 
 age, and the equal citizenship of the classic republics ; but it 
 has learned to combine the two, so that its popular assemblies 
 are neither confined to the representation of a single city as in 
 antiquity, nor to the representation of separate hereditary 
 classes as in the mediaeval age. The newspaper and the tele- 
 graph serve the purpose of the crowded " market-place," and 
 enable a widely scattered population to learn, discuss, and 
 judge at the same hour the events of each passing day, thus 
 binding areas of thousands of miles into an intelligent, sympa- 
 thetic, political unit. Thus for the state, space is destroyed ; 
 and the practical difficulty felt by antiquity of forming a suc- 
 cessful republic larger than the area of a single city, has disap- 
 peared. Nevertheless, in the modern as in the ancient state, 
 ' ' Persuasion " is the goddess who grants political power ; a 
 power no man can keep unless he keep as well the approval of 
 the majority of his fellow-citizens. Our armies, again, are of a 
 new type. The mercenaries who played so important a part in 
 antiquity, the mediaeval warrior-bands of vassals, following 
 their knightly landlords, are alike displaced by citizen-armies, 
 regularly trained and paid to serve their whole country and their 
 own country. 
 
 In noting the other features of organized social life in our 
 own century, we are struck b}' the endless number of organiza- 
 tions, and by the fact that they are almost without excep- 
 tion formed in the interests of genuine progress, and that a 
 progress toward the higher, freer, more spiritual life of man. 
 Many of them are absolutely new ; others bear some resem- 
 blance to older forms ; thus, the trades-union recalls the guild, 
 
168 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 the colonial empire of England has points of resemblance with 
 the empire of Rome. But the resemblances are superficial ; the 
 time is great and original, and gives its own peculiar stamp to 
 all its living forms. 
 
 The constitutional state is distinctly of the nineteenth cen- 
 tury ; the nation-states appeared with the opening of the 
 Renaissance, but our own century has notably increased their 
 number, strengthened the spirit of nationality and the con- 
 sciousness of race-relationships. Thus in the modern as the 
 ancient state appears the strong kinship bond with a common 
 fatherland or mother-country as a common ancestor. The 
 strong tendency toward the formation of these national units is 
 seen in the almost constant agitation, which desires for nation- 
 alization have produced in one or another part of Europe. 
 This desire has divided the Holy Roman Empire since its final 
 fall into its true component parts, — a Protestant, Dutch- 
 speaking Holland ; a Catholic, French-speaking Belgium ; a 
 Catholic Italy ; a union of the old German-born and German- 
 speaking tribes into a Teutonic empire ; with this desire, 
 Hungary has disturbed Austria ; Ireland besieged England ; 
 Poland roused the sympathies and sometimes the indignation of 
 civilized states ; pleading the rights of nationality, Greece 
 commanded the services of Europe to obtain them ; by national 
 sympathies or aspirations, Turkey has lost wholly, or in part, 
 one after another of her little Slavic and Clnistian principali- 
 ties, until, dismembered and disjointed, the Moslem Oriental 
 state has won the nickname of the " Sick Man" of Europe. 
 
 How far nationality can really settle the independence and the 
 boundaries of European states is still an open question. When 
 political boundaries follow strongly marked geographical bar- 
 riers, such as Italy, Spain, and England possess, we will hardly 
 expect political disturbance arising from this source ; but the 
 partition of Poland shows how helpless a country is without 
 such natural defences, while the able and increasingly success- 
 
THE NINETEENTH CENTURY, 159 
 
 ful agitations, for " Home-Rule " in Hungary and Ireland, 
 have been strongly backed by their real geographical unity. 
 German}', however, lies between two badly defined boundaries ; 
 and the shifting fortunes of her Russian and French frontiers 
 have proved already, and may perhaps in future prove, a source 
 of serious difficulty with a greedy or discontented neighbor. 
 
 AYhile Europe thus individualizes within, a glance at the map 
 (pp. 520, 521) will show how rapidly she is penetrating or pos- 
 sessing the rest of the world. Since the opening of the sixteenth 
 centur}', the great movement of population has been from Europe 
 outward; her peoples have "swarmed" westward, eastward, 
 southward ; with them they have carried their material civiliza- 
 tion, their ideas, their institutions; already the world itself 
 grows cosmopolitan ; and each land gives of its own good in 
 return for that of every other. As the Greek peopled the 
 ^gsean coasts and islands, as the Macedonian hellenized West- 
 ern Asia, as the Roman peopled and civilized the lands of the 
 Mediterranean basin, so the European will possess the world. 
 With each of these movements, civilization has swept through 
 wider circles of land and population ; on comparing its present 
 area with that which it held a thousand years B.C., we note a 
 marvellous change ; then, in a little knot of Oriental states, 
 a rich, material civilization concentrated its enjoyments and 
 powers in the lives of nobles, kings, priests, and merchants; 
 now three great continents are thoroughly possessed by free 
 peoples, among whom a high type of material and intellectual 
 civilization is widely spread, and still more widely spreading ; 
 and the same leaven has begun to work through the continents 
 that remain. 
 
 But the movement is not all peaceful ; the urgent Europeans 
 threaten to crowd each other hard in the most desirable parts 
 of the outlying world ; in fact, the international relations of 
 Europe are largely determined by colonial and commercial 
 considerations ; thus Russia and England threaten in Asia, 
 and clashing colonial interests may mean European war ; thus 
 the determination that Russia shall not win Constantinople, 
 
160 ST.UDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 prolongs the existence of Turke}', aud decides the combinations 
 of P2urope in every Eastern complication. 
 
 Turning from the general history of Europe to the history of 
 special countries, we find in nearly every case that this is 
 so entangled with international or cosmopolitan movements 
 that it only gives particular illustrations of general historic 
 tendencies. Thus in England, as everywhere, the advance of 
 democracy, colonial and commercial interests, and the problems 
 of labor, have been the centres of action. There, as elsewhere, 
 democracy has grown more and more complete with the ad- 
 vancing century ; one has but to compare the demands of the 
 Chartists with the reforms made by Parliament from 1848 
 onward, to see how rapidly this political tendency has changed 
 from the dread to the pet of the public ; those demands, so 
 shocking to the English feeling of the former time, are now 
 almost wholly answered. There, as elsewhere, but more than 
 elsewhere, commerce has led men forth to civilize and conquer. 
 So important are her colonies and her commercial routes, that 
 the foreign relations of England may almost be explained by 
 reference to these alone. Thus the fear of Russia determines 
 her attitude in all affairs where Constantinople is threatened or 
 involved, while the Suez Canal, her all-important highway to 
 India, constantly entangles her in Egyptian affairs. In her 
 colonial and commercial relations, England has proven herself 
 at times the benefactor, at times the oppressor, of inferior 
 races. But it may perhaps be said that such acts of injus- 
 tice as the Opium War, and the imposition of her own ruler 
 in Afghanistan, have been overbalanced by the higher civiliza- 
 tion she has introduced, by the roads she has opened, by the 
 missionaries and schools she has protected, and by such meas- 
 ures as the abolition of widow-burning and the suppression of 
 the Thugs in India. 
 
 In England, too, as elsewhere, the problems of labor have 
 caused threatening movements and important legislation. 
 First, the progress of mechanical invention substituted ma- 
 chines for men in manufactures ; the first result of this was to 
 
THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 161 
 
 throw out of work a mass of artisans, mostly skilled laborers, 
 who had no other way of making a living than that the machine 
 had taken. Then came the Corn-laws, which injured all classes 
 by raising the price of bread, and only benefited for the time 
 being the English wheat-growers, who, by holding a monopoly 
 of a prime necessity, could say to the public, "Your money 
 or your life." All along, too, one serious element^ in the Irish 
 problem has been a labor-question in regard to the due rela- 
 tions of various classes to the soil. 
 
 In France, again, the trends of the century appear. The 
 restored Bourbons, though forced to recognize constitutional 
 forms, did not even learn from the Revolution that peace and 
 order lay in the development, not the suppression, of liberty, 
 and came back rather with memories of "how they used to 
 do" than ideas of "how they ought to^ do." Their measures 
 against the freedom of the press, as well as those taken after- 
 wards by the third Napoleon, show how thoroughly men have 
 begun to realize that the printing-press is the most formidable 
 of modern political forces, since it is our present " organ of 
 persuasion." That Louis Napoleon, although following much 
 in their footsteps, did not follow the Bourbons into banish- 
 ment, was due to the power of his name, which was associated 
 with an epoch of true national glory, and with the first days of 
 peaceful freedom from the " Old R^ime." By appealing, too, 
 to the universal vote, he not only recognized the fundamental 
 political change of the Revolution,^ but assured his election 
 by throwing it into the hands of an ignorant majority, whose 
 political education had not yet extended far enough thoroughly 
 to comprehend the Napoleons, beyond their "outward show." 
 
 1 This is a social element ; added to this, as a political grievance, has 
 been the lack of "Home-rule." (See also p. 159 of this manual, and 
 compare Hungary.) 
 
 2 The political revolution of modern times seems to be as thoroughly 
 established in France as in England ; but France is as seriously threatened 
 as the rest of the world by the social revolution springing from the 
 demands of labor, and in Germany the story is the same. 
 
162 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 The special studies on the German Empire and the kingdom 
 of Italy not only show the development of two powerful mod- 
 ern states, but also illustrate the conquering power of ideas 
 and ideals when once the}- reach the popular masses. In both 
 countries the leading movements have been the same, — 
 towards national union, and towards constitutional liberty ; of 
 these, the latter has been part of an impulse common to all 
 the civilized peoples of our century ; the former has been dis- 
 tinctive of Germany and Italy, among the greater powers. 
 
 In Germany, as in France, the free press has been the terror 
 of the "Old Regime," and for the same reasons ; but in Germany 
 has been added to that the influence of the schools and uni- 
 versities ; the censorship of the press and that of the university 
 have been the new persecutions which these new weapons have 
 evolved ; although Austria has endeavored to meet them by set 
 teaching of the principles and spirit of the older order. When 
 Frederick William the Fourth declares, "A sheet of paper 
 shall not come between me and my subjects," he forgets that, 
 in the large modern state, a sheet of paper is the only possible 
 means of communication between a monarch and his busy, 
 widely-scattered subjects. 
 
 But the outcome of events in Germany proves, beyond a 
 doubt, the use of long-continued political agitation as an agent 
 of political change. In Germany, as elsewhere, it has led to 
 the full recognition of the principle that government should be 
 for the people and by the people. The development of German 
 unity shows the value of still another power in politics, — the 
 power of enthusiasm. The common forms and traditions, the 
 heroes and the deeds that warmed men's hearts with common 
 pride in the German name, roused that pride at length to the 
 making of an empire and a nation. 
 
 The latest history of Italy, even more than that of German3% 
 has an epic unity and spirit. In 1815 Savoy alone was under 
 native rule ; her government alone could appeal to native sup- 
 port ajid sympathy. As part of the Holy Roman Empire, 
 
THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 163 
 
 Italy had become since the days of Charles the Fifth, partly 
 heritage of Spain, and partly heritage of Austria, while in the 
 days of Pepin and Charlemagne, the pope had received as a 
 gift his part of the soil of the Christian Empire. 
 
 In Ital}', the movement for nationality, inspired by the love 
 of independence, — and the movement for constitutionalism, in- 
 spired by the love of political liberty, were each sustained by 
 great historic memories, reaching back to the days of the later 
 Koman republic, when Italy was free, united, and great. 
 
 Although the interference of European monarchs in Neapoli- 
 tan affairs called forth Italian indignation, still it was a pure 
 measure of self-defence, since the stirring of one people 
 against a king might mean the stirring of Europe against the 
 whole monarchic sj'stem ; thus England had stirred France, — 
 France, Spain and German}', — and Spain, in turn, had now 
 roused Naples. Naples, indeed, could have been appeased, 
 and the power of the king established by the prudent and 
 genuine grant of a liberal constitution ; but with the troops of 
 Austria and the sympathies of the monarchs behind him, the 
 Neapolitan ruler naturally underrated the moral forces spring- 
 ing to arms against him. Indeed, the Italian struggle against 
 Austria was throughout the struggle of moral with physical 
 powers. On the side of Austria were troops, and treasure, 
 and the might of an old, successful name ; on the side of Italy 
 were justice, truth, a never-yielding purpose and enthusiasm. 
 
 Savoy alone was free to embody and lead the Italian aspira- 
 tions, and give them political and military force. Victor Em- 
 manuel as the one Italian, the one constitutional ruler of Italy, 
 could command the respect, the loyalty, the admiration, of 
 the whole peninsula. In order that Italy might win attention 
 and respect from the European commonwealth, Cavour involved 
 her in the Crimean War ; in order that she might claim the 
 sympathy and aid of France, he gave a daughter of old Savoy 
 in marriage to a Napoleonic adventurer, thus taking advan- 
 tage, too, of the historic enmity of Austria and France. 
 
 The principle of popular government has never been more 
 
164 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 absolutely respected nor more nobly used than in uniting state 
 after state to patriotic, liberal Savoy ; and never has history 
 more nearly touched the highest poetic justice than in the 
 return of a pure Italian government to Rome, at once the 
 geographic and historic centre of the whole peninsula. 
 
 The question is often asked, ''What is the relation of 
 biography to history? '* In general, it may be said that there 
 are no more important or significant historical facts, and no 
 stronger historical forces, than the lives of men. Wherever the 
 teacher's time is short, and the era he deals with great, he can 
 do no better than to take some one man whose life was thor- 
 oughly mingled with that of his time, and make as exhaustive 
 a study as possible of his character, and its relations to 
 the contemporary world. These character-studies form with 
 younger classes an excellent concrete introduction to more 
 abstract historical inquiries ; and even in the most abstract of 
 these inquiries, one meets here and there men so intimately 
 connected with affairs, that they seem, as it were, to have 
 embodied their age or country in their own strong personalities. 
 Victor Emmanuel belongs beyond a doubt among such men as 
 these ; and Cavour and Mazzini do not fall far short of it. I 
 have, therefore, in p. 533, introduced character-studies of these 
 three, not alone on account of their intrinsic importance, but 
 as excellent examples of the way in which biography and 
 history mingle. 
 
 Cavour represents the conservative liberal ; the man who 
 neither breaks with the old, nor rejects the new ; a man who is 
 at once a devoted patriot and a prudent statesman ; a thinker, 
 a worker, but in every deed and thought, practical ; with that 
 rare power which can devote itself to an unattained ideal, and at 
 the same time can see the very next step which must be taken 
 to reach it. His patriotism bound him at once to the people 
 and the monarch ; his prudence commanded the respect of the 
 most conservative courts, and tempered the ardent action of the 
 king ; while that genius of practical imagination which saw the 
 
THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 165 
 
 possible relations of the distant and the near, enabled him to 
 turn every circumstance and every resource to the freedom and 
 unity of Italy. To accomplish this, he aimed at two things : 
 to make Piedmont the leader of the peninsula ; to bring Italy 
 into the European commonwealth ; while besides these imme- 
 diate objects, his policy alwa3'S had in mind that " inevitable 
 future "of democracy. 
 
 What Cavour would and did accomplish by a policy of com- 
 promise and delay, Mazzini wished to do by outspoken war on 
 what he hated, and devotion unto death to what he loved. 
 Each nature had its value in the making of Italy ; she needed 
 the utter abandonment of self, the clear vision of ultimate 
 destiny, the religious fervor M Mazzini ; perhaps she needed 
 even more the cool head of Cavour, since her foes were more 
 easily to be overcome by skilful diplomacy and prudent delay 
 than by the most ardent essay of arms or eloquence.^ 
 
 Although patriotism was the ruling passion in Cavour and 
 Victor Emmanuel, as well as in Mazzini, in Mazzini this passion 
 became a religion, with Italy for its deity and its conscience ; 
 "the martyrs" of the people's cause, "the adoration of prin- 
 ciples," " the omnipotent duty," " your countr}^, a visible evan- 
 gel of love," — these are the phrases of a worship, a faith. 
 
 If Cavour was the statesman, and Mazzini the prophet of 
 the Italian movement, Victor Emmanuel was its hero ; trained 
 as a soldier, he was bred for a time of war ; reared simply and 
 hardily, lie had the respect of the simple and hardy classes, 
 and could sympathize with them ; trained in the catechism and 
 Roman history, he was a good Catholic and an intelligent 
 patriot ; while he had at command the historic and popular 
 tongues of his own Italy, and the cosmopolitan French of his 
 best neighbor. Not only by training, but by nature, he was 
 the true king of Italy ; an ardent patriot, he loved his land and 
 
 ' The fact that Mazzini was forced to publish his writings in London, 
 shows that the censorship of the press excluded his influence from Italy 
 as hauch as possible, where he most desired it to be felt ; incidentally, too, 
 it shows the political freedom existing in England. 
 
166 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 trusted his folk ; a prudent liberal, he neither offended too far 
 the European monarchs when he had not power to withstand 
 them, nor did he hold back freedom from the people for an 
 instant after he felt he could defend it ; but the man was more 
 than the soldier or statesman ; his devoted, self-forgetful enthu- 
 siasm drew to him the hearts of the whole people with a tide 
 of passionate loyalty that swept away every barrier that party, 
 and history, and religion itself could rear. 
 
 I have named the sketchy extracts, pp. 534-538, a study on 
 socialism, merely for the sake of uniformity, although they are 
 worth little more than to attract aj^tention to the aims of the great 
 social revolution which seems to press nearer and nearer. Per- 
 haps there is no subject of more immediate importance than 
 this, and none more variously understood. The movement in 
 general insists upon a substitution of the co-operative principle 
 for that of competition, and therefore threatens the whole 
 present system of industry ; it would make the state the owner 
 of the means of labor, and therefore threatens all private 
 property at present invested in these means with a transfer, if 
 not with a loss ; its advocates are inspired with an earnest 
 enthusiasm, and not rarely with a genuine devotion, which gives 
 to socialism the power of a faith ; its demands are backed by 
 the actual physical force of an army of laborers, on whom 
 society depends for food, and dress, and shelter, for transpor- 
 tation and protection ; in common with Christianity, it teaches 
 the brotherhood of man, and asserts the principle of helpful, 
 social union, as against the law of the "struggle for exist- 
 ence." After noting these points, the teacher may act his own 
 judgment as to how far he may wisely pursue a study, mate- 
 rials for which he will find ready to his hand in every week's 
 news, and in any population among which he lives. 
 
 The points to be made from the *' Study on 0," p. 539, are 
 for the most part embodied in the foregoing summary. At 
 
THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 167 
 
 least two days should be devoted to this study, the second of 
 which may be profitably spent in a general conversation in 
 regard to the points suggested by the questions. The aim of 
 the teacher in this study should be to rouse the student's 
 interest in the greatness of the movements in the midst of 
 which he himself lives. 
 
 If the studies from p. 3 to p. 539 have been of any value, 
 the "General Review Study" on the last page needs no 
 comment. 
 
AIDS 
 
 FOR 
 
 TEACHING GENERAL HISTORY; 
 
 INCLUDING 
 
 A LIST OF BOOKS RECOMMENDED FOR A 
 WORKING SCHOOL LIBRARY. 
 
 BY 
 
 MARY D. SHELDON, 
 
 Formerly Professor of History in Wellesley College, 
 
 Teacher of History in the Oswego Normal 
 
 School, New York, and Author of 
 
 Studies ik General History. 
 
 3j<Kc 
 
 PUBLISHED BY D. C. HEATH & CO., 
 
 Boston, New York, and Chicago. 
 
 1896. 
 
Copyright, 1888, 
 Bt Mart Shbldon-Baknes. 
 
 TtPOORAPHT bt J. S. CUBHINO & Co., BOSTOH. 
 
AIDS FOR TEACHING GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 The time has come when the teacher of history, as well as 
 the teacher of chemistry or biology, demands for his work a 
 certain material equipment, which shall enable his pupils to 
 realize some of that mental vigor which springs from individ- 
 ual work with the sources of knowledge. In Germany, this 
 demand has been met by what are known as Quellenhucher^ 
 or collections of illustrative and original sources ; and in my 
 own Skidies in General History, I have made some attempt to 
 meet such a need for our secondary schools ; but even had the 
 teacher some ideal Quellenbuch to place in the hands of his 
 pupils, he would still find that every extension of equipment 
 which can give new material for loork and thought will pay for 
 itself again and again in results more genuine and lasting. 
 
 For the teacher of history, a material equipment mostly 
 consists of pictures, maps, and books. Of pictures, the most 
 valuable are photographs of buildings, statues, monuments, 
 reliefs, and remains in general,^ — and contemporary prints, 
 portraits, or engravings of the time to be considered. The lat- 
 ter can often be found in desirable reproductions, and teacher 
 and pupil alike will find a great interest in collecting historical 
 cuts and engravings from old and new magazines and the 
 better class of illustrated papers. These, as well as the pho- 
 tographs, should be nicely mounted on separate sheets of uni- 
 form style and size, and clearly labelled; in the case of an 
 
 1 The Soule Photo. Co., 338 Washington St., Boston, Mass., will furnish on 
 application catalogues of such photographs, unmounted, from which a very 
 desirable selection may be made. 
 
4 AIDS FOR TEACHING GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 engraving or print, its source and date should be given. The 
 mounting, labelling, and collecting, and even the purchasing, 
 should be done, as far as possible, by the pupils, the teacher 
 being prime director and adviser. Of maps, the best available 
 collection for most of our schools is that of Labberton ; and 
 his last edition is accompanied by a full text, which makes it 
 a good work of reference as well. But this collection should 
 be duplicated and supplemented by maps of the pupils' own 
 making. These may be quickly and effectually made by using 
 Heath's Outline Maps of Ancient History, Europe^ Central and 
 Western Europe^ British Isles, England, France, Germany, Italy, 
 Greece, etc.,^ and filling in the historical part with colored pen- 
 cils, ink, or, when pupils are so inclined, they may be more 
 elaborately finished with water-colors. A sheet of such little 
 maps of France, for instance, showing her territorial divisions 
 and boundaries at different dates, would make an excellent 
 graphical presentation of much of her history. 
 
 Closely allied to maps are graphical representations of time, 
 which are a powerful aid in remembering the relation and 
 sequence of dates. There are several publications which pre- 
 sent history in this way; Lyman's Historical Chart (Philadel- 
 phia) being one of the best. But far better than any prepared 
 work of this kind are century-maps, as they may be called, 
 done by the pupils themselves. At the very beginning of his 
 study, the student should provide himself with as many sheets 
 of good stout paper as there are centuries in his proposed 
 course.* The ordinary sermon size will be convenient, and 
 some arrangement should be made by which, as the study pro- 
 gresses, these sheets may be fastened together like a long fold- 
 ing map, so as to give the eye a continuous representation of 
 
 1 For the graphic representation, by the pupil of geography, geology, his- 
 tory, meteorology, economics, and statistics of all kinds. Two cents each; 
 per hundred, 31.50. Map of Ancient History, three cents each; per hundred, 
 $2JK). 
 
 3 The ordinary stout manilla paper, sold at a few cents a yard, is heartily 
 recommended for these mounts. 
 
AIDS FOR TEACHING GENERAL HISTORY. 5 
 
 the time considered. Each of these sheets should be boldly 
 and strikingly headed by its own century, each should bear in 
 separate colors the countries considered, and each should have 
 its two or three leading events, names, or movements heavily 
 ' and clearly printed out. The principle underlying such repre- 
 sentations is, that visible place-relations are of great value to 
 the average mind in fixing and remembering the more abstract 
 relations of time. But within the boundaries of this principle, 
 the pupil should be left very free to fill out his century-map 
 in the style, proportion, and detail which best suits him, since 
 the more closely the work is done in accordance with indi- 
 vidual taste and aptitudes, the more strongly will it grow into 
 the memory as a permanent acquisition. 
 
 Of books it is more difficult to form a collection ; and yet 
 some accessible collection is necessary, and the more of it that 
 can be placed in the class-room itself, the better. The teacher 
 needs at least four different kinds of books, each kind having its 
 own power and worth. He needs a full and accurate collection 
 of dates, facts, and names, well indexed ; the best single work 
 of this sort is perhaps Tillinghast's Floetz^ Epitome of Univer- 
 sal History. He needs a good modern narrative, which shall 
 embody the results of the best scholarship, and serve as a guide 
 to proportion and completeness ; such an aid is to be found in 
 Freeman's General Course. If he has access to a library, or 
 the means to form one, he wants to know what are the best 
 books on any part of his subject, and the value and contents of 
 others ; such an aid he will find in Adams' Manual of His- 
 torical Literature. A shorter and very useful bibliography of 
 the subject has been made by Prof. W. F. Allen of Wisconsin 
 University, and is published in Hall's Methods of Teaching and 
 /Studying History.^ These aids being obtained, the teacher is 
 ready to buy and use advantageously books of a fourth class, 
 — books which bring him as near as possible to the deeds, the 
 
 1 This bibliography adds also an excellent short list of historical novels, 
 poems, and plays. The publishers are D. C. Heath & Co., Boston. 
 
6 AIDS FOR TEACHING GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 lives, the thoughts and feelings, of historic eras and peoples. 
 Of these books, Plutarch's Lives deserves the first place in the 
 list. But, whether much or little can be done to obtain such 
 expressions of the past, teacher and pupils can at least co-oper- 
 ate to preserve for the school some collection illustrative of the 
 present time. If the means are not available for keeping the 
 complete file of a first-class paper, and even if they are, teacher 
 and pupils should collect newspaper clijDpings, pamphlets, 
 notices, and other ephemeral publications which contain sig- 
 nificant speeches, letters, arguments, or striking accounts of 
 contemporary events by the actors or witnesses. Such collec- 
 tions grow rapidly in value. Such materials dating from the 
 Civil War or from the preceding slavery contest are already dif- 
 ficult to obtain, though full of historic interest and instruc- 
 tion ; and our own time has as surely its desirable, though 
 ephemeral, records. Such materials as these might be kept 
 in a series of annual scrap-books, or in large manilla envelopes, 
 enclosed in covers, classified according to years or half-years. 
 A good plan is to keep pictures, maps, and scraps on mounts 
 of the same size, or that may be folded to the same size, and 
 to arrange them, without regard to subject, in alphabetical 
 order, in stiff, clearly-labelled covers. Others may prefer to 
 arrange them by topics ; but such collections are rather like 
 a dictionary or cyclopedia than a narration, and the alpha- 
 betical plan requires fewest cross-references. But teachers 
 need never hesitate at the labor of making rearrangements, 
 whenever it seems desirable ; since such work is of great 
 value to pupils, as well as very agreeable to them, provided 
 you do not ask them to do their oivn ivork over. 
 
 Such a material equipment as that above indicated is the 
 very least that any teacher of general history should demand 
 of himself and his patrons. Where means and opportunities 
 are more generous, the teacher should extend his aids as rap- 
 idly as possible, having due regard to tlie properties of his 
 subject and the ability and available time of his students. 
 
AIDS FOR TEACHING GENERAL HISTORY. 7 
 
 He will find that the purchases which will pay best in inter- 
 est and enthusiasm are books of the fourth class named above, 
 — books which may be described as those of the earliest or 
 contemporary sources {List D). 
 
 In making the following list, books of the first three classes 
 are named, as well as those of the fourth, since many schools 
 are so situated as to have access to no large library. In such 
 cases, enough of the first three classes must be purchased to 
 render the sources intelligible ; where larger purchases of such 
 works are within the means of the school, the buyer should 
 carefully consult Adams' Manual. 
 
 A. BOOKS COVERING THE WHOLE FIELD OF GENERAL 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 Adams, Charles K. Manual of Historical Literature. New York, 
 1882. $2.50. A descriptive and critical biijliograpli}^ of the whole sub- 
 ject, including an especially fine portion on United States history. 
 
 Bagehot, Walter. Physics and Politics, or thoughts on the appli- 
 cation of the principles of natural selection and inheritance to politi- 
 cal society. London and New Yorl<;, 1873. $1.50. 
 
 " I only profess to explain what seem to me the political prerequisites 
 of progress, and especially of early progress. . . . Here physical causes 
 do not create the moral, but moral create the physical." 
 
 Freeman, Edward A. General Sketch of History. London and New 
 York, 1880. $1.00. A complete, compact narrative, accurate, well- 
 proportioned, philosophical. 
 
 Haydn, J. Dictionary of Dates. New York, 1885. Eighteenth edi- 
 tion, revised to date. $5.00. A full and standard work of refer- 
 ence, in which events and names are arranged alphabetically, with 
 full dates and summary descriptions. 
 
 Labberton, Robert H. New Historical Atlas and General History. 
 New York, 1886. $2.40. 198 colored maps and 30 genealogical 
 
8 AIDS FOR TEACHING GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 charts. The maps are admirable for the uses of the class-room, 
 or for any student who is making his first acquaintance with the 
 study of General History since they are diagrammatic and free 
 from detail. 
 
 Ploetz, Carl. Epitome of Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modem History. 
 Translated, with extensive additions, by William H. Tillinghast. 
 Boston and New York, 1884. $3.00. This work can hardly be 
 overestimated as a handbook of general reference ; it is very fully 
 indexed, and the matter is arranged in periods and by countries. It 
 is especially valuable in modern history for the full summaries that 
 are given of treaties. 
 
 Sheldon, M. D. Studies in General History. Boston, 1885. $1.60. 
 Contains many illustrative extracts from original sources. 
 
 Thomas. Universal Pronouncing Dictionary of Biography and My- 
 thology. Titled on back as Lippincott's pronouncing biographical 
 dictionary. Philadelphia, 1886. One volume, .$12.00; two volumes, 
 .$15.00. The standard dictionary of this sort in English. 
 
 [Since new editions are constantly appearing of some of the 
 above works, care should be taken in purchasing, to insist always 
 on the latest in the market.] 
 
 B. BOOKS COVERING THE WHOLE FIELD OF ANCIENT 
 HISTORY, OR OF GREEK AND ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 Fustel de Coulanges. The Ancient City. A Study on the Religion, 
 Laws, and Institutions of Greece and Rome. Edited in translation 
 from the latest French edition, by Willard Small. Boston, 1874. 
 $2.00. This book is perhaps the best single volume that can be 
 read in order to gain an insight into the underlying principles, 
 tendencies, and character of antiquity. The author is brilliant, 
 pliilosophical, and scholarly. 
 
 Reber, Franz von. History of Ancient Art, with 310 illustrations. 
 Published in translation from the German. New York, 1882. $2.50. 
 This work covers the whole field for Egypt, Assyria, Persia, Greece, 
 and Rome ; and its excellent and numerous pictures make it invalu- 
 able. 
 
 Sheldon, M. D. Studies in Greek and Roman History. Boston, 1886. 
 $1.00. Simply the first half of the " Studies in General History." 
 
AIDS FOR TEACHING GENERAL HISTORY. 9 
 
 Smith, Philip. A History of the World, from the Earliest Records to 
 the Present Time. Only Ancient History finished, in three volumes. 
 London and New York, 1866. $6.00. An excellent narrative his- 
 tory of the whole period of ancient history, including that of Egypt, 
 Assyria, Babylonia, Juda3a, Persia, Greece, and Rome. Its style is 
 easy, and embellished with many extracts from original sources. 
 Adams recommends it as the product of " a careful and judicious 
 observer." 
 
 Smith, William. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. New 
 York, 1843. $6.00. The standard work on this subject, and ren- 
 dered still more valuable by many cuts from ancient coins, reliefs, 
 etc. 
 
 C. BOOKS COVERING THE WHOLE FIELD OF MODERN, MEDI- 
 EVAL, OR OF MODERN AND MEDLEVAL HISTORY. 
 
 There is no single work in Englisli which covers tlie modern and 
 media3val periods so admirably as Philip Smith's History of the 
 World covers the field of antiquity; although, in French, Victor 
 Duruy's manuals of MediaBval and Modern History i cover the field 
 admirably, being scliolarly, vivid, and rich in illustration. Of 
 books accessible in English, tlie following are recommended: — 
 
 Bryce, James. The Holy Roman Empire. New York, 1877. $1.75. 
 A sketch of the first importance for understanding the organic 
 connections of ancient and modern history, of Church and State, 
 of the Papacy and the Empire, from the beginning of our era to the 
 present time. 
 
 Dyer, Thomas Hemy. The History of Modern Europe from the Fall 
 of Constantinople in 1453 to the close of the Crimean War in 1857. 
 Five volumes. London, 1861. $22.50. A standard, very full, and 
 accurate work of reference, in narrative form. 
 
 Gibbon, Edward. The History of the Decline 'and Fall of the Roman 
 Empire. The best edition is that of Dr. Smith. London. Eight 
 volumes. New York, 1880. Six volumes. $12.00. This classical 
 work is still a rich repertory of material for all the centuries, from 
 the age of Trajan and the Antonines, to the taking of Constantinople 
 
 1 "Histoire du Moyen Age" and "Histoire des Temps Modernes" ; each 
 of these is published in a single moderate 12mo volume. 
 
10 AIDS FOR TEACHING GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 by the Turks in 1453. The notes of this edition, by Milman and 
 Guizot, add greatly to its value. Although Gibbon was the first to 
 give a just estimate of the life and work of Mohammed, still this 
 portion of his work, perhaps, most requires the supplement of modern 
 scholarship. The best single book to furnish this is, in my judg- 
 ment, R. Bosworth Smith's Mohammed and Mohammedanism. New 
 York, $1.50. 
 
 Guizot, Frangois. History of Civilization in Europe. Paris, 1831. 
 Translations published in New York and London. Two volumes. 
 $4.00. " Perhaps no other historical book is capable of stirring more 
 earnest and fruitful thought in a thoughtful student." — Adams. 
 
 Lacroiz, Paul. The Arts in the Middle Ages and at the Period of the 
 Renaissance. 
 
 Manners, Customs, and Dress during the Middle Ages. 
 
 Military and Religious Life in the Middle Ages and at the Period 
 of the Renaissance. 
 
 The Eighteenth Century; its Institutions, Customs, and Cos- 
 tumes. 
 
 Science and Literature in the Middle Ages and at the Period of 
 the Renaissance. 
 
 Five volumes; large octavo. London, 1880. Edited in trans- 
 lation from the French. Lacroix was long curator of the Library 
 of the Arsenal in Paris ; and these books derive their great value 
 from their wealth of fac-simile illustration, drawn from contem- 
 porary manuscripts, coins, carvings, and their numerous cuts of 
 buildings, monuments, furniture, armor, etc. They were originally 
 published at $12.00 a volume, and that is still their price in first- 
 class binding, and with all their fac-similes; but copies can be 
 obtained bound in cloth, and lacking the colored reproductions, for 
 much less, and almost as valuable for school purposes. The vol- 
 umes are sold separately. The most useful ones for general use 
 are " The Arts" and " Military and Religious Life." Second-hand 
 copies can occasionally be obtained. 
 
 Morris, Edward A. [editor] . Epochs of History. London. A series 
 of 16mo vols., republished in New York from time to time by the 
 Scribners, and sold separately at $1.00 a volume. Especially valu- 
 able for the general student are the numbers on The Crusades, The 
 Tliirty Years' War, The Puritan Revolution, The Beginning of the 
 Middle Ages, The French Revolution, and The Era of the Protestant 
 Revolution. 
 
AIDS FOR TEACHING GENERAL HISTORY. 11 
 
 Sheppard, John G. The Fall of Rome and the Rise of the New 
 Nationalities. A series of lectures on the connection between 
 ancient and modern history. London and New York, 1861. $2.50. 
 "Large dependence on original authorities." — Adams. Gives an 
 excellent foundation for an understanding of the Middle Age. 
 
 White, Rev. James. The Eighteen Christian Centuries. London and 
 New York. Second edition, 1862. $2.00. A short, vivid review of 
 the leading events and characters from the time of Christ to the 
 present day. 
 
 D. TRANSLATIONS, REPRINTS, AND ABRIDGMENTS OF 
 CONTEMPORARY OR ORIGINAL SOURCES. 
 
 [When books are described as belonging to the Bohn Libraries, it is 
 understood that they are published in London and New York, and 
 that they cost from $1.40 to $2.00 per volume. The American pub- 
 lishers are Scribner and Welford.] 
 
 Ammianus Marcellinus, The Roman History of, during the Reigns of 
 . . . Constantius, Julian, Jovianus, Valentinian, and Valens. Edited 
 in translation as one volume; Bohn's Libraries. Adams describes 
 it as " accurate, faithful, impartial." It is, moreover, vivid. 
 
 Arrian. The Anabasis of Alexander ; or, the History of the Wars and 
 Conquests of Alexander the Great. Translated from the Greek by 
 E. J. Chinnock. London, 1884. $3.00. Arrian flourished in the 
 first part of the second century of our era ; but his book is one of 
 the most " accurate and authentic " of historical works. 
 
 Bede. Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain and the Anglo-Saxon 
 Chronicles. Edited by Giles, in Bohn's Libraries. $2.00. Bede 
 covers the period from Caesar's invasion of Britain to a.d. 664. 
 The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" extends from the year 1 to 1154 of 
 our era. That portion of the latter which relates to Alfred the 
 Great, it is believed to be practically the work of his own hand. 
 
 Birch, S. Records of the Past; being English Translations of the 
 Assyrian and Egyptian Monuments. Eleven volumes ; second edi- 
 tion. London, 1875-1878. $18.00. 
 
 Charles, Mrs. R R. Chronicles of the Schonberg-Cotta Family. New 
 York, 1864. $1.00. This work is so largely a compilation and trans- 
 
12 AIDS FOR TEACHING GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 latlon from original and contemporary sources that it forms a val- 
 uable addition to any library on the period of the Reformation. 
 
 Chronicles of the Crusades. Bohn's Libraries. $2.00. Contains 
 the chronicles of Richard of Devizes and Geoffrey of Vinsauft con- 
 cerning the crusade of Richard I. of England, Joinville's Memoirs 
 of Louis IX., and extracts from a Saracenic account of the latter 
 King's Crusade. 
 
 Chronicles, Six English. Bohn's Libraries. $2.00. Contains the 
 Chronicles of Ethelwerd, Asser's Life of Alfred, Geoffrey of Mon- 
 mouth, Gildas, Nennius, and Richard of Cirencester. One of the 
 least valuable of the Bohn series for our purposes. 
 
 Chronicles of Europe, Early. A series of books put forth by the 
 Society for promoting Christian Knowledge, and containing at pres- 
 ent the following three volumes : Italy, by Ugo Balzani ; England, 
 by James Gairdner; and France, by Gustave Masson. New York 
 and London, 1883. $1.20 a volume. As an exposition of original 
 sources, the volume on Italy is distinctly the most valuable, contain- 
 ing extracts from Cassiodorus, Gregory the Great, the Chronicle of 
 St. Benedict, the Venetian Chronicle of John the Deacon, the Let- 
 ters of Gregory VII., and the Chronicles of the Maritime Repub- 
 lics. Aside from the fact that the extracts are more abundant 
 in this volume, the work has also more value from the point of 
 view demanded by general history. The works on England and 
 France are rather of the nature of full descriptive bibliographies, 
 containing also short biographies of the chroniclers. That on 
 France is especially of this nature. 
 
 Commines, Philip of. Memoirs. London and New York. Two vol- 
 umes in Bohn's Libraries. $2.80 each. These memoirs contain the 
 history of Louis XI., Charles VIII., and Charles the Bold, Duke 
 of Burgundy ; one of the best of all the chronicles. 
 
 Demosthenes, Orations of. Bohn's Libraries. Five volumes. $7.00. 
 The best original we have as showing the situation of affairs and 
 the state of feeling just before the fall of Greece. 
 
 Eginhard's Life of Charlemagne. Edited in translation in Harper's 
 Half-hour Series. Twenty cents. Eginhard was the friend and sec- 
 retary of Charlemagne, and this work is the prime authority for 
 the life of the Great Charles. 
 
 Froissart, Sir John. Chronicles of England, France, Spain and Adjoin- 
 ing Countries, from the Latter Part of the Reign of Edward II. to 
 
AIDS FOR TEACHING GENEEAL HISTORY. 13 
 
 the Coronation of Henry IV. Edited in translation by Thomas 
 Johnes, Esq. Two volumes. London, 1839. $12.00. 
 
 For many schools, the Boy's Froissart edited by Sidney Lanier, 
 and published in one volume by the Scribners for $3.00, is a very 
 desirable introduction to the expensive original. 
 
 Homer. Iliad. Prose translation by Lang, Leaf, and Myers. London, 
 1883. $1.50. 
 
 Odyssey. Prose translation by Butcher and Lang. London, 
 1879. $1.50. These renderings are especially valuable for historical 
 purposes, being at the same time exact and beautiful. Bryant's 
 translation of Homer is also heartily recommended, especially for 
 younger pupils. 
 
 Herodotus. A New English Version. Edited with notes and essays 
 ... by Canon Rawlinson, Sir II. Rawlinson, and Sir J. G. Wilkin- 
 son. With maps and woodcuts. Four volumes. London and 
 New York, 1859. $10.00. "By far the most valuable version." — 
 Adams. Also in Bohn's Libraries. One volume. $2.00. Herodotus 
 is our great original for all the history of Greece to the end of the 
 Persian wars. For these wars his account is contemporary and of 
 the first importance. He tells us much also of Egypt and the East. 
 
 Livy, TituB. The History of Rome. Edited in translation from the 
 Latin by George Baker. Two volumes. New York, 18G1. $7.50. 
 Also in four volumes in Bohn's Libraries. $8.00. Of the one hun- 
 dred and forty -two original books of Livy, only thirty-five remain. 
 These comprise an interrupted history of Rome from its founda- 
 tion to 166 B.C. The most valuable part is that which deals with 
 the Punic wars. 
 
 Luther, Martin. Table-talk. Translated by Hazlitt. Bohn's Libra- 
 ries. $1.40. A selection is made in one of the little volumes of 
 Cassell's National Library. Price ten or twenty-five cents, accord- 
 ing to binding. Most valuable to give the spirit, thought and 
 feeling of Luther. 
 
 Mazade, Charles de. Count Cavour. New York. $3.00. 
 
 This work is so rich in Cavour's own words that it becomes a 
 fine contemporary source for the diplomatic and political history 
 of the first half of our century. 
 
 Mazzini, Joseph. Life and Writings. London, 1864-1870. An 
 abridgment of this, with an introduction by William Lloyd Gar- 
 rison, under the title of Joseph Mazzini: his Life, Writings, and 
 
14 AIDS FOR TEACHING GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 Political Principles (New York, 1872. $1.75), will, perhaps, be as 
 useful for the majority of school libraries. This life, covering the 
 long and important period from 1809 to 1872, and being the autobi- 
 ography of a man who was at the very heart of the movements for 
 national independence and constitutional government, is, perhaps, 
 the best single primary source which can be named for this aspect 
 of our nineteenth-century history. 
 
 Mead, Edwin D. [editor]. Old South Leaflets. These leaflets are 
 invaluable for the teacher of United States History. Each one con- 
 tains an important document or extract illustrative of our history, 
 such as pages from De Tocqueville's Democracy in America, Cotton 
 Mather's Magnalia, the Federalist, etc. Sold at five cents apiece. 
 $3.00 per hundred. They can be obtained of D. C. Heath & Co., 
 Boston. 
 
 Orderlcus Vitalis. Ecclesiastical History of England and Normandy. 
 Four volumes. Bohn's Antiquarian Library. This history be- 
 gins at the year 1 of our era and continues to 1141. From 1075, 
 Ordericus is a contemporary of the history he relates, and tells the 
 story of this important formative period both for England and 
 Normandy. He is a prime authority for these years, and particu- 
 larly valuable as giving a view of manners and of the political and 
 religious state of contemporary society. 
 
 Pellico, Silvio. My Ten Years' Imprisonment. London and New 
 York, 1866. Cassell's National Library. Ten or twenty-flve cents, 
 according to binding. This little book throws a vivid light on des- 
 potism, seen from the point of view of an imprisoned Italian 
 patriot. 
 
 Pepys, Samuel. Diary. Four volumes. In Bohn's Libraries. $8.00. 
 For most schools, however, the three little volumes of extracts 
 from the "Diary" for 1660-1661, for 1662-1663, and for 1663-1664, 
 in Cassell's National Library (each volume ten or twenty-flve cents, 
 according to binding) will give quite enough of this old gossip, who 
 has preserved for us so exact a picture of the Restoration Court. 
 
 Plutarch. The translation from the Greek, known as Dryden's, edited 
 by Arthur Hugh Clough, is on the whole the best. Five volumes. 
 Boston, 1875. $3.00. Also in one large octavo volume. Also in 
 Bohn's Libraries. Four volumes. Also in a cheap edition published 
 by Alden of New York. A number of the " Lives" can be bought 
 in Cassell's National Library. Contains forty-six lives of famous 
 
AIDS FOR TEACHING GENERAL HISTORY. 15 
 
 Greeks and Romans ; a work of capital importance in every school 
 library. 
 Powell, F. York [editor]. English History from Contemporary Writ- 
 ers. London and New York, 1887, etc. This is the name under 
 which Mr. Powell is editing a series of little volumes, each one 
 devoted to a " well-defined portion of English History," and com- 
 posed of " extracts from the chronicles, state papers, memoirs, and 
 letters of the period considered, the whole arranged in chronologi- 
 cal order, and accompanied with summaries for reference." Of 
 this most admirable series four volumes have already appeared, 
 namely, Edward III. and his TFars, The Misrule of Henry III., 
 Strongbow's Conquest of Ireland, and Simon de Montfort and his 
 Cause. These books are rendered istill more valuable by the illus- 
 trations, which are reproductions from contemporary coins, manu- 
 scripts, reliefs, carvings. The American edition costs 60 cents a 
 volume, the English, a shilling (25 cents). 
 
 Hemusat, Madame de. Memoirs, 1802, 1808. Published in transla- 
 tion in one volume. $2.00. New York, 1888. Madame de Remusat 
 was one of Josephine's maids of honor, and her book gives an 
 inside view of Napoleon's character as seen at home. The memoirs 
 as they stand were written from memory, the first copy having 
 been destroyed. 
 
 Saint-Simon, the Duke of. Memoirs of the Reign of Louis XIV. 
 and the Regency. Translated from the French, in an abridged edi- 
 tion of three octavo volumes, by Bayle St. John. London, 1876. 
 Three volumes. $6.00. This book, says Adams, was probably " the 
 severest blow the Bourbons ever received." 
 
 Schaff, Philip. The Creeds of Christendom ; with a history and criti- 
 cal notes. Four volumes. New York, 1877, etc. $16.00. This 
 work contains the formal creeds and official statements of doctrine, 
 from the Apostles' Creed to the present time. 
 
 Scoones, "W. Baptiste. Four Centuries of English Letters : selections 
 from the correspondence of 150 writers, from the period of the 
 " Paston Letters " (fifteenth century) to the present day. London, 
 1883. $2.40. The selection is made on the basis of style or con- 
 tents. Their interest is rather social than political. 
 
 Story of the Burnt Njal. Edited by G. W. Dasent. Two volumes. 
 London. $7.50. This is an admirable version of an old Icelandic 
 
16 AIDS FOB TEACHING GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 Saga, in which, more closely, perhaps, than in any other single work, 
 one can see reflected the manners, temper, institutions, and char- 
 acter of our Teutonic ancestors. Unfortunately, it is now very 
 rare, and brings a high price.* 
 
 Suetonius. Lives of the Twelve Caesars [Julius Caesar to Domitian, 
 inclusive]. One volume. In Bohn's Classical Library. $2.00. 
 Although Suetonius is a standard authority for this subject, he is 
 a much less desirable original to possess than Tacitus or Plutarch, 
 since the last-named writers join to historic faithfulness the highest 
 excellences of style. 
 
 Tacitus, C. Cornelius, The Works of. Edited in translation. Two 
 volumes in Bohn's Library. 4^.00. Contents : Annals and History 
 of the Empire during the first century a.d. to the accession of 
 Vespasian, including account of the Jews ; a treatise on the situa- 
 tion, manners, and inhabitants of Germany; the life of Agricola; 
 a dialogue on Oratory. One of the first originals to be obtained. 
 
 Thucydides. The History of the Peloponnesian War. Edited in 
 translation by B. Jowett. Two volumes. London and New York, 
 1881. Vol. I., Translation; Vol. II., Notes, Essays, and Disserta- 
 tions. $8.00. A brilliant translation of a great original. Less 
 expensive but still good is the version to be obtained in Bohn's 
 Classical Library. Two volumes. $2.80. 
 
 1 Lacking this, one might still obtain Dasent's " Popular Tales from the 
 Norse." This book is also rare; but one can easily get Anderson's "Viking 
 Tales of the North," [Chicago, :52.00], or Mabie's "Norse Stories retold from 
 the Edda" [New York, 31.00]. 
 
QUESTIONS IN ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 Designed to cover both Sheldon's and Swinton's General Histories. 
 
 In answering these questions, the text-book used should be named, as 
 this fact will make a difference in the character and proportion of the 
 answers. 
 
 1. Describe the physical geography of Italy, and state its 
 advantages for the development of Roman power. Name the 
 races inhabiting it at the earliest period of its history, and locate 
 each geographically. 
 
 2. What was the earliest form of government at Eome ? 
 Who were the plebeians ? the patricians ? Describe the politi- 
 cal and social condition of each in the earliest period of Roman 
 history. What was the Comitia Curiata (Curiate Assembly) ? 
 The Comitia Centnriata (Centuriate Assembly) ? 
 
 3. Into what periods may you divide the history of the 
 Roman Republic ? Give the bounding dates of each period. 
 
 4. What is the story of Cincinnatus ? What character did 
 Cincinnatus display ? 
 
 5. What changes were made in favor of the plebeians from 
 510 to 264 B.C. ? How were these changes brought about ? 
 Define or describe each of the following terms : consul, dicta- 
 tor, tribune of the plebs, veto, assembly of the tribes, twelve 
 tables. 
 
 6. Tell what you know of the Gallic invasion of Rome. 
 
 7. Describe the Roman territory at each of the following 
 dates, — 510 e.g., 264 b.c, 146 b.c, 27 b.c. Characterize and 
 name its government at each of these dates. 
 
18 QUESTIONS IN ROMAN HISTORY. 
 
 8. How did Rome secure and consolidate her conquests? 
 What relations existed between Rome and the Italians before 
 the so-called " Social War'^? What duties and privileges dis- 
 tinguished the Roman citizen before this time ? 
 
 9. What was the origin of the first Punic war ? What was 
 its result to Rome ? to Carthage ? 
 
 10. How did the second Punic war come about ? In what 
 did the greatness of Hannibal consist ? On what occasions did 
 he display this greatness? What was the outcome of the 
 second Punic war ? 
 
 11. What was the cause and what the result of the third 
 Punic war ? 
 
 12. What other conquests were made by Rome during the 
 time of the Punic wars ? 
 
 13. Describe a Roman province as it existed in the last age 
 of the Republic. 
 
 14. Contrast the Roman personal character of the fourth 
 with that of the first century b.c. To what do you attribute 
 the change? Contrast the same periods in regard to the 
 Roman political character. Describe the elder Cato (Cato the 
 Censor). 
 
 15. What do you understand by an " agrarian law " ? Ex- 
 plain the relation between slavery and the small Italian farmers 
 in the latter days of the Republic. What became of the small 
 farmers ? 
 
 16. Who were the Gracchi and for what did they contend ? 
 What parties arose from their contentions, and with what 
 leaders ? Which of these two parties did Caesar represent ? 
 
 17. What were the conquests of Rome after 146 b.c. ? What 
 generals led her in these conquests, and in what war or wars 
 was each famous ? 
 
 18. Who were involved in the " Social War " ? What was 
 its cause, and what its result ? What event do you associate 
 with the name of Catiline? What troubles arose from the 
 slaves of Rome? 
 
QTJESTIOlsrS IK ROMAN HISTORY. l9 
 
 19. What do you understand by the " Triumvirates " ? 
 What was the aim and what the end of each ? What decisive 
 battle finally ended each? Describe the relation of Caesar 
 to Gaul. 
 
 20. Describe the crossing of the Eubicon. Under what title 
 and with what powers was Caesar ruling Eome just before his 
 death ? Why and by whom was he slain ? Describe the work 
 of Caesar for Eome. In what did his greatness consist? 
 Compare him with Pericles. 
 
 21. Describe the boundaries of the Eoman Empire under 
 Augustus Caesar. Under what forms did he rule ? Illustrate. 
 
 22. What were the corn-bounties at Eome, and what was 
 their result ? The gladiatorial games ? What was the Coli- 
 seum ? 
 
 23. What modern countries have been formed from the 
 Eoman Empire ? 
 
 24. What civilizations were included in that empire ? Clas- 
 sify the provinces according to their civilizations. 
 
 25. What was the greatest period of Eoman art and litera- 
 ture ? Name four Eomans distinguished in these directions. 
 
 26. Name four distinguished or remarkable emperors after 
 Augustus, stating in what century, and for what each was 
 famous. 
 
 27. What was the Pretorian guard ? Describe Eoman citi- 
 zenship as it existed under the early empire. What great 
 change was wrought in regard to it, and by whom, after the 
 days of the Antonines ? 
 
 28. What great constitutional change was made in the latter 
 part of the third century, and by whom ? 
 
 29. Name two things for which Constantine is noted. 
 
 30. What was the effect of Eome on the provinces ? Prove 
 it. Who were the barbarians? What effect had they in 
 Eome? 
 
 31. Compare the western and eastern empires of Eome in 
 regard to civilization, language, government, population. 
 
20 QUESTIONS IN GREEK HISTORY. 
 
 32. Give the striking points in regard to the growth of 
 Christianity within the empire. Why did Rome regard Chris- 
 tianity as dangerous ? State the points of opposition and con- 
 trast between the Christians and the Pagan empire. What 
 was the relation between Christianity and literature in the 
 last two centuries of the empire ? 
 
 33. What unity existed in the later Roman empire ? What 
 sources of decay and corruption ? Illustrate. 
 
 34. Contrast the Roman and the Teuton as they were at 
 400 A.D. What had been the relations of Roman and Teuton 
 before 476 a.d. ? Name three of the barbarian leaders, and 
 tell something of each. 
 
 35. Describe the so-called "Fall of Rome." To what do 
 you attribute that event ? 
 
 QUESTIONS IN GREEK HISTORY. 
 
 Designed to cover both Sheldon's and SwintoTi's General Histories. 
 
 In answering these questions, the pupil should state which of the two 
 text-books has been used, since the character and proportion of the 
 answers may vary according to this fact. 
 
 1. Describe the physical geography of Hellas. Contrast it 
 with that of Egypt and Assyria. What political results fol- 
 lowed from its peculiarities ? What industrial results ? What 
 were its advantages for an early civilization ? AVhat ranges 
 of territory were occupied by the Greeks ? Name four cities 
 in which Greek power and civilization centred. 
 
 2. What great contrast between the history of Egypt or 
 Assyria and that of Greece ? Which history is the more valu- 
 able to us, and why ? 
 
QUESTIONS IN GREEK HISTORY. 21 
 
 3. Write a short description of the Trojan war, giving par- 
 ties engaged, cause, result, and place. What is the subject 
 and who the author of the Iliad ? Of the Odyssey ? 
 
 4. Describe the Homeric Age in regard to government, the 
 family, religion, ideals of manhood. 
 
 5. What were the foreign influences felt by early Greece ? 
 In what ways did Greece show something new to the world ? 
 
 6. Give the periods of Greek history, with their bounding 
 dates. What is meant by an Olympiad ? 
 
 7. What relation between the Dorian migration and the 
 Greek cities in Asia Minor ? 
 
 8. What were the two leading states of Greece ? Describe 
 each in race, location, character, fame and influence. What 
 great change in their government occurs between the Homeric 
 Age and 500 e.g.? 
 
 9. Name three bonds of union felt by all Hellenes. What 
 remark have you to make in regard to the comparative strength 
 of the principles of unity and of localization among them? 
 Illustrate. 
 
 10. Who was Lycurgus ? Describe the political constitution 
 of Sparta, according to the Lycurgan laws. What was the 
 system of education imposed by them ? Describe the results 
 of the Spartan system to the state, the family, the individual. 
 
 11. Describe the constitution of Athens before the time of 
 Solon. What great changes were introduced by him ? 
 
 12. In what sense, was Pisistratus a tyrant ? How did he 
 gain and how exercise his power ? 
 
 13. What were the reforms of Clisthenes ? After these re- 
 forms, what name should be applied to the political constitution 
 of Athens ? 
 
 14. What was the cause of the Persian wars ? Compare the 
 Greek and Persian dominions at 500 B.C. Compare their unity, 
 government, and civilization. 
 
 15. Note the chief events from 492-479 e.g. Of these events, 
 which were most decisive or noteworthy ? Name and charac- 
 
22 QXTESTIONS IN GREEK HISTORY. 
 
 terize the Greek leaders in these wars. Tell the story of Ther- 
 mopylae. What relation between Thermopylae and Lycurgus ? 
 
 16. What were the results of the Persian wars to Athens ? 
 to Sparta ? to Hellas in general ? 
 
 17. What distinguished the age of Pericles? Name four 
 special directions of Greek greatness during this age. 
 
 18. What was the cause of the Peloponnesian war, and what 
 its immediate occasion ?• What parties were involved in it, and 
 how was each characterized ? What were its results to Athens ? 
 to Sparta ? to Hellas in general ? 
 
 19. What was the last Greek city to rise to Hellenic power, 
 and who was her most famous leader? 
 
 20. Under what leader and by what methods did Macedon 
 obtain Greek supremacy ? Who was Philip's chief opponent 
 in Greece, and by what method did this opponent work against 
 him? What position did he desire to acquire for Macedon 
 in relation to the Greek states ? Of what importance is the 
 date 338 b.c? 
 
 21. Name the principal points in the route of Alexander's 
 conquests. What countries belonged to his empire? What 
 empire did he obtain possession of? In the name of what 
 people were his conquests made? What was done witli his 
 empire at his death ? What important and permanent states 
 sprang from it ? What were the results of the Alexandrian 
 conquests to civilization? what civilizations did these con- 
 quests bring together? 
 
 22. What were the Greek leagues ? "What modern govern- 
 ments do they somewhat resemble ? 
 
 23. What seems to you to be the general cause of the in- 
 ability of Greece to stand against Macedon, and later against 
 Rome? What the peculiar excellence of the Greek state ^ 
 What the peculiar excellence of the Greek character ? 
 
DETAILED DIRECTIONS 
 
 FOB 
 
 MANAGING A LESSON IN SHELDON'S STUDIES 
 IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 (Study on page 15.) 
 
 1. PREPARATION. 
 
 People often feel that the study of history is a mass of 
 reading. But here, as elsewhere, the first work must be the 
 study of a few typical realities. To put some of these typical 
 realities into the hands of every student is the object of the 
 Studies; and unless the pupils have extra time or ability, my 
 own judgment is, that at first, their time and attention should 
 be very thoroughly confined to the Studies. I think I may say 
 with safety, that there is not a question in the book which 
 may not be answered from the materials furnished in the way 
 of fact or extract, plus the pupiVs intelligent labor and thought. 
 Extra reading should follow when the pupil has the power and 
 .,j4ke time to assimilate it, and not before; in the latter case it 
 degenerates into mere stuffing. The very essence of the 
 method here attempted is that it is study, study of reality ; 
 one live bird is better than a case full of stuffed ones. If your 
 pupil approaches the study of anatomy for the first time, you 
 don't confuse him by presenting too many creatures at once, 
 you stick pretty closely to the cat, the frog, the chicken, — in 
 short, to your accessible types. So, in the Studies, I have tried 
 to collect typical materials on which the first rude general 
 work should be done. Afterwards comes the time for the 
 general reading which will strengthen, extend, and adorn 
 knowledge. This, then, decides the nature of the preparation : 
 it must be study, not reading ; it must consist, for the pupil, 
 in working out the answers to the problems set on a given 
 
Z STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 text as independently as if he were doing a problem in algebra 
 or a translation in Caesar. For instance, suppose it is the 
 second-question on page 15 : Make a list of all the arts and sciences 
 that are indicated by the pictures. {See note also.) The pupil 
 will turn to the picture of the colossal Rameses on page 11 and 
 begin to ask himself: What arts or sciences must one have 
 known to do this ? Probably sculpture will occur to him at 
 once. Then he will see from the note that this Rameses is 
 cut from solid rock, so he will notice stone-cutting. Then his 
 mind will run back and ask: What must he have known in 
 order to cut stone, and the answer will come, — he must have 
 had stone-cutting tools, either of metal or of harder stone ; but 
 from the fineness and smoothness of the work on Rameses' face, 
 these tools must have been of metal; and if he used metal 
 tools, he must have known the arts of mining and of metal- 
 working, and so, something of the sciences of chemistry and 
 metallurgy. Then, turning to the picture of the pyramids, he 
 will work in the same way, looking and thinking of the mean- 
 ing of what he sees ; the picture of the pyramids, taken in 
 connection with the descriptive note attached, will confirm 
 the list already made and add to it astronomy, geometry, engi- 
 neering, quarrying, river-navigation, physics. So with each 
 question given, he must work its answer out by observation 
 of and reflection upon the given material. 
 
 If the teacher is using the Studies for the first time, he 
 must prepare his own lesson in the same way as the pupil does ; 
 but to facilitate his work, I have in the appropriate place in 
 the manual given him the due to the answers expected, em- 
 bodying them in the text or in the summaries. He must also 
 have in his mind a clear summary of the points that he wishes 
 to make with his class, and be himself as familiar as possible 
 with the given texts or facts of the Studies. But if the teacher 
 is doing this work for the second or third time, his time will 
 be best spent in reading some good authority on the matter in 
 hand, as, in the lesson referred to above, — Wilkinson's Ancient 
 Egyptians. 
 
STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 3 
 
 If this, too, has been done, he may come to the truly enliven- 
 ing part of his preparation, the gathering of new illustrative 
 material for himself and his class out of accessible originals, 
 such as The Records of the Fast, or some of the reports on 
 Egyptian exploration made in the Century articles. 
 
 In fact, the teacher should press on to work of this nature 
 as rapidly as possible, since, from that time on, he and his 
 pupils will feel the true breath of life in all their studies. I 
 do not believe any teacher can attain the spiritual quality of 
 enthusiasm, who is not a student of the realities of his subject ; 
 so long as he is shut up to what the books say, his work will 
 be positive, indeed, but positive because cut and dried ; let him 
 not only be a student, but let the pupils see and feel him to be 
 such; let them share his doubts, his ignorance, his discoveries 
 and pleasures : that is true intellectual life. 
 
 2. GENERAL DIRECTIONS FOR THE RECITATION. 
 
 The teacher should question rather from his summary than 
 from the set questions of the book ; the latter plan tends to 
 make the work dull and stiff. The pupil, besides, has already 
 had the benefit of these book-questions in his private study ; 
 in fact, the teacher should use the book in the class only for 
 reference, and be as free from it as he expects his pupils to 
 be ; the recitation should give new points of view, the discus- 
 sion be perfectly free, calling for readiness and wit. 
 
 3. PARTICULAR SKETCH OF A PART OF THE CLASS- 
 ROOM WORK ON THE LESSON ON PAGE 15. 
 
 Teacher. Alice and Henry may go to the board and write 
 their lists of the arts and sciences known to the Egyptians, 
 while the rest of us talk about the religion. How do we 
 know that they had any religion, anyway, Philip ? 
 
 Philip. Why, because they prayed. 
 
 Teacher. And how do you know that ? 
 
4 STUDIES IK GEKERAL HISTORY. 
 
 Philip. Because we have their prayers ; there is the prayer 
 to the sun, and the prayer of Rameses, and the prayer to the 
 Chief God. 
 
 Teacher. What other proof that they had a religion ? 
 
 Anna. We know that they had temples, from the pictures of 
 them, and from the lists of buildings made by the kings. 
 
 Laura. They had images of the gods, and sang hymns to 
 them. 
 
 Teacher. What proof have you of that ? 
 
 Laura. Because there is a picture of one of these images, 
 and we have one of the hymns to the Nile. 
 
 Teacher. Well, I think we may fairly put down religion as 
 a part of the old Egyptian life. (Writes it on the board in 
 proper place in the summary already begun in a previous 
 lesson. Seepage 4, Manual.) And now, what about the num- 
 ber of the gods, James ? 
 
 James. They had, at least, several. 
 
 Teacher. For instance ? 
 
 James. They worshipped the Nile, the sun, a god that they 
 call the Lord of Truth, and another that they call Ammon. 
 
 Teacher. Do you know how we describe a religion where 
 the people believe in more than one god. (No one answers. 
 The teacher should never wait long for a technical or unknown 
 word, but should give it himself if the class does not at once 
 supply it.) We call it Polytheistic. (Writes the word on the 
 board, under Religion.) And what sort of objects are the 
 Nile and the sun, Carlton ? 
 
 Carlton. Why, I suppose we might call them natural. 
 
 Teacher. (Writes on the board Nature-ioorship, after Poly- 
 theistic.) What did they see in the Nile to worship ? Jenny, 
 what do you say ? 
 
 Jenny. The Nile gave them life. 
 
 Teacher. How so ? 
 
 Jenny. Why, the Nile made the grass grow in the meadows, 
 and the grass fed the oxen and made them live and grow, and 
 then the oxen fed men and made them live and grow. 
 
STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 5 
 
 Teacher. And wliat about the Nile ? 
 
 Jenny. Nobody fed that, so far as they could see. 
 
 (Here is a place where it is quite appropriate for the teacher 
 to add something himself to the general fund ; he may call 
 attention to the fact that the Nile was the one river of Egypt, 
 and a branchless river, coming eternally full of life-giving 
 water from some unknown source. The reasons why the sun 
 would seem divine should then be discussed in the same way ; 
 such a talk brings the pupil into historic sympathy with the 
 old Egyptian's point of view, and he comes to feel that, after 
 all, the old fellow was kith and kin of his own, and that he, 
 too, would have been an old Egyptian once upon a time.) 
 
 Teacher. Now we have just been saying that the religious 
 belief was polytheistic ; now, do you know, that doesn't seem 
 quite true to me ; does it to you. Will ? Did you see anything 
 to make you think that they had a tendency to believe in one 
 god ; that is, to be monotheists ? 
 
 Will. It says in one place, " prayer to the Chief God." 
 
 Teacher. Yes ; but is there any proof in the prayer that he 
 is chief? (No one knows.) I think you could easily have 
 seen that ; but now look again at this prayer. (All open their 
 "books to page 10. There is a moment's silence.) Ah! some 
 of you see already ; what do you see, Mary ? 
 
 Mary. He seems to have made the other gods ; for it says, — 
 at whose command the gods were made. 
 
 John. And he is greater than the Nile ; for it says, — at 
 whose pleasure the Nile overflows her hanks. 
 
 Teacher. Good ; that wasn't so hard to see, after all. (This 
 is the way in which total failure on the part of the pupils 
 must be met, when the teacher is sure such failure is not due 
 to carelessness. In the latter case, the teacher will simply 
 leave the matter for another trial on the following day ; but, 
 at the beginning of the work, before pupils understand very 
 clearly what is expected of them, it is well for the teacher to 
 help them by doing some actual study with them in the class- 
 room. Such help should not be given afterward, except in 
 
6 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 cases where the teacher sees that the question is really too 
 difficult for the average of the class, in which case it is always 
 best to have recourse to the text on the spot.) So you see 
 that though the Egyptians believed in many gods, — they 
 believed, in fact, in many more than those named here, — yet 
 they also had the thought of one god above all gods ; so, we 
 must add Tendencies to Monotheism here to Polytheistic Nature- 
 worship. Now, what did they think about the immortality to 
 the soul ? Kate, what do you say ? 
 
 Kate. They believed in it ; at least, in the Book of the Dead, 
 the soul is represented as coming before Osiris after death for 
 judgment, and then, if Osiris is contented with it, going on to 
 Elysium. 
 
 Teacher. And what about the bodies ? 
 
 Mary. They embalmed them ; put them up to keep. 
 
 Teacher. Perhaps some of you know from your general read- 
 ing why they wanted to keep the bodies ; well, Mary again ? 
 
 Mary. They thought some day that the soul would want 
 the body again. 
 
 Will. Why, that is just what we Christians believe about 
 the resurrection of the body ; we think the soul and body will 
 last forever, too. 
 
 Teacher. Yes, a great many people do think so. (The 
 teacher must not allow himself to be drawn off into any state- 
 ment of his own belief here, although to a certain extent he 
 may allow his pupils to express themselves on these delicate 
 religious matters. Teacher writes Immortality of the Soul, 
 on the board, under Religion,) 
 
 Teacher. Now, when I asked you for proofs that Egyptians 
 had a religion, you said right away " they prayed to the gods "; 
 now what made them pray to the gods, James ? 
 
 James. Why, because they wanted things, and they thought 
 that the gods could give them to them. 
 
 Teacher. What were some of the things they prayed for ? 
 
 (Various members of the class answer, " Success in war," 
 " Help in trouble," " Justice," etc.) 
 
STUDIES IK GENERAL HISTORY. 7 
 
 Teacher. What do such prayers show that they thought of 
 the gods ? 
 
 Various members. That they were powerful, kind, just. 
 
 (Teacher writes on the board Believed gods would and 
 could help men. The teacher may, if he thinks best, also 
 call attention to the fact that this is really the belief in special 
 providence.) 
 
 Teacher. When you were naming the gods, there was one 
 whom you did not name. 
 
 James. Well, I wanted to ask you about the king; it seemed 
 as if they prayed to him, tOo, just as if he were a god. 
 
 Teacher. You are quite right. The king was like a god to 
 them ; just turn to page 14, and see how they address him ; 
 read a sentence, Jenny, in which they speak to him as if he 
 were a god. 
 
 (Jenny reads, " Hail to thee, Horus, sacred majesty " ; others 
 read other sentences showing the same thing. The teacher 
 then asks, " Mary, do you remember from our lesson of yester- 
 day another fact that shows that the religion had a good deal 
 to do with the government ? ") 
 
 Mary. Yes ; the king was a priest, and the chief high priest 
 was next to the king. 
 
 Other members give other facts, as that the king was always 
 building temples, that the priests held many offices, etc. 
 Teacher writes on the board, Close union of religion with the 
 state, as shown in importance of temples and priests, and sacred- 
 ness of king. 
 
 Meanwhile the lists have been placed on the board, and the 
 teacher will proceed in a similar way to collect the points 
 for the intellectual, industrial, political, social, and moral life 
 of the ancient Egyptians, as per summary. In this sort of 
 work, the teacher will notice, first, — that the questions follow 
 a summary in his own mind, rather than the order of questions 
 in the book ; as has been already said, this gives freshness and 
 order to the work. Second, — new terms are given at once, as 
 soon as, but after, the thing they name is understood j exam- 
 
8 STUDIES IN GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 pies, Polytheism, Nature-worship, Monotheism. Third, — and 
 greatest of all, constant reference must he made to the text. It 
 must be appealed to as proof of the pupils' statements, and be 
 their referee in all cases of dispute. In short, it must be used 
 just as the specimen would be used in botany; and if the teacher 
 has been able to collect still other material from the sources, 
 it should be used similarly, to prove, test, modify, or broaden 
 opinion. 
 
 The above has been written on the supposition that the 
 teacher is as yet in the " little go " of his teaching, and is still 
 confined to his text-books in hand ; if, however, he has had 
 time to do further reading, or if, best of all, he has had time 
 to hunt up new pictures and extracts, he will be able to enrich 
 every moment of the hour. In the latter case, however, there 
 is real danger of his getting in the way of the pupil, and he 
 must always remember that he is in the class-room, first of all, 
 to give full play to the pupils. Let their oivn work stand out 
 simple, clear, and strong, rectified -by your own greater knowl- 
 edge and judgment. 
 
 What the teacher brings from his own stores should be connected 
 with what the pupils have themselves done. It should be illus- 
 trative and cumulative in its effect, and be in plain sight from 
 their elementary point of view. But, keeping this primal 
 principle in view, let him go as far afield with them as he 
 
 possibly can. 
 
 MARY SHELDON BARNES. 
 
14 DAY USE 
 
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