i fi*~ I GIFT OF John H. Mee CI800 VA NEW AND REVISED EDITION. 'HISTORICAL ANF MISOELLOfllOLS QUESTIONS' FOR THE USE OF YOUNG PEOPLE. WITH A SELECTION OF BRITISH AND GENERAL BIOGRAPHY Ac. Ac. BY RICHMAL MANGNALL. A NEW EDITION REMODELLED THROUGHOUT, ENLARGED, AND IMPROVED. LONDON LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, LONGMANS, & ROBERTS. 1859 ' ' Price to. 6v Lycurgus. AVhat was remarkable in his 1; He effected an equal division of lands among the Spartans, banished the use of gold and silver, trained the youth in military discipline, and ordered that particular respect should be paid to the aged.x^ c^" In what light ^ere the Spartans considered? Entirely as a warlike nation; but they were forbidden to attack or oppress their neighbours without provocation, and were only allowed to de- fend themselves against the inroads of oil: What was the great defect in the Spartan ! Lycurgus directed his attention to form a nation lolly neglecting the culture of the mind; thus the sciences were banished, and the Spartans, owing to their roughness and aust were little esteemed by their more polished i; bours. . How long did the laws of Lycurgus continue in force? More than five hundred y How were the Egyptians, during that period, governed ? By a succession of weak king?, till the monarchy SPARTA. EGYPT. 7 was quite overthrown by Carnbyses, king of Persia, B.C. 525. Egypt continued annexed to the Persian dominions 200 years more, when Alex- ander made it part of the Macedonian empire. How did the Egyptians become such an easy prey to the Persians? They had long been accustomed to a luxurious life; their manners had become effeminate, and their courage was diminished by long disuse of arms; while the Persians, just emerging from barbarism, brave and warlike, pushed on their conquests with ardour and rapidity. What remarkable events had befallen the king- dom of Babylon before this time? Nebuchadnezzar had overthrown the Jewish monarchy, and led the Jews into captivity; ( the Great, in the reign of Belshazzar, grandson of Nebuchadnezzar, had besieged Babylon with a powerful army; the city, as the prophets had foretold, was taken, and Belshazzar killed in his palace. (Daniel, chap, v.) What happened to the Grecian states upon the death of Cyrus? The succeeding Persian monarchs continued the war with the Greeks, who, in many hard- iought battles, had opportunities for the exercise of that fortitude and patriotism which the freedom of their government inspired. ^ Which side proved victorious? During the reigns of Xerxes and Darius, the Contest was doubtful, but the Greeks at length prevailed. Did they improve these victories? B 4 8 ANCIENT STATES. : they had many divisions among themselves, which ultimately resulted in the famous Pelopon- nesian war, and weakened both their virtue and military force. Philip, king of Macedon, an artful and enterprising prince, embraced this favourable opportunity to enlarge his own power; and, by bribery and promises, gained such numbers to his interest, that, after the battle of Chasronea, {"HiLfht against him by the Greeks (as the last effort of expiring liberty), they fell entirely into his hands. What put an end to Philip's ambitious schei His death by assassination. Who succeeded Philip? His son Alexander, whom all the Grecian states, except Thebes and Athens, had chosen general of their united forces against Darius: in three pitched battles, the Granicus, Issus, and Arbela, he conquered the Persian monarch, and established the Macedonian empire upon the ruins of the Persian. ^Yllat became of Alexander? He died in the prime of life, in the midst of a rapid career of victory, at Babylon, in the year :)23. AVhat progress did the Greeks make in the arts r From the time of Cyrus to that of Alexander, they were gradually improving: warriors, states- men, philosophers, poets, historians, painters, archi- . and sculptors form a glorious phalanx in this golden age of literature; and the history of the Greeks, at this period, is equally important and instructive. ROME. 9 Name the chief Grecian poets. Homer, Hesiocl, Archilochus, Tyrtaeus, Alcaeus, Sappho, Simonides, ^schylus, Euripides, So- phocles, Aristophanes, Anacreon, Pindar, and Menander. ,.*- Name the chief philosophers. Thales, Solon, Pythagoras, Heraclitus, Anax- agoras, Socrates, Empedocles, Epicurus, Plato, Aristotle, Zeno, and Diogenes. Name the chief lawgivers. Cecrops, of Athens; Cadmus, of Thebes; Caranus, of Macedon ; Lycurgus, of Sparta ; Draco and Solon, of Athens. ^ Name the chief historians^ Herodotus, Thucydides, and Xenophon. Name the chief Grecian painters. Zeuxis, Parrhasius, Timanthes, Apelles, Polyg- notus, Protogenes, and Aristides. ^^^ Xamc the chief Grecian sculptors. Ctesiphon, Phidias, Myron, Scopas, Lysippus, Polycletus, Agesander, Polydorus, Athenodorus. Whun was Rome founded? About 753 years B.C., by Romulus. This city, the fame of which extended through the known world, was, at first, only a mile in circumference, and peopled principally by persons who fled thither from other places, for refuge from slavery, oppression, or deserved punishment. What was the character of Romulus? He had great military talents; and as he and his followers drew their subsistence from war, his plan was, after conquering the surrounding states, to unite them to Rome, adopting their B 5 10 ANCIENT STAT! improvements in arts or arms: thus, from every successful war, his city gained fresh strength, power, and reputation. How long did the regal power subsist in Rome? T\vo hundred and forty-three years; when Tarquin the Proud incurred the hatred of the Romans for his vices, and was ignominiously ex- pelled. How were the Romans then governed? By two annual magistrates, called consuls: their power being of such short duration, each endeavoured to distinguish himself by some war- like action, and the people were perpetually led tut against some new enemy. What powerful state contended with Rome ? Carthage, which had been settled by a colony of Pha'iiiciaiis, under Queen Dido, five centuries before the building of Rome ; and, animated by the spirit of its founders, was now become of the first commercial importance. ^* y When did the famous Puuicwars begin between the Romans and the Carthagini; Two hundred and sixty-four years B.C. ; after long and frequent struggles. Carthage was taken Destroyed by the Romans, under Scipio, B.C. 146, in the same year that Corinth was burnt by the Roman general Mummius. How were the principal parts of the known world occupied at that time ? While Rome and Carthage were contending for empire, Greece, Egypt, and Asia, were agitated by the quarrels of Alexander's successors, upon whose death the extensive dominions acquired by ROME, GREECE, ETC. 11 him were portioned into four shares, and the mode of dividing them occasioned continual disputes. How were the conquests of Alexander ulti- mately divided? Into twelve provinces, the governors of which appear to have depended upon four chief rulers ; namely, Ptolemy, who had possession of Egypt ; Seleucus, who reigned at Babylon and in Syria : Cassander, to whose lot fell Macedonia and Greece; and Antigonus, who held under his dominion Asia Minor. S How did the Romans acquire dominion in Greece? The ^Etolians(a Grecian state ) invited them to assist in lessening the power of Philip, one of the donian kings; the Romans accordingly com- pelled himtoresign to them the torts lie had erected, and the Grecian cities were again declared free. Wore the Greeks then really I No; their liberty w;:s no more than a name; for Philip becoming tributary to the Romans, the Grecian states, dependent upon him, were so too. \Vhat were the terms of this alliance? Rome allowed them the possession of their own territories and form of government; and under the specious name of allies, they were obliged to comply with the most humiliating conditions. When were Macedonia and Greece reduced to the condition of Roman provinces? Macedonia, in the year B.C. 148 ; Greece, two years after, by the name of Achaia. What monarch yielded last to the Romans? Mithridates, king of Pontus, in Asia Minor: B 6 12 ANCIENT STATES. lie was vanquished successively by Sylla, Lucullus, and Pompey ; and at length bereft of his domi- nions and his life. ^- - AY hat general, at this period, delivered the Roman empire from formidable enemies? Marius, who defeated the Cimbri and Teutones invading Italy, in a vast multitude; and over- threw Jugurtha, king of Xumidia. Who stretched the Roman power to its utmost limit ? Julius Caesar: he conquered Egypt, Asia, Spain, France, and invaded Britain. AYhat befell Ca3sar? Owing to the constant divisions of the senate and people, and his own excessive thirst of power, he was assassinated by those who called themselves the friends of the people ; and Octavius Cresar, his kinsman, by a train of fortunate events, ob- tained that supreme power, the desire of which, too openly manifested, had cost Julius his life. \Yhen did Octavius Cxsar obtain complete au- thority over the Roman commonwealth? In the year of the Republic 723, B.C. 30, when he assumed the name of Augustus Caisar. The Carthaginian, Persian, Macedonian, and Grecian glory was now no more; all nations courted his alliance, and, conqueror both by sea and land, he closed the temple of Janus for the third time since its erection by Numa Pompilius. , State the leading events in the history of Egypt down to the present time. This country was subdued by the Saracens in the sixth century, and afterwards by the Turks, from whom it was wrested by the Mamelukes, GREECE, PERSIA. 13 the brave and warlike Mahometan descendants of Christian slaves from Georgia and other places, whom the Turks had settled here. After a rule of many years the Mamelukes were, in their turn, dispossessed, and the country again fell under the dominion of the Turks, being governed by a vice- roy or pacha of the first dignity. But at length the Turkish governor, Mohammed Ali, after long contests with the Sultan, obtained the dignity of hereditary pacha, and made himself entirely inde- pendent. V""*"*^ - Selate the chier" events in the history of Greece since the dissolution of the Roman empire. Several of the Grecian states fell under the dominion of the Venetians ; but the whole of them were in the year 1360 subjugated by the Turks, who exercised over them the most despotic sway for four centuries and a half. In 1821, the Greeks, re-aniinated by the spirit of liberty, once more asserted their independence. Being sup- ported by the chief Christian powers of Europe, they emancipated themselves from the tyranny of their oppressors in 1827, and established an inde- pendent kingdom under Otho, second son of the king of Bavaria, who assumed the title of King of Greece. What fate befell the kingdom of Persia ? It became first a prey to the Saracens, then to the Tartars. ^^ Who were the Saracens ? The Saracens were originally the Mahometans who invaded France, and settled in Sicily ; but in the course of time the term became the general name of all the Arabian tribes who embraced the 14 MODERN ROME. religion of Mahomet, and spread their conqueste the greater portion of Asia and Africa. What revolutions has Rome experienced ? From the time of Augustus Caesar it was go- verned by a succession of emperors till the year of our Lord 410; it was then plundered by the Goths, afterwards by the Vandals; at length, Charlemagne, king of France and emperor of Germany, having given t ; to the popes, they fixed upon it as the seat of their power. In \~>'21, Rome was taken by storm by an army osed of Germans, Spaniards, and Italians, commanded by the brave but unprincipled duke of Bourbon; and suffered great misery from the ra- paciousness of the victors. From that period till ti> of the eighteenth century, Rome not exposed to any politi'-al revolution. Mention the principal events, in the more mo- dern historv of iiomc. In 1798, the French army took possession of ', and carried IVpe i'ius VI. prisoner to France, where he died. I; .he new pope, VIL, recovered possession of Rome ; but a and troubled period then began, which only d upon the downfall of Xapoleon Bonaparte in 1815. In 1848, the present pope, Pius JX., who at his accession had displayed very liberal tendencies impelled to flee in disguise to Gacta, and a republic was proclaimed ; but in the following year the French government despatched an expedition to Rome, which, after a protracted nice, entered the city, and soon afterwards reinstated the pope. ^ 15 QUESTIONS CONTAINING A SKETCH OF THE MOST REMARKABLE EVENTS I l:oM THE CHRISTIAN -ERA TO THE BEGINNING O! TEENTH CENTURY. XAME some of the principal events in the first century. The foundation of London by the Romans : the persecution of the Druids in Britain : Koine burnt in the reign of Nero, and the Christians first persecuted by him: .JeL-u.-uK-m iU-.-troyed by Titus; and the New Testament writ; AY hat learned men flourished in the first cen- tury ? JL^ nTurv. CENTURY, NINTH. 17 science extinguished, and the works of the learned destroyed by the Goths and other fierce invaders of the Roman empire. Name the chief events in the sixth century. Time computed by the Christian sera : a pl:i- which extended over Europe, Asia, and Africa, lasted fifty years ; and unlimited temporal, as well ' as spiritual, authority assumed by the popes. Name the chief events of the seventh century. The successful spread of the Mahometan re- ligion; Jerusalem taken by the Saracens, fol- lowers of Mahomet ; and the Alexandrian library (that great repository for general learning) sup- posed to be burnt by the command of their caliph, Omar ; the Britons also, after many severe strug- gles, were expelled their native country by the Saxons, and many of them obliged to retire into Armorica or Brittany, Wales, and Cornwall. , Name the most distinguished characters in the seventh century. Mahomet, Ali, and the general patron of learn- ing, Abubeker, who were Arabians or Saracens. Name the chief events of the eighth century. Disputes respecting image-worship harassed the Christian world, and caused many insurrections in the Eastern empire ; Bagdad became the resi- dence of the caliphs, and the Saracens conquered Spain; Haroun al Rashid,the venerable Bede, and Boniface, the apostle of the Germans, flourished in this century. Name some of the events in the ninth century. The empire of Germany established under Charlemagne; Britain repeatedly invaded and KKMAIl!-. .VEXTS. rated by tlie Danes; the Scots and Picts united. Name some events in the tenth century. The Saracen power began to totter, having been divided into seven different usurpations ; the empire of Germany made elective; and Poland erected into a monarchy. Xame some events in the eleventh century. The Turks conquered Persia, and retook Jeru- salem from the Saracens ; the Norman conquest of England was achieved by William ; the cru- sades were engaged in, and the Moors settled Themselves in Spain; Abelard, so famous for his learning, and his attachment tolleloise, flourished iiis and the next century. me some remarkable events in the twelfth century. The science of Algebra introduced into Europe from the Arabians. The order of Knightg Tem- plars was instituted, whose p< i became : the Teutonic order of knighthood be- 1 n Germany ; and Ireland was annexed to the British crown. Name some events in the thirteenth century. The Tatars. wh- :cd from the northern parts of Asia, overturned the Saracen empire; the Inquisition established by the Dominicans, under Pope Innocent the Third ; and the English obtained from King Jolm the famous Magna Charta; Thomas Aquinas and Roger Bacon the philosophers, Matthew Paris the historian, and Marco Polo the navigator, flourished during that period. CENTURY, SIXTEENTH. 19 / Name some events in the fourteenth century. The popes for seventy years made Avignon, in France, their place of residence ; the Swiss re- public was founded ; .gunpowder used, and the mariner's compass invented ; gold coined ; and the first symptoms of the Reformation appeared in England under the auspices of Wickliffe. Name the chief authors in the fourteenth cen- tury. Chaucer, Gower, DantCj Petrarch, and Hafiz, poets; Boccaccio, novelist; Froissart mid Alain Chartier, historians. What were the most striking events in the fifteenth century? Printing was invented and became general ; Constantinople taken by the Turks; civil wars in England between the houses of York and Lan- caster, which continued thirty I destroyed one hundred thousand men : the Moors driven by the Spaniards back to Africa, their native coun- try; America discovered by Christopher Colinn: \^> Name some great men in the fifteenth century. Leonardo da Vinci, Kapluit-l, and Michael An- gelo, painters (these three flourished also at the beginning of the sixteenth century) ; Benvenuto Cellini, the famous sculptor in gold and silver; Machiavel, the political writer ; Caxton, the first English printer ; and the celebrated Erasmus, the great restorer of learning. What were the principal events of the sixteenth century ? The Reformation was begun in Germany by Luther, and in Switzerland by Zwinglius, and 20 REMARKABLE EVENTS. spread through England, Scotland, Germany, Denmark, and Sweden : the monasteries were dissolved in England by Henry VIII. ; and the persecutions under the papal see were extended over Spain and Italy; the maritime discoveries of the Portuguese in the East; learning revived, and protected by 'the house of Medici ; the mas- sacre of the Protestants in France by command of Charles IX. ; the foundation of the Genoese republic ; the defeat of the Spanish armada ; and the Swedish revolution effected by Gustavns Name some celebrated characters in the six- teenth century. Luther, Calvin, Zwinglius, Melancthon, and Knox, reformers; Bartholomew Columbus, and Sebastian Cabot, navigators; Tycho Brahe, and Copernieus, astronomers ; Shakspeare, Spenser, Tasso, Camoens, Bonarelli, poets; Palladio, the architect ; Cervantes, the renowned author of Don Quixote : Faustus ; Socinus, the theologian ; the Scaligers, critics; Titian, the painter; Bentivoglio, De Thou or Thuanus, and Buchanan, historians ; Montaigne, and Lord Bacon, philosophers. Name some events in the seventeenth century. Great part of North America settled by the English : the thirty y.-ars* war in Germany ; mas- sacre of Irish Protestants; civil wars between Charles I. and his parliament, who tried and con- demned their sovereign to be beheaded; the Commonwealth, under Oliver Cromwell ; the re- storation of Charles II. ; the persecution of the Protestants in France by Louis XIV. ; the abdi- CENTURY, EIGHTEENTH. 21 cation of James II. of England ; the subsequent revolution there, and settlement of AVilliam and Mary on the English throne. Mention some great names in the seventeenth century. Milton, Dryden, Corneille, Racine, Moliere,and Boileau, poets ; Cassini, Galileo, Gassendi, New- ton, and Halley, astronomers ; Boyle, Fontenelle, Locke, and Leibnitz, philosophers; Puffendorf and Grotius, civilians ; Bernini^ the sculptor ; Guido, the painter; Strada, the historian; and Boerhaave, the medical writer and practitioner. What were the chief events in the beginning of the eighteenth century ? Peter of Russia, and Charles XII. of Sweden, distinguished themselves by their military ex- ploits; the victorious general of Queen Anne, Churchill Dukeof^Iajlborough, raised the En- glish name; anoKouli Khan, after usurping the Persian throne, conquered the Mogul empire in India. Name some from the middle to the close of the eighteenth century. The New Style, or the reformation made in the calendar by Pope Gregory XII J., introduced into Britain, in the year 1752; Lisbon destroyed by an earthquake; the order of Jesuits suppressed by the pope; dreadful hurricanes in the AY--; Indies, and earthquakes in Sicily; Gjbj-aljgr sustained a siege of three years against the united powers of France and Spain, and its brave and skilful defender Elliot, Lord Heathfield, obliged them to raise it; the revolution in France, 1'L' REMARKABLE EVEN and its attendant horrors; the rebellion in Ireland, and its happy termination. What other circumstances have rendered the eighteenth century so remarkable in history? Five emperors were massacred, five king- ated, six sovereigns deposed, five govern- ments extinguished, and one mighty kingdom swept from the charts of Europe. The foundation of the British power in India was also laid and reared in this century : and in this century the United States of North America shook oft' the yoke of Great Britain, and formed themselves into an independent republic, with General W i for their President. Name some of the events at the beginning of the nineteenth centir The union of Great Britain with Ireland, and the first imperial parliament; the republic of France converted by the French tribunate into an empire; the sii ' ;; declared hereditary in the family of Bonaparte, who was proclaimed peror by the title of Napoleon I. in May, 1804: the subjugation of nearly the whole continent to the sway of the Emperor Xapoleon; his - campaign in Russia, which gave the first blow to his power, and hie final overthrow at Waterloo in 1815. What took place in France after the overthrow of Napolc Louis X V 1 1 1. was restored to the throne, which he occupied till his death in 1824, when Iu succeeded by his brother Charles X. The great unpopularity of the measures of his government CENTURY, NINETEENTH. 23 produced a revolution in Paris in 1830, which ended in the expulsion of this weak and arbitrary prince from the throne of his ancestors. The people then chose for their sovereign the Duke of Orleans, whoassumed the title of Louis Philippe I., King of the French. What other important events occurred in Europe about this period ? (1.) The Belgians in 1830 revolted against the king of the Netherlands ; and, having separated themselves from Holland, erected Belgium into a distinct kingdom, electing for their sovereign Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg. (2.) In Poland the patriotic party attempted to re-assert their national independence : but they were finally overpowered, and their country is now completely incorporated with llur-sia. (3.) In Portugal, Don Miguel, who had been appointed regent during the minority of the young queen, Donna Maria, usurped the throne of that country. After a long and arduous strug- gle, he was forced by an army, commanded by his brother Don Pedro, to quit the kingdom, and Donna Maria was placed in quiet possession of the sovereignty. (4.) In Spain, the death of Ferdinand VII. in 1834, who had repealed the Salic law in order to place his daughter Isabella on the throne, to the exclusion of his brother, Don Carlos, was foil by a dreadful civil war, which continued to be waged with various success till 1840, when a pacification was effected, and Isabella II. is now in possession of the throne. \/-^ L'4 REMARKABLE EVEN 4 For what was the year 1848 remarkable? For a general insurrection of the continental nations against their sovereigns. In France, Louis Philippe was compelled to abdicate : in Italy the Austrians were driven out of Lom- bardy : Venice was proclaimed a republic : vio- lent conflicts took place at Vienna and Berlin between the military and the citizens, in which the latter were victorious: and a great congress was held at Frankfort to inaugurate a German Empire. To appease the discontent everywhere manifested, great political privileges were at first conceded by the princes to their people ; but in little more than twelve months from the general outbreak, all the privileges that had been conceded were withdrawn, and greater restrictions upon liberty than before existed were nearly every- where imposed. What took place in France after the abdication of Louis Philippe? A republic was at first proclaimed ; in the same year Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was elected Pre- sident; but in 1851 he destroyed the republican form of government by a coup d'etat, and in 1852 was proclaimed Emperor of the French by the title of Napoleon III. What great European event took place in 1854? The declaration of war against Russia by France and England in the defence of Turkey. What circumstance led to this event? Nicholas, Emperor of Russia, having declared war against Turkey, the French and English governments entered into a treaty for the protec- CENTUKY, NINETEENTH. 25 tion of the Sultan. Having landed a mighty force in the Crimea, they laid siege to Sebastopol, and after a siege of nearly twelve months, during which three of the greatest battles of modern times were fought, those of the Alma, Inkermann, and the Tchernaya, the combined forces of the allies stormed the city, and thus compelled the Emperor Alexander of Russia, who had succeeded his father Nicholas, 1st March, 1855, to agree to a treaty of peace, which was signed at Paris in 1856. What great event took place in India in 1857? A great mutiny of the sepoy regiments, which began at Meerut and extended throughout Cen- tral India in an incredibly short time, and was accompanied everywhere, but more especially at Cawnpore, by deeds of atrocity which excited the deepest horror and indignation throughout the civilised world. The British troops, though a mere handful of men, boldly made face against the insurgents, and without waiting for reinforce- ments from England, laid siege to Delhi, where the mutineers had concentrated their forces, and took it after a five days' struggle. They then hastened to the relief of their fellow-countrymen who had been shut up in Lucknow ; and having accomplished this object through the gallant exertions of Sir Henry Havelock and Sir Colin Campbell, they have since been engaged in fol- lowing up and scattering the rebels wherever they appear. The mutiny may now be said to be crushed, though not wholly extinguished, c : ;PE. E TROPE. SBE Europe once a mighty wild, Science and arts unknown ; No father train M a legal child, Led by caprice alone. Till Cecrops came, the friend of man, And on Livadia's shore First harmohis'd the useful plan He from Egypt ia bore. Then cities, growing states arise, And hallowM altars found, Proclaim man's kindred with the tkies, Enlarge his narrow bound. Lycurgus, Solon, then appcar'd, Sparta and Athens' pride : with the hand of justice steer'd, And steram'd corruption's tide. Nor did posterity renounce Their salutary laws, Till Philip, with a tiger's pounce, Attark'd the common e His son, the mighty madman, spread Astonishment ami fear ; Then conquer'd India bows her head, And prostrate slaves revere. And now the Roman state acquires Such military fame, That lispfag babes from aged sires the patriot 11. By rising power is Carthage knu Proud mistress of the seas Far distant ports her influence own, And commerce fans the breeze. EUROPE. 27 While rival Rome indignant views The Punic trader's fame, And sends her consuls at the news Fresh laurell'd wreaths to gain. Long was the contest, doubtful, dire, But Rome at length prevails Not right, but might, directs the fire, And ruin'd Carthage wails. By civil feuds the Grecian name Lost lustre and renown ; Then, as a whirlwind Si/Ua came. And swept its glories down. Conquest extends from shore to shore, Each in its turn subdued ; Yet were the laurels Ccesar wore By orphans' tears bedew 'd. Fatigued with virtue's rugged round, Averse from honour's sway, Rome and her allies quickly found Vice has a smoother way. Her flow'ry paths so often trod, Led to a thousand woes ; Lost to themselves, and Nature's God, When, lo ! a sun arose. The Christian Sun, serenely bright, Illumes each darken'd part : JESUS, in all his Father's might, Speaks peace to every heart. Through distant realms his doctrine spread, By holy truth sustain'd, The resurrection of the dead, And future worlds are gain'd. c 2 28 EUROPE. This holy truth perverted soon, Man scorns the precepts given, Then superstition's baneful gloom Obscures the light of heaven. And priestly pow'r enthroned high. Its dreadful thunders hurl'd ; Religion breath'd her parting sigh, Tir'd of a vicious world. Licentious fools her temples tread, Usurp the sacred name, Jerome and Huns for conscience bled ; Rome triumph' d in her shame : Yet still the arts now dawning gleam'd With hope of brightest day ; Printing, the key to science, seem'd A new and ready way. A" ray of light, in happy hour, On Wickliffe's soul is thrown, Sufficient to resist the pow'r Intrench'd in blood alone. To him succeeded Luther ; he Boldly removed the veil. Error and superstition flee ; Freedom and truth prevail. Impetuous borne on eagle's wing, His rais'd ideas soar ; They rest with heaven's eternal king, And idols are no more. Then, as reformed churches, see England and Scotland shine ; Through Sweden, Denmark, Germany. Extends the flame divine. EUROPE. 29 Prior to this Columbus show'd The western world to man : Hence all the Spanish treasures flowM, Here Freedom's noblest plan. Italians sons through Europe pour The visual, mental ray ; Her painters ev'ry palace store ; Her poets tune the lay. Florence the fair, in beauty's bloom. Attracts the curious eye ; Her Mtdici the arts relume ; That torch shall never die. 30 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS GRECIAN HISTORY, Here studious let me sit, And hold high converse with the mighty dead, Sages of ancient times, as gods revered : As gods beneficent, who bless'd mankind With arts, with arms, and humanised a world. THOMSON'S Winter. How may the Grecian history be divided ? Into four ages. The first extends one thousand . from the building of Sicyon to the siege of Troy ; the second from the demolition of Troy to the reign of Darius (when the Grecian and Persian history mingle), containing six hundred years ; the third, from the beginning of the reign of Darius to the death of Alexander, comprehending the most important part of Grecian history ; and the fourth begins with the death of Alexander, and continues through the gradual declension of the Grecian power, till totally reduced by the Romans. "Which were the most considerable states in Greece ? Sicyon was the most ancient, its first king being GRECIAN HISTOKY. 31 contemporary with Noah; Argos, whose king, Inachus, was contemporary with Abraham ; Athens, founded by Cecrops ; Sparta, or Lace- demon, founded by Lelex, B.C. 1490; Corinth, founded by Sisiphus, B.C. 1404 ; Thebes, founded by Cadinua, u.c. 1493 ; Macedon, founded by Caranus, B.C. 794; Thrace, and Epirus. How many dialects were used among the Greeks? Four : the Attic, the Ionic, Doric, and .^Eolic. Which was the most elegant? The Attic, spoken in Athens and its vicinity ; Thucydides, Isocrates, Xenophon, Plato, JEschy- lus, Euripides, Sophocles, Aristophanes, and De- mosthenes wrote in it. y^*^\ Which was the dialect next esteemed ? The Ionic, spoken chiefly in Asia Minor ; Homer, Herodotus, and Hippocrates wrote in it. What nations spoke the Doric dialect ? The Spartans, Sicilians, Dorians, Khodians, and Cretans ; Theocritus and Pindar wrote in it. What states used the -^Eolic dialect? First, the Boeotians ; and afterwards the JEolians, who lived in Asia Minor. When .and why vas the Grecian expedition against Troy undertaken ? About 1150 years B.C., to recover Helen, the bcr.utiful queen of Sparta, who had been carried off by Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy ? Who commanded this expedition ? Agamemnon, king of Argos and Mycenae. How long did the siege of Troy last ? Ten years. c 4 32 ^ GRECIAN HISTORY. Mention some other great public events of the so-called " heroic age." The expedition of the Argonauts to Colchis, at the extremity of the Black Sea, in the ship Argo, in quest of the Golden Fleece ; and the wars of Thebes, which arose from the disputes for the throne between the sons of CEdipus. Who was the first king of Thebes ? Cadmus, its founder : but Thebes afterwards be- came a republic, and was at length subdued by the Romans. What was meant by the term Bo3otarch ? All magistrates and generals who had supreme command in Thebes were called Boeotarchs, or governors of Boeotia. For what were the Boeotians reproached ? For their heaviness and stupidity: Plutarch, Epaminondas, and Pindar, are, however, great exceptions to this imputation. ?. r ~T(Vho was Lycurgus ? The Spartan lawgiver ; to whose exertions and useful decrees the Spartans were indebted for their discipline, and much of their valour. What effects did his laws produce ? The Spartans became, under them, brave, active, and noble-minded ; and were inspired with a pe- culiar readiness to defend their lives and liberties. What great example did Lycurgus give of patience and ready forgiveness of injuries ? That of pardoning Alcander, a Spartan youth, who, in a tumult, struck out one of his eyes : Lycurgus even took him into his house, and treated him with the greatest kindness. GRECIAN HISTORY. 33 Who were the Helots? An unfortunate tribe whom the Lacedemonians, having subdued, reduced to abject slavery. The severe treatment of their masters frequently drove them to revolt ; and their lives were then at the disposal of those whom they served. The Spartans, to show their children the enormity of drunken- ness, used to expose these slaves to them in that condition. What were the Gymnasia ? Academies, in which the Athenians were taught the use of arms, and all manly exercises. Which was the most polished city in Greece ? Athens. What was the character of the Athenians ? Glory and liberty were their darling pas- sions ; but their liberty frequently degenerated into licentiousness. They were also capricious and ambitious ; but in the fine arts they remain even to this day without a rival. What was the Neomenia? A feast solemnised in honour of the new moon among the Hebrews, Egyptians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, and Gauls. What was the lo Paean ? A hymn of triumph, celebrated in honour of Apollo. Who was Homer? The earliest and most illustrious poet of Greece. His Iliad gives an account of the last year's siege of Troy ; and the Odyssey relates the adventures of Ulysses. c 5 34 GRECIAN HISTORY. What were the Olympic games ? They are said to have been instituted by Hercules, B.C. 1453, among the Greeks in honour of Jupiter, upon the plains of Elis, near the city of Olympia; they consisted of boxing, running, chariot-races, wrestling, and quoiting, and were celebrated at the commencement of every fifth year; hence a period of four years was called an Olympiad, and the Greeks thus computed their time. What were the Isthmian games? They were instituted B.C. 1326, and celebrated every third (some say every fourth) year, in honour of Neptune, by the Greeks, upon the Isthmus of Corinth. What were the Pythian and Nemean games? The Pythian were celebrated B.C. 1326, and revived by Theseus, B,c. 1234, at Delphi, every fourth year, in honour of Apollo, for claying the serpent Python. They were instituted by the Amphictyons. The Nemean games, insti- tuted by Adrastus, B.C. 568, in honour of Hercules having destroyed the lion of Nemea, a t-ity in the Peloponnesus, were held, in that city, > years. What wcix- <>i\c.:nally the rewards of the victors in all these garni A simple wreath. In the Olympic games, which were accounted the most honourable, because sacred to Jupiter, and instituted by the first of their heroes, this wreath was composed of wild olive; in the Pythian of laurel; and in the Isth- mian and Xcmcan games, of parsley; honour, not GRECIAN HISTORY. 35 interest, being deemed the best reward of great exertions. What influenced the Greeks to keep up the celebration of these games ? As each of them was dedicated to the memory of some god or hero, they were considered both in a religious and political light : and these fre- quent assemblies of the Grecian states united them more closely, and strengthened their mutual interests. Who was Thales ? An ancient geographer, and founder of the Ionic sect of philosophers, so named from Ionia, where he was born. He held many singular opinions, one of which was, that water was the principle of being, and that God formed all things out of water. Thales fixed the term and duration of the solar year among the Grecian-. Who was Draco ? The first and rigid legislator of Athens. Who was Solon ? One of the seven sages of Greece : and the re- former of Draco's code. Name the Grecian sages. Thales of Miletus, founder of the Ionian school of philosophy ; Solon ; Chilo (a Lacedemonian) ; Pittucus, the deliverer and lawgiver of Mitylene in Lesbos ; Bias, Prince of Priene, in Ionia ; Cleobulus, of Lindus, in the island of Rhodes ; and Periander, of Corinth. Who was Anacharsis? A Scythian, who has been classed by some among the sages, and who merits the distinction, c 6 36 GRECIAN* HISTORY. Who was Pythagoras ? A native of Samos, who taught the transmigra- tion of souls. He was the founder of the Pytha- gorean sect, and was the first to assume the title of philosopher. Who was Pisistratus ? An aspiring Athenian, who usurped the go- vernment of Athens during the absence of Solon. Who built and destroyed the famous temple of Diana, at Ephesus ? Ctesiphon, the celebrated architect, built, and Erostratus burnt it, with the intention of render- ing hi? name immortal. AVhen was fought the battle of Marathon ? Four hundred and ninety years B.C., between the Persians and Athenians ; the Greeks gained a signal victory. Who were the chief generals in that famous battle? Miltiades was the chief commander, and was as- sisted by Aristides, Themistocles, and other brave and noble patriots. Why did the Persians invade the Grecian The Athenians having, in the year B.c. 500, taken and burnt the city of Sardis, Darius, king of Persia, led his subjects on to revenge the affront. How did the Athenians honour Miltiades,, who commanded their forces at Marathon ? Polygnotus, a famous painter, some time after the battle, presented the Athenian state with a picture, representing this celebrated action ; the most conspicuous figure was Miltiades, at the GRECIAN HISTORY. 37 head of the ten chief commanders, exhorting them to victory or death. This picture was preserved many ages, and hung in the porch where the i<; philosophers assembled. Was this the only recompense awarded Mil- tiades ? Yes : in those times, glorious actions obtained no higher reward than the fame attending them. Did the Athenians retain their sense of gratitude to Miltiades? No : this fickle people threw him into prison, upon a false accusation of treachery to his country, and he was condemned to lose his life in the most ignominious manner ; but this sentence was com- muted to a fine of fifty thousand crowns. What followed? Not being able to pay the fine, he was never liberated from prison, but died there of thu wounds he had received in his country's service. How did his son Cimon signalise his filial piety on this occasion ? By raising the money among his friends and relations, and thus purchasing permission to inter his father's body. What more is known of Cimon ? He afterwards distinguished himself at the battle of Eurymedon, and in many other re- markable engagements between the Greeks and Persians. He was mild, gentle, and polished in peace, but valiant and skilful in war. What marks of esteem did Polygnotus receive from Greece? Having painted many pictures at Delphi, and 38 GRi ast in oblivion. y^ Which of the Grecian philosophers was most famed fur his virtues and liberal opinions ? Socrates, who was unjustly condemned to death by the Athenians, on -a groundless charge of im- piety. How did he perish ? By drinking the juice of hemlock. Did the Athenians ever become sensible of his m Tit and their own ingratitude? Yes. The Delphic oracle had before declared him the wisest of mankind: and, after his de- cease, great honours were paid him ; a statue was erected to his memory (the work of Lysippus), and, at length, he was honoured as a demigod. Who was Xenophon? A famous historian, philosopher, and warrior, who commanded the ten thousand Greeks, in their celebrated retreat from the banks of the Eu- phrates to their own country, after the battle of Cunaxa. GRECIAN HISTORY. What was the favourite diversion of the Athe- nians? Hunting. This was so highly esteemed at Athens, that Xenophon wrote a treatise pur- posely to display the advantages resulting from an exercise which enables its followers to suffer hunger, cold, heat, and thirst, with equal indif- ference. Who was Agesilaus? A valiant king of Sparta, who defeated the Persian army near Sardis, and the Thebans in the plains of ChaBronea. Who were the Ephori? Spartan magistrates, nine in number, of whom five could act collectively. All their fellow- citizens, even kings, were compelled to appear before them, upon any charge of mal-administ ra- tion. They regulated religious rites, made peace and war, and had the custody of all the public treasures, y^ [What celebrated action is recorded of these Ephori? They were such strict disciplinarians, that they fined one of their valiant soldiers for gaining a victory unarmed. How did this happen ? The youth was bathing when he heard the sound of the trumpet, and without waiting to arm himself, he seized a spear, and rushed into the midst of the enemy, who fled from him on all sides, thinking that they beheld some super- natural being. The victory being gained, the magistrates decreed him a crown of laurel for the 46 GRECIAN HISTORY. courage he had shown, but fined him for not staying to put on his armour. What superstitious rites had the Athenians? Feasts celebrated in honour of Adonis. The whole city then appeared in mourning, as if la- menting his death; and funeral processions of images, representing dead persons, were carried about the streets. To what amusement were the Athenians most partial ? To theatrical entertainments, in the representa- tion of which they excelled. What were the Anthesteria? Festivals in honour of Bacchus, in which the - were allowed to take a part. What was the Barathrum ? A public pit in Athens, into which those con- demned to die were thrown after their execution. What was the Lyceum ? Anciently a temple dedicated to Apollo ; after- wards converted into a public school in Athene where the orators declaimed and the philosophers taught. Who was Epaminonr. A celebrated Theban general, the contempo- rary and friend of Pelopidas. They jointly gained the battle of Leuctra. Epaminondas commanded at Mantinoa. alone, where he bravely fell: in his last moments breathing an ardent wish for the glory and safety of his country. AVhere stood Pella? This city, famed as the birth-place of king GRECIAN HISTORY. 47 Philip, and Alexander his son, was anciently the capital of Macedonia, V~ , What Grecians distinguished themselves against Philip of Macedon by their speeches and writings? Lycurgus, the orator; Demades; and the cele- brated Demosthenes, whose orations against Philip were called Philippics. Who rivalled Demosthenes in eloquence? Eschines, a celebrated orator. They contended in orations in a particular cause, before the gene- ral assembly of the Athenians. Demosthenes prevailed, and Eschines \v:is banished. When did the Social War, or War of the Allies, take place? Three hundred and fifty-eight years before Christ: it was carried on by several Grecian na- tions for the purpose of throwing off the Athenian yoke, and re-establishing independent states. What occasioned the Sacred War? The Phocians, who inhabited the territ near Delphi, had ploughed up some land conse- crated to Apollo. For this supposed sacrilege, they were sentenced by the Amphictyonic council to pay a heavy fine; upon their refusal, a war broke out, in which most of the Grecian states were engaged, called the Sacred War. What side did the Greeks take in this quarrel? The Spartans and Athenians assisted the Pho- cians: the Boeotians, Locrians, and Thessalians sided with the Amphictyons. Which were successful in this struggle? The Amphictyonic party, by whom the Pho- cians were almost exterminated. 48 GRECIAN HISTORY. When was the battle of Chceronea fought? In the reign of Philip of Macedon, who by the issue of this battle became master of Greece. Where was the philosopher Aristotle born? At Stagyra, a city in Macedon, which was destroyed by king Philip, but rebuilt by his son Alexander, the pupil of Aristotle. Which were the first battles gained by Alex- ander against the Persian^' Those of the Granicus, and the Issus, while that of Arbela completed the overthrow of Darius Codomannus and the Persian empire. Where stood Tyre? It was a city of Phoenicia, besieged and taken by Alexander. How did Alexander dishonour his character in respect to the Tynans? By inhumanly putting them all to the sword, excepting two thousand, whom he reserved for crucifixion. What particular instance did Alexander give of his pride and folly? He suffered his subjects to pay him adoration as the reputed son of Jupiter Ammon, the god of the Egyptians. Where stood the temple of Jupiter Ammon? In Africa, in an oasis, or island of verdure, in the Libyan desert. What was Persepolis? The capital of the Persian empire; it was besieged by Alexander, who, in a fit of intem- perance, burnt its palace. GRECIAN HISTOKY. 49 Who was Calanus? An Indian philosopher who attended the court of Alexander of Macedon. What was his end? Although he professed to follow the most severe philosophy, yet being attacked by a painful dis- order, he had not patience to bear its repeated approaches, but resolved to burn himself upon a funeral pile. Did he effect his purpose? Yes; against the earnest entreaties of Alex- ander: it is generally supposed that he was prompted to this act chiefly by vain-glory, and the desire of making himself conspicuous to after ages. What does Josephus relate of some Jewish soldiers in the service of Alexander? When commanded by that Prince to assist in re-building the temple of Belus (which Xerxes hacUdestroycd), they absolutely refused, alleging that as idolatry was forbidden by their law, the respect due to that, and their conscience, would not allow them to assist in the erection of a temple designed for idolatrous purposes. How did Alexander act upon this? He gave orders for their immediate punish- ment; but, upon reflection, their conduct appeared in a more favourable light, and he discharged and sent them home. How did Alexander in one day evince the ex- tremes of generosity and passion? In the morning, he gave his friend Clytus the government of Maracanda, one of his most im- 50 GRECIAN HISTORY. portant cities, and in the evening killed him, in a hasty fit of resentment, at a banquet. Who was Poms? An Indian prince, who was taken prisoner by Alexander, and when brought before him in chains showed equal fortitude and presence of mind. In what way ? - The Macedonian monarch asked, how he would be treated? " As a king," replied Porus. " Do you, then, wish for nothing more?" said Alex- ander. " No; all things are comprehended in that sentence." Alexander, touched by his great- of soul, restored Porus to his kingdom. s-+ Who were the Thetac? This was a name given to the lower class of people, among the Athenians, including all arti- \ ami labouring men. How did the Athenians honour those who fell in their country's defence? Their most celebrated orators were appointed to pronounce funeral orations in their praise : this was done to inspire the Athenians with an ardent desire of glory and military fame. How were the children of those Athenians who died in battle treated? At the time of their solemn festivals, a herald, producing these children dressed in complete ar- mour, proclaimed words to this effect: " These orphans, whom a sudden and glorious death has deprived of their illustrious fathers, have found in the people a parent, whose care was extended to them during infancy; and now, armed at all GRECIAN HISTORY. 51 points, their country invites them to follow the bent of their own genius, and to emulate each other in deserving the chief employments of the state." How did the Greeks excel the Romans in humanity? They could never be persuaded to have public exhibitions of gladiators in their cities ; and the speech of an Athenian upon this subject well deserves to be remembered; "First," said he, " before we permit these barbarous shows, let us throw down the altar which our ancestors have erected to mercy." What stories are recorded of the Hellespont? This strait, which lies between Europe and Asia, was famous for the bridge of boats built across it by Xerxes, and for being the place where Leander met an untimely fate. Who was Leander? He was attached to Hero, priestess of Venus, and is said to have swam over the Hellespont, Tiightly, to visit her, but was at length unfor- tunately drowned; and she, in despair, threw herself into the sea. What was the fate of Agis, king of 'Sparta? This prince, who lived in the time of Alex- ander's successors, wished to revive the ancient laws of Lycurgus; but his people, dead to all sense of justice or virtue, condemned him to an ignominious end. \^ Y What forms of government successively pre- vailed in Athens? It was first governed by kings; then by archons, D 2 ,52 GRECIAN HISTORY. they gave place to the tyrannical power of the Pisistratidte : this was destroyed, and freedom again restored, till the city was taken by the Lacedemonians; the thirty tyrants then assumed absolute power, and after their expulsion, the democratical form of government was again established, till the Romans made Greece a tributary province. What forms of government successively pre- vailed in Sparta? For the space of nine hundred years, it w:is governed by kings: then Lycurgus established a republic, which continued seven hundred years longer, under the most promising auspices; but the Spartans having subdued the neighbouring states, particularly the Athenians, and becoming arrogant and tyrannical, by the corrupting influ- ence of prosperity, the tide of victory began to turn, and the Thebans, headed by Epaminondas and Pelopidas, compelled them, after the battle of Leuctra, to sue for peace. Philip of Macedon, and finally the Romans, completed the conquest of this famous state/S/'*" AVhat was meant by Magna Gratia, or Great Greece? The colonies settled by the Greeks in the southern parts of Italy and Sicily. Where stood the city of Sybaris? In Great Greece, near the southern extremity of Italy: its inhabitants were noted for their luxurious and effeminate lives. How did the Sybarites betray the weakness of their character? GRECIAN HISTORY. 53 They are said to have decreed marks of dis- tinction to such as excelled in giving magnificent entertainments: they removed from their city those citizens and artisans whose work was noisy; and even the cocks were expelled, lest their shrill cries should disturb the peaceful slumbers of the inhabitants. It was a common saying, that a rose-leaf doubled under a Sybarite on his couch would disturb his slumbers. Name the most famous oracles consulted by the Pagan world. That of Apollo at Delphi; of Trophonius, in Boeotia; the temple and oracle of the Branchidae, in the neighbourhood of Miletus; and the oracle of Jupiter at Dodona, a city of the Molossians. What happened to the temple of Delphi? It was repeatedly plundered for the sake of the vast treasures it contained; but it continued to deliver responses down to the time of Constantino. What were the Macedonian Phalanx, and the Roman Legion? The Phalanx was a body of heavy-armed in- fantry, consisting of sixteen thousand men, armed with long spears and large bucklers, ranged in close order, and placed always in the centre of the battle. The Legion consisted of ten com- panies, placed always in the van, or rear, con- taining from three to six thousand men. < D3 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS IN GENERAL HISTORY, CHIEFLY ANCIENT. The sage historic Muse Should next conduct us through the deeps of time ; Show us how empire grew, declined, and fell In scatter'd states As thus we talk'd, Our hi-arts would burn within us, would inhale That portion of Divinity, that ray Of purest Ili-av'n. which lights the public soul Of patriots, and of heroes. THOMSON'S Winter. NAME the four great ancient monarchies. The Assyrian or Babylonian, the Persian, the Grecian, and the Roman. Name the four earliest Assyrian monarchs. Minrocl, Belus (afterwards worshipped), Ninus, and queen Semiramis, to whom the origin of the grandeur of Babylon is to be ascribed. She was a very remarkable woman, who, uniting great abilities with vast ambition, extended her con- quests over a very large part of Asia ; but sus- taining a defeat in India, and returning with disgrace to her own country, she died by assas- sination. For what was Babylon famed ? ASSYRIANS. JEWS. OO For its hanging gardens and lofty walls, and for the luxuriousness and effeminacy of its in- habitants. Who was Sardanapalus? The last king of the first Assyrian Empire; his luxury and effeminacy were notorious ; he reigned twenty-three years ; and being besieged in the city of Nineveh, by Arbaces, governor of Media, and Belesis, a Babylonian priest, who re- belled against him, burnt himself in his palace, with his domestics. From the ruins of his empire were founded the three separate kingdoms of Nineveh, Babylon, and Media. Which ancient nation had the clearest ideas of religion ? The Jewish nation, the only ancient people who adored the one true God ; Moses was their lawgiver. How were the Jews anciently governed ? First, by judges, during which period they fell frequently into idolatry and slavery : then by kings, till Nebuchadnezzar carried the tribes of Benjamin and Judah into captivity. After their return to their native land, they were ruled by high priests, and the Sanhedrim, or council of experi- enced Jews. The Maccabaean race next governed Judaea, as high priests and kings. From this race the kingdom passed into the hands of an Idumean prince named Herod, who obtained the title of King of Judaea from the Roman senate, B.C. 37 ; and was succeeded by another Herod, the tyrant who beheaded John the Baptist. D 4 56 GENERAL HISTORY. y^ What great feast and fast do the Jews com- memorate ? The feast is that of the passover, which they keep annually, in memory of the destroying angel passing the door of the Israelites, and slaying the first-born of the Egyptians ; and they observe the fifth month in every year as a fast, in remem- brance of the seventy years' captivity. For what were the Chaldeans famed ? For their knowledge of astronomy, and pre- tended divination by dreams. Which ancient nation was the most ridiculously superstitious ? The Egyptians, who worshipped as deities, leeks, onions, cats, dogs, worms, and serpents. But they fell into this gross idolatry gradually ; those animals and substances having, at first, been regarded by them as emblems of superior powers. What custom was peculiar to the Egyptians? That of judging their kings after their death : if, upon examination, they were found to have ac- quitted themselves with credit, their bodies were decreed honourable funeral ceremonies ; if other- . they were deprived of sepulture. Where stood the celebrated city of Heliopolis? In Lower Egypt: there was erected in it a magnificent temple, dedicated to the sun. What ancient nation first instituted libraries ? The Egyptians : they were called offices, or treasuries for the diseases of the soul. What law had the Egyptians with respect to debtors and creditors ? No man was permitted to borrow money, EGYPTIANS. 57 without pawning to the creditor the dead body of his father, or nearest ancestor, which every man kept embalmed in his house : it was thought in- famous and impious not to redeem so precious a pledge, and he who died without having discharged that duty, was deprived of the customary honours of burial. Who was Sesostris? Son of that Pharaoh Amenophis, king of Egypt, who was drowned in the Red Sea : he conquered Asia ; made Ethiopia and Scy thia tributary ; and after a long reign became blind, and killed himself. Who built the Pyramids? K.- Cheops, Chephrenus, and Asycnis, all kings of Egypt, and chiefly noted for their oppression. After their reigns, few among the Egyptian princes are worth recording. Who was Psammetichus ? An Egyptian, who, at a period when Egypt had fallen a prey to anarchy, encouraged com- merce with the Phoenicians and the Greeks, and at last gained possession of the whole country, which he governed with prudence and justice. What did the Egyptians use for paper ? The bark of trees and a plant called papyrus. Who were the chief deities of the Egyptians ? Osiris, Isis, Horus, Typhon, Serapis, Anubis, Harpocrates. For what were the ancient Persians famed ? For learning, hospitality, and love of magni- ficence. To what gods did they direct their supreme adoration ? 58 GENERAL HISTORY. To Mithras, a personification of the sun, Oro- masdes, or Oromazes, the author of good, and Ahriman, or Arimanius, the author of evil. Ari- manius was supposed to be perpetually opposing Oromazes, endeavouring to introduce universal confusion among his works. Who were the Satraps ? Governors of provinces among the Persians. What punishment was peculiar to the Persians ? Smothering in ashes ; Darius Nothus inflicted it upon his own brother. Which of the ancient nations paid the greatest attention to the education of their children ? The Persians, who trained their youths to tell truth, and to preserve strict temperance ; but they were at length inspired by the Medes with a taste for luxury, which afterwards became con- spicuous in them. Which is the most ancient kind of idolatry? That which the Persians adopted ; the worship of the sun and moon. Who were the Magi? An order of Persian priests, founded by Zo- roa-ter, who worshipped fire, and professed an utter aversion to images. Who were the Sabeans ? Another order of priests, who allowed the worship of images, but derived their ideas of religion, in some degree, from their knowledge of astronomy, for they considered each planet as inhabited by some superior being. ./I What rank did the priests hold hn ancient Egypt? EGYPTIANS. PERSIANS. 59 They were considered as next in dignity to the kings : their land paid no taxes, and they were con- sulted as oracles, both in religion and literature. What opinions had the eastern nations con- cerning Guardian Angels? They thought that every man, at his birth, had his good genius given, to attend him through life, as his guide and director. What ideas had the ancients of a future life ? As they entertained some confused notions of a future state, and the resurrection of the body, their first care after a battle was to demand a suspension of arms, till the sacred rites of sepul- ture were performed ; on these duties they ima- gined the happiness of a future state would depend. What nation paid particular respect to old age? The Egyptians; and the Spartans, ever ready to ingraft on their laws anything which tended to the preservation of good order in society, adopted this rule, and obliged their youth to rise up in the presence of the aged, and offer them the most honourable seats. What story is related of the Spartans as to this law? "At a theatrical representation, when an old man, an Athenian, came too late to be able to procure a good seat, the young Athenians unani- mously endeavoured to sit close, and keep him out. Abashed at this, he hastily made his way to the seats appointed for the Lacedemonians they all immediately rose, and received him in the most honourable manner : the Athenians, struck D 6 60 M:UAL HISTORY. a sudden sense of shame, gave a thunder of applause; and the old man exclaimed, ' The Athe- nians know what is right, but the Lacedemonians practise it.' " How were false accusers punished in Egypt ? They were sentenced to undergo the punish- ment which those whom they accused would have merited, had the accusation been just. AVhat was a libation ? Pouring out upon the ground either milk, wine, or any other liquor: a ceremony which I >erformed by the ancients in honour of their deities. What opinions had the ancient Bramins or Hindu priests? They believed in the transmigration of souls, and on this account abstained from animal food. Did all hold the same opinions ? No : they were divided into many sects : some of these thought self-murder not only defensible but virtuous; and, when oppressed by age or sickness, deemed it meritorious to burn them- selves alive : another order spent a great part of the day in chanting hymns to their deities ; their lives were passed in solitude, and they thought it wrong to marry. Who was Confucius ? A celebrated Chinese philosopher, famed for his wisdom and virtue : he flourished four hundred and eighty years B.C., and was the reformer of the Chinese religion, "JP^^w i Between whom was the battle of Thymbra fought ? MEDES AND PERSIANS. 61 Between the Medes and Persians, commanded by Cyrus, and the Babylonians and Lydians, led by Croesus. The latter being defeated and taken prisoner, Sardis, the capital of his dominions, fell into the power of the victors. What kings in ancient history afford the most striking proof of the vicissitudes to which human life is subject? The rich Croesus, king of Lydia, who, according to Herodotus, was condemned to be burnt alive by Cyrus, but was afterwards pardoned ; and Dionysius the younger, tyrant of Syracuse, who, from a powerful monarch, became a schoolmaster at Corinth. How did Damocles the Sicilian learn that the life of a tyrant is not so happy as it appears to be? Damocles, who was one of the courtiers of Dionysius the elder, frequently extolled the hap- piness of his master thus surrounded by wealth and power. " Will you, then," said Dionysius, " make trial of my felicity ? " The offer was accepted, and Damocles ushered into a room where the most magnificent repast was prepared ; incense, perfumes, and slaves of the highest beauty appeared in profusion. What followed? In the midst of all his pleasures he cast his eyes towards the ceiling, and perceived the point of a sword hanging by a single horsehair over his head : all his joy now vanished, anxiety took pos- session of his mind, and he learned this useful lesson, that even in the highest stations there is 62 GENERAL HISTORY. always something which corrodes our bliss, and renders us in happiness upon an equality with others. When was Agrigentum founded ? This city, anciently one of the most famous in Sicily, was founded by the Greeks in the thirty- eighth Olympiad : it was first subject to the Car- thaginians, then to the Romans. Name the tutelar divinities of the Sicilians. Ceres and Proserpine : the foundations of the temples dedicated to them are now the basis of a Christian church. What was the character of the inhabitants of Agrigentum ? The Agrigentines were remarkable for luxury, and a taste for magnificence, equal to that of the Asiatics. For what building was ancient Agrigentum famed? For a celebrated temple dedicated to Juno, which, at the siege of the city by the Cartha- ginians, was destroyed by fire ; and a picture of Juno, by Zeuxis, exquisitely finished, was con- sumed by the flames. \f Who was Empedocles? A native of Agrigentum, who flourished four hundred years B.C. ; he shone as a philosopher, but was noted for his vanity, which led him to throw himself into the crater of Mount Etna, in hopes that the Sicilians would regard him as some divinity suddenly removed to his proper sphere ; but the mountain, in a subsequent eruption, threw out his slippers, which had been made of SICILIANS. SCYLLA AND CHARYBDIS. 63 brass, and discovered the real fate of the pre- tended deity. What barbarous punishment was used by Pha- laris, one of the Sicilian tyrants ? A brass-founder of Athens, named Perillus, knowing the cruel disposition of Phalaris, cast a brazen bull larger than life, capable of containing a human victim, and so contrived that, a fire being placed beneath the bull, the unhappy man was gradually burnt to death, while the agonising cries which he uttered, before death came to his relief, were said to resemble those of a bull. Phalaris, who admired this instrument of torture, caused the inventor to make the first trial of it himself. What became of Phalaris ? His tyranny so exasperated his subjects, that they ultimately inflicted upon him the punish- ment to which he had been in the habit of sub- jecting others. When was Syracuse founded ? In the eighth century B.C., by Archias, a na- tive of Corinth ; and though it has been for centuries in ruins, it was one of the largest cities in the world in the time of its greatest splen- dour. What were Scylla and Charybdis ? The one a rock, the other a gulf, in the straits of Messina. The poetical fiction recorded of them is, that Scylla was formerly a beautiful woman, changed by the envy of the enchantress, Circe, into a monster ; Scylla, in despair, threw herself into the sea, and was turned into a rock. Charyb- 64 <;KXEHAL III.-TOIIY. dis was said to be a ravenous woman, changed by Jupiter into a gulf beneath the rock. What was Carthage? An ancient city of Africa, founded by a colony of Tyrians, B.C. 1233. It existed as a flourishing republic for seven hundred years, and was at last destroyed by the Romans. < Which were the principal deities of the Cartha- ginians? The Moon and Saturn : they frequently sacri- ficed human victims to the latter; and when Agathocles threatened to besiege the city of i:\cre, its inhabitants, to appease the anger of iiiced two hundred children of the first rank. To what did the Carthaginians owe their riches? Partly to their trade, and partly to their dis- covery of the silver mines in Spain. Name the chief curiosities and antiquities in Egypt. The Pyramids, the Labyrinth, the Plummy- pits, Pompey's Pillar, erected at Alexandria, the Sphynx, the hieroglyphics, and the Lake of MUT'IS, dug to receive the inundations of the Xilc. How did the successors of Alexander divide his dominions ? Into four separate kingdoms ; the Macedonian, the Asiatic, the Syrian, and the Egyptian. Anti- pater an ider succeeded Alexander of Maeedon in the Macedonian empire ; and Perseus, its last king, about one hundred and fifty years afterwards, was taken prisoner by the Roman DIVISION OF ALEXANDER'S DOMINIONS. 65 commander, Paulus .^Emilius, and Macedonia was reduced to a Roman province. Who claimed the Asiatic kingdom ? Antigonus: it comprehended Natolia, and some districts beyond Mount Taurus. This kingdom was at length divided into those of Pergamus, Pontus, and Armenia : Pergamus became a Ro- man province by the express will of its last king, who appointed the Romans his heirs ; Pontus and Armenia fell into their hands in the time of Mithridates. Who founded the Syrian kingdom ? Seleucus, one of Alexander's commanders, a wise and generous prince, and a valiant, skilful general, B.C. 312. Pompey added it to the Roman empire, B.C. 63. Who founded the second Egyptian monarchy ? Ptolemy Lagus, another of Alexander's gene- rals, a prudent ruler and able leader. Twelve kings of this name successively governed Egypt. It became a province of Rome about B.C. 30. Cleopatra, its last monarch, was subdued by Augustus Caesar. Who was Ptolemy Philadelphus ? One of those kings of Egypt who employed seventy Jews, brought to Alexandria for that purpose, to translate the Old Testament into the Greek language ; a translation frequently called the Septuagint, from the number of those em- ployed in it. Ptolemy Philadelphus also founded the Alexandrian library. v Y W hat fate befell this library ? It was burnt forty-seven years before the birth 66 GENERAL HISTORY. of Christ : it is said to have contained four hun- dred thousand valuable books. Name the most famous battles of antiquity. Marathon, Thermopylae, Artemisium, Salami n or Salamis, Platea, Eurymedon, Arginusae, Leuc- tra, the Granicus, Arbela, Issus, Ticinus, Trebia, Thrasymene, Cannae, Zama, Pharsalia, Philippi, and Actium. Name the most famous sieges of antiquity. That of Babylon, by Cyrus and Darius ; of Carthage, by the Romans; of Platea, by the Lacedemonians ; of Syracuse, by the Athenians ; of Tyre, by Alexander the Great ; and of Athens, by Sylla, the Roman dictator. Name the great examples of mutual friendship in ancient history. David and Jonathan, Jews; Damon and Py- thias, Sicilians (they lived under Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse); Pylades and Orestes, natives of Argos; Epaminondas and Pelopidas, Thebans; Cicero and Atticus, the Scipios and the Laelii, Romans. What ancient queens have been most cele- brated ? Dido, said to be the founder and queen of Car- thage (Virgil, by a poetical licence, makes ^Eneas her lover and contemporary, though this is cer- tainly an anachronism ) ; Artemisia, queen of Caria, and widow of Mausolus, to whose memory she erected a noble monument ; whence is de- rived the term Mausoleum, used to designate any very magnificent sepulchre ; Thalestris, queen of the Amazons, in the time of Alexander the Great ; CLEOPATRA. ZENOBIA. 67 Cleopatra, queen of Egypt ; and Zenobia, queen of Palmyra. What was remarkable in Cleopatra ? She was equally beautiful and luxurious, yet, in the midst of her excesses, she preserved a taste for polite learning and the arts; her ambition was unbounded. Julius Caesar and Marc Antony were successively enslaved by her charms; her empire over Antony was such as to make him insensible to the claims of conjugal affection, patriotism, and glory. How was Zenobia styled ? Empress of the East ; she was besieged in Palmyra, her capital, by the Roman emperor, Aurelian, who carried her captive to Rome : Longinus, the celebrated critic and orator, was her secretary. ^ \f What custom has been prevalent among the Gentoo women ? That of burning themselves upon the funeral pile of their husbands. This horrid custom was founded upon a passage in their Vedas, or sacred writings : " She who dies with her husband, shall live with him for ever in heaven." What are the Arundelian marbles ? They are ancient marble tablets found in the Isle of Paros, about the beginning of the seven- teenth century, and supposed to be sculptured in the year B.C. 264 : they contain the chronology of ancient history ; were bought for the cele- brated Earl of Arundel, and afterwards presented to the Oxford university, and deposited in the Bodleian library. 68 \ERAL HISTORY. At what place were those who embraced the Gospel first termed Christians ? At Antioch. Over what parts of the known world has Christianity extended ? The doctrines of Christianity prevailed in the southern parts of Europe as early as the year 50 : in Britain they were generally embraced as early as the fourth century ; they extended over the north of Europe from the fifth to the twelfth cen- tury. At the opening of the fifteenth century, Christianity was extensively promulgated in Asia. Africa, and America ; but many corruptions crept into the system; and in the sixteenth century, the reformed or Protestant doctrine spread through a great part of Christendom. Who was Mahomet ? A native of Mecca in Arabia, who, about the year of our Lord 622, declared hiin.*elf a greater prophet than Jesus, and the last whom God would send : he promised his followers the speedy con- quest and undisturbed possession of this world, and a paradise of every delight in the next. What nations embraced his religion ? His doctrines are received in Arabia, Turkey in Europe, Turkey in Asia, Barbary, Persia, Egypt, Nubia, and great part of India. I low do the Mahometans reckon time ? From the Hegira, or flight of Mahomet from his persecutors, A.D. 622. What two cities do the Mahometans greatly reverence ? Mecca, as the birth-place of Mahomet, and CAHDIXALS. CONCLAVES. G9 Medina, as_the place where his body was de- posited. ^J A VI ml. ^ere expressively termed the dark ages? vFrom the close of the sixth to the dawning of the fourteenth century. During this dreary in- terval, Alfred and Charlemagne aimed at the revival and restoration of literature in their do- minions, but with little success. The Arabians, in the ninth century, were the great patrons of the arts and learning, while the mists of ignorance and superstition enveloped Europe. Who are the Cardinals? The word cardinal was applied originally to the presbyters and deacons in great churches; but, in the eleventh century, was confined to the presbyters and deacons of Rome only : in imita- tion of Christ's disciples, their number was limited to seventy. How did they rise into such estimation in the Catholic church ? Gradually. Their exclusive power of electing the popes was acquired in the time of Edward the Confessor. They first wore the red hat (a token that they were to shed their blood for re- ligion if necessary) towards the middle of our Henry the Third's reign : they received from Pope Urban the Eighth the title of Eminence, in the time of our Charles the First ; their power is, however, at present much diminished, having little influence in the Christian world. What is the Conclave ? An assembly of the cardinals, held upon the decease of a pope, to elect his successor. 70 i.KNKUAL HISTORY. What is meant by Christian, or General Councils ? They were meetings of the pope, cardinals, and clergy, for the suppression of what they termed heresies ; and to fix the doctrines of the Roman church. By whom was the first Christian council held ? By the Apostles, in the year 50 : the first gene- ral council was held at Nice, in 325, for the express purpose of censuring the doctrines of Arius, at which the Emperor Constantine presided. How many general councils have been held ? Twenty ; the four most noted were as follows : eve nth general council, which was held to- wards the end of the Saxon heptarchy, to restore the worship of images ; the tenth, to preserve to the church its revenues and temporalities, which was convoked in Stephen's reign, one thousand ending: the fifteenth, in the reign of rd the Second, to suppress the order of Knights Templars : and the twentieth, in the reign of Edward the Sixth, to condemn the doc- trines of the celebrated reformers, Luther and ( 'alvin. \f When, most probably, was the popedom es- tablished? The origin of the popedom, or patrimony of St. Peter, may be referred to the year of our Lord 321, when the Emperor Constantine au- thorised Christian churches to acquire and to hold property of any description. From him and his successors, the popes, or bishops of Rome, ob- tained extensive possessions in Italy, Sicily, FAMOUS POPES. 71 France, and Africa. Their possessions, being transmitted from pope to pope, were styled the patrimony of St. Peter, whose successors they considered themselves to be. Name some famous Popes. Hyginus, who established the form of conse- crating churches, and ordained that godfathers and godmothers should stand for children : Sylvester, in whose popedom was held the Council of Nice : Gregory the Great, who at the close of the sixth century introduced many new doctrines, proces- sions, &c. : Boniface the Fifth, who at the com- mencement of the seventh century made churches sanctuaries for criminals : Sergius, who, from the lowest station, became a pope : and Benedict the Ninth, who lived about the middle of the eleventh century, was several times deposed and restored, and once sold his pretensions to the papacy, but resumed them again. Name some famous Popes since the Norman Conquest. Gregory the Seventh, who excommunicated the emperor of Germany, but afterwards died himself in exile : Adrian the Fourth, whose former name was Nicholas Brakespeare, the only Englishman who ever reached that dignity : Innocent the Third, who appointed auricular confession, and esta- blished the infamous inquisition : Clement the Fifth, who removed the seat of power from Rome to Avignon : Leo the Tenth, noted for granting the indulgences against which Luther preached : Clement the Seventh, who excommunicated our Henry the Eighth : Gregory the Thirteenth, the GENERAL HISTORY. reformer of the calendar : Sixtus the Fifth, and Clement the Fourteenth, or Ganganclli, both excellent popes. >./*" What were Tournaments ? A species of games which appear to have been substituted for the inhuman combats of gladia- tors, and which, for a length of time, constituted the favourite spectacle of all ranks of people. In these, knights completely armed, and mounted on powerful chargers, rode against each other, with long lances, endeavouring to strike their adversaries, so as to overthrow them from their horses. The horse and arms of the vanquished remained in the power of the conqueror. Somc- - a number of warriors on each side engaged, when the appearance of a real battle was pre- sented to view; prisoners were taken, dreadful wounds were given, and many were actually killed. At length these tournaments assumed the appearance of mock fights, the combatants having the precaution to blunt the points of their swords and lances. Name some famous Peruvian Emperors. Manco Capac, founder of the empire; Guiann e, and Atabalipa, who was emperor when Pi/.arro conquered the country. -Xame the most celebrated Mexican Emperors. Montezuma, and Guatimozin; when Cortes and lii> Spaniards took possession of Mexico, . ti'xuniu, ever weakly irresolute, suffered hi- t" be guided by him entirely, though the haughty Spaniard was the declared enemy of his nation. On what account was Guatimozin chiefly cele- brated ? FAMOUS EMPERORS. 73 For his heroic fortitude : one instance of it has been frequently recorded : in order to extort from Guatimozin the discovery of his supposed hidden treasures, the cruel Spaniards stretched him upon a gridiron over a slow fire. His mi- nister and favourite was placed in the same dreadful situation, by the side of the monarch. Overcome by the severity of the anguish they were enduring, he uttered murmuring groans, and cast upon his noble fellow-sufferer a look which seemed to intimate a wish to escape from the torment, by revealing what he knew, when the king silenced him by this mild rebuke, " And I too; am I upon a bed of roses?" Name a few of the most remarkable Turkish Emperors. Bajazet the First, who was vanquished and made captive by Tamerlane, the illustrious Tartar conqueror; Mahomet the Second, who took Con- stantinople by storm, A.D. 1453 ; Selim, Solyman the Magnificent, Selim the Second, Amurath the Third, and Mahomet the Third, noted only for his enormous cruelties and unbounded licentiousness. Name the Roman Emperors who flourished in the first century. Augustus Caesar, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus, Domitian, Nerva, Trajan. Name those of the second century. Adrian, Antoninus-Pius, Marcus- Aurelius, and Vcrus : Commodus, Pertinax, Didius, Severus. Xame those of the third century. v Caracalla and Geta, Macrinus, Heliogabalus, E 74 GENERAL HISTORY. Alexander-Severus, ]\laximinus, Gordian the First, Pupienus, and Balbinus, Gordian the Se- cond, Gordian the Third, Philip the Arabian, and his son Decius, Gallus, Emilian, Valerius, and Gallienus, Claudius the Second, Aurelian, Tacitus, Probus, Carus, Cariiius and Numerian, Diocletian, Constantius-Chlorus, and Galerius, Name the Roman Emperors in the fourth cen- tury. Constantino the Great, Constantino the Se- cond, Constantius and Constans, Julian the -rate, Jovian, Valentinian the First, and Valons, Grutian, Valentinian the Second, Theo- dosius the Fir^t, Aivadius, Emperor of the Ka.-t. and Ilonorius, Emperor of the West. Augustu- lus, the last Roman emperor, was obliged l>y Odoacer to resign the imperial dignity, A.D. 476. MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS IN ROMAN HISTORY. Of rougher front a mighty people come, A race of heroes ! Fuhririus, scorner of all-conquering gold, And Cincinnatus, awful from the plough. THOMSON'S Winter. WHO founded Rome ? Romulus, who was its first king, B.C. 753. He was a brave warrior, and wise politician, but too ambitious, and fond of military glory. After his death he was worshipped by the Romans under the name of Quirinus, and as the son of Mars. How did the idolatry of the Romans differ from that of surrounding nations ? In this respect, they worshipped their gods originally, without statues, or images. How many kings had -Rome ? Seven ; of these, Xuma Pompilius, and Ser- vius Tullius, are thought the most deserving, and Tarquin the Proud the least so. Who established the difference between the patricians and the plebeians? Romulus. E 2 7C ROMAN HISTORY. What was the difference between Patricians and Plebeians? The former were the nobility, the latter the common people. What were Lictors? Officers appointed by Romulus to attend upon the magistrates. They carried bundles of rods having an axe in the middle of each, significative of power to order criminals to be scourged, and even beheaded. Who were the Celeres? A guard of three hundred young men, insti- tuted by Romulus to defend his person. What were the Ancilia amon^ the Romans ? O Shields, or bucklers, ordered by Numa Pom- I/iiius to be made after the model of one sup- posed to have fallen from the sky, and to be borne by the priests of Mars. Who were the Duumviri ? Two magistrates appointed by Tullus Hostilius, to give judgment in criminal affairs. What was the battle between the Iloratii and Curiatii? There was a war between the Albans and the Romans in the reign of Tullus Hostilius, king of Rome ; they agreed to decide it by a combat of three persons on each side ; the Albans chose three brothers, called Curiatii, the Romans three, called Horatii ; they fought, and the Horatii gained the victory, ^f What was the Census ? A general survey of the Roman people and their estates, instituted by Servius Tullius: it ROMAN HISTORY. 77 was first made by kings, then by consuls, and at length by magistrates, called Censors, whose office also extended to taxing estates, and reform- ing the manners of the people. When did the Romans erect their temple to Faith ? In the reign of Numa Pompilius ; another, dedicated to Fortune, was built by the command of Servius Tullius. What was the Civic Crown ? One made of oak-leaves, given by the Romans to him who had saved the life of a fellow-citizen in battle. Why was the scaffold, or pulpit, on which the Roman orators, or pleaders, stood to address the people, or the magistrates, called Rostrum ? From the rostra, or beaks of ships, with which this pulpit was generally adorned. What was the Adytum? The sanctuary in the pagan temples, into which none but the priests were admitted. What was the ancient Naval Crown ? One made in the form of the ancient ships* beaks, and presented to him who first boarded an enemy. How were the ancient Romans trained up to war? A place was appropriated for exercise in the city, called the Field of Mars : here they ran and leaped in ponderous armour, carried the heaviest weights, and performed all martial exercises ; war and agriculture were their only professions ; their bodies were kept in continual activity ; and E 3 ROMAN HISTORY. to this stca'ly, unrclaxcd discipline they owed much of their fame and military glory. How were the Roman Soldiers punished for 11 deviations from duty? They were always bled ; for as every ancient Roman entertained high ideas of his own prowess, this temporary deprivation of strength was, to them, the most sensible mortification. What rule was observed inviolably in the Roman armies? This ; he who abandoned his post, or quitted in battle, suffered death. Who were the Gladiators ? Men trained to the use of arms, who fought :ii;ain-t one another and sometimes against wild beasts, for the amusement of the Roman public. The fierce policy of their rulers encouraged the fondness of the people for these savage exhibitions, to accustom them to look upon wounds and blood- shed without shrinking. These shows were often prohibited by the more merciful emperors, but never totally abolished till the reign of Honorius, who died A.D. 42.;. Vlmt mu the Mural Crown? One indented at the top like the battlements of a wall, and bestowed upon him who first scaled the wall of an enemy's city. How were the Roman months divided ? Into Calends, Nones, and Ides. The Calends marked ihcjirst of the month, the day following the evening on which the slender crescent of the new moon was first visible in the sky ; the Nones the first quarter : the Ides the full moon. ROMAN HISTORY. 79 Explain the meaning of the Avord Calends. The Calends were so named, because imme- diately after the appearance of the new moon the people were called together, to hear on what day the Nones and Ides would fall ; for the new moon, according to circumstances, being sometimes visible on the evening after conjunction, some- times not for two or three days, the Nones or quarters fell sometimes as early as the fifth of the month, sometimes as late as the seventh, and thus the Ides, or full moon, fell sometimes as early as the thirteenth, sometimes as late as the fifteenth. Whence were the words Ides and Nones de- rived ? The Ides are derived from an old word, signify- ing to divide, because the full moon divides the lunar month ; Nones were so called because the}' always fell on the ninth day before the Ides, according to the Roman system of calculation explained above. What was a Lustrum? A space of five years, at the end of which a general survey was taken of the Romans and their estates. What was an Indiction ? A space of fifteen years, established by the emperor Constantine. y^~ ame the different forms of government in Rome. The regal power ; then the consulship, which was suspended on great emergencies, the supreme power being then intrusted to a magistrate, called Dictator. To the consulship succeeded the autho- E 4 80 ROMAN HISTORY. rity of the Decemviri, and after many disputes and civil war, perpetual dictatorship prevailed for a short time, when Octavius O.'-ar established the imperial power, B.C. 30." What were Consuls ? Chief magistrates among the Romans, who acted together, and whose authority continued one year. Brutus and Collatinus were the first appointed to fill this high office. What was a Dictator? A magistrate who was invested with supreme power for six months ; never chosen during the earlier ages, but when the commonwealth was thought in extreme danger. Who was the first Dictator? Titus Lartius, a man in high estimation for fortitude, calmness, clemency, and prudence. What were Tribunes? Magistrates chosen to defend the liberties and privileges of the people against the power and encroachments of the nobles : at first two were appointed, then five ; at length their number was increased to ten. Their persons were declared d, and by the single word Veto (I forbid), a tribune of the people could stop the proceed- ings of the Senate, and the passing of any law proposed. \ . What occasioned the institution of [Military Tribunes ? The plebeian Romans being displeased with the consular government, three new magistrates were chosen in the year of the republic 310, called military tribunes, but their power was soon laid ROMAN HISTORY. 81 aside for ever ; and Camillus, the dictator, dedi- cated a temple tq Concord, to perpetuate the union then effected between the patricians and plebeians. When were the Decemviri appointed in Rome ? In the year of the republic 302, ten men of reputation were chosen to collect a body of laws for Rome, from Athens and other Grecian states. These were digested into twelve tables, and being engraven on tablets of brass, were suspended in different public parts of the city. The office of the decemvirs was to continue a year, but they kept themselves in power much longer, under pretence of finishing the tables completely. What were the offices of Questor and Edile ? The Questors were two in number, and were to take care of the public money and contribu- tions, sell plunder, &c. ; but in Julius Caesar's time they amounted to forty. The Ediles were two in number ; and their office was to assist the tribunes, rectify weights and measures, prohibit unlawful games, and take care of the public edifices. What rival states showed great antipathy to each other? Rome and Carthage. What was meant by the Punic wars ? The wars between the Romans and the Car- thaginians. The expression, Punic Faith, was proverbially applied to the Carthaginians, for their frequent breaches of public faith. What gave rise to the Punic wars ? The ambition of the Romans, their jealousy E 5 82 KOMAN HISTORY. of superior wealth or equal power, and the offence which they took at the conquests the Carthagi- nians made in Sicily and Spain. How long did the Punic wars subsist ? The first, twenty -four years; the second, seven- teen years ; and the ^hird and last, three years and some months, y \AVho was Hannibal? A famous Carthaginian general, who, when a boy, was made to swear perpetual enmity against the Romans by his father Amilcar, a most able leader. After a long and almost uninterrupted series of victories, and after having reduced the Romans to the brink of destruction, he was re- called from Italy, where he had maintained him- self and liis army for fifteen years, to defend his own country from the invasion of the Romans, commanded by Scipio, then a young man, but highly distinguished by civil and military talents, and for moral virtues. By him Hannibal was defeated in the battle of Zama, after a wonderful display of valour and skill on both sides. The third Punic war was thus terminated, B.C. 146. Name the four great battles in which Hannibal defeated the Romans. Ticinus, Trebia, Thrasymene, and Canna?. What remarkable commanders fell a sacrifice during these wars ? Rcgulus, Flaminius, and two of the Scipios, on the Roman side ; Asdrubal, Hanno, and Han- nibal on the Carthaginian. What became of Hannibal ? l. after he -saw himself vanquished and ROMAN HISTORY. 83 his country overthrown, took refuge with Prusias, king of Bithynia, and finding that the timid monarch was about to deliver him up to the Romans, he swallowed poison and died. Where were Hannibal and his brave army enervated by luxury and pleasure ? At Capua, in the south of Italy, where they had their winter quarters. For what were the Romans particularly famed ? For their perseverance, love of fame, and patriotism. Who was Coriolanus ? A very valiant, but proud, Roman patrician. His name was Caius Marcius, to which was added the surname Coriolanus, on account of his taking the city of Corioli by his skill and bravery. He was expelled from Rome by the plebeians for his excessive arrogance and overbearing de- portment. He took refuge with the Volsci, the bitter enemies of his country, led their army against Rome, and brought that city to the verge of ruin. Aft IT having remained inflexible to the supplications of the priests and senators, he was overcome by the tears of his wife and his mother, withdrew the Yolscian army, and was ultimately sacrificed to the jealousy and suspicion of his new allies, B.C. 490. yW ho was Siccius Dentatus ? A Roman, who fought one hundred and twenty battles for his country, and gained fourteen civic and four mural crowns: but he was shamefully treated by the proud patricians, and at last basely assassinated by command of the decemvir Appius Claudius. 8i ROMAN HISTORY. Who was Camillus ? A. Roman general and dictator, memorable for taking the town of Yeii, which had resisted the Roman arms for ten years. As he had prohibited the soldiers from plundering, they, in revenge, instigated the tribunes to accuse him of em- bezzling some of the spoils, and to avoid the disgrace of condemnation he went into voluntary exile; but Rome being subsequently besieged, and taken by the Gauls, he nobly returned, com- pletely defeated them, and once more enjoyed the highest offices. He afterwards fell a sacrifice to the plague, which desolated the city. What Roman sacrificed himself to appease the fury of the gods ? Decius the consul, who in a battle, when the wing of the Roman army which he commanded was giving way before the enemy, devoted him- self to the infernal gods by a superstitious and fearful ceremony ; and then rode into the midst of his foes, unarmed, with a diadem on his head, and flowing robes. Wherever he turned all fled before him, till he was transpierced by a javelin, and fell from his horse. The enemy then gave way. and the Romans gained a complete victory. Which of the Romans beheaded his son for contempt of his consular authority? Ma nl ins Torquatus. What Roman was most famed for his integrity ? Fabricius : king Pyrrhus, his enemy, declared publicly, that it was easier to turn the sun from its course than Fabricius from the path of honour, *" ROMAN HISTORY. 85 Who was Fabius Maximus ? A skilful and cautious commander, who led the Roman armies against Hannibal. His caution and experience were such, that, without hazarding a battle, he contrived to keep the troops of Han- nibal in perpetual alarm, whilst his own remained in security ; on this account he was termed the buckler of Rome. ' Who was called the sword of Rome ? Marcellus, a daring and active leader, who frequently beat the Carthaginians, and even Hannibal himself, but was at last surprised by an ambush laid by that skilful general, and slain. Who was Cato the Censor ? A philosopher, brave, just, and famed for the severity of his manners ; he was the inveterate enemy of Carthage, and continually advised its destruction, concluding each speech he made in the senate with the sentence, " Delenda c.st Carthago " Carthage must be destroyed. Name the destroyer of Carthage. Scipio JEmilianus. This hero and Julius Caesar are said to have best united the military and literary talents. What instance of determined resolution was shown by a Carthaginian at this time ? When Carthage was destroyed, which con- tinued burning seventeen days, the wife of As- drubal, to avoid falling into the hands of the Romans, threw herself into the flames. . S * afterwards rebuilt Carthage ? Julius Caesar, and in some degree re-esta- 86 MAX HISTOIiV. Wished its prosperity ; but the Arabs, in the seventh century, once more demolished it, and Tunis now stands near its ruins. Name the four most ambitious men of Rome, rius, Sylla, Pompey, and Caesar. When happened the first important civil war in Rome? . In the year of the republic 665, between Sylla and Marius. Name some of the most temperate Romans. Cincinnatus, Fabricius, Cato, and Cicero. Name the three most luxurious. Lucullus, Catiline, and Sylla. What, were the proscriptions made by the proud and cruel Roman patricians, towards the end of the republic ? The fixing up in public parts of Rome bills exhibiting the names of their opponents, with permission to kill them, and to plunder their houses, and seize their property. Who invented proscriptions ? Marius and Sylla. They were practised by Octavius Cnesar, Antony, and Lepidus, who, at one time, shared the sovereign power between them, and afterwards by many of the emperors, a< an easy method of ridding themselves of those who were obnoxious to them. What Roman showed the greatest depravity of heart, and inclination to ruin his country ? Catiline. Cicero discovered his conspira< Who formed the first Roman Triumvir. This shameful union was formed by Cassar, Pompey, and Crassus, for the mutual main- ROMAN HISTORY. 87 tenance of their unjust and ambitious authority and projects. Pompey had the province of Spain, Craasus that of Syria, and Caesar that of Ga Vwhat was the character of Julius Cajsar ? He manifested the most brilliant valour and military skill, united to the highest mental powers. When possessed of authority he used it well, and treated his enemies, when van- quished, with generous humanity. He subdued the Gauls and Germans, invaded Britain, and in nine years conquered all the nations between the Mediterranean and the German Sea. He orna- mented Rome with many useful and elegant edifices ; he rebuilt Carthage and Corinth ; and, by the aid of Sosigines, an Egyptian astronomer, he reformed the calendar, making the year to consist of three hundred and sixty-five days six hours. He was assassinated in the senate-house, B.C. 44. What was the character of Crassus? He was the richest and most avaricious man in Rome, but had little else to recommend him. He was defeated, taken prisoner, and put to death by the Parthians, whom he had attacked. What was the character of Pompey ? He appears to have been of a gentle and humane disposition, but very ambitious. He was a fortunate and able commander; so that in a triumph, with which he was honoured, were dis- played the names of fifteen kingdoms, eight hun- dred cities, and a thousand fortresses, subdued by his arms. Coming to an open rupture with Caesar, after several changes of victory, he was ROMAN HISTORY. vanquished in the dreadful battle of Pharsalia, fled to Egypt, and was assassinated by order of its monarch, the weak and wicked Ptolemy. Pompey supported the party of the senate, while Caesar ~sed himself the guardian of the plebeians./"""" y'Who was Cato ? V A severely virtuous man, and true patriot, who supported the cause of Pompey and the senate. Having struggled nobly, but vainly, against the ambition of Julius Ciesar, he fled to 1'tica in Africa, and there, after a last fruitless effort to revive his party, lie threw himself on his own sword and expired. What doctrine was introduced at Rome towards the end of the republic ? That called the Epicurean. The tenets of Epicurus, evidently favouring luxury and sen- suality, are, by many, thought to have had a powerful effect in corrupting the minds of the Romans, and extinguishing that noble spirit which once animated them. Epicurus himself made plea- sure to consist in virtue: his followers shame- fully perverted that doctrine, and were noted for the freedom of their lives. Who conspired the death of Caesar? Brutus and Cassius : the former had been his intimate friend. What were the triumphs granted to Roman commanders for having performed some re- markably famous or useful action ? There were two triumphs ; the greater called *' The Triumph," the less named Ovation. How were they conducted ? ROMAN HISTORY. 89 In the superior triumph, on the day appointed, the successful general, crowned with laurel, pro- nounced an oration to the soldiers and surround- ing multitude, relating his military achievements : then the march began with a long procession, in which were carried inscriptions, containing the names of the nations, provinces, or cities he had conquered: the priests assisted, leading the beasts used for sacrifice, y^ y/Who closed the procession ? The conqueror, in an ivory car, richly orna- mented ; he was surrounded by his friends and relations, bearing branches of laurel : the pro- cession stopped at the Capitol, where they sacri- ficed to Jupiter, and deposited part of the spoils. How was the lustre of the Roman conquests tarnished ? By their inhumanity to the conquered : their prisoners, if of high rank, were only reserved to. suffer superior mortifications ; the captive mo- narchs and generals were bound in chains, their heads closely shaven (a mark of peculiar degra- dation), and they were thus presented a sad spec- tacle to the gazing multitude. How was the Ovation or inferior triumph con- ducted ? In the Ovation the general walked on foot in his common habit, and was met by the knights and citizens ; he was not allowed a sceptre, and instead of drums and trumpets, fifes and flutes were carried before him. How long did the custom of triumphing after a battle continue ? 90 ROMAN HISTORY. From Romulus to Augustus, when it was for- bidden, with certain exceptions, till some ages after : then Belisarius, having, under the em- peror Justinian, subjugated Africa, taken Rome, Carthage, anct Ravenna from the hands of the Goths, was permitted by his sovereign to make his triumphal entry into Constantinople. When was the second great Roman Triumvirate formed ? After Julius Caesar's death, when Octavius Caesar, Marc Antony, and Lepidus shared the Roman power among them ; but Octavius was afterwards declared emperor by the title of Au- s Caesar. Between whom was the battle of Philippi? It was fought by Brutus and Cassius, on one side, Marc Antony and Octavius Caesar on the other. In what great battle wa^ Marc Antony finally ted? At the naval battle of Actium, by Octavius Caesar. Its issue finally overturned the Roman ublic, and established the imperial form of government. When did Egypt become a Roman province ? In the reign of Augustus, B.C. 30 : it continued / in the hands of the Romans four hundred years./ What particular change did Augustus effect in the Roman constitution ? When declared emperor, he deprived the people of their ancient privilege to make law.- and judge criminals, but suffered them to retain that of electing magistrates, and most of the ROMAN HISTORY. 91 other forms of the republic : Tiberius, his suc- cessor, however, took this power also into his own hands. How many Roman Emperors were there? Sixty : Augustus was the first, and Augustulus the last. What period of time was called the Augustan age? Augustus Caesar's reign : its most distinguished writers were Cicero, Livy, Virgil, Horace, Ovid, and Varro: Vitruvius, the Roman architect, lived in that period. Which were the best Roman Emperors ? Augustus, Vespasian, Titus, Nerva, Trajan, Adrian, Antoninus, Maivu.s-Aurelius, Pertinax, Alexander-Severus, Claudius the Second, Tacitus, and Constantino the Great. What Emperors were noted for their vices? Tiberius, Caligula, Nero, Otho, Vitellius, Domitian, Commodus, and Heliogubulu.-. Who was Emperor when Christ was born ? Augustus Coesar. Who was Emperor when Christ suffered death ? Tiberius, infamous for his degrading vices, and deep dissimulation. When was Christianity introduced into Rome ? Thirty years after the death of Christ. What Emperors persecuted the Christians ? Nero, Domitian, Trajan, Adrian, Severus, Maximinus, Decius, Valerian, Aurelian, Diocle- tian, and Julian the Apostate ; but Julian perse- cuted only by exclusion from public offices, and other civil advantages. 92 ROMAN HISTORY. What Roman Emperor ordered himself to be worshipped as a god ? Caligula; but the Jews refused to obey the mandate. He was a monster of cruelty, who uttered the horrid wish, that the people of Rome had but one neck, that he might destroy them all at one blow : he died a violent death. What Roman Emperor set fire to his own capi- tal, and afterwards laughed at the calamity he had occasioned ? Nero, who caused his mother Agrippina, Se- neca his tutor, Lucan the poet, and many others, to be put to death. What was his fate ? The senate condemned him to be thrown from the Tarpeian rock, but the tyrant prevented the execution of the sentence Unitary death.\| l/^When was Jerusalem levelled with the ground? In the reign of Vespasian, emperor of the Ro- mans, by Titus, his son. Why did God permit the destruction of His favoured city ? On account of the repeated acts of impiety committed by the Jews, without the slightest -ymptoms of repentance. What occasioned the animosities between the Jews and Samaritans ? liflference in opinion respecting the place where God had appointed an altar to be erected : both Jews and Samaritans contested the point : the Jews declared that God would be wor- shipped only in Jerusalem ; the Samaritans, who were descended from the Assyrian colony which ROMAN HISTORY. 93 Salmanazar planted in the land of Israel, after he had taken Samaria and carried away captive the inhabitants of the country, that in the temple on mount Gerizim God ought to be adored. What has caused such frequent animosities be- tween religious sects ? Their bigotry. What calamities have befallen the Jews ? Jerusalem was taken by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, in the reign of Zedckiah, and the Jews were led captive to the banks of the Eu- phrates. After the expiration of the seventy years' captivity, Cyrus made a decree, agreeably to the prediction of Isaiah, that they should be permitted to return to their own country, and to rebuild their city and temple. This was effected in the reign of Artaxerxes, when the tribes of Juduh and Benjamin went back to Judaea, under the conduct of Zerubbabel, while the ten other tribes were dispersed among the Gentiles, B.C. 536. When was the temple finally destroyed? Forty years after the death of Christ, Titus took Jerusalem, after a long siege. The city was utterly ruined, and the temple entirely de- molished, though Titus exerted his utmost efforts to^ve that venerable edifice. |f~"N / How many Jews are computed to have perished during this siege, and after the fall of the city and temple ? One million one hundred thousand ! Those Jews who had been instrumental in the rebellion were crucified by the emperor's command ; eleven thousand perished by hunger; ninety-seven 94 BOM AN HISTORY. -and were taken prisoners, and many of them sent into Egypt as slaves ; some were devoured by wild beasts in the public spectacles ; and it is not possible to conceive greater calamities than those which this unfortunate people endured. Who was the last king of the Jews ? Agrippa the Second, who, being dethroned by the emperor Claudius, served in the army of Titus against the very people over whom he had reigned. AY ho rebuilt Jerusalem ? The emperor Adrian ; and, in derision of the , he caused a marble statue of a hog to be placed over the principal gate of the city, this being an animal to which they had a particular anti- pathy, being declared impure by their law. The modern Jerusalem has fallen successively into the hands of the Persians, the Saracens, the Christian powrr- engaged in the crusades, and the Turks, who still keep possession of it. \Ylio was the famous Jewish historian ? Josephus. \Vho was Pliny the Elder ? A famous naturalist, killed in an eruption of Mount Vesuvius ; he was the friend of the em- peror Titus. When were the greatest cruelties inflicted upon the Christians? In the reigns of Domitian and Diocletian. TVTio was Agricola ? A Roman general, of great virtue and military abilities, who in the reign of Domitian conquered and governed South Britain : he built a line of ROMAN HISTORY. forts between the rivers Forth and Clyde, to ck fend the Britons from the inroads of the Scots, whom he defeated on the Grampian mountains. Who was Tacitus ? A Roman historian, one of the greatest orators and statesmen of his time. Who was the first Christian emperor ? Constantino the Great: fifteen emperors, all proj^ssing Christianity, succeeded him.tx"" /What city was anciently called Byzantium? Constantinople. The emperor Constantino the Great removed the seat of his government thither, that he might be nearer the Persians, whose power then began to be formidable to the Romans, and gave his name to that city. What nations gradually overran the Roman empire after the time of the emperor Constantino ? The Goths and Vandals. Were the morals of the Romans better under the imperial or republican form of government ? Under the latter. When was the imperial power in the most flourishing state ? In the reign of Trajan. Who was Justinian ? A Roman emperor, famed for collecting the Roman laws into one body, called the Code, or Digest of Justinian. Who was Belisarius ? A Roman general, who lived in the reign of Justinian, emperor of the East, A.D. 561 ; after performing the greatest services for his country, 96 ROMAN HISTORY. he was unjustly deprived of all his dignities, and is said to have had his eyes put out. AVhat occasioned the overthrow of the Roman power ? Its fall was owing to the luxury and corruption of the people, when the empire became too ex- tensive. AY ho first weakened the foundations of the Roman empire ? Alaric, king of the Goths, four hundred and ten years after Chr: What prince was called the scourge of God, the destroyer of nations? i!a, king of the Huns, because he ravaged de.-troyecl the Roman empire. Xuni" the chief Italian curiosities, natural and artificial. The amphitheatres, one at Rome, the other at Verona ; the triumphal arches of Vespasian, Se- ; us, and Constantino the Great; the pillars of Trajan and Antoninus; the roads made by the consuls Appius, Flaminius, and .Kmilius ; the Pantheon, anciently a temple dedicated to the heathen gods; the Catacombs; mounts JEtna and Vesuvius ; the ruins of the city of Hercula- neum, almost destroyed in Nero's time by an earthquake, and totally covered by the lava, in the reign of Titus ; and the city of Pompeii, de- stroyed at the same time.V^" y Why are the fine arts neglected in Italy, which was once famous for encouraging them ? Because the modern Italians are sunk in eccle- ROMAN HI STORY. 97 siastical slavery, and weakened by luxury and sensual pleasures. Name the most distinguished literary charac- ters in the reign of Tiberius. Valerius Maximus, the compiler of memorable stories and events ; Velleius Paterculus, the writer of the Grecian and Roman history, from the defeat of Perseus, king of Macedon, by the Romans, to the sixth year of Tiberius. What learned men flourished under the reign of Caligula? Few : Caligula declared open war against the Muses, banished the works of Virgil and Livy from the public libraries, and would scarcely al- low Homer better treatment ; Seneca, and, in short, all men of eminent virtue and learning, were his aversion ; Apion, the grammarian, how- ever, lived in his reign, and Philo Judivus, a Jewish writer upon moral philosophy. What great men flourished in the reign of Nero? Seneca ; Lucan, the poet ; Persius, the satirist ; Epictetus, the moralist ; and Petronius Arbiter, a Roman writer, whose opinions were openly Epicurean. Name some authors in the reign of Domitian. Martial, the writer of epigrams ; Juvenal, the satirist : Josephus, the Jewish historian and anti- quary ; and Quintilian, the celebrated instructor of youth. Name some in the reign of Trajan. Plutarch, the biographer ; Pliny the Younger, who was raised to the dignity of consul ; Sueto- o F ROMAN HISTORY. . who wrote the lives of the twelve C and Tacitus, the historian. Xame some great men in the reign of Adrian. Ptolemy, the geographer and astronomer ; Ar- rian, the historian; Aulus Gellius, the learned author of Attic Nights. Name some learned men in the reign of Anto- ninus-Pin^. Galen, the physician: Justin, the historian; .Elian, the natural philosopher; and Diogenes of Laertes, the Epicurean philosopher and bio- grapher. Who nourished in the reign of Marcus- Aure- lius ? Ju.-tin Martyr, the Christian apologist, and Poly carp, bishop of Smyrna (they both suH'ered martvrdom); llermogenes, the rhetorician, and Lucian, the celebrated Greek critic and satirist. Who flourished under the emperor Severus? Clemens Alexandrinus and Tertullian, cele- brated fathers of the primitive Christian church, the latter also an elegant Latin writer ; and Mi- nutins Felix, the Roman orator, and writer in defence of Christianity. Who flourished in the reign of Heliogabal ( )rigen, of Alexandria, one of the lathers of the church, who defended the Christian religion against the attacks of Celsus, the Epicurean phi- losopher. Who in the reign of the emperor Alex- ander ? Dion Cassius, the author of the Roman history written in Greek. ROMAN HISTORY. 99 Who flourished in the reign of the emperor Deems? Plotinus, the celebrated Platonic philosopher, born in Egypt, but a resident in Rome ; and Cyprian, the ornament of the African church. Name some famous characters in the reigns of Claudius Gothicus, Quintilius, who reigned only twenty days, and Aurelian. Longinus, the celebrated critic and friend of Zenobia, queen of Palmyra ; and Porphyry, the Jewish philosophical writer. Porphyry was ori- ginally a Christian convert, but afterwards an apostate. From this period (the latter end of the third century) few writers of note appeared in the Roman empire, excepting the Christian fathers ; the continual irruptions of the northern nations introduced new languages, new customs: these turbulent times were little calculated for the cultivation of literary talents, and after the Goths and Vandals had overrun the empire, a night of mental darkness followed, from the tenth to the middle of the fifteenth century. p 2 100 ENGLISH QUESTIONS CHKOXOLOT.ICALLY ARRANGED FROM THE INVASION OF C.ESAR TO THE REFORMATION. In Statesmen thou And Patriots fertile. THOMSOX. .*: grand oeras in tlie history of Eng- land. introduction of Christianity : the Xorman Conquest : the signing of Ma^na Charta. which laid the foundation of English liberty ; the Re- I'rnnation : the Restoration ; and the Revolution. When was. Christianity introduced into Eng- land? Some have thought about >ixty years after the h of Christ. It was embraced by a large portion of the country about the fourth century ; and was promulgated to the Saxons by the cele- brated monk Augustine, towards the close of the >".xth ivntury. What^was the Reformation ? A rejection of the authority and of many of the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church, begun in the reign of Henry the Eighth. When was the Reformation begun in Scotland and Ireland ? In Ireland in the reign of Henry the Eighth ; ENGLISH HISTORY. 101 in Scotland, in that of Mary Queen of Scots, by John Knox, the reformer. What gave rise to the Reformation in this and foreign countries ? The general sale of indulgences, or pardon for sins, and the abandoned lives of the clergy. What was the Restoration ? -/- Restoring the kingly power, in the person of Charles the Second, after the death of Oliver Cromwell. What was the Revolution ? A change in the constitution, which took place on the abdication of James the Second and the [accession of William the Third. What two great advantages did England gain by the Revolution? The present constitution was firmly established, and the 1-imous Bill of Rights passed. What is meant by the constitution of England ? Its laws and government. What was the Bill of Rights? A Bill passed in the reign of William the Third, to confirm and secure the liberties of the people. Name the English lines of kings. Saxon, Danish, Norman, Plantagenet, Tudor, Stuart, Orange or Nassau, and that of Hanover or Brunswick. How many princes were there of each line ? Seventeen Saxons, three Danes, four Nor- mans, fourteen Plantagenets, five Tudors, six Stuarts, one Orange or Nassau, and six of the line of Brunswick, including Queen Victoria. F 3 102 \Vhat is the ancient name for England ? Alb'O'.i, or Britannia. For France ? r Gau-. For Scotland ? Caledonia. For Ireland ? Hibernia. For Wales ? Cambria. For Holland? Batavia, or Belgium. For Spain? Iberia. For Portugal ? Lumtaiiia. For Sweden and Denmark ? Scandinavia. For Poland ? Lithuania. For Switzerland? [ Helvetia. By whom were the Britons first conquered ? By the Romans. Julius Caesar attempted tin- conquest, but it was not finally accomplished till the reign of Domitian. 10 were the Druid-? Priests of Britain, whose principal residence was in the Isle of Anglesea, where they per- formed tlu-ir idolatrous worship, and were held in great veneration by the people. How were the Druids clothed when tl ficed? ENGLISH HISTORY. 103 In long white garments : they wore on their heads the tiara, or sacred crown ; their temples were encircled with a wreath of oak-leaves ; they waved in their hands a magic wand, and also placed upon their heads a serpent's egg, as an ensign of their order. What plant did the Druids hold in high esti- mation, and how were their temples formed ? They reverenced the mistletoe, a parasitical plant which grows generally upon the oak, and their temples were circles of huge stones. What became of the Druids ? Numbers of them were put to death by the emperor Nero's command, when Britain became a Roman province. How were public events transmitted to pos- terity, when the Britons were ignorant of printing and writing ? By their bards, or poets, who were the only depositaries of the national transactions. What Roman emperor projected an invasion of Britain, gathered only shells upon the coast, und then returned to Rome in triumph ? What British generals distinguished themselves before the Saxon heptarchy was formed ? Cassibelaunus, Caractacus, Yortigern, and the almost fabulous hero prince Arthur. What was the exclamation of Caractacus when led in triumph through Rome ? " How is it possible that a people possessed of such magnificent palaces should envy the Briton? their humble cottages ! " F 4 104 ENGLISH 1IISTOKY. What queen poisoned herself to avoid the insults of the Roman conqueror ? Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, in Britain. Who were the two leaders of the Saxons when they came to the aid of the Britons against the Picts and Scots? Two brothers, named ITcngist and Ilorsa. What was the Saxon Heptarchy ? Seven kingdoms gradually established, after the Britons had been driven into Wales and Cornwall, by the Saxons. The seven kingdoms were those of Kent, Sussex. Wi-ssox, Essex, Mercia, Northumberland, and East Ancrlia. Who was the first Christian king in Britain ? Ibert, fifth kin- of Kent Who raised the first sole monarchy upon the ruins of the Saxon beptirchy? Egbert, about eight hundred years after the death of Christ. When did the clergy first collect tithe.- in England? In the reign of Ethel wolf, successor to Egbert. What Saxon monarch erected a number of monasteries ? lelbald. What gave rise to monastic institutions in Christendom ? The persecutions which attended the first ages of the Gospel obliged some Christians to retire into deserts and unfrequented places : their ex- ample gave so much reputation and weight to retirement, that the practice was continued when the reason ceased to exist. ENGLISH HISTORY. 105 Name the best Saxon king. Alfred the Great. What were the remarkable events of his reign ? After twenty pitched battles, and various vi- cissitudes, he finally repelled the Danes, and forced those who settled in England to be subject to him and his laws. He encouraged learning and learned men, contributed to the foundation of the university of Oxford, and divided England into shires and counties. This prince first estab- lished a national militia, and put the English navy upon a respectable footing. Houses began to be built generally of brick and stone in his reign. What was Peter's pence ? An annual tribute of a penny (some say of a Shilling) paid by every family to the popes, for the maintaining of an English college at Rome. It was established by Offa, king of Mercia, A.D. 7o,5, and after the union of the seven kingdom- was collected throughout all England. When was this tribute abolished? At the Reformation, in the reign of Henry the Eighth. What was meant by Excommunication ? A decree of the popes, by which they deprived the nation, or person excommunicated, of all re- ligious rites. What English princes have the popes excom- municated ? John, Henry the Eighth, and Elizabeth. What was meant by laying a kingdom under an Interdict ? By this the pope deprived the nation of all ex- F 5 106 ENGLISH HISTORY. terior rites of religion, except baptism, and the communion to the dying ; the people were for- bidden the use of all animal food, pleasures, and entertainments. !iat was the trial by Ordeal? A superstitious custom anciently very prevalent in Britain, by which the guilt or innocence of an accused person was supposed to be determined. There were three kinds of ordeal : that by fire, that by cold water, and that by hot water. Describe them. In that by fire, the accused were to walk, blindfolded and barefooted, over nine red-hot ploughshares placed at unequal distances : in that by cold water, the person accused was bound hands and feet, thrown into a pond, or river, and wa*5 then to clear himself by escaping drowning ; in that by hot water, the hands and feet were immersed in scalding water. These ridiculous customs were totally laid aside in the reign of Henry the Third. AY ho founded the University of Cambridge ? It is thought to have been commenced by Sige- bert, king of the East Angles, about the year 630. AVhendid the famous Guy Earl of Warwick liver In the reign of Athelstan : his strength is said to have been gigantic. AVhich of the Saxon kings was slain at a fes- tival at Pucklechurch in Gloucestershii Edmund, grandson of the illustrious Alfred, who, seeing a noted plunderer, probably of su- perior rank, named Leof, seated among the nobles, endeavoured to drag him from his place. Impelled ENGLISH HISTORY. 107 I'V despair, the culprit drew his dagger, and plunged it into the body of his sovereign. Which of our princes was stabbed by order of his mother-in-law at Corfe Castle ? Edward, called the Martyr. Elfrida, who com- manded the execution of this treacherous deed, was equally beautiful and wicked. When was the general massacre of the Danes ? In the reign of Ethelred the Second. This was a transaction equally cruel, shameful, and unnecessary. The Danes who were massacred were peaceably settled upon lands allotted to them, and in their number was Gunhilda, sister of the Danish monarch Sweyn, though she was a Chris- tian. A dreadful devastation of the country by the enraged Danes was the consequence of this imprudent and inhuman act. Which of the Saxon monarchs after Alt'ivd inu the most valiant? Edmund Ironside : he opposed the Danish Canute, but unsuccessfully, and was afterwards murdered by two of his servants. Which of our kings, by a memorable speech, reproved the flattery of his courtiers ; and what was the substance of it ? Canute the Great, first of the Danish line ; he ordered his chair to be placed upon the sea-shore, when the tide was coming in, and commanded the sea to retire ; he remained sitting some time, as if expecting its submission, till the waves began to surround him, and then, turning to his courtiers, he . exclaimed, " The titles of lord and master only belong to Him whom earth and seas obey.". F 6 108 ENGLISH HISTORY. When was paper first made? In the reign of Harold, successor to Canute. "What was the character of Hardicanute ? He was a weak and degenerate prince : he died by excess of drinking ; and in him ended the Danish line. "What laws did Edward the Confessor collect? Those of the Danes, Saxons, and Mercians, which he abridged and amended ; and till the twentieth year of the reign of William the Con- queror, they were considered as the common law of England. Name the principal events in the time of "Wil- liam the Conqueror. The battle of I lasting.*, fought between William and Harold, in which the latter was killed ; Doomsday-book compiled: the curfew-bell es- tablished; sheriffs appointed; the New Forest in Hampshire laid out by the demolition of vil- . churches, convents, and the expulsion of the inhabitants throughout a tract of country of thirty miles in extent, without any compensation being made for the losses incurred; and the feudal law introduced. "What was Doomsday-book ? An account of the value of every manor, estate, and farm throughout all England. This book is still extant, and its authority is so undoubted, that it is admitted as incontrovertible evidence in courts of law. What was the Curfew-bell? A bell ordered to be rung every night at eight ENGLISH HISTORY. 109 o'clock, when the English were to put out their fire and candle. What was meant by the Feudal System ? A practice by which those who held estates were bound to assist their lords with personal service in their quarrels and petty wars, instead of paying rent. In process of time, this system was so much abused, that when a gentleman sold his estate, the farmer who lived upon it, Jiisjjhildren, and stock of cattle were sold also. When was the custom of beheading intro- duced ? In the reign of William the Conqueror. What other invention was made in this reign ? That of musical notes or characters, which were invented by a Frenchman. What was the state of England under Willi;mi the Conqueror? At this period, the English were in general illiterate, rude, and barbarous; but in this cen- tury began what is commonly termed the age of chivalry in Europe, when anarchy and barbarism were abolished, and civilisation, with politeness of manners, was first introduced. When was Westminster Hall built i In the reign of William the Conqueror's son, William Rufus. When were the first Crusades or Holy Wars ? In the reign of William Rufus ; they were undertaken to rescue Jerusalem from the hands of the Saracens and Turks. Who was the famous Saladin ? 110 IB HISTORY. He was the ruler of Egypt, the sultan of the Turks, a generous, brave and skilful warrior, far more civilised and refined than any of the Chris- tian princes. He besieged and took Jerusalem, and defended it against the crusaders. He ordered one of his officers to remind him every morning of his mortality. When was the military body called Mamelukes lishcd? In 1230 the Saracen prince Malec Salah pur- chased a very large number of boys and young men from Cireussia and other countries, exposed for sale as slaves, and caused them to be trained to warlik -s. This was the origin of the Mamelukes, ur Mamelouks, whose power after- wards became formidable. AVho made the first king's Speech upon re- cord? Henry thejj|^t : he was sumamed Beau Clerc, on account of his grert learning. What v ; 1 .y Itt^hts Templars ? This was a military ordci jf knighthood, in- stituted in tin' time of Henry the First, to de- ihe temple and holy sepulchre at Jerusalem; and the Christian pilgrims from the assaults of infid Which of our king< wa- Karl of Bi Stephen, grandson to "William the Conqueror, by his daughter Adela ; his father, Stephen Earl of Blois, fell in the crusades against the Sara- cens, and his son Stephen usurped the English throne. Which of them was Earl of Anjou ? ENGLISH HISTORY. Ill Henry the Second, the first of the Planta- genets. What inventions and discoveries belong to this reign ? The loadstone's attractive power, glass win- dows, and surnames, were then first known and used. Who was prime minister to Henry the Second? Thomas-a-Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury. Becket being murdered, as was supposed, by King Henry's instigation, that monarch consented to perform penance at his tomb, to humour the superstition of the people, who believed Becket to be a saint, as he had been canonised by the church of Rome. What king was twice crowned, and taken pri- soner in Germany, on his return from the Holy Land? Richard the First, surnamed Ccfeur de Lion, on account of his valour. ."Rid^ird the First assumed the motto of " God aau my right," ;i::tl affixed it to his arms. When did Robin Hood and Little John live ? In the time of Richard the First. Robin Hood was said to be the Earl of Huntingdon, and out- lawed for some misdemeanors committed at court ; upon which he and his attendant, Little John, v concealed themselves in Sherwood Forest, in Not- (^tinghamshire, and lived by plunder. v^hat action of Richard the First does history record greatly in favour of his noble way of thinking ? The pardon of his brother John, after repeated 112 ENGLISH II I STOUT. treasons; saying, " I forgive you, and wish I could as easily forget your injuries, as you will my pardon/' Which of bur kings was called Sans Terre, or Lackland ? John, who murdered his nephew, Arthur, Duke of Bretagne, the nearest in succession to the throne. Who signed Mugna Charta, ? John ; who was forced to do so by the barons, who had risen in anns against his wild and wicked tyranny. What was Magna C'harta? A bill, or act of parliament, granting the barons rtnd citizens greater privileges than they had ever enjoyed before. By this act, the obligations of the feudal system were abolished, and English freedom restore'!. Who afterwards revoked Magna Charta? John's son, Henry^ie Third; but the people at length obliged him to confirm it. When was the court of Common Pleas first instituted, and when were aldermen appointed? In the reign of Henry the Third, who was the summon regular parliaments. When was marriage first solemnised in lies? In the reign t of Henry the Third: in this reign al- magniiying glasses and magic lanterns were invented by Roger Bacon, the monk. What other improvements were introduced in the reign of Henry the Third ? Cider, linen, and tapestry were first made in ENGLISH HISTORY. 113 England, and the mariner's compass, said to be invented by the French; but there are such various opinions concerning the inventor, and the time of this discovery being made, that nothing I conclusive can be said upon it. What was the Inquisition? and when was it established ? The Inquisition was a court composed of eccle- siastics, empowered to search out and to punish heresy and heretics ; which it did by imprison- ment, by inflicting inhuman tortures, and by Diving up its unhappy objects to the secular arm, to be burnt alive. Pope Alexander the Third, having failed in his endeavours to extirpate the Albigenses, a people in the mountains of Pied- mont and the south of France, who remained separate from the Roman church, his succe- Innocent the Third, sent two Cistercian monks, with power to punish by exile, confiscation of property, or even death, any who adhered to or encouraged them. This was the origin of that dreadful tribunal, the Inquisition, about A. D. 1198. It is no\v almost universally suppressed. What best promotes a liberal way of thinking? A thorough knowledge of ourselves, and a can- did allowance for the faults of others. What were the discoveries and im; >T im in the reign of Edward the First ? Geography, and the use of the globes, were introduced; tallow candles and coals were first common ; windmills invented ; and wine was sold only as a cordial, in apothecaries' shops. 114 ENGLISH HISTORY. What accident did Edward the First meet with while in the Holy Land? At Acre he was stabbed with a poisoned dag- ger, by one of those enthusiasts, called Assassins, subject to a Mahometan prince, styled the Old Man of the Mountain : but his queen, Eleanora, is said to have sucked the poison from the wound, and restored him to health. Upon the death of his amiable queen, Edward erected a cross at each place where her corpse rested on its way to interment ; the remains of some of these are still visible. This j.ri. -untamed Longshanks, i < -count of the great length of his legs. What king inhumanly ordered a general mas- sacre of the Welsh !>;. Edward the First, after the conquest of Wales, and the (loath of Llewellyn, its last prince of Welsh extraction. He. and David his brother, were cruelly ! ' !. and their bodies treated with the ui-' at '-t indignity. Whu was William Wallace? A famous Scottish hero, who, in the time of Edward the First, bravely endeavoured to defend the liberties of his country against the English. AM nit became of him ? lie was taken prisoner by Edward's army, and executed as a traitor, when he ought to have been honoured as a noble patriot and hero. Who first bestowed the title of Prince of Wales upon his eldest son ? Edward the First, to reconcile the Welsh to their subjection. EXGLISII HISTORY. llo When was the battle of Bannockburn fought with the Scots? In the reign of Edward the Second : the En- glish lost it. Name the chief favourites of Edward the Second. Gavestone, and the two De Spencers. When was the order of Knights Templars abolished? In the time of Edward the Second. Why? Because many of the knights were charged with high crimes and misdemeanors ; fifty-nine of them residing in France, with their grand-master, were arrested, and burnt alive. Who was king of Scotland in this reign ? Iiobert Bruce, celebrated for his valour and fortitude. What remarkable events afflicted England at this time ? A dreadful iainim-, which continued three years, and the most severe earthquake ever known in Britain. What death did Edward the Second suffer? He was dethroned, and afterwards cruelly mur- dered in Berkeley Castle, Gloucestershire. Name the most remarkable events in the reign of Edward the Third. The battles of Creci and Poictiers (the former gained by the Black Prince alone, at the age of sixteen), the siege of Calais, the institution of the order of the Garter, and the battle of Neville's 116 ENGLISH HISTORY. B, in which David Bruce, king of Scotland, was taken prisoner by Philippa. Edward's queen. Who instituted the order of the Garter? This order, the most honourable of the British orders of distinction, was instituted by Edward the Third. Its insignia are a blue riband, sus- pending a medal of St. George. Xame the great men in the reign of Edward the Third. The Black Prince ; John, Duke of Lancaster, the Earl of Salisbury, the Duke of York, and Sir John Chandos. What were the character and fate of the Black Prince ? He was valiant, prudmt, and accomplished ; he died in the prime of life, of a consumption, re- gretted by all. /Who was John of Gaunt, Duke of L 1 1 waa the son of Edward the Third, the father of Henry the Fourth, and the uncle of Richard the Second. He was the patron of Chaucer the poet, and of Wickliflfe, the first English reformer. Upon what grounds did Edward the Third as- sert his claims to the French monarchy? In right of his mother Isabella, who was sister to the late king of France. What law destroyed this claim .' The Salic law. What gave rise to the Salic law in France ? The Salii, the original inhabitants, had a law which excluded females from the inheritance of any landed possession; the Franks or French ,<1 this rule, and applied it to the succession ENGLISH HISTORY. 117 of the throne, excluding women from sovereign power. \~ Ncime some discoveries and improvements made in the time of Edward the Third. Gold was first coined ; cannons used ; turnpikes and clocks introduced; and the woollen manu- factory first established ; Windsor Castle built ; Trinity Sunday first observed ; the first Speaker of the House of Commons chosen, and the title of Esquire given to people of fortune. What king caused his uncle, the Duke of Glou- cester, to be privately smothered at Calais ? Richard the Second, to rid himself of a monitor whom he feared. By whom was the Poll-tax first levied ? By Richard the Second. What was it? A tax of one shilling, ordered to be paid by every person above fifteen: it occa^iom-d an in- surrection of the people, because the rich paid no more than the poor, and great severity was em- ployed in collecting it. Who headed this insurrection ? Wat Tyler and Jack Straw, two of the com- mon people. What two great noblemen did Richard the Second banish ? The Dukes of Hereford and Norfolk ; but Hereford returned with an army before the ex- piration of his banishment, and deprived Richard of his crown and life. Where did Richard end his days ? In Pontefract Castle, where he was starved, or, as some say, assassinated. 118 ENGLISH HISTORY. What were the improvements in this reign ? The manufactory of woollen broad cloth was carried to great perfection, side-saddles and spec- tacles first became common in England, and cards were invented in France. For whom were cards invented ? For Charles the Sixth, king of France, called the Well-beloved : he was insane the greatest part of his reign, and during his intervals of were produced as an amusement for him. When was the office of Champion of England i nst if.i tod ': In the reign of Richard the Second. What has the Chum, io? On the king's coronation day, he rides up -hall, on a white horse, proclaiming the king by ' : he then throws down a gauntlet, or iron glove, challenging any one to take it up and fight him, who does n. riband.* \Vh<> gained the battles of Harfleur.and Agin- court ? Henry the Fifth, who was afterw: heir to the French monarchy, and regent of France and Normandy. When were the followers of Wickliffe first severely persecuted ? In the reign of Henry the Fifth. Who was Sir John Oldcastle, Lord Cobham ? He was one of the first martyrs to this cause. He was condemned to the flames, upon refusing to violate his conscience, by recanting his supposed errors. Escaping from the Tower of London, in * There was an extension of this order by command of George the Fourth while Prince Regent, and another still greater extension under Queen Victoria. The Knights Companions are now numerous. 120 ENGLISH HISTORY. which he was confined, he fled ; but being retaken, he was hanged by the body from the stake, and in this manner burnt to death. What remarkable circumstance happened to Henry the Fifth when Prince of Wales ? Sir William Gascoigne sent him to prison for contempt of his authority. Relate the story. One of the dissolute companions of Henry being brought before this judge for some offence, the prince, who was present, was so provoked at the issue of the trial, that he struck the judge in open court. Sir William, fully sensible of the reverence due to his authority, committed the prince to prison : when the king heard it, he ex- claimed, k * Happy is the king who has a subject endowed with courage to execute the laws upon such an offender; still more happy in having a sun willing to submit to such chastisement." Name the three principal events in the reign of Henry the Sixth. The raising of the siege of Orleans ; the loss of France to the English ; and the dreadful civil between the houses of York and Lancaster. How was the siege of Orleans raised, and France wrested from the English dominion ? Principally by means of a young French- woman, who, enthusiastically asserting that she wa- commissioned by God to rescue France, raised such a spirit among the people, that, finally, the event she predicted was accomplished. She herself, however, was taken prisoner, and unjustly and cruelly put to death. In place of her real ENGLISH HISTORY. 121 name, Joan of Arc, she was honoured with that of the Maid of Orleans. The king of France, Charles the Seventh, ennobled her, her father, three brothers, and all their descendants. V" * Why were the civil wars in England engaged in? Because the houses of York and Lancaster contended for the throne. Their divisions were occasioned by the claims which Richard Duke of York laid to the throne, in the reign of Henry the Sixth of Lancaster. What are civil Avars ? They are wars between those people who live under the same government, and, for obvious reasons, are more to be held in detestation than any other. What French countries did England formerly possess? Bretagne, Maine, Anjou, Touraine, Nor- mandy, Gascony, and Guienne. When was the battle of Wakefield fought ': In Henry the Sixth's reign, between the Yorkists and Lancastrians : in this engagement Richard Duke of York and his son were slain. What other celebrated battles were fought in this .reign ? Those of Towton and Tewkesbury ; after the latter, Edward, son of Henry the Sixth, was murdered in cold blood, by Richard Duke of Gloucester. Who was Henry the Sixth's wife ? Margaret of Anjou, a woman of keen penetra- tion, undaunted spirit, and great beauty ; she fought twelve pitched battles in her husband's G ENGLISH HISTORY. cause; but ambition, not affection, guided her actions ; and, wanting principle, she may engage our pity, but has no title to our esteem and reverence. AVhat were the discoveries and improvements in this reign? The Azores and Cape Verde Islands were dis- covered ; the Vatican library founded in Home, and pumps invented. \ x Name the first king of the house of York. Edward the Fourth. AVhat discoveries and improvements mark his reign ? Printing was introduced, and polite literature encouraged among the English ; Angola was set- tled by the Portuguese, violins were invented, and the first idea of electricity given. How did Edward the Fourth recompense the services of his brother, the Duke of Clarence ? He caused Clarence, upon some slight accusa- tion, to be drowned in a butt of wine. What king married Lady Elizabeth Grey? Edward the Fourth. Name the most famous warrior at this period. The Earl of Warwick, commonly called the King-maker, because he deposed and reinstated Henry the Sixth, and Edward the Fourth. AVhat king was smothered in the Tower by his uncle's order ? Edward the Fifth. AVho was his uncle ? Richard the Third, who succeeded him upon the throne. ENGLISH HISTORY. 123 "What were the improvements in this reign ? ^Post-horses and stages were established. What were Richard the Third's best public actions ? The strictness with which he enforced the laws : the establishment of the hardware manufactory ; the institution of the herald's office, and the ap- pointment of Consuls to protect English persons and property in foreign parts. What was the fate of this monarch ? He was slain in the battle of Bosworth, fight- ing desperately in defence of that crown which he had usurped, against the Earl of Richmond, who succeeded him under the title of Henry the Seventh. What writer endeavoured to vindicate Richard the Third from some of the dreadful crimes im- puted to him ? Horace Walpole laboured to rescue the chara- 1 - ter of this king from the cruel murders and 1'i'arful guilt with which history has loaded it, \mi with little success. When was America discovered ? In Henry the Seventh's reign, by Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa. Who was Sebastian Cabot? Another famous navigator, who lived at this period, and sailed to America. When was the rebellion, headed by Perkin Warbeck ? In the reign of Henry the Seventh. .* Who was Perkiu ? A person who pretended to be the son of c 2 124 ENGLISH HISTORY. Edward the Fourth; but the prudence and sagacity of Henry defeated this, aiid many other plots against his government. "What were the discoveries and improvements in this reign ? Shillings were first coined in England ; Greek generally taught in schools ; a passage to the East Indies, round the Cape of Good Hope, dis- covered by the Portuguese ; trade and commerce with foreign nations were greatly encouraged ; and maps and sea-charts now began to be com- monly used in England. What king first assumed the title of Majesty ? Henry the Eighth : till this reign the English kings were styled Your Grace, or Your High- What title, which is still retained by the En- Lcli-li sovereigns, did Henry the Eighth receive from the pope ? The title of Defender of the Faith. AVhy? On account of a book which he published against the opinions of Luther. In whose person were the houses of York and Lancaster united ? In that of Henry the Eighth ; his claims on both sides were equal, as his mother was of the house of York, his father of the line of Lancaster. Name the most remarkable events in the reign of Henry the Eighth. The Reformation was begun ; the battle of the spurs fought between the English and the French; and the battle of Flodden Field, in ENGLISH HISTORY. 125 which James the Fourth, king of Scotland, with flower of his nobility, fell. When did Luther and Calvin live ? In the reign of Henry the Eighth : they were two celebrated reformers ; Luther was a German, and Calvin a native of Picardy. What was meant by a reformer ? One who protested against the errors of the Roman church. In what great points do Catholics and Pro- testants differ ? The .Catholics in their worship employ images, and invoke the saints and the Virgin Mary : though the more intelligent Catholics use images only as instruments to awaken their pious feelings, and address the saints solely as intercessors, their supreme worship being directed through them to the Deity. They believe in seven sacra- ments ; and when they commemorate our Lord's supper, they think they eat and drink the real body and blood of Christ : they also acknowledge the pope as supreme head of the church. Who was the first pope that decreed the in- fallibility of the popes in general ? Gregory the Seventh, contemporary with William the Conqueror ; he said in council, that the church of Rome neither ever had erred, nor ever could err ; and this doctrine of infallibility was urged by Leo the Tenth as a defence against the opinions of Luther. The greater part of the Roman Catholics of the present time do not main- tain the individual infallibility of the popes, but G 3 126 ENGLISH HISTORY. the infallibility of the church which, they allege, continued uninterruptedly from the Apostles. Who was prime minister to Henry the Eighth ? Cardinal Wolsey. Who were his two great contemporaries? Francis the First, king of France ; and Charles the Fifth, emperor of Germany. Name the discoveries and improvements at this period. The Bermuda, Japan, Ladrone, and Philippine Isles were discovered; soap, hats, and needles were first made in England ; Peru was discovered and settled ; the articles of religion and the Bible first printed in an English edition. What great men suffered death in this reign ? Sir Thomas More, the lord chancellor ; Fisher, Bishop of Rochester (tutor to Henry); Lord Surrey, famed for his love of literature; and Edward Bohun, Duke of Buckingham. Wolsey, too, who had been King Henry's favourite, friend, and minister, was impeached, but died of a broken heart before his trial: this prelate is .-aid to have intrigued for the papal chair. Who were the Knights of Rhodes ? Military ecclesiastics, who associated them- -, lir.-t at Jerusalem, for the protection of Christian pilgrims. When Jerusalem was finally occupied by the Saracens and Turks, Rhodes was . icd to them as their place of abode, whence they carried on a naval warfare against the infidels. Being expelled from that island by the Turks, after a most heroic defence, the Emperor Charles the Fifth gave them the Isle of Malta, ENGLISH HISTORY. 127 after which they were called Knights of Malta. In the stormy period of the French Revolution, Malta was seized by Napoleon, and the order was scattered : Malta was afterwards taken by the British, and is still in their possession, but the order has not been revived. ^ x _^> Upon what conditions were these knights ad- mitted ? They were to be of noble blood ; to be un- married ; five hundred to reside upon the island ; and the rest to appear when called upon. They took a vow to defend Malta from the invasions of the Turks ; and were governed by thirty superior knights, and a grand-master, chosen from their body. What act passed in Henry the Eighth's reign which showed the servile adulation of his people, and his own contempt of justice? It was enacted, that the same obedience should be paid to the king's proclamation as to an act of parliament ; that the king should not pay his debts ; and that those who had already been paid by him should refund the mo: What order of knighthood was instituted in the time of Henry the Eighth ? That of the Thistle, by James the Fifth, king of Scotland : the knights wear a green riband. Who were the Jesuits ? A religious order, founded by Ignatius Loyola, a Spaniard, in the reign of Henry the Eighth : this order was dissolved by Pope Clement the Fourteenth, in 1773, but was restored, in 1814, by Pius the Seventh. c 4 128 ENGLISH HISTORY. What was the condition of Europe during the reign of Henry the Eighth ? It was the theatre of many great events. Charles the Fifth, king of Spain and emperor of Germany, enlarged his dominions by the con- quest of Mexico and the possession of Peru ; the Portuguese, after the discovery of Brazil, erected forts, subdued the surrounding nations, and waged a bloody war in Africa ; and Francis the First of France was the formidable competitor of Charles the Fifth for empire, renown, and power. 129 CONTINUATION OP THE QUESTIONS IN ENGLISH HISTORY, FROM THE REFORMATION TO THE PIIESKNT TIME. Fair thy renown In awful sages, and in noble bards. THOMSON. WHEN was the battle of Pinkey, or Musselburgh, fought with the Scots ? In the reign of Edward the Sixth. Who was protector during the minority of Edward? Seymour, Duke of Somerset. Name Edward the Sixth's best public action. Promoting and establishing the Reformation by act of parliament. What insurrection was there during this reign? One headed by Ket, a tanner, a discontented seditious fellow ; he raised an army in Norfolk, but was defeated by Dudley, Earl of Warwick, and afterwards hanged. To whom did Edward the Sixth leave the crown ? Induced by the solicitations of Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, an ambitious and unprin- 130 ENGLISH HISTORY. ciplcd man, Edward the Sixth settled the succes- sion upon Lady Jane Grey, thereby setting aside his sisters Mary and Elizabeth, and Mary, Princess of Scotland, his cousin. \^ What events immediately followed? Made a queen, contrary to her wish and will, Lady Jane Grey reigned only ten days, when Northumberland and his party were overcome; Mary, the lawful heiress to the throne, was pro- claimed, and her authority universally admitted ; and Lady Jane, and her husband, Lord Guilford Dudley, fourth son of the Duke of Northum- berland, were beheaded, with circumstances of peculiar cruelty. Xame the improvements in this reign. Engraving, and knitting stockings, were in- vented : the Common Prayer Book was compiled, and published in English ; the Psalms of David were translated into verse ; half-crowns were first coined in England ; and the study of ana- tomy was revived. To whom was Mary married ? To Philip the Second, king of Spain. AVhat was the conduct of Mary? Mary w:i< a zealous advocate for the Catholic faith, and repealed all the acts of her brother Edward passed in favour of the Reformation : she caused numbers of Protestants to be burnt in Smithfield, as heretics. Who aided and abetted her in the execution of these barbarities ? Bishops Gardiner and Bonner. Cranmer, Ridley, Latimer, Hooper, and Ferrar, with nearly ENGLISH HISTORY. 131 three hundred others, perished at the stake in this reign. When did the English lose Calais? In the reign of Mary ; when it was retaken by the French under the celebrated Duke of Guise. What improvements were made in Mary's time? Hemp and flax were first grown in England ; and the horse-guards instituted ; starch was also invented. How long was the reign of Mary, and who succeeded her ? She reigned five years and a few months, and was succasded by her sister Elizabeth, daughter of the unfortunate Anne Boleyn, who, like her mother, was a Protestant Name the principal events in the reign of Elizabeth. Sir Francis Drake's voyage round the world ; the Spanish Armada defeated ; and the execution of Mary Queen of Scots. What was the Spanish Armada ? A formidable armament of ships and soldiers, intended for the conquest of England, fitted out by Philip the Second of Spain. What became of this Armada, which had been blessed and consecrated by the Pope Sixtus the Fifth ? It was almost entirely destroyed by the supe- rior skill and valour of the English, and by a succession of violent storms. How did Elizabeth evince her modesty, and 132 ENGLISH HISTORY. trust in God, after the defeat of the Spanish Armada ? By ascribing the victory less to English bravery than to the merciful interposition of Providence. She ordered a medal to be struck, which repre- sented a fleet beaten by a tempest, and fulling foul of each other, with this inscription : " He blew with his winds, and they were scattered.'' Who was Mary Queen of Scots ? Y* 1 ^- Daughter of James the Fifth, king of Scot- land, and cousin to Elizabeth : she was famed for her beauty and misfortunes. Win- - chief favourite ? David Rizzio, an Italian musician. NiUM Mary's husbands. Francis the Second, king of France ; Henry Stuart (Lord Darnley ) ; and the Earl of Both- well. What was the fate of Mary ? She was eighteen years a prisoner in England, and was at length executed at Fotheringay Castle in Northamptonshire. This treatment of Mary - a sad blot on the character of Elizabeth. Name some men of genius in Elizabeth's reign. Shnkspeare and Spenser. For what are Shakspeare's works particularly famed? For the loftiest genius both of thought and expression, profound knowledge of the human heart, and delicate discrimination of characters. AVhen did the Scots first openly declare them- selves Protestants ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 133 Iii the reign of their Queen Mary. What is the established religion of the Scots now? Calvinism : which takes its name from Calvin, whose opinions they follow. Their form of church government and of worship is the presby- terian, by law established. Who were the most distinguished naval officers in Elizabeth's reign ? Drake, Howard, Hawkins, Frobisher, and Raleigh. Name some great men in Elizabeth's reign. Sir Philip Sidney, Lord Burleigh, the Earl of Leicester, the Earl of Essex, and Sir Francis Walsingham. Sir Philip Sidney was invited to be a candidate for the elective crown of Poland ; but Elizabeth was unwilling to promote his ad- vancement, lest she should lose so bright an ornament of her court. When happened the dreadful massacre of Pro- testants at Paris ? On St. Bartholomew's day, in the reign of Charles the Ninth of France, and Elizabeth, queen of England. What memorable answer did the Viscount D'Ortez, one of Charles's nobility, give him, when he sent a circular letter to command the execution of the Protestants ? This : " Your majesty has many faithful sub- jects in this city of Bayonne, but not one executioner." Name the chief leaders on the Catholic and 134 ENGLISH HISTORY. Protestant sides in France, during the civil wars there. On the Catholic, were Charles the Ninth, the two Dukes of Guise, and Catherine de Medicis, the chief instigator of the wars; on the Pro- testant, the Prince of Conde*, Admiral Coligni, and Henry the Great, then king of Navarre. When was the slave-trade first carried on m England ? In the reign of Elizabeth ; it was introduced by Sir John Hawkins. AVhat has caused its gradual abolition in most civilised countries ? The sense which the generality of mankind have of its oppression and inhumanity. AY hut young Englishman was at the head of a conspiracy against Elizabeth, to place her rival, Mary Queen of Scots, on the throne? Anthony Babington, who was afterwards exe- cuted. Name the inventions and improvements in Elizabeth's reign. Stops were introduced in reading and writing ; coaches and watches first common in England; the study of botany was revived ; knives first made in England ; and criminals first sentenced to transportation. Name the first prince of the Stuart line who reigned in England. James the First of England, and Sixth of Scotland ; lie was called Solomon in derision, from his pedantry and affectation of learning. ENGLISH HISTORY. 135 What remarkable event happened to James before he ascended the English throne ? Earl Gowric's conspiracy against him, who in- vited James to his house and took him prisoner ; but the king was afterwards rescued by his attendants. What were the most remarkable occurrences in this reign ? The gunpowder plot was discovered and de- feated ; and the celebrated Sir Walter Raleigh beheaded. What was the Gunpowder Plot ? A scheme of some bigoted Roman Catholics to destroy the King and the Parliament, by ex- ploding a large quantity of gunpowder under them. Who was Sir Walter Raleigh ? A famous statesman, historian, and navigator. What lord chancellor was accused and con- victed, in this reign, of taking bribes in the exe- cution of his office ? Francis Bacon, Lord Verulam, the greatest philosopher of his age. When was the first General Assembly of the Church of Scotland ? In the reign of James I. Name the improvements in that reign. The circulation of the blood was discovered; telescopes were invented ; some of the satellites revolving round the planet Saturn were first per- ceived ; baronets created, of whom there are now above one thousand ; mulberry trees first planted in England, and potatoes brought from Brazil. 136 EXGLISH HISTORY. What is meant by Highland clans ? Tribes of Scotch Highlanders, who bore the names, and anciently lived upon the lands, of their respective chieftains, to whom they showed every mark of attachment, and cheerfully shed their blood in their defence : these chieftains, in return, bestowed a protection upon their clans, equally founded on gratitude and a sense of their own interest, 5 ^ Name the characteristic traits of the ancient Scotch Highland Fidelity, hospitality, unwearied patience, un- daunted o.uniL r <-. :md great family pride. What was their dress ? They wore a plaid made of woollen stuff or tartan, which either hung down from their shoulders, or was fastened with a belt ; from this belt hung their sword, dagger, knives, and pistol ; a large leathern purse hanging before, adorned with silver, was always a part of the chieftain's dress. Name the most striking events in the reign of Charles the First. The wars between Charles and his parliament; the Irish massacre ; and the execution of Lord Strafford and Archbishop Laud. What was the fate of Charles? He was taken prisoner by the parliament, con- fined in the Isle of Wight, and at last tried, con- demned, and beheaded. When did Clarendon and Hampden live ? In the reign of Charles the First : the former ENGLISH HISTOKY. 137 was a statesman and historian ; the latter a cele- brated patriot. What was the Irish massacre ? A conspiracy of the Roman Catholics in Ire- land, to murder all the English and Irish Pro- testants residing there. What were the inventions and discoveries in this reign ? The Bahama Isles were discovered ; barometers and thermometers invented ; newspapers first pub- lished ; sawing-mills erected ; and coffee brought to England. When did the lords Falkland and Fairfax live ? In Cli:irl's the First's time: they were of op- posite parties ; Falkland was attached to the king, Fairfax to the parliament, and both were men of great abilities and excellent character. When was the government of England declared to be a Commonwealth ? After the death of Charles the First, A.D. 1649. Royalty and the House of Lords were abolished, and the government of the country was adminis- tered by a council composed of thirty-eight mem- bers of the parliament, supported by an army of fifty thousand men. After a short time, Crom- well, a brave and skilful parliamentarian general, was proclaimed Protector of the realm, with more than kingly authority. ' Name the most remarkable events iff the pro- tectorship of Cromwell. Blake and Monk, two illustrious admirals, maintained the naval superiority of England 13H .LISII HISTORY. against the Dutch, and Penn took Jamaica from Spain. \:imc tlie two distinguishing traits in Crom- well's character. Hypocrisy and ambition. Who, at the head of a number of English emi- grants, colonised that region of North America called Pennsylvania, and founded the city named Philadelphia ? William Penn, son of Admiral Penn, one of Cromwell's officers. V^v^^ When did Milton live?" In Cromwell's time, to whom lie was Latin secretary: Cromwell, however, in general, was means an encourager of learning; but the nation, under his administration, improved both in riches and power. Why did Richard Cromwell resign the pro- rship? Because ho did not possess those great quali- . hich were necessary to carry out the views of his father, Oliver Cromwell. What were the improvements made about this time? St. Helena was settled; air-pumps and speak- ing-trumpets were invented. By whose instrumentality chiefly was Charles the Second placed on his father's throne ? By that of General Monk, and of the royal and presbyterians. Xame some of the most remarkable events in the reign of Charles the Second. Dunkirk sold to the French, for four hundred ENGLISH HISTORY 139 thousand crowns ; the plague and great fire in London ; and the Royal Society established. For what purposes was this Society instituted ? For the promotion of science, and for judging of all new inventions, and giving the public an account of their utility. When AY as the Bill of Exclusion attempted to be passed ? In the reign of Charles the Second; to prevent the Duke of York, brother to Charles, from as- cending the throne, as he was u papist: this bill passed the House of Commons, but the Lords threw it out : in this reign, also, many of the cor- porations in England were induced to surrender their charters. What is meant by the charter of a corpo- ration ? Its right to elect a mayor and aldermen. When were Algernon Sidney and Lord Rus- sell beheaded ? In the reign of Charles the Second. Name some men of genius in this reign. Milton, Boyle, Dryden, Otway, Butler, Tem- ple, Waller, Cowley, Wycherly, and Halley ; the Earl of Arundel also, the great patron of learning and genius, who obtained the title of the English Maecenas. What were the chief works of these authors ? Milton wrote two epic poems, called Paradise Lost, and Paradise Regained, and many other excellent pieces of poetry and prose, in Latin, Italian, and English; Boyle, Treatises upon Natural and Experimental Philosophy; Dryden 140 KNGLISH HISTORY. translated Virgil, Juvenal, and Persius; and wrote twenty-seven plays, and numerou- pieces of poetry; Otway, plays; Butler, Hudibras, a satirical poem ; Temple, polite literature ; Wal- ler, poems; Cowley, miscellaneous poetry; Wy- cherly, plays : and Halley wrote on astronomical subjects. ; Name some inventions in the reign of Charles the Second. Hydraulic fire-engine-:? were invented, buckles introduced, g rst published, and the penny- post set up. ': Peace was then signed between England and France; but upon some disagreement between the English and French governments, the two nations were precipitated into a new war, in 1803. Great Uritaiu, on the one hand, sought to augment its power by an alliance with some of the prin- cipal continental nations ; the French consul, on the other, being shortly elevated to the im- perial dignity, employed with complete success the arts of intrigue and the resistless force of his ENGLISH HISTORY. 147 armies, to secure by negotiation, terror, or con- quest, the neutrality or the co-operation of several of the more influential states. What were the chief events which contributed to the overthrow of his power ? His naval force received a fatal shock, by the destruction of the combined fleets of France and Spain in the battle of Trafalgar by the English fleet under the command of Lord Nelson, who lost his life in the achievement of this splendid victory. Portugal and Spain were wrested from him by an English army, supported by native troops, commanded by Sir Arthur Wellesley, afterwards advanced to the highest rank in the peerage as Duke of Wellington. His retreat from Moscow, and his defeat at Leipzig, followed in 1813 : and the allies, following up their victory, advanced upon France, took possession of Pari.-. and compelling Napoleon to abdicate and retire to the island of Elba in 1814, placed upon Un- throne Louis XVIII. Was this settlement of affairs final ? Xo : in the year following, Napoleon, quitting his retreat, landed in the south of France, where his appearance was greeted by some of his for- mer partisans, advanced without opposition to Paris, and again placed himself at the head of the French government, Louis XVIII. being com- pelled to withdraw for security to Flanders. . . //v Was Napoleon allowed to retain quiet posses- sion of the throne ? By no means. Through the influence of Great Britain, a new armament was quickly raised H 2 148 ENGLISH HISTORY. lurainst him, combining the forces of England, Prussia, and Russia, which were placed under the command of the Duke of Wellington. Na- poleon, with an army hastily raised, marched to meet the allies in Flanders; and, on the 18th of June, engaged them in a general battle on the plains of Waterloo, where he was again defeated, his troops being entirely routed, and himself com- pelled to flee to Paris, whither he was followed by the allied army. His cause being now hope- less, he once more abdicated the throne ; and, proceeding to the sea-coast, surrendered, and went aboard an Knirli-li ship of war. By an arrangement between the allies, he was sent a prisoner to St. Helena, where he was confined till his death. Louis XVIII. was a second time placed by the allied army on the French throne, and a general p ace was established in 1815. ^ ^ What other events of importance occurn <1 about this period ? In consequence of some harsh restrictions im- posed by the English government upon the com- merce of neutral nations, occasioned by regula- tions of a similar character imposed by the French emperor, a war broke out between Great Britain and the United States of America, which, after several acts of hostility and the loss of many lives, was terminated, in 1815, by a treaty of peace signed at Ghent. Whilst the nation was thus deeply engaged in foreign affairs, what were the principal events which marked its domestic history ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 149 In 1807, during the administration of ,Lord Grenville and Mr. Fox, the parliament passed an act, which had long been anxiously desired by the friends of humanity, abolishing for ever the traffic in negro slaves by British subjects. In 18 10, the king, who had before been subject to occa- sional mental aberration, displayed such decided symptoms of insanity, that the two houses of parlia- ment deemed it necessary to relieve him from the cares of government. The Prince of Wales was accordingly, in 1811, appointed regent of the kingdom, and invested with full regal authority. George the Third departed this life on the 29th of June, 1820, at the age of eighty-two, having reigned longer than any other monarch who had sat upon the English throne. He was succeeded by the Prince Regent, under the title of George the Fourth. YX \ What were the chief improvements in the reign of George the Third? The electric nature of lightning was discovered by Doctor Franklin ; the Academy of Painting esta- blished ; air-balloons invented ; the steam-engine invented by Watt, and applied to cotton-spinning ; vaccination introduced into England by Dr. Jen- ner ; and many other improvements which are too numerous to be specified in this work. / Name a few of the most distinguished authors who have lived and died since the accession of the line of Hanover. Bentley, Person, and Parr, critics ; Thomson, Collins, Shenstone, Young, Akenside, Chatter- H 3 150 -LISH HISTORY. ton, Gray. Gold smith, Cowpcr, Burns, Barbauld, Byron, Shelley, Pollok, Crabbe, Hemans. Lan- don. Scott, Coleridge, Southey, Campbell, Words- worth, [Montgomery, Moore, Rogen^poets^Wj Sherlock, Lelnnd, Lardner, We>h-y. Warburton, Kennicotf, Lowth, Price, Palcy, Blair, Kees, Hall, and Chalmers, divines ;J Hartley, Reid, Stewart. Brown, and Sir William Hamilton, meta- iansTJ Fielding, Ri-hard-on, Sterne, Smol- lett. BUI-M.-V ( .Mad., . ^ '.Godwin, Gait. Hook, Lockhart and Charlotte Bronte ( Cur- rerBell),T : Lyttlct>:i. Hume. Ilobertson, n.and Mackintosh, historians ^Defoc, ( teriii-ld, .Johnson, Burke, Gifford, Lord Jeffrey, Sonthey. and Sydney Smith, wrote on miscella- neous subjer other distinguished characters of the same period. Hutton, Plnyfair. and Leslie, mathematician- : Smith, Rieardo, and Malthus, political eeoim- : Ilearne, Gough, and Knight, antiquarie- : Sir Hrfn-s Slnane, Sir Joseph Banks, Forbes, and Robert Brown, naturalists: Jenner, the intro- of vaccination; Black. Pr'n^tley. Dalton, and Davy, chemists; Brindiey. Harrison, Watt, Arkwri^lit. liennie, Telford, and George Ste- phenson, i-i^incers and nn-rlianicians : Hutton, Smith, Buekland, De la lU-rlic. and Miller. hel, Bradley, and Ferguson, astro- nomers; Blackstone, the civil jurist: Hogarth. Reynolds, Gainsborough, West, L:r Tur- ner, Wilkie, and Chantr \ . Garrick, Kemble, Kean, and Mrs. Sidd'in>, actors. ENGLISH HISTORY. 151 What domestic loss did George the Fourth sustain while he held the office of Regent ? The death of his only child, the Princess Charlotte, heiress presumptive to the throne, who had married Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg. This event, which was generally mourned national calamity, took place November 6, 1817, after she had been delivered of a still-born son. What public proceeding agitated the country on the accession of George the Fourth ': Ills consort, Queen Caroline, having returned to England, after a residence of some years on the Continent, was accused of criminal intercourse with an Italian, called IVrpuni. A bill of pains and penalties was introduced against her into the House of Lords, which, after a protracted dis- cussion, and the examination of numerous foreign witnesses of doubtful veracity, was carried by a small majority. But so strong had been the ma- nifestation of the public feeling on behalf of the queen, that the minister of the crown judged it expedient to abandon his measure. This termi- nation of the affair was regarded by the queen's friends in the light of a triumph ; but the sub- sequent refusal of the king to allow her to share the honours of the coronation as queen consort gave the last shock to her broken constitution, and brought on a fatal disorder, which in a few days consigned her to the tomb. __ What public acts shed a lustre upon the con- cluding period of the reign of George the Fourth ? H 4 152 ENGLISH HISTORY. The religious liberties of large classes of his subjects were enlarged by the repeal of so much of the corporation and test acts as required the taking of the Lord's supper according to the rites of the Church of England as a qualification for civil office, and by the removal of the more op- ive civil restrictions imposed upon the Roman Catholics on account of their religious faith. When did George the Fourth die ? He died on the 26th June, 1830, after a short but severe illness, having reigned ten years, and exercised the royal authority as Regent and King for the space of nineteen years, during a period -lied in the annals of the country by the most brilliant military and naval exploits, and the most valuable accessions to the religious liberties of the people. Who succeeded George the Fourth ? His brother, William Henry, duke of Clarence, who took the title of William the Fourth. What were the chief improvements that marked this reign ? In 1832, an act was passed by the legislature for the reform of the representation of the people in the House of Commons, and, in 1833, the emancipation of the negro slaves in the British colonies was decreed ; extensive reforms were in- troduced into the criminal code ; and the system of railways, by which the country is now inter- sected in every direction, was brought into ope- ration. Who was the consort of William the Fourth ? Queen Adelaide, princess of Saxe-Meiningen, ENGLISH IIISTOin'. 153 whose benevolence and charity procured her the respect of all classes of the community. When did William the Fourth die ? On the 21st June, 1837, after a reign of seven years.X By whom was William the Fourth succeeded ? By Queen Victoria*, who in 1840 married her cousin Prince Albert, of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, by whom she has a numerous family. What new discoveries have been either made or brought to great perfection during this reign ? Photography; the electric telegraph; the stereo- scope; immense gold-fields in California, Aus- tralia, and British Columbia ; gutta percha, appli- cable to a variety of useful purposes, but more especially to the electric telegraph ; and chloro- form, which relieves pain during even the most terrible operations of surgery ; besides numerous improvements in almost every branch of the arts and sciences. What legislative enactments will make the reign of Queen Victoria for ever memorable ? The abolition of the Corn Laws, due to the courage and far-sightedness of Sir Robert Peel ; the repeal of the Navigation Laws ; great reforms in the courts of law, especially in Chancery ; the Emancipation of the Jews ; and the transference of the government of India from the East India Company to the British crown. Which four of our British queens have given the greatest proofs of courage and intrepidity ? * The chief events of Queen Victoria's reign are enumerated at pp. 220222. H 5 154 KXCLISH HISTORY. Boadicea, queen of the Iceni ; Philippa, wife to Edward the Third; Margaret of Anjou, wile to Henry the Sixth ; and Elizabeth, who reigned in her own right. ^^, What English kings, since the Conquest, have ascended the throne when minors ? Henry the Third, Edward the Third, Richard the Second, Henry the Sixth, Edward the Fifth, and Edward the Sixth. What English kings have been most noted for their love of war and conquest ? Richard the First, Edward the First, Edward the Third, and Henry the Fifth. ne some of the antiquities in England. The n-inains of the Picts' Wall between Northumberland and Cumberland; Stonehenge, in Wiltshire (or circles of stones where the Druids worshipped); Avebury, in the same county, a supposed druidical temple on a scale of great magnificence; York Minster; Wet-tmi Abbey and Hall ; and many Roman monuments, altars, and roads. Name the five greatest philosophers England has produced. _rer Bacon, Francis Bacon Lord Verulam, the Honourable Robert Boyle, Sir Isaac Xew- ton, and John Locke. Name the weak kings who have filled the English throne since the Conquest. John, Henry the Thifd, Edward the Second, Richard the Second, Henry the Sixth, Janu's the First, Charles the First, and James the Second. ENGLISH HISTORY. 155 What is true glory ' Active benevolence, fortitude to support the frowns of fortune, evenness of temper in pros- perity, patience in afflictions, contempt of un- merited injuries: this is virtue; and the fame of virtuous actions can alone be called true glory. What is meant by a patriot king ? One who has his country's welfare particu- larly at heart, and studies the benefit of his subjects more than his own private interest. I 156 QUESTION 9 RELATIVE TO THE ENGLISH CONSTITUTION. Hero Wealth nnd Commerce lift their golden Heads ; And o'er our Labour, Liberty, and Law, Impartial watch ; the wonder of a world. THOMSON'S Spring. "\ViiAT is the government of England? Limited monarchy : the crown is hereditary, and females have the right of succession. What power lias the Sovereign of England? He is the source of all judicial power in the state, for the judges are only his substitutes. He is regarded by the law as the universal pro- prietor of the kingdom, so that all prosecutions are carried on in the courts of law in his name, lie has the power of pardoning all offences against the law. He is heir to all estates, when no direct heir can be found. He is the fountain of honour, the distributor of titles and dignities. He creates peers, and disposes of all offices. The king is the superintendent of commerce, having the prerogative of regulating weights and measures, of coining money, and giving currency to foreign coin. He is the su- preme head of the Church. He appoints the PARLIAMENT. 157 two archbishops and bishops, and he alone can convene the assembly of the clergy, called Con- vocation. He is commander-in-chief of all land and sea forces. He alone can raise troops, equip fleets, build fortresses, and fill all military and naval posts. He is, with respect to all foreign nations, the representative of the collective ma- jesty of the people ; so that he sends and receives ambassadors, contracts alliances, and has the power of declaring war and making peace. Fi- nally, it is a fundamental maxim of the con- stitution, that the king can do no wrong; which means, that he is above all courts of law, and that his person is sacred and inviolable, his ministers being impeachable, and not he himself. Of whom is the Imperial Parliament com- posed ? Of the king, the lords spiritual and temporal, and the commons, who debate in a separate house : they are all assembled by the king's writ, and the power of dissolving them rests with him. The House of Commons, or the Assembly of the Representatives of the Nation, is composed of the deputies of the different counties, or knights of shires, deputies from cities and boroughs, called burgesses, and deputies from the English and Irish universities. Under the provisions of the Reform Act, the House of Commons com- prises six hundred and fifty-eight representatives of the people, who are classed as follows : - for England, one hundred and forty-three mem- bers for counties, three hundred and twenty-four members for cities and boroughs, and four mem- 158 M>H CONSTITUTION. for the universities of Oxford and ( . For Wales, fifteen members for counties, {mi-teen members for towns and boroughs. For Scotland, thirty members for counties, tw< three members for cities and boroughs. Ireland, sixty-four members for counties, thirty- nine members for cities and boroughs ; and two members for the university of Dublin. What is the jurisdiction of parliament? It has an uncontrollable authority in making, abrogating, repealing, and revising laws; it can regulate, and new-model, the succession to the crown, alter or establish the religion of the land, and even change the constitution of the kingdom, and <>f parliaments th AVh<> are the Lords Spiritual? Two archbishops and twenty-four bishop-, representatives of the English Church, holding their seat- during lit'", and one archbishop, and -hops, appoint -sion by rota- tion, to represent the Irish Church. S Who are the Lords Temporal ? All Knsrlish peers are members of the u] d take thrir seats either by descent or .on : besides sixteen Scottish peers, who are n at the opening of every new parliament, and twenty-eight Irish peers, who are elected for life. What is the number of persons in the House of Lords? It is never fixed, as it may be increased at will by the power of the crown. In the session of 1857 the number of spiritual and temporal lords PARLIAMENT. 159 composing the House of Peers was four hundred and fifty-two. What estate qualifies for an elector of a county representative ? A freehold estate of the clear annual value of forty shillings ; a copyhold of ten pounds ; or a leasehold estate of that value held for sixty years, or of fifty pounds for any period. What is the qualification for voting for the re- presentative of a borough ? The being a resident freeman of the place, or occupying in it a house rated at not less than ten pounds per annum. What is meant by the Chiltern Hundreds ? They are hundreds belonging to the crown, comprehending the range of the Chiltern Hills in Bedfordshire, Hertfordshire, and Buckingham- shire. The office of steward of these hundreds, to which a small nominal salary of a mark a year is attached, is in the gift of the Chancellor of the Exchequer. As members of parliament, strictly spoakinjr, cannot resign their seats, the mode of abandoning them is to accept a nominal office (such as this stewardship), under the crown, which vacates the seat of the party taking it. 'What is meant by a Call of the House ? This, in parliamentary proceedings, is calling the names of the Commons over, each member answering to his own and leaving the House in the order in which he is called : this plan is adopted to discover whether any member be absent, or any person be present who is not a member. If only forty members are present, the 160 ENGLISH CONSTITUTION. House may in general proceed to business : when very important questions are agitated, a Call of the House takes place. What is a Committee of the whole House ? When the whole house resolves itself into a committee, the functions of the Speaker are tem- porarily suspended: he vacates the chair; the mace, the ensign of his authority, is removed from the table, and another member is appointed to preside. While the house is thus in committee, each member may speak as often as he pleases ; whereas, when the house is not in committee, no member may speak more than once upon the question before it, unless to explain himself. What are the oaths taken by Electors ? All electors, when they present themselves to vote, are required to swear that they have not polled (or voted) before, during that election; and that they have not, either directly or indi- rectly, received any sums of money, place, or em- ployment, gift or reward ; nor any promises of such money, place, or employment, in order to induce them to give their vote. What are the requisites for an English, Scotch, and Irish member of Parliament ? In order to prevent the mischiefs arising from placing authority in improper hands, the laws enact that no one shall sit or vote in parliament who is under age ; that all members shall take the oaths, or, if quakers, make affirmation, of allegiance, c. ; and no alien born out of the dominions of the British crown is capable of being a member of the House of Commons. t PARLIAMENT. 161 Who are, by their functions and offices, dis- qualified for a seat in the Imperial Parliament ? The clergy, the judges (except the Master of the Rolls), mayors, sheriffs, (though a sheriff for one county may be chosen a knight for another,) all persons concerned in the management of the revenue, excepting the treasury commissioners ; in short, all who accept offices under the crown : but officers of the army and navy are considered eligible to this important trust. How is the balance of power preserved ? When held in its original purity, the people should form a check upon the nobles, the nobility again upon the people, and the king upon both, by the mutual privilege of rejecting what the other has resolved. What important rights have the members of both houses ? Freedom of speech is the first and highest ; and till the year 1770 neither lords nor commons could be sued for legal debts while the parlia- ment was sitting ; but they then unanimously relinquished this privilege, and may now be proceeded against as other debtors are, with this exception, that they cannot be arrested for debt. "" What peculiar privileges have the Lords ? Each peer, when a vote passes not in accordance with his sentiments, has a right to enter his dis- sent upon the journals of the house, called his protest ; he may vote by proxy in the House of Lords ; when acting in a judicial capacity he pro- nounces his verdict upon his honour, not his oath ; 162 ENGLISH CONSTITUTION. lie also answers bills in chancery, upon his honour ; but when called to give his testimony as a witness either in his own house, or in the inferior courts, both in civil and criminal cases, he must submit to l)c sworn. He has the privilege to appoint and qualify a certain number of chaplains, who, after a dispensation from the archbishop has passed the great seal, may hold a plurality of benefices; his character is shielded from virulent abuse by the statute of Scandalum Magnatum ; and, finally, he cannot be outlawed in a civil action. How does the business of the House of Lords : from that of the Commons ? When persons are impeached by the Commons, the Lord- have a right to try them in their own - ; upon appeals from inferior courts in civil 9j they give final sentence; and when any of their own members are accused of felony or hi prison Ix-yond sea: the judges are forbidden, under severe penalties, to refuse any person this writ, by which the gaoler of the place where the prisoner is confined must bring him into court, and d hire the reason of his iin- :mient; every prisoner must be indicted the term after he is committed, and brought to his trial the next ; and none, after having been once enlarged, can be committed again for the offence Is this act always in force? No: the parliament has thought proper occa- sionally to suspend it. What is a Mittimus? A warrant granted by a justice of the peace to send any person to prison. AVhatis High Treason? An offence committed against the safety cither of the sovereign or of the state, by word or action: thus, it is high treason to effect or ECCLESIASTICAL OFFICERS, ETC. 171 imagine the death of the king, queen, or heir apparent to the throne ; to coin false money ; to make war upon the lawful monarch ; or to take any part with his enemies. What is the punishment of the law in these cases ? Traitors, if of rank, are generally beheaded : if otherwise, they are hanged and quartered ; their wives lose their jointures, their children their estates and nobility, and the whole of their landed and personal property is forfeited to the crown : coining, though adjudged high treason, does not, however, subject the offender to all these pe- nalties. A VI i:it is meant by Misprision of Treason? .Neglecting to declare any treason with which we are acquainted; for this offence the punish- ment is imprisonment for life, and forfeiture of the person's goods, with the profits arising from his estate. Why is the sovereign of England called the supreme head of the church ? This title has been assumed ever since the reign of Henry the Eighth, to denote the regal power over the church of England and Ireland in temporal affairs; those of a spiritual nature are left for the clergy to settle, subject, however, to the king's approbation. How is the Convocation or assembly of the clergy formed ? It is formed on the model of the parliament. The bishops constitute the upper house, and deputies from the dioceses, and the several chap- I 2 172 ENGLISH CONSTITUTION. ters, constitute the lower house. The assent of the king is necessary to the validity of their acts or canons, and he can prorogue or dissolve the convocation at pleasure. \Vho compose the clergy of the establishment ? The church of England has two archbishops, twenty-six bishops, twenty-nine deans and chap- ters, sixty archdeacons, five hundred and forty- four prebendaries, and about nine thousand seven hundred rectors or vicars : many of these last named have one curate at least under them, gene- rally more. ^/^ What are their several offices ? The archbishops assist at the coronation of our monarchs ; Canterbury placing the crown on the head of the king, York on that of the queen- consort : they consecrate bishops, grant letters of administration to the friends of those who die intestate within their jurisdiction ; they can as- semble the clergy within their provinces in con- vocation, and censure the misconduct of bishops and inferior clergy. What is the peculiar office of bishops ? They, as well as the archbishops, confirm, con- secrate churches and burial-grounds, and ordain priests and deacons; they are required to visit their dioceses once in three years. What is the office of the archdeacons ? To visit the diocese for the bishop, two years out of three, reform ecclesiastical abuses, and en- quire what necessary repairs are wanting in the churches : every cathedral has a Dean, and a cer- tain number of Prebendaries, called the chapter. ECCLESIASTICAL OFFICERS, ETC. 173 What is the office of Rectors or Vicars? To take care, in a spiritual sense, of the con- gregation intrusted to them ; perform divine service as frequently as they can; and register marriages, christenings, and burials ; deacons not being in full orders cannot read the absolution, nor give the sacramental bread. What constitutes the distinction between rec- tors and vicars? When the great tithes are impropriated, or in the hands of laymen, parish priests are called vicars; when these tithes are appropriated, or in the hands of the clergy, they are called rectors. What are the Ecclesiastical Divisions of Eng- land and Wales? Provinces, dioceses, and parishes. Provinces are the jurisdictions of archbishops ; dioceses, of bishops ; and parishes, of rectors, vicars, and curates. What is a Churchwarden ? An officer elected annually by the minister and parishioners, to keep the church in good repair, see that everything be prepared for the proper performance of its rites, and collect the charity of the congregation. V~ X^By what right have the bishops a seat in the House of Peers ? William the Conqueror converted their bene- fices into temporal baronies, in right of which all prelates, except the bishop of Sodor and Man, and the junior bishop for the time being, can sit and vote. I 3 174 ENGLISH CONSTITUTION. "What are Sequestrations? During the civil war, Sequestration meant seizing upon the property of a political delin- quent for the use of the commonwealth: in civil law it means disposing of the goods and chat- tels of a deceased person, whose estate no man will meddle with ; in common law, separating disputed property equally from tjje possession of both parties; and, in ecclesiastical aifairs, it means collecting the fruits of a vacant benefice for the advantage of the next incumbent, or ap- propriating the income of the actual incumbent to the payment of his debts. > is the Lord Chancellor? An officer of the greatest legal weight and power in the kingdom : he takes place of every temporal lord. "What is his employm He sits in the court of chancery for the pur- pose of determining according to equity and rea- son; his power can moderate the severity of the law, and none but the House of Lords can re- his decrees. What other powers has the Chancellor? He appoints the justices of the peace; bestows all the inferior church livings in the gift of the crown : and is the general guardian of infants, idiots, and lunatics. What is meant by the term Prime Minister? There is not, in reality, any such office in the constitution. The rank is, however, assigned to the First Lord of the Troa- ;r\ . whether he is a peer or not; and when the same person enjoys OFFICERS OF THE CROWN. 175 the places of first lord of the treasury and chan- cellor of the exchequer, he is generally considered as the king's confidential servant, and proposes all schemes of taxation in the House of Commons. "Who are the Lords of the Treasury ? Gentlemen who have the management of the exchequer money, and inspect the integrity of those officers who are employed in collecting and bringing in all taxes and tributes. What power has the First Lord of the Trea- sury? A 'very extensive one: the revenues of the crown kept in the exchequer are at his disposal ; the places in the customs, and many other lucra- tive appointments, are in his gift. What is the Exchequer? The place where the king's money is received and paid, and where all the crown receipts are kept. By whom are the king's privy councillors ap- pointed ? The sovereign nominates them, and they can be removed at his pleasure. W hat is the duty of a privy councillor ? To advise the king the best way in his power, for his majesty's honour, and the public good, without partiality, fear, or dread ; to keep secret what shall be determined upon in council ; to as- sist in its execution, and to withstand all those who shall attempt the contrary. "What is the office of Secretary of State ? The secretaries are always privy councillors, and are intrusted with the king's seal ; they have the management of domestic and foreign corre- 14 176 LISII CONSTITUTION". spondence and all orders for secret expeditions and securing traitors are signed by them. What is a Mandamus ? A writ by which the king requires the admis- sion of any particular person into a college, uni- versity, or other office; this writ is always addressed to the superior officer of the place. Which are the Cinque Ports ? Originally the five ports of Dover, Hastings, Sandwich, Romney, and Hythe ; to these, Win- chelsea, Rye, and Seaford have been added. These havens were once esteemed of consequence, from their situation on the south and east coast of Knirlund opposite to France. Formerly great privileges were granted to them on condition of their fitting out ships for the defence of that coast against invasion, to be employed forty days in succession whenever called upon. Their right of electing parliamentary representatives has been greatly altered by the Reform Act. What is meant by Justices in Eyre ? They are said to have been appointed in John's reign, to see the forest laws put in execution, when the woods were numerous and extensive : and derived their name, at their first institution, from their custom of sitting in the open air to determine causes. What titles have been assumed by our kings? From the reign of James the Sixth of Scot- land, and First of England, to the close of the eighteenth century, they were styled kings of Great Britain, France, and Ireland, and defenders of the faith : but the title of king of France has OFFICERS OF THE CROWN. 177 been dropped. The kings of the line of Hanover added to these titles those of dukes of Brunswick and Lunenburg, arch-treasurers of the holy Ro- man empire, and electors (afterwards kings) of Hanover. What title was chosen by the British monarch upon the union of Great Britain with Ireland ? This: George, by the grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland King, Defender of the Faith. The arms of Eng- land, Scotland, and Ireland, are now borne by Victoria, quarterly ; but, from being a female, she does not hold the kingdom of Hanover. Who bears the title of duke of Aquitairie ? The king of England. This ancient duchy (comprehending the provinces of Guienne and Gascony) was conquered by Henry the Fifth of England, and though nothing more than the name now remains, yet, at the coronation of our mo- narchs, one of the officers of the crown stands upon the right side of the throne with a ducal rap and sword of state, in memory of that con- quest. Name the titles assumed by the Prince of Wales. He is duke of Cornwall and Rothsay, earl of Chester, electoral prince of Brunswick and Lu- nenburg, earl of Carrick, baron of Renfrew, lord of the Isles, great steward of Scotland, and cap- tafc general of the artillery company. Xame the first great officer of the English crown. The Lord High Steward, whose office is only i 5 178 ENGLISH CO.NSTiTl TIOX. isecl at the coronation of a king, or the trial of a peer or peeress : his badge is a white rod, which he breaks when the coronation or trial is over. Name the second great officer of the crown. The Lord Chancellor, whose office has been al- ready spoken of. Name the third. The office of Lord High Treasurer, which is now put in commission, and vested in five lords of the treasury : the first of whom enjoys all the power which anciently belonged to the lord high treasun r. Name the fourth office. That of Lord President of the Council; his duty is to propose the business at the council- hoard, and inform the sovereign of what passes there: he has also charge of the educational de- partment of the Privy Council. Name the fifth great officer. The Lord Privy Seal ; this officer sets the king's privy seal to all charters and grants before they - the great seal. Name the sixth gre.it officer. The Lord Great Chamberlain of England: this officer attends the king at hi.s coronation, lakes rharLiv of the House of Lords while parlia- ment is sitting, and must have Westminster-hall properly fitted up for coronations and trials. This office has been held jointly by Lord Afil- loughby d'Eresby and the Marquis of Cholmon- deley, since 1838. V^N What is the seventh great office ? OFFICERS OF THE CROWX. 179 The temporary one of Lord High Constable, used only at coronations. The unfortunate Duke of Buckingham was the last hereditary constable in the reign of Henry the Eighth ; for, after the duke's execution, Henry abolished the office, having been deeply offended and disgusted with the ceremonial observed by the constable, accord- ing to ancient custom, at his coronation. What was the form observed ? Upon receiving a sword from the king, the high constable said aloud, " With this sword I will defend thee against all thine enemies, if thou governest according to law ; and with this sword I, and the people of England, will depose thee, if thou breakest thy coronation oath." The power of this officer was very great, as he commanded all the forts and garrisons, and took precedence of all other officers in the field. Name the eighth officer of the crown. The Eai'1-marshal of England. This office is hereditary in the person of the Duke of Norfolk ; he regulates proceedings and precedency in the heralds' office, appoints general mournings, pro- cessions, coronations, and proclamations. Name the ninth great officer of the crown. The Lord High Admiral of England. But since the death of Prince George of Denmark, this office has been executed by commissioners, who are the lords of the admiralty, except for a short period during the reign of George IV., when it was held by the Duke of Clarence, afterwards William IV. \^^ I 6 180 ENGLISH CONSTITUTION. Which are the chief English Courts of Law ? The Court of Chancery, the Court of Queen's Bench, the Court of Common Pleas, and the Exchequer Court : these courts are held during the several terms called Easter, Trinity, Michael- mas, and Hilary. What is the Court of Chancery ? This court, next in rank to the Parliament, examines into frauds, breaches of trust, and other oppressions ; obliges all trustees to discharge their office with faithfulness and impartiality, and moderates the severity of the common law. What is the Queen's Bench ? A court which examines, controls, and corrects the decrees of all other courts but those of Chan- cery and the Exchequer; all affairs which can be tried by common law are brought here, and determined by a jury : five judges preside in it : the first is styled lord chief justice. What is the Court of Common Pleas ? It decides all actions between subjects in which the king is not plaintiff ; the Serjeants at law were formerly the only pleaders in this court, no others having till lately the power to make motions there, and sign pleas; but in trials other bar- risters were permitted to plead, and examine wit- nesses for their clients; there are also five judges 'n this court, who are created for life. What is the Court of Exchequer ? This court tries all causes which concern the public revenue, and has the power of judgment both according to law and equity ; the lord chief baron, and four other barons, preside in the ex- COURTS OF LAW. WALES. 181 chequer: there is also a cursitor baron, whose office consists in administering oaths ; also, two inferior officers, who are termed the king's re- membrancer, and the treasurer's remembrancer. Have any other courts more recently been established? Yes: there are now a central criminal court and a court of bankruptcy and insolvency; county courts for the recovery of small debts ; and a court of probate and divorce. Name the principal oaths taken by English subjects. That of supremacy, declaring the king supreme head of the church, first taken in the reign of Henry the Eighth ; of allegiance, in James the First's time: and of abjuration, first administered in the reign of William the Third. By the act of 1829, providing for the admission or ^Catholics into both houses of parliament, some of the oaths formerly required have been abridged, and others modified. How is Wales governed ? This country, which was united to England in the reign of Henry the Eighth, is governed en- tirely by the English laws and customs. The established religion is that of the church of Eng- land, and Wales sends to the imperial parliament twenty-nine representatives, being fifteen mem- bers for the counties and fourteen members for the towns and boroughs. What is the government of Scotland ? Since the union effected in the reign of Queen Anne, Scotland has been governed by the same ruTT*x. general laws as England, though many of its own ' i;ir customs are still retained. AY hat is the highest ecclesiastical authority in Scotland ? The General Assembly of the church, composed of commissioners, who are ministers and ruling elders, chosen by the presbyteries and boroughs ; the latter are in general men of the first respect- ability among the laity. How are the members chosen ? They are elected yearly, six weeks before the meeting of the assembly : their business is to examine the state of the church, and decide all ecclesiastical affairs. Who presides in this assembly ? The Lord Commissioner, who is generally a nobleman of the first distinction, appointed by, and representing, the king ; but he has no vote in their delmtes. \/ \Yliat is the government of Ireland? Ireland is governed by a Lord Lieutenant ap- pointed by the Crown. When Ireland submitted to Henry the Second in 1172, he appointed Hugh de Lacy to govern his new kingdom, with the title of grand justiciary, or of lord deputy. But since the time of Cromwell, the governor of Ireland or viceroy, representing the king, has been called lord lieutenant. A tier the passing of the act of union, A.D. 1800, Ire- land was represented in the imperial parliament by twenty-eight peers, one hundred commoners, one archbishop, and three bishops. The number of commoners has, by the Reform Act, been augmented to one hundred and five, ^y f IRELAND. 183 Are all these representatives elective ? They are ; but the peers are chosen for life. The archbishop and bishops succeed one another every session, in regular rotation. Had not Ireland its own parliament previous to the union? Yes ; Henry the Eighth convened a parliament tit Dublin on the first of May, 1536, which, though merely a provincial assembly of the Pale, declared the king to be supreme head, on earth, of the church of Ireland. At this period, the whole Irish nation, within as well as without the Pale, was Catholic. Of what did the Irish parliament consist before the union ? Of a House of Peers, and a House of Com- mons, in which sate three hundred members. The laws they made were sent to England for the king's approbation. What was the PaU- r A certain district including the counties of Dublin, Kildare, Meath, and Leinster, with the cities of Cork and Limerick, and the lands imme- diately surrounding them. To this district the English power and authority were limited for nearly four hundred years preceding the Refor- mation. What constitutes the superior excellence of the English constitution ? Its liberty, the equality of its laws, and the right of trial by jury. " What is liberty ? That power which every civil state or com- munity has to govern itself by laws of its own 184 ENGLISH CONSTITUTIOX. making, and where the laws are so constituted, that one man need not be in fear of another, when acting justly. What is personal liberty? The right of property arising from inheritance or individual industry, the right of personal se- curity, the right of passing from place to place. These arc the birthright of every Englishman. What is the* abuse of liberty ? When the people of a state, no longer regard- ing the laws, deviate into licentiousness. Why were laws originally instituted? To guard the weak from the oppression of the strong, to protect the property of individuals, to support the interest of the community, for the sake of cacli member of it, and to make justice not only a principle of the heart, but a tie which even the most abandoned might not violate with Impunity. AY hat English prince laid the foundation of the liberty Englishmen at present enjoy ? Alfred the Great, by his institution of juries, and by the introduction of what is called Com- mon Law. To him we are indebted for the divi- M<>:i of the kingdom into counties, hundreds, and tithings ; for the foundation of various councils, and of parliament itself, and for the commence- ment of that marine which has been the glory and bulwark of England. What is the Common Law? That which is not founded on any known act of the legislature, but derives its authority from immemorial custom. Its principal objects are the rules of descent, the different modes of ac- CIVIL AND STATUTE LAW. 185 quiring property, and the forms requisite for giving validity to contracts. What is the Civil Law ? That, also, is grounded upon immemorial cus- tom, and is what is followed in the ecclesiastical courts, in those of the admiralty, and in those of the two universities. What is the written or Statute Law ? The collection of the various acts of parliament, the originals of which are preserved, especially since the reign of Edward the Third. These being the result of the united wills of the three constituent parts of the legislature, have, in all cases, superior power, and the judges must de- cide in conformity to them. Name a few of the most remarkable acts of parliament. That against bigamy, in the reign of Edward the First; the first navigation act, in Richard the Second's ; the first act for the preservation of game, in Henry the Seventh's ; that for punish- ing perjury with the pillory and loss of ears, in Elizabeth's reign ; the test and the corporation acts, passed in Charles the Second's; the Tole- ration Act, in William the Third's. To these must be added the act to abolish the traffic by British subjects in negro slaves, and the act to abolish slavery in the British colonies ; the act to remove the chief civil disabilities of the Roman Catholics ; the act for Reforming the Representation of the people in the Commons' house of parliament ; the act repealing the Corn Laws and the Navigation Laws ; and the act for emancipating the Jews 186 ENGLISH CONSTITUTION. from the restriction that prevented them from sitting in the House of Commons. What requirement was involved in the Test Act? It required all officers under the English go- vernment, whether civil or military, to receive the sacrament according to the rites of the established church : the test and corporation acts, so far as related to the sacramental test, were repealed in 1828. What was the Toleration Act, passed in Wil- liam the Third's reign ? It empowered all those who did not profess the doctrines of the English church, to worship God in their own manner, without being disturbed. What is Migprision of Felony? Suffering any person committed on suspicion of felony or treason to escape before he is in- 1. \x x What are the Cu.-i.-ms? Taxes paid to government on goods exported and imported. What is a Bill of Entry? An account of goods entered at the custom- hou What is a Bill of Stores? A licence granted at the custom-house, for merchants to take such articles, free of custom dues, as are necessary for the use of the ship's crew during a voyage. What is a Bill of Sufferance? Permission given at the custom-house for mer- chants to trade from one English port to another, custom-free. N 187 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. BEFORE CHKIST. WHAT is Universal History ? An account of the most important events which are recorded as having taken place among the dif- ferent nations of the earth. How is Universal History divided? Into Ancient and Modern, Sacred and Profane. Sacred history is that which is contained in the writings of the Old and New Testament. Pro- fane or common history is that which is contained in the other records of ancient and modern ages. What is Ancient History ? The history of the principal transactions which preceded the nativity of our Blessed Lord. What is Modern History ? Modern history relates the chief events that have happened since the birth of Christ,, and has been divided into centuries. x^x- V When was Christ born ? Christ was born seven hundred and fifty-three years after the building of .Rome ; four thousand and four years after the creation of the world ; and in the fourth year of the hundred and ninety- third Olympiad. 188 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. AVhat is an Olympiad ? The space of four complete years. The Greeks computed time by Olympiads ; and the first Olym- piad from which chronologers reckon begins in the year of the world 3228, and seven hundred and seventy-six years before the birth of our Saviour, 'v AVli y are these aeras or resting-places used ? To avoid those mistakes which would inevita- bly occasion confusion of times and events : the five rcras most in use are, the creation of the world ; the foundation of Rome ; the Olympiads (or dates of the celebration of the Olympic LTumcs); the birth of Jesus Christ; and the I IcLTira, or flight of Mahomet. AVhat is Ecclesiastical History ? An account of the affairs relating to the Chris- tian church, however subdivided into sects and opinions: including the lives and characters of those who have supported and maintained them. Name some of the incidents, or events, from the year 900 to the year 800 before Christ. The birth of Homer, a century and a half after the Trojan war ; the re-establishment of the Olympic games ; the legislation of Lycurgus for Sparta ; the kingdoms of Epirus and Macedonia, and, according to some, Carthage, founded ; Athens declared a republic. Name some events from the year 800 to the year 700 before Christ. Kome was built, and the method of counting by Olympiads adopted by the Greeks; the As- syrian empire subverted by the Medes ; the MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 189 Median empire and its capital founded by De- joces; the kingdom of Lydia established; Tyre taken by Nebuchadnezzar ; Cyrus founded the Persian empire, and overthrew the Lydian em- pire. The cities of Syracuse, Sybaris, and Cro- tona, founded ; the Isle of Corcyra settled ; and the first Messenian war./^ Name some of the events from the year 700 to the year 600 before Christ. The second Messenian war commenced ; the poet Tyrtaeus flourished ; Byzantium was founded by the inhabitants of Megara ; Draco gave laws to Athens; Terpander of Lesbos, the musician and poet, Thales of Miletus, the philosopher, Alcaeus and Sappho, the poets, flourished; Ne- buchadnezzar, the king of Babylon, lived; and at the close of this century began the Jewish captivity. Name the chief events from the year 600 to the year 500 before Christ. Jerusalem, after a siege, was taken by Nebu- chadnezzar ; Solon legislated for Athens ; Ana- charsis, the Scythian philosopher, flourished ; the first rude attempts at tragedy and comedy among the Greeks ; Anaximander, the philosopher, and JEsop, the fabulist, flourished ; Pisistratus seized upon the supreme power in Athens; Cyrus reigned in Persia ; the battle of Thymbra fought ; Babylon taken by the Medes and Persians ; the poet Anacreon, of Teos, lived ; Cambyses, son of Cyrus, conquered Egypt ; Darius Hystaspes, after the death of Cambyses, reigned over Persia ; Con- fucius, the Chinese lawgiver, flourished; Rome 190 MI<( KLLAXKOUS QUESTIONS. expelled her kings, and chose the consular form of government; Pythagoras, the Sainian philo- sopher, lived ; and the city of Sardis was wan- tonly burnt by the Athenians. What were the most remarkable events from the \ ear 500 to the year 400 before Christ ? The battle of Marathon, gained by Miltiadcs; the battles of Thermopylae, Salamis, Plataea, and the Eurymedon fought; commencement of the Peloponnesian war ; Melissus, Protagoras, and Empedocles, flourished as philosophers; Soph- ocles, Pindar, and Euripides, as poets ; Socratus. the philosopher ; and Herodotus, and Thucydides, as lii.-t<>rians: the great plague desolated Athens: and the history of the Old Testament, being brought down to the year before Christ 430, concludes at that period. \^~ ^Name some memorable events from the year 400 to the year 300 before Christ. The death of Socrates, an important aera in the history of the human race ; Dionysius, the tyrant, expelled the city of Syracuse ; the battles of Leuctra and Mantinaea ; the Sacred War ; con- quests of Philip of Macedon, and Alexander his son; deaths of Isocrates and Timoleon; battles of Cheronaea, the Granicus, Issus, and Arbela; the deaths of Alexander, Diogenes, Aristotle and Demosthenes. Name some remarkable events from the y ar 300 to the year 200 before the birth of Christ. The Septuapnt translation of the Old Testa- ment ; the commencement of the first Punic war ; the Carthaginians sustained their first naval de- MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 191 feat from the Romans ; Regulus, the Roman ge- neral, was defeated by the Carthaginians; the Rhodian Colossus fell, owing to the shock of an earthquake ; the second Punic war, and the pas- sage of Hannibal over the Alps ; the battles of Thrasymene and Cannae ; and the overthrow of the Carthaginian army headed by Hannibal, at the battle of Zama, by Scipio, the virtuous and fortunate Roman commander. Name the chief events from the year 200 to the year 100 before Christ. The fall of the Macedonian empire ; the third Punic war, and destruction of Carthage ; Egypt governed by Ptolemy and Cleopatra; the war with Jugurtha ; and the birth of Cicero, the illus- trious Roman orator and statesman. Name a few of the most remarkable events from the year 100 before Christ to the y his birth. The civil wars between Sylla and Marius ; the war with Mithridatc-s, king of Pontus ; Ca- tiline's conspiracy detected by Cicero; Cicero put to death by the command of Antony ; Caesar's first expedition against Britain ; battles of Phar- salia and Actium; deaths of Marc Antony and Cleopatra ; the establishment of Augustus on the imperial throne. Name the best historians of the affairs of Greece. Herodotus, whose history, excepting that con tained in the Old Testament, is the most ancient of any now extant, and contains an account of the Lydian, Egyptian, Persian, Greek, and Ma- 192 MISCELLANEOUS QUEST!' cedonian empires, including a space of about three hundred years: Thucydides, who gives a short, but very faithful view of the Grecian history ; Xenophon, Diodorus Sipulus, Arrian, Quintus Curtius, and Justin. V Who were the most distinguished historians of Roman affairs? Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Livy, Polybius, Appian, Sallust, Julius Cnesar, Velleius Pater- culus, Suetonius, and Tacitus. Thucydides and Xenophon among the Greeks; Polybius (who wrote in Greek), Cajsar, Sallust, and Tacitus, among the Latins, were themselves actors in many of the scenes which their pens have de- scribed ; consequently, their evidence is to be more implicitly relied on. Which of the Grecian states paid the greatest attention to commerce ? The Athenian and Corinthian. The Rhodians also were famed for their industry, their mari- time, civil, and penal laws, and the colonies which they established; among which were Naples, Agrigentum, and the town of Roses, in Catalonia, Spain. jlow, in the early ages, were the rights of hos- pitality practised among the Greeks ? In a manner very honourable to their feelings. When a strunger appeared, the doors were thrown open, every attention was lavished upon their guest ; and they never inquired into his birth or situation, till they had in the most generous and ample manner relieved, nay, anticipated his wants. MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 193 What was the chief business of the Areopa- gites ? To watch over the maintenance of the laws, and public morals, in Athens. The tribunal in which they presided was established by Cecrops, supported by Solon, and stripped of its privileges by Pericles. This institution subsisted nearly one hundred years, and during that time took cog- nizance of crimes, vice, and public abuse. What were the customs of the Athenians on the death of their friends ? The rites of sepulture were regarded as sacred ceremonies, and in the latter ages the custom of burning the dead body prevailed. After the corpse was consumed, the nearest relations col- lected the ashes, and the urn in which they were deposited was then buried ; libations of wine were made during the funeral ceremonies, and they threw into the fire part of the apparel of the de- ceased. Those citizens who neglected these duties to their friends, which were so consonant to nature and humanity, were, by the Grecian laws, pro- hibited from the attainment of any high office in the state, hpwever in other respects well qualified for it. v^ V' What was an Eclogue ? A short poem, in which the pleasures of a pastoral life were depicted. Sicily gave birth to this species of poetry, which was not so highly esteemed among the Greeks. What kind of poem was the Grecian Elegy ? A poem originally designed to paint, in glow- ing colours, national disasters, or the sorrows and 194 MI.-CKLLANKors QUESTI' misfortunes of some highly distinguished persons, but at length it was chiefly used to describe the torments and anxieties of love. To what goddess did the Athenians pay the highest adoration ? To Minerva; her temple was erected in the citadel, and her statue wa* the workmanship of the celebrated Phidias. TVhat was an Oligarchy ? A form of government among the ancients, which somewhat resembled an aristocracy : with this difference, that the authority was confined to :i very small number of the rich and great : riches were most sought after; and in this kind of government the main spring was the acquirement of riches, or the desire of increasing them. The government of Carthage nearly approached to an oligarchy. What was meant by tyrannical power among the ancients? Arbitrary despotic power, such as Dionysius exercised in Syracuse ; which was a corruption of, mid degeneracy from, the principles of monarchy. The sovereign ruled by the impulse of fear alone, and his own safety was ever the sole object of his cares and attention. A pure republic was, by the ancients, esteemed the best form of govern- ment. What virtue did Aristotle recommend as the foundation of all the others ? Prudence. What countries gave birth to algebra, astro- nomy, and the belles-lettres, or polite literature ? MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 195 Arabia, to algebra ; Egypt, to astronomy; and Greece, to the belles-lettres. Who was the great master of ancient music ? Timotheus : he lived in the time of Alexander the Great. Who put an end to the liberties and republics of Greece ? Alexander the Great. What Persian monarch in vain endeavoured to subdue the Greeks ? Xerxes: he lost two millions of men in the attempt. Who was the most famous ancient biographer? Plutarch. By what Roman consul and general were the Spartans enslaved ? By Galba and Flaminius, in the Macedonian war, one hundred and ninety years before Christ. What did the Romans understand by a Pro- consul ? This was a magistrate appointed to the govern- ment of a province, with the authority of a consul in that district. What was the sacred battalion ? A body of troops composed of three hundred Thebans, connected by the ties of individual af- fection, and bound by an oath never to fly, but to defend each other to the last extremity. It was raised at Thebes before the battle of Leuctrn, and in that battle headed by Pelopidas. It wa.< principally instrumental in gaining the victory over the dreaded Lacedemonians. In the battle of Chieronea, fought by the Athenians and The- 196 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTI< bans, against Philip of Mucedon, this sacred band of brothers was entirely destroyed, and were found, by the victorious Macedonian, stretched lifeless on the spot they occupied, each covering with his shield the body of his friend. What was Cicero's opinion of a magistrate's duty ? He considered this dignity, not as a benefit conferred upon him for his own use, but as a trust confided to his vigilance and fidelity : " The eyes of men," said he, " are fixed upon any one placed in such a situation, he is therefore more particu- larly bound to act uprightly. V/' //How was ingratitude punished by the Per- is? With the utmost severity; and among the un- grateful they classed those who were regardless of their country, their relations, their friends, or the worship of the god.-. How was lying treated by the Persians ? As a mean and infamous vice, unworthy of, and totally incompatible with, a generous spirit. What were the Egyptian hieroglyphics? Mystical characters or symbols, which that people used, the more effectually to con^ disguise the mysteries of their religior What are the three kinds of writing, or modes of conveying ideas from one to another by marks ? Picture, hieroglyphical, and alphabetical writ- ing. In the infancy of the world, men endea- voured to communicate their ideas or observation of objects not present, by rude pictures of those objects. That method being found too long and MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 197 troublesome, by lessening and giving only parts of those pictures, the process was shortened, and characters were formed expressive of the things themselves, and not the names of the things described. This was called hieroglyph ical writ- ing, because it was much used by priests about their sacred rites and doctrines. Finally, the far more convenient and useful method was invented, of alphabetical characters, which express the sounds, that, being combined, form syllables and words, the names of the objects of observation and communication. This is called alphabetical writing, from the first letters of the Greek al- phabet. What was the origin of great kingdoms among the ancients? When cities were founded, and small islands colonised by the ancients, each city or island had its own separate king and legislature ; but the natural desire of man to increase his possessions gave rise to frequent wars ; the conqueror joined the vanquished city to his own dominions ; and thus, in proportion to the extent of victory, king- doms and states of greater or less population were formed. Who appointed couriers ? Cyrus the Great, for a more effectual and speedy despatch of business. Whom did the Athenians consider as their greatest and earliest benefactor ? Cecrops, who was a native of Sais, in Egypt ; but .appearing in Attica with his countrymen, he founded Athens, instructed and polished the K 3 198 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. Athenians by his salutary laws, and his name was long held in veneration by the Grecians. What have been supposed to be the ruling principles in the various forms of government established by the Grecians ? In a monarchy, honour ; in a tyranny, the safety of the tyrant ; in an aristocracy, public virtue; in an oligarchy, riches; in a well-re- gulated republic, liberty ; and in a democracy, this liberty degenerated into licentiousness. \^- How has the Abbe Barthelemy divided the history of Athens ? Into three distinct periods : the age of Solon, or that of the laws ; of Themistocles and Ari- stides, or that of glory ; and the age of Pericles, or, in other words, that of luxury and the arts. What wise law had the Ephesians with relation to the construction of public buildings ? If the architect, whose plan was approved and fixed upon, exactly fulfilled the conditions of the agreement, public honours were decreed him ; if the expense was a fourth part more than he had laid the estimate at, it was defrayed from the public treasury ; but if it exceeded this, the pri- vate fortune of the artist was taxed to make out the amount of tho, sum expended. Did any worthy religious sentiments ever ap- pear among the ancients ? An inscription on the gate of a temple de- dicated to Esculapius, in Epidaurus, may serve to show that the ancients had occasionally sublime ideas of religion. Give me the sense of this inscription : MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 199 Pure souls alone are permitted to find entrance here. Did the Greeks show any public marks of the high esteem in which the virtue of friendship was held among them ? Yes; they dedicated altars to friendship, but never erected any temples to this sacred feeling, supposing it would find a temple in the heart of every good man. Pythagoras being asked his opinion of a friend, " He is," said he, " a second ,,-ir ' What opinions did the Greeks entertain of happiness ? It was, they thought, pretty equally distributed throughout nature : some placed it in the enjoy- ment of pleasure, others in the exemption from pain ; but the most enlightened of their sages conceived that happiness might ever be found in the recollection of the good done to others, and in the hope of becoming still more eminently useful. What crime was omitted in the code of Solon's laws? That of parricide ; because Solon thought no child could be capable of such base, such horrid ingratitude to the authors and supporters of his being. To what superstitions did the heathens most universally resort ? To the arts of divination : they blindly fancied that the result of the most important events could be predicted by the flight of birds, the sacred chickens eating, or refusing to eat, and the ap- R 4 200 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. pearance of the entrails of beasts ; eclipses, mon- sters, prodigies, every unexpected accident, were sufficient to enable their augurs, or soothsayers, to draw the most inspiriting or heart-rending conclusions. Who were the Homerides? This was a name given by the Greeks to those inhabitants of the Isle of Chios, who pretended to be descended from the poet Homer ; and who, on this account, received marks of distinction from their fellow-citizens. What was the Hippodrome ? The course appointed for horse and chariot races, which in some towns was large enough to contain forty chariots. What general opinions had the Greeks of bwt? They were anxious to make them clear, precise, not too multifarious, suited to the peculiar habits and climate of the state for which they were de- signed, and uniformly favourable to the interest of virtue. It has been well observed, that a great number of laws in any state indicates its prevail- ing corruption. Whose laws have been most celebrated among the ancients? Those of Zeleucus, Charonidas, Minos, Lycur- gus, Draco, and Solon : indeed, the laws of Solon were considered as little short of oracles by the Athenians, and as the best models for framing those of other nations. \/ I low were indolence and idleness punished by the laws of Solon ? MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 201 He who had- neglected to bring his son up to some useful occupation, or trade, was, by an ex- press law, deprived in his old age of the assistance and support he might naturally expect from him at such a period; thus the parent was made to feel the bad consequences of ill-formed habits; and to prevent the frequency of such habits, the Areopagites, or Athenian judges, were required by the laws to inquire into the methods by which individuals gained a livelihood. What led the Athenians to the constant public worship of their gods ? This law : " Honour in public and in private the gods and the heroes of thy country ; let each offer annually, according to his ability, and the established rites, the first-fruits of his harvest: for," said the Athenians, " the gods distribute to us life, health, riches, wisdom, and \Q\OUT^\^ v What great instances did Leonidas give of .that contempt of danger, and conciseness in ex- pression, for which the Spartans were so cele- brated? Xerxes wrote to him thus : " Surrender, and I will give thee the empire of Greece ; " Leonidas replied, " I would rather die for Sparta than en- slave her." Xerxes wrote again, " Yield up thine arms : " Leonidas answered, " Come and take them:" and when some soldiers said, " The Per- sians are near us," "Rather say we are near them," was the answer of the heroic Spartan king. Die- neces, a Spartan commander under Leonidas, when, upon the approach of the Persians to Thermo- pyla;, it was said, " The enemies are so nume- K 5 202 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. rous, that their arrows will darken the face of the sun," exclaimed, " Then we shall fight in the shade." How did he take leave of his kindred and friends before the battle of Thermopylae ? He calmly, but tenderly, bade them adieu ; and when his wife requested to know his last wishes, ' I wish you," said he, " a husband worthy of you, and children who nmy resemble him." To the end of time, such brilliant examples will never cease to strengthen or awaken the senti- ments of patriotism, enthusiasm, and admiration of the virtue which inspired them. Forty years after the death of Leonidas, his bones were brought to Sparta, and deposited in a tomb: a pillar was raised near it, on which were inscribed the names of the three hundred Spartans who fell at his side. V/ 203 ABSTRACT OF THE ENGLISH REIGNS FROM THE YEAR 800 TO THE NORMAN CONQUEST. Saxon Line. EGBERT, first king of all England, 800 : he was the descendant of the west Saxon kings ; and after ascending their throne, subdued in succes- sion the kingdoms of the Heptarchy, and was acknowledged sole monarch: he was a brave prince, and had frequent battles with the Danes. The arts now dawned in Europe, but the little learning of the times was confined to the monks : the Church History of Bede had been written not long before this period. Ethel wolf, the son of Egbert, 838 : he occa- sionally defeated the Danes, but possessed not his father's abilities. He was the slave of monkish superstition, compelling each British family to pay the tribute called Peter's pence to Rome annually ; which imposition was abolished by Henry the Eighth. Ethelbald, the eldest son of Ethelwolf, conspiring against the peace of the kingdom, the dispute was settled by the offer K 6 204 ENGLISH REIGNS. which Ethelwolf made to share his dominions with his rebellious son : it was accepted, and the king died soon after. Ethelbald, and Ethelbert, sons of Ethelwolf, reigned jointly, 858. At this time, tithes were first collected by the clergy. Ethelbald died in 860, and his brother, from that period to his death, reigned alone ; defeating and repulsing the Danes, who had ravaged the country, and burnt the city of Winchester. Ethelred, the younger brother of Ethelbert, ascended the throne 866 : he was engaged in continual wars with the Danes ; who, in this i, plundered the city of York. He lost his life in battle, leaving the crown to his brother .Ufn-d. \f I the Great, 872, was adorned with many virtues, and magnanimous qualities. Rollo. the Norman chief, flourished at this period. Alfred fought many successful battles with the Da IK s, whom he, at last, completely subdued, expelling some from the kingdom, and forcing others, who remained, to become peaceful subjects ; but in the 'ining of his reign he experienced many re- s of fortune from them: he was one of the t and best of princes: his prudent and judi- cious regulations secured the willing homage of his subjects: he increased the British fleet, re- built the city of London, and carefully cultivated the ; Edward the Elder, son of Alfred, succeeded in 900, when under age : he obliged the Scotch to sue for peace, and reduced the revolted Welsh to ATHELSTAN. EDRED. 205 obedience. He possessed his father's strength of mind and extraordinary valour, but wanted his taste for learning and the arts, his justice and lenity. Athelstan, natural son of Edward the Elder, 925 : a good and great prince. He ordered the Scriptures to be translated into the Saxon lan- guage ; and was the decided friend of commerce, promoting navigation by several wise regulations : in wars which he carried on with the Scot was frequently victorious. jGruy Earl of Wur- wi^k lived'in this reign. N/ \ y Edmund the Pious, legitimate son of Edward the Elder, 941 : religion and valour were in him united. He enforced the punishment of death for murder and other capital crimes, which had, before his time, been generally commuted for pecuniary fines, and various penalties; and en- acted, that gangs of robbers being discovered, the oldest among them should be selected from the rest to suffer death. Leolf, one of many notable noble plunderers, resenting this law, entered the king's presence at the feast celebrated in memory of the Saxon conversion to Christianity. The exasperated king, who had formerly banished him, insisted on his leaving the room, and en- deavoured to remove him by force, when Leolf drew a dagger, and stabbed the monarch to the heart. Edred, son of Edward the Elder, and nephew to Edmund, 948, was elected to the throne, the sons of Edmund being judged too young to sup- port the cares of government. He reigned inglo- 206 i;x(,Lisn KEK,: riously, dedicating the greatest part of his time to the monks ; and by their persuasion founded some monasteries and abbeys, Glastonbury in particular. Dunstan, the monk, had complete ascendency over him. y Edwy, the nephew of Edmund the Pious, 955 : he showed great antipathy to the monks, ami ejected some of them from their benefices. Dun- stan was banished the kingdom by him : the clergy, highly incensed, fomented a rebellion ; and in the fifth year of Edwy's reign, his brother Edgar, a boy twelve years of age, was placed on the throne by them. Edwy, it is said, died of grief shortly after. Edgar, 959, though occasionally under the do- minion of the priests who fixed him on the throne, yet revived the naval glory of England ; and his reign was one of the best at this period. He overawed the Scotch and Northumbrians, quieted domestic troubles, and repelled foreign invasion with uniform success. Edward the Martyr, son of Edgar, by his first wife, 975 : he succeeded his father at the age of twelve : his short reign was passed in peace ; but his mother-in-law, Elfrida, wishing to raise a party in favour of her own son, Ethelred, watched her opportunity ; and when the king called upon her at Corfe castle, she basely caused him to be stabbed in the back while drinking to her health in a glass of wine. Ethelred, the second son of Edgar and Elfrida, succeeded, 979, aged twelve: he was an indolent prince: his subjects rebelled; and Sweyn, king EDMUND IRONSIDE. CANUTE. 207 of Denmark, being his declared enemy, Ethelred treacherously commanded the massacre of all the Danes who had settled in England. Upon this, Sweyn entered the kingdom and defeated the English monarch, who was compelled to pay Sweyn a considerable sum to induce him to re- turn to Denmark. He complied, but soon came back again ; and Ethelred had no alternative but to fly the kingdom. On the death of Sweyn the English prince ventured back, and found that Canute, the son of Sweyn, had seized upon the throne: Ethelred compelled him to retire; but lie made another successful effort, and had sub- jugated the greatest part of England when Ethelred died. Edmund Ironside, the warlike son of the weak Ethelred, succeeded his father, 1016 : he was op- posed by Canute, who besieged London : Edmund obliged him to raise the siege, and twice defeated him : Canute after this obtained a victory, and it was finally agreed to share the kingdom between them. Edmund, after reigning one year, was assassinated, and Canute enjoyed the kingdom alone. ' Danish Line. Canute the Great, son of Sweyn, 1017: he endeavoured to gain the affection of the English people by many acts of clemency; rebuilt the devastated monasteries and abbeys, and was feared and respected by neighbouring powers, being king of England, Denmark, and Norway. After reigning long and gloriously, he left by will, tp 208 i;xr.Li.\- him. His reign was inglorious; and his favourites managed the affairs of the state with little reputation. \^ VCharles the First, 1625, received from his lather the same unconstitutional ideas of royal prerogative : his people began to feel their own weight in the scale of empire, and refused to pay the taxes he imposed ; a civil war ensued. Charles was defeated, taken prisoner, and beheaded by the parliament, in the year 1649. Oliver Cromwell then exercised the supreme power under the title of Protector of the common- wealth. He rose from a comparatively low sta- tion to the high office he at last attained : he dis- CROMWELL. WILLIAM AND MAHY. 217 tinguishecl himself by his bravery and military skill; defeated Prince Charles, in the battle of Worcester, and forced him to leave the kingdom. By his great abilities and firmness, he raised^the English name among foreign nations ; and atj^is death appointed his son Richard to succeed him in the protectorate. Richard Cromwell, possessing neither the ambition nor the talents of his father, wisely resigned his dignity, led a private life, and died a peaceful death. Charles the Second was recalled, and the mo- narchical form of government restored in the year 1660. Charles was profligate and capricious, but reigned with almost absolute sway : his brother James was appointed successor, though a pro- fessed Roman Catholic. This reign was distin- guished by many imaginary plots against the government, and the deaths of Algernon Sydney and Lord Russell. I/"" Y James the Second ascended the throne, 1685, with a determined resolution to abolish the na- tional religion. He was reconciled, in the name of the people of England, to the pope ; and wish- ing to make his own will, not the laws of the land, his rule for governing, the nation unanimously resolved to oppose his arbitrary designs, and called over William, Prince of Orange, to defend and protect their rights and religious opinions. James was obliged to abdicate the throne, and died in France. William the Third, and Mary, the daughter of James the Second, were called to fill the English throne, 1688. William successfully resisted the L 218 RJTGLiflH ::EIGNS. ambitious projects of Louis the Fourteenth of France, who had become formidable to the liberty of Europe : the Bill of Rights received the sanc- tion of parliament, and the laws in general were revised and amended. Anne, daughter of .fame- the Second, suc- ceeded in 1702. Her reign was rendered famous by the splendid victories of Marlborough. The distinction between Whig and Tory first took place. Her administration increased the nominal glory, but not the real happiness of her sul.j The union between England and Scotland was effected; and this n -ign is remarkable for the number of learned men which enlightened Europe. ! ' . of Hanover, succeeded A nne, 1714. !! nulcnt, wise, and cautious in the choice of minister?. A rebellion broke out, headed by the Pivte'rler. in 1715; it was hap- pily quelled, and the heads of the party suffered th. The South- Sea scheme was set on foot in this reign, the ruin of thousands. George the Second, 1727. Another rebellion, in the year 1745, wa> raised for the Pretender, who was finally defeated at the battle of Cul- loden. The greater part of North America be- came dependent upon Britain, and the English army everywhere victorious. Sir Robert AYal- ! , and the immortal Chatham, were succc' ly prime ministers. George the Third succeeded his grand father, 1760. In his reign the North- American colonies gained their independence, and Ireland was formally united to Great Britain by act of par- GEORGE IV. 219 liament, the Irish houses of Lords and Commons merging in the Imperial parliament of Great Britain and Ireland. George the Third was a liberal patron of the arts, which greatly flourished during the long period he swayed the British sceptre. A melancholy disorder having, towards the close of his life, disqualified him for the duties of his high station, the Prince of T\'nle.s was, in 1811, appointed Regent, and continued to hold that important office till the death of the king in 1820.JX jx^eorge the Fourth ascended the throne on the 29th day of January, 1820, though his reign may be said to have actually commenced from his appointment to the Regency, with full regal power, in 1811. To this prince the western por- tion of the metropolis is indebted for many splen- did improvements. The nation will look back with grateful pleasure to his regency for the peace which terminated a sanguinary and ruinous war of more than twenty years' continu against France and her dependencies. His reign was also honourably distinguished by impor- tant accessions to the religious liberty of the people. By the repeal of the Corporation and Test Acts, the Protestant dissenters were re- lieved from many civil restrictions; whilst the principal civil disabilities were removed to which the Roman Catholics were subjected on account of their religious faith. George the Fourth died on the 26th of June, 1830, and was succeeded by his eldest surviving brother, William Henry, L 2 220 ENGLISH REIGN-. Duke of Clarence, under the title of William the irth. V^ At the accession of William the Fourth the Duke of Wellington was prime minister ; but be- ing opposed to a Reform in Parliament, and other liberal measures on which the nation had set its heart, a change of government took place, with Earl Grey at its head, and after a great struggle of parties the Reform Bill passed through both Houses of Parliament, and obtained the royal assent in 1832. Lord Grey retired from office in 1834, and was succeeded by Lord Melbourne, who held [his exalted office during the remainder illiam the Fourth's reign, with the exception of a short interval in 1835, when Sir Robert Peel me prime minister. Besides the Reform Bill, the reign of William the Fourth was honour- ably distinguished by another legislative measure of great importance : An Act for the Abolition of Negro Slavery in the British Colonies. Acts were also passed for the commutation of tithes in England and Ireland ; for giving a new muni- cipal constitution to the boroughs of Great Britain ; and for various amendments in the criminal, bank- rupt, and other laws. ^^ On the 20th of June, 1837, William the Fourth died, and was succeeded by Victoria, daughter of the late Edward, duke of Kent; who, in 1840, married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe Coburg Gotha, At the period of her Majesty's accession Lord Melbourne was prime minister, and continued to guide the Queen's councils till 1841, when Sir Robert Peel succeeded him in VICTORIA. 221 his high office, and then began the series of great commercial reforms, which ended in the abolition of the Corn Laws and the establishment of Free Trade in 1846. Lord John Russell then became prime minister, and remained at the head of the government till 1852 ; and since that time Lord Derby, Lord Aberdeen, Lord Palmerston, and again Lord Derby have in succession presided over the destinies of the country. During her Majesty's reign, wars have been carried on in Syria for the expulsion of Moham- med Ali, pacha of Egypt; in Affghanistan, for the restoration of Shah Shujah, the deposed king ; twice in China, for redress of injuries done to British subjects ; and in Russia, to maintain the balance of power, which the late Emperor Nicholas attempted to subvert by invading Turkey. During the same period, the boundaries of the Indian empire have been enlarged by the annex- ation of Scinde, the Punjaub, and Oude; the prosperity of the country has been secured by the abolition of the Corn Laws and other fiscal regulations ; many improvements have been in- troduced into the courts of law, especially of Chancery ; New Zealand has been colonised ; an immense impetus has been given to trade and emigration by the discovery of gold-fields in Cali- fornia, Australia, and British Columbia, of bound- less fertility and extent ; great discoveries in every branch of science have been made ; the whole country has been intersected with railroads; while, as if to show that no glory was to be wanting to L 3 ENGLISH REIGX-. Queen Victoria's reign, the electric telegraph, which promises to aiiz-.ihilate time and space by the illimitable extension of -which it seems sn tible, was first practically carried out, and already unites England not only to almost every con- tinental city, but even to the New "World. 223 ABSTRACT OP THE SCOTTISH REIGNS FROM FERGUS THE FIRST TO MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS. A manly nu--, Of unsubmitting spirit, wise, and brave, Train'd up to hardy deeds, soon visited By learning, when before the Gothic rage She took her western flight. THOMSON'S Autumn. FEKGUS the First, a prince invited from Ireland by the Scots, and elevated by them to be their king, three hundred years before the nativity of our Lord. Fergus the Second, nearly seven hundred years after the first of that name, A.D. 400, reigned with great glory, and cleared the kingdom of all invaders. These two monarchs, though they lived at so great an interval from each other, are re- garded as the founders of the Scottish monarchy. Kenneth, A.D. 843, revived the lustre and glory of the state. Gregory, the friend and ally of the illustrious Alfred, nobly resisted the invading Danes, and conquered Cumberland and Westmoreland from the Britons. He died, A.D. 892, and was buried in Icolmkill, the burial-place of his ancestors, i . L 4 224 SCOTTISH EEIGNS. A. D. 1001, Malcolm, his successor, defeated the Danes, who had made themselves masters of the Orkneys, the Hebrides, and the Isle of Man, and had ravaged the western coast of Scotland. He thus acquired the title of the Victorious. Duncan, 1038. A prince of pacific temper and great virtues : he was treacherously murdered by Macbeth, his general and friend. Macbeth, 1 040. This tyrant usurped the throne, to the prejudice of Malcolm, son of Duncan, who, with his younger brother Donaldblain, took refuge in England. Macbeth's reign was as short as it was cruel, being killed in a war with the English, who armed in favour of Duncan's children. Malcolm the Third, 1057, long an exile in Eng- land, ascended the throne of his ancestors upon the death of Macbeth : he introduced among the Scots the custom of giving surnames ; and during the crusades, assisted Godfrey, Earl of Bologne, in the reduction of Jerusalem. This wise and valiant monarch was killed, with one of his sons, at the siege of Alnwick. Donaldblain, or Donald the Seventh, 1092, uncle to Malcolm the Third : his reign was short, being dethroned by Duncan, natural son of Malcolm. \ Duncan the Second, 1094. The transient au- thority which this prince possessed was marked chiefly by his vices : he died without children. Edgar, 1096, son of Malcolm the Third, was a good king, and cherished the interests of his sub- jects. Alexander the First, 1107: a king of mean capacity and unsteady conduct. In his reign, the DAVID I. ALEXANDER III. 225 Church of Scotland began to be reckoned among the established national churches of Europe. Ni- nian Palladius, and Columba, who founded the famous abbey of lona, or Icolmkill, were accounted the fathers of the Scottish church. The eldest sons of some of the Scottish kings, at this period, were graced with the title of Prince of Cumber- land. David the First, contemporary with Stephen, King of England, 1 124. His valour was unques- tioned, and his liberality to churchmen great : he compiled a code of Scottish laws, built many reli- gious edifices, and reigned with great glory JL*-' Malcolm the Fourth, 1153, grandson of David His actions are little celebrated, and his reign is chiefly memorable for the origin of the power en- grossed by the Stuart family, by Walter, one of the king's courtiers, being appointed seneschal, or steward of Scotland, from which employment his descendants derived their family name. William, surnamed the Lion, 1165, was fre- quently at war with England ; and being taken prisoner at the battle of Alnwick, by Henry the Second, that monarch refused to release him, till he had done homage in his own name, and those of his successors. Alexander the Second, 1214, son of William the Lion. He was often at war with the Norwe- gians, who invaded the Scottish isles. Alexander the Third, 1249 ; a prince of great virtues. In this reign the Norwegians were com- pletely defeated, and obliged to retire from the isles. Alexander was killed by a fall from his L 5 226 SCOTTISH rj:n horse : in him ended the ancient race of the Scot- tish kings, and the crown was claimed by the descendants of David, Earl of Huntingdon, brother to William the Lion. 1 '2*5. An interregnum of some years succeeded, whilst the rival candid: rted their claim-, all descended from David in different degn affinity. Of twelve competitors, the most distin- d were John Baliol, great-grandson to David, by his eldest daughter, and Robert Bruce, 'son by the youngest. The nobles agr to refer the decision of this question to Edward the First, of England, that monarch, supported by a powerful army, claimed supremacy over mil, -ind adjudged the crown to Baliol. n Baliol, 120J). was more the creature of ard than a monarch, (iilh.-r; r of the palace, but with little sucr Thiery the Second, 721. During his minority lea Martel continued to hold the sovereign authority (while Thiery bore the name of king), and distinguished himself by his wisdom and or. Childeric the Third, 743, surnamed the Simple, was the last of the Merovingian race. Charles Martel died in this reign. He had signalised his ere and ability by splendid victories. In the plains of Poictiers, he defeated a numerous army of Saracens, invading France from Spain, and thus probably saved Europe from being overrun >se fierce infidels. From the circumstance a using, in that battle, a ponderous iron mace, he wr.s surnamed Martel, or Hammer. Pepin PEPIN. LOUIS I. 235 and Carloman, the sons of Charles, shared the supreme authority, and dethroned Childerie, who . difed in the monastery where he was confined. V Pepin the Little, 760, son of Charles Martel, succeeded to the undivided authority. He abo- lished the office of mayor of the palace, and governed alone. Pepin was a celebrated hero, and defeated the Saxons, Sclavonians, and Ba- varians. Charlemagne and Carloman, the sons of Pepin, 768. Carloman soon quitted the throne, and as- sumed the Benedictine habit ; Charlemagne then reigned alone, and was crowned by the pope Emperor of the West. This great prince trod in the steps of his father. He favoured literature and the sciences, and invited learned men to his court. The light of knowledge now began to dawn upon the nation. At this period flourished the famous hero Orlando, or Roland, celebrated in early romances. Charlemagne re-established the ancient national assemblies, under the name of Parliaments, giving them a share in the go- Ternment of the country. Louis the First, surnamed the Debonnaire, 8 14, the son of Charlemagne. He was weak and super- stitious in the highest degree ; was twice deposed and taken prisoner by his children ; yet, upon being restored to the throne, he pardoned their offences. Soon after this he died ; and his chil- dren, contending for empire, fought the first famous battle of Fontenoy, in which one hun- dred thousand French are said to have been killed, i /" V 236 FRENCH REIGXS. y Charles the Bald, grandson of Louis the First, 840. In this reign the Xormans invaded and plun- dered France. Charles was hated by his subjects ; had few virtues and many vices. He was poisoned by a Jewish physician, named Ledecias, in whom he placed great confidence. Louis the Second, surnamed the Stammerer, > 7 7. From this reign the kings of France ceased to possess the empire of Germany, acquired in that of Charlemagne. Louis lavished the honours and estates of the crown ; and his abilities were by no means adequate to his high station. Louis the Third and Carloman, the children of Louis the Stammerer, 879. They reigned jointly with great harmony. The Normans again ravaged the French provinces, but were attacked and de- feated by the brothers. Louis died first, and Carloman did not long survive, being mortally wounded by one of his servants, who was aiming a javelin at a boar. Charles the Fat, 884, Emperor of Germany, was invited to accept the French monarchy. He was pious and devout: but wanting abilities and aition, incurred the contempt of his people, and was declared incapable of holding the reins of government. His subjects unanimously revolted ; and a few months of disease and misery, in which he was compelled to beg his bread, were followed by his death. \J Kudes, 888, was elected after the death of Charles. His reign was short, turbulent, and glorious. He resigned the throne to Charles the CHAKLES THE SIMPLE. LOUIS V. 237 Simple, son of Louis the Stammerer ; and died shortly after, beloved and regretted. Charles the Simple, 898. He obtained this degrading name from the little improvement he made of the victories he gained over the Duke of Lorraine. Hollo, the famous Norman chief, took the city of Rouen, Charles's people deserted him and set up a new king called Rodolph, or Randolph. Charles died in captivity. Rodolph, who had been crowned before the death of Charles, succeeded, 924. He defeated the Normans and Hungarians. After his death, France was again divided by rival claimants. Louis the Fourth, son of Charles the Simple, 936. He seized upon Normandy, and promised Hugh, Count of Paris, to share it with him ; but having broken his word, Hugh became his enemy. His army was afterwards routed by the Normans ; Louis was carried prisoner to Rouen, and com- mitted to the custody of Hugh, who obliged him to restore Normandy to Richard, the lawful pos- sessor. Lothaire, son of Louis, 964. He possessed courage, activity, and vigilance. Hugh, Count of Paris, having ceded his rights to the throne, Lothaire gratefully acknowledged the favour, by bestowing upon him the province of Acquitaine. Hugh died in his reign, leaving a son, who was afterwards the renowned Hugh Capet. Lothaire is said to have been poisoned by his queen. ouis the Fifth, surnamed the Slothful, 986. He reigned only one year, and was poisoned. Hugh Capet had been appointed his governor ; 238 FRENCH REIGNS. but the wise counsels of Hugh were totally thrown away upon this headstrong prince, who was hated for his vices, and despised for his folly. He was the last of the Carlovingian race. Hugh Capet wa- l>y the nobility to the throne, 987. His reign was happy and glorious. His people felt and admired his virtues ; and he transmitted to his son a peaceful and undivided inheritance. Kobert, the son of Hugh Capet, succeeded, 996. France experienced the sad effects of a dreadful famine in this reign. The pope threatened to ex- communic;!i- R .Ix-rt for marrying Bertha, who was related to his father. His sons rebelled, in- cd by their mother; but he compromised matters with them, and died highly regretted. n y the 1 i of Robert, 1031. He was brave, pious, and had many other good qualities. The custom of duelling was so prevalent in this i . that Henry enacted a severe law to put a stop to it. His people were frequently led out to war : for as he was jealous of the Normans, he tried every method to check their conquests. Philip the First, contemporary with William the Conqueror, 1060. Baldwin, Count of Flanders, was regent in his minority. Avarice, perfidy, and ingratitude were the striking features in this king's character. In this reign, the Crusades, or enter- prises for recovering Jerusalem and the Holy Land from the Saracens, were set on foot by the blind zeal of an ecclesiastic, named Peter the Her- mit. In the first of these, nearly five hundred thousand persons engaged, of various ranks and PHILIP I 239 ages, of whom few lived to return to their native country. Philip's quarrels with William of Eng- land were frequent, and their issue bloody. In the latter part of his life, Philip abandoned him- self wholly to voluptuous pleasures ; and guided by his queen, an ambitious and wicked woman, incurred the just hatred of his subjects. /^ 240 CONTINUATION OF THE FRENCH REIGNS FROM THAT OF LOUIS THE SIXTH TO THE PRESENT TIME. Louis the Sixth, surnamed the Gross, assumed the government in 1 108, on the death of his father, Philip. He had all the qualities necessary to form a good king. By him permission was given to cities to purchase charters of freedom and to become corporate bodies. He appointed travelling commissaries to inspect the conduct of judges and governors of provinces. His chief minister was the Abbe* Suger, one of the most enlightened and upright statesmen recorded by history. In this reign schools were opened, especially in convents, and the University of Paris assumed a regular form. He was sometimes at war with Henry the First of England. On his death-bed he is said to have delivered his ring to his son with these words : " May the power with which you will shortly be invested be considered as a sacred trust committed to you by Providence, and for which you must be accountable in a future state!" Louis the Seventh, surnamed the Young, to distinguish him from his father, whose authority PHILIP II. LOUIS VIII. 241 he had shared, ascended the throne, 1137. He commanded a fine army, the flower of France, in the Holy Land : but disease and the calamities of war had so decreased it, that on his return only the shattered remains accompanied him. During the absence of Louis, his kingdom suffered all the miseries of depopulation. He was continually embroiled with England and his own barons. In this reign the Troubadours, a kind of wandering French poets, or bards, first appeared. Philip the Second, surnamed Augustus, 1180. He engaged in the crusades with Richard the First of England. The monarchs quarrelled ; and on his return home, Philip attacked Richard's French dominions. He displayed great military talents, and in the plains of Bouvines, defeated the united forces of Otho, emperor of Germany, and of the earl of Flanders. He committed the extreme folly of expelling from his dominions the Jews, his most industrious, profitable, and wealthy subjects. To counterbalance these errors, he re- strained the tyranny of the nobles, endeavoured to reform the manners of the people, protected and embellished his cities, and checked the op- pression exercised by the priests and soldiers. In his reign, the orders of the Dominicans and Franciscans were established ; and he engaged in the cause of Arthur of Bretagne, against his cruel uncle, John, king of England. \f Louis the Eighth, son of Philip, 1223. He reigned only three years, and in that time dispos- sessed the English of some lands in France. He is said to have died by poison ; and left in his will M 242 FRENCH REIGNS. legacies to two thousand persons affected with leprosy, as that disorder then raged dreadfully. Louis the Ninth, son of Louis the Eighth, 1226. He was a truly good and amiable sove- reign, sincerely devout, fond of peace, and soli- : * to maintain it : yet on necessary occasions manifesting high spirit and courage. Plain and simple in his dress and manners, he administered justice impartially to all. Undertaking an ex- pedition to the Holy Land, he was defeated and made prisoner by the Saracens : he might have jd, but nobly ^-d to forsake his sub- jects in their distress. On his return, after ransomed, he foolishly resolved to en. other crusade ; and, besieging Tunis in per- son, fell a victim to the plague. His coni Robert de Sorbon, instituted the university at Paris called the Sorbonne, which afterwards be- came the most famous theological school in Europe. Philip the Third, surnamed the Hardy, 1270. He continued the wars against the infidels, till he compelled the king of Tunis to sue for peace. In this reign was perpetrated that massacre of the French called the Sicilian Vespers. Philip con- ciliated the friendship of the English Edward the First, and engaged in frequent wars with Sicily, in order to support the claims of his son to the throne of that island. A general corruption of manners scandalously prevailed at this period, which was disgraced by the inhuman crusade against the Albigenses in the south of Trance and Piedmont ; the sanguinary Flemish war; and the barbarous PHILIP IV. CHARLES IV. 243 treatment of the Knights Templars, with the abo- their order. \S~ Philip the Fourth, Iz85. This prince continued the war w T ith England, and joined Baliol, king of Scotland, against Edward. Philip was perpetually embroiled with Pope Boniface the Eighth, and Guy, count of Flanders : he gained a dt\ victory over the latter. In this reign, the three Swiss cantons of Switz, Uri, and Underwalden, threw off the Austrian yoke, and asserted their independence. Louis the Tenth, surnamed Hutin, 1314. He strangled his queen on account of her repeated enormities. On his accession, finding the treasury in an exhausted state, he accused Marigni, who had been his father's minister, as the cause of' the national necessities, and seized upon his fortune to defray the expenses of the coronation. This un- fortunate nobleman in vain endeavoured to vindi- cate his honour : he was condemned to expire on a gibbet ; and the king, after a short reign of two years, died by poison, given him by the friends of Marigni. Philip the Fifth, surnamed the Young, suc- ceeded his brother, by virtue of the Salic law, which excluded the daughter of Louis, in 1316. A contagious disorder raged in France, and the superstitious people imputed it to the Jews having poisoned the waters. Philip's kingdom was torn by faction i^aud he died after a short reign of six years, y Charles the Fourth, 1322. This prince was the last of the Capetine line. He expelled the Lom- M 2 244 FRENCH REIGNS. bards and Italians from his dominions, for their extortion. Charles tried unsuccessfully to re- unite the kingdoms of France and Germany. He had neither shining talents nor great vices. \s**" Philip the Sixth, the first of the line of Valois, 1328. Edward the Third, of England, asserted his claim to the French crown ; Philip, however, succeeded, by the Salic law, and called upon Ed- ward to do him homage ; but receiving no satis- factory reply, he seized upon Edward's French territories, who, to recover his dominions, per- formed the subjection required. Discontents were again renewed, and the English, in a naval en- gagement, took two hundred and thirty of the French ships; Philip also lost thirty thousand seamen and two admirals. Four years after was fought the memorable battle of Creci ; and Hugh, Count of Dauphine, annexed his dominions to the French crown, on condition that the king's eldest son should bear the title of Dauphin. John, surnamed the Good, succeeded his father, 1350. This prince was very unfortunate in his wars with England. In the battle of Poictiers, he and his son Philip were taken prisoners, and the French army was totally routed. On promise of paying a ransom, amounting to four millions of gold crowns, he was permitted, after four years' captivity, to revisit his native soil ; when he found that the miseries of his people had been height- ened by civil commotions, the consequence of his son's inexperience : and as the stipulated ransom could not be paid, he nobly returned to captivity in England, where he died, after having been CHARLES V. CHARLES VII. 245 generously and honourably treated. A pestilence carried off thirty thousand of his subjects. Charles the Fifth, son of John, 1364. This prince behaved with such great prudence, in the dangerous and critical state of the kingdom, that he was honoured with the title of the Wise. Du Guesclin, the celebrated French commander, lived in this reign, and, after the death of Edward and the Black Prince, retook most of the English pos- sessions in France. Charles died in the prime of life, universally lamented, leaving the kingdom in a tranquil state, its government well arranged, its treasury full, and its army well disciplined. L*- Charles the Sixth, 1380, son of the late king. He laboured under an unfortunate imbecility of mind, caused by a fright he received. The war with England was renewed: but the battle of Agincourt gave the English a decided superiority. Henry the Fifth, their king, gave his hand to Catharine, the French king's daughter. Charles shortly after died, abandoned by his subjects, who directed their attention to Henry of England, his expected successor. Henry the Sixth of England, upon the death of his father, was proclaimed king of France, when only nine months old, 1422 : but the famous Joan of Arc, Maid of Orleans, assisting and head- ing the dispirited troops of Charles the Dauphin, the English were defeated ; Henry was obliged to relinquish his claim; and, Charles, the Dauphin, ascended the throne of his ancestors, by the title of Charles the Seventh. Charles the Seventh, surnamed the Victorious^ M 8 FRE: 1436. In his reign, the English were gradually expelled from one province after another, till they were deprived of all dominion in France, excepting the town of Calais. When the rage of civil war had abated, he endeavoured to regulate the disor- dered finances, and restore commerce ; but expe- rienced a series of domestic calamities, occasioned by the intrigues and daring spirit of his son, afterwards Louis the Eleventh, who proceeded to acts of open rebellion against him. Charles, sus- pect i of intentions to poison him, refused all nourishment for some days : he fell a victim to his distrust. and died in that deplorable situation. Lo; 'cvcnth succeeded. 1461. The title of Most Christian King was given him by the pope, though little suited to his character : as he Ireaded by all his subjects, and hated 1 neighbour.*. This prince assisted the f 'union- of Wanvirk. with a fleet and army, to restore Henry the Sixth of England to his throne. Henry's death, Louis ransomed Margaret of Anjou, from Edward the Fourth. The French monarchy became absolute in this reign. Charles, Duke of Burgundy, was the constant oppo- this ambitious king, whose oppression and bar- barities must shock every heart not dead to the feelings of humanity. ^"~ Charles the Eighth, 1483, being in his minority, Anne, eldest daughter of Louis the Eleventh, was chosen regent: she possessed strong powers of mind, and great prudence. Charles, on his mar- riage with Anne of Bretagnc, took the cares of state up m him : nnd complying with the entr LOUIS XII. FRANCIS I 247 of the ambitious Ludovico Sforza, he attempted the conquest of Naples, whose king was oppressed by acre and infirmities. The French kins; besieged J O O that city in person, defeated the Neapolitans, and obliged their monarch, Ferdinand the Second, to fly : he soon, however, by force of arms, regained his throne, and Charles died not long after. Louis the Twelfth, surnamed the father of his people, 1498. He engaged in wars with the Ve- netians and Milanese. Ludovico Sforza having usurped the government of Milan, Louis defeated and sentenced him to perpetual imprisonment. This king was beloved by his subjects, having shown his clemency on many remarkable occa- sions, repealed several severe taxes, re-established the due administration of the laws, and revived the military discipline. He married the Princess Mary of England, sister to Henry the Eighth. \ / \j Francis the First, Count of Angouleine, who had married the daughter of the late king, as- cended the throne, 1515. This is the era of French literature ; Francis loved, and encouraged the arts. He was brave to excess in his own person, but his valour and ambition endangered the safety of the kingdom. He contended un- successfully for the German empire. The Duke of Bourbon, a powerful lord, who resented the indignities he had received from the king and his mother, joined Charles the Fifth of Germany and Henry the Eighth of England, in a confederacy to place Charles the Fifth upon the French throne. Francis, by his valour and address, de- livered his kingdom from the threatened danger ; 248 FRENCH REIGNS. but being unable to perform the conditions in- sisted upon by Charles, after the fatal battle of Pavia, in which he was taken prisoner, he was engaged in a war with the Emperor till his death. Ill- frequent wars, his excessive extravagance, his lavish generosity, burdened the kingdom with debts, and drained its resources. In his reign, the light of the Reformation shone forth in Ger- many, and penetrated to many parts of France. Henry the Second, son of Francis, 1547. The reign of this prince was chiefly distinguished by his wars with Pope Julius the Second and the emperor, against whom he allied himself with the Protestant princes of Germany. Henry married Catherine de Medicis, daughter of the Duke of Urbino. The battle of Saint Quintin, fought with the Spaniards, was lost by the French; but Henry's celebrated general, the Duke of Guise, preserved the lustre of the French arms, against the united powers of England, Spain, and Flan- ders : he took Calais from the English. Henry wa~ unfortunately killed at a tournament, while celebrating the nuptials of the Princess Elizabeth with Philip King of Spain. y"" Francis the Second, son of Henry, 1559. The government of the kingdom, during this reign, was intrusted to Catherine de Medicis. The King mar- ried Mary Queen of Scots ; and wholly guided by his mother and his uncles, the Guises, persecuted the Protestants, now known by the name of Hugue- nots. Worn out by the oppressions of the Catholic party, they at length took up arms ; and this was the beginning of those dreadful civil, falsely termed CHARLES IX. HENRY III. 249 religious, wars which desolated France, and stained with indelible infamy the rulers of the French na- tion. Francis died after a short reign of two years. Charles the Ninth, second son of Henry the Second, succeeded, in his minority, 1560. Ca- therine de Medicis governed him; and, joining to great abilities boundless ambition and keen revenge, she prevailed upon the King to arm against the Protestants, whose growing numbers she dreaded. Civil wars followed; after which (on the memorable St. Bartholomew's Day, the 24th of August, 1572) began that horrid massacre, which extended through Paris, Lyons, Orleans, Rouen, Angers, and Thoulouse. Thus merely for difference in opinion, thirty thousand Frenchmen were inhumanly put to death by their vindictive enemies. Charles, after this, concluded a peace with the Huguenots ; and a prey to severe remorse and the effects of a dreadful disorder, he expired, being only twenty-three years of age. Henry the Third, brother of Charles, 1574. He had been elected King of Poland; but on the death of Charles he fled from his northern kingdom to Paris, and the Poles chose another king. Henry, fond of pleasure, fickle and irresolute, was go- verned by Catherine de Medicis. The civil wars were renewed between the Catholics and Protest- ants, one of which was called the Holy League, and headed by the Duke of Guise. Henry, fear- ing this nobleman had designs upon the crown, basely caused him to be assassinated with his brother, the Cardinal of Guise; and the King shortly after, experienced the same fate, from the M 5 250 FKEXCH REIGNS. hands of Clement, the monk. The detestable Catherine de Medicis died just before her son, aged seventy. \s * Henry the Great, first of the house of Bourbon, 1589. He was bred a Protestant, and gallantly defended that cause when King of Navarre ; but wishing to heal disturbances, and conciliate the affections of his people, in 1593 he reconciled him- self to the Roman Catholic Church, though lie was always supposed to be attached to his old opinions. Soon after this, he published the edict of Nantes, which granted to the Protestants the exercise of their religion, the enjoyment of their estates, and in eligible to public offices. After a glorious reign, Henry was assassinated by an en- thusiast named Ravaillac, in the streets of Paris. Louis the Thirteenth succeeded his father, 1610, when only nine years of age. Mary of Medicis, hi> mother, was appointed regent; they renewed the civil wars, which had continued during the reigns of five princes, and destroyed nine cities, four hundred villages, and two thousand monas- -. by their horrid ravages. Richelieu then be- came minister : he humbled Spain, and the spirit of the French nobility ; defeated the Huguenots, and checked the ambitious views of Austria : to him Louis owed his authority ; for on his own account the King was little feared or loved by his people. Louis the Fourteenth succeeded his father, when only five years old, in 1643. His mother, Anne of Austria, with Cardinal Mazarin. conducted public affairs. This reign was the longest, and in its LOUIS XV. 251 first part, the most splendid, of any in the French annals. Turenne and the Prince of Conde mul- tiplied the conquests of Louis, and obtained the most brilliant victories. Louis revoked the edict of Nantes, and granted protection to James the Second, King of England. After the death of Mazarin, Colbert became prime minister, whose exertions in his country's services are never to be forgotten. Louis was the munificent patron of the arts ; and twice defeated William the Third ; but Marlborough tore the laurels from his brow, ami humbled his pride. He lived to see the English government in the hands of Charles the First, Cromwell, Charles the Second, James the Second, William and Mary, Anne, and George the First, w '\f Louis the Fifteenth succeeded his great-grand- father, 1715. The King being a minor, the Duke of Orleans was appointed regent, and endeavoured to relieve the miseries of war, and restore com- merce and agriculture. When the King became of age, the Duke de Bourbon, and Cardinal Fleury, were successively ministers. When Fleury died, Louis took the reins of govern- ment into his own hands, and, by the talents of the Duke of Berwick, of Villars, and Saxe, obtained great success in wars carried on in Italy, Spain, and Germany. Peace succeeded ; and for seven years the arts and literature flourished in France. This king assisted the Pretender in his schemes upon England. The conclusion of his reign was unfortunate : his people, exhausted by war, loudly murmured; but Louis was deaf to their complaints, and pursued his arbitrary M 6 252 FRENCH REIGNS. measures till his death. During this reign, a severe persecution was excited against the Pro- testants, many of whose ministers lost their lives, and numbers of their families forsook their native country, to its great detriment. V~Louis the Sixteenth, 1774, grandson of the late king. Upon him fell the weight of those miseries which his predecessors had caused. At the com- mencement of his reign he endeavoured to alleviate the distresses of his subjects. He submitted to the conditions imposed by the National Assembly, and accepted the constitution approved by the representatives of the people. But the spirit of moderation, which prevailed among the first leaders of the Revolution, was too soon lost in the tumult of violence ; and the regal authority which had subsisted eleven hundred years was abolished. The unhappy monarch, having vainly endeavoured to escape from the indignities offered him, was arraigned at the bar of the Convention, and condemned to die. He met his death with the dignity of a sovereign and the fortitude of a Christian, A.D. 1793. His queen, Marie An- toinette, shared the same fate a few months after. These executions, contrary to existing laws framed by the Convention themselves, cast an eternal stigma upon the French nation, and caused the friends of real liberty to mourn the barbarities and excesses which have been committed by the abusers of that sacred name.\^ France, after the death of Louis the Sixteenth, was declared a republic, and for some time was governed by consuls; but monarchical govern- ment was restored by Napoleon Bonaparte, who, CHARLES X. LOUIS PHILIPPE. 253 after filling the office of first consul, was raised to the imperial dignity under the title of Napoleon the First. To strengthen his Continental interests and give stability to his throne, he obtained a di- vorce from his first wife, Josephine Beauharnois, and married Maria Louisa, daughter of Fraiu-is the Second, emperor of Austria. But his am- bitious schemes having united against him in one powerful league all the great states of Europe, he was, after a long and arduous contest, compelled to abdicate the throne, and ended his life a state prisoner at St. Helena. The Bourbon dynasty having been restored in April, 1814, Louis the Eighteenth, the brother of Louis the Sixteenth, was placed upon the throne, which he occupied about ten years. \,*~ Charles the Tenth, count of Artois, Louis the Eighteenth's younger brother, succeeded him on his death, in 1824. This weak and arrogant prince inherited the arbitrary principles of his ancestors. Attempting to extend the royal au- thority and to impose restrictions on the liberties of the nation, the people of Paris, in 1830, broke out into open rebellion, and, after a hard struggle of three days, overpowered the royal troops, and compelled Charles to abdicate a throne which he had so unworthily occupied. The Duke of Orleans was immediately invited to place himself at the head of the government, and ascended the throne, on the 9th of August, 1830, under the title of Louis Philippe the First, King of the French. The commencement of Louis Philippe's reign was marked by great moderation. But the revo- 254 FRENCH RE: lutionary spirit which had long prevailed in France still showed itself at intervals in insurrectionary attempts at Lyons and elsewhere, and in repeated attempts to assassinate the king. All these, how- ever, proved abortive : and had Louis Philippe looked with a single eye to the prosperity of France, rather than to dynastic objects, he might have bequeathed his kingdom to his successors. But this was not the case. Various restrictive Measures were from time to time introduced into :u of government; corruption prevailed in every direction: and the just desires of the people for greater constitutional privileges were r nought. At length, in February 1848, the government having signified its intention to prevent a Reform Banquet from being held in Paris, the populace, aided by the national guard, had recourse to barricades, and a conflict began with the myal troops, which ended in the abdication and flight of Louis Philippe, the overthrow of his dyi and the establishment of a republic. The first president was Louis Napoleon Bona- , a nephew of the Emperor, whose name was -till dear to the rural population of France. In- u'9 were hatched by various parties from time to time to disgust the people with the republic; but the president bided his time, and on the 2nd of December, 1851, he perpetrated what is called a coup (Fetat, by which he dissolved the National ibly, and made himself dictator of France. '-Is, violent and illegal were, received the apparent sanction of the French people, who NAPOLEON III. 255 confirmed him in his office by an overwhelming majority of votes; and when they were once more appealed to in 1852, they sanctioned his assumption of the title of Napoleon III., Emperor of the French, y^ The French liiles of kings were the Franks, the Merovingians, the Carlovingians, the line of Capet, of Yalois, and of Bourbon. And the four French kings most famed in history were, Charle- magne, contemporary with our Egbert; Philip the Second, with our Richard the First; Francis the First, with Henry the Eighth ; and Henry the Fourth, or Great, with our Queen Elizabeth. The best French historians are Philip de Cominrs, Davila, De Thou or Thuanus, and Mezerai. The four grand aeras in the history of France are, the introduction of Christianity; France almost en- tirely conquered by Henry the Fifth of England ; the massacre of the Protestants on St. Bartholo- mew's day ; and the Revolution, in the reign of Louis the Sixteenth. Since that period France has, at intervals of greater or less duration, passed through a series of changes in its government, which are not sufficiently great to be designated as aeras, and leave little ground to expect stability for any government during a lengthened period. 256 ABSTRACT OF THE ROMAN KINGS AND MOST DISTINGUISHED HEROES. V ROMTLTS, founder of the Roman state and senate. Xuma Pompilius, the institutor of religious ceremonies. A wise and upright man, and an :iMe politician. During a long and happy reign, he maintained peace, established good laws and useful institutions, and confirmed the infant strength of Ronn . Tullus Hostilius revived the warlike spirit of the Romans, and extended the power of the rising ite, by destroying Alba, and adding its popu- lation to that of Rome. In his reign the conflict between the Iloratii and the Curiatii took place. Tullus was burnt to death in his palace, which was srt on fire by lightning. \/ A IK-US Martins greatly improved the city, and renewed the institutions of Numa. Tarquinius Priscus increased the number of the senate, and built a magnificent temple to Jupiter. SERVIUS TULLIUS. MARCUS MANLIUS. 257 Servius Tullius was slain by Tarquin the Proud, after a useful reign. Tarquinius Superbus. A valiant, ambitious, wicked prince, who was dethroned, and expelled from Rome by the indignant people, led on by Brutus, Collatinus and others. The regal au- thority was now entirely abolished*^/ y^Lucius Junius Brutus, the first consul: he brought his own sons to justice, for a conspiracy in favour of Tarquin. Titus Lartius ; the first dictator, or magistrate, intrusted with absolute power. Menenius Agrippa. In his time the first tri- bunes were Chosen. He was famed for his elo- quence, v \/Caius Martius Coriolanus. He was, on ac- count of his oppressive arrogance, banished from Rome, and returned with an army to besiege it ; but his mother's entreaties prevailed upon him to spare the city. In his time the first ediles were chosen. Terentius Arsa was a famous tribune, and the active friend of the people. Lucius Quintius Cincinnatus, a celebrated dic- tator, taken from the plough to command the Roman armies. In his time the decemviri were appointed. % / ** , y Virginius. In his time the unjust authority of the decemviri was abolished. He killed his own daughter, to prevent her falling a sacrifice to the villany of Appius Claudius. Marcus Manlius, the brave defender and sa- viour of his country in the war with Brennus, king of the Gauls. \ ^ 258 110MAN HEROES. / Camillus, a renowned commander and states- man, who led the Romans on to victory. rcus Curtius, who is recorded to have pre- cipitated himself, armed, and on horseback, into a gulf which suddenly opened in the forum of Rome, and which it had been declared would never close until the most precious thing in the city should bexthrown therein. v Manlius Torquatus. He put his son to death for contempt of his consular authority, and example of military justice. Fabricius, one of the poorest and most virtuous of the Romans. Hid integrity was unshaken amidst every attempt to bribe him ; and his noble spirit will transmit his name and merits to the laa-i ages. II gulus. In his time the first Punic Avar be- iran. He returned with the Carthaginian ambas- sadors to Carthairc, in performance of his promise, though he knew that torments and death awaited him there. And accordingly he perished in div.ulful torture. \/ , Marcellus. He vanquished the Gauls invading the Roman territories, and checked the victories of Hannibal the great Carthaginian general, and for his valour was called his country's sword. Fabius, famed for his wisdom and prudent conduct: lie was styled the buckler of Rome. Scipi-.i Afrk'ann.s the great conqueror of Spain and Africa ; and the vanquisher of Hannibal, the Carthaginian general. pio .Kmilianus, the destroyer of Carthage, -hone equally in learning as in arm.-. / THE GRACCHI. AUGUSTUS C^ESAK. 259 v The Gracchi ; the friends of liberty and virtue : they endeavoured to stem the rising torrent of corruption, but fell a sacrifice to the attempt. Metellus Numidicus ; a skilful commander, and a man of strict integrity. Caius Marius ; famed for his insatiable pride and ambition, and his valour and conduct in war: he brought great calamities upon the Roman empire. \S l/Sylla, a great conqueror, tyrannical in com- mand, and cruel in the exercise of power ; but who had, at last, the magnanimity to resign all his dignities, and retire to a private station. Marcus Tullius Cicero ; the great Roman orator, and the distinguished friend of liberty. Pompey ; a brave general, but whose ambition, led to his country's slavery. .Julius Caesar : the greatest hero and the most accomplished man of his time. He was chosen perpetual dictator of Rome ; but was assassinated by some of the senators, who had conspired against him for trampling upon the liberties of the Roman people. V y Marc Antony; the friend of Caesar; famed as a general, but still more noted for his attachment to Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, and for his extra- vagances and cruelties. Augustus Caesar ; the first Roman emperor, and the grand-nephew of Julius * In his reign the Romans enjoyed peace; literature flourished ; and Jesus, the long-promised Messiah, appeared in Galilee, y 260 ABSTRACT OF THE MOST CELEBRATED GRECIANS DOWN TO THE THIRD CENTURY BEFORE CHRIST. ;ops, the first king of Athens, supposed to have lived about sixteen centuries before Christ. Theseus, king of Athens ; memorable for his courage and conduct : he is said to have killed the minotaur, a monster kept by Minos, and achieved many great exploits. Jason, a noble Thessalian, who is said to have sailed with forty-nine companions to Colchis, in search of the golden fleece ; this expedition be- longs, however, like the adventures of Jason, more properly to the region of fable than of true history. \ / Agamemnon, general of the Grecian armies ai the siege of Troyj and king of Argos and M yeenje, in the Morea. Cudrus, king of Athens ; he devoted himself to death for the benefit of his country. The mo- nurchical government was abolished at his decease, and aristocracy substituted for it. Cadmus, king of Thebes, and the inventor of letters. Ulysses, king of Ithaca, and one of the wisest among the Greeks. CELEBRATED GRECIANS. 261 Lycurgus, the celebrated Spartan lawgiver ; he totally new-modelled the constitution, and com- posed a code of jurisprudence, selected from the best laws made by Minos and others. Homer, the prince of poets ; supposed to have been born at Smyrna ; but seven cities contended for the honour of having given him birth. The Iliad and Odyssey were his great works. Hcsiod was his contemporary, |x^ / ^Esop, a native of Phrygia, renowned as a writer of fables. His actual productions are lost ; but the Latin fabulists profess to have translated from his original Greek. Thales, a Grecian philosopher, astronomer, geo- grapher, and geometrician. Pythagoras, a native of Samos, who foundi-d the sect of philosophers called the Pythagoreans, who believed in the doctrine of the metempsy- chosis, or transmigration of souls. He was the first to a&sume the title of philosopher*/ \r Pindar, the most celebrated lyric poet of anti- quity. His odes are esteemed models for sub- limity of sentiment, boldness of metaphor, and harmony of numbers. Herodotus, called " the father of history." He publicly repeated his history at the Olympic games, and received such applause, that the names of the nine Muses were unanimously awarded to the nine books into which it is divided. Draco, the rigid legislator of Athens : he pu- nished all offences with indiscriminate severity ; hence his laws were said to be written in blood. \r 262 CELEBRATED GEECI.. ' Solon, the wise reformer, and improver of the Athenian laws. Alcasus, and Sappho, a Greek poet, and poetess, who wrote chiefly in lyric numbers. Simonides, a famous Grecian poet. Pisistratus, an aspiring Athenian, who, while Solon travelled into Egypt, took advantage of his -ence to usurp the government of Athens. \ x /' VClisthenes, the introducer of the Ostracism: he was endued with great penetration and abi- lities, which, however, were seldom properly di- rected. Miltiades, an Athenian general, who gained the battle of Marathon against the Pcrsi:>!i.<, l>ut treated ungratefully by his countryiw Leonida- .rtan king, who fell at the battle of Thermopylae, in defence of his country's rights. Ilarmodius and Aristogiton, two young Athe- nians, whodelivcred tln.-ir country from the tyranny of the sons of P' -, and were honoured with _h marks of esteem and admirationA/' Anacreon, of Teos, a celebrated poet ; his works are distinguished by their elegance and simplicity of expression. Thespis, the inventor of tragedy, from whom -ings the phrase of the Thespian art, applied to the drama. ^Eschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, tragic po Ari-tojtluincs. the most celebrated writer of comedies in antiquity. Democritus, of Abdera, a city of Thrace, Hv called "the laughing philosopher," from CELEBRATED GRECIAN'S. 263 the scornful view he took of the follies and vani- ties of mankind. Thucydides, a celebrated Grecian historian, whose work is one of the most valuable and au- thentic records that has come down to our tini Heraclitus, a native of Ephesus, usually called " the weeping philosopher," from his mournful contemplation of the vices of the human race. Epicurus, an Athenian philosopher, whose name has become a general designation of those who make pleasure the chief end of life. Diogenes, of Sinope, the most celebrated ad- herent of a sect of philosophers, called the Cynic, from the Greek word signifying a dog, indicative of their snarling humour. Zeno, a native of Citium, in Cyprus, and the founder of the stoic sect of philosophers. Themistocles, an Athenian general, famed for his valour and address : he gained the signal vic- tory at Salamis; but, being afterwards banished by his ungrateful countrymen, he sought refu-j. at the court of Artaxerxes, king of Persia, and soon after poisoned himself. Aristides, an Athenian general and statesman, whose integrity procured for him the epithet of " The Just," He was the great rival of The- mistocles, whose jealousy led to his being banished by ostracism ; but he subsequently returned and distinguished himself by the combined vigour and mildness of his administration. Cimon, son of Miltiades, a famous general : he, too, was banished, but, at the expiration of five years, returned to Athens, and his gallant spirit, 264 CELEBRATED GRECIANS. forgetful of former injuries, once more animated the Greeks to fame and conquest Pericles, an Athenian statesman and orator, celebrated for his love of the fine arts : the age in which he flourished is called that of luxury, as he introduced a taste for expensive pleasures at Athens. In his time began the famous Pelopon- nesian war. Lysander, the renowned Spartan conqueror of Athens : the treasures which he then brought to Lacedemon insensibly corrupted the pure morals of its citizen-. Aloflbiadefl, a brave Athenian, who had some splendid virtues, counterbalanced by great vices: liis clmrart T was peculiarly magnificent and osten- tatious. He was killed by command of thje thirty tyrants imposed upon the Athenians by the vic- torious Spartan-. Thrasvhulus, the Athenian, who overturned the power of the thirty tyrants, and restored peace to his bleeding country. Xenophon, a warrior and historian ; who wrote the history of Cyrus, and the account of the retreat of the 10,000-Greeks after the battle of Cuuaxa ; which retreat he himself conducted. Socrates, an Athenian philosopher, whose mind too enlightened for the times in which he lived. The Athenians accused him of disrespect to their gods, and he fell a martyr to their sus- picion and vengeance, being condemned to take a. draught of hemlock. Agesilaus, a Spartan king, who gained many important victories in Asia and in Greece. CELEBRATED GRECIANS. 265 Pelopidas, a Theban general, who rescued his country from the Spartan yoke, assisted by the valour of his friend, Epaminondas. Epaminondas, a Theban warrior, who was as illustrious for his love of science and virtue as for his military talents. He gained two celebrated victories over the formidable Spartans, at Leuctra and Mantinea ; at the latter of wliich he fell. Philip, king of Macedon, and father of Ale x- ander the Great. By his great valour and con- summate address, he enlarged his dominions, and gained a fatal ascendency over the free republics of Greece. He gained the famous battle of Ch- ronea, and obtained various successes against the Thebans and Athenians. He was soon after killed by one of his own guards. Alexander the Great, a renowned conqueror. He ran a rapid career of what the world calls glory ; and after defeating the Persians and de- stroying their empire, he died at Babylon, as is supposed, from the effects of a fit of intemperance. Plato and Aristotle, celebrated philosophers. The latter was pupil of Plato, and tutor of Alex- ander the Great Demosthenes, the most celebrated Grecian orator. ^Eschines was his contemporary and rival. Pyrrhus, a king of Epirns. He conquered Macedonia from the successors of Alexander. His life was one continued scene of war and tumult. \/ 266 ABSTRACT CELEBRATED CHARACTERS FROM THE THIKD CENTURY BEFORE CHRIST TO THE MXTH CKXTURY AFTER CHRIST, INCLUSIVE. Cif.tm:s, a Rhodian statuary: he made the ce- lebrated Coloeeus, which was troyed by the ens : 'i 61 I'tian mathematician, famed for . inents of Geometry. Zoiln.<. an austere critic and accurate gram- marian, whose severe and illiberal criticisms on Homer, Isoeratr?, and Plato, made him generally dreaded. Theocritus, of Syracuse : his pastoral poems are written in the Doric dialect, and have been imi- ly Virgil, in his Bucolics. CaUimachus, an ancient Grecian poet : a few of I y mns only are extant. ^liimedes, of Syracuse; celebrated for his skill in mathematics and mechanics. He defended Syracuse against the Romans, commanded by MarcelhiSjby the wonderful machines he invented. He was killed when the city was taken, contrary to the express order of the noble-minded Roman general. ^/ CELEBRATED CHARACTERS. 267 r Ennius,& native of Calabria, usually designated the " Father of Roman Song," and from whom Virgil bert?owe*Pmany thoughts and expressions. Second Century before Christ. Plautus, a Latin dramatic author; famed for his comedies, his' poetry, and eloquence. Bion, of Smyrna, a Grecian poet: his Idyls were written with delicate simplicity. They are usually associated with those of Moschus, a con- terofterary pastoral poet.y^ Y Terence ,- a highly celebrated " dramatic Latin writer : six of his plays only remain. Aristarchus'y a critic and excellent grammarian ; his strictures on Homer were s^fferely just. PolybiuSy fher historian of Roman affairs : he accompanied Scipio in his military expeditions, and described his scenes' from actual knowledge. He wrote in Greek, y Last Century before Christ. Roscius, a celebrated Roman actor, never yet surpassed. Varro, a learned Roman writer : there are ex- tant three books of his Treatise on Husbandry, five on the Latin Tongue, and a few Epigrams, preserved by Scaliger. Cicero, famous as an orator, a statesman, and a philosopher. His learning and abilities have been the admiration of every age and country, and his style has always been held to be the true standard of pure Latinity. N 2 268 CELEBRATED CHARACTERS. Atticus, a noble Roman, the friend of Cicero, famed for the urbanity of his manner?, and his acquaintance with the niceties of his native lan- guage. Cato the Younger, one of the Stoic sect, rigid in his morals, and the firm friend of independence. After the battle of Pharsalia, which made C master of Rome, Cato stabbed himself at Utica, in Africa. Catullus, a Latin poet, and the friend of Cicero. His poetry is too licentious for a refined taste, and pure principles and ; Lucretius, a Roman philosopher, who wrote a poem, in which the philosophical tenets of Em- podocles and Epicurus are elucidated. \f~- Sallust, a Latin historian: all the remains of his works are Catili: .-piracy, and the \Vars of Jugurtha. Julius Casar, author of the celebrated Com- mentaries ; in which, the history of his own cam- paigns is related with a noble simplicity, which places him among the first Roman writers. Cajsar -sinated in the Senate at Rome, 44 years B.C. Virgil, prince of the Latin poets : his works are 1 . :i heroic or epic poem ; the Georgics, poetical treatises on agricultural subjects ; and or pastoral dialogues. His style i- remarkable for smoothness, and a fine strain of feeling. Properthis, an elegiac poet, contemporary and friend of Ovid and Virgil. Tibullus, the contemporary of Virgil and CELEBRATED CHARACTERS. 269 Horace: four books of his Elegies are extant, which display all the graces of style and senti- ment. Diodorus Sicnlus, author of the Egyptian, Per- sian, Median, Grecian, Roman, and Carthaginian History ; a valuable work, but many books of it are lost. y Vitruvius, a celebrated Roman architect: he flourished under Augustus. Cornelius Nepos, a Latin historian : his Lives of the Grecian and Carthaginian Generals is a valuable school-book. Y Horace, a Latin poet, the friend of Virgil. His odes, satires, and epistles are distinguished by their felicity of style and epigrammatic point, and above all by their good sense. Maecenas, the minister of Augustus, and the friend and patron of Horace, Virgil, and the galaxy of genius that then flourished at Rome, y Ovid, a Latin poet of lively genius: his works are numerous ; but his delicacy of sentiment by no means equals the purity of his diction. Strabo, the author of a e( Geography," cele- brated for elegance, purity, and universal know- ledge., y- First Century after Christ. i a native of Padua, the author of a cele- brated Roman history. It consisted of one hun- dred and seventy books, of which only thirty-five are extant. Phadrus, a writer of fables remarkable for their elegance and simplicity .y- N 3 270 CELEBRATED CHARACTERS. Valerius Maximus, author of a collection, or compilation, of celebrated anecdotes and maxims. Velleius Paterculus, a Roman historian, who composed an epitome of the Roman history. Celsus, celebrated as a physician at Rome : he wrote on medicine, agriculture, rhetoric, and mili- tary affairs : all his works, except that on medi- cine, are lost yr Y Seneca, eminent at Rome as a moralist, and the preceptor of Nero, who basely condemned him to death. Lucan, the nephew of Seneca, famed for his poem describing the wars between Caesar and . and entitled the Pharsalia. . . /' Arbiter, the dissolute cut accom- plished friend of Nero: he was a man of great abilities, but very lax moral! : Persius, a Roman satirical poet. Epictetus, a Grecian philosopher, author of the Encheiridion, or Compendium of Stoic Philosophy, a work much esteemed. Pliny the Elder, celebrated for his Natural History: he was suffocated by the vapour and ashes thrown out from Mount Vesuvius, during an eruption, to which, urged on by scientific curiosity, he approached too near. \f \/ JurriHil, a Roman poet, who lashed the vices of his age in elegant and nervous satiric poetry. Mnrtiiti, a Roman poet, chiefly noted for his epigra:; Quint il'tan, an orator, and rhetorician, the cele- brated instructor of youth : his Institutes of Ora- tory are deservedly in high estimation. CELEBRATED CHARACTERS. 271 ' Tacitus, a noble Roman historian, remarkable for strength and conciseness of style : he wrote a treatise on the manners of the Germans, the life of Agricola, and the annals of the Roman empire u4er Tiberius, Nero, and Caligula. ^~ V Pliny the Younger, nephew of the' elder Pliny, famed for his love of polite literature : lie wrote ten books of elegant letters to his friends, which are still extant. \ ^* Second Century after Christ. (Plutarch, an eminent Grecian biographer: his Lives of Illustrious Characters will ever be read with pleasure and admiration. Suetonius, a rhetorician and grammarian: he wrote the Lives of the Twelve Caesars, but in a very incorrect style. \J ^Aulus Gellius, a Roman grammarian and rhe- torician : author of the Attic Nights, a selection of detached remarks, written at Athens, whence it takes its name. Lucian, a Greek satiric writer: he composed Dialogues of the Dead, and other works, which were enlivened by wit, but sometimes disgraced by profaneness and indecency. V""* \^Apuleius i a celebrated philosopher, and author of the well-known allegory, called the " Golden Ass." Galen, a Greek physician, unrivalled by his contemporaries in, surgery and medicine : he wrote many volumes on the science of medicine : five only have been transmitted to posterity. \ ^/Paitsanias, a Grecian historian, celebrated for N 4 272 CELEBRATED CHARACTERS. his geographical knowledge : he wrote a descrip- tion of Greece. Celsus, an Epicurean philosopher and writer against Christianity. Diogenes Laertius, author of the Lives of the Philosophers. Justin, a Latin historian, and abridger of an universal history. ^f* Third Century after Christ. Herodian, a Greek writer, author of a Roman history, in eight books: the style is elegant, but deficient in accuracy. Dion Cassius, the author of a Roman history, from the foundation of the city down to the reign of Alexander Severn?. \/"" Longinus, a Greek critic and philosopher, au- thor of a treatise on the Sublime, part of which is extant: he was secretary to the celebrated Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, in Asia. Fourth Century after Christ. Eusclius, a Christian bishop of Crcsarea, born in Palestine, and author of an ecclesiastical history, Aurdius Victor, a Roman biographer of the lives of the Caisars, from Julius to Julian: t! writer is minute and faithful. Quintus Curtius, a Latin historian, celebrated for his History of Alexander the Great, compiled with great elegance of style, but great inattention to chronological arrangement : his history was in ten books: the two first being lost, have K-cn CELEBRATED CHARACTERS. 273 well supplied by Freinshemius, a learned German, historian to Christina, queen of Sweden. ' / Macrolius, a Latin writer, whose criticisms and miscellaneous observations are thought valuable by the learned. Eutropius, a Latin writer, whose Roman history, being short and easy, is much used as a school- V Ammianus Marcellinus, the last Latin writer tnat merits the appellation of an historian. Claudian, an Egyptian, and Latin poet: his works were miscellaneous. \ x -* \ Fifth Century after Christ. Musceus, a Greek poet, famed for his lives of Hero and Leander: a poem sometimes erroneously attributed to the Musaeus who flourished in the time of Orpheus. Boethius, a Roman, banished to Milan, by Theo- doric, king of the Ostrogoths, where he wrote his celebrated Consolations of Philosophy. 274 ABSTRACT OF BRITISH BIOGRAPHY CONTAINING TOE MOST EMINENT PERSONS WHO HAVE FLOURISHED IN THE UNITED KINGDOM, ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE DATE OF THEIR DEATH. Man in society is like a flower Blown in its native bed : 'tis there alone -icultics, expanded in full bloom, Shine out ; there only reach their proper uf. COWPER'S Task. A. ROGER A horn in Yorkshire, 1515; died, 1568. He was Latin secretary and tutor to Queen Elizabeth, an excellent Greek scholar, and wrote a treatise on the education of youth, for which he was eminently qualified. ph Addison, born in Wiltshire, 1672 ; died, 1719. He is distinguished as a poet and moralist ; and his prose style is marked by its elegance and He was appointed one of the secretaries of state' in Queen Anne's reign: and was a liberal contributor to the Tatler, Spectator, and Guar- dian. .-- yy Francis Atterbvry, bishop of Rochester, born in Berkshire, in 1662 ; died, 1732. He was accused of treasonable practices in the reign of George the KlllTISH BIOGRAPHY. 275 First, and banished the kingdom : but whatever were his political opinions, his writings show him to have been a man of first-rate abilities. /^ George Lord Anson, a brave British officer, born in Staffordshire, 1697 ; died, 1762. He- was celebrated for his naval victories, and his voyage round the world. 6 ? *J*AS Mark Akenside, a physician and poet, born at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1721 ; died, 1770. His fame rests chiefly on his beautiful^ poem, called The Pleasures of Imagination. ySir Richard Arkwright, a distinguished me- chanician, born at Preston, in Lancashire, 1732; died, 1792. His first employment was that of a barber ; but by the invention of machinery for the spinning of cotton, he added in an extra- ordinary degree to his country's wealth ; and be- carn^ himself possessed of a handsome fortune. \fSir Ralph Abercromly, born in Clackmannan- shire, 1738; died, 1801. After nearly forty years' service in the army, he was appointed Commander-in-chief of the British forces in the West Indies : and by his active exertions, Deme- rara and the islands of St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and Trinidad were added to the British conquests. On his return he was subsequently sent to dis- possess the French of Egypt ; and on the 21st of March, at the battle of Alexandria (so glorious to his country's arms), he received a mortal wound. / Thomas Arnold, D.D., born at Cowes, Isle of AVight, 1790; died, 1842. This distinguished scholar was head master of Rugby school, and Professor of Modern History at Oxford. His N 6 276 BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. y and Lectures on hi-r. ry have given him a high place among the writers of the age; but he was no less remarkable for the bene- volence, purity, aii'l integrity of his character than for his enthusiasm for learning. Few can equal him in talents and attainments : his Clir' character may be imitated by alL Jane Austen, born in Hampshire, 1775 : died, 1817. Her numerous prose fictions, but espe- cially " Pride and Prejudice/ and " Sense and Sensibility," still enjoy great popularity, and are distinguished bv trutlifiilness of delineation and '^s simplicity of styl B Bede, surnamcd " The Venerable, " born in the pric of Durham, 673 ; died, 735. His eccle- sia-tical hi~trv of P>ritaia is still quoted as an authority Xi'-holas Breaksperc, (Adrian IV.) the only En- glishman who lias attained the papal dignity, born at Langley, near St. Alban's, 1094; died, 1159. A ft. Tan ineffectual attempt to obtain adm into an English monastery, of which his lather was servitor, he went to France, became a clerk in the monastery of St. liufus, near Avijnon. of which a at'terwards chosen abbot, and sub~oOYn.m Bedfordshire, 1628 ; died, 1688. lie was a tinker, a soldier, and finally a preacher of the Gospel : his name is perpetuated BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 279 by " The Pilgrim's Progress," the most popular allegory in the English language. d 7** Honourable Robert Boyle, seventh son of Richard, the great Earl of Cork, born at Lismore in Ireland, 1627 ; died, 1691. This highly distin- guished philosopher is worthy to be ranked with Newton and Bacon. His whole life was devoted to philosophical pursuits ; and his discoveries and voluminous productions have proved of the highest utility to science. Robert Barclay, a Quaker, born in Edinburgh, 1648 ; died, 1692. He was a celebrated writer in defence of the principles of his own sect. > Richard Busby, born in Lincolnshire, 1606 ; died, 1695. He was, for many years, the master of Westminster school, and an excellent gram- marian and linguist. Gilbert Burnet, bishop of Salisbury, born at Edinburgh, 1643 ; died, 1715. He is memorable for his '' History of the Reformation," and a " History of his own Times." Charles Boyle, earl of Orrery, born in Ireland, 1676 ; died, 1731. He was a great mathema- tician ; and the machine representing the solar system, having received his approbation, was called, after his title, an Orrery. Richard Bentley, born at Wakefield, 1662; died, 1742. His literary character, as a critic, is known throughout Europe. Joseph Butler, bishop of Durham, born in Berk- shire, 1692 ; died, 1752. This able and learned prelate was the author of the " Analogy of Re- vealed and Natural Religion," a work which for 280 BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. depth of reasoning and clear logical arrangement has never been surpassed. George Berkeley, bishop of Cloyne, born in Ire- land, 1684 : died, 1753. He was a metaphysical writer of great celebrity, and his virtues have been highly eulogized by Pope and other distin- guished men of the age. His hypothesis of the non-existence of material objects in nature other- thau in mind made much noise in his time. y James Z?riW/ey,born in Derbyshire, 1716: died, 1772. This rrj lumic, though des- titute of the advantages of education, was the planner of the Duke of Bridgewater's canal from y to Mancht-st'-r : lie designed one of still r extent, from the Trent to the Mearsey.5# j X/> H'f/ii>nu Klackstojie, born in London, 1723; 1, 1780. He was very eminent as :i lawyer; and his Commentaries on the Laws of England have done more to make the nature of the Ikit constitution intelligible to his countrymen, than any work published before or since. , \ Jtnm-s /!/>;, tin- Abyssinian traveller, born in Stirlingshire, 1730; died, 1794. His journey to Ab\>-inia t rins an epoch in the annals of dis- covery, lie made great accessions to the sciences of geography and natural history : and his state- men i their first promulgation were assailed by doubt and ridicule, hav rerifitl or corroborated by all subsequent travellers.^- Rulxrt /;/////.>-. the national poet of born in Ayr "n having routed them all except one, who was masked, discovered him to be his pupil, whereupon he fell on his knee, and presented his sword to the young prince, who basely stabbed him to the heart. Jl'>' Ilium Cecil, lord Burleigh, a celebrated -man, born in Lincolnshire, 1521; died, 1598. as Lord High Treasurer to Queen Elizabeth for twenty-seven years, and one of the chief sup- porters of her government ; and though he might iccuinulatcd riches, yet his disinterestedness was so great, that at his death he left only a small portion for his family. This great and good man irmly attached to the principles of the re- formed faith and the queen had the strongest reliance upon the wisdom of his administration. BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 287 William Camden, an antiquary, born in London, 1551; died, 1623. He was author of "The Britannia," a work which contains the history of the ancient British, their origin, manners, and laws. Camden was not less illustrious for his virtues than for his learning. Sir Edward Coke, Lord Chief Justice of Eng- land, bora in Norfolk, 1549; died, 1634. He was an excellent lawyer, and had studied his profession thoroughly : his best work is the " In- stitutes of the Laws of England." V/^" Lucius Carey, lord Falkland, born in Oxford- shire, 1610; died, 1644. He was the most ac- complished nobleman of the time in which he lived; and resisted the arbitrary measures of Charles the First, as far as his conscience would permit; but when civil war actually broke out he (being an advocate for monarchy) thought it his duty to follow the king's standard, and fell at the battle of Newbury, defending his cause gal- lantly. \^^>3t/ / W*. y William Chillingworth, a divine, born in Oxford- shire, 1602; died, 1644. He was a celebrated controversial writer, and more than once changed his own religious opinions. He studied the Scrip- tures with great attention, and was accustomed to say, that the Bible alone is the religion of Protestants. ^ Zlfi Abraham Cowley, a celebrated poet, born in London, 1618 ; died, 1667. He had great genius, and an amiable character. \ \ Anthony Ashley Cooper, earl of Shaftesbury, born 1671; died, 1713. He greatly distinguished 288 BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. himself as a statesman and philosopher, and his ' Characteristics of Men, Manners," c., will long be read as a spirited and elegant work, though it is greatly tinged with scepticism,// ''*&* John Churchill, duke of Maryborough, born in Devonshire, 1650; died. 1722. This renowned general and statesman commanded Queen Anne's . and gained the victories of Blenheim, Ra- milies, Oudenard, and Malplaqitttt /J2 Dr. Shes, he became a lunatic./* Thomas Chatter ton, a poet, po traordinarv m-niu^. born :it l>ristol, 1752 : di' 1 77<. He first came into notice as the editor of some poems which he averred were written by Rowley, a priest, who rlouri.-hed in the tifir century. He declared that he found these pro- ductions in a chest in Rcdcliff church, Bristol ; but it was soon generally believed that they were the offspring of his own muse, though the truth has never yet been ascertained. Xot meeting BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 289 with the friends he expected, and having strong unbridled passions, Chattorton, in a fit of despair, put an end to his life by a dose of poison. y^Robert Lord Clive, baron of Plassey, born in Shropshire, 1725 ; died, 1774. He rose from a comparatively humble station to be Governor- General of India, and by his valour and conduct secured to the East India Company a vast acces- sion of territory. After the well-fought battle of Plassey, he was created a peer; and from the Mogul he received a grant of lands worth 27,000/. a year. His great wealth exposed him to an accusation in the House of Commons of having abused his power ; but though the. charge fell to the ground, it preyed so deeply on his mind that he put an end to his life. Jy *f ^. * Captain James Cook, born in Yorkshire, 1728 ; died, 1779. This celebrated navigator sailed three times round the world, and his discoveries have been of the most essential service to nautical and geographical knowledge. He was Tdlled at one of the Sandwich isles, in a skirmish with the natives.^ / Y~ William Cowper, the bard of truth and feeling, born in Hertfordshire, 1731 ; died in 1800. He had the most original genius; and his works, while they possess all the imagery and fire of true poetry, are the most persuasive sermons, bringing the great truths of Christianity, and the moral duties, home to the hearts of his readers. The poet Hay ley published Cowper's " Letters "; and this confidential correspondence shows him in a new, and still more amiable, light. ^ L t o 290 BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. Charles Cornwallis, marquis Cornwallis, born in England, 1738 ; died in India, 180o. In Ame- rica, and as Governor-General of the East Indies, he eminently shone as a patriot, warrior, and phi- lanthropist. Cuthbert Colliriywood, lord Collingwood, a dis- tinguished naval officer, born at Xewcastle-upon- Tyne, 1750; died off Minorca, 1810. He served with great distinction in America and the AYest O Indies; and bore a conspicuous part in the victories of Lord Howe nver the French fleet, Jervis at Cape St. Vincent, and Nelson at Trafalgar; where, after the death of England's naval hero, he as- :ied the command. As a scie^ific seaman, he had few equals : in command he was firm but mild ; in action his judgment was as cool as his courage %\as warm; and the extraordinary en- lightenment of ; : ing the circum- ires, of his li ifieil by hL letters to his e on the education of his daughters, which are full of good sense and feeling. Dr. Edward Daniel Clark, a celebrated modern traveller, born, 1707; died, 1821. His volu- minous Travels in Kurope, Asia, and part of Africa, will always be esteemed for their graphic and faithful delineations of the men and countries which he visited. George Catmint/, born in London, 1771 ; died, 1827. iJnrn in humble circumstances, he raised himself, by wit, talent, and eloquence, to the highest deduction. After having been long a member of the ministry, he had risen to the rank of premier, when his premature death took place. BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 291 ^Dr. Adam Clarke, an eminent scholar and an- tiquary, born, 1762 ; died, 1832. He belonged to the Wesleyan community, in which he was an able preacher ; but he is chiefly known for his laborious tf Commentary on the Bible," and a useful " Bib- liographical Dictionary. "7 i ' ^ George Crabbe, born in Suffolk, 1754; died, 1832. This distinguished poet was trained to the medical profession ; but his passion for literature led him to abandon it, and he came to London as a literary adventurer. Here he had to struggle at first with great difficulties ; but he subsequently obtained the acquaintance and friendship of Edmund Burke, whose conduct towards the poet forms a brilliant chapter in his history. He was induced to enter the church : and began a career of prosperity, which continued till his death. His poems are distinguished by simplicity, pathos, force, and truth , and his moral character is an almost perfect model, v j r. William Carey, born, 1761; died, 1834. A profound Oriental scholar and divine, whose varied attainments raised him from a comparatively low station in life to a professor's chair in Fort William College, Calcutta. He was celebrated for his translations of the Bible into numerous Eastern languages and dialects, and for his collections in natural history. 7 * Samuel Taylor Coleridge, born in Devonshire, 1772 ; died, 1834. This distinguished poet and philosopher was the friend of Southey and Words- worth, in conjunction with whom he published the " Lyrical Ballads," which laid the foundation of a o 2 292 BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. new school of poetry in England. His " Ancient Mariner ?J and " Christabel " display great original genius. His translation of Schiller's " "Wallenstein" is deservedly considered as a masterpiece : and he was long the only representative of German metaphysics in England. He was also celebrated for his extraordinary conversational powers. ' \S^~William CoM^tf, born in Surrey, 1762; died, 183o. Though the public life and political conduct of this extraordinary man cannot be held up to imitation, it has been truly said of him, that birth, station, employment, ignorance, temper, character in rarly life were all against him; but he . from and overcame them all. He published numerous works on a variety of sub- jects; but he will be chiefly remembered for his Political Rt/gi.-ter," and Grammars of the French and Knglish Languages, which liavc had a large ilation. Sir Astley Paston Cooper, born in Norfolk, 1768; died, 1841. At an early age he discovered a great aptitude for anatomical pursuits, and be- came the must popular lecturer on anatomy of the day. He published several works of great utiii but his fame rests chiefly on the extraordinary facility with which he performed the most diffi- cult operations. ***,/ I 'rands Chant n-y, born near Sheffield, 1781 ; died, 1841. Though of humble birth, he soon rose to the first rank as a sculptor, and during a long and successful career executed busts and statues of nearly all the eminent men of his era ; but the st lasting monument of his fame will be one BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 293 of his earliest productions, the exquisite group of " Sleeping Children " in Lichfield cathedral.^^ S Allan Cunningham, born in Dumfriesshire, 1780; died, 1842. Originally bred as a mason, by dint of his talents, he raised himself to a high position as a poet and novelist ; and his Biography of Burns and of Wilkie, and his " Lives of the Painters," &c., have become standard works in English literature, b ' Thomas Campbell, th6 most purely correct and classical poet of his age, was born in Glasgow, 1777 ; died at Boulogne, 1844. His "Pleasures of Hope," published at the early age of twenty- one, is replete with romantic beauty and generous enthusiasm; his "Gertrude of Wyoming" abounds in the most beautiful home-scenes, and is marked by the most perfect delineation of character and passion ; his "O'Connor's Child" is full of antique grace and passionate energy, while his noble lyrics or war sorgs form the richest offering ever made by poetry at the shrine of patriotism. His prose works also are numerous ; and his " Specimens of the British Poets " are models of chaste yet ani- mated criticism. ^ / 4 Dr. Thomas Chalmers, a voluminous writer, and one of the most eminent preachers of his time, born in Fifeshire, 1780 ; died, 1847. For a long time he remained in the quiet discharge of his parochial duties at Kilmany ; but on his powers of eloquence becoming known, he removed to Glas- gow, and was in succession Professor of Moral Philosophy at St. Andrews, and of Theology in Edinburgh. His works are all distinguished for o 3 294 BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. enlarged views and energetic expression, but his greatest and most original work is his " Astrono- mical Discourses/' which enjoys a European fume. | D. Gaicin Douglas, bishop of Dunkeld, born in Angusshire, 1474; died of the plague, 1522. His original poems, and his translation of the J-liu-id, display great elegance and spirit; and he was one of the most distinguished luminaries of the 10th century. *y 5 '%* Robert Dudlry* earl of Leicester, born, 1532; died, 1588. lie was created by Elizabeth earl of Leicester, and though pride, insolence, and ility di-tingui.-hcd his character, he continued in high favour at court to the time of his death. Sir Frcuicis Drake, born in Devonshire, 1545; died, 1596. This distinguished naval officer served under Queen Elizabeth with high reputation ; he made also a voyage round the world. Devereux, earl of Essex, born in Herefordshire, 1567 ; died, 1601. He distinguished himself at the 1 tattle of Zutphen, and on his return to England was appointed by Elizabeth her master of the horse. She afterwards gave him a commission to quell a rebellion in Ireland; but his return to England without the queen's permission so highly offended her that she deprived him of his offices, and imprisoned him for a term. On his release, he had the imprudence to use some improper ex- pressions respecting his sovereign ; and having, in a fit of ungovernable passion attempted to arm his BRITISH BIO&RAPHY. 295 friends in his defence, he was seized, tried, and beheaded : but Elizabeth, from that day, lost her cheerfulness, and continually regretted his death. \/ William Drummond, a celebrated Scotch poet, born at Hawthornden, near Edinburgh, 1585 ; died, 1649. His poems are replete with tender- ness and delicacy. His friendship with Ben Jon- son is well known. Grief for the fate of Charles the First is said to have accelerated his death, b ^J Sir William Davenant, born in Oxford, 1605 ; died, 1668. He succeeded Ben Jonson as poet laureate, and his works consist of dramas, masques, and an unfinished epic ; but he is chiefly remem- bered for being the introducer of the Opera into England. John Dryden, an excellent English poet, born in Northamptonshire, 1631 ; died 1700. His plays, poems, and translations are universally known and admired. He was buried in West- minster Abbey. Daniel Dtfoe, born in London, 1660; died 1731. He was a political writer, and tolerable poet ; but he is now best known as the author of " Robinson Crusoe," a pleasing and instruc- tive romance, founded on the real history of Alexander Selkirk, who lived four years upon the desolate isle of Juan Fernandez. \/ Philip Doddridge, an eminent dissenting divine, born in London, 1702 ; died, 1751. His amiable disposition and manners, ministerial assiduity, piety, and learning have caused him to be regarded as one of the ornaments of the religious com- o 4 296 BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. inunity to which he belonged. His "Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul" and his " Family Expositor " have been of incalculable benefit in cherishing a deep spirit of piety, and form en- during monuments of his fam . Y~~RobertDodsley, born in Nottinghamshire, 1703; died, 1764. He rose by merit and genius from a footman to be an eminent bookseller, published some poems and dramas of merit, and was the pro- jector of the " Annual Register," and many other ful work.-. ' ^~* Dr. Erasmus Darwin, of Derby, born in Not- tinghamshire, 1721, a physician and poet ; died, 1802. Author of many beautiful poems, particu- larly the " Botanic Garden*' : his "Zoonomia" and " Pythologia," the one containing experiments in natural productions, and medical effects, the other the philosophy of agriculture and gardening, con- vey elevated ideas of the author's mental powers, though it must be admitted they were greatly perverted. \/^Adam Duncan, viscount Duncan of Camper- down, a distinguished naval officer, born at Dun- dee, 1731; died, 1804. He commanded the North Sea fleet, 1795; subsequently shared in the gal- lant exploits of Keppel and Rodney, and fmally gained the brilliant victory over the Dutch off Campenlown, for which he was elevated to the peerage. Charfrs Dibdin, a dramatist, poet, and actor, born at Southampton, 174,3; died, 1814. Many of his theatrical pieces were successful ; but his chief fame rests on his naval songs, which breathe BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 297 an unrivalled spirit of truth and loyalty, and have exercised a most favourable influence on the British sailors. His sons, Thomas and Charles, both distinguished themselves in the same walks of literature ; the latter died in 1833, the former in 1841. Sir Humphry Davy, born at Penzance, 1778 ; died, 1829. His invention of the safety lamp, and other important inventions and discoveries, raised him to the first rank among chemical philo- sophers, and have given him an imperishable name. In 1820 he was elected president of the Royal Society. His " Consolations of Travel " are replete with the soundest lessons of wisdom and philosophy. J~/-* E. \r John Evelyn, born in Surrey, 1620; died, 1706. His " Sylva, or a Discourse on Forest Trees," is well-known, and his " Autobiography " is one of the most interesting literary productions ever given to the world. He was one of the first fellows of the Royal Society. f / %e<2. George Augustus JEliott, born in Roxburghshire, 1718; died, 1790. A gallant British general, and the noble defender of Gibraltar against the united efforts of France and Spain. He was raised to the peerage by the title of Lord Heathfield and Baron Gibraltar. His steady military discipline, self-denial, and temperance, form an excellent example for all young men of his profession. i^Iiichard Lovel Edgeicorth, born at Bath, 1744 ; died in Ireland, 1817. He was educated for the o 5 298 BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. profession of the law, but, directing his studies to the mathematical sciences, he became an excellent mechanist, and the inventor of many ingenious and useful instruments. He was the father of the popular author Maria Edgeworth, in con- junction with whom he wrote some valuable observations on education. / '" Y Hon. Thomas Erskinc, son of the earl of Buchan, born, 1750; died, 1823. He was perhaps the most powerful advocate that ever pleaded at the English bar. He was engaged in most of the trial- that occurred towards the end of the last century ; and some leading, but, till his ap- pearance, disputed, constitutional doctrines (for instance, in regard to trial by jury,) have been firmly established by his exertions. In 1806 he was raised to the dignity of Lord Chancellor, and created a peer by the title of Lord Erskine. ' /' F. John Fox, born at Boston, in Lincolnshire, 1517 ; died, 1587. Originally a Roman Catholic, he embraced the principles of the Reformation with such zeal that he was expelled from Oxford on a charge of heresy, and suffered considerable persecution under Mary, but on the accession of Elizabeth he was restored to favour, and received a prebendal stall in the Cathedral of Salisbury. His " History of the Acts and Monuments of the Church," commonly called "Fox's Book of Martyr-." a work of great popularity, though its veracity lias often been called in question. BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 299 the only one of his numerous productions that has survived. Sir Martin Frobisher, an English navigator, born in Yorkshire, time uncertain; died, 1594. He bore a great share in three attempts to dis- cover the north-west passage, and fought against the Spanish Armada with determined bravery. Dr. Thomas Fuller, born in Northampton- shire, 1608; died, 1661. He was an English historian and divine : his chief work is entitled " The Worthies of England." All his writings are replete with learning, wit, and humour. i~3^ George Fox, born in Leicestershire, 1624 ; died, 1690. The founder of the sect called Quakers, or Friends. He was apprenticed to a shoemaker, but having an enthusiastic mind, commenced itinerant preacher. He affirmed that the light of Christ in the heart is the only qualification for the ministry, and that the order of clergy is un- necessary. Fox was imprisoned, and, for a time, silenced ; but he propagated his opinions in Hol- land, Germany, and America. His followers were called Quakers, from their frequent trem- blings ; and they now constitute a very peaceable, rqspectable, and actively benevolent religious body. <. < John Flamsteed, born in Derbyshire, 1646; died, 1719. He was celebrated for astronomical and mathematical knowledge ; and upon the erection of the Greenwich Observatory he was appointed astronomer royal. He composed the British cata- logue of fixed stars, and published several works both on astronomy and the mathematics. Henry Fielding, born in Somersetshire, 1707 ; o G 300 BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. died, 17.54. His first literary productions were plays ; but liis fame as an author is perpetuated in his novels, several of which, but more es- pecially his " Tom Jones," will be always perused with delight for their accurate descriptions of life, and the genuine humour and knowledge of human nature they display. \/ William Falconer, born at Edinburgh, 1730. His " Universal Marine Dictionary " was long in general use in the navy; but his chief fame rests upon " The Shipwreck," a beautiful poem which is still read with delight, and may be re- commended to young sailors, not only to excite their enthu.-ia*m but to improve their seaman- ship. II is fate was a melancholy one. He was appointed purser to the Aurora frigate, which sailed from England, Sept. 30, 1769, touched at the Cape of Good Hope in December on her vtiyair.- to India, and was never heard of after. James Ferguson, born in Scotland, 1710; died, 1776. lie was a self-taught genius, having, merely by unwearied application, attained high astronomical eminence. His great work is, " As- tronomy explained on Sir Isaac Newton's Prin- tfples." Samuel Foote, born in Cornwall, 1722; died, 1777. He was a distinguished wit, wrote for the stage, and occasionally performed in his own pic llitjht lion. Charl's James Fox, a distinguished statesman and orator, and the great rival of Mr. Pitt, born, 1748 ; died, 1806. Parties have dif- fered, and will still continue to differ, as to his BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 301 politics: but all will allow the honesty of the man ; all must bow to the conviction of his lofty mind and gigantic talents. His nephew, the late Lord Holland, inherited much of his genius and zeal for the popular cause. He was distinguished also for his learning, wit, and hospitality. t^John Flaxman,}x>rn at York, 1755 ; died, 1826. This distinguished sculptor executed many beau- tiful groups and designs, and became professpr of sculpture in the Royal Academy. ' G. Sir Thomas Gresham, born in died, 1579. This princely merchant erected the Koyal Exchange at his own expense in Queen Elizabeth's reign ; and to her three predecessors, Henry, Edward, and Mary, he had been emi- nently serviceable. He converted his own house into a college for the profession of the liberal sciences, and left perpetual salaries for the pro- > lessors. Though steadily attentive to business ' he applied himself in his leisure hours, with much success, to literature, that he gained the appellation of the Learned Merchant. {/' Thomas Guy,, son of a lighterman in down, Southwark, born, 1643; died, 1724. was apprenticed to a bookseller, and by attention to business, and extreme parsimony, accumulated immense riches. He built Guy's Hospital, in the Borough, which cost 18,793/. ; and left by will 219,499/. to endow it. To Christ's Hospital he bequeathed 400/. a year for ever; and 80,OOOZ. _ BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. (the residue of his estate) was distributed among those who could claim any affinity to him. John Gay, an eminent poet, born in Devonshire, 1688 ; died, 1732. He was intimate with all the it men of his age ; and his fables, poems, and dramatic pieces still retain their popularity. Thomas Gray, born in London, 1716; died, 1771. His learning and taste were great; but his fame chiefly rests upon his lyric poems, which, u r h few in number, have never been surpassed in excellence. 1 ! _-y in a Country Church Yard," even though he had written nothing else, would have sufficed to place him in the foremost rank of British poete. J" Dr. John Gregory, born at Aberdeen, 1724: died, 1773. Eminent as a physician, but still more by his writings in favour of morality. His mparative View of the State of Man and other Animals," and " A Father's Legacy to his Daughters," have been universally road. His son, Dr. James Gregory, succeeded Dr. Cullen, as professor of the practice of physic in Edinburgh University ; and published, among other valuable works, the treatise so well known as " Grcgorv's Oliver Goldsmith, a poet, born in Longford, Ireland, 1728; died, 1774. lie subsisted chiefly by his pen ; and his varied life may instruct those who are entering into its bu- -. He w. by turns a poet, historian, writer of plays, and natural philosopher ; and his " Vicar of Wake- field," " Traveller," and Deserted Milage," will retain their popularity so long as there is taste to appreciate the productions of genius. Jj ' BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 303 David Garrich, born in Herefordshire, 1716; died, 1779. The most celebrated actor that ever trod the English stage, and an author of no small eminence in the lighter walks of literature. Thomas Gainsborough, born in Suffolk, 1727; died, 1788. An eminent portrait and landscape painter, equally distinguished by talents and vir- tues. His portraits have been compared to Van- dyke's and Rubens'; his landscapes to those of Claude Lorraine. 6 /*-, Francis Grose, famed as an antiquary, born, 1731 ; died, 1791. Besides numerous other works, he published the " Antiquities of England and Wales," in a series of engravings ; and afterwards those of Scotland and Ireland. Edward Gibbon, born in Surrey, 1737; died, 1794. He was the learned historian of the " De- cline and Fall of the Roman Empire ; " which, it is to be regretted, breathes throughout a spirit of hostility to Christianity. William Gifford, born at Ashburton, in Devon- shire, 1757 ; died, 1826. In spite of a neglected education, his talents displayed themselves in a strong thirst for knowledge ; and he rose to be one of the best critics and most able political writers of his time. He was one of the founders, and long the editor, of the Quarterly Review, and besides a number of miscellaneous productions, published an admirable translation of Juvenal, and valuable editions of Massinger, Ben Jonson, and other early English poets. William Godwin, born at Wisbeach, Cambridge- shire, 1756; died, 1836. His name as a writer is chiefly known in connection with his " Treatise 304 BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. on Political Justice ; " but his best title to fame is derived from his novels, " Caleb Williams," " St. Leon," and " Cloudesley," which display great powers of observing and portraying character, and are otherwise replete with interest. His wife was the celebrated Mary Wolstoncroft, and his daughter. Mr.-. Shelley, obtained considerable re- putation in the literary world by her novel called " Frankenstein," and other works. John Gait, born in Ayrshire, 1779 ; died, 1839. This voluminous author wrote on an infinite va- >f subjects; but he is chiefly celebrated as a novelist, and his "Ayrshire Legatees" and "Annuls of the ParL-h *' will ever secure him a high rank for genuine humour and a faithful delineation of character. H. Henry Howard, earl of Surrey, born, 1516; died, 1546; accomplished in all the learning of the times, and in all kinds of courtly and chival- rous exercises. He was also the best English poet of his age ; and his poetry is remarkable for a flowing melody, gentle and melancholy pathos, and purity of expression. He was the first to introduce the sonnet and blank verse into English poetry. Having fallen under the displeasure of Henry VIII.. he was beheaded on Tower Hill. John Hooper, one of the most venerated martyrs of the Reformation, born in Somersetshire, 1495 ; died, 1555. He wus appointed bishop of Worcester by Edward VI. : but on the accession of Mary BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 305 he was required to recant his opinions, and on his refusal was condemned to the flames. Richard Hooker, born near Exeter, 1553 ; died, 1600. The mildness of his temper, joined to his piety and great learning, procured him the esteem of his contemporaries ; and his great work, called the " Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity," is still looked upon as one of the chief bulwarks of the Church of England, and of ecclesiastical es- tablishments in general. John Hampden, a celebrated patriot, born in London, 1594 ; died, 1643. He was the defender of his country's liberties against the arbitrary measures of Charles the First, and fell in the battle of Chalgrove Field, Oxford. Thomas Howard, earl of Arundel, born, 1586 ; died, 1646. He was employed in several diplo- matic missions by James the First and Charles the First; but is chiefly remarked for his pa- tronage of the fine arts and his unrivalled museum of antiquities. The celebrated " Parian Chro- nicle," now at Oxford University, formed part of his collection, and, together with the inscribed stones accompanying it, is hence called the Arundelian Marbles. William Harvey, the discoverer of the circula- tion of the blood, born at Folkstone, in Kent, 1578; died, 1659. He published his important discovery in 1628. He possessed a truly philo- sophic indifference to wealth and fame, which preserved him from all spirit of rivalry and jea- lousy. His researches led him to entertain the most profound reverence for the Universal Creator 306 BRITISH BIOGKAl'IIY. and Ruler, to whose immediate agency he ascribed all the wonderful operations of nature with which he was acquainted. He wrote in Latin, and his style is perspicuous, easy, and, at times, eloquent. Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon, born in AVilt- shire, 1608 ; died, 1673. He was famed as a statesman and politician, and was chancellor of England, but is best known by his " History of the Rebellion." Sir Mattlmc Hale, born in Gloucestershire, 1606; died, 1676. He was chief justice of the King's Bench. As a lawyer his reputation is high, and his integrity unimpcached ; the only spot upon his memory is the fact of his having condemned two wretched women for witchcraft, at Bury St. Edmund's, in 1665. Thomas Hobbcs, born at Malmesbury, 1588; died, 1679. He lived on intimate terms with :i, Ben Jonson, and all the distinguished men of his time ; became tutor to the Prince of Wales, afterwards Charles the Second ; and though many of his philosophical and political opinions have been condemned, he must be considered as the lather of psychology, and the first great English writer on the science of Government. X/> John Holt, lord chief justice of the King's Bench, born in Oxfordshire, 1642; died, 1709. lie wa- an able, learned judge ; and his resolution and firmness of mind were such, that neither the smiles nor frowns of the great could prevail upon him to swerve, in the slightest degree, from what he believed to be truth and law. Mat then- Jlennj, born in Shropshire, 1662; BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 307 died, 1714. A learned nonconformist divine. His piety and good works have made him re- spected by all persuasions. His chief work is, " An Exposition of the Bible," which has been frequently reprinted. Edmund Halley, a celebrated astronomer, born in London, 1656 ; died, 1742. His observations and discoveries have been of the greatest use to the astronomical and mathematical world. He was the first who proved that comets form a con- stituent part of the solar system, and revolve re- gularly round the sun : the comet whose periodical return he predicted is universally styled Halley's comet. James Hervey, born in Northamptonshire, 1714 ; died, 1758. His piety and amiable character are undisputed; and his "Meditations among the Tombs " and several other religious works have been much admired, though they abound in turgid declamation and strained fancies. William Hogarthj born in London, 1697 ; died 1764. This celebrated painter and engraver long continued in obscurity till his " Harlot's Progress," " Rake's Progress," and " Marriage a la Mode " turned the public attention upon him. Hogarth is the first English painter that can be said to have acquired any name among foreigners. David Hume, a philosopher and historian, born in Edinburghshire, 1711 ; died 1776. He pub- lished many tracts ; but the most distinguished of his works are, his " Treatise on Human Nature," his " Essays," and his " History of England," \\Mch, with all its inaccuracies, still retains its BRITISH BIOUHAPIIY. popularity, owing to the attraction of the style in which it is written. Selina, Countess of Huntingdon, distinguished in the religious history of the last century, born 1707 ; died, 1791. She was one of the daugh- ters and coheiresses of Earl Ferrers, and, after the death of her husband, she warmly attached herself to the Calvinistic Methodist?, and spent her large fortune in the support of their prin- ciples, and in acts of private charity. She founded a college at Trevecca in Wales for the education of ministers; and a body of Methodists who have embraced her peculiar opinions, are known by the name of The Countess of Huntingdon's Connection. James Harris, the father of the first Lord Malmesbury, born in Wiltshire, 1709; died, 1780. He is particularly known as the author of " Hermes; or, a Philosophical Inquiry concerning Universal Grammar," which is considered one of the most beautiful pieces of analysis that has ap- (1 since the days of Aristotle. Jonas Hanway, born in Hampshire, 1712 ; died, . A merchant, whose benevolent and pub- rited schemes must make his name dear to rity. The Marine Society and the Magdalen House- owe their institution to him, and he was one of the givat promoters of Sunday Schools. John Hmcard, born at Hackney, 1726 ; died, 17!><>. This great philanthropist, who, to borrow the words of the inscription on his monument in St. Paul's, " trod an open but unfrequented path to immortality, in the ardent and unremittcd BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 309 exercise of Christian charity/' travelled through Europe with the noble design of relieving the miserable state of the suffering prisoners. He published an account of the prisons in England and Wales with those of foreign countries, and at last died at Cherson, of a contagious disease, caught by generously attending a young lady who was sick there. William and John Hunter, celebrated anatomists, brothers, and natives of Scotland. William, the elder, was born, 1718 ; died, 1783 : John born, 1728 ; died, 1793. The abilities of William Hunter were soon distinguished; he was ap- pointed physician extraordinary to the Queen, and president of the College of Physicians. He formed an anatomical museum, and a fine collec- tion of medals, fossils, corals, shells, &c., which finally became the property of the Glasgow Uni- versity. John Hunter was at first an assistant to his brother ; but his skill soon developed itself, and he ultimately became, confessedly, the first practical surgeon in Christendom, and imparted a profound character to the art of surgery, which it did not previously possess. Richard, Viscount Howe, born, 1725 ; died, 1799. This gallant admiral entered the service very, young. In 1782 he relieved Gibraltar; and on the first of June, 1794, he obtained a signal victory over a powerful French fleet, and received the thanks of both Houses of Parliament. James Hutton, an eminent geologist and natural philosopher, born at Edinburgh, 1726 ; died, 1797. He is chiefly distinguished for a theory or system 310 BRITISH of geology, named the Plutonian, which referred the structure of the solid parts of the earth to the action of fire. Samuel, Viscount Hood, born in Somersetshire. 1724: died, 1816. He served with great dis- tinction in the Mediterranean, America, and the Indie?, under Rodney ; and to great per- sonal bravery and promptitude of decision he united an extraordinary coolness, skill, and judg- ment, which rendered him one of the most distin- guished naval commanders of which this country can boast. His younger brother was raised to the title of Viscount Bridport, for bU nav;;l ; and his two cousins, Sir . -1 Hoi >d and Captain Hood, have reflected honour on the naval service of England by their skill and bravery. nrable Warren Hastings, born in Worcestershire, 1732; died, 1818. Left an orphan, while still an infant, he early unfolded those great talents which raised him from a clerk- sliip in the East India Company's Service to be Governor-General of India. On his return to ;ind, he was accused of extortion and op- ion, and impeached by the House of Com- mons, and after a trial of eight years' duration, honourably acquitted by the House of Lords, actions may be thus summed up: he had rved and extended an empire ; he had founded a polity ; he had administered government and war with more than the capacity of Richelieu ; had ] 1 learning with the judicious libe- rality of a Cosmo de' Medici ; and after triumph- BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 311 ing over the most formidable combination of enemies that ever sought the destruction of a single victim, at length went down to his grave in the fulness of age, in peace, after so many troubles in honour, after so much obloquy. Reginald Heber, Bishop of Calcutta, born in Cheshire, 1783; died, 1826. His mind was cast in a purely classic mould, and his strong na- tural abilities were fortified by assiduous cultiva- tion ; his narrative of a "Journey through the Upper Provinces of India " has powerfully con- tributed to direct public attention to the moral and religious wants of that vast portion of the British dominions. Riyltt Honourable William Huskisson, born, 17.70 ; died, 1830. He held many important situations under Government, but he is chiefly remarkable for being one of the most enlightened financiers of modern times. He died at Man- chester, in consequence of severe injuries sus- tained from a locomotive steam-engine, at the celebration of the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester railway. William Hazlitt, born at Maidstone, 1778 ; died, 1830. His life was one unintermitting course of literary exertion; but his chief claim to celebrity is derived from his " Essays "on subjects of taste and literature, which still retain their popularity. Robert Hall, born, 1764; died, 1831. This clergyman, of the Baptist persuasion, was con- sidered long the most popular and eloquent preacher in England. * 312 BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. Rev. Rowland Hill, born at Hawkesworth, 1745; died, 1833. Though possessing all the advantages of birth and fortune, he devoted him- self to the well-being of his poorer countrymen with singular zeal ; and the memory of his virtues will long survive. Mrs. Hcmans (Felicia Dorothea Browne), born at Liverpool, 1794 ; died, 1835. Her iinagina- tion was rich, chaste, and glowing ; and her " Ilecords of Woman," " F 8 -net nary,*' and numerous scattered lyrics, arc distinguished by a hiirh-toned purity and beauty of thought and expression. James Hogg, commonly called the Ettrick :i'-r.l, born in the forest of Ettrick, Sel- kirkshitv, 1772: died, 1835. His works, both in prose and vu-s , are numerous; but his chief title to fame rests upon the " Queen's Wake," a poem which, for sweetness and simplicity, has scarcely a superior in any language. Theodore Hook, born in London, 1788 ; died, . At an early age he wrote several success- ful pieces for the stage, but his fame as u dra- matist was afterwards totally eclipsed by his novels, which display a mixture of humour, pathos, and knowledge of the world, rarely if ever surpassed. In private society the sprightliness of his wit and the versatility of his powers made him universally acceptable. Thomas Hood, a versatile writer of great wit, humour, and pathos, born in London, 1798; died, 1845. His " Whims and Oddities," " Whimsicali- and innumerable other burlesque pieces, first BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 313 gained him great popularity ; but he afterwards struck out a pathetic vein, which found a climax in his " Song of the Shirt," and other serious pro- ductions, that have become as household words. Sir Henri/ Havelock, one of the most heroic characters of whom England has to boast ; born at Bishop Wearmouth, 1795 ; died near Luck- now, ISoV. His whole life was spent in the discharge of his military duties. In comparative obscurity he had borne a share in the Burmese war, the Afghan war, the Gwalior campaign, the campaign against the Sikhs, and the Persian expedition ; and it was not till the mutiny of the Sepoy regiments broke out in 1857, that his extraordinary efforts for the relief of Lucknow filled Europe with his fame. In prosecuting this achievement he gained no less than nine victories in less than two months, over forces ten times numerically superior to his own ; and when he died, worn out by anxiety and fatigue, he left a name that will be honoured to the latest ages, as a type and model of a true Christian soldier. I. and J. John Jeicell, Bishop of Salisbury, born in De- vonshire, 1522 ; died, 1571. He was one of the ablest champions of the Reformation, and pub- lished a celebrated " Apology for the Church of England;" Ben Jonson, an English poet and dramatic author, born in Westminster, 1574 ; died, 1637. He was the contemporary and friend of Shak- speare, and celebrated for his wit and learning. 314 BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. Imgo Jones, a celebrated architect, born in London, 1572 ; died, 16.53. He designed many noble edifices, particularly the Banqueting-house, Whitehall, the Church and Piazza of Covent Garden, and Gunnersbury: Lincoln's Inn Fields was originally planned by him, but the design was not carried into effect, lie has been called the English Pulladio. Dr. Samutl Johnson, one of the brightest lu- minaries of the 18th century, born at Lichfield, 1709; died, 17^4. IK- wus a man of gigantic abiliti.-s. Hi.- " KambK-r," -Idler," "English Dic- ;md " Lives of the Poets," .1 excellent in their kind. The "Biography ni' I)r. Johnson,'' written by his friend James 11, ha.- immortalised at once the writer and the subject. Sir ll'illunn ./ ////.<. horn in London, 1746 ; died, 1794. His literary powers were great, and his industry indefatigable, lie was skilled in the Oriental lang' .d published a grammar of the IVrsian. He practised for some time as a barrister; and in 1783 was appointed Judge of ^upreme Court of Bengal. He published il law tracts, Arabian poems, a translation of Isaeus, and many valuable pap. Edward Jcnner, born in Gloucestershire, 1749; 1 vJ3. This most amiable man practised as a physician at Sudbury : but his lame rests im- sably on his having been the introducer of vaccination a discovery which has diminished mortality more than all the labours of all the phy- sicians that have lived either before or since. BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 315 John Jervis, Earl St. Vincent, born at Meaford, in Staffordshire, 1734 ; died, 1823. Having en- tered the naval service of his country at the age of ten years, he acquired great distinction in va- rious parts of the world ; but the crowning $x- ploit of his life was his defeat of a far superior Spanish fleet off Cape St. Vincent, February 14th, 1797 ; for this victory, which shed a lustre over the British arms, he was raised to the peerage by the title of Earl St. Vincent, and received a pension of 30007. per annum. Francis, Lord Jeffrey, equally eminent on the bench, at the bar, and in the world of letters ; born at Edinburgh, 1773 ; died, 1850. He was brought up to the Scottish bar, and after being Lord Advocate of Scotland, was promoted to the bench. He was one of the founders of the Edin- burgh Review ; and remained its editor and one of its chief contributors for nearly thirty years. His principal essays have been published sepa- rately. Douglas Jerrold, one of the most eminent satirical writers of the age ; born in London, 1803; died, 1856. His first calling was that of a midshipman in the navy ; but he was after- wni-tls apprenticed to a printer; and in this situation, having made a successful essay in literature, he soon afterwards devoted himself entirely to a literary career. As a dramatist he will long be remembered for his " Black-eyed Susan " and " The Rent Day ; " and his papers in " Punch," to which he was long the leading contributor, were of the most amusing and caustic p 2 31G BKITISII nature. In social life he was remarkable for his keen, ready, and sparkling wit. K. John Knox, born in Haddingtonshire, 1505 ; died, 1572. He was an eminent Scottish re- former, undaunted and severe. His memory is revered as that of one of the chief instruments and promoters of the Reformation. Boldness and in- trepidity mark his character. At his funeral, the Karl of Morton, then regent of the kingdom, pro- nounced his culogium in the words, ''There lies he who nev-r feared the face of man." John J\'rr, third Duke of Roxburgh, born, 174<> : died, IM )4. He had acquired an extraor- dinary taste for old publications, and formed the ivatc collection of rare and curious books in the kingdom. The public sale of his extensive library in 1812, created an unprecedented excite- ment among book collectors. A society, called in honour of him "The Roxburgh Club," has been instituted for the collection and reprinting of rare books and MSS. John Keats, born in London, 1796 ; died, 1821. \\\- chief poem is the " Kndymion," which dis- plays great brilliancy of imagination and wild luxuriance of style. He was of a very sensitive disposition, and his death was attributed to the violence of a shock which lie received From a severe attack on his poetry in the Quarterly Review. Jo/t7i rhili/> Kcmble, born at Prescot, in Lan- cashire, 1757 ; died, 1823. He early displayed a BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 317 great predilection for the stage. His fine taste and classical acquirements were perceptible in every effort, and his personation of the loftier heroes of the drama, such as Brutus, Coriolanus, Gato, King John, and King Lear, has never been equalled. In society, Mr. Kemble was ever the convivial companion and accomplished gentle- man. He enjoyed to the last the respect of the noblest and wisest in the land, and the thea- trical profession owes him a debt of gratitude for the respectability to which he raised it by his example. His sister was the celebrated Mrs. Siddons (born, 1755; died, 1831), the greatest female tragedian that England has produced ; and his brother Charles Kemble (born, 1775 ; died, 1854), in certain parts of the higher comedy, such as " Don Felix," and " Mercutio," &c. &c., was without a rival. Richard Payne Knight, born in Herefordshire, 1750; died, 1824. His whole life was spent in urilueological pursuits, which a fine fortune allied to fine taste enabled him to indulge ; but his only production, which is interesting to the general reader, is an " Analytical Enquiry into the Principles of Taste " a work of great origin- ality and acuteness of thought. He bequeathed his splendid collection of antiques and other works of art (which were valued "at 50,000/.) to the British Museum. L. Hugh Latimer, Bishop of Worcester, born in Leicestershire, 1472; died, 1555. He was an P 8 318 BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. excellent Protestant prelate, and one of those who were condemned in Mary's cruel reign, lie resigned his bishopric upon a scruple of ience in the latter part of Henry the Eighth's reign, and during the last six years of it was a prisoner in the tower. Edward the Sixth released him ; but on Mary'.- accession he was again com- mitted, ami afterwards burned at the stake with Ridley. Jf'illiam J.mnl, Archbishop of Canterbury, born at Reading, in Berkshire, 1573; died, 1644. This prelate lived in the turbulent times of Charles the Kirst ; his arbitrary and oppressive measures in the high commission court, and his intolerant and persecuting conduct, made him obnoxious to the Parliament, which passed a bill of attainder against him, and lie was beheaded on Tower Hill. John Locke, born near Bristol, 1632; died, 1740. He was one of the most celebrated philosophers of his own or any other age, and made a dis- tinguished figure in polite literature. His chief works are " Letters upon Toleration," " K ay upon the Human I nderstanding," and "Treatises upon Government." Xnthaniel Lurdner, born in Kent, 1684; died, 1768. lie was a celebrated nonconformist Uni- tarian divine ; and his " Credibility of the Gospel rv, and the Testimony of Jewish and Pagan Authors to its Truth," form most able defences of the Christian Revelation. Dr. John Langhorne, born in Westmoreland, 1735 ; died, 1779. He published many beautiful poems, but his fame rests entirely on his trans- BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 319 lation of " Plutarch's Lives," which he undertook to solace his grief for the death of his wife. Sir Thomas Lawrence, born at Bristol, 1769; died, 1830. An accomplished artist, long the first portrait painter of the age. He succeeded Mr. West as president of the Royal Academy. Charles Lamb, born in London, 1775; died, 1834. Educated in Christ's Hospital, he soon displayed a taste for literature ; and the first-fruits of his talents was a volume of poems, which he published in conjunction with his school-fellows, Coleridge and Lloyd. But his fame rests chiefly on his prose writings, and his " Essays of Elia" and other works will secure him an honourable place in our literature as long as there is taste to appreciate the outpourings of a healthy and bene- volent mind, expressed in a piquant, terse, and playful style. Lcetitia Elizabetli Landon (Mrs. M'Lean), a celebrated English poetess, well known by her initials, L. E. L., born at Chelsea, 1802 ; died, at Cape Coast Castle, in Africa, 1838. Besides innumerable pieces scattered throughout different periodical publications, she was the authoress of the " Improvisatrice," the "Troubadour," &c., and three novels in prose. Though of a cheerful dis- position, her poems are pervaded by a tone of plaintive melancholy, and her early death in a distant land has invested her fate with a deep and painful interest. John Claudius Loudon, a distinguished horti- culturist, born in Lanarkshire, 1783; died, 1843. His " Arboretum Britannicum," the result of long P 4 320 BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. experience in landscape-gardening and arboricul- ture, stands unrivalled ; and his Encyclopaedias of Gardening, Agriculture, Plants, and Archi- tecture have contributed so largely to-tfac embel- lishment of every corner of the island, as to have earned for their author the title of a public benefactor, lie married Miss Webb, a lady who had gained great reputation by her ingenious novel called " The Mummy." and whose fame, as Mrs. London, was greatly increased by various works on gardening and other congenial subjects. Loudon died in 1858. Dr. John Linyard, a distinguished historian, born at Hornby, 1769; died, 1851. He was cdu- : at the Roman Catholic Seminary at Douay, where he imbibed those principles of religion which he adhered to throughout life, and which are so conspicuously displayed in his " History of England." John Gibson Lockhart, a novelist, critic, and rapher, born in Lanarkshire, 1793; died, 1854. As the son-in-law and biographer of Sir Walter Scott, his name will always be associated with the literary history of England; while his novels of" Valerius" " Adam Blair/' " Reginald Dalton," c. ; his " Letters of Peter to his Kins- folk," his "Life of Burns/' and his "Spanish Ballads," will carry his name down to posterity as one of the most able and versatile authors of his acre. He succeeded Gifford as editor of the O Quarterly Review. Sir Henry Laurence, born at Ceylon, 1806; died at Lucknow, 1857. At the outbreak of the BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 321 great Sepoy mutiny in 1857, he was governor of the recently annexed kingdom of Oude ; and it is to the fortitude and presence of mind which he then displayed, that the insurrection met such a check at its outset, as rendered it more easy to cope with and suppress. He died from the effects of a casual wound received during the memorable siege of Lucknow. 11 Sir Thomas More, Chancellor of England, born in London, 1480; died, 1535. This great man was an able lawyer and an honest statesman. When the divorce between Henry the Eighth and Catharine of Aragon was agitated, Sir Thomas resigned the high office which he had filled with such honour to himself and advantage to his country ; and upon his refusal to take the oath of supremacy, he was committed to the Tower, and beheaded. Sir Hugh Middleton, born in Denbighshire, time uncertain; died, 1636. He conferred great benefit on the citizens of London, by projecting and carrying into effect a scheme for supplying the metropolis with water by bringing the New River to Islington. John Milton, born in London, 1608 ; died, 1674. His epic poem, " Paradise Lost," is perhaps the greatest continuous effort of human imagination ; and his " Paradise Regained," " Comus," and many other poems and political works, all display sublimity of genius and profound learning. He was appointed secretary to the council of state P 5 322 BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. some years after the death of Charles I., and du- ring the period he held this office he divided the attention of foreigners with Cromwell himself. His character is best portrayed in Dryden's ce- lebrated verses, written under Milton's picture, which we subjoin : Three poets in three distant ages born, Greece, Italy, and England did adorn. The first in loftiness of thought surpuM, The next in majesty, in both the last ; The force of Nature could no farther go, To make a third, she joined the former two. Christopher Marloir<\ a. dramatic poet, born 1565; died, 1593. Some of his plays contain pBMages which almost rival Shakspeare's manner, and in his " Faustus " even Goethe, the great German poet, is said in have borrowed not a little from his English predecessor. To him we are indebted for the first regular form of the English drama divested of rhyme, and he may be considered as the link between Shakspearc and the old plays or Moralities. /'//////> Mnssinger, born at Salisbury, 1584 ; died, 1640. His plays are very numerous; some of them still retain possession of the stage, and the character of Sir Giles Overreact in " A New Way to pay Old Debt.-." was one of the most celebrated personations of the late Edmund Kean, the great tragedian. In dramatic power, delicacy of expivi7. This, veteran actor was particularly famed in Shakspeare's Shylock, which he both looked and spoke. He also wrote the plays of " Love a, la Mode," and "The Man of the World;" and was esteemed a man of wit and abilities. Jf'i/lifim Mason, a poet, born at Hull, 1725; died, 1797. Two tragedies, a descriptive poem called the " English Garden," and some odes, are his principal productions ; but he is now best re- membered as the friend and biographer of the poet Gray. Sir John Moore, son of Dr. Moore (celebrated for his " Travels," and the novels of " Zeluco," BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 325 " Edward," and " Mordaunt"), born in Glasgow, 1761 ; died, 1809. He entered the army, rose to the rank of general, and distinguished himself in the West Indies, Ireland, Holland, Sweden, and Egypt. In 1808 he was appointed to the com- mand of the British army in Spain ; but dis- tracted by every species of disappointment and false information, and learning at length that the whole of the disposable armies of the French in the Peninsula were gathering to surround him, he commenced a rapid march to the coast through the mountainous region of Gallicia, and after the most splendid and masterly retreat that has been recorded in the annals of modern warfare, he arrived at Corunna with the army under his com- mand almost entire and unbroken. Here a des- perate engagement was fought, in which the British troops inflicted a decided repulse on their pursuers ; but their triumph was dearly pur- chased by the loss of their commander, the cir- cumstances of whose death may challenge a comparison with the most illustrious examples of heroism in ancient and modern times. On the following day, after the British troops had em- barked for England, the guns of the French paid the wonted military honours over the grave of the departed hero; and Soult, the French general, with a kindred feeling of magnanimity, afterwards raised a monument to his memory on the spot. Alexander Murray, born in Kircudbright, 1775 ; died, 1813. This distinguished philologist was an eminent example of the successful pursuit of knowledge under great difficulties. His father 326 BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. a shepherd, and he himself was trained to the same occupation ; but his inherent genius burst through all the fetters of his position, and he ultimately became professor of Hebrew in the university of Edinburgh. His " History of European Languages" is still quoted as an au- thority. James Mill, born in Forfarshire, 1773; died, 1827. By his powerful and original productions, as well as by the force of his personal character, he soon earned for himself a high reputation. II c contributed many admirable articles on various subjects to the leading Review?, and the Ency- clopaedia Britannica; but his fame chiefly rests on his " History of British India." 1/rnry Mnrk'i/:/>\ born in Edinburgh, 174-> ; died, 1831. This multifarious author wrote several tragedies, projected and was chief contri- butor to " The Mirror," but the works by which lie is now chiefly remembered are the " Man of Feel- ing," and " Julia de Roubignc," which display great moral delicacy of sentiment and elegance of stylo. .S'/r James Mackintosh, born near Inverness, 1765; died, 1832. He was first known by his aii>\ver to Burke on the French Revolution, and afterwards became illustrious as a legal and par- liamentary orator. He spent part of his life as recorder at Bombay, where he distinguished him- self by his fearlessness in the discharge of his judicial duties, and his exertions in the amelio- ration of the criminal law. He wrote the " History of England " and the " Life of Sir Thomas More " BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 327 for Lardner's Cyclopaedia, a " History of the Re- volution of 1688," and many articles for the Edinburgh Review; but his most finished pro- duction is his " Dissertation on Ethics " in the En- cyclopaedia Britannica. Hannah More, born near Bristol, 1745; died, 1833. She was early distinguished in the literary world : her " Sacred Dramas," " Thoughts on the Manners of the Great," and " Coelebs in Search of a Wife," &c., enjoyed great popularity, and are all designed to promote the interests of religion and virtue. Thomas M'Crie, born in Berwickshire, 1772 ; died, 1835. This distinguished divine and his- torian belonged to a religious body called the Original Seceders. His Lives of Knox and Mel- ville have placed their author in the first rank of ecclesiastical historians. Charles Mathews, born in London, 1776 ; died, 1835. He was one of the most distinguished comedians of modern times ; but his greatest popularity was achieved by his wonderful talent for imitation and personation, which he long ex- hibited in his performances, called his " Enter- tainments" and " At Homes." In private life he was universally respected ; and in him the stage lost a perfect gentleman as well as a distinguished professor. Thomas Moore, the national poet of Ireland, born in Dublin, 1779; died, 1852. Like Pope, he may be said to have " lisped in numbers." When in his nineteenth year, he came to London with the view at once of studying for the bar, and 328 BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. of publi.- 1 subscription a translation of ' Anacrcon." This was his first work. He soon became a frequent guest in the houses of the Whig aristocracy ; while his talents, wit, and mu- sical accomplishments made him a general fa- vourite wherever he went. His numerous works, both in prose and verse, show wonderful ver- satility of genius His " Lalla Rookh," for which he received 3000 guineas, is replete with Oriental gorgeousness ; his " Irish Melodies" are confessedly the grandest lyrics of any age or country; while hosts of minor productions tes- tify to the ktvnn<\* of his wit, his powers of satire, and the brilliancy of his fancy. His Lives of Iiyrnii and S!u-ridan, and his "History of Ireland" have become .-tandard works. John Martin, a celebrated painter, born near a.-tlc, 1789; died, 1854. He commenced life as an heraldic painter, and for some time sup- ported hii:i-rif by painting on glass; but his genius at length burst through all the trammels that would have fettered it, and he gave to the world a .series of pictures which have immortalised his name. His " Fall of Babylon," " The Crea- tion,'' " The Deluge," are among the best of his work-. James Montgomery, a distinguished modern . born in Ayrshire, 1771; died at Sheffield (where he had ^pent the greater part of his life), r. As editor of the "Iris,"' Montgomery, suffered \ >n, fine, and imprisonment for the freedom of his political opinions : but he lived to see all the measures which he long and BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 329 strenuously advocated, for the social improvement of his countrymen, registered in the statute-book. The poems which establish his poetical repu- tation, such as the " World before the Flood," " Greenland," the " Pelican Island," and various minor pieces, were published separately, but they have since been issued in a single volume. They breathe a truly Christian and liberal spirit. Mary Russell Mitford, born in Hampshire, 1789; died, 1855. She wrote a variety of pieces depicting English rural life in its most genial as- pects, besides several tragedies and novels; but the tales collected and published under the title of " Our Village," will be her chief passport to fame. Hugh Miller, one of the most remarkable men that Scotland has produced ; born at Cromarty, 1802; died near Edinburgh, 1856. His early life was passed in the humble occupation of a stone-mason ; but by the union of great natural powers, careful study, and assiduous self-culture, he rose to be one of the most distinguished geologists and most attractive writers of his age. His autobiographical works, " My Schools and Schoolmasters," and " First Impressions of Eng- land and its People," are models of genial narrative and dramatic power ; while his " Old Red Sandstone," "Footprints of the Creator," and the " Testimony of the Rocks," evince powers of reasoning and observation of the highest order. In a paroxysm of insanity, brought on by excess of study, this distinguished man put an end to his existence, while still in the prime of life. 330 BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. X. Richard Nevill, the brave and highly-celebrated earl of Warwick, called the King-maker; he fell at the battle of Barnet, 1471, during the civil wars. John Napier, of Merchiston, born near Edin- burgh, 1550; died, 1617. An able mathema- tician, the forerunner of Newton, and the inventor of logarithms for the use of navigators. His son was elevated to the peerage by the title of Baron Napier. Sir Isaac Newton, the prince of modern philo- sophers, born in Lincolnshire, 1642: died, 1727. lie made many discoveries in optics and in astro- nomy ; among which was the grand discovery . i the laws of gravitation, which has effected a com- plete revolution in the science of astronomy. All hi- action- were dictated by feelings of benevo- lence and a love of truth ; and his character was so modest and unassuming that he was not in any degree elated by his universal reputation. Sir not only a philosopher, but a Christian, and spent much of his time in elucidating the Scriptur J/nratio Nelson, Viscount Nelson, and Duke of Bronte, in Sicily, born in Norfolk, 1758; died. 1805. Bred to the sea, this hero early evinced that prompt decision of character and intrepidity of conduct by which he was so eminently distin- guished. In 1779, he was appointed post-captain : at Toulon, Bastia, and Calvi, he displayed his courage and conduct. "NVhen rear-admiral of the BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 331 blue and knight of the bath, he lost his right arm while gallantly signalising himself at the siege of Santa Cruz, in the isle of Teneriffe ; but the successive victories of the Nile, Copenhagen, and Trafalgar complete the climax of his professional glory. In the battle of the Nile, nine French ships of the line were taken, and two burnt. Be- fore Copenhagen, eighteen Danish ships were destroyed, seven of which were of the line. In Lord Nelson's last and greatest achievement, the ever-memorable battle of Trafalgar, the combined fleets were defeated, and twenty ships of the line taken and destroyed : he fell towards the close of the engagement; in life victorious, in death triumphant : and his remains were interred in St. Paul's-'Cathedral, with unexampled funeral pomp, at the public expense. Many Nelsons may be found among our gallant countrymen in courage and patriotism, but considered as a NAVAL COMMANDER, he stands unrivalled. NELSON ! to thee a grateful nation pours Her last deep homage 'mid funereal gloom; Thy powerful name e'en palsied strength restores, And martial ardour kindles at the tomb. Assembled nobles tread the vaulted aisle, And tens of thousands range in silent awe ; Pride drops her gaudy plumes to weep the while, And mourning princes own the sovereign law. With arms reversed the faithful soldiers show Their country's loss, their own peculiar grief ; Revenge for Nelson meditates the blow, Till in the bursting tear they find relief. 332 BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. His fellow-seamen, who so oft have shared His toils, his dangers, and his high renown. Live to regret that they themselves are spared, Unmindful of his bright, his glorious crown. "While prince and people at his grave attend, The slmtter'd colours flutter in the air; Each tears a relic of his heart's best friend, Each for his country lifts the solemn prayer. Fair sun of glory, thy ascending height, BeaniM < i :d Copenhagen's shore, But on Trafalgar tix'd meridian light, Tlii' : . TV to rise no more. Oh ! may thy spirit still our ho*ts pervade ! navy breathe its vital power, 1 distant r.j : ,'s shade Who saved Britannia in her darkcn'd hour. The prayer is answered; sec, on Maida's plains, .'.tied hosts before ihe liriti-h fly; that this spirit reigns, with gen'rous, prompt humanity. Alexander Nasmyth, born at Edinburgh, 17 "7 : died. 1S40. He was the father of the Scottish school of landscape painting r and his chaste and :it compositions grace the walls of many a mansion in England and Scotland. His eldest son, Peter (born, 17S6; died, 1831), devoted him- self to tliu same branch of art; and his admirable productions gaiiu-d him the name of the English ITobbima. There is scarcely a collection of any note in England that does not boast the possession of a landscape by Peter Nasrnyth. BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 333 o. Sir John Oldcastle, Lord Cobltam, called " the Good," the first martyr and the first author among the nobility of England, was born in the reign of Edward the Third, the time and place uncertain. His universal talents qualified him to shine both in the cabinet and the field, while his great erudi- tion was displayed in his edition of the works of Wickliffe, and many religious tracts and discourses. His attachment to the doctrines of the Reforma- tion led to a charge of heresy and conspiracy being laid against him ; and, without hardly the form of a trial, he was put to death in a barbarous and revolting manner, 1418. Thomas Otway, a celebrated dramatic writer, born in Sussex, 1651 ; died, 1685. He displayed great power in depicting scenes of domestic dis- tress and feelings ; and his " Venice Preserved " still keeps possession of the stage. His great in- dustry and genius did not ward off from him the miseries of indigence : his death, it is said, was caused by hunger. Amelia Opie, a distinguished writer of fiction, born at Norwich, 1771 ; died, 1853. She was the daughter of Dr. Alderson of Norwich ; and from her earliest years was distinguished for her wit, gaiety, and musical powers. Her first work was called " Father and Daughter,*' and this was followed by a long series of tales, written with a view to regulate the life and affections, all of which have become deservedly popular. She married John Opie, a celebrated artist ; and a few years 334 BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. after his death, became a member of the Society of Friends. P. Sir William Petty, born in Hampshire, 1623 ; died, 1687. He applied his mind to philosophical subjects, and was appointed physician to the army in Ireland ; but he is chiefly distinguished for his works on political economy, which show that he was free from many of the prejudices of his age. He was the ancestor of the Lansdowne family. Thomas Parnell y born in Dublin, 1679 ; died, 1718. The elegant poems of this amiable divine ever been highly admired : he was the friend of Swift, (lay. . \rbuthnot, and Pope, and all the leading wits of the reign of Queen Anne; and his poems, but more especially " The Hermit,"" The Fairy Tale," &c., are remarkable for smoothness of versification and elegance and purity of senti- ment. U'iH'unn /';///, a celebrated quaker, born in London, 1644 : died, 1718. He colonised the province of Pennsylvania, honestly purchasing the lands of their natural owners, the native Ameri- and making a treaty with them. He built the town of Philadelphia, and was deservedly esteemed by the good of all persuasions. He wrote several pieces in defence of his own opinions. Matthew Prior, born in London or Dorsetshire, 1664; died, 1721. His father died while he was young, and his relations could ill afford to give him :i liberal education; but the Earl of Dorset patronised his rising merit, and his abilities at BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 335 length raised him to the office of secretary of state under Queen Anne. He professed to cultivate an acquaintance with the Muses only in his leisure hours, but he was certainly by nature gifted with the qualties of a poet. Alexander Pope, a highly celebrated poet, born in London, 1688; died, 1744. He discovered a genius for poetry at a very early period ; his " Pas- torals " were his first productions ; he afterwards published " Windsor Forest," the " Essay on Cri- ticism," the " Rape of the Lock," the " Dunciad," and the " Essay on Man ; " he also translated the " Iliad," and the " Odyssey." William Pitt, Earl of Chatham, born in Corn- wall, 1.708 ; died, 1778. This illustrious states- man for more than forty years filled a large space in the public eye. His eloquence has been com- pared to a mighty torrent ; his quick and pene- trating genius pervaded every department of the state. A proud love of his country was his master passion ; and as her greatness and her glory were ever the objects on which his eye was fixed, so his memory is revered with all the enthusiasm due to a great genius and a patriot. Joseph Priestley, born in Yorkshire, 1733 ; died, in North America, 1804. He was a zealous con- troversial writer in divinity, and was celebrated as a natural and experimental |>liilosopher. He was a strenuous defjfeder of the IJmtarian faith ; and owing to the bitry of the populace at Birming- ham, his house tHbre was destroyed, and his valu- able library flncMnanuscripts burnt. Though hostile to creeds, he* defended the grand cause of 336 BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. general Christianity against unbelievers, ably and successfully. iniliam Paley, born at Peterborough, 1743; died, 1805. This eminent divine was of Christ"? College, Cambridge, and became one of the pre- bends of St. Paul's. His numerous religious and philosophical works entitle him to a high place among the literati of England ; his " Horse Paulina; " is one of the most elaborate and original works ever published : and his great work on ' Natural Theology " is not only one of the most neing, but one of the most delightful works in .MirlL-h language. Palcy was most liberal- minded and charitable, and an able supporter of riueiplrs of civil and religious liberty. Mungo Park, born near Selkirk, 1771 ; died, 1805. He wa< one of the most distinguished modern travellers, and in two successive journeys explored a great part of Africa that was formerly unkn. \\ n. In descending the Xiger he was at- tacked by a native prince, and killed near Boussa, H'tlHum 7V//, second son of the illustrious Earl of Chatham, born in Kent, 1759; died, 1806. This gre:.- appointed chancellor of the Exchequer when only twenty-three, and con- tinued prime minister with very little interruption till his death, which happened at a critical period for England. During the arduous discharge of public duty, he of course met with warm partisans and inveterate enemies : his perseverance in those ;ires which he deemed just, has been termed obstinacy; his magnanimity in changing them, when the national welfare required it, inconsis- BRITISH BIOGKAPJIY. 337 tency. But all parties concur in acknowledging that his great talents, integrity, disinterestedness, and love of his country, were eminently worthy of praise and imitation : that country decreed him public funeral honours, and granted 40,000/. for the payment of his debts. Richard Porson, born in Norfolk, 1759; died, 1808. This very learned man was Greek pro- fessor in Cambridge University, and principal librarian of the London Institution. His mind was stored with all that is worth preserving in ancient or modern literature ; and by his profound criticisms and marginal annotations, he enriched every book which came into his possession. Since the days of the Scaligers, such a universal scholar has not appeared. In the full vigour of intellect, he was suddenly snatched away by a kind of epi- leptic fit ; and the University of Cambridge tes- tified its respect for his remains by a solemn and public funeral. Samuel Parr, a prebend of St. Paul's, born at Harrow-on-the-Hill, 1747 ; died, 1825. He was distinguished for his great talents, extensive learn- ing, and pre-eminent conversational powers. His published writings display a profound erudition, a ready conception, and a flowing and vigorous style ; but it is to be regretted that the greater part of his literary productions had reference to subjects of temporary interest, which are daily falling into oblivion. Robert Pollok, born in Renfrewshire, 1799; died, 1827. His celebrated poem, " The Course of Time," has taken a foremost place in his Q 338 BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. country':* literature. It treats on the most solemn of all subjects, religion, displays throughout a strong original genius, and is written in a highly glowing and powerful style. Dr. James Cowles Pritchard, eminent for hi? ethnological researches, born at Ross, 1786 ; died, 1848. He long practised as a physician, and re- ceived the appointment of a commissioner in lu- nacy; but his chief claim to celebrity rests on his " Researches into the Physical History of Man- kind," a work which is regarded as an authority in all parts oi' the world. Jane and Anna Maria Porter, two sisters, who distinguished themselves in the world of letters. " Thaddeus of Warsaw and " The Scottish Chiefs " are from the pen of the former, who died in 1850 : the latter, who died in 1832, was the authoress of the ''Hungarian Brothers," and many other novels and porm-. Their brother, Robert Ker, distin- guished himself in the fine arts, and was knighted. Sir Robert Peel, tho greatest statesman of his age; born, 1788; died, 1850. Il< waa the eldest son of Sir Robert Peel, who realised an immei: fortune as a cotton-manufacturer. Soon after Iraving Oxford, where he gained the highest honours, he entered parliament, and rose through various subordinate offices to be prime minister of KiiLrland. For forty years he devoted his zeal ami givat talents to the service of his country: and his skill, courage, and liberal, though conser- vative tendencies, procured him the confidence and esteem of all classes of the community. He re- formed the criminal code, introduced an effective BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 339 system of police, passed the Roman Catholic Emancipation Bill, and crowned a long life of patriotism and glory by abolishing the Corn Laws. Sir Edward Parry, born at Bath, 1790 ; died, 1855. Under the command of this distinguished navigator, three successive expeditions were fitted out for the discovery of the north-west passage, and one in a bold attempt to reach the pole. In the group of " Parry Islands " still lives the name of him who first entered the great Polar Ocean ; while in the annals of arctic adventure " Parry is still the champion of the north," none having ever succeeded in reaching a higher de- gree of latitude than that attained by him in 1827. Sir Edward Parry held various high offices in England and the colonies ; and at the time of his death he was Lieutenant Governor of Greenwich Hospital. R. Nicholas Ridley, Bishop of London (the friend of Latimer and Cranmer). born in Northumber- land, 1500; died, 1555. This distinguished prelate early became the supporter of the doctrines of the Reformation; but on the accession of Mary he was thrown into the Tower, and after resisting many efforts to induce him to recant, was led to the stake with his friend Latimer. In Burnet's opinion, he was for piety, learning, and solid judg- ment, the ablest man of all that advanced -the Reformation. Sir Walter Raleigli, born in Devonshire, 1552; Q2 BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 1618. He was a soldier, a scholar, and a gentleman, highly favoured by Elizabeth ; but in James the First's reign, he wa* accused of high treason, imprisoned in the Tower twelve years, where he wrote his "History of the AVorld; " re- ;, and sent upon an expedition to South America: and afterwards beheaded (though his offence was never proved), at the instigation of the Spanish ambassador. John Ray, a natural philosopher, born in E- 1628: !'-. : but ntitled, " The Wisdom of God manifested in : W da : ( . ion." Allan Ramsay, born in Lanarkshire, 1685; died, 1758. Next to Burns he was the most distin- < d of the national poets of Scotland, and his "Gei ral com- hap.- the best poem of its kind in any language. His t son (born, 1713 ; died, 1784) attained _ distinction as a portrait -painter. Samuel Richardson, born in Derbyshire, 1689 ; died, 1761. He became a printer of great emi- nence: but he is ch anguished as the inventor of the modern English novel, which in the hands of his successors has stamped a racter upon English literature. His " Pamela/* "Clarissa HIT. md "Sir Charles Grandi- son," enjoyed at one time greater popularity than any works of the dny. and have been translated into most of the modern langii George Lord Rodney, a gallant admiral, bom in Surrey. l?l$; -lied, 1792. He obtained a BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 34 1 victory over the French fleet, commanded by the Count de Grasse, 12th of April, 1782, which was rewarded with a peerage and a suitable annuity. Sir Joshua Reynolds, born in Devonshire, 1723; died, 1792. He was a celebrated portrait and historical painter; a fellow of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies ; and published " Dis- courses on Painting," delivered before the Royal Academy of Painting. William Robertson, an eminent historian and divine, born in Scotland, 1721 ; died, 1793. His great works, the Histories of Charles the Fifth, emperor of Germany, of America, and of Scot- land, are distinguished for deep and compre- hensive \iews, and for sweetness, ease, and elegance of style. Thomas Reid, born in Kincardineshire, 1710; died, 17 9G. He acquired a high reputation by his " Enquiry into the Human Mind," in opposition to Hume. He became professor of moral philo- sophy at Aberdeen, and then at Glasgow, and wrote three volumes on moral and intellectual philosophy. Sir Samuel Romilly, born at London, 1757; died, 1818. After overcoming many difficulties in his youth he rose to the first distinction at the bar, and as a parliamentary speaker. His exer- tions were chiefly directed to the improvement of criminal jurisprudence. John Rennie, an eminent engineer, born in Had- dingtonshire, 1761 ; died, 1821. He was long regarded as the head of his profession ; and was connected with every public work of magnitude Q 3 342 BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. in the kingdom. Among his principal works may be mentioned Waterloo and South wark bridges, the London Docks, the East and West India Docks, and the Breakwater at Plymouth. The magnificent structure of London Bridge was exe- cuted by his son, the present Sir John Rennie, from designs furni.-hed by his father. David liinirdo, born at London, 1772 ; died, 1823. He wrote valuable works on political economy, ar.d during the short period he sat in parliament, obtained considerable reputation as a speaker on financial questions. ll'illuim Roscoe, born, 17.52 ; died, 1831. This gentleman, a merchant of Liverpool, wrote clas- sical histories of" Lorcnxo de* Medici" and "Leo the Tenth." and contributed greatly to spread among his countrymen a taste for Italian litera- ture and the tine arts. Hi- youngest son Henry (born, 1800; died, 1836) attained considerable emi- nence as a writer by his " Lives of eminent Law- " in Lardner's Cyclopedia and other works. Samuel Rogers, an eminent poet, born at Stoke XrwinjLTion. 17P>2: died 1855. He was the son of a wealthy banker, whose business and fortune lie inherited: but at an early age he cultivated the Muses; and his "Pleasures of Memory y and his "Italy" have gained for him a lasting fame. Mr. Rogers was a munificent patron of the fine arts; and around his hospitable board in London were wont to gather all the most di- tinguished persons of the age, whether in poli- literature, art or science. BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 343 s. Sir Philip Sidney, born in Kent, 1554 ; died, 1586. A gentleman, whose wit, learning, polite- ness, and courage were alike distinguished: he was general of the horse, under Queen Elizabeth, and died of a wound he received at the battle of Zutphen, universally mourned. He wrote the "Arcadia," a romance, and many minor poems of great merit. Edmund Spenser, born in London, 1553; died, 1598. This celebrated poet was the friend of Sir Philip Sidney, through whose influence he was appointed secretary in Ireland to Lord Grey de Wilton. When the rebellion of Tyrone broke out, he was obliged to fly with such precipitancy as to leave behind his infant child, whom the merciless cruelty of the insurgents burnt with his house. The unfortunate poet came to England, with a heart broken by these misfortunes, and died, it is said, " of lack of bread." Spenser has been called the Rubens of English poetry ; and the wonderful fertility of invention, richness of imagination, and gorgeousness of language dis- played in all his productions, but more especially in the " Faery Queen," have placed him on a level with Chaucer, Shakspeare, and Milton, the great landmarks of English poetry. William Shakspeare, born in Warwickshire, 1564 ; died, 1616. The Poet of Nature, Fancy's Child. Very few authentic particulars are known of his life ; but out of the scanty materials that are extant, Mr. Charles Knight and Mr. Collier Q 4 BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. have woven most interesting narratives, which, though in some respects overdrawn, deserve no- tice as excellent specimens of what Dugald Stewart styled conjectural history. Johnson thus admi- rably describes his genius : ' When Learning's triumph o'er her barbarous foes First rear'd the stage, immortal Shak>peare rose ! change of many-culour'd life he drew, 1 then imnirim-.l .r.v him spurn her bounded reign, :ne toil'd after him in rain ; ; owcrful strokes presiding Truth And : :i stormed the l>r m M/dtiey, bor-. 1'ii'L? : died, 1683. This f had much of the old Roman in his com- and during the civil wars in Charles me he sided with the parliament. il.- h-i-1 stndi-.-d the polity of his own country dcep! wrote some discourses on govern- ment. When Cromwell assumed the reins, 'T opposed his measures with great vio- lence, as his wishes were for a republican form of government. On the restoration of Charles the : id, his friends wished to intercede for a par- don, but he refused it, and rernni- :iteen years in exile; returning from which, he w. d of high treason, beheaded on bare i pretended plot, and suffered with 'renity and fortitude which innocence alone can give. deshj Shovel, born in 1650; died, 1707. This gallant naval officer went out as a cabin- rose progressively to be admiral of the BRITISH BIOGEAPHY. . 345 white, and commander-in-cliief of the English fleet. He distinguished himself at the battle of Bantry Bay, in the service of King William the Third, who knighted him ; and after a life of ac- tive services to his country, his ship in returning from the expedition against Toulon, struck upon the rocks of Scilly, together with several others, and the admiral, with all on board, unfortunately perished. Sir Richard Steele, born in Dublin, 1671 ; died, 1729. A distinguished moral and political writer, the friend of Addison. He was the editor, and partly the author, of the Tatler, Spectator, Guar- dian, and Englishman ; he wrote also several plays, and an excellent little tract, called the " Christian Hero ; " but his prudence by no means kept pace with his abilities, and he was frequently involved in the greatest pecuniary distress. Dr. Jonathan Swift, born in Dublin, 1667; died, 1745. He was a celebrated wit, and his works have been universally read ; but while his genius and imagination delight, his strong propen- sity to indiscriminate satire, and his moroseness, are intolerable. Three years before his death, he experienced that most dreadful of all human cala- mities, insanity. He appeared to have a presenti- ment of the change he was destined to undergo, and left all his fortune, some legacies excepted, towards building an hospital for idiots and lunatics. Henry St. John, Lord Bolingbroke, born in Surrey, 1672 ; died, 1751. A philosopher, states- man, and political writer ; a man of great abilities, and extensive knowledge. He took an active Q 5 34G BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. part in the politics of the day in Anne's reign ; but on the accession of George the First he was disgraced, and retired into France to avoid worse '[iiences: the king at length granted him a free pardon, and he returned. His " Letters on the Study and Use of History" are admirably written ; and it is to be wished that all his publications had equally promoted the interests of virtue and religion. Sir Han* Sloane, born in Down, Ireland, 1660 ; died, \1'j'l. He was an eminent physician, natu- ralist, and botanist: he published the "Natural lli-tory of Jamaica;" and at hi? death left his valuable library, and large collection of shells, . to the public, on condition that pirliament should pay to his heirs 20,000/., a sum considerably under the real value. William Shenstone, "born in Shropshire, 1714; died. 17ns were the occasional offspring of his muse. Percy Bysshe Shelley, born m Sussex, 1792; died, 1822. This brilliant, but wayward, poet endeavoured to strike out for himself a new system ics, and his fame and happini-ss were nearly shipwrecked in the attempt, lie has left ample proofs of the depth and originality of his genius in his poems and tr;. His translations from !v are exquisite : his " Prometheus Un- is one of the finest lyric dramas in the langi; nci '' has been pronounced, .iv, tin- gran-l-st and most perfect drama of modern times. His late was a melan- choly one. lie was drowned while crossing the gulf of Lerici in a .-mall pleasure- boat, and his burnt by Lord Byron and Leigh Hunt, and conveyed to Home, where they were i-d beside those of his friend and brother- poet Keats. 7W//'t< icart, born, 1753 ; died, 1828. He iriiished himself highly as professor of moral philosophy in Edinburgh, and wrote a series of :Me works on the Philosophy of the Human Mind. A monument has been erected to his memory on the Calton Hill, Edinburgh. Sir ll'alter Scott, bora at Edinburgh, 1771; died, 1832. He was brought up to the. bar, but scon devoted himself entirely to poetry and national antiquities. He was first advantageously BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 349 known by the collection entitled " Border Min- strelsy ; " and his " Lay of the Last Minstrel," fs Marmion," and " The Lady of the Lake," estab- lished his fame as a poet of the first class. In 18 14 he began a series of historical romances illustrative of national manners, which soon rendered him the most popular writer of the age. His " TVaverley," " Guy Mannering, " " Ivanhoe," and the long array of their successors which flowed from his magic pen, have become familiar as household words, not only in Britain, but in every part of the civilised world. Though he had realised a larger fortune by his works than any writer that ever lived, he was involved- in the ruin of his book- seller : but he nobly redoubled his literary exer- tions to retrieve his shattered fortune ; and his labours would have been crowned with success, had his bodily frame been equal to the energy of his will. After seeking in .vain to recruit his health in a foreign land, he returned to Scotland and breathed his last at Abbotsford. Strong as was the genius of Sir Walter Scott, he was no less distinguished for his good sense and the amiableness of his character, and he truly merited the appellation of a great and good man. Thomas Stotliard, an eminent artist, born in London, 1755; died, 1834. His admirable com- positions for Bell's British Poets and the No- velist's Magazine, caused him to be employed in the chief illustrated works that issued from the British press; and his "Canterbury Pilgrims," " Flitch of Bacon," and indeed all his works, are replete with simplicity, nature, grace, and truth. 350 BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. Smith, called the father of English geology, born in Oxfordshire, 1769 ; died, 1839. Of humble birth and scanty education, this dis- tinguished man pursued the search after truth throughout a long life under disadvantages which would have disheartened any more worldly spirit, and his labours have enriched the world with numerous geological discoveries, which have proved of incalculable benefit to science. His latter yrars were comforted with honours : the AYollaston medal was awarded to him in 1831 ; and, the following year, a pension was conferred on him by government. Sir Sidnei/ Smith, born in Sussex. 1764; died at Paris 1M'>. Kntrringthe navy in his twelfth year, he rapidly gained distinction, by his skill and gallantry. IK* served for a short time in the Swidish navy, was subsequently imprisoned for two years in the Temple at Paris, and was the first to show at Acre, in 1799, that Buonaparte was not invincible. Robert So?/ they, LL.D., the poet-laureate, born at Bristol, 1780 ; died, 1843. Eminent as a poet, biographer, critic, and historian. His wild and wondi-rous tale of " Thalaba," even had he written nothing else, would have stamped him as a poet of the highosr class : his " Life of Xelson " is de- servedly considered as a gem of biography ; and the vast extent of his acquirements, and the power of his genius, are displayed in " The Doctor," &c., his " History of Brazil," and his numerous contri- butions to the Quarterly Review. Some years previously to his decease, his fine mind had sunk i BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 351 beneath the long-continued and anxious pressure of his literary toils. Reverend Sydney Smith, a distinguished po- litical writer and critic, born in Essex, 1769; died, 1845. His whole life was one continued struggle in favour of liberal principles and mea- sures ; and his writings in the Edinburgh Review, of which he was the founder, were no less dis- tinguished for power of reasoning than for wit, humour, and felicity of illustration. George Stephenson, the most eminent civil en- gineer of his age; born near Newcastle, 1781; died, 1848. He began life as a pit-engine boy at 2d. a day's wages; but his skill and perse- verance surmounted all the difficulties of his po- sition, and he lived to see his name identified with the greatest mechanical revolution effected since the days of James Watt the application of steam to railways. His son, Robert Stephen- son, has reaped ample laurels in the same field of science. T. William Tyndale, born in Wales, 1550 ; died, 1536. He embraced the doctrines of Luther at an early period, and was the first who printed an English translation of the Bible, which drew upon him the implacable hatred of the popish clergy. To avoid their persecutions he fled to Germany, and thence to Antwerp, where they had the address to cause his apprehension ; and for his noble firmness in religious opinions he was stran- gled and then burnt. 352 -II BIOGRAPHY. Jeremy Taylor, bishop of Down and Connor, born at Cambridge, 1613 ; died, 1667. This emi- nently learned and pious prelate was chaplain to Charles the First, whom he attended in some of his campaigns, and aided by several writings in de- fence of the Church of England. After the par- liament proved victorious he retired into "Wale?, where he kept a school. In this obscure situation he wrote : -vent discourses, whose fertility of composition, eloquence of expression, and com- prehensiveness of thought, have rendered him one of the first writer? in the English language. He was twice imprisoned by the republican govern- ment ; but at the Restoration he was elevated to the see of Down and Connor. Sir William Temple, an eminent statesman, diplomat!- riter, born in London, 1629; !7<>o. He spent twenty years in the service >f tli .d then retired for the enjoyment of learned leisure. He^ was the model of a nego- politeness and address to hoii' and Dr. Johnson has said that he was the first writer who gave cadence to English prose. His re, "Mi-moiis," "Miscellanies," "Let- and " Observations on the United Pro- vin Sir James Thornhill, an eminent painter, born in Dorsetshire. 1676; died, 1734. Among his principal v, . rks are the dome of St. Paul's, the refectory and saloon at Greenwich Hospital, the hall at Blenheim, and some of the apartments at art. He was knighted by George the First. His daughter was married to Hogarth, BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 353 the greatest English painter of whom England has to boast. Thomas Tickell, born in Cumberland, 1686; died, 1740. Through the friendship of Addison he was made under- secretary of state, and was afterwards appointed secretary to the lords justices of Ireland. He was a contributor to the Spec- tator, besides writing several poems. James Thomson, an eminent poet, born in Rox- burghshire, 1700; died, 1748. His miscellaneous productions are in the highest esteem; and his poem of the " Seasons " will always remain one of the classics of English literature. John Home Tooke, born in "Westminster, 1736 ; died, 1805. He attracted great attention towards the end of the last century by the violence of his politico. He was a man' of great powers and considerable attainments ; but he is chiefly re- membered in the present day by his " Diversions of Purley," a work which has exercised consi- derable influence on almost all the works on the English language published since its publication. Joseph William Mallord Turner, the most dis- tinguished English landscape painter of his age; born in 1769; died, 1851. At first he limited himself to painting in water-colours, and pro- duced a prolific series of sketches, embracing the topography of England in the " River Scenery," and the " Southern Coast," the scenery of the Alps, of Italy, and great part of Europe. His oil paintings in every variety of style testify to the brilliancy and fervour of his imagination, his breadth of observation, and his truth to nature. 354 BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 1 1 ' - personal habits were peculiar and even penu- rious: but in all that related to art he was generous to munificence. He bequeathed the great bulk of his fortune to found almshouscs for meritorious but unfortunate artists ; and he left his pictures to the nation. u. r, archbishop* of Armagh, born in Dublin, 1580; died, ]C>.~,.~>. He was so eminent for his virtues and learning at an early period, that a remarkable exception was made to the canonical rule in his favour, by ordaining him both iMuebec. The humanity of the hero piciioiis. He published a manifesto to the Canadians, informing them that Britons scorned to make reprisals for the cruelties exer- tl. French upon British subjects in . and offering every protection to the inhabitair -U-c. provided they would re- main nenter. From July to September, the Knglish were employed in concerting measures for t) of Quebec; and on the 12th of that month, having gained some steep ascents, called the Height < <-l Abraham, a battle ensued with the F . Wolfe was shot in the midst of vi'-tirv : and when, in the interval of fainting which preceded the agonies of death, he i the cry, " They run!" Being told it was the J I he, " thank God .' I die contented.'' John /J' ni in Lincolnshire, 1703 ; died, 1701. ThU celebrated divine is the acknowledged BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 359 founder of the methodist society in 1735, which, by his labours in the course of a long life, continued to increase in numbers. In manners Wesley was social, polite, and conversable : in the pulpit, he was fluent, clear, and argumentative. The approach of old age did not in the least abate his zeal and diligence : he was almost perpetually travelling ; and his religious services, setting aside his literary and controversial labours, were almost beyond calculation. Wedgwood, born in Staffordshire, 1730; died, 1795. A very distinguished improver of the English pottery manufacture. He improved the construction of the potter's wheel, and invented a species of ware for the table, which quickly came into general use. For awkward figures, and imitations of Chinese deformities and monstrous shapes, he substituted the elegant forms and orna- ments of Etruscan and Grecian taste. Horace Walpole, third son of Sir Robert Wai- pole, born, 1717 ; died, 1797. As a man of wit and taste, Mr. Walpole will long be remembered. He succeeded, at seventy-four, to the earldom of Orford, but did not assume the title. His " Let- ters," the well-known " Castle of Otranto," the '' Mysterious Mother," and his " Anecdotes of Painting," are among his best productions. Henry Kirke White, a youthful poet of great promise, born in Nottingham, 1785 ; died, 1806. From his earliest years he manifested an extra- ordinary love of learning, and after surmounting several obstacles, he was sent to Cambridge, where, at the early age of twenty-one, he fell a victim to 360 BRITISH BIOr.KAPIIY. nremitting zeal in his academical pursuits. His " Remains," consisting of poems, letters. ami fragments, were laid before the world by Dr. Southey. James Watt, born at Greenock, 1736; died, 1819. Rising from a humble station, he became the first mechanical genius of his age, and, by his improvements in the steam-engine, rendered the most signal servu-es to his country. In conjunction with Mr. Boulton, he formed the great manufac- turing establishment of Soho, near Birmingham. U'illimn H'ilberforce, born at Hull, 1759; died, 1833. Tin* name of this distinguished philan- thropist will be transmitted to posterity for hi xertions in ti of the abolition of v, and negro emancipation. He had the good fortune to live to see his labours cro\\ with success ; and his death took place in the very year that the last fetters were struck the dune, throughout the British dominions. His "Practical View of the prevailing Religious Sys- tems of professed Christians," and his " Apology for the Sabbath," have been extensively read. Sir David JVilkie, a celebrated painter, called lie of domestic art, born at Cults, Fife, 1785 ; died, 1841. At an early age he disj a genius for painting, and having gone to London, attracted notice by the excellence of his first efforts. He excelled chiefly in popular and hu- morous subjects, and the " Blind Fiddler," <' Rent Day," " Chelsea Pensioners," and innumerable others, have raised him to the highest eminence in ing visited the Ea>t, with a view to BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 361 discover a new field for the exercise of his genius, lie died at sea, off Gibraltar on his return home, and his body was committed to the deep. Richard Colley, Marquis Wellesley, a statesman, diplomatist, and scholar, born in Dublin, 1760; died, 1842. This distinguished nobleman, after filling a few subordinate offices at home, was ap- pointed Governor-General of India, in 1797 ; and while the promptitude and energy of his conduct, aided by the skilful generalship of his illus- trious brother, the Duke of Wellington, greatly extended the boundaries of our Eastern empire, the judiciousness of his administration laid the foundation of a better aera of English rule in India. He subsequently served his sovereign as ambassador to the court of Spain, secretary of foreign affairs, and lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and in all these capacities was conspicuous for his enlarged views, moderation, and impartiality. William Wordsworth, a distinguished poet; born at Cockermouth, 1770; died at Rydal Mount, 1850. His poetical career is remarkable for showing the vicissitudes of public taste. His early productions were generally received with contempt and ridicule ; but as time rolled on, the great bulk of the thoughtful classes rallied around him ; and his greatest work, the " Excursion," and his " Sonnets," are now reckoned among the clas- sics of the age. He succeeded his friend Southey as poet-laureate in 1843. Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington, born, May 1st, 1769 ; died, September 14th, 1852. As a soldier, the greatest of his age, not excepting R 362 BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. even his great antagonist, Xapoleon Buonaparte ; statesman, of consummate prudence ; as a patriot, of the most upright and pure, the name of the Duke of Wellington will never be eclipsed. His first military laurels were earned in India ; when at the great battle of Assaye he destroyed the Mahrutta power ; and on being transferred to Europe, he drove the French armies from Spain and Portugal, an<\ crowned his long career of military glory by the overthrow of Napoleon at Waterloo. F. r :l:rsc achievements he had been successively raised through all the gradations of the peerage to that of duke. He subsequently reign as prime minister and as commander of the forces; and in e\vry n lution of life his guiding principle was an energetic and uni. g obedience to the call of duty. I' remains were interred with great 1'uiu -ml pomp in St. I'. lu-dral, whore the hero of the land now reposes -ide with NeL-on. hi- i her John Wilson, a distinguished poet, critic, and prose writer; born at Paisley, 1785 ; died, 1854. Soon after completing his studies at ( i and Oxford, he published the " Isle of Palms," which gave him a high place among the poets of his age ; and this was followed at intervals by " The City of the Plague" and his beautiful prose fic- tions, " The Trials of Margaret Lyndsay," " The Lights and Shadows of Scottish Life," " The Foresters/' &c. Soon after the establishment of Blackwood ine, he became its chief editor ; and, as " Christopher North," long filled the public BRITISH BIOGRAPHY. 363 with delight and astonishment at the brilliant series of papers, imaginatory and critical, which flowed from his pen. In 1820 he succeeded Dr. Thomas Brown in the chair of Moral Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh. Y. Dr. Edivard Young, a poet of well-established fame, born in Hampshire, 1681 ; died, 1765. His chief works are, " The Last Day," " Love of Fame," "The Universal Passion," and the " Night Thoughts." B 2 364 A SKETCH OF GENERAL MODERN BIOGRAPHY. Arranged Chronologically according to the Death of each Character. But not alike to CTery mortal rye Is this great scene unveiled : for since the claims Of social life to diff 'rent labours The active powers of man, with wienevolent, temperate, and pious, and though and flattered by the greatest monarchs of the age, his demeanour was mild and unas- ing. The Duke of Aha, a Spanish general, born, : di-d. 1582. He was long in the service of i-'iith. Emperor of Germany, and his successor, Philip the Second. By the latter mo- was appointed to reduce the Low Countries to abject .-ubmissioii to tyrannic power; for which purpose he exercised the greatest cruel- : oa the natives, yet failed in his endeavours; for, exasperated by such treatment, they formally renounced their allegiance to the Spanish crown, and erected an independent state. Alva afterwards 1 liis prince more effectually in an expedi- tion against Portugal, dethroning its king, and seizing his domini Alba hi, an Italian painter, born at Bologna, 1.378 ; died, 1660. He was the pupil of the Ca- . and excelled in the delineation of female beauty : his Loves and Graces are inimitable. D'Ajwille, geographer to Louis XIV., born at Paris, 1697 ; died, 1782. He devoted his whole MODERN BIOGRAPHY. 367 life to geographical studies, and the numerous valuable works and maps which he published, particularly those upon ancient geography, left him without a rival. D'Alembert, a Frenchman, born at Paris, 1717 ; died, 1783. This celebrated philosopher and mathematician assisted in compiling the French Encyclopedic, published the " Elements of Phi- losophy," and various miscellaneous works, me- moirs, &c. He rejected advantageous offers made him by two sovereigns to establish himself at their courts, preferring poverty with indepen- dence, and the enjoyment of his favourite studies. Alfieri, a celebrated Italian poet, born, 1749; died, 1803. In early life his education had been greatly neglected, but his genius ultimately burst through every trammel ; and his tragedies, both in number and excellence, have placed him at the head of this department of Italian literature. Angerstein, a distinguished patron of the fine arts, born at Petersburg, 1735; died at Black- heath, 1823. His collection of paintings, which was esteemed inferior to none in Europe of the same extent, was purchased by the English go- vernment for 60,0007., and formed the nucleus of the London National Gallery. Arago, a distinguished astronomer and man of science, born at Estagal, 1786; died, 1853. His numerous discoveries in various branches of mag- netism have given him a first place among the scientific men of the age ; while his " Treatise on Astronomy," and his " Lives of Distinguished Men," are looked upon as standard works. R 4 368 MODEEX BIOGRAPHY. B. Boccaccio, an Italian poet and prose writer, contemporary with Petrarch, born, 1313; died, 1375. He left some historical works behind him, but his " Decameron " (or Collection of Tales) is the most esteemed of his writings ; though they certainly owe much of their reputation to the taste of the times, being ill suited to modern manners and feeli: The Chevalier Bayard, a French warrior, born in Dauphini', 1475; died, 1524. Distinguished equally by his active humanity, his disinterested : osity, and his heroic bravery. After many MLTiial proofs of courage and conduct, he fell in Italy, in an action with the Imperialists, and has universally earned the title of the " Good Knight without fear, and without reproach." Biron, Marshal of France, a celebrated French general under Henry the Third, and Henry the Great, of France, born, 1533; died, 1592. His military conduct and uncommon valour have im- mortalised his name. He fell, by a cannon-ball, at the siege of Epernai. His son Charles was 1 to the dukedom by Henry IV. and ap- pointed ambassador to England; but having en- gaged in a conspiracy against his royal master, he was tried, condemned, and beheaded, 1602. Tyclio Brake, a celebrated Danish astronomer, born at Knudstorp, 1546; died, 1601. He main- tained that the earth is stationary in the centre, the sun revolving around her in twenty-four hours ; but though his system is now altogether MODERN BIOGRAPHY. 369 exploded, he will always be remembered as one of the most profound and ingenious philosophers. Tycho Brahe was the first nobleman of his country who shook off the prejudices which forbade men of noble birth to publish and deliver lectures. He was accustomed to read lectures on astronomy and chemistry to crowded audiences, but being compelled by the intrigues of faction to leave Denmark, he retired to Prague, where he lived under the protection of the Emperor Rodolphus. Bellarmin, an Italian Cardinal and Jesuit, born in Tuscany, 1542; died, 1621. He was a great controversial writer, and strenuous defender of the Romish church : his theological works are by his own party held in high estimation. Balzac, a French writer, born at Angouleme, 1596; died, 1654. His knowledge of polite lite- rature was extensive, but his works have been famed for excellence of style rather than of matter. He obtained the patronage of Cardinal Riche- lieu. Bernini, an eminent Italian sculptor, born at Naples, 1598 ; died, 1680. At ten years of age, he succeeded admirably in carving a marble head ; and at seventeen, Rome was enriched by many cf his works. He was also a good painter and architect, and hence was called the Michael Angelo of his day. Bossuet, Bishop of Meaux, an eminent French- man, born, 1627; died, 1704. He was a most eloquent and impressive preacher ; and his theo- logical and historical works are not only models of perfect style and expression, but rich fountains R 5 3IODERN BIOGRAPHY. of the most sublime and salutary truths. He was a severe antagonist of the illustrious Fenelon. Bernoulli, a Swiss mathematician and geome- trician, born, 1654 ; died, 1 705. He resided some time in England ; and on his return to his native town (Basle), he read lectures on natural and experimental philosophy, mechanics, &c. His brother, John, and a nephew, Daniel, equalled, if they did not surpass, him in mathematical knowledge. Bayle, a celebrated French writer, philosopher, and critic, born at Carlat, 1647 ; died, 1706. Author of the celebrated " Biographical and Cri- tical Dictionary," and other works. Boileau, a French poet and eminent wit, born at Paris, 1636; died, 1711. He was honoured with the patronage of Louis the Fourteenth, who distinguished his merit by many solid acts of kimlnoss. lie was originally intended for the bar, but the bent of his genius led him to prefer the society of the Muses. Boileau's " Satires," and his " l Art of Poetry," have been universally admired. Boerhaave, born near Leyden, in Holland, 1668 ; died, 1738. A celebrated physician of modern times, whose botanical and chemical knowledge was i >n iportionate to his other acquirements. The pvatest respect was paid to his opinions, and the highest reliance placed upon his professional skill, not only throughout Europe, but in every part of the civilised world. Beccaria, an Italian monk, professor of philo- sophy and the mathematics at Rome, born, 1716 ; died, 1781. He was celebrated for his electrical MODERN BIOGRAPHY. 371 experiments and discoveries. He wrote on philo- sophical, astronomical, and electrical subjects, and must not be confounded with another philosopher of the same name, who wrote a judicious and much-admired work on " Crimes and Punish- ments," and died 1793. Count de Buffon, a French naturalist and phi- losopher, born at Montbard in Burgundy, 1707 ; died, 1788. This great man early displayed his love of literature and the polite arts. His " Natural History " is replete with majestic descriptions of nature, deep learning, and eloquence of style ; and notwithstanding many of its hypotheses are in- correct, will always challenge general admiration. Sailli/, a celebrated French astronomer, born, 1736 ; died, 1793. A man of uaiversal talents; but his great work is a " History of Astronomy." At the beginning of the French Kevolution,- quit- ting the pursuits in which he had so successfully engaged, Bailly plunged into the whirlpool of politics, was made president of the first National Assembly, and became mayor of Paris in the year 1789, but was afterwards involved in the destruc- tion of the Gironde party, and guillotined. Burger, a celebrated German poet, born, 1748 ; died, 1794. His ballad of " Leonora," which has often been translated into English, has given him a place in the first class of the German poets of his age. Barthelemy, a French abbe, born at Cassis, 1716 ; died, 1795. This learned man was per- fectly versed in the classical and oriental lan- guages. His great production, the " Travels of B 6 MODERN BIOGBAPHT. Anacharsis in Greece," is a most elegant and instructive work. Beckman, professor of political economy at Got- tinmen, born, 1739; died, 1811. He united an extensive knowledge of nature with a remarkable facility in applying it to practical purposes : and his " History of Inventions," though not up to the level of the present advanced state of knowledge, lias not yet been superseded. Burckhardt, a celebrated Swiss traveller, born, 1784 ; died, 1817. The English Association for exploring Africa selected him as their missionary ; but he died on his way to Timbuctoo, and his journals were subsequently published by the Afri- can Association. Prince Blucher, a distinguished general, born at Rostock in Germany, 1742 ; died, 1819. He took part in the long series of engagements which harassed the world from the Seven Years' Wai- down to the fall of Napoleon at Waterloo : and his fearless courage, combined with his great nal advantages, made him the idol of his soldiers. The astonishing celerity of his move- ments procured him the general appellation of Marshal Forwards. Belzoni, an enterprising traveller, born at Padua, 1780; died, 1823. His researches in r display the most laudable industry, and have been of irreat service to students of O Egyptian antiquities. Beethoven, born at Bonn, 1770; died, 1827. One of the greatest musical composers in modern times. His principal works are the oratorio of the MODERN BIOGRAPP1Y. 373 " Mount of Olives," and the opera of "Fidelio ; " but the grandeur of his conceptions, and his marvel- lous skill in their development, are most manifest in his orchestral works, in his overtures, and more especially in his symphonies. He resided mostly at Vienna. For nearly the last twenty years of his life he was afflicted with incurable deafness ; a severe infirmity to all, but doubly so to a musician. Bolivar, called the Liberator of South America, born at Caraccas, 1783; died, 1830. On return- ing to his native country from Madrid and Paris, whither he had gone to complete his studies, he embraced the cause of independence, and after a long and desperate struggle, of various success, the independence of Colombia was sealed, and Bolivar was chosen President of the Republic in 1821 He was subsequently created Dictator of Peru an office, however, which he soon voluntarily re- signed ; and part of Upper Peru was afterwards called Bolivia, in honour of the Liberator. Bellini, a distinguished musical composer, born at Palermo, 1802; died, 1835. He was de- votedly attached to the tragic muse ; and his operas of " Romeo and Juliet," " Somnambula," " Puritani," and " Norma," are universally ad- mired. Blumenbach, one of the most distinguished na- turalists of modern times, born at Gotha, 1752 ; died at Gottingen, 1837. He early displayed a great aptitude for scientific pursuits ; and before he had attained his 24th year, his fame as an in- quirer into nature had spread throughout the civil- 374 MODERN BIOGRAPHY. i~nl world. The science of comparative anatomy, iccessfully cultivated in more recent times, may be said to owe its origin to Blumenbach. Bernadntte, king of Sweden and Norway, born at Pau, 1764 ; died, 1844. Of humble origin, he joined the army as a private soldier in his 17th year, took a leading part in the wars that sprung from the French revolution, and rose to be a marshal of the empire, with the title of Prince of Ponte Corvo. In IS 10 lu> was elected succes- sor to tin- li throne, to which he acceded in 1818, by the title of Charles XIV. ; and if a mild, equitable, and enlightened system of government, and an unblemished private character, give a claim to th ind affection of a people, few princes lie held in more grateful remembrance than this monarch. 11 (more dc Balzac* one of the most distin- guished and prolific novelists of modern times; born at Tours, 1799 ; died, 1850. His design was to in iL all his productions form one great work under the title of " La Comedie humaine ; " and though he did not live to complete it, yet most of his novels, and especially his most recent ones, hear the impress of genius on every page. Jean Pierre de Beranger, the most distin- guished lyric poet that France has produced; born at Paris, 1780; died, 1857. His youth was passed in poverty and neglect; but soon after he was eighteen years of age, his genius burst forth : and from that time, for nearly forty years, he poured out his soul in popular " Chan- eons," which kept alive the memory of Napoleon MODERN BIOGRAPHY. 375 in the hearts of the people, 'and largely con- tributed to the fall of the Bourbon dynasty. Few men have left behind them a greater repu- tation for disinterestedness and noble simplicity of character. c. Columbus of Genoa, the discoverer of a new world, born, 1442 ; died, 1506. This truly great man experienced the most trying disappoint- ments. He was long ridiculed by those who could not comprehend his schemes, or fathom his intentions. But he surmounted every obstacle ; and, under the auspices of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, added America to their dominions. Philip de Comines,\)orn. in Flanders, 1446; died, 1509. He was an upright statesman, and an ex- cellent and impartial historian. He resided at the court of France in the reign of Louis the Eleventh, and was in high esteem with that prince ; but upon his death, Comines was disgraced and imprisoned. His writings were, a " History of France," and the " General Affairs of Europe in the Fifteenth and the Beginning of the Sixteenth Centuries." Correggio, an Italian painter of great merit, born at Modena, 1494 ; died, 1534. He excelled in the disposition of light and shade, and for the exqui- siteness of his colouring ; and his pieces are in high estimation. Two of his best pictures, the " Education of Cupid," and " Ecce Homo," are in the National Gallery. Copernicus, a Prussian born at Thorn, 1472 ; died 1543. This celebrated astronomer and ma- 376 MODERN BIOGRAPHY. thematician established the true system of the universe, in opposition to that of Ptolemy, which had till his time been generally received. The great work of Copernicus is entitled the " Revolu- tions of the Celestial Orbs." He had a taste for general literature, and was a proficient in paint- ing. Cortez, a, celebrated Spaniard, born, 1485, at Medellin, in Estramadura ; died, 1547. In 1518 he sailed for the conquest of Mexico, encouraged by the recent discoveries of Columbus ; in which enterprise he succeeded to his utmost wishes. He served under Charles the Fifth, King of Spain and Emperor of Germany. The courage and per- severance of Cortez have been much admired; but he was destitute of humanity, the brightest gem which adorns the hero's sword. Charles the Fifth, King of Spain and Emperor of Germany ; sovereign, also, of Holland, the Netherlands, Mexico, and Peru ; born at Ghent, 1500; died, 1558. This monarch, whose power and abilities were, at that period, unequalled, was, during a long war, the rival and opponent of Francis the First, King of France, and he wa.- finally victorious. After bearing the toils of go- vernment thirty-eight years, Charles, disir 1 ; with the parade of royalty, took the singular reso- lution of resigning his crown, and, in a solemn assembly of the states, gave to his brother Ferdi- nand the empire of Germany, and to Philip, his son, his Spanish dominions ; he then retired to a monastery and survived this act about two year.*. John Calvin, born in Picardy, 1509 ; died, 1564. MODERN BIOGRAPHY. 377 The celebrated religious reformer. He resigned his benefice upon his change of opinions ; and, persecuted by the Catholic party, was obliged to retire into Switzerland, where he published his " Institutes of the Christian Religion." Calvin was afterwards chosen one of the ministers of the reformed church at Geneva ; in which he exercised the most unbounded authority. The church of Scotland regulates her faith by his opinions and system of church discipline. Las Casas, an eminent Spanish prelate, born at Seville, 1474 ; died, 1566. In his nineteenth year he accompanied Columbus in his second voyage to the West Indies ; and on his return to Spain he embraced the ecclesiastical profession, in order that he might act as a missionary in the western hemisphere. Never did man more zealously en- deavour to effect a great and good object. Twelve times he crossed the ocean, to plead at the foot of the Spanish throne the cause of the wretched In- dians, and passed fifty years of his life in attempt- ing the melioration of their condition, though with little effect. Of the writings of Las Casas, the most valuable is his " General History of the Indies." Coligni, a French admiral, born at Chatillon, 1515 ; died, 1572. He was chief of the Protestant party during the civil wars in France, and was eminently brave and humane. Coligni fell in the atrocious massacre of St. Bartholomew's day. Camoens, a Portuguese poet, born at Lisbon, 1524; died, 1579. He is called the Homer or Virgil of Portugal ; and his " Lusiad " (well trans- 378 MODERN BIOGRAPHY. lated by Mr. Mickle into English) may be called a truly epic national picture of Portuguese glory. He shone also as a scholar and a soldier, and served his country bravely against the Moors and in India. His life was chequered with misfor- tune ; and he finally died most wretchedly in an hospital. Casaubon, born at Geneva, 1559: died in Eng- land, 1614. He was a learned commentator upon, and editor of, the Latin and Greek authors : his dedication of Polybius to Henry the Fourth is much admired ; he published also an edition of the Greek Testament James the First of Eng- land patronised Casaubon, and gave him some ecclesiastical preferment. Cervantes, the proudest ornament of Spanish literature, born in Castile, 1547 ; died 23rd April, 1616, on the same day as his great contemporary Shakspeare. He signalised himself also by his valour in several expeditions against the Turks and the Moors. His pastoral romance, "Galatea," his first production, is beautiful in its spirit and pleasing in its narrative ; but his chief title to fame rests on his admirable romance, " Don Quixote," which has immortalised his name. The Caracci, Italians, all celebrated painters, born at Bologna, and founders of the Bolognese school of painting; Lewis. Augustine, and Han- nibal. They flourished in the end of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth century : none of them survived the year 1619. Cardinal Farnese employed Hannibal in painting the Far- nese gallery at Rome ; Augustine resided at the MODERN BIOGRAPHY. 379 Duke of Parma's court ; and Lewis remained at Bologna. Augustine and Hannibal were brothers ; Lewis was their cousin. > Claude of Lorraine, an eminent landscape painter, born, 1600; died, 1682. His colouring is rich, powerful, and brilliant; his tints are varied as Nature herself; and his composition is a singular union of freedom and symmetry. Colbert, a celebrated French statesman, born at Rheims, 1619; died, 1683. Cardinal Mazarin, in whose service he had long been, recommended him, in his last moments, to Louis the Four- teenth, who made him prime minister ; and never were honours more properly bestowed. He was the patron of the fine arts, and the founder of the Academy of Sciences at Paris : the navy, com- merce, and manufactures were equally indebted to him : he built arsenals in the best French sea- ports ; regulated courts of justice, and improved the finances of the kingdom. His son was created a Marquis. Corneille, called the father of the French drama, born at Rouen, 1606; died, 1684. His tragedies of the " Cid," the " Horatii" and " Curiatii," and 1635; died, 1712. His fame reaching France, he was invited to pay a visit to that country, where the kindness shown him by Louis the Fourteenth, and his niinistvr, Colbert, caused him to remain for the rest of his life. He was the first resident in the Royal Observatory at Paris, instituted by the great Colbert ; and during forty years, his services were such as to do high honour to himself, as well as to the liberal monarch by whom he was patronised. Among his numerous discoveries may be mentioned that of four satellites of Saturn. Cassini had a son and gra::l-on, both eminent mathematicians, who succeeded him as professors in the Royal Observatory at Paris. Corelli, an Italian musician, born at Fusignano, 1653; died, 1713. He resided at Rome, was highly esteemed by the lovers of the science in which he excelled, and is said to have been the best player on the violin in the world. MODERN BIOGRAPHY. 381 Charles the Twelfth, King of Sweden, born, 1682; died, 1718. This monarch's passion for war and conquest gave him a title to the appel- lation of the Modern Alexander ; while by some he has been termed, perhaps more properly, the Military Madman. At the early age of fifteen he gave proofs of that bold and decisive character which afterwards distinguished him. Russia, Denmark, and Poland having confederated- against him, he defeated the Danish king, dethroned the Polish monarch, and gained a signal victory, at Narva, over Peter the Great ; but Peter amply retaliated upon Charles at the battle of Pultowa, the loss of which obliged him to seek refuge in the Turkish dominions. Upon leaving Bender, he raised an army, and entered Norway, where, at the siege of Frederickshall, a pistol-ball put an end to his turbulent life. Marquise du (Marchioness) Chastellct, born, 1 706 ; died, 1 749. This distinguished lady (daugh- ter of Baron de Breteuil) gained considerable eminence in the literary world by her philosophical and mathematical attainments. To the English reader she is chiefly remarkable for having trans- lated the great work of Newton into French, with an able Commentary. She lived on terms of great intimacy with Voltaire. Calmet, a Frenchman, and Benedictine monk, born, 1672 ; died, 1757. He was an indefatigable writer, and a man of worth. His principal publL cations were, a " Commentary upon the Books of the Old and New Testament," the " History of the Old and New Testament," " Universal History, 382 MODERN BIOGRAPHY. Sacred and Profane," and an " Historical, Critical, ind Chronological Dictionary of the Bible." Crebillon, called the French .^Eschylus, born at Dijon, 1674; died, 1762. His tragedies are re- markable for their fire and dignity : that of" Rha- damistus " is well worthy of perusal. The son of Crebillon was also a writer, but not of such cele- brity. Marquis of Condorcet, a distinguished philoso- pher, born in Dauphiny, 1743; died, 1794. He became perpetual secretary of the Academy of Sciences, and took an active part in bringing about the French Revolution ; but, like innumer- able others, was ultimately sacrificed by the demon he had aided to call into existence. The great object of his life was to effect a system of perfect equality among mankind; and whatever may be thought of his judgment, his sincerity has never been called in question. His wife, of the family of Grouchy, and one of the most beautiful women of the day, distinguished herself by an elegant translation of Smith's " Theory of Moral Senti- ments." Antonio Canova, born in 1757, at Passngno, in the Venetian territory; died, 1822. He rose to high eminence in the art of sculpture, which, be- fore his time, had greatly declined. Till the appearance of Thorwaldsen, he was considered without a rival. Among his numerous works, the finest are Cupid and Psyche, Venus and Adonis, and Napoleon holding a Sceptre. Cuvier, born, 1769; died, 1832. He devoted himself to the study of nature, and became the MODERN BIOGRAPHY. 383 most eminent zoologist of the age. He excelled in comparative anatomy, to illustrate which he formed an extensive collection, preserved in the Jardin des Plantes at Paris. He also threw quite a new light on the history of fossil remains, of those of extinct animals. His great work is en- titled " The Animal Kingdom, arranged accord- ing to its Organization." He was created a peer of France. William Ellery Channing, a Unitarian divine, the greatest of American writers, born in Rhode Island, 1780 ; died, 1842. His essays on Milton and Bonaparte have attained a European repu- tation ; and there are few subjects of interest to the existing generation of mankind upon which he has not thrown the light of a benevolent mind and powerful understanding. His prominent characteristics were masculine sense, and a plain, clear, strong way of placing his thoughts before the reader. Chateaubriand, born 1769; died, 1848. His chequered career and numerous productions gained him a prominent place in the history of his time. At one period of his life (in 1793) he was indebted to the Royal Literary Fund for the means of subsistence ; while thirty years later he represented Louis XVIII. at the court of St. James's, and became subsequently minister of Foreign Affairs to the same monarch. The work by which he is best known is his "Genie du Christianisme," which has been translated into all European languages. James Fenimore Cooper , the most distinguished 384 3IODERN BIOGRAPHY. novelist that America has produced; born, 1789; died, 1851. A native passion for the sea, and a keen spirit of adventure, induced him to enter the American navy ; and many of his produc- tions, such as "The Spy," "The Pioneers," " The Pilot," " Lionel Lincoln," testify to the influence which this portion of his career had upon his genius. All his novels display an admirable power of invention, a felicitous con- ception of character, and a mastery of graphic and impressive portraiture. Eugene Cavaignac, a distinguished French general; born at Paris, 1802 ; died, 1857. His chief campaigns were made in Africa, where he gained great distinction. Soon after the revolu- tion of February, 1848, he was made minister of war. When the terrible outbreak of June took place he was nominated Dictator; and to his energy and decision it was owing that the Socialist party did not succeed in their attempt to subvert the government. He was the rival candidate of Louis Napoleon, now Napoleon III., for the office of first President of the republic; and when the coup d'etat was perpetrated in 1851, he was seized and imprisoned, but soon after set at liberty. He died suddenly, leaving behind him the memory of a great soldier and a true patriot. D Dante, the greatest Italian poet, born at Flo- rence, 1265 ; died, 1321. Dante's patriotic feel- ings, and independent spirit, impelled him to join MODERN BIOGRAPHY. 385 the popular party, at that time prevailing. But that party being afterwards overthrown, he was banished, and in exile wrote many of his best poems. His fame chiefly rests on that extraordi- nary production the " Divina Commedia," consist- ing of three parts, Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven ; a work remarkable alike for its terrific grandeur and wild display of creative genius, and its grace, tenderness, and pathos. Durer, a celebrated engraver and painter, born, in Germany, at Niirnberg, 1471; died, 1528. His engravings are numerous and excellent ; his pictures are extremely scarce. He was patronised by Maximilian, Emperor of Germany, who granted him letters of nobility. He made great improvements in copper-plate and wood engraving. Doria, born in Genoa, 1466 ; died, 1560. The greatest naval commander of his age, and the de- liverer of Genoa from French oppression. The sovereignty of his country was offered him ; but he nobly refused to deprive the Genoese of their independence : his grateful countrymen, however, raised a palace for Doria, created him Censor for life, with the title of Liberator and Father of his country, and after his death erected a statue in honour of their hero. Domenichino, an Italian painter, born at Bo- logna, 1581 ; died, 1641. He was a pupil of the Caracci. His paintings are in high estimation, and his architectural designs have been much admired. Des Cartes, a French philosopher and mathe- matician, born at La Haye, 1596; died, 1650. 8 386 MODERN BIOGRAPHY. Des Cartes' system of philosophy, though in- genious, was not solid ; and it was completely overturned by the demonstrations of Sir Isaac Newton. Queen Christina of Sweden settled upon him a pension, and an estate. lie published several works on geometry and meteors. Dow, a Dutch painter, the scholar of Rem- brandt, born in Leyden, 1613 ; died, 1680. His pieces are marked by elaborateness of detail, strong expression, and exquisite tini.-h. Carlo Dolci, an excellent painter, born at Flo- rence, 1616 ; died, 1686. All the members of his family were distinguished for their proficiency in art. His singular piety induced him to devote his pencil almost exclusively to sacred subjects; and his numerous pictures were elaborated with consummate delicacy, and are full of gentle and tender expressions. Andrew Dacier, born at Castres, 1651 ; died, 1722. He married Anne le Fuvre; and both hus- band and wife became eminent among the cla.- scholars of the seventeenth century. Madame Dacicr translated the " Iliad " and " Odyssey," " Anacreon " and " Sappho," the comedies of Terence, and the works of Plautus : her husband translated "Horace," Plutarch's "Lives," and " Epictetus." Madame Dacier's enthusiasm for the ancients was unbounded, but free from all pe- dantry and conceit ; nor did her learned occupa- tions interfere with her duties as a wife or a mother. Diderot, a French writer, born, 1713; died, 1784. Memorable as the principal author of the MODERN BIOGRAPHY. 387 famous French " Encyclopedic." He was greatly patronised by Catherine, Empress of Russia. Timothy Dwight, an eminent Presbyterian di- vine, born at Massachusetts, America, 1752 ; died, 1817. He was professor of theology in Vale College, and published various works, many of which are held in high repute both in Ame- rica and in England. He was eminently useful as a preacher ; and his life bore witness to the sincerity of his own belief. David, a celebrated painter, born at Paris, 1750; died, 1825. He took an active part in the French Revolution ; and nothing but his dis- tinction as an artist saved him from the guillotine. He was greatly esteemed and patronised by Na- poleon; but on the restoration of Louis the Eighteenth, he was banished from Paris, and re- tired to Brussels, where he died. His best work is the " Rape of the Sabines ; " his portrait of Napoleon is well known. E. Erasmus, a celebrated Dutchman, born at Rot- terdam, 1467 ; died, 1536. He was the most elegant of the modern Latin authors, and the great restorer of learning in Europe. To the writings of Erasmus, we may, in part, attribute the dawning of the Reformation, since he first introduced a taste for literature, and consequently promoted the "spirit of inquiry ; but it is still doubtful what were his own religious opinions, as he occasionally temporised with both parties. He travelled into Italy, Switzerland, France, and 388 MODERN BIOGRAPHY. England, and was courted by the great men of those countries with the most sedulous attention. Among other works, he wrote the famous " Col- loquies/' so well known as a popular Latin school- book. Er cilia, a celebrated Spanish poet, born at Madrid, 1533; died about 1600. Attached to the court of Charles the Fifth, he accompanied his son, afterwards Philip' the Second, to England, on the occasion of his marriage with Queen Mary, and thence sailed as a volunteer for America to repress the revolt that had broken out among the brave Araucanians. 1 1 is admirable epic, " Arau- cuiia.'' which faithfully describes the perils and exploits of that fierce and dangerous contest, was written on scraps of paper during those brief in- tervals which could be snatched from active duty. His merits as a soldier and a poet were ill re- quited by his sovereign ; for he died in great penury at Madrid. The Elzevirs, celebrated printers, at Amsterdam and Leyden, who flourished between the years 1592 and 1680. They adorned the republic of letters with many beautiful editions of the best authors of antiquity. Prince Eugene, born at Paris, 1663; died, 1736. This brave general at first served under Louis the Fourteenth ; but that monarch refusing to ad- vance his interests, Eugene quitted France, and entered the Austrian service as a'volunteer : his valour soon procured him a company, and he de- feated the Turks some time after at Peterwaradin. The Emperor sent him against the French, and MODERN BIOGRAPHY. 389 he became one of the most formidable enemies France ever knew. He was joined in command with the Duke of Marlborough ; and amply shared the laurels gained by the allied armies of the British, German, and Dutch. JEuler, a great Swiss mathematician, born at Basle, 1707 ; died, 1783. In the reign of Peter the Great he was invited to Russia, and appointed professor of natural philosophy at Petersburg : he afterwards accepted an offer made him by Frederic the Great of Prussia, whom he advised on ques- tions relating to the mint, navigable canals, &c. but he finally returned to Russia under Catherine the First. Euler's habits of life were strictly re- ligious, the labours of each day being closed with a chapter from the Bible and family prayer. Eichhorn, one of the most distinguished scholars of Germany, born, 1752 ; died, 1827. He suc- ceeded the celebrated Michaelis in the chair of Oriental and biblical literature at Gottingen. His reputation was equally high as a proficient in Oriental, classical, and Scriptural antiquities; in philosophical criticism ; in the history of nations, ancient and modern literature and science, and in universal bibliology. His works are in the hands of all the learned in Europe and America ; but many of his opinions can meet with no sup- port from those who lay claim to orthodoxy. F. Ferdousi, a celebrated Persian poet ; died, 1020. His " Epic Poems " contain the annals of the Persian kings. This great work occupied his at- s 3 390 MODERN BIOGRAPHY. tention for nearly thirty years, and was highly spoken of by Sir William Jones, whose critical knowledge of Persia enabled him to judge with accuracy of its beauties. Dr. Faustus, a famous German scholar in the beginning of the fifteenth century, supposed to be the same as Fust, the assistant of Guttenberg, in the invention of the art of printing. He devoted himself to the study of medicine, astrology, and magic, in which he obtained such proficiency as to inspire his countrymen with a firm belief that he had familiar dealings with the other world. The supernatural feats performed by him and his servant. Mephistophiles, have been immortalised by the genius of Goethe. Froissart, born in French Flanders, at Valen- ciennes, 1337; died, 1410. lie was u very accurate historian of his own times; and his " Chronicles," admirably translated into English by Johnes, nar- rate the transactions and events connected with Spain, France, and England, during the reigns of Edward the Third and Richard the Second. Ferreira, the reformer of the national poetry of Portugal, often called the Portuguese Horace, born at Lisbon, 1528 ; died of the plague, 1569. He carried to perfection the lyric and epistolary style, and his " Ines de Castro " is the second re- gular tragedy that appeared after the revival of letters in Europe. Du Fresnoy, a French painter and poet, born in Paris, 1611 ; died, 1665. His Latin poem on the " Art of Painting " has been translated by Dryden and Mason. Du Fresnoy was also a good archi- MODERN BIOGRAPHY. 391 tect and mathematician, and well acquainted with the learned languages. Ferrari., the name of a Milanese family, many of whose members during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were distinguished by their scholastic attainments. Of these may be men- tioned, Octavio Ferrari, born, 1518; died, 1586. He was professor of politics and ethics successively at Milan and Padua, translated the works of Athena3us into Latin, and wrote two treatises on the works of Aristotle. Francisco Bernardino Ferrari, bonf, 1577 ; died, 1669 : ce- lebrated throughout Europe for his intimate ac- quaintance with books and literature in gt-. His collection of rare books formed the founda- tion of the celebrated Ambrosian library at Milan, and his own writings display great erudition. Octavio Ferrari, born, 1607; died, 1682. He settled at Padua, where the fame of his learning brought him numerous scholars, and the patron- age of Christina of Sweden and Louis the Four- teenth. Distinguished as he was by his great talents, he was not less remarkable for suavity of manners and disposition, which gained for him universally the appellation of the Pacificator. De la Fontaine, a French writer, born, 1621 ; died, 1695. His " Tales " are highly objectionable on the score of morality : but his " Fables " belong to that small class of works, the reputation of which never fades, and which are just as well known at present as they were nearly two cen- turies ago. The great charm of Fontaine consists in the ease and grace of his narrative. s 4. 392 MODERN BIOGRAPHY. Fenelon, Archbishop of Cambray, a Frenchman, the ornament of his country, born, 1651 ; died, 1715. He was tutor to the Dukes of Anjou, Berri, and Burgundy, for the instruction of the last of whom he wrote his celebrated " Telema- chus." Having written a small work called " The Maxims of the Saints," in which mystical opinions were avowed, he was involved in a controversy with Bossuet, Bishop of Meaux, who had suffi- cient interest with the pope to procure the con- demnation of the works, and the banishment of the archbishop to his diocese. In personal manners and in moral character he was most engaging. His works, which are very numerous, consist chiefly of religious and moral treatises. " Telern- achus" is read at almost every European school. Abbe Fleury, a French historian and divine, born at Paris, 1640; died, 1723. His reputation for learning caused him to be associated with Fenelon in educating the young dukes of Bur- gundy, Anjou, and Berri ; and he afterwards became confessor to Louis the Fifteenth. His " Manners of the Christians and Israelites" are among the best works in the French language for elegance and precision of style; but his most valuable production is his " History of the Church." He possessed all the qualities and vir- tues of a scholar, an honest man, and a Christian. Fahrenheit, an experimental philosopher, born at Dantzic, 1686 ; died, 1736. He was a great improver of the thermometer, and made an en- tirely new scale for that useful instrument, which has been generally adopted by the English. MODERN BIOGRAPHY. 393 Cardinal Fleury, a celebrated French states- man, and prime minister to Louis the Fifteenth, born, 1653; died, 1743, This extraordinary man was seventy-three years of age when the manage- ment of public affairs was placed in his hands, a task which he performed with great ability and uprightness. Pie appears to have been a sincere lover of peace, and to have laboured earnestly to preserve that blessing to his country. When no longer able to avoid the scourge of war, he died, lamenting with his last breath the loss of peace. Fontenelle, born at Rouen, 1657 ; died, 1757. This distinguished French writer was the nephew of the great Corneille, and during a long life of a century signalised himself by the variety of his acquirements, and the brilliancy of his powers. His personal character was in admirable unison with the tone of his mind, and his career displays a union of genius, and amiability, and kindness of heart, rarely to be met with. His " Dialogues of the Dead," " Plurality of Worlds," and " His- tory of Oracles," are the best of his works. Farinelli, an Italian singer, never yet excelled, born at Naples, 1705 ; died, 1782. He appeared in London, and, by the magic of his voice, so delighted the public, that Handel was obliged to dismiss a rival company over which he presided, in spite of all his powers and popularity. Many extraordinary stories are related of his vocal skill; and the monarchs of Europe vied with each other in making him presents and doing him honour. Frederic the Great, King of Prussia, born, 1712 ; died, 1786. The former part of his reign s 5 394 MODERN BIOGRAPHY. was spent in war and tumult ; the latter, dedi- cated to the extension of commerce, the improve- ment of the arts, the reformation of the police and the laws. Frederic's brow was adorned with the laurel and the bay; for he was a poet as well as warrior. In his retirement at Sans Souci, he enjoyed the society of the learned, and laying aside the monarch, felt only as the man. His chief works are " Memoirs of the House of Brandenburg," the " History of his own Times," " Poems, and other Miscellaneous Pie> Frariklin, a name ever dear to the lovers of science, benevolence, and uprightness of heart, born at Boston, in America, 1706; died, 1790. He was apprenticed to a printer, but his superior talents soon appeared ; and after a long series of trials and disappointments, which his interesting biography details at length, his abilities became generally known, and lie was elected a member of the general assembly at Philadelphia. After the breaking out of hostilities between England and America, Franklin laboured without effect to heal the wound : he then turned his attention to America alone, assisted in the formation of her new constitution, and was appointed her ambassador to France. As a philosopher, his name is indissolubly connected with the history of electricity ; and his brilliant discovery of the identity of the electric fluid and lightning is the corner-stone of his scientific fame. John Gottlieb Fichte, a celebrated German philosopher and metaphysician, born in Upper Lusatia, 1762 ; died, 1814. He was successively MODERN BIOGRAPHY. 395 professor of philosophy at Jena and Erlangen, and rector of the university of Berlin. His per- sonal character was held in high estimation, and along with Kant, Schelling, and Hegel, his name will be perpetuated as having effected a revo- lution in the history of the theory of mental operations. Henry Fuseli, a distinguished artist, born at Zurich, 1741 ; died, near London, 1825. He was educated for the Church, but being involved in some dispute with the authorities of his native town, he came to London, where his talents and learning introduced him to Sir Joshua Reynolds, and laid the foundation of a prosperous career. He became professor of painting to the Royal Academy. His Shakspeare and Milton galleries are well known, and his lectures contain some of the best criticisms on the arts in the English O language. His father, John Caspar Fuessli or Fuseli, was a celebrated portrait and landscape painter, and author of the " Lives of the Helvetic Painters." G. ' Giotto, an Italian, born at Florence, 1276 ; died, 1337. Famed as a painter, architect, and sculptor. He was originally a shepherd's boy, and amused himself with painting the flock under his care. The great Cimabue was his master. Du Guesclin, a constable of France, born, 1314; died, 1380. A renowned French commander, who checked the conquests of Edward the Third. He is one of the most popular heroes of France. Guttenlery, the inventor of printing, born at s 6 396 MODERN BIOGRAPHY. Mentz, 1400 ; died, 1468. About 1438, he made use of moveable types of wood; and, in 1450, formed a co-partnership with John Faust, or Fust, a rich goldsmith, who furnished money to establish a press in which the Latin Bible was first printed. Vasco de Gama, a Portuguese navigator, died, 1525. He was sent in 1497, by Emanuel, King of Portugal, to double the Cape of Good Hope, and is memorable as the discoverer of that pa-s;intesquieu styled him the Bee of France, and Voltaire and Rousseau confirmed the eulogium. Jean Baptiste Rousseau, a distinguished French dramatist and lyric poet, born at Paris, 1670; died, 1741. His epistles, allegories, and miscel- laneous poems are marked by strong sense and elegance of versification ; many of his odes and cantatas approach the sublime both in thought and expression, Reaumur , an excellent natural historian, born in France, 1683 ; died, 1757. He discovered the art of manufacturing porcelain ; of converting iron into steel ; of tinning iron plates ; and of making artificial pearls. But he is principally MODERN BIOGRAPHY. 435 celebrated for being the first who reduced ther- mometers to a common standard ; and the instru- ments constructed upon his principles still go by his name. Roubiliac, a celebrated sculptor, born at Lyons, 1689; died in London, 1762. He came to Eng- land in the reign of George the First, and soon rose to the head of his profession. His chief works are, his monument of John, Duke of Argyle, the Nightingale family, and his statue of Handel, in Westminster Abbey ; but the whole country may be said to be studded with his pro- ductions. Jean Jacques Rousseau, born at Geneva, 1 7 12 ; died, 1778. A most singular character, who ex- perienced many vicissitudes in life, chiefly owing to his want of steadiness. He was the son of a watchmaker; apprenticed to an engraver; then footman to a lady of fashion; afterwards a copier, composer, and teacher of music. At length, the clouds of adversity, for a time, disappeared ; his genius expanded, and he was known on the world's great theatre by a thesis, in which he asserted that the arts and sciences had not been favourable to morals. Thenceforth his existence was passed in frequent changes of place, to escape real or fancied persecution, and in suspecting all his friends of insulting and conspiring against him. This was particularly the case with Hume, the historian, who secured for him a hospitable asylum in England, but whose friendship he renounced. U2 436 MODERN BIOGRAPHY. Robespierre, born at Amis, 1759; died, 1794. He was the head of the Jacobin party in France, and exercised a bloody sway during the period emphatically called the Reign of Terror. After having doomed numberless victims to the guil- lotine, he was himself seized and executed with that deadly instrument. Count Rumford, born at Woburn, New Eng- land, 1752; died near Paris, 1814. His family name was Thompson ; but, after a short civil and military service in England, he entered that of the King of Bavaria, and so distinguished himself by his important reforms in all departments of the state, that he obtained several orders of knight- hood, a lieutenant-generalship, and the title of count. He afterwards returned to England, where he devoted his time to the nature and economical application of heat, and assisted in founding the Royal Institution. He married the widow of Lavoisier, the celebrated chemist. Jean Paul Friedrich Richter, commonly called Jean Paul, one of the most remarkable literary phenomena that Germany has produced ; born, 1763; died, 1825. After struggling against a world of difficulties, which would have over- whelmed any less vigorous mind, he at last emerged from obscurity, and took his place on the same lofty eminence with Goethe, Schiller, Herder, and Wieland, all of whom esteemed the man no less than his works. Most of his produc- tions may be called humorous novels, and they all display the most intense feeling, a profound knowledge of human nature, and an intimate ac- MODERN BIOGRAPHY. 437 quaintancc with every branch of science. Some ad- mirable specimens of his writings have been given by Mr. T. Carlyle in his "German Romance." S. Saladin, an Egyptian sultan' and highly cele- brated warrior, born, 1137 ; died, 1192. He was engaged with the Christian powers in the Crusades, and defended himself against their united forces with great skill and valour; but was at length defeated by them in his attempt to take Jeru- salem. He renewed his exertions, obtained a signal victory over the Crusaders, and his troops entered Jerusalem in triumph. Schwartz, a monk, born at Cologne in the thirteenth century, who is said to have acciden- tally discovered the ingredients of gunpowder. ' Saadi, the most celebrated of the Persian poets, born at Shiraz, 1175 ; died, 1291. He led the life of a Dervish or wandering monk. In the course of his journeys he was captured by the Crusaders, and put to labour on the fortifications of Tripoli, but was redeemed by a rich merchant, who gave him his daughter in marriage with a large dowry. His poems are remarkable for their simplicity and elegance of style. Sebastian del JPiornbo, an eminent painter, born at Venice, 1485; died, 1547. He chiefly excelled as a portrait painter, but his historical pictures are also highly esteemed. His master-piece, " The Resurrection of Lazarus," is in the National Gal- lery. He was greatly patronised by Pope Clement the Seventh, who made him keeper of the papal u 3 438 MODERN BIOGRAPHY. signet ; hence his name del Piombo, in allusion to the lead of the seal. Servetus, a Spanish physician, born, 1509; died, 1553. Neglecting the study ef medicine, he attached himself to that of divinity, and being inclined to Arianism, wrote some theological tracts against Calvin. Calvin, who had strenu- ously asserted his own right to dissent from the Roman Catholic persuasion, now openly accused Servetus of heresy; and to the disgrace of that reformer, he arraigned him before the magistrates of Geneva, in which city he had sought refuge ; and the unfortunate Servetus was condemned, and cruelly burnt alive. He was among the first discoverers of the circulation of the blood. Scaliger the Elder, an Italian, born near Ve- rona, 1484; died, 1558. His early years were spent in the army: he afterwards studied physic, and took his degree, but he became chiefly eminent for his prodigious learning and critical writings. Great as his fame as a scholar was in his own age, in the more just appreciation of modern times it has been far eclipsed by that of his son Joseph (born, 1540; died, 1609), who excelled in the same walk of literature. Stephens, or Estienne, the name of a French family which produced many eminent printers. Robert, born at Paris, 1503 ; died, 1559, devoted himself to the learned studies. He possessed a pro- found knowledge of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, as the works edited by him in those languages evince. He superintended an edition of the New Testament, which was more correct and of a more MODERN BIOGRAPHY. 439 convenient form than any which had appeared; and he is honourably distinguished by his excellent "Thesaurus Lingua? Latinse." His son Henry, born, 1528 ; died, 1598, was equally eminent in his profession, and more deeply learned than his father. He published most elegant and correct transcripts of the Greek authors : his brother and son followed the same employment ; and for more than three generations the labours of this family enlightened Europe. Hans Sachs, the most eminent poetical genius that Germany produced at the era of the Refor- mation, bora at Niirnberg, 1494; died, 1578. He was the son of a tailor, and he himself followed the trade of a shoemaker nearly to the end of his long life ; but such was the fertility of his genius that he left behind him upwards of six thousand different compositions, which Schlegel says are superior in invention and the true poetic spirit even to the works of Chaucer. His irreproachable life and cheerful and amiable character procured him the appellation of Honest Hans Sachs. Pope Sixtus the Fifth (or Felix Peretti), an Italian, born, 1521 ; died, 1589. This extraor- dinary man was the son of a gardener, and disco- vered an early veneration for learning. When about ten years old, a priest named Father Selleri came to the village where he resided, and in- quired the road to the next town. Felix gave him' the desired information ; and the monk, struck with his appearance and solicitations, took him under his protection. He assumed the habit of the priest's order, and rose at length to be u 4 440 MODERN BIOGRAPHY. inquisitor-general at Venice, and finally to be a cardinal. On the death of Gregory the Thirteenth, the conclave ckose him Pope, supposing that, as he was far advanced in years, he could not long survive. But a sudden change took place : Sixtus displayed his real character of active severity and firmness, reformed abuses, administered justice most impartially, and was the generous patron of learning and the :< O Faustus Socinus, an Italian, nephew of Laelius Socinus, born at Sienna, 1539; died, 1604. Fa- mous in polemics, and leader of the sect of Soci- niuns in Poland. His uncle Lrelius had renounced the doctrine of the Trinity, and propagated his own opinions with great earnestness. Faustus Socinus adopted this theory, and wrote several books in defence of Socinianism, a faith which contains the leading principles of the modern Unitarians. LelSueur, born, 1617 ; died, 1635. He studied under Simon Vouet at Paris: in colouring, the style of his heads and draperies, and in the general character of his compositions, he closely resembles Raphael; hence he has been called the French Raphael by his admirers. His chief paintings are in the Louvre at Paris. The Duke de Sully, a celebrated French states- man and warrior, born at Pau, 1560; died, 1641. He was the confidential friend and prime minister of Henry the Great, his companion in adversity, and the sharer and promoter of his glory. Sully 's character was severely just; he examined every department of government, reformed former MODERN BIOGRAPHY. 441 abuses ; and, under his auspices, France rose from the desolation of a civil war to the heights of prosperity and happiness. His " Memoirs " (a most interesting work) narrate a series of events from the latter part of the reign of Charles the Ninth to the assassination of his royal patron and lamented friend, and strongly depict the ability and the integrity of this great man. Scarron, a French comic poet, born at Paris, 1610; died, 1660. Famous for his humour and pleasantry of manners. His wife was the cele- brated Madame de Maintenon, who upon his de- cease engaged the affections of Louis the Four- teenth, who privately married her. Scarron's works are numerous. He had a vigorous mind in a small and deformed body. Salvator Rosa, an eminent Italian painter ; born at Naples, 1615; died, 1673. His landscapes are mostly wild and romantic scenery, animated by groups of banditti in various situations. " Different minds Incline to different objects : one pursues The vast alone, the wonderful, the wild." AKENSIDE. Spinoza, a Dutchman, born at Amsterdam, 1633; died, 1677. The son of a Portuguese Jew. He embraced Christianity, which drew upon him the hatred of his brethren, and an at- tempt to assassinate him. He, at last, was noted in the world by his a'theistical opinions and writings. Swammerdam, a Dutch anatomist and natural philosopher, born in Amsterdam, 1637 ; died, a 5 442 MODERN BIOGRAPHY. 1680. He studied physic and anatomy at Leyden ; had a fine collection of insects at Am- sterdam, and was in the highest repute there. His works have been translated into English ; but his " History of Insects" and " Treatise upon Animal Respiration " deserve to be particularly mentioned. The Duke of Schomberg, a German, but created an English peer, born, 1619; died, 1690. This celebrated general at first served the Prince of Orange; then entered the service of Louis the Fourteenth, and was appointed marshal of France. But, on the revocation of the edict of Nantes, Schomberg, being a Protestant, quitted the French dominions ; and, at the Revolution, attended Wil- liam the Third to England, by whom he was ap- pointed general of the forces in Ireland. He was killed in the battle of the Boyne. Madame de Sevignc, born in Burgundy, 1627 ; died, 1696. She was the daughter of Baron de Chantal, and was long one of the most distin- guished ornaments of the brilliant court of Louis the Fourteenth. Her grace, amiableness, and purity of conduct excited general admiration in her own time ; and her inimitable " Letters," addressed to her daughter, the Countess de Grignan, have secured her a high reputation with posterity. Le Sage, a French dramatist and novelist, born at Ruys, 1667 ; died, 1747. All his works met with immense success in France, but he is chiefly known to foreigners by " The Devil on two Sticks," and by " Gil Bias," the best novel of its MODERN BIOGRAPHY. 443 kind, and one that has the raYe merit of always being read with new pleasure. Marshal Saxe, son of Augustus the Second, King of Poland, born at Dresden, 1696; died, 1750. One of the greatest soldiers whom the eighteenth century produced. Having served under Prince Eugene in the Netherlands, he went to France, and was appointed general of her armies by Louis the Fifteenth. He took Prague, gained the battle of Fontenoy, and gal- lantly distinguished himself in many other en- gagements. Swedenborg, a Swedish philosopher, born at Stockholm, 1688; died in London, 1772. His scientific acquirements placed him in the first rank of European philosophers ; but he is now best known by his theological works. He imagined that he was favoured with supernatural visions and revelations, and founded a new sect called the New Jerusalem Church. His fol- lowers are still numerous. Saussure, a Genevese naturalist, born, 1740; died, 1799. He studied botany, was professor of philosophy at Geneva ; and, to facilitate his pro- gress in botanical studies, and the knowledge of nature, he travelled in the Alps, ascended Mont Blanc, and published an account of his various excursions. John Frederic Schiller, born at Marbach, 1759; died, 1805. He was the most admired of the German tragic writers. " The Bobbers " was his first production, but this was far excelled by his "Don Carlos," " Wallenstein " (admirably u 6 444 MODERN BIOGRAPHY. translated by Coleridge), " William Tell/' " Mary Stuart," c. He wrote, also, .1 " History of the Thirty Years' War," and many philosophical and critical dissertations, which display the brilliancy and versatility of his genius. Many of his minor poetical pieces, such as his " Lay of the Bell," his " Ode to Joy," and his ballads ,f " The Diver," "The Glove," &c., have become household works in Germany, and even in a translated form are read with the greatest interest. Like Goethe, he resided mostly at Weimar. Madame de Sta'd, born at Paris, 1766 ; died, 1817. She was daughter of the minister Necker, and became one of the most celebrated writers of her age. Her principal work is " Corinna, or Italy ; " she wrote also on Germany and Eng- land. She was banished and cruelly persecuted by Napoleon. Frederic von Schlegel, a celebrated critic and philologist, born at Hanover, 1772; died, 1829. Together with Tieck and Novalis, he founded what is called the Romantic School of German Literature at the beginning of this century ; and his critical and philosophical writings are distin- guished by much acuteness, depth of thought, and great learning. His " History of Ancient and Modern Literature " is universally admired. His father, two of his uncles, and his brother Au- gustus William, are all illustrious names in the literature of Germany. The latter, who was professor at Bonn, is well known in England by his " Lectures on Dramatic Literature," ad- mirably translated by Mr. John Black. MODERN BIOGRAPHY. 445 Schleiermacher, born at Breslau, 1768; died 1834. Equally distinguished as a theologian, a philologist, a critic, an orator, and a translator. The influence of his writings on the intellectual part of Germany was and is still very great ; but it was far surpassed by that which his oral in- structions and the purity and piety of his personal character exercised over those who had the hap- piness to live near him. His " Sermons " and his masterly translation of Plato will secure him lasting fame in the learned world. Sismondiy an eminent historian and political economist, born at Geneva, 1773 ; died, 1842. In the extent and completeness of his historical works, he has no equal in the present age. His histories of the Italian republics, of the French, and "Fall of the Roman Empire," are noble monu- ments of his learning, deep research, and un- bounded love of truth ; and the amiability of his personal character is distinctly mirrored forth in all his writings. T. William Tell t born at Altorf, in the canton of Uri, Switzerland; died, 1354. The great de- liverer of his country from Austrian oppression. Switzerland having been conquered by the Ger- mans and Burgundians, Albert the First, Emperor of Germany, treated the Switzers with the greatest severity, refused to confirm their ancient privileges, and appointed two noblemen of tyran- nical characters as governors of the country : one of these, Gessner, fixed a pole at Altorf, on 446 MODERN BIOGRAPHY. which he placed his hat, expecting the same sub- mission to be paid to it as to himself. William Tell refused to bow to it as he passed, and was brought before Gessner, who ordered him, as a punishment, to strike down an apple, placed on the head of his son, by an arrow from a cross- bow. The dexterity of Tell performed this feat without injuring the child ; but the tyrant per- ceiving that the father had secreted a second arrow, and finding that his purpose was to have sent it through his heart, had he missed his mark or wounded his child, ordered him to be arrested and conveyed in his train across the lake of Lucerne. A stormy blast endangering the boat, the helm was entnM< ] to Tell, whose skill in steering was well known. He ran the boat upon a rock, and escaped to the mountains ; whence, watching his opportunity, he killed the tyrant, and roused his countrymen, who established their independence. Titian, an Italian painter of high celebrity, born at Venice, 1480; died, 1576. He was pa- tronised by all the princes of his time, and lived on terms of crreat intimacy with Aretin and Ariosto, whose portrait he repeatedly painted. In truth and brilliancy of colouring he ]v\< been surpassed. Many of his mo.-t admirable pieces arc in England. His " Last Supper," and a " Christ crowned with Thorns," are considered his master-pieces. Tintoretto, an Italian painter, the pupil of Titian, born, 1512 ; died, 1594. He imitated his master's style of colouring ; but, while his paint- MODERN BIOGRAPHY. 447 ings are sketched in the boldest manner, he bestowed not much time in finishing; his works. O Tasso, an Italian poet, born at Sorrento, 1544 ; died, 1595. He enjoyed the most unbounded cele- brity, and was crowned in the Capitol at Home, as the Prince of poets. He was of a visionary mind; and his imagination was so fervid as to be at times disordered. " Jerusalem Delivered," an epic poem, is his chief work ; but he wrote a number of other poems, remarkable for elegance and pathos. De Thou, or Thuanus, a Frenchman, and ex- cellent historian, born at Paris, 1553; died, 1617. He served the state faithfully as a magistrate, and published a " History of the Affairs of Europe," from the latter part of the reign of Francis the First to the conclusion of the reign of Henry the Great, Teniers, a famous Flemish painter, born, 1582 ; died, 1649. He was a pupil of Rubens, and he excelled in representing the familiar scenes of ordinary Flemish life, as rural fairs, merry- makings, &c. Admiral -Van Tramp, a Dutchman, and most gallant officer, born at the Brill; died, 1653. He defeated the Spaniards in two engagements, and ruined their naval power. Twice, likewise, he engaged the famous English admiral, Blake, on which occasions both parties claimed the victory; but in a third dreadful battle, Yan Tromp was killed, and the Dutch were defeated. A noble monument of him was erected in one of the churches at Delft. 448 MODERN BIOGRAPHY. Turenne, Marshal of France, born at Sedan, 1611; died, 1675. He was a 'renowned general under Louis the Fourteenth. Many pleasing anecdotes are related of his generous liberal spirit, and his sacred regard for truth ; but, on the other hand, in compliance with the orders he received, he desolated the most fruitful part of Germany, and carried fire and sword into the Palatinate. Turenne was killed by a cannon-ball, while making preparation for a battle. Tyssens, an eminent Flemish painter, born, 1625; died, 1692. His portraits and historical pieces are highly esteemed by judges of the art Turgot, an able French statesman and financier, born in Paris, 1727 : died, 1781. From a com- paratively humble station, he rose to be prime minister of France, and did more to free commerce from its fetters, to encourage industry, and to re- duce taxes, than any of his predecessors. But the purity and integrity of his administration made him many enemies, and he was driven from office before he had had time to realise his enlarged views of political economy and finance. Tiraboschi, an eminent Italian historian, born at Bergamo, 1734; died, 1794. His chief pro- duction is the " History of Italian Literature," a work of great learning, accuracy, and research. Talma, the great tragedian of France, born at Paris, 1763; died, 1826. His early years were spent in England, whither he returned at different periods of his life. His naturally ardent tempera- ment and artistic power found ample scope for their development during the tremendous drama MODERN BIOGRAPHY. 449 of the "French Revolution," and he rose to higher fame than any of his predecessors on the stage. Napoleon loaded him with proofs of his favour ; and he was no less honoured and esteemed by Louis the Eighteenth. Talleyrand, prince of Benevento, a great French statesman and diplomatist, born, 1754 ; died, 1838. Sprung from one of the most distinguished families of France, he entered the church, in which he rose to be bishop of Autun, and bore a distinguished part in all the events of his age, from the breaking out of the French Revolution down to the period of his retirement from public life in 1835. His voluntary acceptance of office under governments so diametrically opposed in character and object as those of Louis the Six- teenth, Napoleon, Louis the Eighteenth, and Louis Philippe, has exposed him to the charge of want of principle ; yet, if his character be care- fully examined, it will be found to bear the im- print of a unity of purpose, which no mere changelings ever exhibit. The object of his ear- liest wishes was the establishment of a constitu- tional monarchy, such as England enjoys ; he attempted to approach this ideal at all periods of his life ; and he ended by being instrumental in establishing it. The last public office he held was ambassador to the Court of Great Britain. He was famed for the brilliancy of his wit, and his conversational powers, and was warmly beloved by his intimate friends. Thorvmldsen, the most illustrious sculptor of modern times, born on the passage from Iceland 450 MODERN BIOGRAPHY. to Copenhagen, 1770; died at Rome, 1844. He received the rudiments of his art at Copenhagen, but afterwards retired to Rome, where he resided, with but few interruptions, till his death, uni- versally honoured and beloved. He excelled in every department of his art, and there are few continental cities that cannot boast of possessing a masterpiece from his plastic hand. V. Leonardo da Vinci, an illustrious Italian painter, born near Florence, 1445 ; died, 1520. He was the pupil of Verrochio, who discovered the art of moulding figures in plaster of Paris. Ills powers seem to have been unlimited ; he was an admirable sculptor and architect, a skilful musi- cian, an excellent poet, and expert in anatomy, chemistry, and mathematics. When more than seventy years old, he was prevailed upon by Francis the First, of France, to visit his domin- ions, and he died in the arms of that monarch at Fontainebleau. Paul Veronese, or Cagliari, an Italian painter, born, 1532; died, 1588. His force of imagin- ation and resources of genius were inexhaustible ; " Holofernes and Judith," and the " Marriage of Cana," rank as his best pieces. Lope de Vega, a famous Spanish dramatist, born, 1562; died, 1635. He was secretary to the Duke of Alva, at Madrid. Pope Urban the Seventh made him a knight of Malta, and con- ferred a post in his treasury on him. He had the MODERN BIOGRAPHY. 451 most brilliant genius and lively imagination ; could compose a comedy in a day ; and left behind him seventy volumes of dramatic and miscellaneous poetry. The late Lord Holland has enriched the literature of this country with some excellent translations from Lope de Vega. Vandyke, a celebrated Flemish painter, born at Antwerp, 1599 ; died, 1641. He was the pupil of Rubens, and copied Titian's manner of colour- ing so closely that he nearly equalled it. Vandyke chiefly excelled in portraits, and resided some time in England, when he was knighted by Charles the First, who was a great encourager of the fine arts. Valasquez, an eminent Spanish painter, was born at Seville, in 1594 ; died, 1660. His earliest subjects were taverns, conversations, and enter- tainments; but he afterwards made Caravaggio his model, and reached the head of his profession. Vandervelde, a celebrated Dutch painter, born at Leyden, 1618; died, 1693. He excelled in marine subjects, and with his son, who far sur- passed him in his own department of art, came to London, where he received a pension from Charles the Second. In those days of general warfare, he used to sail between the hostile fleets in a light skiff to mark their positions and observe their operations ; and in this manner he is said to have been a spectator of the memorable three days' engagement between Monk and De Ruyter, which he subsequently represented. Vauban, the greatest military engineer that France has produced, born at Verdun, 1633 ; 452 MODERN BIOGRAPHY. died, 1707. He was made a marshal of France, and commissary-general of the French fortifica- tions. He carried the art of fortifying, attacking, and defending towns to a degree of perfection unknown before his time. His works bear a high character. The Duke de Vendome, a grandson of that Duke de Vendome who was son of Henry the Great, of France, born, 1654 ; died, 1712. He was de- feated by the Duke of Marlborough at Oudenarde, but regained the laurels he lost there by a splendid victory over the English in Spain, and contributed greatly to the establishment of Philip the Second on the Spanish throne. ^f(^rshal Villars, a peer of France, born, 1653 ; died, 1734. A distinguished French general under Louis the Fourteenth, and the opponent of the Duke of Marlborough, who defeated him at the battle of Malplaquet FaH/o0,born in Italy, at Nice, 1705 ; died, 1765. A good historical painter and excellent designer ; he settled at Paris, and was appointed first painter to the King of France. He is considered the last of the great historical painters of France. His elder brother, Jean Baptiste, born, 1684; died, 1746, excelled in portrait painting, and had an extraordinary facility of execution. Vattel, a celebrated writer on jurisprudence, was born at Neufchatel, 1714 ; died, 1767. His prin- cipal work, a " Treatise on the Law of Nations," was particularly admired, from the predilection of the author for English authorities, while several MODERN BIOGRAPHY. 453 of the maxims of Puffendorf and Grotius are ably refuted. Voltaire, the most celebrated literary character of his age, being equally admired as a dramatist, wit, poet, satirist, and historian, born near Paris, 1694 ; died, 1778. He was intimate with all the great men of his time, and was honoured with the friendship of the King of Prussia, who invited him to his court, and treated him with distinguished favour. His " Age of Louis the Fourteenth," " History of Peter the Great," and " Charles the Twelfth of Sweden," are interesting productions. His tragedies have been much admired ; and his " Henriade " (which was printed in England while he resided there) is the only epic poem of which the French can boast. He was endowed with stupendous talents, but his character was dis- figured by many flaws, and it is to be regretted that all his writings breathe a decided spirit of hostility to the Christian faith. Count of Volney, a celebrated author and tra- veller, born in Brittany, 1755 ; died, 1820. He took an active part in the great events of the close of the last century, and though equally favoured by Napoleon and the Bourbons, remained constant in his defence of liberal principles. His " Travels in Syria and Egypt," have been long admired; and for depth of view and perspicuity of style his " Ruins of Empires " may rank next to Gibbon's " Decline and Fall," though, like that great work, it is pervaded by a vein of scepticism. Volta, a celebrated Italian philosopher, born at Como, 1745; died, 1826. He was for thirty 454 MODERN BIOGRAPHY. years professor of natural philosophy at Pavia; and was made an Italian count and senator by Napoleon. Yolta directed his attention particu- larly to the subject of galvanism, or animal elec- tricity, in which science he made many discoveries and improvements ; but the great invention which immortalises his name is the Voltaic pile, or electrical column, John Henri/ Voss, one of the great fathers of modern philology, born in Mecklenburg, 1751; died, 1826. His translation of Homer, Virgil, ilr-iud, and Theocritus, are regarded as real substitutes for the originals : that of Shakspeare, though full of spirit, is not, on the whole, so suc- cessful. The simplicity and natural charms of his own idyllic poems, more especially in his " Louisa," have never been equalled by any German poet. AV. Waldo, a French merchant, who flourished in the latter part of the twelfth century, and publicly renounced the Romish superstition?. Many fol- lowed him; and, being driven by the French government from Lyons, they spread over the southern provinces of France. A crusade was raised against them, which, as is generally the case with persecutions, only increased their num- bers. They assumed the name of Waldenses, in honour of their leader. De Witt 9 Cornelius and John, two eminent Dutch statesmen; John was born, 1625; they both died, 1672. John was grand pensionary of MODERN BIOGRAPHY. 455 Holland, and executed the business of the state with the greatest apparent ease, by doing one thing at a time, and that one well. The States were informed falsely that Cornelius de Witt had intentions to assassinate the Prince of Orange; he was therefore committed to prison, notwith- standing his long and faithful services. The popular fury rose against him, and John having visited his brother in prison, the mob surrounded the doors, and, upon their appearance, barbarously murdered them. Winckelmann, a learned German abbe, born at Stendall, 1718; died, 1768. He was the son of a shoemaker, but, by his learning and great talents, became the admiration of princes. As- cending from one gradation to another, he was appointed president of antiquities in the Vatican, at Rome. He subsequently visited Vienna, where the Empress-Queen of Germany paid him the most distinguished attention, and presented him with some valuable gold medals. On his return towards Rome, stopping at Trieste, a traveller obtained his permission to see them, but no sooner had them in view, than he stabbed him mortally with a knife. The ruffian was soon after apprehended, and broken upon the wheel. His numerous works formed an era in the criticism of art, and are no less remarkable for depth and originality, than for simplicity and perspicuity of style. George Washington, born at Washington, in Virginia, 1732; died, 1799. One of the best men whom history records, and president of the Ame- 456 MODERN BIOGRAPHY. rican Congress. To him America, in a great measure, owes her strength, independence, and national importance. He headed her army in the contest \vith England, and by his prudence, sagacity, and military skill, turned the scale in her favour. To inflexible justice, he joined the purest benevolence, and, like the modest violet, Which must be sought, nor with obtrusive air Demands those honours nature bade it share, he retired from public business early, satisfied with having promoted the happiness of his coun- try, and totally uninfluenced by selfish or ambi- tious designs. Wieland, one of the galaxy of genius that flou- rished in Germany at the close of the last, and the beginning of the present, century, born in Suabia, 1733; died, 1813. Besides producing numerous original works in almost every depart- ment of literature, he was the first to nationalise Shakspeare in Germany by a translation, which, however, has been superseded by those of Voss and Schlegel ; and his various writings had great influence in emancipating the literature of Ger- many from pedantic formalism. The romantic poem of " Oberon," translated by Sotheby, is considered his greatest production. Like Goethe and Schiller, he resided chiefly at Weimar. Werner, born in Lusatia, 1750; died, 1817. He was professor of mineralogy, at Freyburg, in Saxony; and formed a system of geology, which long enjoyed the highest reputation ; but the MODERN BIOGRAPHY. 457 views of Lyell and Buckland are now more generally received. Benjamin West, born at Springfield, near Phi- ladelphia, 1738; died, 1820. Having been en- abled to visit Italy, he came, in 1763, to England, where he obtained the liberal patronage of George the Third, for whom he executed the "Death of Wolfe," and many other pictures, which now adorn the royal palaces, and the National Gallery. In 1792, on the death of Reynolds, he was elected president of the Royal Academy. Wolfy the greatest of modern German scholars, born, 1759; died, 1824. His commentaries on the classic authors are models of learning and critical sagacity ; but he is chiefly known in England for his attempt to prove that the Iliad and Odyssey were not the work of one hand, but of several rhapsodists, subsequently put together and made up into the two epics bearing the name of Homer. He was a great antagonist of Heyne. Weber, a distinguished musical composer, born in Holstein, 1786; died in London, 1826. His four last and greatest works, " Preciosa," (f Eu- ryanthe," " Der Freischiitz," and " Oberon" (which was composed for the English stage), have associated his name with those of Beethoven and Mozart. In all his productions, the solemnity of the German muse is combined with the fire and sweetness of the Italian ; and he may be truly called the popular composer of Germany ; for his songs and choruses are in the mouths of all classes of his countrymen. x 458 MODERN BIOGRAPHY. X. Cardinal Ximenes, a Spaniard, born in Castile, 1437; died, 1517. A statesman, warrior, and patron of learning, of great ability and integrity. He headed the Spanish troops in the war with the Moors, and entered Oran, in the state of Algiers, triumphantly. By prudent management he limited the overgrown power of the nobles, who are supposed, on that account, to have pro- cured his death by poison. This noble-minded man printed, at his own expense, a magnificent edition of the whole Bible, in six languages. It is commonly culled the " Coinplutensian Polyglot," from Complutum, the Latin name for Alcala, the city in Spain in which the work was executed. Xavier, the Apostle of the Indies, born in the Pyrenees, 1506; died, 1552. Educated for the church, he became a disciple of Ignatius Loyola, and excelled all his brethren of the Society of Jeeus in the fervour of his devotion, and the austerity of his self-discipline. Fired with an ardour to plant the Christian faith on the Indian territories of Portugal, he embarked for Goa in 1542, and laboured with almost superhuman zeal in the object of his mission, in various parts of India and Japan, for upwards of ten years, when he at length fell a victim to his Christian exer- tions. Seven hundred thousand converts are numbered as the fruits of his mission. MODERN BIOGRAPHY. 459 z. Cardinal Zabarella, born atPadua, 1339; died, 1417. He made himself perfectly acquainted with the canon law at Bologna, and taught it at Padua and Florence. John the Twenty-first gave him the cardinal's hat, and employed him upon an embassy to the Emperor Sigismund. He wrote upon the decrees of the general councils and some historical tracts. Zlsca, a "Bohemian patriot, who headed the Hussites in Germany after John Huss had suffered at the stake, and made himself formidable to his opponents. He defended his country against the Emperor Sigismund, though with the loss of his eyes, and died of the plague, 1424, just when he had brought Sigismund to the most advantageous terms. Zuinglius, a Swiss, and celebrated reformer, born, 1487; died, 1531. He emancipated his. country from the papal yoke; and published many tracts upon the grounds of his dissent from the Komish faith. Unhappily, religious bigotry occasioned a war between the Protestant and Catholic cantons, and in a battle in which Zuin- glius was called to be present, by his office of chaplain, he was slain. Zuinglius differed from Luther, by rejecting consubstantiation, as well as transubstantiation, and asserting that the Lord's Supper is simply a figurative commemoration of the Saviour's sufferings and death; on which account he incurred great obloquy, and stern 460 MODERN BIOGRAPHY. rc-bukc and condemnation from the rugged re- former. Count Zinzcndorf, the leader of the German Moravians, born at Dresden, 1700; died, 1760. He established this sect in England, where several communities still remain, distinguished for the simplicity and purity of their lives. Zimmermami, a Swiss,bornat Brug, 1728 ; died, 1795. Physician to George the Third, at Hano- ver. He was well read in history, the belles-lettres, and general literature ; and few men have shown a more original turn of thinking. His pleasing manners, and amiable disposition, attracted many friends; his excellent understanding, and liberality of mind, secured them. He published several works of great reputation ; but his " Treatise on Solitude," which exhibits a fair transcript of the author's mind, is alone sufficient to secure his name from oblivion. It has been translated into all the European languages. Zoega, an eminent Danish archaeologist, born, 1755; died, 1809. He resided many years at the court of Rome, and was greatly esteemed by Pius VI. His treatise on " Obelisks " is still quoted as an authority. 461 EXPLANATION COMMON LATIN INITIALS, WORDS, AND PHRASES, SELDOM TRANSLATED. A. C. Ante Christum. Before Christ. A fortiori. With stronger reason. A. M. Anno rhundi. In the year of the world. Ante Meridiem. Before noon. Artium Magister. Master of Arts. A. U. C. (Ab urbe conditd.) From the founda- tion of the city (Rome). A posteriori. Literally, "from the latter/' a logical term denoting that the reasoning is from effect to cause. It corresponds to A priori. Literally, " from the former," when the reasoning is from cause to effect. Ab initio. From the beginning. Ab ovo usque ad mala. Literally, " from the egg to the apples : " used to signify from the be ginning to the end, as a Roman entertainment began with eggs and ended with fruits. Ab uno disce omnes. From a single instance you may infer the whole. Ad captandum vulgus. To catch the rabble. Ad Grcscas Kalendas. Never (there having been no Kalends in the Greek Calendar). x 3 462 LATIN WORDS KX PLAINED. Ad patres. Death ; or the abode of the fathers. Alias. Otherwise. Alibi. Elsewhere ; or being in another place. Alma mater. Nourishing, or pure mother : a term generally applied to the school or university in which the person using it was educated. Alternis horis. Every other hour. A mensa et thoro. Divorced from bed and board. Ana. Of each ingredient an equal (quantity. Audi alteram partem. Hear both sides. Animus. The intention. Argumentum ad hominem. An argument ad- dressed to a man's professed princi} Argumentum ad iynorautiam. An argument ad-