TRUBNER'S
(
ELECTION OF SIMPLIFIED GRAMMARS
PALI GRAMMAR
E. MULLER.
TRUBNER'S COLLECTION
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XII.
PALI.
BY EDWARD MULLER, PH.D.
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PALI.
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PALI LANGUAGE
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PREFACE.
IN sending the present essay of a Pali Grammar to the
press, I feel bound to say a few words of explanation as to
the plan I have followed. First of all, I must state that it
was not my intention to give a complete Grammar of the
Pali Language, as this can only be done when all the prin-
cipal books of the Buddhist Canon will have been pub-
lished ; nor was it my intention to write a Comparative
Grammar of Indian vernaculars, as for this purpose the
space granted to me would have been too small. I only
intended to help the students of Buddhistical literature,
by collecting the idiomatical peculiarities of the sacred
language, comparing it chiefly to Sanskrit, and in a few
cases also to the other Indian vernaculars. As the publi-
cation of Pali texts has taken so wide dimensions during
the last ten years, I thought it would not be out of place
to consider and work out the new materials that have come
into our possession through these books, mostly unknown
to Childers and the others who made Pali Grammar an
object of their studies. Even E. Kuhn, whose " Beitrage
zur Pali Grammatik " have been of great help to me, and
whose plan I followed alntost throughout my book, only
Ill PREFACE.
worked from a comparatively small number of texts, and
just the oldest and most interesting, like Vinaya and
Jataka, were all but unknown to him.
It would be rather out of place in an elementary Gram-
mar to enter into a long discussion about the age and
origin of the Pali language. A few words on the subject
will be sufficient : Kuhn, following Westergaard, holds
Pali to be the vernacular of Ujjein, the capital of Malava at
the time when Mahinda, the son of Asoka, took the sacred
Canon with him to Ceylon (Beitrage, p. 7). On the other
hand, Oldenberg, rejecting that tradition, considers Pali to
be the original language of the Kalinga country (Vinaya-
pitaka, Introduction, p. liv). He compares the language
of the large inscription at Khandagiri (Cunningham,
Corpus Inscriptionum, i. 98), and finds only very little
difference between this and the Pali. From this he con-
cludes that there must have been, about a hundred and
fifty years before Mahinda, a frequent intercourse between
Kalinga and the island ; in fact, that the religion, together
with its language, was brought over from there to Ceylon.
I had myself formed a similar idea, independently from
Oldenberg, by a careful examination of the first settlements
of the Gangetic tribes in Ceylon (see my Report II. to the
Government of Ceylon, repi'inted Ind. Ant. IX. 9) ; and,
recently, Mr. Nevill, in the Journal of the Ceylon Branch
of the Royal Asiatic Society, has pointed out that the
ancient civilized and populous^ district of Ceylon, the so-
PBEFACE. IX
called Kalawa, is not to be looked for at the south coast
Dear Galle, as most people believe, but in the north-
western district of the island, which is now almost a
desert. We therefore all agree that the Aryan immigrants
did not come by sea from Bengal, in which case they would
have landed somewhere at the east or south coast, but
that they crossed over from some port in Southern India ;
and, under these circumstances, it is not at all unlikely
that the point from which they started may have been the
kingdom of Kalinga. To the person of Mahinda we need
not attach much importance from a chronological point of
view, perhaps not more than to the person of Vijaya, the
first Gangetic immigrant in Ceylon according to tradition.
About the age of the Pali language it is even more dif-
ficult to form a certain opinion than about its native
country. The late R. C. Childers, in the Preface to his
Dictionary, p. ix., attributed a very high antiquity to it,
with especial reference to an inscription on the Sthupa of
Bharhut, which contains a quotation from Cullavagga, vi. 4.
This argument, however, is not conclusive, as already
P. Goldschmidt pointed out in the Journal of the Ceylon
Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society for 1879. It was gene-
rally expected that we would get some help from the Ceylon
inscriptions for fixing the age of the Pali language, but
unfortunately this expectation has not been fulfilled, as all
those inscriptions from which we might derive an argu-
ment are not sufficiently dated. Real Pali inscriptions
X PBEFACE.
have not been found in Ceylon not more than in Cam-
bodia. Those that approach nearest are almost identical
in their language with the above mentioned Khandagiri
inscription. There is, for instance, the one at Kirinde
(No. 57 of my Ancient Inscriptions in Ceylon), which, for
palseographical reasons, I have assigned to the first or
second century A.D., about the time when, according to
tradition, the doctrines of Buddhism were first reduced to
writing in Pali. The language of this inscription agrees
in many points with Pli, but it is too short, and the date
is too uncertain that I could follow Goldschmidt, who felt
inclined to make use of it for fixing the age of the sacred
language. Neither can I agree with Kern, who holds Pali
to be an artificial language altogether. It is certain that
some considerable time must have elapsed before the Pali
recension of the Canon was completed, and that through
the continguity of cognate vernaculars, like the Magadhi,
a number of words and forms found their way into Pali
which originally did not belong to it : in this way the so-
called Magadhisms, which Kern induces to prove the arti-
ficial character of the language, are easily explained. In
spite of these, Pali conserved a certain purity during the
whole middle age, and even late texts like the D&thavamsa
and Attanagaluvamsa (thirteenth century), although they
introduce a large number of compounds after the Samscritic
fashion, are comparatively free from dialectic peculiarities.
Not before the time when the second part of the Maha-
PBEFACE. XI
vamsa was composed we find a wholesale import of Sin-
halisms into the language, scarcely disguised by Pali ter-
minations, as, e,g., mahalano, ' Chief Secretary/ translated
back from the Sinhalese mahalaenan.
I have only occasionally attempted in this book to dis-
tinguish between the different periods of the language.
When the student will have overcome the first difficulties,
he will find all the necessary information on this subject in
FausbolPs Introduction to "Ten Jatakas" and Trenckner's
" Pali Miscellany/' I may say here so much, that on the
whole the forms of the Sinhalese MSS. are older and more
genuine, while the Burmese often replace them by more
modern, more common, or more regular ones. I reserve
for another occasion the interesting task to prove this by
comparing a certain number of MSS., especially of gram-
matical texts.
Another part of the Grammar, which is totally wanting
in my essay, is the Syntax; but here I hope that the classi-
cal languages, with which no doubt nearly all my readers
are acquainted, will fill up the gap. Sanskrit, so to say,
has no Syntax at all, but expresses all the relations in a
sentence merely by compounds. This way, however, was
given up at an early date by the Indian vernaculars, and a
form of construction was introduced which bears a close
resemblance to the Syntax of the classical languages.
Under these circumstances, I have thought it best, as I had
no space to give a complete Syntax to add at the end
Xll PREFACE.
the Grammar a short Jataka, with an analysis that might
help the student to understand the Pali construction.
The texts I principally took my examples from are the
historical books Dipavamsa and first part of the Haha-
vamsa, for which I compared the new edition published by
Sumangala and Batuwantudawa in 1880 ; besides the
Vinaya, the three published volumes of the Jataka, the
Milindapanha, and the first year's publications of the Pali
Text Society, including Anguttara Nikaya, Buddhavamsa
and Cariyapitaka. The second year's publications reached
me when the book was already in the press, but I availed
myself of the opportunity to mention some particularly
interesting forms from Thera- and Therigatha" and Khudda-
sikkha. Of FausbolPs Sutta Nipata I could use for the
Grammar only the stanzas given in the foot-notes of his
translation (" Sacred Books," vol. xiii) : the edition of the
text came into my hands when I had very nearly done.
E. MULLER.
CARDIFF, June, 1884.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
1. THE ALPHABET ... ... 1
2. PRONUNCIATION 2
3. VOWELS 4
4. CHANGE or VOWELS . , . . . . 5
5. CHANGE OF QUANTITY 13
6. NASAL VOWELS .... . . 20
7. VOWELS ADDED OB DROPPED . . . .23
8. CONSONANTS 24
9. GENERAL EEMARKS REFERRING TO CONSONANTS
OF DIFFERENT CLASSES . . . .35
10. CONSONANTS ADDED OR DROPPED . . . 40
11. CHANGE OF CONSONANTS AT THE END OF A
WORD . .43
12. COMPOUND CONSONANTS 46
13. EULES ON SANDHI 50
14. DECLENSION . . 64
15. COMPARISON OF ADJECTITES . . . .85
16. PRONOMINAL INFLEXION . . . . . 86
17. NUMERALS ....... 91
18. CONJUGATION 95
VALAHASSAJATAKA . 128
( XV J
ABBKEVIATIONS.
The abbreviations are the same as in Childers' Dictionary,
and besides the following new ones :
Ang. = Anguttara Nikaya ed. Morris.
Ass. S. = Assalayanasutta ed. Pischel.
Beitr. = Beitrage zur vergleichenden sprachforschung
herausgeg. von Bezzenberger.
Bv. = Buddhavamsa ed. Morris.
C. = Cullavagga ed. Oldenberg.
Cariy. = Cariyapitaka ed. Morris.
Dath. = Dathavanisa ed. Cutnara Swami.
Dhm. = Dhatumanjusa ed. Batuwantudawe.
Dip. = Dipavamsa ed. Oldenberg.
GT. = Sept Suttas Palis ed. Grimblot.
Hem. = Hemacandra ed. Pischel.
It. = Itivuttaka.
I. O. C. = India Office Catalogue.
K. Z. = Kuhn's Zeitschrift fur vergleichende Sprach-
forschung.
M. = Mahavagga ed. Oldenberg.
M. N. = Majjhima Nikaya.
^Naigh. = Naighantuka.
P. M. = Pali Miscellany, by Trenckner.
Paiyal. = Pai'yalacchi ed. Biihler.
Kup. = Das sechste Kapitel der Eupasiddhi heraus-
gegeben von Grriiwedel.
Saddhammop. = Saddhammopayana ed. Batuwantudawe.
S. N. = Sutta Nipata ed. Fausboll.
Samanta Pas. or S. P. = Introduction to the Samanta Pasadika
in the third vol. of Oldenberg's Vinaya.
Suttavibh. = Suttavibhanga ed. Oldenberg.
Vinaya Texts = Vols. xiii. and xvii. of Max Miiller's Sacred
Books.
CORRIGENDA.
P. 24, line 10 from top : Vegha is, as Dr. Morris tells me, a
mistake for veTcTia = veshfca, ' leathern strap.'
P. 25, line 3 from bottom : A verb ussati does not exist. The
correct reading is nassati.
P. 112, line 5 from top : The ending u belongs to the third
person plural.
PALI GRAMMAR.
1. The Alphabet.
THEEE are three Alphabets in which Pali manuscripts are
written the Sinhalese, the Burmese and the Kambodian.
They all are derived from the A9oka Alphabet used in the
ancient inscriptions of India, but represent a more current
and an easier style of writing. The Devanagari Alphabet,
which was used by Spiegel in editing his Anecdota Palica, is
never found in Pali manuscripts. "We shall, however, for
the convenience of those who have studied Sarnskrit, in the
following table give the Devanagari letters corresponding to
the Sinhalese characters. Since Fausboll's edition of the
Dhammapada, published in 1855, nearly all editors of Pali
books in Europe have made use of the Roman character, as
being easier to learn and less tiring to the eye. Unfortunately,
a uniform way of transcription has not yet been arrived at
in Pali, any more than in Samskrit ; but the method followed
by Fausboll and Childers is now almost generally adopted,
and shall also be used in this book.
I. VOWELS.
a = IS. a = *HT. i = ^. i = ^. u = 7. u = gi.
e = . o = ^rt.
2 PALI GBAMMAR.
II. CONSONANTS.
1. Gutturals. k= off. kh = ^. g = TJ. gh = tr.
n = T-
2. Palatals. c = ^. ch = . j = T. jh = *$.
n = ST.
3. Cerebrals. t =7. th = ?. d = 3. dh = %
n = W.
4. Dentals. t = if. th = ^l. d = ^. dh = v.
n =-?T.
5. Labials. p = tf. ph = ifi. b = ^. bh = >T.
m = *T.
6. Liquids. y=7j. r = ^. 1 = ^. v = ^T.
7. Sibilants. s = 1S. h = ^. 1 = 35 (FecZic).
Besides, there is the niggahita, corresponding to the Satnskrit
anusvara, and marked by a small circle in the middle of the
line. It is always used at the end of words, and in the
middle before a sibilant. Before another consonant the nasal
of the corresponding class may be used instead.
2. Pronunciation.
The Pronunciation is, on the whole, the same as in Samskrit.
The vowels a, i, u are short, the others are long : e and o are
only long when they stand in an open syllable, viz., before a
single consonant. When they stand before two consonants
they are pronounced short, but are long metri causa.
PRONUNCIATION. O
The aspirates are pronounced like the corresponding surds
with the addition of an h. Therefore th does not correspond
to the English th, but rather to the German in Thun, That.
Ch has the same pronunciation as the simple c = English ch
in child.
It is very difficult for a European to pronounce the cerebrals
or lingual^ correctly. In India and Ceylon the natives almost
constantly express our dentals by their cerebrals in words
taken over from our language. It seems, therefore, that our
dentals agree more with their linguals in pronunciation than
with their dentals. I have, however, not been able to mark
in the spoken language any difference between the pro-
nunciation of the dentals and of the cerebrals.
The nasals are pronounced according to the class to which
they belong. The guttural nasal never occurs alone, but is
always followed by an explosive of its class ; it sounds like
English ng or nk respectively. The palatal nasal sometimes
occurs doubled when an assimilation has taken place (fin),
and then it has the sound of the Spanish n in dona, or of
the French gn in campagne. The dental nasal is exactly
pronounced like n, and the labial like m.
The niggahita, or nasal breathing at the end of the word, is
pronounced in Ceylon almost with the same force as a guttural
nasal=English ny in king. Before other consonants it is only
a representative of the nasal of the corresponding class, and is
pronounced accordingly.
Compound consonants are almost regularly assimilated in
Pali. We therefore do not require a table of the combinations
of consonants similar to that which exists in the Devanagari
Alphabet. The rules according to which the assimilation takes
place will be given in a special chapter, and the few groups
4 PALI GRAMMAR.
of compound consonants that still exist in Pali will be added
as an appendix to the Table of Alphabets.
The pronunciation is the same as that of the single con-
sonants.
3. Vowels.
The vowels found in Pali are the same as in Samskrit, with
the exception of the r and / vowels, and the diphthongs ai and au.
The r vowel is mostly represented in Pali by one of the
other vowels :
(1) By a in accha=riksTia, vijambhati=vijrimbltati, Jat. i. 12 ;
tasita trishita, Dath. iii. 44 ; mattha and matta = mrishta,
gaha = griha, maceu = mrityu.
(2) By i in ina = rina, ' debt ;' kisa = krica, ' lean ;' giddlia
= gridhra, ' greedy ;' miga = mriga, ' deer ;' Ihisi = brisi,
' mat ;' sigdla = 9rigala, 'jackal.'
(3) By u in usabha = rishabba, ' bull ;' pufhu = prithu,
' broad ;' pucchati = pricchati, ' to ask ;' vutthi = vrishti, ' rain.'
(4) By the consonant r accompanied by the vowels i or 21,
in iritvija = ritvij, ' brahminical priest ;' rite = rite, Kacc. 126 ;
iru = ric in irubbeda = rigveda, rukkha = vriksha, Iruheti =
brimhayati; the latter root takes also sometimes the vowel a,
as in abbahati, Dh. 96, and in the participle Irahd.
(5) By e in geTia, which is already found in Samskrit.
The diphthongs ai and an of the Samskrit become e and o in
Pali, that is to say, they are reduced from the second degree
of vowel strengthening called vridd hi in Samskrit to the first
called guna ; this process is called vuddhi by the Pali gram-
marians. Examples are Gotama = Gautama, KonJanna =
Kaundiuyn, Erdvana = Airavana, dvelhaka = dvaidhaka, mctti
CHANGE OF VOWELS. 5
These diphthongs may, however, be further redaffifl to the
simple vowels_i_a.nd u, in the same way as it is done with the
original e and o. "We have w^i=maitri, Jat. i. 468; issariya=
aisvarya, ussukka = autsukya, Dh. 268.
The rules laid down by the grammarians concerning the use
of the vuddhi and of the simple vowel are very lax. Kacc.,
p. 214, prescribes the vuddhi before a single consonant, but
at p. 210 he allows the forms with the simple vowel as well,
e.g., abhidhammika, vinateyya, ulumpika.
There are also two instances where an u derived from an
r-vowel (see above, no. 3) becomes o by vuddhi, viz., pothuj-
janika, ' belonging to an unconverted person,' derived from
puthujjana = prithagjana and modangika, 'one who beats the
drum,' derived from mutinga = mridariga.
4. Change of Vowels.
A short a of the Samskrit is subject to different changes in
Pali. It may become :
(1) e in ettha = atra, ' there,' according to Childers, and
S. Gold Schmidt's Prakritica, pp. 21 23. Kaccayana, p. 110,
derives it from etatha by shortening of the syllable eta into e ;
but Hemacandra, i. 57, has the right explanation. Similar
forms are ttAoye^a=ubhayatra, ' on both sides,' given in the
commentary, Dhp. p. 96, while the text at v. 15 has ubhayattha,
hettha and hettJiato, ' below ' = adhastat ; pure, ' before,' with
its compositions puresamana, ' the companion who precedes
a bhikkhu ;' purebhattam, ' before the morning meal ;' pure-
taram, Dh. 84, 135 ; antar in antepura = antahpura, ' harem'
(antopuram, Dh. 162, 291) ; antovatthumhi, Mah. 253 ; antara-
vatthumhi, Jat. L 232 ; antorukkhatd, Jat. i. 7 ; plieggu =
6 PALI GRAMMAB.
phalgu, ' empty.' In seyyd = 9ayya, ' couch,' the change of
a to e is effected by the following y, and the same has taken
place in peyydla = pariyaya, if the derivation given by Olden -
berg, K. Z. xxv. p. 315, and Trenckner, Pali Miscellany, p. 66,
is correct.
(2) a becomes i in tipu = trapu, 'lead,' Tcalimbhaka =
kadamba, 'point,' C. v. ii. 3; ^z7a/=palala, 'straw,' Jat. i. 382;
timisa = tamasa, ' darkness,' Mil. 283, and timissd = tamisra,
Jat. iii. 433 ; niliccJiita = nirashta according to Trenckner,
Pali Misc. p. 55. A great many more examples might be
adduced for this change, which is a very frequent one in Pali.
(3) a becomes u principally through the influence of a
labial, that may stand either before or after the vowel, or even
at some distance from it. Examples are sammunjam and sam-
mujjam, Jat. i. 161 = sammarjani, ' a broom ;' nibbusitattd =
nirvasitatma, Grimblot, Sept suttas Palis, 23 ; nimujjati =
nimajj, ' to sink ;' puthujja = prithagja, ' common,' Fausboll,
Sutta Nipata 171; pannumsati = pancavisati, 'twenty-five,'
Jat. iii. 138. There are, however, also examples of this change
where there is no labial contact, e.g. thunanti, 'they sound,'
from stan (the participle nittkanamdna occurs at Jat. i. 463,
and nitthananta Jat. ii. 362) ; lihrunahu = bhrunahan, ' killing
the embryo,' Fausb., S. N. 122 ; ajjuka = arjaka, 'the white
parnasa;' a^w=agas, 'sin;' pajjunna = parjanya, 'cloud;'
sajju = sadyas, 'instantly;' sajjulasa = sarjarasa, 'resin,'
M. vi. 7. In usuyd = asuya, ' envy,' and in kunkuttlia =
kankushta, ' a sort of earth,' the change is due to the assimi-
lation of the vowels.
(4) a becomes o in sammosa = sammarsha, 'confusion,'
Gr. 25, Mil. 266, onto = antar, ' inside,' and its compositions,
tirokkha = tiraska, 'absent,' Suttavibh. i. 185.
CHANGE OF TOWELS. 7
Samskrit a is subject to the following changes :
(1) It becomes e in parevata = parapata, ' pigeon' (para-
pata occurs at Jat. i. 242) ; mettika = matrika, Cariy. i. 9, 11 ;
khepeti = kshapayati, from kshap, the causative of kshi ac-
cording to Trenckner, Pali Misc., p. 76, and Senart, Mahavastu,
p. 492 ; theto = sthatri, Brahmajalasutta, p. 5 ; seleti = 9ada-
yati, ' to fall off,' Buddhavamsa i. 36 (usselheti, C. i. 13, 2 =
Suttavibh. i. 180, is a compound of this, and has nothing to
do with ussolhi, as the translators of the passage would make
out, Vinaya Texts, ii. 349). The change is effected by a y
standing before or after the vowel in acera=acarya, 'teacher,'
Ktmddasikkha xv., comp. Hem. i. 73 ; pdtihera (or patihira)
= pratiharya, ' a miracle ;' nibbedheti = nirvyadhayati, ' to
transpierce,' Mah. 143.
(2) It becomes o in tumo = tmana, ' self,' C. vii. 2, 3,
Oldeuberg K. Z. xxv. 319 ; parovara = paravara, from para +
avara, ' perfect,' Fausb., S. N. 59, 193 ; doso=dosha,, ' at night ;'
dhovati = dhav, ' to wash.'
(3) It becomes u in some compositions with the root gd,
'to go,' like addhagu, 'a traveller;' pdragu, 'one who has
crossed to the other side,' probably through an intermediate
o (see no. 2), as we have atigo, Dhp. v. 370 ; pdrago, Mah.
60, 250; vivarantagu, Jat. ii. 208. The same change takes
place in compositions vfithjnd, ' to know ;' as, vinnu, ' clever ;'
sallannu, ' omnis'ciSn'f ]*"" 'vactannu = vadanya, ' bountiful,' is
clearly constructed after the false analogy of these forms,
but has nothing to do with jnd. Tadannu, Saddham-
niopavana, v. 177, is composed with jnd, and is different from
tadanna = tad + anya, occurring at v. 149 of the same
poem.
8 PALI GRAMMAR.
Samskrit * is subject to the following changes :
(1) It becomes a in kdkanikd == kakinika, 'a small coin;'
pathavi = prithivi, ' the earth ;' pokkharani = pushkarini,
' lotus tank ;' gharam = grihini, ' wife,' M. viii. 1, 12 ; patatiga
= phadihga, ' a flying insect,' Dh. 412, Mil. 272 ; sdkhalya,
' friendship,' Childers s. v. sakhilo, and some futures like
icchasam, pamddassam, mentioned by Trenckner, Pali Misc.,
p. 75. A doubtful form is dnanja, Jat. i. 415, ii. 325 ; Sut-
tavibh. i. 4 ; Samannaphalasutta ed. Grimblot, p. 143. A
various reading is dnanca, which is found besides in Mahapari-
nibbaaas., p. 34, and Burnouf, Lotus, pp. 306, 467, 866 ; but
Buddhaghosa, at Suttavibh. i. 267, explains it by dnejjappatte,
acale, niccale and if this is correct it can have nothing to
do with Sanskrit anantya, but must be derived from the Pali
root inj = Sampkrit ing, ' to move.' Comp. Childers, s. v. dnej-
ja, and p. 454, and Senart, Mahavastu, p. 399.
(2) It becomes e in etta, 'so much'=Skt. iyant, Senart,
Mahavaatu, p. 384 (but not etto, 'hence,' which is derived
from etta = eta, Q-oldschmidt, Pracritica, p. 21 23) ; vihesd
= vihimsa, 'vexation,' and the verb viheseti, 'to annoy,'
Jat. iii. 295 ; veJidgamana = vihagamana, ' coming through
the air,' Mah. 157 ; vematika = vimatika, ' inconsistent ;'
vemajjha = vimadhya, ' the middle ;' Vessabhu = Vi9vabhu, ' a
name of Buddha ;* maiijettha = manjishtha, ' light red ;' kera-
tika, Jat. i. 461, and kerdtiya, Jat. iii. 260 = kirata, ' hypocrite,'
(comp. Indian Antiquary, vi. 40) ; esikd = ishika, ' pillar '
(but isikd, Samannaph. S. ed. Gr. p. 144), Brahmaj. S 18,
neuter pi. esikdni, Jat. ii. 95 ; terovassika, ' more than a
year old ' = Skt. tirovarshika, like Yedic tiro ahnya, Morris'
Report on Pali Literature, p. 6 ; dvebhdga, dvebhdva, dvebhu-
maka = dvibhaga, dvibhava, dvibhumaka ; petldpiya = pitrivya,
CHANGE OF VOWELS. 9
Trenckner, Pali Misc. 62 ; mdtdpettibhara, ' supporting one's
parents,' = matri + pitribhara, tekiccJia, ' curable,' from ci-
kitsa, etthi = ishti, ' wish,' Khuddasikkha. A difficult form
is the adverb seyyathd, 'just as,' in a comparison, which is
explained in different ways by the grammarians. Trenckner,
Pali Misc. p. 75, explains it as a Magadhizing form, corres-
ponding to the Skt. tadyatha, and he is followed by Senart,
Mahavastu, p. 415, who adduces the corresponding form of
the northern Buddhists sayyathidam, already mentioned by
Leon Feer, Etudes Bouddhiques, p. 313. I believe this ex-
planation preferable to that of B. Kuhn, who considers it as
a potential atmanepadam of the root as ' to be.' A form
seyathd occurs in the inscription of Bhabra, Cunningham,
Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, p. 111. A similar change of
a to e is in yebhuyya = yad + bbuyas, Instr. yebhuyyena,
1 generally,' ' mostly.' The corresponding form of the
northern Buddhists is yobhuyena, Senart, Mahavastu 422.
(3) It becomes u in kukkusa = kiknasa, C. x. 27, 4, kukku
= kishku, ' measure of length,' M. vii. 1, 5 ; nicchubhiyati =
kshiv, ' to spit out,' Mil. 188 ; also written nichubhati, Carijap.
ix. 23, Bv. xi. 15, Jat. iii. 512, 513 ; participle, nicchuddha,
Mil. 130, Dh. 8, 202; rdjula = rajila, 'a lizard;' geruka
gairika, ' red chalk,' M. i. 25, 15.
(4) It becomes o in onojeti, 'to dedicate,' M. i. 22, 18 =
avanejayati according to Kern, Buddhism, p. 92.
Samskrit i is subject to the following changes :
(1) It becomes a in kosajja, ' idleness ' = kausidya ; bhasma
= bhishma, ' dreadful/ C. vii. 4, 8 (another form bhesma occurs
Ab. 167, and bhisma in the Mahasamaya ap. G-rimblot, p. 288).
(2) It becomes a in tiraccMna = tira9cina, 'an animal.'
10 PALI GBAMHAB.
(3) It becomes e in khela = krida, 'play,' Dath. i. 41, Pischel
Beitr. iii. 254 ; keldyatha, Mil. 73, dveld = apida, ' a garland ;'
Prak. dmela, Hem. i. 105 5 ereti, l to utter,' Dh. v. 134 ;
according to Trenckner, Pali Misc. p. 76 = ireti. E for * is
found frequently in derivative syllables, as in the absolutive
gahetvd for grihitva, in djdneyya for djdniya, and similar forms
given by Kacc. p. 196. There is a present seyyasi = 9iryasi,
from 9ar, ' to throw down,' occurring only in this form Jat. i.
174, Dh. 147. The commentary explains it by vi*innaphalo
hoti. Qri becomes se in the names of two plants, sepanm =
9riparni and sephdlikd = criphalika.
(4) It becomes u in the. root tiivbh = shthiv, ' to spit;' also
written thuJi, as in nitthuliati, S. i. 132 ; nutthuhati, C. vi. 20, 2,
M. viii. 1, 11. The form nitthuh occurs also in Prakrit,
De9mamamala, iv. 41.
Samskrit u is subject to the following changes :
(1) It becomes a in sakkhali = 9ashkuli, Jat. ii. 281, Sut-
tavibh.i. 55; agaru and oy/M=aguru, 'Agallochum;' dudrabhi
= dundubhi, ' drum,' M. i. 6, 8 ; vakard or vdkara, Jat. iii.
541 = vagura, ' net ;' phallati = phull, ' to bear fruit,' and
pharati = sphur, ' to flash.' Bahusacca is derived by Childers
from bahu9rutya, by Fausboll from bahusmartya ; the analogy
of mutthasacca, however, adduced by Childers, points to the
latter etymology. Rathesabha, ' king,' is according to Trenck-
ner, Pali Misc. p. 59 = rathe9ubh ; according to Senart, Maha-
vastu, p. 427 = ratha + rishabha.
(2) It becomes i in dindima = dundubhi, 'drum,' Dip. 96;
khipati kshu, ' to sneeze ; ' muditd = muduta, Senart, Maha-
vastu 629. The identity of sippi and 9ukti, ' pearl oyster,'
assumed by Trenckner, Pali Misc. 60-75, remains doubtful.
CHANGE OF TOWELS. 11
(3) It becomes o_ chiefly before a double consonant, as in
okkd = ulka, ' torch,' Jat. i. 34 ; pottha = puata, ' a modelled
figure,' Jat. ii. 432, and its derivative, potthalikd or potthanikd,
M. vi. 23, 3, C. vii. 3, 4 ; Prak. puttalid, Paiyalacchi 117 ;
vokkamati = vyutkraraati (comp. Pischel's remarks to Hem. i.
116); pdmokkJia=pr&mukkya. (pdmukkha, Jat. i. 371). There
are, however, also instances of the change before a single con-
sonant, as kolanna = kulaja, ' of good family,' Mil. 256 (for
the termination comp. agganna and Senart'a remarks Maha-
vastu, p. 617); koliya, Jat. iii. 22, and koHniya, Jat. ii. 348 (if
the reading koleyya is not to be preferred, Ifulma occurs at
Mah. 245) ; and kolapwtti, which is not to be considered as a
vuddhi with Trenckner, Pali Misc. p. 64. Pali koti represents
the Skt. kuti as well as koti, Lotus 432 ; anopama, Jat. i. 89 ;
Mahavastu 511 is = anupama, Mah. 240.
Samskrit u is subject to the following changes :
(1) It becomes dio^masdraka = masuraka, 'a sort of bed,'
C. vi. 2, 3. Bhdkuti, Suttavibh. i. 181=bhrukuti, 'eye-brow,'
most probably goes back to the Skt. bhrakuti or bhrikuti. The
common Pali word bhamu is not, as Childers explained it, a
careless pronunciation of bhru, but an abbreviation of bha-
muka or bhamuha = bhrumukha, as is shown by the Prak.
bhamaya, Hem. ii. 167. The Sinhalese baema also goes back
to this form.
(2) It becomes i ^or^j^in bMyo, bhiyyo = bhviyas, and in
niyura = nupura, ' bracelet,' which, however, might stand for
nidhura.
(3) It becomes o in ^a^urjas, 'strength,' Jat. i. 68, Dh. 132;
onavisativasso = unav, 'less than twenty years old.'
Sanskrit e is subject to the following changes:
12 PALI GBAMMAR.
(1) It becomes a in milakkha = mleccha (comp. K. Z. xxv.
327), and in some verbal forms like akaramhasa, Dh. p. 147.
(2) It becomes d in kdyura = keyura, ' bracelet,' C. v. 2, 1,
Jab. iii. 437.
(3) It becomes i before double consonants, as in pasibbaka=
prasevaka, ' bag ' ; pativissaka = prativeaka, * neighbouring ; '
ubbilla = udvela in ubbillabhdva, ' lengthiness,' Saddhammopa-
yana 136 ; but also before single ones, as abhijihana from jeh,
Jat. 546, v. 49, according to Trenckner, Pali Misc. 78 ; apavi-
nati, Jat. 409, v. 4, from ven ; pahinaka and pahenafca, ' offer-
ing,' Prak. pahenaya, Paiyal. 206.
(4) It becomes o in^mankato = matkrite, Mil. 384 ; and in
atippago = atiprage, ' too early,' corresponding to atipragah
of the northern Buddhists, Mahavastu 418.
Samskrit o is subject to the following changes:
It becomes u before a double consonant, and u before a
single, as in junhd jyotsna, ' a moon-lit night ; ' tutta =
tottra, ' a pike used to guide an elephant,' Cariy. iii. 5, 2 ;
tadupiya, '.suitable, corresponding,' which is not tadrupya,
as Childers suggested. Trenckner, Pali Misc. p. 77, identifies
it with Skt. tadopya, which is derived from the root vap in
composition with d, and ascribes the change of o to u to the
following i ; but Senart, Inscriptions de Piyadasi i. 188, and
Mahavastu 493, takes it as a compound of tad + opaya.
Visuka = vi'9oka, ' spectacle ; ' dubha = droha, ' deceiving,'
Mah. 49 ; khajjupanaka, Trenckner, Pali Misc. 59, for khajjo-
panaka = khadyota, ' the fire-fly ; ' druyya = arogya, -' good
health,' M. K". 66. Also an o contracted from ava is
subject to this change, as in ussdva = ava9yaya, 'dew;'
ujjhd = avadhya, ' to blame ; ' and uddeti = oddeti = ava + di,
CHANGE OF QUANTITY. 13
according to Morris, Anguttaranikaya i. 24, 4. Comp. the
remarks of Fausboll, Two Jatakas 13, the verb nidddyati,
Jat. i. 215, nidddpeti, C. vii. 1, 2, identified by Oldenberg
with nirdata, Manu vii. 110. An example of an o changed to
u before a single consonant is uJckusa = utkro9a, ' the osprev,'
only written ukkusa at Jat. 486, v. 2, where the u is required
by the metre.
. 5. Change of Quantity.
Long vowels before a double consonant are generally
shortened. The reason is given by Kacc. vii. 5, 13-14, where
he says that a short vowel before a double consonant as a long
vowel is called garu. This rule, however, is not always followed
by the manuscripts, where we often find a long vowel before a
double consonant, especially when the long vowel is the result
of a contraction. Fausbdll, in the preface to his edition of the
Dhammapada, p. vii., was the first to call attention to this
inconsistency of the manuscripts, and afterwards Senart,
Kacc. pp. 4, 5, has discussed it at some length. The principles
established by him have been followed on the whole by the
recent editors of Pa'i texts, as far as the groups with assimi-
lated consonants are concerned ; and also Childers, in his Pali
Dictionary, has adopted them with a few exceptions, so he
writes ajjavaw instead of djavam, Kacc. 216 = Skt. arja\ a,
ddbbi = Skt. darvi, datta = datra, following AbhidhanappH-
dipika. Kuhn, in his Pali Grammar, p. 18, condemns this way
of writing, and allows the long vowel only in those instances
in which a contraction has taken place, as in nagghati = na
+ agghati, piyappiya = piya + appiya. The Sinhalese editions
generally follow the method of the manuscripts.
14 PALI GBAMMAK.
Before a nasal we generally find the law observed, as santa,
danta, vanta = 9anta, danta, vanta, Kacc. 295, but the editors
of the second part of the Mahavamsa write Idnganakicca, Mah.
39, 28. Before other groups of consonants the editions are
less consistent : we have ativdkya, Ab. 122, Dh. 57 ; sakya,
sakka, sakiya = 9akya, Mah. 9, 55, Abh. 5, 336 ; akliyata and
akkfidta, Kacc. 5, 220 ; pahatvdna = pahdtvd, ' having left
behind,' Dh. v. 243, 415 ; dussttya, Dh. v. 162 = dauh^ilya,
'wickedness;' balya, 'childhood,' Dh. v, 63, but bdlya, Ab.
250, 1079 ; natvd and bhitvd, from' jna and bhi, Kacc. 303,
Dh. 85, 379 ; kamyatd = kamyata, ' desire ; ' bahya = bahya,
' external.'
Another possibility of avoiding the contact of a long vowel
with a double consonant is to put the single consonant of the
group resulting by assimilation, as in djava = arjava, Kacc.
216, Ten Jat. 98 ; Msu = karshu, ' hole,' umi =. urmi, 'wave,'
Ab. 662; but ummi, Mil. 346; Ihdnaka = bhandaka, 'jar,' Sut-
tavibh. 90, Ascoli Kritische Studien, p. 211; lihuja = bhurja,
' the birch ; ' ahdsi = aharshit,' ' he took.' The same process
may take place after a short vowel, which then is lengthened,
as in sdjwa for sajjiva = sad + jiva, ' rule of conduct,' Pat. 5,
65, comp. Senart, Mahavastu 481 ; vupakdsati = vyupakarsh,
' to make clear,' M. i. 25, 20, Pat. 109 ; svdtana = cvastana,
' belonging to to-morrow,' Dh. 231 ; vdka = valka, ' bark of a
tree;' sankdpayati = sahkappayati, 'to arrange,' M. iii. 1, 2
(there are, however, two various readings, sankdyati, C. x. 18,
and Anguttaranikaya, p. 117, and sankdmeti, Suttavibh. i. 50*
which render the etymology doubtful). Several compounds
with the preposition ud, as uhadeti = ud + had, ' to befoul
with excrement ; ' uliata = ud + hata, ' destroyed,' Dh. 375,
Mahavastu, 379, 566 ; uhasana, from ud + has, ' laughter,'
CHANGE OF QUANTITY. 15
Mil. 127. Uhanali, M. i. 49, 4, Suttavibh. ii. 40, seems to
be synonymous with uhadati, mentioned before ; and I believe
the translation given by Davids and Oldenberg, ' threw their
bedding out,' not to be correct. The passive uhafini is found
M. i. 25, 15, the past participle uhata, C. viii. 10, 3; and
another compound of the same root, okaneti, occurs in the same
signification, Cariy. ii. 5, 4, where it is in parallel to uccdra-
passdvam Tcatvd, Jat. ii. 385.
The opposite way is to shorten the vowel before a double
consonant, as in the instances given above, and this can also
be done where a single consonant follows a long voweL Fre-
quent instances occur in the genitive plural of stems ending in
u or as; as bahunnam = bahunam, Dhp. Sl,pitunnam = pitri-
nam ; and of numerals, as tinnam, pancannam. But there are
also a number of other words belonging to this category ; as
bhummi = bhumi, ' earth,' C. xii. 2, 5 ; mattisambhava = ma-
tris, Dh. v. 396 ; mdtumattika = matrimatrika, Suttavibh. i.
16; unhissa= ushnisha, 'diadem,' Bv. p. 68, note; vanibbaka =
vanipaka (which is found Cariy. i. 4, 5), ' beggar,' with change
of p to bb ; niddha = nida, 'nest,' from ni + sad, (comp.
Hem. i. 106, Weber Indische Streifen i. 141, Ascoli 284) ;
sutta = syuta, ' sewn ; ' dattha = ddthd, 'jaw,' Mil. 150 ; abba-
hati = a + brih, ' to take down,' and its causative abbdheti,
' to pluck,' M. vi. 20, 2, C. vii. 4, 5 ; jannu = janu, ' knee,'
Maha,parinibb. 69 ; avassayim for avdsayim (comm. vdsarn J;ap-
pesim), ' I lived,' Jat. ii. 80. Syllables enfong^witji.jy are
especially often treated in this way ; as dbhibliuyya = abhi-
bhuya, Dh. v. 328 ; bhiyyo = bMyo for bhuyas, mentioned
above ; jiyyati = jiyati, ' to decay,' Dh. 179, and the suffix
iyya = iya.
The same transformations we have hitherto mentioned can
16 PALI OEAMMAB.
also take place in syllables which contain an e or an o, with
the only difference that these diphthongs always remain as
they are ; they are considered long before a single consonant
and short before a group, as stated by the grammarian Mog-
gallana (Alwis, Introduction, p. xvii. note, Catal. 41, 184).
Generally, however, the syllable conforms to the condition,
according with the etymology of a word. The following are
exceptions, where the simple consonant stands for the double :
vetheti = veshtayati, 'to surround; 1 sclcha = 9aiksha, 'a dis-
ciple ; ' apekhd and apekkM, ' desire,' = apeksba, upekM and
upekkM, ' equanimity ;' vimokha = vimoksha, ' release.' f is
always doubled after e, as in seyyo = 9reyas, 'better;' mac-
cudheyya = mrityudheya, 'death:' the only exception is ke-
yura, ' bracelet,' Ab. 287, which generally becomes kdyura (see
above). V after o is only doubled in yolbana = yauvana,
'youth.' After the prefix o, contracted from ava, a double
consonant formed by assimilation always remains, as in abboc-
chinna - avyavacchinna, 'unbroken,' Mil. 72 ; okkhitta=a.vak-
shipta, ' cast down,' Pat. 20, 21 ; and even a simple consonant
is often doubled, as in ossajjctti = avasrij, ' to give up ; ' ossak-
kamdna = avasarpamana, 'scattered,' Jat. i. 139; abbliokki-
rana = abhyavakirana, ' covering,' and, with change of o to u,
abbJiukkirati. Jat. ii. 311.
The cases of change of quantity are by no means yet ex-
hausted by the rules and examples given above. We have
numerous instances where the change is due entirely to the
metre, and others again where no reason is visible. We will
try in the sequel to keep separate as much as possible these
two cases, and mention those instances which are supported
by the Prakrit dialects.
The roots terminating in a, asjnd, dd, sthd, almost regularly
CHANGE OF QUANTITY. 17
shorten the vowel in composition, and in derived forms, as,
e.g., panfiavd = prajnavant, 'wise,' always written with d
except in a passage of the Culakammavibhangasutta, quoted
by Grogerly, Ev. 31. From stha we have patthapeti, 'to bring
forward.' The same occurs in samkhata = samkhyata, Dh. v.
70, where, however, it might also be shortened by a confusion
with samkhata = samskrita. A in the middle of a root is
shortened in gahati and gaheti, ' to dive,' = gah, and its com-
positions ogahi, Mah. 152 ; ogaha, Jat. iii. 289 ; vigayhati and
vigahdpeti. Suffixes with long vowels are very often shortened,
, as, e.g., dgahita=a,grihit,a ) 'seized,' Dh. 107; appatita = apra-
tita, 'displeased,' Pat. 4, 5; sa devika = sadevika, 'accompanied
by his queen,' Mah. 205 ; vipaccanika = vipratyanika, 'hostile,'
Grimblot 1 ; paccanika, Cariy. ii. 8, 4; ahirika = ahTika, 'shame-
less,' Dh. 44 ; sdluka = 9aluka, ' the root of the water-lily,'
M. vi. 35, 6. Especially the_jmjjijjjflii - uualmost regularly
shortened, as in pdniya = paniya, ' water,' M. i. 26, 4 ; sakiya
= svakiya, ' own ;' updddniya = upadaniya, ( sensual,' in a
passage of the Samyuttaka Nikaya quoted by Oldenberg,
Buddha 435; pdtidesaniya = pratidefaniya, 'a class of priestly
sins requiring confession,' constantly written so in the Pati-
mokkha and Suttavibhanga; gariya = gariyas, 'heavier,' Dh.
245, &c. Shortening by svarabhakti is very frequent in Pali,
as in bhariyd = bharya, 'wife;' dcariya = acarya, 'teacher;'
suriya = surya, ' sun,' and numerous other examples.
Lengthening of vowels occurs principally, in prepositions, as
in dbhidosika, 'stale,' from abhidosa, 'evening,' Suttavibh. i.
15 ; pdtibhoga = pratibhoga, ' surety,' comp. Mahavastu 582 ;
pdvacana = pravacana, ' the Holy Scriptures ' (the same in the
language of the northern Buddhists-', Mahavastu 500); pdkata
= prakata, ' clear, evident ;' pdheti, ' to send ' prahi, from
c
18 PALI GBAMMAB.
the false analogy of the aorist pdhesi; pdydti and pdydto, from
praya, 'to depart,' Jat. i. 146; Ehys Davids, Buddhist Suttas,
p. 241, note. There are, however, some other instances of
lengthened vowels besides: a privativum is lengthened in dya-
sakya, 'disgraceful,' from a + y&9as, Jat. ii. 33, iii. 514, in
paccdmitta = pratyamitra, ' enemy.' Other vowels in dlinda =
alinda, 'terrace;' djira = ajira, 'court,' Mah. 215 ; pdydsa =
payasa, ' rice porridge ; ' gdvuta = gavyuti, ' a measure of
length ; ' ummdra = udumbara, ' threshold ; ' sabbdvd = sarva-
vat, 'entire;' khardpinda, 'lump of glass,' Dip. 102. Lengthen-
ing is very frequent also when a word is repeated in composi-
tion ; as pTialdpTiala = phala + phala, 'wild fruits, berries;'
divddivassa, 'at an unusual hour,' Ten Jat. 16, Ch. Addenda;
khanddkhandam, 'in pieces;' kiccdkiccdni, 'all sorts of duties.'
According to the law given by Kaccayana, vii. 5, 13, that a
short vowel before a double consonant is considered as a long
one, we have to treat here also those cases where a single con-
sonant after a short vowel is doubled, and a double one sim-
plified, because the quantity of the syllable is changed by this
process. In these casrs it is sometimes very difficult to dis-
tinguish what is due to the metre, and what not. A clear
instance of metrical change would be appabodhati, Dh. v. 143,
if Subhuti's opinion is right, that it stands for apabodhati ;
Weber, however, and Max Miiller refer it to alpabodhati, 'parvi
facere,' and Fausboll to a + prabodhati. Subhuti's view in
supported by appardjita = apnrajita, ' unconquered,' Cariy. i.
2, 2. Other instances are saparijjana, ' with his attendants,'
Cariy. ii. 8, 2; kappildyam, Cariy. ii. 9, 2; nikkhani for nikhani,
' he buried,' Cariy. iii. 14, 4 ; abhinivassatha, ' he lived,' Cariy.
i. 10, 3 ; upavassatha, ib. i. 10, 5 ; paddhdna, Bv. xvii. 16 ; ut-
tassati = uttrasati, ' he trembles,' Cariy. iii. 13, 4 (participle
CHA/NGE OF QUANTITY. 19
uttrassa, M. x. 2, 16) ; suppatha, Ab. 193 ; kummiqa = kum-
riga, Mil. 346; paggharati, 'to ooze,' Dh. 81; abhisammayo, Bv.
vi. 3 ; paribbasdna = parivasana, 'abiding,' Fausboll, S. N". 152.
The following are instances from prose texts where the doub-
ling cannot be ascribed to metrical influence: patikkula =
pratikiila, ' contrary ; ' jdtassara = jatasara, ' a natural pond ; '
sakkdya=svakaya, 'individuality;' anuddayd=anu.daya, 'com-
passion and anuddayafd, Suttavibh. i. 247; vibbheda=vib\\eda,
' division,' Jat. i. 212 ; ummd=nma, ' flax,' Mil. 118 ; cheppd=
9epa, 'tail,' M. v. 9, 1 ; cikkhalla = cikha\ya, ' mud,' M. vii. 1,
1 ; niggaliita = nigrihita, ' restrained,' okkassa = avakrishya,
' having dragged away,' Mahaparinibb. 3 ; upakkilesa = upa-
kle9a, ' sin ; ' upassattha = upasrishta, ' oppressed,' Jat. i. 61 ;
vikkhdyitaka from vi + khad, comp. Kern, Buddhism, 402;
pdtiekka = pratyeka, ' individual ' (regular form pacceka) ;
kallahdra = kahlara, ' the white water-lily;' mukkhara = mu-
khara, 'noisy,' Minayeflf, Pat. 59; vissajjeti, from vi-|-srij,
' to give away,' and avissajjiya, avissajjika, C. vi. 15, 2, M. viii.
27, 5 (but visajja in a metrical passage Mahaparitiibb. 17),
and avissatthaka, Jat. i. 434.
Compared with these instances of doubling a consonant, the
instances of the opposite process are but few, and they are
nearly all to be ascribed to metrical influence. So we have
duklia instead of t?wMAa=duhkha, 'sorrow,' Dh. v. 83; putha
instead of pwMAa=pushta, 'fed,' Dh. v. 218; &awz'&a=karnika,
' an ear ornament,' Ab. 574. In prose texts I have only found
kanikdra = karnikara, 'the tree Pterospernum acerifulium,'
Jat. ii. 25 ; and b/tadanta, also written
' a venerable man, a Buddhist priest.'
20 PALI 6EAMMAE.
6. Nasal Vowels.
The anusvara or niggahita can stand before every consonant,
but before an explosive sound it mav also migrate into the
*
nasal of the corresponding class. So you may write TcumJcwna
or kui'ikuma, samcarati or sancarati, samdasa or sanddsa, tamdita
or tandita, kambala or kambala. In the first instance, how-
ever, before a guttural it is usual to transcribe the nasal by a
simple n without any diacritical sign. Before // the anusvara
can be changed into the palatal or cerebral nasal, as panha =
pra9na, 'question.' but panhi = pri9ni, 'variegated;' in both
instances the origin of the group is the same, viz., from fra, but
the usage has been fixed in different ways. From pariJia is
derived apannaka for apanhaJca, ' certain,' always spelt with the
cerebral group. Paripanhati is spelt with the cerebral in
Minaytff's Patimokkha, p. 17, 92; but in the corresponding
passage of the Suttavibh. ii. 141, we have paripanhali, which I
consider to be more correct. Prak. pauha, Hem. ii. 75. In
the same way we have tanM=tris\tria 1 , 'thirst,' sfl^a=9lakshna;
but its derivative, spelt sanhita, Mah. 104. Osanhati, at C. v.
2, 3, is also spelt with the cerebral, and I believe this to be
the correct spelling, as the n is already found in Samskrit. I
cannot account for the change of n to n in apannattika=apra.-
jnaptika, 'not existing,' in area=ajna, 'order,' dnapeti, dnd-
2) ana, &c.
Before a y the anusvara can remain, or the whole group can
migrate into titi, as e.g. samyoga or sannoga. Before r, s, v it
is always retained. Before I tbe^^u^v^ra is always assimi-
lated, as in salldpa = sarnlapa, ' conversation.' Before a vowel
it becomes in in poetry when a short syllable is required, the
nasal vowels being invariably considered as long.
NASAL TOWELS. 21
The grammarian Vanaratana, according to Trenckner, Pali
Misc. 80, remarks that h may be joined to any one of the five
nasals; for h with the guttural nasal I can adduce no example,
but for h with the dental nasal we have cinha = cihna, ' mark,'
pubbanha, Mil. 17; majjhanha= madhyahua, ' midday,' Ab. 767;
sdyanha = sayahna, ' evening,' seems to be always spelt with
the cerebral.
The nasal vowel is sometimes replaced by a long one, as in
siha = aimha, ' a lion;' msati = vimsati, ' twenty ;' sanddsa =
samdair^a, 'tongs;' ddthd = damshtra, 'jaw,.' This happens
often in the preposition sain w-hen it .is followed by r, as in
sdrd(j[a=sam.raga, 'passion;' sdrambha=3nmram\)\\a, 'clamour;'
sdrambhi, ' clamorous,' Jat. iii. 259 ; sdrdntyo, Mahaparin. 2, is
according to Senart's explanation, Mahavastu, p. 599 = sam-
ranjniya for samrafijaniya, and = sarayaniya of the northern
Buddhists, which etymology is confirmed by the passage of the
Lalitavistara, p. 530, where we read sammodainh samranjanih
kathah kritva, corresponding to the Pali sammodamyam katham
saraniyam vttisdretvd, comp. also Vinaya texts, ii. 364. Sar-
dham loses its anusvara in the compound saddhivihdrika, 'fellow
priest,' and also in the simple word in a passage x of Buddha-
ghosa quoted C. 318.
The opposite process is the development of an unorganic
anusvara out of an explosive consonant. This process has
taken very large dimensions in the Sinhalese down from the
10th or llth century (see my Contributions to Sinhalese
Grammar, pp. 12, 13), but we find the beginning of it already
in Pali, and it is not merely the corrupt spelling of the Sini-
halese writers as Childers believed (see Childers, s. v. nagaram).
Moreover, a form nangaram occurs in the Sainskrit of the
northern Buddhists, Mahavastu pp, 83, 440, so that we have
22 PALI GBAMMA.B.
no reason to doubt its correctness in Pali. Ndnga for naga,
' snake,' Dh. 102, occurs again in the introduction to the
Samanta pasadika, and seems to be also a correct form. Other
instances are sanantana = sai\afai\a, ' perpetual,' which Childers
explains as sana f ;i+tana;pm;a = piccha, 'wing,' (jpiccha occurs
at M. v. 2, 3) ; mahiinsa=mahisha, ' buffalo,' Cariy. ii. 5, 1, and
mahirnsakamandala, ' the Andhra country ;' the insertion is
especially frequent in syllables which originally contain an r;
sammunjam=8ammarjaoi, 'a broom' (also written sammujjani,
Jat. i. 161) ; sawvari=qa.rvari, 'the night ;' dandha=dridha,
' slow ' according to Trenckner, Pali Misc. p. 65, and its
derivatives dandhati, Jat. i. 345, Feer Etudes Bouddhiques 133,
Cariy. viii. 13 (dantayi is a mistake); dandhdyand, Mil. 59, 105;
dandhayitattam, Mil. 115; waM&0fo=matkrite, Mil. 384; man-
&w/a=tnatkuna, 'bug,' Pat. 91, comp. Skt. mankhuna; anc=
arc, 'to worship' according to Weber (we find, however, acca-
yissam, Dath. v. 17, and accita, Ab. 750); another anc occurs,
Jat. i. 417, to explain udancarii', sanda = 8adra, ' thick, coarse;'
sz'wya/a=9rigala, 'jackal;' vitamsd=v\tasta,, Mil. 114; nantaka
=naktaka or laktaka, ' dirty cloth,' Jat. iii. 22, which Trenck-
ner, Pali Misc. 81, believes to be borrowed from an aboriginal
language : the regular form lattaka occurs Dhp. 190. Some
participles must be mentioned here of verbs that have n in the
present, as ran?Ao=raddha, from randheti, ' to destroy,' Mil.
107, Jat. 537 v. 108, 538 v. 85 ; ia^Ao=baddha, ' bound,'
Kacc. 130, M. viii. 12, 1, where Buddhaghosa has baddham;
j9i7ow^Aa=pinaddha, from pilandhati, 'to rear,' Mil. 337. The
aorist aganchi t and the future ganchati or ganchiti,t'rom gacchati,
'to go,' occur according to Trenckner, Pali Misc. pp. 71 74,
only in Sinhalese manuscripts, while the Burmese almost con-
stantly write agacchi; besides, in the compound adhigacchati
TOWELS ADDED OE DBOPPED. 23
the aorist does not take the nasal, and in the plural before
-imsa, -ittha, -imha, the form ganchi is very rarely used. I
believe these forms to have followed the false analogy of adan-
chi from damg, ' to bite,' Jat. 441 v. 3, and of dhanchi, M. i. 6,
8, hanchema, Jat. ii. 418, from han, ' to strike,' which both
have the nasal in the root.
We often fii)d a nasal added at the end of a word, as in
saJckaccam = satkritya, ' respectfully ; ' kuddcanam = kuda +
caua, 'ever;' annadatthum=a.nysid-ra.st\i, 'only, exclusively;'
in a passage of the Samyuttaka Nikaya, quoted by Trenckner,
P. M. 67, tatthanca=tatra, ca, Mah. 5. In two instances we
find n instead of the anusvara : cirann dyati, Kacc. 26, and
satdnan esa dhamma for satdnam, Jayaddisa Jataka. Besides,
at the end of the first part of compounds, not only in such
cases where it is to be considered as an accusative, as in ata-
lfimphassa=ata\aspar^, 'not touching the bottom;' sabban-
jaha, ' leaving everything ;' such instances are viralanjana =
virala+jana, 'thinly peopled,' Att. 204; andhantama^audha
+ tamas, 'thick darkness;' attantapa, 'self-tormenting,' Chil-
ders s.v. puggala; ganamgana, 'with many linings, M. v. 1, 30;
rathandhuri = ratha + dhur, 'the yoke of the carriage,' Sad-
dhaminopayana v. 468 ; kabalimkdra=kabalikdra (the writing
of the Burmese MSS.) ' material food,' Gr. 43 ; jayampati,
' husband and wife,' most probably standing for jayapati and
also tudampati, would go back to the same form if Childers'
etymology is right ; comp. Kuhn's Lit. Bl., no. 1, art. 2. The
contracted formjampati occurs Dath. iv. 25.
7. Vowels Added or Dropped.
A vowel in the middle of a word has been elided in agga for
24 PALI GRA.MMAB.
= agiira, 'house,' only used in compounds; dhtfd=duh\ta,,
' daughter ;' jaggati for jagarati, ' to watch ;' and in the termi-
nation mhe for mahe, of the 1st person pi., atmanepadam.
A vowel at the beginning is dropped in ZoMra=alankara,
'ornament, decoration,' Dip. 47; 7m?wa^=anumati, 'consent,'
Dip. 35; m?fl/1/Wi=avalanjeti, 'to use, to spend' (the full
form occurs Jat. i. Ill, Suttavibh. ii. 26(3); pindsa, 'catarrh'
= apindsa, Skt. pinasa; parajjhati for aparajjhati, from radh,
'to be injured;' pavana=upa\ana, 'side of a mountaiu,' ac-
cording to Subhuti, Jat. i. 23, and perhaps z>=pra is always changed
into n, as, e.g., panidahati=pranid\\a', after par i it is generally
changed, as in parindyaka, Mil. 38, Jat. ii. 393 ; we find, how-
ever, also parindyaka, Mah. 63, Mahaparin. 5, and parinaya=-
parinaya, ' marriage,' Ab. 318, parinibbdna, parinitthanti, S. P.
332. On the other hand we have also instances where the
change of a dental into a cerebral is not due to a preceding r,
as in swa=9una, ' a slaughter-house,' also spelt sund, M. vi.
10, 2, Suttavibh. i. 59; jannu = janu, 'knee,' Mahapario.
69, Ab. 742; sa&wwa=cakuna, 'a bird;' sakkundti =caknoti,
'to be able;' sanim, sanikam=qa.nais, 'slowly' or ' quickly ;'
sobhana = 9obhana, ' resplendent ;' dinna, past participle
of dd, ' to give,' in pariyddinna, Mil. 289 ; kavittha and ka-
pittha, Jat. i. 2%7, = kapittha, 'the tree Feronia Elephantum ;'
&ff^YAawfl=kapitana, ' the tree Thespesia Populneoides,' Sut-
tavibh. ii. 35 ; patisalldna = pratisamlayana, ' seclusion,' spelt
with the dental, Dip. 63, Jat. ii. 77 and Mil. 138, v. \.;patisal-
Z*wa=pratisarnlina, 'secluded,' spelt with the dental, M. ii. 1,
2 ; vipdteti = vipateti, 'to crush,' C. v. 11, 1, if the reading
introduced by Oldenberg is correct, but perhaps we ought to
stick to vipphddetvd, given by the manuscripts, and derive this
form from visphur with change of r to d, as in some other
instances given below, p. 33. VibJiitaka=v\b\ntaka, ' beleric
CONSONANTS. 29
myrobalan,' Ab. 567, Jat. ii. 161, spelt with the dental, M. vi.
6, Att. 213; wW0rf(/7a^a = indraprastha,
'name of a town;' wzo;}7mta=madhyastha, 'impartial/ where
the aspiration is dropped besides, and santhdgdra=amstha, +
agara, ' a royal rest-house,' M. vi. 31, 1, Mahaparin. 60. In
derivations of the root vas, ' tojiwe.ll,' we find the cerebral and
the dental used promiscuously. The past part, is vuttha or
uttJia, Kacc. 291 ; in composition adhivattha, Jat. i. 99, adhi-
vuttha, Mahapar. 23, upavuttha, Cariy. ii. 3, 2, parivuttha, Pat.
6 : for the absolutive parivatthabba in the same line we should
adopt the reading given in the foot-note. The roots dah ' to
burn,' and dns ' to bite,' take the cerebral d in those forms
where there is no cerebral in the second syllable ; there are,
however, exceptions to this, as dayheyya, Mil. 84, Att. 192,
208, Dath. iii. 10, upadamseti, Suttavibh. ii. 309 ; in some com-
positions of dah the d is changed to /, as in vilayliase (v. 1. vilay-
hase and vidayhase}, Jat. ii. 220, dldhana, 'a cemetery,' pari-
Idka, ' fever, pain.'
D is often changed to I, as in dlimpana, 'light ' = ddipana,
Mil. 43; dlimpdpeti, ' to kindle,' Suttavibh. i. 85; dohala = d&\i-
hrida, ' the lougmg of a pregnant woman,' and dohalini, Jat. ii.
395, Kacc. 203, bila=wda, ' part, bit j' in bilasd, Kacc. 91, bilaso,
30 PALI GHAMMAB.
Kb. 30, tt7w=udu, 'lunar mansion,' awe7a=lava, 'quail,' Jat. ii. 59; pajdpati
= prajavati, 'wife;' pettdpiya = pitrivya, 'cousin,' Trenckner,
Pali Misc. 62; ^a/o/?a=palava, 'chaff;' cMpa=qav&, 'the young
of an animal ;' opildpeti, 'to sink,' M. iv. 1, 3, vi. 26, 6, ac-
cording to Trenckner, Pali Misc. 63, from plu (Childers, add.
derives it from pid); avdpurati, 'to open ' apdpunanti amatassa,
dvdram, It. 84, v. 2, and pdpurati or pdrupati, 'to dress,' from
var; oparfa?ia=av T adana, 'legend;' and also sapaddnam, 'regu-
larly,' (Trenckner, Mil. 428, derives it from sapadi + ayana,
which I do not quite understand) = sa+avadana, according to
Senart, Mahavastu, 595;SM^awa=suvana, 'dog,' Mil. 147; dhopana
=dhovana, 'cleaning,' Jat. ii. 117; sipdtiM=AaZ/atfff:=pallava, 'sprout,' Jat. iii. 40; san-
khalikd = sankalika, ' heap,' Jat. i. 433, Suttavibh. i. 105, Ang.
p. 114, through confusion with sankhalika, 'chain,' Senart,
Mahavastu 387 ; the reverse process is found in Prak., where
9rihkhala is changed to samkala, according to Hem. i. 189 ;
valabhdmukha=\ada\)iimuk\ia, ero ( pa^o=airavata, 'king of the
Nagas, Jat. ii. 145 = C. v. 6, spelt erapatta Saddhammopayana
v. 349, erakapatta, Dh. 344 ; apa^o=apata, ' path,' Trenckner,
Mil. 298, M. v. 1, 25, Samanta Pas. 300; sunakha, 'dog,' and
Idmakha, ' vile,' Jat. ii. 430, are most probably older forms, as
36 PALI GEAMMA.B.
we have the aspiration also in Prak. sunaho, Hem. i. 52,
Pischel Beitr. vi. 92.
(2) The aspiration is dropped in MM^a=kshudha, ' hunger ;'
khudita, ' hungry ;' upddisesa=upadhiqesha. (and with change
of the position of the component parts sesopddi, Dath. ii. 36),
Oldenberg, Buddha, p. 437, ff. ; matta=mnahla, 'polished;'
aiAim#a=abhivrishta, 'wet from rain,' Mil. 176; ctnovatta,
Jat. i. 18 ; patanga = phadinga, ' flying insect ;' paggava =
phalgava, from phalgu, 'herb,' Jat. ii. 105; anangana, 'free
from impurity,' compared with anhas, ' sin,' Jainaprak. anan-
haya (E. M. Beitr. p. 33); rajovajalla and rajojalla, Ass. S. 13,
Jat. i. 390, 'dust and dirt,'=rajas-f jhalla, comp. Jainapr. jalla,
E. M. Beitr. 34 ; ayo;}'efo'=avadhya, ' to reflect,' Senart, Maha-
vastu 377 ; a curious instance of dropped aspiration is M,
Jat. ii. 258=kha, ' spring,' Naigh., and perhaps we have to
notice the same process in kakkdreti, ' to express disgust,' Jat.
ii. 105, Five Jat. 29,=Ma or khdt + Jcdreti, which, however,
might be also derived, with Childers, from kdt + kdreti. As in
Greek, two aspirations are not allowed in two syllables fol-
lowing each other, and when this happens the first is dropped,
as, e.g., fli&a<^Aaft'=nishkrish, 'to cast out.'
(3) There are also instances where the aspirate drops its
first part and h alone remains, as is done frequently in Samskrit
and later on in all the vernaculars. I believe, however, that a
number of instances, especially those with bh, are only due to
the bad writing of the Sinhalese, in whose alphabet h and bh
are so easily confounded ; M. i. 1, 3,- four MSS. have the form
have, but Buddhaghosa reads bhave, which shows us clearly the
etymology of the word ; the same process can be observed in
the form hupeyya, M. i. 6, 9 (according to Trenckner, Pali
Misc. p. 62, a Burmese error for huveyya). Other instances
GENERAL BEMABKS ON CONSONANTS. 37
are momuhato from momugha, ' foolish,' Fausb. S. N. 161, ruhira
= rudhira, ' blood,' Jat. i. 274, ii. 276, Cariy. i. 9, 13, C. vii.
3, 9 ; at Bhikkhunipac. 60, Minayeff, p. 108, reads ruhita, the
Suttavibh. ii. 316 ruhita with the v. 1. rudhita, ' boil.' Suhita,
Jat. xx. 1, 4, quoted by Minayeff, 43, is = Skt. suhita and
not sukhita.
(4) Softening of a hard consonant, that is to say, substi-
tution of a sonant for a surd, is frequent enough in Pali, as
in pasaJa=y>i'\s]\a.ia, 'the spotted antelope,' Cariy. iii. 13, 2;
tw?=uta, 'or;' ruda=r\ika, 'cry,' Jat. i. 207 (comp. ii. 388,
where we have the readings ruda and ruta) ; Tcalandaka-=.\3i-
lantaka, ' squirrel ;' patigacca = patikacca (v. 1.) from patiJca-
roti, ' to provide against future events,' M. i. 31, 1, Trenckner
at Mil. 48, 421; 0efl?Aai=vyathayati, 'to tremble;' balasata=
parasvant, 'rhinoceros,' Trenckner, P. M. 59; w/a=sruc, 'a
ladle ;' punj for punch=pronc}\ ) 'to wipe,' Jat. i. 47, 318, 352.
A certain instance of this change is in my opinion jhdyati=
ksha, ' to burn,' although Trenckner, P. M. 65, objects ; I have
found several new forms of this verb and its causative jMpeti
or jhapeti, in addition to those given by Childers : jhatvd, Jat.
ii. 262 (Comm. kilametvd); jhatta, Mah. 146, Dh. 325 ; nijjhatta,
Mil. 209, and most probably alsojdpeti, Mil. 171, which seems
to be a misprint ; comp. nijhapeti, ' to injure,' in A9oka's pillar
edict, no. iv. Cunningham, p. 112 ; Kern, Ind. Ant. v. 273 ;
Prak. jhijjai, Hem. ii. 3.
J M '
Instead of p we generally find v in this case, as in dveld=
apida, 'garland;' theva=stepa, 'drop, 1 Pischel Beitr. iii. 239,
vi. 102 (Hem. ii. 125 derives it from stoka) ; posdvana, ' sup-
porting,' according to Childers =posdpana; vydvafa=vja,prita,
covered,' Trenckner, P. M. 63, and veyydvacca, veyydvatiJca,
' service.'
38 PALI GRAMMAB.
(5) The reverse process, hardening of a soft consonant, or
substitution of a surd for a sonant, occurs in pdydka=pra-
yaga, ' sacrifice,' Jat. 543 ; ajokara = ajagara, ' the boa con-
strictor,' Jat. hi. 484 ; kildsu = glasnu, ' lazy/ Suttavibh. i. 8 ;
katupika, 'going up to the waist/ Jat. 119, compared with
Tcatupaga, Suttavibh. ii. 340; durupaka, Jat. ii. 167 ; Jtulupika,
C. x. 13, 1; samsati for satnsadi, loc. of sarasad, ' congregation/
Jat. iii. 493, 495 ; parisati and parisatim, loc. of parishad, Sut-
tavibh. ii. 285 ; kusita for kusida, ' lazy/ already in the Mait-
rayani Samhita ; pipa=piba, ' drink/ Jat. i. 459 ; poJckTiarasd-
fa&a=pushakarasadaka, 'name of a bird;' dhopana=d\iovana,
'washing/ Jat. ii. 117; laJceti = lageti, 'to stick;' and laJca-
naka, 'anchor/ Mil. 377 ; thaketi=st\iagayati, 'to cover/ some-
times spelt tkakk ., Suttavibh. ii. 54 ; paliklta = paligha, ' an
iron beam/ Jat. 545 ; chakala = chagala, ' goat/ Suttavibh. i.
166 ; cAo&ana=chagana, ' dung/ M. vi. 9; palikunthita=pari-
gunthita, ' entangled/ Jat. ii. 92 ; pabbaja = balvaja, ' reed '
(spelt labtaja, Suttavibh. i. 90) ; pappata = parvata, ' moun-
tain/ I. O. C. 104 ; tippa for tibba tivra, ' sharp/ Mil. 148 ;
iuvamtuva, ' quarrel ' = dvandva, through confusion with the
pronoun tvnm ; pdceti = pra + aj, ' to drive/ and pdcana, ' a
goad/ Cariy. i. 1, 1 ; sateratd = fatahrada, 'lightning;' jannu-
/oy^o=janudaghna, 'knee-deep/ Prak. thaggha, Paiyal. 249;
Yamataggi=3amaAagn\, 'name of a rishi;' vipdtiM=\ipa,diba,
' abscess on the foot.' The root dhd in some derivations sub-
stitutes tJi> as fithiyati, ' is covered ' = apidhiyate (for which
the Burmese write pidMyatf) ; upatheyya, ' cushion/ A similar
process with regard to the root dhmd can be observed in san-
Mowawz=sandhaman, 'blowing/ Jat. i. 122.
(6) An interchange between the different classes of mutes
is not infrequent in Pali. Instances are JcipilliJca = pipilika,
' an ant/ also written pipilika, Saddhammopayana, v. 23.
GENERAL BEMABKS ON CONSONANTS. 39
pipillika, Jat.i. 202 ; taJckola = kakkola, 'Bdellium,' Jat.i. 291,
also used as name of a country, Mil. 359, where it most
probably corresponds to Skt. Karkota; jalupikd = jalukika,
' a leech,' Mil. 407, originally jalauka, ' living in the water ;'
khajjopanaJca = khadyota, ' the fire-fly,' Dh. 338, Dath. iii., 78 ;
gadduhana = dadrughna, ' a small measure of space or time,'
Trenckner, P. M. 89 ; kalopi = karoti (written Malopi, Mil. 107,
Ab. 456), 'a pot;' dlupa = aluka, 'ebony,' Jat. 446, v. 1;
chiggala = chidra + la, 'hole,' Childers, s. v. tala, Pakudha =
Kakudha, C. v. 8, 1. In most of these cases the reason of the
change is dissimilation, as we find it also in phdsulikd = par-
9uka+ika, 'a rib,' M. i. 61, 1; sallatikata = 9alyakikrita,
' pierced,' Jat. i. 180. Other instances are not quite so easy
to explain, such as rumlih for rudh in sannirumbhitvd, Jat. i. 62,
80, 163, ii. 6 (v. 1. sannirujjhitva), comp. Fausboll, Ten Jat. 93,
and sakk if this is really = sarp, as Trenckner, P. M. 60,
believes ; perhaps we ought to derive it from cankram with a
similar abbreviation of the reduplicated root, as injaggati for
jdgarati, but I give this merely as a hypothesis. The change
of c to would make no difficulty ; the dissimilation adduced
by Trenckner does not hold good for all instances, as in osakkati,
ussakkati, nissakkati, visakkiya, Suttavibh. i. 74, we have no p
in the prepositions ; comp. also Prak. osakka, ' departed,'
Paiyal. 178. Khdnu, ' the stump of a tree,' is rightly referred
to Skt. sthanu by the Prak. grammarians Vararuci and
Hemacandra, and the same change of sth to kh is also adopted
fur the explanation of duhkha = duhstha by Jacobi K. Z. xxv.
438 if., comp. Ascoli 236. Chamlhati is derived from stambh,
'to tremble,' by Trenckner; Ascoli, p. 256, rejects this
derivation, but does not suggest any other instead. From the
Samskrit of the northern Buddhists we might compare icchat-
tam = itthattam ' existence,' Mahavastu, 417.
40 PALI GJBAMMAK.
10. Consonants Added or Dropped.
A consonant is dropped in the beginning of a word in uka,
or uka = yuka, ' louse,' Prak. uka, Pischel Beitr. iii. 241.
A consonant is added at the beginning of some verbal forms
commencing with a u, which originates from Samprasarana, as
in vuccati = ucyate, vutta = upta, ' sown,' Mil. 375 ; vuttha
and vusita from vasati, ' to dwell ; ' vusimat, ( accomplished,'
Fausbb'll, S. N. 208. This euphonic v is not only used after
vowels but also after anusvara, and sometimes even at the
beginning of a line, as in vutthahante, Mah. 30. Where the u
is long, we have to assume two prepositions, as in vupasamati
= vyupa , comp. Senart, Mahavastu, p. 441, and the same
where the v is followed by 0, as in vokkamati = vyutkram ,
Hem. i. 116; and Pischel's remarks, avossajimsu, Dath. iii. 15.
In the middle of a word consonants are often elided through
Samprasarana. The syllable ya is contracted to i in maM-
bodhinyana = mahabodhyangana, ' the yard of the great Bo
tree,' Mah. 176 ; pativimsa or pativisa, ' portion,' = pratyam?a;
aticchatha, ' go further on,' from ati + acch ; nibbijjhati =
nirvyadh, ' to pierce ;' sacdka = satyaka, ' true,' Mil. 226 ;
pattiya = pratyaya and pattiydyati, 'to believe,' Jat. i. 426 v. 1. ;
it is contracted to e in vedhati = vyath, ' to tremble ; ' to i in
vitivatta = vyativritta, ' having passed ;' avivaddta = avyava-
data, ' confused,' Fausboll, S. N. 149 ; vitihdra = vyatihara,
* long step.'
The syllable yd is contracted to * in visiveti = vi9yapayati,
' to warm oneself,' sometimes written visibbeti through con-
fusion with visibbati, to unsew,' e. g., M. i. 20, 15 Pat. 15,
Suttavibh. ii. 115; from the same root dsiyati = a9yayati, 'to
CONSONANTS ADDED OB DBOPPED. 41
cool oneself,' Mil. 75 ; thina = styana, ' idleness,' but pa-
tthinna, 'stiff,' M. viii. 11, 2 ; to i in anabhijjhita = anabhi-
dhyata, ' not coveted,' M. viii. 12, 2, where, however, the y is
also contained in the group jjh; to einjama=:parishad, 'assembly.'
(2) It is shortened, as in kayira for kayird = kuryat, Das.,
Jat. 28; assa=syat, &c.
(3) A nasal is added, as .in the verbal terminations um=ua,
WMMrillHBHHiBiB^^-^
e yy u =e jjus, isum= ishus, sanam= sanat, 'always;' sanim=
9aQais, ' slowly ' or ' quickly,' Mah. 156 ; visum = vishvak,
'separately;' Ma^w?n=kritvas, a form which occurs also in the
Samskrit of the northern Buddhists, see Senart, Mahavastu 541 ;
manam = manak, 'nearly,' Jat. i. 149, M. ii. 12, 1, the same
form in Prak. Hem. ii. 169; z'nytfwi=tiryak, 'across.'
46 PALI GBAMMAK.
12. Compound Consonants.
Compound consonants are generally assimilated, as in all
Prakrit dialects. Sometimes the assimilation is avoided by
inserting a vowel, as we have seen above, p. 12. In the
beginning of a word, instead of a double surd or sonant result-
ing from assimilation, a single surd or sonant is written, and
instead of a surd or sonant aspirate only the aspirate.
The assimilation is generally progressive, so that the first
consonant is assimilated to the second, especially so with ex-
plosives.
Kt becomes U in mutta=mukt&, 'released ' (but Tck in pati-
mukka, 'fixed'); satti=<}ak.ti, 'power* (also written satthi) ;
sattu=$aktu, 'barley' (also written sattJtu at Pat. 89) ; sippi
1 pearl oyster,' which Trenckner, Pali Misc. 60, identifies with
fukti, I believe to be borrowed from some vernacular language.
Kth becomes tth, as satthi=q-akk\ii, 'thigh.'
Gdw^oZa=pudgala, 'individual.'
D+gJi=ggh: tiggharati=\id-\-ghTci, ' to ooze.'
D + b=bb: bubbula=b\id.})\ida, 'a bubble.'
D+bh=bbh: ubbhijjati=ud + \)hid, * to burst ;' ulbModaka
=udbhritodaka, Gr. 140.
P+t=tt: vutta=upta,, 'shaven.'
- B +/=J)' : palikujjeti=prati+liu\)j, 'to cover,' Jat. i. 50, 69,
Mahaparin. 56, Mahavastu 377.
COMPOUND CONSONANTS. 47
=dd: sadda = ^abda, 'a sound.'
ddh: laddha=\abd\ia, 'taken.'
When an explosive meets a following nasal the assimilation
is generally retrogressive, or is avoided by the insertion of a
vowel. There are, however, some instances also of progressive
assimilation :
K-\-n becomes kk in sakkoti or sakkunati (where the double
k can only be explained by false analogy) = 9aknoti, ' to be
able;' &wwsa=kiknasa, 'grain,' C. x. 27, 4.
K+m = mm : rummavati = rukmavati, 'name of a verse,'
Vuttod. ap. Fryer, Pali Studies, p. 8.
G+ngg in aggi or aggini=agni, 'fire,' Kacc. 54, Jat. iii.
320 ; gini, S. N. 3.
Gh + nggh: viggtha=vighna, 'obstacle.'
J-\-n=nn: annd=a]na, 'order.' [In ondta and avandta=
avajata, 'low born,' Pat. 83, and kolanna=k\i\aja, 'high born,'
Mil. 256, the roots jan a,ndjnd are confounded.]
D+mi kudumala=kudma\a, 'a bud.'
T-\-n : sapatti = sapatni, ' hostile,' but gahapatdni = griha-
patni, ' house- wife,' ratana=Tatna, 'jewel.'
T-\-m\ attd and dtumd=atma, 'self;' tumo=tman&, Olden-
berg K. Z. xxv. 319.
Th+n=tth: o&Ama^o^'=abhimathnati, 'to grind.'
D-\-m : chadda=c[\adman, * roof;' paduma=padwa, ' lotus ;'
rfamm=dadmi, ' I give,'
Dh+n: bunda=budhna, 'the root of a tree.'
Dh + vt: idhuma = idhma, 'fire-wood;' venudhama = venu-
dhma, ' a flute-player ;' and from the same root uddhumdyati=
uddhma, ' to be blown up.'
P-\-n-. pappoti and ^o^Mnaft'^prapnoti, 'to obtain;' supina
and *o^/Ja=svapna, 'sleep.'
48 PALI GBAMMAB.
P+m: pdpimd=papmau, 'sinful.'
Groups containing a nasal and following explosive generally
remain unchanged ; the following are exceptions :
Nc becomes n n in pannasa = panc^at, ' fifty ;' nn in pan-
nuwsam = pancavirr^ati, ' twenty-five,' Jat. iii. 138 ; nn in
pannarasa, ' fifteen,' pannarasi, ' the day of the full or new
moon,' comp. Sinh. panas, Prak. panavanna, Pischel, Beitr. iii.
245.
Nj becomes nn in vinnitvd and vinndpetvd from vrinj, Sut-
tavibh. ii. 264, but dvinji, Suttavibh. i. 127, dvinjand, ib. 121,
and with hardening of the j to ch, dvinchand, C. v. 14, 3, 4.
Nd becomes nn in punnarika = pundarika, ' lotus,' in a pas-
sage of the Ang. quoted by Oldenberg, Buddha 424 ; simplified
in 5Mra#a=bhandaka, 'a jar;' dd in deddubha=dunA\ibha, 'a
kind of lizard.'
Mb becomes mm in ammd = amba, ' mother ;' drammana =
alambana, ' support.'
When two nasals meet progressive assimilation takes place,
as in ummagga = unmarga, ' an underground watercourse,'
ninna=nimna, 'deep.'
Groups containing^ genfcrally assimilate the same to the
other element. If, however, the first element is a dental the
whole group passes into the palatal class. In many cases the
assimilation is avoided by the insertion of an i or the group
remains unchanged.
(1) Gutturals : ussukka = autsukya, ' zeal ;' sokhiya =
saukhya, ' happiness ;' a&Ayaa=akhyata, ' announced ;' yogga
=yogya, 'proper.'
(2) Palatals : vuccati = ucyate, pass, of vac ; joti = jyotis,
'light;' jiyd an&jyd = jya, 'the bow-string;' and adejjha =
adhijya, Jat. iii. 274.
COMPOUND CONSONANTS. 49
(3) Cerebrals ; kudda = kudya, 'a wall;' ddhya, addlia =
adhya, 'rich;' punna=punya, 'good.'
(4) Dentals : dhacca = ahritya for abarya, ' having told ;'
uhacca=a.v&ha,dya, ' having befouled ;' efcacca=eka,tja, ' a cer-
tain,' according to Senart, Mahavastu 388, comp. ekacciya,
M. viii. 14, 2 (Childers and Trenckner, Pali Misc. 56 derive it
from ekatara) ; dvajjati=avadh'ya., ' to consider ;' ?la=:anya,
' other ;' cicca = cintya for cintayitva. The assimilation does
not take place in cetya, cetiya = caitya, ' a relic-shrine ;' vyat-
taya = vyatyaya, ' opposition ;' pataggi = pratyagni, ' fire in
return ;' pdtanld = pratyarikin, 'a sedan chair,' M. viii. 10, 3 ;
pdtekka from pratyeka, ' singly ' (the regular form pacceTca
occurs frequently) ; pasidiya = prasidya, ' believing,' Mah. 5 ;
in compositions with ud we obtain the group yy, as uyyoga =
uHyoga, 'departure.'
(5) Labials: tappati=i&\>ya,iQ, pass, of tap ; labbhati=]abh-
yate, pass, of labh; /j is u ft iMi written % in the beginning of a word where
it represents the preposition ri\ this is the spelling of the
Burmese MSS. while the Sinhalese write vy ; in a few instances
I have found it in the middle of a word, viz. &0rafrya=kauravy:i,
Jat. ii. 371 ; upasambydna=\i])asamvya,na, ' the outer garment,'
Ab. 292. "We also find examples of assimilation in the begin-
ning, as vavatthdpeti = vyavasthapayati, 'to settle ;' vdyamati
= vyayain, 'to struggle;' vodaka = vyudaka, 'without water;'
vossajjati=\yavasr\j, ' to relinquish.' In the middle of a word
vy remains as in pathavyd, Dh. .32, or is divided by i, as in
jjuthuviyd, Mah. 19, putkuviyam, Att. 8 ; it may however also
be assimilated to bb, as in abbocchinna = avyavachinna, ' un-
broken,' Mil. 72 ; abbohdrika=avyava,ba,rika, Suttavibh. i. 91 ;
bhdtubba = bhratrivya, 'cousin,' Balavatara, p. 36; abJiabba =
abhavya, ' unable ;' sibbati = sivyati, ' to sew ;' pasiblaka, ' a
bag,' from the same root. The y is altogether dropped in
gdvuta=gavyuti, ' a measure of length.' The forms in tayya=
tavya, given by the Grammarians as ndtayya = jiiatavya,^-
tayya praptavya, I believe do not belong to the living
language. After a sibilant we have progressive assimilation ;
the only exception is alasya or dlasiya=alasja, ' sloth,' Dh. 49.
In the group hy, the position of the elements is reversed, so
that it becomes yh, as mayham = mahyam ; exceptions are
bdhya, 'external' (also bdhira with change of y to r) and etiliya
= aitihya, 'oral tradition,' Ascoli 244. Assimilation takes
place in leyya = lehya, ' to be licked ;' epenthesis in hiyyo or
hiyo=hysi$, 'yesterday.' For yh in vuyhati=uhja.te we also
COMPOUND CONSONANTS. 51
find IJi : vulhati (Ascoli 244 derives this from the part, vulha,
I doubt whether the form is correct).
R before an explosive is always assimilated, and if the explo-
sive is a dental the group may become cerebral ; in a few
instances also the influence of the r is shown by aspira-
tion.
(1) Gutturals : sakkhard = ^arkara, ' sugar,' spelt sakkard,
Jat. i. 238 ; flayya varga, ' class ;' digha=dirgha, 'long,' with
compensation; kakkasa=karkaqa, 'rough.'
(2) Palatals : acci = arci, ' flame,' spelt acchi in a passage of
Samyuttaka Nikaya quoted by Oldenberg, Buddha 434 ; muc-
chati =. murchati, ' to faint ;' sajja = sarja, ' the sal tree.'
(3) Cerebrals: kanna =karna, ' the ear;' owoHto=karna-
krita, SuttavTbh. ii. 282.
(4) Dentals : pdrivattaka = parivartaka, ' a robe lent to a
priest and returned by him after a period,' Pat. 8. 13. 78, but
pdrivattaka Suttavibh. ii. 59 ; dvatta=a\arta, ' whirlpool,' Mah.
213, but dvatta, Jat. i. 70; vattaka=\Skitaka, 'quail;' vattati=
vartati, 'to be right,' but dvattati and nibbattati; atiha =
artha, 'reason,' but atta, 'lawsuit;' &et>#a=kaivarta, 'fisher,'
also spelt kerattha in Wastergaard'a Catalogue 21o ; chaddeti
= chard, 'to throw away,' also spelt chaddh, Jat. i. 277; pari-
maddati parimard, ' to excel,' alao spelt parimaddh, Jat. i.
145 ; addita ardita, ' aB.icted,' Mah. 3, but addita, Bv. ii.
129 ; daddhidardh) a, ' sloth,' Trenckner, Pali Misc. 65. A
curious metathesis takes place in gadrobha = gardabha, ' a
donkey,' but iuya?^rMawrfo=gardabhanda, 'the tree Thespesia
populneoides,' the assimilation is regular.
(5) Labials : kappura = karpura, ' camphor ;' abbuda = ar-
buda, ' a high number ;' gabbha = garbha, ' womb ;' kamma =
karma, ' action.' The group rv becomes bb, as in pabbaha =
52 PALI GBAMMA.R.
parvata (spelt pappata sometimes in Burmese MSS.); cappeti
=carv, 'to chew,' C. 31.7.
(6) Sibilants : assimilation in dassana = darcana, 'sight;'
epenthesis in arisa = aras, ' hemorrhoids ;' drissa = arsha,
'rishiship,' Kacc. 216. The group rsh is turned into h in
TcaMpana = karshapana, kdhiti = karshyati. From harsh we
have a present hamsati, ' to rejoice,' Suttavibh. i. 8, Kacc. 390.
(7) Before h we always have epenthesis, as in arahati =
arhati, bariliisa=\)arh\a, ' sacrificial grass.'
H following an explosive is also generally assimilated, but
here we find several instances where it is retained or a vowel
is inserted :
(1) Gutturals: #&&# vakra, 'crooked;' khiddd (and Mid)
=krida, ' play ;' Hkhumseti = kru, ' to curse,' comp. Pischel,
Beitr. iii. 253 ; vagga = vyagra, ' irregular,' Oldenberg K Z.
xxv. 324 ; pccay^=pratyagra, ' new;' with epenthesis Jciriyd
=kriya, ' deed ;' Kururakrnca, ' cruel.'
(2) Palatals: vajira=vajra, 'thunder-bolt.'
(3) Dentals: sattu = 9atru, ' enemy,' spelt satthu, Dip. 21 ;
sdvittM = savitri, M. vi. 35, 8, spelt sdvitti, Fausb. S. N. 75 ;
tattha, yaltha, Tcattha = tatra, yatra, kutra, ' there,' ' where,'
parattha=pa.Ta,ira, 'elsewhere;' sotthiya=$votr\\a., 'a brahmin;'
gabbathattd=sarvatr&tviit, 'in every way,' according to Web-r,
Indische Streifen iii. 397; Tialiddi = haridri, 'turmeric myro-
bolan,' Suttavibh. ii. 35, spelt haliddhi, C. 317. The r is
retained in utrdsa = uttrasa, ' terror,' Jat. ii. 336, participle
utrasta, Mil. 23, and utrassa, M. x. 2, 16 (uttasati occurs Att.
205, Jat. i. 326, uttasta, Jat. i. 414) ; dudrabhi = dundubhi,
' drum ;' yatra = yatra, ' expedition ;' adrubha, ' undeceitful,'
M. x. 2, 17 (adubha, Jat. i. 180). The group dr is changed
to nd in sanda=sadra, 'coarse,' to jj in khujja=ks\Midra,
COMPOUND CONSONANTS. 53
' small,' Saddhamraop. 93 ; dhr to jjJi in yyj'Aa=gridhra
'vulture.'
(4) Labials : After p th# r is assimilated, as in^zya=priya,
'dear;' pati = prati, 'in return;' pJiositum from prush, 'to
sprinkle,' M. vi. 14, 5, parippositvd, M. i. 25, 15, paripphosaka,
Gr. 140. r is generally retained, as in braviti, from bru, ' to
speak,' brahman ; bhr is assimilated, as in sobbha = cvabhra
' cave ; mr only in the beginning of a word, as miyynti = mri-
yate ; in the middle a b is developed out of the m after which
the r disappears : amba = amra, ' mango ;' tamba = tamra,
' copper.' Vr is assimilated to v in the beginning, and to bb
in the middle of a word : t>eyafa':=vrajati, ' to go,' but giribbaja;
abbuta=avra>ta. or avrita, ' undisciplined,' Dh. 47.
R, after a sibilant, is generally assimilated, as in sdvaka=
cravaka, ' a pupil ; ' massu=qmaqru., ' beard ; ' epenthesis takes
place in siri=qri, 'glory;' daddha and uddha are=dasra and
usra according to Kacc. 333, but Weber Indische Streifen iii.
370, identifies them with damshtra and ushtra.
Hr is assimilated in liesa = hresha, ' neighing ;' sateratCi=.
9atahrada, ' hail ;' rassa =hrasva, ' short ;' separated in hirl=
hri, ' shame ;' but Mlita = hrita and hileti, Jat. ii. 258, rahada
=hrada, 'pond.'
L is on the whole treated very much like r ; before gutturals
and labials it is assimilated ; vaffgun=\a]gu\i, ' bat,' C. vi. 2, 2,
Jat. i. 493; kinjakkha = kinja\ka, ' a filament ;' kappa=ksilpa.,
'time ;' ^a(;a&Wa=pragalbha, 'bold;' jamma=ja,lma, 'reckless.'
Exceptions are' sunka = ^ulka, 'tribute;' sunkaghdta, ' smug-
gling,' Suttavibh. i. 47; gumb& = gulma, ' thicket ; ' simbaU =
^almali, 'the silk-cotton tree.' Lv is assimilated to bb in kib-
mz=kilvisha, 'fault;' to llin MaZ&zta=khalvata, 'bald;' billa
and bella, Jat. iii. 76,=vilva, 'the Vilva tree,' but 5eZwt>a=vailva
54 PALI GEAMMAB.
L after gutturals and labials is generally separated by i, as in
kilissati=\\\$ya.t\ (but parikissati, Fausb. S. N. xi.); kilomaka=
kloman, ' the pleura,' Mil. 26 ; klesa, without epenthesis, occurs
Dh. v. 88 ; pilavati^=p\avat\, Dh. 59, Dip. 56 ; vipaldvita, Jat. i.
326 ; piluvati, Mah. 230 ; /n70Ma=plaksha, ' ficus infectoria,'
Suttavibh. ii. 35, Jat. iii. 24 ; pilotikd=plota, ' a cloth ;' piliaTca
= plihan, ' the spleen ;' ambila = a ml a, ' sour ;' milakkka =
mleccha, ' a barbarian,' originally mlaska.
Rl ffiy.es II, as in dullabha=du.rl&lo\\a, 'difficult to obtain.'
L after sibilants and, A. is generally separated by i, as in
sildgM = 9lagha, ' praise ;' silesuma and semTia = 9le8hman,
' phlegm ;' hilddati=\i\a.d, ' to be glad.'
V after gutturals, palatals and cerebals, is assimilated, as in
|?M:a=pakva, 'ripe;' a%ai=kvatb., 'to boil;' (also written
kuth, Vinaya texts, ii. 57, and koddh, Dh. 155),Ja?a^'=:jvalati,
' to blaze ;' ^znwo^kinva, ' yeast.'
After dentals it is also generally assimilated, as in cattdro =
catvaras, 'four;' taco=t\ac, 'bark, skin,' comp., however,
oAat;a^a=9lakshnatvak, Dh. 412 ; it remains unchanged in
the suffix tva or tvana, in iritvija=ritv]j, ' the officiating priest;'
and in the pronoun of the second person tvam, which is also
found as tuvam and tarn. TV is changed into cc in caccara=
catvara, ' court ;' a/m0z'cca=anuviditva (comm. janitva), Dh. 41,
Jat. i. 459, Fausb. S. N. xi. 91. .Q^Js^assimilated in dipa =
dvipa, ' island ; ' udddpa = udvapa, ' foundation of a wall '
Mahaparin. 11; ubbdsiyati = udvas, ' to chase;' which is the
correct reading at Mah. 45 for ubbdhiyati ; it remains un-
changed in dve, ' two ' (also duve, but bd = dva in bdrasa,
' twelve ') ; dvdra, ' door ;' advejjha = advaidhya, ' sincere,' Bv.
ii. 110. Dhv is, assimilated to ddh, as in a^a=adhvari, ' road ;'
to jjh in majjhdru, M. v. 13, 6, probably = madhvalu, ' yam.'
COMPOUND CONSONANTS. 55
Nv is changed to mm in dhammantari=dhanvantar\, Mil. 272 ;
dafhodkamma = dridhadhanva, Trenckner, P. M. GO (but
gandwadhanvd, Kacc. 182), comp. Prak. dhamma, ' bow,
Paiyal. 37.
After a sibilant v is generally assimilated, as in assa = acva,
' a horse ;' sazi=8vamin, 'lord,' but also suvdmi, Fausb. S. N.
xi., suvdmini, Jat. iii. 288 ; it remains unchanged in svdna (or
sdna, suvdna), = cva, 'a dog;' sve (and suve), cvas, 'to-
morrow ;' ehisvdgata, ' come and be welcome,' C. i. 13, 3,
Suttavibh. i. 181. Epenthesis in suvatthi = svasti, ' welfare.'
Hv undergoes metathesis like hy, as injivhd=jihva, ' tongue;
sometimes it becomes bbh, as in ffabbhara=gahvara, 'a cavern.'
A sibilant preceding or following an explosive is assimilated
by the same and generally produces aspiration of the group.
KsJi is mostly changed to Tckh or cch, as in anti elaka, guty aiha = gutti aiha. Generally, how-
ever, the group ty is changed to cc, especially when the first
word is iti : iccevam = ity evam. The corresponding change
of dy tojj is not attested by any good authority. Api followed
by a vowel may become app through an intermediate apy : app
eva =api eva itv, tv for iti, ti is most probably only a corrupt
spelling.
U is elided before a vowel: sameC dyasmd = sametu dyasrnd,
ids' eva = tdsu eva. Earely it elides a following vowel : mi?
ttha=-nu attha, kinnu' md = kinnu imd. U-\-i sometimes gives
62 PALI GRAMMAB.
u : sddMti = sddhu+iti. Before a or e it can be changed to
v : vatthv ettha = vatthu ettha, sesesv ayam = sesesu ayam.
E may be elided before a long vowel or before a short vowel
followed by a conjunct consonant : m 1 dsi = me dsi, sac' assa=
saceassa; sometimes it elides a following vowel: te 1 me = te
ime, sace' jja = sace ajja, re* yya = re ayya, Mil. 124 ; occa-
sionally e + a gives d, as sacdyam = sace + ayam, Dh. 140, 165 ;
but the e can also be turned into y, as if it were i, and an a
following lengthened by compensation when a single consonant
follows : tydham = te aham, mydyam =. me ayam, ty ajja = te
ajja ; exception, tydssa = te assa.
is elided before a long vowel or a short vowel followed by
a double consonant : kuf ettha = kuto ettha, tay' assu = tayo
assu, tat' uddham = tato uddham. It elides a following vowel
in so'ham=so aham, cattdro 1 me=cattdro ime, etc. + a gives
a: dukkhdyam = dukkho ayam, Jat. i. 1G8. can also be
turned into v (as e into y) and an initial a lengthened if
followed by a single consonant : yvdham = yo aham, Tchvassa
=.kho assa, yveva=-yo eva : exceptions, svdssu=so assu, Jat. i.
196 ; khvdssa = Tcho assa, Payoga Siddhi.
Euphonic consonants are often inserted when two vowels
meet, to avoid a hiatus ; especially the semi-vowels y and v
are used for this purpose.
^is inserted between a word terminating in a or d, when
followed by idam or any of the oblique cases of this pronoun
which begins with i : na yidam = na idam, md yime = ma ime,
yathayidam = yathd idam with shortening of the d. The same
process takes place with eva and iva, which latter, however, is
changed to viya by metathesis. When a, d is followed by u, u,
v may be inserted for euphony : bhantd vudikkhati = lhantd
udikkliati.
RULES OK SANDHI. 63
Sometimes a euphonic m is inserted between two vowels :
iMMMfMHMuMMpMMMMHMMMIW* )
idTia-m-dhu = idha dhu, pariganiya-m-asesam = pariganiya
asesam, Girimanandasutta in Paritta, kapi-m-dgantvd, Cariy. ii.
5, 4 ; or r if the following word is iva : aragge-r-wa = aragge
iva, sdsapo-r-iva = sdsapo ira, sikhd-r-iva = sikTid iva, Maha-
samayas. 21. Final d is shortened before this r in yatha-r-iva,
tatha-r-iva = yatJid eva, tathd eva, Kacc. 19.
In a great many cases a lost consonant is revived to avoid
the hiatus, as in yasmdd apeti = yasmad apeti, kocid eva =;
kf^cid eva, tunliim dsina = tushnim asdna, vuttir esd = vrittir
esba, chalabhiniid = shadabhijna, puthag eva = prithag eva, pay
eva = prag eva, with shortening of the d, sammadannd =
samyag ajna, with change of g to d, and anvad = anvak in a
passage of the Maggasamyutta quoted by Morris, ' Keport on
Pali literature,' p. 5. Dhir atthu, Jat. i. 59, stands for dhig atthu,
vijjur eva for vijjud eva. Jat. iii. 464 we have^var evaforjivann
eva; attadatlia stands for attanattha =atman + artha, sattkud
anvaya for satthur anvaya, punad eva for punar eva.
II. Mixed Sandki.
Original double consonants simplified by assimilation at the
beginning of a word, can again be doubled after a word ter-
minating in a vowel : yatra tthitam = yatra thitam for yatra
sthitam. This is often done in verse when a long syllable is
required .
In a few cases a lost final consonant is revived before a
consonant, as ydvan c 1 idam = ydva ca idam, suhanus sahd, Jat.
ii. 31, tayas su = trayas svid, Kh. 9.
As we have seen above, p. 45, sometimes anusvara stands
for an original consonant, and in this case before a vowel it is
liable to be replaced by the original consonant. Sakrit becomes
64 PALI GRAMMAR.
sakim in Pali, but before a vowel we have saJoid ; in the same
way we have tad for tarn, yad for yam, etc.
In verse when a short syllable is required, anusvara can be
elided before a consonant : no ce munceyijcC candimam for
munceyyam Candaparitta, akanklia viragam for akahlcham,
Dh. v. 343. Or else the whole syllable may be dropped, as in
rajovajalV uTckutikappamdnam as the metre requires, Dh. v.
141; piydri 1 adassanam for piydnam, Dh. v. 210; papdn' aka-
ranam. for pdpdnam, v. 333 ; nipajj' aham for nipajjim, Jat. i. 13.
"When the anusvara is dropped the remaining a can be con-
tracted with a following a to a, as in saccdham=satyam aham,
Suttavibh. i. 190 ; labheyydham = labheyyam aham, Parin. 59;
iddham=idarn -{-aham in the phrase ekam iddham samayam, comp.
Oldenberg, K.Z. xxv. 325.
Only in late texts an auusvara can elide a following vowel,
as cvrassam' dhund for adhund, vassantam 'malakam in two
passages from Pali Burmese books quoted by Oldenberg,
' India Office Catalogue, p. 121,' sovannamayam 'nunndtam for
anunndtam, Khuddasikkha, xxxvi. 15.
14. Declension.
We distinguish in Pali, as in Samskrit, stems ending in
vowels and stems ending in consonants, and according to this
division the whole declension of substantives and adjectives is
arranged. It must however be remarked, that the vowel stems
have largely encroached upon the consonantal stems, and that
only fragments of a consonantal inflexion have remained.
Especially consonantal stems identical with roots, which are
y^f }, ave almost totally disappeared
from Pali, and have been replaced by dissyllabic steins increased
by the^ajd^ditiofl of a vowel. A careful investigation of the old
DECLENSION". 65
texts has only yielded the following instances of consonantal
root-stems : taco, pi. of tvac, ' skin,' Dh. Ill, Kb. 3; pddd, instr.
of pad, 'foot,' Dh. 164; vdcd, instr. of vac, 'speech,' Kb. 9 ;
pamudi,loc. of pramud, 'joy,' Or. 139 ; parisati and parisatim,
Suttavibh. ii. 285, loc. of parishad, ' assembly.'
There are two possibilities of turning these consonantal
stems into vowel-stems : (1) The terminating consonant is
dropped, and the word passes into the declension of that vowel
which now stands at the end, e.g. wpawwa=upanishad ; dpd=
apad, Jat. ii. 317, which are inflected like feminine a-stems;
dsi = acis, ' blessing,' inflected like an z'-stem ; maru marut,
name of a ' deva,' inflected like an w-stem. (2) The stem is
increased by the addition of an a (which may represent ori-
ginally the termination of the ace. sing., comp. however Pischel,
Beitr. iii. 262), and the word is now inflected like an a-stem,
masculine, feminine or neuter, according to the gender of the
original noun. Such instances are kita = krit, and visagata for
visakata=vishakr\t, Suttavibh. i. 80; twftf=trtYpt, name of
a ' plant ; ' barihisa=\)ar\\is, ' sacrificial grass.' Sometimes the
gender is changed, as in sarado m. 'year'= carad f. comp.
Pischel gramm. Prac. 5 ; Beitr. iii. 240. Change of gender is
very frequent in Pali, as for instance in t?ac^erf,Khuddasikkha
xl. 1, we have instead of d the thematic vowel *, and as this is
also found in some other compounds, I do not believe that vaci
is a locative like tvaci in tvacisara, Pan. vi. 3, 9 ; comp. Jain-
aprak, vatijoa Beitr. 5. Ap is generally used in the nom. pi.
dpo, we find however a gen. dpassa, Mil. 363.
Only very few vestige.a.of the dual occur in the texts known
to us at present : to idtt dgato, ' these two having come,'
Dip. 56 ; ubJio = ubhau, Dh. v. 74, 306 ; mdtdpitu, ' father and
mother,' Cariy. ii. 9, 7, if this does not stand for the ace.
66
PALI GBAMMAB.
pitrin. Generally the plural replaces the dual even in such
cases as jayampati and tudampati, ' man and wife,' where
the meaning clearly points to a duality.
I. Vowel Bases.
Masculine and Neuter in a.
Dhamma, ' The Law.'
Singular.
Plural.
Norn.
dhammo.
dhammd, dhammdse.
Voc.
dhamma, dhammd.
dhammd.
Ace.
dhammam.
dhamme.
Instr.
dhammena.
dhammebhi, dhammehi.
Dat.
dhammassa (dhammdya)
dhammdnam.
Abl.
dhammd, dhammasmd,
dhammebhi, dhammehi.
dhammamhd.
Gen.
dhammassa.
dhammdnam.
Loc.
dhamme, dhammasmim,
dhammesu.
dhammamhi.
Eupa, 'The
Image.'
Singular.
Plural.
Norn.
^j
Yoc,
1
> rupam.
rupdni, rupd.
Ace.
}
rupdni, rupe.
Instr.
rupena.
rupebhi, rupehi.
Dat
rupassa (rupaya).
rupdnam.
Abl.
rupd, rupasmd, rupamhd.
rupebhi, rupehi.
Gen.
rupassa.
rupdnam.
Loc.
rupe, rupasmim, rupamhi. rupesu.
DECLENSION. 67
The form given in the table as dative is, properly speaking,
the genitive = Skt. dharmasya, rupasya, which has taken up
the functions of dative in Pali. The old dative in ay a, which I
have given in paranthesis, is only used to denote the intention,
and is almost synonymous with an infinitive ; only few in-
stances occur where the dative has a termitiative meaning as
Dh. v. 174, saggaya gacchati, ' goes to heaven,' and Dh. v. 311,
niraydya upakaddhati, ' brings to hell,' comp. Pischels remarks,
Beitr. zur kunde d. indog. Spr. i. Ill, 119 ; lokdnukampdya =
lokam anukampitum, 'through compassion for the world;' na
patthaye nirayam dassandya, ' I do not wish to see the hell.'
Especially the dative atthdya is used frequently with the
meaning ' for the good of, for the sake of,' as in Buddhassa
atthdya jivitam pariccajdmi, ' for Buddha's sake I will lay down
my life,' comp. Childers, s. v. We have also an abridged form
atthd used in the same sense, e.g. in bhojanatthd, 'for the
sake of food,' Jat iii. 425. Other instances of this abridged
dative are esand = esandya, ' in search of,' Ten Jat. 48, 81 ;
andpucchd = anapucchaya, ' without asking leave,' comp. pari-
pucchdya, Mil. 93 ; IdbM in such sentences as IdbM vata no,
1 this is for our advantage,' which Childers explained as a
dative, is in reality a nom. fern, identical with the masc. Idbha,
comp. Senart Mahavastu 550.
The ablative stands for the instrumental in javd, ' speedily, '
Dip. 23 ; and ahimsd, ' through pity,' Dh. v. 270. The suffix sd
is very often also used to denote an instr., as iu vu.ha.--d, ' by
dint of,' Mil. 379 ; Suttavibh. ii. 158 (comp. the v. 1.) ; talasd,
' by the sole of the foot ' (com. pddatalena), Jat. ii. 223 ; rasasd,
' by taste,' Jat. iii. 328 ; bilasd, padam, Kacc. 91 ; balasd, ' by
force,' Cariy. ii. 4, 7.
In the ablative the terminations in dfiammasmd, dJiam-
68 PALI GRAMMAH.
manihd, and in the loc., dhammasmim, dhammamhi, are taken
from the pronominal inflection. Besides, we have two other ter-
<^ MMH I^*MM**W
minations for the ablative, to = skt. tas, and so = 9as, which
occur mostly in later texts, but also in a few instances in the
Jataka and Dhp. Instances are ganandto, ' by number,' Jat.
i. 29 ; cdpdto, ' from the bow,' Dh. v. 320 ; devato, ' from a
deva,' Bv. xvi. 7 ; orato pdrarn gacchati, pdrato oram dgaccliati
' goes from this end of the field l/o the further end and back
again from the far end to this,' Jat. i. 57 ; mettdto, ' from friend-
ship,' Saddhammop. v. 487, 489. "With so we have bhdgaso,
' by portion,' Mil. 330 ; parivattaso, ' by turns,' Mahaparin. 60 ;
tlni yojanaso, ' three yojanas wide,' Bv. xxi. 24.
In the locative the forms in e and in smim or mhi are almost
equally frequent already in earlier texts, see Torp, Die Flexion
des Pali, p. 18. The forms bilasi and padasi given by Kacc. 91
do not occur anywhere else. The locative is used instead of a
dative in brdhmane, Cariy. i. 9, 47.
In the nom. pi. of the masculine we have a form in dsc
which corresponds to the vedic nom. pi. in dsas, as panditdse,
' the learned,' Fausb. S. N. xi. 167 ; rukkMse, ' the trees,'
Jat. iii. 399, comp. Oldenberg, KZ. xxv. 315.
The ace. pi. of the masculines in e is somewhat difficult to
explain : Kuhn compares it to the vedic pronominal forms
asme, yushme, which are used likewise for the nominative and
accusative, and refers to the explanation offered by Schleicher,
Compendium p. 611 for these forma ; comp. Torp p. 19,
S. G-oldschmidt, KZ. xxv. 438.
The instr. pi. in ebhi or ehi quite corresponds to the vedic
form in ebhis (or to the ablative in ebhyas, as the forms are the
same in Pali) . Instances for the form in bh i are given by
Oldenberg, KZ. xxv. 316, 317. In old texts we find besides a
DECLENSION. 69
form in e corresponding to the instr. of the classical Samskrit
in ais, for inst. vanipake, used as a dative, ' to the beggars,'
Cariy. i. 4, 9 ; ydcake, ib. i. 8, 12 ; adhane dture jinne ydcake
patthike jane samanabrahmane kMne deti ddnam akincane,
ib. i. 1, 9 ; gum dasati updgatam, instr., Jat. i. 6.
In the plural of the neuter we have the regular form cittdni
for nom. and ace., and besides rupd for the nom., and rupe
for the ace., which are both taken from the masculine de-
clension. Thus we have satte dukkhd pamocayi, ' he released
the beings from pain,' Mah. 2 ; pane vihimaati, v. 1. for pdndni
himsati, ' he hurts living creatures,' Vasala sutta v. 2. The
same confusion of gender occurs in pabbatdni, Dh. v. 188
(probably through attraction from vandni), in dukkhd, 'sorrow,'
which may be used as neuter and masc., and (according to
Eausboll), even as fern.
In the locative pi. Childers gives a form milakkhusu from
milakkha, ' a barbarian,' but without any reference.
Feminine in a.
Kannd, 'The Girl.'
Singular. Plural.
Nom. kannd. kannd, kanndyo.
Voc. kanne. kannd, kanndyo.
Ace. kannam. kannd, kanndyo.
Instr. kanndya. kanndbhi, kanndhi.
Dat. kanndya. kanndnam.
Abl. kanndya. kanndbhi, kanndhi.
Gren. kanndya. kanndnam.
Loc. kanndyam, kanndya. kanndsu.
In the vocative we have the following exceptions : ammd,
70
PALI GRAMMAR.
anna, ambd, tdtd, all signifying ' mother,' form the voc. like
the nom., Kacc. p. 64 ; of ammd, we have besides a voc. amma,
frequent in Dh. The loc. kanndya is taken from the genitive.
For the nom. pi. in a and dyo, comp. Oldenberg, Kz. xxv. 317.
Masculine and Neuter in i.
Aqqi, ' The Fire.'
Singular.
N. & V. aggi.
Ace.
Instr.
Dat.
Abl.
Gen.
Loc.
aggim.
aggind.
aqqino, aqqissa.
t/7 U u
aggind, aqqismd, aggimhd.
aggino, aqqissa.
aqqismim, aggimki.
Plural.
aggayo, aggi.
affffi, aggayo.
aggtbhi, aggiJii.
agginam.
aggibhi, aggihi.
agginam.
aggisu.
i, 'The Eye.'
Singular.
N. & V. akJchi, akkim.
Ace. aJcTcim.
Instr. akkhind.
Dat. akkhino, akkhissa.
Abl. akkJiind, akkhismd, ak-
khimhd.
Gen. akkhino, akkhissa,
Loc. akkhismim, akkhimhi.
Plural.
akkMni, akkhi.
akkhmi, akkM.
akkMbhi, akkWii.
akkhmam.
akkhibhi, alcTclnhi.
akkhinam.
akkMsu.
A voc. ise, corresponding to the Skt. rishe, occurs in
Kupasiddhi, and Jat. xix. 1, 2. A gen. mune, is given by
Oldenberg, KZ. xxv. 318. The ancient loc. in o, is only formed
from the stem ddi, according to Kacc. 41, ado and ddu, Dh, 96 ;
DECLENSIOK. 71
a loc. gire, after the analogy of the a-stems, occurs Jat.
iii. 157. An instr. after the same analogy is buddharamsena,
Bv. x. 28. Besides, we very often, especially in Dip., find the
simple stem used for almost any case of the sing., see Olden-
berg, KZ. xxv. 318.
A noin. pi. aggino, is found Saddhammop. v. 586, together
with the regular form aggayo. In the oblique cases of the
plural we only find the short i occasionally in verses, as ndtihi,
patisanthdravuttinam, Dh. 146.
Instances of the nominative accusative of neuters in m, formed
after the analogy of the a-stems are not very frequent, but
numerous enough to show that the form really exists : aJckhim,
Dh. 140 ; atthim, Das. J. 5, 12. The nominative plural akkM,
occurs Dh. 82.
w
Feminine in I.
Ratti, 'The Night.'
Singular. Plural.
N. Voc. ratti. rattiyo, ratti.
Ace. rattim. ratti, rattiyo.
Ins. Abl. rattiyd. rattibhi, rattihi.
D. Gen. rattiyd. rattinam.
Loc. rattiyam, rattiyd. rattisu.
The nominative plural ratti, is formed exactly like the cor-
responding form of the masculine stems aggi, most probably
after the analogy of the o-stems (Torp. 41) . In the genitive sing,
we have a form kasino like aggino in Kasibharadvajasutta v. 1,
and in the locative ratio = ado, Dh. v. 299. The locative sin-
gular in a, is properly speaking a genitive, as we have noticed
also in Tcanna confusion between these two cases. Instead of
the group iy in the oblique cases of the singular, and in the
72 PALI GRAMMAR.
nominative accusative of the plural, we also find simple y, and
this may be contracted with a preceding dental according to the
rules given above, p. 49. In this way we obtain forms iike
niJcatyd,hom nikriti, 'fraud,' Jat. ii. 183, nikacca with shortened
a, Suttavibh. i. 90; jaccd forjdtiyd; sammuccd for sammutiyd,
etc., comp. Fausb., introd. to the Suttanipata transl. p. xi.
Instead of rattiyd we have ratya, Dh. 178.
The declension of the stems in i is very much the same as
of those in * :
Nodi, 'A Kiver.'
Singular. Plural.
N. Voc. nadi. nadiyo, najjo, nadi.
Ace. nadim. nadi, nadiyo, najje
Ins. Abl. nadiyd, nadyd, najjd. nadibhi, nadihi.
D. Gen. nadiyd, nadyd, najjd. nadinam.
Loc. nadiyam, najjam, nadiyd. nadisu.
In the ablative singular we have a contracted form pesi for
pesiyd, Mil. 421, an ablative in to is sirito from siri = 91-1,
Samanta Pas. 304. From dabM, ' spoon,' we have the genitive
davyd, Jat. iii. 218. The nominative plural najjo occurs only
Kacc. 56. An enlarged form of the genitive plural in iydnam,
is met with in a few examples : bhagimydnam, Mah. 4 ; tevisa-
tiydnam, Dh. 117; caturasitiydnam, Dh. 350 ; it supposes a
nominative singular in iyd, like 9riya for 911 in the Samskrit of
the Northern Bbuddhists.
The declension of ittJii or thi = stri, ' a woman,' follows
nadi in general ; in the ace. singular we have an additional
form itfhiyam = striyam, in the genitive thiyam = stryam, in
the locative itthiyd.
DECLENSION. 73
Masculines and Neuters in u.
Bhikkhu, ' A Mendicant Friar.'
Singular. Plural.
Nora. bhikkhu. bhikkhavo, bhikkhu.
Voc. bhikkhu. bhikkhavo, bhikkhave, bhik-
khu.
Ace. bhikkhum. bhikkhu, bhikkhavo.
Instr. bhikkhund. bhikkhiibhi, bhikkhilhi.
D. G-. bhikkhuno, bhikkhussa. bhikkhunam.
Abl. bhikkhund, bhikkhusmd, bhikkhubhi, bhikkhilhi.
bhikkhumhd.
Loc. bhikkhusmim,bhikkhum- bhikkhusu.
hi.
In the voc. sing, we find Sutano, Jat. iii. 329. A rest of the
old gen. in os, survives in hetu = hetos, Dh. v. 84. In the
oblique cases of the plural again we find the short u (like the
short i ) occasionally in verses, asjantuhi, Anecd. 33 ; bhikkhusu,
Dh. v. 73 ; jantunam, Ten. Jat. 91. A form bahunnam with
double n instead of u occurs Dh. 81. Irregular forms of the
nom. pi. are jantuno and mittaduno from mittadu=m\kra.dTub,
Mah. 10, jantuyo and hetuyo.
Masculines terminating in u keep it in the nom. sing., as
abhibhu, Dh. 255, but shorten it in the other cases. The
plural is abhibhu or abhibhuvo, from sabbannu = sarvajna :
sabbannu or sabbanmmo, from sahabhu : sahabhu, sahabhuvo,
sahabhuno.
The neuters in u form the nom. voc. ace. pi. either in u or
uni, as madhu or madhuni. The nom. and ace. sing, can take
m like the corresponding forms of the i-stems, as cakkhum
udapddi, Kacc. 27.
74 PALI GRAMMAR.
W
Feminines in u.
Dhenu, ' A Cow.'
Singular. Plural.
N. V. dTienu. dhenuvo, dhenuyo, dhenu.
Ace. dhenum. dhenu, dhenuyo.
I. A. dhenuyd. dhenubhi, dhenuhi.
D. G. dhenuyd. dhenunam.
Loc. dhenuyam, dhenuyd. dhenusu.
The nom. pi. dhenuvo occurs Dh. 237, where Fausboll has
altered it to dhenuyo. Shu, 'the earth,' makes in the loc. sing.
bhuvi, Kacc. 45 ; massu, though being a neuter, forms its gen.
according to the fern, fashion massuyd, Jat. iii. 315. An abl.
with the termination to occurs in natthuto, 'into the nose,'
M. viii. 1, 11, jambuto, Bv. xvii. 9, the loc. dhdtuyd, C. ix. 1, 4.
The feminines terminating in u follow the declension of
dhenu with the only exception of the nom. sing., which may
adopt the form in u as vadhu, ' a wife,' Ab. 230 (but vadhu,
Suttavibh. i. 18) ; sara6M=sarayu, 'name of a river ;' camu =
camu, ' an army ;' pddu padu, ' a shoe ;' sassu = cva9ru,
' mother-in-law. 1
Stems ending in a diphthong.
Go, ' A Cow.'
Singular. Plural.
N. V. go. ffavo, gdvo.
Ace. gavam, gdvam, gdvum. gavo, gdvo.
Instr. gavena, gdvena. gobhi, gohi.
D. G. gavassa, gdvassa. gavam, gonam, gunnam.
DECLENSION. 75
Singular. Plural.
Abl. gavd, gdvd, gavasmd, gd- gobhi, gohL
vasmd, gavamhd, gd-
vamhd.
Loc. gave, gave, gavasmim, gosu, gavesu, ; dvesu.
gdvasmim, gavamhi,
gdvamhi.
We find throughout the declension a new stem, gava or gdva,
which is inflected like a masculine a-stem ; we meet even with
a nom. pi. gavd, Jat. i. 336, together with the nom. pi. gdviyo,
of the fern. gdvi.
All other diphthongic stems have disappeared in Pali : nau
has become ndvd following the declension of the feminine d-
stems, dyu has become divo with the only exception of the
instr. sing, diva, which is used like an adverb in Pah'.
CONSONANTAL STEMS.
Stems in nasals.
These are considered by the native grammarians as belong-
ing to the vowel-stems.
(1) in an.
Attan = atman, Self.'
Singular. Plural.
Nom. attd. attdno.
Voc. atta, attd. attdno.
Ace. attdnam, attam. attdno.
Instr. attand, [attend]. attanebhi, attanehi.
D. G. attano. attdnam.
Abl. attand. attanebhi, attanehi.
Loc. attani. attanesu.
76 PALI GRAMMAR.
A parallel form is dtumd with the same inflexion, and besides,
tumo, Fausb. S. N. 170. The instr. attena, the abl. attasmd,
attamhd, and the loc. attasmim, attamhi, given by Clough, have
not yet been found in any old text.
Brahman, * Brahma.'
Singular. Plural.
Norn. brahmd. branmdno.
Voc. brahme. brahmdno.
Ace. brahmdnam, brahmam. brahmdno.
Instr. brahmand, brahmund. brahmebhi, brahmehi.
D. Gr. brahmuno, [brahmassa~\. brahmdnam, brahmunam.
Abl. brahmand, brahmund. brahmebhi, brahmehi.
Loc. brahmani. brahmesu.
The voc. sing, brahme, Kacc. 96, is formed after the analogy
of the t-stems.
Rdjan, ' A King.'
Singular. Plural.
Norn. raja. rdjdno.
Voc. rdja, raja. rdjdno.
Ace. rdjdnam, rdjam. rdjdno.
Instr. rannd, rdjena. rdjubhi, rdjuhi, rdjebhi, rd-
jehi.
D. Gr. ranno, rdjino, [rdjassa]. rannam, rdjunam, rdjdnam.
Abl. rannd. rdjubhi, rdjuhi, rdjebhi, rd-
jehi.
Loc. ranne, rdjini. rdjusu, rdjesu.
We find an instr. muddhand from muddhd, ' the head,'
Mah. 117, and a loc. muddhani, ib. 108 ; an instr. rdjand, which
DECLENSION. 77
I think cannot be correct, has been given by Fauaboll, Jat.
iii. 180, and a gen. rannassa, Jat. iii. 70. The forms rdjam,
rdjena suppose a stem raja, rdjino and rdjini are simply formed
by epenthesis ; in the plural we have to adopt a stem rdju, from
which all the cases can be derived. The legend PAONANO
PAO on the ludobactrian coins does not represent a Pali form
rdjundnam raja with double suffix, as Kuhn believed, but is
a Skythian title formed on the model of rajadiraja, comp.
Oldenberg, Ind. Ant. x. 215 note.
Some substantives belonging to this declension in Samskrit
follow the a-declension in Pali, as Fz'ssa/ja/nmo^Vicvakarmau,
' name of a celestial architect,' spelt Vissukamma, Cariy i. 9, 41 ;
vu>a#ffcAarfe?o=vivrittachadman, ' one by whom the veil is rolled
^w?07?i0 = prithuloman, 'a fi. pumdnebhi, pumdneJii.
D. &. pumuno, pumassa. pumdnam.
Abl. pumund. pumdnebhi, pumdnehi.
Loc. pumdne, pume, pumasmim, pumdsu, pumesu.
pumamhi.
A nom. sing, pumo occurs Cariy. iii. 6, 2, similar to tumo=
atma, Fausb. S. N. 170.
(2). Adjectives terminating in mant and vant.
Gktnavant, ' virtuous.'
Singular. . Plural.
Nom. gunavd, gunavanto. gunavanto, gunavantd.
Voc. gunavam, gunava, gunavd. gunavanto, gunavantd.
Ace. gunavantam, gunavam. gunavante.
Instr. gunavatd, gunavantena. gunavantebhi, gunavantehi.
D. Gr. gunavato, gunavantassa, gunavatam,gunavantdnam.
(junavassa.
Abl. gunavatd. gunavantebhi, gunavantehi.
Loc. gunavati, gunavante, guna- gunavantesu.
vantasmim, gunavantamhi.
The neuter has in the nom. voc. ace. sing, gunavam, pi.
gunavanti, gunavantdni. The fern, is made by adding i to the
strong or the weak form, gunavanti or gunavati ; it follows the
declension of the *-stems.
80 PALI GRAMMAR.
The participles in ant follow this declension with the only
exception of" the nom. sing, which they form in am or onto, as
gaccham, gaccTianto, ' going.'
A nom. from the weak form jwato for jlvanto occurs in a
verse, Jat. iii. 539 ; an ace. vajatam, Vasala Sutta, v. 6 ; a&atnm,
Dh. v. 73, Vasala Sutta v. 16. From the root Tear we have the
part. nom. pi. masc. karontd, Dh. v. 66 ; nom. sing. fern, karonti,
Dh. 246 ; gen. sing. masc. Jcaroto, Dh. v. 116 ; instr. garnkJid-
rontena, in a passage of Petavatthuvannana quoted I. O. C. p. 79 ;
all these forms follow the 3rd pers. pi. karonti. Besides we
have the gen. anuJcubbassa, Jat. iii. 108, rendered in the Maha-
vastu by krityanukaryasya.
Arahant, 'an Arhat,' forms the nom. sing. araJiam and arahd,
the former being the regular one, the latter following the
analogy of maha. In the nom. pi. we have arahanto and araM,
Dip. 30, Anecd, 7. A similar nom. pi. maha occurs Ab. 413.
Kacc. 94 gives a nom. sing, maliam which does not occur
anywhere else ; the nom. sing, maha occurs separately, Dh.
298, Mah. 132, and besides very often in compounds.
In the pi. we have one instance of an old form sabbhi=
sadbhis, Dh. v. 151.
In the neuter nom. sing, we have the forms braJid, Ab. 700,
madhuvd, Dh. v. 69; asam = asat, Jat. ii. 82.
Of participles of the perfect in vams we have bhayadassivd=
darcivanis; vidv.TTis forms nom. sing, aviddasu, Dh. 47; nom.
pi. aviddasu, C. xii. 1, 3 ; besides we have sabbavidu, Dh. v.
353 ; lokavidu lokavid of the Northern Buddhists, Lotus 860.
DECLENSION.
81
Bhavam, 'Sir.'
Singular. Plural.
Nora, bhavam. bhavanto, bhonto, bhavantd.
Voc. bho, bhonta. bhavanto, bhonto, bhante.
Ace. bhavantam, bhotam. bhavante, bhonte.*
Instr. bhavatd, bhotd, bhavantena.
D. G. bhavato, bhoto, bhavantassa.
Abl. bhavatd, bhotd.
The fern, shows the forms bhavanti, bhavati, bhoti, PL bhotiyo.
(3). Stems in in.
Dandin, 'a mendicant.'
Plural.
dandino, dandi.
dandino, dandi.
dandino, dandi.
dandibhi, dandihi.
dandinam.
dandibhi, dandihi.
Singular.
Nom. dandi.
Voc. dandi.
Ace. dandinam, dandim.
Instr. dandind.
D. G. dandino, dandissa.
Abl. dandind, dandismd, dan-
dimhd.
Loc. dandini, dandismim, dan- dandisu.
dimhi.
At M. vi. 28, 11, we have an ace. pi. brahmacariye, of brah-
macarin, ' holy ;' and at Mahaparinibb. 16, we have the same
passage with the v. 1. brahmacdrayo ; the nom. pi. sabrahmacdri
occurs Mahaparin. 5. D^=dvipin, 'a leopard,' forms the
nom. pi. dvpiyo, Jat. xiv. 1, 27. The oblique cases of the
plural have a short i only in verses : pdninam, Dh. 135, anuyo-
ginam, Dh. v. 209. An instance of a nom. sing, with is setthi
82 PALI GEAMMA.B.
=9reshtin, ' a treasurer, merchant,' Jat. i. 120, 122, where all
MSS. agree in the spelling.
Examples of an enlarged stem are sdramatino nom. sing.=
saramati, Mil. 420; verinesu from verin, 'hostile,' Dh. v. 197.
(4). Stems in r.
Satthd =$fistri, ' the teacher.'
Singular. Plural.
Nom. satthd. satthdro.
Voc. sattha, satthd. satthdro.
Ace. satthdram, sattharam. satthdro, satthdre.
Instr. satthard, satthdrd, satthund. satthdrebhi, satthdrehi.
D. Gf. satthu, satthussa. satthdnam, satthdrdnam
Abl. satthard) satthdrd. satthdrebhi, satthdrehi.
Loc. satthari. satthdresu.
Here also some stems have adopted the a-declension, as
saUakatta=<}a\.yakaTtY\, 'a physician/ Mil. 110, Att, 208, to
which Cbilders compares a&opta=snapitri, ' a barber;' Tcattara
=kartri, 'a weak man,' in kattaradanda, M. v. 6, 2 ; katiara-
suppa, M. vii. 1, 4; and &ea=sthatri, 'firm,' Gr. 5. In
composition the base generally terminates in u, as sotu=<}roiri,
' hearer,' Bath, vi. 6 (the gen. pi. sotunam occurs in a passage
of the Mahavagga of the Dighanikaya, quoted I. O. C. 60) ;
&#fltfM=bhartri, 'husband,' Jat. ii. 348; mancZAa^=mandhatri,
Jat. ii. 310. The voc. sing, sattha occurs Kacc. 116 ; the ace.
sattharam, Bv. xxii. 14 ; an instr. satthdya, Dh. 87 ; the gen.
satthussa, Mah. 240.
DECLENSION. 83
P*M=pitri, 'a father.'
Singular. Plural.
Nona. pita. pitaro.
Voc. pita, pita. pitaro.
Ace. pitaram, pitum. pitaro, pitare.
Instr. pitard) pitund, petyd. pitarebhi, pitarehi, pitubhi,
pituhi.
D. G. pitu, pituno, pitussa. pitardnam, pitdnam, pitunnm,
pitunnam.
Abl. pitard. pitarebhi, pitarehi, pitubhi,
pituhi.
Loc. pitari. pitaresu, pitusu.
Jfa/a=inatri, 'a mother.'
Singular. Plural.
Xom. mdtd. mdtaro.
Voc. mdta, mdtd. mdtaro.
Ace. mdtaram. mdtaro, mdtare.
Instr. 7 A. * A. * *. * ( mdtarebhi, mdtarehL mdtu-
^matara,matuya,matya. | bh
D. G. mdtu, mdtuyd, mdtyd. mdtardnam,mdtdnam,mdtu-
nam, mdtunnam.
Loc. mdtari, matuyam, maty am, mdtaresu, mdtusu.
mdtuyd, mdtyd.
The ace. sing, pitum occurs Cariy. ii. 9, 3 ; the instr. mdtyd
and petyd, Jat. 527, v. 3, 5 ; the gen. mdtussa, given by Kacc.
98, is not found anywhere else, and belongs most probably to a
bahuvrihi (Torp. 33). An abl. pitito and mdtito, ' on father's
and on mother's side,' occurs Kacc. 102, and in a passage from
a commentary quoted by Alwis, Introd. xlv.
84 PALI GRAMMAR.
The nom. pi. mdtdrapitaro, where both stems are inflected,
occurs Ang. p. 121 ; the gen. mdtdpitunnam, Ten Jat. 92. An
ace. pi. bhdte occurs Dip. 6, 21, 22.
The declension of dhitd, ' daughter,' is on the whole the
same as that of mdtd ; we find, however, a voc. dhUe, Dh. 364,
Jat. iii. 21 ; and an ace. pi. dhitd, Jat. i. 240. In composition
we have dhtiitthana, Mah. 222 ; dhituhetu, Mil. 117.
Sakhi, ' a friend.'
Singular. Plural.
Nom. sakhd. sakhdyo, sakhdno, sakhino.
Voc. sakha, sakhd, sakhi, sakhi, sakhdyo, sakhdno, sakhino.
sakhe.
Ace. sakhdnam, sakham, sakhd- sakM, sakJidyo, sakhdno,
ram. sakhino.
Instr. 7 77- -i C sakhdrebhi, sakhdrehi, sakhe-
Abl. j ( bhi, sakhehi.
D. Q-. sakhino, sakhissa. sakhdrdnam, sakMnam.
Loc. sakhe. sakMresu, sakhesu.
The ace. sakham occurs Jat. ii. 348 ; an abl. sakhdrasmd is
found Jat. iii. 534 ; sakhito, Att. 216. Ace. pi. sakhi,
Att. 203.
(5). Stems in s.
Manas, ' the mind.'
Singular.
N. V. A. mano, manam.
Instr. manasd, manena.
D. Or. manasn, manassa.
Abl. manasa, manasmd, manamhd.
Loc. manasi, mane, manasmim, manamhi.
COMPA.BI&ON OF ADJECTIVES. 85
The plural of manas not in use. The others form it after
the a-declension. The nom. ace. manam occurs Dh. v. 96,
Cariy. i. 8, 5; rajam, 'dust,' Dh. v. 313, but rajo (with the
adj. in the masc.), Dh. v. 125 ; sumedham, Dh. v. 208, but
sumedhaso, Dh. v. 29; voc. dummedha, Dh. v. 394; a gen.
tapassa occurs Jat. i. 293 ; nom. pi. sumand, Kh. 6.
Candramas, ' the moon,' becomes candimd ; jaras. ' old age,'
jard ; and apsaras, ' a celestial nymph,' acckard ; all these follow
the o-declension.
The comparatives in yo, iyyo, follow the declension of mono;
, ' better;' yariyo=gariyas, from guru, ' heavy.'
Ayus, 'life.'
Singular. Plural.
N. V. A. dyu, ayum. dyunt, dyu.
Int*tr. dyusd, dyund. dyubhi, dyuhi.
D. G. dyussa, dyuno. dyunam.
Loc. dyusi, dyuni. dyusu.
The instr. dyusd occurs Kh. 16; dyund, Dh. 288.; the gen,
dyussa, Mah. 220; dyuno, Dh. 128.
15. Comparison of Adjectives.
Adjectives with vowel bases form their comparison in two
ways :
(1) By adding tara for the comparative and tama for the
superlative.
(2) By adding iyo, yo for the comparative and ittha for the
superlative.
Thus, from papa, ' bad,' we can form pdpatara, pdpatama,
8(J PALI GRAMMAR.
and pdpiyo, pdpittha, Kacc. 196. The comparative of no. 1
may be combined with the superlative of no. 2; thus we obtain
pdpittJiatara, C. i. 6, 2. Besides, the comparative of no. 2 may
be increased by the addition of the suffix ika, which gives us
pdpiyyasika in tassapdpiyyasikdkamma, M. ix. 6. 2 ; and with
J- L t/ 7 JL J. //
contraction pdpissika.
Adjectives terminating in mant, vant and vin, drop these
suffixes before the comparative and superlative suffixes, as for
inst. gunavd comp. guniyo, sup.gunittha ; medJidvi comp. medhiyo,
sup. medhittJia.
Some adjectives form their comp. and sup. from entirely
different bases :
antika, 'near.' Comp. nediyo. Sup. nedittha.
bdlha, 'strong.' sddhiyo. sddTiittTia.
vuddha, ' old.' jeyyo. jettha.
appa, ' small.' ") , .
kaniyo. kamttha.
yuvd, 'young.' J
pasattha, 'excellent.' seyyo. settha.
10. Pronominal Inflexion.
(1) Personal' Pronouns of the First and Second Persons.
First Person.
Singular. Plural.
Norn. aham. vayam, mayam, amhe.
Ace. mam, mamam. asme, amhe, amhdkam.
Instr. Abl. may a. amhebhi, amhehi.
J)at. Gen. mama, mamam. amhdkam, amham.
mayJiam, amham.
Loc. mayi. amhesu
PEONOM1XAL INFLEXION. 87
Second Person.
Singular. Plural.
Norn. tvam, tuvam. tumhe.
Ace. tvam, tuvam. tumhe, tumhdkam.
tarn, tavam.
Instr. Abl. tvayd, tayd. tumhebhi, tumhehi.
Dat. Gen. tava, tavam. tumhdkam, tumham.
tuyham, tumham.
Loc. tvayi, tayi. tumhesu.
Besides, we have the enclitic forms : me, te for Jnstr. dat.
.
and gen. sing.; no, vo for ace. dat. and gen. pi.
The old form of the nom. pi. vayam occurs Dh. 105, the ace.
pi. asme, Sat. iii. 359. The ace. pi. qmhdkam and tumhdkam
are borrowed from the gen. The nom. pi. amhe and the gen.
amham and tumham, amhdnam and tumhdnam, are only found in
Kacc. 83, 84.
The enclitic forms no and vo may also be used for the nom.,
according to Kacc. 78.
(2) The Demonstrative Pronoun.
(a) Stem fa, ' this.'
Singular.
Masc. and Neuter. Feminine.
Nom. so, sa, tarn (tad), sd.
Ace. tarn, tarn (tad), tarn.
Instr. tena. tdya.
Dat. Gen. tassa. tassd,tassd$a,ti9sd,tisgdya,tdya.
Abl. tasmd, tamhd. tdya.
Loc. tasmim, tamhi. tassam, tdaam, tissam, iayam.
88 PALI QBAMMAB.
Plural.
M use. and Neuter. Feminine.
Norn, Ace. te, tdni. td, tdyo.
I nst r. Abl. tebhi, tehi. tdbJii, tdhi.
Dat. Gen. tesam, tesanam. tdsam, tdsdnam.
Loc. iesu. tdsu.
For all the forms beginning with t we may substitute the
corresponding forms of the stem na. At Kacc. 89, the follow-
ing forms are given : ndya, nam, ne, nesu, namhi, ndhi. Besides
we have the stems eta and ena, which are inflected like ta and
na respectively.
In the nom. sing, we generally have so, the form of the
substantives, sa occurs Dh. v. 142, 267, 268. A gen. sing,
masc. tasmassa is found Anecd. 15, and at Mil. 136 all MSS.
give tdsam for the loc. sing, fern., which is no doubt a correct
form, comp. nesam, ib. 179.
(b) Stem ima, ' this.'
Singular.
Masc. and Neuter. Feminine.
Nom. ay am, idam, imam. ay am.
Ace. imam, idam, imam. imam.
Instr. imind, anena. imdya.
D. G. imassa, assa. imissd, imissdya, imdya, assd,
assaya.
Abl. imasmd, imamM, asmd. imdya.
Loc. imasmim, imamhi, asmim. imissam, imdsam, imdyam, at-
sam.
PEOKOMINAL INFLEXION. 89
Plural.
Masc. and Neuter. Feminine.
N. A. ime, imdni. imd, imdyo.
In. Ab. imebhi, imehi, ebhi, ehi. imdbhi, imdhi.
D. Gr. imesam, imesdnam, imdsam, imdsdnam.
esam, esdnam.
Loc. imesu. imdsu.
In tadamina for tadimind, Vasala Sutta, v. 22, i is changed to
a by dissimilation.
(c) Stem amu, ' that.'
Singular.
Masc. and Neuter. Feminine.
Norn. asu, adum. asu.
Ace. amum, adum. amum.
Instr. \ amund. amuyd.
Dat. Gren. amussa. amussd, amiiyd.
Abl. amusmd, amumhd. amuyd.
Loc. aimismim, amwmhi. amussam, amuyam.
Plural.
Masc. and Fern. Neuter.
Norn. Ace. amu, amuyo. amu, amuni.
Instr. Abl. amubhi, amuhi.
Dat. Gen. amusam,amusdnam.
Loc. amusu.
90
PALI GRAMMAR.
Nom.
Acc.
Jnstr.
(3) Relative Pronoun.
Stem ya, ' which.'
Singular.
Masc. and Neuter. Feminine.
yo, yam (yad).
yam, yam (yad).
yena.
Dat. Gen. yassa.
Abl. yamhd.
Loc. yasmim, yamhi.
Plural.
Masc. and Neuter.
Xom. ye, ydni.
Acc. ye, ydni.
Instr. yebhi, yehi.
Dat. Gen. yesam.
Abl. yebhi, yehi.
Loc. yesu.
ya.
yam.
ydya.
yassd, ydya.
ydya.
yassam, ydyam.
Feminine.
yd, ydyo.
yd, ydyo.
ydbhi, ydhi.
ydsam.
ydbhi, ydhi.
ydsu.
(4) Interrogative Pronouns.
Stem ka, ' which.'
The inflexion of this stem is like that of ya with the follow-
ing exceptions : The nom. sing. neut. is Jcim ; in the dat. and
gen. masc. and neut. sing, we have kassa and kissa, in the
loc. kasmim, kamhi, kismim and kimhi.
The indefinite pronouns are formed by adding the particles
ci, api and cana to the forms of the interrogative.
NUMERALS. 91
Besides, we have a number of words which although not
being pronouns in the true sense of the word, still follow the
pronominal inflexion : Firat of all, possessives like madiya,
mdmaka, ' mine,' amhadiya, l our,' would belong to this class,
but of these we only find nominatives in our texts. Next
come the adjectives composed with dr ; 5, as mddisa, l like me ;'
etddisa or etdrisa, and idisa, ' like this;' Iddisa, 'like what;'
cirassam for cirassa, ' long since,' seems to be a pronominal
form.
By adding the suffixes tara, tama (already found in com-
parison of adjectives) to the interrogative stems, we obtain the
pronominal adjectives katara and katama, which do not differ
in their signification much from the single pronoun.
The other adjectives inflected according to the pronominal
inflexion, are sabla and vissa = sarva and vi. Alwis Introd. 73. Even the perfect dha, ' be spoke,' follows
this inflexion, as we have dhamsu, Jat. i. 121, corap. abamsus
of the Mahavastu ap. MiuayefF, Pat. xliii. Another dhamsu
is found in payiruddhamsu, 'they uttered,' from ^/har, comp.
Weber, Hala, 184; Tnd. Streifen iii. 396.
The imperfect of the root as, ' to be,' is entirely formed
afttr the analogy of these aorists :
dsim dsi. dsimlia.
dsi. dsittha.
dsi. dsimsu.
The first pers. dsi occurs Cariy. i. 4, 1. For the third we
find a form ehi, Bv. xvi. 7, which looks like an abbreviation
of the fut. of i, ehiti, but perhaps the reading is incorrect.
CONJUGATION. 117
Perfect.
Parassapada. Attanopada.
a. mTia. i. mhe.
e. ttka. ttho. vho.
a. u. ttha. re.
Verbs ending in consonants insert i between the root and
the consonatal terminations. Examples are not very frequent :
hd, ' to leave,' forms jahdra, with a euphonic r, Kacc. 243 ;
chid, cicckeda, ib. 242 ; bwdk, bubodha, Att. 203 ; sue, susoca,
Att. 212 ; ah, aha, third pi. dhu ; vid, vidu, Man. 141.
Future.
Parassapada. Attanopada.
ssdmi. ssdma. stain. ssamhe.
ssasi. ssatha. ssase. ssavhe.
ssati. ssanti. ssate. ssante (ssare).
The termination am of the first sing, attan. is only an
abbreviation of ami in parassap. and occurs frequently in old
texts as dassam, bkokkham, Das. 7, 29 ; hessam, purayissam,
Ten Jat. 91. This form is identical with the first sing, aorist
according to the second formation in issam, as sandhdcissam,
and this is the reason why they have often been mistaken one
for the other.
The future may be formed from the root or from the special
base. If it is formed from the root the terminations may be
added directly, or by the auxiliary vowel t.
(a) Fn fi irfq Jf^ngfjjffflm ,thpifrfr" f directly : pacessati, Dh. 9 ;
cicessati, Kacc. 27, both from ct; vijessati, from ji, Dh. 9;
' : ji(/k"cc./iati from glia*. ' to eat,' sometimes written
jigacchati (Griinwedel das sechste Kapitel d. Kupasiddhi,
p. 70) ; jigucchati from gup titikkhati from tij ; cikicchati and
tikicchati from kit ; pipdsati and pivdsati horn pa ; bubhukkhati
from bhuj ; sussusati from ^ru ; dicchati from da (see above) ;
jigimsati from har. Han has a desiderative without redupli-
cation, pahamsati, Jat. ii. 104; Pass. paJiamsiyati, Mil. 326 ;
mmamsati from man, is only a phonetical change for mimamsati.
Intensive.
Intensives are also formed from the reduplicated root, and
sometimes take ya, as daddallati = jajvalyate ; Idlapatti from
lap; kdkacchati from kath, Jat. i. 61, 160, 318, Mil. 85;
without ya, but with a nasal in the reduplication syllable, we
have cankamati from kram ; jangamati from gam, cancalati
from cal.
Sdkacchati, 'to talk,' Pat. xv. seems to be formed after the
false analogy of kdkacchati without reduplication.
Denominative.
Denominatives may be formed with and without reduplica-
tion. Tbe terminations are the following :
(1) Ayuti i n pabbatdyati, samudddyati, ciccitdyati and citicitd-
PAETICIPLES. 123
yati, 'to splash,' M. vi. 27, 7, Mil. 258; doldyati, Jat. ii. 385 ;
tintindyati, Jat. i. 243, 244 ; gaggardyati, Mil. 3 ; verdt/ati, Dip.
83 ; yalagaldyati, Mahaparin, 48 ; pariydyati, Samanta Pasad.
332 ; pattiydyati, ' to believe,' Jat. i. 426, where Fausb. wrongly
lias adopted the reading saddhim ydyasi, comp. Trenckner, P. M.
79 ; hardyati, M. i. 03, 1 ; Suttavibb. i. 68.
(2) lyati, lyati in the examples given by Kacc. 233, which T
have not found in any text, and besides in patiseniyati, Fausb.
S. N. 64; ganiyati, Mil. 114; attiyati, 'to be hurt,' M. i.
63, 1.
(3) Ayati, ett, in the examples given by Kacc. 235, which
are not found in any text, and besides in bdheti from bahis, ' to
remove,' Senart Mahavastu, 431 ; yanteti, Jat. i. 418; vijateti
and vijatupeti, 'to disentangle;' samodhdneti, 'to join, 1 part.
samodhduita, Jat. iii. 272; theneti, 'to steal,' Dh. 114, Jat.
iii. 18.
For sammanneti, Has. 69, we ought most probably to read
sammanteti (Dh. 333), which is a denominative from mantra.
(4) ati in pariyosdnati, ' to cease,' Dh. 331 ; sdrajjati, ' to
be ashamed,' Pat. xliv. ; osanhati, ' to smooth,' C. v. 2, 3.
19. Participles.
The present participle terminates in nnt^ nr^g^/^whif.h is
added to the present stem, e. g., lahham or lalihanlo. About
the declension of these participles and some other peculiarities,
comp. p. 80. The same termination ant or anta is also used
for the participle of the future, which, however, does not occur
very frequently, e. g., Tcarissam, Dath. iii. 80.
In the attanopada we have the terminations mdna and ana
used almost without any difference from verbs of all classes,
124 PALI GRAMMAB.
the latter being more or less restricted to the ancient language.
From kar we have the regular form &M&5aa=kurvana, Dh. v.
217, but also kardna in purekkhardna, Fausb. S. N. 173 ;
kurumdna, Sam. Pas., 323, and karamdna', from 91, 'to lie
down,' we have sayamdna, Kh. 16 ; from 9ush, ' to dry,' sukkha-
mdna, Jat. i. 304 ; from vas, ' to dwell,' vussamdna, Mah. 121 ;
from as, 'to be,' samdna, Kacc. 258. A contraction takes
place in sampajdno for sampajdndno from jna, ' to know,' Dh.
v. 293.
The old perfect participle in vams has almost totally disap-
peared : a few remaining traces have been given above, p. 80.
The past participle passive is formed by adding the termina-
tions ta and na as in Sanskrit. These may be added to the
root or to the present stem with or without the vowel i. From
vas we have, according to Kacc. 291, vusita and vuftha, e. g.,
upavuttha, Cariy. ii. 3, 2 ; parivuttha, Pat. 6 ; pavuttha, Mil.
205 ; vusitam brahmacariyam, ' the religious duties have been
fulfilled,' a locution very frequent in canonical texts, e. g., M.
v. 1, 18 ; besides vasita, Mah. 123, where we ought to read
pabbajjdvasitaithdne and adhivattha, Dh. 165, 341, 392 (adhi-
vuttJia, Mahaparin. 23). Vromjhash, 'to hurt,' we \\swe jhattfi,
Mah. 146, Dh. 325, where the correct reading is chdtakajjhattd.
From pat, ' to fall,' we ha.vepatita but ahopatta in pattakkhan-
dha, ' crestfallen,' Mil. 5, Ass. S. 17. From icchati, ' to wish,'
we have ittha (or yittha after a word ending with a vowel) and
iccliita, which is wrongly given as a separate article by Childers.
Dhd forms the regular participle hita; dhdta, Mil. 238, Gr.
301, M. vi. 25, 1, S. ii. 51, is most probably from dhra (see
M. 384). Somewhat irregular is khata for khdta from Man,
' to dig,' Kacc. 296, and the participles with n, where the Skt.
drops it as bandha=\)addh&, Kacc. 130; pilandha, Mil. 337,
PARTICIPLES. 125
from pi + nah; randha=raddha, Mil. 107; parikanta = ipar\-
kritta, Suttavibh. i. 89 (but parikatta, Mil. 188).
Participles in na are somewhat more frequent in Pali than
in Skt. and in a few instances we find both forms from the
same root, e. g., from da we generally have dinna, but also
datta in oa=adatta, Fausb. S. X. 150, 153, Dh. v. 406 ; from
rud, 'to weep,' we have rodita, Ab. 105 and runna or ronna,
Kb. 12, Das. 36, Jat. iii. 166, which is not an equivalent of
rudana as Childers thought. From U we have sallma, 'de-
pressed,' but also sallita, Cariy. iii. 11, 10. Jya forms Jina,
Suttavibhanga, i. 220, comp. Pan. viii. 2, 44, schol. ; ca, sina in
samsinapafta, S. N. 7. At v. 30 of the same Khaggavisanasutta
we have samchinna, for which Senart Mahavastu, 629, 630,
gives the better reading samchanna from chard.
From this past participle passive ia formed a secondary
derivative by adding the suffixes vat or vin (the latter with
lengthening of the a). This derivative has succeeded in its
use to the lost past participle active in vams. Examples are
vtisitavanto, Mil. 104 ; hutavd, kutdvi, bhuttavd, Ihuttdw,
Kacc. 281.
The participle of necessity is formed by adding the termina-
tions tabba, tayya=tavja, aniya, ya. These terminations can
be joined with or without the vowel i. Examples with tabba
are frequent enough: jlnitabba, Dh. 101 ; metabba, Kamm. 8;
parijdnitabba, Dh. 151 ; pafivijjhitabba, Dh. 2C9 ; pariydpuni-
tabba, Alw. N. 23 ; tutthabba, Jat. i. 476- tayya is, as far as
I know, only given by grammarians. Aniya we have in karatuya ;
ya in sakkuneyya, Mab. 141, and in awmJnra for asamharya,
Dip. 31.
126 PALI GBAMMAR.
In/lenitive.
The infinitive generally terminates in turn, as gantum, ( to go *
sunitum, 'to hear,' from the present stem, Mil. 91; satthum,
Ten Jat. 104 ; ihutum, from stu, ' to praise,' S. N. 38 ; puttlium
= prashtum, ' to ask,' Parabhavasutta, v. 1; parimetum from
ma, Mil. 192 ; jinitum from ji, Kacc. 319; nikhdtum, from
khan, Cariy. iii. 6, 16 ; from budh we have patisambuddhum and
suboddhum, Kacc. 8. Besides we have also the ancient vedic
terminations tave, tuye, and tdye, e. g., pahdtave, Dh. v. 34 ;
niketave, Jat. iii. 274 ; nidhetave, Jat. iii. 17 ; netave, Dh. v.
180; with tuye, ganetuye, Bv. iv. 28; marituye, Therigatha,
165 ; with tdye, dakkhitdye, Mahasamayasutta v. 1 ; jaggJiitdye,
Jat. iii. 226.
A curious form of the infinitive is etase from i, Theri-
gatha, 151.
Gerund.
The gerund is formed by adding the suffixes tvd (tvdna and
tuna) andya. In Dhp. the use of ya is restricted to compound
verbs as in Skt., but later on it is also used for the single verb.
Before these terminations the root generally appears in the
same shape as in the infinitive. Examples are very frequent :
tvd in netvd=nitva 1 (inf. netum); c7?taa=chittva (inf. cJiettum);
bhutvd=b\\ukt,va > Jat. iii. 53 ; gantvd=ga,tva (inf. gantum);
^eft)a=jitva (inf. jetum). From dri we have the anomalous
gerund disvd, where the t is entirely lost ; dassitvd, Suttavi-
bhanga, ii. 64, should be changed into passitvd. From M, 'to
forsake,' we have the reduplicated form jahetvd, Dip. 56, and
jahitvd, Dhp. 85, 333 ; from stha, uttitthitvd, Dh. 335 ; upatit-
PABTICIPLES. 127
thitvd, Mil. 231. A contracted form is amtvicca =
ditva (comm. jdnitva), Jat. i. 459, Ang. ii. 2, 7, Fausb.
8. K xi.
Tvdna in passitvdna, Mah. 105 ; jahitvdna, Dh. 215 ; suni-
tvdna, Das. Jat. 33 ; jinitvdna, Dh. 286 ; chefvdna, Dip. 96 ;
vatvdna, Dh. 193; daditvdna, Cariy. i. 9, 26; pavakkhitcdna,
Mahasantayasutta, 3. From the Skt. we can compare pitvauarn,
Pan. vii. 1, 48.
Tuna in kdtiina or kattuna, Kacc. 310 ; Suttavibhanga, i. 96 ;
dpucchitiina, Therigatba, 165; chadduna, ib. 169; nikkhami-
tuna, Theragatha, 11 ; sotunam, at the beginning of the Maha>
vagga of the Dighanikaya I. O. C. 69.
Yn in 7/faAmz=upahatya, ib., uhacca, Maha-
samayasutta, v. 3 ; abbuyha from a + brih, Dh. 255; nikacca=
nikritya, Suttavibhanga, i. 90 ; and most probably also patigacca
= pratikritya. with softening of the , comp. Trenckner, Mil.
421 ; _paM?ca=pratitya, but adhicca I prefer to derive with
Childers from adhritya, answering to Skt. adbarya. Cicca,
Khuddasikkha and saricicca, Pat. 3, 66, Suttavibhanga, i. 73,
most probably stand for cintya=cintayitva (comm. jdnanfo).
From i we have anvdya, frequent in Dh. formed after the false
analogy of may a from mi; from grab, samuggahdya, ' having
embraced,' Fausb. S. N. 152.
Sometimes the termination ya of the gerund is dropped and
the root alone remains, e. g., abMnnd for abhinfidya, 'having
known ;' patisankJid for patisaiikhdya, ' having reflected,' anu-
pddd for anupdddya, Dip. 15.
In a few cases we find a gerund with double suffix combined
from ya and tvd, e. g., abhiruyhitvd for abhiruyJia, Kacc. 129 ;
128 PALI GRAMMAB.
ogayhitva for ogayJia, Mah. 261 ; sajjJiitvd from sad, Balava-
tara, s. 58.
The suffix turn of the inf. can be used also for the gerund,
but this use seems to be limited to a few verbs. In the Paii-
mokkha we have a gerund, abJiihatthum from liar, which agrees
exactly with the corresponding Jaina forms puraukaum and
gantum (see my Beitrage zur Gramm. d. Jaina Prakrit, p. 61).
From Rhys D tvid's and Oldenberg's note, Vinaya Texts, ii.
400, it appears as if they wanted to identify this form with
those in tvdna and tuna like nikkhamituna ; we learn, however,
from Hem. ii. 146, that in abhihattJium and the corresponding
Prakrit forms, the suffix of the inf. is used instead of the
gerund. A similar form, distinguished only by the loss of the
anusvara is datthu=drashtum, 'having seen,' parallel with
disvd, S. N. 73, Theragatha, 48. The corresponding Prak.
form is given as datthurn by Hem. 1. 1.; but we have also in
Jaina Prak. forms without anusvara, as kattu and hattu from
kar and har.
As an exercise for the student, I give the text of a
Jataka, with a literal translation, and complete analysis of
the words:
VALAHASSAJiTAKA.
(FausbolVs edition, vol. ii., p. 127, ff.)
Atite Tamlapannidipe Sirisavatthun ndma yakkhanagaram
aJiosi. Tattha yakkhiniyo vasimsu. Td bhinnandvdnam aga-
takdle alamkatapatiyattd kliddaniyam bliojaniyam gdlidpeti-a
ddsiganaparivutd ddrake amkendddya vdnije upasamkarnanti.
Tesam nianussavasam dgaf anthd 'ti sanjdnanattliam tattha
iattJia kasigorakkhddini karonte manusse gogane sunakhe ti
EXERCISE. 129
evam ddini dassenti vdnijdnam santikam gantvd " imam ydgnm
pivatha bhattam bhunjatha khddaniyam khddathd " ti vadanti.
Vdnijd ajdnantd tdhi dinnam paribhunjanti. Aiha tesam
khdditvd bhunjitvd vissamitakdle patisanthdram karonti. " Turn-
Tie katthavdsikd kuto dgatd kaham gacchissatha kena kammena
idhdgaf atthd 'ti pucchanti " bhinnandvd hutvd idliagaf amha "
ti vutte ca " sddhu ayyd amhdkam pi sdmikdnam ndvarn abJii-
ruhitvd gatdnam tini samvacchardni atikkantdni te matd bha-
vissanti, tumhe pi vdnijd yeva mayam tumhdkam pddaparicdrikd
bhavissdmd " ti vatvd vatvd te vdnije itthikuttabhdvavildseJii
palobhetvd yakkhanagaram netvd sace pathamagahitd manussd
atthi te devasamkhalikdya bandhitvd kdranaghare pakkhipanti.
Attano vasanatthdne bhinnandvamanttsse alabhantiyo pana pa-
rato Kalydnim orata Ndgadipam ti evam samuddatiram anu-
vicaranti, ayam tdsam dhummatd. Aih? ekadivasam pancasatd
bhinnandvd vdnijd tdsam nagarasamtpe uttarimsu. Lid tesam
santikam gantvd palobhetvd yakkhanagaram dnetvd pathama-
gahitamanusse devasamkhalikdya bandhitvd kdranaghare pak-
khipitvdjetthakayakkhini jetthakavdnijam sesd sese ti td pan-
casatd yakkhiniyo te pancasate vdnije attano sdmike akamsu.
Atha sd jctthayakkhim rattibhdge vdnije niddam gate utthdya
gantvd kdranaghare manusse mdretvd tnamsam khdditvd
dgacchati. Sesdpi tatK eva karonti. Jetthayakkhiniyd
manussamamsam khdditvd dgatakdle sariram sitalam hoti.
Jetthavdnijo pariganhanto tassd yakkhinibhdvam natvd " imd
pancasatdpi yakkhiniyo bhavissanti, amhehi paldyitum vatta-
titi'' punadivase pdto va mukhadhovanatthdya gantvd sesavd-
nijdnam drocesi : imd yakkhiniyo na mdnusiyo, annesam bhin-
nandvdnam dgatakdle te sdmike katvd amhe khddissanti, etha
amhe paldydmd " ti tesuaddhateyyasatd " mayam eta vijahitum
na sakkhissdma, tumhe gacchatha, mayam na palay'issama " ti
130 PALI GBAMMAB.
dliamsu. Jetthavdnijo attano vacanakare addhateyyasate gahet-
vd tdsam bhito paldyi. Tasmim pana kale Bodhisatto void
hassayoniyam nibbatti, sabbaseto kdkasiso munjakeso iddhimd
vehdsamgamo ahosi. So Himavantato dkdse uppatitvd Tamba-
panniMpam gantvd tatiha Tambapannisare pallale sayamjdta-
sdlim khdditvd gacchati, evam gacchanto va "jancipadam gantu-
Tcdmd atthi janapadam gantukdmd atthiti " tikkhattum karu-
ndya paribJidvitam mdnusivdcam bhdsati. Te tassa vacanam
sutvd upasamkamitva, anjalim paggayTia " sdmi mayam jana-
padam gamissdmd" ti dhamsu. " Tena hi mayham pitthim
abhiruhathd" ti. AtK ekacce abhiruhimsu ekacce vdladhim
ganhimsu ekacce anjalim paggahetvd atthamsuyeva. Bodhisatto
antamaso anjalim paggahetvd thite sabbe pi te addhateyyasate
vdnije attano dnubhdvena janapadam netvd sakasakatthdnesu
patitthdpetvd attano vasanatthanam agamdsi. Tdpi kho yak-
khiniyo annesam dgatakdle te tatiha ohmake addhateyyasate
manusse vadhitvd khddimsu.
Translation.
In former times there was in the island of Larika a Yakkha
city called Sirisavatthu. Therein dwelt Takkhinis. These,
whenever a shipwreck took place, in splendid clothing, taking
soft and hard food, surrounded by female slaves, carrying chil-
dren on their hips, went to meet the merchants. That they
might think " We have come to an abode of men," they would
show here and there men ploughing and tending cattle and so
forth, herds of cattle, dogs, etc., and approaching the mer-
chants they would say, " Drink this rice gruel, partake of this
rice, eat this food." The merchants, unawares, enjoy what is
given by them. Thus having eaten and enjoyed, while resting,
they exchange friendly greetings. They ask : " Where do you
EXERCISE. 131
live ? whence do you come ? whither are you going ? on what
business have you come hither ? " They answer : " We have
come hither, having been shipwrecked." [Then the Yakkhhiiiis
say] : " Well, sirs, three years have passed since our husbands
went on board ship and went away; they must be dead ; you
are also merchants, we will be your servants." Thus they
enticed those merchants with female blandishments, and lead-
ing them to the Yakkha city, the first men being captured,
having bound them as it were with supernatural chains, they
hurry them into the abode of destruction. If they do not
obtain shipwrecked men near their own place of abode, they
wander along the sea-shore as far as Kalyani on the other
side, and Nagadipa on this side, and this is their custom.
On a certain day, 500 merchants came to their city. The
females approaching them, enticed them, and bringing them
to the Yakkha city, binding the men whom they first captured
as with supernatural chains, they hurried them into the abode
of destruction. The first Yakkhitii took the chief merchant,
the others the remainder, and so the 500 Yakkhinis made the
500 merchants their husbands. Then the chief Yakkhini in
the night time, when the merchants had gone to sleep, rising,
goes to the abode of destruction, and, killing men, eats their
flesh, and returns. The others do likewise. When the chief
Yakkhini returned, after having eaten the human flesh, her
body was cold. The chief merchant, haviug embraced her,
knew that she was a Yakkhini, and thought : " These must be
500 Yakkhinis ; we must escape." On the morrow, in the
early morning, on going to wash his mouth, he told the other
merchants: " These are Yakkhinis, not human beings; when
other shipwrecked men come, they will make them their
husbands, and devour us. Shall we not flee ? But 250
132 PALI GBAMMAB.
said : " We are unable to leave them ; you go ; we shall not
flee." The chief merchant, having persuaded the 250 by his
sdvice, fled, terrified at the females. Now at that very time
the Bodhisattva was born from the womb of a mare ; he was
pure white, black-headed, munja-haired, possessed of super-
natural power, being able to go through the air. Eising
through the air from the Himavanta, he went to the isle of
Tambapanni, and having eaten paddy, produced spontaneously
in the lakes and ponds of Tambapanni, he went on, and thus
proceeding, said compassionately three times in a well modu-
lated human voice : " Does any person wish to go ? Does
any person wish to go ? They, hearing the speech, came near
with folded hands, and said: "Sir, we folk wish to go."
" Then get upon my back," said he. Then some got on his
back, some seized his tail, but some stood with folded hands.
Bodhisatta, by his own supernatural power, conveying all the
250 merchants, even those standing with folded hands, placing
each in his own place, returned to his own abode. But the
Yakkhiniji, when the time of the others had come, killed the
remaining 250, and ate them.
This story is another version of the well-known myth of the
Sirens, as was pointed out for the first time by Dr. Morris, in
the " Academy " of Aug. 27, 1881 (reprinted in the " Indian
Antiquary " for October, 1881, pp. 292-3).
Atite, ' in former times,' loc. sing, of the past part, of a, ' to
go,' with ati.
Tambapannidipe, ' in the island of Ceylon,' =Tamraparnidvipe,
loc. sing., tamraparni literally means 'copper leaf,' most
probably from the colour of tlie soil in the island. Ceylon was
ANALYSIS OF TEXT. 133
called the ' Island of the Demons,' as can be seen from Senart
" La Legende du Bouddha," p. 272, et seq. Allusion is made
to this mjth also in the Lalitavistara. p. 196, ed. Calc. :
Laghu gagane vrajase kripajato rakhasadvipam
Vyasanacata manujan tada grhya kshame sthapesi.
Sirisavatthun (v. 1. vatthu) nora. sing, of a neuter w-stem
About the locality of this fabulous town nothing is known
to me.
Ndma, nom. sing, of a neuter w-stem.
Yakkhanagaram, nom. sing, of a neuter a-stem.
Ahosi, 3rd. pers. sing. Aorist of bhu or Jiu, ' to be.'
Tattha=tatra, ' there,' adverb of place.
Yakkhiniyo, nom. pi. of yakkhini, 'a female yakkha'
Vasimsu, 3rd. pi., aorist of vas, 'to dwell.'
Td, nom. pi. fem. of the demonstr. pronoun.
Bhinnandvdnam, gen. pi. of a bahuvrihi compound from
bhinna and ndvd, ' ship.' Shinna is the pash part. pass, of bhid,
1 to break,' and 6he whole compound moans ' shipwrecked.'
Agatakdle. Agata is past part. pass, from d+gam, ' to go,'
and kale, loc. of kdla, 'time/
Alamkatapatiyattd, a compound of two past participles.
Alamkata= Skt. alarnkrita, ' adorned, embellished,' from alam-\-
kar. Patiyatta from prati+yat, 'to prepare, to dress.' The
whole compound stands in the nom. pi. f.
Khddaniyam, ace. sing. n. of the part, of necessity of ^/khd d of pra + grah, ' to stretch forth.'
Sdmi, voc. sing.
Gamissdma, 1st. pers. pi. fut. of gam.
Mai/ham, dat. instead of gen. sing, of the pers. pronoun,
1st pers.
Pitthim, ace. of^M^M=prishtha, 'back.'
AbkiruhatJia, 2nd pers. pi. imp. of abhi + ruh, 'to ascend.'
Ekacce, nom. pi. of ekacca=eka,tya (see above, p. 49),
formed according to the pronominal inflexion.
Abhiruhimsu, 3rd pers. pi. aorist of abhi+ruh.
Vdladhim, ace. sing, of a m. t'-stem.
Ganhimsu, 3rd pers. pi. aorist of grah.
Atthamsu, 3rd pers. pi. aorist of stha, 'to stand.'
Antamaso, abl. of the superlative antama, ' the last,' formed
with the suffix 933 (see p. 68).
Thite, ace. pi of thita, past. part, of stha.
Anubhdvena, instr. sing, of a m. a-stem.
Sakasakatthdnesu, compound from sa&ff=8vaka, 'own,' and
tMna, ' place.' The repetition of saka is distributive.
PatittMpeted, gerund of the caus. of prati+stha, ' to
establish.
ANALYSIS OP TEXT. 113
Agamdsi, 3rd pers. sing, aorist of gam.
Tdpi=td apt.
7j0=khalu, 'indeed.'
Annesam, gen. pi. m. of anna, according to the pronominal
inflexion.
Ohinake, ace. pi. of the past part, of ava + hd, 'to forsake,'
with the secondary suffix ka.
Vadhitvd, gerund of vadh, ' to kill.'
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