UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA PORK PRODUCTION UNDER CALIFORNIA CONDITIONS BY J. I. THOMPSON BULLETIN No. 237 Berkeley, Cal., June, 1913 UNIVERSITY Of CALIFORNIA PRESS BERKELEY 1913 Benjamin Ide Wheeler, President of the University. EXPERIMENTAL STATION STAFF T. F. Hunt, D.Agr., Director. E. W. Hilgakd, I'h. I)., 1,1.,. I)., Chemist (Emeritus). E. J. Wickson, M.A., Horticulturist. H. J. WEBBER, Ph.D., Director Citrus Experiment Station, Riverside H. E. Van Norman, B.S., Vice-Director and Dean of University Farm W. A. Setchell, Ph.D., Botanist. Lerot Anderson, Ph.D., Dairy Industry. M. E. JAFFA, M.S., Nutrition Expert. R. II. Loughridge, Ph.D., Soil Chemist and Physicist (Emeritus). C W. Woodworth, M.S., Entomologist. 'Ralph E. Smith P,.S., Plant Pathologist and Superintendent of Southern California Pathological Laboratory and Experiment Station. F. R. Marshall, B.S.A., Animal Industry. J. E. Coit, Ph.D., Citriculturist. J. W. GlLMORE, M.S. A.. Agronomist. C. F. Shaw, B.S., Soil Technologist. J. W. Gregg, B.S., Floriculturist *G. W. Shaw, M.A., Ph.D., Experimental Agronomist and Agricultural Technologist, in charge of Cereal Stations. B. A. Etcheverry, B.S., Irrigation Expert. F. T. Bioletti, M.S., Viticulturist. W. T. Clarke, B.S., Assistant Horticulturist and Superintendent of University Exten- sion in Agriculture. John S. Burd, B.S., Chemist, in charge of Fertilizer Control. C. B. Lipman, Ph.D., Soil Chemist and Bacteriologist. George E. Colby, M.S., Chemist (Fruits, Waters, and Insecticides), in charge of Chemical Laboratory. *H. J. Quayle, M.S., Assistant Entomologist. H. M. Hall, Ph.D., Assistant Botanist. C M. Haring, D.V.M., Veterinarian and Bacteriologist. E. B. Babcock, B.S., Agricultural Education. W. B. Herms, M.A., Assistant Entomologist. W. T. Horne, B.S., Assistant Plant Pathologist. L. M. Davis, B.S., Assistant Dairy Industry. W. W. Bonns, B.S.A., Assistant Pomologist. A. J. Gaumnitz, M.S., Assistant Agronomist, University Farm, Davis. T. F. Hunt, B.S., Assistant Plant Pathologist. E. H. Hagemann, Assistant in Dairying, Davis. J. I. Thompson, B.S., Assistant Animal Industry, Davis. J. C. Bridwell, B.S., Assistant Entomologist. L. Bonnet, I. A., Assistant Viticulturist. F. C. H. Flossfeder, Assistant in Viticulture, University Farm, Davis. M. E. Stover, B.S., Assistant in Agricultural Chemical Laboratory. H. S. Baird, B.S., Assistant Dairy Industry. Walter H. Dork, B.S., Chemist Fertilizer Control. P. L. Hibbard, B.S., Assistant Fertilizer Control Laboratory. C. H. McCharles, M.S., Assistant Agricultural Chemical Laboratory. B. A. Madson, B.S.A., Assistant Experimental Agronomist. Walter E. Packard, M.S., Field Assistant Imperial Valley Investigation. El Centre. S. S. Rogers, B.S., Assistant Plant Pathologist, Plant Disease Laboratory, Whittier. C. 0. Smith, M.S., Assistant Plant Pathologist, Plant Disease Laboratory, Whittier. E. H. Smith, M.S., Assistant Plant Pathologist. C. L. Roadhouse, D.V.M., Assistant in Veterinary Science. F. M. Hayes, D.V.M., Assistant Veterinarian. P. S. Burgess, M.S., Assistant Soil Bacteriologist. W. F. Gericke, B.S., Assistant Soil Chemist. J. E. Dougherty, B.S.A., Assistant Poultry Husbandry. W. H. VOLCK, Field Assistant in Entomology, Watsonville. E. L. Morris, B'ield Assistant in Entomology. San Jose. E. E. Thomas, B.S., Assistant Chemist, Plant Disease Laboratory, Whittier. G. P. Gray, M.S., Chemist in Insecticides. H. D. Young, B.S., Assistant in Agricultural Chemistry, Plant Disease Laboratory. Whittier. A. R. Tylor, B.S., Assistant in Plant Pathology, Plant Disease Laboratory, Whittier. W. V. CRUESS, B.S., Assistant in Zymology. J. F. Mitchell, D.V.M., Assistant in Veterinary Laboratory. M. R. Miller, B.S., Assistant Chemist in Insecticides. F. H. Wilson, B.S., Assistant in Soil Chemistry. W. M. Mertz, Assistant in Pomology, Riverside. Anna M. Lute, A.B., Scientific Assistant. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. D. L. Bunnell, Secretary to Director. Absent on leave. PORK PRODUCTION UNDER CALIFORNIA CONDITIONS BY J. I. THOMPSON INTRODUCTION The number of letters received at the Experimental Station asking for information on the feeding and management of swine far exceeds the total inquiries concerning all other classes of stock. Interest in this subject is equalled only by the need of practical information that can be utilized at once. Feeding experiments with swine are now being conducted con- tinuously at the University Farm. It is not the primary object of this pamphlet to give the results of these experiments, but rather to furnish a compilation of useful knowledge for the benefit of all inquirers. When the experiments have been conducted long enough to make the conclusions reasonably free from doubt, they will be pub- lished. The information in this pamphlet is meant to be just as applicable for the farmer in Imperial as for the one in Siskiyou county, or for the hog breeder in the Sacramento as well as in the San Joaquin valley. WHY THE INDUSTRY IS AN IMPORTANT ONE California is producing only one hog for every three people in the state. We have only eight hogs to the square mile, whereas Illinois has sixty. Approximately thirty carloads of pork products, chiefly hams, bacon and lard, are shipped here from eastern states every week, besides about twenty-five carloads of live hogs. There is evidently no danger of the supply exceeding the demand for a considerable time. Also, at the rate at which dairying, par- tictdarly butter and cheese making, is increasing, many more hogs Avill be needed to consume the by-products of the dairies. BREEDS AND TYPES Two radically different types of hogs exist. These are the lard and the bacon types. The lard type is the one best suited for the production of hams, shoulders and broad fat backs and loins. The bacon type is the one particularly adapted to the production of deep, long, smooth sides. In this type the shoulders and hams are com- paratively light and the back not nearly so broad as in the lard type. [559] 560 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA —EXPERIMENT STATION The following copies of score cards show on what parts the greatest emphasis is placed in the two types: I, A KM) HOGS Perfect si \i.k of Points score General Appearance: 1. Weight, score according to age 6 2. Form, deep, broad, low, long, symmetrical, compact standing squarely on legs In 3. Quality, hair silky; skin fine; bone fine; mellow covering of flesh, free from lumps and wrinkles 10 4. Condition, deep, even covering of flesh and fat over all parts of the body 10 Head and Neck: .">. Snout, medium length, not coarse 1 6. Eyes, full, mild, bright 1 7. Face, short, cheeks full 1 8. Ears, fine, medium size, soft 1 9. Jowl, strong, neat, broad 1 10. Neck, thick, medium length 1 Forequarters : 11. Shoulder, broad, deep, full, compact on top 6 12. Legs, straight, short, strong; bone clean, pasterns upright; feet medium size 2 Body : 13. Chest, deep, broad; large girth 4 14. Sides, deep, lengthy, full; ribs close and well sprung G 15. Back, broad, straight, thickly and evenly fleshed 10 16. Loin, wide, thick, straight •. 8 17. Belly, straight, even 4 Hindquarters : 18. Hips, wide apart, smooth 2 19. Rump, long, wide, evenly fleshed, straight 2 20. Ham, heavily fleshed, plump, full, deep, wide 10 21. Thighs, fleshed close to hocks 2 22. Legs, straight, short, strong; bone clean; pasterns upright; feet medium size 2 BACON HOGS Perfect Scale op Points score General Appearance: 1. Weight, 170 to 200 lbs., largely the result of thick cover of firm flesh 6 2. Form, long, level, smooth, deep 10 3. Quality, hair fine; skin thin; bone fine; firm, even covering of flesh without any soft bunches of fat or wrinkles 10 4. Condition, deep, uniform covering of flesh, especially in regions of valuable cuts 10 Head and Neck: 5. Snout, fine 1 6. Eyes, full, mild, bright 1 7. Face, slim 1 8. Ears, trim, medium size 1 9. Jowl, light, trim 1 10. Neck, medium length, light 1 Bulletin 237] pork PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA 561 FOREQUARTERS : 11. Shoulders, free from roughness, smooth, compact and same width as back and hind quarters 6 12. Breast, moderately wide, full 2 33. Legs, straight, short, strong, bone clean; pasterns upright; feet medium size 2 Body: 14. Chest, deep, full girth 4 15. Back, medium and uniform in width, smooth 8 16. Sides, long, smooth, level from beginning of shoulders to end of hind quarters. The side at all points should touch a straight edge running from fore to hind quarter 10 17. Ribs, deep 2 18. Belly, trim, firm, thick without any flabbiness or shrinkage at flank.. 10 Hindquarters : 19. Hips, smooth, wide; proportionate to rest of body 2 20. Rump, long, even, straight, rounded toward tail 2 21. Gammon, firm, rounded, tapering, fleshed deep and low toward hocks 8 22. Legs, straight, short, strong; feet medium size; bone clean; pasterns upright 2 Which is the best breed of hogs for California, is the question asked more often than any other. We do not believe that there is a "best" breed, for this state, but we do believe that any breed is better than no breed. Representatives of Poland-Chinas, Duroc-Jerseys, Berkshires and Chester Whites are to be found representing the lard type; Tam- worths and Yorkshires representing the bacon type, and Hampshires occupying an intermediate place between these two. Chester Whites are said to sunburn quite badly in some localities, and, hence, should have shade provided. The first three above mentioned are well dis- tributed over the state and all seem to be well adapted to California conditions. The individuality of the animal, together with the care, feed and management are of even greater importance than the breed. Also, the type within a breed can be changed quite readily, if the original type does not seem to suit the environment and the market demands. The breeder should keep constantly in mind the fact that the butcher 's preference is the strongest factor in the establishment of the market type and, therefore, he should follow this standard as closely as pos- sible. It makes no difference to the butcher whether a pig has black, red or white hair, provided he is medium in length, deep, broad, com- pact, well filled in the hams and shoulders, and dresses out a reason- able per cent of edible meat. The idea has become very prevalent throughout this state that all of the desirable qualities and none of the undesirable ones are to be obtained by cross-breeding. There is nothing in the results of hun- 562 I'NIVKHSITY OP CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION dreds of experiments to verify this view. Some added vigor is often noticeable in the first cross between distinct breeds in herds which are badly run down. However, nearly as much added vigor can often be secured by proper selection within the breed as by the more radical method of cross-breeding. Figure 1. — A desirable type of lard hog. The kind that produces the type of pigs the market demands. BUILDINGS Where hogs are handled in large numbers, or where twenty or more brood sows are kept, a hog house large enough to accomodate the majority of the stock is often found. Such a house is not absolutely necessary in this state. However, this system has the advantage of enabling the breeder to handle the hogs with less expenditure of labor and time than is possible if they are scattered over a larger area. The disadvantage is, that disease is liable to reach a majority of the hogs much more rapidly after it breaks out. It is also a difficult matter to fence the lots in such a manner as to allow individual sows with pigs to be kept separately, and. at the same time, to provide suit- able irrigation for all pasture lots. Bulletin 237] PORK PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA 563 When such a house seems desirable, it may be cheap and simple in construction, but should be convenient. It should run east and west, and is most easily arranged with a row of pens on each side of an alleyway, which extends the entire length of the building. The walls may be of one inch matched siding, but should fit very close in order to prevent draughts. The roof should be moderately high, to provide sufficient ventilation in summer. Quite a number of windows should be installed, in order to provide sufficient sunlight to keep the pens dry and free from disease. It will be found necessary to shade some of them in warm weather. The pens should be 7' x 8', or, for large sows, 8' x 10'. ■ nil Figure 2. — Frame of colony house, 9' x 12', for two medium sized sows with litters. There are many things to be said in favor of individual houses. First of all the hogs can be scattered more, thus lessening the chances of disease spreading through the entire herd. Secondly, fields and pastures may be utilized regardless of their location or proximity to other farm buildings. Third, such buildings are comparatively inex- pensive, and the number can be increased as the herd increases in size. Obviously, the principal objection is the added labor required at feeding time to convey the feed from one pen to the next. With the aid of a one-horse wagon and a few barrels, the work can be done quite satisfactorily. .".Ii4 I NIVEKSITY OF CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION Figure 3. — House as completed from above frame, showing method of construction. Figure 4. — A type of colony house for one sow and litter (Size 6' x 8' and 6' high). Bulletin 237] pork production ix California 565 There are a number of types of these houses. For a single sow, the A type is usually built 6' x 8'-6' high. The rectangular type is built 7' x 8' for one sow, or 9' x 12' and divided into two compart- ments. Those with the higher roof and with provisions for opening either the sides or the roof have, so far, proven more satisfactory. SELECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING STOCK When the desirable type is once firmly fixed in the mind, sows for breeding should be selected which conform to this type. Perhaps the ideal breeding sow should be somewhat longer than the most advanced type demanded by the butcher. However, this may be. it is desirable to get all the length possible, so long as depth and width are secured in proportion to the length. A sow in thin or in breeding condition often appears longer, but not so broad as a fat barrow ready for the block. The most satisfactory sow of the lard type, for breed- ing purposes, should have a feminine appearance about the head, should be wide between the eyes and not too coarse in the ears. The neck should blend the head and shoulders together smoothly, and should not be too long. She should be of good length of body, slightly arched in the back, with no crease or drop just back of the shoulders. The width should be uniform throughout, and the depth in propor- tion to the length and width. Be sure to select breeding sows of strong constitution, which is indicated principally by the depth ami width of the chest. Get them as wide on the floor of the chest as possible. Added to this, should be a bright clear eye, and a general, vigorous, thrifty and active appearance. Get sufficient bone in the legs to carry the animal well, and be sure that the pasterns are not too long, but are strong and upright. The feet should be of medium size and the toes not too spreading. Sows should not be bred to farrow until they are at least twelve months old. The average period of gestation is 112 days. A young sow should not be expected to produce more than one litter the first year. Her second litter may be farrowed when she is slightly less than two years of age, and she may be expected to produce one litter every six months after that, provided she is prop- erly fed and handled. Some breeders have an idea that sows one year of age are more desirable than older sows for breeding purposes, but such an idea is not justified by experiment. An average of the weights of pigs at farrowing time at this and other experiment stations 1 shows the follow- i Bulletin 4, Iowa Experiment Station; Bulletin 104, Wisconsin Experiment Station. 566 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION ing: That sows two years old, or older, produced -'1 per cenl more pigs than yearling sows, that sows two years old, or older, produced pi^s 12 per cent heavier than those produced by the yearling sows. Such stat isties show that it is a mistake to sacrifice the older sows and depend on young, untried gilts. It is true that old sows often become so heavy or so fat that they lie on many of their young pigs, or they get deaf or blind, or both, which helps to contribute to the same trouble. When their usefulness is impaired in this way, they should be sold, but not until then. The boar should be of the same general type as the sows, except for differences due to sex. He should be just as masculine in his gen- eral appearance as the sow is feminine. He is generally much coarser in the head, heavier in the shoulders and fore-quarters, and slightly lighter behind. Many breeders prefer to select a boar somewhat more compact than the sows, but the same general type should be kept in mind. Mature boars of any of the common breeds should weigh 500 to 550 pounds, or more, when mature, and many weigh 650 pounds or over. Mature sows may be bred to farrow almost any month of the year in this state. However, less trouble will be experienced if the pigs are not born in the hottest weather or in the worst of the rainy season. The dates of reckoning the ages of pigs for the. fairs and live stock shows are March first and September first, so that breeders who contemplate exhibiting should have their pigs farrowed as soon as possible after one or the other of these two dates. The sows should be bred to farrow as closely together as possible, for the pigs not only look better if they are about the same size, but they thrive better. When they are uneven in size, the larger ones crowd the smaller ones away from the trough and get more than their share of the feed. Young sows that are to be used for breeding purposes should be separated from the rest of the herd when about six months of age. They should be fed a growing ration, rather than a fattening one. Pasture is available in this state about nine months out of every twelve, and it should be utilized for the breeding animals practically all of this time. If the pasture is alfalfa, not much grain will be needed, but some should be fed at all times to the growing animals. Barley will probably continue to be the basic feed for pork produc- tion in this state for a considerable time to come. The amount of it that is fed should be governed by the condition of the animal. If a sow is thinner than judgment dictates that she should be. the amount of barley should be increased. If she seems too fat. it should be decreased. It may be fed wet or dry, but should be rolled or ground. Bulletin 237] PORK PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA 567 If soaked, twelve hours is sufficient. Where corn is available, it will do fully as well as barley. When barley is high in price, oats will do, but they are rather too bulky to be as valuable for hogs as either barley or corn. The young sows should be kept growing, and in vigorous con- dition. Whenever pasture is not available for them, some concentrate, high in protein, such as soy-bean meal, oil-meal or tankage should be fed with the grain. Figure 5. — Alfalfa rack for hogs. The older sows will need grain in proportion to their condition. Often times they are in such high condition that no grain is necessary, provided they have good alfalfa pasture. Alfalfa hay, skim milk and some succulent feed, such as beets, will do very well for mature sows in high condition where pasture is not available. The chief difficulty encountered in feeding alfalfa hay is. to get them to eat enough of it. It may be fed in a rack or cut and mixed with the grain. Following are some rations fed at the University Farm with favor- able results : ;">(>« UNIVERSITY OP CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION 1. Barley, one-third; oats, one-third; shorts, one-third 2. Barley, three-fourths; alfalfa hay. one -fourth 3. Barley, one half ; shorts or middlings, one-half 4. Barley, nine-tenths; tankage, one-tenth 5. Barley, one half; oats, one fourth; shorts, one foiirlh, and throe pounds of slum milk for each pound of grain. (The above are proportioned by weight). Any of the first three rations would be improved l>y the addition of skim milk. They may be fed dry, but less of the grain is rooted out of the trough and blown away or tramped in the mud if fed wet. Exercise is absolutely necessary for pregnant brood sows, whether old or young. When pasture is available, they will usually take sufficient exercise of their own accord, but, when confined in a dry lot, they are very liable to get too lazy. Should this condition arise, thej must either be driven a short distance each day. or the feeding place may be so located as to compel them to walk some little distance. If properly fed and exercised during the period of pregnancy, they will be strong and vigorous at farrowing time, and should require no unusual attention at that time. If too fat or too thin and weak, they should be watched carefully. Two or three days before the farrowing date, the sow should be put in a pen by herself. This pen should have been previously bedded with a thin layer of straw and a guard rail placed along at least three sides. This may be built of 2" x 4" material, and should be placed 8" from the floor and 6" from the wall. The cleats holding it to the wall should not extend below it, the idea being to provide a space 8" from the floor and 6" from the wall where the sow cannot lie, thus giving the little pigs a chance to get out from behind her when she lies down. For forty-eight hours before farrowing, the feed should be light, and none given at all for twenty-four hours afterward. She should, however, have an occasional drink of water. After that, she should have a light feed of grain which should be increased daily until the sow is on full feed in about two weeks. The object now is to feed a ration that will produce an abundant milk flow for the young litter. Too heavy feeding just after farrowing produces more milk than the young litter can take, with the result that the unused portion causes a feverish condition in the udder, which often produces restlessness in the mother and scours in the pigs. Oftentimes, little pigs fight badly, and, when a few days old, their noses and heads will be badly scratched. An examination of their mouths will usually reveal the presence of two or more very sharp, tusk-like teeth, often black, sticking out at almost right angles to the Bulletin 237] PORK PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA 569 regular teeth. These should he removed or broken off with a pair of tweezers. Large litters are desirable if the sows can raise them properly, but an average of six or seven strong vigorous pigs for each sow in the herd is more desirable than an average of eight or nine moderately thrifty or inferior ones. The sows should be kept in separate pens until the pigs are at least two weeks old. Then, two or more may be turned together if the pigs are about the same size. Otherwise, the older and stronger Figure 6. — Desirable type of sow for producing a large vigorous litter. ones will rob the younger and weaker ones. The sow should have pasture continuously while she is suckling the litter, if it is at all possible to provide it. The pigs should have room to take whatever exercise they desire. The sow should be fed some grain in addition to the pasture. When the pigs are about four weeks old, they will begin to eat from 570 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION the trough with the mother. They should theu be provided with a separate trough in which some grain and skimmed milk are placed. A summary of Experimental Station Records shows that pigs make their cheapest gains while nursing, so that every possible effort should be put forth to make their gains at this time as large as possible. These same results show that it takes thirty-three per cent more grain to produce a pound of gain on a 300-pound pig than on a pig under fifty pounds. The following rations, proportioned by weight, are desirable for sows nursing pigs: 1. Barley, 2 parts; shorts, 3 parts. Mix with water 2. Barley, 1 part; skim milk, 3 parts 3. Barley, oats, shorts, — equal parts — alfalfa pasture 4. Barley and shorts, — equal parts- — alfalfa pasture 5. Barley, 9 parts; tankage, 1 part 6. Corn, 2 parts; shorts, 1 part. Add 5 per cent oil meal. Skim milk, three parts to one of grain, will improve rations 1, 3, 4 and 6. The sows should be fed what they will readily clean up twice a day, which will probably be from five to seven pounds. If any become too fat, the amount should be reduced. A sow with a large litter, will generally lose weight rapidly if she is a good milk producer, in spite of the most careful feeding. For this reason, such a sow should be in the very best of condition at farrowing time, or she may become so weak before the pigs are weaned that she cannot walk. If the pigs have been provided with feed in a trough where the mothers cannot reach, they, will have learned to eat very well by the time they are eight weeks old. They should be weaned at this time. The boar pigs which seem undesirable for breeding purposes may be castrated. Reduce the ration of the sows very rapidly for a few days before weaning the pigs, in order to check the milk flow. Then take the pigs away abruptly, provide them with pasture, if possible, and all the grain and skim milk they can clean up three times a day. By the time they are four months of age, two feeds per day will suffice. Feed the sows very little grain until they dry up. The sows that are two years old or older, should be bred as soon as possible for a second litter. All those that are in low condition should receive a liberal grain supply, until they approach very closely the condition required. Bulletin 237] pork production in California 571 PRELIMINARY RESULTS OF FEEDING EXPERIMENT An experiment to determine the attitude of the markets of this state in regard to hogs fed continually on grain and properly finished, has just been completed at the University Farm. The object was to ascertain whether or not hogs of the conformation desired by packers, when fed a grain ration continually until properly finished, would bring a relatively higher price than hogs showing less finish. Thirty-eight pigs were divided into two lots of nineteen each, con- sisting of eleven Grade Poland Chinas and eight Grade Duroc-Jersovs, and fed as follows : Lot No. 1. — First, rolled barley and alfalfa pasture. Later, rolled barley, alfalfa hay, molasses and skim milk. Lot INo. 2. — First, rolled barley and alfalfa pasture. Later, rolled barley, alfalfa hay and molasses. The experiment was begun on September 3, 1912. The pigs in Lot No. 1 average 56.9 pounds each, and in Lot No. 2, 54.6 pounds each. For the two months while alfalfa pasture was available. Lot No. 2 received only one-half as much rolled barley as Lot No. 1. When placed in the dry lot. Lot No. 2 was fed approximately two- thirds as much rolled barley, alfalfa hay and molasses. At the close of the first month, one Duroc pig in Lot No. 2 was injured and had to be removed. They were sold on Tuesday, March 11, 1913, to the Western Meat Company of San Francisco. Lot No. 1 weighed 4040 lbs., sold for $9.12% per one hundred pounds and the dressed carcasses weighed 80.7 per cent of their live weight. Lot No. 2 weighed 2925 lbs., sold for $8.80% per one hundred pounds, and the dressed carcasses weighed 78.7 per cent of their live weight. The market price for that day was $8.35 a hundred for hogs dress- ing seventy-five per cent. These hogs brought fifteen cents per hun- dred pounds additional price for each per cent that they dressed above seventy-five, making an additional price of forty-five cents per hun- dred pounds for Lot 2, and seventy-seven and one-half cents per hundred pounds additional for Lot 1. The premium above market price is based on the increased amount of dressed meat which grain fed hogs produce above those as commonly fed in this state. In this case, Lot 1 produced 5.7 pounds per hundred above the state average of 75. Lot 2 produced 3.7 pounds. The only way the packer can determine this is by the weight of the carcass compared to the live weight. The packers assured the Experiment Station that they were 572 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA- EXPERIMENT STATION Figure 7. — Lot No. 1, showing desirable depth of body, width of back and smoothness throughout. Figure 8. — Lot No. 1 (same as illustration on page 12-a.) Bulletin 237] pork production in California 573 Figure 9. — Lot No. 2, showing less size, width and finish than those in Lot No. 1. Figure 10. — Lot No. 2 (same as illustration on page 12-c). r>74 UNIVERSITV OK CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION ready to pay to anyone a premium of fifteen cents per hundred pounds live weight for each per cent the carcass dresses out above the state average of 75 per cent if they could be sure that the lot had been grain fed and would, therefore, not suffer the shrinkage common on carcasses not "rain fed. It is, therefore, essential that the seller of grain fed hogs shall see that the buyer has opportunity to assure himself that the hogs to be marketed are being or have been grain fed for a long enough time to insure the increased quality which commands the premium. The barley marketed by feeding to Lot 1 brought thirty-three cents per one hundred pounds more than that fed to Lot 2. This was due in part to the larger gains made by Lot 1, and in part to their higher selling price. The factors which influence dressing percentage are: the age, condition, paunch and stomach con- tents. A hog lacking in trimness and with the stomach and intestines filled when weighed, will dress out a much lower per cent than a trim hog that has not been fed for sev- eral hours. The condition, especi- ally the amount of fat and lean meat, is the chief factor in produc- ing a high percentage of carcass weight to live weight. Since the hogs correctly fed and properly finished, not only sell for more money and return the feeder a larger profit, but, at the same time, cost the packers less per pound dressed, and sell from their coolers for a higher price, it is obviously better for every one concerned to select the proper type and then feed them continuously until they are ready for market. GROWING PIGS FOR MARKET OR FOR BREEDING PURPOSES Pigs weaned at eight weeks of age, which have been properly fed and handled, will ordinarily weigh about thirty-eight or forty pounds. If they are fall pigs, they may necessarily be kept in the dry lot, for the alfalfa after it has been frosted, is not desirable feed for them. If they are spring pigs, they should be put on alfalfa pasture and fed liberally on grain at the same time. Some skim milk is more essential just after weaning than at any other time. Figure 1. — Typical barrow from Lot No. 1 — a desirable market type. Bulletin 237] PORK PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA 575 It is for these young pigs that alfalfa is most useful, and an acre of it will furnish green feed for twenty average sized pigs. The hreeder should have his market hogs weighing at least 200 pounds when eight months of age, and many breeders are not satisfied with less than 225 pounds at this time. To get this weight economically, alfalfa pasture should be available. It furnishes the protein necessary for the muscular development of the pig, and also provides an abundance of lime and phosphorus ; the two materials so essential in bone build- ing. There is no occasion for a hog breeder in this state to send hogs to market that are too light boned to properly carry their weight. Grain must be fed in addition, for the stomach and digestive tract of the pig are small compared with the sheep and cow, for which reason he will gain very little on pasture alone. For 100 pounds live weight, the capacity of the stomach of the pig is only 20 per cent of that of the cow. However, while grazing, he gets an abundance of exercise and fresh air, and, even though the pasture furnishes little more than a maintenance ration, his digestive tract is so stimulated that he makes the most out of the grain fed in conjunction with it. and, therefore, produces his most economical gains under these conditions. The daily gains on market pigs should increase as the pig grows older, but the per cent of increase compared to the live weight decreases. The Wisconsin Station 2 found that, while a pig under 100 pounds weight gained in one day .83 of a pound, which was 7.4 per cent of his weight, a pig under 200 pounds gained 1.25 pounds per day, which was only 5.0 per cent of his weight, and a pig under 350 pounds gained 1.4 pounds per day, which was only 3.1 per cent of his live weight. They also found that the 50 pound pig used only 18 per cent of his food for the support of his body, leaving 82 per cent for gain in body weight. The 200 pound pig required 36 per cent of all he ate for support, leaving only 64 per cent for gain in body weight. They also found that a 50 pound pig ate daily 6 pounds of feed for 100 pounds body weight, while a 300 pound pig consumed only 2.4 pounds of feed for each 100 pounds body weight. The only con- clusions that we can draw from these data are, that young pigs make the most economical gains, because the per cent of the total feed con- sumed that is required for maintenance is much less than that re- quired by older pigs. Also, they eat more for their size. Therefore, the hog breeder should get the idea firmly fixed in his mind that he should not attempt to produce a hog that eats very little, but rather to produce one that can consume a considerable amount. Then, pro- 2 Eeports 1889, 1890 and 1897. 576 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT STATION vide the food for him to consume, and, in this way, the most economical production will be secured. The pigs intended for breeding purposes need not be crowded so rapidly as the market hogs, but should be kept gaining and in vigorous, thrifty condition. They will need alfalfa pasture, and an additional grain ration, similar to that fed the market hogs, only, perhaps not so much of it. There is an idea prevalent in many sections that because the market prefers a 225 pound pig, breeding stock need not be larger than that. However, it has been conclusively proven that the closer an animal approaches to maturity, the less economical are its gains. This means, then, that a market hog should be of such a conformation and possess the ability to acquire sufficienl finish by the time he weighs 225 pounds so that he will supply the demands of the market; yet, it does not follow that he should be through growing at that time. If he is through growing at that weight, his final gains will be obtained at too high a cost. So, we should not lose sight of the fact that breeding stock should be kept up to the weights pre- scribed by their various breed record associations, which are 450 pounds or more for sows, and 500 pounds or more for boars. Rations suitable for growing market pigs: Barley 3, wheat 3, tankage 1 Barley 2, shorts 1 Barley 3, shorts 1, skim milk Barley 15, oil meal 1. Barley, alfalfa pasture Barley 11, tankage 1, alfalfa pasture Barley 3, shorts 1, alfalfa pasture Barley 1, skim milk 3, alfalfa pasture Barley 9, tankage 1 Indian corn may be substituted for barley in any of the above rations, and skim milk added to almost any ration for growing pigs will improve it. Any of the supplemental feeds should not be added in large enough quantities to induce scouring. MINOR DISEASES AND TREATMENTS Prevention The financial success of the hOg business is determined largely by the health of the herd, which is most easily maintained by preven- tive methods. Cleanliness, the most neglected and most influential factor, should receive first consideration. A hog is just so clean and no cleaner, as his environment affords. He wallows in mud to get cool ; not because he prefers it to clean water, but because it is too Bulletin 237] PORK PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA 577 often more abundant. Clean, dry sleeping quarters, free from dust. where the sun can reach occasionally; clean, well drained lots and roomy pastures are most conducive to thrift in the pig, and most dis- couraging to disease germs. Inbreeding; that is, the mating of sows with boars closely related, is very liable to produce weak, low-vitality pigs, which rapidly suc- cumb, if adverse conditions are encountered, or fail to gain rapidly and economically. The feed should be of sufficient variety, palatability, bulk, con- dition and amount to keep the hog thrifty, for, in this condition, he is much better able to ward off the attacks of disease germs and to withstand the attacks of parasites. A few worms may make very little impression on a thrifty, vigorous pig, but may be able to keep one less thrifty from gaining at all. Whenever new stock is brought in, it should be kept separated from the rest of the herd for at least two weeks, until any diseases which might have been prevalent in the herd from which they came, or have been acquired in transit, had a chance to develop. Dipping may be classed as a preventive measure and also as a curative one. An occasional dipping in any coal tar dip solution helps to keep the hog clean, and frees him from lice. The latter tend to reduce his vigor and to make him more susceptible to disease. The dipping should be done with a ten days interval between the first and second, because the dip will not kill the eggs laid by the lice; hence, a second dipping is necessary ten days later to kill the young that will have hatched since the first dipping. Some breeders who have had poor success with the coal tar dip may succeed better with crude oil for lice eradication. It may be sprayed on or poured over the top of a pool of water so that the hog will apply it himself. Diseases and Minor Troubles Thumps affect young pigs from ten days to eight weeks old. The symptoms are : heavy breathing and a pulsing, beating action of the flanks. The cause is heavy feeding of the sow and not enough exercise for the pigs. If discovered in time, can generally be corrected by reducing the feed and compelling the pigs to take exercise. A trouble in which the symptoms are similar, but is most liable to occur in older hogs which are very fat, is asthma. The affected animal should be kept in, away from all dust, fed light feeds and compelled to take plenty of exercise. 578 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA— EXPERIMENT STATION Canker is found among young pigs. Sore places appear aboul the mouth and nose, especially if the weather is cold or damp so thai the pigs bury their heads in any filth or manure while sleeping. The treatment is to dip their heads in a bucket containing a three per cent solution of some coal tar dip, and then provide clean sleeping quarters, Scours, quite common in young pigs, may be due to wet, unclean quarters, too rapid changes of feed of sows, or over-feeding. If the sow is producing more milk than the pigs can take, the udder becomes feverish and scours in the pigs is the result. Correct the cause and feed a teaspoonful of baking soda in the feed to the sow twice each day until the pigs are normal. If any of the litter continue to show the trouble, they should be given a small amount of castor oil from a spoon, and, a few hours later, a small amount of soda dissolved in milk. Piles is not uncommon in pigs being heavily fed on grain, or receiving an abundance of green alfalfa. It is the term applied to an eversion of the rectum. It may also be caused by either constipa- tion or diarrhea. Remove the cause, wash the affected parts, and return them to place. Worms are much more prevalent among hogs than is commonly believed. Oftentimes coughing, thought to be caused by dust, is due to worms. They may be found free in the intestinal tract or attached to the walls. They not only assimilate some of the food eaten by the pig, but also interfere with his digestive functions and make him more susceptible to disease. The symptoms are: coughing, tucked-up appearance at the flank, harshness of hair, and general lack of vigor. The appetite may be either voracious or squeamish. One of the most satisfactory remedies is copperas or sulphate of iron. The dose is one dram per 100 pounds hog, two drams per 300 pounds hog. It should be finely pulverized, dissolved in water and very carefully mixed with the slop. The trough should have a fence around it and a large gate provided so that the slop may be placed in the trough and all the pigs let in at one time, so that each gets his share. If they are uneven in size, they should be divided into lots according to size. This remedy should be fed every morning for a week, and followed by one dose of Glauber salts to clean out the digestive tract. It is not advisable to let the pigs run on pasture during this time, for the eggs of the parasites will be scattered about in such a manner that they may be later picked up by the hogs. Keep them in a dry lot and when the treatment is complete, rake up the droppings and burn them, or haul them to a remote field. Charcoal, wood ashes and salt mixed together and placed in an available box will be readily eaten and appreciated Bulletin -'.)', PORK PRODUCTION IN" CALIFORNIA 579 Figure 12. — Typical carcass from Experimental Lot No. 1. Notice the deep covering along the back and loin. Figure 13.— Typical carcass from Experimental Lot No. 2. The depth of covering is much less than in Lot No. 1. -,so UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA— EXPERIMENT STATION by the pigs and arc undoubtedly beneficial in helping to rid the pigs of worms and keeping them in thrifty condition. Anti-hog cholera serum for the prevention of hog cholera is pro- duced by the Agricultural Experiment Station. Blank forms for making applications for the serum may be obtained by writing to the Veterinary Division, Agricultural Experiment Station, Berkeley. Bulletin 229 of this station describes the method of preparation, dis- tribution, and use of the serum. This bulletin may be secured free of charge by writing to the Director of the Agricultural Bxperi ut Station, Berkeley, California. Figure 14. — Cross sections of L— 1 cut between fifth and sixth ribs, and ham from same carcass. Notice not only the depth of the covering, but also how the fat and lean are interspersed. Figure 15. — Cross section of Lot No. 2 cut between fifth and sixth ribs, and ham from same carcass. When compared with L-1a, shows less desirable cover- ing and intermingling of fat and lean tissue.