THE American Printer: ^ ganaal of l^pograp'^^, CONTAINING PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR MANAGING ALL DEPARTMENTS OF A PRINTING OFFICE, AS WELL AS (Complete Instriuctiona foi] J^ppijentices: WITH SEVERAL USEFUL TABLES, NUMEROUS SCHEMES FOR IMPOSING FORMS IN EVERY VARIETY, HINTS TO AUTHORS, ETC. By Thomas MacKellar, Ph. D. PHILADELPHIA: MACKELLAR, SMITHS & JORDAN FOUNDRY. 1893- Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1866, by L.Johnson & Company, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1878, by MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. Cig^tttnt^ (gbition — ^faistb nnb (fnlargeb. ELECTROTVPEO BY MACKELLAR, SMITHS & JORDAN FOUNDRY, PHILADELPHIA. EIGHTEENTH EDITION. THIS edition of the American Printer, while essen- tially the same as the previous one, contains some additional matter. Philadelphia, March, iSgj. 1 252989 PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. r TSEFULNESS rather than originality has been u aimed at in the preparation of the American Printer, which is offered as an improvement on the typographical work formerly published by us. In addi- tion to the results of actual personal experience em- bodied in the volume, information has been gathered and extracts have been freely made from various publications, such as Ames and Dibdin's Typographical Antiquities, Thomas's History of Printitig, Timperley's Dictionary of Printers and Printing, Savage's Diction- ary of Printing, fohnson's Typographia, Chambers's Encyclopcsdia, Beadnell's Gnide to Typography, as well as other books referred to in the notes. The work has been prepared amid the manifold interruptions incident to business life ; yet we think nothing has been over- looked that is essential for the instruction of the learner or for the assistance of the workman. 1 V PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. Besides the matter relating to practical typography, the volume contains a sketch of the discovery of printing, and notices of type-founding, stereotyping, electrotyping, and lithography. The implements employed in typo- graphy are described and their uses explained; and complete schemes for imposition are laid down. The valuable tables and the plans of cases for various lan- guages, and for music and labour-saving rule, will be found extremely useful; as well as the extensive lists of abbreviations and of foreign words and phrases, and orthographical hints. Special attention has been given in setting forth the functions and duties of the foreman and proof-reader, so that the operations of an office may be prosecuted with efficiency, comfort, and economy. Authors and publishers, as well as young printers, may consult the volume with profit; and, indeed, any intelligent person will find it ser\'iceable. CONTENTS. PAGK. Rise and Progress of Printing 13-48 Discovery of Printing— Laurentius Koster—Geinsfleisch— Guten- berg— Fust— Bible printed— Peter Schoeffer— Caxton— Ulrich Zell — Lambert Palmaert — Abraham Colorito— Humphreys and De Vinne on the invention of printing — Lenox's collection of rare Bibles — Ancient typographical peculiarities — Catchwords — In- vention of Signatures— Printing introduced into America— Type- founding in Europe— Decree of the Star Chamber— Type-founding in America— Prices of Type— Stereotyping— Electrotyping— Litho- graphy — Engraving — Walk over a type-foundry. Implements or Tools of the Art 49-120 Types— Roman letter— Italic— Elack—Anglo-Saxon—Names and sizes of type— Gradations of type— Point System of Type bodies— A Bill of Pica— A Fount of type— Capitals— Small capitals— Points— Apostrophe— Hyphen— Parenthesis and Bracket— Refer- ences— Accents— Numerals— Arabic figures— Old-style figures- Cancelled figures— Fractions— Signs — Metal rules or dashes— Braces— Spaces— Two-line letters — Quadrates— Quotations— La- bour-saving quotation furniture — Hollow quadrates — Circular quadrates— Labour-saving curvatures— Leads— Flowers and bor- ders—Brass rule— Brass labour-saving rule— Improved labour- saving rule case— Earliest written sounds— Hieroglyphic alphabet —Runic alphabets— Anglo-Saxon alphabet and plan of cases- German alphabet and plan of cases— Greek alphabet and plan of cases— Hebrew alphabet and plan of cases— Russian alphabet- Comparative table of bodies of .Music type— Music composition- Music cases — Modem conveniences. Composition 121-140 General remarks— Requisites in an apprentice— American cases- Position of a compositor— Laying t>'pe— Distributing— Composing — Spacing— Justifying — Head-lines — Notes — Blanking— Para- graphs— Indexes— Titles— Dedications— Contents— Prefaces— Sig- naturing — Errata — Ironical rules — Advice to apprentices— Ironical rules for beginners in business. CONTENTS. Imposition 141-199 General remarks — Tying up pages — Laying pages — Making up furniture — Making the margin — Locking up forms — Memoranda — Nomenclature of sheets — Schemes for imposing, from folio to izSmo. Proof-reading and Correcting 200-217 Qualifications of a reader — Should be a printer — Indebtedness of authors to proof-readers — Process of reading — Proof record — Errors made in correcting — Two readers desirable — Punctuation — Alterations in proof — Stower's remarks — Revise — Correcting in the metal — Capricious alterations — Proper method of correcting — Over- running — Hints to authors — Table of proof-marks,with explanations — Table of signatures. THE Foreman or Overseer 218-234 General duties — Treatment of compositors — Punctuality — Morning duties — Knowledge of all materials on hand — Order — Overseeing work — Reg\ilating takes of copy — Prompt reading and correcting — Memorandum — Press-book — Press duties — Warehouse — Casting off copy — Managing hurried work — Companionships — Taking copy — Making up — Dividing the letter — Making up furniture — Imposing and distributing letter — Correcting — Transposition of pages — Rules to be observed in a printing-office. The Press and its Working 235-292 History of the printing-press — Blaeu, its first improver — Ramage press — Stanhope press — Clymer or Columbian press — Smith press — Washington press — Adams's bed-and-platen power-press — Inven- tion of the Cylinder press — Frederick Konig — William Nicholson — Dr. Kinsley — Applegath and Cowper — Account of the house of R. Hoe & Co. — Stop Cylinder press — Cottrell & Babcock presses — Campbell presses — Richard M. Hoe's type-revolving printing machine — Bullock perfecting press — The Walter perfecting press — The Hoe perfecting press — Presses at the Centennial Exhibition, 1876 — Railroad-ticket printing and numbering press — Job presses — Ruggles, Hoc, Gordon, Degener, Wells, and Gaily — Franklin press — Nonpareil press — Fire-fly press — Liberty press — Globe press — Peerless press — Universal press — Amateur presses — Folding ma- chines — Setting up a Washington press — Setting up the roller- stand — Composition rollers — Melting kettle — Covering tympans — Wetting paper — Blankets — Making ready a form on a hand-press — Pulling — Rules and remedies for pressmen — Ley-trough — Making ready on cylinder presses — Fine hand-presswork — Printing wood- CONTENTS. IX PACK. The Press and its Working. — (Continued) 235-292 cuts — Card printing — Gold printing — Bronze printing — Printing in colours — Ink stone and muller — How to use dry colours — How to multiply colours — Contrast of colours — Oiling a press — How to treat wood type. Warehouse Department 293-299 Warehouseman — Warehouse-Book — Receipt of paper and delivery of sheets — Giving out paper to wet — Over-sheets — Hanging up paper to dry — Taking down sheets when dry — Filling in and press- ing sheets — Counting out and putting away sheets — Standard sizes of machine-made paper — Table for giving out paper for a thousand copies. Jobbing Facilities 300-310 Selection of type and presses — How to make a paying business — Memorandum order — Estimate book — Ames's paper and card scale — Le Blond's chart — Cabinets and cases — Rules for the govern- ment of a job office — Job composing-sticks — Patent quoins — Corner quadrates — Shooting sticks — Mitering machine — Lead cutter — Perforating machines — Imposing stone — Copy-holder — Paper and card cutters — Megill's patent gauge pin — E.\tension feed-guide — Automatic counters — Patent ink fountain — Iron furniture. Useful Receipts 311-317 How to make printers' rollers — German preservative for rollers — Directions for recasting rollers — Printers' ley — Paste — Mucilage — Glue — Gum — Magenta surface paper — Coloured writing inks — Fire- proof ink — Printing ink varnish — Lithographic transfer ink — To give dark printing inks a bronze or changeable hue — An ink for marking tin or zinc — Drying preparations — Silvering solutions — To soften leather belting — How to open a ball of twine — To prevent adhesion of paper — To detect ground wood in paper — French gold printing — Transfer varnish— To make paper waterproof— To pre- serve books — To restore engravings. Orthographical 318-332 Discrepancies — a or an before a vowel or silent h — o or oh — able and ible — im or in and em or en — in and un — ise and ize — or and our — sion and tio7i — Farther and further — Peas and pease — Omission of j in the possessive case — Formation of the plurals of words compounded of a noun and an adjective — Pointing of numbers, weights, measures, &c. — Derivation of English words — Rules for spelling — Plurals of nouns. 1* CONTENTS. PACB. How TO Secure Copyrights 333-335 Printed title required — Application to be made to Librarian of Congress — Style of printed title — Fees — Two complete copies required — Penalty — Notice of copyright to be given by imprint — Form of notice — Penalty for false notice — Authors may reserve the right to translate or dramatize — Form of notice — Original works only will be entered — Duration of copyright — Renewal — Form of application for renewal — Time of publication — Copyright may be secured for a projected as well as for a completed work — Assign- ments — Fees — Copies or duplicate certificates — Serials or sepa- rate publications — Copyright required for each volume or part of a book — Copyrights for works of art — Copyrights cannot be granted upon trade-marks or labels — Fee for registering at Patent Office — Citizens or residents of the United States only entitled to copyright — Full name and residence of claimant required. The Metric System 336, 337 Technical Terms of the Craft 338-343 Abbreviations 344-356 Foreign Words and Phrases 337-372 Index 373-383 ^^M .I'^'fjC- I &b ?b ib CO wi tii, be bj bo ' J aft f4 it oi tta| tta H o; oo -. luJJb?: name Qf IbeMtlxr ^no of I imr jrat])^r^bitl7 art m^cm i5s-,i:icct.])aUotDe^ bctb>^jSame| |xi^nM^a^\i5tiot-into tcmrrtA |tiorklati|ii4(i'Uerij;j ftcrn e^^lli ri's^lUJ HORN-BOOK OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. The Song of the Printer. piCK and click ^ Goes the type in the stick, As the printer stands at his case ; His eyes glance quick, and his fingers pick The type at a rapid pace ; And one by one as tlie letters go. Words are piled up steady and slow — Steady and slow. But still they grow. And words of fire they soon will glow; Wonderful words, that without a sound Traverse the earth to its utmost bound; Words that shall make The tyrant quake. And the fetters of the oppress'd shall break; Words that can crumble an army's might. Or treble its strength in a righteous fight. Yet the types they look but leaden and dumb. As he puts them in place with finger and thumb, But the printer smiles. And his work beguiles By chanting a song as the letters he piles. With pick and click. Like the world's chronometer, tickl tick! tickl O, where is the man with such simple tools Can govern the world as I ? With a printing press, an iron stick, Anfl a little leaden die. With paper of white, and ink of black, 1 support the Right, and the Wrong attack. Say, where is he, or who may he be, That can rival the printer's power? To no monarchs that live the wall doth he give : Their sway lasts only an hour ; While the printer still grows, and God only knows When his might shall cease to tower 1 Anon. ^rQericar} OM.^/r> Hereby, fancies are known, knowledge groweth, judg^nent increaseth, books are dispersed, the Scripture is read, stories be opened, times compared, truth discerned,falsehood detected andwith finger pointed, and (all as I said) through the benefit of Printing. Fox's Martyrs. At the very epoch when the greatness of Burgundy was most siviftiy ripening, another "weapon was secretly forging, tnore potent in the great struggle for freedom than any which the wit or hand of man has ever devised or wielded. When Philip the Good, in the full blaze of his paiver, and flushed with the triumphs of territorial aggrandizement , was instituting at Bruges the order of the Golden Fleece, "to the glory of God, of the blessed Virgin, and of the holy Andrew, patron saint of the Burgundian family," and enrolling the names of the kings and princes who were to be honoured with its symbols, at that very moment, an obscure citizen of Haarlem, one Lorenz Coster, or Lawrence the Sexton, succeeded in printing a little grammar, by means of movable types. The invention of printing luas accomplished, but it Tuas not ushered in with such a blaze of glory as heralded the contemporaneous erection of the Golden Fleece. The humble setter of types did not deem emperors and princes alone luorthy his companionship. His invention sent no thrill of admiration throughout Christen- dom; and yet, what was the good Philip of Burgundy , with his Knights of the Golden Fleece, and all their effulgent trumpery , in the eye of humanity and civilization, compared with the poor sexton and his wooden type ? Motley's Rise of the Dutch Republic, Vol. i, 45. m o/l\o mmtHtt RISE AND PROGRESS OF PRINTING: DISCOVERY OF PRINTING. ^\HE credit of inventing the art which per- '^ petuates the history and achievements of all the arts and sciences has been obsti- nately contested, several cities having ad- vanced rival claims to the honour of the discovery. This, however, should be no matter of surprise when we consider that the inventor of a new art, unprotected by law, would naturally endeavour to conceal its processes for his own use and advantage. After due consideration, we agree with Isaiah Thomas in the opinion that the probabilities point to Laurextrs ( sometimes called Coster, Koster, and Kustos) as the discoverer of the art of printing.'!' W The earliest testimony in favour of Koster is contained in a German volume published at Cologne in 1499, known as the Chronicie 0/ Cologne, which was printed by Ulrich Zell, originally of Mayence, and a well-known follower of Gutenberg and his system. Under the heading "Of the art of printing books, when and where, and by whom, was invented the inexpressibly useful art of printing books," the author says, "Although the art, as now practised, was discovered at Mayence, neverthe- less the first idea came from Holland, and the Donati, which had been previously printed there. Those books are therefore the origin of the art."^See Humphreys, ch. iii. and iv. We cite further the following well-known account : — "About one hundred and twenty-eight years ago, Laurens Zanssen Coster in- habited a decent and fashionable house in the city of Haarlem , situated on the market- place, opposite the royal palace. The name of Coster was assumed, and inherited from his ancestors, who had long enjoyed the honourable and lucrative office of DISCOVERY OF PRINTING. Laurentius lived at Haarlem and was a man of property. He seems to have been engaged in printing books from wood l)locks or plates, well known to antiqnaries as the Block Books, in whicii the reading matter was ilhistrated by rude pictures. Fragments of works so printed by him are still in existence. Among others, the celebrated Biblia Paupcrum, executed be- tween 1410 and 1420, has been attributed to him. It was only natural that his thoughts should be led to the production of single types, as a means of cheapening and facilitating his work. These were first made of wood, and afterward of tin. The date of his invention of separate types is given as about the year 1429. Other dates have been stated, ranging from coster or sexton to the church. This man deserves to be restoreil to the honour of being the first inventor of printing, of which he has been unjustly deprived by others, who have enjoyed the praises due to him alone. As he was walking in the wood contiguous to the city, which was the general custom of the richer citizens and men of leisure, in the afternoon and on holidays, he began to cut letters on the bark of the beech ; with these letters he enstamped marks upon paper in a contrary direc- tion, in the manner of a seal, until at length he formed a few lines for his own amusement and for the use of the children of his brotlier-in-law. This succeeding so well, he attempted greater things; and, being a man of genius and reflection, he invented, with the aid of his brother- or son-in-law, Thomas Pietrison, a thicker and more adhesive ink, as the common ink was too thin and made blotted marks. With this ink he was able to print blocks and figures, to which he adcied letters. I have seen specimens of his printing in this manner. In the beginning he printed on one side only. This was a Dutch book, entitled Spicgal enser Bchoudcnisse. That it was one of the fir^t books printed after the invention of the art, appears from the leaves, which are pasted together, that the naked sides might not be offensive to the eyes ; and none at first were printed in a more perfect manner. As this new species of traffic attracted numerous customers, thus did the profits arising from it increase his love for the art and his diligence in the exercise of it. " He engaged workmen, which w.as the source of the mischief Among the.se work- men was one Jan : whether his surname be that of Faust, or any other, is of no great importance to me, as I will not disturb the dead, whose consciences must have smote them sufficiently while living. This Jan, who assisted at the printing press under oath, after he had learned the art of casting the types, setting them, and other articles belonging to the art, and thought himself sufficiently instructed, having watched the opportunity, as he could not find a better, he packed up the types and the other articles on Christmas eve, while the family was engaged in celebrating tlie festival, and stole away with them. He first fled to Amsterdam, thence to Cologne, until he could establish himself at Mentz, as a secure place, where he might open shop and reap the fruits of his knavery. It is a known fact that within the twelve months (that is, in the year 1440) he published the Atexandri Galli Doc- trinale, (a grammar at that time in high repute,) with Petri Ilispani Tractatibus Logicis, with the same letters which Laurens had used. These were undoubtedly the first products of his press. These are the principal circumstances that I have collected from creditable persons far advanced in years, which they have transmitted like a flaming torch from hand to hand ; I have also met with others who have confirmed the same." — lladiiantis yunitcs, 1568. DISCOVERY OF PRINTING. 1422 to 1436. The first of his printed books, it is claimed, was the Speculum Humance Salvationis, of which about ten copies are now known to be in existence. A small primer, or Abecedarium, in our opinion, shows all the marks of the first attempt of an experimenter in a new art. Koster died in 1439. The necessity for employing workmen to assist in prosecu- ting the art led to the divulging of the secret. Among these men, it is supposed, was John Geinsfleisch, (or Gutenberg, Senior,) who, after learning the processes, returned to Mentz, his native place, and communicated the secret to his nephew, John Gutenberg, an ingenious artist of Strasburg. It is in evidence that the latter, in connection with two partners, spent a considerable amount of money in some private experiments. These appear to have occupied several years, from 1436 to 1439, when a legal contest arose as to the rights of one of the partners whose zealous activity had caused his death. Guten- berg continued at Strasburg till 1444, when, his means being exhausted, he rejoined his uncle at Mentz. Here he renewed his experiments, and, needing money, he procured an intro- duction to John Fust, a capitalist and money-lender, who seems to have been struck with the importance of the work, and who advanced a considerable amount (all the tools and presses being pledged as security) in furtherance of the enter- prise. Two years were occupied in making the types and necessary machinery, when the great work of printing the Bible was begun. There can be little doubt that, during all his years of experiment, Gutenberg had executed smaller books, one of which is surmised to have been a reproduction of the Dutch Speculum of Koster. The Donatus of 1451, the Appeal against the Turks of 1454, and the Letters of Indul- gence of 1454 and 1455, all appeared before the Bible, The first newspaper in America was the Boston News Let- ter, which was first issued by John Campbell on Monday, April 24, 1704: it was regularly published for nearly seventy-two years. The second was the Boston Gazette, begun December 21, 1719. The third was the American Weekly JSIercicry, issued in Philadelphia, by Andrew Bradford, on December 22, 1719. James Franklin, an elder brother of Benjamin, established the New England Courant, August 17, 1721. The oldest living paper of the United States is the New Hampshire Gazette, published at Portsmouth, now (Oct. 7, 1892) one hundred and thirty-six years old. The North American and United States Gazette leads the existing daily press of this country in point of antiquity. It is the successor of the Pennsylvania Packet, (begun in 1771 and becoming a daily paper in 1784,) and is still the chief commercial journal of Philadelphia. The first paper-mill in America was established near Ger- mantown, Pa., in 1690, by William Rittenhouse.'^' (1) Two copies of Bradford's Almanac are known to be in existence. We give the Address of THE PRINTER TO THE READERS. Hereby underftand that after great charge & Trouble, I have brought that great Art & Mystery of Printing into this part of America; believing it may be of great fervice to you in feveral refpects; hoping to find encouragement, not only in this Almanack, but what elfe 1 fhall enter upon for the ufe & fervice of the Inhabitants of thefe Parts. Some irregularities there be in this Diary, which I defire you to pafs by this year; for being lately come hither, my materials were mifplaced & out of order, whereupon I was forced to ufe Figures & Letters of various Sizes: but underftanding the want of some- thing of this nature, & being importuned thereto, I ventured to make public this; defining you to accept thereof; & by the next (as I find encouragement) (hall endeavour to have things compleat. And for the eafe of Clarks, Scriveniers, &c., I propofe to print blank Bills, Bonds, Letters of Attorney, Indentures, Warrants, etc., & what elfe prefentsitfelf, wnerein I fhall be ready to ferve you ; and remain your friend. Philadelphia, the W.BRADFORD, loth month, 1685. W Mr. Horatio Gates Jones, of Philadelphia, in his introduction to Frame's Short Description of Pennsilvania, gives further interesting particulars. See, also, Munsell's Chronology, &c. of Paper and Paper Making, Albany, N. Y., 1876. TYPE-FOUNDING IN EUROPE. TYPE-FOUNDING IN EUROPE. FOR a long period after the discovery of printing, it seems that type-founding-, printing, and binding went under the general term of printing, and that printers cast the types used by them, and printed and bound the works executed in their establishments. Type-founding became a distinct calling early in the seventeenth century. A decree of the Star Chamber, made July ii, 1637, ordained the following regulations con- cerning English founders : — "That there shall be four founders of letters for printing, and no more. "That the Archbishop of Canterbury, or the Bishop of Lon- don, with six other high commissioners, shall supply the places of those four as they shall become void. " That no master-founder shall keep above two apprentices at one time. "That all journeyman-founders be employed by the mas- ters of the trade, and that idle journeymen be compelled to work, upon pain of imprisonment and such other punishment as the court shall think lit. "That no master-founder of letters shall employ any other person in any work belonging to the casting or founding of letters than freemen or apprentices to the trade, save only in pulling off the knots of metal hanging at the end of the letters when they are first cast; in which work every master-founder may employ one boy only, not bound to the trade." By the same decree, the number of master-printers in Eng- land was limited to twenty. Regulations like the above were in force till 1693. The "polyglot founders," as they have been called, were suc- ceeded by Joseph Moxon and others. But the English were unable to compete with the superior productions of the Dutch founders, until the advent of William Caslon, who, by the beauty and excellence of his type, surpassed his Batavian competitors, when the importation of foreign type ceased, and liis founts were, in turn, exported to the Continent. iiy an act subsequently passed, no founder was to cast any letter for printing, no joiner to make any press, no smith to forge any iron-work for a press ; no person to bring from j^arts TYPE-FOUNDING IN AMERICA. 19 beyond the seas any letters founded or cast for printing ; nor any person to buy any letters or any other materials belong- ing unto printing ; without application to the master and ward- ens of the Company of Stationers. TYPE-FOUNDING IN AMERICA. A FOUNDRY, principally for German type, was established at Germantown, Pennsylvania, about the year 1735, by Christopher Saur, (or Sower,) a printer, who executed in Ger- man the first quarto Bible printed in America, as well as other valuable works in the German language. Three editions of the Bible were printed — viz., in the years 1743, 1763, and 1776, the latter two by his son. In 1739, Saur published a news- paper in Germantown. An abortive attempt was made about 1768 to set up a foundry at Boston by a Mr. Mitchelson from Scotland, and another in Connecticut in 1769 by Abel Buel. In 1775, Dr. Franklin brought from Europe to Philadelphia the materials for a foundry; but little use of them was made. John Baine, a type-founder of Edinburgh, sent a relative to this country with tools for a foundry at the close of the Revo- lutionary War, and soon after came over himself. They carried on the business till 1790, when Mr. Baine died, and his kins- man returned to Scotland. A Dutch founder, Adam G. Mappa, settled at New York about 1787, and cast Dutch and German faces, as well as Roman styles and several Oriental alphabets. Want of capital prevented his success, and many of his matrices passed into the possession of Binny & Ronaldson. In 1796, type-founding was commenced in Philadelphia by Archibald Binny and James Runaidson, natives of the city of Edinburgh, where Binny had carried on the same business. Their assortment was not extensive, but it embraced the essential founts, — Brevier, Bourgeois, Long Primer, Small Pica, Pica, and two-line letters. They were obliging and attentive, and in twenty years made a fortune. They improved their (') The remainder of this article was mostly furnished by the late Mr. George Bruce, of New York. TYPE-FOUNDING IN AMERICA. foundry according to the increase of printing and the conse- quent demands of the trade, extending their assortment from Pearl, of i8o lines in a foot, to 12-line Pica, having 6 lines. Binny made an important improvement in the type-mould, by which a caster could cast 6000 letters in a day with as much ease as he before could cast 4000.'^' According to Holmes's American Amials, about 200 news- papers were printed in the United States in the year 1801, of which 17 were issued daily, 7 three times a week, 30 twice a week, and 146 weekly. There must also have been at the same time as many as 60 offices engaged in miscellaneous printing. The whole business had increased threefold in eleven years. Another type-foundr>' was put in successful operation in Baltimore, about 1805, by Samuel Sower & Co. It had in it some moulds and matrices which had been used by Christopher Sower, who had printed in Germantown, near Philadelphia, and cast his own types. He printed with German characters; but now the foundry was revived with excellent Roman and Italic letters, and among other extraordinary things it had the size called Diamond, with a smaller face than had ever been cast before. It was the smallest type in the world. The demand for type was very brisk till the war of 181 2 commenced, and the foundries were generally three or four months in arrears in their execution of orders. The names of the newspapers published in the United States in April, 1810, are given in Thomas's History of Print- ing, and amount to 359, of which 27 were daily papers, 38 ") After the retirement of Binny & Ronaldson, Richard Ronaldson carried on the business of this foundry until 1833, when he in turn was succeeded by Lawrence Johnson and George F. Smith. Mr. Johnson, a man of great energy and enterprise, had (contemporaneously with Jedediah Howe) introduced stereotyping into Phila- delphia, and now both callings were incorporated. Ten years afterward, Mr. Smith retired; and in the year 1845 Mr. Johnson associated with him Thomas MacKellar, John F. Smith and Richard Smith, who had, as it were, grown up with the business. The foundry now (juickly grew in importance, and won a wide reputation Mr. Johnson died April 26, i860, and was succeeded by his three partners, who, with Peter A. Jordan, constitiUed the firm known as MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan, under whose management the establishment was brought to rank equal with and excel most of the type foundries in the world. Mr. Jordan died March 25, 1884 In 1885 \Vm. B. MacKellar, G. Frtdk Jordan and C. V. Huch were associated with the remaining partners, and a corporation was formed under the name of The Mac- Kellar, Smiths & Jordan Company. Their "Typographic Advertiser" (begun in 1855) and Specimen Books are regarded as unique mechanical and literary productions. The height and body of the Pica of this Company have been universally adopted in the United States as the standard of size for the American Point System of type. TYPE-FOUNDING IN AMERICA. were printed twice, 15 three times, and 279 once in a week. Add those required for general printing, and the whole num- ber of offices could not be less than 500, — being an increase of 240 in nine years, and some of them using several thousand pounds of type for book-printing. In 181 1, Elihu White established a type-foundry in New York. He had been long engaged, in connection with Mr. Wing, in the manufacture of printing types at Hartford, Con- necticut, upon a plan of their own invention, by which twenty or thirty letters were cast at once; but, abandoning that invention, he adopted the old plan of casting, and, having a good assortment of faces and bodies, his removal to New York was a great convenience to its printers, and they gave him a very satisfactory support. But the principal business in type-founding still continued, as formerly, to be carried on in Philadelphia. In 1813, another type-foundry was begun in the city of New York, by D. & G. Bruce, principally to cast types for their own use. They had carried on book-printing for seven years, and had now become acquainted with the stereotype art, — Mr. David Bruce having visited England in 181 2 and acquired it by purchase and actual labour. For ordinary printing, it was CUS' tomary to bevel off the body of the type at the face end, or shoulder, as it is usually called, which unfitted it for making a Strong stereotype plate in the most approved way : hence the necessity for casting type expressly for stereotype. Their first fount was Bourgeois, with which they cast two sets of plates of the New Testament, (the Common School Testament,) and sold one of these to Mathew Carey, of Philadelphia, retaining the other for their own business. But these were not com- pleted till 1814. In 1815, they cast the plates of the i2mo School Bible, on Nonpareil type, prepared, like the Bourgeois, at their own foundry expressly for stereotyping. They thus gave the first stereotype School Testament and School Bible to America ; but not the first stereotype book. John Watts, of England, also commenced stereotyping in New York in 1813, and completed the Westminster Catechism that year, a volume of 120 pages i2mo. David Bruce invented the planing- machine for equalizing the thickness of stereotype plates, which is now used in every stereotype foundry in the United States. The process of stereotyping is, however, entirely TYPE-FOUNDIiWG IN AMERICA. different from that of ordinary type-founding, and it is, there- fore, generally carried on as a separate business, or connected with the composing department of a printing-office. Twenty compositors and two proof-readers will furnish full employ- ment for one moulder, one caster, and three finishers, who will, among them, complete, on an average, 50 pages of octavo per day. In 1818, or soon after, a type and stereotype foundry was established in Boston, and another in Cincinnati, principally through the enterprise of the late Elihu White, who, having the means of multiplying matrices with facility, took this method for the extension of his business. Others followed his example, and type-foundries were established in Albany, Buffalo, Pitts- burgh, Louisville, and St. Louis, with several additional in New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and Baltimore. The busi- ness, in fact, was overdone, and failures and suppressions took place, as competition reduced the prices of types. The mode of type-founding has within forty years under- gone important changes, which must no doubt be considered improvements. First among them is the introduction of machine-casting, in which a pump forces the fluid metal into the. mould and matrix, and gives a sharper outline to the let- ter than was formerly given by the most violent throw of the caster. The old practice of casting a single type only at a time remains. The first idea of this machine originated with William M. Johnson, who obtained a patent for it in 1828. Elihu White put it into use in his type-foundry, and per- severed in using and trying to improve it as long as he lived; but he did not succeed in removing the greatest fault, which was a hollowness in the body of the types cast by it, that in- clined them to sink under the pressure of the printing-press. The first successful type-casting machine was invented by David Bruce, Jr., of New York, and was patented March 17, 1838. The patent was sold to George Bruce, and the ma- chines were used by him until 1845. David Bruce meanwhile patented another machine in 1843, which, with new improve- ments, patented two years later, gave entire satisfaction, and is now in general use in American foundries. By Bruce's machine, three times the quantity of type that was cast by Binny & Ronaldson's improved mould is now cast in a given time, and nearly five times the quantity that was cast by the TYPE-FOUNDING IN AMERICA. 23 common hand-mould eighty years ago. This improvement has passed into Europe, and been adopted by most of the German type-founders ; but in Great Britain for some time it found little favour. A so-called "automatic machine," for casting and finishing type, invented by Johnson & Atkinson, is in operation in London; but its rate of production seems to be less than that of the American machine, while, from its multiform operations, the proportion of imperfect type turned out must of necessity be considerably more. The protection now afibrded by the patent laws having checked the piratical production of matrices by electrotyping, (except in plain faces, a practice still pursued by unprincipled type-founders,) the leading founders in this country have been encouraged to produce types of new styles which in beauty and ingenuity surpass those of foreign origin. There are now three type-foundries in Boston, seven in New York, one in Buffalo, four in Philadelphia, four in Baltimore, two in Cincinnati, four in Chicago, two in Milwaukee, two in St. Louis, one in Richmond, one in St. Paul, one in Cleveland, one in Kansas City, and three in California — in all, thirty-six. Some of these foundries not only supply the printers of the United States, but most of the printers in Canada, some in the British West India Islands, Mexico, South America, China, India and Australasia. American type, in quality, style, and finish, is equal, if not superior, to any made in Europe. The following are the prices at which plain types have been sold for the last seventy-five years, given at ten different dates, and naming only the principal and most useful sizes : — 1806. mn. 1819. 18Z1. 18S1. 18hl. 18G0. 1866. 1816. 180S. Pica . . . I0.44 ;?o.55 $0.44 go. 42 $0.36 $0.38 Jo. 32 #0.56 ;Jo.46 $0.32 Small Pica 48 •58 .48 46 ■.38 .40 M ..58 .48 •34 Lg. Primer 56 .66 .56 50 .40 \" 36 .62 •50 ..36 Bourgeois 66 .76 .66 58 .46 .46 40 .66 • 52 .38 Brevier . . 76 .86 .76 70 • 56 .54 44 .70 •55 .42 Minion . . I 03 1. 13 1. 00 88 .70 .66 48 .76 .S8 .46 Nonpareil I 40 1-75 1.40 I 20 .90 .84 S8 .84 .66 •52 Agate . . I 44 1. 10 1.08 72 1. 00 .76 .60 Pearl. . . I 7.5 1.40 1.40 I 08 1.40 1.20 1.20 Diamond . I 60 1.80 1.62 1.60 24 STEREOTYPIXG. STEREOTYPING. STEREOTYPING is said to have been invented by J. Van der Mey, in Holland, about 1698. A quarto Bible and some other books were printed by him from plates, which were formed by soldering the bottoms of common type" together. William Ged, of Edinburgh, discovered the present mode in 1725, and stereotyped parts of the Bible and Prayer-Book. He encountered malicious opposition, and the business was abandoned, the new method dying with the inventor. About 1745, Benjamin Mecom, a nephew of Dr. Franklin, cast plates for a number of the pages of the New Testament. Dr. Alex- ander Tilloch, of Glasgow, re-discovered the art in 1781. Ste- reotyping gradually spread, and soon efitected a considerable reduction in the cost of books. The arguments that were advanced against its utility have a ridiculous look at the present day, when almost everj- important work is stereotyped or electrotyped. Matter for stereotyping is set with high spaces and quad- rates. The forms must be small, containing about two pages of common octavo. A slug type-high is put above the top line and another below the foot line of each page, to protect the ends of the plates from injury when they are passed through the shaving-machine. Beveled slugs, in height equal to the shoulder of the type, are placed on both sides and between the pages, to form the flange by which the plate is to be clasped by the hooks of the printing-block. Before the form is sent into the foundry, the type must be carefully compared with the proof, to detect any errors which may have been left uncorrected. Care must be taken to lock up the form perfectly square and quite tight, to prevent the types from being pulled out when the mould is raised from the pages. It must be evenly planed down, and no ink or dirt or incrustations from the ley be allowed to remain on the surface. The face of the type being clean and dry, and the bottoms free from particles of dirt, the form is laid on a clean mould- ing-stone, and brushed over with sweet-oil, which must be laid on as thinly as possible, care being taken that the entire surface of the types is covered. A moulding-frame, with a STEREOTYPING. 25 screw at each corner, (called a flask,) and fitting neatly to the form, is next placed around it. The material for moulding is finely ground gypsum, nine parts of which are mixed with about seven parts of water, and well stirred up. A small quantity of the liquid mixture is poured over the pages, and gently pressed into the counter of the types with a small roller, for the purpose of expelling confined air; after which, the remainder of the gypsum is poured in, until the mould is somewhat higher than the upper edge of the flask. In a few minutes the mixture sets, and the upper side is smoothed over with a steel straight-edge. In about ten minutes the mould is gently raised by means of the screws at the corners of the flask ; and, after being nicely trimmed at the sides, and nicked on the surface-edges to make openings for the metal to run in, it is placed on a shelf in an oven, and allowed to remain until the moisture has quite evaporated. The casting-pans may be large enough to hold three or four moulds. The dried moulds are placed in a pan face down- ward, upon a movable iron plate called a floater. The cover of the casting-pan, which has a hole at each corner for the passage of the metal, is then clamped to it, and lifted by a movable crane and gently lowered into the metal-pot, — con- taining, it may be, a thousand pounds of liquid metal, — till the metal begins to flow slowly in at the corners. When the pan is filled, it is sunk to the bottom of the pot. The metal should be hot enough to light a piece of brown paper held in it. After being immersed eight or ten minutes, the pan is steadily drawn out by means of the crane, and swung over to the cool- ing-trough, into which it is lowered and placed upon a stone so as just to touch the water, in order that the metal at the bottom of the pan may cool first. The metal contracts while cooling, and the caster occasionally pours in a small quantity at the corners from a ladle, till it will take no more. It may be here remarked that some stereotypers do not dry the moulds, but immerse them in a green condition into the metal. The plates are carefully removed from the solid mass which comes out of the pan, and the plaster is washed from the surface. If, after examination, the face is good and sharply set, the plates are passed over to a picker, who re- moves any slight defects arising from an imperfection of the 26 STEREOTYPING. mould. They are then trimmed and passed through the shav- ing-machine, till all are brought to an equal thickness. The flanges are neatly side-planed, and the plates are then boxed, ready for the printing-press. In England, the plates are merely turned on the back, and consequently vary in thickness. This must be a source of con- tinual expense and annoyance to the pressman. The flanges, besides, are very imperfectly made, — so imperfectly that they cannot be used on American printing-blocks; and English plates, when imported into this country, are therefore sent to a foundry here, to be brought to an equal thickness and to be properly side-planed. An order given some years ago by an English printer for a set of American printing-blocks was afterward countermanded, on account of the prejudice against the introduction of new things. Several methods of stereotyping are now practised. Many of the leading newspapers of England and America are printed from stereotype plates cast in moulds made of prepared paper: this mode, however, yields very inferior plates, quite unfit for fine books. Another method, styled the "mud-process," is by spreading a thin coating of pulverized soapstone and gypsum over an iron plate, and a mould is then obtained by pressing the coated face against a page of type. Several of these mould-plates are then set on end in an iron bo.x, separated from one another by a wire of the thickness of the stereotype desired, and hot metal is poured in. This is a very expeditious pro- cess, though not so good as the old method. In 1804, before the introduction of stereotyping into this country, I\Iathew Carey, the well-known enterprising publisher in Philadelpliia, had the Bible in quarto set up entire, and regu- larly imposed in chases, to print from at convenience, according to the demand for the volume. The type was cast by Binny & Ronaldson. Stereotyping would have saved much of the large outlay required to carry out the scheme, which, never- theless, even vmder these circumstances, was doubtless highly remunerative. The weight of type must have amounted to 25,000 pounds, to say nothing of the number of chases and column-rules required. ELECTROTYPING AND LITHOGRAPHY. 27 ELECTROTYPING. STEREOTYPING has been superseded by the process of electrotyping, as described below. The pages, after being delicately polished with plumbago, are laid in a press ; a pan of prepared wax, warmed, is placed over them and pressed down into the counter of the types. The wax mould is then dusted with plumbago, and suspended in the electric bath. On this, in a few hours, is deposited a thin shell of copper, which, after being coated with tin solder, is backed up with metal to the usual thickness of a stereotype plate. The same care in preparing the pages for electrotyping must be observed as for stereotyping. For stereotyping, high slugs are placed only at the top and foot of the page; but, for electrotyping, they must be set around on all sides, and the bevelled flange must be afterward made by side-planing. LITHOGRAPHY. THIS is the art of printing, by a chemical process, from designs made with a greasy material upon stone. It was discovered about the beginning of the present century by Alois Senefelder, an actor of Munich, Bavaria, whose patience and perseverance under the most disadvantageous circum- stances were truly remarkable and praiseworthy. Differing from all other methods of printing, the impressions are ob- tained from a level surface. The stpne best calculated for lithographic purposes is a sort of calcareous slate found on the banks of the Danube, in Bavaria, the finest being found near Munich. A good stone is porous, yet brittle, of a pale yellowish drab, and sometimes of a gray neutral tint. The stones are formed into slabs from one and a-half to three inches in thickness. To prepare them for use, two stones are placed face to face with some fine sifted sand between them, and then are rubbed together with a circular motion, to produce the requisite granulation, which is made finer or coarser to suit the purpose of the artist. The principal agents used for making designs on stone are 28 LITHOGRAPHY. called lithographic chalk and lithographic ink. They are composed of tallow, virgin wax, hard tallow soap, shellac, sometimes a little mastic or copal, and enough lampblack to impart a colour to the mass. These ingredients are put into an iron sauce-pan, and exposed to a strong fire till the mass is in a state of ignition. When the quantity is reduced one- half, the pan is carefully covered, or put into water to ex- tinguish the flame and cool the mixture. After being well worked up, it is formed into small cakes or sticks. The ingredients are the same in the chalk and the ink, but the proportions are varied, and a little Venice turpentine is often added to the latter. The chalk is used in a dry state ; but the ink is dissolved by rubbing in water, and is used in a pen or with a camel-hair pencil. The presence of soap renders it soluble in water. The artist completes a drawing with the chalk upon a grained stone as he would make a drawing in pencil or chalk upon paper. If while in this state a wet sponge were passed over the face of the stone, the drawing would wash off. To prevent this, and to make it capable of yielding impressions, a weak solution of nitrous acid is poured over it, which unites with and neutralizes the alkali or soap contained in the chalk, and renders it insoluble in water. After this, the usual course is to float a solution of gum over the whole face of the stone ; and, when this is taken off, the drawing is no longer removable by the application of a wet sponge, because the chalk is now insoluble. The stone is now ready for the printer, who ob- tains impressions by the following process. Having damped the surface of the stone equally with a sponge filled with water which has been slightly tinctured by acid, the printer finds that the water has been imbibed by only those parts of the stone which are not occupied by the drawing, which, being greasy, repels the water and re- mains dry. A roller covered with ink is now passed over the stone, which will not even be soiled where it is wet, from the antipathy of oil to water. But the parts occupied by the drawing, being dry and greasy, liave an affinity for the print- ing-ink, which, therefore, leaves the roller and attaches itself to the drawing. In this state it is said to be charged or rolled in. A sheet of damped paper is then put over it, and, the LITHOGRAPHY. 29 whole being passed through a press, the printing-ink is trans- ferred from the stone to the paper, and the impression is obtained. Great nicety is requisite in the preparation of all the agents employed in this art, and in the process of printing as well as in making the drawing on the stone. The most important application of this process is in the production of copies of coloured drawings and paintings, — a process known as chrojiio-Iiihography. The object here being to produce as nearly as possible fac-similes in colour, touch, and texture, as well as in drawing and light and shadow, of pictures from the pencils of painters of the highest standing, it has been found necessary to employ a large number of stones, in order to produce the almost infinite varieties of tints which are found united in a single picture,— every stone giving a separate impression in its own particular colour or tint. The mode of procedure is somewhat as follows. First, an outline of the entire subject is made by means of transfer paper, or otherwise, on a stone which is called the outline or keystone of the work. This stone yields impressions which are transferred as guides to all the other stones. On a second and third stone which serve as the basis of the print the general effect of the drawing is washed in, and from these are printed what may be called the chiaroscuro, in a faint tint of sepia and of a neutral colour or gray, — corresponding, in fact, very nearly to the neutral or dead colouring of a water-colour drawing in the method adopted by the early water-colour painters. The stones which follow are each charged with a particular colour or tint, and each leaves its impression on only a particular portion of the print, — one stone printing only the parts which are intended to be yellow or a modification of yellow, another red, another blue, and so on. Other stones charged in parts with grays or second- ary colours serve to blend and harmonize the crude colours; others follow which modify these; and, finally, one gives the sharp dark touches, and is usually followed by another which supplies a sort of glaze or finishing wash, and subdues and harmonizes the whole. Of course, we have merely indicated the general method. It will be understood that the sequence of the colours in the printing, the special quality and strength to be given to each particular tint, the effect to be produced 30 LITHOGRAPHY. by their super-position, and many other particulars, have all to be taken into account in planning the arrangement of the colours on the stones; — since a sequence in some respects dif- ferent, and an entirely different modification of colours, have to be employed for the works of most artists ; and it happens that much of the colour on each of the earlier stones is covered by that of succeeding stones, and that thus only can the broken tints of the original be imitated. It is, in fact, only by watching the progress of a print through all its stages that any clear idea can be obtained of the beauty and accuracy of the whole process, of the prevision that must be exercised, and of the skill, care, and taste required at every step to carry it to a successful termination. For some of the more elaborate prints, from thirty to forty stones have been required to produce a finished print. And in order to produce this print, it must be borne in mind that each sheet of paper has to be passed as many times through the press as there are stones, since each stone imprints upon it only its own particular section of the work. Of course, in proportion to the increase in the number of the stones, does the difficulty increase of making the work upon each fall exactly upon its proper place in the general design; for, if any one were misplaced only the fiftieth of an inch, the drawing and colour of the whole would be disturbed. Hence it is found neces- sary to arrange the register, or adjustment of the stones, with the utmost care and precision, and to exercise the most careful supervision in the printing, since the sheet of paper expands considerably in passing through the press, and has to be dried and re-damped before it can be passed through again. I5ut practically this is all accomplished with seeming ease, and a large and most complex subject will be found, when the last stage has been reached, to bear the most minute scrutiny; and the result, even when the copy is placed along- side the original, will surprise and delight equally those who have followed the work through its several steps and those who may only examine the completed work. Of late, many chromos have been beautifully printed from prepared blocks on an ordinary cylinder-press. ENGRA VING. 31 ENGRAVING. THE invention of wood engraving has been claimed for the Chinese, whose books have certainly been printed from engraved wood blocks for ages. It is not, however, until the beginning of the fifteenth century that we find any evidence of the existence of wood engraving as we now understand it. It is probable that Italy was the first European country to make engrav- ings, but only for printing playing- cards. Holland and Germany soon applied the art to better ends. The earliest print of which an}' cer- tain information can be obtained is in the collection of Earl Spencer. It was discovered in one of the most ancient convents of Germany, — the Chartreuse of Buxheim, near Memmingen in Bavaria, — pasted within the cover of a Latin MS. ; it represents Saint Christopher carrying the infant Saviour across the sea, and is dated 1423. We give a reduced fac-simile of this curious engraving. The inscrip- tion at the bottom has been thus translated : — In whichever day thou seest the likeness of St. Christopher, In that same day thou wilt, at least from death, no evil blow incur.— 1423. 32 ENGRA VING. Shortly afterward, a series of books printed entirely from wood engravings, called block-books, were issued. The most important of them were the Apoca/ypsis, si'u Historia Sancti yo/iainiis ; the Historia Virginis ex Cantico Caiiticorian ; and the Biblia Paupermn, the last containing representations of some of the principal pas- sages of the Old and New Testaments, with explanatory texts. The illustrations seem to be drawn with a supreme contempt for perspective and proportion, but bear evidence of the draperies and hands and faces having been care- fully studied. The above is a copy of one of the cuts in the Apocalypsis. It represents St. Jolm preaching to three men and a woman, with the inscrip- tion : '' Co)nin nama jehaljob. To- becume \>\xi pice. IrepujiSe \>\w pilla on eopJ>an, j^a rpa on heojre- num. Upne baeshpamlican hlaj: gyye up ro baeS. "Xwh fopsyp up upe Sj'lrap, ppa p]a pe yopjiya'S upum gylcenbum. "Kwh ne gelaebbe )>u up on copcuunse. ac alyp up op vpele. 80 Slice. 5 2 TYPES. NAMES AND SIZES OF TYPE. THE principal bodies to wiiich printing letters are cast in England and America are the following : — I. Diamond. II. English. 2. Pearl. 12. Columbian. 3- Agate. 13- Great Primer. 4- Nonpareil. 14. Paragon. 5- Minion. 15- Double Small Pica. 6. Brevier. 16. Double Pica. 7- Bourgeois. 17- Double English. 8. Long Primer. 18. Double Great Primer. 9- Small Pica. 19- Double Paragon. ID. Pica. 20. Canon. Besides the foregoing, a smaller size than Diamond, called Brilliant, is now cast in the foundry of MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan of Philadelphia, the body of which is just one-half of Minion. Even this is surpassed in smallness by a music type cast in the same foundry, named Excelsior, which is precisely one-half the size of Nonpareil. Another size omitted in the li.st is Minionette, (equivalent to si.x of the Didot points,) which is next above Nonpareil. Canon is conceded to have been first produced by a French artisan, and was probably used in some work relating to the canons of the church ; to which the German title, Mi.ssal, alludes. Two-line Great Primer, Two-line English, and Two-line Pica, owe their names to the respective bodies of which the depth of two em quadrates answers to one of the double sizes. Paragon was probably first cut in France. It is known as Text by the Germans. Pica is universally considered as the standard type, and by it furniture, quotations and labour-saving rules are graduated. A line 83 Pica ems long is equivalent to 35 centimeters. The twelfth part of Pica is the unit, called a Point, by which tyj^e-bodies are measured. MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan cast their new borders, ornaments, and job type on Pica, and its subdivisions of Nonpareil, (>^ Pica,) and E.xcelsior, {% Pica,) and their multiples. NAMES AND SIZES. 53 Great Primer^ called Tertia in Germany^ is one of the major sizes of type which were early used for printing considerable works, and especially the Bible; on which account some persons term it Bible Text. The French name is Gros Romain. English is called Mittel by the Ger- mans, and St. Augustin by the French and Dutch; the word Mittel (Middle) intimating that the former sizes of letter were seven in niimbei', the centre of which was English, with Prima, Secunda, and Tertia on one side, and Pica, Long Primer, and Brevier on the other. The name St. Augustin was probably given because the writings of that Father were the first works done in that letter. Pica is called Cicero by the French and Germans. As the preceding size was distin- guished by the name of St. Augustin, so this has been honoured with that of Cicero, on account of the Epistles of that writer having been first done in letter of this size. It is doubtful whether the name was given by the French or the Germans. 54 TYPES. Small Pica is a grade below Pica, and is now gene- rally employed in octavo volumes, and is, indeed, almost the only size used for printing legal reports and other law books. The French call this letter Philosophic, whicli, however, is merely a Pica face on Small Pica body. The Germans call it Kleine Cicero. Long Primer. Upon the supposition that some bodies of letter took their names from works in which they were first employed, we are induced to believe that the Germans gave the name of Corpus to this character on account of their Corpus Juris being first done in this size. The French call this letter Petit Romain. Bourgeois is a very useful and convenient size of letter. It is frequently used in double-column octavo pages. The name indicates that it originated in France; although type of this body is now called Gaillarde by French printers. Two lines of this letter are equivalent to one line of Great Primer, or four lines of Diamond. Brevier was first used for printing the Breviaries, or Roman Catholic Church books, and hence its name. The Germans call it Petit, and .Jungfer (maiden letter). It is an admirable type, and cannot conveniently be dispensed with in any considerable printing-office. Minion follows Brevier, and is commonly used for newspapers, and for notes and indexes in book-work. Its name is due j)robably to its being smaller than any type in use at the period of its invention. It fills a useful place in a printing-oflBce. Nonpareil cime next in order; and its originator, supposing that he had reached th(^ extreme of diniiiiutiveness, gave it this triumphant title. It is exten- sively iiBed, though mostly on newspapers, and lor notes and indexes for duo- decimo books and smaller. It is certainly the smallest type that should be allowed in book-work. Af;atc firoliably arose from the necessities of newspaper publishers. As patronage in- crea.sed, it became desirable to have a type less in size than Nonpareil, for the advertise- ments, shipping news, markets, &c. ; and Agate was made to meet the emergency. It ig now extensively used for pocket editions of the Bible and Prayer Books. Pe»rl nijiy lie said to ha%'e been born of ambition. As punch-cutters became more expert, some one po-lia)>ct, a steel punch liaa to be cut and a matrix made, in which the t^pcfl are caet one bj one, and, beioi; set up in lines, are rubbed and dressed by the founder for the use of tbe compositor. nrilliarit. RspcTt peornaa. It U t«M. ha.* aueeMdMl In writing tl># Lord'i Vtvin upon tha ad([B of a %\\ft\ of papar. A trpa. cvttar i'l IWrtin. iH„ra aurpri.tnaljr, haa r<,rma"l a (ypa ao minute a> to l>a ararcrl, raa'labla without » ([ood nia|inir,ingKla«,. Tl>« tjpa «f thia paraaraph. though not so amall aa the microaropk- K.ttara produced Id Pruiaia, la yvt ao diminutiTe that ovca Diamond ia larga ^ (wmpariaon. Uf tba letter i aaarly W»i go to a pound. PROPORTIOXS OF TYPES. 55 GRADATION OF TYPES. THE following specimen shows the proportion which one size of type bears to another in width; but it is necessary to observe that it must be taken with certain limitations, be- cause each founder has letter of every size that will either drive out or get in with others of the same body, some faces being more extended and others being more condensed than the standard width of type. The scale contains thirteen sizes in order of gradation, viz., Great Primer, English, Pica, Small Pica, Long Primer, Bourgeois, Brevier, Minion, Nonpareil, Agate, Pearl, Diamond, and Brilliant. When in the course of human* When in the course of human • events When in the course of human • events it b When in the course of human • events it becomes When in the course of human ■ events it becomes nece When in the course of human • events it becomes necessary When in the course of human • events it becomes necessary f AVhen in the course of human • events it becomes necessary for one 'When in the course of human* events it becomes necessary for one people to When in the course of human • events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve When in the course of human • eveuts it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the poi When in tbe course of human ■ events it l}ecomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands wh When ia the courae of human ' eveots it becomes oeceitsary tor one }>eople to dieaolve the political bands whioh have connected th POINT SYSTEM OF TYPE-BODIES. IN 1SS2, MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan began to make type on the proportional system of bodies. The Pica em, being the eighty-third part of thirty five centimetres, was divided into twelve parts, or points. This system of exact proportional type-bodies was approved of and adopted by the American type-founders generally. It has been favour- ably received by printers in this country, and all printing offices will in due time be fully equipped with types of this description. The standard for the height of type was fixed at 2jj centi- metres. 56 TYPES. In some European countries printing offices had their types cast to a height to suit tiie proprietor's whim. Some of the foreign founders have sent young men to Philadelphia to be educated in the American system of heights and bodies, and at least two foundries in Germany have adopted the American plan. The following table shows the systematic gradation of bodies and position of nicks in the point system, one point being equivalent to 1-12 of a Pica em. 3 Point. ■}}/, Point. 4 Point. 4i<; Point. Excelsior. Brilliant. ^ I Point. ^P Three-line ^ Nonpareil 20 Point. Semi-Brevier. ^^^H ^P Two-line ^L Long Primer Diamond. ■22 Point. Pearl. ^P Two-line ^ Small Pica. Agate. 24 Point. Nonpareil. ■ ■ Two-line Pica. Minion. 28 Point. Brevier. Cm V Two-line ^ English. Bourgeois. 3'1 Pf)INT. Long Primer. ^1 V Five-line ^L Nonpareil. Small Pica. ?-> Point. Pica. English. Two-line Brevier. Brevier. Three-line Pica. A BILL OF PICA. 57 T A BILL OF PICA. HE following is reckoned by the founders a regular fount, complete in all its sorts : — A BILL OF 800 LBS. OF PICA. 1600 3000 44CX3 12000 2500 1700 6400 8000 400 800 4000 3000 8000 8000 1700 500 6200 8000 9000 3400 1200 2000 400 2000 200 200 400 500 200 100 100 60 90 60 600 2000 1000 200 700 300 150 100 TOO 100 I 100 60 1300 1200 IIOO 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 1300 200 200 200 200 All other accents, 100 each. A B C D E F G H I J K 1. M N O P Q R S T U V w X Y Z M CE 600 A 400 B . 50° C . 500 D . 600 E 400 F 400 G 400 H 800 I . 3°o J . 300 K 500 L . 400 M 400 N 400 400 P . 180 Q 400 R . 500 S 650 T 300 U . 300 V 400 w 180 X 300 Y 80 Z 40 K 30 CB. 300 200 250 250 300 200 200 200 400 150 150 250 200 200 200 200 90 200 250 326 150 150 200 90 150 40 spaces. Thick 18000 Middle 12000 Thin. ........ 8000 Hair 3000 Em Quads ...... 2500 En Quads 5000 Large Quadrates, about 80 lbs. Italic, one-tenth of Rotuati. Owing to the varying styles of authors and the diverse sub- jects of books, some letters will now and then run short in a 58 TYPES. fount, whatever the proportions may have been at first. A new fount of tjpe may run evenly on a work in general literature written in the third person, while a novel filled with dialogues in the first person will rapidly exhaust certain letters, and re- tjuire sorts to render the fount serviceable to its full general capacity. So with scientific and other books. Even in the case of two authors writing on the same subject, there is no certainty that the fount will run alike. The master-printer, therefore, to keep the entire letter in use, is compelled to order sorts, and his fount is thus constantly growing larger. A FOUNT OF TYPE. A COMPLETE fount of type may be comprised under the following heads : — CAPITALS. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ^CE& SMALL CAPITALS. ABCDEKGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXVZ^CE& LOWER CASE. abcdefghijklmnopqrstu\-wxyzasoeff"fiffiflffl ITALIC CAPITALS. A B CDEFGHIJKL M N O P Q R S TUVWX YZ^ CE& ITALIC LOWER CASE. abed efg h i j k I inn op q r s tuvw x y z a: oejffiffiflffl FIGURES AND FRACTIONS. I 23456789oX>^.VK%>i/8;^^ POINTS AND REFERENCES. . ; : ?!-'()[]* t t § II H BRACES, DASHES AND CO.MMERCIAL SIGNS. $jC°^'^ — ■ — ,_^^-^ fi^sr"©a@^n) Four kinds of spaces; en, em, two and three em quadrates. Accents. These are the ordinary sorts cast to a fount, and are classi- fied by founders as long, short, ascending, descending, kerned, and double letters. CAPITALS. 59 Long Letters fill the whole depth of the face of the body, and are both ascending and descending, such in the Roman as Q and j, and in the Italicy. Short Letters have the face cast on the middle of the body, (by founders called shank,) as a, c, e, m, n, o, r, s, u, v, w, X, z, all of which will admit of being bearded above and below the face, both in Roman and Italic. Ascending Letters are all the Roman and Italic capitals; in the lower case, b, d, f, h, i, k, 1, t. Descending Letters are g, p, q, y, in Roman and Italic. Kerned Letters are types that have part of the face hanging over either one or both sides of the body. In Roman, f and j are the only kerned letters; but, in Italic, d,g,j, l,y are kerned on one side, and f on both sides of its face. Most Italic capitals are kerned on one side of the face. The Double Letters in modern use are ff, fi, ffi, fl, ffl; and these are so cast to prevent the breaking of the beak of the f when used before a tall letter. The diphthongs ae and ce may be classed among double letters. Printers divide a fount of letter into two classes. 1. The upper case \ , 2. I he lower case ) The upper case sorts are capitals, small capital letters, references, dashes, braces, commercial signs and fractions. The lower case consists of small letters, double letters, figures, points, spaces and quadrates. CAPITALS. LiNDLEY Murray gives the following judicious directions in regard to the use of capital letters : — It was formerly the custom to begin every noun with a capital; but as this practice was troublesome, and gave the writing or printing a crowded and confused appearance, it has been discontinued. It is, however, very proper to begin with a capital, — 1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or any other piece of writing; and, 2. The first word after a period ; and, if the two sentences are totally independent, after a note of interrogation or excla- mation. But if a number of interrogative or exclamatory sen- 6 6o TYPES. tences are thrown into one general group, or if the construc- tion of the latter sentences depends on the former, all of them, except the first, may begin with a small letter : as, Hozv long, ye simple ones, will ye love simplicity ? and the scorners de- light iti their scortiing? and fools hate knowledge? — Alas! how different! yet how like the same ! 3. The appellations of the Deity: as, God, Jehovah, the Almighty, the Supreine Being, the Lord, Providence, the I\les- siah, the Holy Spirit. 4. Proper names of persons, places, streets, mountains, rivers, ships: as, George, Lofidon, the Strand, the Alps, the Thames, the Seahorse. 5. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places: as, Grecian, Roman, English, French, Italiafi. 6. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon, or when it is in a direct form: as, Ahvays remember this ancient maxim : "Ktiozv thyself." — Our great Laivgiver says, " Take up thy cross daily, and follow me." But when a quo- tation is brought in obliquely after a comma, a capital letter is unnecessary : as, Solotnoft observes, " that pride goes before de- structioti." The first word of an example may also very properly begin with a capital: as. Temptation proves our virtue. 7. Every substantive and principal word in the titles of books: as, Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language; Thomson' s Seasons ; Rollings Ancient History. 8. The first word of every line in poetry. 9. The pronoun / and the interjection O are written in capitals: as, I ivrite : Hear, O earth! Other words, besides the preceding, may begin with capitals when they are remarkably emphatical, or the principal sub- ject of the composition. The method of denoting capital letters in manuscript is by underscoring them with three distinct lines. SMALL CAPITALS. Small Capitals are in general cast to Roman founts only, and are used for the purpose of giving a stronger emphasis to a word than that conveyed by Italic. They are likewise used for running heads, heads of chapters, &c. The first POINTS. 6 1 word of every section or chapter is commonly put in small capitals; but when a two-line initial letter is used, the re- mainder of the word should be in capitals. The small capitals c, o, s, v, w, x, z so closely resemble the same letters in the lower case, that care is required to prevent intermixing. In manuscript, small capitals are denoted by two lines drawn under the words. Italic words are designated by a single stroke underneath. POINTS. Points consist of a comma, semicolon, colon, period or full-point, mark of interrogation, and mark of admiration. Shortly after the invention of printing, the necessity of stops or pauses in sentences for the guidance of the reader produced the colon and full-point. In process of time, the comma was added, which was then merely a perpendicular line, proportioned to the body of the letter. These three points were the only ones used till the close of the fifteenth century, when Aldo Manuccio gave a better shape to the comma, and added the semicolon ; the comma denoting the shortest pause, the semicolon next, then the colon, and the full-point termi- nating the sentence. The marks of interrogation and admira- tion were introduced many years after. Perhaps there never existed on any subject a greater dif- ference of opinion among men of learning than on the true mode of punctuation. Some sprinkle the page with commas almost as promiscuously as if from a pepper-box, and make the pause of a semicolon where the sense will bear only a comma; while others are extremely careless, and omit points even when they are needed to give the true sense of a passage at the first reading. The lack of an established practice is much to be regretted. The loss of time to a compositor occasioned by altering points arbitrarily is a great hardship. Manuscripts are often placed in the printer's hands without being properly prepared : either the writing is illegible, the spelling incorrect, or the punctua- tion defective. Unless the author will take entirely on himself the responsibility of the pointing, it will be better to omit ever>' point in the copy, except at the end of a sentence, rather 62 TYPES. than confuse the mind of the compositor by commas and semicolons placed indiscriminately, in the hurry of writing, without any regard to propriety/^' The Comma [,] divides the clauses of a long or involved sentence, and commonly marks the shortest pause in reading. Commas are used to denote extracts or quotations from other works, dialogue matter, or passages or expressions not original, by placing two of them inverted before the first word of the passage quoted, the ending being denoted by two apos- trophes. A thin space is used to keep the inverted commas free from the matter. The method of running them down the sides to the end of the quotation has been found inconvenient, especially where a quotation occurs within a quotation, or a speech within a speech: the proper method of distinguishing these is by placing a single inverted comma before the extra quotation, and concluding with a single apostrophe. Where both quotations end together, put three apostrophes, observing after the first to place a thin space. Inverted commas were first used by Guillemet, a French- man, to supersede the use of Italic letter in emphasized words. As an acknowledgment, his countrymen call them after his name. French founders cast them double, thus [«»]. MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan, Philadelphia, furnish them in this way when desired. A single comma inverted is improperly used as an abbre- viation of the word Mac, as in M'Gowen: c is preferable, as McGowen. The Semicolon [;] denotes a pause greater than that of a comma, and is used between dependent clauses of compound sentences. The Colon [:] is employed in a sentence between clauses less connected than those which are divided by a semicolon, but not so independent as separate, distinct sentences. The Period or Full-Point [.] serves to indicate the end of a complete sentence. When used in abbreviations, it has no effect as a full stop in the jiunctuation, unless at the end of a sentence. In some works this point is discarded as a mark of abbreviation, as in Mr Dr &c. (') Wilson's Treatise on English Punctuation is a full and explicit work on this subject, and should be studied by every printer and author. It is worthy of adop- tion as the standard authority. APOSTROPHE. (>Z Full-points are sometimes used as leaders in tables of con- tents, figure-work, &c. ; but dotted rules or leaders are more economical for this purpose, as they save considerable time in the composition. The sign of Interrogation [?] is used to denote a ques- tion. Every interrogation or question should begin with a capital letter, (unless several questions follow one another in connected succession,) according to the method observed in the Bible, where questions and responses, and the beginning of sayings, &c. are denoted by a capital letter. The sign of Admiration or Exclamation [!] denotes surprise, astonishment, rapture, and other sudden emotions of the mind, whether of joy or sorrow. This sign is put after the interjections Ah ! Alas ! Oh ! &c. ; but there are exceptional cases, as. Ah me ! Alas the day ! &c. All the points, except the comma and the period, should be preceded by a hair-space; the comma and full-point do not require any space to bear them off. The em dash [ — ], though not ranked as a point, is often used by careless writers as a substitute for a comma or semi- colon. It may be properly employed in parenthetical sen- tences, and in rhapsodical writing abounding in disconnected sentences. A dash stands for a sign of repetition in catalogues of goods, where it implies ditto; and in catalogues of books, where a dash signifies ejusdein, instead of repeating the author's name with the title of every separate treatise of his writing. A sign of repetition should never appear at the top of a page, but the name of the author, or of the merchandise, should be set out again at length. A dash likewise stands for to; as, chap. xvi. 3-17; that is, from the third to the seventeenth verse inclusive. At other times it serves for an index, to give notice that what follows it is a corollary of what has preceded ; thus : — apostrophe. The apostrophe [ ' ] is a comma cast on the upper edge of a type, and is used as a sign of contraction or abbreviation of words in poetry or familiar conversation, as We're, o'er, don't, &.C. In poetry, it should not be employed where the 6* 64 TYPES. verb ends with e, as love, change, &c., but only in cases where the verb concludes with a consonant, as, reign, obtain, &c. It also marks the elision of a vowel at the beginning of words, as, 'scape, or of a syllable, as, prentice. The monosyllables though and through are sometimes shortened to tho' and thro\ but very improperly, as they retain the same sound, and the abbreviation cannot in the slightest degree assist the versification. Words in the possessive case are generally known by having '^ for their termination. All quotations which are denoted at the beginning by in- verted commas are closed with apostrophes. There is no space required between the apostrophe and the matter. HYPHEN. A HYPHEN is a sign of connection, and denotes that the part of a word at the end of a line belongs to the portion at the beginning of the next line. A compositor who studies propriety and neatness in his work will not allow an unnecessary division, even in a narrow measure, if he can avoid it by overrunning two or three lines of matter. In large typ<_ and narrow measures, the division of words cannot be avoided ; but care should be taken that hyphens do not occur at the end of successive lines. In small type and wide measures, the hyphen may freciuently be dis- pensed with, either by driving out or getting in the word, without interfering witli the regularity of the spacing. The compositor who is careful on this point will find his advantage in the preference given to his work, and in the respect attached to his character as a master of his business. Numerous divi- sions down the side of a page and irregular spacing are the two greatest defects in composition. It is proper, if possible, to keep the derivative or radical word undivided: as, occur-rence, gentle-man, respect-ful, &c. In other cases, printers generally divide on the vowel, which is an excellent method. The hyphen is also used to connect compound words, which are formed of two substantives, as, bird-cage, love-letter, &c. ; also what are termed compound adjectives, as, well- built house, handsome-faced child, &c. PARENTHESIS AND BRACKET. 65 The prepositions after, before, over, &c. are often connected with other words, but do not always make a proper com- pound: thus, before-mentioned is a compound when it pre- cedes a substantive, as, in the before-mentioned place; but when it comes after a noun, as, in the place before me?itioned, it should be two distinct words.'^' PARENTHESIS AND BRACKET. The use of the Parenthesis ( ) is to enclose interpolated words or sentences which serve to strengthen the argument, although the main sentence would be complete without the interpolated matter. (') Wilson, in his Treatise on English Punctuation, says, very judiciously, — The hyphen is employed in words in such a manner as is best calculated to show their origin, composition, or import, and to exhibit the syllables in their neatest form. Agreeably to this rule, — 1 . Compound and derivative words are resolved into their primitives ; as, school- tnaster, ha?tii-7vriiing, pen-knife, snuff-box , looking-glass : arch-angel , geo-logy, theo-cracy , ortho-graphy. 2. Prefixes, affixes, and grammatical terminations are separated; as, dis-con- tinue, en-able, trans-port ; shear-er, load-ed, print-ing; king-doin, false-hood, differ-euce, comviand-tnent . 3. One consonant between two vowels is to be joined to the latter syllable ; as, ta-lent, fi-tal : nie-lon, le-ver ; spi-rit, si-lence ; cy-nic , ty-ro : le-ga-cy , }iio-no- po-ly. Except jr, and single consonants when they belong to the former portion of a derivative word ; as, ex-ile, ex-ist, ex-a/nine ; up-on, dis-ease, circum-atnbient. 4. Two or more consonants belong to the latter syllable, when they are capable of beginning a word; as, ta-ble, sti-fle, lu-cre, o-gle, tnau-gre, stro-phe, destroy. 5. But when the consonants cannot begin a word, or when the vowel preceding them is short, the first should be separated ; as, ab-bey, ac-cent, vel-lum, ab-ject, gar-den, laun-dry, patn-phlet : blas-pheme, dis-tress, niin-strel. It is desirable that compound and derivative words should, at the end of lines, be divided in such a manner as to indicate their principal parts. Thus, school- fnaster is preferable to schoolmas-ter, dis-approve to disap-prove, resetzt-ment, to resentment, ortho-doxy to or-thodoxy : though, as regards the analysis of words into syllables, the latter mode is unobjectionable. From the narrowness of the printed line, however, in some books, the principle recommended cannot always be adhered to. The terminations tion, sion, cial, tial, and many others, formerly pronounced as two syllables, but now only as one, must not be divided either in spelling or at the end of a line. A syllable consisting of only one letter, as the a in cre-ation, should not com- mence a line. This word would be better divided crea-tion ; and so all others of a similar kind. A line of print must not end with the first syllable of a word when it consists of a single letter ; ?i?,, a-bide, e-nor>nous ; nor begin with the last syllable when it is formed of only two letters ; as, nation-al , teach-er, sitnilar-ly. For regard should be had to the principles of taste and beauty as well as to the laws of syllabication. 66 TYPES. Parentheses are not as much used as formerly: authors place their intercalations between commas, — frequently with a dash at the beginning and ending, — which make them quite as intelligible as though they were enclosed between paren- theses. Brackets [ ] are seldom made use of, except to indicate that the word enclosed within them had been carelessly omitted in the old MS. or copy, and was now inserted by the editor. REFERENCES. References are marks and signs employed to direct the attention of the reader to notes in tlie margin or at the bot- tom of a page. The characters technically known by printers as references are the following, which are used in the order here given : — Asterisk * I Double Dagger % I Parallel 1| Dagger f I Section \ I Paragraph \ In Roman church-books, the Asterisk divides each verse of a psalm into two parts, and marks the place where the responses begin : this in the Book of Common Prayer is de- noted by a colon placed between the two parts of each verse. Asterisks also denote an omission, or an hiatus in the original copy; the number of asterisks being multiplied according to the extent of the omission. The Dagger, originally termed the Obelisk, or Long Cross, is frequently used in Roman Catholic church-books, prayers of exorcism, at the benediction of bread, water, and fruit, and upon other occasions, where the priest is to make the sign of the cross; but the square cross (^) is the proper symbol for the purpose. The square cross is used, besides, in the pope's briefs, and in mandates of archbishops and bishops, imme- diately before the signature of their names. It is not placed among references. Besides its use as a reference mark, the Paragraph is now employed chiefly in Bibles, to show the parts into which a chapter is divided. In Common Prayer Books, paragraphs are put before the lines that direct the order of the service, and which are called the Rubrics because they were formerly printed in red. ACCENTED AND NUMERAL LETTERS 67 The neatest references, when many are required in books, are either superior letters or superior figures,— thus, \ ^ ^ or thus, % *>, <=. Superior letters are used chiefly in Bibles and other books which have more than one sort of notes, and there- fore require different references. When thus used, the letter ■> should be omitted, as, from its similarity to the S the reader miafht at times be led into error. ACCENTED LETTERS. Letters called accented by printers are the five vowels, marked thus: — Acute a^ioii Grave a^iou Circumflex aeiotl Diaeresis aeioii Long aeiou Short afeiStt We may include the French c, the Spanish n, the Portu- guese a and o, the Swedish and Norwegian a and 6, and the Welsh w and y. NUMERAL LETTERS. The Greeks at first employed the letters of the entire alphabet to express the first twenty-four numbers; but the system was cumbrous, and they adopted the happy expe- dient of dividing their alphabet into three portions, using the first to symbolize the 9 digits, the second the 9 tens, and the third the 9 hundreds; and, as their alphabet contained only twenty-four letters, they invented three additional symbols. Their list of symbols then stood as follows: — Units. Tens. Hundreds. a represents 1 P 2 V 3 « ^ e 5 r (introdnced) 6 f 7 7, 8 I represents 10 K 20 A 30 iL 40 V 50 f 60 70 p represents 100 500 X 600 ^ 700 a> 800 ■?, A, A (introd'd) 900 ir 80 eorS 9 5 or ^ (introduced) 90 68 TYPES. By these symbols, only numbers under looo could be ex- pressed; but, by putting a mark called iota under any symbol, its value was increased a thousand-fold: thus, a = looo, k =: 20,000; or, by subscribing the letter JM, the value of a symbol was raised ten thousand-fold. For these two marks, single and double dots were afterward substituted. This improve- ment enabled them to express with facility all numbers as high as 9,990,000, — a range sufficient for all ordinary purposes. It has been supposed that the Romans used M to denote 1000 because it is the first letter of Mille, which is Latin for 1000; and C to denote 100, it being the first letter of Centum, the Latin term for 100. Some also suppose that D, being formed by dividing the old M in the middle, was therefore appointed to stand for 500, — that is, half as much as the M stood for when it was whole ; and that L being half a C, was, fur the same reason, used to denominate 50. But the most natural account of the matter appears to be this: — The Romans probably put down a single stroke, I, for one, as is still the practice of those who score on a slate, or with chalk; this stroke they doubled, trebled, and quadrupled, to express two, three, and four: thus, I I, 1 1 1, 1 1 1 1. So far they could easily number the strokes with a glance of the eye ; but they found that if more were added it would be necessary to count the strokes one by one: for this reason, when they came to five, it was expressed by joining two strokes together in an acute angle, thus, V. After they had made this acute angle, V, for five, they then added single strokes to the number of four, thus, VI, VII, VIM, VMM, and then, as the strokes could not be further multiplied without confusion, they doubled their acute angle by prolonging the two lines beyond their intersecticjn, thus, X, to denote two fives, or ten. After they had doubled, trebled, and quadrupled this double acute angle, thus, XX, XXX, XX XX, they then, for the same reason which induced tiiem to make a single angle first, and then to double it, joined two single strokes in another form, and, instead of an acute angle, made a right angle, L, to denote fifty. When this was doubled, they then doubled the right angle, thus, C, to denote one hundred, and, having numberetl this double right angle four times, thus, CC, CCC, CCCE, when they came to the fifth number, as before, they reverted it, and put a single stroke before it, thus. NUMERAL LETTERS. 69 13, to denote five hundred; and, when this five hundred was doubled, then they also doubled their double right angle, set- ting two double right angles opposite to each other, with a single stroke between them, thus, CI!], to denote one thou- sand : when this note for one thousand had been repeated four times, they then put down ID!] for five thousand, C C 123 for ten thousand, and 1 3 3 D for fifty thousand. The corners of the angles being cut off by transcribers for despatch, these figures were gradually brought into what are now called numerical letters. When the corners of C I U were made round, it stood thus, C I O, which is so near the Gothic C) that it soon deviated into that character ; so that 1 3 having the corners made round stood thus, I O, and then easily de- viated into D. C also became a plain C by the same means: the single rectangle, which denoted fifty, was, without any alteration, a capital L ; the double acute angle was an X ; the single acute angle, a V ; and a plain single stroke, the letter I, And thus these seven letters, M, D, C, L, X, V, I, became nu- merals. As a further proof of this assertion, let it be considered that C I O is still used for one thousand, and I O for five hundred, instead of M and D; and this mark, O, is sometimes used to denote one thousand, which may easily be derived from this figure, CI 3, but cannot be deviations from, or corruptions of, the Roman letter M. The Romans also expressed any number of thousands by a^line drawn over any numeral less than one thousand: thus, V denotes fivejthousand, LX si.Kty thousand; so, likewise, M is one million, MM two millions, &c. Upon the discovery of printing, and before capitals were invented, small letters served for numerals; not only when Gothic characters were in vogue, but when Roman had become the prevailing character. Thus, in early times, i b 1 1 1 & m were, and in Roman type are still, of the same signification as capi- tals when used as numerals. Though the capital J is not a numeral letter, yet the lower-case j is as often and as signifi- cantly used as the vowel i, especially where the former is employed as a closing letter, in if iij V\ iij iiij itij, &c. In Roman lower-case numerals, the j is not regarded, but the i stands for figure i wherever it is used numerically. During the existence of the French Republic, books were dated in France from the first year of the Republic: thus, An. XII. (1803,) or twelve years from 1792. 70 TYPES. ARITHMETICAL FIGURES. The arithmetical or Arabic numerals are o, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. Properly they should be styled Hindu or Indian numerals; for the Arabs borrowed them, along with the deci- mal system of notation, from the Hindus. They were proba- bly first introduced from the East into Italy about 1202; yet they did not come into general use before the invention of printing. Accounts were kept in Roman numerals up to the sixteenth century. Figures are usually made one en thick; but of late a broader figure is cast for newspaper use, which is two-thirds or six-sevenths of an em in width. OLD STYLE FIGURES. Though uniform in height and appearance, we do not deem the modern figures an improvement on the variously- lining figures formerly in vogue, and now happily coming again into use. The latter can be caught by the eye with greater ease and certainty, just as lower-case letter can be read with more facility than continuous lines of capitals. In the new style the 3 and 8 may easily be mistaken for each other, and so with the 6, 9, and 0; but in the old style figures such errors are quite unlikely to happen, as some ot them occupy the centre of the body only, and others are ascending or de- scending characters. The example here given will show the justice of our remarks : 1234567890 1234567890 SCRATCHED OR CANCELLED FIGURES I 2 ;i ^ ^ ^ /7 ^' ^ p Are used in arithmetical matter when certain figures re- quire to be crossed over in an operation. FRACTIONS. Common Fractions, or broken numbers in arithmetic, are cast solid to all sizes of type. A great improvement has been introduced by casting the numerator and denominator sepa- rately, on bodies of half size, with the line on the under figure, so that odd fractions of any amount may be readily formed, thus : ^ ^ * ^75^ \\ \. f Per, each. At or to. Percentum. Account. Cent. SIGNS. 71 SIGNS. COMMERCIAL SIGNS, % . . Dollar or dollars. £ . . Libra, libm, pound or pounds sterling. / . . Solidus, solidi, shilling or shillings. MATHEMATICAL, ALGEBRAICAL, AND GEOMETRICAL. + plus, or more, is the sign of real existence of the quantity it stands before, and is called an affirmative or positive sign. It is also the mark of addition : thus, a + (^, or 6 + 9, implies that a is to be added to b, or 6 added to 9. — minus, or less, before a single quantity, is the sign of negation, or negative existence, showing the quantity to which it is prefixed to be less than nothing. But between quantities it is the sign of subtraction: thus, a — b, or 8 — 4, implies b subtracted from a, or 8 after 4 has been subtracted. = equal. The sign of equality, though Des Cartes and some others use this mark, x) : thus, a=^ b signifies that a is equal to b. Others use the mark = to denote identity of ratios. X into or with. The sign of multiplication, showing that the quantities on each side the same are to be multiplied by one another: as, « X '^ is to be read, a multiplied into 1^/4X8, the product of 4 multiplied into 8. Wolfius and others use a dot between the two factors : thus, 7 . 4 signifies the product of 7 and 4. In algebra the sign is commonly omitted, and the two quantities put together : thus, bd expresses the product of b and d. When one or both of the factors are compounded of several letters, they are distinguished by a line drawn over them: t hus, the factum of a-\-b — c into d is written, dy^a-\- b — c. Others distinguish the compound factors by including them in parentheses : thus, [a -\- b — c) d. -T- by. The sign of division : thus, a^- b denotes the quan- tity a to be divided by b. Wolfius makes the sign of division two dots ; 12:4 denotes the quotient of 12 divided by 4 = 3. 7 or c are signs of majority : thus, ay b expresses that a is greater than b. Z or ~D are signs of minority, — when we would denote that a is less than b. 7 72 TYPES. 02 is the character of similitude used by Wolfius, Leibnitz, and others. It is used in other authors for the difference be- tween two quantities when it is unknown which is the greater of the two. :: so is. The mark of geometrical proportion disjunct, and is usually placed between two pair of equal ratios : as, 3 : 6 : 4 : 8 shows that 3 is to 6 as 4 is to 8. : or .•. is an arithmetical equal proportion: as, 7 . 3 : 13 . 9 i. e. 7 is more than 3, as 13 is more than 9. n quadrate, or regular quadrangle, — viz. n AB = n BC i. e. the quadrangle upon the line AB is equal to the quadrangle upon the line BC. A triangle: as, A ABC = A ADC. Z an angle: as, z ABC = Z ADC. _L perpendicular: as, AB _L BC. □ rectangled parallelogram, or the product of two lines. II the character of parallelism. * want of parallelism. v^ equiangular, or similar. ± equilateral. ZZ7 rhomboid. cc c5 o m 1 to 1 = =• " o 1 ^1 2 -» M IT CO J ? 'XI ?,' CO 1 *1* s o CJ 1 ^^ 1 ■o 3 i- ^ .o ;s - 2 5 — C^ o - E ;r r; 00 1 II ^- EARLIEST WRITTEN SOUNDS. ^l EARLIEST WRITTEN SOUNDS. THE hieroglyphic is the most ancient form of written sounds. The earliest known monuments containing pho- netic hieroglyphics date about forty centuries ago, or six hun- dred years before the time of Moses, who is supposed to have been versed in the knowledge of the hieroglyphs. Yet nothing worthy of the name of an alphabet existed till a later period, when the Phoenicians invented a purely alphabetic system, but suppressing the vowels, and from this has originated all the modes of alphabetic writing now used.^^' The Greeks introduced the vowels into their graphic system, and so brought to perfection the invaluable invention of alphabetic writing. The discovery of the Rosetta stone furnished a clue to the method of deciphering the Egyptian hieroglyphics; and Dr. Young and Champollion were the first to make use of the suggestive opportunity. The words Ptolemy and Cleopatra were made out ; and these served as a key or incentive to fur- ther investigations ; and extensive and curious volumes have been devoted to the interpretation of Egypt's mysterious in- scriptions on monuments and writings on papyrus. Among those who have investigated the Egyptian hiero- glyphs, Mr. R. Lepsius is one of the most practical, for he has reduced the ancient characters to typographical uses for the behoof of the delvers into the earth's earliest lore. He began the work soon after his return from a scientific expedition to Eg>'pt during the years 1842-46, and his hieroglyphic types now completed number more than thirteen hundred. The Prussian government furnishing the needful pecuniary means, his first task was to ascertain the forms of hieroglyphic signs which would be most suitable for typographical purposes, and here the labour was immense. After laborious research, he reached the conclusion, that as European print had been formed, not from the monumental characters of the Greeks and Romans, but essentially from the current handwriting of documents on parchment and paper, so the hieroglyphic type should follow, not the chiseled or painted characters on the (•) The Hebrew alphabet is almost identical with the Phoenician. 84 EARLIEST WRITTEN SOUNDS. monuments, but the style of those written on papyrus. The style and proportions having been established, the punch- cutting was mostly executed by Mr. Ferdinand Theinhardt, the excellent Prussian type-founder, who for a series of years has been skilfully engaged in producing the matrices. We are indebted to Mr. Theinhardt for the specimens here given ; the first of which is the hieroglyphic alphabet, and the second is the beginning of an ancient text found in a leather roll of the Royal Museum of Berlin, referring to the foundation of the temple of the Sun at On or Heliopolis in Egypt. HIEROGLYPHIC .\LPHABET. J (Eagle) a (Rush leaf) . . . a J\ (Arm) a. (Two rush leaves) t ^•-— -O (Bowlj k S (Seat) k -B^ (Lion) / (Owl) 14. Av^A^^ (Water-line) . . n 15. g (Carpet) . . . / 16. A (Knee) . . . . q 17. (Mouth) . . . r 18. (Lower leg) . . . f) (Horned snake) J" rO (Hurdle) // j ^9- CIS: 20. O (Rope) h \\ (Two lines aslant) i ■(Chair-back, bolt) s (Water basin) . J (Semicircle) . . t (Bag, looped =3 string). . . Q (Hand) . . . . / (Snake) . . . . t 24- J!!. (2 (Chick, spiral) « 25. O (Lined circle) . X 22. 23 ■^ S6 RUNIC. RUNIC ALPHABETS. RUNES were the earliest alphabets in use among the Teu- - tonic and Gothic nations of Northern Europe. The ex- act period of their origin is not known. The name is derived from the Teutonic run, a mystery; w'hence runa, a whisper, and helruti, divination ; and the original use of these characters seems to have been for purposes of secrecy and divination. Scandinavian and Anglo-Saxon tradition agree in ascribing the invention of runic writing to Odin or Wodin. The countries in which traces of the use of runes exist include Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Iceland, Germany, Britain, France, and Spain; and they are found engraved on rocks, crosses, monu- mental stones, coins, medals, rings, brooches, and the hilts and blades of swords. Runic letters were also often cut on smooth sticks called ruti-stafas, or mysterious staves, and used for purposes of divination. But there is no reason to believe that they were at any time in the familiar use in which we find the characters of a written language in modern times, nor have we any traces of their being used in books or on parchment. We have an explanation of the runic alphabet in various MSS. of the early middle ages, prior to the time when runes had altogether ceased to be understood. The systems of runes in use among the different branches of the Teutonic stock were not identical, though they have a strong general family likeness, showing their community of origin. The letters are arranged in an order altogether distinct from that of any other alphabetical system, and ha\e a purely Teutonic nomenclature. Each letter is, as in the Hebrew- Phcenician, derived from the name of some well-known familiar object, with whose initial letter it corresponds. Runes, being associated in the popular belief with augury and divination, were to a considerable extent discouraged by tlie early Cliristian priests and missionaries, whose efforts were directed to the supplanting of them by Greek and Roman characters. But it was not easy suddenly to put a stop to their use, and we find runes continuing to be employed in early Christian inscriptions. This was to a remarkable extent the case in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia, and East Anglia, where we have traces of runic writing of dates varying from the middle RUNIC. 87 of the seventh to the middle of the tenth century. Runes are said to have been laid aside in Sweden by the year looi, and in Spain they were officially condemned by the Council of Toledo in 11 15. The different systems of runes, all accordant up to a certain point, have been classed as the Anglo-Saxon, the German, and the Norse, each containing different subordinate varieties. The Norse alphabet is generally considered the oldest, and the parent of the rest. It has sixteen letters corresponding to our y, «, ///, o, r, k, h, n, i, a, s, t, b, I, m, y, but has no equivalent for various sounds which exist in the language, in consequence of which the sound of k was used for^, d for /, b for/, and 11 and_y for v: o was expressed by aii, and e, by ai, i, or ia; and the same letter otherwise was made to serve for more than one sound. Other expedients came, in the course of time, to be employed to obviate the deficiency of the system, — as the addi- tion of dots, and the adoption of new characters. But the runic system received a fuller development among the Germans and Anglo-Saxons, particularly the latter, whose alphabet was ex- tended to no fewer than forty characters, in which seem to have been embraced, more nearly than in any modern alpha- bets, the actual sounds of a language. The table on the fol- lowing page exhibits the best known forms of the Anglo- Saxon, German, and Norse runic alphabets, with the names and the power of the several letters. The Anglo-Saxon runes, as here given, are derived from a variety of MS. authorities, the most complete containing forty characters, while some only e.xtend as far as the twenty-fifth or twenty-eighth letter. Neither the name nor the power of some of the later letters is thoroughly known, and they are with- out any equivalents in the Norse runic system. The German runes are given from a MS. in the conventual librar}- of St. Gall, in Switzerland. Though the various runic alphabets are not alike copious, the same order of succession among the letters is preserved, excepting that, in the Norse alphabet, laugr pre- cedes viadr, although we have placed them otherwise, with the view of e.xhibiting the correspondence of the three systems. The number of characters in the Anglo-Saxon alphabet is a multiple of the sacred number eight ; and we have the evidence both of a Swedish bracteate containing twenty-four characters, and of the above mentioned St. Gall MS., that there was a RUNIC. H) u> e: o bo z •< s 1^ ^^ a&^3^ M o ^ T^^ X CX z^2^ M?- i. > ■s s z c — :- <: ^DOCSIoCz^^ ZTi— ^^^-^n ^N^ z < iSp-OOucjbox:jc:=W— a J2 lU S 3! X :i^x=:-^.iJL ccjz;:?::-^ :zr-/ ■e^'-r^ X _s-^ ^51 z: z If ?|? ^ ^ "7; ii — y. X +- o < 2 ^ 3 •:3 o S u bo := ^ c .iG bo al a y. 0^ _bO u <. li- i_i 1 :ii^/=:^a_-Zi.a^-^X-:=^ '^■7^ ^'-y^ZLj- ¥- -^f- A^HXI RUNIC. 89 recognized division of the alphabet into classes of eight letters, — a classification which forms the basis of a system of secret runes, mentioned in that MS. Of these secret runes, there are several varieties specified : in particular, i. lis-rima and Lago- runa (of which specimens exist in Scandinavia), consisting of groups of repetitions of the character iis or lago, some shorter and some longer, the number of shorter characters in each group denoting the class to which the letter intended to be indicated belonged; the number of longer ones, its position in the class. 2. Hahal-runa, where the letters are indicated by characters with branching stems, the branches to the left denoting the class, and those to the right the position in that class. There is an inscription in secret runes of this descrip- tion at Hackness, in Yorkshire. 3. Stof-runa, in which the class is indicated by points placed above, and the position in the class by points below, or the reverse. The best-known inscriptions in the Anglo-Saxon character are those on two grave-stones at Hartlepool, in Northumber- land, on a cross at Bewcastle, in Cumberland, and on another cross at Ruthwell, in Dumfriesshire. The inscription on the west side of Bewcastle cross, which we give as a specimen of Anglo-Saxon runes, is a memorial of Alcfrid, son of Oswiu, who was associated with his father in the government of the kingdom of Northumbria, in the seventh century. tHHhiH^nw It has been thus deciphered into the rN-LLMT Tt U Anglo-Saxon dialect of the period: — +THIS SIGBECUN SETT^ HW^TREb EM G^RFvE BOLDU ^FT^R BAR^ YMB CYNING ALCFRID^ GICEG^D HEOSUM SAWLUM. rri^st^MHFK- FhF^mrfFnFi Or, in Modern English : — This memorial Hwaetred set and carved this monument after the prince after the king Alcfrid pray for their souls. 90 RUNIC. The inscription on the Ruthwell cross, after being long a puzzle to antiquaries, was first deciphered in 1838 by Mr. John M. Kemble, an eminent Anglo-Saxon scholar. It is written alternately down one side of the stone and up another, and con- tains a portion of a poem on the subject of the Crucifixion. Mr. Kemble's interpretation received a very satisfactory con- firmation by the discovery of a more complete copy of the same poem in a MS. volume of Anglo-Saxon homilies at Vercelli. Mr. D. M. Haigh, whose researches have added much to our knowledge of Anglo-Saxon runes, has endeavoured to set up for them a claim of priority over the Norse characters. Instead of considering the additional Anglo-Saxon letters as a de- velopment of the Norse system, he looks on the Norse alpha- bet of sixteen letters as an abridgment of an earlier system, and finds occasional traces of the existence of the discarded characters in the earliest Norse inscriptions, and in the Scandi- navian lis-rutta and Hahal-riina, where the letters are classi- fied in accordance with the Anglo-Saxon groups of eight. The Scandinavian kingdoms contain numerous runic monu- ments, some of them written boustrophedon, or with the lines beginning alternately from the right and left; and there are many interesting inscriptions on Swedish gold bracteates. The Celtic races, from their connection with the Scandinavians, became acquainted with their alphabet, and made use of it in writing their own language ; and hence we have, in the Western Islands of Scotland and in the Isle of Man, runic inscriptions, not in the Anglo-Saxon, but in the Norse character, with, how- ever, a few peculiarities of their own. Some of the most perfect runic inscriptions are in Man ; others of similar descrip- tion exist at Holy Island, in Lamlash Bay, Arran ; and there is an inscription in the same character on a remarkable brooch dug up at Hunterston, in Ayrshire. Dr. D. Wilson considers that the Celtic population of .Scotland were as familiar with Norse as the Northumbrians witli Saxon runes. We sometimes find the Norse runes used to denote nume- rals, in which case the sixteen characters stand for the numbers from I to 16; ar combined with laugr stands for 17, double madr for 18, and double tyr for 19. Two more letters are used to express higher numbers, as ur nr, 20; l/iins thurs os, 34.^^* (•) Chambers's Encyclopaedia, published by J.B. Lippincott&Co., Philadelphia. SAXON. 91 ANGLO-SAXON ALPHABET. THE Anglo-Saxon alphabet, and the forms and sounds of the letters, are shown in the following table : — Form. Sound. Form. Sound. S. . a a as in bar . B . . b b P . P P L . . c c as in ckoxct R . V 7- D . . b d i « • r S e . . e e as in ffint i T . r t F . •> / V . \> th {thin) n . .5 g as in ^em D . 5 th [thine) ?> U . . h h U . u 11 I . . 1 i piT . r 7V K . . k k X . X X L . . 1 I Y . y y CD . .111 m Z . z z N . . n n 1 Two useful Anglo-Saxon letters have disappeared from modern English, — namely, port>th (//nn), and Dor '5 th (//ane). The Anglo-Saxon letters which vary from those now used were doubtless mere corruptions of the Roman forms, — viz. the capitals A, C, E, G, H, M, S, and W, and the small letters d, f, g, i, r, s, t, and w. Several marks of abbreviation were used by the Saxons, as ^ that, i and, &c. These were not original members of the alphabet, but were introduced proba- bly for despatch. About the year 1567, John Daye, who was patronized by Archbishop Parker, cut the first Saxon types which were used in England. In this year, Asserius Menevensis was published by the direction of the archbishop in these characters ; in the same year. Archbishop ^Ifric's Paschal Homily ; and in 1571, the Saxon Gospels. On the two following pages will be found a plan of cases for Saxon types. 92 SAXO.V. r i j: c. I -i i i 1 a 1 1 » ffi. r )^ - 3 - fe= '^ ;^ £J. - = Cu B El D CC>3 C H-J 00 a +-f 1— kJ - BJ N - CQ - O" > 1 « W ;li &. ;< SAXON. 93 CO 05 o j t^ SI 1 «D KG - i lO b. ' ■' • ■* u. o. c w •>1 C-1 o Cli -^ U ^ g .: » w . w vay .¥ r X . X iks ?l Y . y ipsilon 3 J 6 Z . z tz tset, tay-tset a b u a 6 ii or ae CE ue Several of the German letters, being somewhat similar in appearance, are liable to be mistaken one for another. To aid the learner, we give such letters together, and point out the difference. 33 (B) and S8 (V). The latter is open in the middle, the former joined across. GERMAN. . 95 6 (C) and © (E). ® (E) has a little stroke in the middle, projecting to the right, which (S (C) has not. @ (G) and © (S). © (S) has an opening above, @ (G) is closed, and has be- sides a perpendicular stroke within. ^ (K), 9t (N), 9t (R). ^ (K) is rounded at the top, 3t (N) is open in the middle, '^ (R) is united about the middle. 9H (M) and 355 (W). 501 (M) is opened at the bottom, 2B (W) is closed. 5 (b) and ^ (h). b (b) is entirely closed below, 1^ (h) is somewhat open, and ends at the bottom, on one side, with a projecting hair-stroke. f (f ) and \ (s). f (f ) has a horizontal line through it, \ (s) on the left side only. m (m) and ro (w). m (m) is entirely open at the bottom, id (w) is partly closed. r (r) and i (x). E (x) has a little hair-stroke below, on the left. t) (v) and V) (y). (v) is closed, 'Cj (y) is somewhat open below, and ends with a hair-stroke. 96 GERMAN. ! 1 o f t-PD 1 - 1 tftr : ^ I •W - ^ A § HX ® II S ■*» ^ =t< 1 -*i ^^ £. fft 1 -+f Hrt i - =s ® Q © - t= - ■Q ds £^ s? -- = .o •5? Si) gi w - C<\5 -T Q cv ® s -M- CC o t3) &; a5 00 H— ^ o> s? rf> 1 - — •e S a e g IS ed ^ - f> - OW " «- *>- * »-» ■ 98 GREEK ALPHABET. GREEK. A SMALL amount of Greek types is indispensable in every considerable book printing-office. The Greek alphabet contains twenty-four letters, which we give in the following table, with the name of each character expressed in Greek and English, and its sound and numerical value. THE GREEK ALPHABET. Forms. Names in Greek and English. Sounds. Numer- ical Value. A . . a 'AA(^a . . . Alpha a I B . .pS B/^jTa . . . Beta b 2 r . • 7 Ta^jua. . . Gamma g 3 A . . 6 Ae'Ara . . . Delta d 4 E . . £ •EiZ/iAof . . Epsilon e short 5 1 . . i Zi/ra . . . Zeta z 7 H . . ,, 'Hra ... Eta e long 8 . . 39 ©^ra . . . Theta th 9 I . . I 'Wra . . . Iota i lO K . . K KciTTTra . . Kappa kc 20 A . . A A(ifi^6o . . Lambda 1 3° M . . ^ Mu . . . . Mu m 40 N . . V N,j . . . . Nu n 50 H . . f ar . . . . Xi X 60 O . . o ■Qfiixpoi' . Omicron 6 short 70 II . . JT nr .... Pi P 80 P . . P •PcS . . . . Rho r 100 2 . . o-s Xiy/xa . . Sigma s 200 T . . T TaO . . . Tau t 300 Y . . u 'Yi/ziAoi/ . . Upsilon u 400 *.. for 'Kapa ahrCj-, navf eTieyov for ndpra i'keyov. Sometimes the apostrophe contracts two words into one: as, Ka'yi) for tai ^} cj ; kyufiai for Q w ol/xai ; Kc/Keivog for nal EKtlvog. Sometimes an apostrophe supplies the place of the first vowel beginning a word : as w 'yadh for w ayadi ; ttov '^i for nov tci. This is chiefly used in poetry. But the prepositions n-rpl and -po suffer no apostrophe though the next word begin with a vowel ; for we write -n-tpl vfiuv^ irpb i/iov ; TTEpl a'urov^ Tzpb iTui\ &C. The diteresis ["] is put over the last one of t\vo vowels that come together, to show that they must be pronounced separately, and not as a diphthong: thus, av-?) with a diaeresis makes three syllables ; but without a diaeresis av is a diphthong, and makes air/) two syllables. Diastole [?] is put between two particles that would bear a different sense without it: thus, &,-e uji signify whatever; whereas ore stands for as, and bri for that. To,rt vvith a diastole GREEK. lOl implies afid this ; but when without, it answers to the adverb then. The sign of interrogation, in Greek, is made by a semi- colon [;]. The colon is made by an inverted full-point [']. All other points are the same as in English. The compositor will find it advantageous to bear in mind the following rules : — 1. No accent can be placed over any other than one of the last three syllables of a word. 2. The grave accent never occurs but on the last syllable; and, this being the case, the asper grave ["] and lenis grave [ " ] can be wanted only for a few monosyllables. 3. No vowel can have a spirit, or breathing, except at the beginning of a word. 4. The letter p is the only consonant marked by a breathing. 5. Almost every word has an accent, but very seldom has more than one ; and, when this happens, it is an acute thrown back upon the last syllable from one of those words called enclitics {leaning back), which in that case has none, unless it be followed by another enclitic. In no other case than this can a last syllable have an acute accent, except before a full- point, colon, or note of interrogation, when the grave accent of the last syllable is changed to an acute, — a circumstance which has often led printers, who were ignorant of the reasons for accenting the same word differently in different situa- tions, to think that there was an error in their copy, and thus to make one in their proof. Most errors, however, proceed from those who do not think at all about the matter. PLAN OF GREEK CASES. THE following plan of cases for Greek type is probably more convenient than any other. A Roman case may readily be altered to accommodate the lower-case sorts. Compositors who aspire to a full knowledge of their art should by all means make themselves familiar with Greek and Hebrew letters and cases. GREEK. -«« •» ■•3 -^ ""ft* -~ -o ^ -o \ :i») :R- ,. :0 ;3 •3 -AJ -S- ~ -<5 -= -3 ^ 'ft- - -O -- -3 ,W .C- ,. •o •» • 3 «-J >iS- - •o •;:2 •3 ^ «»■ c. 'O «s '3 .. .:> - .o • a .3 \ ■u. •s- -~ -c • ;^ -3 \ -W 'S> -- •o -s -3 il "*^ 'ft- - ■= i» '^- ,l '^ -e- ,^ -o 'S '3 ; ■•^ ■=- ■~ -o •^ ■3 i = I>I ■& 3- 'C ■■c N ;^ ^ -3 =- ^o -a H S H a- - = • c 1 < < H •c ■ e '- ti a. - CJ- • = • = n i - = ■> S- •a - , 1 1 < 1 ® o X <■ -c - i ■:: 1 GREEK. 103 -a *< = -3 1 i 1 -<:i. ^ 5* ' 1 -^ :& =1. 1 =% ► ■' 1 1 "- c- b 3 I <= - . a 1 :? »o - ^ L. Eg >^ r< a * ^jzV/^, or musical pause, and terminating a song. Metheg, ^ or bridle, an euphonic accent at the beginning of a word. Royal silluk, 3, end, which is placed before [ : ], sophpasuk, i.e. toward the end. or under a word, With points, namely, two, above the letter, royal zakeph gadhol, jj, the great elevator, strains the sound, one, below the letter, royal tebhir, 2, broken sound, from its figure and tone. Inclined lines hang either above or below. the right the left Leader /"rt^// /a, 2. extension, e.xtends the voice or sound, and is placed above the last letter of the word. Subservient kadma, 2, ante- cedent, to the leader geresh ; and is placed above the penult or antepenult letter. 1 'Leader geresh,.^, expulsiojt, is sung with an impelled voice. Gereshajim, 2, kvo expellers, from the figure being doubled. the left the right — Leader tiphcha, ^, fatigue, from the song or note. I. Of subservient merca, ^, letigthening out, from its lengthening out the song or note. Merca kephnla, 2. « double lengthening out from its music and figure. The transverse line is either right or curved : thus, " '^. The right line is placed between two words, connecting them together, thus, 2"^- ^"^ i^ called tnaccaph, i.e. connec' tion. The curved or waved line, ^. is called leader, zarka, or the disperser, from its modulation and figure. Circles are either entire or semi. The entire circle is placed always above, and has a small inclined line attached to it. 10 lo8 HEBREW. Either on the left, when it is placed at the head of the word, 9 J, and is called leader telisha the greater, or the great evulsion. Or on the right, when it is placed at the end, ^, and is called subservient telisha the less. On both together, ^, called leader /■(/rw^/ara, the horns oj the heifer, from its modulation and figure. The semicircle is either solitary ox pointed. The solitary is either angular or reflected. I Subser\ient hillui, ^, elevated, from the eleva- < tion of the voice. \Munach, ^, placed below, from its position. {'Leader jethith, 2, drawing hack, irom. its figure. Subservient Diahpach, ^, inverted, also from its figure. f either single subservient darga, ^, a degree. The reflected | * j ii' * 1 or double, leader, shalsheleth, ]!}, a chain, from [ its figure and modulation. When joined with other points, it is either above or below the letter. When above the letter, it has a small line attached to it on the left, ^) leader paser, the disperser from the diffusion of the note. When below the letter, it is pointed either downward, 2, called royal athnach, respiration, as the voice must rest upon it, and respire; or upward, ^, ?,\\hser\iQnX, Jerah-ben-Jomo, the y moon of its own day, from its figure. on the right on T PLANS OF HEBREW CASES. HE first plan shows a common case for Hebrew without points ; the second exhibits a pair of cases with points. HEBREW. 109 *-\ D 11 1 - *— ID - 3 L :^ n_ •• 1 1 tA - -- y H 1 • t ^ c r 1 ^ - ■- ii ^ % - n r i "3 a .x- c ■ si n n n n :^ 1 a *-» - (- J— r- ^ — 17- :w no HEBRE W. _y c o - •- i: ~ e •J - D o -. :j L J < ^ !tj 1 n V - tj \ c - SJ H 1 z i -1 E •n i 1 1 i a •n \A 1 j T .r r r 13 C 1 - - -- *- J^ D XT n n n n r2_ r r r r ' ' 1 ^ >i % n n CI 1 i 1 HEBREW. - ill Ell erg •siniod 1 ' J|i m. 1 i ;. «-j ^1 •♦ 1 Q - 11 ■■ ^ a r J^ »• - J^ % c n n- r •s 1 c ! Q i es 1 '1 n D .j^ 1 ^g- 1 1 n 1 i 1 r— a — rr :w - 10« J?USSIAA\ RUSSIAN ALPHABET. Form. Sound. Form. Sound. For M. Sound. A . a ah, a. I M . M m. m lU ch. E . 6 b. H . H n. m. m sh-tch. B . B V. . or ah -h ■L >nuie e. r . r g, gh. II . n P- LI ti we, ee. A . A d. P • P r. B B half-mute e. E . e yai or ai. C . c /larj s or ss. ^ t yai or ai. ae . 3K zsh. T . T t. 3 3 ai. 3 . 3 z. y • y oo. K) H) you, ew. H . U ee. $ . * f, ph. .a fl yah. I . i ee. X . X kh, c^. e e f, ph. K . K k. u . u ts. V V e. JI . JI 1 (guttural). ^ . q ch, tch. •a a short e. r, X, e, .1, m, t, ti, L, i, fi, 0, ii, are the only letters whose pro- nunciation offers any difficulty. r has a sound nearly like^ in the Eno-hsh \ioxA goose, as in rij^uia, a peaj-; read grooshah. But it has a guttural sound not found in English, and which nearly resembles that of the German c^. This sound is especially perceivable in the middle of a word when the r is followed by a consonant, also at the end of a word, as in Horni, the nails ; read ndi)tee. In inflec- tions aro, jiro, oro, ero of adjectives and pronouns, the letter r is pronounced as v; as in Ki)aeHaro, of beautiful ; read krasnavah. E has three different sounds: i. In Russian words, and in all syllables in which it is preceded by a vowel, e has a sound like that o{ yai, when the j' is nearly sunk in the pronunciation, as in CMy, to him; read yaimod. 2. At the beginning of words from foreign languages, and at the middle and end of a word when preceded by a consonant, it has the sound of e in met, as in Cepery, I guard ; read bayregod. 3. In the termination CKX of diminutives, in all the characteristic inflections of cases in the nouns, and of persons in the verbs, in fact, in almost all words, this letter when accented has a sound nearly like tliat of short yo or o; as in Kyji(5Kx. a little sack; BCAeuit, thou leadest; MC^t, the honey; read koolydk, vaidyosh, myod. This RUSSIAN. 113 sound yo or of the letter e is commonly distinguished by a diaeresis over the vowel, as KyjieKX, Beaeiut, mcjix. Jl has a guttural sound nearly analogous to the English w. IlHcajii., he wrote, read pisaze/ or p'lsou. Jlh has a soft sound, as in the French word bouillon. X corresponds to the German c^. It is a strong aspiration that nearly resembles the sound k when pronounced hastily from the throat; as in XBa^d, the praise ; read khvahlah. lU, unites the sound of lu and m, as in iuhtt., the shield ; read shtcheet. t. This letter has no sound; the preceding consonant, the last letter of the word, ought to be pronounced a little hollow, as in &ou'i>, a bea?i ; read bop. LI has a sound nearly like we when the zv is pronounced rapidly ; as in CyKBLi, the letters, read bookwe. It has this sound after the consonants 6, b, m, n, * ; but after another consonant it is 'a thick e, as in cmht., the son ; read seen. L. This letter at the end of a word has a sound nearly like that of the very short e. When followed by a consonant in the middle of a word it is mute, but is pronounced when followed by a vowel; as in sHaxB, to knozu ; read znaht. ^ at the beginning of a word has the sound of yai; as in §CTB, to eat ; read yaist. In the middle of a word it is pro- nounced yai, the sound of y being almost sunk ; as in Hin., no; read nyaitt. At the end of a word it is sounded ay. E when accented has the sound of the diphthong yah ; as in flMa, a pit; read yahmah. But if not accented it is pronounced yai, as in ajpo, a ball; read yaidro. The pronoun ea, of her, is pronounced yaiyd, and the syllable ca of pronominal verbs is pronounced sah, as in cxapaxBCfl, to exert one's self; read stahrahtsah. is pronounced as English o; but if unaccented it takes the sound of ah, as in ko.ioko.i-b, a bell ; Ko.ioKO-ia, bells; read kdlahkall, kahlakahla. H is a short e, pronounced very rapidly, as in aafl, give ; read dai or die, giving utterance to a short e after the vowel. In general the pronunciation of Russian words depends especially upon the tonic accent, which is no longer printed in Russian books, except to distinguish some homonymous words, or some grammatical inflections of similar forms ; as s^MoK-B, a castle, and saMOK-B, a lock; read zahmok and zahmok. 114 MUSIC. MUSIC TYPE. IN no department of letter-founding has the progress of improvement been more decided and satisfactory than in the production of music type. The finest work of the music- stamper cannot surpass the ingenious combinations of the type-founder and printer. The music of which specimens are here given is cast on the centre of the body, and any intelli- gent workman may learn to compose it with facility. Brass lines are now furnished with founts when desired. EXCELSIOR. EXCELSIOR No. 2. ^^^^^^^m DIAMOND No. i. DIAMOND No. 2 W-f^ ^ ^ l«N DIAMOND No. 3. . . , AGATE No. 3. :^jriSja I NONPAREIL No. 3. ^S^=P MUSIC. "5 COMPARATIVE TABLE OF BODIES. —3. — ^ — ^ 1 1 6 MUSIC. MUSIC COMPOSITION. A KNOWLEDGE of the rudiments of the art of music is essential to the correct composition of music type ; for, unless the compositor is acquainted with the relative time- values of the notes and rests, he cannot space them properly. The manuscript copy is given to the compositor, with direc- tions regarding the dimensions of the page required and the size of type to be employed. He counts the number of mea- sures in the piece, and allots to each measure the amount of ems in length which the page will permit, so that there shall be a general equality of space throughout the piece. In instrumental music, and in pieces which are not interlined with poetry, the compositor will set two or more staves simul- taneously, ranging the leading notes in the lower staves pre- cisely under the corresponding ones in the upper staff; that is, a certain amount of space in each staff, in a brace, must contain the same amount of time-value. Where lines of poetry are interspersed, as in ballads and in church music, the staves are necessarily set singly; and in composing the second, third, and fourth staves the workman must therefore constantly refer to the first, in order to make the staves correspond. A good compositor will be careful to make the lines overlap each other, brick-wise, and not allow a joint to fall directly under another. Masters who aim to do cheap rather than good work have the music lines cast double or triple, to expedite composition. Such work has a very slovenly look, as the joints of the lines, coming under one another, are apparent in the entire depth of the staff. We have seen books set in this manner, in which all the lines seem to be composed of dotted rule, instead of a continuous stroke. The compositor should be careful to make the stems of all the notes in a page of the same length, e.xcept those of grace- notes, which should be about half as long. PLAN OF CASES. THE following plan of cases was arranged by the music typographer, J. M. Armstrong of Philadelphia, expressly for the founts of nuisic cast by The MacKellar, Smiths & Jor- dan Co., specimens of which are shown on page 114. A table of comparative bodies is given on page 115. MUSIC. 117 ( [ 1 1 -sar -ISBT J3- J3- Q|0 ( [ ( ' \ *^ _£^ _fcj p ( { \ a*t*fc _M. ^ ( V ([ i =**: -ua^ Ct5 ( ^ ([ ^ ^ D ^ I ■« H ?. H D ^ ^{ § •0 Q ij tc i-> @ !! e o « *>> N ^ =+< 1 c " » >< £ <¥i' 1 . CI c3 - l"""*^^ ^^ a> A 1 ■rJ = «j i^ « „ s 18 ai « ^ -- ■ 1 s - e- - s Y. ■ 126 COJMFOSITION. X Ci o s b- ^ - > 9 CO tc ^ •• 1 1 ..0 ■- ' .. i! -9< X a Li 1 CO >> 1 i '' - eS 1 !D - a ■*^ •3 = i5 g 1 li - a 1 i ■a 33 ^ - ? 1 N ■/•. c 1 POSITIOX— LAYING TYPE. 127 POSITION. THE standing position of a compositor should be perfectly upright, without stiffness or restraint; the shoulders thrown back, the feet firm on the floor, heels nearly closed, and toes turned out to form an angle of about forty-five degrees. The head and body should be kept perfectly steady, except when moving from the Roman to the Italic case, the operations of distributing and composing being performed by the various motions of the arm, from the shoulder-joint alone; and if, to reach a box placed in the further part of the cases, to put in or take out a letter, he should incline the body by a slight motion, he should immediately resume his erect position. The height of a compositor and his frame should be so adjusted that his right elbow may just clear the front of the lower case by the a and r boxes, without the smallest elevation of the shoulder-joint; his breast will then be opposite the space, h, and e boxes. Sitting at work should be rarely permitted, ex- cept for lameness, weakness, old age, or other infirmity ; and then the stool should be a small piece of board fastened to a single leg. Habit will render a standing position familiar and easy; perseverance in conquering a little fatigue will be amply repaid by the prevention of knock knees, round shoulders, and obstructed circulation of the blood and respiration of the lungs. LAYING TYPE. UNWRAP carefully the page received from the type- founder, and, laying it on a galley, soak it thoroughly with thin soap-water, to prevent the types from adhering to one another after they have been used a short time. Then, with a stout rule or reglet, lift as many lines as will make about an inch in thickness, and, placing the rule close up on one side of the bottom of the proper box, slide off" the lines gently, taking care not to rub the face of the letter against the side of the box. Proceed thus with successive lines till the box is filled. Careless compositors are prone to huddle new types to- gether, and, grasping them up by handfuls, plunge them pell- mell into the box, rudely jostling them about to crowd more in. This is an intolerable practice. 128 . DIS TRIE UTING. The type left over should be kept standing on galleys, in regular order, till the cases need replenishment. A fount of five hundred pounds of Pica may have, say, four cases allotted to it ; the same amount of Nonpareil, from eight to ten cases. DISTRIBUTING. WHEN a learner can infallibly distinguish from each other the letters b and q, d and p, n and u, and 1 and I, he may be allowed to distribute type for himself. The head of the page being turned toward him, the learner sets a composing-rule behind the portion to be lifted, and then, placing his thumbs against the rule and his forefingers against the top line, while his remaining fingers press together both sides, he raises the matter quickly. Then, inclining sidewise his right hand, he removes the left, and allows the matter to balance momentarily in his right, while he doubles in the third finger and stretches out the thumb of the left for the reception of the matter, which he at once places in it, the rule lying as a support on the third finger, while the thumb and other fin- gers embrace the sides. He should take up but a few lines at a time, until he acquires facility in lifting. Large handfuls should always be avoided, as the weight is fatiguing and weakening to the wrist. Keeping the handful in an inclined position, so that he may readily read the lines, he takes up as many letters as he can conveniently hold between his fingers, — an entire word, if practicable, — and drops the types slantingly, but with face upward, into the several boxes. The first aim of the learner must be accuracy, even though his progress be slow. Correct distribution aids in clean com- position. In time he will be able to drop his types rapidly, with hardly a glance at the boxes; and, while his fingers are fiying aljout correctly and expeditiously, his eyes will take in the next word to be distributed; thus proceeding till the case is filled. In distributing, the utmost care should be taken in placing the various spaces in their appropriate boxes. A mixing of spaces characterizes tlie botch. The letter-board should always be kept clean, and the bot- tom as well as the face of the form well washed before it is COMPOSING. 1 29 laid on the board and unlocked; for, if any dirt remain in the type after the form is unlocked, it will sink into the matter. This precaution taken, the pages should be well opened, and the whole form washed till the water appears to run from it in a clean state. If the form is very dirty, it is best to lock it up again and rinse the bottom of it, and proceed as before. It is sometimes necessary to dry the letter at the fire after distributing. In this case, the type should not be used until it is perfectly cold, as very pernicious effects arise from the anti- mony in the composition of which the type is made. The noxious vapour which arises is sufficient warning of the effects. The compositor ought always to avoid it as a pestilence which will affect his respiration and his sinews, inducing lung-complaints, and causing paralysis of the hand or contrac- tion of the fingers. Where it can be conveniently managed, it is better to distribute at night, or before meals, so that the letter may dry without artificial heat. COMPOSING. WHEN copy is put into the hands of the compositor, he should receive directions respecting the width and length of the page ; whether it is to be leaded, and with white lines between the breaks; and whether any particular method is to be followed in the punctuation and in the adoption of capitals. These instructions being given, the compositor will make his measure to the number of ems directed, which is done by laying them flatwise in the composing-stick, and then screwing it up sufficiently tight to prevent the slide from moving. He then fits a composing-rule to the measure, and, his case being supplied with letter, he commences his work. The left hand, which contains the composing-stick, should always follow the right, which takes up the letters. If the left be kept stationary, considerable time is lost in bringing each letter to the stick, because the right hand has, consequently, to traverse a much greater space than is necessary. The eye should always precede the hand, constantly seeking for the ne.xt letter while the fingers are picking up one just selected. Each letter should be taken up by the upper end. This method will effectually prevent any false motion, and preclude 13° COMPOSING. the necessity of turning the letter when in the hand. If pos- sible, a sentence of the copy should be taken at one time, and, while putting in the point and quadrate at the end of the sen- tence, the eye may revert to the copy for the next. It is to dexterity in these particulars that compositors are indebted for swiftness. The time thus gained is very considerable, while all appearance of bustle or fatigue is avoided. By taking a sentence into the memory at one time, the connection of the subject is preserved, and the punctuation rendered less difficult. Those who are careful in distribution find the advantage of it in composition. Foul or slovenly workmanship is disgrace- ful. To avoid this, a compositor should accustom himself to glance over each line as he justifies it, and correct any error as he proceeds, which he may do with little impediment to his progress. SPACING. Uniformity in spacing is, vmquestionably, a most important part of a compositor's occupation ; this requires both care and judgment, and, therefore, cannot be too strongly impressed upon the mind of the beginner. Close spacing is as unwork- manlike as wide spacing, and neither ought to be permitted except in very narrow measures; and, frequently, even then with care it might partly be prevented. What is commonly called the thick space is the proper separator between words ; though this rule cannot always be adhered to in narrow measures when large type is used. It is not sufficient merely to have a line here and there uniformly spaced : a careful com- positor will give every page that uniformity of appearance which is a chief excellency. The beginner should remember that it is better to do little, and do that little well, than to put together a great number of letters without any regard to accuracy and uniformity. Where a line is evenly spaced, and yet requires justification, the additional space should be put between those words in the line where it will be least observable : viz. a d and an h, being tall, i^erpendicular letters, will admit an increase of space between them, but not more than a middle and thin space to a thick-spaced line ; and an additional space may be placed after a kerned letter, the beak of which may bear upon the top of an ascending letter, — as the f followed by h, &c. COMPOSING. 131 The same rule should be observed where it is necessary to reduce the spacing of a line, less space being required after a sloping letter than after a perpendicular one. The comma requires only a thick space, but the other points should have a hair space before and an en quadrate after them, except the full-point, which should have an em quadrate, as terminating a sentence. Should it be necessary to reduce the spacing generally, the spaces after the points must be altered in the same proportion. Spaces are cast to such regular gradations that the compositor can urge no reasonable excuse either for bad justification or improper spacing. In matter to be stereotyped, a hair space should be placed after the letter f and other kerned letters when they stand at the end of the line. JUSTIFYING. Accurate justification is absolutely essential, as the letters will be warped sidewise in a loose line, making it impossible to get a fair impression from the type. Besides, the letters are liable to be drawn out by the suction of the rollers, to the de- triment of the form and the press. The instructor of an apprentice should occasionally pass his finger along the side of matter set by him ; and if the lines should not prove evenly justified, they should be put into the composing-stick again and properly corrected. HEAD-LINES. Head-lines are generally set in small capitals of the same fount, or in Italic, and sometimes in capitals. Italic capitals of letter somewhat smaller than the body of the work, with folios of a proportionate size, have a neat appearance. The usual rule for note-type is two sizes less than the text of the work : thus, to Pica work. Long Primer ; Small Pica, Bourgeois; Long Primer, Brevier. Side-notes are usually smaller in proportion. When side-notes or references drive down below the lines of the text to which they refer, the expe- dient of cut-in notes must be resorted to. This is a difficult 132 COMPOSING. part of a compositor's business, and requires skill and patience to adjust all parts, so that every line of note and text may have proper and equal bearing. The reglet or lead between the lines of matter and the side-note must be cut with as much nicety as possible to the length of the text, as far as where the note is to run under ; and, having accurately adjusted, by means of the quotations and justifiers, the situation of the first line of the note, such lead or reglet is added to the text as will make it precisely correspond in depth with the lines of note that stand on the side before turning: the remainder of the note is then set in a long measure, to correspond in width with the text, reglet, and side-note ; and the page is made up with note, or the text begun again after the note is finished. In Bibles with notes and annotations, in law-books, and other works, it frequently happens that a page exhibits several of these alternate frameworks of note and text, which, if done well, display a workman's skill to great advantage. BLANKING. If the work is very open, consisting of heads, whites, &c., the compositor must be particularly attentive to their depth ; so that though the white may be composed of difterent-sized quadrates, yet their ultimate depth must be equal to the regu- lar body of the type the work is done in ; otherwise the register of the work will be incomplete. The pressman cannot make the lines back if the compositor is not careful in making up his matter. PARAGRAPHS. The first line of a new paragraph is indented an em quad- rate, of whatever type the work may be ; though, when the measure is very wide, two or even three ems are preferable. By this means the paragraph is more strongly marked, the indention of an em only being scarcely perceptible in a long line. Authors vary materially in the mode of making para- graphs. Some carry the argument of a position to a great length before they relieve the attention of tlie reader; while others break off at almost every place that will admit only of a full-point. But the author's plan is to be followed, unless he direct otherwise. Authors should always make the begin- ning of a new paragraph conspicuous to the compositor, by COMPOSING. 133 indenting the first line of it far enough to distinguish it from the preceding line in case it should be quite full. It is a practice too prevalent among compositors to drive out a word at the close of a paragraph, or even to divide it, in order to reap the advantage of a break-line. Part of a word, or a complete word, in a break-line, if it contain no more than three or four letters, is improper. It should be the business of the proof-reader to notice and check this irregularity. The last line of a paragraph should not on any account begin a page, neither should the first line of a paragraph come at the bottom of a page if the work has white lines between the breaks : to prevent this, the compositor may make his page either long or short, as most convenient, always taking care that the odd and even pages back, so that the extra length or shortness of the page may escape observation. INDEXES. The index is generally placed at the end of the volume, and set in letter two sizes less than that of the work. It is always begun upon an uneven page. In setting an index, the subject' line should not be indented; but, if the article make more than one line, all but the first should be indented an em. In preparing the copy of an index, care should be taken that the subject-words are arranged alphabetically, as the compositor will not transpose his matter afterward without remuneration. Where several index-figures are used in succession, a com- ma is put after each folio ; but, to save figures and commas, the succession of the former is noted by putting a dash between the first and last figures: thus, 4-8. Again, if an article has been collected from two pages, the folio of the second is sup- plied by sq., or sequente, and by sqq., or seqiiientibus, when an article is touched upon in succeeding pages. A full-point is not put after the last figures, because it is thought that their standing at the end of the line is a sufficient stop. Neither is a comma or a full-point placed to the last word of an article in a wide measure and open matter with leaders; but it is proper to use a comma at the end of every article where the figures are put close to the matter, instead of running them to the end of the line. 134 COMPOSING. TITLES. Ornamental tj-pe may be used to good purpose in fancy- jobs, and without violating any of tlie canons of a correct taste. The universal eye is pleased with ornament; and it is well to foster this fancy, just as we cultivate a poetical feeling, or a passion for music, or flowers, or any beautiful thing that God has made. But, as life should not be all music, or flowers, or poetry, so printing should not be all ornament. And as men whom nature puts in the fore-front of all other men are noted for a becoming simplicity of life and style, so the title-page that heralds all the inner pages of a book should be printed in a style of elegance severe and unadorned: no fancy type, except a line of Scribe Text, or Old English, — no italics, unless perchance a single-line motto in Pearl caps, — no bold-face type, nor Antique, nor Gothic, — but plain, clear, light-faced letters that seem the embodiment of the soul of thought. All experienced printers incline to this simple style ; but pub- lishers sometimes interfere with this province of art legitimate only to a typographer, and insist on the indulgence of a taste which certainly owes no allegiance to any of the laws of beauty; and the printer or stereotyper who executes the book receives credit for a title-page which he would fain utterly repudiate. We add a few hints which may assist the learner, ist. Having divided the title into lines, and decided upon the size of type suitable for the principal one, begin by composing those of the second and third class, both in ascending and de- scending order. 2d. Avoid having two lines of equal length to follow or come in contact with each other. 3d. Catch-words should be set on quite a reduced scale, and proportioned ac- cording to the strength of the preceding and succeeding lines; for bold catch-words detract from the general effect of the title. 4th. Close attention should be given to those title-pages which are acknowledged to be displayed with true taste and judgment. Authors should endeavour to make their title-pages as con- cise as possible; for a crowded title can never be displayed with elegance or taste. COMPOSING. 135 DEDICATIONS. The dedication generally follows the title, and seldom ex- ceeds one page. It should be set in capitals and small capitals, neatly displayed. The name of the person to whom the work is dedicated should always be in capitals, and the terms. Your very humble and very obedient, &c., should be in a smaller type, and the signature or name of the author in capitals of a smaller size than that in which the name of the personage is printed to whom the book is dedicated. CONTENTS. The contents follow the preface or introduction, and may be set either in Roman or Italic, generally two sizes smaller than the body of the work; the first line of each summary full, and the rest indented an em quadrate, with the referring figures justified at the ends of the respective lines. PREFACES. Formerly, the preface was uniformly set in Italic ; at present Roman is used, one size larger or smaller than the body of the work. The running title to the preface is commonly set in the same manner as that of the body of the work. If the work has been printed without a running title, and paged in the centre of the line only, then the preface should be treated in like manner. SIGNATURING. The title, preface, &c. of a volume are commonly left till the body of the work is finished, as circumstances may arise in the course of its progress through the press which will induce the author to alter his original preface, date, &c., or the work may conclude in such a m.anner as to admit of their being brought in at the end, in order to fill out a sheet, and thus save both paper and press-work. For this reason, it is well to begin the first sheet of every work with signature B (or 2), leaving A (or i) for the title-sheet. It was forrnerly the custom to omit the letters J, V, and W in the list of signatures. But the greater convenience attend- ing the use of twenty-five letters has recently induced several of our largest establishments to omit the letter J only. 12* 136 COMPOSING. ERRATA. The errata are put immediately before the body of the work, or at the end of it. They should consist only of such cor- rections as are indispetisahly necessary, without noticing any defects in the punctuation, unless where the sense is perverted. It is strongly to be wished that works could be produced per- fectly free from errors ; but this is almost a vain hope while imperfection clings to humanity, and while every form is ex- posed to accident and every additional proof may be produc- tive of fresh error. HINTS HONOURED IN THE BREACH. WHEN you lay a fount of new type, don't open the papers carefully, and place the lines evenly with a brass rule in the cases, nick up; but show your skill by tumbling over each package rapidly, and bringing it down with a rush on the imposing-stone; then, roughly throwing the a"s into a chaotic pile, grab them up by handfuls and work them well down in the appropriate box. The harder you jostle them down, the more you will get in. Proceed thus with each letter; and, if the operation has been vigorously performed, the value of the fount will have been reduced, say ten per cent. 2. While you set out one case, let your galley lie on the overheaped type of another case. 3. If a line is rather too tight to permit the last letter to get in easily, push it down hard with your rule or a quadrate. The type may be injured; but why didn't it tit in just right at first? 4. Empty your matter at a gentle inclination on the galley, and make it up at the same angle. You can bring it right afterward — perhaps — by the energetic aj^plication of mallet, shooting-stick, and planer. 5. When the case is half set out, shake up the type ener- getically, and do so very often. The exercise will strengthen your muscles. 6. Don't brush off the stone before you lay the matter down. If any sand happens to get under, the type will show its im- pression beautifully deep and clear on the face of the planer, — perhaps a whole word or two. TO THE APPRENTICE. 137 7. Don't plane till the form is locked up, as thus you save the trouble of the first planing. But, now that you do plane, hammer away, and show your musical ability in playing a tattoo on the form. Don't lay the planer tenderly and lovingly on the types, as if you were afraid to hurt their feelings, and gently tap it ; but hold it off about a quarter or three-eighths of an inch, and then bring down the mallet wdth a will. Phew ! how the planer will descend obedient to the stroke, and re- bound again, and perhaps again. If the form is not smooth on the surface now, it is not your fault. Repeat this each time when the form is locked up, till it goes to press; and you may depend on it the impression will gain in boldness, if not in looks. 8. When correcting your numerous errors, don't trouble yourself to lift the lines carefully at the ends, but dig right into the head of the erring letter, and, resting your bodkin on the type below it, pry up the sinner: it does not matter if you de- molish two or three types in the under line. 9. Wash your form energetically, and apply the ley bounti- fully with a good stiff wiry brush. Never mind rinsing : clean type is an old-fogy notion. 10. When the type is out of use, let it lie around promis- cuously,— on a table, or board, or any place where it will be occasionally convenient to lay on it a mallet or tin basin. If one strip of matter is placed on another, room will be econo- mized. Moreover, the under layers will be safe from dust. II (comprehensively). Do every thing in a loose way gene- rally, letting matters go as they list, throwing your pi into spare boxes or secretly placing it on the letter-table or some out-of- the-way place, stealing sorts from your neighbour, overcharg- ing time-work and extras, fishing for fat takes, &c. 12. If you observe these things faithfully and constantly, and your employer does not kick you out of his office, why — you do not get your deserts. TO THE APPRENTICE. ASPIRING apprentice, a word or two in your ear. If you - desire success in any matter pertaining to this life or the coming, you must have a purpose, — a determination that, God helping you, you will achieve success. You may be poor, 138 TO THE APPRENTICE. friendless, unknown, — your clothing scant, your stomach half filled, — your place may be at the foot of the ladder : no matter. Whatever your position may be, do your duty in it, stoutly and perseveringly, with your eye fixed far ahead and upward. Keeping the purpose before you that you will rise, be obe- dient to your employer, attentive to your business, obliging to your shopmates, and courteous to strangers ; and seize every opportunity to improve your heart, your mind, and your work- manship. Do every thing well, — no slighting, no hiding de- fects, aiming always at perfection. Watch those who are skilful, and strive to equal and excel them. Secure the friend- ship of all by deserving it. Allow no opportunity of rendering a service to pass without improving it, even if it cost you some labour and self-denial. Be of use to others, even if in a small way ; for a time may come when they may be of service to you. A selfish man may get ahead faster than you ; but selfishness is contemptible, — and you need not envy his success : when you achieve your object nobly, you will enjoy it, and be re- spected. Always bear in mind that character is capital. To gain this, you must be so scrupulously honest that you would be as willing to put live coals in your pocket as a penny that is not yours. Never run in debt: do without what you cannot at once pay for, even thougli you should suffer somewhat. No matter what the amount of your earnings may be, save a portion every week, and invest it in a savings-bank of good standing: it will grow, and will stand you in good stead some day. Bet- ter temporary abstinence and constant plenty afterward, than unearned present comfort and future perpetual want. Never lie, openly or covertly, by word or action. A liar may deceive his fellows, — God and himself never. Conscious of falsity, a liar can have no self-respect ; without self-respect, reputation cannot be achieved. With a noble purpose as the end of all your actions, and with actions becoming your purpose, your success is merely a question of time, — always provided you have some brain and abundant common sense. TO BEGINXERS. 139 TO BEGINNERS. SANGUINE beginners sometimes fail in their attempts to establish themselves in business ; and in many cases are disposed to lay the blame on every thing and on everybody except themselves. So we here give some rules — (in an ironi- cal way, to make them stick in the memory) — HOW NOT TO SUCCEED. 1. Get from your father, uncle, aunt, grandmother, or some- body, four or five thousand dollars. You need not give notes or any written obligations, as they may prove troublesome some day. 2. Rent a comfortable room somewhere, no matter whether in a business centre or not, but let it be showy and pleasant. 3. Spend one-fourth of your capital in furnishing the room with matters of personal comfort. Provide an elegant desk, a luxurious lounge, and a pivot-chair: why shouldn't the mas- ter of a printing office "take it easy"? Have a closet in your desk, it is so handy for your whisky-bottle and cigar-boxes. 4. Get all you can from the type-founder, press-maker, and paper-manufacturers. If they will give you credit for one-half of what you buy, well and good : if they trust you for the whole amount, all the better for you, and the more money you will have on hand for jollifications. 5. Put up your sign — a handsome one — and signalize its erection by keeping "open house" for all comers between 11 a.m. and midnight. The mothers and wives of all who become tight and go home loose will long remember your public spirit. 6. Be at your office by nine in summer and ten in winter; and, following Charles Lamb's witticism, that he who goes to work late should quit early, you need not return after dinner. Let your foreman attend to the business: isn't he paid for it? 7. When you do go into your office, curse and grumble I40 TO BEGINNERS. promiscuously, and be sure to swear at the apprentices, to show your spirit, and to let them know that you are master. Be careful never to praise them or any of the hands, or they may think they are worth higher wages. 8. Take work at any price that will keep it from a compe- titor, no matter whether it pays or not. Perhaps you can save something by giving short numbers, counting in imperfect copies, using very common ink, &c. The style is of no con- sequence : you want to make money if you can, let others improve the typographical art if they choose. 9. Cultivate the acquaintance of fancy folk, politicians, and wit-livers. A fast horse or two wouldn't be a bad thing to bind their friendship ; and, besides, you will never be at a loss for a companion in your rides. 10. If you want new type, and the founder who made your outfit won't sell to you unless you pay off the old score, trans- fer your patronage to another foundry. How can you expect to get along if you pay your debts? Such a course would compel you to sell your horse and to taboo rum-shops and gay saloons, and to live economically ; and this, you know, wouldn't do at all. 11. Get out a newspaper, and advocate the principles of the strongest party, swearing thick and thin through every thing. You need not bother yourself about writing original matter; crib wherever you can. There are plenty of fellows who want office, — lawyers particularly, — and they will write slang enough to fill your columns. You might quietly levy a little black-mail or hush-money from neighbours guilty of indiscretions: dirty money will buy as much as clean. J 2. You needn't marry, unless some fond rich girl should happen to fancy a fool. You know, you need not trouble your- self much about her after you have secured her money: let her father look after her welfare. If she dies broken-hearted, why — she ought not to have been so sensitive. 13. You may be troubled occasionally by a qualm of con- science ; but this can be settled by a dram or two. After a few doses, conscience will go to sleep, and trouble you no more, unless you should happen to see a Bible or hear a sermon, which as a matter of course you will try to avoid. It is true, wreck and ruin will be sure to overtake you, and the devil will catch you at last; l)ut why worry yourself before the time? IMPOSING, OR PREPARING FOR PRESS. ivm ai 1B4) -poojo Jtiouiju •,4Jf>;^ 10 00 l-H * 158 IMPOSITION. Inner Form of a Sheet of Common Octavo, 9 IT 01 I ; 3 14 15 o Inner For m of a Shee tof Oc tavo, the Br oad Way. Cji o - -f > M r- c; CO J IMPOSITION. 159 Outer Form of Two Half-Sheets of Common Octavo, worked together. \ 5 s I 1 A 8 5 4 B alf a Sheet of Coi nmon Octav 0. \ e 9 8 1 8 7 2 14* i6o IMPOSITION. Inner Form of Two Half-Sheets of Common Octavo, worked together. z 9 8 I 1 1 s 6 7 2 1 Two Qu arte rs of a Shee tof 3tavo, work edt ogether. z o t 11 T 1 4 3 o 1^ IMPOSITION. i6i Outer Form of a Sheet of Octavo, 12 of the Work, and 4 of other Matter. c £ 8 e 1 A 12 9 4 Outer F orn 1 of a Sheet of Oct avo, of Hebi -ew Work. c 9 z\ 6 8 4 13 16 1 l62 IMPOSITION. Inner Form of a Sheet of Octavo, 12 of the Work, and 4 of other Matter. 10 11 Inner Form of a Sheet of Octavo, of Hehrew WorL I 01 IT 9 2 15 14 3 IMPOSITION. 163 Outer Form of a Sheet of Octavo, Imposec the Centre. . from Z\ e 8 6 13 4 1 A 16 A Half -Sh eet of Octa\ ro, Im Dosed from the Centre. 9 8 \ e 7 2 1 A 8 164 IMPOSITION. Inner Form of a Sheet of Octavo, Imposed from the Centre. 01 I 9 II 15 2 3 14 Two Qi lart Brs of a Sh th( eet of ) Cent Octavo, Im re. pos( )d from f z /■ z 3 « 1 A 4 L IMPOSITION. 165 > - CO 1— 1 CT> -i 1 to t^ 2 hJ^ I— "—I >-»» ^ ^ CT> ti =0 J iO a> < 1 w «o ►— 1 CD 1-J S^ § t-s Oi lO tc " " 03 CD CD to 00 ■* 00 " 1-^ ^ a> • I-" 00 (71 1—' <75 OS ?1 CO (M C-1 >*^ ^ "3 ^ 05 CO -X. - Oi to t- 1—1 15 1 68 IMPOSITIOX. ► - - 1 . >- B M 3» «^ S o 13 V cr - - X c •-* —9 « p 1 U M » 1 1 ^ - 'I*' « =" 1 r M 06 ac o ' af s - - 1 -- © « M CC a a ^ 1 IMPOSITION. 169 i 1 CO !M «2 >;^ I— 1 •< I> 00 TC CD a> S3- >-^ 1 CO (M 00 - ^ I— 1 ■x> bO CO !>• > - -* 00 I-" to a> '3 lyo IMPOSITION. to o CO 1^1 -H >^ lO Oi > ^ 00 IM o ^^s t^ CO ^ 4- < ►— * - s ■73 o CO 1 l=»- tii CO 1 Tf< I— ( o B 13- c:^ to I^ -^ CO a> o; CO o to OS to '" " IMPOSITION. 171 Outer Form of a Sheet of Long Twelves. > ■— ' -V Oi CO «o "M 00 10 ^I -M ( )iie -third, 01 To be irr 8 pag posed as es, a s of ip, c a Sheet of Twel r in the off-cross. ves • 1 A 8 OiitPr Form. 4 15« 172 IMPOSITION. Inner Form of a Sheet of Long Twelves. CO c-i h*^ ■0 - 05 t-- CD CO to to - CO ( he -third, 01 To be irr ' 8 pag posed as es, of i a slip, c I Sheet of Twel r in the off-cross. ves . 3 a2 6 7 fnmt. 2 - IMPOSITION. 173 174 IMPOSITION. — - 1 U^ P5 *■ ^ -f< Tl CD 1 -^ ■• ' ! 1 •D •— ^ (X iC CC TO -^ ^ -~ <1 2. ? ^ 3 ^1 '^ -f i to 01? C3 tz. 3 en - X -1 ■ri > 1 w P5 tj ^_. »-0 ^ '"' o t3- O ^^ Tl ^ -r oc V* 1— — 1 ?3- CO 1 1 1 IMPOSITION. 175 ^ _ w I^ tc C5 tc 1-H T^ i?*" i| 2 > l^0 rt< to GO s CO Oi H c-^ CE> 1-^ (X Oi to iC B-' » OT ^ e^ (_. t3 a> crq es ti CO t^ c -* CV ■M tc 'i\ k4 "5 5- *? CO CO H- ' s _ CO t* lO •^ M 176 IMPOSITIOX. A Half-Sheet ( Containing )f EighteeES 16 pages. (1) SI 1 9 II \ SI 8 6 ^i S 1 A 16 7 1 10 15 2 A Ha If-Shee t c 1 f Eight eens (2) \\ 5 01 6 9 81 i ?' 91 z\ I 91 8 1 18 11 1 8 17 2 (•) The white paper of this half-sheet being worked off, the centre pages mu be transposed, — viz. pages 7 and 10 in the room of 9 and 8, and pages 9 and in the place of 7 and 10 : when this is done, your imposition will be true. OWhen the white paper is worked off, transpose the form, — viz. pages 1 and 8 in the room of 7 and 12, and pages 7 and 12 in the place of 11 and 8 this being done, the sheet will then fold up right. St 8 I IMPOSITION. \11 Outer Form of a Sheet of Eighteens, together. to be folded 5 32 29 8 17 20 \ 88 8S 6 91 \Z 1 A 36 25 12 13 24 Outer For in of '(. iSh eet of Eighteens, witl lOneS )igllj iture. 01 LZ 9S II OS ZI 8 66 Z2 e ?;s C'l 1 A 36 33 4 23 14 ^, 178 IMPOSITION. Inner Form of a Sheet of Eighteens, together. to be folded 1 19 is ' 30 31 (5 oo c-[ 01 lo fC 8 23 14 11 , 26 1 35 2 Inner Fo] m of a SI leet of Eighteens, wit iOneJ Sign ature. KI f;i r.i to So -,v 6 91 \7. n I!-: oj; J 1 •i\ 1 34 35 "" IMPOSITION. 179 Outer Form of a Sheet of Eigkteens , with Two Signatures. 8V Z\ 81 9T 6 9 / 8 l\ Oo e f 6 1 24 21 4 1 12 A B Outer Form of a I Sheet of Eighteens Signatures. with Three 1) ; TA TTA 9 L • 6 AT 6 f 6 1 12 i 12 1 12 A B c 16 iSo IMPOSITION. Inner Form of a Sheet of Eight Signatures. eens , with Two s 6" 9 01 SI n II 01 f; 9 61 81 > 1 11 2 3 A 2 22 23 2 In] ner Form of a L Sheet of Eight Signatures. sens with Th] ree ,v IITA oil A 8 ol (Ij in 01 \ 11 1 11 " ii 11 o 1 IMPOSITION. A Half-Sheet of Eighteens, without Transposition/** 9 L 81 1 ' 8 5 \ 6 91 QI 01 8 1 A 12 13 B 14 11 2 A Hal f-Shee t of Ti A^'enties, with Tw( ) Signs itures. a Ki vj- en CO (M Oo wi GO h- ' o 1—1 t-H ^ CO •<1 CD 1— t l«. eo 1 Oi ^ rH < OThis mode of imposition is very objectionable, as there will be, when the paper is cut up, three single leaves. IMPOSITION. Inner Form of ; I Sheet of Twenties. 1 o - C' o ■M I- CC to c~. CC 05 CO to CO -* M to CO 3C CO \ ^ I~ }i- - CC uter For m of i Sheet of Twentie s. -J CC CC (M -f .4- -.0 to CC ?i l,r li r^ to •71 -r o ■o Ol C. - 1 IMPOSITION. ^^l A Half-Sheet of Twenty-Fours. ol 81 91 6 01 51 ^I IT 8 L\ Oo 9 61 81 l^ 1 A 24 1 21 4 3 22 23 2 Outer Form of a Sheet of Twenty-Fours, with Two Signatures. SI 91 8 :i OS e 24 21 98 Z8 Of 88 68 If ?t 6 25 B 48 45 28 Itj* 1 84 IMPOSITION. A Half-Sheet of Twenty-Fours, the Sixteen-way. 6 So oo 8 91 6 7 18 19 6 13 12 8 il Oo o ^I 11 1 A 24 21 4 15 10 Inner Form of a Sheet of Twenty-Fours, with Two Signatures. fZ G8 88 S'8 01 ei n IT m c^ r.t- li: 9 61 81 L 27 46 47 2(5 3 22 23 2 IMPOSITION. 185 A Half-Sheet of Twenty-Fours, without Inset. s ei 01 L 81 8S 3 14 11 6 19 22 \ 81 6 1 e or. To 1 A 16 9 8 17 a2 24 A Half-Sheet of Twenty-Fours, without Inset. 81 8S se. 61 Oo \z \z 8 6 61 e 9 TI 01 Z 1 A 16 13 14 15 1 86 IMPOSITION. A Half-Sheet of Twenty-Fours, without CuttiDg. 5 20 17 8 1 1 < 18 19 6 "•▼ \ 1 6 91 6 01 51 "-T- 8 1 24 13 12 11 14 23 2 A A Half-Sheet of Thirty-Twos. \ 6^ %Z tj 1 1 9 LZ 08 8 13 20 21 12 11 A 6 22 19 14 - !tl 11 \T- (1 01 r;s 81 51 1 ;>•) 2") s ;i ( 26 31 2 A IMPOSITION. 187 Outer Form of a Sheet of Tliirty-Twos. 19 98 66 I 13 a7 52 45 20 8r, Ui 09 21 44 53 12 91 m 8^ L\ 64 33 32 \Z 11- 95 6 25 40 Outer Form of a Sheet of Thirty-Twos, with Four Signatures. og 89 o9 19 98 c-f- 8f a 88 55 58 59 54 37 44 41 40 8 6 r.t 5 ZZ LZ- 9S ?Z 1 A 10 13 4 19 30 31 18 1 88 IMPOSITION. Inner Form of a Sheet of Thirty-Twos. 9 69 88 LZ 08 98 S9 8 11 54 43 22 19 46 51 14 01 es* Z\ 8S 81 l\ 05 91 7 58 39 26 31 34 63 2 Inner Form of a Sheet of Thirty-Twos, with Four Signatures. t-8 L\ 9^ 39 42 43 38 53 60 57 56 19 f9 ^\ \Z 9o '^Z \Z 9 II 01 r^ 29 14 IMPOSITION. 189 A Half-Sheet of Thirty-Twos, with Two Signatures. 81 18 08 61 02 as ZZ a 23 26 27 22 21 28 25 24 8 6 Z\ e 9 II 01 L 1 A 16 13 4 3 14 15 2 A Half-Sheet of Thirty-Twos, 20 pages of the Work, 4 pages of Title, «fec., and 8 of other Matter. 81 61 8 6 ol e 16 13 9 5" T 14 OS 9 II 01 :L 15 L\ 190 IMPOSITION. A Half-Sheet of Thirty- -Si xes. > h-l ■X' «o --J C<1 CO CI 03 5-1 ts5 00 CO •0 CO CO CO CO C<1 to Or CO CO 4- »o - to cr. CO ' t>3 CO «o to IM 4^ lO t- 00 1— ' CO A Ha If-Shee tc f Thirty-Sixes, -w itl lout Cutti ng- > >— ' -r 0. -0 -- -M CO Ci CO CO CO CO CO 10 CO 10 CO 10 -I ci 10 c. oc l~ in OS '-£ - 1 Tj en 1 1 1 - i ^ to to CO CI IMPOSITION. 191 A Half-Sheet of TMrty-Sixes, with Two Signatures. A Half-Sheet of Forties. 91 es 8S 81 OS IS \Z l\ 81 8S SS 61 5 36 33 8 7 34 35 6 ^I LZ 9S ei 9 a2 32 29 12 11 30 31 10 1 A 40 37 4 3 38 39 2 17 192 IMPOSITION. 1 AQi 1 larter- Sheet f Forty-Eights, with Two III II 1 Signatures. 1 .. 1 81 8S 66 61 06 l6 t-6 L\ 8 6 ol e 9 11 01 I 1 16 13 4 3 14 15 2 A A 1 Half-Sl leet of Forty-Eights, with 1 1 1 Twos ignatui res. 1 z 8S 66 8 96 L\ 91- 7 18 19 t; 31 42 43 30 11 14 15 10 .")5 38 39 34 "1 f;T !»T 6 98 18 Of 88 8 l\ OS T-!.' If- \\ 60 1 24 21 4 25 48 45 28 ^ 1 11 IMPOSITION. 193 A Quarter-Sheet of Forty-Eights, without Cutting. 5 20 17 8 - 7 18 19 6 \ \Z 91 6 01 51 ZZ 8 1 24 13 12 11 14 23 2 A 1 A Half-Sheet of Forty-Eights, with Three Signatures. \Z L\ 9f e8 98 G^ 8^ 88 39 42 43 38 37 44 41 40 a 81 IS 08 61 or. 6S S8 l\ 23 26 27 22 21 28 25 24 6 ?1 _e 1 16 13 T II OIJ[_Z, "■ ""2 14 15 194 IMPOSITION. A Common Quarter-Sheet of Forty-Eights. 1 1 1 1 r 1 1 r I I 1 1 1 t If ■■ 1 z\ 81 91 6 01 ex f\ IT 1 s LI Oo e 9 61 81 L 1 A 24 21 4 1 3 22 23 2 A Quarter-Sheet of Sixty-Fours, with Two Signatures. 1 u 81 18 08 61 0? 6o Z2 L\ 23 26 ••>- 22 21 28 25 24 - 8 6 Z\ ^ 9 n 01 ^ 1 16 VA 4 . 3 14 15 2 1 A IMPOSITION. 195 13 20 21 A Common Quarter-Sheet of Sixty-Fours. 6S %z 12 LZ 08 11 22 19 14 91 \z 32 01 SSJ I 81 I |_£I 26 3in FT A Quarter-Sheet of Sixty-Fours, 20 pages of the Work, 8 of Title, and 4 of other Matter. vi 17 20 19 18 SI 16 13 TI 14 01 15 17* 196 IMPOSITION. A Half-Sheet of Sixty-Fours. z 89 f8 18 90 68 85 i 15 50 47 18 23 42 55 10 \\ le 91^ 61 r 52 45 20 21 44 53 12 91 6^ S'l' II \Z If- O'J 6 1 04 3:? 32 'iry 40 ''X 8 A IMP OS I TI ox. 197 A Half-Sheet of Seventy -Twos, with Tl iree Signatures. - ^ 'J5 °= en CO ^1 c-^ ^1 --0 GO I— 1 00 CO 30 CO <£5 CI 10 CO 00 05 OJ CO CO CO 00 CO CO CO 00 05 00 10 CO bO 05 -J CO CO CO "^ 4- <» CO 1^ Ktl 01 10 CO 01 tl CO a:. CO to Ol ^1 CO Ol ^J Or to 05 CO 00 ^ < 198 IMPOSITION. i> 1- « g ^1 CO 1- to s °> s s ^ s 5 S S s a g *- in 21 S g £ 5 ?! " 1 1 1 1 1 1 > m Si oc ^ 05 t^ ^ cj JZ 1 ^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 g CO CO *. 00 00 to ■* CO 05 "-^ s s s 1 " ^ s sg fS S fe 1 1 1 1 1 1 ^' 1 1 I 1 1 1 g. «o e^ CO to - «> 0! s ;^i 1=^ ;^ S =" s s - .=^ El B 5 3 § S *. L, £ S 1 1 1 1 Liil l^_J g- ►- C] CO to « (M -a CO cs s £ i ^ S !»»•<# CD 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 l-d e § & ^ cc to ^ £■ im^ CO IM CO " » ^ ^ g ^ — '■ ^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 , CO lo ►;* r- to cq to rt< to aj *. to -M CO Tl< to -t s s § to ^ CO >o ■M 00 CO 1 1 I 1 I 1 1 1 t^ " g g 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 p5 :: S § 3 S f: S g i ^1 ,- >- CO CO j: ii ^ t>5 t- g g ft QE3QE3 PROOF-READING AND CORRECTING. PROOF-READING. UNDENIABLE as is the fact that a 1 book marred by typo- graphical errors and gram- matical blemishes is a scandal to the profession, it must be admitted that a careful, steady, and competent reader is in- dispensable in every printing- office. It is eminently desirable that a reader should have been previously brought up a compositor. By a practical acciuaintance with the me- chanical departments of the business, he will be better able to detect those manifold errata which, unperceived by the man of mere learning and science, lie lurking, as it were, in a thousand different forms, in every sheet; and which, if overlooked, justly offend the taste and discernment of all appreciators of correct and beautiful typo- graphy. Some of the principal imperfections which are more easily observed by the man of practical knowledge in tlie art of printing are the following: viz. imperfect, wrong-founted, and inverted letters, particularly the lower-case n, o, s, and u, as well as p, d, b, and q; awkward and irregular spacing; un- even pages or columns; a false disposition of the reference 200 PR O OF- READING. marks; crookedness in words and lines; bad making-up of matter; erroneous indention, &c. These minutiae, whicli are rather imperfections of workmanship than literal errors, are apt to be overlooked and neglected by mere literary readers. A person of a thoroughly cultivated typographical taste, a quick eye, and a ready mind, though not a compositor, may doubtless be competent to detect those minor deviations from exact workmanship in a proof which the inexperienced and the careless are apt to overlook. But, without these qualifica- tions, no person can be safely intrusted to read a sheet for press, and the labours of the printer are liable to go forth into the world in a manner that will reflect discredit on the em- ployed and give offence to the employer. No form, therefore, ought to be put to press until it has been read and revised by an experienced reader. A thorough prool-reader, in addition to a general and prac- tical acquaintance with typography, should understand clearly the grammar and idiomatic structure of his mother-tongue, and have, as it were, an encyclopedic knowledge of the names, times, and productions of its writers, as well as an entire familiarity with the Bible especially, and with Shakspeare. He should be, in fact, a living orthographical, biographical, bibliographical, geographical, historical, and scientific dic- tionary, with some smattering of Hebrew, Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Italian, and German. Yet all these accom- plishments are valueless unless he also possess a keen and quick eye, that, like a hound, can detect an error almost by scent. There are eyes of this sort, that with a cursory glance will catch a solitary error in a page. The world is little aware how greatly many authors are indebted to a competent proof- reader for not only reforming their spelling and punctuation, but for valuable suggestions in regard to style, language, and grammar, — thus rectifying faults which would have rendered their works fair game for the critic. Although no corrector of the press can strictly be required to do otherwise than to follow his copy, — that is, faithfully to adhere to the original, with all its defects, — yet every one must perceive that he performs a friendly and perhaps a charitable service, by pointing out, in proper time, imperfections and mistakes which have escaped the observation of a quick or voluminous writer. With the spirit, the opinions, the whims PR O OF-READING. of an author, no corrector of the press has any business to interfere. In reprints of old and standard works, no license of alteration ought to be granted to either correctors or editors. Strict uniformity should always be preserved in the use of capitals, in orthography, and punctuation. Nothing can be more vexatious to an author than to see the words ho?iour, favour, &c. spelt with and without the u. This is a discre- pancy which correctors ought sedulously to prevent. The above observations equally apply to the use of capitals to noun-substantives, &c. in one place, and the omission of them in another. However the opinions of authors may differ in these respects, still the system of spelling, &c. must not be varied in the same work. When an author gives him the option, a proof-reader ought to spell ambiguous words and arrange compounds in a me- thodical and uniform way ; and, to enable the compositors to become acquainted with and to observe his method, he should furnish for their guidance a list of such ambiguous words and compounds. 8^nly '''^^'^ '* -"^ughter Christina in marriage, >ar promise 3 /^ / "^hich he soon after performed^>^ ^^ '' ^ / ^"^ there were manv/difficulties at first ^^ " with these letters, as >tnere had been before with wooden on^»f the metal being too soft ^ /y^ / to support tli^^orce of the im pression: but =■ ' ~ O this defecr was soon remedied, by mixing 3 /^ 2 1. ,2 a suljgifan ce with the meta l which sufficiently ^. hitnlened it/ einc/ -uiue?i ue :>/irOZctec/ ucd ^ncid^ei ^ne ce^^C'U cdd^ Aof?i ^/ie:ie 9?ia^U'c6-j . EXEMPLIFIED. 213 Though several differing opinions exist as to the individual by whom the art of printing was first discovered; yet all authorities concur in admitting PETER SCHOEFFER to be the person who invented cast metal types, having learned the art of cutting the letters from the Gutenbergs : he is also supposed to have been the first who engraved on copper-plates. The following testimony is preserved in the family, by Jo. Fred. Faustus, of Ascheffenburg : ' Peter Schoeffer, of Gernsheim, perceiv- ing his master Faust's design, and being him- self ardently desirous to improve the art, found out (by the good providence of God) the method of cutting {ificideiidi) the characters in a matrix, that the letters might easily be singly cast, instead of being cut. He privately cut matrices for the whole alphabet: and when he showed his master the letters cast from these matrices, Faust was so pleased with the con- trivance, that he promised Peter to give him his only daughter Oiristitia in marriage, a promise which he soon after performed. But there were as many difficulties at first with these letters, as there had been before with wooden ones, the metal being too soft to sup- port the force of the impression : but this defect was soon remedied, by mixing the metal with a substance which sufficiently hardened it.' 214 TYPOGRAPHICAL MARKS. EXPLANATION OF THE CORRECTIONS. A wrong letter in a word is noted b}' drawing a short per- pendicular line through it, and making another short line in the margin, behind which the right letter is placed. ( See No. i.) So with whole words also, a line being drawn across the wrong word and the right one written in the margin opposite. A turned letter is noted by drawing a line through it, and writing the mark No. 2 in the margin. If letters or words require to be altered to make them more conspicuous, a parallel line or lines must be made underneath the word or letter, — viz. for capitals, three lines ; small capi- tals, two lines; and Italic, one line; and, in the margin oppo- site the line where the alteration occurs, Caps, Siiia// Caps, or Ital. must be written. (See No. 3.) When letters or words are set double, or are required to be taken out, a line is drawn through the superfluous word or letter, and the mark No. 4 placed opposite in the margin. Where the punctuation requires alteration, the correct point should be written in the margin. (vSeeNo. 5.) When a space has been omitted between two words, a caret must be made where the separation ought to be, and the sign No. 6 placed opposite in the margin. When a word should form a compoimd with another, it is denoted as in No. 7. When a letter has been omitted, a caret is put at the place of omission, and the letter marked as No. 8. Where a line is too widely spaced, the mark No. 9 must be placed between the words and also in the margin. Where a new paragraph is required, a quadrangle is drawn in the margin, and a caret placed at the beginning of the sen- tence. (See No. 10.) No. II shows the way in which the apostrophe, inverted conmias, the star and other references, and superior letters and figures, are marked. Wliere two words are transposed, a line is drawn over one word and below the other, and the mark No. 12 placed in the margin; but where several words require to be transposed, their right order is signified by a figure placed over each word, and the mark No. 12 in tlie margin. Where words have been struck out that have afterward TABLE OF SIGNATURES. 215 been approved of, dots should be marked under them, and stet written in the margin. (See No. 13.) Where a space sticks up between two words, a horizontal line is drawn under it, and the mark No. 14 placed opposite, in the margin. Where several words have been left out, they are tran- scribed at the bottom of the page, and a line drawn from the place of omission to the written words, (see No. 15 ; ) but if the omitted matter is too extensive to be copied at the foot of the page, Out, see copy, is written in the margin, and tlie missing lines are enclosed between brackets, and the word Out is inserted in the margin of the copy. Where letters stand crooked, they are noted by a line, (see No. 16;) but, where a page hangs, lines are drawn across the entire part affected. When a smaller or larger letter, of a different fount, is im- properly introduced into the page, it is noted by the mark No. 17, which signifies wrong fount. If a paragraph is improperly made, a line is drawn from the broken-off matter to the ne.xt paragraph, and No \ written in the margin. (See No. 18.) Where a word has been left out or is to be added, a caret must be made in the place where it should come in, and the word written in the margin. (See No. 19.) Where a faulty letter appears, it is denoted by making a cross under it, and placing a similar mark in the margin, (see No. 20;) though some prefer to draw a perpendicular line through it, as in the case of a wrong letter. Where a word has been accidentally separated by a space, it is marked as in No. 21. TABLE OF SIGNATURES. ON the two following pages will be found a complete list of signatures for books in octavo, twelves and eighteens, sixteens, and twenty-fours. The 24mo signatures in this table are arranged to bring the second signature on either the 9th or 17th page of the form. If the sheet is to be folded as an 8vo and i6mo, the figure sig- natures may be used; but if as two i2mos, the letter signa- tures will be used. 19 2l6 COMPLETE TABLE 1 9 17 25 33 41 49 57 65 73 81 89 , 97 105 "3 121 I2g 137 M5 153 161 169 177 185 193 201 209 217 225 233 241 '249 257 265 273 281 289 297 305 313 321 329 337 345 353 361 369 377 385 393 401 409 417 425 433 441 449 457 465 473 A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V w X Y Z •JC, 2 A 27 2B 28 2C 29 2 D 30 2 E 31 2 F 6 24 2G 2H 34 2 1 R-) 2K sr, 2 L :;? 2 M :;s ■_' N 3'.i 2 O 2 P 2Q 2 R 2 S 2T 2r 2 V 2 W 2X lit 2 Y 2Z S A :; \; :\ (.; :i 1) :! K :', F :; ( ; :-. II 481 489 497 505 513 521 529 537 545 553 561 569 i 577 I 585 593 601 609 617 625 633 641 649 657 665 673 681 689 £97 705 713 721 729 737 745 753 761 769 777 785 793 801 809 817 825 833 841 849 857 865 873 897 905 913 921 929 937 945 953 Ul 3 L 62 3 M 63 3N 64 30 65 3 P 66 3 Q 67 3R 68 3 S 69 3T 70 3U 71 3V 72 3W 73 3X 74 3 V 7o 3Z 76 4 A 77 4 B 7.S 4C 79 4D 80 4 E 81 4 F .s2 4(; ,S3 4H 84 4 1 85 4 K 86 4 L 87 4M S8 4N 89 40 90 4 P 91 4Q 92 4 R 93 4S 94 4 1' 9.") 4 U 96 4 V 97 4W 98 4X 99 4 Y 100 4Z 101 5 A 102 5B 103 5C 104 5D 105 5 E 106 5 F 107 5G 108 5 H 109 5 I 110 5 K 111 5L 1 12 5 M 113 5N 114 50 115 5 P 116 5Q 117 5 R 118 5S 119 5T 120 5U 5 13 17 25 29 37 41 49 53 61 65 73 77 85 89 97 lOI 109 "3 121 125 133 137 145 149 157 161 169 173 181 185 193 197 805 209 217 221 229 233 241 245 253 257 265 269 377 281 389 293 301 305 9 9* 10 10^^ 11 11* 12 12* 13 13* 14 14* 15 15* 16 16* 17 17* 18 18* 19 19* 20 •3V> 21 21* 22 22* 23 23* 24 24* 25 25* 26 A A 2 B B2 C C2 D D2 E E2 F F2 G G2 H H2 I 12 K K2 L L2 M M2 N N2 O 02 P P2 Q Q2 R R2 S S2 T T2 U U2 V V2 W W2 X X2 Y Y2 Z Z2 2 A 313 317 325 329 337 341 349 353 361 365 373 377 385 389 397 401 409 413 421 425 433 437 445 449 457 461 469 473 481 485 493 497 505 509 517 521 529 533 541 545 553 557 565 569 577 581 589 593 601 605 613 617 27 2 B 27* 2 B 2 28 2 C 28* 2 C 2 29 2D 29* 2 D 2 30 2 E 30* 2 E 2 31 2 F 31* 2 F 2 2G :G2 H 32 32* 33 33* 34 ;i4* 35 35* 36 36* H2 I 1 2 K K2 L L2 M M2 N N2 O 02 P P2 Q U2 R R2 S S 2 T T 2 U U2 V \' 2 W 2 W 2 2X 48* 2X2 38 38* 39 39* 40 40* 41 41* 42 42* 43 43* 44 44* 45 45* 46 46* 47 47* 48 49 49* 50 50* 51 51* 52 2^■ 2 Y2 2Z 2 Z 2 3 A 3 A2 3B 52* 3 B 2 OF SIGNA TURES. 217 625 629 53 53* 3C 3C2 637 641 54 54* 3D 3D2 649 653 55 55* 8E 3E2 661 665 56 56* 3F 3 F2 673 677 57 57* 3G 3G2 685 689 58 58* 3H 3H2 697 701 59 59 « 31 312 709 713 60 CO* 3K 3K2 721 725 CI 61* 3L 3L2 733 737 62 62* 3M 3M2 745 749 63 63'^ 3N 3N2 761 64 64* 30 302 769 773 65 65* 3P 3 P2 781 785 66 66* 3Q2 793 797 67 67* 3R 3R2 805 809 68 68* 3S 3S2 f'7 821 69 69 i= 3T 3T2 829 833 70 70* 3U 3U2 841 845 71 71* 3V 3 V2 853 857 72 72* 3 W 3W2 865 869 73 73* 3X 3X2 877 881 74 74* 3 Y 3 Y2 889 893 75 75* 3Z 3Z2 901 905 76* 4 A 4 A2 913 917 77 771: 4B 4B2 925 929 78 78* 4C 4C2 LSmo 24zno. X 1 A I 1 A 433 19 T 17 2 B ! 9 1* 441 19* 33 3 C 17 . . A2 449 . .T2 81 97 113 4 5 6 7 D E 25 2 B 457 20 U 33 2* 465 20* G ' 41 . . B2 473 . .U2 8 H i 49 3 C 481 21 V 129 9 I 57 3* 489 21* 145 10 K 65 . . C2 497 . . V2 161 11 L 73 4 D 505 22 W 177 12 M 81 4* 513 22* 193 13 N 89 . .D2 521 . . wa 209 225 241 257 14 15 16 17 P I 97 105 "3 5 E 5* . . E2 529 537 545 23 X 23* . .X2 273 18 S 1 121 6 F 553 24 Y 289 19 T 129 6* 561 24* 30s 20 U 137 . . F2 569 . . Y 2 321 21 V 145 7 G 577 25 Z 337 22 w 153 7* 585 25* 353 23 X 161 . .G2 593 . . Z2 369 385 401 417 24 26 27 Y z 2A 2B 169 177 185 8 H 8!^ . . H2 601 609 617 26 2 A 26* . . 2 A 2 433 28 2C 193 9 I 625 27 2 B 449 29 2D 301 9^= 633 27* 465 30 2E 209 . . 12 641 ". . 2 B 2 481 31 2F 217 10 K 649 28 2 C 497 32 2G 225 10* 657 28* 513 33 2H 233 . . K2 665 . .2 C2 529 577 34 35 36 37 21 2K 2L 2M 241 249 257 11 L 11* . . L2 673 681 689 29 2D 29* . .2D2 593 38 2N 265 12 M 697 30 2 E 609 39 20 273 12'^ 705 30* 625 40 2P 281 . . ]M2 713 . .2E2 641 41 2Q 289 13 N 721 31 2 F 657 42 2R 297 13 i= 729 31* 673 43 2S ! 305 . . N2 737 . .2F2 689 705 721 737 44 45 46 47 2T 2U 2V 2W 1 313 : 321 j 329 14 14:= . . 02 745 753 761 32 2 G 32* . .2G2 753 48 2X i 1 337 15 P 769 33 2 H 769 49 2 Y 345 15* 777 33* 785 50 2Z 353 . . P2 785 . .2H2 801 51 3A 361 16 Q 793 34 2 1 f'7 52 3B 369 16* 801 34* 833 53 3C 377 . .Q2 809 . .212 849 865 54 55 3D 3E 385 17 R 817 35 2K 881 56 3F 393 17* 825 35* 897 57 3G 401 . . R2 833 . .2K2 913 58 3H ' 409 IS S 841 36 2L 929 59 31 417 IS* 849 36* 945 60 3K 425 . . S2 857 . .2 L2 THE FOREMAN OR OVERSEER. GENERAL DUTIES. V^l; IGILANT and conscientious over- ^ht is line price of profit and success. An overseer or foreman of a printing-office should be of more tiian ordinary capacity, and able to keep his temper in firm control. His conduct should be guided by juirtice and equity in regard to the interests of the employer and the employed. A strict impartiality should be observed in his treatment of the workmen, and no favour- itism should be dis])layed. He should make himself acquainted with the capa- city of the men, and apportion work among them accordingly. Some men are value- less except for plain, straightforward com- position; others, distinguished for taste and skill, delight in intricate work or mat- ter rec}uiring ingenuity and delicacy, such as tables, music, and algebra. Put one of the first kind on this sort of composition, and he will botch it, and earn small wages ; while a workman of the latter class will become restive and dissatisfied with plain, solid matter. While dealing justly with the men under his charge, the foreman should see to it that the employer suffers no detriment from negligent or dis- honest practices of unconscientious workmen, whether from careless correcting, allowing dropped types to lie upon the 2l8 GENERAL DUTIES. 219 floor, or overcharging, or other methods well known in a print- ing-office. He should be the first and the last in attendance, in order to satisfy himself that every person does his duty in coming and leaving at the proper time. The office having been thoroughly swept at an early hour, and the type found in any alley having been placed in the stick of the compositor occupying it, the foreman should pass around the room and see that it is immediately distributed, LARGE SORT-CASE CABINET, FOR SORTS, QUADS, ETC. instead of being thrown on the window-frame or table. The type found in the body of the rooms should be sorted out and distributed at once, and not be allowed to accumulate. No pi should be permitted to remain over till the next day. This is an essential point to secure a tidy and well-regulated office. He should see to it that the proof-roller and press are in good condition, and that a sufficient supply of wetted proof- paper is on hand. A badly-printed proof should never be 19* THE FOREMAN. JRT -CA^E CABINET. allowed to go to the proof-reader or to the author, as neither can properly read a blurred or im- perfect proof. An author will feel kindly to- ward an office that furnishes him with hand- some impres- sions of his mat- ter. The foreman should keep himself fully in- formed as to the amount and the condition of the materials in the office, not only in gross, but in detail, including every style of type, every variety of accents and pe- culiar sorts, leads, chases, furniture, rules, borders, corner- pieces, &c. In this he will be greatly aided by insisting on the observance of the good old rule, A place for every thiii^, and every thhig in its place when not in use, as CABINET FOR SPACES. QUADS, ETC. ^^^^jj ^^ ^^ j^^^p. ing a meni()r;ui(Uuii-bo()k in wiiich every thing should be entered under its proper head fur facility of reference. GENERAL DUTIES. COMBINATION CABINET, FOR SORTS AND QUADS. If the office be well provided, it will contain one or more of the cabinets for sorts, such as are shown in these pages. Strict atten- tion should be given to keeping them in perfect order, and in preventing them from becoming re- ceptacles for pi. As a matter of course, he should watch the progress of every job and book, and make sure that they shall be completed within the time contracted for. He should never allow a compositor to have a large take of copy: small takes facilitate expedi- tion, and really tend to the profit of the workmen by bring- ing an earlier return of letter. He should see to it that every man has his copy closed in proper time, so as not to detain the make-up, and that he passes the make-up with- out unnecessary de- lay. As soon as a form or sheet is made up, he should order it to be im- posed and a proof pulled, which, with the copy properly arranged, is to be at once handed to the proof-reader. Nor QUAD CABINET. THE FOREMAN. should he allow of any unnecessary delay on the part of the reader, nor on the part of the compositors in correcting the proof when read. When proofs are required by an author, the foreman must forward them promptly to him, and request him to return them at the earliest possible moment. If the proof is not to be sent out, he should have the second reading quickly performed, and the forms prepared for the foundry or the press. Systematic attention to the above points will tend to the comfort of the overseer, to the advantage of the workmen, and to the profit and satisfaction of the proprietor of the establish- ment. The foreman will find a memorandum Press-Book very useful, in which to make entries of the amount of tlie paper given out by the warehouseman for the various works, the number printed, &c., as well as the names of the pressmen when the work is done on hand-presses. WHEN GrVEN OUT TO WET. NiMES OF WORKS. NO. TURKS. DATE WHES LAID OS. NAMES OF PRESSMEN. 1878. May 8 " 10 " 12 " IS Specific Heat Tables The Great Exhibition The American Printer .... Masterpieces of European Art. 1000 5000 1000 3000 II 18 20 2 1878. May 10 " 12 " 13 " 17 Graham. Landsdown. Windisch. Smith. If not done by the proof-reader, the foreman should exa- mine the press revise; in doing which, he will be careful not only to ascertain whether all the corrections marked in the proof are made, but also to look carefully over the sides, head, and bottom of each page. It frequently happens that the folios drop out of the form in lifting it oif tlis imposing-stone; and in leaded matter, letters at the beginning and ends of lines sometimes fall out of place. Before the revise is given to the compositor, the name of the pressman who is to work off the form should be entered in the Press-Book. With foul com^ positors, he should require a second revise, in order to ascer- tain if ail the corrections have been made which were marked in the first. He should (where there is not a pressman engaged e.xpressly for the purpose, as is the case in houses employing CASTIXG OFF COPY. 223 numerous machine-presses) go frequently to the different presses, and examine the work, point out defects, if any, and glance again over the heads, sides, and bottoms of the pages, to see if any thing has been drawn out by the rollers, which may occur from bad justification of the lines, and careless and improper locking up of the form. An active and conscientious foreman will not be content with merely managing the concerns of the composing room : he will also see that the business of the warehouse is attended to with regularity and accuracy, and that the warehouseman, errand-boys, and apprentices do their duty. CASTING OFF COPY. TO cast off manuscript Vith accuracy and precision is a task which requires great attention and mature delibera- tion. The trouble and difficulty are much increased when the copy is not only irregularly written, (which is generally the case,) but also abounds with interlineations, erasures, and variations in the size of paper. At times, so numerous are the alterations and additions as to baffle the skill and judgment of the most experienced calculators of copy. Such an imper- fect and slovenly mode of sending works to the press cannot be too strongly censured. The first step necessary is to take a comprehensive view of the copy, noticing whether it has been written even or has many interlineations, &c., and observing also the number of break-lines, and whether the work be divided into chapters and sub-heads, in order that allowance may be made for them in the calculation. These observations may be noted on a separate piece of paper, to assist the memory and save the trouble of re-examining the manuscript. This preparation being made, we ascertain the number of words contained in the line by counting several separate lines in various parts of the copy, so that the one we adopt may be a fair average. We then take the number of lines in a page, and multiply by the number of words found in the average line: the result we then multiply by the quantity of folios the manuscript copy may contain, and thus we get the amount of words contained in the work with a tolerable degree of accuracy. The necessary allowances should be made for 224 THE FOREMAN. break-lines, chapters, insertions, &c., according to thie obser- vations previously made on the memorandum. If information has been furnished as to the size of letter the work is to be done in and the width of the page, we make our measure accordingly, and, by composing a few lines of the manuscript copy, we ascertain what number of words will come into each printed line : we then take the length of our page in lines, and multiply the one by the other, thus getting the number of words in the printed page. We divide the whole number of words in the manuscript by the number contained in the printed page : the quotient gives the number of pages the manuscript will make. If too many, the page must be enlarged; if too few, the page must be diminished in width and length. For example : — We take the number of words in a line of manuscript at 20, the lines in a page at 50; we multiply 50 by 20, which will produce 1000 words in a page; we then multiply 1000 by 422, the number of folios in the manuscript, and we find that it contains 422,000 words. The work being printed in Pica octavo, 20 ems measure, and each line contain- ing 10 words, each page 40 lines, the case will stand thus: — MANUSCRIPT. 422000 words in MS. 40 10 400)422000 words in MS. 1055 pages. Divide 16)1055(65 sheets, J 5 pages. Another method for casting off copy is tlie following, as laid down by a predecessor: — "After having made the measure for the work, we set a line of the letter that is designed for it, and take notice how much copy will come into the line in the stick, — whether less or more than a line of manuscript ; and, as it is seldom that neither one nor the other happens, we make a mark in the copy where the line in the stick ends, and number the words that it contains. But. as this is not the safest way for casting off close, we count not only the syllables, but even the letters, CASTING OFF COPY. 225 that are in a line in the stick, of which we make a memo- randum, and proceed to set off a second, third, or fourth line, till a line of copy falls even with a line in the stick; and, as we did to the first line in the stick, so we do to the other, marking on the manuscript the end of each line in the stick, and telling the letters in each, to see how they balance against each other. This being carefully done, we begin counting off, each time, as many lines of copy as we know will make even lines in the stick. For example, if 2 lines of copy make 3 lines in print, then 4 make 6, 6 make 9, 8 make 12, and so on, call- ing every two lines of copy three in print. In like manner we say, if 4 lines make 5, then 8 make 10, and so on, comparing every four lines of copy to five lines in print. And in this manner we carry our calculation on as far as we have occasion, either for pages, forms, or sheets. The foregoing calculations are intended to serve where a line of print takes in less than a line of copy ; and, therefore, where a fine of print takes in more than a line of copy, the problem is reversed, and, instead of saying, if 2 lines make 3, we say, in this case, if 3 lines of copy make 2 lines in print, then 6 lines make 4, 9 make 6, 12 make 8, and so on, counting three lines of copy to make two lines in print. In this manner we may carry our calculation to what number of pages, forms, or sheets we will, remembering always to count off' as many lines of copy at once as we have found they will make even lines in the stick. Thus, for example, if 5 lines make 7, the progression of 5 is 10, 15, 20, &c., and the j^rogression of 7 will be 14, 21, 28, &c. In counting off copy, we take notice of the breaks; and where we judge that one will drive out, we intimate it by a mark of this shape [ ; and again, where we find that a break will get in, we invert it, thus, ]. And to render these marks conspicuous to the compositor, we write them in the margin, that he may take timely notice, and keep his matter accord- ingly. We also take care to make proper allowance for heads to chapters, sections, paragraphs, &c. In examining the state of the copy, we must observe whether it has abbreviations, that we may guard against them in casting off, and allow for them according to the extent of the respective words when written out at length." The foregoing will convey a sufficient idea as to the best 226 THE FOREMAN. mode of casting off copy; still, these remarks more properly apply to regularly written and thoroughly revised copy. Upon this subject, Smith justly observes, — " But iiovv often one or more of these requisites are wanting, compositors can best tell; though very few will imagine that among men of learning there should be some who write after such a manner that even those who live by transcribing rather shun than crave to be employed by them : no wonder, there- fore, if compositors express not the best wishes to such pro- moters of printing. But it is not always the capacious genius that ought to be excused for writing in too great a hurry ; for sometimes those of no exuberant brains affect uncouth writing, on purpose to strengthen the common notion that the more learned the man, the worse is his (hand) writing ; which shows that writing well or bad is but a habit with those that can write." HURRIED WORK. IT is sometimes necessary to print pamphlets and other works of a temporary nature in the course of a few hours. When a work of this kind is put in hand, the foreman selects the requisite number of swift and skilful compositors, whose first concern must be to appoint one from among them to make up the matter, and to do every thing which would inter- fere with the regular business of distributing, composing, and correcting. While they are dislril)uting letter, the dicker, or person appointed to manage the work, procures the copy, with all necessary information respecting it, and provides leads, rules, and every other necessary sort. He then draws out the following table: — COMPOSITOHS NAMES. POLIOS OF copy. LINES COMP08BD. MBMORANnUMS. Farroe I- 5 184 Wilson 6-IO 168 Stratz 11-16 121 In the first column he writes the name of each comi)ositor when he takes copy; and, in the second, tlie folio of the co])y, HURRIED WORK. 227 that he may be able to ascertain instantly in whose hands it lies. In the third column he sets down, opposite to the work- man's name, the number of lines composed, as fast as the galleys are brought to him. In the fourth, he inserts such remarks respecting the copy, &c. as may be necessary, and also any circumstances that may occur in the companionship. When the work is tinished, each man's share of lines is readily ascertained, and all disputes are avoided. The publisher may expedite the progress of the work by offering a copy of the book, or some other token, as a premium to the compositor who sets the largest number of ems. The maker-up or clicker usually receives for his compensation the head and foot lines, and two or three cents per thousand, which is deducted from the wages paid to the compositor. Sometimes the compositors work "in pocket," as it is called, or share evenly in the proceeds. This, however, is not a satisfactory mode, and its tendency is to retard the work, as no man will be anxious to do more than his share. When the coftipositors are ready for their first taking of copy, it should be given to them in pieces as short as possible, the first two beginning with shorter takes than the others, to prevent delay in the making up. During the time the first take is in hand, the clicker sets the half-head, head-lines, white-lines, and signature-lines, together with notes and other extraneous matter. When the first person brings his matter, the clicker counts or measures off with a type-measure the number of lines, and inserts them in the table ; he then gives him another take of copy, and pro- ceeds with the making up. The same plan is observed with the rest of the compositors. When the first sheet is made up, the clicker lays the pages on the stone, and informs the foreman of it, who has previously had chases and furniture prepared and the clicker immediately imposes the form. The proofs should be read at once and given to the clicker to have them corrected. As soon as this is done, he lays up 20 2 28 THE FOREMAN. the forms, and gives the proof to the compositor whose matter stands first, who should immediately correct it, then forward it to the next, and so on, till the sheet be corrected; the clicker then locks it up and pulls the second proof, which must be duly forwarded, and the type be locked up finally for press. The work will now proceed rapidly, provided tlie composi- tors stick close to their work and there be no hinderance with respect to letter, «&:c. : this depends on the good management of the foreman. If the clicker find that he cannot make up the matter as fast as it is composed, he should call one of the compositors to his assistance, who must be the person last in copy. COMPANIONSHIPS. DISPUTES sometimes arise in a printing-oftice upon trifling as well as important points, which should be settled by a reference to the general custom and usage of the trade. These annoying misunderstandings take place in companion- ships consisting of several compositors; it is therefore higlily desirable that the generally received rules and regulations in this regard should be explicitly laid down for the comfort and government of the compositor. TAKING COPV. When the work to be taken in hand is a reprint which is to be followed page for page, a fixed number of pages should be given to each compositor as he comes in turn for copy ; or, if ^ ^ the work be in manu- script, an equal aver- age amount should be allowed as a take for each compositor. None of the hands should have access to the copy, but the foreman should deal it out as wanted STEEL COMPOSING RULE. with perfect impartiality, fat or lean as it may happen to run. Otherwise, a compositor who has an acquaintance with the COMPANIONSHIPS. 229 copy may be tempted to loiter if the next take to be given out be lean, or, if it be fat, to apply for copy before his work in hand is finished. By this course, the foreman will prevent all such sorts of sharp practice, and secure harmony in the companionship. When the foreman gives out copy, he should plainly mark the name of the compositor at the head of the first page of the take if the work be a page-for-page reprint ; if it be manuscript, or a reprint in a different measure from that of the copy, he should write the name at the beginning of the first paragraph of the take. Most compositors desire to have a large portion of copy, under the erroneous idea that it will be to their advantage to make up many pages at once. Small takes insure a more rapid execution of the work and bring a quicker return of letter, and so tend to the profit of the hands. If one of the companionship absent himself, the man next in order should close his copy, whether it be good or bad, unless the larger portion of it be not set, in which case the person who has the last take must go on with it. MAKING UP. The compositor who has the first take on the work proceeds without delay to make it up as soon as he has completed it. Having completed as many pages as his matter will make, he passes the overplus, if less than half a page, with the correct head and folio, to the compo- sitor whose matter fol- lows his, at the same time taking an account of the number of lines loaned; if, on the con- trary, the overplus makes more than half a page, he borrows a sufficient numljer of lines to complete his page; each com- positor keeping an account of the number of lines borrowed and loaned. The second compositor, following the same course, passes the make-up to the next in succession; each man passing the make-up in like manner without unneces- sary delay. STEEL MAKE-UP RULE. 230 THE FOREMAN. MAKING UP OF LETTER. The number of the companionship, if possible, should be determined on at the commencement of the work, to enable all to proceed upon an equal footing. The letter appropriated for the work should be adequate to keep the persons on it fully employed. If any part of the matter for distribution, whether in chase or in paper, be desirable on account of the sorts it may con- tain, it should be divided equally, or the choice of it thrown for. When a new companion is put on the work after the re- spective shares of letter are made up, and if there be not a sufficiency to carry on all the companionship without making up more, he must bring on an additional quantity before he can be allowed to partake of any part of that which comes from the press. MAKING UP FURNITURE. The companions in rotation should make up the furniture in turn, the one who has the last matter in the first sheet lead- ing off. Should an odd sheet be wanted, it will be better to throw for the chance of making it up. IMPOSING AND DISTRIBUTING LETTER. The person to whose turn it falls to impose must lay up the form for distribution. To prevent disputes, it will be well to prepare a blank form, as follows, which may be filled up as the work proceeds : — i < s THB GBEAT INTERNATIONAI. EXHIBITION. BY WHOM IMPOSED. •4 a < i i t < i s > * B 3 2 2 2 2 3 2 Clark. C D 2 2 3 2 3 2 2 McGuigan. 3 2 2 3 2 2 2 Farroe ^ 2 2 3 2 2 2 3 Wilson. F COMPANIONSHIPS. 231 When the form is laid up, the letter should be divided equally, and, if possible, each person should distribute the matter originally composed by him ; by this means, the sorts which may have made his case uneven will return to him. If any man absent himself beyond a reasonable time, his undistributed matter should be divided equally among his companions, and when he returns he may have his share of the next division. CORRECTING, ETC. The compositor whose matter is first in the proof should lay up the forms on the imposing-stone and correct it; he then hands the proof to the person who follows next. The compositor who cor- rects the last part of the sheet locks up the forms. The compositor who has matter in the first and last part, but not the middle of the sheet, only lays up the forms and corrects his matter ; the locking up is left to the person who corrects last in the sheet. A compositor having the first page only of the sheet is required to lay up one form ; also to lock up one form if he has but the last page. If, from carelessness in locking up the form,— viz. the furni- ture binding, the quoins badly fitted, &c. — any letters, or even a page, should fall out, the person who locked up the form should repair the damage. But, if the accident occur from bad justification, or from letters riding upon the ends of the leads, the loss should fall upon the person to whom the matter belongs. It is the business of the locker-up to ascertain whether all the pages are of equal length; and, though a defect in this 20* CHASE CABINET. THE FORE MAX. respect is highly reprehensible in the maker-up, (whose duty it is to rectify it,) yet, if not previously discovered by the locker- up, and an accident happen, he must make good the defect. The compositor who imposes a sheet must correct the alterations in that sheet. He must also rectify any defect in the register arising from want of accuracy in the furniture. Forms sometimes remain a considerable length of time before they are put to press. In this case, particularly in sum- mer, the furniture is likely to shrink, and the pages may fall out. It is therefore the business of the locker-up to attend to it in this respect, or he will be subject to make good any accident which his neglect may occasion. When forms which have been worked off are ordered to be kept standing, they are considered under the care of the fore- man. When they are cleared away, it is to be done in equal proportions by the companionship. During the time any forms may have remained under the care of the foreman, should there have been any alteration as to form or substance which were not made by the original compositors, they are not subject to clear away those parts of the form thus altered. To prevent dust from settling in the face of the type, it is well to keep the forms in a chase cabinet. If the pressman unlock a form on the press, and any part of it fall out from carelessness in the locking up, he is subject to the loss that may happen in consecjuence. The compositor who locks up a sheet takes it to the proof- press, and, after he has pulled a proof, hands it, together with the foul proof, to the reader, and deposits tlie form in a place appointed for that purpose. TRANSPOSITION OF P.\GES. Each person in the companionship must lay down his pages properly on tlie stone for imposition. The compositor whose lurn it is to impose looks them over to see if they are riglitly placed. Should they, after this examination, lie improperly, and be tiius imposed, it will be his business to transpose them ; but, should the folios be wrong, and the mistake arise from this cause, it must be rectified by the person to whom the matter belongs. Pages without folios or head-lines, laid down wrongly for imposition, must be rectified by the person who has been slovenly enough to ado]-)t this plan. RULES FOR A PRINTING OFFICE. 233 RULES AND REGULATIONS TO BE OBSERVED IN A PRINTING-OFFICE. COMPOSITORS are to receive their cases from the fore- man or his assistant, free from all pi or improper sorts, with clean quadrate and space boxes, both Roman and Italic, which they are to return to him in equally good condition. 2. When a compositor receives letter, furniture, &c. from the foreman, he is to return any portion not used, in as good state as he received it, the same day. 3. When a case is taken out of the rack, the compositor is to return it into the proper place immediately after he has done with it. 4. No cases to be placed over others, or under the frames, or on the floor. 5. Compositors are to impose their matter and pull a proof as soon as made up, unless directed otherwise, and to correct the proof without unnecessary delay. 6. The proof, when pulled, to be given to the reader, the copy in regular order to accompany the first proof, and the foul proof the second. 7. Compositors are not to leave either type or furniture on the stone.- 8. A compositor is not to detain an imposing-stone longer than the nature of the business may require. 9. Head-lines, or other useful materials, on galleys, used during the course of a work, to be cleared away as soon as the work is finished. 10. When a work is done, the compositor, before beginning another work, unless otherwise directed, is to clear away the forms, taking from them the head-lines, white-lines, and odd sorts, as well as the leads and reglets ; which, with the furni- ture of each sheet, and the matter properly tied up for paper- ing, are to be given to the foreman. 11. Types dropped on the floor to be picked up at once. Matter broken by accident to be cleared away on the same day. 12. The saw, saw-block, bowl, sponge, letter-brush, shears, bellows, &c., to be returned to their respective places as soon as done with. 234 RULES FOR A PRINTING OFFICE. 13. Letter-boards, windows, frames, &c., to be kept free from pi. 14. No person to take sorts from the cases of another with- out leave, nor hoard useful sorts, not wanting or likely to want them. 15. Compositors employed by the week to work not less than ten hours per day. 16. Unnecessary conversation to be avoided. GALLEY CABINET. THE PRESS AND ITS WORKING. HISTORY OF THE PRESS. iiuittniiiitiiiiiiinniin' OLD COMMON PRESS. WHILE poets and orators have expatiated on the glory and power of the press, rulers have ex- hausted their cunning in attempts to curb and regulate the art of which it is the symbol. Hedged in by arbitrary restrictions, it is not wonderful that printing was long carried on with clumsy implements. The earliest press resembled a screw-press, with a contrivance for nmning the form of types under the point of pressure. After the impression was taken, the screw was relaxed, and the form withdrawn and the sheet removed. This rude press continued in general use till 1620, when WiLLEM Jansen Blaeu, at first a joiner and afterward a mathematical instrument maker of Amsterdam, contrived a press in which the bed or carriage was brought under the point of pressure by moving a handle attached to a screw hanging in a beam with a spring, the spring causing the screw to fly back as soon as the impression was given. This move- ment was afterward effected by means of a double strap or belt, two ends of which were attached to an axle, and the others to opposite ends of the bed. The platen was so small that two pulls were necessary to print one side of a sheet, and each sheet, therefore, required four pulls to produce a com- plete impression. 23.=: 236 THE PRINTING PRESS. Adam Ramage, who came from Scotland to Philadelphia about 1790, and who for a long time was the chief press-builder in the United States, made some improvements in the old press, one of which was the substitution of an iron bed for the stone one before in use. About the year 1800, Earl Stanhope contrived a press which obtained much notoriety. It was constructed of iron, and of a size sufficient to print the whole surface of a sheet, and such a combined action of levers was applied to the screw as to make the pull a great deal less laborious to the pressman. ^ COLUMBIAN PRESS. The Stanhope press, however, was soon surpassed by the Columbian press, invented by George Clymer, of Philadel- phia. Mr. Clymer, as early as 1797, endeavoured to improve the common wooden press. His next efforts were directed to the production of an iron press, till finally eminent success was the result of liis labours. In beauty, durability, and power, as well as facility of pull, the Columbian press stands perhaps unsurpassed. The power in this press is procured l)y a long bar or handle acting upon a combination of exceedingly pow- erful levers above the platen; the return of the handle or levers being effected by means of counterpoises or weights. THE PRINTING PRESS. 237 The powerful command which the leverage enables the work- man to exercise is favourable to delicacy and exactness of printing, — his arm feeling, as it were, through the series of levers to the very face of the types. The inventor removed to England in 1817, and introduced the press there, where it has long been held in high estimation. In the United States, presses of simpler construction have displaced the imposing Columbian press, — the first of which was in\ented by Peter Smith, of New York, and the latest WASHINGTON PRESS. is Samuel Rust's Washington press, which has secured general approbation and adoption, as being more simple and cheaper, if not more effective, than the Columbian press. Hand-presses are now restricted to country papers of small circulation, and to book-offices devoted to extra fine printing. The bed-and-platen power-press invented by Isaac Ad.\ms, of Boston, was for a considerable time the only machine- press capable of producing fine work and exact register. It will give from six to eight thousand impressions per day. As the platen rolls off" and leaves the bed entirely exposed, forms can be made ready with great facility. The sheets are 238 THE PRINTING PRESS. taken from the feed-board by fingers, and, after being printed, are laid in a pile bj- a self-acting sheet-ilyer. The Cylinder press, which may be run at a much higher rate of speed than the bed-and- platen machine, was of earlier in- vention. Frede- rick KoNiG, a Sax- on, early in the present century turned his atten- tion to cylinder printing, and was so successful that on November 28, 1814, the London Times announced the fact that the number issued on that day had been printed by ma- chinery propelled by steam. The ear- liest suggestion of a cylinder press is due, however, to William Nicholson, of England, who, in 1790 took out a patent for such a machine, but it was never perfect- ed. According to Mr. Isaiah Thomas, a Dr. Kinsley, of Connecticut, afterward produced a press varying somewhat from Nicholson's. In 1S18, Applegath and Cowper made important improve- THE PRINTING PRESS. 239 merits in Konig's press, which greatly enlarged its field of usefulness. This machine, with various modifications and improvements, is in general use in Europe and America, for newspapers of moderate circulation, and even for fine job and book work, as entirely accurate register can now be secured on the new cylinder presses of the best makers, such as Hoe & Co.,'i> Cottrell & Babcock, Campbell, and others. The stop cylinder press (the latest improvement) is particularly well adapted for fine printing. W We are indebted to a friend for the following sketch of the origin, progress, and present condition of the world-famous house of R. Hoe & Co. Robert Hoe, the founder of the present house of R. Hoe & Co. of New York, was born at Hose, in Leicestershire, England, in 1784. His father was a well-to- do farmer in that pleasant, sequestered district ; but, as the family was large, Robert was apprenticed to a carpenter in a neighbouring town. His attention was early attracted and his mind impressed by the prosperity of the people of the United States ; and, being a republican' at heart, and conscious that the institu- tions of his own country presented almost insurmountable obstacles to the ad- vancement of the working classes, he purchased his indentures from his employer, and in 1803 emigrated to New York. On his arrival he made the acquaintance of Grant Thorburn, who, becoming interested in him, received him into his family, and with great kindness nursed him with his own hands through an attack of the yellow fever, which was then raging in the city. He soon established himself in his trade, and, by his in- dustry, integrity, and enterprise, became advantageously known to the public. At the age of twenty he married the daughter of INIatthew Smith, of Westchester Co., New York, by whom he had three sons and six daughters. For a time he was in partnership with his brother-in-law, Matthew Smith, Jr., a carpenter and printers' joiner, who, on their separation, associated with himself his brother, Peter Smith, who was educated at Yale College, and was the inventor of the well- known hand-press bearing his name. On the decease of these two brothers, Robert Hoe, in 1823, succeeded to the business, which was then in its infancy, giving employment to only a handful of men, and being conducted in the middle of the block bounded by Maiden Lane, Pine, William, and Pearl Streets, in some old buildings to which access was gained by an alley running from Maiden Lane to Pine Street. 'Here the business, under the style of Robert Hoe & Co., grew rapidly; but the extension of Cedar Street made necessary its removal to the present location in Gold Street. About this time, the flat-bed cylinder press, for newspaper printing, was introduced into Eng- land; and Mr. Hoe sent an intelligent mechanic there to examine it, and it was soon brought into use here, with valuable improvements. In 1832, Mr. Hoe's failing health obliged him to relinquish the business to his eldest son, Richard M. Hoe, and Matthew Smith, son of his first partner. In the following year he died. Shortly after his decease, the firm erected extensive buildings in Broome Street, in the eastern part of the city, where the greater part of their manufacturing has since been carried on. They also commenced making cast-steel saws, which had previously been exclusively imported from England; and this branch has steadily increased in importance. Matthew Smith, a man of uncommon ability and business talents, died in 1842. The business was then continued by Richard M. Hoe, with his two brothers, 21 240 THE PRINTING PRESS. The invention of steam printing presses rendered books and periodicals so cheap that the progress of knowledge was amazingly accelerated; and soon the capacity of the cylinder press pro\ed unequal to the work of printing the enormous HOE'S TYPE-REVOLVING MACHINE— SIDE VIEW. editions of some of the leading newspapers of the world; and the first successful invention to meet the exigency was Robert Hoe and Peter Smith Hoe,— the eldest, as before, taking charge of the mechanical department, in which his industry and fertility of invention are attested by the number and value of his patents. In 1837, he patented here and in England his method of grinding circular saws, by which the thickness of any part of a saw can be regulated with accuracy. In 1846, he brought out the so-called " Lightning Press," or Type-Revolving Printing Machine, described in the text,— the greatest innovation on the routine of the printing craft since the days of Gutenberg, This press entirely superseded all others for fast printing, and was introduced into the principal offices, not only in this country, but in England, Scotland, Ireland, and Australia. In 1858, the firm purchased of Isaac Adams, of Boston, Massachusetts, his entire patent-rights, together with his establishment for the manufacture of his bed-and-platen book printing presses, and various machines for binders' use, which they continue to conduct there, though with increased facilities and many improve- ments. Their works in different places now cover thirty-five city lots, or about two acres, and give employment to nearly six hundred hands. The office and ware- rooms of the house in England are at 13 Salisbury Square, Fleet Street, London, one of the partners, being a resident in that city, attending to the business there. THE PRINTING PRESS. 241 made by Col. Richard M. Hoe, of New York, in the Type- Revolving Printing Machine, of which we give an engrav- ing. It is, as its name indicates, on the rotary principle ; that is, the form of type is placed on the surface of a horizontal revolving cylinder of about four and a half feet in diameter. The form occupies a segment of only about one-fourth of the surface of the cylinder, and the remainder is used as an ink- distributing surface. Around this main cylinder, and parallel with it, are placed smaller impression cylinders, varying in number from four to ten, according to the size of the machine. The large cylinder being put in motion, the form of types is carried successively to all the impression cylinders, at each of which a sheet receives the impression of the types as the form passes. Thus, as many sheets are printed at each revo- lution of the main cylinder as there are impression cylinders around it. One person is required at each impression cylin- der to supply the sheets of paper, which are taken at the proper moment by fingers or grippers, and after being printed are carried out by tapes and laid in heaps by means of self- acting flyers, thereby dispensing with the hands required in ordinary machines to receive and pile the sheets. The grip- pers hold the sheet securely, so that the thinnest newspaper may be printed without waste. The ink is contained in a fountain placed beneath the main cylinder, and is conveyed by means of distributing rollers to the distributing surface on the main cylinder. This surface being lower, or less in diameter, than the form of types, passes by the impression cylinder without touching. For each im- pression there are two inking rollers, which receive their supply of ink from the distributing surface of the main cylin- der: they rise and ink the form as it passes under them, after which they again fall to the distributing surface. This press is capable of printing either from type or from stereotype plates bent to fit the curve of the cylinder. When type is used, each page of the paper is locked up on a detached segment of the large cylinder, which constitutes its bed and chase. The column-rules run parallel with the shaft of the cylinder, and are consequently straight; while the head, adver- tising, and dash rules are in the form of segments of a circle. The column-rules are in the form of a wedge, with the thin part directed toward the axis of the cylinder, so as to bind the 242 THE PRINTING PRESS. type securely. These wedge-shaped column-rules are held down to the bed by tongues projecting at intervals along their length, which slide in rebated grooves cut crosswise in the face of the bed. The spaces in the grooves between the column- rules are accurately fitted with sliding blocks of metal even with the surface of the bed, the ends of which blocks are cut away underneath to receive a projection on the sides of the tongues of the column-rules. The form of type is locked up in the bed by means of screws at the foot and sides, by which the type is held as securely as in the ordinary manner upon a flat bed, — if not even more so. The speed of these machines is limited only by the ability of the feeders to supply the sheet. This machine was first used by the Public Ledger of Phila- delphia, and was afterward adopted by the leading newspapers of that city and New York, as well as of the chief cities of Great Britain and other countries. To obtain the best results from the largest size of this press it was necessary to employ a dozen or more hands to feed and run it. This expensive feature was largely avoided in a new machine projected by Mr. William Bullock, whose press was the forerunner of several machines that may be classed under the general name of Self-feeding or Web Perfecting Presses. THE BULLOCK WEB PERFECTING PRESS. THIS machine is intended for printing on a continuous roll of dampened paper, which passes between a pair of cylinders (one of which is an impression cylinder, and the other a cylinder around which stereotyped plates are bent) and receives an impression on one side, and the sheet then goes forward and is printed on the other side while passing between a second pair of cylinders similar to the first, except that the impression cylinder is four times the diameter of the plate cylinder to prevent more effectually the ink from "set- ting off." After being printed, and before delivery, the sheet is cut off by a fixed serrated cutting blade, the ingenious in- vention of Victor Beaumont of New York. A French device for making flexible papier-mach6 moulds rendered it pos- sible to cast the type-plates to fit the printing cylinders. THE PRINTING PRESS. 243 Without this auxiliary, web perfecting presses would have been useless and impracticable. Mr. Bullock, born in Greene County, New York, was a me- chanical genius, and was the author of many inventions in 21* 244 THE PR I NT I XG PRESS. various departments of machinery/^' About the j'ear i860, he began to work out the idea of a rotary self-feeding, or web perfecting press. After making a large working model, which is still in existence, he adopted a simpler plan, and in 1861 constructed a machine for the Citicimiati Titnes, which was successfully operated, but it was far from perfect. Three of these machines were used for a considerable time in the office of the Pliiladelphia Inquirey. He continued his efforts, and in 1865 he produced a press which met his original anticipation, and a company was formed to manufacture it. In 1867, while setting up a machine for the Public Ledger in Philadelphia, he suffered a serious injury which terminated his life. More than fifty of the presses are now in use in the United States. The New York Herald press, printing and cutting two copies at each delivery, is said to pro- duce, with but three men to attend to it, 30,000 copies per hour. The New York Sun states : " When our seven Bullock Presses are working, we can turn off, without extravagant asserticMi, 210,000 copies an hour." This assertion must be taken with some grains of allowance. The press is twelve feet long by five and a half feet wide. THE WALTER PERFECTING PRESS. THE Bullock press was not long allowed to be the only press for rapid printing from cylindrical stereotype plates fed by a so-called endle.ss roll of paper. The principle was applied to a machine constructed in the London Times office, called, after the name of its celebrated proprietor, the Walter press. This appears to be an effective press, but it seems more complicated than either the Bullock or Hoe machine, and from its mode of delivering the sheets, it is excessively noisy. The New York Times was printed on it at the Centennial Exhibi- tion in Philadelphia. <•) While publisher of a paper in Catskill, he produced within a week, aided by some village mechanics, a press for his own use. With the exception of a stone bed, the principal parts were made entirely of wood. It was a flat-bed press, having a series of impression cylinders connected by an endless chain, by means of which they passed over and around the bed continually. He called it the Chain-running Press. It was employed by Frank Leslie to print an edition of his Illustrated Newspaper . THE PRIXTIXG PRESS. 245 THE HOE PERFECTING PRESS. THE enterprise of R. Hoe & Co., of New York, soon gave birth to a web perfecting press combined with a folding machine that answers every requirement. The groundwork principle is the same as in other presses of this kind. The first pair of cylinders. over which hangs the roll of paper consists of one type and one impression cylinder, and by it the first side of the paper is printed. The second pair, printing the second side, consists likewise of one type and one impression cylinder, but the latter is below the former THE HOE WEB PERFECTING PRESS. and is of much greater size, so that the "set off" from the fresl: ink shall not fall continuously on the same surface of blanket. There is a third pair of cylinders which cuts off the sheet, and a fourth (in which, however, one cylinder is replaced by a brace of rollers) gives the first fold and shoots the doubled sheet in the circular cutter, which slits it into two papers, send- ing them on to be folded again separately and delivered in their respective places in piles at the side of the press ; or the papers are rolled up exactly on the top of each other, six in number, and flown perfectly on the fly-board. This machine printed and folded at the rate of more than 28,000 sheets an hour at the Centennial Exhibition, printing and folding at one time two copies of the Philadelphia Times. 246 THE PRINTING PRESS. It is already in use in a dozen newspaper establishments in various parts of the world. All these machines were in operation at the great Centen- nial Exhibition in Philadelphia. A fourth press exhibited, — claimed by its inventor, Mr. A. Campbell of New York, to be capable of printing much faster than any other, — was set up too late to prove its capacity by actual test. No press how- ever, can be made more simple and with fewer parts than this. RAILROAD-TICKET PRINTING AND NUMBER- ING PRESS. THESE presses not only print, but at the same operation number consecutively, tickets and coupons of every size and pattern, which are also indented or cut apart by the ma- chines as fast as printed. Ten local tickets twenty-six inches in length can be printed at one operation. The average rate of speed is about fourteen hundred impressions an hour, — equivalent to fourteen thousand tickets. JOB PRESSES. THE invention of machines for printing small work ele- gantly as well as swiftly is of vast advantage to the printer, and has greatly in- creased the job- bing department of typography. Here, as in other matters, American ingenuity has ta- ken the lead of all nations ; and the presses invented by Ruggles, Hoe. Gordon, Degener, Wells, and Gaily, — not to mention numerous other inventors, — defy competition. The GORDON'S FRANKLIN PRESS. KUgglCS pi eSSeS THE PRINTING PRESS. 247 NONPAREIL PRESS. formerly com- manded the trade ; but the beautiful machines of Geo. P. Gordon, a man of decided genius, and the presses of other makers above named, have entirely displaced them. Hoe's half medium cylinder job press will run 2500 impressions an hour. Gordon's Fire- fly press is unique, and requires a so-called endless card-board, which it prints and cuts of the required shape as it goes, at the rate of about ten thousand per hour. This is not in general use; but his eighth medium, quarto medium, and half medium Franklin presses, have achieved a high reputation for expedition and excellent performance. Gordon's Franklin press has been reproduced in Eu- rope under a difiTer- ent name. We here present an engraving of an- other press which has achieved not a little reputation. It is called the Liberty press, and is manu- factured by Degener & Weiler, of New York. In sizes as well as in prices, it corresponds with the Franklin. This press also is manu- factured in Europe. LIBERTY PfiESS. 248 THE PRINTIXG PRESS. The Nonpareil, the Globe, the Peerless, and the Universal job press- es all have special points which commend them to favour. Indeed, with so many good macliines at the command of the printer, he is without ex- cuse who does not pro- duce handsome work. What are called ama- teur presses may do well enough to amuse the boys of a family and keep them out of mischief; but when they are employed by fledgelings in competition with properly trained printers, they become mere paper-smearers, the work produced on them being simply detestable to an educated eye. UNIVERSAL PRESS. PEERLESS PRESS. FOLDING MACHINES. 249 BOOK-FOLDING MACHINE. FOLDING MACHINES. BOOK and Newspaper Folders are entitled to a high rank ' among modern labour-saving machines. For newspapers of large circulation and in book establishments they have become indispensable. The finest books may be folded by them with accuracy, speed, and economy; and periodicals can be folded, pasted, and covered aL about one-fourth the cost of hand-folding alone; while the daily folio newspaper can be folded in two, three, or four folds as fast as the machine press can print; or an eight-page daily or weekly can be folded three or four times, and all the pages pasted together at the back fold, and the head margin trimmed. All these processes are successfully accomplished by the various machines made by Chambers, Brother & Co. of Philadelphia. The engraving given above represents a book-folding machine. 250 SETTING UP A WASHINGTON PRESS. SETTING UP A WASHINGTON PRESS. ALL the connecting parts being marked, or indenteci by *- points, if these be observed carefully, the press may be put together without difficulty. After setting the frame upon its legs, and putting on the ribs and bed, lay the platen on the bed, placing under it two bearers about type high. Then put the springs in their places, and the nuts over them, and pass the suspending-rods through them, observing to place the rods so that the number of in- dentations on them correspond with those on the platen. Give the nuts two or three turns, then run in the bed so as to bring the platen under the rods, and screw them fast to the platen; after which, put in the bar-handle, standard, and lever, (or wedge and knees, if a Smith press.) Turn the nuts on the suspending-rods, so as to compress the springs just enough to give the platen a quick retrograde motion, observing at the same time to get the surface of the platen parallel with the surface of the bed. After having put the press together and levelled it by means of a spirit-level, be particular not to raise the end of the ribs by the gallows, but let it go under rather loose, which will have a tendency to make the bed slide with more ease on the ribs. SETTING UP THE ROLLER-STAND. THE roller-stand containing the distributing cylinder should be regulated to the height of the press, bringing the shelf or bridge even with the corner irons, and at sufficient distance from the bed to allow it to run clear; the stand should then be firmly braced, as the constant turning of the rounce is very apt to loosen it; meanwhile Iseing cautious to observe that the rounce, in its revolutions, does not come in contact with the frame of the tympan when up. The position of the distri- buting cylinder should be sufficiently high to allow the two composition rollers, at least one inch apart, to rest on its top without danger of touching the shelf or bridge in front. It is advantageous to nail two narrow strips of sole leather on the face of the shelf, about eight or ten inches from each SETTING UP THE ROLLER STAXD. 251 ROLLER STAND. end, which, acting as bearers, cause the rollers to pass very smoothly over them. The roller-handle while in use should lie in a horizontal position, the back end being supported by a bar of wood or iron running parallel with the distributing cylinder. There should be a notch, or hook, about two inches from the end of the handle, to catch on the wooden supporter, to prevent the rollers from jumping forward while distributing or changing. It is also necessary to have a back-board for the end of the roller to strike against in coming off the form, to prevent the rollers from falling backward. The ink-block is placed about five or six inches to the right of the roller-handle, and about on a level with it. It is fur- nished with the ink-slice, and a brayer, or a small roller about four or five inches long, and of the same circumference with the larger rollers, being cast in the same mould. 252 COMPOSITION ROLLERS. COMPOSITION ROLLERS. PUT the glue in a bucket or pan, and cover it with water ; let it stand until more than half penetrated with water, taking care that it shall not soak too long, and then pour it off and let it remain until it becomes soft, when it will be ready for the melting kettle. This is a double vessel, like a glue kettle. Put the soaked glue into the inner vessel, and as much water in the outer boiler as it will contain when the inner ves- sel is placed in it. When the glue is all melted, (if too thick, add a little water,) the molas- ses may be slowly poured into it, and well mixed with the glue by frequent stirring. When properly prepared, the compo- sition does not require boiling more than an hour. Too much boiling candies the molasses, and the roller, consequently, will be found to lose its suction much sooner. In proportion- ing the material, much depends upon the weather and tempera- ture of the place in which the rollers are to be used. Eight pounds of glue to one gallon of sugar-house molasses, or syrup, is a very good propor- tion for summer-time, and four pounds of glue to one gallon of molasses for winter use. Glue for rollers should be clear and bright in body, and even in texture, when held up to the light: it should break short, and with a clear, sharp edge like glass. For hand-press rollers more molasses should be used, as they are not subject to so much hard usage as cylinder-press rollers, and do not require to be as strong; for the more mo- lasses that can be used the better will be the roller. Before pouring a roller, the mould should be perfectly clean, and well oiled with a swab, but not to excess, as too much oil makes the face of the roller seamy and ragged. The end pieces should then be oiled, and, together with the cylinder, placed in the mould, the upper-end piece being very open, to MELTING KETTLE. COMPOSITION ROLLERS. 255 allow the composition to pass down between the interior of the mould and the cylinder. The cylinder must be well se- cured from rising, before the composition is poured in, by- placing a stick upon the end of it, sufficiently long to reach above the end of the mould, and be tied down with twine. The composition should be poured very slowly, and in such a manner as to cause it to run down only one side of the cylin- der, allowing the air to escape freely up the other. If the mould is filled at night, the roller may be drawn the next morning ; but it should not be used for at least twenty- four hours after, except in very cold weather. To determine when a roller is in order for working, press the hand gently on it: if the fingers pass smoothly over its surface, it may be said to be in order; but should it be so adhesive that the fingers cling to it, it is not sufficiently dry, and should be exposed to the air. Rollers should not be washed immediately after use, but should be put away with the ink on them, as it protects the surface from the action of the air. When washed and exposed to the atmosphere for any length of time, they become dry and skinny. They should be washed about half an hour before using them. In cleaning a nezv roller, a little oil rubbed over it will loosen the ink : and it should be scraped clean with the back of a case-knife. It should be cleaned in this way for about one week, when ley may be used. New rollers are often spoiled by washing them too soon with ley. Benzine may be substituted for oil; but, owing to its combustible nature, it is objectionable, as disastrous accidents have ensued from its use. Mr. Hansard, an eminent English printer, says, "Take glue, made from the cuttings of parchment or vellum, fine green molasses, pure as from the sugar-refiners, and a small quantity of the substance called Paris-white, and you will have every ingredient requisite for good composition. The proportion as follows : — Glue, 2 lbs. Molasses, 6 lbs. Paris-white, Yz lb. Put the glue in a little water for a few hours to soak ; pour off" the liquid ; put the glue over the fire, and when it is dissolved add the molasses, and let them be well incorporated together for at least an hour; then, with a very fine sieve, mix the 254 COVERING TYMPANS. Paris-white, frequently stirring the composition. In another hour, or less, it will be fit to pour into the mould." Various patented compositions for rollers may now be had from type-founders. COVERING TYMPANS. TYMPANS are generally covered with parchment, which should be of an even thickness, and about two inches and a half wider and three inches longer than the tympans. Tym- pans have been sometimes covered with linen, which, on account of its evenness, would answer the purpose; but it is so apt to stretch, that the tympans become slack in a short time, and bag (as it is termed), and thus slur the impression. Silk is excellent for fine work. The pressman spreads as much good paste on the edges of the skin as will cover the frame of the tympan, which is also well pasted. He then lays the skin on the inner side of the frame, with the flesh side to face the type, and draws it regu- larly, as tight as possible, on all sides. The part of the skin that comes on the grooves of the tympan which receive the point-screws, is cut and wrapped round the inside edge of the grooves, which admits a free passage for the screws. After having fastened the skin on the sides of the tympan, he draws it toward the joints which receive the frisket, and with a knife cuts across these joints to let them through the skin ; he then puts the frisket-pins through the parchment, and makes that end of the tympan fast. He next proceeds to the lower joints, and brings the skin as tight as he can round that part of the tympan. The point-screws and duck-bill are then put on, which prevent the skin from starting. The inner tympan, or drawer, is covered in the same manner. To prevent their warping when the skin begins to draw, pieces of furniture or wood of any kind should be placed across the centre till they are perfectly dry. The skins are put on either wet or dry: if dry, they should be afterward well wet, which will make them give some- what; but when they dry they will contract, and by this means will be rendered much tighter than they would be if put on wet. WETTING PAPER. 255 WETTING PAPER. THE size of the wetting-trough should be about two inches longer and wider than the largest-sized paper, folded, that is to be wet in it, and about six inches deep. It should have a cover with hinges on the left side, that the cover may fall over on that side, and, resting horizontally, serve for a shelf to lay the paper upon previous to wetting it. Having received a certain amount of paper from the ware- houseman, the pressman lays one heap on the shelf attached to the wetting-trough, laying the first token across the heap with the back of the quires toward his right hand, that he may know when to turn the token-sheet, and that he may more readily catch at the back of each quire with that hand, for the purpose of dipping it. He then places the paper-board with its breadth before him on his right, on a table, laying a wrapper or a waste sheet of paper on the board, to prevent soiling the first sheet of the heap. He then takes a quire by the centre of the back with his right hand, and the edge of it in his left, and, closing his hands a little, that the quire may bend downward between his hands, he dips the back of the quire into the left-hand side of the trough, and, relinquishing his hold with the left hand, draws the quire briskly through the water with his right. As the quire comes out, he quickly catches the edge of it again in his left hand, and brings it to the heap, and, by lifting his left hand, bears the under side of the quire off the paper pre- viously laid down, till he has placed the quire in an even posi- tion ; if the paper be weak and spongy, he draws the quire through the water quickly ; if strong and stubborn, slowly. To place the quire in an even position, he lays the back of it exactly upon the open crease of the former, and then lets the side of the quire in his left hand fall flat down upon the heap, and, discharging his right hand, brings it to the edge of the quire, and, with the assistance of his left thumb, still in its first position, opens or divides either a third or a half of the quire, according to the quality of the paper; then, spreading the fingers of his right hand as much as he can through the length of the quire, turns over his opened division of it upon his right-hand side of the heap. A different process must be used in the wetting of drawing 256 WETTING PAPER. and plate papers. These papers are usually sent in quite flat; tliat is, not folded into (]uires or half-quires. The best method of wetting these papers is to use a brush, such as is called a banister brush; and, instead of dipping the paper into the trough, he lays it on the paper-board by the side of the trough, and, dipping the brush into the water, he shakes it gently over the whole surface, to give an equal degree of moisture to all parts ; and then proceeds as before described. The drawing- paper, being very hard-sized in the making, will require the brush, and much water, three, four, or even five times a quire; while the plate-paper should have as little water as it is pos- sible to give it, so as to cover it all over ; and twice a quire will often be too much. This same mode must also be adopted in wetting paper of extraordinary dimensions. Having wet his first token, he doubles down a corner of the upper sheet of it on his right hand, so that the farther corner may be a little toward the left of the crease in the middle of the heap, and the other corner may hang out on the near side of the heap about an inch and a half. This sheet is called the token-sheet, being a mark for the pressman, when he is at work, to show how many tokens of that heap are worked off. Having wet the whole heap, he lays a wrapper, or waste sheet of paper, upon it; then, three or four times, takes up as much water as he can in the hollow of his hand, and throws it over the waste sheet, to moisten and soak downward into the wet part of the last division of the quire ; after which, he places in the heap the label which the warehouseman nuist always furnish for each heap, and upon which are written the title of the work and the date of wetting, one-half hanging out so as to be easily read. The paper should be pressed for twelve hours, and then carefully turned by each tliree or four sheets, so that no lift be relaid in the same position with respect to the adjoining lift; at the same time, every fold and wrinkle must be carefully rubbed out by the action of the hand, so that nothing but a flat and even surface shall remain; tiie heap sliould then be pressed for about twenty-four hours in a screw-press, and it will be in good order for working. The wetting of paper must, in all cases, depend entirely upon its fabric ; and, since the printer lias seldom the choice of the paper, it will require ail iiis skill and patience to adapt BLANKETS— MAKING READY. 257 his labours to the materials upon which he is to work. The texture of the paper must be suited to the fineness and tena- city of the ink. To attempt doing fine work upon common paper is lost labour. A paper to take the best ink must be made entirely of linen rags, atid not bleached by chemicals. A fine hand-made paper, fabricated a sufficient time to get properly hardened, and well and equally saturated with size, so as not to imbibe more water in one part of the dip than in another, nor resisting the water like a duck's back, is most suitable for fine printing. Machines for wetting paper are now used in most large printing-offices. BLANKETS. WOOLLEN blankets are unnecessary when a book is printed from new type. Nothing more should be used than a sheet or two of paper, as in fine work only the face of the type should show in the impression. But when the types or plates are worn and rounded, fine cassimere or broadcloth should be used in the tympan. In this, as in all matters con- nected with artistic typography, the pressman must display good judgment and discretion. MAKING READY A FORM ON A HAND-PRESS. BEFORE a form is laid on the press, the pressman should carefully wipe the bottom of the type and the bed perfectly clean; for, if a particle of sand remain on it, it will cause a type or two to rise, and not only make a stronger impression, but probably injure the letters. An octavo form should be laid on the press with the signa- ture-page to the left hand, or nearest the platen ; a duodecimo, or its combinations, with the signature at the right hand, or nearest the tympan. The form should be laid under the centre of the platen, and properly quoined up. The tympan is then laid down, and wet if necessary, and paper or blanket put in. It was formerly customary to wet the tympans for all works, and even jobs of almost every description ; but, since the in- troduction of fine printing, and particularly iron presses, the custom is well-nigh banished, excepting for very heavy forms. 258 MAKING READY A FORM. composed with old letter, which, of course, require more soft- ness to bring them off. After the inner tympan or drawer is put in, it is fastened with the hooks for that purpose, which serve to keep it from springing out. The tympan being lifted up, a sheet of the paper to be worked is folded in quarto, and the short crease is placed over the middle of the grooves of the short cross, if it lie in the centre of the form, as in octavo. In a form of twelves, the paper is folded in thirds, and the long crease placed in the middle of the long cross, and the short cross over the grooves. The sheet lying evenly on the form, the tympan is brought down, and a gentle pull will cause the paper to adhere, when it should be pasted to the tympan and fully stretched. The points are next screwed to the tympan, for large paper short-shanked points being used, and long- shanked for small paper. In twelves, the points must be placed at precisely equal distances from the edge of the paper. In octavo, the off-point may be a little larger than the near one, as it enables the pressman to detect a turned heap when working the reiteration or second side. When a press is continued upon the same work, the quoins on the off-side of the bed may remain and serve as gauges for the succeeding forms; for, if the chases are equal in size, the register will be almost, if not quite, perfect. The following operations are comprised in the term of making ready the form : — 1. The frisket should be cov'ered with stout even paper, in the manner described for putting on parchment, the paper be- ing carefully placed on the inside of the frame so as to lie close to the tympan, and to confine the sheet in its place when laid on for printing. When the paste is dry, the frisket is put on the tympan, and, after inking the form, an impression pulled upon it. The frisket is then taken off and laid on a board, or on the bank, and the impression of the pages cut out with a sharp knife about a Pica em larger than the page. After being replaced on the tympan, it is advisable to put a few cords across, to strengthen the bars of paper, and to keep the sheets close to the tympan. When the margin is too small to admit bars of paper, it is necessary to work witii cords only. 2. The form should be examined, to see that it is ])roperly locked up and planed down ; that no letters or spaces lie in the white lines of the form, nor between the lines in leaded matter. MAKING READY A FORM. 259 3. White pages which occur in a form must not be cut out; but, if the page be already cut out, a piece of paper must be pasted on the frisket, to cover the white page in the form, and a bearer put on to keep the adjoining pages from having too hard an impression. Some pressmen use reglets, others furni- ture cut to a proper height, and a third class adopt cork, which, from its elasticity, is very useful. Spring bearers, made of hard paper rolled up, are also employed to guard the sides and bottoms of light and open pages, when there is an inclination to slur. 4. The pressman must examine whether the frisket bites ; that is, whether it keeps off the impression from any part of the pages. 5. He must consider whether the catch of the frisket stands either too far forward or backward : if forward, he may be much delayed by its falling down, and, if backward, it will come down too slowly, and thus retard the progress of the work and not unfrequently cause the sheet to slip out of its proper place. He must, therefore, place the catch so that the frisket may stand a little more than perpendicularly backward, that, when lightly tossed up, it may just stand, and not come back. 6. He must fit the gallows so that the tympan may stand as much toward an upright as he can ; because it is the sooner let down upon the form and lifted up again. But yet he must not place it so upright as to prevent the white sheets of the paper from lying secure on the tympan. 7. The range of the paper-bank should not stand at right angles with the bed of the press ; but the farther end of the bank should be placed so that the near side may make an angle of about seventy-five degrees with the near side of the bed. 8. The heap of paper should be set on the horse on the near end of the paper-bank, near the tympan, yet not touching it. The uppermost or outside sheet should be laid on the bank ; and the pressman then takes four or five quires off" his heap, and shakes them at each end, to loosen the sheets, till he finds he has sufficiently loosened or hollowed the heap. Then, with the nail of his right-hand thumb, he draws or slides forward the upper sheet, and two or three more commonly follow gra- dually with it, over the hither edge of the heap, to prepare those sheets ready for laying on the tympan. 26o PULLING. 9. He must next pull a revise sheet, which must be sent up to the overseer for a tinal revision, and for examining whether any letters have dropped out of the form in putting it on the press, &c. 10. While the sheet is undergoing a revision, the pressman should proceed to make register, if half-sheet-wise, which is done by pulling a waste sheet, and turning it, (without inking, as the sheets may afterward be used for slip sheets,) being particular not to stretch the point-holes in the least, or to draw the hand along the sheet in leaving it. In making register, the points must be knocked up or down in such a direction as will bring the first impression under the last, knocking the point only half the distance apparent on the sheet. If register cannot be made with the points, the difficulty must then be either in the furniture, the length of the pages, or in the springing of the cross-bars, from the forms being locked up by careless compositors, who commence at one quarter of the form, and lock it up tightly, and so go around, instead of gently tapping it at opposite sides till the whole is equally tightened. In locking up a form, the quoins at the feet should be gently struck first, to force up the pages and prevent their hanging; but, in unlocking, the side quoins must be first slackened. Altering the quoins will not make good register, when the compositor has not made the white exactly equal between all the sides of the crosses. The pressman, therefore, will ascer- tain which side has too much or too little white, and, unlock- ing the form, will take out or put in as many leads or reglets as will make good register. PULLING. IN taking a sheet off" the heap, the pressman places himself almost straight before the near side of the tympan, but nimbly twists the upper part of his body a little backward toward the heap, the better to see that he takes but one sheet off". This he loosens from the rest of the heap by drawing the back of the nail of iiis right thuml) quickly over tlie bottom part of tiie heap, and, receiving tlie near end of the siieet with his left-hand fingers and thumb, catches it by the farther edge with his right hand, about four inches from the upper corner PULLING. 261 of the sheet, and brings it swiftly to the tympan: having the sheet thus in both his hands, he lays the f^irther side and two extreme corners of the sheet down even upon the farther side and extreme farther corners of the tympan-sheet. In the reiteration, care should be taken to draw the thumb on the margin, or between the gutters, to avoid smearing the sheet. The sheet being properly laid on, he supports it in the centre by the fingers of the left hand, while his right hand, being disengaged, is removed to the back of the ear of the frisket, to bring it down upon the t>'mpan, laying at the same moment the tympan on the form. He then, with his left hand, grasps the rounce, and quickly runs the form under the platen ; and,, after pulling, he gives a quick and strong pressure upon the rounce, to run the carriage out again. Letting go the rounce, he places the fingers of his left hand toward the bottom of the tympan, to assist the right hand in lifting it up, and also to be ready to catch the bottom of the sheet when the frisket rises, which he conveys quickly and gently to the catch : while it is going up, he slips the thumb of his left hand under the near lower corner of the sheet, which, with the aid of his two fore- fingers, he raises, the right hand at the same time grasping it at the top in the same manner. Lifting the sheet carefully and expeditiously off" the points, and nimbly twisting about his body toward the paper-bank, he carries the sheet over the heap of white paper to the bank, and lays it down upon a waste sheet or wrapper; but, while it is coming over the white paper heap, though he has the sheet between both his forefingers and thumbs, yet he holds it so loosely that it may move between them as on two centres, as his body twists about from the side of the tympan toward the side of the paper-bank. When the pressman comes to a token sheet, he undoubles it, and smooths out the crease with the back of the nails of his right hand, that the face of the letter may print upon smooth paper; and, being printed off, he folds it again, as before, for a token-sheet, when he works the reiteration. Having worked off the white paper of a form of twelves, he places his right hand under the heap, and, his left hand sup- porting the end near him, turns it over on the horse, with the printed side downward. If the form be octavo, he places his left hand under the heap, supporting the outside near end with 262 RULES AND JiEMEDIES. his right hand, and turns it one end over the other. All turn- ing of the paper for reiteration is treated in one of these modes. In performing this operation, he takes from the heap only as much at once as he can well handle without disordering the evenness of the sides of the paper. Having turned the heap, he proceeds to work it off, as be- fore described, except that with the left hand he guides the point-holes over the points, moving the sheet with the right hand, more or less, to assist him in so doing. The token- sheets, as he meets with them, he does not fold down again. RULES AND REMEDIES FOR PRESSMEN. ABOUT every five or six sheets a small quantity of ink ■t\ should be taken ; yet this rule is subject to some variation from the nature of the work and quality of the ink. A form of large type or solid matter will require ink to be taken more frequently, and a light form of small type less fre- quently. During the intervals in which the roller-boy is not employed in brayering out or taking ink, he should be almost constantly engaged in distributing or changing his rollers. He should invariably take ink on the back roller, as it will the sooner be conveyed to the other roller, and, consequently, save time in distributing. When, through carelessness, too much ink has been taken, it should be removed by laying a piece of clean waste paper on one of the rollers, and working it off till the ink is reduced to the proper quantity. If letters, quadrates, or furniture rise up and black the paper, they should be put down, and the quarter locked up tighter. If any letters are battered, the quarter they are in must be unlocked, and perfect ones put in by the compositor. When bearers become too thin by long working, they should be replaced by thicker ones. VV'hen the form gets out of register, — which will often happen by the starting of the quoins which secure the ciiase, — it must be immediately put in again, as there can scarcely l)e a greater defect in a book than the want of uniformity in tliis particular. If picks, produced by bits of paper, composition, or film of ink and grease or filth, get into the form, they must be re- moved with the point of a pin or needle ; but if the form is RULES AND REMEDIES. 263 much clogged with them, it should be well rubbed over with clean ley, or taken oft" and washed : in either case, before the pressman goes on again, it should be made perfectly dry by pulling several waste sheets upon it, in order to suck up the water deposited in the cavities of the letter. The pressman should accustom himself to look over every sheet as he takes it off the tympan : he will thus be enabled not only to observe any want of uniformity in the colour, but also to detect imperfections which might otherwise escape notice. In order to make perfect uniformity in the colour, the roller-boy should keep his ink well brayered out with the small roller, in proper quantities for the work in hand, and also should change his rollers well after taking ink, and at other times. The rollers are changed by moving the roller- handle slowly to the right and left, while the crank is being turned briskly with the left hand. Torn or stained sheets met with in the course of work are thrown out and placed under the bank. Creases and wrinkles will frequently appear in the sheets when the paper has been carelessly wet : these should be carefully removed by smooth- ing them out with the back of the nails of the right hand. If the frame of the tympan rub against the platen, it will inevitably cause a slur or mackle : this can easily be remedied by moving the tympan so as to clear the platen. The joints or hinges of the tympan should be kept well screwed up, or slur- ring will be the consequence. When the thumb-piece of the frisket is too long, it always produces a slur : this can be pre- vented by filing off" a part of it. Loose tympans will at all times slur the work, and great care must therefore be observed in drawing them perfectly tight. The paper drying at the edges will also cause a slur : this may be remedied by wetting- the edges frequently with a sponge. Slurring and mackling will sometimes happen from other causes: it will be well in such cases to paste corks on the frisket, or to tie as many cords as possible across it, to keep the sheet close to the tympan. The pressman should make the boy roll slowly, or the rollers will be apt to jump, and cause a friar. To prevent the rollers from jumping or bounding, bridges or springs made of thin steel, to reach across the gutters, may be used: these 23 264 THE LEY-TROUGH. springs should taper off at the ends, and having an oblong hole in each end, through which they may be tacked to the gutter- sticks. In very open forms, it may be necessary to put bearers or pieces of reglet where the blank pages occur at the end of the form, to prevent one end of the roller from falling down and leaving a friar at the opposite end. This difficulty may be obviated in a great measure by imposing the form in such a manner as to bring the blank pages in the centre. This mode should always be adopted for title-pages and other light matter. Before the pressman leaves his work, he covers the heap of paper by first turning down a sheet like a token-sheet, to show where he left off, and then putting a quantity of the worked-off sheets on it, and a paper-board if convenient. Laying the blanket on the heap after leaving off work is a bad custom. If the paper be rather dry, it will be well to put wet wrappers on it, after damping the edges well. If the form be clean, he puts a sheet of waste paper between the tympan and frisket, and lays them down on the form ; if it be dirty, it must be rubbed over with clean ley, and several waste sheets pulled on it, as before directed, to suck the dirty ley out of the cavities of the letter. On his return to work in the morning, he takes care to wet the tympan, provided the type be worn. If there should be any pages in the form particularly open, the parts of the tympan where they fall must not be wetted. THE LEY-TROUGH. THE form being worked off, it is the pressman's duty to wash it clean from every particle of ink, not only for the cleanly working and well standing of the letter in tlie subse- quent composing, but to save his own time in making ready when the same letter gets to press again. Many an hour is lost from not bestowing a minute or two in thoroughly cleans- ing and rinsing the form. For this purpose, printing-offices are provided with a ley- trough, suspended on a cross-frame, and swinging by iron ears fi.xed somewhat out of the precise centre, so that the gravity of the trough will cause it to fall in a slanting position forward. This trough is lined with lead, the top front edge being guarded from the pitching of the forms by a plate of MAKING READY. 265 iron. The form having been placed in the trough, on its side, the pressman takes hold of the rim of the chase by the hook, or instrument for that purpose, and, laying it gently down, pours the ley upon it, and sluices it by swinging the trough on its pivots two or three times to and fro ; then, taking the ley-brush, he applies it to the whole form, type, furniture, and chase ; the ley is then let out into a receptacle, and the form well rinsed with clean water, by swinging the trough as be- fore ; the form is then lifted out, and consigned to the care of the compositor. The ley is made of pot or pearl ash, or, what is better, of concentrated ley. A large earthen jar is usually chosen for the purpose ; a sufficient quantity of ash or concentrated ley is added to the water to make it bite the tongue sharply in tasting. The ley-brush is made large, the hairs close, fine, and long, in order not to injure the type, while sufficient force is applied to search every interstice in the letter where the ink can have insinuated itself MAKING READY ON CYLINDER PRESSES. MAKE clean the bed of the press and the impression seg- ment of the cylinder. Adjust the bearers a trifle above ordinary type height. See that the impression screws have an even bearing on the journals, and that the cylinder fairly meets the bearers. Select a suitable tympan or impression surface. The tympan may be the India-rubber cloth which is fur- nished with the press, a thick woollen lapping cloth or blanket, several sheets of thick calendered printing paper, or one or more smooth and hard pasteboards. Each of these materials has merits not to be found in any other. Upon the proper selection of the tympan the presswork in great measure de- pends, and the pressman should be thus guided in making choice. A pasteboard tympan is most suitable for wood-cuts, for perfectly new type, and for the best kinds of presswork. It is not suitable for miscellaneous work, nor for heavy forms, nor mixed old and new type. If the overlaying is properly exe- cuted, a pasteboard tympan will enable the pressman to show a sharper edge and a more delicate impression of the type 266 MAKING READY than can be possible with any other, and it will wear the type less than any other. But it will require a very tedious and careful making ready, or it will prove very destructive to type. A woollen blanket is best adapted for old stereotype plates, for v^ery old type which has been rounded on the edges, for posters with large wood type, and for all common work which requires a clear but dull impression. For such work a woollen blanket will enable the pressman to make ready a form more quickly than with any other material ; but it is injurious to new type, and incapable of producing a fine and sharp im- pression. Thick paper is much used for book-work. It also answers well for script circulars and leaded forms. It will not answer so well for mixed old and new type, nor for table-work with unequal heights of brass rule, nor for mixed large and small type. It will prove most serviceable for the average of light and fine presswork. The India-rubber cloth combines many good qualities not found in other tympans : it has something of the density of the pasteboard, the hardness and evenness of paper, and the flexibility of the blanket, combined with an elasticity pecu- liarly its own. It will compass a greater variety of work than any other : posters, script circulars, news and book forms, stereotype plates, and old or new type, can all be well printed with an India-rubber blanket. When it is intended to make one tympan answer for all kinds of work, the India-rubber blanket will be found decidedly superior to all others; but when very extra presswork is wanted, the tympan must be specially adapted to the form of type. There are forms ior which none of these tympans are spe- cially suitable. For such cases careful pressmen combine two or more together, — as Welsh fiannel over rubber, or thin rub- ber over pasteboard or under paper. These, howev^er, are exceptional cases, and are only thus combined when very good presswork is wanted from imperfect materials. Careful observation of the quality of the impression given by each style of tympan will teach a pressman how to combine to the best advantage. As it requires experience and discrimination, an arljitrary rule cannot be given. Whatever may be the material selected, the tympan must be stretched very tightly over the cylinder. All labour in over- ON CYLINDER PRESSES. 267 laying is but thrown away if this is not carefully attended to. A rubber or woollen blanket can be secured at one end of the cylinder by small hooks projecting inward, while it may be laced tightly with saddler's thread at the other end; or, by- sewing on that end of the blanket a piece of canvas, it may be wound tightly around the reel, and kept secure by the pawl and ratchet. But paper and pasteboard require a different process, — viz. : Take a piece of Nonpareil cherry reglet of the full length of the cylinder. Trim down the paper or pasteboard to the width of the bed between the bearers, but leave it a little longer than the impression segment of the cylinder. Then crease the pasteboard at a uniform distance of half an inch from the nar- rower end, and lay this creased part on the flat edge of the impression segment of the cylinder, under the grippers. Put the reglet over this, and bring down the clamps hard on the reglet, so as to bind all securely. When this is done, a thin web of muslin may be stretched over the whole, in the same way in which a blanket is laid on, and rolled up tightly, which will prevent any slipping of the board or of the overlays pasted on it. A large poster, or newspaper form, or any large form with old type, will require a soft roller with much suction. Book- work, wood-cuts, or fine job-work, will require a harder roller, with very smooth, elastic, and clinging surface. Coloured inks are best printed with a still harder roller and with much less suction. All rollers should be perfectly clean, and free from cracks or holes. The suitableness of these rollers cannot well be explained by words : such a knowledge will be best ac- quired by observation and experience. It may, however, be necessary to state that one roller will not answer for all styles of presswork: the quality of the work, the size and wear of the type, and the speed of the press, must control the press- man in his choice. Posters, with large wood type, require a semi-fluid ink, but not surcharged with oil. Ordinary news-work requires a bet- ter grade, more tachy, and finely ground. Good book-work should have a stiffer-bodied ink, soft, smooth, and with little oil. Job ink, which is made expressly for presswork on dry paper, should be used only for such work. Book and job inks are not convertible : an ink for wet paper will not work well 23* 268 MAKIXG READY on dry paper, and vice versa. Very fine pressvvork — such as wood-cuts, or letter-press upon enamelled paper — calls for an ink impalpably fine, very stiff, of brilliant colour, and nearly or absolutely free from oil. Every job-ofiice should keep fotir grades of ink, — news, book, job, and wood-cut. They can be compounded (if no ink-manufacturer is near) with each other, or reduced with varnish to suit any form. Good presswork is impossible without good inks. Charge the ink-fountain with the ink selected, and keep it well covered, to protect it from paper dust. Turn down the screws, and cut off all the ink evenly. When the form is ready, turn on the ink cautiously, and wait for ten or twelve impres- sions before again altering the screws. For small forms and short numbers of any piece of presswork in coloured ink or extra ink, a fountain is not necessary. The ink may be applied with a brayer or palette-knife. The adjustment of the margin is the ne.\t process. Although type can be printed from any quarter of the bed, it will be found most judicious to lay all forms close to the back part of the bed, and equidistant between the bearers. This will secure a good impression, give a fair average margin to every form, and allow the full use of the bed for a large form, without resetting the cylinder. The bed and cylinder travel together, and the grippers, which bring down the sheet to the form, should barely lap over the back part of the bed. So long as the toothed cylinder wheel, and the short toothed rack on the side of the bed, remain undisturbed, the grippers will always pass over the bed in exactly the same place. When the grip- pers are in this position, (slightly lapping over the back of the bed,) take measurement of the distance between the back edge of the bed and the point of one of the nearest grippers. With a piece of reglet cut a gauge exactly corresponding to this measurement. Let no form be laid upon the press until the distance between the type and the edge of the chase tallies witli the gauge. This will prevent the grippers from closing on the form and crushing the type. If the chase will not admit of so wide a margin, or if an extra margin is wanted on the sheet, put a piece of furniture of the extra width behind the chase: the margin can thus be increased or diminished at pleasure. ON CYLINDER PRESSES. 269 A book form may be locked up in a chase so large, with the type so far from the edge of the chase, that the grippers will bring down the sheet in such a position that it will be printed with the margin all on one side. To remedy this, the cylinder must be reset. Proceed thus. Remove the screw and washer, and draw the intermediate wheel out of gear, loosen screws in the gauge rack, then turn the cylinder to the point required, connect the intermediate wheel, adjust the gauge rack, and screw up tight. The press having been adjusted, next examine the form to be printed. Not only see that it is gauged correctly, but also see that it is not locked up too tightly, — that chase, quoins, letter, and furniture are all level, and lie flat upon the bed. If the form springs, the quoins must be slackened ; if this loosens the type too much, the justification should be amended. Make clean the type by rubbing it over with a dry brush. The rollers are often made foul and the colour of the ink changed by dust and particles of dirt clinging to the type. Fasten the form so securely on the bed that it will not be moved by the action of the cylinder or the rollers. Take a proof on its own paper, using very little ink. Proceed to adjust the drop guides so as to bring the sheet exactly in the right position. Push out the iron tongues at the edge of the feed-board, and at equal distances from each other, so that they will equally sustain the paper. Slide the drop guides along the rod until they fall squarely over the tongues. Set the side guide so that it will give a true margin in length to the sheet to be printed. Adjust the grippers so that they will seize the sheet at proper intervals, making the margin exactly even by lengthening or shortening the drop guides. Then take a clean proof on its oivn paper, exactly in the right posi- tion, before making ready, when it may be shown to the reader. It frequently happens that an error in the margin, or an imper- fection in the register, is thus noticed ; and its timely discovery and correction before overlaying will save much time and trouble. A readable proof may be taken before overlaying, by running through a sheet or two of proof paper. Make register, if it is a book form, before underlaying. When every thing has been found correct, then proceed to regulate the impression. If the type is fair, the proof should show a decently uniform impression; but if the form is large, 2 70 MAKING READY or if it contains old and new or large and small type, then the proof will show an uneven impression. To rectify this in- equality, pressmen use many expedients. 1. By lowering the bearers and putting on more impression. This, of itself, is a very poor way ; for it wears down new type in order to show the face of the old, and invariably produces thick and coarse presswork. 2. By raising the low type to a proper height with thick- nesses of paper under them, which is called underlaying. 3. By giving additional thickness to the tympan over every part of the form which shows a weak impression, which is called overlaying. It is very rare that any one of these modes will prove suffi- cient: all should be used in conjunction. When the larger part of the proof-sheet shows a weak impression, almost ap- proaching illegibility, then more impression should be added. When one side of the proof-sheet shows a weak impression, while that on the other side is full and clear, then more im- pression should be given to the paler side. The impression should be made decently uniform before any attempt at over- laying or underlaying. But the bearers should follow the impression screws, both being raised and lowered together, in order to secure the type from the unimpeded force of the impression cylinder. Not only should the bearers be of even height, but the cylinder shaft should always revolve on a true level. If the impression screws are carelessly used, and the bearers are rashly raised and lowered, this even bearing will soon be lost; the difficulty of obtaining a good impression will be much increased, and the press will receive a serious injury. For the same reason, the bearers should never be packed, (by the addition of cards, as is usual on a hand-press,) for it strains the cylinder and all its bearings with an irregular resistance. The bearers should be tampered with even less than the im- pression screws. When the impression screws are so set that tlie cylinder gives a fair unif(jrm impression, they have done all that can be expected, and nothing more sliould be attempted by them. Sometimes the proof may show that a cut, or a line of type, or a set of brass rules, are higher than any other mate- rial in the form. But the impression should be set regardless of this: it will be found quicker and neater to reduce the impression on one or two such high lines, by cutting out the ON C YLINDER PRESSES. 2 7 1 tympan-sheet over them, than it would be to underlay and bring up all other types to such an irregular height. Pitch the impression so that it will face the larger portion of the type, and make the less conform to the greater. Those parts which are high must be cut out of the tympan, and those which are low should be raised by underlays, and all inequalities regu- lated by overlays. When any part of the form is very low, it will not answer to attempt facing it with overlays : it must be brought up to meet the inking rollers as well as the impression cylinder. When the proof shows low type, cut out the impression of it, raise the form, and paste it over the feet of the letter. If some types are high and some are low, make proper distinction, and carefully avoid increasing the height of any type or rule which seems to have a full impression. Pursue the same course when a marked depression appears in the centre, or a dwindling impression at the edges. Cut out that section which is light, and affix it to the defective part. If the impression dwindles in any part, the underlays must be cut of irregular thickness to suit the tapering off of the impression. Cut out an under- lay from the edge where the impression begins to fade ; then cut another of smaller size where it is utterly illegible; paste one over the other, laying them carefully in their proper posi- tions, and then paste them all on the bottom of the form, where it is needed, taking care to lay the smallest underlay nearest the bed. This will restore the type to a proper level, and the next proof should show a uniform impression. The same plan will answer for a low corner. Use as little paste as possible, thin and free from lumps. Be careful that the under- lays are laid on smoothly, without fold or wrinkle. Cut all underlays from a proof; for the proof serves as a guide both in cutting and in affixing to the form. Underlaying should not be done to any great extent upon a cylinder press. It is a valuable means of bringing up an old line of type, a hollow, or a low corner. The underlays of any type form should not constitute more than one-fourth of the surface ; if more than this is attempted, they will rarely ever fail to work up the quadrates and furniture. The action of the quickly moving cylinder upon a form of type underlaid with yielding paper, must create a spring and a rocking of all the materials in the chase. 272 MAKING READY Of all materials, old stereotype plates need underlays most, as they are usually very irregular in height. Thin card or pasteboard will be found preferable to paper for the underlay- ing of plates secured on wood bodies. When the plates are on patent blocks, always underlay between the plate and the block. Always cut the underlay for a plate less in size than the faint impression would seem to require. This will allow for the spring of the plate. If it is cut of full size, the next impression will disappoint the pressman, by being much harder at the edges than he intended. Never attempt to build up a type form to a proper impression entirely or chiefly by under- laying. Underlays should be put under all large and bold-faced types when used with much smaller types, so as to raise them above the level of the others. This is needed to give it closer rolling, extra supply of ink, and that extra force of impression to transfer the ink to paper which all large types require. When the type has been so levelled by underlays that all parts receive proper bearing from the inking rollers, and when the cylinder has a corresponding even impression, then over- laying may be commenced. For ordinary news, posters, or job-work, overlaying may be entirely unnecessary ; the tapes and fly may be set, and the printing of the form may proceed without further delay. But fine press-work cannot be done without overlays. Underlays are chiefly valuable for securing an even impression; while overlays are indispensable for giv- ing delicacy and finish to that impression. To overlay a form properly, the tympan should be covered with a sheet of thin, smooth, and hard paper, stretched tightly. Then take a pale impression on the tympan-sheet, and also run through the press two or three proofs on thin and hard paper. Examine the proofs carefully on both face and back. If any brass rules or letters appear too high, cut them out of the tympan-sheet in one or two thicknesses, as their varying height may require. Go over the whole proof, examining every line carefully, and, by cutting out, reduce the impres- sion of all projecting letters to a uniform standard. For this, as for all other work on overlays, use a very sharp knife with a thin point, and cut on a smooth surface, so tliat there will be no dragged or torn edge to the cut. The next step should be to raise the impression ^^3>W(Si'§BBB ^S |B niay be attached to the press. It counts only when the form is being printed, and shows the exact number in plain figures up to 100,000. Se- veral styles of counting machines are made. An ink fountain has been contrived for attachment to the Gordon job press, or any other press with similar plate distribu- tion. It is quite a cose y little thing, and is operated by the impression arm of the press. HART'S COUNTER. PATENT INK FOUNTAIN. Iron furniture is made in sets containing twenty-one pieces, adapted for use on the eighth, cjuarter, and half medium job presses. USEFUL RECEIPTS.'^^ PRINTERS' ROLLERS.— JO lbs. French or Irish heavy glue, 12 lbs. sugar or good quality molasses, and 3 lbs. glycerine. This will be sufficient to make two rollers twenty- nine by three and one-half inches, and can be readily recast by following the directions given for recasting rollers. Directions. — Soak the glue the necessary length of time that will enable it to melt with ease. After being melted, add the glycerine, and boil fifteen minutes or until thoroughly mixed, when the sugar or molasses may be added. Cook and stir continuously for fifteen minutes, the composition will then be ready for pouring. Strict attention should be given that the moulds be thoroughly cleansed and evenly oiled previous to pouring. Cerma7i Preservative for Rollers. — Corrosive sublimate 2 drachms, fine table salt 2 oz. ; put together in half a gallon of soft water — let it stand twenty-four hours. When rollers are clean washed with ley, sponge them with the above mix- ture twice a week. Directions for Recasting Rollers. — Sponge the face of the roller with hot water; scrape off the face thoroughly with a knife; take the composition off the stock and cut it up small. If the roller has been used only a short time, it may be melted about as readily as new composition ; if it is older, put it in a sieve or basket and soak it in cold water for about fifteen or twenty minutes ; take it out of the water, cover with a damp cloth, and leave over-night; then melt as usual. If composi- (') Mostly from the Paper and Printing Trades yournal, London. 27 311 312 USEFUL RECEIPTS. tion is too hard, wait till it is melted, and stir in a sufificient quantity of common molasses; avoid heavy, clarified syrups. Printers' Ley. — No. i. — Dissolve 28 lbs. of soda in 52 gal- lons of water, to which add 7 lbs. of soft-soap, boiled. Stir well together. Printers'' I^ey. — No. 2. — Boil 3 gallons of water in a copper ; throw in while boiling Yz lb. of unslacked lime and 2 lbs. of common soda; stir well for fifteen minutes. Let it settle till cold, when it must be taken out without disturbing the sedi- ment, and the liquid is then fit for use. Printers' Ley. — No. 3. — Table salt 2 oz., unslacked lime 2 lb., Scotch washing soda (bruised) 2 lb. Put together in 3 gal- lons of water, stir well ; when settled, ready for use. Note. — This ley, if prepared carefully, is very strong, and will wash off almost any colour. A Strotig White Paste. — Dissolve 2% oz. of gum-arabic in 2 quarts of water, and stir it into i pound of wheat flour until the whole becomes of a pasty consistency. It is then to be heated, and i% oz. each of sugar of lead and alum dissolved in a little water added thereto, and the composition well stirred until it shows signs of boiling, when it must be removed from the fire. Add while hot 6 drops of carbolic acid. This is a very tenacious and durable paste, and may be used on almost any substance. Pastes for Fixing Labels on Glass. — No. i. — Take of gum- arabic I oz., boiling water and glycerine 2 fluid ounces each. Make a solution. No. 2. — Take of gum-arabic and powdered gum tragacanth Yz oz. each, water lY^ oz., acetic acid 20 drops. Mi.\. The acid is used to prevent chemical change, although a stiff paste made of tragacanth alone is not inclined to spoil by fermen- tation. To Make a good Mucilage. — The best quality of mucilage is made by dissolving clear glue in equal volumes of water and strong vinegar, and adding one-fourth of an equal volume of alcohol, and a small quantity of a solution of alum in water. USEFUL RECEIPTS. 313 The action of the vinegar is due to the acetic acid which it contains. This prevents the composition from gelatinizing by cooling; but the same result may be accomplished by add- ing a small quantity of nitric acid. Some of the preparations offered for sale are merely boiled starch, or flour, mixed with nitric acid to prevent the gelatinizing. Liquid Glue. — Take some good strong glue and mix it with full proof whisky. Let it digest for three or four days, and it will be ready for use. Strong Mucilage. — The yoiirnal de Pharmacie states that if, to a strong solution of gum-arabic measuring 8j^ fluid oz., a solution of 30 grains of sulphate of aluminium dissolved in ^3 of an oz. of water be added, a very strong mucilage is formed, capable of fastening wood together, or mending por- celain or glass. Gum for Backing Labels. — Take any quantity of clear, pure dextrine and mix it with boiling water until it assumes the consistency of ordinary mucilage. Apply thinly with a full- bodied, evenly made, and wide camel's-hair brush. The paper should not be too thin or unsized. The preparation will dry quickly, and adhere when slightly wet. Note. — No more of the dextrine should be inixed at one time than can be used at once, as it cannot be remelted easily. Mucilage for Postage Stamps, Envelopes, etc., is composed of dextrine 2 parts, acetic acid i part, alcohol i part, water 5 parts. Commoft Prepared Glue. — Dissolve 2 lbs. good common glue in 3 pints warm water, and add i quart of strong vine- gar. Ready to use after twenty-four hours. For snaking 3Tagenta Surface Paper. — lyi oz. of Magenta, (aniline,) % oz. Bismarck brown, (aniline,) i cake of glue; put these into 4 gallons of boiling water. Coat the paper with this, using an 8-inch double-filled camel's-hair brush. Quantity given will coat two reams of double-crown. A hard-sized paper must be used. 314 USEFUL RECEIPTS. Coloured Writing Inks. — The following receipts have been well tested, and are commended by good authorities as pre- ferable to the solutions of aniline dyes, which are now so extensively used as coloured inks : — Green. — Two parts acetate of copper, one part carbonate of potash, and eight parts of water. Boil until half evapo- rated, and filter. Blue. — Three parts Prussian blue, one part oxalic acid, and thirty parts of water. When dissolved, add one part of gum- arabic. Yellow. — One part fine orpiment, well rubbed up with four parts thick gum water. Red. — With the aid of a gentle heat, dissolve four grains of carmine in i oz. of aqua ammoniae, and add 6 grains of gum- arabic. Gold. — Rub gold leaf, such as is used by bookbinders, with honey, till it forms a uniform mixture. When the honey has been washed out with water, the gold powder will settle at the bottom, and must be mixed with gum water in sufficient quantity. SiLVER.^Silver leaf treated in precisely the same manner gives a silver ink. Both these inks may be polished with ivory when dry. Black. — Three ounces crushed gall-nuts, two ounces crys- tallized sulphate of iron, two ounces gum-arabic, and twenty- four ounces water. White. — Fine French zinc-white, or white lead, nibbed up with gum water to the proper consistency. Fireproof Ink. — Fireproof ink, which can be used either for writing or printing: — Copal 12 grains, graj^hite 22 drachms, sulphate of iron 2 drachms, tincture of nut-galls 2 drachms, and sulphate of indigo 8 drachms ; these are thoroughly mixed and boiled in water, and the ink so obtained is said to be botii fire- proof and insoluble in water. When any other colour than black is desired, the graphite is replaced by any other mineral pigment of the required colour. Printing: Ink Varnish. — Printing ink varnish is made by adding 4 oz. of boiled linseed or neat's-foot oil to 6 oz. of yellow rosin. USEFUL RECEIPTS. 315 Lithographic Transfer Ink. — Three parts gum copal, 5 parts wax, 5 purified tallow, 4 soap, 5 shellac, 5 mastic, and one-half part sulphur. The copal is to be melted in a copper vessel, mixing in a little sweet oil, add the wax and tallow, and when these are well melted, light the mass and throw in the soap, well dried and cut in small pieces, then the shellac and mastic. The flame is to be increased by the addition of the flowers of sulphur, and so a perfect mixture of the copal with the other substances will be attained. The flame is to be alternately kindled and extinguished till the whole mass is reduced to one-fourth of its former bulk. To give dark Printing Inks a Bronze or Changeable Hue. — Take lyi lb. gum shellac and dissolve it in i gallon 95 per cent, alcohol spirits of cologne for 24 hours ; then add 14 oz. aniline red; let it stand a few hours longer, when it will be ready for use. Add this to good blue, black, or other dark inks, as needed, in quantities to suit, when, if carefully done, they will be found to have a rich bronze or changeable hue. An Ink for Marking Tin or Zinc. — An ink composed of copper one part, dissolved in ten parts nitric acid, ten parts water being afterward added, is useful for marking on tin or zinc. Quick-drying Preparations for Printers' Inks to be used on Bookbinders'' Cases. — i oz. beeswax, % oz. gum-arabic dis- solved in sufficient acetic acid to make a thin mucilage, ]4- oz. Brown's Japan, % oz. asphaltum varnish. Incorporate with I lb. of wood-cut ink. A Dryer. — No. i, for fine job work. Damar varnish 6 oz., bergamot 2 drachms, balsam copaiba 2 drachms, balsam of fir 3 oz., creosote i drachm, copal varnish i drachm. To enough ink for 1000 ordinary business cards, add from S to 12 drops of the "Indispensable," and to larger quantities in pro- portion. When used for bronze, dry colours, diamond printing, etc., take twice the quantity ; and where an extra quick dryer is desired, add a few drops of dissolved gum-arabic to the ink, after it has been mixed with No. i. In all cases, mix well with the ink before applying to the rollers. 31 6 USEFUL RECEIPTS. Dryer. — No. 2. — For news and poster ink. Spirits of tur- pentine I qt., balsam copaiba 6 oz. Add a sufficient quantity to the ink to thin it to a proper consistency for working. Silvering Sohdioii for Electrotype Plates. — Nitrate of silver 2 drachms, distilled water 37 drachms. Dissolve and add sal ammoniac i drachm, hypophosphate of soda 4 drachms, pre- cipitated chalk 4 drachms. Agitate the preparation occasion- ally for twelve hours, when it will be ready for use. Apply with a piece of tine sponge. How to coat Electrotypes with ^zYz/^r.— Electrotypes can be coated with silver (for working with red ink) in the following manner : One part copper, 5 parts pure tin ; this alloy to be granulated, not too fine, and mixed with water and cream of tartar into a paste. To each 200 parts of the granulated alloy add I part oxide silver, the electro is then laid in it, and boiled for a short time, when it will be found to be beautifully plated. Fresh oxide must be added from time to time. This coating is quite equal in durability to silver or tin. To soften Leather Belting.— Castor oil is a good article for keeping leather belting soft and pliable. Hozu to open a Ball of Tzvine.—K ball of twine, if opened from the inside, will run off easily enough and give no trouble in the untwining ; but if begun from the outside, it will speedily get tangled and knotted. To prevent Adhesion.— U. Garde, in Vlmprimerie, tells paper-makers how to obviate the inconvenience of the adhe- sion together of sized papers, on damping, by the coagulation of the size. This is effected in the mills, by dipping the sheets in a solution of alum or tannin. A secondary advantage ob- tained is that the paper becomes tougher. To detect ground Wood in Baper.—M\\ three parts of strong nitric acid with one part of sulphuric acid : a drop of this solution will immediately turn paper containing an ad- mixture of ground wood a brown colour. USEFUL RECEIPTS. 317 French Gold Printing. — French copal varnish i oz., mas- tic varnish % of an oz. ; mix together and add twenty drops to the black ink table, and distribute; take an impression and apply, with wool, gold leaf, Dutch metal, or bronze. Apply the bronze with cotton wool and rub hard over the black ink. After each fifty printed, wipe off the superfluous gold from the type with a silk handkerchief. Transfer Varnish. — Take equal quantities of fir balsam and spirits turpentine. Mix, shake well, and set in a warm place until clear. Used in decalcomania, and for maps, prints, drawings, and other articles of paper; and also to prepare tracing papers, and to transfer engravings. To make Paper Waterproof. — Dissolve 8 oz. of alum and 2,%. oz. of white soap in 4 pints of water. In another vessel dissolve 2 oz. of gum-arabic and 4 oz. of glue in 4 pints of water. Mix the two solutions and heat them over the fire. Then immerse the paper, sheet by sheet, in the hot liquid, then hang them up edgewise to dry, or pass them between heated cylinders. Books Preseri'cd. — The bindings may be preserved from mildew by brushing them over with the spirits of wine. A few drops of any perfumed oil will secure libraries from the consuming effects of mould and damp. Russia leather, which is perfumed with the tar of the birch tree, never moulds or sustains injury from damp. The Romans used oil of cedar to preserve valuable manuscripts. Russia leather covered books placed in a stationer's window will destroy flies and other insects. To restore Engravings, etc. — Old engravings, wood-cuts, or printed matter, that have turned yellow, may be rendered white by first washing carefully in water containing a little hyposulphite of soda, and then dipping for a minute in Javelle water. To prepare the latter, put 4 lbs. bicarbonate of soda in a kettle over a fire ; add i gallon of boiling water, and let it boil for fifteen minutes. Then stir in i lb. of pulverized chloride of lime. When cold, the liquid can be kept in a jug ready for use. ORTHOGRAPHICAL. A THOROUGH reformation of the orthography of the Enghsh language, desirable as it is, can scarcely be hoped for in this century; though doubtless the time will come when an international convention will settle authoritatively the spelling of every word, as acceptably as has been done by the Academies of France and Spain in regard to the orthography of the languages of those countries. A or AN before a Voivel or silent h. In regard to the use of the indefinite article. Walker's Dic- tionary very judiciously says, — "This indefinite, and, as it may be called, the euphonic article, is said by all our grammarians to be used before a vowel or h mute; but no notice is taken of using a instead of an before what is called a vowel, as, a useful book, a useful cere- mony, a usurer, &c. ; nor is any mention made of its constant usage before /; when it is not mute, if the accent of the word be on the second syllable, as, a7i heroic action, att historical account, &c. This want of accuracy arises from a want of analyzing the vowels, and not attending sufficiently to the influence of accent on pronunciation. A proper investigation of the power of the vowels would have informed our gram- marians that the letter u, when long, is not so properly a vowel as a semi-consonant, and perfectly equivalent to com- mencing j, and that a feeling of this has insensibly influenced the best speakers to prefix a to it in their conversation, while a confused idea of the general rule, arising from an ignorance of the nature of the letters, has generally induced them to prefix an to it in writing. The same observations are appli- 318 ORTHOGRAPHICAL. 319 cable to the h. The ear alone tells us that, before heroic, his- torical, &c., the an ought invariably to be used; but, by not discovering tliat it is the absence of accent on the h that makes an admissible in these words, we are apt to prefix an to words where the /; is sounded, as, an horse, an house, &c., and thus set our spoken and written language at variance. The article a must be used before all words beginning with a consonant, and before the vowel 11 when long; and the article an must be used before all words beginning with a vowel, except long u; before words beginning with h mute, as, ati hour, an heir, &c. ; or before words where the h is not mute, if the accent be on the second syllable, as, an heroic action, an historical accoimt, &c." The few words in our language in which the h is mute are heir, herb, honest, honour, hospital, hostler, hour, humble, humour, and their derivatives. Oh should be used to express surprise, pain, sorrow, or anxiety. When the interjection is followed by a proper name, or as an exclamation of wishing the O should be employed singly, thus: O mother dear, jferusaleni! O Lord! O that I viight find him. ABLE and IBLE. All English words, without regard to the source from which they have been derived, and those which come from Latin words ending in abilis or French ones in able, take the termi- nation able in English, as, procurable, amendable, desirable, allocvable, voidable, available, fordable, incontestable, &c. ; but in words from Latin and French words terminating in ibilis or ible, then the ending will be ible in English. For instance: accessible, sensible, defensible, convertible, &c. In words ending in ce ox ge, the final e is preserved before the termination able, for the purpose of indicating the soft sound of the consonant, as in marriageable, chargeable, trace- able, serviceable, &c. ; but before the ending ible the final e of the primitive disappears, and there is no e before the termina- tion. Examples: deducible, reducible, frangible, &c. The following list of words in ible is here added; all others end in able : — 320 OR THO GRAPHICAL. accessible deceptible expressible persuasible admissible decerptible extendible pervertible adustible decoctible extensible plausible appetible deducible fallible possible apprehensible defeasible feasible producible audible defectible fencible quadrible cessible defensible flexible reducible coercible depectible forcible referrible collectible deprehensible frangible reflexible comminuible descendible fusible refrangible compatible destructible horrible regible competible digestible ignoscible remissible comprehensible discernible illegible reprehensible compressible discerptible immarcessible resistible conceptible dispraisible immiscible W responsible conclusible dissolvible impassible (2) reversible congestible distensible intelligible revertible contemptible divisible irascible risible contractible docible legible seducible controvertible edible miscible sensible convertible effectible partible solvible convincible eligible passible W tangible corrigible eludible perceptible terrible corrosible enforcible perraiscible transmissible corruptible evincible permissible visible credible expansible IM or IN, and em or en. The prefix ifi is from the Latin, and that of en from the French and Greek. In generally signifies situation, and en mostly expresses action. Hence, perhaps, in strictness, inclose will signify "to close in," and eticlose, "to make close." So, to ifiqnire will be " to seek in, or to search in," and enquire, to "make search." I»unio;rate, "to pass into;" emigrate, "to go out of." But this distinction is not attended to by writers, and is, indeed, too refined for general practice. Before the letters b and />, en becomes em, as in embattle, empozver ; and hi before some letters becomes ig, il, im, or ir, as in ignoble, illegal, improper, irresolute. We give a list of those generally spelt with /;;/ or /;/ / leaving it to be inferred that the rest are more usual with em or en. (') For other words beginning with im, in, ir, or un negative, look for the simple word. (*) Incapable of suffering. (=>) Capable of suffering. OR THO GRAPHICAL. 321 imbarn impel indict initiate instop imbibe impen indite inject insure Imboil imperil indoctrinate inlapidate inter imbound impinge indrench inlay intertwine imbrue implant induce inlet intort imbrute implead induct inoculate intreasure imbue import ineye inosculate intrench imburse impose infer inquire intrude immanacle impound infest inrail intrust immense impregnate infix inscribe inumbrate immerge impress inflame insculp inure immerse imprint inflate inseam inurn immigrate imprison inflect insert invade immingle inarch inflict inset inveigh immit incase infringe inshell invert immix inclasp infuscate inship invest immure inclip infuse insinew invigorate impact incloud ingrane insphere invite impale include ingest inspire invocate imparadise incrassate inhabit inspirit invoice impassioned increase inhale install invoke impawn incur inhere instate inwall impeach indart inhold insteep inweave irapearl indent inhume IN arid UN. instil /;/, as a prefix, also marks negation: it is probable that it came from the Romans. Un, as a prefix, is synonymous with in: it is of Saxon origin, and generally joined to words from a northern source ; while in is oftener applied to those of Latin derivation. ISE and izE. The variation in the terminations ise and ize is due to the different derivations of words, — ize characterizing words from the Greek and Latin, and ise from the French. The rule, how- ever, is not inflexible. The following words are commonly spelled with the s. advertise advise affranchise aggrandise amortise catechise chastise circumcise comprise compromise criticise demise despise devise disfranchise disguise divertise emprise enfranchise enterprise exercise exorcise galliardise manumise merchandise misprise (mistake) premise recognise reprise (take again) supervise surmise surprise 322 OR THO GRAPHICAL. OR and OUR. The ending our was in general use until the appearance of Webster's Dictionary, in which the u was dropped in words terminating with our. This innovation has steadily gained ground. We do not approve of partial tinkerings with English orthography; and, until a general convention of British and American scholars settle the method of spelling English words, we shall adhere to the established usage. We append a list of words terminating in our. arbour colour fervour odour splendour ardour contour flavour parlour succour armour demeanour harbour rancour tambour behaviour dishonour honour rigour tumour candour dolour humour rumour valour clamour endeavour labour savour vapour clangour favour neighbour saviour vigour The u is dropped when the termination ous is added to any of these words ; as, clamorous, dolorous, humorous, laborious, odorous, rancorous, rigorous, valorous, vigorous. And also in derivative words ; such as annory, honorary, &c. SIGN and TioN. Primitive ivords which end in d, dc.ge, mil, rt, sc, or ss, take sion in their derivatives ; but all other words have lion. EXAMPLES. abscin^a.y(?-pudding," "/^a^d'-soup," or "/^a-soup," &c. The Omission of s in the Possessive Case. It is not uncommon with some persons to omit the ^ after the apostrophe in the possessive case of nouns, if the name itself ends in s ; as, " jfarnes'' book," "Barnes'' Notes." But this is incorrect; for if we ask. Whose book? we should directly answer, James's. The only case when the .s can be judiciously omitted, and this solely to avoid the too hissing sound of so many i^'s in succession, is when the first word ends with the sound of s in its last two syllables, and the next word begins with s ; as in Misses' spectacles, righteousness'' sake, conscience' sake. Formation of the Plurals of Words compou7ided of a Noiai and an Adjective. Adjectives have no plural number. Therefore, in a word compounded of a noun and an adjective, the s denoting the plural number is attached to the end of the noun, as follows: — Governor-general Governors-general. Attorney-general Attorneys-general. Court-martial Courts-martial. But where the adjective is taken substantively, the mark of the plural will properly follow it. For example : Brigadier- generals, major-generals, lieutenant-getierals. OR THO GRAPHICAL. Words compounded of a noun and the adjective//^// form their plurals thus: spoonfuls, ciipfuls, bucket/ ids, handfiih, mouthfuls. Pointing of Numbers, Weights, Measures, &c. No comma should be placed between the constituent parts of the same number, however long rt may be. Thus, we say, "One million one hundred thousand five hundred and twenty- one," without any interpunction. The reason is, that there is no more than one numerical aggregate intended, or but one complex notion; and, consequently, no separation of parts or members can take place. The same reasoning holds good as respects values, zueights, &c. For instance, when we say, " Six dollars and ten cents," we merely mean that aggregate amount, but not necessarily any one of the coins indicated. If we did so intend, then two commas should be introduced, — one after "dollars," and the other after "cents." In like manner we should act with such sentences as, "Five tons three hundred- weight two quarters and fifteen pounds ;" or, " Ten acres four roods and twenty-seven perches;" and for the same reason: no division of parts is intended, but merely one aggregate amount. When figures are used to express amounts, a comma should not be inserted to cut off the tens unless the sum requires five figures: e.g. $10,600, 20,000 men, &c. In column matter this rule will not apply. Derivation of English Words. Of course the Saxon forms the basis of our language in its essential parts, and is the source whence we derive the greater part of our ordinary and most emphatic words. Nevertheless, various other languages have been put under contribution, especially the French, Latin, and Greek. This will be evident from the following statement of derivations, which will show the unlearned reader how important it is to him that he sliould acquire some knowledge of those languages, if he desires to attain to a thorough proficiency in his business as an educated printer. I. From the Greek are derived — I. Words ending in gram, graph, M\(\graphy ; as, telegram. ORTHOGRAPHICAL. 325 telegraph, geography, &c. ; from the word }pd(p(J, {grapho,) I write, and some other Greek word. 2. Those in goti ; from jon-Za, {go/iia,) an angle; as, octagon. 3. All words in /f^/^^ or /c^/ a.?,, epilogue, astrology ; from 16yoq, {logos,) a discourse. 4. /<:, zV/^, 2V.y are also Greek terminations, generally of adjectives. 5. Words in meter are all of Greek origin, coming from the verb /lerpcj, {metro,} I measure, in combination with some other word. 6. Most words into which the terminations agogue, asis, esis, or ysis enter are also of Greek origin ; such as demagogue, emphasis, parenthesis, analysis, &c. 11. But the main source whence we have derived words, with the exception of the Saxon, is the Latin, as will appear from an inspection of the following list: — 1. Words ending in ance, ancy, or ant, and ence, ejtcy, or ent, come from Latin words ending respectively in ans, antia, or ens, entia; as, abundance, from abundantia ; infancy, from in- f antia ; abundant, from abundans ; absence, from absentia; excellency, from excellentia; and excellent, from ex ce liens. 2. Words in a/ have their Latin representatives in alis ; as, corporal, from corporalis. 3. Verbs in ate mostly come from Latin verbs of the first conjugation ; as, moderate, from modero. 4. Words in ator are generally the same in both languages; as, orator, senator, moderator. 5. The termination id comes mostly from Latin words end- ing in idus ; as, acid, from acidus ; but sometimes words of this ending are of Greek origin; as, oxide, (more correctly, oxyd,) from o^vi, {oxys ;) and, indeed, most scientific words of this end- ing; as, carotid, from KapunSec, &c. ; rhomboid, from pofxiSneiSr/c. 6. //or He is likewise from the Latin termination of adjec- tives in His; as, docile, from docilis ; civil, from civilis. 7. The Latin termination osus has its English representa- tive in ious or ous; as, copious, from copiosus ; numerous, from numerosus. But sometimes the English ending ous comes from a Latin word in ax ; as, capacious, from capax. 8. The Latin ending io has its English corresponding word in ion ; as, nation, from natio ; oration, from or alio. 326 ORTHO GRA PHICA L . 9. The endings ne, re, and te after a vowel are also for the greater part of Latin origin; as,, fortune, irom/ortiina; aqui- line, from aqiiiliniis ; culture, from cultura ; pure, ivoiw purus ; complete, from completus, &c. ID. Words in ty come from Latin words in las; as, equality, from cequalitas ; bounty, from bonitas; rarity, from raritas, &c. 11. The termination ude is also of Latin origin, coming from words in udo; as, fortitude, horn fortitudo ; elude, from eludo. 12. So also is uous, by inserting the letter o; as, ambiguous, from ambiguus ; continuous, from continims, &c. IIL From the French have come — I. INIost of our words in age ; as, page, rage, usage. 1. All those in eau; as, beau, flambeau, &c. 3. The French esse is represented by the English ess: as, princess, ivom princesse. 4. Words in que mostly come to us from the French directly ; some from the Latin directly or indirectly ; as, antique, (L. anti- quus, F. antique,) oblique, opaque. 5. Words ending in mcnt are nearly the same in both lan- guages; as, co)nmencement, xdvancement, (F, avancement,) &c. We subjoin some rules for spelling, adapted from Laid- law's ^Imcrican Pronouncing Dictionary. '^'^'^ RULE I. Words ending in silent e after u or a consonant generally drop the e on taking an additional termination beginning with a vowel; as, sa\it, salable ; \y\ai., plaguy ; sue, sui fig; eye, eying. Exception I. — Words ending in ce and ^f retain e before iiih' and cus : as, ser- vice, serviccati/e; lTa.ze, traceable: courage, courageous; a.dv3Mta^e, adziantageous. Exception II. — Compounds and prefixes retain e; as, firearms, foreordain, pole-axe, vice-admiral, fire-engine. (1) Published by E. C. Markley & Son, Philadelphia. An excellent book. OR THO GRAPHICAL. 327 Remark. — From singe, springe, swinge, tinge, we write singeing, springeing, swingeing, tingeing, to distinguish from singing, springing, swinging, and tinging. Dyeing, from dye, retains e, to distinguish it from dying, the present participle of die. Mile retains c in mileage. Derivatives from propernames of persons retain e ; as, daguerreotype, morseograph, RULE II. Words ending in silent e generallj- retain the e on taking an additional termination beginning with a consonant; as, bereave, bereavement ; issue, issueless. Remark. — Aivful, awfidly, a-dufidness, argument , argumentation , argumenta- tive, "djoful, ivofully, ivofulness, duly, truly, and wholly, are undisputed exceptions ; and alridgment, acknowledgmettt , Judgment , misjudgment, prejudgment, lodg- ment, "wobegone , and rhymster , are disputed exceptions. Some write abridgement , ackno7vledgement, judgement , misjudgement, prejudgement, lodgement, woebe- gone, and rhyviester. RULE III. Words ending in ie change them into y before i>ig : as, lie, lying. The following words conform to this rule : — lie lie di untie belie overlie hie vie outlie underlie tie RULE IV. outvie Words ending in y preceded by a consonant generally change y into i on taking an additional syllable ; as, mercy, inei'ciful, merciless ; defy, defied, defies, defieth, defiant; busy, busier, busiest, business; \>\y, pliers; por^^hyry, porphyritic. Exception I. — Y after a consonant is not changed into i before ing or ish ; as, dry, drying, dryish. Exception II. — Compounds usually retain y; as, mercy-seat, county-town, dairy-maid, skylight. Remark. — Dryer, dryest, dryly, dryness, shyer ^ shyest, shyly, shyness, are un- disputed exceptions to the rule ; and slyer, slyest, slyly, slyness, are disputed ex- ceptions. Words ending in y preceded by a vowel retain the y ; as, gay, gayly, gayness, gayety ; pray, prayer, praying, prayed, prays. Remark. — From day, lay, pay, say, stay, are formed daily, laid, paid, said, saith, staid. The regular words dayly, layed, payed, sayeth, and stayed, are sometimes used. 28® OR THO GRA PHICA L . Monosyllables and words having the primary accent on the last syllable, when they end with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double their final consonant before an ad- ditional syllable that begins with a vowel; as, wet, wetter, wettest, wetting, zuetted; drum, drumming, drummed ; dispel, dispelling, dispelled. Exception. — A final x, or the j in gas, should not be doubled ; as, fix, fixes, fixed, fixing : annex, annexing ; gases, gase/y. Remark I. — 6'' after q is never reckoned a part of a diphthong or triphthong; so that from quit are formed quitting, quitted : and from quag, quaggy. Remark II. — This rule applies only to derivatives which retain the accent of iheit primitives, and not to such as in'/erable, infierence, preferable, preference, ref erable , and reference, from infer, prefer, and refer. To the forms infer'rible, refier'rible, which are sometunes met with, the general rule applies. Transfier'able, from transfer, is an exception to the general rule; the regular form tratis/er'rible is not often used. Although paraliel'ogram, from par'allel, and iiiodal'ity from mo'dal, remove the primary accent to the point of duplication, they do not double the final /. See Remark. II. under Rule VII. RULE VII. A final consonant is not doubled when it is preceded by a diphthong, when the primary accent is either not on, or not retained upon, the last syllable, or when the additional syl- lable begins with a consonant ; as, beat, beating, beaten ; differ, differing, differed, difference, differe^it; prefer', prefer- ence ; xitiitx' ,referetice ; 'i\\, fitful, fitly, fitness ; bcn'efit,ben'- efited, ben' efiting. Exception I. — Compounds that remove the primary accent from the point of duplication retain the double letter; as, broad' -brimmed, heeV-tafiping. Remark I. — When ly is affixed to words ending in /, the 1 is not considered doubled ; as in cool-ly, real-ly, gravel-ly, royal-ly. Remark II. — Nutmegged, kidnapping, kidnapped, kidnapper , zigzagging, zig- zagged, excellence, and some others, are undisputed exceptions to the rule. There are nearly one hundred words, from which more than four hundred derivatives are formed, that are usually made exceptions to this rule. Webster is distinguished for making nearly all the derivatives conform to the rule. Webster and Smart accent the verb curvet, on the first syllable, with which accentuation cu>-7'eting and curveted are correct spellings ; other orthoepists accent upon the last syllable, then curvet'ting and curvet' ted are correct. ORTHOGRAPHICAL. 329 RULE VIII. Words ending in c accept of k before a termination begin- ning with e, i, or y ; as, frolic, frolicked, frolicking ; colic, colicky. ILLUSTRATIONS. colic mimic rollic talc colicky mimicking rollicking talcky frolic frolicking frolicked mimicked mimicker rollicked zinc physic traffic trafficking zinckiferous (zinciferous) havoc physicking trafficked zincky havocking physicked trafficker havocked RULE IX. Words ending in a double letter preserv^e it double after a prefix or before a termination beginning with a different letter; as, op-press, mis-spell, in-thrall, oversee ; see-ing, op- pressive, stiff-ness, woo-ed, still-ness, assess-ment. Remark I. — Annul, until, tiuibil, and the conservative _/}<^/, or the Websterian fiiljill, are the only exceptions to the first part of this rule extensively recognized by present usage. The conservative distil and instil are at variance ; but the W'eb- sterian distill and instill, and also tivibill, as written by Reid, are in harmony with the rule. Reniark II. — Pontific, and all other derivatives of pontiff, are exceptions to the latter part of this rule, unless an_/" is discarded in the primitive word, as Webster suggests and the derivation warrants. The derivatives of dull, full, skill, and will, are disputed exceptions : if spelled as Webster writes them, dullness, fullness, skillful, willful, they conform to the rule. RULE X. The plural is usually formed from the singular by adding s ; as, brave, braves ; night, 7iights ; hymn, hymns. Nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel accept of s in the plural; as, cameo, cameos ; studio, studios. 53° OR THOGKAPHICAL. ILLUSTRATIONS. agios ciirculios koodoos punctilios bagnios embryos nuncios ratios bamboos folios olios seraglios braggadocios imbroglios oratorios solfeggios cameos intaglios pistachios studios cuckoos internuncios port-folios trios RULE XII. Nouns ending in y preceded hy a vowel accept of jf in tiie plural; as, money, ;;/<9«o'-S'/ , dresses ; buzz, buzzes; \ioy., boxes; peach, peaches ; dish, dishes. RULE XV. Nouns ending in y after a consonant change y into ies in the plural; as, city, cities; daisy, daisies. RULE XVL Compound nouns whose parts are connected by a hyphen accept of the sigh of the plural after that part which essen- tially constitutes the noun; as, knight-errant, knights-erratit ; son-in-law, sons-in-/azu ; man-of-war, men-of-war ; step-child, step-children; ember-day, ember-days; man-singer, men- singers. ILLUSTRATIONS. aides-de-camp beaus-ideal or beaux-ideal cartes-blanche charges-d'afFaires chevaux-de-frise coups-de-main courts-martial cousins-german daughters-in-law fathers-in-law gendarmes or gens d'armes jets d'eau knights -errant mesdames men-of-war messieurs mothers-in-law poets-laureate porte-monnaies prices-current sergeants-at-arms sisters-in-law sons-in-law step-children step-fathers valets-de-chambre Remark /.—If no hyphen is used, the sign of the plural is always placed at the end ; as, spoonful, spootifuh. Remark //.—The sign of the possessive case is always placed at the end of com- pound nouns ; as, son-in-laiv s house. RULE xvn. The compounds of man form their plural in the same man- ner as the simple word; as, fisherman, /.y//^rw.'Y.— Doctor Theologies , Doctor of Di- vinity. Y).'^ .—Deo volentc, God willing. Dwt. — Pennyweight. E. — East. ea. — Each. E. by S. — East by South. Eben. — Ebenezer. Eccl. — Ecclesiastes. Ecclus. — Ecclesiasticus. Ed. — Editor; Edition. Edm. — Edmund. Edw. — Edward. E. E. — Errors excepted. e.g. — Exem/'li gratia, for example, e.g. — E.X grege, amoi^g the rest. E. I.— East Indies or East India. Eliz. — Elizabeth. E. Ion. — East longitude. Encyc. — Encyclopedia. E. N. E.— East-Northeast. Eng.— England; English. Ent. — Entomology. Env. Ext. — Envoy Extraordinary. Ep — Epistle. Eph.— Ephesians ; Ephraim. Esd.— Esdms. E. S. E.— East-Southeast. Esq. — Esquire. Esth. — Esther. et al. — Et alii, and others. et seq. — Et sequcniia. and what follows. etc. or &c. — Et ccptcri, et cceteree, et ce- tera, and others ; and so forth. Ex. — Example. Ex. — Exodus. Exc. — Excellency; exception. Exch. — Exchequer. Exec. Com. — Executive Committee. Execx. — Executrix. Exr. or Exec. — Executor. Ez. — Ezra. Ezek. — Ezekiel. E. & O. E. — Errors and omissions ex- cepted. Fahr. — Fahrenheit. F. A. M. — Free and Accepted Masons. Far. — Farthing. F. A. S. — Fellow of the Antiquarian So- ciety. fcap. or fcp. — Foolscap. F. D. — Fidei Defensor or Defcnsatrix, Defender of the Faith. Fe. — Ferrtan, iron. Feb. — February. Fee. — Fecit, he did it. Fem. — Feminine. F. E. S. — Fellow of the Entomological Society ; of the Ethnological Society. Ff.— The Pandects. F. G. S. — Fellow of the Geological Society. F.H.S.— Fellow of the Horticultural So- ciety. Fi. fa. — Fieri facias, cause it to be done. Fid. Def.— Defender of the Faith. Fig — Figure. Fin. Sec. — Financial Secretary. Fir. — Firkin. Fla.— Florida. F. L. S. — Fellow of the Linneean Society. f. o. b. — Free on board. Fol. — Folio. For. — Foreign. F. P. S.— Fellow of the Philological So- ciety. Fr. — Fraginentiiin, fragment. Fr. — Franc ; Frau, (lady.) Fr. — Francis. F. R. A. S.— Fellow of the Royal Astro- nomical Society. F. R. C. S. L.— Fellow of the Royal Col- lege of Surgeons, London. Fred. — Frederick. F. R. G. S.— Fellow of the Royal Geo- graphical Society. Fri. — Friday. F. R.S.— Fellow of the Royal Society. Frs. — Frisian. F. R. S. E.— Fellow of the Royal Society, Edinburgh. F. R. S. L.— Fellow of the Royal Societj , London. 30 348 ABBRE J 'lA TIOXS. F. R. S. L.— Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature. F. S. A.— Fellow of the Society of Arts. F. S. A. E.— Fellow of the Society of An- tiquaries, Edinburgh. Ft. — Foot ; feet ; Fort. Fur. — Furlong. F. Z. S. — Fellow of the Zoological Society, g. — gram, (metric system.) G or g.- — Guineas. G. A. — General Assembly. Ga. — Georgia. Gal. — Galatians ; Gallon. G. A. R. — Grand Army of the Republic. G. B. — Great Britain. G. C. — Grand Chapter. G. C. B.— Grand Cross of the Bath. G. C. H. — Grand Cross of Hanover. G. C. L. H. — Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour. G. E. — Grand Encampment. Gen. — Genesis ; General ; Genitive case. Gent. — Gentleman. Geo. — George. Geog. — Geography. Geol. — Geology. Geom. — Geometrj'. Ger. — Germany ; German. G. L. — Grand Lodge. Gl. — Glossa, a gloss. G. >L— Grand Master. G. O.— General Order. Goth. — Gothic. Gov. — Governor. Gov.-Gen . — Governor-General . G. R. — Georgius Rex, King George. Or. — Greek ; grain ; gramme ; groschen. Gram. — Grammar. Gro. — Gross. Grot. — Grotius. Ha. — Hektare, (metric system.) h. a. — Hoc anno, this year. Hab.— Habakkuk. Hab. Corp. — Habeas corpus, you may have the body. Hab. fa. poss. — Habere facias possessio- nem, a writ to put the plaintiff in possession. Hab. fa. scis. — Habere facias seisinajn, a writ now superseded by the pre- ceding. Hag.— Haggai. Ham. Coll. — Hamilton College. H. B. C. — Hudson's Bay Company. H. B. AL — His or Her Britannic Majesty. H. C — House of Commons. hdkf. — Handkerchief. h. e. — Hoc est, that is, or this is. Hectol. — Hectolitre, (metric system.) Heb. — Hebrews. Her. — Heraldry. Hf-bd.— Half-bound. Hf-cf— Half-calf. Hg. — Hektogram, (metric system.) Hg. — Hydrargyrum, mercury. hhd. — Hogshead. Hist.— History. H. J. S — Hie j'acet sepultus, Here lies buried. HI. — Hectoliter, (metric system.) H. L. — House of Lords. Hm. — Hectometer, (metric system.) H. M.— His Majesty. H. M. P. — Hoc monumentuvi posuit, erected this monument. Hon. — Honourable. Hort. — Horticulture. Hos. — Hosea. H. R. — House of Representatives. H. R. E. — Holy Roman Emperor. H. R. H.— His Royal Highness. Hr. hm.— Herr, Herrn— gentleman, gen- tlemen. H. R. L V .—Hie requiescitin pcu:e ,l^e.x9 rests in peace. H. S. — Hie situs, Here lies. H. S. H. — His Serene Highness, h. t. — Hoc titalum, this title; hoctituU, in or under this title. h. v. — Hoc verbum, this word ; hie Z'er- bis, in these words, hund. — Hundred. I. n. HL- One,^two, three, or first, second, third. la. — Iowa. lb. or ibid. — Ibidem, in the same place. Ich — Ichthyologj'. Ictus. — fu risconsu it us. Id. — Ide/n, the same. Id. T.— Idaho Territory. i. e. — Id est, that is. I. H. S. — yesus hominum Salvator, Jesus the Saviour of men. ij. — Two, imed.) 111.— Illinois. In. — Inch ; inches, incog. — Incognito, unknown. Incor. — Incorporated. ABB RE VIA TIOXS. 349 Ind. — Indiana; Index. I. N. D. — In nantine Dei, in the name of God. Ind. Ter. — Indian Territory. Indef. — Indefinite. In f. — In fine, at the end of the title, law, or paragraph quoted. Inf — Infra, beneath or below. in lim. — In limine, at the outset. in loc. — In loco, in the place; on the passage. in pr. — In principio, in the beginning and before the first paragraph of a law. I. N. R. I. — yesiis i. C or 1. — Libra, or libra, pound or pounds sterling. L. or £, s. d. — Pounds, shillings, pence. La. — Louisiana. Lam. — Lamentations. Lat. — Latitude ; Latin. Lb. or ft. — Libra or libra, pound or pounds in weight. L. C. — Lord Chancellor ; Lord Chamber- lain. L. C. — Lower Canada. 1. c — Lower-case. L. C. J. — Lord Chief-Justice. L. D. — Lepide dictum, finely said ; Lady- Day. Ld. — Lord. Ldp. — Lordship. Leg. — Legate. Legis. — Legislature. Lev. — Leviticus. Lex. — Lexicon. L. I.— Long Island. Lib. — Liber, book. Lieut. — Lieutenant. Lieut. -Col. — Lieutenant-Colonel. Lieut. -Gen. — Lieutenant-General. Lieut. -Gov. — Lieutenant-Governor. Linn. — Linnaean. Lit. — Literally ; Literature. Liv. — IJvre, book. LL. B. — Legum Baccalaureiis, Bache- lor of Laws. LL. D.—Legn/n Doctor, Doctor of Laws. 1. 1. — Loco laudato, in the place quoted, loc. cit. — Loco citato, in the place cited. Lon. — Longitude. L. S. — Locus sigilli, place of the seal. Lt. — Lieutenant. LX. — Sixty cr sixtieth. LXX. — Seventy or seventieth. LXX.— The Septuagint (Version of the Old Testament.) LXXX.— Eighty or eightieth. m. — Meter, (metric system.) M. — Mille, a thousand ; Meridics, nooa M. or Mons. — Monsieur. M. A.— Master of Arts. I Mace. — Maccabees. Mad. — Madam. Mad. Univ. — Madison University. Mag. — Magazine. Maj. — Major. Maj.-Gen. — Major-General. Mai.— Malachi. Man. — Manasses. ABB RE VIA TIONS. 351 Mar.— March ; Maritime. M. A.N. S.— Member of the Academy of Natural Sciences. March. — Marchioness. Marg. — Margin. Marg. Tran.— Marginal Translation. Marq. — Marquis. Masc. — Masculine. Mass. — Massachusetts. Math. — Mathematics ; Mathematician. Matt.— Matthew. Max. — Maxim. M. B. — MedkiniE Baccalaure:is, Bache- lor of Medicine. M. B. — jMiisicce Baccalaztreiis , Bachelor of IMusic. M. B. F. et H.— Great Britain, France, and Ireland. - - M. C. — Member of Congress. Mch.— March. Md.— Maryland. M- D. — Mcdicinie Doctor, Doctor of Medicine. M. E. — Methodist Episcopal ; Military or Mechanical Engineer; Most excellent. Me.— Maine. Med. — Medicine. Mem. — Memorandum. Mem. — Meine7ito, remember. Me re. — Mercurj' . Messrs. or MM. — Messieurs, Gentlemen. Met.— Metaphysics. Metal. — Metallurgy. Meteor. — Meteorology. Meth. — Methodist. Mex. — Mexico or Mexican. m. ft. — Mistura fiat, Let a mixture be made. mg. — milligram, (metric system.) Mg. — Myriagram, (metric system.) M.-Goth.— Moeso-Gothic. Mgr. — Monseigneur. M. H. S.— Member of the Historical So- ciety; Massachusetts Historical So- ciety. Mic— Micah. Mich. — Michigan. Mil.— Military. Min. — Mineralogy ; Minute. Minn. — Minnesota. Min. Plen. — Minister Plenipotentiary. Miss. — Mississippi. ml. — milliliter, (metric system.) Ml. — Myrialiter, (metric system.) 30 M. L. A. — Mercantile Library Associa- tion. Mile. — Mademoiselle. mm. — millimeter, (metric system.) Mm. — Myriameter, (metric system.) MM. — Their Majesties ; Messieurs, Gen- tlemen ; Two thousand. Mme.— Madame. M. M. S. — Moravian Missionary Society. M. M. S. S. — Alassachusettensis Medi- cincE Societatis Socius, Fellow of the Massachusetts Medical Society. Mo. — Missouri ; Month. Mod. — Modern. Mon. — Monday. Mons. — Monsieur, Sir. ^los.— Months. M. P. — Member of Parliament ; Member of Police. M. P. P.— Member of Provincial Parlia- ment. M. R.— INIaster of the Rolls. JNIr. —Mister. M. R. A. S.— Member of the Royal Asiatic Society ; Member of the Royal Academy of Science. M. R. C. C— Member of the Royal Col- lege of Chemistrj'. M. R. C. S.— Member of the Royal Col- lege of Surgeons. M. R. G. S.— Member of the Royal Geo- graphical Society. M. R. L— Member ofthe Royal Institu- tion. M. R. I. A.— Member of the Royal Irish Academy. Mrs. — Mistress. M. R. S. L.— Member of the Royal So- ciety of Literature. M. S. — Metnoriip sacrum, Sacred to the memory : Master of the Sciences. MS. — Maaiiicripttiin, manuscript. MSS. — j\Ianuscripta, manuscripts. Mt.- — Mount or mountain. Mus. B. — Bachelor of Music. Mus. D. — Doctor of Music. M. W. — Most Worthy ; Most Worship- ful. Myth. — Mythology. N. — North ; Number ; Noun ; Neuter. n. — Note. N. A. — North America. Nah. — Nahum. Nat. Hist.— Natural History. 352 ABBRE VIA TIONS. Nath. — Nathanael or Nathaniel. N. B. — New Brunswick ; North Britain ; Nota bene, mark well ; take notice. N. C. — North Carolina. n. d. — No date. N. E. — New England; Northeast. Neb. — Nebraska. Neh. — Nehemiah. n. e. i. — Non est inventus, he is not found. nem. con., or nem. diss. — Nemine con- tradicente, or nemine disseniiente, no one opposing ; unanimously. Neut. — Neuter (gender.) Nev. — Nevada. New M. — New Mexico. New Test, or N. T. — New Testament. N. F. — Newfoundland. N. G.- — New Granada ; Noble Grand. N. H. — New Hampshire; New Haven. N. H. H. S.— New Hampshire Historical Society. Ni. pri. — Nisi prius. N. J. — New Jersey. n. 1. — Non liquet, it does not appear. N. lat. — North latitude. N. M.— New Mexico. N. N. E. — North-northeast. N. N. W. — North-northwest. N. O. — New Orleans. No. — Numero, number. Nol pros. — Nolle prosequi, unwilling to proceed. Nom. or nom. — Nominative. Non con. — Not content ; dissenting, (House of Lords.) Non. cul. — Non culpabilis, not guilty. Non obst. — Non obstante, notwithstand- ing. Non pros. — Non pyosequitur, he does not prosecute. Non seq. — Non sequitur, it does not follow. Nos. — Numbers. Nov. — November. N. P.— Notary Public. N. S.— New Style, (after 1752;) Nova Scotia. n. u. — Name or names unknown. Num. — Numbers ; Numeral. N. V. M.— Nativity of the Virgin Mary. N. W. — Northwest. N. Y.— New York. N.Y. H.S.— New York Historical So- ciety. O. — Ohio ; Octarius, a pint. Ob. — Obiit, he or she died. Obad.— Obadiah. Obs. — Obsolete ; Observatory ; Observa- tion. Obt. or obdt. — Obedient. Oct. — October. O. F.— Odd-Fellow or Odd-Fellows. O. K. — All correct, (slang.) Old Test, or O. T.— Old Testament. Olym. — Olympiad. Opt. — Optics. Or. — Oregon. Orig. — Originally. Ornith. — Ornithology. O. S.— Old Style, (before 1752.) O. U. A. — Order of United Americans. Oxf— Oxford. Oxon. — Oxonia, Ojconii, Oxford. oz. — Ounce. P. — Particula, a little part, as much as can be taken between the ends of two fingers ; pondere, by weight. P. or p. — Page ; Part ; Participle. Pa. or Penna. — Pennsylvania. Pal. — Palaeontology. Par. — Paragraph. Par. pas. — Parallel passage. Pari. — Parliament. Pathol. — Pathology. Payt. — Payment. Pb. — Plumbum , lead. P. C. — Patres Conscripti, Conscript Fathers; Senators. P. C. — Privy Council ; Privy Councillor. Pd.— Paid. P. E. — Protestant Episcopal. P. E. I. — Prince Edward Island. Pent. — Pentecost. Per, or pr. — By the, or per lb. Per an. — Per annum, by the year. Per cent. — Per centum, by the hundred. Peri. — Perigee. Pet. — Peter. P. G.— Past Grand. Phar. — Pharmacy. Ph. B. — Philosophice Baccalaureus, Ba- chelor of Philosophy. Ph. D. — Philosophite Doctor, Doctor of Philosophy. Ph. (i. — Pharinaciof Graduatus, Grad- uate in Pharmacy. Phil. — Philip; Philippians; Philosophy; Philemon. ABB RE VIA TIONS. 353 Phila. or Phil.— Philadelphia. 1 Philera. — Philemon. Philom. — Philoviathes , a lover of learn- ing. Philomath. — Phiio>Hathentaticus,a.\o\er of the mathematics. Phil.Trans. — Philosophical Transactions. Phren. — Phrenology. P. H. S. — Pennsylvania Historical So- ciety. Pinx. or pxt. — Pin.xit, he painted it. P. J. — President Judge; Police Justice. PI. or Plur.— Plural. Plff.— Plaintiff. P. M. — Post meridiem, afternoon ; Post- master ; Passed Midshipman. P. ]M. G. — Postmaster-General. P. O.— Post-Office. Pop. — Population. Port. — Portugal or Portuguese. P. P. — Pater patria, the father of his country ; Propositian publice, public notification. P. P. C. — Pour prendre conge, to take leave. Pp. or pp. — Pages. Pph.— Pamphlet. P. R. — Populiis Romanus, the Roman people. P. R. A. — President of Royal Academy. P. R. C. — Post Romanutn conditum, from the building of Rome. Pref— Preface. Prep. — Preposition. Pres. — President. Prin. — Principally. Prob. — Problem. Prof. — Professor. Pron. — Pronoun ; Pronunciation. Prop. — Proposition. Prot. — Protestant. Pro tern. — Pro tempore, for the time being. Prov. — Proverbs ; Provost. prox. — Proximo, next (month.) P. R. S. — President of the Royal Society. P. S. — Post scriptum. Postscript ; Privy Seal. Ps. — Psalm or Psalms. Pt. — Part; Pint; Payment; Point; Port. p. t. — Post-town. P. T. O. — Please turn over. Pub. — Publisher; Publication; Pub- lished ; Public. Pub. Doc. — Public Documents, p. v. — Post-village, pwt. — Pennyweight ; pennyweights. Q. — Queen ; Question, q. — quintal ; Quasi, as it were; almost. Q. B. — Queen's Bench. Q. C. — Queen's College ; Queen's Coun- sel, q. d. — Quasi dirat, as if he should say ; quasi dictum, as if said ; gzfasi dix- isset, as if he had said, q. e. — Quod est, which is. q. e. d. — Quod erat demonstrandum , which was to be proved, q. e. f. — Quod erat faciendum , which was to be done. q. e. i. — Quod erat inveniendum, which was to be found out. q. 1. — Quantum libet, as much as you please. Q. M. — Quartermaster, qm. — Quomodo, how ; by what means. Q. M. G. — Quartermaster-General, q. p. orq. pi. — Quantum placet, as much as you please. Qr. — Quarter. Q. S. — Quarter Sessions, q. s. — Quantum sufficit, a sufficient quantity, qt.- — Quart. qu. or qy. {^.).—Qu(Ere, inquire; query. Quar. — Quarterly. Ques. — Question, q. v. — Quod vide, which see ; Quantion vis, as much as you will. 9(. — Recipe, take; Response, in church books. R. — Regina, Queen ; Rex, King ; River ; Rood; Rod. R. A. — Royal Academy ; Royal Acade- mician; Royal Artillery. R. A — Ruyal Arch ; Royal Association. R. E. — Royal Engineers. Rec. — Recipe ; Recorder. Reed. — Received. Rec. Sec. — Recording Secretary. Rect. — Rector; Receipt. Ref. — Reference. Ref Ch. — Reformed Church. Reg. — Register ; Regular. Reg. Prof. — Regius Professor. Regr. — Registrar. Regt. — Regiment. Rel. — Religion. 354 ABBRE VIA TIONS. Rep. — Representative; Republican ; Re- port. Rev. — Reverend ; Revelation (Book of;) Review ; Revenue ; Revise. Rhet. — Rhetoric. R. I.— Rhode Island. Richd. — Richard. R. M.— Royal Marines ; Royal Mail. R. M. S.— Royal Mail Steamer. R. N.— Royal Navy. Ro. — Recto, right-hand page. Robt. — Robert. Rom. — Romans (Book of.) Rom. Cath. — Roman Catholic. R. P. — Regms Professor, the King's Professor. R. P. E. — Reformed Protestant Episco- pal. R. R.— Railroad. R. S. — Recording Secretary. Rs. — Responsus to answer. R. S. A. — Royal Society of Antiquaries; Royal Scottish Academy. R. S. D. — Royal Society of Dublin. R. S. E. — Royal Society of Edinburgh. R. S. L. — Royal Society of London. R. S. S. — Regitp Societatis Socius, Fel- low of the Royal Society. R. S. V. P. — Repondez, s'il vous plait, answer, if you please. Rt. Hon. — Right Honourable. Rt. Rev." — Right Reverend. Rt. Wpful.— Right Worshipful. R. W.— Right Worthy. S. — South; Saint; Scribe; Sulphur; Sunday; Sun; Series; Soliiius,a.s\\\\- ling; Stere, (metric system.) S. A. — South America; South Africa; South Australia. s. a. — Secundum arteiii, according to art. Sam. — Samuel. S. A. S. — Societatis Antiquariorum So- cius, Fellow of the Society of Anti- quaries. Sat. — Saturday. Sax. — Saxon. Sax. Chron. — Saxon Chronicle. S. C. — Senatus Consultuvt , a decree of the Senate ; South Carolina. So. — Sculpsit, he engraved it. so. or scil. — Scilicet, namely. Scan. Mag. — Scandaluin tiiagnatuin , scandal of the great. Schol. — Scholium, a note. Schr. — Schooner. Sci. fa. — Scire facias, to show cause. Sclav. — Sclavonic. Sculp, or sculp. — Sculpsit, he engraved it. S. D. — Salutem dicit, sends health. S. E.— Southeast. Sec. — Secretary; Second. Sec. Leg. — Secretary of Legation. Sec. leg. — Secundum legem, according to law. Sec. reg. — Secundutn regulam, accord- ing to rule. Sect.^ — Section. Sem. — Semble, it seems. Sen. — Senate; Senator; Senior. Sept. — September: Septuagint. Seq. — Sequentia, following'; sequitur, it follows. Ser. — Series. Serg. — Sergeant. Serg. Maj. — Sergeant-Major. Servt. — Servant. S. G. — South Georgia : Solicitor General. Shak. — Shakspeare. S. H. S. — Societatis Historia Socius, Fellow of the Historical Society. Sing. — Singular. S. Isl. — Sandwich Islands. S. J. — Society of Jesus. S. J. C. — Supreme Judicial Court. Skr. — Sanskrit. S. L. — Solicitor at Law. S. lat. — South latitude. S. M.— State Militia ; Short Metre ; Ser- geant-Major; Sons of Malta. sm. c. — Small capitals. S. M. Lond. Soc. Cor. — Societatis Medi- cce Londonensis Socius Cor., Corrc sponding Member of the London Medical Society. s. n. — Secundum naturavt, according to nature. Soc. Isl. — Society Islands. Sol. — Solomon ; Solution. Sol. -Gen. — Solicitor-General. S. of Sol. — Song of Solomon. S.P. — Sine prole , without issue ; salutem precatur, he prays for his prosperity. S. P. A- S. — Societatis Philosophicce Americana^ Socius, Member of the American Philosophical Society. S. P. C. A. — Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. S. P. D. — Salutem plurimaiu dicit, he ABB RE VIA TIONS. 355 wishes much health, or sends his best respects. S. P. G. — Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. Sp. gr. — Specific gravity. S. P. Q. R. — Senatiis Popiilusque Ro- viani, the Senate and people of Rome. S. P. R. S.— Sublime Prince of the Royal Secret. Sq. ft. — Square foot or square feet. Sq. in. — Square inch or inches. Sq. m. — Square mile or miles. Sq. r. — Square rood or roods. Sq. yd. — Square yard. Sr. — Sir; Senior. S. R. I. — Sacrum Roinanuin Imperiunt, Holy Roman Empire. S. R. S. — Societatis Regiac- tor of both Laws, (Civil and Canon.) U. K. — United Kingdom. ult. — Ultimo, last ; of the last month. Unit. — Unitarian. Univ. — University. U. P. C. — United Presbyterian Church. U. S.— United States. u. s. — Ut supra or uti supra, as above. U. S. A. — United States of America ; United States Army. U. S. M.— United States Mail ; United States Marines. U. S. M. A.— United States Military Academy. U. S. N.— United States Navy. U. S. N. A. — United States Naval Aca- demy. U. S. S. — United States Senate. 356 ABB RE VIA TIONS. U. S. v.— United States Volunteers. U. T— Utah Territory. V. — Five or fifth. v.— Violin; VV.— Violins. V. or vid. — Vide, see. V. or vs. — Versus, against; Versiculo, in such a verse. Va. — Virginia. Vat. — Vatican. V. C. — Vice-Chancellor. V. D. W.— Verbi Dei Minister, Minis- ter of God's Word. Ven. — Venerable. Ven. or Ven. Fa. — Venire facias ,3, writ to a sheriflf to summon a jury. Ven. E.x. — Venditione exponas, a writ of execution directed to a sheriflf to sell goods, etc. Ver. — Verse. V. G. — Vicar-General. V. g. — Verbi gratia, as for example. VI. — Six or sixth. VII. — Seven or seventh. VIII. — Eight or eighth. Vice. Pres. or V. P. — Vice-President. Vise. — Viscount. viz. or vl. — Videlicit, to wit; namely; that is to say. Vo. — Verso, left-hand page. Vol. — Volume. V. R. — K/c^^r/a ./??_§-/««, Queen Victoria. Vt. — Vermont. Vul. — Vulgate (Version.) w. 11. — Varies lectiones, different read- ings. V. y. — Various years. W.— West. Wash. — Washington. Wed. — Wednesday. w. f. — Wrong fount. VVhf.— Wharf. W, I.— West India. Wise. — Wisconsin Wisd.— Wisdom, (Book of.) Wk.— Week. W. Ion. — West longitude. W. M.— Worshipful Master. Wm.— William. W. N. W. — West-northwest. Wpful.— Worshipful. W. S. — Writer to the Signet. W. S. W.— West-southwest. W. T. — Washington Territory. Wt.— Weight. W. Va. — West Virginia. X. — Ten or tenth. XI.— Eleven. XII.— Twelve. XIII.— Thirteen. XIV.— Fourteen. XV.— Fifteen. XVI. — Sixteen. XV 1 1 . — Seventeen. XVIII.— Eighteen. XIX. — Nineteen. XX. — Twenty. XXX.— Thirty. XL.— Forty. XC.— Ninety. X. or Xt.— Christ. Xmas or Xm. — Christmas. Xn. or Xtian. — Christian. Xnty. or Xty. — Christianity. Xper. or Xr. — Christopher. Yd.— Yard. y. or y^. — The. y". — Them. y". — Then. y' — Their; Your. ys. — This. yt.— That. Y. M, C. A.— Young Men's Christian Association. Yrs. — Years ; Yours. Zach. — Zachary. Zech. — Zechariah. Zeph.^ — Zephaniah. Zool. — Zoology. &.— And. &c. — And so forth. FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES, WITH TRANSLATIONS. A bus. — Down with. A capite ad calcem. — From head to foot. A fin. — To the end. A fortiori. — With stronger reason. A V abandon . — At random. A la bonne heure. — Opportunely; in good time. A la derobee. — By stealth. A la mode. — According to the fashion. A main armee. — With force of arms. A mensa et thoro. — From bed and board. A posteriori. — From effect to cause ; from the latter. A priori. — From cause to effect; from the former. A tempo giusto. — To sing or play in true time. (Music.) A tempo rimo. — To restore the original movement. (Music.) A vinculo matrimonii. — From the tie of marriage. A voire sante. — To your health. Ab extra. — From without. Ab initio. — From the beginning. Ab origine. — From the beginning. Ab ovo. — From the beginning. Ab urbe condita. — From the building of the city (Rome); abridged A. U. C. Abit invidia. — All offence apart; let there be no malice. Absit omen. — May it not prove ominous. Absque hoc. — Without this or that. Ac etiam. — And also. Actum est de republica. — It is all over with the commonwealth. Ad absurdum. — To show the ab.surdity. Ad arbitrium. — At pleasure. Ad astra per aspera. — To the stars through difficulties. Ad captandutn valgus. — To catch the mob or the vulgar. Ad eundem. — To the same point or de- gree. Adfinein. — To the end. Ad Grcecas Calendas. — An indefinite postponement. (The Greeks had no calends.) Ad hominem. — To the man (that is, to the interests or the passions of the man.) Ad infinitum. — Without end. Ad inquirendutn. — For inquiry. Ad interim. — In the mean while. Ad libitum. — At pleasure. Ad litem. — For the action (at law.) Ad nauseam. — To a disgusting degree. Ad referendum. — For further considera- tion. Ad rem. — To the purpose. Ad ttngueni. — To the nail; exactly; nicely. Ad valorem. — According to the value. Addendtim. — An addition or appendix. Adhuc sub j'udice lis est. — The affair is not yet decided. Aigrescit medendo. — The remedy is worse than the disease. .^quam servare mentem. — To preserve an equable mind. JEquo animo. — With an equable mind. Aire perennius. — More lasting than brass ; enduring ever. Affaire du coeur. — A love affair; an amour. Afflatus. — Inspiration. 357 358 FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. Agenda. — Things to be done. Agitato. — A broken style of performance, to awaken surprise, i Music.) Agnus Dei. — Lamb of God. Aide-de-camp. — Assistant to a general. Aide-toi, et le del t'aidera. — Help thy- self, and Heaven will help thee. Alere flatnvtain .—Ilq feed the flame. Alfresco. — In the open air. Alga. — A kind of sea-weed. Alguazil. — A Spanish constable. Alias. — Otherwise ; elsewhere. Alibi. — Elsewhere ; not present. Alis volat propriis. — She flies with her own wings. Aliunde. — From some other quarter or person. Allegretto. — A movement quicker than andante, but not so quick as allegro. (Music.) Allemande. — A kind of German dance. Alma mater. — Benign mother (applied to a university.) Alter ego. — A second self. Alto octavo. — An octave higher. Alto relievo. — High relief. (Sculpture.) Alto ripieno. — The tenor of a great chorus. Alto violino. — A small tenor violin. Amende. — Compensation; apology. Ami du peuple. — Friend of the people. Amicus curicE. — A friend of the court. Amor patrice. — Love of country. Amour propre. — Self-love ; vanity. Ancien regime. — Former administra- tion; ancient order of things. Andante. — Moderately slow movement, between largo and allegro. (Music.) Anglice. — In English. Anguis in herba. — A snake in the grass. Anitnis opibusque parati. — Ever ready with our lives and property. Animo etfide.—^y (or with) courage and faith. Animo facto. — Really and truly. Animus furandi. — Felonius intent. Anno Domini. — In the year of our Lord. Anno lucis. — In the year of light. Anno mundi. — In the year of the world. Annus mirabilis. — Year of wonders. Ante bellum. — Before the war. Ante lucem. — Before light. Ante meridiem. — Before noon. Apergu. — A brief sketch of any subject. Appogiatura. — A note in a smaller char- acter than the regular notes of the piece. (Music.) Apropos (Vr. apropos.) — To the purpose. Aqua vita". — Water of life ; brandy. Arbiter elegantiarum. — Master of cere- monies ; an umpire in matters of taste Arcana imperii. — State secrets. Arcanum. — A secret. Argumcntum ad crumetiam. — An argu- ment to the purse. Argumentum ad fidcm. — An appeal to faith. Argumcntum ad homincm. — An argu- ment to the person. Argumentu7n ad ignorant iam. — An argument founded on an adversary's ignorance of facts. Argumcntum ad judicium . — An appeal to the common sense of mankind. Argumentum ad populum. — An appeal to the people. Argumcntum ad Z'erccundiam. — An ar- gument to modesty. Argumentum baculinum. — Club law. Arioso. — Light, airy. Armiger. — One bearing arms; an es- quire. Arpeggio. — The notes of a chord played in rapid succession, and not simulta- neously. (Music.) Arriere-pensee. — Mental reservation. Ars est celare artem. — True art is to conceal art. Assumpsit. — It is assumed or taken for granted. Astra castra, Nunien lumen. — The stars my camp, the Deity my light. At spes non fracta. — But hope is not broken. Aufiit. — Well instructed ; master of it. Aufond. — To the bottom, or main point. Aupiedde la /f«rlacito. — At pleasure. {Music.) Benigno mimine.- — By the favour of Providence. Ben trovato. — Well found; an ingenious solution. Billet-doux. — A love-letter. Bis dat qui citb dat. — He gives twice who gives promptly. Bis peccare in bello non licet. — To blun- der twice is not allowed in war. Bis vincit, qui se vincit in victoria. — He conquers a second time, who con- trols himself in victory. Bizarre. — Odd ; fantastic. Blase. — Surfeited. Bon gre mal gre. — Willing or unwilling Bon jour. — Good-day ; good-morning. Bon mot. —Pi. witty saying; a jest; a quibble. Bon soir. — Good-evening. Bon ton. — High fashion; first-class so- ciety. Bon vivant. — A high liver. Bonafide. — In good faith. Bon-bon. — A sweetmeat ; confectionery. Bonhomie. — Good-natured simplicity. Bonis nocet quisguis pepercerit vialis. — He hurts the good who spares the bad. Bonne bouche. — A delicious morsel. Bonus. — An extra payment for a service rendered or a thing received. Boreas. — The north wind. Boudoir. — A small private apartment. Bourgeois. — A citizen of the trading class; a printing type. Bourgeoisie . — The body of citizens. Bravura. — A song of difficult execution. Brevet e. — Patented. Brutuvi /ulmeti. — A harmless thunder- bolt ; unreasoning bluster. Burletta. — A musical farce. Cachet. — A seal. Cacoethes. — A bad habit or custom. Cacoethes carpendi. — A rage for finding fault. Cacoethes loquendi. — An itch for speak- ing Cacoethes scribendi. — A passion for writing. Cadenza. — The fall or modulation of the voice, in music. Cieca est invidia. — Envy is blind. Cietera desunt. — The remainder is want- ing. Cteteris paribus. — Other things being equal. Calibre. — Capacity or compass ; mental power; a term in gunnery. Camera obscura. — A dark chamber used by artists. Campus Martius. — The field of Mars ; a place of military exercise. Canaille. — The rabble. Candida Pax. — White-robed Peace. Cantata. — A poem set to music. Cantate Domino. — Sing to the Lord. Cap-a-pie. — From head to foot. Capias ad satis/aciendujn. — ^You may take to satisfy. Capriccio. — A fanciful irregular kind of musical composition. Capriole. — A leap without advancing; capers. Caput mortuum. — Dead head ; the worthless remains. Caret. — Is wanting or omitted. Caret initio etjine. — It wants beginning and end. Carpe diem. — Enjoy the present day. Carte blanche. — Unconditional terms. Casus belli. — An occasion for war. Casus fcederis. — A case of conspiracy ; the end of the league. Catalogue raisonne. — A catalogue of 31 360 FOREIGX WORDS AND PHRASES. books arranged according to their sub- jects. Cause celebre. — A remarkable trial in a court of justice. Caveat actor. — Let the doer beware. Caveat emptor. — Let the purchaser take heed or beware. Cavendo tutus. — Safe through caution. Ce n'est que le premier pas qui couie. — It is only the first step which is difficult. Cedant anna togce. — Let militarj' power yield to the civil. Cede Deo. — Submit to Providence. Certiorari. — To be made more certain. Cessio bonorum. — Yielding up of goods. C'est une autre chose. — That is quite a different thing. Chacitn a son goUt. — Every one to his taste. Chanson. — A song. Chansonnette . — A little song. Chapeau. — A hat. Chapelle ardente. — The place where a dead person lies in state. Chaperon. — An attendant on a lady, as a guide and protector. Charge d'affaires. — An ambassador of second rank. Chateau. — A castle ; a coimtry mansion. Chef-d'oeuvre. — A masterpiece. Chevalier d'industrie. — A knight of in- dustry ; one who lives by persevering fraud. Chi tace confessa. — Silence is confession. Chiaro-oscuro or Chiaroscuro. — Light and shadow in painting. Chose qui plait est a demi vendue. — A thing which pleases is already half sold. Cicerone. — A guide or conductor. Cicisbeo. — A dangler after a lady. Ci-devant . — Formerly ; former. Circa. — About. Citb maturuin cith puiridum. — Soon ripe, soon rotten. Clarior e tenebris. — More bright from obscurity. Clique. — A party ; a gang. Cognomen. — A surname Comme ilfaut. — As it should be. Commune bonutn. — A common good. Communia propria dicere. — To express common things with propriety. Communibus annis. — One year with another. Compos mentis. — Of sound mind. Con amore. — With love or hearty in- clination. Concio ad clerum. — A discourse to the clergy. Cotige d'elire. — Permission to elect. Co7i?ioisseur.^A skilful judge. Consensus /acet legem. — Consent makes the law. Contour. — The outline of a figure. Contra. — Against. Contra bonos mores. — Against good manners. Contretemps. — A mischance; disap- pointment. Coram nobis .—Hefore us. Coram non jndice. — Before one who is not the proper judge. Cornucopia. — The horn of plenty. Corpus delicti. — The whole nature of the offence. Corrigenda. — Corrections to be made. Coryphteus. — A leader, or chief Cotillon. — A lively dance. Couleur de rose. — Rose-colour; an as- pect of beauty and attractiveness. Coup de grace.— The finishing stroke. Coup de main. — A bold and rapid enter- prise. Coup de pied. — A kick. Coup de soleil. — A stroke of the sun. Coup d'etat. — A master-stroke of state policy. Coup cToeil. — Rapid view or glance. Coute qu'il coiite. — Cost what it may. Credat yudceus. — A Jew may believe it. Crescit amor nummi quantum ipsa pecunia crescit. — The love of money increases as rapidly as the money itself increases. Crescit eundo. — It increases by going. Crescite et multiplicamini. — Increase and multiply. Crimen falsi. — Falsehood ; perjury. Crux criticorum. — The cross or puzzle of critics. Cui bono ? — To whose good ? Cui malo ? — To whose harm ? Cul de sac. — The bottom of the bag; a difficulty ; a street or lane that has no outlet. Cum grano sails. — With a grain of salt; with some allowance. Cum multis aliis. — With many others. FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. 361 Cum privilcgio.—V^^xh. privilege. Curia advisarivult. — The court wishes to be advised. Curiosa felicitas. — A felicitous tact. Currente calaiito. — With a running pen ; written ofF-hand. Custos rotulorum. — Keeper of the rolls. Da capo. — Over again. Dainnant gicod non intelligiint. — They condemn what they do not compre- hend. Data. — Things granted, (sing, datum.) De bonis tion. — Of the goods not yet ad- ministered on. De die in diem. — From day to day. De facto. — In fact ; in reality. De gttstihus non est disputandum. — There is no disputing about tastes. Dejure. — By law or right. De jnoriuis nil nisi ionum. — Say no- thing but what is good of the dead. De novo. — Anew. De pro/undis. — Out of the depths. De trap. — Out of place ; not wanted. Debitojustitite. — By debt of justice. Debut. — Beginning of an enterprise; first appearance. Deceptio visits. — An illusion of the sight. Dedimus potestatem. — We have given power. Deficit. — A want of deficiency. Dei gratia. — By the grace of God. Dejeitner a la fourchette. — A breakfast or luncheon with meats. Dele. — Blot out or erase. Delenda est Carthago . — Carthage must be blotted out. Delta (the Greek letter ^,) a triangular tract of land toward the mouth of a river. Denouement. — An unravelling or wind- ing up. Deo adjuvante, non timendum. — God helping, nothing need be feared. Deofavente. — With God's favour. Deo gratias. — Thanks to God. Deojuziante. — With God's help. Deo non /brtuna. — From God, not for- tune. Deo z'olente, or D. V. — God willing. Depot. — A store ; the recruiting reserve of regiments. Dernier ressort. — The last resort. Desideratum. — Something desired or wanted. Desunt ceetera. — The other things are wanting. Detinet. — He detains ; he keeps. Detour. — A circuitous march. Detur digniori. — Let it be given to the more worthy. Deus ex machina. — A god from the clouds; unexpected aid in an emer- gency. Devastavit. — He wasted. Devoir. — Duty. Dexter. — The right hand. Dictum.— K positive assertion (pi. dicta.) Dictum de dicto. — Report upon hearsay. Dies faustus . — A lucky day. Dies irce. — Day of wrath. Dies non. — ^A day on which judges do not sit. Dieu et nion droit. — God and my right. Dieu vous garde. — God protect you. Dii majorum gentium. — The gods of the superior class; the twelve superior gods. Dii penates. — Household gods. Dilettanti. — Persons who devote them- selves to science merely for amusement or rela.xation. (S'ng. Dilettante.') Diluvium. — A deposit of superficial loam, sand, &c. caused by a deluge. Dirigo. — I direct or guide. Disjecta membra. — Scattered parts, limbs, or writings. Distrait. — Absent in thought ; absent- minded. Distringas . — A writ for distraining. Divide et impera. — Divide and govern. Doce ut discas. — Teach, that you may learn. Docendo dicimus. — We learn by teach- ing. Dolce. — Soft and agreeable. (Music.) Dolce far niente. — Sweet idleness. Doli incapax. — Incapable of mischief. Dolorosa. — Soft and pathetic. (Music.) Domicile (L. domicilium .) — An abode. Domine dirige nos. — O Lord, direct us. Dotninus vobiscum. — The Lord be with you. Double entendre. — Double meaning (cor- rectly written double entente.) Douceur. — A present or bribe ; sweet- ness. 362 FOREIGN WORDS AXD PHRASES. Draco. — A dragon ; a constellation. Dramatis personce. — The characters in a play. Duet (Ital. duetto.) — A song for two per- formers. Dulce est desipere in loco.—\\. is pleasant to jest, or revel, at the proper time. Dutce et decorum est pro pat rid iiiori. — It is sweet and pleasant to die for one's country. Dulia. — An inferior kind of worship. Dum spiro, spero. — Whilst I breathe, I hope. Dum viviinus, vivainus. — While we live, let us live. Duo. — Two; a two-part song. Duodecimo. — A book having twelve leaves to a sheet. Durante placito, or durante beneplaci- to. — During pleasure. Durante vita. — During life. Dux foeniina facti. — A woman was the leader to the deed. E plurilnts unum. — One out of many ; one composed of many : the motto of the United States. Eazi de rvV.— Brandy ; water of life. Ecce homo. — Behold the man. Ecce signum. — Behold the sign. Eclaircissement. — The clearing-up of an aflfair. Eclat. — Splendour; applause. Editio princeps. — The first edition. Ekeu ! — Ah, alas ! Elan. — Buoyancy; dash. Elegit. — He hath elected ; a writ of exe- cution Eleve. — .\ pupil. Elite. — The best part. Embonpoint. — Roundness ; good condi- tion. Emeritus. — One retired from active offi- rial duties. Emeute. — Insurrection ; uproar. Empressement. — Eagerness ; ardour. En ami. — As a friend. En aTant ! — Forward ! En/lute. — Carrying guns on the upper deck only. En grande tenue. — In full dress. En masse. — In a mass; in a body. En passant. — By the way ; in passing. En rapport. — In communication. En revanche. — In return. En route. — On the way. Enceinte. — Pregnant. Enfatis perdus. — Lost children ; the for- lorn hope. Ennui. — Weariness ; lassitude. Ense petit placidam sub libertate qui- etem. — By his sword he seeks the calm repose of liberty. Ensemble. — The whole taken together. Entente cordiale. — The cordial under- standing between two countries. Entre nous. — Between ourselves. Entree. — Entrance. Entremets. — Small and dainty dishes set between the principal ones at table. Eo nomine. — By that name. Equilibrium. — Equality of weight; even balance. Ergo. — Therefore. Eripuit ccelo fztlmen, sceptrumque ty- ritnnis.^Ue snatched the thunderbolt from heaven, and the sceptre from tyrants. Erratum. — A mistake or error (pi. errata.) Escrcnu. — A deed or writing left with an- other, to be delivered on the perform- ance of something specified. Espieglerie. — Waggish tricks. Esprit de corps. — The animating spirit of a collective body. Est modus in rebus. — There is a medium in all things. Estoppel. — A stop, a preventive plea. Esto perpetua. — May it last forever. Et catera. — And the rest. Eureka. — I have found it. Ex. — Out of; late (as, ex-consul.) Ex animo. — Heartily. Ex cathedra. — From the chair; with high authority. Ex concesso. — From what lias been granted. Ex curia. — Out of court. Exfumo dare lucem. — Out of smoke to bring light. Ex nihilo nihil fit. — Nothing can come of nothing. Ex officio. — By virtue of his office. Ex parte. — On one side only (before a noun, e.vparte.) Ex pede Herculem. — We recognize a Hercules from the size of the foot : FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. 2>^Z that is, we judge of the whole from the specimen. Ex jiost facto. — After the deed is done. Ex tempore. — Without premeditation. Ex uno disce ovines. — From one learn all ; from one judge of the whole. Excelsior.— yioxc elevated ; onward. Excerpta. — Extracts. Exempli gratia. — As for example. Exeunt oinnes. — All retire. Experirnentum crucis. — A decisive ex- periment. Experto credo. — Believe one who has experience. Expose. — An exposition ; recital. Faber sua fortunce. — The architect of his own fortune. Facile primus, facile princcps. — By far the first or chiefest. Facilis est descensus. — Descent is easy. Fac simile. — Make it like ; hence, an exact copy. Fac totum. — Do all ; a man of all work. Facta est lux. — There was light. Fas est ab haste doceri. — It is allowable to learn even from an enemy. Fata obstant. — The fates oppose it. Fauteuil. — An easy-chair. Faux pas.— A false step. Felo de se. — A self-murderer. Feme couverte. — A married woman. Feme sole. — A woman unmarried. Festina Icnte. — Hasten slowly ; advance steadily rather than hurriedly. Fete.— A feast or celebration. Fete champetre. — A rural feast. Feu de Joie. — A bonfire ; a discharge of musketry on days of rejoicing. Feuilleton. — A small leaf; a supplement to a newspaper ; a pamphlet. Fiat. — Let it be done. Fiat j'ustitia, ruat ccelum. — Let justice be done, though the heavens should fall. Fiat lux. — Let there be light. Fide, nan armis. — By faith , not by arms. Fide, sedcuivide. — Trust, but see whom. Fides et j'tistitia.- — Fidelity and justice. Fidus Achates. — Faithful Achates (that is, a true friend.) Fieri facias. — Cause it to be done (a kind of writ.) Filius nullius. — A son of nobody. 31 Fille-de-chambre. — A chambermaid. Finale. — To close or end. Fineni respice. — Look to the end. Finis. — The end. Finis coronat opus. — The end crowns the work. Flagrante bello. — While the war is raging. Flagrante delicto. — In the commission of the crime. Flaneur. — A lounger. Flecti, non frangi. — To be bent, not to be broken. Fleur-de-lis. — The flower of the lily {"^X. fleurs-de-lis.) Forte. — In music, a direction to sing or play with force or spirit. Fortes fortuna juvat. — Fortune assists the brave. Fortissimo. — Very loud. Fortiter in re. — Resolute in deed. Fracas. — Bustle ; a slight quarrel ; more ado about the thing than it is worth. Fruges consumere nati. — Born merely to consume the fruits of the earth. Fugam fecit. — He has taken to flight. Fuit Ilium. — Troy has been. Functus officio. — Out of office Furore. — Excitement. Gaiete de coeur. — Gayety of heart. Gallice. — In French. Gardez bien. — Take good care. Gardez lafoi. — Keep the faith. Gaucher ie. — Awkwardness. Gaudeamus igitur. — So let us be joyful. Gendarme. — A military policeman. Gendarmerie. — The body of the ge7i- darmes. Genius loci. — The genius of the place. Genus irritabile vatum. — Irritable tribe of poets. Gloria in excelsis. — Glory to God in the highest. Gratis. — Free of cost. Gratis dictum. — Mere assertion. Gravamen. — The thing complained of. Grisette. — Dressed in gray (a term ap- plied to French shop-girls, &c.) Gusto. — Great relish. Habeas corpus. — You are to have the body ; a writ of right, by virtue of which every citizen can, when im- prisoned, demand to be put on his trial. 564 FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. Habitue. — A frequenter. HiPC oliin Dieminisse juvabit . — It will be pleasant hereafter to remember these things. Haricot. — A kind of ragout ; a kidney- bean. Haud passibits tegieis. — Not with equal steps. [Wrongly quoted : seeiVow, &c.] Haut gout. — High flavour. Hauteur. — Haughtiness. Helluo librorum. — A book-worm. Hie ct ubique. — Here, there, and every- where. Hie jacet. — Here lies. Hinc illoE lacryiHce. — Hence proceed these tears. Hoe age. — Do this ; attend to what you are doing. Homme d'esj>rit. — A man of talent, or of wit. Homo multarum literaruJit. — A man of much learning. Honi soit qui vial y pense. — Evil be to him that evil thinks. Honores tnutant mores. — Honours change men's manners. Hora/ugit. — The hour or time flies. Horreseo referens. — I shudder to re- late. Hors lie eombat.—T)\s.ab\(td for fighting ; vanquished. Hortiis siecKS. — A collection of dried plants. Hostis humani generis. — An enemy of the human race. Hotel de ville. — A town-hall. Hotel-Dieu.—'Vhc chief hospital in French cities. Humanum est errare. — It is human to err. Htine tu caveto. — Beware of him. Ibidem, contracted ibid or id. — In the same place. Ich dien. — I serve. Id est. — That is ; abridged /. e. Id genus omne. — All of that sort. Idem, contracted id. — The same. {Id. ib., the same autlior ; in the same place.) Jdoncus hotno. — A fit man. Ignoramus . — We are ignorant. Ignorantia legis neminem exeusat. — Ignorance of the law excuses no one. II a le diable au corps. — The devil is in him. Imitatores, servum pecus. — Imitators, a servile herd. Imperium i}i imperio. — One govern- ment existing within another. Impransus . — One who has not dined. Imprimatur. — Let it be printed. Imprimis. — In the first place. Impromptu. — A prompt remark without study. In articulo mortis. — At the point of death. In capite. — In the head. In ecelo quies. — There is rest in heaven. In eommendam. — In trust. In conspcctu fori. — In the eye of the law ; in the sight of the court. In curia. — In t!ie court. In duplo. — Twice as much. In equilibria. — Equally balanced. In esse. — In being. In extenso. — At full length. hi extremis. — At the point of death. In forma pauperis. — As a pauper. In foro eonscientice. — Before the tribu- nal of conscience. In hoe signo z'inees. — In this sign thou shalt conquer. In limine. — At the threshold. In loco. — In the place. In medias res. — Into the midst of things. In memoriam. — To the memory of. In perpetuum. — Forever. In petto. — In reserve; in one's breast. In posse. — In possible existence. In posterum. — For the time to come. In propria persona. — In his own per- son. In puris naturalibus. — Quite naked. In re. — In the matter of In situ. — In its original situation. In statu quo. — In the former state. In te, Domine, speravi. — In thee. Lord, have I put my trust. In terrorcm .—"By way of warning. In totidcm verbis.— \n so many words. In toto. — Altogether. In transitu.— On the passage. In utrumque paratus. — Prepared for either event. In iHicuo. — In empty space, or in a vacuum. In vino Veritas. — There is truth in wine. FOREIGN WORDS AXD PHRASES. 365 Incognito. — Disguised ; unknown. Index expurgatorius. — A list of pro- hibited books. Infra dignitatem. — Beneath one's dig- nity. Innuendo. — Covert meaning ; indirect hint. Inops consilii. — Without counsel. Insouciance. — Carelessness; indifference. Instar omnium. — One will suffice for all ; an example to others. Inter alia. — Among other things. Inter anna leges silent. — In the midst of arms the laws are silent. Inter fios. — Between ourselves. Inter se. — Among themselves. I^se dixit. — He himself said it; dog- matic assertion. Ipsissima verba. — The very words. Ipso/acto. — By the fact itself; actually. Ipso jure. — By the law itself. Ira furor brevis est. — Anger is brief madness. Ita lex scripta est. — Thus the law is written. Item. — Also. yacta est alea. — The die is cast. yatnais arriire. — Xever behind. ye ne sais guoi. — I know not what. yet d'eau. — A jet of water. yeu de mots. — Play upon words ; a pun. yeu d' esprit. — A witticism. yudicium Dei.— The judgment of God. yuniores ad labores. — Young men for labours. yure divino. — By divine law. yure gentium. — By the law of nations. yure humano. — By human law. yus civile. — Civil law. yus gladii. — Right of the sword. yuste milieu. — The golden mean ; a just medium. yiistitiiE soror fides. — Faith is the sister of justice. La critique est aisee, et Part est difficile. — Criticism is easy, but art is diffi- cult. Labor ipse voluptas. — Labour itself is pleasure. Labor omnia vincit. — Labour conquers all things. Laissez-nousfaire. — Let us alone. Lapsus calami. — A slip of the pen ; an error in writing. Lapsus linguce. — A slip of the tongue. Lapsus 7>temorice. — A slip of memorj-. Lares et penates. — Household gods. L' argent. — Money, or silver. Laudator temporis acti. — A praiser of time past. Laus Deo. — Praise to God. Laus propria sordei. — Praise of one's own self defiles. Le beau monde. — The fashionable world. Le ban temps viendra. — The good time will come. Le gra nd ceuvre. — The great work ; the philosopher's stone. Le pas. — Precedence in place or rank. Le savoirfaire. — The knowledge how- to act ; address. Le tout ensemble. — All together. Lege. — Read. Leges legum. — The law of laws. Lese majeste. — High treason. L'etoile du nord. — The north star. Lettre de cachet. — A sealed letter; a royal warrant. Levari facias. — That you cause to be levied; a writ of execution. Levee. — A morning visit or reception. Lex loci. — The law of the place. Lex magna est, et prtevalebit. — The law is great, and will prevail. Lex non scripta. — The unwritten or common law. Lex scripta. — Statute law. Lex talionis. — The law of retaliation. Lex term, lex patrite. — The law of the land. L'homme propose, et Dieu dispose. — Man proposes, and God disposes. Libretto. — A little book or pamphlet. Liceittia vatutn. — A poetical license. Lingua Franca. — The mixed language spoken by Europeans in the East. Liqueur. — A cordial. Lis litem general. — Strife begets strife. Lis subjudice. — A case not yet decided. Lite pendente. — During the trial. Litera scripta manet. — The written let- ter remains. Literati. — Men of letters or learning. Loco citato. — In the place cited. Loco parentis. — In the place of the parent. 366 FOREIGX WORDS AND PHRASES. Locum tenens. — One who holds a place for another. Locus sigitli{\.. '?>.). — The place of the seal. Longo intervallo. — At a great distance. Ludere ctiiii Siicris. — To trifle with sa- cred things. Lusus naturce. — A sport or freak of na- ture. Made virtute. — Proceed in virtue. Mademoiselle. — A young unmarried lady. Magna Charta. — The great charter of England. Magna civitas, magna solitudo. — A great city is a great desert. Magna est Veritas, et prcevalebit. — The truth is great, and will prevail. Magni nominis umbra. — The shadow of a great name. Magnum opus. — A great work. Magnus Apollo. — Great Apollo ; one of high authority. Maison de ville. — The town-house. Ma'itre d'/iotel. — An hotel-keeper; a house-steward. Majordomo (Ital. maiordomo.) — One who has the management of a house- hold. Malajide. — In bad faith ; treacherously. Mai a propos. — Out of time ; unbecom- ing. Malaria. — Noxious exhalations. Malgre. — In spite of. Malum in se. — Bad in itself. Mandamus. — We command : a peremp- tory writ to compel obedience. Manege. — A riding-school. Mania a potu. — Madness caused by drunkenness. Manuforti. — With a strong hand. Mardi gras. — Sh rove-Tuesday. Mare clausuvt. — .\ closed sea ; a bay. Mater/amilias. — The mother of a family. Materia jnedica. — Substances used in the healing art. Matinee. — A morning party. Mauvais goiit. — Bad taste. Mauvais sujet. — A worthless fellow. Mauvaise honte. — F:'!se modesty ; bash- fulness. Maximutn. — The greatest. Majfimus in miniviis. — Very great in trifling things. Me j'udice. — I being judge; in my own opinion. Medio tutissimus il/is. — A medium course will be safest. Meditationefugce. — In contemplation of flight. Memento mori. — Remember death. Memorabilia. — Things to be remem- bered. MejKoriter. — By rote. Menage. — Household. Mens Sana in corpore sano. — A sound mind in a sound body. Mens sibi conscia recti. — A mind con- scious of rectitude. Mensa et thoro. — From bed and board. Merum sal. — Pure salt; genuine Attic wit. Meum et tutim. — Mine and thine. Minimum. — The least. Minutice. — Minute concerns; trifles. Mirabile dictu. — Wonderful to be told. Mirabilia. — Wonders. Mittimus. — We send : a warrant for the commitment of an offender. Modus operandi. — Manner of operation. IMontani semper liberi. — Mountaineers are always freemen. Morceau. — A morsel. More suo. — In his own way. Mot du guet. — A watchword. Multum in parvo. — Much in a small space. Mutanda. — Things to be altered. Mutatis mutandis. — The necessary changes being made. Mutato nomine. — The name being clianged. Naivete. — Ingenuousness ; simplicity. Ne cede vialis. — Yield not to misfortune. Ne exeat. — Let him not depart. Ne plus ultra. — Nothing further ; the uttermost point. Ne guid nimis. — Not too much of any thing; do nothing to excess. Ne sutor ultra crcpidam. — Let not the shoemaker go beyond his last. Ne tentes, aut /oy^c^.— Attempt not, or accomplish thoroughly. Nee pluribus impar. — Not an unequal match for numbers. Nee scire fas est omnia. — It is not per- mitted to know all tilings. FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. 367 Necessitatis non habet legem. — Neces- sity has no law. Nee. — Born. Nefasti dies. — Days upon which no pubUc business was transacted ; also, unlucky days. Netiiine contradicente. — No one contra- dicting. Nemine dissentiente. — Without opposi- tion or dissent. Nemo me impzme lacessit. — No one wounds me with impunity. Nemo mortalium omnibus horis sapit. — No one is wise at all times. Nemo repente fiiit tinpissimus. — No man ever became a villain at once. Nemo solus sapit. — No one is wise alone. Niaiserie. — Silliness. Nihil debet. — He owes nothing ; a plea denying a debt. Nihil quod tetigit, non ornavit. — What- ever he touched he embellished. Nil admirari. — To wonder at nothing. Nil desperandum. — Never despair. Nimiiim ne crede colori. — Trust not too much to looks. N importe. — It matters not. Nisi Dominus frustra. — Unless the Lord be with us, all eflforts are in vain. Noblesse oblige. — Rank imposes obliga- tion. Nolens volens. — Willing or unwilling. Noli }>!e tangere. — Don't touch me. Nolle prosequi. — Unwilling to proceed. Nolo episcopari. — I am not willing to be made a bishop (an old formal way of declining a bishopric.) Nam de guerre. — An assumed name. Nam de plume. — A literary title. Nomen et omen. — Name and omen; a name that is ominous. Non compos mentis. — Not of sound mind. Non dejiciente crumena. — If the money does not fail. Non est disputandum. — It is not to be disputed. Non est inventus. — Not found. Non libet. — It does not please me. Non mi ricordo. — I don't remember. Non nobis sohim. — Not merely for our- selves. Non obstante. — Notwithstanding. Non omnis moriar. — I shall not wholly die. Non passibus aquis. — Not with equal steps. Non sequitur. — It does not follow: an unwarranted conclusion. Non sibi, sed omnibus. — Not for itself, but for all. Nonchalance. — Coolness ; easy indiffer- ence. Nonpareil. — Peerless ; a small printing type. Nosce teipsum. — Know thyself Noscitur ex sociis. — He is known by his companions. Nota bene. — Mark well. Nous verrons. — We shall see. Novus homo. — A new man. Nudum pactum. — An invalid agreement. Nulla crux, nulla corona. — No cross, no crown. Nulla 7iuova, bona nuova. — The best news is no news. Nullius filius. — The son of nobody. Nunc aut nunquam. — Now or never. O tempora ! o viores ! — Oh, the times ! oh, the manners ! Obiif. — He (or she 1 died. Obiter dictum. — A thing said by the way, or in passing. Obsta principiis. — Resist the first be- ginnings. Odi profanum. — I loathe the profane. Odium tlieologicum. — The hatred of theologians. Ohe ! jam satis. — Oh, there is now enough. Ollapodrida. — An incongruous mixture. Omne ignoium pro magnifico. — What- ever is unknown is thought to be mag- nificent. Omnes. — All. Omnia bona bonis. — All things are good with the good. Omnia vincit amor. — Love conquers all things. On-dit. — A rumour; a flying report. Onus. — Burden. Onus probandi. — The responsibility of producing proof. Ope et consilio. — With assistance and counsel. Ora et labora. — Pray and work. 368 FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. Orator fit , poeta iiascitur. — The orator is made by education, but a poet must be born. Ore rotunda. — With full-sounding voice. Otiuvi cum dignitate. — Dignified leisure. Outre. — Preposterous ; eccentric. Oyer and Terminer. — A criminal court. Pallida mors. — Pale death. Par excellence. — By way of eminence. Par nobile fratruin. — A noble pair of brothers; two just alike. Pari passu. — With equal step; in the same degree. Parole cChonneur. — Word of honour. Pars pro toto. — Part for the whole. Particeps criminis. — An accomplice. Parturiunt monies, nascetur ridiculus jnus. — 'J'he mountains are in labour ; a ridiculous mouse will be brought forth. Par7>a coinpanere inagnis. — To compare small things with great. Parvenu. — A new comer ; an upstart. Pas. — A step ; precedence. Passe-partout. — A master-key. Passim. — In many places; everywhere. Pater/amitias. — The father of a family. Pater noster. — Our Father; the Lord's prayer. Pater patr ire. — Father of his country. Patois. — A provincial dialect. Pax in bello. — Peace in war. Peccavi. — I have sinned. Penchant. — An inclination; a leaning toward. Pendente lite. — While the suit is pending. Penetralia. — Secret recesses. Per aspera ad astra. — Through trials to glory. Per' capita. — By the head; equal divi- sion. Per cent, or per centum. — By the hun- dred. Per contra. — Contrariwise. Per curiam. — By the court. Per diem. — By the day. Per /as et ne/as. — Through right and wrong. Per saltum. — With a leap ; at once. Per se. — By itself; alone. Perdu. — Lost. Pere de fatnille — The father of a family, /'f///.— Small : little. Petitio principii. — A begging of the question. Petit-ma'itre. — A fop. Peu a peu. — Gradually ; a little by little. Pinxit. — Painted it : placed after the artist's name on a picture. Piii. — More. Plateau. — A plain; a flat surface. Plebs. — Common people. Pluries. — Very often ; a third writ, after two writs have issued. Poco. — A little. Poeta nascitur, nonfit. — A poet is born, not made. Point d'appui. — Point of support ; prop. Poisson d'Avril. — April fool. Populus vult decipi. — People like to be deceived. Posse COM itat lis. —The power of the county. Postea. — Afterward ; endorsement of the verdict upon the record. Post mortem. — After death. _Postulata. — Things assumed. Preecognita. — Things previously known. Prcemonitus, prcemunitus. — Forewarn- ed, forearmed. Preux che^ialier. — A brave knight. Prima facie. — On the first view. Primiim jnobile. — The primary motive, or moving power. Primus inter pares, — Chief among equals. Principia, non homines. — Principles, not men. Principiis obsta. — Resist the first inno- vations. Pro aris et focis. — For our altars and our hearths. Pro bono publico. — For the public good. Pro et con {(or contra). — For and against. Pro forma. — For form's sake ; accord- ing to form. Pro hac vice. — For this turn or occasion. Pro loco et tempore. — For the place and time. Pro patria. — For our country. Pro rata. — In proportion. Pro re nata. — For a special emergency. Pro tanto. — For so much. Pro tempore. — For the time-being. Probatum est. — It has been tried and proved. Prods-verbal. — A written statement. FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. 369 Prochein ami. — The next friend. Procul, O procul este, pro/ani ! — Far, far hence, O ye profane ! Prominciamento. — A public declara- tion. Propaganda fide. — For extending the faith. Protege. — A person taken charge of, or patronized; a ward, &c. Prudens futtiri. — Thoughtful of the future. Pugnis et calcibiis. — With fists and heels ; with all the might. Punka fides. — Punic faith ; treachery. Queers. — Quer>'; inquiry. Quamdiu se bene gesserit. — So long as he shall conduct himself properly. Quantum.— The due proportion. Quantum libet. — As much as you please. Quantum }>ieruit. — As much as he de- served. Quantum sufficit. — A sufficient quan- tity ; enough. Quare ciausum f regit. — An action for damages to real estate. Quare impedit. — Why he hinders. Quasi dicas. — As if you should say. Que/que chose. — A trifle. Qui capit, ille facit. — He who takes it makes it. Quipense .'—Who thinks ? Qui tam ? — Who as well ? the title given to a certain action at law. Qtii transtulit sustinet. — He who brought us hither still preserves us. Qtii va id ? — Who goes there ? Qui vive ? — Who goes there ? hence, on the gui-vive, on the alert. Quid-nunc ? — What now ? a newsmon- ger. Quid pro quo. — One thing for another; " tit for tat." Quid rides ? — Why do you laugh ? Quis separabit? — Who shall separate us? Quo animo ? — With what intention. Quo jure ? — By what right? Quo warranto. — By what warrant or authority. Quoad hoc. — To this extent. Quod avertat Deus ? — Which may God avert ! Quod vide. — Which see. Quodlibet. — A nice point ; a subtlety. Quondam. — Former. Quorum. — Of whom : a term signifying a sufficient number for a certain business. Quos Deus vult pcrdere, prius de men- tat. — Those whom God wishes to de- stroy, he first deprives of understand- ing. Ragout. — A highly-seasoned dish. Kara avis — A rare bird ; a prodigy. Re infecta. — The business being un- finished. Recte et suaviter. — Justly and mildly. Rectus in curia. — Upright in the court; with clean hands. Redolet lucerna. — It smells of the lamp ; it is a laboured production. Reductio ad absurdum. — A reducing a position to an absurdity. Regina. — Queen. Regium donum. — A royal donation (a grant from the British crown to the Irish Presbyterian clergy.) Regnant popitli. — The people rule. Rencontre. — An encounter. Renaissance . — New birth : applied to the revival of the classic arts in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Requiescant in pace. — May they rest in peace. Requiescat in pace. — May he rest in peace. Rerum primordia. — The first elements of things. Res atigusta domi. — Narrow circum- stances at home ; poverty. Res integra. — An entire matter. Respice finem. — Look to the end. Respubiica.—The commonwealth. Restaurateur. — A tavern-keeper who provides dinners, &c. Resume. — An abstract or summary. Resurgam. — I shall rise again. Rez'enons a nos tnozttons. — Let us return to our subject. Rex. — King. Rouge. — Red colouring for the skin. Rouge et noir. — Red and black (a kind of game.) Rus in urbe. — The country in town. Ruse contre ruse. — Diamond cut dia- mond ; trick for trick. Ruse de guerre. — A stratagem of war. 370 FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. .SW/c— Hall. Salus populi su/>reiiia le.x est. — The wel- fare of the people is in the supreme law. Sahio pudore. — Without offence to mo- desty. Sanctum sanctorum. — Holy of Holies. Sang-froid. — Coolness ; self-possession. Sans. — Without. Sans ceremonie. — Without ceremony. Sans peiir et sans reproche. — Without fear and without reproach. Sans souci. — Without care ; free and easy. Sans tache. — Stainless. Sans-culottes. — Without breeches : a term applied to the rabble of the French Revolution. Sartor resartus. — The cobbler mended. Satis, superque. — Enough, and more than enough. Satis ver6oru}n. — Enough of words ; you need say no more. SauTv qui pejit. — Save himself who can. Savant. — A learned man. Savoir-faire. — Ability ; skill. Scandatum magnatum. — Scandal of the great. Scienter. — Knowingly. Scilicet. — That is to say ; to wit. Scire facias. — Cause it to be known. Scripsit. — Wrote it. Sculpsit. — Engraved it: placed after the engraver's name in prints. Secundum artem. — According to rule. Selon les rigles. — According to rule. Semper fidelis. — Always faithful. Semper idem. — Always the same. Semper par atus. — Always ready. Senatus consultum. — A decree of the senate. Seriatim. — In order; successively. Si quceris peninsulam ama-nam, cir- cumspice. — If thou seekest a beautiful peninsula, behold it here. Sic in originali. — So it stands in the original. Sic itur ad astra. — Such is the way to immortality. Sic passim. — So everywhere. Sic semper tyrannis. — So be it ever to tyrants. Sic transit gloria mundi. — Thus passes away the glory of the world. Sicut ante. — As before. Situilia similiius curantur. — Like things are cured by like. Simplex munditiis. — Of simple elegance. Sine die. — Without naming a day. Sine invidid. — Without envy. Sine qua non. — An indispensable requi- site. Siste, viator. — Stop, traveller. Sobriquet. ^.\ nickname. Soi-disant. — Self-styled ; pretended. Soiree. — An evening party. Souvenir. — Remembrance ; a keepsake. Spartam nactus es, hanc e.vorna. — You have got something good ; make the most of it you can. Spectas et spectaberis. — You will see and be seen. Spes mea Christus. — Christ is my hope. Spolia opima. — The richest booty. Stans pede in una. — Standing on one foot. Statu quo, or in statu quo. — In the same state. Stet. — Let it stand. Suaviter in modo,fortiter in re. — Gen- tle in manner, resolute in deed. Subjudice. — Under consideration. Sub rosa. — Under the rose ; privately. Sub silent io. — In silence. Subparna. — Under a penalty : a sum- mons to attend a court as a witness. Succedatieum. — A substitute. Sui generis. — Of its own kind ; peculiar. Summum bonum. — The chief good. Supersedeas. — A writ to stay proceed- ings. Super visuJH corporis. — Upon a view of the body. Suppressio veri, suggest io falsi. — A sup- pression of the truth is the suggestion of a falsehood. Supra. — Above. Suum cuique. — Let every one have his own. Table d'hote. — An ordinary at which the master of the hotel presides. Tabula rasa. — A smooth or blank tablet. Teedium vitce. — Weariness of life. Tale quale. — Such as it is. Tanl tnieux. — So much the better. Tant pis. — So much the worse. Tapis — The carpet. Tartufjfe. — A nickname for a hypocriti- FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. 371 cal devotee, derived from the principal character in Mohere's comedy so called. Tejudice. — You may judge. Tempora muianiur, et nos 7itutamur in illis. — The times are changed, and we are changed with them. Tenipus edcix rerum. — Time the de- vourer of all things. Tempusfugit. — Time flies. Tetnpus omnia revelat. — Time reveals all things. Teres atgice rotundus. — Smooth and round ; polished and complete. Terra Jirnia. — Solid earth; a safe foot- ing. Terra incognita. — An unknown country. Terre tetiant. — A person in actual pos- session of the land. Tertium quid. — A third something; a nondescript. Tete-a-tete. — A conversation between two parties. Tirade. — A tedious and bitter harangue. Ton. — The fashion. Torso. — The fragmentary trunk of a statue. Tort. — A wrong ; an injury. Tot homines, guot sententice. — So many men, so many minds. Totidem verbis. — Injust so many words. Toties quoties. — As often as. Toto coelo. — By the whole heavens ; dia- metrically opposite. Toto corde.—'^vih. the whole heart. ToKJoiirs pret. — Always ready. Tour a tour. — By turns. Tout bien ou rien. — The whole or noth- ing. Tout ensemble. — The whole. Tria juncta in uno. — Three united in one. Tu quoque. Brute ! — And thou too, Brutus ! Tuebor. — I will defend. Tutto e biiotio che vien da Dio. — All is good which comes from God. Tuum est. — It is your own. LT>i JUS incertum, ibi jus nullum. — Where the law is uncertain, there is no law. Ubi libertas, ibi patria. — Where liberty dwells, there is my country. Ubi supra. — Where above mentioned. Ultima ratio regum. — The last argu- mentof kings; military weapons; war. Ultima Thjtle. — The utmost boundary or limit. Ulti?nattim. — A final answer or decision. Un bel esprit. — A wit ; a virtuoso. Un sot d triple etage. — An egregious blockhead. Una voce. — With one voice ; unani- mously. Unique. — Singular; the only one of its kind. Usque ad fiauseam.- — To disgust. Usus loquendi. — Usage in speaking. Ut in/ra.^As below. Uti possidetis. — As you possess ; state of present possession. Utile dulci. — Utility with pleasure. Vade-mecum. — Go with me ; a constant companion. Vtz victis. — Woe to the vanquished ! Vale. — Farewell. Valet-de-chambre. — A servant who as- sists his master in dressing. Variee lectiones. — Various readings. Veluti in speculum. — As in a mirror. Venditioni exponas. — That you expose to sale ; writ of execution. Veni, vidi, vici. — I came, I saw, I con- quered. Venire. — To come; a writ to a sheriff directing him to summon jurors. Venue. — The place from which the jury are drawn. Verbatim et literatim. — Word for word and letter for letter. Verbum sat sapietiti.—A word is enough for a wise man. Verdad es verdc. — Truth is green. Veritas vincit.- — Truth conquers. Versus. — Against ; toward. Vertu, Virtu. — Virtue; taste; art; skill. Veto.—\ forbid. Vi et armis. — By force and arms. Via. — By the way of Via media. — A middle course. Vice. — In the room of. Vice versa. — The terms being ex- changed ; reversely. P'ide. — See. Vide et crede. — See and believe. Vide ut supra. — See as above. Videlicet, — To wit, namely. 32 372 FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES. Videttes. — Sentinels on horseback. Vignette. — A name given to slight en- gravings with which books, bank-notes, &c. are ornamented. I'incit amor patrice. — Love of country prevails. l'i>ic!il!i»i vtatriiiwnii. — The bond of marriage. I'irtuoso. — One skilled in matters of taste or art. Virtnte officii. — By virtue of office. Vis inertiee.— Inert power;, the tendency of every body to remain at rest. Vis jitedicairijc natures. — The healing tendency of nature. Vis poetica. — Poetic genius. Vis tHif. — The vigour of life. Vis-a-vis. — Face to face. Vita brevis, ars longa. — Life is short, and art is long. Viva voce. — By word of mouth; by the living voice. Vivant rex et rcgina. — Long live the king and queen. Vivat rcgina. — Long live the queen. Vivat respublica. — Live the republic. Vive la bagatelle. — Success to trifling. Vive la reine. — Long live the queen. Vive Fempereur. — Long live the em- peror. Vive le roi. — Long live the king. Vive I'itnperatrice. — Long live the em- press. Vive, vale. — Farewell, and be happy. Voila tout. — That's all. Voilit une autre chose. — That's quite a different matter. Voir dire. — A preliminary examination to determine the competency of a wit- ness. Volens et potens. — Willing and able. Volga gran bestia. — The mob is a great beast. I'olere e poterc. — To will is to do. I'olti subito. — Turn over quickly. Vox, et prceterea nihil. — A voice, and nothing more. Vox populi, vox Dei. — The people's voice is God's voice. Vox stellaru7n. — The voice of the stars: applied to almanacs. Vulgb. — Vulgarly ; commonly. Vuelta. — Over, to next page or (o.) Vulnus immedicabile . — An irreparable injury. Vultus est index anitni. — The counte- nance is the index of the mind. Zonain solvere. — To loose the virgin zone. INDEX. Abbreviated syllables, 15. Abbreviations, list of, 344-356. Abecedariuin, probably the earliest at- tempt at printing, 11. Accents and aspirates, Greek, 99-101. Hebrew, 106-108. Russian, 112, 113. Accented letters, 67. Acids used in making paper spoil the effect of ink, 276, 277. Adams, Isaac, inventor of the bed-and- platen power-press, 237, 238. Adhesion of paper, how to prevent, 316. Admiration, sign of, 63. Agate type, specimen of, 54. Alcfrid, Runic memorial of, 89. Alexandri Galli Doctrinale, one of the first printed books, 10. Almanac, first printed book in the Mid- dle Colonies, 16, 17. Alphabet, Anglo-Saxon, 91. English, 58. German, 94. Greek, 98. Hebrew, 104. Hieroglyphic, 84. Runes, 86-90. Russian, 112, 113. Alterations in a proof justly chargeable, 204, 205, 211. not allowable in reprints of old and standard authors, 202. Amber ink, how to produce, 28S. Ambiguous and compound words to be set uniformly, 202. American type, superior quality of, 23. Atuerican Weekly Mercury, third news- paper in America, 17. Ancient ornaments, e.xquisite and cu- rious, 15, 16. press, clumsy, 235. typographical peculiarities, 15. Anglo-Saxon characters, how originated, 51- alphabetical table of, 91. cases for, 92, 93. Lord's Prayer in, 51. runes, table of, 88. Apostrophe, how used, 63, 64. Appeal against the Turks, of 1454, 11. Applegath and Cowper, improvers of the cylinder press, 238, 239. Apprentice, how to instruct an, 122. must be punctual, obedient, and courteous, 123. qualifications required in an, 121. ridiculous practices to be avoided by, 122. Apprentices, advice to, 137, 13S. Arithmetical figures, when introduced, 70. Article, the indefinite, rule for using, 318. Ascending letters, 59. Asterisk, use of, 66. Astronomical signs, 73, 74. Authors, detention of proofs by, 205. hints to, 211. impatience of, 205. whims of, 61. Automatic counter, illustrated, 310. machine, for casting and finishing type, 23. Backing long or short pages, 133. Baine. John, sets up a type-foundry in Philadelphia, 19. Bay Psahn-Book, first book printed at Cambridge, 16. Bearers on hand-presses, how prepared, 259, 277, 278. 281. Beaumont, Victor, inventor of serrated cutting blade, 242. Beginners, ironical rules for, 139, 140. Bewcastle cross. Runic inscription on, 8g. Bible, first, printed at Mentz, by Guten- berg, Fust and Schoeffer, in 1455, of which there are four copies in Europe and two in the United States, 11. Brinley's, 11. German, printed in Germantown, by Saur, 19. Lenox's, 11. Mazarin, 11. printed in Iceland in 15S4, 14. quarto, in standing type, in Phila- delphia, 26. Biblia Pauperui/i , attributed to Koster, 10. Bill of tjTSe, 57. Binny, Archibald, first successful founder in Philadelphia, 19, 20. improver of the type-mould, 19, 42. Black letter, when used, 51. 373 374 INDEX. Blades, William, 14. Blaeu, Willem Jansen, early inventor of a press, 235. Blankets for wood-cut printing, 282. India-rubber, 266. thick paper, 266. Welsh flannel, 266. when to be used, 257, 266. Blanking, remarks concerning, 259. Bleaching powders deleterious, 276. Block books, 10. Blue ink, how to make, 287, 288. Bodkin, how to use the, 208, 209. illustrated, 209, 210. Books, cheapening of, due to steam- presses, 240. early, printed in Gothic charac- ter, 16. first, printed on one side of the leaf only, 10. how to presene, 317. Book-folding machine, illustrated, 249. Borders, 80, 120. Boston Gazette, second newspaper pub- lished in America, 17. News-Letter, first newspaper pub- lished in America, 17. Bourgeois, specimen of, 54. Boxwood, description of good, 36. liable to warp, 282, 283. quoin, 306. Braces, use of, 75. Bracket, how used, 65. Bradford, William, first printer in the Middle Colonies, 16, 17. Brass rules, remarks concerning, 80. slotted comers, description of, 44. Brea^-lines improperly driven over, 133. should never begin a page, 133. Brevier, specimen of, 54. Brilliant, smallest type in America, 52. specimen of, 54. Brinley's collection of Bibles, 11. British founders reject American casting- machines. 23. Bronze printing, how executed, 284, 285. Brown ink, how to produce, 288. Bruce, David and George, type-founders in New York, 21, 22. David, Jr., type-casting machine invented by, 22. Bullock, William, inventor of the first perfecting press, 242-244. chain-running press, 244. self-feeding perfecting press, illus- trated, 243. Bundle of paper described, 294. Cabinet for chases, illustrated, 231. with galley-top, illustrated, 304. Cabinets, job cases should be kept in, 304- of cases, for sorts, quads, etc., illus- trated, 219-221. should be kept in perfect order, 221. Cambridge, first press in North America at, 16. Campbell's cylinder presses, 239, 246. self-feeding pert'ecting press, 246. Cancelled figures, 70. Capital, good character is, 138. letters, 58-60. letters, how to use, 59, 60. Card-cutters, 309. printing, directions for, 283, 284. sheets, chart for cutting, (Le Blond,) 302. Carey, Mathew, 26. Cases, American plan of Roman, 124, 125- blank, 303. German, 96, 97. Greek, 102, 103. Hebrew, log, in. how to label job, 304. job, 302. labour-saving lead, 303. labour-saving rule, 82, 302. labour-saving slug, 303. music, 1 1 7-1 19. number of, to a fount, 128. proposed improvement in, 126. quotation furniture, 303. Saxon, 92, 93. triple job, 302. Caslon, William, 18. Cassie quires, why so called, 294. Casting off copy, methods of, 223-226. Catch-words, first used at Venice, 16. in titles, how to be set, 134. Caxton, William, introduces printing into England, 14. his first types not cast or founded, 13- Centennial Exhibition, 1876, presses ex- hibited at, 244-246. fast printing at, 245. Chalcography, inventor of, 34. Chromo-lithography, 29. Chromos, printed on cylinder presses, 31. Chronicle 0/ Cologne, p. Cicero, French and German name for Pica, 53. Circular quadrates, 78. Clicker, or maker-up. duties of, 226-228. Clymer, George, inventor of the Colum- bian press, 236, 237. Colon, use of, 62. Colorito, Abraham, printer at Soncino, 1488, 14. Colour, uniformity in, 263, 278, 279. Coloured inks, how to make, 286-288. printing, instructions for, 285-287. Colours, contrast of, 289-292. how to multiply, 288. how to use dry, 287, 288. Columbian press, illustrated, 236. introduced into England, 237. Combination borders, 80, 120 Comma, use of, 62. INDEX. 375 Commercial post paper, size of, 298. signs, 71. Companionships, how managed, 228-232. misunderstandings in, 228. Composing, directions for, 129-136. how to avoid errors in, 130. position in, 127. rule, steel, illustrated, 228. sticks, illustrated, 305. screw, the best for fixed measures, 305- Composition rollers, how to make, 252- 254, 311, 312- how to wash, 253. melting-kettle for, illustrated, 252. Compositors, differences in, 218. rules to be observed by, 233, 234. Compound words, 64, 65, 331. Contents, rules for, 135. Continuous sheet, printing from a, 242. Contrast of colours, 289-292. Conversation in a printing office to be avoided, 234. Copy, casting off, 223-226. takes of, should be small, 221. to be carefully prepared, 204. Copyholder, illustrated, 309. Copyrights, how to secure, 333-335. application to be made to Libra- rian of Congress, 333. cannot be granted upon trade- marks or labels, 335. duration of, 334. form of notice, 334. penalty for false notice, 334. renewal of, 334. Cork bearers, 259. Comer quadrates, illustrated, 307. Corpus, German name for Long Primer, 54- Correcting in the metal, 207-211. directions for, 208-210. rules for, in a companionship, 231, 232. Coster, (see Koster,) 9-1 1. Cottrell & Babcock's cylinder presses, 239- Counting out sheets, 297. Courtesy, importance of, 123. Creases and wrinkles in paper, how to remove, 263. Cross-bar, how to avoid springing, 148. Crown paper, size of, 298. Cut-in notes, how adjusted, 131, 132. Cuts, how to make ready, 280-283. Cylinder press, invention of the, 238. presses, making ready on, 265-275. Dagger or obelisk, use of, 66. Dash, use of, 63. Dates, method of, during the French Republic, 6g. Daye, John, Anglo-Saxon types first cut by, 51- Daye, Stephen, first printer in North America, 16. Dedications, how displayed, 135. position of, 135. Degener & Weiler's Liberty press, illus- trated, 246, 247. Delicate impression, how to produce, 281, 282. Demy paper, size of, 298. Derivation of English words, 324-326. Descending letters, 59. DeVinne's history of the invention of printing, 12. Diamond type, specimen of, 54. Diphthongs, Greek, 99 Distributing, directions for, 128, 129. how to wash matter for, 128, 120. pernicious efi"ects from heatmg type for, 129. proper times for, 129. Dividing words, rules for, 64, 65. Donatiis of 1451, 11. Double imperial paper, size of, 298. letters, 59. medium paper, size of, 298. super-royal paper, size of, 298. Drawing paper, how to be wet, 256. Dry colours, how to use, 287, 288. Duck's bill, to prevent paper from slip- ping on the tympan, 278. Duodecimo, or twelves, scheme for im- posing sheet of, 165. the same, without cutting, 166. the same, two signatures, 167. half-sheet, 168. the same, without cutting, 168. the same, from the centre, 169. sheet of, from the centre, 170. the same, long way, 171, 172. one-third of a sheet, 171, 172. two half-sheets, together, 173. half-sheet, two signatures, 174. Earl Stanhope's printing-press, 236. Earliest printing-press, 235. viritten sounds, 83-85. Egyptian hieroglyphics, specimens of type for printing, 83-85. Eighteens. scheme for imposing half- sheet of, 176. the same, with two blanks, 176. sheet of, folded together, 177, 178. the same, with one signature, 177, the same, with two signatures, 179, 180. the same, with three signatures, 179, 180. half-sheet of, without transposi- tion, 181. Electro-stereotyping, 27, 43. Electrotyping, method of, 27. Emerald green, 288. Enamelled cards, to be printed drj-, 283, 284. 32* 376 INDEX. English type, specimen of, 53. Engraver's proof useful to pressmen, 283. Engravings, copper-plate, 34. how to print, 280-283. how to restore, 317. tools for, 34. wood, 31-34. Epitaph, printer's, 208. Errata, list of, where placed, 136. Errors inevitable, 136. made in correcting a proof, 203, 204. Escala espiritital de San yuan Cli- maco, the first book printed in Ame- rica, 16. Even impressions on a hand-press, how to obtain, 277-279. Exclamation, sign of, 63. Feed-guides, Megill's, illustrated, 310. Figgins's, Vincent, opinion of Caxton's type, 13. Figures, arithmetical, 70. old style, 70. scratched or cancelled, 70. Filling the standing press, 296, 297. Fine hand-presswork, remarks concern- ing. 275-279- printing, character of ink required for, 275, 276. paper suitable for, 257. why difficult in the United States, 276, 277. Finiguerra, Thomas, discoverer of chal- cography, 34. Firefly press, Gordon's, 247. Fireproof ink, 314. Flat cap paper, size of, 298. Flowers and borders, remarks on, 80. Fly on cylinder presses, how to be set, 274. Folding machines, 249. Folio, imposing single sheet of, 150. paper, size of, 298. two sheets quired, 151, 152. Follow copy, the compositor's rule, 204. Foolscap paper, dimensions of, 298. Foreign words and phrases, translated, 357-372- Foreman, duties and qualifications of, 218—232, Form, how to make ready for hand- press, 257-260. of warehouse book, 293. Forms, directions for locking up, 147, 148. how to impose, 141, 142. how to wash, 264, 265. precautions in unlocking, 208. Forties, scheme for imposing half-sheet of, 191. Forty-eights, scheme for imposing quarter sheet of, with two signatures, 192. the same, without cutting, 193. half-sheet of, 192. the same, three signatures, 193. quarter sheet of, 194. Foul proof, a grievous fault, 207. Founders, English, ancient regulations concerning, 18. Fount of letter, complete, described, 58. Founts, irregularities of, 58. Fractions, 70. Franklin, Benjamin, attempts type- founding, 19. James, establishes the New Eng- land Courant, 17. Franklin presses, Gordon's, 247. illustrated, 246. Friars, how to obviate, 263. Frisket, directions for preparing, 258. catch of, how to place, 259. Full point, use of, 62, 63. Furniture, how to make up, 144, 145. Fust, John, connection with Gutenberg and Schosffer, 11, 12. Gaillarde, French term for Bourgeois type, 54- Gallows, how to be placed, 259. Gavic 0/ Chess, first book printed in England by Caxton, 14. Gauge pins, Megill's, illustrated, 310. Ged, William, inventor of stereotyping, 24. Geometrical signs, 71, 72. German alphabet, 94. plan of cases for, 96, 97. similar letters elucidated, 94, 95. Germantown, first paper mill in America, near, 17. first quarto Bible in America, printed at, 19. type cast at, by Saur, 19. Giving out book paper to wet, 294. paper for jobs, 294, 295. Globe press, 248. Glover, Jesse, introduces printing into Cambridge, Mass., 16. Glue, common prepared, 313. liquid, how to make, 313. Gold preparation, how to use, 288. printing, how practised, 284, 317. size for gold printing, 284. Good habits inculcated, 121-123, 137, 138. presswork, conditions for securing, 279. Gordon's Franklin press, illustrated, 246. job-presses, 246, 247. Gothic characters, early books printed in, 16. Gradation of type bodies, 56. Grant 'I'horbum, benevolence of, 239. (Jreat Primer, specimen of, 53. Greek accents and aspirates, 98-101. alphabetical table of, 98. letters, numerical value of, 67, 98. ligatures now discarded, 98. numeral letters, table of, 67. plan of cases for, 102, 103. rules for composing, loi. Green ink, how to make, 288. INDEX. 377 Gros Romain, French title for Great Primer, 53. Guillemet's quotation marks, 62. Gutenberg, account of, 9-14. Gutter-sticks, directions for cutting, 148. Gypsum in paper, effects of, 276, 277. Haarlem, the birthplace of printing, 9. Hand-mould improved by Binny, 20. Hand-press, how to prepare impression on, 275-279. how to overlay on, 277. bearers used on, 277, 278. Hand-presswork, fine, how to produce, 275-279. Handwriting, erroneous notion concern- ing, 226. Hanging pages, how to rectify, 208. up paper to 6xy, 295. Hansard's receipt for making rollers, 253, 254. Hard roller, best for fine work, 267. Head-lines, how displayed, 131. Heap of paper, how to treat, 259. Heated type, pernicious eflTects from dis- tributing it, 129. Hebrew accents, 106-108. alphabet, identical with Phosni- cian, 83. alphabetical table of, 104. Bible, first printed, 14. letters, numeral value of, 104. letters of similar appearance, 105. lower case, without points, 109. Masoretic points or vowels, 106. method of composing, 105. plan of cases with points, no, in. scheme for imposing 8vo sheet of, 161, 162. spacing letters, 105. Height of type, standard for, 57, 58. Hieroglyphic alphabet, 84. Hinderances to fine printing in America, 276, 277. Hints honoured in the breach, 136, 137. Hoe & Co.'s cylinder presses, 239-242. Hoe, Richard M., inventor of tj^pe-re- volving printing machine, 241. Robert, account of, 239, 240. Hoe's web perfecting press, illustrated, 245- Hollow quadrates, use of, 77. Horn-book, illustration of, xi. Humphreys's History of the Art of Print- ing, 12. Hurried work, how to expedite, 226-228. Hyphen, how employed, 64, 65. not used by the earliest printers, 15. IcEL.\N'D, early printing office in, 14. Imperial and half paper, size of, 298. paper, dimensions of, 298. Imposing forms, directions for, 141, 142. in companionships, rules for, 230, 231. Imposing, memoranda concerning, 148, 149. abstract title-deeds, 150. Folio, single sheet, 150. two sheets, quired, 151, 152. Quarto, common sheet of, 153, 154- scheme for, music books, 153, 154. two half-sheets, together, 155, 156. half-sheet, broad way, 155, 156. Octavo, sheet of, 157, 158. the broad way, 157, 158. half-sheet, 159. two half-sheets, together, 159, 160. two quarters, together, 160. sheet, mi.\ed, 161, 162. sheet of Hebrew, 161, 162. sheet, from the centre, 163, 164. half-sheet, from the centre, 163. two quarters, from the centre, 164. Duodecimo, or i2mo, sheet, 165. the same, without cutting, 166. the same, two signatures, 167. half-sheet, 168. the same, without cutting, 168. the same, from the centre, i6g. sheet of, from the centre, 170. the same, long way, 171, 172 one-third of a sheet, 171, 172. two half-sheets, together, 173. half-sheet, two signatures, 174. SiXTEENS, half-sheet of, 174. sheet of, 175. EiGHTEENS, half-sheet of, 176. the same, with two blanks, 176. sheet of, folded together, 177, 178. sheet of, one signature, 177, 17S. the same, two signatures, 179, 180. sheet of, three signatures, 179, 180. half-sheet of, without transposi- tion, 181. Twenties, half-sheet of, with two signatures, 181. sheet of, 182 Twenty-Fours, half-sheet of, 183. sheet of, two signatures, 183, 184. half-sheet of, sixteen-way, 184. half-sheet of, long, 185. half-sheet, two signatures, 185. half-sheet, without cutting, 186. Thirty-Twos, half-sheet of, 186. sheet of, 187, 188. the same, four signatures, 187, 188. half-sheet, two signatures, 189. half-sheet of, mixed, 189. Thirty-Sixes, half-sheet of, 190. the same, without cutting, 190. the same, two signatures, 191. Forties, half-sheet of, 191. Forty"-Eights, quarter sheet of, with two signatures, 192. the same, without cutting, 193. common quarter-sheet of, 194. half-sheet of, two signatures, 192. the same, three signatures, 193. 378 INDEX. Imposing Sixty-Fours, quarter sheet, 195- the same, two signatures, 194. sixty-fours, mixed, 195. half-sheet of, 196. Seventy-Twos, half-sheet of, 197. Ninety-Sixes, half-sheet of, 198. One Hundred and Twenty- Eights, half-sheet of, 199. Imposing stone, illustrated, 308. Impression on cylinder presses, how to regulate, 269-275. Indenting paragraphs, rule for, 132. Index, directions for preparing copy of, 133- rule for setting, 133. where placed, 133. India paper suitable for overlays, 280. India-rubber cloth, good qualities of, 266. Ink-block, how to be placed, 251. Ink, black, how to intensify, 284. coloured, 286, 287. requires a hard roller, 267. for cylinder presses, 267, 268. for fine work, indispensable quali- ties of, 275, 276. how to prevent setting off, 279. how to remove surplus from the roller, 262. how to produce amber, 288. blue, 287, 288. brown, 288. fire-proof, 314. green, 288. hlac, 288. pink. 288. purple, 288. red, 286-288. scarlet, 288. vermilion, 288. to mark tin or zinc, 315. driers, how to make, 315, 316. Ink-fountain, how to manage, 268. patent, illustrated. 310. Ink-stone and muUer, illustrated, 285. Interleaving necessary in fine presswork, 279. Interrogation, sign of, 63. Iron furniture, how made, 310. Ironical rules for compositors, 136, 137. for beginners in business, 139, 140. Italic letter, invention of, 50. ■ abuse of, 51. Job department. 300-310. capitals and lower-case should not be laid together. 304. cases should be labelled with the type which is in case. 304. how to conduct the business, 300. memorandum slip for record, 301. requisites for. 301-310. selection of material, 300. Job presses, American, unsurpassed, 246. varieties of, 246-248. Jobbing facilities, 300-310. Jobs, making margin for, 147. Johnson, Lawrence, type-founder in Philadelphia, 20. William M., invents a type-casting machine, 22. Journeymen, idle, 18. Junius, Hadrianus, 10. Justification, accurate, absolutely essen- tial, 131. Kerned letters, 59. Kinsley, Dr., invents a cylinder press, 238. Knowledge, progress of, accelerated by steam-presses, 240. Konig. Frederick, inventor of the cylin- der press, 238. Koster, (or Coster,) Laurentius, inventor of printing, 9-14. printer of block books, 10. used wooden and tin type, 10. Labour-saving brass rule, 81. plan of case for, 82. curvatures. 79. quotation furniture, 77. rule, 43, 81. Lamp-holder, 309. Laying a fount of type, direcuons for, 127. pages, 143, 144. Lead cutter, illustrated, 307. Leads, described. 80. Leather belting, how to soften, 316. Lenox, James, of New York, collection of Bibles. 11. Lepsius, R., hieroglyphic types of, 83. Letter paper, size of, 298. Letters 0/ Indulgence, of 1454-5, "• Letters, accented, 67. ascending, 59. descending, 59. double, 59. kerned, 59. long, 59. numeral, 67. short, 59. two-line, 76. Ley, directi^M'^^ 'i^.iA'^ LlJ 1 384 ESTABLISHED, lyqb. AdacKellar, Smiths & Jordan Formdry, Letter Founders, JVos. 606-61^ Sansoni Street, Phitadelphia. This establishment, the oldest in America, has kept even pace with all the improvements in type-founding ; and its produilions at the present day, in beauty of style, accuracy of standing, and durability of ?naferial, are all that skill, ingenuity, and long experience have been able to effe£i. Neither pains nor expense 7vill he withheld to maintain its reputation. Book and Newspaper Faces. Some are of light and dainty face, others of medium, and others again of broad and massive charadter. The Lightface Series ; the French-Face Series ; the celebrated Scotch-Face Series, introduced by us many years ago ; the BOOK Series ; the Large- Face Series; the Classic Series; the News Series; the Broadface Series; the Modern Series; the Original Old Style Series ; the Bradford Series ; the Binny Series ; the RONALDSON Series ; the MacKellar Series, and all others intro- duced by us, are kept constantly on hand, in large and small founts. German Book and Newspaper Faces, Of various styles, also kept on hand or furnished to order. Elegant Scripts and other Note and Circular Types, In great variety of styles, for all kinds of Notes, Blanks, and Circular Printing. Greek, Hebrew and Music Type. Music Type without an equal m America, or a superior in the world. The sizes are Excelsior, or half-Nonpareil, Diamond, Agate, and Nonpareil. Greek and HEBREW of all pradlical sizes. Fancy and Ornamental Type, Unrivalled for beauty, originality, e.xtent, and variety. In this depart- ment, native and foreign genius and inventive skill are alike laid under contribution, and no other foundry in the world can furnish so complete and beautiful an assortment. Borders, Flourishes, Corners and Ornaments, For finest artistic and ornamental printing, to meet every require- ment of the printer. Cuts and Ornaments, For general use, from more than three thousand subje(5ls, many of them very fine. Office Furnishings. Cabinets of various kinds and prices. Stands, double or single, or made in different styles to order, of walnut or poplar. Cases of all kinds. Imposing Stones of regular sizes constantly on hand; special sizes and styles got up to order. Galleys of all kinds, either wood or brass. Stereotype Blocks, with or without rule borders. Chases of wrought or cast iron. Composing-Sticks of all kinds, large and small. RACKS for cases. INK Stones. Card, Paper, Lead and Rule Cutters. Labour-Saving Wood Rule. Labour- Saving Wood Furniture. Labour-Saving Curvatures. Furniture, Quoins, Mallets; Shooting-Sticks of brass, iron or dogwood; Planers, Bodkins, Ley and Washing Brushes, &c. Eureka Cabinets. Size to fit in space at left of double stand. Stained in imitation of cherry. Sort-Case Cabinet. — Contains eight drawers, each divided into sixteen compartments. It will be found useful as a receptacle for quads, leaders or sorts. Handy Cabinet. — Contains five drawers, arranged to hold twenty different sizes of spaces and quads, and eight blank drawers, for cuts or large type. Galley Cabinet. — No. i, for twenty-four single and fourteen double column galleys. No. 2, for forty-eight single galleys. No. 3, for thirty-four double galleys. Ink Cabinet. — Contains four compartments for ink, &c., and marble slab 18x20 inches on top, for mixing inks. Chase Cabinet. — Arranged to contain one-eighth, one-quarter, and one-half medium chases. With or without ink stone. Combination Cabinet.— No. i, contains four blank drawers, three sort-case drawers, and four quad drawers. No. 2, contains four sort-case drawers and six quad drawers. Quad Cabinet. — Contains twelve drawers, each divided into two compartments, suitable for quads or leaders. Labour-saving Leads and Slugs. Two and three point (six and four-to-Pica) LEADS, from 48 to 300 points (4 to 25 ems Pica) in length; put up in any useful quantity. Six and twelve point ( Nonpareil and Pica) Slugs, cut to same lengths. Cases arranged specially for Labour-Saving Leads and Slugs. Labour-saving Quotation Furniture. Accurately cast, and equally valuable either as furniture or as quota- tions. The pieces range from 48 to 240 points in length, and from 24 to 48 points in width, quadrate height, with suitable spaces. Reversible Metal Furniture, For imposition of forms and general blank-work. Cast to our standard 12 point body. Labour-Saving Rule, (Matching our standard type bodies,) Single, Double, Parallel, Dot- ted, and Triple faces. Cut accurately of various lengths. It will be found of vast utility in tabular and job work, rendering the use of shears and file entirely unnecessary. Cases furnished specially adapted to it. Brass Circles and Ovals, Of various sizes and faces, for label and stamp borders. Slotted Brass Corners, Of beautiful original patterns, matching our brass rules. Hollow Quadrates, For the easy formation of Circles, Ellipses, &c., made in sizes to suit our Brass Circles and Ovals, from Xos. i to 13. Corner Quadrates, On 12 point and 6 point Metal and 2 point Brass bodies. Printing Presses and Ink. Presses of the most celebrated makers in the United States, as well as all varieties and colours of American and Foreign PRINTING INKS, Sizes, Bronzes, Varnishes, &c. at manufacturers' prices. Roller Composition. Glue for Rollers, and the various Patent Compositions, furnished to order at manufacturers' prices. Electrotyping Of Almanacs, Jobs, Wood-Cuts, Labels, Binders' Stamps, &c. Wood Engraving. Cuts designed and engraved to order in the finest style of art. Outfits for Printing Offices. Estimates given in detail (with the cost) of all the materials required for either Newspaper or Job Offices. MacKellar. Smiths s^ Jordan Foundry, Nos. 606-614 Sansom Street, PhiladeIJ>hia. PRINTERS' TEXT-BOOKS. A Manual of Typography, containing Praftical Dire(5lions for Managing all Departments of a Printing Office, as well as Complete Instructions for Apprentices. Eighteenth Edition. By mail, ;j2.io. " Most successful of the books of this class known to me." — Correspondctil of the Archi-v fur Buchdruckerkunst, Leipzig. "Any intelligent person will find this work a serviceable companion." — Journal of Com- merce, Chicago. " A neat volume, beautifully printed." — VImprimerie. Paris. " The most complete work on the subject." — Daily Free Press, Atchison, Kansas. Revised and Enlarged. Price, $2.00. "A great amount of curious information, historical and illustrative." — livening Post, New York. " The result of intelligent research and con- siderable personal experience." — The Nation, New York. " This is taken as the standard American treatise on pratftical printing, and is eminently worthy the high reputation it has attained." — Sprinkler's History and Mystery of Printing. Wilson's Punctuation. A Treatise on Puncfluation, designed for Printers, Letter-Writers, Authors, and Correctors of the Press. Price, $i.$o. By mail, $1.60. " This is a useful and valuable work on Eng- lish Puni5tuation, and every one can read it with profit and pleasure." — Boston Daily Atlas. '* It contains all the necessary dire(5tioiis for self-taught writers and editors." — American lyhig Review. " It is an excellent work for schools and academies, and for those who would become &e\(-ls.u%ht.."— Christian Freeman. '• We have never before met with any work on Pumftnation which gave us so great satisfac- tion as this."— rA« Student. American Encyclopaedia of Printing. Comprising (with plates) 550 imperial octavo pages, giving more than si.xtecn hundred definitions, descriptions, and articles relating to the History, Imple- ments, Processes, Produdls, and auxiliary Arts of Printing ; splendidly Illustrated by more than two hundred Chromo-Lithographs, Lithographs, Wood Engravings, Imitations of Water-Marks, Embossed and Ruled Pages, etc. Edited by J. Luther Ringwalt. Price, g6.oo. Typographic Advertiser. Elegantly printed, and furnished free to all Printing Offices. Needful to those who desire to keep up with the improvements in Typography. "' This grand journal, the oldest in the country, maintains its pfaceinthe van against all comers. Its typographic appearance is unequalled in the worltl of printing, and a careful study of its peerless specimen pages will do m^ire to ad- vance the beautiful in job composition and prcsswork than all the tawdry imitations of I Money spent for good books is well invested ; and in this day of typographical progress, no adlive-minded printer can really afford not to have the above works in his office library. Address all orders to MacKellar, Smiths lithography, and badly designed and worse -^ executetl rule work that has been thrust upon a *\ suffering art from Caxton to to-day. Its editorial management is as good as its typo- graphy is handsome and artistic." — Springer's ' History and Mystery of Printing. c y' Jordan Fo undr y, n ^ Nos. 606-614 Stinsom Street, Philadelphia. 'N'n-3wv VDJO"^ ^Xil30KVSO# UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY Los Angeles This book Is DUE on the last date stamped below. OCT 2 3 198B n« Vr f ^Of (.ALIl^U/i'^ ^OFCA1IFO% ^.OFCAIIFO% 3 1158 01199 0339 lOSANCFl/ UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY N^ ^>&Aavjian-1 AA 001 199 796 2 .^f.^MIV/fDC. *aOSANC[lfj> ^tllBRARYO^ ^i^tUBRARYQ •I i^ ^OFTA"^'^"- 4IF0I?4 -'i ?2 lOSANCFl^ ■ffljrt ■ .??' "^ -■- ^ -■ ^^ w ^WEUNIVERS'/A ^^ ^lOSANCFlfj-^ %a3AINa-3WV^ VvtllBRARYO^^ ^(JOJITVDJO'^ ^UIBRARYd2 \^my\'^ aP #>kiir/\r>