:-NRLF What is Electricity ? It's Nature Explained BY J,J,VERMEER GIFT OF What is Electricity? It's Nature Explained BY J. J. VERMEER Copyright 1919 r. VERI eton St., All Rights Reserved J. J. VERMEER 5312 Princeton St., Oakland, Cal. FOREWORD OLD as the title of this study may seem, we might satisfy ourselves with the truth that there exists practically no application of electricity, in which all /actors cannot be predetermined by established formula. It is created to any extent, conducted, trans- formed, stored up and applied, and has become in a true sense of the word, a public utility. Could it reasonably be expected that the knowledge of its real nature should forever be kept from entering the human brain? Probably it could if a strict desire were enter- tained to be guided solely by a mass of circum- stantial evidence, accepted generally as axioms and exalted to irreproachable electrical laws. In the attempt to dismantle it of its mystery, it was found necessary to ascertain to what ex- tent its circuit is comparable to the flow of water. It was encountered in various conditions or states, either as flowing or held captive. Considered from a purely mechanical stand- point, it disclaims all superstition as to its pro- duction and has brought out the fact that all objects are possessed with it, consenting to an outward demonstration of its power upon its transformation, or, more correctly, its separa- tion. Theoretical value is attached to the flow of low-tension current in an insulated wire, exert- ing an influence over a galvanometer in direct ratio to the amount of current. Also to the induction coil, whose secondary winding, insulated against its own stepped-up voltage, has for this very reason been deprived of any possible admission of the current of low voltage, present within its direct cause, the pri- mary winding. At the time of discharge, we see the electricity under high temperature re-enter the secondary winding at the leads of the gap to assume an again normal condition. The mechanical action understood, the chem- ical process appeared clear by logical deduction. The theories of single, exclusive surface-flow and of repellency are refuted. Presumptions as to any magic fluid or ether being essential to, or in any way connected with, the transmission of electrical current, are de- prived of foundation. Written in plain language, the conventional terms are adhered to, and when in the course of our study better defining expressions are offered, their admission has been made gradual with a view to clearness. THE AUTHOR. WHAT IS ELECTRICITY? HE giant machineries, developing enormous horsepower, driving the great industries of our century, are actuated principally by two forces, so entirely different as far as human understanding of their nature is concerned, that while the one is understood by the child that received his primary instructions in the grammar school, the other has caused the great scientists to declare its cause inexplicable. The first mentioned force, at the time of its discovery when the lid blew off the boiler, at once established its usefulness in a very definite line of application, viz. 9 the steam engine. Not so with electricity. Up to this very minute, the wizard who defines rules and regulations for the passage and use of the electrical current, will at times trace his mind wandering in a seemingly hopeless search of the underlying cause of this mystifying force. The uninterested, approached on the subject, may consider it sufficient to be able to control electricity and subject it to the will of man. The earnest investigator will readily admit the benefits derived from a better understanding of its nature since it will have a direct bearing upon the properties and compositions of metals used both for conductors and insulators. '; TTIF FIGW From the time that the first electrical current was established and the first accumulator was stored up with electrical energy, the name "flow" was used in referring to its passage. This flow is today compared to the transmis- sion of water by means of piping and the laws for both are practically identical in principle. When we speak of an electrical current flowing through a metallic circuit, we mean to convey the idea that the current passes into the con- ductor at a given point and continues on in a single direction to return to its source at the re- ceiving or negative pole. Has the thought ever struck you that if this was the actual condition, a very important dis- covery would have been made long ago by stu- dents of the long-distance conductor like, for instance, the telegraph line? Since the water system is universally used for comparison, let us avail ourselves of the same here also. The amount of water in the tank is our supply or source, the pipe forms the circuit and the faucet the point of contact. The distance between the tank and the outlet at the end of the pipe must be traveled by the water, and the time required by the fluid to do so may be termed "lag." The distance between tank and faucet, how- ever, will determine the actual lag as the water will be found ready under the pressure of its own height in the tank to pass at the location of the faucet, reducing the lag of flow by this distance. If the comparison of electricity to water would hold in this instance, the location of the contact in regard to the source of current would also be a factor in determining the lag of the flow of electrical current. This apparently is not true, for the resistance of a conductor is measured by its length and section, and the relative positions of the battery and point of contact are not considered in the calculation. What then induces the current to actuate the receiving instrument with a fixed amount of lag irrespective of the location of the transmitter? Undoubtedly the fact that the flow of current is not single, even if we have to discard the theory of an electrical pioneer of the standing of Franklin. This theory was advanced by him to replace that of one of his colleagues, that actually two flows exist in any electrical circuit upon its closing. This latter condition will be readily recog- nized upon closer consideration of the electrical source. Let us first expel the idea that electricity is "produced." Study the first page of most any book on electricity and read how amber (in Greek: elec- tron) when rubbed with silk, will become mag- netic due to a charge of electricity residing on its surface. 3 This peculiarity is by no means confined to amber and silk. A great many objects, paired properly will give the same results, the part rubbed retaining one electrical polarity and the article rubbed with, the other, proving the contention that any object in normal condition contains both in equal proportion. When permitted by the absence of certain conditions, tending to keep the opposite pol- arities separated, they will absorb each other, neutralizing the effect. In a wet cell the process of rubbing goes on very much alike. When assembled, before the acid becomes fully charged by the dissolving zinc, until sat- urated, the flow will be below normal. The action therefore is from the zinc towards the carbon entitling the zinc certainly to first consideration in importance and questioning the propriety of naming the carbon the positive pole, a policy which shows the inconsistency adhered to in regard to so many electrical functions. The friction between zinc and acid in the cell causes the positive pole to become charged with the polarity of the same name and brings the negative pole under a tension of negative pol- arity. Before closing the circuit at any point in the line, an equal amount of positive and negative electricity, separated in the battery are awaiting first opportunity to reach each other with deadly intent upon absorption across the contact. 4 Actually any part of the line is in a high electro-motive state usually called "life." Not only the positive current is waiting at the positive point of contact to continue its course through the return circuit towards the source of energy, but also the negative pole has sent out a differently polarized current to balance that which has emerged from the positive pole. The initial lag of the return or negative cir- cuit had been overcome before the contacts were closed and is thereby reduced to its normal lag called resistance. Upon opening the contact we see a flash ap- pear at the points and again we presume that the positive current, suddenly interrupted in its terrific speed along the line, has sufficient tension to jump across the gap towards the neg- ative line until stopped by the increasing gap resistance, unless checked by an equal positive condenser charge. As if any one polarity of current could ever assume the appearance of light ! Who would assume the risk of the argument that probably the air had become incandescent by the friction of the one-sided charge? We do not know of any substance in the air that could become white-hot through electric friction or it might be fatal to live in. Examine the spark of an induction coil. You will see the air surrounding the gap assume a bluish flame as the air molecules carry off neg- ligent quantities of electricity in distinct contrast to the pure white of the spark itself. The flash is simply the expression of heat created by the friction of the reuniting positive and negative quantities in the gap where they hurl themselves at each other as long as the increasing gap will permit. If you persist in adhering to the old single flow theory, why not disconnect the negative side of the condenser as the positive charge alone should re-act the positive current in its jump across the gap. A test with the galvanometer seemingly shows the current to travel along the outer surface of the wire, the needle pointing in the same direc- tion at any point in the completed circuit and on either side of the wire. Does this prove that one single current travels in one direction? Suppose the positive travels in a clockwise or right hand direction in a certain circuit. We reverse the polarity and the galvanometer will at once indicate a change in the rotation. Imagine now that a single negative current could be sent from the side that the positive was transmitted from and we must admit that the needle would reverse itself. In the established circuit, however, the two currents would of course not travel in the same direction and it will require not much figuring to come to the conclusion that two opposing currents traveling in opposite directions along the line, will have the same effect upon the galvanometer in full support of each other. 6 Our explanation of the current action is as yet incomplete as the mutual absorption of pos- itive and negative quantities in the conductor has not been explained. A proper understanding of the formation of the metal used as conductor, should be enter- tained first. THE CIRCUIT The study of the principles of mechanics teaches us that matter consist of a large number of molecules, the smallest parts into which it can be divided without loosing its nature. These molecules are arranged with open spaces between them, called pores. It is accepted as a fact that the molecules under the influence of heat commence to vibrate, causing the metal to expand. The presence of the pores has been proved by tests under water pressure. A bottle admitted to the depths of the seas has become partly filled with water although hermetically sealed. In metals the presence of pores is demon- strated by the property called "compressibility," meaning that the volume can be reduced under pressure. Therefore there must be a force that holds the molecules together which is called adhesion. The adhesion varies with the density of matter and the molecules of various matters assume different forms. The molecules of steel adhere to each other with greater adhesion than those of any other metal. Upon breaking a magnet of high quality steel, we notice the particularly fine grains and a break of zinc reveals its brittleness. Iron, when heated red-hot, will raise its re- sistance enormously, almost with a jump and at the same time it will become very easily bent and twisted, manifesting a weakening of its adhesion. 8 A hardened steel magnet, when exposed to extreme heat, will lose its magnetism as its molecules commence vibrating and carry their respective charges of positive and negative char- acter from one to the other, neutralizing equal quantities. A magnet tapped continually with a hammer will weaken; its molecules are subjected to jarring and in making contacts due to vibration, will impart to each other opposite quantities of magnetism, which become neutralized in the exchange. Has the great force of attraction left the mag- net? No, indeed. A magnet in fully charged condition will lift a load of a considerable number of times its own weight. By no such simple process as demagnetizing, which means neutralizing its opposite polarities, could this great lifting power be induced to trespass the boundaries of the magnet and move about in search of new quarters. Using an exact duplicate of the magnet to again recharge it, it will be found that the same amount of magnetic power can be restored in the now neutral magnet without decreasing the efficiency of the one utilized for recharging. As a matter of fact, two magnets applied as each other's keeper, will increase their strengths while being so kept, all of which goes to show as clear as crystal, that the great force of at- traction is hidden in the magnet, independent of its magnetic condition. 9 But is there not a very close relation between adhesion and magnetism, also between mag- netism and electricity? Or would you keep searching for some kind of ether or some magic fluid flowing from the battery and that could be conveyed from one metal conductor to another by a simple touch? Consider the electric dynamo, a purely me- chanical device. Its soft iron core and poles are able to re- verse the polarity of its adhesion, while its tenacity insures or rather is the result of its adhesive strength. The windings, consisting of soft copper with larger molecules and coarser grain are specially adapted to convey a good-sized molecule load of attraction or adhesion from one to the other. Take the length of copper wire and divide by the number of molecules. Term the total the resulting number of cells, each having their electrified or temporarily magnetized adhesion, separated by action of the same condition of the residual and built-up magnetism in the poles and armature core. You will account for an enormous series of life cells, each stepping up the voltage of the other. Where does the ether or the mysterious fluid come in? And where in regard to the magnet? Now examine the non-conductors, if there are such things, for all substance possesses adhesion. Relatively speaking, glass is one. Subject it to heat and see it break or crack. 10 Its molecules cannot vibrate quickly enough to carry off the heat, with the result that the part directly heated, does all of the expanding. All matter of the rapid vibrating type are good conductors. Matter of the layer composition, unable to form a large number of cells, are unable to con- vey electrical energy actively and are classed under insulations. 11 THE LIFE METALLIC CELL. It should be plain from the foregoing, that each molecule, transformed into a cell, will actu- ate the next molecule to assume the same condition. Our electric circuit therefore has all of its metallic cells fully charged under the influence of the battery or dynamo. Upon completing the circuit, the outer mole- cules of the contact metal will at once com- mence discharging their separated adhesion from cell to cell and upon discharge, become attracted again to their neighbor on the oppo- site side. This condition will last until the source is exhausted or the contact is opened. The action of the receiver is as easily ex- plained as that of the dynamo, and is its direct reversal. The molecules in the line under charge having become life cells through the separation of the positive and negative adhesion, influence the molecules of the iron core, that is, draw the positive adhesion in one direction and the neg- ative in the other. Each iron molecule in reality is turned into an electro-magnet, a fact proved by the breaking of a permanent magnet. The broken end, inde- pendent of its distance from the pole, becomes at once a fully charged pole. The arc of a horseshoe magnet is considered neutral and rightly so. 12 Yet at any point along the bent steel the mole- cules are fully charged, establishing a line of magnetic cells. From the arc towards the positive pole, all the negative ends of the cells are facing us and with the arc as zero, we add the number of cells and arrive at the strength of the pole. As the number of molecules increases by add- ing until the end of the magnet is reached, the strength increases in proportion. The same happens in the direction of the negative pole, except that from that leg of the magnet the positive charged molecule ends face us. Add the strength of the two poles and arrive at the total strength of the magnet. 13 REPELLENCY. Assuming that the adhesion, possessed by the molecules, when separated, transforms them into infinite small magnets of enormous number, we seem at once to enter into conflict with a certain electrical law, dealing with the repulsion be- tween similarly charged objects. Adhesion, the mighty force that resists in separating matter, can under no circumstances repel or there would be no adhesion. Let us trace repellency and see if such action really exists. A source of electricity dating back almost to the first electrical experiments, called the static machine, consists of a glass plate on a revolving axle. Two pads of rubber are placed alongside the glass in opposite directions. To each of the pads is connected a metal sphere and the pads are so adjusted as to resist the passage of the glass plate, resulting in friction. Amalgam of zinc is used to strengthen the effect. By turning the plate, the electricity con- tained in the spheres becomes separated, the positive being conducted to the one sphere and the negative to the other. When fully charged, the spheres are subjected to a number of very interesting experiments. Brought close enough together, we will notice a spark across the gap, accompanied by a snappy sound. 14 The width of the gap overcome by the spark is a measure of intensity of the potential differ- ence of the charges of the spheres. In bringing them together, the opposite charges become more and more attracted to- wards the points on both spheres, closest to the gap- The molecules, vibrating with intensified fre- quency upon the closer approach are at the proper gap distance carried off by their overload of magnetism. In a dark room we notice the air lit up with bluish flame, forming the advance agent for the passage of the current, but it is not until the gap is justly decreased that the molecules of the spheres start their rapid vibration across the gap, burning up themselves while conducting their loads of electricity across from one sphere to the other until both become again evenly supplied with neutralized adhesive energy. A sharp odor is noticed when the ozone is released by the burning metal and the cracking noise indicates the tearing of the molecules from their respective bodies. Thus we see that even when fully charged with one polarity, the particles of metal resist their separation vigorously. Repellency as regards the permanent magnets has been believed in since their origin although the experimenter was fully aware of the exist- ence of two distinct poles. Place two compass needles in line with similar poles opposing each other and they will at once 15 manifest a desire to change their directions, reaching for the opposite poles. The mutual attraction between dissimilar poles is always active in cases of this kind to make repellency appear to exist. Justice in discarding the theory of repellency is established by the following tests: The two spheres above referred to are charged with similar polarity and brought together. Under the law of repellency the charges would have to remove themselves to the farthest pos- sible positions on the spheres, which action in reality does not take place. A specially designed instrument for substanti- ating the erroneous rule of repulsion is made up of a jar in which two gold leaves are suspended from a plate or knob. When approached by a charged object, the plate and gold leaves become a three-pole mag- net, the leaves lifting themselves towards the plate which forms the common pole for the opposite poles at the extremities of the gold leaves. The pith ball oscillating between a charger and discharger, will reach its object with a jump, but does not start with any particular rush when leaving. Two pith balls suspended from one point of support by separate strings, will, when charged alike, take up a position at an increased angle. Rather than being repelled by each other, the electricity in the surrounding air lifts them from their vertical position. 16 In previous tests no value was attached to the electrical condition of the air. In the olden days it was scientifically proved that air has no weight. The test was made with a bladder which when pumped full of air, would be supported by the outside air to such extent that it would not weigh more than the shrunken bladder without any air at all. Today we know that the column of air forming the atmosphere has a weight balancing an enor- mous weight of mercury in the barometer. The pith ball, approaching in weight that of air, gives us a very sensitive measuring instru- ment for aero-electricity. Taking the point of support as the center and the length of the string as a radius of a sphere, then the amount of air limited by the acute angle is balanced by the volume of air contained within its supplement against the weight of the pith balls. If it weren't for the fact that when the pith balls become separated, air is admitted between them containing electrical attraction to pull them together, the surrounding air would tend to draw them almost up to a level with the point of support. The same test made in a sealed glass vacuum or in air charged with one polarity, fails to show a tendency on the part of the pith balls to in- crease their center-distance. The electric mill, turning on a pivot, when permitted to discharge electricity, gives an effect similar to the lawn sprinkler of like construction. 17 Does the water repel itself at the exit? No, but the pressure remains on the opposite side of the opening, while on the side of the outlet itself the pressure is reduced by the size of the hole or the weight of the dispelled water. In the electric mill the greatest activity exists at the point of discharge. The air molecules throw themselves upon this point to carry off the electricity released by the mill. From the points, streams of air molecules radiate. From the sector of the angle the air molecules concentrate themselves upon the metal points; a concerted wave pushes on towards the points, causing a compression of air. The same condition exists in the case of the lawn sprinkler. As soon as the water leaves the opening, the pressure on one particular drop decreases. The following drop by reason of its closer distance is traveling at higher speed and in over- taking its forerunner, rebounces and causes a back-kick. The pressure condition of the electric mill is also comparable to that of the lawn sprinkler. The one-sided charge of a conductor causes an unnatural condition resulting in pressure or a desire of the singular polarity to meet the ob- ject of its attraction, which is the opposite polarity. While at the outlet of the mill this desire becomes appeased, the tension remains on the other side practically on a level. 18 Compressed air would result in the same ac- tion in the lawn sprinkler and would by no one be attributed to air repellency. Finally, when a body under static charge is moved within the range of a compass needle, it will affect either pole with exactly the same strength of attraction. We will therefore put repellency in a class of down-and-outs together with other imaginary quantities, like for instance, "suction." The desire of air to enter a vacuum is not entertained by any desire on the part of the vacuum to hold air. 19 THE BATTERY. If, as we stated, electricity is not produced, but the force of attraction that holds molecules to- gether, is divided into positive and negative quantities, does this tend to show that two kinds of adhesion are required in its make-up? Decidedly so. The study of nature teaches us a very valuable lesson. There isn't anything created without the mu- tual attraction of two elements. Where one certain substance feels attracted to another, this other substance must necessarily answer the attraction or unison cannot result. In all creations one element performs a posi- tive function against the other, the negative. In life creations these qualities are called sexes. When in the natural course of development certain elements combined to form a new sub- stance, their adhesions must necessarily have been of dissimilar polarity. In the process of evolution the combine would grow stronger as the attraction developed into a more thorough inter-mixing of the two forms of matter, and their masses, molecule for mole- cule, exchanged proportional parts of dissimilar adhesion. Mix sulphuric acid and water and a chemical action will take place until the respective attrac- tive quantities have been equally distributed. The heat resulting is evidence of great friction caused by the two forces absorbing each other. 20 Now we will consider the opposite of the above described process of evolution. If by some chemical or other action the prod- uct of evolution were to be dissolved, would not the adhesion become released? And would not in this process each element accumulate its own adhesion at the parting? Logically it would as the adhesion constitutes the sex of the element, by reason of which it was attracted to the element of opposite sex or adhesion. This in fact is the action taking place within the wet cell, called battery, where the zinc is being dissolved by the acid, the opposite ad- hesions become separated and are brought under tension as the zinc molecules terminate their existence as such and are finally dissolved into atoms. 21 THE STATIC SPHERE. Having arrived at the point where the reader is prepared for a direct answer to the question adapted as the title of our study, and realizing the desirability of a brief, unmistakable term, we reply: Electricity and adhesion are the same. No stronger proof of the truth of the state- ment could be furnished than a close compari- son between the power of attraction among molecules of matter, under its double name. As the capacity of adhesion of a certain ob- ject must necessarily be limited to its volume, so it must be with electricity. It follows therefore that an object of twice the volume of another of like matter, will contain twice the amount of adhesion. This compares favorably with the electrical charge of the respective objects, the amount arrived at in the sum of the positive and nega- tive quantities, becoming exchanged. In other words the electrical capacity is in di- rect proportion to the adhesion. An accepted rule defines the charge of a sphere to exist along its surface only. By drilling a hole towards the center and dropping a wire into the aperture, no indication of a charge was obtained. This led to the belief that the charge resides on the surface only, and this in turn was blamed to repellency between similar electrical polarity, driving its units to extremes. Now if the above were true, the charges of 22 spheres would be in ratio to their surfaces, which is a surface ratio. A sphere of twice the diameter would possess a charge four times as large. The actual result convinces us that the charge of the second sphere will be eight times as large as that of the first. This conforms with the ratio of spheres, which is a cube ratio, the same as that of the molecules and consequently the adhesion. Now, if the charge is in direct ratio to the volume, all molecules must carry part of the total charge instead of the surface molecules only. Why is it then that the center of the sphere, when reached by a metallic conductor, appears to be neutral? Let us trace the static condition of two equal spheres. While the positive adhesion of number one sphere was conducted to number two, the nega- tive adhesion of the second sphere became in equal loads exchanged. Each molecule of the first sphere is therefore furnished with a double amount of negative elec- tricity or the total of the negative amounts of one molecule of each sphere. Being unable to absorb each other, the two negative quantities cause the static charge of that particular molecule. The charge, radiating from the center of the sphere, its neutral point, towards any point of the surface along its respective radius, will add the static of one molecule to that of the other 23 until the total is reached at the surface, in ex- actly the same manner as the magnetism of the molecules of a steel magnet are added, arriving at a total of magnetic strength at the pole. Any two radii would form a magnet with the center of the sphere as their neutral point. The word neutral as applied both to the sphere and magnet, is of course incorrect. The center molecule being under a static charge, cannot be neutral, but it forms the unit of charged molecules, so closely approaching zero in its infinity of smallness, that its charge cannot be made to register. For the same reason the steel molecule in the magnet-arc-center cannot be neutral, for in an absolute neutral condition it could not proceed in the stepping-up system. Therefore the greatest amount of magnetism we find stored up in that matter which contains the greatest amount of adhesion, after its sep- aration has been effected. A rich field is opened here for the study of metals in relation to electricity. Conductivity of a certain metal has no direct bearing upon its adhesion for that electrical property is a consequence of the ability of the molecules to move rapidly in convoying the ad- hesive energy or electricity along the line. Although copper is a better conductor than iron, its adhesion is less. The shape of the molecule is also to be con- sidered as it determines in a measure the amount of insulation furnished by the pores in trans- mitting energy. 24 THE TALE OF THE CONTACT-POINTS. In a closed circuit connect two distant points between the terminals of a voltmeter and take a reading. Now double the distance between the ter- minals and see the voltage double. The voltmeter readings of the conductor will be identical with that of a battery of cells in series, so that if one cell registers two volts, each other cell will add that same amount to the computation. Compare this test with that of the flow of water, replacing the voltmeter-leads by pipes in similar manner and distances. We notice that while the pressure on the single flow of water remains practically sta- tionary, the voltmeter shows the electrical con- ductor to compute, that means, to add cell to cell on a regularly increasing scale. And as the voltage for equal parts of the con- ductor along the line remains permanent, it fol- lows that the voltmeter-leads assume positive and negative charges, pointing unmistakably to a two-current system. In other words, if an electrical current con- sisted of a single flow, the voltmeter readings over various distances would show only a slight deviation due to wire resistance, which would be practically negligent for short distances, while in fact it registers twice the amount for twice the distance, etc., in direct proportion to the read- ings of a number of cells in series. 25 This gives positive proof of the fact that each molecule of copper assumes the functions of a cell, its poles facing dissimilar battery poles. Yet this condition of the molecules cannot be permanent or there would be no action and the needle would retire to zero. In their rapid vibration they come in contact alternatingly with the positive and negative charges of their fellow molecules and upon re- ceipt of equal quantities, neutralize them. Another rule accepted long ago, defines the flow to exist along the surface of the conductor. According to this rule we should calculate the amount of current transmitted, in direct ratio to the circumference or diameter, since they are of equal ratio. The fact is that the flow is measured by the surface of the sections, which ratio equals that of the square of the diameters, equalizing also the square of the outer surface flow since both negative and positive flows are naturally of equal opposed strength. Here we have the proof of the two flow system by mathematical formula. And now coming closer to the final result of our experiment, we find that of two currents flowing in opposite directions along the line, one takes the inner and the opposed current the outer course. The explanation is found in the fact that al- though the tension exists in the wire, the vibrat- ing frequency of the molecules is limited. In the process of combining the opposite quantities, the molecules are worked overtime 26 and when the limit of their capacity is reached, the surplus must travel on along the complete line. Getting back to nature, we find invariably that of the two sexes of vegetable life, the seeds, forming the positive function, occupy the heart of the negative quantity, a condition demon- strated in the pollination among flowers. It must be with a good deal of surprise to themselves that the students of electricity, in their controversy, have given their entire atten- tion to the study of the negative current on the outer surface, the identical polarity whose exist- ence has been either denied or ignored, flowing as it does even in the opposite direction, namely, from the negative to the positive pole of the source. Not depending on nature's law for proof, we will examine this condition in a well known circuit. Rotate a shuttle armature between the poles of a permanent magnet. For this purpose the primary circuit of a magneto can be used excellently. By causing one interruption per revolution we assure ourselves of a constant polarity which can be predetermined as all functions are known. At the time of interrupting, a flash occurs at the contacts, which flash can be adjusted by decreasing the condenser capacity suitably, the purpose being, to have the points become pitted due to flashing caused by a slightly overbalanced condenser. 27 After considerable running the contact points will show a remarkable change in their shape. While one has attained the form of a cone, the other has become a true negative, permitting the two to fit closely. But this is not all. The point that has received the hollow im- pression, has built up along its periphery and the other, having acquired a cone-shaped addi- tion, has lost from its cylindrical base. Here we have proof of three assertions: First. Metal was carried both ways across the gap by two opposite currents. Second. One current carried metal from center to center between the first and second contact points, while the opposite current con- veyed metal from the outer circumference of the second to that of the first point. Third. Although the contacts now possess a positive and negative appearance, yet this de- formation was the result of the action of dissim- ilar polarity, therefore the inside current was of a positive character. 28 ELECTRICAL ATTRACTION. In an induction coil we call the inside or ex- citing winding the primary and the outer, the secondary. We have seen how in a closed circuit the two opposite flows continue through to the battery pole of their attraction, for the molecules as- sume both polarities. Either the amount of current that reaches the battery, or the amount becoming neutralized is a waste, depending upon the character of ap- plication. In case of lighting purposes, the quantities neutralized in the filament have furnished heat for light by the friction of their absorption. In case of excitation like magnetizing or step- ping up voltage, the neutralization in the con- ductor has retarded the function of the passing current in electrifying. In the lamp we have therefore a sample of applied resistance while in the other case we apply conductivity, and the two are here pic- tured in their true state of each other's direct reversal. In the secondary winding the waste is elim- inated, for while the excitation goes on, the maximum opposite quantities are gathering at the opening of the gap on a computing scale. Strictly speaking, the secondary current is not the result of resistance, for resistance is the re- verse of conductivity and is equal to the amount of current neutralized in the line. 29 The foundation of the secondary is found in the extended series of molecules of copper con- tained in the secondary winding, and thereby we have effected a larger number of life cells, increasing their voltage in direct proportion. Replace the secondary winding by one of larger diameter of wire but of the same length, and more current will be gotten at the former voltage, disproving the theory of resistance. This last test at once gives us a clear under- standing of the grouping of the molecules in the wire, for the amount of current is in direct pro- portion to the number of molecules arranged in multiple in the cross-section while the voltage is computed by the number of molecules in series. THE SECONDARY WINDING. If any application of electrical transmission gives us a clear understanding of the relation between electricity and adhesion, it is the sec- ondary winding. In the induction coil there is no metallic con- nection between the primary and secondary windings. To the contrary, insulation of high di-electric value is used to keep the secondary current from leaking into the primary winding. Could any one desire clearer evidence? The insulation is made with the purpose of keeping the high voltage within the secondary circuit. Then how could any current have entered it from the outside? The explanation is obvious. It existed even in neutral condition in the winding and upon becoming separated to its voltaic gap-capacity, re-entered across the breach into its own winding. Further interesting points we find illustrated by various facts. While the flow in the primary circuit continues, no visible action takes place but an electrical magnet is formed, computing from a so-called neutral point midway between the secondary leads. If a reading could be taken at this point, the result would be similar to that of the center of the charged sphere or the so-called neutral point of a permanent magnet. 31 The respective charges of the molecules or unit cells of the primary wire exert an attraction upon their corresponding secondary cells, pre- venting their discharge at the gap. At the time of interruption, this attraction terminates and by comparative measurement we find that the resistance of the secondary winding exceeds that of the gap, with the result that a large part of the adhesive attraction crosses at the secondary leads. Now we face a problem, apparently not alto- gether deprived of mystery. For, if the high tension current in the sec- ondary is kept within bounds by the insulation, what extraordinary force might radiate from the primary winding, defying the insulating material in its influential reach for the secondary wind- ing? For further explanation we must now consider the opposite or reverse condition of the stepping- up or computing theory, repeatedly referred to herein. There is no doubt, of course, that the electrical force in the secondary winding is stepped-up by action of some force within the primary winding, but this force is not that of voltage, for, if the insulation between the windings would permit the low voltage of the primary to reach across, how much less would the high voltage of the secondary winding be protected? Now there are two values to an electrical cur- rent, viz. : the amount and the pressure behind it. The pressure or voltage as we proved, was not the cause of the stepping-up, but the result. 32 Quite logical, for how could it be the cause of itself? What is pressure, anyhow? It isn't anything; it is a condition. And in order to bring a condition about, we have to have the units of force. This force was furnished by the large amount of positive and negative adhesion, flowing through the primary winding which was con- structed with a view to absorb much current under a voltage just high enough to make it flow. The current itself, we see here, has overcome the resistance of the insulation. In other words, the current of the primary controlled the insulation while the insulation controlled the voltage of the secondary winding. It is plainly seen, however, that if the high pressure of the secondary cannot force electricity to leak across the insulating matter, much less will the low voltage of the primary drive its cur- rent through it. The primary current therefore had to influence the secondary winding from a distance, but its forces were stored up in such powerful masses, that it did not need to be conducted to its direct proximity. Its action was that of attraction and attraction needs no path. It was electric magnetism that drew its affinity in the secondary winding along in its direction of travel. 33 And the units of the secondary winding which was open at the gap, did not vibrate, as there was no circulation but lay still in a condition of forced electrical charge. We find the same attractive action in the mag- net, but here we have not electrical magnetism but magnetic electricity. For while in the winding the attraction is caused by an electric flow, in the magnet we have the electrical quantities stored up ready to cause a flow by moving a conductor within its field. In the former case we used up the flow and released the attraction that stepped up the sec- ondary voltage and in the latter instance we arrested the attraction and the flow became re- leased; simply two different conditions of ad- hesion. We said attraction needs no path, by which we mean: no particular substance is needed to conduct attraction. Science has always sought to detect the con- ductors that transmit attraction. The rays of light, heat, gravity, magnetism, etc., are all conducted to their destination, we are told. But according to human calculation, there exists a vacuum between sun and earth. What little air or ether there might be in it, could not possibly be understood to bring to us the light that blinds our eyes nor the heat that burns the skin. Any kind of a weight, released in a vacuum, will drop to the bottom. 34 And even so, will an iron object, when sus-. pended in a glass bulb from which the air has been extracted, become attracted to a magnet. But the attraction is always mutual. 35 THE STEEL MAGNET. Extensive experiments with steel have taught us of its great usefulness and we see it applied in various instances. Steel, we could rightfully name, the symbol of adhesion, for its reputation among metals is equal to that of the lion in the jungle. The ease with which it adapts a magnetic condition, points at once to the great force hid- den within its matter. To give a clear impression of the process of magnetizing, let us dispel any mysterious phe- nomena and produce a magnet by purely me- chanical means. Take a steel bar and insert same in the open- ing formed by a spiral tube of metal, through which hot steam passes. Before long, the steel will undergo a change, showing symptoms of magnetism. The time required will, of course, be in ratio to the amount of attraction between the steam units. The spiral tube came under magnetic spell through the friction with steam. Here we have a dynamo in which the steam formed the pole and the spiral tube the winding but the result was that the adhesion of the steel became partly separated. Now when a hardened steel bar becomes sur- rounded by a strong electrical flow, a metallic clink is heard, giving proof to the fact that the molecules become arranged in a certain way, 36 and an accurate measure will show that the length of the steel has been increased. The adhesion of the steel, separated by the attraction of dissimilar adhesion, flowing through the winding, has directed each mole- cule as much as possible in accord with pore allowance, into a straight line. Just why steel should be more able to retain the adhesion in a divided state, even in increased relative proportion to other matter, will not be easily explained until the science of molecules is more fully understood. It would appear that the molecules of steel are star-shaped, the points forming distinctive poles. But the fact remains that in the process of magnetizing, the molecules become severely in- terlocked, accompanied by a metallic sound not heard in other metals. And here again we have proof of a divided adhesive condition of the steel: When the poles of the magnet are connected in a circuit and the positive and negative cur- rents are permitted to complete their neutraliza- tion through the magnet, its magnetic outward power will have become naught. Powerful miscroscopes have failed to enlighten us to any extent as to the formation of the mole- cules. The study of electricity has shown us in the steel magnet, that the adhesion is so powerful in its abundance, that the pores are overloaded with it. This we see demonstrated in the fact that when made up of laminations, that means less matter 37 and more open space, the compression of the magnetism becomes released in the pores and the magnet becomes even more powerful, its surplus of adhesion forming a magnetic field of attraction far into air space. No wonder then that hardly any electrical de- vice is complete without it, much less could electricity exist without adhesion. For after all is said and done, each substance in general consists of two values. The one is its matter and the other is the hidden force, called adhesion, that permits its mass to assume a definite formation. Whatever other values might become attached to it from unknown channels, will never result in the mighty power, called electricity. Study a drop of water. We know the quantities that go to form a drop of water. Watch it drop from your leaking faucet in the kitchen, and see how one is magnetized, as it were, by the other. How it assumes an oblong shape before it falls, and note how the next drop, holding on to the faucet, shapes itself into a sphere around a center of gravity all its own, and you have a demonstra- tion of the two values referred to. And yet it is possible to extract electricity from this drop of water; not as much as the amount of adhesion it contains, naturally. Neither could you separate it entirely from its adhesion, or it would fly apart in billions of molecules, and there would be no electricity to 38 them either, for you dissolved the two values when extracting all of the adhesion. The only test approaching this condition, was made with a drop of molten glass. When heated to this state, most of the ad- hesion becomes imparted to the surrounding air, as the molecules start their rapid vibration, due to the high temperature. By dropping it suddenly in a cold fluid, the surface of the glass drop will acquire some ad- hesion from the fluid. If a small piece of the surface be removed with a pair of pliers, the entire drop will fall to dust. When this test shall have been applied to iron and copper, as some day it will, we shall have seen with the naked eye the proof, that electric- ity, magnetism and adhesion are three names for the same unseen force. 39 THE CONDENSER. The condenser, being used as a store room to balance equal amounts of similar polarities, forming the capacity of the low tension circuit, has a peculiar property, tending to strengthen the theory of surface residence. It is designed to offer sufficient surface to contain the necessary amount of electrical charge, and the thickness of the tinfoil leaves does not increase its capacity in proportion. The condenser under charge, contains sep- arated adhesion at rest, and as such is classed with the secondary winding and the permanent magnet. A brief description of its function will give a clear understanding of its real value. Shunted around the contacts it is at all times connected direct to the battery on one side, and to the other through the primary winding. When quickly removed from the leads of the circuit, it will contain polarities which will re- sult in a flash upon short-circuiting of its metal settings. There is no considerable voltage to produce a spark of any dimension but the flash denotes a large amount of current. The side that contacts with the positive pole of the battery, contains a positive charge. When balanced properly with a sufficient num- ber of foil leaves, its charge will re-act the current of positive character that is excited in the primary circuit. 40 As we explained before, it is impossible for the current, when abruptly interrupted in its rotation, to come to rest on the spur of the moment. Especially since the opening at the gap will have to increase from zero, the effect will be the drawing of a flash. The resistance of the winding, which means the limitations of its moleculary vibration, will support the tension controlling the flow and it is this electrical energy, prevented as it is from neutralizing itself with the opposite polarity by the retarded reverse action, that needs the sim- ilar condenser charge to force it back through the circuit. The same action takes place at the negative condenser side, showing that the negative cur- rent also needs to be blocked in its endeavor to continue on towards the positive contact point. The placing of the condenser leaves in mul- tiple has resulted in a large amount of static under low tension. Now according to the theory of electricity be- ing separated adhesion, should not the condenser capacity become doubled by increasing the tin foil leaves by their thickness? Logically the number of molecules and conse- quently their inherent adhesion double by the process. But, as we have learned by our experiment with the static charge of bodies, they possess a neutral point. In the sphere it was located in its center, being the zero point of computing pressure. 41 We will now consider the action between two adjacent tin foil leaves, separated by a sheet of mica insulation. The construction plainly points to the fact, that the condenser has been designed with the view of applying mutual attraction by gathering the opposite polarities alternatingly. The time allowed for the condenser to build up, is limited by the duration of contact. Quick action is therefore essential, hence the universal order of arranging the leaves. When the contact is closed, the molecules in the circuit commence carrying their charge from one to the other, and at the condenser leads, the opposite polarity falls an easy prey to the attraction of its affinity, and becomes ab- sorbed. At the same time, its place is taken by similar polarity and the static charge is complete. The resistance offered by the condenser leaves to this static attainment, reduces as the increas- ing charges of the tinfoil begin to exert mutual attraction upon one another. This attraction is not encountered when con- densers are built up from two separate columns of tinfoil, each column containing a strictly one- sided charge. The efficiency of the condenser of the mutual attraction type, in becoming loaded, will equal the product of that of the two single unit con- densers. When the thickness of the leaves is increased, this attraction will also increase, 42 Suppose we add its own thickness to the tin- foil, what will be the effect? Where the two leaves are joined, we have a zero line and from this line we add the number of molecules in series forming the single thick- ness, to arrive at the total at the surface. The tension therefore is equal to the half thickness of the tinfoil. At the moment of discharge, however, the routine of exit is along the length of the leaf and now a tension is attained, equal to the number of molecules in the length of one tinfoil leaf. It is noticed now, that while the double thick- ness has reduced the time necessary to become fully charged, by reason of proportionally in- creased attraction, this increased attraction has opposed and retarded the discharge of the con- denser. The greatest efficiency is consequently ob- tained by reducing the thickness of the tinfoil to a minimum and thereby dividing the amount of attraction over the largest number of units, so as to quickly overcome the retard effect in the discharge. In short, when under charge, the mutual at- traction between opposing tinfoil leaves is directed sideways, but when discharging, they arrange themselves lengthwise with the flow of the current. The thicker the leaves, the larger will be the number of molecules that have to change their direction, the sluggishness of the condenser dis- charge increasing in proportion. 43 This same retard effect is noticed in electro- magnets, but is offset to large extent by the softness of the iron and the measures taken, to prevent sticking. If hardened steel were used, quicker action would result, but the breaking away of the arma- ture would be considerably delayed. It is easily understood now, that the length of the tinfoil leaves of the condenser results in volt- age, while the width denotes amperage. The total voltage, by reason of the multiple placed tinfoil leaves, will not excel the length of one single leaf, but the total capacity amounts to the sum of the leaves multiplied by the sec- tional area. 44 THE UNIVERSE. The study of electricity, in all its wonderful and surprising manifestations has, without a doubt, kept mankind spell-bound from the first received inkling of its existence. With awe and reverence we have witnessed the great display of the universe when the atmos- phere, laden with the weight of moisture drawn up by the heat of the sun, became charged to such enormous electrical capacity, that its un- bound fury, defying all human conception of conductive limitation, would madly dash through space, attacking the very gravity of our earth. And coming back to earth, we might as well consider this great factor, gravity, that has kept our globe intact against the centrifugal force of its rotation around the axes. Is it another name for electricity and mag- netism? If so, it would seem the proper time to call a halt to the baptism of the great force of at- traction. Again, all matter is possessed with adhesion, the tangible form of attraction. Strange enough, electricity was first detected in what is considered to be perfect insulating material: Amber and silk, glass, hair, etc. And so was magnetism. The amber was rubbed with silk and at- tracted small cuttings of paper. The paper became the opposite pole of the magnet, with a mutual desire for attraction. 45 And the silk, upon close examination, will be found to contain the amount of rubbed-off amber whose adhesion has become released, un- balancing the neutral charge of the remaining amount of amber. We could measure the conductivity of paper by the time required for amber and paper to even up their polarities and for the paper to drop. In this case we term the phenomenon "mag- netism." When the extent of the charge is increased until a spark is obtained, we apply the name "electricity." As to the internal attraction between mole- cules we refer to the power as "adhesion." And if, when we throw any object away from the center of our earth, it displays an unmis- takable longing to come down, we blame "gravity." Boiled down, it is all reduced to substantial attraction. As the molecules of matter are attracted to each other, quite similarly are the stellar bodies of the universe balanced by the same attraction. Dissect this attraction under whatever name or term into its polar atoms, positive and nega- tive, and it will re-organize by electrical dis- play. How well we all know that we are confined and bound to the great magnet which we call earth ! Again we have a neutral line at the equator and the regularity of the computing strength- 46 increase towards each of the magnetic poles is accurately measured by the inclination of the compass needle. So great is the affection of mother earth for the products of her bosom, that none are per- mitted to break her ties. And we could not expect otherwise than that all matters, extracted from her depths, should be supplied with identical attraction as fostered by the earth, from whose very heart they sprang. Drop a weight from the air and note the in- crease in speed. Each additional second an equal amount of increase is added to the velocity of descension. Here again we have attraction on computed scale in direct ratio to the specific adhesion pos- sessed by the falling object, the foundation of built-up potentiality as encountered in all elec- trical and magnetic charges. Taken on a large scale, the mutual attraction between all bodies in the universe, insures their equilibrium. A faint conception only, of the magnitude of this attraction can be derived from studying the well-nigh immeasurable distances into eternal space. But clearly stands out the fact that this far- reaching power, before radiating outward, has primarily saturated all objects of its own in- habitation. Thus it is that when the rays of the sun have drawn the water from our seas and rivers to transform it into clouds, a part of this gravity 47 or adhesion, has been removed with it only to come down with it again in the rainfalls. But should its neutrality have been disturbed by action of friction between clouds, we will witness an electrical display between them. And if, as happens more commonly, in the process of evaporation in extremely dry air, the natural steam has been unable to retain its neu- tral state of gravity on account of the low con- ductivity of dry air, and an electrical charged cloud is formed, the exchange will take place through the gap by medium of the lightning bolt. And again the attraction is mutual. Even this tremendous secondary current is controlled by human brains, and equal amounts of electricity or adhesion or gravity or attraction or however you wish to name this tendency to coherence, become exchanged at the electrode of the gap, installed by human hands at the point of the lightning rod. 48 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. What is gravity? The force of attraction that keeps all sub- stance, forming the earth, from separating. At what particular line is this force at its maximum? At the surface of the earth. How is this proved? By experiment the attraction outside the earth's surface is in reverse ratio to the square of the distance to the surface, while on the inside it is directly proportional to the distance from the center of the earth. What does this experiment signify? That gravity as it exists in the earth, is a sub- stance and not a condition. Also that the influence exerted by gravity over objects outside the earth, is not gravity itself but a manifestation of its attraction. Is it proper to refer to the outside and inside of the earth's surface as above and below? It is not although customary, for a line point- ing straight down towards the center, would be a direct upward direction for the location op- posite our position. From the center of the earth, all directions would be upward, which would be contradictory. What lesson do we derive from this? That no object dropped from the air, does really fall down, but simply moves in a direction towards the earth's center independent of the 49 up or down position of a fixed point in the universe. What is weight? The name given to the amount of attraction exerted by gravity upon any object. Why is it that although the attraction is great- est near the surface, yet the lower layers of water in the ocean possess greater pressure? The lines of attraction radiating from the cen- ter of the earth, are more dense near the center than near the surface, where they separate due to the angle. You can illustrate this fact by drawing lines from the center of a circle towards points in the circumference at small regular distances. Why does gravity increase in direct ratio to the distance from the center of the earth? All matter consists of cells or molecules. In the line of direction of substantial attrac- tion all cells add their respective quotas to arrive at a total at the end which is a point in the sur- face of the earth. Why is the attraction directed outward? Being saturated with neutral gravity within, it exerts attraction over any outside object with- in its reach. Does any amount of gravity ever leave the earth? Any object taken from below the earth's sur- face, retains its gravity. By what term is the gravity of matter known? Adhesion. 50 Can this adhesion or gravity be removed from an object? It is very difficult to separate from its matter while in a neutral condition but when dissected into its elements, they assume positive and nega- tive polarities. How can we tell dissected gravity from neutral gravity? By the great desire of the two quantities to reach each other. What does this desire result in? The two polarities will reach each other de- spite human efforts to keep them separated. Can their separation remain indefinite? It cannot. All substance, including air being supplied with gravity, it will necessarily come in contact with its opposite polarity and eventually neutralize. What particular term is given to the attraction between bodies supplied with opposite pol- arities? This depends upon the condition of the charge. When a large amount of gravity exists under low pressure, it will attract other objects and the property is called magnetism. When the amount is small but brought under a high pressure, due to a large series of cells, the opposite polarities will leave their respec- tive bodies and exchange equal quantities through the air or by conductor and the name electricity is applied. 51 What do we call the condition of an object supplied with one polarity of gravity? Static. Does the amount of gravity in an object de- crease upon removing one polarity? It is not removed, but exchanged. Therefore, one particular polarity can be re- moved only by replacing it by an equal amount of opposite polarity. How is the neutralization effected? Since all matter possesses gravity, a body un- der static charge may be neutralized by bringing it in contact with any other object or number of objects until again evenly distributed. How do we know that gravity and adhesion are the same? All matter on earth originates from the earth and is supplied with its attractive substance. Bodies whose gravity has been separated, may become neutral by connecting them with the earth by a so-called ground connection. How is the separation effected? In various manners. By the process of rubbing, a number of mole- cules become dissolved and the gravity released. If the articles paired in this process are espe- cially partial to the opposite polarities, the grav- ity will be separated into its polarities. By chemical action, as for instance, dissolving zinc in sulphuric acid. By mechanical means, attracting opposite polarities in opposite directions in conductors. Explain the mechanical action? 52 The practical way is to first separate the gravity of a steel or iron device by magnetizing and thereby accumulating its positive and nega- tive polarities at the respective extreme ends, called poles, which are suitably hugged about a metal winding rotating on a core. The opposite polarities in the winding are drawn towards the magnetic pole of their at- traction and upon closing the circuit, will flow into the line to reunite. What is a magnet? A permanent magnet is a bar of steel in which the gravity or adhesion has been separated and arrested in this condition. An electro-magnet is an iron bar surrounded by a winding through which opposite polarities of adhesion pass in opposite directions. Does a permanent magnet have other prop- erties besides that of attraction? It is claimed that similar poles repel each other, but as neutral gravity attracts, it follows that the magnetic influence cannot result in re- pulsion. Isn't it a fact that two similar poles, opposed to each other, will pull away in an opposite direction? It appears that two straight bars supported on bearings so as to reduce friction to a minimum, confronted by similar polarity, will draw apart, but this tendency does in no measure compare with the force of attraction between dissimilar poles. It is plainly seen, however, that two similar poles, when placed face to face, will draw the 53 opposite polarity of the gravity of air between themselves. This is illustrated by the lines of the mag- netic field when materialized by iron filings. The result is a compression of air between the poles of the magnet-bars, which is supported by the attraction between the far-ends of the bars and their surrounding air. How does the repellency compare in case of horseshoe magnets? According to the law of repellency, it should increase, for both poles meet similar poles and the attraction between double poles more than doubles as compared to single pole attraction. The fact is that when two horseshoe magnets are similarly opposed and very exactly lined up, we are unable to feel any repulsion. When moved slightly out of line, we notice only a tendency to move in a direct line towards the pole of attraction. What is the rate of attraction in this case? The rate increases inversely as the square of the distance between dissimilar poles. What would be the effect of repellency in this case? The sum of the amount of repellency between similar poles plus the amount of attraction be- tween dissimilar poles would be the same at any point between the poles of the stationary mag- net and we would notice a uniform tendency of force until the moving magnet becomes dissim- ilarly opposed to the stationary magnet. What is the actual effect? 54 Sliding the movable magnet sideways, we find that the attraction accelerates from zero, not considering the effect of aero-magnetism. What is the condition of a static sphere? One of its polarities of gravity has been ex- changed for an equal amount of opposite pol- arity subtracted from some other body and it possesses now only one kind. What is the maximum discharge obtainable? Half the amount of its gravity. In a dis- charge between two equal spheres, half the amount of each sphere is exchanged and the total discharge equals the full amount of one sphere. Why is its center neutral? Being supplied with one polarity, there is practically no attraction at the center of the sphere because all attractive or opposite polar- ity now has been removed outside the surface of the sphere. Could any indication of static be obtained at the center? No, but contacts made with the sphere at va- rious distances from the center, indicate poten- tials in direct ratio to that distance. Could a static sphere become neutralized with the aid of a neutral sphere? It can in relation to the neutral sphere, but both will contain an excess of the polarity of the static in regard to the earth or other neutral objects. Is there a tension or pressure to the static? 55 The amount of singular gravity in each cell or molecule is directed toward the outside whither its affinity has been deducted and their desire for the same is carried forth by each and every cell in the radius, reaching a total at the surface. Does the charge radiate outward? It does not leave the sphere unless conducted, but it attracts through space. What is a magnetic field? The extent of a magnetic field is the maxi- mum distance at which the attraction of a mag- netic pole is felt. Do magnetic lines exist? Magnetic lines do not leap into air space, for if they did, iron filings dropped on a sheet of paper under which a magnet is held, would at once direct themselves in a final position, while in fact they first form a closed line and after- wards spread out into their full curve as more filings are dropped. Is magnetism governed by the same laws as gravity? Yes, the strength of a magnet is in direct pro- portion to its length while its outside attraction is inversely proportional to the square of the distance. What other name is given to gravity in cer- tain instances? The property of fluids adhering to an object is called cohesion. And so is the attraction between an object floating in a bowl of water, and the brim of the 56 bowl. Ere long the object will anchor itself along the brim. How is gravity made to flow through a circuit? It is first separated either by mechanical or chemical means and the two polarities are per- mitted to again meet each other in a conductor outside the separator, called generator or battery as the case may be. How is the current conducted? By molecular loads. The vibration of the molecules causes them to separate while con- veying a load of gravity and this separation temporarily insulates them until a contact is es- tablished at the end of the vibration-stroke, with other molecules, possessing opposite polarity of adhesion. In this manner the life metallic cell is created. Do the molecules vibrate regularly while con- veying gravity? Their movements are timed accurately by the attraction of the separated gravity. What is an electro-magnet? An iron core surrounded by a coil of wire through which a current flows. Each of the two currents, flowing in opposite directions, draws the gravity of its attraction within the iron core in its direction of flow to- wards a pole. Do the molecules of the core vibrate in the process? No, they direct themselves under control of the flowing gravity in the winding and are held captive in this position until the circuit is 57 broken, whereupon they carry their opposite polarities together again. Do the magnetic lines rotate through the cores and armature, while active? Magnetic lines are of imaginary existence. The control of the flowing current over the magnetic gravity holds the magnetism wthin the cores and armature locked in strict obeyance. A permanent magnet, preserved by a keeper, would neutralize if magnetism were to flow across the keeper. In an electro-magnet used for lifting purposes, the magnetism would weaken upon taking hold of the weight. Why does it take longer for an electro-magnet to become active at the closing of the circuit than to de-magnetize upon breaking? In the first instance the resistance offered by the opposite polarities of gravity in the cores against their separation, must be overcome. In the latter instance, the attraction among the separated polarities assists in neutralizing. What action takes place in a secondary coil? The currents flowing in the primary circuit attract dissimilar polarities of the gravity of the secondary winding along in their respective di- rections and away from a so-called neutral point. Does the secondary current keep moving while the primary current flows? No, upon closing the primary circuit, the sec- ondary gravity at once arranges itself in accord- ance and stays arrested until the primary is opened. 58 At this moment part of the secondary charges move across the gap and part pass through the secondary winding. What application is made of this secondary discharge? The kick-coil. The high-tension of the sec- ondary charges arrested near the ends of the secondary coil farthest from the neutral point, will, when the circuit is broken, cause the sec- ondary to jump ahead towards the neutral point and by attraction pull the primary along. Quicker and snappier flash is thus obtained at the make and break contact. Is the term "storage battery," as applied to a certain electrical apparatus, correct? Yes, contrary to the general conception. When the electrolyte is first placed in the jars containing the negative and positive plates, its gravity is low. When the charging current is applied to the poles, both positive and negative matter become dissolved and their respective atoms cease to exist as such. The gravity that formerly com- posed their molecules, becomes released and is divided over all matter within the jar, including the electrolyte. The two polarities separated by the dissolu- tion, are held captive by the poles of their at- traction, the dissolved elements with whom they parted in the process, having been conducted to the opposite poles. When fully charged, the hydrometer readings indicate a large increase of gravity, stored up in the acid. 59 If two polarities of gravity exist in divided state in the acid, why do they not combine and become neutralized? They do so by slow action internally. This calls for occasional recharge of the battery in idle condition. What is the condition of the acid on open circuit? Static and therefore computing from a neutral line midway between the opposite poles. Why then does the gravity of the acid read uniform throughout the jar? By a certain law, the weight or pressure, or more correctly, the attraction of gravity is evenly divided in liquids. The various molecules pos- sess an equal amount of gravity individually, but all fluids being molecularly composed, the pres- sure of their charge accelerates towards the poles. Why is the internal rate of discharge low on open circuit? The attraction which arrests the polarities of the acid and prevents their rapid discharge, is greatest with their respective polar matter, which is considerably more dense. How do we know that cohesion between the molecules of water is gravity? All substance, including liquids, possesses gravity. When water freezes, it contracts and so do its molecules. Each molecule of ice, assuming a smaller volume than when in liquid form, in- creases its gravity in regard to its former volume 60 and becomes more dense, increasing its tenacity. When heated to the gaseous state, the molecules increase in size and the gravity becomes leaner. It still contains gravity, for, when it forms a cloud under static charge, it neutralizes this charge by exchange with the earth. (THE END.) 61 UNIVEESITY OF CALEb'OEiVIA LIBEAEY, BEEKELEY THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW Books not returned on time are subject to a fine of 50c per volume after the third day overdue, increasing to $1.60 per voli demand may be ot in . RECD'LD FEB 1 1 1957 01724