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 o
 
 DYNAMIC RELIGION. 
 
 Rev. Walter \'roonian'.s .Sertnons, 
 
 delivered weekly before the two 
 
 largest congregations of Baltimore 
 
 are all jiublislied by the Patiioiic 
 
 Litcraiuyc Pub. Co., No. loS East 
 
 Franklin St., B dtimore, Md. 
 
 Price, 5 cents er.cli. 
 
 51.00 per year in advance.
 
 GOVERNMENT 
 
 Ownership 
 
 IN 
 
 Production and [)istnbution^ 
 
 Being an account of 337 now existing National and 
 
 Municipal Undertakings in the 100 Principal 
 
 Countries of the World, 
 
 BY 
 
 WALTER VROOMAN. 
 
 PRICE, $1.00. 
 
 BALTIMORE: 
 
 Patriotic Literature Publishing Co., 
 
 108 East Franklin Street, 
 
 1895-
 
 1^50 
 
 n 
 
 COPYRIGHT 
 
 1895. 
 WALTER V ROOM AN. 
 
 HANZSCHE & CO., 
 
 PRINTERS AND ENGRAVCRS, 
 
 BALTIMORE, MD.
 
 PRKKACB. 
 
 As this is, so far as the writer knows, the first investigation 
 (jf the kind, it would be unreasonaljle to hope it to be free from 
 mistakes, or that it should tell the whole story. It will l)e found 
 to fall far, very far, below a full statement of an enumeration of 
 the now actually socialized institutions and enterprises of the 
 various leading governments of the world. 
 
 Rut that a book is needed, such as the writer has tried to 
 furnish, all reformers must agree who have come in contact with 
 the surprising stupidity and ignorance displayed by many concern- 
 ing the magnitude of existing concrete socialism. 
 
 An English aristocract and high official of the British consular 
 staff, in this country, whom I visited in the hope of securing data 
 for the chapter on Great Britain in this book, in answer to my 
 request for information concerning socialized businesses in his 
 country, answered : " Be assured, my dear sir, that we have none 
 of those things in H'ingland ; we there believe in h'individualized 
 h'enterprise. H'individualism is the basis of our h'institutions." 
 
 While this representative of the British government was thus 
 assuring me that in "H'ingland" all business was conducted by 
 " H'individuals," I had in my pocket a list of two hundred and 
 sixty-nine enterprises, that in his country are owned and operated 
 by the government, and the list was still incomplete. 
 
 Mr. Sidney Webb in his Socialism in England (p. 65) says : 
 "The 'practical man,' oblivious or contemptuous of any theory 
 of the Social Organism or general principles of social organiza- 
 tion, has been forced by the necessities of time, into an ever deep- 
 ening collectivist channel. Socialism, of course, he rejects and 
 despises. The Individualist City Councillor will walk along the 
 municipal pavement, lit by municipal gas and cleaned by munici- 
 pal brooms, with municipal water, and seeing by the municipal 
 clock in the municipal market, that he is too early to meet his
 
 children coming from the municipal school hard by the county 
 lunatic asylum and municipal hospital, will use the national tele- 
 graph system to tell them not to walk through the municipal park, 
 but to come by the municipal tramway, to meet him in the muni- 
 cipal reading room, by the municipal art gallery, museum and 
 library, where he intends to consult some of the national publica- 
 tions, in order to prepare his next speech in the municipal town- 
 hall, in favor of the nationalization of canals and the increase of 
 the government control over the railway system. 'Socialism, 
 sir,' he will say, 'don't waste the time of a practical man by 
 your fantastic absu/dities. Self-help, sir, individual self-help, 
 that's what's made our city what it is.' " (! ! !)
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The purpose of this book is to combat the principle of 
 paternal government and to prove that the tendency of 
 society in both civilized and uncivilized countries is to- 
 ward fraternal government. Progress consists in rescu- 
 ing human affairs from the domain of chance and making 
 them subservient to law. When in primitive times, the 
 strong man with a club, who has used it too freely upon 
 his fellows, is overcome by the many weaker members of 
 his tribe ; then, the general interests begin their long 
 conflict against unrestrained individual caprice. The 
 history of this struggle is the history of the development 
 of civilization. 
 
 With primitive man duty extends only to members of 
 a single tribe. To murder a fellow tribesman or steal 
 his food is contrary to the law of the tribe, the only law 
 that exists. But all outside the tribe are enemies. To 
 kill and rob them conflicts with no moral obligation be- 
 cause as yet obligation exists only in the tribe. Then 
 larger tribes destroy smaller ones or absorb them. Those 
 that absorb soon gain an advantage over those who sim- 
 ply destroy and where the habitat is capable of support- 
 ing a dense population, leaving some of the energies of 
 the people free from the struggle for food to follow the 
 line of natural development, nations are formed. The 
 dominion of law is thus extended so that it not only re- 
 strains men from capriciously destroying one another 
 inside small groups leaving them free to kill and rob out- 
 side, but it makes it possible for commerce and friendly 
 social intercourse to become permanently established and 
 regulated between people speaking various dialects and 
 
 5
 
 having different domestic habits. In the small tribe, the 
 chief and warriors were so intimately bound together in 
 all their relations of life by their common poverty and 
 common dangers that although tyranny was often exer- 
 cised, they had one common feeling and interest. But 
 when nations developed and wealth became more plenti- 
 ful, the rulers began to form castes and separate them- 
 selves from their subjects ; and as personal sympathy and 
 fellow feeling between rulers and ruled lessened, the 
 temptation increased for those in power to override the 
 rights of their subjects, in seeking to gratify their per- 
 sonal appetites and ambitions. Then came the long 
 struggle between despotism and democracy, between 
 the rulers of society, who in the gratification of their de- 
 sires wish to be above all law or to be a law unto them- 
 selves, and the people who wish to limit the power of 
 their rulers by constitutions, parliaments, legislatures 
 and the other safeguards of representative government. 
 After thousands of years of struggle and education, the 
 people of the leading nations of the world have become 
 victorious to a greater or less extent, and the liberties of 
 kings, emperors and presidents, of generals and political 
 tax-gatherers, are limited by certain well-defined regula- 
 tions, confined to paper and clung to tenaciously by the 
 people ; that is, the political, chiefs of the world have been 
 brought under the dominion of law. But during the 
 great industrial revolution of the nineteenth century, 
 new forms of warfare have in a large measure superseded 
 the old and a new species of ruler, autocrat, general and 
 president have come into existence, whose gigantic 
 powers over their fellow-men somewhat resemble the 
 powers of the primitive kings. These have the power 
 of sacrificing their fellows to their own caprice, that is, 
 they have not yet been subdued and brought under the 
 dominion of law. They are our industrial captains, our 
 commercial autocrats, our corporation presidents. Just 
 when poor suffering humanity after thousands of years 
 of struggle against oppression had succeeded in evolving
 
 laws capable of protecting their liberties against the cap- 
 rice of political rulers, this new variety of despot makes 
 his appearance, and, although leaving the people still free 
 in name, and without openly destroying their written 
 constitutions and codes, gains mastery of the food supply, 
 and, by controlling the peoples' means of life, institutes 
 a new form of slavery which again reduces them to the 
 helpless condition of a thousand years ago. But the old 
 conflict between law and anarchy, between the general 
 interest and unrestrained individual greed, has started 
 again with vigor. And as is proved in the following 
 pages, the movement which aims to subdue these modern 
 lawless economic rulers, industrial captains, and kings of 
 commerce, has not only made great progress in the way 
 of getting theoretical converts, but in the hundred prin- 
 cipal nations of the world has gained a multitude of 
 practical victories. That new paternal government crea- 
 ted by the changed industrial and social conditions of 
 this century, which in reality rules the world and plays 
 the part of bad father to all the peoples, was more quick 
 than the common people to discover the advantages to 
 be gained from using existing political institutions as 
 means toward accomplishing their purposes. And so by 
 careful manipulation, this real yet secret government, 
 the centralized money power, has taken possession of 
 those political institutions which the people through 
 centuries of suffering and struggle had built up for their 
 own protection. During the past few years our great 
 political governments have become simple departments 
 of this new power. Our written laws and constitutions 
 are defied by the members of its royal family, but en- 
 forced with unmitigated vigor by them upon their 
 enemies. Our written laws and mandates of courts have 
 become a one-edged sword terrible to those outside, but 
 blunt to those inside the magic circle. But although 
 this reign of anarchy, that is, the rule of the individual 
 caprice of the (<i\v over the rights of the man\', has been 
 partiall)' established, although the citadels of law and
 
 order and of power have come into the temporary pos- 
 session of the lawless government of money, still the 
 people, too, have been active along the outposts, having 
 taken innumerable smaller points and gained many un- 
 important victories. Their greatest gain however has 
 been that they are now in sight of the posts of real im- 
 portance, they are now face to face with their enemy, 
 and as they crowd nearer one another and their shoulders 
 touch they are beginning to feel that faith and enthu- 
 siasm which comes from a knowledge of their over- 
 whelming numbers. 
 
 One by one, during the past twenty years, different 
 businesses and enterprises, conducted heretofore by 
 individuals, solely for their own profit, have been taken 
 by the general government, state or municipality, and 
 administered at cost, for the benefit of the whole people. 
 Since the dawn of civilization, this tendency has been 
 active to a slight extent, but during the past decade it 
 has become a visible, a constantly and rapidly augmenting 
 movement which is transforming the structure of mod- 
 ern society before our very eyes. That the principle of 
 fraternalism is not a mere theory can be seen in one 
 moment by a look at our map of New York City, which, 
 although the centre of plutocratic lawlessness in Amer- 
 ica, shows that nearly one-half its surface is administered 
 by the public, by means of City, State and National 
 Governments, for the common benefit of all the people. 
 Although much of the very surface of the earth is 
 claimed by individuals of that city as their private 
 property, we have about 575 miles of public streets on 
 which all the children of men have an equal right to 
 walk or ride; their liberties on those streets limited only 
 by the rights of others. Many of us are so accustomed 
 to walk freely in the streets and see so plainly the neces- 
 sity of having our streets the common property of all, 
 that we almost look upon their existence as something 
 natural ; as if such had always existed. But we must 
 
 remember that the establishment of free public high- 
 8 ^ "^
 
 ways, both country roads and city streets, was the first 
 great victory for fraternalism or that form of socialism 
 now recognized as the goal of the modern labor move- 
 ment. They were fought for as every other socialistic 
 reform in the past has been fought for against the cun- 
 ning and avarice of those who had learned to regard 
 them as property the source of business profits for the 
 support of their families and obtaining of luxuries. The 
 toll collector was at one time an influential member of 
 the best society, an enemy of "unsound theories" and 
 was only abolished by persistent socialistic agitation. 
 And when any blind opponent of progress now asks a 
 socialist what his theories have ever done for the world 
 he can point to the streets, roads and highways of our 
 country as one direct accomplishment of socialism. 
 
 It was only a few years ago when if a man residing in 
 a city wished to enjoy a pleasant hour sitting under a 
 tree or lounging on the grass with his children, it was 
 necessary for him to accumulate an immense sum of 
 money and purchase a garden or lawn, to fence it in 
 against all intruders and keep this immense investment 
 idle all the year round with the exception of a few hours 
 that he or his could personally use it. But a socialistic 
 idea dawned in the minds of a few sensitive men and 
 women and public parks were demanded. Like all other 
 new ideas this notion was considered extremely absurd 
 for many years, but gradually, by a long process of edu- 
 cation, the people came to realize the necessity of breath- 
 ing space, of grass and trees, and spots for out-of-door 
 recreation in our large cities, until now, the common 
 lawns open to the whole people in New York City alone, 
 amount to about 6,000 acres. This is another socialistic 
 idea that has succeeded. Instead of individual lawns 
 and gardens which we know to be impossible in large 
 cities, we have public lawns and gardens. Systematic 
 education at one time was a privilege within the reach of 
 a very small proportion of the human race; but a few 
 
 strange men and women with peculiar notions conceived 
 a
 
 the idea that all children should receive an education, — 
 and public schools became a part of our American polity. 
 The "business" of educating the young has in a large 
 measure been taken from the realm of individual caprice 
 and made a public function. Another concrete accom- 
 plishment of fraternal socialism. 
 
 There was a time when letter carrying was a profitable 
 private business ; when carrying a letter a hundred miles 
 cost 25 cents. Some men whose minds were not averse 
 to a new "ism" when they knew it was to their advan- 
 tage saw that by a common postal system much waste 
 could be done away with and the post-office became a 
 public function. One business after another, one activity 
 after another has been taken by different countries and 
 municipalities throughout the world from the realm of 
 private enterprise until as tabulated on page 204 we show 
 a list of 337 enterprises conducted by different govern- 
 ments, municipal and national, and a list of 225 enter- 
 prises and activities to a greater or less extent controlled 
 or restricted by the people. These lists and the accounts 
 of the activities of the hundred different governments in 
 the following pages cannot but prove to the most un- 
 willing mind, that leaving aside all extreme socialistic 
 theories the whole trend of our time is toward some form 
 of fraternal socialism as against our present paternal in- 
 dividualism. The facts that have been here arranged 
 prove that the people are bringing one by one their in- 
 dustrial and commercial institutions under the domain 
 of law, and that sooner or later, the chaos of modern 
 production and distribution will be supplanted by a sci- 
 entific system of production and distribution adminis- 
 tered by the whole people by means of government for 
 their own benefit. 
 
 That this tendency toward the socialization of industry 
 will continue until not only the water supply system, the 
 gas plants, and street car lines, railroads, and other en- 
 terprises that are now in a condition of metamorphosis 
 
 from individual to public administration have become 
 10
 
 public functions ; but until all of the great industries and 
 business affairs of the world that have reached the trust 
 stage, including banking and bonanza stores, will also 
 become government monopolies, is assured. The argu- 
 ment is raised that government monopoly of the most 
 important means of production and distribution, with the 
 exception of the products of agriculture, will produce a 
 system so machine-like in its structure, that the life of 
 those who participate will become uninteresting. The 
 answer to this objection is simply that, with the exception 
 of agriculture, the larger part of production and distri- 
 bution has already become one gigantic machine of 
 which the individual workman, boss, superintendent, 
 clerk, book-keeper, is now but an atom responding 
 like any fraction of a smaller machine to the other parts 
 of the mechanism. The question to be settled is no 
 longer, Are we to have machine distribution and pro- 
 duction? but, By what authority and in whose interest 
 is the mill to grind ? We now have machine production. 
 Our machine is constantly growing in extent and .becom- 
 ing more complex and fixed in every department of its 
 vast structure. It is owned by great corporations, the 
 number of whose stockholders is limited to a class that 
 has already become an aristocracy with privileges more 
 unusual and with powers greater over the lives of their 
 fellows than any other aristocracy of modern times. The 
 demand of the people is now that this machine be taken 
 by that great corporation, the government, in which all 
 are equal stockholders, and in whose management all 
 have an equal voice, and worked for the benefit of all 
 humanity, both present and future. 
 
 There is no longer a struggle between the competitive 
 system and socialism. The competitive system has al- 
 ready been destroyed by its more powerful antagonist, 
 the principle of combination. The question now is, 
 whether this great mechanism of industry, the bone and 
 fiber, as it were, of the social organism shall be adminis- 
 tered and its results enjoyed by the few who have been 
 11
 
 placed in control, some by chance, some by adventurous 
 cunning and mercilessly dishonest dealings with their 
 fellows, and some by the exercise of unusual intellectual 
 powers ; or whether the whole people shall secure to 
 each a right to share in the civilization bequeathed from 
 our common ancestors. It is a struggle of representa- 
 tive government, by which the administrators of public 
 affairs are elected by the people, against irresponsible 
 plutocratic paternal government whereby irresponsible 
 self-appointed "papas" gain control under the name of 
 ownership of the very earth itself, of lands, mines, water- 
 ways, and the machinery and means of transportation 
 and distribution on which the people are as dependent as 
 upon the air they breathe ; and which if owned by indi- 
 viduals, necessitate simply that the people to whom they 
 are the source of life, are also owned. 
 
 A description of the trend of the national life of the 
 hundred principal governments of the world is attempted 
 in the following pages in the hope of encouraging those 
 who are striving and waiting for a higher civilization and 
 for the purpose of announcing to the less intelligent and 
 less far sighted the character of that society in which 
 their children are to live and die. I believe that there is 
 now sufficient existing concrete socialism in the world to 
 give a substantial foundation for the hope that the 
 brotherhood of man, the true cooperative common- 
 wealth shall one day be realized. Those who have been 
 victimized by the paid apologists for existing injustice 
 into believing that the present struggle for an increase 
 of public functions is something new and untried may 
 also in the following pages find a revelation concerning 
 the late progress of the world toward socialism. 
 
 This first attempt to arrange and classify the various 
 affairs now administered by governments is necessarily 
 incomplete, and no doubt contains many errors. But I 
 believe the object of the work is sufficiently important 
 to enlist the help of those in every part of the world who 
 believe in the cooperative commonwealth. With the 
 
 12
 
 help of such each new edition of this book will give a 
 true account of the latest practical victories of socialism 
 triumphant in its irresistible and conquering march 
 throughout the world. The correspondence of such as 
 are willing to cooperate in perfecting periodically such 
 an account of the progress of the cooperative common- 
 wealth is earnestly solicited. 
 
 13
 
 NOTE. 
 
 THE ORDER ADOPTED in the description of 
 Countries and Enterprises is as nearly alphabetical as 
 possible. 
 
 The enterprises enumerated after each country's name 
 are conducted either by the National, Provincial, or 
 Municipal Government within it. 
 
 The most familiar terms are everywhere used, since the 
 main object is to make the facts intelligible to English 
 readers. 
 
 The various National and Municipal enterprises are 
 classified under the following heads : — 
 DEFENSE OF THE NATION, including facts as to 
 
 Army, Militia, and Navy. 
 FINANCE, all Government provision for Money and 
 
 Exchange, also Land and other Government Prop- 
 erties. 
 DISTRIBUTION, Transportation and Communication, 
 
 and a few types of distributing storehouses. 
 EDUCATION, Information and Culture provided for 
 
 by the State. 
 FOOD PRODUCTION, all enterprises directly aiding 
 
 therein. 
 MEANS PRODUCTION, all other forms of produc- 
 tion. 
 LAW AND ORDER, the Form and Instruments of 
 
 Government. 
 RELIEF AND CHARITIES, every Public Provision 
 
 for assisting the Needy or Distressed. 
 SANITATION AND SAFETY, Public Provision for 
 
 Cleanliness and Defense against Disease and Fire. 
 
 14
 
 STATE INTERFERENCE in Businesses or Events, 
 which it requires to be REGISTERED, LICENSED, 
 INSPECTED, or RESTRICTED. 
 
 Of this last division it is necessary to say that in many of the 
 private enterprises mentioned under the various countries the 
 State prescribes the age of the worker, the hours of work, the 
 amount of air, of light, of surface and cubic space, of heat, of 
 lavatory accommodations, of meal times, of holidays, of when, 
 where, and how wages shall be paid, of how to guard against 
 danger from machinery, stairways, elevator holes, mine shafts, 
 quarry avalanches, of how and when the whole plant shall be 
 cleaned, repaired and worked, of how certain articles shall be 
 packed, &c., &c. " On every side," says Sidney Webb, " he 
 [the capitalist or corporation] is being registered, inspected, 
 controlled, and eventually superseded by the community, and 
 is compelled in the meantime to cede for public purposes an 
 ever increasing share of his rent and interest." 
 
 And why was all this registering, licensing, inspecting, re- 
 stricting, franchising, made necessary ? Merely because men by 
 opportunity went beyond their rights. They have used the pow- 
 ers of those who should be their neighbors to make of them 
 slaves, and now Society interferes. In so doing it says substan- 
 tially : " You ought all to cooperate and let all your work be 
 for all ; but since you will not, then must your unrighteous ten- 
 dencies and your chances for abusing be limited to the fewest." 
 
 HOUSING, OFFICES, &c. All Government enterprises have 
 to be housed. In most cases, the nations, states, provinces, or 
 municipalities own the lands and buildings. In the aggregate, 
 the value of these is enormous. It is only necessary to call the 
 reader's attention to the capitol buildings, state houses, post- 
 offices, city halls, town halls, school houses, public libraries, 
 treasuries, police stations, engine houses, museums, art galler- 
 ies, &c., &c. 
 
 EDUCATION. All Colleges are really socialistic in principle. 
 It has been found impossible to separate such schools as are 
 strictly on state foundations from those on denominational bases. 
 Hence, the statistics which follow usually include both. Regard- 
 ing Primary Schools, the statistics are given only for those which 
 are public. Private primary schools are individual enterprises 
 undertaken for private or corporate gain. They are not in the 
 least socialistic. Denominational primary schools, on the other 
 hand, are not established for purposes of private or corporate 
 gain, but for the good of the community. Their basis is there- 
 fore socialistic, and hence they are included with primary schools 
 supported by state, province, city, or town. Technological schools
 
 are of considerable variety. Sometimes the list includes schools 
 of Mines, Engineering, Pharmacy, Commercial, Veterinary, &c. 
 Secondary schools include High Schools, Lyceums, Gymnasia, 
 Real Schulen, &c. The Government Grants refer to that por- 
 tion of the expense for education which is borne by the General 
 Government, exclusive of local grants or fees. 
 
 A very large number of educational institutions in the form of 
 Evening Schoolb, Institutes of various sorts. University Extension, 
 University Examinations, Afternoon and Evening Technical 
 Schools, are provided for in various countries. Of these, gen- 
 erally, no statistics are obtainable. 
 
 CHURCHES are a socialistic feature of society. By this is 
 meant, that they are organizations of considerable numbers of 
 individuals working for a common immaterial culture and with- 
 out the purpose of direct individual or corporate property gain. 
 Of course, there are exceptions to this. In some cases such or- 
 ganizations have degenerated into this unworthy and ineffective 
 condition. The actual State Churches are more socialistic, in a 
 certain sense, than the more democratic denominational churches; 
 but their type is of the objectionable paternalistic sort. In the 
 following pages, only those churches are mentioned as socialized 
 which receive State aid. It will thus be seen that an enormous 
 socialized effort is not taken into account, and one which would 
 rightfully be included. 
 
 16
 
 NEW YORK CITY. 
 
 AREA 41 '/^ square miles, or 26,500 acres. 16 miles long and from 
 
 a few rods to 4>2 miles wide. 
 
 It now includes Manhattan, Governor's, Blackwell's, Randall's, 
 Ward's, Riker's, North and South Brother Islands, and a large 
 region north of the Harlem and west of the Bronx rivers. In the 
 process of its growth it has absorbed the villages of Greenwich, 
 Chelsea, Bloomingdale, Yorkville, Harlem, Manhattanville, Car- 
 mansville, Washington Heights, Inwood, Port Morris, North New 
 York, Claremont, Fairmount, Morrisania, West Farms, Spuyten 
 Duyvil, Mosholu, Williamsbridge, Fordham, Tremont, Mt. Saint 
 Vincent, Mott Haven, and Melrose. 
 
 POPULATION 1,801,739 in 1S92 (State Census.) 
 The third largest city in the world. 
 Population in 1830 : 202,000. 
 Population in i860: 805,000. 
 Population in 1880: 1,206,500. 
 Population in 1S90: 1,513,501. 
 
 DEFENCE OF CITY. 
 
 MILITIA in 1893 : 5,419. (5 year enlistments.) 
 
 Officers: 278. Men: 5,141. 
 
 Armories: 12. Armory Commission. 
 
 State Arsenal (equipped by the State.) 
 
 Governor's Island is the U. S. Military Headquarters 
 of the Department of the East. 
 NAVAL BATTALION : 350 men (included above.) 
 
 FINANCE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 (Banks : all private corporations.) 
 
 (50 "National," 46 "State," and 25 Savings.)
 
 BUILDINGS owned by City, N. Y. State and United 
 States : 
 
 Army Building, Post Office, 
 
 12 Armories, Register's Office, 
 
 Assay Office, State Arsenal, 
 
 Barge Office, Sub-Treasury, 
 
 Castle Garden, Tombs Prison, 
 
 City Hall, 37 Police Stations, 
 
 County Court House, 150 School Houses, 
 
 Custom House, 13 Markets, 
 
 Hall of Records, Rented Buildings, 
 Jefferson Market Court, Engine Houses (about 80.) 
 
 Ludlow Street Jail, &c., &c. 
 
 The City Hall was begun in 1803 and finished in 1S12, at a cost 
 of 1500,000. The front and sides were finished in Massachusetts 
 marble, but the back (or north side) was made of red sandstone, 
 since, as a writer of that time said, " It would be out of sight to all 
 the world," as the city would never grow much north of the City 
 Hall ! It now stretches 15 miles above this then northern end. • 
 
 Broadway was only paved a little above here. It may also be 
 added that in 1807 when Trinity Church erected St. John's Chapel 
 in Varick Street a great deal of blame and fun were heaped upon 
 the parish for building a mission by a bulrush swamp where only 
 snakes and frogs lived. 
 
 CUSTOMS DEPARTMENT (Foreign Revenue), Chief 
 U. S. Office. 
 
 INTERNAL REVENUE DEPARTMENT, U. S. Staff 
 of 5. Receipts in 1892 : $1,526,370. 
 
 RECEIPTS of N. Y. City in 1892 : 
 
 From Taxes, _ . _ $33,232,725 
 
 From the General Fund and Special and 
 
 Trust Accounts, _ _ _ 5,552,856 
 
 Borrowed in anticipation of Taxes, 27,665,053 
 
 Total, _ _ - $66,450,634 
 
 TAXES AND ASSESSMENT DEPARTMENT cost 
 in 1S92 : 1^111,671,
 
 FINANCE DEPARTMENT cost in 1892 : $295,063. 
 Funded City Debt in 1892, - $155,161,974 
 
 Sinking Fund credit, - - - 56,532,507 
 
 Balance, - - $98,629,467 
 
 The Sinking Fund is rapidly increasing and will wipe 
 out the Debt in comparatively few years. 
 
 NEW YORK CITY'S EXPENSES for 1893 : 
 
 Amounts 
 Allowed in 
 OBJECTS AND PURPOSES. Final 
 
 Estimate for 
 1893. 
 
 The Mayoralty $ 28,00000 
 
 The Common Council 88,000 00 
 
 The Finance Department. . . . , 301,700 00 
 
 Interest on the City Debt 4,948,582 09 
 
 Redemption and Instalhnentsof Principal of City Debt, 1,499,021 10 
 
 State Taxes and Common Schools for State 3.554.458 33 
 
 Rents 113,55000 
 
 Armories and Drill rooms. Rents 39.050 00 
 
 Armories and Drill-rooms, Wages 58,568 00 
 
 Judgments 375,000 00 
 
 Law Department 202,000 00 
 
 Department of Public Works 3,014,020 00 
 
 Department of Public Parks 1,096,455 00 
 
 Department of Street Improvements, 23 and 24 Wards, 350,472 00 
 
 Department of Public Charities and Correction 2,223,425 00 
 
 Health Department 470,23600 
 
 Police Department 5,309,886 04 
 
 Department of Street Cleaning 2,200,000 00 
 
 Fire Department 2,223,133 50 
 
 Department of Buildings 214,250 00 
 
 Department of Taxes and Assessments 128,220 00 
 
 Board of Education , 4,480,448 23 
 
 College of the City of New York 150,000 00 
 
 The Normal College 125,000 00 
 
 Printing, Stationery and Blank Books 268,00000 
 
 Municipal Service Examining Boards 25,000 co 
 
 Coroners 54.700 00 
 
 Commissioners of Accounts 32,50000 
 
 The Sheriff 121,378 66 
 
 The Register 130,000 00 
 
 Bureau of Elections 370,40000
 
 Preservation of Public Records 45,460 00 
 
 Fund for Street and Park Openings 154,644 83 
 
 Jurors' Fees 60,000 00 
 
 Salaries, City Courts 383,300 00 
 
 Salaries, Judiciary 1,139,89000 
 
 Miscellaneous 120,228 77 
 
 Libraries 40,000 00 
 
 Charitable Institutions 1,305,177 13 
 
 Total ., $37,444,15468 
 
 (Prom the Comptroller's Report.) 
 
 WEALTH OF NEW YORK CITY. 
 
 Mayor Gilroy, in an apology for Tammany expenses, 
 made the following estimate of the value of the City's 
 available assets in real property in 1893 : 
 
 Central Park (11,000 lots valued at $20,000 each) $200,000,000 
 
 50 Other Parks, valued at 50,000,000 
 
 Croton Aqueduct, valued at 200,000,000 
 
 II Public Markets, valued at 20,000,000 
 
 (Net income from these in 1892 was over $1,000,0(X).) 
 
 "City lots not in public use " 8,000,000 
 
 142 Docks and Piers on North and East Rivers 30,000,000 
 
 (Net annual income is ^2,000,000.) 
 
 37 Police Stations and Lands 5,000,000 
 
 School System 15,000,000 
 
 Fire Department (real estate and buildings only) 5,000,000 
 
 Courts, Prisons, and Prison Islands 20,000,000 
 
 Water Lots 3,000,000 
 
 4 New Armories 3,000,000 
 
 (And one now building.) 
 
 Total corporation available assets $559,000,000 
 
 (Over $300 per capita.) 
 
 This does not include United States or New York 
 State properties in the city. Nor does it include the in- 
 calculable values represented in the streets, pavements, 
 sewers, subways, and bridges. Bridges might have been 
 placed in the list, for they are salable property which 
 under a toll system would bring in handsome incomes. 
 A low estimate would make the Bridges alone worth 
 ^15,000,000. The New Washington Bridge alone cost 
 $3,197,447, and New York's third interest in the Brook- 
 lyn Bridge cost $6,ooo,oco.
 
 The City's debt in 1893 was $98,551,821.87. The taxes 
 for 1893 were $34,1 77,429.55. The total value of taxable 
 property is not much less than $5,000,000,000. (This is 
 about I- 1 3 (one-thirteenth) of the total wealth of the 
 United States. 
 
 If now we reflect upon the value of the unnamed or 
 unestimated property of the City in the way of streets, 
 sewers, &c., and if we remember that it is this very prop- 
 erty that gives the value to the other or taxable private 
 property, we perceive that the total estimate of municipal 
 holdings is immensely increased. As it stands in Mayor 
 Gilroy's estimate, the Corporation owns and manages 
 about one-ninth of the entire property within its limits, 
 and this with splendid profits, as we have but to recall 
 the cases of Markets, Docks and Piers, &c. When, 
 however, we include the values which actually inhere 
 in the unestimated but even more valuable streets, &c., 
 instead of the municipality being a one-ninth owner it is 
 really the possessor of one-third to one-half of the wealth 
 within its borders. This is a fact too colossal for reali- 
 zation at first. It is some hundreds of years too late to 
 advocate the doctrine of individual control of functions 
 in their nature public. It is perfectly safe to say that 
 the Corporation of New York will never yield up its 
 ownership of any of the holdings mentioned, but on the 
 contrary it will continually add to them. Although with 
 the present sordid and unpatriotic state of the average 
 citizen mind these things are not administered econom- 
 ically and honestly, yet bad as it is, the saving to the 
 people as a whole amounts to untold millions over what 
 it would be were these vast opportunities for demanding 
 toll placed in the hands of private individuals or unpat- 
 riotic corporations. And who can estimate the improve- 
 ment of service and the lessening of cost, if they should 
 take into their own control the furnishing of light, the 
 work of transportation, and other plainly abused enter- 
 prises.
 
 6 
 LAND AND VALUE. 
 
 In 1626 Peter Minuit, Director-General, bought Man- 
 hattan Island entire from the Indians. The pay was in 
 beads, buttons, and trinkets, to the value of 60 guilders 
 (or $24). The island was a forest of oaks and hickories. 
 Wolves, panthers, and bears had a taste for the Dutch 
 sheep, and deer had a relish for their corn and cabbage. 
 The population was then 200. 
 
 In 1660 a good sized city lot cost ^50. In 1660 the 
 rent of a good house was ;^2o a year. Now a lot costs 
 from $20,000 to $800,000. Now a house rents for from 
 $1,500 to $25,000 a year. 
 
 In 1678 the total value of the estates was $750,000. 
 A farmer with $1,500 or a merchant with $3,000 were 
 rich men. 
 
 As late as 1807, 4 acres of land at the corner of Broad- 
 way and Canal St. were refused as a gift to the Lutheran 
 Society, who thought it not worth the fencing. 
 
 In the early part of this century there was a large pond, 
 60 feet deep, centering at the crossing of Leonard and 
 Center Streets (now occupied by the Tombs). On it 
 skaters sported in Winter and boating parties in Summer. 
 In 1789 it was proposed by some wild dreamers to make 
 a park around it, but the sober sense (?) of the commu- 
 nity scouted the idea, because New York would never 
 grow so as to make it within accessible useful limits. 
 
 In 1796 on this pond. The Collect, John Fitch, the inventor of 
 the screw propeller, steamed around several times in his 18 foot 
 boat. And it was about this time that an optimist named Oliver 
 Evans made himself the butt of ridicule by all the sensible peo- 
 ple (?) by saying: "The time will come when people will travel in 
 stages moved by steam-engines from one city to another, at fifteen 
 or twenty miles an hour." 
 
 In 1825, north of Astor Place the region was devoted 
 to farms and gardens. An old gray barn stood where 
 Grace Church now stands, and there was a powder house 
 in what is now Union Square. In the triangle where 3d 
 and 4th Avenues meet at 8th Street stood Peter Cooper's
 
 Grocery Store. Here stands the great Cooper Union now. 
 Even in 1845, few houses were seen above Union Square. 
 While James Harper was Mayor (1844-1847) the dreary 
 waste region now famous as Madison Square was cleared 
 and began to be beautified. Where the Fifth Ave. Hotel 
 now stands there stood in 1852 the i% story house of 
 Corporal Thompson, the principal residence of the 
 region. 
 
 There are now about 90,000 Dwelling Houses, and 
 about 25,000 Business Blocks, making a total of 115,000. 
 
 The increase is about 1,100 new buildings yearly, es- 
 timated to be worth $13,000,000. 
 
 The real estate tax valuation is $1,464,247,820, the 
 actual valuation is therefore about $4,400,000,000. 
 
 The assessment value o{ personal property is put down 
 at $321,609,518. 
 
 Total tax valuation $1,785,857,338. 
 
 The tax rate is $1.90 per hundred of assessed valu- 
 ation. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION. 
 
 STREETS. 575 miles, would reach nearly to Clevelantl 
 via Albany. There are 378.56 miles of granite, as- 
 phalt, and macadam pavements below the Harlem 
 River. On street repairing, repaving, &c., there is a 
 force of 341 men and 59 horses. Expense in 1893, 
 ^192,593-60. 
 
 (Street Railways are all under corporation ownership. 
 A Rapid Transit Commission of 5 members has been 
 employed for about 3 years. In 1S91 and 1892 Bonds 
 amounting to $108,449.57 were issued to meet the ex- 
 pense of this Commission. The City has lately voted 
 to build an Underground Electric 4-Track Road itself 
 It is estimated to cost $50,000,000. The first Horse 
 railroad was laid on 4th Avenue from Prince Street to 
 Harlem in i S3 1-2. This was the first street railway in 
 the world. There were 17 franchises in 1892. The
 
 8 
 
 income from them was $232,912.60. There are 33 
 miles of Elevated Steam Railway.) 
 
 (Stage Coaches. In 1673 Col. Francis Lovelace, the 
 second British Governor of New York, established a 
 ma'il route to Boston. It consisted of a messenger 
 who made one round trip a month for " the more 
 speedy intelligence and dispatch of affairs." In 1729 
 a fortnightly winter stage was started to Philadelphia. 
 In 1793 "small, genteel, and easy stage carriages" 
 made the trip to Boston in 3 to 4 days. They ran 3 
 times weekly each way. Fare 4 pence per mile.) 
 
 STREET LIGHTING. In 1696 it was decreed that the 
 streets should be lighted on nights when there was no 
 moon, by lanterns hung on poles from every 7th house, 
 the seven householders included being ordered to pay 
 for the candle. 
 
 In 1762 the City began to maintain lampposts with 
 oil lamps. 
 
 In 1825 the N. Y. Gas Light Company laid pipes and 
 lighted Broadway from Battery to Canal Street at 
 public expense. 
 
 There are now 7 Gas Companies and 6 Electric Com- 
 panies. Altogether, they have 1,349 miles of gas mains 
 in the streets, 122 of which are north of the Harlem. 
 351 miles of streets, bridges, and docks are lighted, 
 7334^ acres of parks. This is done by 26,524 gas and 
 152 naptha lamps (each costing from $12 to $28 per 
 year). There are 2,441 electric lamps (each costing 
 from 1^146 to $164 per year). 
 
 The City pays for lighting its streets and public offices 
 $888,944, and in salaries to officers $6,402, making a 
 total of $895,346 yearly. This expense should be 
 compared with that of Wheeling (VV. Va.), and many 
 European cities who own their production plants. 
 New York might easily save $400,000 a year and have 
 a better and more extensive service.
 
 9 
 
 (Railways. See under United States.) 
 
 RIVERS, NAVIGABLE. On all sides of the City. 
 
 CANALS. Erie Canal intimately connected with N. Y. 
 City's growth. Built 1816-25. Is the property of the 
 State. 
 
 HARBOR. One of the best in the world naturally, has 
 been vastly improved. 
 
 WHARVES AND PIERS, 144 (Docks and Slips). In- 
 come for rent in 1892, ^1,707,166.69. 
 
 (Ferries, 38 lines (private). Rents for Dock use, &c. in 
 1892, $354,280,18. First steam ferry in the world was 
 between New York and Hoboken in 181 1.) 
 
 BRIDGES, 7. New York has yi interest in the Brook- 
 lyn Suspension. City's share of surplus earnings in 
 1892, $185,000. Estimated value of all bridges over 
 $15,000,000. Washington Bridge cost up to 1892, 
 $3.i97,447-77- 
 
 BRIDGE ENGINEERS. SURVEYORS. 
 
 POSTAL SERVICE. One central office, 20 branch 
 offices, 20 sub-stations, 100 agencies for the sale of 
 stamps, and 1770 letter boxes on lamp posts, in hotels, 
 &c. There are 1561 clerks and 11 75 letter carriers. 
 Receipts in 1892, $6,783,202. Expenses in 1892, 
 $2,568,700. Net revenue, $4,214,502. 
 
 (Telegraph. See under United States.) 
 
 (Telephones. See under United States.) 
 
 MARKETS, 13. Rent and revenues in 1892 (including 
 Cellars), $379,246.52. 
 
 STREET VAULTS. Privileges and rents in 1S93, 
 $108,720. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 The City has provided for information and culture b\' 
 the following establishments and institution^ : 
 ART GALLERIES.
 
 10 
 
 BAND CONCERTS in Central and other City Park^in 
 1893 cost 126,000, (included in Expenses of Parks.) 
 
 BIOLOGICAL RESEARCH. 
 
 BOTANIC GARDENS. CENSUS BUREAUS. 
 
 CELEBRATIONS. E. g., the Columbian quadra-cen- 
 tennial. 
 
 CLOCKS, TOWN. 
 
 EDUCATIONAL BUREAUS. 
 
 EXPOSITION AND FAIRS. LIBRARIES. 
 
 METEOROLOGICAL BUREAU under U. S. control. 
 
 MONUMENTS AND STATUES. 
 
 MUSEUMS. OBSERVATORIES. 
 
 NEWSPAPERS. Corporation publishes the Daily City 
 Record ; cost in 1892, $70,000. An advertising expense 
 of $800,000 yearly is thus saved. 
 
 PRINTING. In 1693 the N. Y. Council invited Wm. 
 Bradford to settle here as official printer, " for £40 a 
 year and half the benefit of his printing, besides what 
 served the public." He accepted. Later, in 1725, he 
 started The New York Gazette, a semi-official weekly, 
 the first newspaper. It was in the interest of the aris- 
 tocracy. In 1734, Zenger started under private au- 
 spices a people's paper, The Weekly jfournal. He was 
 arrested, sent to prison, and various numbers of his 
 paper burned. After 9 months he was tried and tri- 
 umphantly acquitted, to the great delight of the poeple. 
 The City has yearly a large printing bill in the publi- 
 cation of Reports, &c., but it lets out the work. 
 
 READING ROOMS. 
 
 SCHOOLS (CITY). In 1806 first small Public School. 
 In 1809 the Free School Society erected a large build- 
 ing on Chatham Street. In 1825 there were 6 Public 
 Schools. Now 135 Buildings. 
 
 Board of Education, 23 members. Superintendents 
 and Staff, 51 members. Inspectors, 24 members. 
 Trustees of 24 Wards, 120 members.
 
 11 
 
 Kindergarten, work included in the Primary Depart- 
 ments, 
 
 t Primary, (includes Grammar grades,) (to June 30, 
 1893,) 262. Teachers, 3,914- Pupils, 273,413. 
 
 Secondary, (to June 30, 1893,) 4. 
 
 Evening, (90 nights, 1893,) 29. Teachers, 371. Pupils, 
 30,672. 
 
 JCollege, (1893,) I. Pupils, 627 (boys). 
 
 §NoRMAL, (1893,) I. Pupils, 1,783 (girls). 
 
 Industrial and Trade Schools. 
 
 Nautical, i. Pupils, 45. 
 
 Blind, i. Teachers, 30. Pupils, 240. 
 
 Deaf and Dumb, 2. Teachers, 36. Pupils, 500. 
 
 Lectures to Working People, 340. Pupils, 148,635. 
 
 *Expense in 1893, $4,439,709.91. Expense on Build- 
 ings, &c., $1,455,841.06. Total, $6,026,642.38. 
 ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS in Central Park in 1893 
 
 cost $30,000. (Included in Expenses of Parks.) 
 
 There are within the City a large number of Schools 
 of Law, Medicine, Theology, Art, Technology, &c., 
 which are of the semi-socialized sort, /. e., they are not 
 established for individual or corporation gain, but have 
 the good of the v/hole society in viev/-. 
 
 LAW AND ORDER. 
 
 ACCOUNTS COMMISSIONERS. Expenses in 1892, 
 
 $32,417. 
 ADVERTISING, Printing, Stationery and Blank Books 
 cost in 1892, $264,494, 
 
 fTotal value of land lots of Primary (and Grammar) Schools, 
 17,015,814. Total value of buildings of Primary (and Grammar) 
 Schools, 110,808,047. Total, $17,823,861. 
 
 JCollege of the City of New York has a total property valued 
 at $611,000. Receipts in 1893, $148,137. 
 
 §Normal College (a girl's school). Its property is valued at 
 $1,157,500. Its receipts in 1893 were $125,000. 
 
 *Ne\v York City during the last 34 years has paid $23,864,026.95 
 more into the State School Fund than it has received from it. 
 This excess is now over |i,ooo,ooo yearly.
 
 12 
 
 APPORTIONING BOARDS, (Board of Estimate and 
 Apportionment). 
 
 APPRAISING COMMISSIONERS. About 1810, the 
 City began a rapid growth northward. The Commis- 
 sioners and Surveyors were attacked with dogs, hot 
 water, cabbages, &c. ! ! 
 
 AQUEDUCT COMMISSIONERS, Staff of 8. 
 
 ARBITRATOR OF CHAMBER OF COMMERCE. 
 
 ASSAYING COMMISSIONERS (U. S. Office). 
 
 ASSESSING BOARD of 5. (See under Tax and As- 
 sessing Department.) 
 
 AUDITING BUREAU cost in 1892, 562,108.37. (Amt. 
 audited and disbursed, $63,684,925.37.) 
 
 BANKRUPT REGISTRY. 
 
 CITY CHAMBERLAIN. 
 
 CIVIL SERVICE BOARD of Commissioners, 5 mem- 
 bers. Number of persons in classified service of the 
 City in 1892, 7,625. Number examined in 1892, 2,283. 
 Expense of the Department, $19,539. 
 
 COMPTROLLER. Head of the Finance Department. 
 
 4 CORONERS and Staff of 8. Expenses in 1892, 
 $52,473- 
 
 CORPORATION COUNSELS, Staff of 22, (Law De- 
 partment,) cost in 1892, $211,784. 
 
 COURTS OF JUSTICE. Fees and Fines in 1892, 
 $134,460.37. Penalties in 1892, $25,706.86. 
 Criminal. Oyer and Terminer, (by Supreme Court 
 Judges). General Sessions, i Recorder and 3 
 Judges, salaries $12,000 each. 
 Supreme. 7 Judges, salaries $17,500 each. 
 Superior. 6 Judges, salaries $15,000 each. 
 Common Pleas. 6 Judges, salaries $15,000 each. 
 City Court. 6 Judges, salaries $10,000 each. 
 Surrogate. 2 Judges, salaries $15,000 each. 
 District. 11 Judges, salaries 56,000 each. 
 Police. 15 Justices, salaries ^8,000 each.
 
 13 
 
 Special Sessions, by 3 Police Justices. 
 Arbitration, i. 
 
 District Attorney (salary $12,000) and 6 Assistant 
 District Attorneys (salaries $7,500 each). Staff 
 total, 17. 
 
 Besides Clerks, &c., for all these. 
 Cost of the Judiciary in 1892, 51,467,535. 
 
 DOCK BOARD. 3 at $5,000 each yearly. 
 
 ELECTIONS BUREAU, cost in 1892, $358,977. Elec- 
 tion returns show that there is one voter for every 7^3 
 inhabitants. 
 
 ENCUMBRANCE BUREAUS. For protecting Croton 
 Water Supply in 1892, there was removed 356 privies, 
 129 barn yards, cattle pens, pig stys, &c., 5 factories, 
 1,000 miscellaneous nuisances. 7,564 obstructions, &c., 
 elsewhere were removed. Net expenses, exclusive of 
 Croton Work, $10,295. 
 
 EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS. Mayor, Marshals, 
 Sheriffs and Staffs, Department Heads, &c. Mayor- 
 alty cost in 1892, $27,374. Sheriff's Department ex- 
 penses in 1892, $118,834. 
 
 IMMIGRATION BUREAU. In 1891, Immigration into 
 United States, 430,887. In 1892, Immigration into 
 United States, 446,000, 
 
 JURY COMMISSIONER. Salary, $5,000. 
 
 JURIES, GRAND. JURIES, PETIT. 
 
 MUNICIPAL ASSEMBLY or Board of Aldermen, ^2. 
 Common Council Department cost in 1892, $75,486. 
 
 MARRIAGES. 
 
 MUNICIPAL SERVICE EXAMINING BOARD. 
 Expenses in 1892, $20,837. 
 
 PARK COMMISSIONERS. 
 
 PILOT BOARD of 5. 
 
 POLICE. Commissioners, Inspectors, &c., n. Men, 
 
 3,906. 85,000 arrests yearly. 37 Station Houses. 
 
 Police Department cost in 1893, $5,309,886, (In 1892,
 
 14 
 
 ;^4,9^9.375) First night watch or street patrol ap- 
 pointed about 1696. 
 
 PORT WARDENS. Staff of 11 (State officers). 
 
 POUNDS. 
 
 PRISONS. 
 
 Police Stations. Jails. 
 
 Houses of Juvenile Correction. 
 
 Reformatories. 
 
 REGISTRARS OF DEEDS, &c. Expenses in 1892, 
 ;^t29,525. 
 
 SINKING FUND COMMISSIONERS. 
 
 SUBWAY COMMISSIONERS for Gas Pipes, Electric 
 
 Wires, &c. Staff of 7. 
 
 RELIEF AND CHARITIES. 
 
 CHARITY BUREAUS. Department of Charities and 
 Corrections cost in 1893, $2,223,425. Total expendi- 
 ture in 1892 was $3,734,067.78. This was equal to 1 1 % 
 of the entire tax levy, or $2.46 per capita of popula- 
 tion. 
 
 Brooklyn paid for charities a sum equal to i>^ % of 
 its tax levy, or 25 cts. per capita. 
 
 Boston, a sum equal to 8}s % of tax levy, or $2.18 
 per capita. 
 
 Philadelphia, a sum equal to 4^3 % of tax levy, or 59 
 cts. per capita. 
 
 "Chicago is prohibited by the Constitution of the State 
 from making any appropriation for charitable pur- 
 poses," though a small sum from saloon licenses and 
 certain fines is distributed to 4 institutions. 
 (Comptroller's Report for 1S92, N. Y. City.) 
 
 DISPENSARIES. 
 FIRE-RELIEF DEPARTMENT. 
 
 HOMES AND SCHOOLS FOR ORPHANS, Cor- 
 porate, 46. Number of Teachers, 350, Pupils, 25,830. 
 Cost to the City in 1893, ^121,299.85.
 
 15 
 
 HOMES FOR IDIOTS. 
 
 HOSPITALS, GENERAL. 
 
 HOSPITALS, EPIDEMIC. 
 
 HOSPITALS, INFANT. 
 
 HOSPITALS, INSANE. 
 
 HOSPITALS, LYING IN. 
 
 HOUSES OF REFUGE. 
 
 NURSERIES. 
 
 PENSION DEPARTMENT for Police. Expended in 
 
 1892, ;^307,ooo. 
 POOR HOUSES. 
 
 SANITATION AND SAFETY. 
 
 BUILDINGS DEPARTMENT. Cost in 1892, $92,287. 
 
 BATHS. 16 on Hudson and East Rivers. Total ca- 
 pacity, 900. In 1893, 3,750,000 bathers. 
 
 BUREAU OF COMBUSTIBLES. 
 
 DOCK DEPARTMENT. Staff of 5. 
 
 DRINKING FOUNTS AND TROUGHS. 
 
 FIRE DEPARTMENT. In 165S the first Fire Com- 
 pany (The Rattle Watch) was formed. 8 men stayed 
 on watch each night. Apparatus was hooks, ladders, 
 and 250 buckets. In 1731, 2 Newnham Fire Engines, 
 imported from London, threw water 70 feet high. P^ire 
 department of 24 men. There are now 58 Engine 
 Companies. 22 Hook and Ladder Companies. 14°° 
 Men. 3 Fire Boats. 91 Steam Engines. 100 Hose 
 Carriages. 38 Hook and Ladder Trucks. 4 Water 
 Towers. 5 Chemical P'ngines. 136 Chemical Fire 
 Extinguishers. 3 Hand Engines. 55 Other Appara- 
 tus. 300 Horses. 200,000 Feet of Hose, i Exten- 
 sive Repair Shop, i Training School for Horses. 
 1235 Fire Alarm Boxes. 1200 Miles of Wire. Ex- 
 penses to City in 1S93, 32,223,134.
 
 16 
 
 FISHERIES COMMISSIONERS and Staff, (State 
 Officers ) 
 
 FOUNTAINS. 
 
 GARBAGE AND REFUSE GATHERING. 
 
 HEALTH DEPARTMENT. 4 Commissioners. 9 Offi- 
 cers, and scores of Assistants. Department cost in 
 1892, ^452,1 II. 
 It is difficult to comprehend the scope of the work of the Health 
 
 Department and how it effects the life of the community. It is 
 
 impracticable for us here to describe it. Take e.g., the one matter 
 
 oi Food Inspection for 1892 : 
 
 Milk Stores 
 
 Report a business of 288,875,080 quarts of milk. 
 7,505,440 quarts of cream. 2,388,960 quarts of con- 
 densed milk. 5,000 Stores, inspected twice a week 
 from May to November. Inspectors shifted to new 
 districts every 3 weeks. 
 
 Fruit Receipts. 
 
 Bananas, 3,250,000 bunches. Oranges, 1,900,000 boxes. 
 Apples, 825,000 barrels. Grapes, 3,000,000 kegs, 
 crates and baskets. Small Fruits — Peaches, Pears, 
 Plums and Berries, 5,000,000 crates, barrels and baskets. 
 Pine Apples, 13,000,000. Dried Fruits, 7,860,000 
 cases, bags and boxes. Nuts, 2,000,000 packages. 
 Total, 37,510,000. 
 
 Vegetable Receipts. 
 
 Carrots, 185,000 pounds. Beets, 6,750,000 pounds. 
 Cabbage, 31,000,000 pounds. Onions, 11,000,000 
 pounds. Potatoes, Sweet and Irish, 562,000,000 
 pounds. Small Vegetables and P^ggs, 27,000,000 
 pounds, (in cases and barrels.) Total, 637,935,000 
 pounds. 
 
 Canned Goods. 
 
 Tomatoes, 465,000 cases. Corn, 329,000 cases. Beans, 
 Squash, Asparagus, Spinach, 811,000 cases. Fruits, 
 930,000 cases. Lobsters, Salmon, Oysters, Sardines, 
 Mackerel, &c., 345,000 cases. Sardines and Meats, 
 a, 750,000 cases. Total, 5,630,000,
 
 17 
 
 Animals Killed in Siauj^hter flouses. 
 
 Cattle, 459,909. Hogs, 1,183,974. Sheep and Lambs, 
 1,683,000. Calves, 226,065. Poultry, 1,153 carloads. 
 
 Meat brought to City. 
 
 Poultry, 384,196 packages. Dressed Beef, 150,000 
 carcasses. Dressed Sheep, 362,468 carcasses. Dressed 
 Hogs, 151,700 carcasses. Dressed Calves, 205,427 
 carcasses. Fresh Fish, 345,000,000 pounds. Salt and 
 Dried Fish, 55,000,000 pounds. 
 
 Dead Animals. 
 
 Removed from streets, markets, and slaughter houses 
 during 1892: Horses, 9,005. Calves, 2,958. Sheep, 
 1,007. Cats and Dogs, 15,965. Dogs from pounds, 
 7,650. Donkeys, i. Mules, 6. Asses, 3. Colts, 13. 
 Cows, 83. Bulls and Steers, 29. Hogs, 23. Tons of 
 Fish, 25. Saddles of Venison, 8. Quarters of Beef, 
 181. Quarters of Veal, 6,162. Quarters of Mutton, 
 402. Barrels of Beef, 2. Barrels of Poultry, 776, 
 Barrels of Blood, 118. Boxes of Offal, 11,203. Boxes 
 of Fish, 1,690. Boxes of Tenderloins, 3. Barrels of 
 of Guano, 3. Cases of Cheese, 150. Pounds of Bo- 
 logna, 50. Tons of Beef, 100. Cases of Hams, 4. 
 
 PARKS. 51 Parks and Squares. Estimated value in 
 1893, 1^250,000,000. Central Park ^ x 2^ miles ; 862 
 acres (185 of which are lakes and 400 forests). Ex- 
 pense of Parks in 1893, ;$i,o96,455. Park Police, 300. 
 
 Since 1884, the following New Parks have been added : 
 Van Courtlandt, 1,069.65 acres. Bronx, 653 acres. 
 Pelham Bay, 1,740 acres. Crotona, 135 34 acres. St. 
 Mary's, 25.35 acres. Claremont, 38.05. Mosholu 
 Parkway, 80 acres. Bronx and Pelham Parkways, 90 
 acres. Crotona Parkway, 12 acres. Total, 3.S43-39 
 acres. Cost of these to 1892, had been $9,897,691.03. 
 
 PILOT COMMISSIONERS. 6 Members. 
 
 QUARANTINE. Staff of 5 (State Officers). 
 
 SANITARIES in Squares and Parks. 
 
 SEATS IN PARKS.
 
 18 
 
 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE in 1892, 455.8 miles. 
 5,432 receiving basins. 140 outlets into the Hudson, 
 East and Harlem Rivers. There are some sewers 
 8x 16 (in Canal Street), many 7 x 10 feet. Employed 
 for repairs alone 98 men, besides horses, wagons, 
 carts, etc. Cost, ^22,000,000. 
 
 STREET CLEANING. In 1696 first appropriation of 
 £20 for street cleaning. In 1893 cost ;^2,22o,ooo. 
 (In 1892, ;^i, 924,707.) There are i 500 sweepers and 
 500 carts. 
 
 STREET SPRINKLING. 
 
 VACCINATION. Vaccine supplied by City. 
 
 WATER WORKS. Croton Aqueduct and water shed 
 is valued at ;$2oo, 000, 000. Begun in 1835. Brought 
 the first water in 1842. Completed in 1845. The first 
 Croton Aqueduct cost $9,000,000. (The old Man- 
 hattan Water Works had its reservoir on Chambers 
 Street. The Company was chartered about 1778.) 
 The new Croton Tunnel is ;^;i miles long, 13.53 ft. x 
 13.60 ft. The brick in it would make 30 large 14 story 
 office buildings. Opened in 1890. Cost $19,642,000. 
 Daily capacity, 320,000,000 gallons. Daily capacity 
 of the old Aqueduct is now 75,000,000 gallons. 
 Bronx River pipes, 20,000,000 gallons daily. 
 A new reservoir is being arranged for on the site of 
 Jerome Park. This makes possible a total reservoir 
 storage capacity of 84,600,000,000 gallons. 
 At the end of 1892, there were 709.49 miles of water 
 mains laid, 7,425 stop-cocks (20 which are in 48 in. 
 pipe, and 47 in ^6 in. pipe), 9,273 hydrants, and 30,286 
 water-meters. The average daily consumption in 1892 
 was 163,000,000 gal., and 179,000,000 gal. in 1893. 
 Total water works receipts for 1893, $3,906,034 
 Total water works expenses for 1893, 1,380,405 
 
 Net profit, $2,525,629
 
 19 
 
 Water is furnished free to 93 charitable institutions, 
 amounting, if charged, to ;$32,6o6. 
 
 Total revenue from Croton water since its introduction 
 in 1842 to Dec. 31, 1893, ^70,454,564. 
 
 CITY INTERFERENCE 
 
 In Businesses or Events which it requires to be REG- 
 ISTERED, LICENSED, INSPECTED or RE- 
 STRICTED. 
 
 Air Shafts. Alkali Works. 
 
 Amusements. Baby Farms. 
 
 Bakeries. Banks. 
 
 Births in 1892, 49,447 (probably only about 5-6 re- 
 ported). Bills of Sale. 
 
 Boarding Houses. Boats. 
 
 Boiler Inspection. Breweries. 
 
 Bridges, Highway. Bridges, Railway. 
 
 Brokers. Buildings. 
 
 Burials. 
 
 Cabmen (Hackney Coach), income from licenses in 
 1892, $3,924. 
 
 Canal Boats. Cellars. 
 
 Cesspools, Chemical Works. 
 
 Chimneys. Cisterns. 
 
 Clothes-poles. Coffee. 
 
 Common Lodging Houses, 118 in 1892. 
 
 Cows. Dairies. 
 
 Dams. Dancing Rooms. 
 
 Dead Animals. 
 
 Deaths in 1892, 44,329. Death rate, 24.26 per 1000 
 of population. 
 
 Deeds. Dentists. 
 
 Distilleries. Divorces. 
 
 Dogs in 1892, 6,952. Income from licenses and dog 
 
 pounds, $10,492. Expenses, $8,298. 
 
 Druggists. Electors. 
 
 Elections. Electric Works.
 
 20 
 
 Klevators. Endowed Charities. 
 
 Endowed Schools. Engineers. 
 
 Explosive Works. 
 
 Factories, 25,399, employing over Ji of a million daily, 
 and producing annually products worth $765,000,000. 
 
 Fences. Fertilizers. 
 
 Fish Curing, Fisheries, 
 
 Fire Escapes. Foods. 
 
 Fowls. Friendly Societies. 
 
 Fruit in 1892, 2,322,821 pounds of fruit and food seized 
 and sent to offal dock. 
 
 Game Dealers. Gas Meters. 
 
 Gas Works. Goats, 
 
 Grain. Gun-barrels. 
 
 Hogs, Heating and Power Plants. 
 
 Hotels. 
 
 House Numbering, begun in 1793. 
 
 Insurance. 
 
 Junk Dealers, income from licenses in 1892, ^3, 642. 50. 
 
 Lawyers, about 6,000. Limited Companies. 
 
 Lumber, Manure Vaults. 
 
 Marriages in 1892, 16,001. 
 
 Meat. In 1892, 2,862,244 pounds of meat and fish 
 seized and sent to offal dock. 
 
 Merchant Shipping. Merchant Vessels. 
 
 Midwifery. 
 
 Milk Stores, 5,000 in 1892. 157 arrested and convict- 
 ed for adulteration. 
 
 Music Halls. Naturalization. 
 
 Newspapers. 43 dailies, 221 weeklies, 48 biweeklies. 
 First paper was published in 1775. Suji founded in 
 1833; Herald, 1835; Tribune, 1841 ; Times, 1851; 
 World, i860. 
 
 Notaries. 
 
 Omnibuses (Stage Coaches). In 1892, income from 
 licenses, ^1,000. 
 
 Patent Medicines,
 
 21 
 
 Pawn Brokers. In i''^*;^, income from licenses, $64,000. 
 
 Peddlers. 
 
 Periodicals. 394 monthlies, 14 bi-monthlies, 21 quar- 
 terlies. 
 
 Physicians. Pharmacists, 
 
 Pigeons. 
 
 Places of Worship. 600 buildings, valued with land 
 and foundations at $75,000,000. Seating capacity, 
 300,000. 
 
 Plate Dealers. Plays. 
 
 Plumbing. Print Works. 
 
 Privy Vaults. Post Office Depredations. 
 
 Rabbits. Railways. 
 
 Real Estate Sales. In 1892, income from tax on, 
 ;^22,5oo. 
 
 Restaurants. Roof-tanks. 
 
 Saloons. Schools of Anatomy. 
 
 Seamen. Sewer-pipes. 
 
 Second-Hand Stores. In 1892, income from licenses, 
 
 $3,337-5°. 
 Ships. ' Skylights. 
 
 Slaughter Houses. In 1892, 81. 
 Slop sinks. 
 
 Stables. 60,000 horses, 500 tons of manure daily. 
 Street Railways. In 1892, income from franchises, 
 
 ;^i5o, 710.76. 
 Steamboats. Surgeons. 
 
 Tea. Tenement Houses. 
 
 Theatre and Concert licenses, ;$43,8oo in 1892. All 
 
 given to charity. 
 Tobacconists. Tug Boats, over 400 in 1S91. 
 
 Urinals. 
 Vaccinations. In 1892, 139,805 persons vaccinated by 
 
 Health Department. 
 Vivisection Laboratories. 
 Weights and Measures. 
 Wells.
 
 22 
 SEMI-SOCIALISM. 
 
 Besides the enterprises owned and conducted by the 
 City, and besides the businesses in which it interferes by 
 requiring hcense, inspection, there is a large class of 
 enterprises which are pioneers in the direction of munic- 
 ipal undertaking. These are to be found in every country 
 which has reached the enlightened stage. In New York 
 City, the following are a few of those which belong to 
 this class : 
 
 2;^^ CLUBS, with over 100,000 members. 
 100 SECRET and MUTUAL BENEFIT SOCIETIES. 
 48 COLLEGES and Seminaries. 
 21 DAY NURSERIES. 74 DISPENSARIES. 
 64 HOSPITALS. 55 LIBRARIES. 
 
 515 CHURCH ORGANIZATIONS with their Mission 
 
 Stations, in all 600 Churcli Buildings, valued with land 
 
 and foundations at $75,000,000. Seating capacity of 
 
 300,000. 
 
 AMERICAN BIBLE SOCIETY (founded in 1S16) has 
 published over 56,000,000 copies of the Bible in So dif- 
 ferent languages and dialects, and has had receipts 
 amounting to about ^26,000,000. Its building is worth 
 about 5500,000, 
 
 YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION owns 
 its building which cost ;$5oo,ooo. It has 14 branches 
 with much property. 
 
 NEW YORK CITY MISSION & TRACT SOCIETY 
 maintains many churches, libraries, missions, gymna- 
 siums, and Sunday schools. 
 
 60 MISSION SOCIETIES. 
 
 30 ASYLUMS for orphans and destitute children. 
 
 15 ASYLUMS for the blind, insane, deaf, and crippled. 
 
 20 HOMES for the aged. 
 
 60 OTHER ASYLUMS AND HOMES for the poor 
 and friendless.
 
 23 
 
 CHILDREN'S AID SOCIETY maintains 22 industrial 
 and 9 night schools, keeps open 6 lodging houses, and 
 has over 37,000 children yearly under its charge. 
 Spends $400,000. 
 
 20 CEMETERIES and i CREMATORY. 
 
 THE CITY SHOULD OWN 
 
 And manage the following public enterprises which are 
 now monopolies operated from the point of view of pri- 
 vate and corporate interests : 
 
 5 Elevated Railways, 2;^ miles. 
 42 Street Railways. 
 
 38 Ferry Lines. 
 7 Gas Light Plants and Systems. 
 
 6 Electric Light Plants and Systems. 
 And many Productive undertakings. 
 
 THE UNITED STATES SHOULD OWN 
 
 Several other types of businesses which have their great- 
 est strongholds in New York and from which the com- 
 nmnity there suffers as a whole inconceivably : 
 
 47 National Banks. Capital $50,000,000. 
 
 47 State Banks. Capital $18,000,000. 
 
 27 Savings Banks. Deposits $325,000,000, from 800,- 
 000 depositors. 
 
 19 Trust Companies. Capital $20,000,000, 
 
 Railways, 4 entering the City, and 23 serving it di- 
 rectly. 
 
 Telegraph. 
 
 Telephone. 
 
 These remarks do not mean that these businesses under 
 private management have not been of great benefit to the 
 public, only that they would be of incalculably greater 
 good to that public were they owned by it and run for 
 it at cost, instead, as now, of being conducted on the 
 principle of "all the traffic will bear" and "all the public 
 will tolerate."
 
 24 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 AREA, 2,969,000 sq. mi., excluding Alaska. 
 
 POPULATION, 62,622,250 in 1S90, excluding Alaska. Foreign 
 born, 9,249,547. 
 
 DEFENSE OF NATION. 
 
 ARMY, Regular, in 1893, total 28,148. 
 
 Officers, 2,156. Men, 25,992. 
 
 Forts cost in 1893, ^2,734,276, 
 
 Expense of Army in 1893, ;ig49,64i,773. 
 MILITIA in 1893, total 112,190. 
 
 Officers, 9,278. Men, 102,912, 
 
 Armories in the large cities. 
 
 Armory Boards. 
 
 (Expense included under Army.) 
 NAVY in 1893, total 10,450. 
 
 Battle Ships, 6. 
 
 Port Defense Ships, 17. 
 
 Cruisers, 41. 
 
 Torpedo Boats, 3. 
 
 Total War Vessels, 67. 
 
 (Also over 60 other minor vessels.) 
 
 Expense of Navy in 1893, $30,136,084. 
 NAVAL RESERVE, 2,456 men. 
 
 The first steam frigate in the world. The Fulton, was 
 built by a Congressional appropriation of $320,000 under 
 Robert Fulton's supervision in 1814. 
 
 FINANCE AND PROPERTY. 
 
 (Banks, National, all private, 3,773 in 1892. Liabilities, 
 
 jS3,5i°>5oo,ooo-) 
 (Banks, State, all private.)
 
 25 
 
 (Banks, Saving, all private. Number of State and Sav- 
 ings Banks in 1892, 5,579. Capital Stock of both, 
 ^386,394,845- Deposits at end of 1892, ;$2, 9; 1,594,571.) 
 
 COINAGE. In 1893 the total silver coined was $43,- 
 685,178. (In 1892 there was $$'^,19^,911, and in 1891, 
 ;^63,6ii,i58.) Revenue from the Mints in 1893, 
 :^2, 349,471- 
 
 CUSTOMS DEPARTMENT (Foreign Revenue). Re- 
 ceipts in 1893, ^203,355,017. 
 
 INTERNAL REVENUE DEPARTMENT. Receipts 
 in 1893, ;igi6i,o27,624. 
 
 NOTE ISSUE, under control of the National Govern- 
 ment. On June 30, 1894 : 
 
 Total Government paper in circulation, 5602,000,000. 
 Total National Bank notes in circulation, $207,000,000. 
 
 There have been issued in all : 
 
 U. S. Notes (Greenbacks) $2,651,261,808 since 1862. 
 
 Silver Certificates 979,180,000 " 1878. 
 
 Treasury Notes 251,012,137 " 1890. 
 
 National Bank Notes i>83i,932,755 " 1863. 
 
 Gold Certificates 1,501,054,300 " 1863. 
 
 Total paper issue, $7,214,441,000 
 
 POSTAL MONEY ORDERS (a Government provis- 
 ion for Exchange). See Distribution, P. O, Service. 
 
 TAX COLLECTING by State Governments. 
 
 TREASURY DEPARTMENTS, National, State, and 
 Municipal. 
 
 LOANS. New York State has for many years loaned 
 money to farmers. 
 
 BUILDINGS for National, State, and Municipal offices 
 in every part of the Union. 
 
 DEBT, NATIONAL, in 1893, $1,545,985,686. 
 
 DEBTS, STATE, in 1890, $1,135,351,871. 
 
 LAND, PUBLIC, in 1893 the total U. S. Lands of all 
 sorts were 1,815,424,388 acres (including Alaska).
 
 26 
 
 School lands in North Western United States have a 
 fixed value put on them and can only be leased till 
 they reach this. They are then to be sold. 
 Savannah, Ga., buys agricultural suburban land by the 
 acre and sells or leases it in lots to citizens for homes. 
 Indian Reservations, June 30, 1892, were 144,496 sq. 
 mi. Indian population then was 248,340. (June 30, 
 1880, the Reservations were 241,800 sq., mi., and the 
 Indian population 255,327.) 
 
 Massachusetts has a regular annual report from the 
 Trustees of Public Reservations who care for her 
 Public Parks, Parade and Training Grounds, Shores, 
 &c., thousands of acres in all. 
 
 In very numerous ways the National enterprises are duplicated 
 in each of the 47 States; e. g., in the departments of Law and 
 Order, Relief and Charities, Sanitation and Safety, Distribution, &c. 
 So again in cities, i. e., under Municipal enterprises. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION. 
 
 ROADS, first-class, 260,100 mi. in 1890. Innumerable 
 miles of turnpike roads. 
 
 STREETS in the thousands of towns and cities. (See, 
 for example, map of New York.) 
 
 (Street Railways are nearly all yet under private owner- 
 ship. A few towns own this form of transit. In 1893 
 there were altogether 469 Electric Street Railways, 
 covering 5,456 mi., and using 7,769 motor cars. Capi- 
 tal stock $205,870,000.) 
 
 STREET LIGHTING. 
 
 Municipal Gas Works. In the fiscal years ending 
 Dec. 31, 1891 and the middle of 1S92, the following 
 cities in the United States made and sold gas : 
 
 Name of City. 
 Philadelphia, 
 Richmond, Va., 
 Alexandria, Va., 
 Henderson, Ky., 
 Wheeling, W. Va., 
 
 Beginniug of C: 
 Ownership. 
 
 ity 
 
 Price per 1000 cu. ft, 
 
 1841 
 
 
 $1-50 
 
 1852 
 
 
 1-50 
 
 1853 
 
 
 1.44 
 
 1867 
 
 
 1-25 
 
 1870 
 
 
 •75
 
 27 
 
 Bellefontaine, O., 
 
 1873 
 
 1. 00 
 
 Danville, Va., 
 
 1876 
 
 1-50 
 
 Charlottesville, Va., 
 
 1876 
 
 1-50 
 
 Hamilton, O., 
 
 1S90 
 
 1. 00 
 
 Fredericksburg, Va., 
 
 1891 
 
 1.50 
 
 Col. Augustus Jacobson said before the Sunset Club of Chi- 
 cago in 1891 that there were in the world then 500 gas plants 
 owned by municipalities, only 10 of them in the United States. 
 Abroad municipal ownership in gas is as common as in water- 
 works. 
 
 Mr. Keeler says, the average price of gas in England is 71 c. 
 a 1000 cu. ft. ; on the Continent, |;i.2o ; by private companies in 
 the United States, I1.75 ; in ten cities under municipal owner- 
 ship in the United States, jfi.08. It averages much cheaper 
 under public management and is always better quality. 
 
 Let us note the general result in two American cities : 
 
 (i) Wheeling, IV. Va. The City bought the gas plant in 1S6S 
 at a cost of $176,000. The price of gas was $2.50 per 1000 cu. ft. 
 Since then the debt has been paid and the works have been re- 
 built out of the profits. Not only this, but the plant is now worth 
 I500.000, and there is a handsome surplus on hand. In 1888 
 (with the price of gas at 75 c), the Department lighted free the 
 streets, markets, school-houses, engine-houses, city-hall, public 
 buildings, hospitals, orphan's home, and Y. M. C. A. rooms, be- 
 sides turning into the City treasury $27,166 net cash ! Its 75 c. rate 
 is the lowest in the United States, and for the reason that its 
 works are modern, that it is out of debt, has no stock and is 
 owned by the City. 
 
 (2) New Vork Cily. Observe the following figures regarding 
 the work of the New York Gas Company, the oldest of the seven 
 corporations now supplying the City : 
 
 Date. 
 
 Cost to Company. 
 
 Cost to Consumers. 
 
 Dividends, ^ 
 
 1875 
 
 fl.20 
 
 $2.50 
 
 35 
 
 1876 
 
 I-I3 
 
 2.50 
 
 15 
 
 1881 
 
 .70 
 
 2.25 
 
 22 
 
 1882 
 
 .70 
 
 2.25 
 
 25 
 
 1883 
 
 .70 
 
 2.25 
 
 25 
 
 1884 
 
 .66 
 
 2.25 
 
 25 
 
 The New York Times said: "On an investment of $720,000 
 in 1823 the stockholders of the N. Y. Gas Company have received 
 $22,171,336, (according to expert Yalden), or dividends at 47. 6^^ 
 during 62 years, and all the while the plant was growing. In 
 1871 it was valued at $4,000,000. In 1883 it was assessed at only 
 $61,430, (!) yet was paying dividends of over 40^ on the actual 
 investment."
 
 28 
 
 It is easy to see why " the people cannot manage these iMngsUP^ 
 Municipal Electric Works. The first municipal 
 electric plants were established in 1887. In Dec, 
 1892, 125 cities in the United States owned and ope- 
 rated such plants. Among them are : Aurora, 111., 
 Bay City, Mich., Hannibal, Mo., Little Rock, Ark., 
 Michigan City, Ind., Topeka, Kan., and Chicago, 111. 
 A careful analysis of reports made by 23 cities opera- 
 ting their own plants makes the average cost per arc- 
 light of 2000 candle-power $53.04 per year. If to this 
 be added 12% for interest on the starting capital and 
 for depreciation of works ($33.60 per light), the cost 
 per year would reach $86.64, at the utmost. The 
 same analysis of reports from 29 private companies 
 shows an average of $106.01 for the same service, 
 viz : per arc-light of 2000 candle-power yearly. New 
 York City is paying $146 to $164 a year. 
 
 STAGE COACHES, in regions not reached by railways. 
 
 EXPRESS SERVICE by stages, otherwise in the hands 
 of private companies. 
 
 (Railways all under private ownership. Principal figures 
 given for comparison.) 
 i,8co Corporations managed by about 40 association.s. Up to 
 
 Dec. 31, 1893: 
 
 There were 176,461 miles. 
 
 Cost set down at ^10,506,235,410 
 
 (Includes Stock and Debt.) 
 
 Receipts (earnings) 1,220,751,874 
 
 Receipts (other income) 149,649,615 
 
 Total receipts 11,370,401,489 
 
 Expenses (operating) 827,921,299 
 
 Profits (total) 542,480,190 
 
 Paid for Interest, Rents, &c 431,422,156 
 
 Profits, surplus 1 12,058,034 
 
 Employees, 873,602 (increase of 52,187 over 1892). 
 Employees in United States per 100 miles of railway, 495 '> »" 
 Germany, 1,316; in Austria-Hungary, 1.074. 
 Employees killed, 2,727. 
 Employees injured, 31,729.
 
 29 
 
 Others killed, 4,320; injured, 5,435. 
 
 One out of every 320 employees was killed. 
 
 One out of every 28 employees was injured. 
 
 U. S. Railways carried in 1892, 575,770,000 passengers, and kill- 
 ed 7,047 and injured 37,164 (including employees). 
 
 German Railways carried in 1892, 464,013,000, and killed 726 
 and injured 2,452. 
 
 U. S. Railways kill or injure 3.3 times as many passengers and 
 6.2 times as many employees as Germany, Austria-Hungary, and 
 India combined. Why ? Answer : lack of hands, caused by greed 
 for dividends, and expensive management. (See L. A. Stock- 
 well, Government Ownership of Railroads ; also Statesman's 
 Yearbook, 1894 ) 
 
 Expensive Manageme.vt. The railways of the United States 
 are capitalized to have cost $10,506,235,410, or about $60,000 per mi. 
 Experts say this is far above the truth. Ex-Governor Larabee 
 of Iowa in his great work, "The Railroad Question" (p. 187), 
 says: " It is safe to say that $r5,ooo a mile is a liberal estimate 
 of the average cost of American railroads." In 1S93 there were 
 176,461 miles of railway in the United States. At $25,000 a mile, 
 this cost $4,411,525,000. Add to this, $301,400,000 for the cost of 
 30,140* locomotives at $10,000 each, $80,000,000 for the cost of 
 26,82ot passenger cars, $4oo,ooo,oc o for the cost of i,ooo,oooj freight 
 cars, and we have a total of $5,191,925,000 (a sum probably far too 
 large, but which in]so lame a case as the one in hand, we can gen- 
 erously allow.) 
 
 Mr. C. Wood Davis, another expert, hns given us an estimate 
 of the useless expenses which could be saved under Government 
 ownership : 
 
 From consolidation of depots and staffs $20,000,000 
 
 From exclusive use of shortest routes 25,000,000 
 
 In Attorney's fees and legal expenses 12,000,000 
 
 Saved on free passes 30,000,000 
 
 From abrogation of commission evil 20,000,000 
 
 By dispensing with high-priced managers, &c 4,000,000 
 
 By disbanding traffic associations 4,oco,ooo 
 
 By dispensing with presidents, &c 25,000,000 
 
 By abolishing all but local office solicitors 15,000,000 
 
 Avoiding 5-7 of the advertising account 5,000,000 
 
 Total saving yearly $160,000,000 
 
 *In 1892 there were in U. S. 35,281 locomotives, 
 tin 1892 there were in U. S. 24,881 passenger cars, and 7.900 
 baggage and mail oars. 
 
 |ln 1893 there were 1,168,849 freight cars.
 
 30 
 
 In 1893 the gross railway income was 1,370,401,489 
 
 In 1893 the operating expenses were 827,921,299 
 
 Profits $542,480, 190 
 
 Add to this the amount saved i6o,ooo,coo 
 
 $702,480,190 
 
 We have left a vast income which would belong to the people 
 themselves, if they were wise enough to see that they should at- 
 tend to their own business. Under Government ownership the 
 fare from New York to Chicago would not exceed $2.50, and to 
 San Francisco, $10. Moreover, in a short time, freight could be 
 carried free. 
 
 In 1894 there were in the United States 43,000 miles of railway 
 in receivers' hands. Hence these are already run by the Govern- 
 ment. They include some of the largest systems of roads in the 
 country. But, the U. S. officers are carrying them on for the 
 benefit of the non-producing stockholders who elected incompe- 
 tent managers. Thus we have the spectacle of the whole people 
 (in the person of the General Government) conducting business 
 for the well-to-do owners and handing them over profits made 
 out of the people by the people's-paid officials ! ! ! 
 
 RIVERS, NAVIGABLE and CANALS, 51,800 mi. 
 (Expense under Harbors.) The Erie Canal was built 
 1816-25. 
 
 RIVER IMPROVEMENT. 
 
 HARBORS. Improvement in 1893, $22,068,218. 
 
 WHARVES and PIERS. FERRIES, Boston has for 
 years owned the Ferries to East Boston. 
 
 VIADUCTS. In Cleveland, Baltimore, &c. 
 
 BRIDGES. On roads over all rivers, &c. Brooklyn 
 and other great bridges. 
 
 BRIDGE ENGINEERS for cities, towns and states. 
 
 SURVEYORS. National, State, and Municipal. 
 
 POSTAL SERVICE. (Report for June 30, 1S93.) 
 Number of offices, 68,403. 
 Delivery offices, 6 to. 
 
 Receipts, ;^75>S96,933. Expenses, ^81,074,105. De- 
 ficit, ^5,177,172. This deficit arises from the fact that 
 Government matter is all carried free. Moreover, the
 
 31 
 
 United States has more offices per i,ooo people than 
 any other land. Were the Government matter reck- 
 oned in there would really be a considerable profit in 
 the Postal Department. 
 Domestic Money Orders issued, - 5127,576,433 
 
 International Money Orders issued, - 16,341,827 
 
 Postal Notes issued, - - 12,903,076 
 
 Total Money Exchange, - ^156,821,348 
 
 Receipts from Special Delivery Stamps, $337,569 
 
 Messengers' Fees for special delivery, - 256,592 
 
 Profit on special delivery, - i?So,977 
 
 Employees in Railway Mail Service, - 6,645 
 
 Employees in U. S. Postal Service, - 229,439 
 
 Employees in N. Y. City Postal Service, - 2,873 
 
 Postmasters' Salaries yearly, - - $16,000,000 
 
 Clerks' Salaries yearly, _ _ _ 9,700,000 
 
 Up to 1S45 the postage for one letter under 30 miles was 
 6}{ cents ; over 30 and under 80 miles, 10 cents ; over 
 80 and under 150 miles, 121-^ cents ; over 150 and under 
 400 miles, i8?i; cents; over 400 miles, 25 cents. In 
 1845 the rate was lowered to 5 cents for less and 10 
 cents for over 300 miles. In 1S51 letter postage was 
 lowered to 3 cents. In 1883 letter postage was again 
 lowered to 2 cents. It will yet be }^ cent. 
 
 (Telegraph. The Western Union Telegraph Co. has a monopoly. 
 In 1S93, number of Offices 21,078. Length of line 189,936 miles, 
 and of wire 769,201 miles. Receipts, $24,978,442. Expenses, 
 117,482,405. Profits, 17,496,037. 
 
 The New York Mutual Telegraph Co. has 1200 Offices, S.ooo 
 miles of line, with 60,000 miles of wire. Capital Stock, 12,500,- 
 000. It is leased and operated by the Western Union Co. 
 The total miles of line in the United States is 210,000. There 
 is a small amount of Government and some private lines, of 
 which the figures are not known. 
 Number of Messages sent, 66,591,858.) 
 
 (Telephone. In 1892 the total length of wire for all companies 
 was 440,750 miles. The Bell Telephone Co. has 812 exchanges, 
 539 branch offices, 232,150 subscribers, 307,748 miles of wire,
 
 32 
 
 and 9,969 employees. Total earnings were $5,100,887. Total 
 
 expenses, 11,689,212. Profits (net), $3,411,675. Total capital, 
 
 $17,500,000. Total dividends paid, $2,919,090. 
 
 The Long Distance Telephone has a capital of $5,000,000. 
 
 In Telephone privileges and prices the United States compare 
 
 very unfavorably with some other countries.) 
 
 MARKETS owned by many cities. They produce 
 
 large revenues. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 ARGICULTURAL DEPARTMENT. Cost in 1893, 
 ^3,233.061. 
 
 ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH. 
 
 ART GALLERIES. 
 
 BAND CONCERTS in parks of numerous cities. 
 
 BIOLOGICAL RESEARCH. 
 
 BOTANIC GARDENS. 
 
 BOOKS FOR PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 
 
 CELEBRATIONS AND PARADES. 
 
 CENSUS BUREAUS. CLOCKS, TOWN. 
 
 (Churches. In the United States the Church is in no way con- 
 nected with the State, except that it is favored by being exempt 
 from taxation. However, all churches are semi-socialistic in- 
 stitutions. In 1893 the number of churches was 165,177, their 
 value was $679,030,139, and the membership was 20,612,806.) 
 
 COAST SURVEYS. EDUCATIONAL BUREAUS. 
 
 ENGRAVING BUREAU at Washington. Employees 
 in 1894, 1,350. 
 
 ETHNOLOGICAL BUREAU. 
 
 EXPLORING EXPEDITIONS. 
 
 EXPOSITIONS AND FAIRS. E. g., The World's 
 
 Columbian Exposition, State Fairs, &c. 
 GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS. 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS. 
 LIBRARIES, PUBLIC. In 1893 there were 3,804, with 
 
 over 1,000 volumes each. Total number of volumes
 
 33 
 
 was 31,167,354. From 18S5 to 1891 the increase in 
 the number of libraries was 27.35 %> ^^^ the increase 
 in the number of volumes was 66 %. There are now 
 50 volumes for every 100 of population. In 1850 there 
 were about 694 public libraries in the United States 
 with 2,201,632 volumes. (To illustrate by the social- 
 ized educational facilities of a single city, St. Louis, 
 Mo., has 14 libraries, 106 public schools, 78 parochial 
 schools, 97 school buildings, and 32 colleges and in- 
 stitutions.) 
 
 METEOROLOGICAL BUREAUS. 
 
 MONUMENTS AND STATUES. 
 
 MUSEUMS. NAUTICAL ALMANAC. 
 
 NEWSPAPERS. The New York City Record, &c. 
 
 OBSERVATORIES. PRINTING. 
 
 READING ROOMS. 
 
 SCHOOLS, PUBLIC. In 1892 the number of children. 
 5 to 18 years of age, was 19,192,894; number enrolled 
 in public schools, 13,203,786; and the number of 
 teachers, 374,431. The average duration of schools 
 was 137. 1 days. 
 
 Kindergarten in 189 1-2 (including private), 1,001 ; 
 teachers, 2,242 ; pupils, 50,423. 
 
 Primary Schools in 1S90 had 362,008 teachers, and 
 12,723,331 pupils. In additional primary schools there 
 were 2,960 teachers, and 64,478 pupils. In Parochial 
 primary schools there were 16,150 teachers, and 799, 
 602 pupils. 
 
 Secondary (Public High Schools) in 1890 numbered 
 2,526, with 9,120 teachers, and 202,963 pupils. 
 Colleges and Universities (of liberal arts) in 1890 
 numbered 415 ; teachers, 7,623 ; and students, 94,892, 
 36 of these are endowed with national land grants. 
 Colleges for Women 165, with 2,815 teachers, and 
 24,611 students.
 
 34 
 
 Normal Schools in 1S92 numbered 139, with 1,578 
 teachers, and 40,214 students. In 1890 the value of 
 special Normal School property was ;$io,552,744. 
 Law Schools in 1890 numbered 54, with 507 profes- 
 sors, and 6,073 students. 
 
 Medical, Dental, &c., Schools in 1890 numbered 
 228, teachers 3,987, and students 24,242. This in- 
 cluded 36 schools for Trained Nurses, with 319 
 teachers, and 1,552 students. 
 
 Theological Seminaries 145 in 1890, with 854 pro- 
 fessors, and 7,729 students. 
 
 Reformatory Schools in 1S90 had 14,846 pupils. 
 Indian Schools in 1890 numbered 256, with .12,232 
 pupils. Cost $1,600,313. 
 
 Domestic Economy Schools, a new and promising 
 
 field. 
 
 Agricultural Colleges in many States. 
 
 Technological Institutes in 1890 numbered 27, with 
 
 447 instructors, and 3,584 students. 
 
 Industrial Schools in 36 city public schools, and in 
 
 many schools for colored pupils (reaching over 12,400 
 
 colored children). 
 
 Military School at West Point, has 300 cadets. 
 
 Cost in 1893, $428,917. 
 
 Nautical School at Annapolis, has 336 marines. 
 Blind Schools. In 1890 there were $s public, hav- 
 ing 438 teachers, and 3,215 pupils. 
 Deaf and Dumb. In 1890 there were 61 public, hav- 
 ing 763 teachers, and 10,799 pupils. 
 Expense. The general Government expended in 1892, 
 ;gi55, 980,800. (In 1890, ;$i43,i 10,218.) In 1892, the 
 cost per year per pupil was $17.22, and 12.9 cents 
 per day. 
 
 In 1890 there were 224,839 school houses. The value 
 of school property was estimated at $342,876,492.
 
 ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS in parks of great cities. 
 ZOOLOGICAL RESEARCH. 
 
 FOOD PRODUCTION. 
 
 In enterprises of production the L^nited States, as a 
 
 Government, has undertaken very little. 
 
 DISTILLERIES and the sale of liciuors in South 
 Carolina. 
 
 FARMING has been undertaken by some cities for one 
 or another motive. £• g-, Worcester, Mass. 
 
 FISH COMMISSIONS for encouragement of fish cul- 
 ture and for biographical research. 
 
 IRRIGATION in Colorado and other Western regions, 
 (See also Gas and Electricity under Distribution, and Water 
 Works under Sanitation and Safety.) 
 
 MEANS PRODUCTION. 
 
 DRY DOCK. The U. S. Dry Dock in Brooklyn cost 
 over ;g2,ooo,ooo. and has no equal in the world. 
 
 ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT. 
 FOUNDRIES in the Ship Yards, &c. 
 
 ROPE WALKS (manufacture of ropes) in the Navy 
 Yards. 
 
 SHIP BUILDING. The new cruisers, Cincinnati and 
 Raleigh, are Government built throughout. So wcie 
 the old Merrimac, Portsmouth, &c. The Navy Yard 
 in Brooklyn employs over 2,000 men. The Govern- 
 ment property there covers 144 acres and has Jj a 
 mile water front. 
 
 LAW AND ORDER. 
 
 ACCOUNTS COMMISSIONERS in City and State 
 employ. 
 
 AMBASSADORS. Cost of Consular and Diplomatic 
 service in 1893, ;^i, 604, 312. There were over 148 such 
 representatives abroad.
 
 36 
 
 APPORTIONING BOARDS for townships, cities, 
 states and nation. 
 
 APPRAISING COMMISSIONERS for same. 
 
 AQUEDUCT COMMISSIONERS. 
 
 ARBITRATION COMMISSIONERS in various states. 
 
 ASSAYING OFFICERS, national and state. 
 
 ASSESSING BOARDS for every municipality. 
 
 ATTORNEYS, U. S. District. In 1893, 74. 
 
 AUDITING BOARDS in every town, &c. 
 
 BANKRUPT REGISTRY— a very important feature. 
 It makes a transition phase between individualism 
 and collectivism. In our age the Government is the 
 Receiver with the expectation of passing the business 
 back to individuals after settlement. 
 
 CITY CHAMBERLAINS. 
 
 CIVIL REGISTRATION. 
 
 CIVIL SERVICE BOARDS. Salaries of the Federal 
 civil service list (of which this Board has some over- 
 sight) are $60,000,000. 
 
 COMPTROLLERS. CONSULS. 
 
 COPYRIGHT BUREAU at Washhigton, D. C. 
 
 CORONERS in all countries. 
 
 CORPORATION COUNSELS for large city govern- 
 ments. 
 
 COURTS OF JUSTICE. 
 National: 
 Supreme, U. S. 9 judges; salaries ^10,500 and 
 ;^ 1 0,000 each. 
 
 Circuit, U. S. 19 judges over 9 circuits; salaries 
 ;^6,ooo each. 
 
 Claims, U. S. n chief and 63 other judges ; salaries 
 ;^5,ooo each. 
 National expenditure in Department of Justice in 
 
 1893, ;^7, 890,751-
 
 37 
 
 State and City : 
 
 Oyer and Terminer. District. 
 
 General Sessions. Arbitration. 
 
 Superior. Military. 
 
 Common Pleas. Commercial. 
 
 Surrogate. Commissions. 
 
 CUSTOMS COLLECTING in 1S93 cost $6,756,791. 
 DOCK BOARDS in large sea-port towns. 
 ELECTIONS BUREAUS. 
 JURY COMMISSIONERS in every circuit and district 
 
 court. 
 JURIES, GRAND, for same. 
 JURIES, PETIT, for same. 
 LABOR BUREAU, a Department at Washington, and 
 
 of the greatest importance. Efficiently managed by 
 
 Chief Carroll D. Wright. 
 LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLIES : 
 
 National: Senate, 88 members; House, 356. 
 
 State : type of the National reproduced in 44 States. 
 
 Municipal or Aldermanic Councils in all cities. 
 MARRIAGES conducted on a civil basis by legally 
 
 qualified magistrates or clergymen. 
 MARSHALS, U. S. District. 74 in 1S93. 
 MINISTERS, FOREIGN. Sec under Ambassadors. 
 MUNICIPAL SERVICE EXAMINING BOARDS. 
 
 One of the most important social factors. The best 
 
 method of filling offices and preventing corruption. 
 PARK COMMISSIONERS. 
 PATENT OFFICE at Washington. In 1 S93 there were 
 
 45.936 applications, and 25.356 patents were granted. 
 
 Receipts, ^1,288,809. Expenses, ;^i, 139, 715. Profits, 
 
 ;^i49,o94. From 1837 to 1893 there were 872,995 ap- 
 plications, 500,543 patents issued, and a net profit of 
 
 $5,456,454. 
 PILOT BOARDS. PORT WARDENS.
 
 38 
 
 POLICE in all cities — complex systems for the enforce- 
 ment of laws. 
 POUNDS, town prisons for stray animals. 
 
 PRISONS : 
 
 Police Stations. Jails. 
 
 Houses of Juvenile Correction at the end of 1S93 had 
 14,846 inmates. 
 Reformatories. 
 
 Penitentiaries in 1S90 had 45,233 convicts. Of these 
 30,546 were white, 14,687 colored, and 1,791 were 
 women. Of the whites 12,842 were native, 7,267 for- 
 eign, and 8,331 half-foreign. 
 
 RAILROAD COMMISSIONS. A National and also 
 a State Department. 
 
 REGISTRARS OF DEEDS in all county seats. 
 
 REVENUE GUTTERS. RIVER COMMISSIONS. 
 
 SECRET SERVICE. 
 
 SINKING FUND COMMISSIONERS for towns and 
 states. 
 
 ST.A.TE DEPARTMENT, U. S. Cost in 1S93, 
 
 J§2, 138,953. 
 
 SUBWAY COMMISSIONERS. 
 
 TREASURY, U. S. Salaries of Government officers 
 in 1893, $7,364,536. 
 
 RELIEF AND CHARITIES. 
 
 The details of this division would fill many volumes. 
 Every well organized township, town, city, county, or 
 state has numerous provisions for relief of those who are 
 unable to stand the strains of individualistic society, i.e., 
 of a social order based on the laissc:: faire theory. 
 CHARITY BUREAUS innumerable. 
 DISPENSARIES innumerable.
 
 39 
 
 HOMES for : 
 Orphans. Idiots. 
 
 Sailors. Soldiers. 
 
 27 National and State Homes for Soldiers and Vol- 
 unteers. 
 
 HOSPITALS : 
 
 General. Epidemic. 
 
 Infant. Insane. 
 
 Military. Marine. 
 
 HOUSE OF REFUGE. 
 
 INDIAN DEPARTMENT. In 1892, $1 1,150,578 were 
 spent through 66 Indian agencies. 
 
 LEPER FARM. One at New Orleans. 
 
 LIFE SAVING. 244 Stations. Cost in 1893, ^1.231,893. 
 
 LIGHT HOUSES in 1893, 1,312; 39 light-ships; 303 
 signals; 4,491 buoys; 1,808 post-lights; 40 steam- 
 tenders, &c.; 3,463 employees. 
 
 PENSION DEPARTMENT. In 1893 there were 
 granted $159,357,558 to 966,012 pensioners. 
 
 POOR HOUSES. In 1890 the total indoor paupers 
 were 73,045, of which 40,741 were males, and 32,304 
 females. The total outdoor paupers reported were 
 24,220 (probably far too low). P^xpense of Poor 
 Houses, $2,409,445. 
 
 SIGNAL CORPS, a National Department. 
 
 UNEMPLOYED, WORK FOR. Ohio has a Public 
 Employment Bureau — Act of May 6, 1890. Head 
 offices at Cincinnati, Cleveland, Columbus, Dayton, 
 and Toledo. Up to Jan. i, 1S93, they had filled 38,352 
 positions out of 81,464 total applications. (See Ohio 
 Labor Bureau Reports.) (Compare New Zealand, 
 France, Germany, and .Switzerland.) 
 
 SANITATION ANJD SAFETY. 
 
 BATHS, PUBLIC, in many cities.
 
 40 
 
 CATS in Postal Service. Something over 300 cats are 
 kept in about 50 of the leading post offices. They 
 protect the mail in cellars, &c., from rats and mice. 
 Each postmaster is allowed from $S to ;$4o per year 
 for the keep of his feline staff.* 
 
 CEMETERIES. There are 79 National cemeteries and 
 innumerable municipal ones. 
 
 DRINKING FOUNTS AND TROUGHS in town and 
 country. 
 
 ELECTRIC LIGHTING. See under Distribution. 
 
 FIRE ALARM TELEGRAPH in connection with 
 Fire Departments. 
 
 FIRE DEPARTMENTS in every city and town. 
 
 FORESTRY. There are Forest Commissions and Bu- 
 reaus in New York, Colorado, South Dakota, Penn- 
 sylvania, New Hampshire, and Ohio. Arbor Day is 
 observed in 42 states. The President has Forest Res- 
 ervation power. 
 
 FOUNTAINS for beautifying parks and squares in many 
 cities. 
 
 GARBAGE AND REFUSE GATHERING. A muni- 
 cipal undertaking in all cities. 
 
 GAS LIGHTING. See under Distribution. 
 
 HEALTH DEPARTMENTS, state and municipal. 
 
 [from the BALTIMORE AMERICAN.] 
 
 *One of the most amusing letters .ever received "at the Post 
 Office Department in Washington came from the Post Office in 
 St. Paul, Minn. It is an appeal for an increase in the fund allowed 
 for the sustenance of the office cat, and is a record of the efficiency 
 of the aforesaid cat, made out as carefully and as conscientiously 
 as the record of any clerk or carrier in the office. The petition is 
 as follows : 
 
 Post Office, St. Paul, Minn., Oct. 21, 1894. 
 Respectfully referred to P. O'Brien, Assistant Postmaster, 
 for consideration : 
 
 Is it possible, in making your estimates and allowances for 
 1895, to secure ten-dollars "cat fund"? Five dollars, as at present, 
 is not enough, as the following figures show :
 
 41 
 
 PARKS, national, state, and town — everywhere. 
 PHYSICIANS P^OR THE CITY, included in Health 
 
 Department. 
 PILOT COMMISSIONERS. 
 PLAY GROUNDS in some towns and cities — though 
 
 far too few. 
 QUARANTINE at sea-ports. 
 
 SANITARIES in places much frequented by the public. 
 SEATS IN PARKS. 
 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE, always built and 
 
 managed by municipal anthorities. Also certain great 
 
 State undertakings in draining large areas. 
 STREET CLEANING, a strictly municipal business, 
 
 but often contracted. 
 STREET SPRINKLING, often municipal, often not. 
 
 VACCINATION AND VACCINE, done and supplied 
 
 by some Boards of Health. 
 WATER-WORKS. On July i, 1891 : 
 
 Total number in U. S. 2,037. 
 
 Cities, towns, &c., supplied 2,187. 
 
 Population served 22,814,061. 
 
 (About 36% of population.) 
 
 Estimated cost of all $543,000,000. 
 
 In 1800 there were but 16 towns having water-works. 
 
 Boston water-works, under company ownership, dates 
 
 The cat ought to have one pint of milk a day — equals 365 pints. 
 The price in Winter is 6 cents per quart, and 5 cents in Summer. 
 This would make the exact cost I10.04. When the kitten harvest 
 is on, more milk ought to be given, so above estimate is not ex- 
 orbitant. Kittens ought to be kept until well able to set up house- 
 keeping on their own account, as an incentive for their mother to 
 keep up her rat-killing. Our cat the past two months has killed 
 not less than 125 rats, the two highest runs being 9 and 7, which, 
 you will admit, were both good nights' work. Of course, she and 
 her two kittens could not eat all these, but it shows what a good 
 working cat can do when she has the proper incentives. 
 
 William J. Work, Night Clerk.
 
 42 
 
 from 1652. Bethlehem, Pa., comes next, 1761. In 
 
 1850 there were but 83 plants. In iSSo only 598. 
 
 In 1890 there were 1,878. 
 
 Under public ownership 878 or 43.1%. 
 
 Under private ownership 1,159 or 56.9%. 
 
 In 1800 the municipally-owned water-works were but 
 
 6.3% while the Company-owned were 93.7% of the 
 
 16 plants then built. Now 43- 1% are public works, 
 and these supply 66.2% of the 22,814,061 people sup- 
 plied. 
 
 Of the 10 largest cities in the United States, all but 
 San Francisco and New Orleans own their Water- 
 Works. 83 private plants have become public ; only 
 
 17 public ones have become private. These latter 
 have all occured since 1878, and have been occa- 
 sioned by hard times and heavy city burdens, mostly 
 at the South. New Orleans is the only large city 
 (242,039) among the number. Hoboken, N. J., (43. 
 64S) and Peoria, 111., (41,024) are next. None of the 
 others are above 21,000, and most of them are mere 
 towns. 6,177,184 population are represented by the 
 changes from private to public ownership, while but 
 429,090 population are represented by change from 
 public to private. 
 
 GOVERNMENT INTERFERENCE 
 
 In Businesses, Affairs or Events which it requires shall 
 be REGISTERED, LICENSED or INSPECTED. 
 
 See the list under New York City, headed City Interference, 
 and the following additional : 
 
 Asphalt Factories. Asylums. 
 
 Banks. Bird Stores. 
 
 Blacking Factories. Blacksmith Shops. 
 
 Boiler Factories. Bone Yards. 
 
 Box Factories. Butcher Shops. 
 
 Candy Factories. Carpenter Shops. 
 
 Cattle Yards. Cheese Factories. 
 
 Cigar Factories. Clothing Factories,
 
 43 
 
 Clothes Cleaning. 
 
 Cold Storage. 
 
 Drug Mills. 
 
 Dye Works. 
 
 Electric Lamps. 
 
 Excavations. 
 
 Ferries. 
 
 Foundries. 
 
 Gaming Houses. 
 
 Gas Stoves. 
 
 Grocery Stores. 
 
 Hat Stores. 
 
 Hide Cellars. 
 
 Hospitals. 
 
 Ice Factories. 
 
 Kindling-wood Factories. 
 
 Leather Factories. 
 
 Locomotives. 
 
 Machine Shops. 
 
 Matches. 
 
 Mines. 
 
 Newsboys. 
 
 Offal Wagons. 
 
 Oyster Saloons. 
 
 Patents. 
 
 Piano Playing. 
 
 Piers. 
 
 Playing Card ^lakers. 
 
 Printing Houses. 
 
 Railway Depots. 
 
 Sausage Works. 
 
 Schools. 
 
 Smelting W'orks. 
 
 Smoke Houses. 
 
 Soap Factories. 
 
 Steam Heating Pipes. 
 
 Trade Marks. 
 
 Coal Yards. 
 
 Copyrights. 
 
 Dumps for Garbage. 
 
 Dynamos. 
 
 Elevator Factories. 
 
 Fat Rendering. 
 
 P^ish Markets. 
 
 Fur Dressing. 
 
 Gas Engines. 
 
 Grease W^orks. 
 
 Gut Cleaning. 
 
 Hair Picking. 
 
 Hide Cleaning. 
 
 Hunting. 
 
 Iron Works. 
 
 Laundries. 
 
 Lime-kilns. 
 
 Lotteries.^ 
 
 Markets. 
 
 Mattress Factories. 
 
 Molding Mills. 
 
 Offal Docks. 
 
 Oil Works. 
 
 Passports. 
 
 Piano Factories. 
 
 Pickle Factories. 
 
 Planing Mills. 
 
 Ponds of Water. 
 
 Rag Shops. 
 
 Rubber Goods Factories, 
 
 Saw Mills, 
 
 Silk Works. 
 
 Spice Mills. 
 
 Steam Engines. 
 
 Stone Yards. 
 
 Storage Warehouses.
 
 44 
 
 UNITED KINGDOM. 
 
 (great BRITAIN AND IRELAND ) 
 
 AREA, 120,973 sq. mi. POPULATION, 38,104,973 m 1891. 
 
 Mr. H. M. Hyndman (in his "Commercial Crises of the Nine- 
 teenth Century") says : " In Great Britain the State is by far the 
 greatest employer of labor and also the greatest consumer." It 
 is also indirectly a great employer and consumer, in this way. 
 There must always be a vast multitude engaged in supplying 
 food, clothes, boots, coal, iron, brass, implements, &c., for the 
 Government servants (national and municipal, in the army, navy, 
 militia, civil service, &c.) 
 
 DEFENSE OF NATION. 
 
 ARMY, Regular, on March ist, 1894, total 154,442. 
 
 Officers, 7,497. Men 146,945. 
 
 Forts numerous. 
 
 Expense of Army for 1894, ;^2o, 750,651. (Includes 
 
 Militia and Pensions.) 
 MILITIA on March ist, 1894, total 495, o57- 
 NAVY in 1893, 76,700. 
 
 Battle Ships, 45. ^ Port Defense Ships, 18. 
 
 Cruisers, 287. Torpedo Boats, 136. 
 
 Total War Vessels, 486. 
 
 Expense of Navy in 1884, ^^15, 267, 674. 
 
 FINANCE. 
 
 (Banks, Private. Of 138 London Joint-Stock Banks re- 
 porting in 1S93, the average dividend for their last 
 business year was ii%.) 
 
 BANKS, SAVINGS : in all Money Order Post Offices. 
 These have been very successful. They were founded 
 1861. From then till 1S90 there had been 113.000,000
 
 45 
 
 deposits amounting to ^285,000,000 (or $1,387,950,- 
 000). There had been over 15,000,000 accounts 
 opened and 10,000,000 closed. At the end of i8go 
 there were nearly 5,000.000 depositors, and ;^67,ooo,- 
 000 (or ^326,290,000) deposited. The total cost of 
 management had been ;^326,394 (or 1^1,589, 538). 
 Since 1876 there has annually been paid over to the 
 Exchequer sums which make a total now of about 
 ;i^i,5oo,ooo (or $7,305,000). There is now still a sur- 
 plus (over liabilities) of ;^i,730,ooo (or $8,425,100) 
 for the Government. 
 COINAGE. Royal Mint issue from 1870 up to Dec. 
 
 31st, 1892, ;^l I 1,298,918. 
 
 CUSTOMS DEPARTMENT (Foreign Revenue). 
 
 INTERNAL REVENUE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 NOTE ISSUE. Monopoly by Bank of England under 
 
 Government control. 
 TAX COLLECTING DEPARTMENT. 
 TREASURY DEPARTMENT. 
 
 DISTKIBUTION. 
 
 ROADS, 118,000 mi. in 1890. 
 
 STREETS. Municipal property in all the hundreds of 
 cities. 
 
 STREET RAILWAYS. In 1890 29 cities in England 
 and 3 in Scotland owned their street railways. Among 
 them are Liverpool, Birmingham, Manchester, Shef- 
 field, Huddersfield, Newcastle-on-Tyne, Glasgow, and 
 lately London has purchased 2 1 mi. and proposes to 
 buy more. 
 
 (Street Railways under private ownership, 960 mi. in 1893. Cost 
 /i3,7oS,549. Receipts in 1893, /3,6o6,095. Expenses, /2,837.- 
 446. Profits, ;^76S,649. This and much more would be saved 
 to the cities if they owned their own equipmeni.) 
 
 STREET LIGHTING. 162 cities and towns in Eng- 
 land, Wales, and Scotland owned and operated their
 
 46 
 
 gas plants in 1890. Many of them also own their 
 electric plants. The list and the price paid for gas is 
 as follows : 
 
 England and Wales 
 
 City. 
 
 Aberavon : 
 
 Ashton in-Makerfield 
 
 Atherton 
 
 Abergavenny 
 
 Audley 
 
 Bangor 
 
 Barrow-in-Furness 
 
 Batley 
 
 Bethesda 
 
 Beverley .*. . 
 
 Bingley 
 
 Birkenhead 
 
 Birmingham 
 
 Bristol 
 
 Blackburn 
 
 Blackpool 
 
 Bollington 
 
 Bolton 
 
 Bradford 
 
 Brignorth 
 
 Brighouse 
 
 Briton Ferry 
 
 Burnley 
 
 Burslem 
 
 Burton-upon-Trent 
 
 Buxton 
 
 Bury 
 
 Carlisle 
 
 Carnar.van 
 
 Chorley 
 
 Cieckheaton 
 
 Clitheroe 
 
 Cockermouth 
 
 Colne and Marsden, (Lan- 
 cashire 
 
 Congleton 
 
 Conway 
 
 Coventry 
 
 Darlington 
 
 Cost per 1000 
 cu. ft. 
 
 ' -95 
 
 i.oS 
 .So 
 .78 
 .90 
 
 1.20 
 .84 
 .78 
 
 1.50 
 .90 
 .68 
 .70 
 •52 
 .78 
 
 •74 
 .68 
 .80 
 .64 
 
 •53 
 1. 14 
 
 •50 
 .72 
 
 •54 
 .76 
 .68 
 .76 
 •58 
 .60 
 .95 
 .78 
 .69 
 .84 
 .96 
 
 .68 
 
 •75 
 
 1.08 
 
 .72 
 
 •52 
 
 City. 
 
 Cost per 1000 
 cu. ft. 
 
 Darwen $ .78 
 
 Denton and Haughton . . .So 
 
 Devizes 80 
 
 Dewsbury 72 
 
 Droitvvich 94 
 
 Dukinfield 80 
 
 East Dereham 1.08 
 
 East Retford 80 
 
 Evesham i .00 
 
 Ellismere 1.18 
 
 Festiniog ... 1.32 
 
 Fenton 48 
 
 Halifax 52 
 
 Haverfordwest 1.20 
 
 Haverhill 1.30 
 
 Haworth 78 
 
 Hereford 52 
 
 Heywood 90 
 
 Hinckley 90 
 
 Hindley 86 
 
 Horncastle 76 
 
 Huddersfield 63 
 
 Ilkeston 62 
 
 Keighley 60 
 
 Knausborough.. 60 
 
 Lancaster 60 
 
 Leeds 42 
 
 Leek 58 
 
 Leicester 56 
 
 Leigh 72 
 
 Lincoln 64 
 
 Llandudno 1.14 
 
 Longton 72 
 
 Lynn i.co 
 
 Lytham 84 
 
 Macclesfield 72 
 
 Malvern 96 
 
 Manchester 64 
 
 Mansfield 76
 
 47 
 
 Cost per 1 ono 
 City. cu. ft. 
 
 Marple $ .80 
 
 Marsden, (Yorkshire) 80 
 
 Maryport 72 
 
 Middlesborough 62 
 
 Middleton 90 
 
 Millom So 
 
 Milton 90 
 
 Mossley 74 
 
 Milford i.oS 
 
 Newbury 1.08 
 
 Neath 90 
 
 Nelson 66 
 
 Newcastle-under Lyme... .72 
 
 Newton-in-Makerfield. . . .54 
 
 Nottingham 52 
 
 Oldbury 63 
 
 Oldham 54 
 
 Oswaldtwisble 66 
 
 Padiham and Hapten 75 
 
 Penrith 74 
 
 Ramsgate 76 
 
 Ripon 80 
 
 Rochdale 78 
 
 Rotherham 54 
 
 St. Mary Church 96 
 
 St. Helen's 70 
 
 SafTron Walden i.io 
 
 Salford 72 
 
 Silsden 90 
 
 Scotland : 
 
 Aberdeen 90 
 
 Alloa 90 
 
 Alva 1.20 
 
 Arbroath i.oo 
 
 Ardrossan i.co 
 
 Bruntisland 1.20 
 
 Broughby Ferry ... .95 
 
 Dumbarton 84 
 
 Dumfries 90 
 
 Dunbar. 1.50 
 
 Dundee 88 
 
 Elgin 1.40 
 
 Forfar 1.05 
 
 Glasgow 72 
 
 Cost ppr 1000 
 Citij. cu. ft. 
 
 Skelmersdale $ .90 
 
 Smethwick 60 
 
 Southport 66 
 
 Sowerby 70 
 
 Sjjalding 90 
 
 Stafford 72 
 
 Staleybridge 76 
 
 Stockport 60 
 
 Stoke-upon-Trent 54 
 
 Stratford-upon-Avon 76 
 
 Stockton on Tees. ..... . .60 
 
 Sutton-in-Ashfield 80 
 
 Teignmouth i.oo 
 
 Tipton 52 
 
 Tow Lan '. 95 
 
 Tredegar 1.08 
 
 Tyldesley-with-.Shakerley .82 
 
 Ulverston 90 
 
 Wallasey 72 
 
 Watsall •. .50 
 
 Wantage i .co 
 
 Wombwell . 78 
 
 Workington 70 
 
 Warrington 84 
 
 Wells 80 
 
 West Bromwick 52 
 
 Widnas 48 
 
 Wigan 67 
 
 Vnyscynhaiern 1.30 
 
 Gou rock I.IO 
 
 Greenock 90 
 
 Hamilton 80 
 
 Inverness i.oo 
 
 Johnstone 1.05 
 
 Kilmarnock i.co 
 
 Kirpintillock i.oo 
 
 Paisley 72 
 
 Perth .90 
 
 Peterhead 1.43 
 
 Port Glasgow i .08 
 
 Renfrew i .cx) 
 
 Wishaw I.oo
 
 48 
 
 EXPRESS SERVICE in the parcel post. Limit of ii 
 
 pounds. 
 (Railways are all under private ownership. In 1892, 20,325 mi. 
 
 Cost ^944,357,320. Receipts, ^82,092,040.) 
 
 RIVERS, NAVIGABLE, 3,800 mi. 
 
 (Canals, 3,813 mi. in 1892, all belonging to private companies.) 
 
 HARBORS, a special department of Government. 
 
 WHARVES AND PIERS. 
 
 FERRIES. VIADUCTS. 
 
 BRIDGES, innumerable numbers at incalculable ex- 
 pense. 
 
 BRIDGE ENGINEERS. 
 
 POSTAL SERVICE in 1893 : 
 
 Number of Offices, 19,625. Employees, about 26S,- 
 000, (16,000 of whom are women). All are appointed 
 for life or during good behavior, except the Post 
 Master General. Receipts, ^10,344,000. Expenses, 
 ^7,518,000. Profits, ^2,826,000. Money Orders is- 
 sued, ;^28,683,95i. 
 
 TELEGRAPH, State Lines, 34,056 mi. in 1893. Wire, 
 209,046 mi. (exclusive of Railway companies* wire). 
 Offices, 8,537 (45 are in Post Offices). Rate, 6 d. for 
 12 words. Receipts, ;{^2, 487,000. Expenses, ^2,568,- 
 000. Deficit, ^81,000. This is the first deficit since 
 1876. Observe, however, the large profit surplus of 
 the Post Office. 
 
 TELEPHONES. 
 
 SUBWAYS in Glasgow, and under Thames in London, 
 for wagons and foot traffic. 
 
 MARKETS. HOTELS. 
 
 RESTAURANTS. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL BUREAUS. 
 ART GALLERIES.
 
 49 
 
 ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH. 
 
 BAND CONCERTS, in London Parks, also in other 
 great cities. 
 
 BIOLOGICAL RESEARCH. 
 
 BOTANIC GARDENS. CENSUS BUREAUS. 
 
 CHURCHES, STATE : 
 
 In England, Protestant Episcopal. In 1S91, 2 Arch- 
 bishops, 31 Bishops, 30 Deans, 85 Archdeacons, 613 
 Rural Deans. There were 14,5 73 registered chapels 
 and churches in 1882. Total clergy of all grades in 
 1891, 27,000. Total income, ;^7,ooo,ooo. About Yi 
 of the population are members. 
 
 In Scotland, Chnrch of Scotland (Presbj-terian). In 
 1893 there were 1,348 parishes; 1,700 chapels, church- 
 es, &c.; and 1,800 clergy. Th-e income from annual 
 endowment was ^350,000. From additional sources, 
 ^560,588. Total income, ;^9io,5SS la 1892 the total 
 membership was 604,984. 
 
 (In Ireland, the Protestant P^piscop<il Church was dis' 
 established in 1869.) 
 
 CLOCKS, TOWN. COAST SirVlVKYS. 
 
 EDUCATIONAL BUREAUS. 
 
 ENGRAVING BUREAUS. 
 
 ETHNOLOGICAL BUREAUS. 
 
 EXPLORING EXPEDITIONS. 
 
 EXPOSITIONS. FAIRS. 
 
 GP:0GRAPHICAL and GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS. 
 
 LIBRARIES, in all towns and cities. 
 
 METEOROLOGICAL BUREAUS. 
 
 MONUMENTS AND STATUES. 
 
 MUSEUMS, numerous and celebrated : British, Ken- 
 sington, &c. 
 
 OBSERVATORIES, Greenwich, &c. 
 
 PRINTING. READING ROOMS.
 
 50 
 
 SCHOOLS, PUBLIC : 
 
 Kindergartens constitute about ^:^ % of the Primary 
 
 Schools. 
 
 Primary, in 1891, 97,933 teachers, and 6,184,858 pupils. 
 
 Secondary, entirely unorganized. Statistics impos- 
 sible. 
 
 Colleges, in 1893, 68, with. 1,397 teachers, and 22,857 
 
 students. 
 
 Colleges for Women, in 1S93, 6, with 70 instructors, 
 
 and 482 students. 
 
 Universities. Normal, 41. 
 
 Law. Mecical. 
 
 Theological. Technological. 
 
 Art, in 1893, 1,631 schools, with 115,848 students. 
 
 The Government grant for Art Schools in 1893 was 
 
 ;^645,oi5. 
 
 Domestic Economy. Industrial. 
 
 Agricultural. Evening. 
 
 Military. Nautical. 
 
 Blind. Deaf and Dumb. 
 
 The Government grant for schools in 1893 was ;i^7,9i5,- 
 
 540: the fees, local rates, &c. were £2,^6^,i;^2. Total 
 
 ascertained expense of public schools in 1893 was 
 
 ;^io,48o,672. The Financial Budget for 1894 esti- 
 mates the Government grant at ^^9, 172,2 16. 
 ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS. 
 ZOOLOGICAL RESEARCH. 
 
 In 1833 Parliament first voted money towards building 
 schools. In 1839 a "Committee of Council on PLduca- 
 tion " was appointed. The same year Normal schools 
 were established. The " Elementary Educational Act 
 for England and Wales" was passed in 1870. 
 
 MEANS PRODUCTION. 
 
 CLOTHING, for the Army was undertaken by the Gov- 
 ernment after the Crimean War (1854-56), because of 
 the swindling practices of contractors.
 
 61 
 
 DRY DOCKS (Naval). 
 ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT. 
 SHIP BUILDING, for the Navy. 
 
 LAW AND ORDER. 
 
 The total cost of Law and Justice to the General 
 Government in 1893-94 was ^3,800,481. The State De- 
 partment cost ;i^2,624,7o6 additional. 
 AMBASSADORS. Cost of Diplomatic and Consular 
 
 service in 1893-94 was ;^448,ioi. 
 
 APPORTIONING BOARDS. 
 
 APPRAISING COMMISSIONERS. 
 
 ASSAYING COMMISSIONERS. 
 
 ASSESSING BOARDS. AUDITING BOARDS. 
 
 BANKRUPT REGISTRY, a special Department. This 
 is a very important feature, since it is a transition from 
 individualism to collectivism. The Government is the 
 receiver of the unsquandered assets, but with the ex- 
 pectation of passing the business back after settle- 
 ments have all been made. 
 
 CIVIL SERVICE BOARDS, a special Department. 
 
 COMPTROLLERS. CONSULS. 
 
 COPYRIGHT BUREAUS. CORONERS. 
 
 CORPORATION COUNSELS. 
 
 COURTS OF JUSTICE, too numerous and comple.x 
 to describe here. They employ a very large number. 
 Civil. Criminal. 
 
 Supreme. Circuit. 
 
 Claims. Police. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 ENCUMBRANCE BUREAUS. 
 
 EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. The Queen, her Min- 
 isters, and Privy Council, with their hosts of assistants. 
 
 EMIGRATION BUREAUS. From Ireland alone from 
 1851 to 1S92 inclusive, there emigrated 3,518,383.
 
 52 
 
 INTERCOLONIAL COMMERCE COMMISSIONS: 
 
 Colonial Office, &c. 
 
 JURY COMMISSIONERS. JURIES, GRAND. 
 
 JURIES, PETIT. LABOR BUREAU. 
 
 LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLIES : 
 
 National : House of Lords, 560, including 5 princes, 
 2 archbishops, 21 dukes, 22 marquises, 115 earls, 25 
 viscounts, 24 bishops, 304 barons, 16 Scottish peers, 
 28 Irish peers. (There are 6 peeresses.) The Eng- 
 lish House of Lords is the only wholly hereditary 
 legislative chamber now in the world. 
 House of Commons, 670, including 461 English mem- 
 bers, 34 Welsh, 72 Scotch, and 103 Irish. 
 Provincial. Municipal. 
 
 MARRIAGES. 
 
 MINISTERS, FOREIGN. See under Ambassadors. 
 
 NATURALIZATION (branch of Home Department 
 of State). 
 
 PARK COMMISSIONERS. PILOT BOARDS. 
 
 PATENT OFFICES. 
 
 POLICE, in 1893: in Scotland there were 2,791 police, 
 and 1,608 constables. (In Glasgow, 1,256 police.) 
 (In London about 15,000 police and only about 6,000 
 teachers.) 
 
 POUNDS. 
 
 PRLSONS : 
 
 Police Stations. yails. 
 
 Criminal Lunatic. 
 
 Houses of yuvenile Correction. 
 
 Military. Reformatories. 
 
 Naval. Poiitentiaries. 
 
 RAILROAD COMMISSIONS (including canal). 
 
 REGISTRARS OF DEEDS. 
 
 RIVER COMMISSIONS. SURVEYORS. 
 
 STATE DEPARTMENT.
 
 53 
 RELIEF AND CHARITIES. 
 
 ANNUITY GRANTS. DISPENSARIES. 
 CHARITY COMMISSIONERS. 
 HOMES FOR 
 
 Aged. 
 
 Orphans. 
 
 Idiots. 
 
 Sailors. 
 
 Soldiers. 
 
 
 HOSPITALS: 
 
 
 General. 
 
 Epidemic. 
 
 Infant. 
 
 Insane. 
 
 Lying in. 
 
 Marine. 
 
 Eye, Ear and Throat. 
 
 Orthopedic. 
 
 LIVE SAVING. 
 
 LIGHT HOUSES 
 
 LODGING HOUSES in G.'asgow, London, &c. 
 
 PENSION DEPARTMENT. Cost for 1894 was £1,- 
 385,400 (included under Army). 
 
 POOR HOUSES, in 1893 total paupers, indoor and out- 
 door, 966,685. In 1892 total cost, ^^11,172,113. 
 
 POOR, HOUSING OF in Glasgow, Birmingham, Lon- 
 don (Bethnal Green), Dublin, and elsewhere. Arti- 
 sans' dwellings have been built by cities and rented 
 at low rates. E. g., in Dublin, the Town Council 
 built a comfortable block for 1,200 persons. Cost, 
 £40,000. Average rent 4 s. per week. Similar under- 
 taking in London. 
 
 SCHOOL MEALS in London. 
 
 UNEMPLOYED, WORK FOR. 
 
 SANITATION AND SAFETY. 
 
 The enterprises following are conducted by most cities 
 in the United Kingdom : 
 
 BATHS. CEMETERIES. 
 
 DRINKING FOUNTS AND TROUGHS. 
 ELECTRIC LIGHTING. FOUNTAINS. 
 FIRE DEPARTMENT.
 
 5i 
 
 GARBAGE AND REFUSE GATHERING. 55 cities 
 and towns in England destroy their garbage and solid 
 refuse by burning, and 570 furnaces are employed. 
 The heat is being used to develop electricity for street 
 lighting in many cases. There is no smell nor smoke 
 visible. 
 
 GAS LIGHTING. PARKS. 
 
 HEALTH DEPARTMENT. 
 
 PHYSICIANS FOR THE CITY. 
 
 PLAY GROUNDS. QUARANTINE. 
 
 SANITARIES. SEATS IN PARKS. 
 
 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE. In 1876, 65 towns 
 in England owned sewage farms. So also did lulin- 
 burgh in Scotland. 
 
 STREET CLEANING. STREET SPRINKLING. 
 
 WASH HOUSES, in Glasgow. 
 
 WATER W^ORKS. The following large cities have 
 their own municipal water-works : Birmingham (4°°,- 
 000 population), Bolton (106,000), Glasgow (800,000), 
 Hull (165,000), Leeds (300,000), Liverpool (600,000), 
 Manchester (1,000,000), Preston (100,000). (London 
 is supplied by 8 companies, closely supervised.) (Hull 
 has owned its water-works for over 400 years.) 
 
 STATE INTERFERENCE. 
 
 Alkali Work. Amusements. 
 
 Anchors. Auctioneers. 
 
 Baby Farms. Bakeries. 
 
 Bills of Sale, Lading, Exchange, Stocks, Notes, Bonds, 
 
 Mortoaofes, Leases. 
 Births. Boarding Houses. 
 
 Boiler Inspection. Breweries. 
 
 Bridges, Highway and Railway. 
 Brokers. Buildings. 
 
 Burials 
 Cabmen and Hack Carriages.
 
 55 
 
 Canal Boats. 
 Chemical Works. 
 Coats of Arms. 
 Copy-rights. 
 Corporations. 
 Dams. 
 Deaths. 
 Dentists. 
 Divorces. 
 Druggists. 
 Elections, 
 lilevators. 
 Endowed Schools. 
 Explosive Works. 
 Fire Arms. 
 Fisheries. 27,157 
 Foods. 
 
 Game Dealers. 
 Gas Meters. 
 Gun-barrels. 
 House Agents. 
 Insurance (all kinds). 
 Lecturers. 
 Letters Patent. 
 Marriages. 
 Merchant Vessels. 
 Mines. In 189 
 Milk Stores. 
 Naturalization. 
 Newspapers. 
 Omnibuses. 
 Patents. 
 Pawn Brokers, 
 Periodicals. 
 Pharmacists. 
 Places of W^orship. 
 there were 28,164 
 Plate Dealers. 
 
 Chains. 
 Clergymen. 
 Coffee Houses. 
 Common Lodging Houses. 
 Dairies. 
 
 Dancing Rooms. 
 Deeds, 
 Distilleries. 
 Dogs. 
 Electors. 
 Electric Works. 
 P^ndowed Charities. 
 P^ngineers. 
 Factories. 
 P^ish Curing. 
 Registered boats with 120,356 men. 
 Friendly Societies. 
 Game Keepers and Hunting. 
 Gas Works. 
 Hotels. 
 
 House Incomes. 
 Lawyers. 
 Legacies. 
 
 Limited Companies. 
 Merchant Shipping. 
 Midwifery. 
 664,300 persons employed in coal 
 Music Halls. [mines. 
 
 Newsboys. 
 Notaries. 
 Passports. 
 Patent Medicines. 
 Peddlers. 
 Physicians. 
 
 In 1893 in luigland and Wales 
 Playing-card Makers.
 
 66 
 
 Plumbing. Poor Law Schools. 
 
 Print Works. 
 
 Railways (a special Department). 
 
 Restaurants. Saloons. 
 
 Schools of Anatomy. Schools, Public and Private. 
 
 Ships. Street Railways. 
 
 Slaughter Houses. Steamboats. 
 
 Surgeons. Theatres. 
 
 Tobacconists. Trade Marks. 
 
 Vaccination. Vinegar Making. 
 
 Weights and Measures. Wine Dealers. 
 
 Workshops. &c., &c. 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 AREA, 204,092 sq. mi. POPULATION, 38,343,192 in 1892. 
 
 DEFENSE OF NATION. 
 
 ARMY, REGULAR, in 1893 total, 564,603. 
 
 Officers, 28,555. Men, 535,048. 
 
 Forts, numerous. 
 
 Expense in 1894 estimated at 636,701,630 francs. 
 MILITIA, in 1893 total 1,785,000. (ist Reserve.) 
 
 Armories, many. Armory Boards. 
 
 NAVY, in 1893 total, 76,320. 
 
 Ofificers of Ships and of Marines, 5,594- 
 
 Seamen and Marines, 70,726. 
 
 Battle Ships, 34. Port Defense Ships, 19. 
 
 Cruisers, 167. Torpedo Boats, 231. 
 
 Total War Vessels, 451. 
 
 Expense in 1894, 267,571,528 fr. 
 
 Total expense of Army and Navy for 1893, 904,273, i5( 
 fr. (or about ;$i8o, 854,631).
 
 67 
 FINANCE. 
 
 BANK OF FRANCE. This is a more than half-social- 
 ized institution. Founded in 1799. Capital, 182, 500,- 
 000 fr. Managed by a governor and two deputy- 
 governors appointed by the chief of State, assisted by 
 fifteen regents and three ccnseurs (elected by the share- 
 holders). It has sole note issue power ; discounts bills 
 and letters of exchange at three months when endorsed 
 by three signers ; collects bills payable handed in ; re- 
 ceives deposits and opens current accounts ; keeps in 
 trust coupons, deeds, silver and gold bars, bullion, and 
 jewels, for one per cent, per annum. It has a branch 
 in each of the 87 Departments (Provinces). The State 
 owns a great number of its shares, and by the decree 
 of cours force carries it safely through every crisis. It 
 is therefore not only the State cashier, but the safest 
 institution in the country. 
 
 BANKS, SAVINGS, POSTAL. Introduced in 1881. 
 In 1893 there were 2,095,623 depositors, with 607,871,- 
 925 fr. deposited at the end of the year. From 1881 
 to 1890 the net profit to the Government had been 
 $649,677.90. 
 
 COINAGE. From 1795 to Dec. 31, 1892, there had 
 been coined in gold 8,831,462,370 fr., in silver 5,534.- 
 675.124 fr. 
 
 CUSTOMS DEPARTMENT (Foreign Revenue), em- 
 ploys over 15,000 officers. 
 
 INTERNAL REVENUE DEPARTMENT, employs 
 over 20,000 officers. 
 
 NOTE ISSUE, only by Bank of France. 
 
 TAX COLLECTING DEPARTMENT. 
 
 TREASURY, in 1S94 total Government receipts esti- 
 mated at 3.437,463,955 fr- 
 
 LANDS. State Forests in 1S89 covered 1,070,477 hec- 
 tares. 1,915.370 h. belonged to Comm-mes and public 
 institutions, and are managed by the State. (About
 
 58 
 
 6,500,000 h. of forests belong to private individuals.) 
 The annual revenue to the State from its Forests ex- 
 ceeds 40,000,000 fr. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION. 
 
 ROADS, in 1892 there were 23,642 mi. of State roads 
 having an average of 12 meters width. There were 
 also 30,312 mi. of Provincial roads, and 1,000 mi. of 
 Military roads. 
 
 STREETS, in 1889 were estimated at 374,382 mi. 
 
 (Street Railways, mostly private. In 1892 there were in 
 France altogether 1,564 km. The Company lines in 
 Paris reverted to the General Government of France 
 on the expiration of their franchises. Underground 
 rapid transit by electric power has reached in Paris 
 the most advanced state in the world.) 
 
 (Street Lighting. The Paris municipality shares in the 
 profits of the gas companies to the extent of over 
 20,000,000 fr. yearly.) 
 
 EXPRESS SERVICE. 
 
 RAILWAYS, under State ownership in 1892, 5,878 km. 
 (3,643 mi.) (Under Company ownership, 28,913 km.) 
 The charters of Company railways stipulate that they 
 shall revert to the State at the end of 99 years, with 
 the right to purchase at any time before. The charters 
 require the railways to carry the mail free, so too the 
 officers and employees of the Government, and the 
 soldiers at very lowest rates. The companies pay the 
 State 10 % of the gross receipts on passenger traffic, 
 also on freights carried on passenger trains. The total 
 receipts. State and private, in 1893 were 1,1 59,500, ooofr. 
 
 RIVERS, NAVIGABLE, 11,855 km. 
 
 CANALS. State. 4,865 km. Profits for 1887, 2,433,05 ifr. 
 186 mi. of rivers have been converted into canals. 
 
 harbors. viaducts. 
 
 \vharvp:s and piers.
 
 59 
 
 BRIDGES, over 2,000 expensive ones. 
 
 BRIDGE ENGINEERS. SURVEYORS. 
 
 POSTAL SERVICE. Number of offices in 1890, 7,537. 
 Employees, about 35,060. (?) Money orders issued in 
 1890, 3,083,770,000 fr. 
 
 TELEGRAPH. State lines in 1892, 59,693 mi.; wire, 
 197,622 mi.; offices, 10,589. Telegraph and Post re- 
 ceipts, 197,837,606 fr.; expenses, 143,045,846 fr.; profits, 
 54,791,760 fr. 
 
 CABLES, 3,116.74 mi. (included above). 
 
 TELEPHONES, in 1890, 11,439 subscribers. 
 
 PNEUMATIC TUBES, 237 mi. in Paris. 
 
 SUBWAYS. MARKETS. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL BUREAUS. 
 
 ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH. Continual pro- 
 vision therefor by experts educated at the State ex- 
 pense. 
 
 ART GALLERIES. BAND CONCERTS. 
 
 BIOLOGICAL RESEARCH. 
 
 BOTANIC GARDENS. CENSUS BUREAU. 
 
 CHURCHES, STATE. Roman Catholics, Protestants 
 and Jews have State allowances. The Budget for 1894 
 grants 44,229,040 fr., (to Roman Catholics, 42,261,523 
 fr.) The Roman Catholics constitutes 78.5 % of the 
 population. Any sect numbering 100,000 adherents 
 is entitled to a grant from the State. There were 
 7,684,906 persons who "declined to make any declar- 
 ation of religious belief." 
 
 CLOCKS, TOWN. COAST SURVEYS. 
 
 CONCERT HALLS AND CASINOS. 
 
 EDUCATIONxA^L BUREAUS. 
 
 ENGRAVING BUREAUS.
 
 eo 
 
 ETHNOLOGICAL BUREAUS. 
 EXPLORING EXPEDITIONS. 
 EXPOSITIONS. FAIRS. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL and GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS. 
 LIBRARIES, Public in the chief towns. 
 METEOROLOGICAL BUREAUS. 
 MONUMENTS AND STATUES. 
 MUSEUMS, some of the best in the world. 
 OBSERVATORIES, three: Bureau des Longitudes, 
 
 and at Paris and Marseilles also. 
 PRINTING. READING ROOMS. 
 
 SCHOOLS, PUBLIC -. 
 
 Kindergartens in 1S91, 5,340, with 8,572 teachers, 
 
 and 709,579 pupils. 
 
 Primary in 18S9, 81,990, with 81,857 teachers, and 
 
 5,593,883 pupils, including private schols. 
 
 Secondary in 1890, 393, with 90,908 pupils. 
 
 Colleges, 44, with over 3,000 students. 
 
 Normal in 1891, 174, with 9,009 students. 
 
 Law in 1891, 15, with 4,750 students. 
 
 Medical in 1891, 6, with 6,590 students. 
 
 Theological in 1891, 2. 
 
 Art in 1891, 4. Music, i. 
 
 Domestic Economy. Forestry in 1S91, i. 
 
 Technological, 10. Mines, i. 
 
 Industrial, 4. Agricultural, 4. 
 
 Military, 9. Nautical, 27. 
 
 Blind. Deaf and Dumb. 
 
 "Free Establishments," 650, with 68,000 pupils. 
 
 State Expense for Education in 1893, 183,859,965 fr. 
 
 Teaching is a State service regulated by law or de- 
 cree. 
 THEOLOGICAL RESEARCH. The Musee Guimet 
 
 at Paris is an institution for the comparative and sci- 
 entific study of religion. It is munificently equipped 
 
 with library, apparatus, and professors. The inception
 
 61 
 
 and founding belong to the credit and generosity of 
 
 M. Emile Guimet, of Lyons. Tliere is no other of the 
 
 kind in the world. 
 ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS. 
 ZOOLOGICAL RESEARCH. 
 
 In recent years France has been making greater strides 
 of advancement in education than any country in the 
 world. The Franco-Prussian war taught her statesmen 
 a lesson not soon to be forgotten. As the result of a 
 recent examination of the public schools in Paris, the 
 New York School jfournal says : 
 
 " The primary public schools take the children from the age of 
 six to twelve. The education is given free ; in the primary schools 
 the girls learn housekeeping, from kitchen work and buying in 
 the market to mending and making their dresses ; and boys prac- 
 tice joinery and blacksmithing. They are in separate schools. 
 The girls only have women teachers. The course of studies and 
 the general discipline are the same for both sexes. Not more 
 than fifty scholars in the lower class or forty in the higher are 
 allowed. 
 
 The nezver school buildings are large, light and airy. Only 
 two children sit at a bench or desk. # 
 
 Books, paper, and all needed stationery are furnished to all the 
 scholars, rich or poor, free of charge. This averages about one 
 dollar per year for each. The children evidently do not know 
 the general geography so well as American pupils, but they seem 
 to be better up in all that concerns their own country. They know 
 how to count and reckon money, especially the girls; for women 
 are the cashiers and bookkeepers for their husbands. 
 
 The city furnishes a solid meal At the hour of noon. The meal 
 is usually served up in the covered play-room. Each has a bowl 
 of soup and a plate of steaming meat and vegetables. All bring 
 bread from home unless too poor, then the child receives a piece 
 of bread from the school. To get their portions, each child pre- 
 sents a copper check, costing from 3 to 4 cents ; the poor have 
 one given them. 
 
 Clothing and shoes are also furnished to the children whose pa- 
 rents cannot furnish what is necessary to put them on a footing 
 of decent equality with all the rest, as French school children 
 wear uniforms. The money for this is got mainly by subscription 
 by the school directors. 
 
 As vacations can be made to serve to education as well as to 
 health, vacation journeys and school colonies are planned for.
 
 62 
 
 These journeys usually occupy a day, but they are frequently for 
 a week ; while one ward has begun school colonies that take the 
 children away from their families and the city for an entire month. 
 The children who are to enjoy free trips to the country for a day 
 are chosen among all who have behaved themselves; the children 
 of well-to-do parents are not supposed to compete ; usually they 
 are off for the vacation with their own families, so that children 
 of the poorest families who are the best behaved are selected. 
 
 Cymnastics is o.bligatory both for the girls and the boys. Du- 
 ring the class recess of one half hour, morning and evening, 
 specially appointed teachers supervise exercises on parallel bars, 
 swinging ropes and rings, ladders, dumb-bells, and all the rest. 
 These teachers have to have a special certificate of proficiency in 
 gymnastic teaching. In the girls' school special favor is shown to 
 a Swedish arrangement of cords and rope ladders pulling against 
 a stout spiral spring (it is known as the Pichery apparatus). Besides 
 there is a great amount of military drill ; each boys' school has its 
 own battalion. 
 
 Ma filial trainifig h?i^he^n introduced into the public schools; 
 one-half of the two hundred schools for boys are fitted up with 
 shops for working in wockI, and fifteen have provision for iron 
 work. Much attention is now given to joiners' work. The girls 
 learn sewing, mending, darning stockings and the making of baby 
 linen. Drawing and singing are taught to all. 
 
 The next teaching above that in the primary schools just des- 
 scribed are complementary classes, from 12 to 15. These are for 
 the advanced mathematics and natural sciences, especially in 
 their practical every-day applications, for bookkeeping and the 
 modern languages, for drawing, and a little more music ; atten- 
 tion is now more than ever given to practical working with the 
 hands. The girls are taught all kinds of sewing, receive special 
 lessons in the cutting out and making up of clothes. They study 
 the qualities of foods and drinks, the elementary principles of 
 cooking and providing for household necessities, the concocting 
 of simple remedies for sickness, washing and ironing, heating and 
 lighting, and all that concerns the management of the home. 
 They go by turns through real kitchen and laundry work. In the 
 former they are called on to do the marketing of the day's meal 
 for their set, under the eyes of the teacher and the cooking mis- 
 tress. They are allowed to dispose of ten francs for the meal of 
 ten persons. They have eight bills of fare to make up in winter 
 and as many more in summer." 
 
 FOOD PRODUCTION. 
 
 Through the National Agricultural Department the 
 Government carries on a careful inspection and system
 
 63 
 
 of encouragement to food producers and horse breeders. 
 
 It organizes provincial shows of cattle, implements and 
 
 agricultural products. It spends millions of francs yearly 
 
 as premiums to the owners of the best stock in horses, 
 
 cattle, sheep, &c. 
 
 Besides these the State owns and manages the 
 
 SHEEP-FOLDS of Haut-Tingry and Rambouillet. 
 
 COW-HOUSE of Carbon, for Durhams only. 
 
 STALLION-STABLES in 22 central towns, contain- 
 ing some 1,200 horses, and costing annually about 
 2,000,000 fr. 
 
 MEANS PRODUCTION. 
 
 CAR BUILDING. DRY DOCKS. , 
 
 ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT. 
 FOUNDRIES. 
 
 GUNPOWDER, State monopoly. The Government 
 monopolies of Tobacco, Gunpowder, Post and Tele- 
 graph yield 20 % of the State Revenue. The Budget 
 for 1894 makes total revenue, 3,437,463,935 fr., of this 
 628,901,980 fr. are from Government monopolies. 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE WORKS. 
 
 MATCHES. Government owns and operates a match 
 factory at Sainteneo. 
 
 PORCELAIN FACTORIES. The famous "Sevres 
 China" factory has been French Government property 
 for nearly 200 years. There are 18 private establish- 
 ments of this kind in France, but the one at Sevres is 
 first in importance. The State also maintains a school 
 in connection with it for the training of artistic work- 
 men, and thus the art is maintained in a high degree 
 of perfection. 
 
 SHIP BUILDING. 
 
 TAPESTRY FACTORIES. The celebrated " Gobe- 
 lin Tapestries" are made in factories owned by the 
 State for 200 years.
 
 64 
 
 TOBACCO. State monopoly. In 1892, 15,467 hectares 
 produced. 229,974 quintals in 21 great establishments. 
 (i hectare, 2.47 acres.) 
 
 LAW AND ORDER. 
 
 Republic. Constitution adopted Feb. 25, 1875. 
 
 ALLOTMENTS. AMBASSADORS. 
 
 APPORTIOXIXG BOARDS. 
 
 APPRAISING COMMISSIONERS. 
 
 ARBITRATION COMMISSIONERS and Bureaus in 
 1887 decided 47,917 cases. 29,269 over wages. These 
 commissions have 26 members, 13 each of employees 
 and employers. 
 
 ASSAYING COMMISSIONERS. 
 
 ASSESSING BOARD. AUDITING BOARDS. 
 
 BANKRUPT REGISTRY. 
 
 CIVIL SERVICE BOARDS. 
 
 COMPTROLLERS. CONSULS. 
 
 CORONERS. COPYRIGHT BUREAUS. 
 
 CORPORATION COUNSELS. 
 
 COURTS OF JUSTICE. All Judges are nominated 
 by the President of the Republic. Budget of Minister 
 of Justice in 1893, 34,819,500 fr. 
 
 Cassation, i at Paris, i first President, 3 Presidents 
 of Sections, and 45 Councilors. 
 
 Supreme or Appeal, i President and 4 Councilors. 
 Assize. 12 jurors ; decision by majority. 
 Police. No jury. 3 judges in each. 
 Justices of the Peace. 
 
 ENCUMBRANCE BUREAUS. 
 
 EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. President and Cabi- 
 net of 10 Ministers. President's salary, 600,000 fr. and 
 600,000 fr. for expenses. The gain to France from the 
 socialization of the head of the executive department 
 alone is shown by these facts; Louis XVIII had 15,-
 
 65 
 
 5co,ooo fr. per annum and 4,000,000 fr. for the royal 
 family ; Charles X got 25,000,000 fr. and 7,000,000 fr. for 
 the princes ; Louis Philippe, 1 2,000,000 fr. and a round 
 sum for his children , and the Second Empire cost 
 25,000,000 fr., besides pensions to imperial family, 
 palaces, castles, forests, and mysterious resources 
 called z'ivcments. 
 
 JURY, PETIT. 
 
 LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLIES. 
 
 National. Senate has 300 members, elected for 9 
 years. Deputies, 584 members elected for 4 years. 
 Members of each House are paid 9,000 fr. (about 
 ^i,Soo) yearly, besides travelling free on all railways. 
 The session begins in January, and lasts five months. 
 The appropriation for President, Chamber, and Senate 
 in 1894 was 13,171,720 fr. 
 
 Provincial. 87 Departments. Each has a Prefect and 
 representatives of all the Ministries. 
 Municipal. 36,140 Communes, with Municipal Coun- 
 cils of 10 to 36 members (in Paris, 80). 
 Cantonal, 2,871, including about 12 Communes each. 
 Their chief officer is a Justice of the Peace. 
 Arrondissements, 362. These have elected conscil 
 for allotting taxes, &c. 
 
 MARRIAGES. MINISTERS, FOREIGN. 
 
 PARK COMMISSIONERS. 
 
 PATENT OFFICES. PILOT BOARDS. 
 
 POLICE, or Gendarmes, 20,919 in 1888; " Commissaires 
 de Police," 1,087 » Agents of Police, 14, 1 1 1 ; " Gardes 
 des Champetres," 31,522; private sworn "gardes," 
 38,751 ; forest "gardes," 7,649 ; fishing police, 5,085 ; 
 customs officials, 21,648. Total, 140,772. 
 
 PORT WARDENS- POUNDS. 
 
 PRISONS. In 1888 the total inmates were 44,248. 
 Police Stations, or " Houses of arrest." Of these 
 there were 3,134 in 1S88.
 
 66 
 
 Jails, or "Departmental prisons," 3S0 in iSSS, with 
 
 24,967 inmates. 
 
 Reformatories, 44 in iSSS, with 6,099 inmates in 1887, 
 
 Penitentiaries, 21 (16 for men and 5 for women), 
 
 with 13,182 inmates in 1888, 
 
 Transportation Colonies in New Caledonia and 
 
 Guiana, with 13,000 in 1888. 
 RAILWAY COMMISSIONS. 
 REGISTRARS OF DEEDS. 
 RIVER COMMISSIONS. SECRET SERVICE. 
 
 RELIEF AND CHARITIES. 
 
 There is no general State system for poor relief The 
 
 care is by Communes, Departments, and Church ; and, 
 
 though considerable, is very inadequate. 
 
 ANNUITY GRANTS. 
 
 CHARITY BUREAUS, or " Bureaux de Bienfaisance," 
 15,138 in 188S, with a total revenue of 38,359,101 fr. 
 The expense was 35,893,331 fr. There were 1,647,720 
 persons relieved. 
 
 DISPENSARIES. 
 
 HOMES FOR AGED, ORPHANS, AND IDIOTS. 
 
 HOSPITALS; GENERAL, also EPIDEMIC. 
 
 HOSPITALS, INFANT. At the end of 18S8 there were 
 2,068 sick inmates, 59,535 domiciled in the country, 
 and 44,598 who were being assisted in their homes. 
 The total expense was 17,159,681 fr. 
 
 HOSPITALS, INSANE. In the same year there were 
 61 public and 41 private (of which 17 received the poor 
 gratuitously). 
 LIFE SAVING. LIGHT HOUSES. 
 
 NURSERIES. 
 
 PAWN SHOPS. The municipal pawn shop is an insti- 
 tution closely associated with the Charity Bureaus 
 and Town Councils of 44 towns and cities in France.
 
 67 
 
 Some of them have been endowned, such as those of 
 Montpellier and Grenoble. These charge no interest 
 at all. Of the others the highest rate is 12 %. (In 
 England where the private system prevails, the lowest 
 rate is 25 %.) Even at the very low rate, the munici- 
 pal pawn shop adds something of an income toward 
 assisting the indigent sick. Its scope is wide and its 
 usefulness great. It has all the dignity and respecta- 
 bility of other municipal institutions. It is a bank for 
 the poor man, and a safe deposit vault for the rich. 
 They are called " ^lonts de Piete." They were first 
 established in Paris in 1777. 
 
 PENSION DEPARTMENT. POOR HOUSES. 
 
 SCHOOL MEALS, for Paris children. 
 
 WORK FOR UNEMPLOYED. 710 Bureaus in 188S. 
 They have proved a great remedy against strikes. 
 
 SAXITATIOX AND SAFETY. 
 
 The Government provision in these respects are num- 
 erous and extensive. The details are difficult to obtain. 
 The following are some of the more important instances : 
 BATHS, PUBLIC. 
 
 DRINKING FOUNTS AND TROUGHS. 
 ELECTRIC LIGHTING. 
 FIRE DEPARTMENT. 
 FORESTRY. Receipts from .State Forests in 1S93 were 
 
 28,194,300 fr. From other domains and State manu- 
 facturies in 1S93, 17,689,000 fr. 
 FOUNTAINS. GAS LIGHTING. 
 
 GARBAGE AND REFUSE GATHERING. 
 HEALTH DEPARTMENT. 
 PARKS. PLAYGROUNDS. 
 
 QUARANTINE. SANITARIES. 
 
 SEATS IN PARKS.
 
 68 
 
 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE. 
 STREET CLEANING. SLAUGHTER HOUSES. 
 STREET SPRINKLING. 
 
 WATER WORKS. All the larger towns enjoy munici- 
 pal ownership. 
 
 STATE INTERFERENCE. 
 
 In France every business is licensed and taxed a low 
 rate toward the support of the Government. In a nation 
 so highly socialized, the division of labors is very great, 
 and the number of businesses over which the State ex- 
 ercises some sort of regulation by requiring license, 
 registration or inspection, reaches many thousands. 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 AREA, 208,738 sq. mi. POPULATION, 49,428,470 in 1893. 
 
 A nation is a social organism going through processes of evo- 
 lution. This evolution is progressive when the nation is active 
 and the people are individually interested and inspired by hope- 
 ful motives. Under such conditions, the sympathies of the people 
 are further and further expanded, and in their acts they cooperate 
 more and more. This means the socialization of enterprises. 
 Ultimately, great parties arise whose function it is to urge this 
 point of view upon the nation as a whole. Such is the case in 
 Germany. 
 
 The growth of the Social Democratic Party, since the found- 
 ing of the German Empire, has been most remarkable. In 1864, 
 at Lasalle's death, the Universal Workingmen's Association 
 (which he organized) had only 4,610 members. After the Franco- 
 Prussian War it became a party of some importance, and in 1874 
 it elected 9 members to the Reichstag. 
 
 The number of votes polled by this party at various elections 
 has been as follows :
 
 69 
 
 In 1871, 124,655 votes. 
 
 In 1874, 351.952 votes. 
 
 In 1877, 493,288 votes. 
 
 In 1878, 437,158 votes. 
 
 In iS8r 311,961 votes. 
 
 In 1884 549.990 votes. 
 
 In 1888, 763,128 votes. 
 
 In 1890, 1,427,298 votes. 
 
 In 1983 1,876,738 votes. 
 
 It is now the largest of the four great political parties in Ger- 
 many. Although as a party, it has not gotten the credit of the 
 great social advances which have been made in Germany, yet it is 
 an incontrovertible fact that the General Government is continu- 
 ally accepting the positions and legalizing the claims made by this 
 fast growing body. This feature gives a pateryialistic character 
 to all phases of socialism in Germany, i. e., the leaders in the 
 Government are continually forced by the social-democrats to give 
 attention to problems in which they would otherwise have no inter- 
 est. The growing sympathy with the principles of social democ- 
 racy compels the Imperial and subordinate powers to put into law 
 and practice these advanced principles. Having done so, they 
 claim the credit of being leaders in progress. This situation keeps 
 the new party before the world in the light of a set of theorizers, 
 and all the undiscriminating world looks on and says: " What a 
 progressive and liberal government Germany has, and what a set 
 of unreasonable cranks the German socialists are !" 
 
 Hence, although Germany is among the most socialistic of 
 countries, yet Democratic Socialism is vigorously opposed by 
 the Government. Assemblies of socialists are forbidden. Karl 
 Marx, the greatest of social teachers, was driven from home and 
 died an exile in England. He has influenced the trend of Ger- 
 man Social Policy more than any other man, not excepting Bis- 
 marck. Yet his disciples are hunted out of the country. The 
 saying, "to accept a principle and to damn the advocate," is 
 curiously illustrated in Germany. (See further Bronson C. Keel- 
 er's Lecture before Sunset Club, Chicago, 1S91.) 
 
 DEFENSE OF NATION. 
 
 ARMY, Regular, in 1893, total 511,885. 
 Officers. 20,662. Men, 491,223. 
 
 Forts, 17 fortified places of the first-class, and 19 other 
 fortresses. Forts are all connected with each other by 
 underground telegraphs. Strategical railway lines 
 lead from chief military centers to frontiers.
 
 70 
 
 Expense of Army in 1893, 568,908,314 marks. 
 MILITIA in 1892, total 1,904,415. 
 
 Armories, numerous. Armory Boards. 
 
 NAVY in 1893, total 18,469. 
 
 Ofificers of Ships and Marines, 1,023. 
 
 Seamen and Marines, 17,446. 
 
 Battle Ships, 14. Port Defense Ships, 14. 
 
 Cruisers, 43. Torpedo Boats, 141. 
 
 Total War Vessels, 212. 
 
 Expense of Navy in 1893, 95,911,402 marks. 
 
 Total expense of Army and Navy in 1893, 664,819,716 
 
 marks, (or abont $166,000,000). 
 
 FINANCE. 
 
 BANK, Imperial. 99,708,891,000 marks exchanged in 
 1889. With branches in chief towns. Partly socialized, 
 but not so much so as thfe Bank of P'rance. 
 
 POSTAL SAVINGS BANKS. 
 
 COINAGE. Total coined since 1872, 3,164,158,200 
 marks (gold, silver, nickel and copper). 
 
 CUSTOMS DEPARTMENT (Foreign Revenue). 
 
 INTERNAL REVENUE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 LOTTERIES. In Prussia, in the Budget for 1894, the 
 lottery revenue is put at 73,013,700 marks. 
 
 NOTE ISSUE. Notenbanken (only 9 in 1892). In 
 1889 the notes then issued amounted to 1,312,203,400 
 marks. 
 
 TAX COLLECTING DEPARTMENT. 
 
 TREASURY DEPARTMENT. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION. 
 
 PATPIS. STREETS. 
 
 ROADS, 265,000 mi. in 1S90. 
 
 STRPLP^T RAILWAYS, under municipal ownership, in 
 1S90 Kopernick, Weislock, and several other cities.
 
 71 
 
 In Berlin the company franchise expires in 191 1, and 
 the plant then reverts to the city, (87 cities, in all, 
 had street railways in 1892.) 
 STREET LIGHTING. In 1892 there were 1,500 Gas 
 plants in the various German cities. A very large 
 number of them are owned by the municipalities. 30 
 of the largest cities own and operate their gas works. 
 Among these are Berlin, Hamburg, Breslau, Leipsic, 
 Dresden, Cologne, Konigsberg, Bremen, Dusseldorf, 
 Nuremberg, Dantzig, Magdeburg, Chemnitz, Barmen, 
 Stettin, and Brunswick. Those cities who do not own 
 the plants test the illuminating power of the gas daily. 
 About one-fourth of all the artificial light used in the 
 great European cities is for streets and public places. 
 The public at home and on the street, thus get the 
 best quality at the lowest rates. (Gas is also largely 
 used for power, there being in 1892 no less than 170,- 
 000 engines,) 
 
 Electricity. Among the German cities which own elec- 
 tric plants are : Hamburg, Lubeck, Barmen, Konigs- 
 berg, Metz, Darmstadt, Duisburg, (before 1890), tlien 
 Breslau, Cologne, Dusseldorf, Altona, and Cassel. 
 Dresden and Stuttgart have decided to enter on this 
 at once. Leipsic has given a franchise to a private 
 company on good terms to the city, with the provi.sion 
 that the plant shall become the property of the city at 
 end of the term. 
 
 How the public interest is looked after when franchises 
 are granted, may be seen in the case of the relations 
 the Berlin Electric LigJit Co., whose contract was made 
 in 1888. Dr. Albert Shaw says : " It defines the area 
 within which the company may operate. It requires 
 under heavy penalties that the area be fully provided 
 with main wires within a brief period specified in the 
 contract. As compensation for permission (now ex- 
 clusive) to use the streets, it is agreed that the Munic- 
 ipal treasury shall receive 10% of the company's gross 
 receipts, and, further, that whenever the company earns
 
 72 
 
 a net profit of more than 6 % on its actual investment 
 of capital, the city treasury shall receive 25 % of such 
 excess profits, in addition to its 10 % of the gross in- 
 come. Still further, it is agreed that the company 
 shall provide the magnificent electric illumination of 
 Unter-den-Linden, together with that of the ^otsdamer 
 Platz and the Leipsiger Strasse, with all expense of 
 maintainace and attendance^ at a price so low as to be 
 nominal. Besides this, a special and favorable rate is 
 provided for such further electric street lighting as the 
 municipality may desire. The city authorities retain 
 the fullest rights of inspection, both technical and fi- 
 nancial, and all the compan)''s affairs are open to the 
 knowledge of responsible public officials. The city 
 requires the deposit of 250,000 marks as caution 
 money, and holds the company down to the strictest 
 rules in regard to the laying of wires and the breaking 
 up of street or sidewalk surfaces. The company is 
 required, moreover, to maintain a renewal fund equal 
 to 20 % of its invested capital, and this fund, in the 
 form of Berlin municipal bonds, must be kept on de- 
 posit with the city magistrates. Accompanying the 
 agreement was an official schedule of rates that the 
 company was authorized to charge its private patrons. 
 No departures from established rates can be made 
 without consent of the city authorities. Finally, the 
 municipality reserves the right to buy the entire plant 
 and all its appurtenances at any time after Oct. ist, 
 1895, upon a fair basis of valuation carefully provided 
 for in the contract." 
 
 Here is a moral lesson for American towns and cities, 
 and it would certainly be interesting reading for many 
 of our corporations. 
 
 EXPRESS SERVICE, chiefly by Government agency 
 though not entirely monopolized. 
 
 RAILWAYS. Under State ownership, 23,843 mi. in 
 1892.
 
 (Under private ownership, 3,123 mi. 296 of which are 
 worked by Government.) 
 
 The Government first assumed ownership of railroad 
 in 1843. 
 
 The cost to end of 1892 has been 10,726,246,000 marks. 
 Receipts for 1892 on Government roads were 1,348,- 
 864,000 mks. Expenses, 876,054,000 mks. Profits, 
 472,810,000 mks. (In 1890 the net profit was 500,- 
 668,687 mks.) 
 
 The average passenger fare is .0117 cts. per mile, and 
 the average freight rate is .0147 cts. per ton per mile. 
 During the last ten years the net profit has increased 
 41 %, and wages are 121 % higher than under private 
 ownership. The fare for 3d class travel (which is a 
 large per cent, of all) is only i cent for 4 miles. 
 The State employed 340,553 persons on railways in 
 1890, and paid them 404,286,555 marks (about $90,- 
 220,000). 
 
 There were 59,130 other persons employed in shops, 
 on repairing, gas making, &c. There were 1,316 em- 
 ployees for every 100 miles of road in 1S90. 
 There were 7,371 stations, and 1,305 signal stations. 
 In speed, the law prescribes a limit of 50 to 55 mi. an 
 hour for main line passenger trains with air-brakes. 
 The fastest trains in the world, taking the average 
 speed, are on the Berlin and Hamburg line of 178 
 miles, where the rate for through passenger trains 
 averages 48.9 miles an hour. 
 
 In 1893, 46 passengers were killed and 236 were in- 
 jured ; i. e., .03 cases of death or injury for every 
 1,000,000 passenger kilometers. Travelling by rail 
 in Germany is computed to be 20 times safer and 8 
 times faster than on common highways. 
 
 RIVERS, Navigable, 10,000 km. Since 1S20 great 
 changes have been made in rivers. Mouths altered, 
 bottoms dredged, and wider dams built. 
 
 CANALS, State, 70, reaching 3,000 km. Nortlj Sea 
 and Baltic Canal is being built. To be completed in
 
 1894. Cost, ^37,500,000. 62 mi. long, 28 ft. deep at 
 low water. 
 
 HARBORS. 
 
 WHARVES AND PIERS. In Hamburg a source of 
 great revenue. 
 
 VIADUCTS. BRIDGES. 
 
 BRIDGE ENGINEERS. SURVEYORS. 
 
 POSTAL SERVICE, Offices, 27.644 in 1892. (2 mails 
 a day in the smallest communities.) Postal and Tele- 
 graphic systems were combined in 1874, and money 
 orders issued, 21,444,464,679 marks. 
 Value of all sendings, 28,000,000,000 marks. 
 The Post traverses annually 45,260,000 mi. of country 
 roads. 
 
 TELEGRAPH, State Lines, 73.198 mi. in 1892. Wire, 
 259,628 mi., (all wires are underground, even in the 
 country.) Offices, 18,739. 
 
 Receipts, including Post, for 1892, 279,295,305 marks. 
 Expenses of both, 258,206,047 marks. Profits, 21,089,- 
 258 marks. Rate to any part of the Empire is 5 cts. 
 for 10 words. In the United States the average charge 
 per message was 31.2 cts. with a profit of 1 1.3 cts. on 
 each. 
 
 Employees, including Post, 154,117 persons. 
 Firsi State TclegrapJi was in 1846 between Jicrlin and 
 Potsdam. 
 
 CABLES. 
 
 TELEPHONES, in 360 towns and cities, with 10,000 
 km. of line, 125, 000 km. of wire, and 72 000 speaking- 
 places. The charge is 150 marks (about ^36) a )e!r 
 for telephone and no charge for switches. (In New 
 York the Bell Telephone monopoly charge $240 a 
 year.) 
 
 SUBWAYS. CATTLE YARDS. 
 
 MARKETS. RESTAURANTS. 
 
 SALOONS. DRUGSTORES.
 
 to 
 EDUCATION, 
 
 AGRICULTURAL BUREAUS. 
 
 ARCH^OLOGICAL RESEARCH at Rome, Athens, 
 and Olympia. 
 
 ART GALLERIES. BAND CONXERTS. 
 
 BIOLOGICAL RESEARCH, Institute in Heligoland, 
 besides University work. 
 
 BOTANIC GARDENS. CENSUS BUREAUS. 
 
 CHURCHES, State. Lutheran, Reformed, (or in some 
 places the Union) and Roman Catholic. Each has 
 grants from the States. (Even the Jews in Baden.) 
 Jesuits interdicted in all parts of Germany. So all 
 convents and religious orders, except for nursing. 
 
 CLOCKS, TOWN. COAST SURVEYS. 
 
 CONCERT HALLS. 
 
 EDUCATIONAL BUREAUS. 
 
 ENGRAVING BUREAUS. 
 
 ETHNOLOGICAL BUREAUS. 
 
 EXPLORING EXPEDITIONS. African and Polar. 
 
 EXPOSITIONS. 
 
 FAIRS. E- g- in World's Fair at Chicago, and others. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL and GF.OLOGICAL SURVEYS. 
 
 LIBRARIES. 
 
 METEOROLOGICAL BUREAUS, in Berlin, &c. 
 
 MONUMENTS and STATUES. MUSEUMS. 
 
 NEWSPAPERS. The Leipziger Zeitiing is owned and 
 conducted by the Saxon Government. It is a daily 
 newspaper, and not an official organ. Also the Rciclis 
 Anzeiger, Berlin. 
 
 OBSERVATORIES. Astro-Physical at Potsdam, &:c. 
 
 PRINTING. The Imperial office produces a small rev- 
 enue. 
 
 READING ROOMS.
 
 Hi 
 
 SCHOOLS. (State.) 
 Kindergartens. 
 
 Primary, in 1891, 56,560, with 120,030 teachers and 
 7,925,000 pupils. 
 
 Secondary, in 1891, 1,192. (Expense, 242,400,000 
 marks.) 
 
 Colleges and Universities, in 1892, 22, with 2,431 
 teachers, and 30,415 Students. 
 Normal. Law. 
 
 Medical. Theological. 
 
 Art. Mines, 3. 
 
 Music, in 1892, 7. 
 
 Technological, 48 (9 higher Polytechnical). 
 Forestry, 4. Industrial, 23. 
 
 Agricultural, 180, also many night schools, and 90 
 itinerant teachers who lecture before agricultural so- 
 cieties. (4 High schools of Agriculture.) 
 Beer Brewing Institute at Berlin. 
 Military, 20. Nautical, 48. 
 
 Blind. Deaf and Dumb. 
 
 Expense in 1892, $24,000,000. This is only the Imper- 
 ial grants. In Prussia alone the cost of public instruc- 
 tion in 1891-92 was 232,556,000 marks (or $58,131,500). 
 
 TECHNICAL AND MECHANICAL Experiment Bu- 
 reau. The Imperial Physico-Technical Institute in 
 Charlottenburg (Berlin) exists for the permanent ele- 
 vation of Mechanical technology, carries on purely 
 scientific research, and makes the finest physical meas- 
 urements. 
 
 THEATRES. "Imperial" not national. 
 
 THEOLOGICAL RESEARCH. Oriental Seminaries, 
 also Christian Museum at Berlin. 
 
 ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS. 
 
 ZOOLOGICAL RESEARCH. 
 
 (In Berlin in 1890 there were 1S4 schools, with 3,800 
 teachers, and 172,278 pupils.)
 
 77 
 FOOD PKODUCTION. 
 
 In Productive enterprises under State management, 
 
 Germany leads the world. 
 
 BREWERIES. COW MEADOWS. 
 
 DISTILLERIES. 
 
 FARMING, undertaken for criminals and unemployed. 
 Especially the Sewage Farm of Berlin which covers 30 
 sq. mi. By it the city has redeemed much barren land, 
 and the enterprise, though only some four years old 
 and undertaken at a cost of 120,000,000 marks, is al- 
 ready beginning to pay a surplus revenue. 
 
 FISH COMMISSIONS. IRRIGATION. 
 
 MINERAL SPRINGS. WINE CELLARS. 
 
 SALT MINES AND WELLS. 
 
 SALT WORKS. VINEYARDS. 
 
 MEANS PRODUCTION. 
 
 BLAST FURNACES. CAR BUILDING. 
 
 CLAY PITS. COAL MINES. 
 
 COBALT MINES. COPPER MINES. 
 
 DRY DOCKS. 3 Imperial Docks at Wilhelmshafen, 
 Kiel, Dantzic. 
 
 ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT. 
 
 FOUNDRIES. IRON MINES. 
 
 LEAD MINES, LIME QUARRIES. 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE WORKS. 14 Imperial in 1892. 
 
 MINES. In all mines in 1S92, 421,000 employees, total 
 wages, $97,257,750- 
 
 PEARL FISHERIES. PEAT BEDS. 
 
 PORCELAIN FACTORIES. The "Dresden China" 
 factory has for 180 years been the property of the Gov- 
 ernment of Saxony. It employs 800 persofts, and is 
 the largest porcelain factory in the world. The Royal 
 Prussian Porcelain Factory at Berlin, founded in 1750,
 
 and handed over to the State in 1763, has also an ex- 
 perimental and teaching institution. 
 
 QUININE. QUARRIES. 
 
 ROPE WALKS. SAW MILLS. 
 
 SHIP BUILDING. Of War vessels. 
 
 SILVER MINES. The largest in Europe is at Him- 
 melsfurst (at Goslau in Saxony). 
 
 SMELTING WORKS. ULTRAMARINE WORKS. 
 
 LAW AND ORDER. 
 
 Commercial and criminal laws are uniform through- 
 out the Empire. Not so civil. All Departments dupli- 
 cated in each of the 26 states. 
 
 AMBASSADORS. 
 
 APPORTIONING BOARDS. 
 
 APPRAISING COMMISSIONERS. 
 
 ARBITRATION COMMISSIONERS. 
 
 ASSAYING COMMISSIONERS. 
 
 ASSESSING BOARDS. AUDITING BOARDS. 
 
 BANKRUPT REGISTRY. 
 
 CIVIL SERVICE BOARDS. 
 
 COMPTROLLERS. CONSULS. 
 
 COPYRIGHT BUREAUS. 
 
 CORONERS, or " Kreis-Physicus." 
 
 CORPORATION COUNSELS. 
 
 COURTS OF JUSTICE. Total Judges in all Courts of 
 the Empire (except the Supreme) in 1893, 7,397. Total 
 convicted in Amts and Land-Gerichte in 1891, 391,064. 
 
 Supreme or Reichsgerichte, 79 Judges, appointed by 
 Emperor on advice of Bundesrath. Has 4 criminal 
 and 6 civil senates. Appellate over all other courts. 
 
 Oberlandesgerichte, 28. 7 Judges in its criminal 
 senate.
 
 79 
 
 Landgerichte, :!nd court. 172, with 5 Judges for cri- 
 minal cases, and 3 Judges and 12 jurymen for other 
 cases. 
 
 Amtsgerichte, lowest court. In 1S92, 1,919 each with 
 one Judge. 
 
 ENCUMBRANCE BUREAUS. 
 
 EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS. Emperor and Chan- 
 cellor and 1 2 Secretaries of Departments of State. 
 
 EMIGRATION BUREAUS. 
 
 INTER-STATE COMMERCE COMMISSIONS. 
 
 JURY COMMISSIONERS. 
 
 JURIES GRAND. JURIES PETIT. 
 
 LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLIES. 
 
 National. Bundesrath, 58 members appointed by the 
 Governments of individual states for each session. 
 Reichstag, 397 members elected for 5 years. 
 Provincial. The 26 States are kingdoms, princi- 
 palities, &c. 
 Municipal, in all towns. 
 
 MARRIAGES, must be civil. 
 
 MINISTERS, FOREIGN. 
 
 PARK COMMISSIONERS. 
 
 PATENT 0FFICP:S. POLICE. 
 
 PORT WARDENS. POUNDS. 
 
 PRISONS : 
 
 Police Stations. Jails, 
 
 Houses of Juvenile Correction. 
 
 Reformatories. Penitentiaries. 
 
 RAILROAD COMMISSIONS. 
 REGISTRARS OF DEEDS. 
 SECRET SERVICE. RIVER COMMISSIONS. 
 
 RELIEF AND CHARITIES. 
 
 Each Gemeinde (by Imperial law of 1890) must pro- 
 vide for its own poor. (Compare the English method.)
 
 80 
 
 Those of no local settlement are cared for by the State 
 
 to which they belong. 
 
 ANNUITY GRANTS. CHARITY BUREAUS. 
 
 DISPENSARIES. 
 
 HOMES FOR 
 
 Aged. Orphans. 
 
 Idiots. Insane. 
 
 Sailors. Soldiers. 
 
 HOSPITALS : 
 
 General. Epidemic. 
 
 Insane. Lying In. 
 
 Marine. Eye and Ear. 
 
 Orthopedic. 
 HOUSES OF REFUGE. 
 INSURANCE : 
 
 Accident, Imperial. Obligatory for all wage-earners. 
 
 Includes 15,000,000 persons. 
 
 Fire. Life. 
 
 Old Age. Includes 12,000,000 persons. 
 
 Sickness. Includes 7,000,000 persons. 3% of wages. 
 LIFE SAVING. LIGHT HOUSES. 
 
 LODGING HOUSES. Cost nothing for 5 nights in a 
 
 month. 
 PAWN SHOPS. 
 PENSION DEPARTMENT. Budget estimate for i .S94, 
 
 44,793,000 marks. 
 POOR HOUSES. In 1885 total receiving public relief, 
 
 1,592,386 (3.4% of population). 
 SIGNAL CORPS. 
 
 SANITATION AND SAFETY. 
 
 BATHS, in many places. CEMETERIES. 
 DRINKING FOUNTS AND TROUGHS. 
 ELECTRIC LIGHTING. 
 FIRE DEPARTMENTS.
 
 <S1 
 
 FORESTRY. 4,545,496 hectares belong to the State 
 and the Crown. Managed by a staff of scientifically 
 trained men. There are 4 special schools of forestry. 
 All forests are under State control as to care, &c. From 
 forests and domains alone Prussia receives a revenue 
 of about $19,440,000. 
 
 FOUNTAINS. 
 
 GARBAGE AND REFUSE GATHERING. 
 
 GAS LIGHTING. PARKS. 
 
 HEALTH DEPARTMENT. 
 
 PHYSICIANS FOR THE CITY. 
 
 PLAY GROUNDS. QUARANTINE. 
 
 SANITARIES. SEATS IN PARKS. 
 
 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE. 
 
 SLAUGHTER HOUSES. STREET CLEANING. 
 
 STREET SPRINKLING. 
 
 WATERING-PLACES. 
 
 WATER WORKS, in all large and most small towns, 
 they are usually owned and managed by the munici- 
 palities. 
 
 STATE INTERFERENCE. 
 
 All businesses and all events in any way interesting to 
 or affecting the community as a whole are registered, 
 licensed, inspected or restricted. The responsibility of 
 the individnal to society has reached a highly socialized 
 stage of consciousness in Germany. The form of Gov- 
 ernment being monarchy makes the State regulation 
 assume the unwholesome phase of "paternalism." The 
 ideal should be regulation "by the people." 
 
 BERLIN MUNICIPAL AFFAIRS. 
 
 In Germany the municipal interest is very strong. Albert Shaw 
 says (Century for July, 1S94.) " The German city holds itself re- 
 sponsible for the education of all ; for the provision of amuse- 
 ment and the means of recreation ; for the adaptation of the
 
 82 
 
 training of the young to the necessities of gaining a livelihood , 
 for the health of families ; for the moral interests of all ; for the 
 civilizing of the people ; for the promotion of individual tlirift ; 
 for protection from various misfortunes ; for the development of 
 advantages and opportunities in order to promote the industrial 
 and commercial well-being ; and incidentally for the supply of 
 common services and the introduction of conveniences." 
 
 Berlin's new progress began in i86r, the year of Emperor Wil- 
 liam's accession to the throne of Prussia. It was at the begin- 
 ning of the modern awakening. When the New Empire was 
 formed and Berlin became the Capitol, the boom took on still 
 deeper and broader interest. The greatest schemes were de- 
 vised for enlarging and beautifying the city. The Royal Gov- 
 ernment had from of old made and repaired the streets, 
 drained the city, excavated the Spree, and made the bridges. 
 But private companies had supplied the water and gas. The 
 schools were under the control of the clergy, or were private. 
 
 In 1874 the city government acquired the control of the streets. 
 It began to widen, straighten, repave, etc. The city embanked 
 the Spree, dredged it and built iron bridges. In 1873 the city 
 got control of the water supply. It stopped the draining of the 
 city into the Spree, and undertook a new disposal of the sewage. 
 Its drainage is now the most perfect in the world. The total 
 sewage is utilized on sewage-farms at a safe distance from the 
 City. These now cover 30 square miles, while the City itself 
 covers but 25. They have cost upwards of 30,000,000 marks, 
 while the cost of tunnels, &c., reaching to them has been up- 
 wards of 70,000,000 marks. It is becoming a self-sustaining work, 
 and will soon be a source of great revenue. New sanitary institu- 
 tions were established, municipal slaughterhouses, market-halls, 
 epidemic and infectious hospitals, public wash and bath houses, 
 inspection of food, houses, and whatever might affect public 
 health. 
 
 The City gas-works, begun in 1870, were greatly enlarged in 
 1875. The question of education was taken over to the City con- 
 trol. Especial attention was paid to technical and scientific 
 schooling. Parks and play-grounds were greatly multiplied. 
 Gymnasiums were fitted up. The City began to direct and con- 
 trol the manner of housing the working people. The street rail- 
 ways were put under City inspection, and City officers helped to 
 plan and extend the usefulness of this public convenience, which 
 was still left under private ownership. A most excellent and ex- 
 tensive viaduct system of elevated railway has been constructed.
 
 83 
 
 NEW ZEALAND. 
 
 (BRITISH.) 
 
 AREA, 104,471 sq. mi. POPULATION, 668,651 in 1S91. 
 
 New Zealand is socially the most interesting country 
 in the world at present. People there are not conscious 
 of any movement towards Socialism. Mr. Arthur Cly- 
 den in a recent letter before the National Liberal Club in 
 London, said of this movement: "I should describe it 
 as a supreme attempt by Old World victims of bad gov- 
 ernment to prevent a recurrence of the evils in their new 
 homes by boldly radical legislation." No taunt of 
 "grand-motherly legislation" for one moment deters 
 them from the resolute exploitation of the strong arm 
 of the law for their protection against every oppress- 
 ive force, whether of capital or class interest. 
 
 The following is from the pen of Mr. John D. Conn- 
 olly, United States Consul at Aukland, New Zealand : 
 
 "The land laws of this country are unique, having no parallel 
 in the modern world, that I am aware of. Of the extension of the 
 franchise to women I can only say that the experiment has proved 
 eminently successful, even beyond the most enthusiastic advo- 
 cates. Her first effort has raised the moral tone and purified to a 
 large extent the moral atmosphere of politics. Woman has de- 
 monstrated here that she is disinterested, unselfish and fully 
 worthy of political confidence reposed in her. As to the country 
 having drifted into socialism, as you seem to think, it is only fair 
 to say that there is very little need of apprehension in that respect, 
 at least for the present. At the same time it cannot be denied that 
 the tendency of legislation appears to be pointing that way. If it 
 be socialism to relieve the poor, the workingman, the artisan and 
 the struggling small farmer and the mechanics from the burdens 
 of taxation as much as possible, and compel the monopolist, the 
 land-grabber, the purse-proud and the affluent members of society 
 to bear the weight and expense of government, then socialism is 
 certainly in full swing here. If it be socialism to shorten the hours 
 of the laborer to eight per pay, and give him a half holiday in
 
 84 
 
 every week, besides at least a half dozen full holidays in the year 
 under full pay, thus aifording him more time for rest, recreation 
 and intellectual development than is enjoyed by his fellow workers 
 in any part of the world, then indeed it is undeniable that social- 
 ism is rampant in New Zealand. If it be socialism to compel the 
 admission of more pure air and genial sunshine into the work-room 
 and factory, under government supervision, to teach the laborers 
 their rights and how to lawfully and peacefully obtain them, to 
 force the earth-grabber to either sell, sub-divide or improve his 
 land so it will produce what nature intended it should, thereby 
 administering to the wants of the people, or place the land within 
 the reach of those who desire homes — if this be socialism, then 
 indeed are the people of this country blessed beyond all others, 
 for all I have enumerated, and more, are they enjoying to the full- 
 est extent to-day. There, is a general diffusion of wealth, no 
 great poverty and not a single millionaire so far as I know. Al- 
 though legislation does not directly interfere with laudable 
 accumulation thrift and industry, yet there is no denying that the 
 general tendency is toward checking, if not absolutely preventing 
 the acquisition of vast estates in the hands of individuals or com- 
 panies, to the detriment of the people." 
 
 DEFENSE OF NATION. 
 
 MILITIA in 1893, total 8,654. 
 
 Armories. Armory Boards. 
 
 FORTS, in all chief harbors. 
 NAVAL RESERVE, 66 men. 
 
 FINANCE AND LAND. 
 
 SAVINGS BANKS, POSTAL. Depositors, 84,488, 
 and deposits at the end of 1890, $9.975.907- 
 
 CUSTOMS DEPARTMENT (Foreign Revenue). 
 
 INTERNAL REVENUE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 TREASURY DEPARTMENT. 
 
 TAX COLLECTING DEPARTMENT. 
 
 LOANS, Government. New Zealand loans money to 
 land-buyers and land-improvers. 
 
 LAND, Public. The Government leases its land at 5 % 
 on the estimated cash price, the estimate being renew- 
 ed every 3 years. The lessee has the right to purchase
 
 85 
 
 at the end of the lease, which is for 25 years. Without 
 the purchase right, the rent is 4% of the selling price 
 on a lease of 999 years. Both kinds of leases are sub- 
 ject to occupation and improvements yearly. (Com- 
 pare Mr. Henry George's Proposals.) 
 The limit of purchase holdings is 640 acres of first- 
 class land, and 2,000 acres of second-class. On lands 
 whose value, improvements deducted, exceed ;^5,ooo, 
 there is an addition to the ordinary land tax, in the 
 form of a graduated land tax on a scale of yi d. per £ 
 on land value between ;^5,ooo and ;^io,ooo ; ^ d. per 
 £ between ;^io,ooo and ;^5o,ooo ; Yz d. per £ increase 
 for each additional ^20,000, up to the maximum of 
 ;^2 10,000 and upwards, at which the extra tax is i^d. 
 per £. It is the settled policy of the Government to 
 break up large estates. If the owner objects to the 
 Government valuation, he is allowed to value it him- 
 self, and he gets the choice of paying tax on the Gov- 
 ernment valuation or selling it to the Government at 
 his own lower valuation. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION. 
 
 Probably in no other country has the sense of the gen- 
 eral public good been kept so constantly before the minds 
 of those in authority. They have realized that without 
 Government initiative the country would be very slowly 
 opened up, and that with it the general prosperity would 
 be incalculably enhanced. Hence, Public Works have 
 been undertaken in advance of settlement. Roads, rail- 
 ways, telegraph and water-works (in the gold fields) 
 were pushed to all parts of the country. From 1872 to 
 March 31, 1893, a sum of ^^26, 736,974 was expended in 
 these ways. 
 
 ROADS, everywhere, are public property. 
 STREETS, the same. 
 
 STREET RAILWAYS, gradually coming under muni- 
 cipal ownership.
 
 86 
 
 STREET LIGHTING is done at municipal expense, 
 and in some cases the plants are owned and opera- 
 ed by the towns. 
 
 RAILWAYS. In 1893 there were under State owner- 
 ship 1,886 mi. The Government first assumed owner- 
 ship in railways in 1863 ; and in 1872 there were only 
 65 mi. in operation. 
 
 Up to March 31, 1892, the cost to the State had been 
 (for building and purchase) ^15,497,783. 
 Receipts for 1893, ^{^1,181,521. Expenses, ;^732.i4i. 
 Profits, net, ;^449,3So. It is hardly possible to esti- 
 mate the profits that have accrued to the colony 
 through increase of land values, stimulation of pro- 
 duction, cheapening of transit, &c., &c., by Govern- 
 ment ownership and enterprise in railways. 
 (Under private ownership there are reported 150 mi.) 
 
 EXPRESS SERVICE. HARBORS. 
 
 WHARVES AND PIERS. 
 
 BRIDGES. BRIDGE ENGINEERS. 
 
 SURVEYORS. MARKETS. 
 
 POSTAL SERVICE: number of offices in 1892, 1,263. 
 Receipts, in 1892, ^{^214, 002. Expenses, for Post and 
 Telegraph together, ^278,394. Profits, net, for both, 
 i:58.546. 
 
 TELEGRAPH: number of mi. in 1892, 5,479; mi. of 
 wire, 13,459. In 1893 the length of line was 5,513 mi.; 
 and the number of offices, 640. Receipts in 1893, 
 $547,729. Government business (free) would have 
 amounted to ;^i38,903, making a total of $685,635. 
 Expenses, ^^590,493. Actual profits, ;i&75,i42. 
 
 Employees in Telegraph and Postal service in 1892, 2,299. 
 
 TELEPHONE : about 3,160 mi. of wire. It is in charge 
 of the Telegraphic Department. For the year ending 
 March 31, 1894, the receipts were ;^ 104,502 ; expenses, 
 ;^ 1 06,664. If to the receipts are added the free Gov- 
 ernment services, there is left a profit of $24,800. The
 
 87 
 
 average rent or Telephones is $24 per year. (Just 
 i-io of the amount which New Yorkers have to pay 
 the private monopoly of the Bell Telephone Co.) 
 
 EDUCATIOX. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL BUREAUS. 
 
 ART GALLERIES. 
 
 ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH. 
 
 BAND CONCERTS. BOTANIC GARDENS. 
 
 BIOLOGICAL RESEARCH. 
 
 CENSUS BUREAUS. CLOCKS, TOWN. 
 
 COAST SURVEYS. EXPOSITIONS. 
 
 EDUCATIONAL BUREAUS. 
 
 FAIRS. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL SURVIlYS. 
 
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS. 
 
 LIBRARIES. In 1S92 there were 298 open to tb.c 
 
 public. 
 METEOROLOGICAL BUREAUS. 
 MONUMENTS AND STATUES. 
 MUSEUMS. OBSERVATORIES. 
 
 PRINTING, of Government documents, reports, &c. 
 READING ROOMS. 
 SCHOOLS, PUBLIC. 
 
 Kindergartens. 
 
 Primary in 1892, 1,369, with 3,368 teachers, and 124,- 
 
 833 pupils. 
 
 Secondary in 1892, 28, with over 166 teachers, and 
 
 2,327 pupils. 
 
 Colleges in 1892, 4, with 39 professors, and 1,063 
 
 students. 
 
 University. Law. 
 
 Normal, 2. Medical. 
 
 Art, 2. Domestic Economy.
 
 88 
 
 Technological. Agricultural, i. 
 
 Blind. Deaf and Dumb. 
 
 Expense borne by the general Government in 1S92, 
 ;^4i5,55o (or $2,023,728). 
 
 FOOD PRODUCTION. 
 
 FARMING. 4 Government farms have recently been 
 started (1894). 
 
 MEANS PRODUCTION. 
 
 The Government, general and municipal, is yearly 
 taking on enterprises of productive activity. It already 
 has the following, and probably others : 
 CAR BUILDING. FOUNDRIES. 
 
 ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT. 
 LOCOMOTIVE WORKS. 
 TIMBER. SAW MILLS. 
 
 WATER-WORKS, in gold fields. They have yielded 
 
 a handsome State revenue. 
 
 I.AW AND ORDER. 
 
 No country occupies a more advanced position in the 
 socialized condition of governing enterprise. Almost 
 the only exception is in the Governor and Council hold- 
 ing office by British Imperial appointment. This disad- 
 vantage, however, is doubtless offset by certain defensive 
 and commercial advantages furnished by the Imperial 
 Government. The franchise is now extended to both 
 men and women of European and native lineage. With- 
 out stating particulars, I will simply say that the follow- 
 ing departments of Law and Order are organized : 
 APPORTIONING BOARDS. 
 APPRAISING COMMISSIONERS. 
 ARBITRATION COMMISSIONERS. 
 ASSAYING COMMISSIONERS.
 
 89 
 
 AUDITING BOARDS. ASSESSING BOARDS. 
 BANKRUPT REGISTRY. 
 CIVIL SERVICE BOARDS. 
 COMPTROLLERS. CONSULS. 
 
 CORONERS. COPYRIGHT BUREAU. 
 
 CORPORATION COUNSELS. 
 COURTS OF JUSTICE : 
 
 Civil. Crimixal. 
 
 Supreme. Circuit. 
 
 Claims. Polick. 
 
 Magistrate. 
 EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT : Governor, appointed 
 
 by Imperial Government, and 7 ministers. 
 JURIES, PETIT. IMMIGRATION BUREAU. 
 
 JURY COMMISSIONERS. 
 LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLIES : 
 
 National. Legislative Council of 47 members, nomi- 
 nated by the Crown for 7 years (before 1891, for life). 
 
 (There are 2 Maoris in the Council.) 
 
 House of Representatives of 74 members, elected for 3 
 
 years. (There are 4 Maoris.) 
 
 Provincial. Municipal. 
 
 MARRIAGES. PATENT OFFICES. 
 
 PARK COMMISSIONERS. 
 POLICE in 1891, 484. POUNDS. 
 
 PRISONS : 
 
 Police Stations. Jails. 
 
 Reformatories. Pp:mtentiaries. 
 
 RAILROAD COMMISSIONS. 
 REGISTRARS OF DEEDS. 
 
 RELIEF AXD CHARITIES. 
 
 CHARITY BUREAUS. DISPENSARIES. 
 
 HOMES FOR: 
 Orphans, 1,492 children in 1S91.
 
 90 
 
 HOSPITALS : 
 
 General. Epidemic. 
 
 Infant. Insane. 
 
 ABORIGINES DEPARTMENT. 
 
 INSURANCE, LIFE. Provided by Government in 1869. 
 In August, 1893, the accumulated fund was over £^,- 
 000,000. In 1892 there were 30,316 pohcies, issuing 
 insurance to the amount of ;£^i6, 036,220. 
 
 LIFE SAVING. LIGHT HOUSES. 
 
 PENSION DEPARTMENT. 
 
 POOR HOUSES. In 1891 there were 667 indoor 
 paupers. 
 
 PUBLIC TRUST OFFICE, established in 1S72. In 
 1892 there were being administered 1,912 estates, worth 
 ;^i,284, 759. It is a sort of Estate Savings Bank, guar- 
 anteed by Government. 
 
 UNEMPLOYED, WORK FOR. There is a Bureau 
 of Industries, whose central office is at Wellington ; it 
 has a branch office in each large town. At any one 
 of these any person can get information as to wages 
 and employment in any part of New Zealand. Its 
 services are free of charge. From March 31, 1892, to 
 March 31, 1893, 3,874 men were put in the way of em- 
 ployment. 
 
 SANITATION AND SAFETY. 
 
 BATHS AND SANITARIUM are run by Government 
 on a 50 acre reserve in the Rotorua District, where 
 there are celebrated mineral waters. The rate is very 
 low, and the preference is given to those patients who 
 are not able to pay much. 
 
 DRINKING FOUNTS AND TROUGHS. 
 
 ELECTRIC LIGHTING. 
 
 FIRE DEPARTMENTS. 
 
 FORESTRY. FOUNTAINS.
 
 91 
 
 GARBAGE AND REFUSE GATHERING. 
 GAS LIGHTING. PARKS. 
 
 HEALTH DEPARTMENT. 
 QUARANTINE. SANITARIES. 
 
 SEATS IN PARKS. STREET CLEANING 
 
 SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE. 
 WATER-WORKS. 
 
 ENGLISH COLONY TENDENCIES. 
 
 Whenever and wherever the Anglo-Saxon has gone away from 
 his native home (during this century), he has formed a settlement 
 as free as possible from the selfish, class-begotten errors of the 
 mother land. Great Britain (and in a less degree the United States) 
 has been the source of emigration for peopling Australia, Tas- 
 mania, New Zealand, Fiji, Hawaii, much of the West Indies, Falk- 
 land Islands, Mauritius, and many parts of Africa. In the forma- 
 tion of the new governments, the great aim has been to bar out 
 the tendency to inequality resulting from aristocracies in politics 
 and commerce. Thus in no case has a government been lormed 
 with an hereditary upper house. That next great danger, viz : 
 the aristocracy that rears itself on money, has had its chances lim- 
 ited by the lack of opportunity for monopolistic enterprise. In 
 nearly every instance the Governments are taking into their own 
 hands the things in which lurk the greatest dangers, e. g., the 
 Railways, Telegraphs, Postal and E.xpress service, and m many 
 instances the Banking. Numerous other blocks to selfishness 
 have been made in the way of Government management of mines, 
 canals, roads, bridges, forests, &c.. and in the municipal control 
 of water-works, city lighting, street railways, markets, &c. 
 
 People who emigrate do so to better their conditions. They 
 seek to avoid the burdens imposed upon them by unjust social 
 arrangements at home. This explains why those who peopled 
 New Zealand did not take the English House of Lords with them. 
 They had enough of this institution as a class when they lived in 
 Great Britain. When they formed their Government they did it 
 on an improved and more humane basis. 
 
 Now, this was exactly the position of our fore-fathers in the 
 United States. They left the old countries for the same reasons. 
 They formed their State with the same ends in view, viz: the 
 avoidance of those grave difficulties which they left behind. In 
 those early days, these liberties were not to be had, however, 
 without fighting for them, for the fatherland reached out a grasp- 
 ing hand to further control them beyond the sea. Those here who
 
 92 
 
 prospered most sought to have law and government specially sub- 
 serve their interests. In a hundred years it has come about that 
 they have developed here a condition of inequality which is hardly 
 distinguishable from that which they left. (Read the satirical 
 story "Dogs and Fleas," which is really a history of the United 
 States written in a most facetious manner.) 
 
 The new industrial era began before the colonization of Aus- 
 tralia and New Zealand. Hence the evils and their cause were 
 plainer seen, and they could be in great measure avoided. New 
 Zealand is the best illustration. Settled later, it has profited by 
 the experience of the world elsewhere; and hence its almost un- 
 paralleled progress in social development. Only a few of the 
 great evils that weighed down the nations of the past have taken 
 deep hold here as yet. Hereditary pretence in shape of idle aris- 
 tocratic families, they have none. Opportunity for commercial 
 monopoly of sources of production or means of distribution of 
 national products, they are preventing. The tenure of the land is 
 the most socially equitable on the globe, while all the chief means 
 of transit, transportation, and communication are taken into the 
 State's own hands. Again, they have seen that, granting the ab- 
 surdity of aristocracy's claims in general, there falls to the ground 
 also the abominations of primogeniture, and of exclusive male 
 suffrage. 
 
 ABYSSINIA. 
 
 (ITALIAN.) 
 AREA, 190,000 sq. mi. POPULATION, about 5,000,000. 
 
 At first thought, one might wonder at seeing the 
 name of such a nation as the Abyssinian in a book col- 
 lecting the facts regarding concrete socialism. But 
 further reflection will teach us that all government, all 
 social aggregation, all human cooperation, is socialism. 
 Indeed, the extent to which the cooperative spirit is car- 
 ried, measures the development of a nation in civilization. 
 It is the humanization of effort. It is the eradication of 
 self-centeredness, and the putting in its place of an un- 
 selfish, social, mutually helping feeling. Hence, the 
 lowest tribe of barbarians, if they have begun tribal 
 relations, if they have organized themselves into mutual
 
 93 
 
 helpfulness in any sense, have to that extent become 
 socialized. Therefore, it must be affirmed that the pop- 
 ular notion regarding socialism is merely a notion. All 
 government is socialized effort. Socialism is the ism of 
 society. It is simply the explanation of society. In 
 human nature there are two strong tendencies ; the one 
 tends to the gratification of the selfish impulses, the 
 other, to the demands of the social relations. Each is 
 mutually dependent upon the other. The selfish im- 
 pulses naturally rebel against social regulations. But 
 the welfare of the individual, his maintainance and de- 
 velopment, his opportunity for expanding and enlarging 
 himself as a personality, depend upon the keeping of his 
 own and others' selfishness in curb. Hence, those nations 
 are most primitive in which selfishness and individualism 
 are most rampant. Those countries which the world 
 calls the highest are the most differentiated in social 
 functions, and the most integrated in social cooperation 
 in the performance of those functions. This is abun- 
 dantly shown by the facts enumerated in this volume ; 
 and we must insist that the popular howl against the 
 further socialization of human effort arises either from 
 dense ignorance, or from determined disposition to con- 
 tinue in the holding of unjust advantages. 
 
 Barbarous, as we look upon countries like Abyssinia, 
 they have already begun and carried out a long way the 
 cooperative spirit. In the matter of Defense they have 
 for centuries maintained a fighting army. They assist 
 each other in matters of Production and Distribution. 
 Without the machinery of Law and Order there would 
 be no aggregation of people called Abyssinians. There 
 must be necessarily arrangements and a division of func- 
 tions for the accomplishment of legislative, judicial, and 
 executive matters. Among primitive peoples the differ- 
 ent phases of the machinery of government are not 
 clearly differentiated, and yet they have their modes of 
 Assessing and Collecting Taxes for the accomplishment 
 of the common good. They legislate on marriage rela-
 
 94 
 
 tions, and define rights in a thousand ways. They pro- 
 vide for the Sanitation and Safety of the community by 
 common provision. They look after Relief of the needy, 
 and feel and bear each others woes to a considerable ex- 
 tent. The vast difference between them and the higher 
 socialized nations, shows the incalculable value of every 
 stage of socialization of human energy and human 
 powers. 
 
 ALGERIA. 
 
 (FRENCH.) 
 
 AREA, 184,474 sq. mi. POPULATION, 4,124,732111 1891. 
 
 DEFENSE OF NATION. 
 
 This is a French colony, and a detachment of the reg- 
 ular army is stationed here. 
 MILITIA, in 1888, total, 54,000. 
 
 FINANCE. 
 
 French money is in circulation. 
 
 CUSTOMS DEPT. employed 1,061 officers in 1888. 
 INTER. REV. DEPT. TREASURY DEPT, 
 TAX COLLECTING DEPT. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION. 
 PATHS, over mountains. 
 ROADS, in 1893 there were 2,922,965 km. 
 STREETS, in all towns. 
 RAILWAYS, under State ownership. In 1892 there 
 
 were 1,956 mi. The receipts for that year were 
 
 were 26,445,599 fr. 
 
 HARBORS. WHARVES AND PIERS. 
 
 POSTAL AND TELEGRAPHIC SERVICE are under 
 State ownership and management. Their combined 
 receipts for 1891 were 4,022,070 fr.; expenses, 4,060,- 
 394fr.; and a deficit of 38,324 fr.
 
 95 
 
 (There were 4,310 mi. of telegraph line, and 10,000 mi. of wire be- 
 longing to private companies in 1890. These had 356 offices. 
 The companies are all sub-ventioned by the French Govern- 
 ment.) 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Education is backward, yet there are various public 
 instrumentalities at work, and a good progress is being 
 made. Among the educational undertakings by State 
 and municipalities are the following : — Census Bureaus, 
 Churches (the various faiths receiving State grants). 
 Coast Surveys, Educational Bureau, Expositions, Fairs, 
 Geographical Surveys, Libraries, Museums and Schools. 
 Of Kindergartens there were in I'Sqi, 154. Primary, 921, 
 with 78,963 pupils. A few High Schools ; and 10 Aca- 
 demies and Colleges, having 1,336 students. 
 
 Expense provided for in the State Budget for 1894, 
 5.651,793 fr- 
 
 LAW AND ORDER. 
 
 This phase of the social order is being reconstructed 
 after the French type, and is provided for in the following 
 ways : — Assessing, Auditing and Apportioning Boards ; 
 Consuls ; Civil, Criminal and Supreme Courts, and Chief 
 Executive Department (consisting of French Governor 
 General, assisted by a Council) ; Municipal and Provin- 
 cial Legislative Functionaries ; Marriages by civil author- 
 ity ; Registrars of Deeds; Police regulation (in 1888 a 
 force of 5,091) ; Prisons, (Police Stations, Jails and Peni- 
 tentiaries. Some idea of the organization of these 
 prisons may be obtained from the report that in 1888, 
 52,494 persons were before the Police Courts, and 498 
 persons were convicted of crimes). 
 
 RELIEF AND CHARITIES. 
 
 The extent to which the extremely needy and the sick 
 are cared for, is one of the best measures of the moral 
 feeling of a nation. This highly developed human regard 
 is a counteraction against the blind force of natural se-
 
 96 
 
 lection, and the people in whom it strongly prevails 
 may be expected to cooperate more earnestly and ex- 
 tensively in other ways. 
 
 Algeria has Charity Bureaus, General Hospitals, Light 
 Houses, Pension Department, and some Poor Houses. 
 
 SANITATION AND SAFETY. 
 
 Almost as soon as a people pass beyond mere tribal 
 relations and assume governmental arrangements, the 
 very necessity of numbers and the closer and more 
 complicated relations compels some general public pro- 
 visions for Sanitation and Safety. Among the higher 
 peoples these will be very elaborate, and the division 
 of functions extensive. In countries like Algeria, which 
 are being trained out of barbarism under the tutelage 
 of one of the highest socialized nations, such arrange- 
 ments are necessarily incomplete. But there are be- 
 ginnings in the provision of: — Drinking Founts and 
 Troughs, Fire Departments, Fountains, Forestry, Gar- 
 bage and Refuse Gathering, Health Departments, Parks, 
 Quarantine, Sewerage and Drainage, and Water-works. 
 
 ANDORRA. 
 
 AREA, 175 sq. mi. POPULATION, 6,000. 
 
 A very interesting little republic in the Pyranees. It 
 has a Militia of 600 men. They are commanded by the 
 magistrates. The two chief magistrates are representa- 
 tives of the Spanish Bishop of Urgel and the French re- 
 public. They constitute an Appellate Court, and are 
 each an Appellate Court from the other. The republic 
 provides for the Roads and Streets, the Street Lighting 
 and many public works. It has its system of Education, 
 largely under State Church control. There is the usual 
 simple machinery of Law and Order, and various insti- 
 tutions of a Charitable order.
 
 97 
 
 ANGOLA. 
 
 (PORTUGUESE.) 
 
 AREA, 457,500 sq. mi. POPULATION, about 2,000,000 in 1892. 
 
 This is one of the promising new regions in West 
 Africa and is being molded on the Portuguese basis. It 
 is very new, and the European population is still very 
 small. Yet provision is already on the way for the or- 
 ganization of native Defense Force, for the construction 
 of Public Roads and the improvement of other public 
 utilities, for the establishment of various means for Pub- 
 lic Instruction, and for the Legal Regulation of society. 
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 
 
 AREA, 1,125,086 sq. mi. POPULATION, 4,257,000 in 1892. 
 
 DEFENSE OF NATION. 
 
 ARMY, REGULAR, in 1892. total, 19,020. 
 
 OFFICERS, 1,398. MEN, 17,622. 
 
 MILITIA, in 1892, total, 480,000. 
 
 Armories. Armory Board. 
 
 NAVY in 1892, total, 1,530 men. 
 
 Port Defense Ships, 2. Cruisers, 17. 
 
 Torpedo Boats, 12. Total War Vessels, 31. 
 
 FINANCE. 
 
 BANKS. The Banks are all semi-socialized institutions. 
 The National Bank was opened December i, 1891, with 
 a capital of ;^5o, 000, 000. It has 51 branches. There 
 are 14 State Banks (less socialized). (Compare the 
 Bank of France.) There are Savings and Loan Banks 
 under Government management. Capital, $300,000. 
 Operations in 1891, ;^545,246. 
 
 COINAGE by General Government alone. 
 
 CUSTOMS DEPT. INTER REV. DEPT. 
 
 NOTE ISSUE by National Bank in 1S93, $306,000,000. 
 
 TAX COLLECTING DEPT. TREASURY DEPT.
 
 98 
 DISTRIBUTION. 
 
 PATHS. ROADS. STREETS. 
 
 EXPRESS SERVICE, in part by Government. 
 
 RAILWAYS, under State ownership. In 1S91 there 
 were 1,817 irii- (Under private ownership 8,023 n^i-) 
 
 CANALS AND NAVIGABLE RIVERS, 2,200 mi. 
 
 HARBORS. WHARVES AND PIERS. 
 
 BRIDGES. BRIDGE ENGINEERS. 
 
 SURVEYORS. 
 
 POSTAL SERVICE in 1893 there were 946 offices (in- 
 cluding telegraph.) The Postal receipts for 1893 were 
 
 ;$!, 925.950- 
 
 TELEGRAPH in 1893 the State owned 11,250 mi. of 
 line, and its receipts were $746,421, (The railroad 
 companies owned 8,050 mi., and private companies, 
 1,115-) 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL BUREAUS. 
 
 BOTANIC GARDENS. CENSUS BUREAUS. 
 
 CHURCH, STATE, Roman Catholic (others tolerated). 
 
 In 1891 the expense to the State was $272,880. 
 COAST SURVEYS. EDUCATIONAL BURP:AUS. 
 EXPOSITIONS. FAIRS. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL and GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS. 
 LIBRARIES. MUSEUMS (i National). 
 
 METEOROLOGICAL BUREAU, i. 
 MONUMENTS AND STATUES. 
 OBSERVATORIES (i National). 
 PRINTING for Government. 
 READING ROOMS. 
 SCHOOLS, PUBLIC, in 1893: 
 
 Primary, 3,028, with 6,241 teachers, and 227,450 pupils.
 
 99 
 
 Secondary, i6, with 450 teachers, and 3,189 pupils 
 
 (in 1892). 
 
 Colleges and Universities, 2, with about 900 
 
 students. 
 
 Normal, 21. Law. 
 
 Medical (Women admitted). 
 
 Theological, 5. Domestic Economy. 
 
 Technological, 3. Industrial. 
 
 Military, i. Nautical, i. 
 
 Expense by General Government in 1S90, ^lo, 415, 789. 
 
 FOOD PKODUCTIOX. 
 
 IRRIGATION by Government is extensive. Ditches 
 and canals are made by provinces (also extensively by 
 individuals). 
 
 LAW AND ORDER. 
 
 AMBASSADORS. ASSESSING BOARDS. 
 
 APPORTIONING BOARDS. 
 
 APPRAISING COMMISSIONERS. 
 
 ASSAYING COMMISSIONERS. 
 
 AUDITING BOARDS. ATTORNEY GENERAL. 
 
 CONSULS. COPYRIGHT BUREAU. 
 
 COURTS OF JUSTICE: 
 
 District (Civil and Criminal). In 1891, 3,800 crimi- 
 nal cases. 
 Supreme, 5 judges. 
 
 EXECUTIVE DEPT., the President of the Republic 
 and his Cabinet. 
 
 LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLIES : 
 
 National Congress : Senate of 30 members, elected 
 for 9 years, and House of Deputies, 88 members, 
 elected for 4 years. 
 Provincial. Municipal. 
 
 MARRIAGES. MINISTERS, FOREIGN. 
 
 PATENT OFFICES. POLICE, for all cities.
 
 100 
 
 PRISONS : 
 
 Jails. Penitentiaries. 
 
 The average number in the prisons of Buenos Ayres 
 
 was 900. 
 
 REGISTRARS OF DEEDS. 
 
 RELIEF AND CHARITIES. 
 
 Under this head are to be named the most usual insti- 
 tutions only : Charity Bureaus, Dispensaries, General 
 Hospitals, Indian Dept., Pension Dept., Poor Houses, 
 &c. 
 
 SANITATION AND SAFETY. 
 
 Comprises provision in the way of Drinking Founts 
 and Troughs, Fire Depts., Forestry, Fountains, Garbage 
 and Refuse Gathering, Health Depts., Parks, Quaran- 
 tine, Sanitaries, Seats in Parks, Sewerage and Drainage, 
 and Street Cleaning. 
 
 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 
 
 AREA, 265,189 sq. mi. POPULATION, 42,635,342 in 1S90. 
 
 ARMY, REGULAR, in 1893, total 347 297. 
 
 Officers, 4,116. Men, 3/^3,181. 
 
 In 1893-4 the Budget estimate of expense was 129,459,- 
 
 268 florins. 
 MILITIA, in TS93, total, 355,127. 
 
 Armories. Armory Boards. Forts. 
 
 NAVY, in 1893, total, 13,698 men. 
 
 Officers of ships and marines, 1,189. 
 
 Seamen and marines, 12,509. 
 
 Battle ships, 8. Port defense ships, 10. 
 
 Cruisers, 31. Torpedo boats, 55. 
 
 Total War Vessels, 106. 
 
 In 1893-4 Budget estimate of expense, 12,577,680 fl. 
 NAVAL RESERVE, 9,026.
 
 101 
 FINANCE AND LAND. 
 
 BANK, the Austro-Hungarian, a semi-socialized insti- 
 tution, has exclusive note issue. 
 
 BANKS, SAVINGS, POSTAL, in 1S91, 7,767 ; with 
 1,080,375 depositors, and, 67,237,583 fl. deposited. 
 
 COINAGE, only by State. 
 
 CUSTOMS DEPT. INTER. REV. DEPT. 
 
 NOTE ISSUE by National Bank. 
 
 TAX COLLECTING DEPT. TREASURY DEPT. 
 
 LAND STATE, 3,963,391 acres; District and Parish 
 
 land, 12,338,930 acres ; Church lands, 3,229,257 acres ; 
 
 Educational lands, 189,145 acres ; total socialized lands, 
 
 19,720,723 acres; or, 28,27 % of total area, (69,726,170 
 
 acres. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION. 
 
 ROADS AND PATHS, in 1889, 103,800 mi. 
 
 STREETS, in all towns and cities. 
 
 STREET LIGHTING, under municipal ownership is 
 
 common. 
 EXPRESS SERVICE is directed by government. 
 RAILWAYS, under State ownership,^ in 1892, 11,337 
 
 km. (or 7,028.94 mi.) 
 
 (Of railways under private ownership, there are 9,4^'! 
 
 km. worked by Government; and, 7,558 km. worked 
 
 by the companies.) 
 
 Sir A. Nicholson, British Consul General in Hungary, 
 
 in a report of April 10, 1890, says : 
 
 "The j-ear 1889 will be noteworthy in the history of Hun^^rian 
 railways, as it witnessed the introduction of the Zone tariff on all 
 State railways. The Zone system allows tickets to be sold like 
 postage stamps, good for any distance within the zone (or radius) 
 where issued. Since the introduction of the new cheap traffic on 
 the ist of August, 1889, to the 31st of December, 1889, the pas- 
 senger traffic increased by over 3,000,000 persons, and the gross 
 receipts, by over /"so.ooo (about $250,000). As the total number 
 of passengers annually carried by Hungarian railways has not 
 hitherto exceeded 15,500,000, the large increase in 5 months, is
 
 102 
 
 remarkable. It is said that no extra expense has been incurred, 
 and, in fact, that economies have been effected in the ticket-issu- 
 ing department, owing to the facilities now afforded for obtaining 
 tickets at post-ofhces, stores, and other places in town." In real 
 truth, the Hungarians, send themselves by stamps, just as they 
 and we do our letters. This is a showing that merits the most 
 careful attention, and especially when it is remembered that the 
 State railways in Hungary covered only 6,170 mi. The fare is so 
 low that a ride of 6 mi. costs only i cent. Moreover, the wages of 
 railway men have doubled since Government ownership began. 
 
 CANALS AND NAVIGABLE RIVERS, 7,200 mi. 
 HARBORS. WHARVES AND PIERS. 
 
 BRIDGES. BRIDGE ENGINEERS. 
 
 SURVEYORS. 
 
 POSTAL SERVICE : number of offices, in Austria, in 
 1892, 4,866; in Hungary, in 1S91, 4,189. Receipts for 
 Post and Telegraph in Austria for 1892, 35,993,560 fl.; 
 expenses, 31,750,837 fl.; profits, 4,242,723 fl. Receipts 
 for Post and Telegraph in Hungary for 189 1, 13,723,856 
 fl.; expenses, 9,561,836 fl.; profits, 4,162,020 fl. Total 
 net profits for Austria-Hungary, 8,404,743 fl. 
 
 TELEGRAPH, STATE LINE in 1892, 31,862 mi.; and 
 89,344 mi. of wire. 
 
 TELEPHONES. MARKETS, 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL BUREAUS. 
 
 ART GALLERIES. 
 
 ARCH^OLOGICAL RESEARCH. 
 
 BAND CONCERTS. BOTANIC GARDENS. 
 
 BIOLOGICAL RESEARCH. 
 
 CENSUS BUREAUS. CLOCKS, TOWN. 
 
 CHURCHES. The Budget estimate of Government 
 grants to various churches for 1894-5 is 7, 148,050 fl. for 
 Austria, and 8,681,659 fl. for Hungary. There is full 
 liberty of conscience. 
 
 COAST SURVEYS. EDUCATIONAL BURS.
 
 103 
 
 EXPOSITIONS. FAIRS. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL and GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS. 
 LIBRARIES. MUSEUMS. 
 
 METEOROLOGICAL BUREAUS. 
 MONUMENTS AND STATUES. 
 OBSERVATORIES. READING ROOMS. 
 
 PRINTING for Government. 
 
 SCHOOLS, PUBLIC: 
 
 Kindergartens, in 1891, 729. 
 
 Primary, in 1891, 35,536, with 88,292 teachers, and 
 5,274,200 pupils. 
 
 Secondary, in 1892, 437, with 8,133 teachers, and 
 118,666 pupils. 
 
 Colleges and Universities, in 1892, n, with 1,446 
 professors, and 17,881 students. 
 Normal, in 1891, 141. 
 
 Law, in 1892, 11 in Hungary, with 815 students. 
 Medical. Art, Forestry. 
 
 Theological, in 1892, 100, with 4.075 students. 
 Technological (including Industrial and Agricultu- 
 ral), 1.735, with 195,595 students. 
 Military. Nautical, 5. 
 
 Blind. Deaf and Dumb. 
 
 (In Vienna, alone, in 1S90, there were 285 public 
 schools, with 3,800 teachers, and 140,000 pupils.) 
 FOOD PRODUCTION. 
 
 State productive enterprise is yet within narrow lines. 
 IRRIGATION extends over 10 % of the country. It is 
 conducted chiefly by neighborhood co()perative cor- 
 porations. 
 
 MEANS PRODUCTION. 
 
 SILK CULTURE is exclusively a Government en- 
 terprise. In 1892, in Hungary, 76,397 families were en- 
 gaged in silk culture. The product of cocoons was 
 970,248 kilograms for Hungary ; and in 1891 for Austria, 
 1,506,524 kilograms.
 
 104 
 
 LAW AND ORDER. 
 
 AMBASSADORS. APPRAISING COMS. 
 
 APPORTIONING BOARDS. 
 
 ASSAYING COMS. ASSESSING BOARDS. 
 
 AUDITING BOARDS. BANKRUPT REGISTRY. 
 
 CIVIL SERVICE BOARDS. 
 
 CONSULS. COPYRIGHT BUR. 
 
 COURTS OF JUSTICE : 
 
 Civil and Criminal, in Austria, 68 Provincial, and 
 916 County or District ; and in Hungary, 65 Provincial 
 and 384 County or District. 
 Supreme and Cassation. Circuit. 
 Military. Police. 
 
 EXECUTIVE DEPT. Emperor and Cabinet of 9 min- 
 isters each from Austria and Hungary. 
 
 EMMIGRATION BUR. 
 
 LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLIES : 
 
 National. Austria and Hungary each have their 
 double legislative assemblies. The connecting link of 
 the two nations is the Imperial Assembly called " The 
 Delegations'' It consists of 120 members, ^^ chosen 
 by each country. In each, Yi of the 60 are chosen by 
 the Lipper House, and 73 by the Lower House. Dele- 
 gates are chosen for one year. Thus each act affecting 
 the Empire is confirmed by 5 assemblies. 
 Provincial. Municipal. 
 
 MARRIAGES are civil. MINISTERS, FOREIGN. 
 
 PARK COMS. PATENT OFFICE. 
 
 POLICE. REGIS. OF DPZEDS. 
 
 PRISONS: In Austria during 1890, total inmates, 10,- 
 560 ; m Hungary during 1SS8, total inmates, 6,242. 
 Police Stations. Jails. 
 
 Reformatories. Penitentiaries.
 
 105 
 
 RELIEF AND CHARITIES. 
 
 CHARITY BURS. DISPENSARIES. 
 
 HOMES FOR ORPHANS. In 1890, 1,192. 
 
 HOSPITALS, general, epidemic, infant, insane. 
 
 LIGHT HOUSES. PENSION DEPT. 
 
 POOR HOUSES. In 1S90 there were 11,058 Institutes 
 for Relief. 297,915 persons were aided, and 4,750,- 
 349 fl. distributed. Besides this, 1,822 Poor Houses 
 were supported. 
 
 SANITATION AND SAFETY. 
 
 Sanitation and Safety is provided for in many ways : 
 by Public Baths, Cemeteries, Drinking Founts and 
 Troughs, Electric and Gas Lighting, Fire Depts., For- 
 estry, Fountains, Garbage Gathering, Health Officers, 
 Parks, Quarantine, Sanitaries, Sewerage and Drainage, 
 Street Cleaning, Slaughter Houses, and Water-works. 
 
 BAHAMAS. 
 
 (BRITISH SINCE 1629.) 
 AREA, 5,450 sq. mi. POPULATION, 47,565, in 1S91. 
 
 This is a highly organized little colony consisting of 
 12 chief islands. It is governed by a Governor, and 
 Executive Council and Legislative Council of 9 each, 
 and a Legislative Assembly of 29. It has, in recent 
 years, become very prosperous through the cultivation 
 of the Sisal plant for rope-making, besides its productive- 
 ness in tropical fruits. Socially it has all the machinery 
 of the average enlightened community. 
 
 BARBADOES. 
 
 (BRITISH.) 
 
 AREA, 166 sq. mi. POPULATION, 182,306 in 1891. 
 
 In the way of defense, a small detachment of the Brit- 
 ish Army is stationed on these islands. Their organiza-
 
 106 
 
 tion includes Customs, Internal Revenue, Tax Collecting 
 and Treasury depts. There are 482 mi. of public roads. 
 (Railroads — 24 mi. in 1891, — are under private owner- 
 ship ; but are subsidized by Government to the amount 
 of i^6,ooo annually.) The Postal Service is well man- 
 aged. Harbors, Wharves, &c., are public. Of Schools, 
 in 1892, there were 202 Primary with 11,765 pupils; 7 
 Secondary with 538 pupils; and i College with 21 stu- 
 dents ; and a Government grant for that year of £(),- 
 340. The Church of England, Wesleyan, Moravian, 
 and Roman Catholic, received aid by State grant in 
 1891 to the amount of ^i 1,643. The Government Exec- 
 utive is by Governor and Council appointed by the 
 Crown. There are the usual Courts of Justice, a Police 
 Force of 316 men, 3 grades of Prisons, and the other 
 legal machinery commonly found in English colonies. 
 
 BASUTOLAND. 
 
 (south AFRICA. BRITISH.) 
 
 AREA, 10,293 sq. mi. POPULATION, 219,902, in 1891. 
 
 This is a new country being introduced into civiliza- 
 tion by the British Government. It is defended by a 
 British garrison, and British money is in circulation. 
 There are many Roads in good condition. Villages are 
 laid out in Streets. The Postal Service is enterprising 
 and extending. State Telegraph line connects with the 
 Cape of Good Hope. The Primary Schools in 1891 
 numbered 135. There are also some Secondary, Indus- 
 trial, and Technological Schools. In 1891, the Govern- 
 ment grant was ^3,708. Information is provided by 
 State through Census and Educational Bureaus, Sur- 
 veys, &c. The Executive is a Governor and Council 
 of Imperial appointment. There are several Courts, 
 Constabulary, Prisons, Juries, Registrars and Assessing 
 Boards, besides scores of other Government activities 
 impossible to be reported in new countries.
 
 107 
 
 BECHUANALAND. 
 
 (south AFRICA. BRITISH.) 
 
 AREA, 170,000 sq. mi. POPULATION, 60,376 in 1S91. 
 
 This country is better known as the Land of the Bush- 
 men. They are a mild, inoffensive and susceptible peo- 
 ple. The British are colonizing the country and bringing 
 it under civilized influence. It has local Government 
 under the general direction of the Governor of the Cape 
 of Good Hope, who is High Commissioner for South 
 Africa. Roads, Schools, and many socializing influences 
 are being undertaken. 
 
 BERMUDAS. 
 
 (BRITISH.) 
 
 AREA, 20 sq. mi. POPULATION, 15,290 in 1S92. 
 
 These islands constitute a celebrated winter health 
 resort. The British Government has established a fine 
 fort at St. George, and maintains a small garrison there. 
 British money forms the currency, but United States 
 money is common, owing to the large number of visitors 
 from the States. The Roads, Harbors, Postal Service 
 and Telegraph are Government property. The Tele- 
 graph line is 32 mi. (15 of which are cable), and connects 
 with the cable to Halifax. (A Telephone company has 
 300 mi. of wire and 200 subscribers.) In 1892 there were 
 47 Primary Schools, and the Government grant was 
 ^^1,650. The Executive is in the hands of a Governor 
 and Council. Besides them there is the usual Law and 
 Order machinery. 
 
 BELGIUM. 
 
 AREA, 11,373 sq. mi. POPULATION, 6,195,355, in 1892. 
 
 DEFENSE OF NATION. 
 
 ARMY. REGULAR, in 1S93, total, 47.225. 
 Officers, 3,418. Men 43,807,
 
 108 
 
 MILITIA, (Garde Civique) in 1^92, 44,184. 
 
 Forts, 9. Armories. Chief Arsenal at Antwerp. 
 
 (Navy not reported.) 
 
 FINANCE. 
 
 BANK, NATIONAL, a highly socialized institution. 
 The paid up capital is 550,000,000 fr. It is under State 
 control, is the Cashier of the State and conducts the 
 other usual banking operations. It was established by 
 
 law in 1S50. 
 
 STATE SAVINGS BANKS in 1890, 609; depositors, 
 
 731,057 ; deposits, 325,415,412 fr. 
 SCHOOL SAVINGS BANKS. In 1888, 4,798 Primary 
 
 Schools received deposits from 113,263 children, and 
 
 there were 3,576,226 fr. deposited at the end of the 
 
 year. 
 COINAGE only by State. 
 
 CUSTOMS DEPT. INTER. REV. DEPT. 
 
 TAX COLLECTING AND TREASURY DEPTS. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION. 
 
 ROADS, in 1891, 5,639 mi. reported. 
 
 STREETS. EXPRESS SERVICE. 
 
 RAILWAYS, under State ownership, in 1892, 2,018 mi. 
 Cost to date had been 1,358,999,606 fr„ The receipts 
 for 1891 were 140,652,251 fr.; expenses, 82,635,967 fr.; 
 and profits, 58,016,284 fr. (Under private ownership 
 there w^ere 792 mi.) Fares and freight rates have been 
 reduced one half, while wages for railroad men have 
 doubled since the government took chief control. 
 The men prefer to work on the Government roads. 
 
 STATE CANALS AND NAVIGABLE RIVERS, 
 1,010 mi. in 1890. The canals cost 25,000,000,000 fr'. 
 
 HARBORS. WHARVES AND PIERS. 
 
 BRIDGES, BRIDGE ENGIN'RS and SURVEYORS.
 
 109 
 
 POSTAL SERVICE, in 1892 there were .S29 offices ; re- 
 ceipts, 17,513,873 fr. ; expenses, 9,954,020 fr. ; and 
 profits, 7,559,853 fr. 
 TELEGRAPH, State lines in 1892, 4,617 mi., with 22,- 
 739 mi. of wire. Number of offices, 965 ; receipts, 
 3.445,599 fr. ; expenses, 4,535,^9- fr. ; and deficit, 
 1,089,593 fr. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 State activities are numerous and include 
 AGRICULTURAL BUR. 
 ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH. 
 ART GALLERIES. BAXD CONCERTS. 
 
 BOTANIC AND ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS. 
 CENSUS BUR. 
 CHURCH. There is no State Church, yet large grants 
 
 are made yearl}' : to Roman Catholics, 4,800,000 fr. ; 
 
 to Protestants, 85,000 fr. ; and to Jews, 16,300 fr. 
 CLOCKS, TOWN. COAST SURVEYS. 
 
 EDUCATIONAL BUR. EXPOSITIONS, &c. 
 GEOGRAPHICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS. 
 MONUMENTS AND STATUES. 
 MUSEUMS. READING ROOMS. 
 
 PRINTING FOR GOVERNMENT BURS. 
 SCHOOLS, PUBLIC, in 1892 : 
 
 Kindergartens, 1,237, with 124,960 pupils. 
 
 Primary, 5,797, with 640,845 pupils. 
 
 Secondary, 127, with 21,542 pupils. 
 
 Colleges and Universities, 39, with 11,069 students. 
 
 Normal, 53, with 2,694 students. 
 
 Law, Medical, Theological, included in Universities. 
 
 Art, 2, with 15,344 students. 
 
 Music, i. Domestic Economy. 
 
 Industrial, 57, with 16,694 students. 
 
 Adult, 1,649, with 70,945 pupils.
 
 110 
 
 Technological. Military. 
 
 Expense, in 1890, for Primary education alone, 28,- 
 
 898,677 fr. 
 
 FOOD PRODUCTION, 
 
 The Government uses the Canals for Irrigation. No 
 taxes are levied on agriculturists for water. 
 
 I.AW AXD ORDER. 
 
 APPORTIONING BOARDS. APPRAISING COMS. 
 ARBITRATION COMS. ASSAYING COMS. 
 
 ASSESSING BOARDS. AUDITING BOARDS. 
 
 BANKRUPT REGISTRY. CONSULS. 
 COPYRIGHT BUREAU. CORONERS. 
 COURTS OF JUSTICE : 
 
 Appeal, 3. Criminal or Assize. 
 
 Supreme and Cassation, i. 
 
 Circuit, 26. Military. 
 
 Commercial. Justices of the Peace, 215. 
 
 EXECUTIVE DEPT. King, 7 Ministers, and Privy 
 
 Council. 
 JURY, PETIT, for all criminal and political case.s. 
 LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLIES : 
 
 National : Senate of 69 members, elected for <S years ; 
 
 Deputies, 138, elected for 4 years ; 
 
 Provincial (great liberty). Municipal. 
 MARRIAGES. MINISTERS, FOREIGN. 
 
 PARK COMS. PATENT OFFICE. 
 
 POLICE, 2,414; cost in 1894, 4,367,600 fr. 
 
 PRISONS : 
 
 Jails, inmates in 1891, 3,513. 
 
 Reformatories, inmates in 1891, 139. 
 
 Penitentiaries, inmates in 189 1, 941. 
 RAILROAD COMS. REGISTRARS OF DEPLDS.
 
 Ill 
 
 RELIEF AND CHARITIES. 
 
 CRARITY BUREAUS, received in donations and lega- 
 cies in 1891, 2,660,387 fr. 
 
 DISPENSARIES. HOUSES OF REFUGE. 
 
 HOMES for the Aged, Orphans, and Idiots. 
 
 HOSPITALS, General, Epidemic, Insane. 
 
 LIGHT HOUSES. PENSION DEPT. 
 
 POOR HOUSES. Total entries in 1891, 18,253 ; total 
 cost, 1,148,603 fr. 
 
 SANITATION AND SAFETY. 
 
 Public provision includes Baths, Drinking Founts 
 and Troughs, Electric and Gas Lighting, Fire and P'or- 
 estry Depts., Fountains, Garbage Gathering, Health and 
 Quarantine Depts., Parks, Sanitaries, Sewerage and 
 Drainage, Street Cleaning and Sprinkling, and Water- 
 works. 
 
 BOLIVIA. 
 
 AREA, 567,360 sq. mi. POPULATION, 2,300,000 in 1^92. 
 
 Bolivia is as yet little more than a barbarous nation. 
 It has a form of republican government and is making 
 considerable progress during the last few years. Stand- 
 ing Army in 1892 numbered 1,450 men. The Military 
 expense for the year was 1,829,158, bolivianos. The 
 Roads were very poor, but are being improved and 
 new ones undertaken. (There were 500 mi. of Railway, 
 under private ownership. The Telegraph is limited to 
 the Railways.) There were S3 Post Offices in 189 1. Pub- 
 lic Education is beginning to receive attention. In 1890 
 there were 493 Primary Schools, with 649 teachers, and 
 24,244 pupils ; 16 High Schools, with 91 teachers, and 
 2,126 pupils; 5 Universities (so-called,) with 83 instruc- 
 tors, and 1,384 students. Law, Medical, and Theolo- 
 gical departments were included. In 188S the report
 
 112 
 
 credits the State with 43,900 bolivianos for Primary 
 Education. 
 
 The Law and Order machinery is considerable. There 
 are the President and his Cabinet, the Congress with a 
 Senate of 16 (elected for 4 years,) and a Chamber of 
 64 Deputies (elected for 4 years), i Supreme and 7 Cir- 
 cuit Courts, a Police Force, Jails and Penitentiaries ; As- 
 sessing, Auditing, Registering Depts. ; Diplomatic and 
 Consular Service. 
 
 The Roman Catholic State Church assumes the chief 
 direction of charities of all kinds. The State oversight 
 of Sanitary arrangements is considerable, though far 
 from well-organized. 
 
 BRAZIL. 
 
 AREA, 3,209,878 sq. mi. POPULATION, 14,000,000 in 1888. 
 
 DEFENSE OF NATION. Regular Army in 1891, 
 30,477 (officers, 1,600 ; men, 28,877). Navy : Battle 
 Ships, 2 ; Port Defense, 9 ; Cruisers, 25 ; Torpedo Boats, 
 8 ; total 44. Armories, Forts, &c. 
 
 FINANCE. (Banks are all private corporations.) 
 The Government undertakes Coinage and Note Issue ; 
 there is a Customs and Inter. Rev. Dept., also for Tax 
 Collecting and Treasury. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION. Brazil is a very large country, 
 and means of transit are as yet few. There were 700 
 mi, of good Roads in 1890, and numerous dirt Turn- 
 pikes, besides mountain Paths and city Streets. Express 
 Service is largely conducted by the State. 
 
 Railways under State ownership in 1893, 1,568 mi, 
 There were besides, 1,815 mi. of sub-ventioned railway. 
 The cost of these to the State up to December 31st, 1888 
 had been 195,636,000 milreis. The State is now building 
 other lines to the extent of 3,815 mi. (There are under 
 private ownership 3,250 mi. besides.)
 
 113 
 
 Of Canals and Navigable Rivers there are 24,300 mi. 
 Harbors, Wharves, Bridges, Bridge Engineers, and Sur- 
 veyors are of Government provision. 
 
 Postal Service. In 1890 there were 2,733 offices. The 
 receipts were 3,243,421 milreis ; expenses, 9,323,108 mil- 
 reis ; and deficit, 6,079,677 milreis. 
 
 Telegraph. In 1891, 8,620 mi. under State ownership. 
 Cost to date, 2,883,950 milreis. There were 212 offices. 
 Receipts for 1890, 2,042,755 milreis. 
 
 EDUCATION now provided for by Agricultural Bu- 
 reau, Botanic Gardens, Census Bureau, Coast Surveys, 
 Educational Bureau, Expositions, Geographical and 
 Geographical Surveys, Libraries, Museums, Reading 
 Rooms, Monuments and Schools. Of the latter, there 
 were, in 1889, 7,500 Primary, with 300,000 pupils; Sec- 
 ondary, in most towns ; several Colleges, and Normal 
 Schools ; 2 each for Law and Medicine (1890) ; Theolo- 
 gical ; Industrial; 8 Technological with 575 students; 
 4 Military with 2,916 cadets ; and i Nautical, with 2,777 
 marines. (In 1881, 84% of the population were illiterate.) 
 
 LAW AND ORDER. The Government is a republic 
 headed by President and Cabinet ; a National Congress 
 of ()2i Senators (elected for 9 years), and 202 Deputies 
 (elected for 3 years). The several States have Govern- 
 ments based on the National type. There is an elaborate 
 legal machinery in other respects, employing thousands 
 of persons. The Courts of Justice comprise Police, Dis- 
 trict, Civil, Criminal and Supreme. There were 15,000 
 Police in 1891 ; and Prison provisions in the form of 
 Police Stations, Jails, and Penitentiaries. There are 
 Departments for Apportioning, Appraising, Assessing, 
 Auditing, Park Supervision, and Registration of Bank- 
 ruptcy, Deeds, &c. There is also a large Consul and 
 Diplomatic Corps ; Copyright, and Patent offices. 
 
 RELIEF AND CHARITY is but meagrely provided 
 for. The greater part is done through Roman Catholic 
 functionaries under State sanction, the Church itself re-
 
 114 
 
 ceiving considerable assistance in the way of Government 
 grants. There are Charity Bureaus, Dispensaries, Homes 
 for Orphans, General Hospitals^ Insane Asylum, Indian 
 Agencies, Light Houses, Pension Department, and Poor 
 Houses. 
 
 SANITATION AND SAFETY are assisted by Pub- 
 lic Drinking Founts and Troughs, Fire Departments, 
 Forestry, Fountains, Refuse Gathering, Health Officers, 
 Parks, Quarantine, Sanitaries, Park Seats, Sewerage, 
 Street Cleaning, and Water-works. 
 
 BULGARIA. 
 
 AREA, 37,860 sq. mi. POPULATION, 3,154,375 in iSSS. 
 
 DEFENSE OF NATION. Regular Army of 38.800 
 (officers, 1,162 ; men, 37,638). Militia, 139.200. Navy 
 of 13 Port Defense Ships. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION. The State is surprisingly active 
 in this kind of provision. Besides Paths, Roads, Streets, 
 and Express Service management, it owned, in 1892, 494 
 km. (or 307 mi.) o{ Railway. (Private companies owned 
 312 km.) Bridges, Engineers, Surveyors, and Markets 
 are maintained. Postal Service, in 1892, had 123 offices. 
 Of State Telegraph lines, in 1891, there were 4,71° Vxa., 
 and 8,484 km, of wire ; with 147 offices. 
 
 EDUCATION. The State Church is Greek Orthodox. 
 There were in 1S90, 3,844 Primary Schools, with 171,983 
 pupils; Secondary or High Schools, in the chief towns 
 (including 4 for Girls) ; i College, and i Military School. 
 The State grant towards School expense in 1890 was 
 2,000,000 lev. 81 % of the population were reported 
 illiterate in 1890. There is a public Library at Sofia, a 
 Census and Educational Bureaus. 
 
 LAW AND ORDER. The Government is a Con- 
 stitutional Principality, headed by the Prince and his 
 Ministers, the Parliament (Sobranje) of 350 members.
 
 115 
 
 (elected for 3 years). To these, of course, are added 
 the official organization necessary for Apportioning, Ap- 
 praising, Assessing, Auditing, Registering, Arresting, 
 Trying, Imprisoning, Tax Collecting, &c. Then there 
 are the Consulate, the Customs and other Departments. 
 On Relief and Sanitation the Census is defective. 
 
 CANADA. 
 
 (BRITISH.) 
 AREA, 3,456,383 sq. mi. POPULATION, 4,832,679 in 1892. 
 
 DEFENSE OF NATION. 
 
 REGULAR ARMY, in 1893, 1.079 (^^H in Military 
 Schools and Colleges). 
 
 MILITIA, in 1893, 38,054. Yearly expense, $1,279,- 
 514. There are Military receipts to the extent of 326,- 
 916. (A detachment of the British Army is al\va)'s sta- 
 tioned in the various provinces.) 
 
 FINANCE. 
 
 POSTAL SAVINGS BANKS, 642 in 1892; 110,805 
 d^ositors ; and $22,298,401 deposits at the end of the 
 year. ($24,153,193 at end of 1893.) Expenses of man- 
 agement in 1892 were 357,661. The rate of interest al- 
 lowed is 3^ %. 
 
 The Government has charge of the Coinage and Note 
 Issue, the Customs and Internal Revenue and Tax Col- 
 lecting. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION. 
 
 ROADS, 6,000 mi. for mail coaches, in 1890 ; besides 
 a vast amount of Turnpike in the country, and Streets 
 in towns and cities. 
 
 STREET LIGHTING, und&r municipal ownership in 
 a few cities. 
 
 (Street Railways are chiefly owned by private com- 
 panies, working under franchises which are drawn con-
 
 116 
 
 spicuously in the interests of the cities. In 1S93, there 
 were 13 electric railways having 7,909 motor cars.) 
 STAGE COACHES. EXPRESS SERVICE. 
 
 RAILWAYS. In 1892, under Government owner- 
 ship, 1,397.5 mi. The cost had been ^58,343,560; re- 
 ceipts for 1892 were $3,^3^,393', expenses, ^3.478,597; 
 and deficit, ^612,204. (The profit for 1893, on the Inter- 
 colonial Railway alone, was ;g2o,i82.) (Under private 
 ownership there were 13,473 mi.; having cost ^571,371,- 
 314 ; and having received Government aid amounting to 
 ;gi7i,2ii,82o.) 
 
 CANALS AND NAVIGABLE RIVERS, 2,700 mi. 
 The Canals co^t ;g59,ooo,ooo ; the receipts in 1888 were 
 ^^271, 722. They are supported entirely for public benefit. 
 
 HARBORS, BRIDGES, BRIDGE ENGINEERS, 
 SURVB:Y0RS, and MARKETS are public provision. 
 
 POSTAL SERVICE. In 1892, there were 8,288 
 offices; ;^3,542,6ii receipts; $4,205,985 expenses; and 
 ^^663, 374 deficit. ;$i2,825,7oi were exchanged by Postal 
 Money Orders. 
 
 TELEGRAPH. The State lines covered 2,699 mi. 
 in 1892. (Private lines, 29,142 mi.) • 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 In public facilities for Education, Canada ranks very 
 high. The State or municipalities maintain Agricultural 
 Bureaus, Art Galleries, Botanic and Zoological Gardens, 
 Census and Educational Bureaus, Coast, Geographical 
 and Geological Surveys, Exploring Expeditions, Expo- 
 sitions and Fairs, Libraries, Museums and Reading 
 Rooms, Meteorological Bureaus and Observatories, 
 Monuments and Statues, Printing Establishments, and 
 Schools. Of the latter there were, in 1 89 1 , Kindergartens 
 (in Ontario alone 66, with 160 teachers and 6,375 pupils) ; 
 Primary, 15,793, with 23,809 teachers and 997,473 pupils ; 
 Secondary in 92 towns and cities; Colleges, 35, with 
 6,675 students ; Normal ; Art ; Technological ; Industrial ;
 
 117 
 
 Military ; Blind ; and Deaf and Dumb. The Expense in 
 1 89 1 for Primary schools alone was $10,101,908. 
 
 LAW AND ORDER. 
 
 The chief Executive is the Governor General and his 
 Council (Imperial appointment). The Parliament con- 
 sists of 80 Senators (elected for life), and 215 members 
 of the House of Commons (elected for 5 years). Each 
 province has its own special Legislative machinery, and 
 so the towns and cities. The Government activity in the 
 way of Boards for Apportioning, Appraising, Assessing, 
 Auditing, Assaying, Civil Service Examining, Register- 
 ing, Park, Railroad and River Oversight, is very great. 
 Besides, there are the Consulates, Copyright and Patent 
 Offices, Coroners, Immigration Bureaus, &c. Then 
 come the Civil, Criminal, Circuit, Chancery, and Supreme 
 Courts. The Juries and Jury Commissioners, the Police, 
 Constables, and Sheriffs; the Pounds, Police Stations, 
 Jails, Reformatories, and Penitentiaries. 
 
 RELIEF AND CHARITIES. 
 
 For these there is very general provision in the way of 
 numerous Bureaus, Dispensaries, Homes (for Aged, Or- 
 phans and Idiots), Hospitals (General, Epidemic, Infant, 
 Insane, and Lying-in), House of Refuge, Indian Agencies, 
 Life Saving Stations, Light Houses, Nurseries, Pension 
 Agents, and Poor Houses. 
 
 SANITATION AND SAFETY. 
 
 Baths, Cemeteries, Drinking Founts and Troughs, 
 Electric and Gas Lighting, Fountains, Garbage Gather- 
 ing, Health Officers, Parks, Quarantine, Sanitaries, Sew- 
 erage, Street Cleaning and Sprinkling, and Water works. 
 The total city water-works on June 30, 1891, was 95, 
 supplying 102 cities and towns. Their estimated cost, 
 $26,131,390. (<^/tliese, 59 (or 62.1 %) were under public 
 ownership; and 36 (or 37.9 %) under private ownership.
 
 118 
 
 CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 
 
 (south AFRICA. BRITISH.) 
 AREA, 221,311 sq. mi. POPULATION, 1,527,224 in 1S91. 
 
 This is an enterprising British colony. In addition to 
 the British troops usually stationed here, there is a reg- 
 ular colonial force of 765 men, which costs yearly ^137,- 
 660. Also a Militia, in 1892, of 5,369 men. There are 
 still vast amounts of Public Lands. There are over 8, 000 
 mi. of good Roads, in addition to Turnpikes and Streets. 
 In 1892 the State owned 2,252 mi. of Railway, which had 
 cost ;^i9, 321, 755. The receipts for the year were £2,- 
 248,980; expenses, ;^i, 370,904; and profits, ;^87S,o76. 
 The State first assumed ownership in Railways in 1862. 
 The experience has proved of enormous advantage to the 
 people individually as well as collectively. (There are 
 192 mi. under private ownership.) The Postal Service 
 in 1892 had 863 offices; received ;^252,i99; expended 
 ;!^i76,32i ; and had a net profit of ;675,878. In 1892 the 
 State owned 5,482 mi. of Telegraph; 310 offices; re- 
 ceived ;^7o,i94; expended ^75,878; with a deficit of 
 ;{^5,684. This was exclusive of ;{^8o,926, the value of 
 Government messages sent free. The State owns and 
 controls the Harbors, Wharves, Bridges, Markets ; and 
 supports a corps of Bridge Engineers and Surveyors. 
 
 In 1891 there were 1,809 public Primary Schools, with 
 2,094 teachers, and 111,436 pupils; there were besides, 
 6 Colleges with 237 students ; also Normal, Law, Medical, 
 Industrial, and Domestic Pxonomy Schools. In 189 1 the 
 State expended for education, ;^27i,o46. In 1S92 there 
 were 81 Public Libraries, besides Museums, Observator- 
 ies, and many other Educational instrumentalities. 
 
 Irrigation Works are constructed by the Government. 
 It also owns extensive cachment areas worth vast 
 aniounts. These lands its leases.
 
 119 
 
 The Law and Order machinery is headed by an Imper- 
 ially appointed Governor and Executive Council ; and a 
 Parliament consisting of a Legislative Council with 22 
 members (elected for 7 years), and a House of Assembly 
 with 76 members (elected for 5 years). There is besides 
 all the pharaphenalia of a democratic government. 
 
 The same may be said for the departments of Relief 
 and Charities, and Sanitation and Safety. 
 
 CEYLON. 
 
 (BRITISH.) 
 AREA, 25,364 sq. mi. POPULATION, 3,008,466 in 1891. 
 
 Ceylon is one of the most interesting and enterprising 
 British colonies. It bears a yearly expense of ^81,750 
 toward the cost of the Imperial Government garrison. 
 Its own Militia numbered 1,217 men in 1S92, and cost 
 99.543 rupees, (i rupee is nearly 50 cts.) The Postal 
 Savings Banks at the end of 1892 contained deposits of 
 516,842 rupees. The State owns all its Railroads, which 
 in 1892 covered 230.5 mi., with 39 mi. more being built. 
 The receipts for that year were 4,697,600 rupees. The 
 Harbor dues in 1892 were 768,292 rupees. The Postal 
 Service had 182 offices; the Telegraph service had 34 
 additional offices, and 1,550 mi. of wire in 1893, To 
 these facilities for Distribution must be added the Public 
 Roads, Streets, Express Service, Markets, Bridges, Bridge 
 Engineers, Surveyors, Wharves, and a very expensive 
 Breakwater at Colombo. 
 
 In 1892, there were 4,872 public Primary Schools, with 
 158,458 pupils ; 12 Colleges; Law; Medical; 11 Techno- 
 logical; 10 Industrial ; i Agricultural with 10 branches ; 
 a Woman's Educational Society numbering 1,800 mem- 
 bers ; and the University examinations annually held in 
 Ceylon for Camdridge and London universities. The 
 General Government grant towards school expenses for 
 1892 was 525,839 rupees.
 
 120 
 
 In the way of Production the State has a model farm, 
 which was inaugurated by Prince Alfred. It owns the 
 most extensive Irrigation works, many of which were 
 built between 400 B. C. and 1200 A. D. The expense 
 for 1S92 was 324,194 rupees. Salt works are a Govern- 
 ment monopoly, the net profit of which in 1891 was 
 9,563,240 rupees. The State also owns large Foundry 
 and Iron Works at Colombo. Timber is exclusiveh' 
 Government property, and brings in a large revenue. 
 
 The Government, like that of other British colonies, is 
 headed by a Governor and Council. There is also a 
 Legislative Council of 18 members. The 9 provinces 
 have a Government Agent at the head. There are 13 
 Local Boards, besides native villages, and 3 town muni- 
 cipalities. The courts are conducted on the basis of 
 Roman-Dutch law, modified by English Colonial Ordi- 
 nances. There are Supreme, District, Request, and Vil- 
 lage Council Courts. In addition to this, must be remem- 
 bered the other machinery of an enterprising colonial 
 government. 
 
 CHILL 
 
 AREA, 293,970 sq. miles. POPULATION, 2,867,375 in 1892. 
 
 In 1S91 the Regular Army numbered 6,959, and there 
 was an available Militia of 51,090. The Navy was com- 
 posed of I Battle Ship, i Port Defense Ship, 16 Cruisers 
 and 9 Torpedo Boats; 27 in all. 
 
 As aids to Distribution and Transportation, there are 
 1,600 ]\Iule Paths aggregating 1,700 mi., and iS,6oo mi. 
 of Roads. The State owns 686 mi. of Railway (1892), 
 which cost 58,827,349 pesos. It first assumed railway 
 ownership in 1865. (There are under private companies, 
 1,049 n^i- The first Railroad in South America was built 
 in Chili, in 1850.) The Navigable Rivers amount to 
 2,800 mi. Harbors, Bridges, Bridge Engineers, Sur-. 
 veyors, &c., are maintained by State. The Postal Ser-
 
 121 
 
 vice had 516 offices in 1891. In 1S92 the State Telegraph 
 Lines covered 8,000 mi. and had 304 offices. (Private 
 lines, 5,730 mi. and 107 offices.) The State Bonded 
 Warehouses in Valparaiso cost over ;$3,ooo,ooo. 
 
 In 1S92, there were 1,174 Primary Schools, with 2,048 
 teachers and 95,456 pupils. High Schools existed in all 
 the chief towns ; and a University, with 5 faculties, at 
 Santiago. Besides these there were Law, Medical. The- 
 ological, Music, Art, Agricultural, Industrial, Military 
 and Naval Schools. In 1882 the State paid for schools, 
 ;^r,386,o22. There exist Art Galleries, Libraries, Muse- 
 ums, Census and ^Educational Bureaus, &c. 
 
 The Government is a republic, with a President, 
 Cabinet of 5, and State Council of 11. The Congress 
 has 2 Houses : a Senate of 43 (elected for 6 years), and 
 a Chamber of Deputies of 126 (elected for 3 years.) 
 
 There is a Supreme Court of 6 judges ; Police (even 
 in the rural districts) ; the various kinds of prisons ; &c. 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 AREA, 1,336,341 sq. mi. POPULATION, about 386,000,000. 
 
 China, socially considered, is a peculiar nation. It 
 is hard to compare it with modern civilizations. How 
 weak are these ancient social structures (even when they 
 have taken on considerable that belongs to modern 
 times) is being made clear in the present Chino-Japa- 
 nese struggle. Look at the area and population of each ! 
 The giant but awkward form of China is rapidly driven 
 back and crushed by the little up-to-date Japan. It is 
 instructive to compare the highly-socialized lEmpire of 
 the Mikado with the poor and loosely managed " Celes- 
 tial Kingdom," so called. (Seethe far more numerous 
 detailed instances of socialization under Japan.) China 
 is probably the largest nation on the globe, regarded 
 numerically. It is also the oldest. It has brought its 
 ancient civilization into modern <-imes. The people, his-
 
 122 
 
 torically, have been ingenious in common affairs; but 
 have been stagnant in the social realm, and the State still 
 remains in the spirit of ancient days. It hcis not even 
 arrived at the stage of representative government in any 
 sense. The form is despotism, yet it is tempered by the 
 age-long spirit of parental and filial piety, which imbues 
 the nation from highest to lowest. 
 
 The Army is supposed to number over 650,000, and 
 the Militia about 1,200,000. There are 2 Battle Ships, 
 9 Port Defense Ships, 59 Cruisers and 41 Torpedo Boats; 
 in all, III, (And yet they cannot keep the Japs out !) 
 
 The Roads are numerous, but abominably kept. 
 (Railways have been attempted several times, by com- 
 panies, but the superstitions of the people are so strong 
 that they have not succeeded. Miles of track have been 
 torn up, because the spikes were believed to be ' driven 
 through the spirit Dragon's back." Some tramways 
 with locomotives have been extensively used, but official 
 policy is decidedly against the introduction of any sort 
 of iron road.) The number of Navigable Rivers and 
 Canals is very great. The latter date from 400 B. C. 
 They are more numerous than roads in our most popular 
 states. All farms and villages are reached by them. 
 Boats are sculled or driven by sail. The Grand Canal 
 from Kwa Chow (near Shanghai) to Pekin is 650 mi. 
 long. China is the only country in the world, not actually 
 savage, which does not have some sort of government 
 managed Postal Service. The Telegraph has been vig- 
 orously resisted, although lines now connect the chief 
 cities, and these with the Russian frontier. 
 
 Education (of the Chinese sort) is among males wide- 
 spread and highly prized. Competitive examinations for 
 Civil Service Offices and for Literary Degrees have ex- 
 isted since the 8th century. Besides the Nobility, there 
 are 4 social grades : ist, Scholars (Literati) ; 2nd, Farm- 
 ers ; 3rd, Artisans ; 4th, Merchants (traders). The study 
 of the classics, or sacred books, constitutes the bulk of 
 education.
 
 123 
 
 The Emperor is the " Father of the people," and 
 Chinese Government is summed up in a system of paren- 
 tal and filial piety. The Nuy Ko (Privy Council) has 9 
 Manchus and 7 Chinamen. There are 6 administrative 
 departments : War, Punishment, Office, Ceremonies, 
 Revenue, and Works; also 2 additional boards of Music 
 and Censors. These are headed by appointees of the 
 Emperor. Each Province is presided over by Viceroy 
 and Governor. The laws were all laid down in ancient 
 times by the wise men who wrote the Classics. This, the 
 Emperor, Viceroys, Governors, &c., interpret and exe- 
 cute. Prisons are few, because the death penalty is 
 widely and summarily applied. Punishment by torture 
 is common. 
 
 Cemeteries are publicly maintained and held in great 
 reverence, because of the universal ancestor worship of 
 the people. 
 
 COCHIN CHINA. 
 
 (FRENCH.) 
 AREA, 23,082 sq. mi. POPULATION, 2,034,453 in 1S91. 
 
 This is an Empire under treaty of protection and alli- 
 ance with I'rance. It is, as a whole, considerably less 
 stupid than China, and manifests some susceptibility to 
 to the influences of a modern civilization. There is a 
 Frertch garrison, and a native Militia of about 2,800 (in 
 1891), The Government owns 5 r mi. of railway; is build- 
 ing and improving the Roads, Streets, Bridges, and Har- 
 bors. A State Post-office was recently introduced by the 
 French; and there were in 1892 1,840 mi. of Telegraph, 
 having 73 offices. 
 
 In 1891 there were reported 628 Primary Schools, with 
 1,^98 teachers, and 25,397 pupils. The Government is 
 conducted by native rulers in the form of absolute mon- 
 archy, tempered by powerful custom, but under the 
 guidance and protectorate of a French Governor and 
 Council.
 
 124 
 
 COLOMBIA. 
 
 AREA, 504,773 sq. mi. POPULATION, 3,878,600 in 18S1. 
 
 This is a South American RepubHc of considerable 
 importance. It had a standing Army of 5,500 in 1892. 
 It provides its own money, conducting the Coinage by 2 
 National Mints. Thereis much Land and other property 
 of considerable amount in the hands of the Government. 
 A vast amount of Church Land was confiscated by the 
 New Republic which came in in 1863. The Roman 
 Catholic Church still predominates, but was disestab- 
 lished at that time from being a State Church. The 
 Government owns 238 mi. of Railway, and great enter- 
 prise has been shown both by the National and State 
 governments in pushing forward railway undertakings, 
 though hampered by small means and great natural diffi- 
 culties. The Navigable Rivers are numerous and excel- 
 lent. The State carries on the Postal Service, and owns 
 6,016 mi. of Telegraph, with 273 offices (1892). The 
 Telegraph system has been greatly annoyed in remote 
 and country regions by thieves stealing the wires and by 
 monkeys using them for their gymnastic exercises. 
 
 The School Reports in 1893 mention 1,822 Primary, 
 with 1 14,331 pupils ; 34 Secondary ; 9 Colleges, with 2,683 
 students; i University; 20 Normal, with 587 students; 
 Law; Medical; Mining; Technological; Industrial; 
 Commercial ; Nautical ; &c. The National Government 
 grant for education in 1SS8 was ;^668,725. To this was 
 added a far larger portion by the several States. 
 
 Salt is a Government monopoly. The revenue in i88t 
 was ^950,285. Before 1876 all Mines were a monopoly 
 of the Government. 
 
 The President and his Cabinet of 4 Secretaries, (Home 
 and Foreign Affairs, Finance and Public Works, Treas 
 ury and Credit, War and Marine,) head the Federal 
 Government. The National Congress has 27 Senators 
 (elected for 6 years), and 66 members of the House of 
 Representatives (elected for 4 years). There are 9 State
 
 125 
 
 governments, similar to those of the separate states of 
 our Union. Towns and cities have their own Govern- 
 ments and local Courts. The Supreme Court at Bogota 
 consists of a President, 4 Judges and a Procurator- 
 General. Minor courts, Police, Prisons, and the various 
 Assessing and Registering departments fill out the legal 
 machinery. Charities and Sanitary provisions are, num- 
 erous. 
 
 CONGO INDEPENDENT STATE. 
 
 AREA, about 900,000 sq. mi. 
 POPULATION, about 14,000,000 in 1891. 
 
 Congo is a Central West African region, lately organ- 
 ized by PLuropean powers. It is destined to be an im- 
 portant country ere long. It has sprung up in a day, as 
 it were. Books 10 years old have no mention of it, but 
 already there is a social organization of considerable de- 
 velopment. A standing Armed Force of 3,600 men, 
 about 80 of whom are officers ; a Postal Service with 10 
 ofifices; 25 mi. of Railway; 4 Military and several' Pri- 
 mary Schools, are among the indications of active socio- 
 logical and commercial interest. 
 
 COREA. 
 
 AREA, 82,000 sq. mi. POPULATION, alxnit 10,500,000. 
 
 As proven by the present Chino-Japanese dispute, 
 Corea is one of the most loosely organized and poorly 
 managed governments of the world. There is a stated 
 Regular Army of 5,000, and a considerable number of 
 walled towns. The people do their trading largely by 
 barter, only i small piece of copper coin being prevalent. 
 Wheeled vehicles are unknown, hence Roads are deplor- 
 able. Transport is carried on by porters, pack-horses, 
 oxen, and boats on the many navigable streams. The
 
 126 
 
 Bridges are few, and of the most primitive sort. The 
 King maintains a sort of Postal system on the principal 
 highways by means of mounted couriers. There are 
 Telegraph lines from the capitol to the Chinese and Rus- 
 sian frontiers. Confucianism is the established creed, 
 and the Libraries consist entirely of the Classics and 
 works based on them. Books are almost worshipped. 
 There is every indication of the former greatness of this 
 people. They are the remnants of a decayed civilization. 
 Education is held in similiarly high esteem to that of 
 China. Civil Service Examination is the universal rule ; 
 but all the Schools are of classical tendency and are full 
 of effete and superstitious doctrines. Hence the various 
 branches of Education, Science, Law, Medicine, &c., 
 must not be thought of in our European or Western 
 sense. Both Corea and China are really barbarous na- 
 tions, embodying a vast am.ount of social ceremonialism, 
 and tempered by the strongest pietistic atavism. 
 
 The King and his 3 Minister Councilors are the head 
 of the Government. Each province has its Governor, 
 and each of the 322 districts is under a separate Man- 
 darin. These posts are theoretically open to all, bu( 
 are actually monopolized by the nobles. There are no 
 Legislative departments proper. The King is absolute 
 monarch in his own dominion. He receives divine 
 honors. Horsemen dismount as they pass the palace, 
 and subjects prostrate themselves in the presence cham- 
 ber. Till 1894, he has been a vassal to China. During 
 this century the nobles have mingled more in politics 
 and made certain inroads on the Royal prerogatives. 
 
 Women are held in such low estimation that they re- 
 ceive no schooling, are not morally responsible for their 
 actions, and have no political or social influence. Among 
 the upper classes they are kept in a state of seclusion. 
 Marriages are arranged by the heads of families, the 
 parties married never having seen each other oftentimes. 
 Men and women do not associate much. Concubinage 
 is common, but not polygamy.
 
 127 
 
 There is a sort of Supreme Court with 6 judges, who 
 are also Executive officers, having charge of census, 
 taxes, mint, religious ceremonies, war, criminal court, 
 public works, commerce, &c. Judgment is too often 
 followed by death to make prisons of much use. 
 
 As to Relief, beyond a few Light Houses and Pension 
 dependency, this division of a socialized nation is hardly 
 represented. There is always a large number of pen- 
 sioners on the Royal bounty, as the King is expected to 
 provide for his realm as a father. The poverty of the 
 common people is of the most lamentable character. 
 Their houses are only from lo to 12 sq. ft. The bare 
 earth forms the floor. There are no chairs, and nothing 
 worthy of being called a bed. They have straw sandals 
 for shoes with stockings underneath. Their apparel is 
 of rough cotton cloth. 
 
 COSTA RICA. 
 
 AREA, 23,000 sq. mi. POPULATION, 243,205 in 1S92, 
 
 This a Central American republic, about twice the 
 size of Belgium. There is a Standing Armed Force of 
 600 men ; and a Militia in 1S92 of 37,273. The Public 
 Land is being sold off, as in the United States. It forms 
 a temporary revenue. The Mule Tracks and Roads are 
 few and rugged. Tbi Government attempted to build 
 an Inter-Oceanic Railway in 1S71 ; but the insurrectious 
 condition of society caused the work to be dropped in 
 1873. (It has since been taken up by private companies ; 
 and there are under private ownership 161 miles of rail- 
 way.) The Government conducts the Postal Service. 
 In 1893 there were 50 offices. It also has 630 mi. of 
 Telegraph line, with 43 offices. In 1S92 there were 267 
 Primary Schools with 11,472 pupils. In 1S91, the State 
 expended on education 546,035 pesos. There are some 
 Secondary, Collegiate, Law, Medical, and Industrial 
 Schools. The State Church is Roman Catholic. At
 
 128 
 
 the head of the Government is a President, 2 Vice-Presi- 
 dents, and 4 Ministers. There is but one Legislative 
 Assembly consisting of a Chamber of Representatives 
 with 26 members (elected for 4 years). The usual Law 
 and Order machinery exists. In Production, the Gov- 
 ernment has a monopoly in Spirits and Tobacco. 
 
 CUBA. 
 
 (SPANISH.) 
 
 AREA, 41,655 sq. mi. POPULATION, 1,631,687 in 1S90. 
 
 The Cuban people have struggled long and heroically 
 for freedom. They carried on a bloody war for indepen- 
 dence between 1870 and 1878. This cost the bigoted 
 Spanish government over 200,000 men. It is not the 
 fault of the freedom-loving people of that beautiful island 
 that it cannot boast one single instance of real advance- 
 ment. It is filled with the usual machinery of paternal- 
 istic tyrrany. It is over-ridden by Spanish officers and 
 Spanish law. Everything is taxed that can be, and after 
 that the people are seduced by a Royal Lottery which 
 netted the government ^3,334,820 in 1884. And it still 
 takes a force of 12 Spanish war vessels and an army of 
 22,866 men to keep it Spanish. In that little isle are 
 5,076 Police. And every year the debt increases, and 
 the people are staggering under it. Under the new 
 arrangement they have their representatives in the 
 Spanish Parliament, but they can carry no measure. 
 It is but a farcical representation. The public land is 
 being sold for revenue. The Finances are managed by 
 the Bank of Spain. (The Railways, about 1,000 mi., are 
 under private ownership. So too the Telegraph.) The 
 Spanish government tolerates no religion but the Roman 
 Catholic. P^ducation is in a very backward state. 
 Not over i-io of the children of free parents received 
 any kind of schooling in 1877. In 1890, this had some- 
 what improved, although the figures arc not obtainable.
 
 129 
 
 The Government is reported to have spent $553,335. 
 There is a University at Habana with 30 teachers. There 
 are two other Colleges. The Government is peculiar. 
 At the head is the Governor Captain-General from 
 Spain. He has despotic authority and is responsible 
 only to the Spanish sovereign. He is supreme head 
 of the Civil, Military, and Ecclesiastical jurisdictions. 
 Under him and responsible to him are the Governors 
 of departments, and under these are Lieutenant Gov- 
 erns. The Legislative representatives are in the Span- 
 ish Cortes. There is an apparent Town Council in each 
 city. This is the only sort of socialized assembly in the 
 country. There are 129 of these municipalities; but 
 both these and the provincial assemblies can be proro- 
 gued at the will of the Captain-General. 
 
 CURACAO. 
 
 (west indies, dutch.) 
 
 AREA, 210,000 sq. mi. POPULATION, 26,584 in 1S91. 
 
 This is an old-fashioned Dutch colony of long stand- 
 ing and slow progress. It is governed by a Dutch 
 Stadtholder and Council. It is an organized commu- 
 nity having the usual legal machinery. State Postoffice, 
 Municipal Works, Militia, &c. 
 
 CYPRUS. 
 
 (BRITISH.) 
 
 AREA, 3,584 sq. mi. POPULATION, 209,291 in 1891. 
 
 This is an Eastern Mediterranean island that has been 
 the seat of a most ancient Greek civilization. It has had 
 a varied history. After the hey-day of Greek influence, 
 St. Paul introduced Christianity upon the island, and so 
 rapidly did it flourish that very soon there were 13 bish- 
 oprics established there. Under the Venetians (after
 
 130 
 
 1487), the island is said to have had 1,000,000 inhabi- 
 tants. It has experienced its long periods of stagnation. 
 Under British influence in recent years it shows signs 
 of renewed thrift. There is no public debt, and taxes 
 are taken "in kind." It is the seat of an important 
 Brirish garrison. There are 400 miles of good Roads. 
 The Postofifice, Harbors, Wharves, Bridges, Markets, &c., 
 are under State management. (In 1892 private com- 
 panies had 240 Telegraph offices. They connected with 
 Alexandria and Syria.) In 1892 there were 334 Primary 
 Schools (of which 226 were Christian and 108 Moslem) 
 with 14,326 pupils. High Schools exist in the chief 
 towns. All schools are inspected by Government offi- 
 cers. The Government grant for 1892 was ;{J"3,2io ; and 
 the income from fees, endowments, &c., was £C^,377. 
 Among other educational works the Government has 
 undertaken Archaeological Research for remains of the 
 ancient Greek city of Citium and others. Many rich 
 and interesting facts have been discovered. The chief 
 executive is a High Commissioner of British appoint- 
 ment and his Council of 4 members. There is a national 
 Legislative Council of 18, 6 of whom are British office- 
 holders and 12 are elected by voters. The six Provin- 
 cial districts have autonomous government. There was 
 a police force of 670 in 1892 ; 6 District Courts of Civil 
 and 6 others of Criminal jurisdiction; 6 Magisterial; 
 and 5 Village ; and i Supreme Court. There is a large 
 amount of crime in proportion to the population. The 
 people are much given to litigation. The usual other 
 machinery of British colonies is to be found. 
 
 DENMARK. 
 
 AREA, 14,553 sq. mi. POPULATION, 2,185,159 in 1890. 
 
 DEFENSE OF NATION. Denmark is an interest- 
 ing, peace-loving, and highly socialized nation. It has 
 a considerable standing army which it rarely uses. In
 
 131 
 
 1892 there were 42,950 men (1,206 of whom were offi- 
 cers). The Government expense for 1893-4 is 10,631,- 
 950 kroner. (A kroner is about 27 cents.) The MiHtia 
 numbered 34,750. There were several Forts. In 1892 
 the Navy had 5,379 men (417 being officers) ; i Battle 
 Ship, 6 Port Defense Ships, 23 Cruisers, 12 Torpedo Boats, 
 making a total of 42 War Vessels. The naval expense 
 for 1893-4 was 6,690,726 kr. There is a naval reserve of 
 7,197- 
 
 FINANCE. The National Bank in 1893 had assets 
 amounting to 132,052,245 kr. It is the State cashier ; 
 and is a highly socialized institution. There are de- 
 partments for Coinage, Note Issue, Customs, Internal 
 Revenue, Tax Collecting, and Government Lotteries. 
 The total Government expenditure in 1893-4 was 54,- 
 228,658 kr. The Public Debt in 1891 was 186,610,993 
 kr. (The rate is 3J3 and 4 %). In Land holdings, Den- 
 mark is greatly subdivided. The law forbids aggrega- 
 tions and encourages parcelling. PZncroachment upon 
 the old estates of the nobles is continually going on. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION. There were 2,000 mi. of Roads in 
 1890. The Government owned, in 1892, 992 mi. of Rail- 
 way. (It began the purchase and management of Rail- 
 ways in 1S80.) Their cost to the end of 1890 had been 
 164,141,474 kr. (In addition to this there were 297 mi. 
 of privately owned railway.) There are 8 mi. of Canal 
 and 90 of Navigable Rivers managed by the State ; so 
 too are the Harbors, Wharves, Bridges, Telephones, 
 Markets and Express Service. The number of Post- 
 offi.ces in 1892 was 803. The State owned, in 1891, 2,816 
 mi. of Telegraph, and had 168 offices. (858 mi. with 
 207 offices were owned by the private railroads.) 
 
 EDUCATION. "The Educational Institutions of 
 Denmark have reached a high degree of perfection. 
 All schools, both Grammar and others, have been put 
 in a state of independence on the University of Copen- 
 hagen, and under its control, while the University itself 
 is particularly well-managed." Education is compul-
 
 132 
 
 sory, and elementary education is widely diffused. There 
 were in 1892, 2,940 Primary Schools, with 231,940 pupils ; 
 81 Secondary Schools (and about 67 Peasant High 
 Schools in addition to these, attended by men in win- 
 ters and women in summers) ; i University with 40 in- 
 structors and 1300 students; 5 Normal Schools ; i Art 
 School, with 7 instructors ; 122 Technological ; besides 
 Law, Medical, Theological, Industrial, Blind, Deaf and 
 Dumb, &c. The State paid toward the support of Wor- 
 ship and Instruction in 1894, 3,625,449 kr. The Nation- 
 al Church is Lutheran. Tt was established in 1536. In 
 1S90 only 1.5 % of the population did not belong to it. 
 In 1885 there were 1,353 clergymen, i Metropolitan and 
 6 other Bishops. All sects have the fullest toleration. 
 The State provides Agricultural, Census, Educational 
 and Meteorological Bureaus ; for Archaeological, Ethno- 
 logical, and Theological Research ; for Coast, Exploring, 
 Geographical, and Geological Surveys ; for Art Galleries, 
 Botanic Gardens, Expositions, Libraries, Museums, Ob- 
 servatories, and Reading Rooms. 
 
 MEANS PRODUCTION. The State builds Cars, 
 has Drydocks, Foundries, and Locomotive Works. 
 Since 1779 the Porcelain factory at Copenhagen has 
 been in the hands of the State. Its wares are original 
 and of high order. 
 
 LAW AND ORDER. The King, the Crown Prince, 
 and the 8 Ministers of Departments constitute the Stats- 
 raadt. The Landthing (Senate) has 66 members (12 no- 
 minated by the Crown for life, and 54 elected by indirect 
 universal suffrage for 8 years). The Folkething (House 
 of Commons) has 102 members (elected for 3 years). 
 Members of both houses get 3 rixdalers (;$i.66) daily, 
 during sessions of the Rigsdag (Parliament), besides ex- 
 penses to and from the capitol. There are 7 Provinces, 
 many Municipalities, and 1,068 Parishes. The lowest 
 Courts are those by District and Town Magistrates, 
 above these are Second Instance Courts with 9 judges 
 at Viborg and 1 7 at Copenhagen ; and a Supreme Court
 
 133 
 
 (Hojisteret) for final appeal with one chief justice, 12 
 puisne, and 11 special judges, sitting at Copenhagen. 
 To these must be added the Police, the Prisons, the 
 Consulates, the Registries, and the Assessing and Col- 
 lecting Departments. 
 
 In organized Relief and Charity and in Sanitary and 
 Safety means under public control, Denmark equals the 
 best. 
 
 DUTCH EAST INDIES. 
 
 AREA, 719,674 sq. mi. POPULATION, 32,000,000. 
 
 The Dutch possessions in the East Indies include Java, 
 Madura, Celebes, Sumatra, Molucca, Timor, and a por- 
 tion of New Guinea. The leading settlements are in 
 Java. In Java and Madura alone the population num- 
 bers about 21,500,000. 
 
 The Regular Army maintained in 1891 was 34,788 
 (officers, 1,385). The Navy numbered 2,572 men, and 
 23 War Vessels. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION. The greater part of the S50 mi. 
 of Railway in 1891 were owned by the State. The 
 receipts from State railways in that year were 8,400,500 
 guilders (and 3,124,574 guilders on private railways). 
 The Postal Service in 1891 had 300 offices; the Tele- 
 graph, 100 offices and 4,247 mi. of line; and the Tele- 
 phone, 27 offices. The State owns and manages the 
 Roads, Streets, Express Service, Harbors, Wharves, 
 Bridges and Markets. 
 
 EDUCATION. The Public Primary Schools in 1S91 
 numbered 19,035, with 375,266 pupils. There were 7 
 Secondary Schools ; 6 Normal Schools, with 3;^ instruc- 
 tors and 224 students; Domestic Economy, Industrial, 
 Military, and other kinds. For all, in 1891, the Govern- 
 ment grants were 2,876,473 guilders. The State owns 3 
 Printing offices in Java. It conducts Archaeological 
 Research of considerable extent in seeking for the
 
 134 
 
 character of the former civilizations. Java is rich in 
 antiquities of the early Hindoo conquerors. There are 
 Census, Educational and other Bureaus. 
 
 PRODUCTION. In the matter of Food Production, 
 the Government in Java has entered upon productive 
 enterprises probably more than in any other country in 
 the world. 
 
 Since iSi6 no la7id in Java has been alienated. Cer- 
 tain tracts are left free for the natives. Some lands were 
 sold to European (1,946,455 acres) and foreign Orientals 
 (798,628 acres) before 1816. All the rest belongs to the 
 State (-9,797,637 acres). By the Agrarian law of 1S70, 
 these lands were opened to private industry on hereditary 
 lease (emphyteusis) for 75 years, or are worked by the 
 Government. In 1893 the receipts from leased lands 
 were i 7,982,000 guilders. The 6"^^^ product from Gov- 
 ernment lands in 1891 was 430,206 picols (i picol being 
 133 y'i pounds), and receipts therefrom 11,815,872 guild- 
 ers. Salt production is a Government monopoly, and 
 the receipts therefrom in 1893 were 8,370,000 guilders. 
 ^?/^rtr plantations to the extent of 4,761 acres were owned 
 and worked by the Government in 1891. Tea and To- 
 bacco were also raised in great quantities on Government 
 lands. There were, m 1891, 8 State Cmchona planta- 
 tions, producing 286,101 picols, and receipts, 138,600 
 guilders. Opinm is* a Government monopoly, and the 
 receipts therefrom in 1893 reached 17,779,000 guilders. 
 Indigo is a Government enterprise. The Tin Mines 
 under State ownership employed, in 1892, 18,040 men, 
 and produced 199,869 picols, bringing in receipts of 
 6,051,291 guilders. Besides these, the State engages 
 in Car and Locomotive building, has Drydocks, Found- 
 ries, and an Engineering Department. 
 
 LAW AND ORDER. At the head of the Govern- 
 ment is the Dutch-Stadtholder (Governor-General) and 
 his Council of 5. There are 22 Provinces in Java and 
 Madura, each having a considerable autonomy. The
 
 135 
 
 Courts include District, High, Circuit, Magisterial, and 
 Ecclesiastical. In 1890 there were 303 prisons with a 
 total of 26,485 inmates. It would be impossible here to 
 enumerate the numerous other socialized institutions of 
 this far-away, active, and surprisingly advanced people ; 
 some idea of which may be gained from the statement 
 that in 1S94 the Government aid to Orphan Homes of 
 Protestant and Roman Catholic founding was 96,300 
 guilders. 
 
 ECUADOR. 
 
 AREA, 118,630 sq. mi. POPULATION, 1,271,861. 
 
 The Regular Army has about 3,340; the Militia some 
 30,000 ; and the Navy, 128 men on 6 poor vessels. 
 
 There are vast tracts of Public Lands inconceivably 
 rich in timbers of many and choice varieties. The Mule 
 Paths are numerous but in poor condition. There is one 
 good Road of 1 1 5 miles, and about 200 miles of fair Cart 
 Road. The difficulties occasioned by mountains and 
 torrents are very great. The first carriage was brought 
 to Quito in 1859, and the owner was taxed for his innova- 
 tion. The State owned 63 mi. of Railway in 1891 ; and 
 1,073 n^i- of Telegraph. The Post office yields a net 
 revenue of over ;^ioo,ooo. 
 
 Education is backward. In 1891 there were 1,088 
 Primary Schools, with 1,498 teachers, and 68,380 pupils; 
 35 Secondary; 12 Colleges, with 350 students; Normal ; 
 Theological ; Technological ; and Military. The State 
 expense in 1890 was j^i 76,325. The State church is 
 Roman Catholic. No others tolerated. Even the oath 
 of a Protestant has no value in a "Court of Justice." 
 The monkish orders of the Middle Ages in Europe still 
 flourish in Ecuador. 
 
 In the way of Production, Salt is a monopoly of the 
 State. The revenue therefrom is something over $400,- 
 000 annually. Gjinpowder is a Government monopoly,
 
 136 
 
 yielding ^40,000 to ^50,000 per year. The Government 
 has been to considerable expense in training persons to 
 superintend the introduction of the Indigo industry. 
 
 The Government is Republic ; has a President and 
 Cabinet of 6 ; a National Congress with a Senate of 33 
 members (elected for 4 years), and a Chamber of Deputies 
 of 33 members (elected for 2 years). There are 1 1 Prov- 
 inces and 2 cities (Quito and Guayaquil), each having 
 Governors. The Courts are Municipal, Provincial, Up- 
 per of 3, and Supreme of i (at Quito). The various other 
 departments may be readily assumed. 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 (TURKISH, WITH BRITISH INFLUENCE.) 
 AREA, 400,000 sq. mi. POPULATION, 6,817,265 in 1882. 
 
 Egypt was for many centuries one of the darkest coun- 
 tries, from a social point of view. Since about 1840 it 
 has made very rapid advancement, and promises soon to 
 show a type of civilization of high order. 
 
 The Regular Army in 1892 comprised about 13,000 
 men ; and the Militia about 20,000. The Navy has 6 Port 
 Defense Ships and 4 Cruisers. The Roads, Streets, 
 Bridges, and Markets are public property, so too the 
 Harbors. An extensive Breakwater has been made at 
 Alexandria, and great works have been constructed at 
 the Suez Canal and elsewhere. The Canal is 87 mi. long ; 
 and its receipts in 1892 were 41,728,543 fr. Besides this, 
 there exists some 400 to 500 mi. of ancient Canals, not 
 in very good repair, but being improved. The River 
 Nile, from time immemorial the chief natural feature, 
 forms a great water-way the length of the land. The 
 Railways are all under State ownership. The Govern- 
 ment first assumed management in 1856. In 1892 there 
 were 1,225 mi., and 30 more were being built. The re- 
 ceipts were 1,680,164 Egyptian pounds; expenses, 728,- 
 242 ; and profits, 95 1,922. The Postal Service was bought
 
 137 
 
 by the Government from private hands in 1S65, and was 
 placed under English officials. There were in 1892 
 offices in nearly one hundred towns. The Money Orders 
 and Registered Letters covered values amounting to 
 14,551,000 Egyptian pounds. The Telegraph is owned 
 by the State, and there were 1,922 mi. of line in 1S92, 
 and 6,763 mi. of wire. It is managed by English officials, 
 thus insuring thoroughness. 
 
 Education is advancing rapidly, although among the 
 natives it is still largely confined to the reading of the 
 Koran. In 18S7 there w'ere 6,656 Primary .Schools, with 
 7,244 teachers and about 200,000 pupils. The Secondary 
 Schools numbered 21, with 2,431 pupils; Colleges 15, 
 with 2,347 students; Normal i; Law i; Medical 4; 
 Theological i ; Music 4; Technological n ; Industrial 3 ; 
 Agricultural i ; Military 1 1 ; Nautical i ; and Blind. In 
 the Azhar (one of the Mosque schools) there are some 
 325 sheik teachers and 11,000 students. 100 pupils are 
 educated in Europe at Government expense for admin- 
 istrative purposes. There are many denominational 
 schools in the non-Moslem communities. The Moham- 
 medans constitute Js of the population. Libraries, Mu- 
 seums, Educational and Census Bureaus, Monuments, 
 &c., are State matters. There is a Government Printing 
 press at Boolak. 
 
 Irrigation is undertaken by the Government. The 
 cost per year is about $2,500,000. The special improve- 
 ment of works in 1S85 reached $5,000,000; and 34-55°,- 
 000 more is being spent. 
 
 At the head of the Government is the Khedive, the 
 Privy Council, and 8 Ministers for the departments of 
 P^inance, Foreign Affairs, Interior, War, Marine, Com- 
 merce, Public Works and Agriculture, and Public In- 
 struction. There are two additional sub-departments of 
 Customs and Post-office. The Legislative and Judicial 
 functions are not so clearly differentiated from the Exec- 
 utive. Since 1867 there has been an annual Assembly 
 of Notables, consisting of village sheiks and others
 
 138 
 
 elected by the Communes. They assemble and hear the 
 Privy Council's report of the last year's administration, 
 and though not a strictly Parliamentary power, they ex- 
 ercise great weight in State affairs. Kgypt is well on in 
 the transition from a patriarchal to a constitutional gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 In the way of public institutions for Relief and Charity, 
 there are Dispensaries ; Homes for Orphans ; General, 
 Epidemic, Military and Marine Hospitals ; Pension De- 
 partment ; and Light Houses. Of the latter, there are 
 14 which have cost about $980,000. 
 
 FALKLAND ISLANDS. 
 
 (south ATLANTIC. BRITISH.) 
 
 AREA, 6,500 sq. mi. POPULATION, 1,789 in 1891. 
 
 This is a group of about 200 islands l}'ing 250 mi. east 
 of Patagonia. There are two main islands. The De- 
 fense Force consists of an officer and a small company 
 of Marines. These islands deserve mention from the 
 fact of a Government experiment in land occupation. 
 In 1867 the West Island had no settlers. The Govern- 
 ment issued a proclamation offering leases of grazing 
 stations at very low rates. Under the impulse of this 
 cooperative assistance the whole 2,000 sq. mi. were oc- 
 cupied within a year, and the Government began to 
 receive a revenue at once of over $6,-j^o. Thus the peo- 
 ple preferred protected and assisted opportunity merely 
 to use land, rather than the gift of such land without the 
 community's interest and its protection. Although the 
 islands were seen by Davis in 1592, they have prospered 
 little till in recent years. And now this little cloud- 
 covered, far-off land is a thriving community. In 1892 
 they had several Schools with some 200 pupils. When 
 it is said that most of the people are English and Scotch, 
 it is not necessary to enumerate the many types of so-
 
 139 
 
 cialized organization which they, in common with other 
 British colonies, never fail to develop for themselves. 
 (See English Colony Tendencies under New Zealand.) 
 
 FIJI. 
 
 (BRITISH SINCE 1874.) 
 AREA, 7,740 sq. mi. POPULATION, 125,442 in 1S92. 
 
 The Fiji group, in the midst of the Pacific Ocean, con- 
 sists of about 250 islands, So of which are inhabited. In 
 European minds the name Fiji stands for everything that 
 is savage and uncivilized. Neither cannibalism nor any 
 other abomination were seemingly left unpracticed by 
 these stalwart South Sea Islanders. Widow strangling 
 slave killing, and infanticide among themselves ; and 
 morbid cannibalism upon the unfortunate ship-wrecked 
 or neighboring tribes, were the most common practices. 
 Yet this very people had great human potentialities. 
 They were, even in their savagery, not treacherous, 
 but polite. They ascribed to religious reasons the 
 killing of their aged or sick relatives. They were good 
 talkers, had fine reasoning powers, tact and humor. By 
 their development under British influence they are prov- 
 ing, what has been done a thousand times, that in every 
 human breast is a love of the good and a capacity for 
 improvement under inspiring social conditions. Indeed, 
 even in their pre-European state, they had many of the 
 highest social relations. For example, all property was 
 the chief's, but all that the chief had, belonged to the 
 people. In times of need the chief made all things 
 common. The chief was simply an officer directing the 
 service and products of the community. And without 
 such a system of mutuality, they must all have perished 
 in their limited and far-off land. In some of these res- 
 pects their practices w^ere worthy of our study. 
 
 Before 1S74, and after their contact with European 
 "civilization," about 1840, they rapidly diminished in
 
 140 
 
 numbers. The measels took off some 40,000 of them. 
 Since then they seem to have increased somewhat. 
 Difficulties with the Tongans and with the incoming 
 Europeans, caused the native rulers to cede their lands 
 unconditionally to Great Britain in 1874. A Governor 
 ^was appointed, who is "High Commissioner for the 
 Western Pacific." So far as possible the British ruling 
 has been left in native hands. It has been assumed that 
 these people had rights, and their own laws and customs 
 have been tenderly handled and utilized. Large num- 
 bers of native officers, with executive and magisterial 
 powers, have been appointed to salaried positions. Taxes 
 are raised according to their own ideas of method. All 
 in all, the result is the development of a new and valu- 
 able civilized country. In 1S92 there w^ere some 2,100 
 Schools (including all kinds) with over 40,000 pupils. 
 I Industrial School had 6;^ members. The Armed 
 native Police Force numbered 100. The Post-office 
 and scores of other socialized enterprises of the high- 
 est order are in vogue. 
 
 FINLAND. 
 
 (RUSSIAN.) 
 AREA, 144,255 sq. mi. POPULATION, 2,380,140 in 1890. 
 
 Those from whom we expect nothing could often teach 
 us much, if we were sufficiently open-minded. This is 
 the case -with. Finland. We think of the Finns as a far- 
 off, shivering, ice-bound Northern people. Let us see. 
 
 In 1890 the Regular Army numbered 10,284, of whom 
 345 were officers. The Militia was 35,902. 
 
 The National Bank of Finland is almost a State in- 
 stitution. It controls Note Issue. There are the various 
 State Finance departments. Of the Land, 35,000,000 
 acres belong to the Crown (and are practically public 
 property), 6,000,000 acres belong to the upper classes, 
 and 50,000,000 acres to the peasantry, There never was 
 any serfdom in Finland.
 
 141 
 
 The Railways are nearly all under State ownership. 
 In 1891 the Government owned 1,176 mi. (private com- 
 panies 21 mi.). The Government Roads had cost to the 
 end of 1891, 145,210,115 marks, (i mark is about gj^ 
 d., or 20 cts.) Receipts of State Railroads in 189 1 were 
 12,732,490 marks ; expenses, 8,204,907 ; profits, 4,527,5^3- 
 In 1890 there were 421 Post-offices; receipts, 1,547,529 
 marks; expenses, 1,096,436 ; profits, 451,093, There are 
 2 State Canals reaching 70 mi., and several shorter ones. 
 The net profits on these in 1891 were 236,502 marks. 
 There is a fine system of Navigation made by the Lakes 
 and Rivers. Roads, Streets, Harbors, Wharves, Bridges 
 and Markets are State property. 
 
 Education is under public control and in a highly ad- 
 vanced state. In 1892 there were 825 Primary Schools, 
 with 51,689 pupils; 113 Secondary, with 10,238 pupils; 
 I University ; 4 Normal, with 459 students ; Law ; Medi- 
 cal; Theological ; 10 Agricultural ; i Technological, with 
 130 students; 75 Industrial, with 2,129 members; i Mili- 
 tary ; 7 Nautical, with 152 Marines ; 2 Blind ; and 4 Deaf 
 and Dumb. The State Church is the Evangelical Luth- 
 eran, but the fullest toleration is granted to others. 
 There are numerous other educational provisions in the 
 way of Libraries ; Museums ; Bureaus for Census, Me- 
 teorology, Agriculture, &c. 
 
 The Government engages in Car and Locomotive 
 building, Foundries, &c. It gives premiums for im- 
 provements in the breeds of horses and cattle for various 
 types and purposes. 
 
 In form of government, it is a Russian province. The 
 Czar is Grand Duke of Finland ; and the Russian gov- 
 ernment manages the external administration. There is 
 a Governor-General and an Imperial Senate of 18 mem- 
 bers. In internal affairs it is an independent state. The 
 legislation is by the House of Nobles, and the elected 
 Diet (or Landtag). There are 4 Estates, viz : Nobles, 
 Clergy, Burghers, and Peasants, Each is convoked once 
 in every 4 or 5 years. The country is divided into 8
 
 142 
 
 Lans or Provinces, and 4S0 Communes. There are 4 
 Supreme Courts, besides many District and Municipal. 
 The socialized machinery for Law and Order is very 
 complete. 
 
 The problem of Relief and Charity is less pressing 
 than in many other countries boasting far higher civili- 
 zation. 
 
 GREECE. 
 
 AREA, 25,041 sq. mi. POPULATION, 2,187,208111 1S89. 
 
 Greece gained its independence from Turkey in 1S29. 
 It saddled upon itself a monarchy by its own election ; 
 and, when after a reign of 29 years this Prince Otto of 
 Bavaria was expelled from the kingdom, they again in 
 1S62 commited the same preposterous foolishness by 
 electing another king, a son of the present sovereign of 
 Denmark. Great Britain, France and Russia aided in 
 this abasement, and they even yet pay yearly ^"4,000 
 each toward keeping up the farce of royalty in Greece. 
 
 In 1893 the Regular Army numbered 24,877 (of whom 
 1,880 were officers). The expense for the Army in 1893 
 was 14,582,466 drachmai. (i drachma! equals i franc or 
 20 cents.) The First Reserve, or Militia, in 1893 num- 
 bered 79,623, The Navy in 1S92 carried 3,636 men (767 
 officers), on 2 Port Defense Ships, 23 Cruisers, and 18 
 Torpedo Boats (in all 43) ; and cost (1893), 5,154,874 
 drachmai. 
 
 The Finaficial condition of the nation is very bad. 
 The Gold Debt in 1892 was 597,942,167 drachmai, and 
 the Paper Debt, 151,696,183 dr. In June, 1S93, the Greek 
 Government failed to meet its obligations(!). It was 
 proposed to readjust and pay off the Gold Debt at 3o%(!) 
 and to pay all the Paper(!). 
 
 Of the Railways, 92 mi. were under State ownership in 
 1892, and 476 mi. under private ownership. The Post- 
 office had 296 offices in 1S91, with receipts amounting to
 
 143 
 
 1,463,217 dr.; expenses, 1,560,473 dr.; and deficit, 97,256 
 dr. The State Telegraph Kad in 1892, 4,751 mi. of line, 
 5,630 mi. of wire, and 191 offices. There are 2,043 mi- of 
 good Roads. The Canal through the Isthmus of Corinth 
 is 4 mi. long. It was opened in 1893, having cost a vast 
 sum. 
 
 The Primary Schools in 1892 numbered 2,745, with 
 3,680 teachers and 139,385 pupils (of whom only 22,100 
 were girls); the Secondary, 295, with 3,280 pupils ; Col- 
 leges ; Law ; Medical ; Theological, 5 ; and Technologi- 
 cal. The General Government expended on Education 
 in 1893, 7,397,990 dr. 30% of the Army neither read nor 
 write and 15% read only. The State Church is the Holy 
 Orthodox Catholic and Apostolic (or Greek Orthodox). 
 There is a Holy Synod, consisting of the Metropolitan 
 of Athens and 4 elected Archbishops and Bishops. There 
 21 Archbishops, 29 Bishops, 2,650 Monks, 485 Nuns and 
 161 monastaries and nunneries. 
 
 The head Executive is in the hands of the King and 
 his 7 Ministers. The administration cost in 1893, 8,106- 
 368 dr. The National Legislation is by the Boule. It 
 consists of only i House, with 150 members (elected for 
 4 years). Representatives are paid ;^72 (^350 each) 
 yearly. The cost of the Boule in 1893 was 504,258 dr. 
 Greece is not nearly so highly developed socially as many 
 another country from whom less is naturally expected. 
 It has been cursed with Mohammedan despotism, and 
 has been a bone of contention among the monarchical 
 pirates, of Europe. 
 
 GUATEMALA. 
 
 AREA, 46,800 sq. mi. POPULATION, 1,460,017 in 1890. 
 
 In 1891 the Army of Guatemala numbered 3,918; and 
 the Militia 67,300. (Railways cover only 118 mi. (1S92) 
 They are all in private hands, but are subsidized to the 
 extent of $8,000 per mi. by the Government.) In 1892
 
 144 
 
 there were 171 Post-offices and 119 Telegraph-offices 
 connecting 2,475 ^^^- of I'^ic. Paths, Roads, Streets, 
 Harbors, Wharves, Markets and Bridges belong to the 
 State. As to Schools : in 1892 there were 1,284 Primary, 
 with about 1,600 teachers and 43,789 pupils ; 13 Second- 
 ary, with 1,964 pupils; 7 Normal, (in 1889) with 1,185 
 students; besides other kinds. The General Govern- 
 ment expended in 1892, ^1,129,995. 
 
 The form of government is republican. At the head 
 stands the President, his Cabinet, and a National Assem- 
 bly of 52 members (elected for 4 years). These things 
 imply a vast amount of other social machinery. 
 
 GUIANA. 
 
 (BRITISH.) 
 
 AREA, 109,000 sq. mi. POPULATION, 278,285 in 1892. 
 
 Guiana is in many respects a very backward country; 
 still it has the usual machinery of government found in 
 Ikitish colonies, various educational establishments, &c. 
 There were 187 Primary Schools in 1892, enrolling 25,734 
 pupils; and the General Government grant was £^7,8gs- 
 In 1 893 there were 23 mi. of Railway owned by the State. 
 The Roads are said to be good. The State owns 23 mi. 
 of Canal, and 275 mi. of Navigable River. It had 62 
 Post-offices in 1893, 30 of which were Money Order 
 offices. In the same year there were 360 mi. of Tele- 
 graph (including cables), having 38 offices. 
 
 GUIANA. 
 
 (dutch.) 
 AREA, 46,060 sq. mi. POPULATION, 57,388 in 1891. 
 
 The Dutch colonies rarely equal in social advantages 
 those established by the P.nglish, and this is true in 
 Guiana. There is a home Militia of 478 men (28 officers), 
 and a Navy of a few Port Defense ships. The Postal
 
 145 
 
 Service and a few particulars regarding Education are 
 all the data obtainable. In 1S91 there were 19 Primary 
 Schools with 2,189 pupils, and 3 Normal Schools. 
 
 HAITI. 
 
 AREA, 10,204 sq. mi. POPULATION, 572,000 in 1890. 
 
 The island of Haiti is the home of 2 small nations. 
 Santo Domingo and the Republic of Haiti. The Army 
 of the republic comprises about 6,Soo, and it has a Navy 
 of 6 Cruisers. The Post-office had 31 stations in 1892. 
 There were in 1891, 400 Primary and 5 Secondary 
 Schools. The State Church is Roman Catholic. At the 
 head of the Government is a President and a National 
 Assembly of 2 Houses. The Senate has 30 members 
 (elected for 5 years), and the House of Representatives 
 50 (elected for 5 years). There is a Police Force called 
 the' "Guard of the Government" of 650 men. Much 
 other machinery relating to the social order may be 
 inferred. 
 
 HAWAII. 
 
 AREA, 6,640 sq. mi. POPULATION, 89,990 in 1S90. 
 
 The Sandwich Islands have lately passed through a 
 revolution in which the native Queen and her Govern- 
 ment have been set aside. This revolution has been 
 occasioned not by the natives but by rich American mer- 
 chants and planters who have settled there in considerable 
 numbers, and who by their moneyed influence have been 
 able to establish a so-called republic (in reality an oli- 
 garchy). Before this the natives had shown themselves 
 susceptible to advancement and had made a great pro- 
 gress in recent times. 
 
 In 1890 there was a system of Postal Savings Banks 
 having 2,641 depositors. The Post-offices numbered 54. 
 The State Telegraph covered 250 mi. in 1S91. In 1S92
 
 14G 
 
 there were i68 Primary Schools, with 392 teachers and 
 10,712 pupiis. Besides these there were Normal and 
 other Schools. The Government expended on schools 
 in 1890, ;^i95,7i9. A German Education journal says, 
 "In 60 years the Hawaiin Public School system has 
 been developed and can now compare with that of 
 Europe." From very ancient times the Government has 
 assisted in Irrigation. 
 
 In certain features of material advancement, doubtless 
 this country will make great progress in the near future ; 
 but under the domination of this American millionaire 
 influence but little is to be hoped for socially. 
 
 HONDURAS REPUBLIC. 
 
 AREA, 43,000 sq. mi. POPULATION, 431,917 in 1SS9. 
 
 On the ruins of empires, empires rise. Honduras is 
 one of the many new nations springing up on the soil of 
 ancient American civilizations. There is a regular Armed 
 force of 500 men, and a Militia of about 32,000. The 
 Postoffices numbered 56 in 1890, and had receipts amount- 
 ing to only ^19,436, while the Government expended 
 $157)^51, and had a deficit of 1^138,415. This is an indi- 
 cation of State enterprise. It has 1,800 mi. of Telegraph 
 with 70 offices in 1890. In 1889 there were 600 Primary 
 Schools with 23,000 pupils. There were also 9 Colleges, 
 besides other educational facilities. There is a President 
 and a Congress with i House of 37 members (elected for 
 4 years). These establishments imply much other State 
 activity. 
 
 ICELAND. 
 
 (DANISH.) 
 
 AREA, 39,756 s(i. mi. POPULATION, 70,927 in 1892. 
 
 Iceland furnishes another social surprise. Here is a 
 land crossed by the Arctic Circle, which has its own
 
 147 
 
 constitution and a representative government. (See 
 charter of August i, 1874.) At the head of the admin- 
 istration is a Minister nominated by the king of Den- 
 mark. Besides him, the people elect a Governor as their 
 highest local authority. There are two Atntmands or 
 Vice- Governors, for the west and north of Iceland. The 
 Althing (or Parliament) has 36 members, 6 of whom are 
 nominated by the king of Denmark and 30 elected by 
 popular suffrage. The suffrage is universal, both men 
 women participating. 
 
 There is not an illiterate person on the island above 7 
 years old. Teaching is done very largely at home, al- 
 though there are Primary Schools in the various villages, 
 some High Schools, 2 Colleges, i Medical, 1 Theologi- 
 cal, I Agricultural, and i Nautical. Children of 12 know 
 Latin, the language in which their ancient literature was 
 written. The people are plain, chaste, temperate, intel- 
 ligent. There are no Police, because there are no thieves. 
 There is only i Jail, but at last report there had been 
 nobody in it for 7. pears. There are no Poor Houses, 
 because there are no paupers ;or perhaps better, because 
 there are no plutocrats to make paupers. There is a 
 universal spirit of hospitality, and a remarkable dispo- 
 sition toward cooperation. 
 
 INDIA. 
 
 (IIKITISII.) 
 
 AREA, 964,993 .s.j. mi. POPULATION, 221,172,952 in 1S91. 
 
 DP:FENSP: of nation. Regular Militia, 145,636, 
 (officers, 4,335 ; men, Mi,3oi)- The expense in iSyi 
 was Rx23,557,9oo. (Rx stands for lo's of rupees, i ru- 
 pee is about 2 s. or about 50 cts., and 10 rupees is about 
 £1 or about ;^5.) There is also a Special Militia of 
 14,028, The Navy includes 3 Port Defense Ships, 10 
 Cruisers, and 2 Torpedo Boats ; total 15.
 
 148 
 
 FINANCE. The Savings Banks are of 4 classes: 
 Presidency, 3 ; Railway, 11 ; Postal, 6,^52 ; and Military, 
 175 ; total in 1892, 6,641 ; depositors, 528.153 ; deposited 
 at the end of 1S92, Rx8,o6o,676. There is a branch of 
 the Royal Mint which coined in 1S92, Rxi 2,822,645, 
 The other financial machinery includes Customs, Internal 
 Revenue, Tax Collecting, and Treasury departments. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION. The good Roads cover 153,507 mi. 
 The Railways owned by the State in 1S93 covered 18,042 
 mi. It first assumed ownership in 1852, and now possesses 
 Yz of all the Roads. The private Railways are subsidized 
 by the State which guarantees 5 % income besides giving 
 the land. The total cost to the State for all Railways up 
 to the end of 1892 was Rx234,463,6i9. The receipts for 
 1892 were Rx23, 229, 281 ; expenses, Rxio, 900, 005 ; profits, 
 Rxi 2,329,275. The Government controls Parcel Post 
 Express which is limited to 1 1 pounds. The Postal Ser- 
 vice had 26,465 offices in 1892. Its receipts were Rxi,- 
 445,925 ; expenses, Rxr,496,4i7 ; deficit, Rx5o,492. The 
 State Telegraph in 1892 extended over 38,625 mi. with 
 120,159 mi. of wire. It had cost Rx5, 007, 000. The re- 
 ceipts for 1892 were Rx9i9,335 ; expenses, Rx838,72o ; 
 profits, Rx8o,6i5; (making a net profit on Post and Tele- 
 graph of about $200,000). The State Canals and Navi- 
 gable Rivers amount to 5,000 mi. Streets, Harbors, 
 Wharves. Bridges, Markets and Telephones are State 
 provisions. 
 
 EDUCATION. In 1892 the Primary Schools num- 
 bered 97,179, with 2,841,589 pupils ; the Secondary, 4,907, 
 with 477,576 pupils ; Colleges, 19, with 16,461 students ; 
 Universities, 5, with 6,358 students; Normal in every 
 Province ; Law ; Medical ; Art ; Technological and In- 
 dustrial, 560, with 21,936 students; and Agricultural. 
 The expense assumed by the general Government in 1892 
 was Rx3,o73,i84. There is an Ecclesiastical (Civil) Es- 
 tablishment of 5 bishops and 160 chaplains. The Indian 
 Government also allows grants to certain other clergy-
 
 149 
 
 men, priests, &c., when ministering to British regiments. 
 The other educational instrumentaHties are very num- 
 erous and include Bureaus of Agriculture, Census, I^du- 
 cation, Meteorology; provision for Archaeological, Coast, 
 Geographical and Geological Investigations ; Libraries ; 
 Museums, etc. 
 
 PRODUCTION. Irrigation is accomplished by the 
 Ganges Canal which has 437 mi. of main line and 3,5 7*^ 
 mi of tributaries. It is one of the greatest systems in 
 the world. The total area i rrigated covers 1 3 ,00,000 acres. 
 It was completed in 1854 at a cost of Rx2,855,6i4. The 
 Sirhind Canal in the Punjab has 542 mi. of main line and 
 4,385 mi. of tributaries. It cost Rx3, 708,000. In Madras 
 3 other systems irrigate 2,000,000 acres. The total reve- 
 nue from all these in iS93-4is set down at ;^2,337,7oo and 
 the expense at ^2,860.100. 
 
 Besides this the Government conducts a considerable 
 trade in various branches of Means Production, includ- 
 ing Car and Locomotive building, Engineering, Foun- 
 dries, Cinchona Farms (Peruvian bark), and Opium Fac- 
 tories (at Patna and Ghazipur). From 1SS3 to 1892 the 
 average annual net revenue from Opium alone was 
 Rx6,374,87r. 
 
 LAW AND ORDER; The executive consists of a 
 Governor General and Council. From them also pro- 
 ceed the National Legislation. The various Provinces 
 have their native rulers and legislative machineries. In 
 1892 there were 761 Municipal Governments having a 
 population of 15,742,581. Of Civil Courts there were 
 in 1890, 5,600 Magistrates and 1,720 civil judges. In 
 Superior Courts there were 450 judges. The Police 
 Force in 1891 numbered 144,420, of whom 58,606 carried 
 fire arms and 44,962 carried swords. There were 527 
 Lock-ups, 36 Central and 1S2 District Prisons. The 
 social machinery for Law and Order included also Boards 
 for Apportioning, Appraising, Assaying, Assessing, Au- 
 diting, Registering, &c.
 
 150 
 
 Institutions for Relief and Charity and the general 
 public safety are numerous. I will only mention that 
 of Forestry. In 1892, 62,927 sq. mi. of forest were de- 
 marcated, reserved, and scientifically worked by the 
 State. The net revenue was Rx595,ooo. 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 AREA, 114,410 sq. mi. POPULATION, 30,535,848 in 1892. 
 
 DEFENSE OF NATION. In 1892 the Regular 
 Army numbered 247,809 (officers, 14,639; men, 223,170); 
 Militia (First Reserve), 2,182,605 (officers 17,104). Forts 
 and Armories are numerous. The Navy had 22,529 men 
 of whom 1,305 were officers. There were 12 Battle Ships, 
 4 for Port Defense, 6^ Cruisers, and 140 Torpedo Boats ; 
 total 219. The Naval Reserve comprises 17,000 men. 
 
 FINANCE. Postal Savings Banks were introduced 
 in 1875. The first year 1,989 offices were opened. In 
 1891 there were 4,594, with 2,312,323 depositors and 
 333,683,978 iire deposited at the end of the year. The 
 School Savings Banks receive money from pupils and 
 place it in the Postal Savings Banks. In 18SS, 5,401 
 teachers received deposits from 87,764 pupils, amounting 
 to 467,697 lire. The Coinage is done by the State. The 
 Note Issue is limited to 6 Banks which form a union, 
 made so by special law. There are 30 Agrarian Loan 
 Funds. The Customs, Internal Revenue, Tax Collect- 
 ing, Treasury, &c., are included in the State financial 
 provisions. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION. About 1880 there were 5,151 mi. 
 of National Roads, 15,596 of Provincial, and 48,295 of 
 Communal. The State owned in 1889 8,407 km. of 
 Railway. (Private companies owned 4,484 km., of which 
 the Government operates 155 km.) The private com- 
 panies have paid the Government 250,000,000 lire (or 
 1^48,025,000 franchise money. They also pay 27^2 % 
 of the gross earnings. The total receipts (for State
 
 151 
 
 and private railways) for 1889 were 254,748,017 lire; 
 expenses, 168,394,065 ; profits, 86,353,952. . The State 
 first assumed railway ownership in i860. The number 
 of Post-offices in 1892 was 5,917. The Money Orders 
 drawn amounted to 665,687,676 lire. The State Tele- 
 graph in 1892 extended over 22,014 mi-, with 69,428 mi. 
 of wire and had 2,816 offices. The receiptswere 63,804,- 
 3i4lire ; expenses, 53,591,322 ; profits, 10,212,992. There 
 are 663 mi. of State Canals, and 1,100 mi. of Navigable 
 Rivers. The Harbors are of 3 classes, are improved and 
 maintained by the Government. Wharves, Bridges, 
 Markets and Streets are also State property. 
 
 EDUCATION. In 1891 the Public Schools were as 
 follows: Kindergartens^ 2,296, with 5,892 teachers and 
 278,204 pupils; Primary, 48,198, with 49,366 teachers 
 and 2,188,930 pupils; Secondary, 9,882, with 15,181 
 teachers and 368,599 pupils; Universities, 21, with 966 
 instructors and 17,588 students ; Colleges, 22, with 2,952 
 students ; Normal, 141, with 1,472 instructors and 15,184 
 students ; Law ; Medical ; Art, 15, with 3,310 students ; 
 Music, 6, with 7S0 students ; Technological, 397, with 
 2,948 instructors and 33,627 students; Industrial, 176, 
 with 23,328 students ; Agricultural, 32, with 887 students; 
 Military; Nautical, 21, with 180 instructors and 1,420 
 marines ; Blind 9; Deaf and Dumb, 35, with 7,000 pupils. 
 For Primary and Secondary Education the General Gov- 
 ernment paid in 1889, 61,768,939 lire (or $13,941,753.) 
 
 The State Church is Roman Catholic. The Pope's 
 personnel includes about 2,000 individuals. Italy is 
 the great center of the strongest Christian organization 
 in the world. The religious and educational foundations 
 are very numerous. Some 50,000 of these were abroga- 
 ted between 1855 and 1S67. 
 
 There are numerous other State ])rovisions for public 
 instruction. They include Bureaus for Agriculture, 
 Census, Education, Ethnology, &c.; Art Galleries ; Bo- 
 tanic and Zoological Gardens ; Fairs ; Libraries (of
 
 152 
 
 which in 1891 there were 32 having 943,903 readers, and 
 giving out 1,167,462 books) ; Museums, Monuments, &c. 
 
 LAW AND ORDER. The form of Government is 
 Constitutional Monarchy. The administration is by the 
 King, and 9 Ministers. The National Legislation is by 
 a Senate of 335 menibers (consisting of princes of the 
 royal blood and an unlimited number of members ap- 
 pointed by the king for life), and a Chamber of 508 De- 
 puties (elected for 5 years). Neither Senators nor De- 
 puties receive pay, but both have free passes on the rail- 
 ways. There are 69 Provincial and innumerable Muni- 
 pal governments. The Civil Courts numbered 162 ; the 
 Assize 86 ; and there are other Courts of Appeal, Cas- 
 sation, and Magisterial. 314 Prisons are reported. The 
 Police Force is very large. The governing machinery 
 includes also Diplomatic and Consulate Service, the 
 various boards and commissions necessary for Assessing, 
 Auditing, and Tax Collecting ; Copyrighting, Patenting, 
 the management and oversight of Railroads, Rivers, 
 Ports, etc. 
 
 RELIEF, CHARITY, AND SAFETY. There are 
 about 4,oco Charity Bureaus ; many Dispensaries ; 340 
 Homes for Orphans ; about 1,200 General Hospitals ; 102 
 Infant Hospitals ; 18 Lying-in Hospitals ; 10 Marine Hos- 
 pitals ; 15 Insane Asylums; Houses of Refuge; Life 
 Saving Stations; 16 first-class Light Houses and many 
 others ; 695 Public Pawn Shops ; a Pension Department ; 
 Poor Houses ; and 1,965 Seed Loan offices. 
 
 JAMAICA. 
 
 (west indies. BRITISH.) 
 
 AREA, 4,200 sq. mi. POPULATION, 639,491 in 1S90. 
 
 The Militia in 1892 numbered 465. There are 7 Forts. 
 A British garrison is stationed here. The Government 
 owned in 1892 the 89 mi. of Railway; and the receipts 
 amounted to £^1,486 ; expenses, ^^"59,963 ; and profits,
 
 153 
 
 ^12,523. The Post-oilfice, Streets, Roads, Harbor, 
 Wharves, Markets and Telegraph are State property. 
 In 1892 there were 695 mi. of Telegraph line having 
 receipts of ^5,7^jS ; expenses, ^^6,382 ; and a deficit of 
 ;{;'6i4. The Primary Schools in 1892 numbered 877, 
 with 83,731 pupils ; there were also Secondary, Normal, 
 Technological, and Industrial. The Government grant 
 was ^30,736. Many other pubHc provisions for general 
 information exist. The Government is organized and is 
 the usual British colonial type. 
 
 JAPAN. 
 
 AREA, 147,655 sq. mi. POPULATION, 40,718,677 in 1S91. 
 
 Japan socially considered, is the wonder of the modern 
 world. Its progress in civilization is marvellous. There 
 is scarcely a country in the world which shows such 
 careful social organization. It is believed that the fol- 
 lowing facts and figures, taken from the Imperial Gov- 
 ernment reports, will be found of unusual interest. The 
 exact and definite data which the Japanese collect re- 
 garding their country and social condition are in bril- 
 liant contrast to the indefinite and chaotic Chinese nation. 
 Herein is to be found the secret of Japan's unparalleled 
 victorious march into Chinese territory, and her unheard 
 of strides of progress in recent times. 
 
 DEFENSE OF NATION. 
 
 The Regular Army in 1891 numbered 269,620 (18,366 
 officers, and 251,254 men). It cost in 1891-2, $12,654,807. 
 The Militia (reserve) in 1890 numbered 127,565. There 
 were 1,608 persons on the staff of the Minister of War 
 in 1891, and their salaries were$4o6,344. 
 
 The Navy in 1891 numbered 14,190 men (3,339 officers 
 and 10,791 marines). There were 36 Cruisers and 41 
 Torpedo Boats. Since then there has been added seve- 
 ral other Battle Ships and Cruisers. The Navy cost in
 
 154 
 
 1891-2, $5,42 1,888. The staff of the Minister of Marines 
 had 1,258 persons in 1891, with salaries amounting to 
 
 FINANCE. 
 
 The Bank of Japan (Imperially managed) had a capital 
 of ^10,000,000 in 1891. (There were 135 private and 
 company banks.) In 1891 the Postal Savings Banks 
 numbered 2,840, with 843,320 depositors and $20,149,848 
 deposited at the end of the year. The rate was 4.2 %. 
 
 The Coinage in circulation in 1891-2 was $188,891,364. 
 The Note Issue up to March 31, 1892, had been $136,- 
 161,150. 
 
 The Treasury Budget for 1892-3 indicates $86,068,080 
 receipts. The local tax receipts for 189 1-2 were $16,- 
 783,782. On the staff of the Minister of Finance were 
 1,476 persons in 1891, wath salaries of $433,879. 
 
 The State property of various kinds is partly as fol- 
 lows : School property, $19,323,315 ; Crown land, 8,956,- 
 162 acres ; Land for Government purposes, 194,361 
 acres; Forest lands, 28,745,354 acres; open field land, 
 14,375,745 acres; miscellaneous lands, 176,400 acres; 
 total, 52,448,022 acres. (The private lands covered 30,- 
 658,223 acres. The public lands count only that which 
 is surveyed, and the private only that which is taxed.) 
 
 Besides these must be mentioned the extensive de- 
 partments for Customs, Internal Revenue, &c. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION. 
 
 The Railways are about ^3 owned by the State. In 
 1883 it first assumed management, and in 1S92 it owned 
 551.28 mi. These had cost $34,241,504. There were 
 116 stations, 124 locomotives, 617 coaches, and 1,685 
 freight cars. The receipts for 1892 were $4,110,141 ; 
 expenses, $2,436,900; profits, $1,683,241. The staff of 
 the Bureau of Railways numbered 2,900 in 1891, with 
 salaries of $439,692. (The private railways covered 
 1,199.15 mi., and cost $44,061,623.) The total number 
 of persons killed on Japanese railways in 1890 was 
 1,584.
 
 155 
 
 The Post-offices in i''S9i numbered 3,35'j, of which 
 1,928 were Money Order Offices. They employed 3,424 
 persons. The receipts (including Telegraph) were 
 ^5,049.360; expenses, ;g4,ii9,62i ; profits, $929,739- 
 The Money Orders drawn covered ;^i9,793,473, and 
 the Money Orders paid amounted to $19,776,270. 
 
 The State Telegraph lines included 7,671 mi. (22,- 
 244 mi. of wire), and had 524 offices in 1891. (Re- 
 ceipts, &c., are included in those of Post-offices.) In 
 1S92 there were 238 mi. of Cable. The Telephone is 
 included with the Telagraph. There were in 1892, 376 
 mi. of line, 3,234 mi. of wire, and 1,504 subscribers. 
 The staff of the Minister of Communication numbered 
 ^)^55 persons in 1891, with salaries of $973,283. 
 
 The Roads (21,490 mi.), Streets, Harbors, Wharves, 
 Ferries, Bridges, Express Service and Canals belong to 
 the State or towns. One of the Canals, 6^^ mi. long, is 
 one cf the greatest pieces of engineering in the world. 
 The Government also owns 32 small Steam Vessels, ap- 
 parently used for messenger and express service. 
 
 EDUCATIOX. 
 
 The public provisions for Education are most exten- 
 sive. The staff of the Minister of Public Instruction had 
 in 1891, 1,382 persons with salaries $626,831. The 
 scheme includes Bureaus of Agriculture, Archaeology, 
 Biology, Census, Education, Ethnology, Meteorology 
 (45 stations in 1 891) ; Botanic and Zoological Gardens ; 
 Coast and Geological Surveys ; Museums ; Fairs ; Read- 
 ing Rooms ; and Libraries. In 1891 there were 20 pub- 
 lic Libraries reported, having 181,942 volumes. There 
 is no State religion and no legal State support, though 
 local authorities maintain the principal Shinto Temples. 
 In 1891, there were 193,153 Shinto and 71,859 Buddhist 
 Temples. 
 
 The Public Schools in 1S91 were as follows : 147 Kin- 
 dergartens, with 317 teachers and 8,662 pupils ; 25,374 
 Primary, with 69,608 teachers and 3,153,813 pupils ; 93
 
 156 
 
 Secondary, with 1,461 teachers and 21,589 pupils; 3 
 Universities, with 248 professors and 1,385 students; 
 49 ISormal, with 668 instructors and 5,354 students; 
 (Law, Medical and Theological in Universities) ; several 
 Art, with 29 instructors and 189 students ; i Music, with 
 4 instructors and 37 students ; i Post and Telegraph, 
 with II instructors and 114 students; 88 Technological, 
 with 1,683 instructors, and 18,447 students; 1,682 Indus- 
 trial, with 4,300 instructors and 85,806 students ; Agri- 
 cultural ; over 10 Military, with 596 instructors and 2,186 
 cadets ; 9 Nautical and Naval, with 156 instructors and 
 644 Marines ; 2 Nobility, with 80 instructors and 1,024 
 pupils; 2 or 3 Deaf and Dumb, with 13 instructors and 
 72 pupils. The General Government grant in 1890 was 
 ;$io,438.7io. 
 
 PRODUCTION. 
 
 On the staff of the Minister of Agriculture and Com- 
 merce in 1S91 were 2,741 persons, with salaries of $460,- 
 942. In 1891 the Government owned i Coal Mine, 2 
 Copper, 2 Gold, i Iron, 2 Silver, and i Sulphate of Cop- 
 per. The State engineering department had on the staff 
 2,344 persons, with salaries of $823,376. The Budget 
 for 1892-3 estimates the receipts from the various State 
 Productive and Distributing enterprises at $9,262,709. 
 
 LAW AND ORDER. 
 
 Before February nth, 1889, the Government was an 
 absolute monarchy. It has now a Constitution and 2 
 Houses. At the head of the administration is the Em- 
 peror, his Cabinet, and a Privy Council. By and with 
 the advice of these, he declares war, makes peace, 
 treaties, &c. The total administrative personnel in 1891 
 was 21,143, with salaries of $6,025,029. The Imperial 
 Cabinet staff alone numbered 308 with salaries of 
 $223,068. 
 
 The Parliament consists of 300 Peers (Princes, Mar- 
 quises, Counts, Viscounts, l^arons, &c.,) and 300 Depu- 
 ties (elected for 4 years). The 46 Provinces each have
 
 157 
 
 Governors and Prcfcctural Assemblies. The Municipal- 
 ities have chief magistrates, town councils, &c. 
 
 In the department of Justice the personnel in 1891 was 
 4,061, with salaries of ;$2,i32,i48. The Supreme Court 
 (in 1890) had 31 judges, 5 prosecuting attorneys, and 44 
 other officers. There were (1890) 48 Common Courts 
 with 463 judges, 126 prosecuting attorneys, and 1,671 
 other officers; 7 Courts of Appeal with 98 judges, 26 
 prosecuting attorneys, and 275 other officers; 299 Jus- 
 tice Courts, with 697 magistrates, 248 attorneys, and 
 5,504 other officers. 
 
 The Police Force in 1890 numbered 29,338, and they 
 were stationed in 12,835 places. Besides these, there 
 were in 1891, 20,855 agents of police, guardians of pris- 
 ons, &c. The total number of prisons in 1890 was 167. 
 They seem to be growing less, for in 1885 there were 202. 
 The total number of thefts known in 1890 was 444,561 ; 
 of homicides, 1,124. At the end of 1S90 there were 258 
 inmates in Houses of Juvenile Correction; and 57.615 
 inmates of Penitentiaries. The prefects (or heads of 
 police, &c.,) numbered 14,965 in 1891, with salaries of 
 
 ;^3,220,533. 
 
 The Foregn Ministers and Corps were 48 in 1891 ; and 
 the Consuls and Staffs numbered 87. The staff of the 
 Minister of Foreign Affairs included 256, with salaries 
 
 of $392, 707- 
 
 In the Interior Department, the Minister's staff in- 
 cluded 1,360, with salaries of $338,968 in 1891. 
 
 Besides these there are Boards for Civil Service, As- 
 saying, Appraising, Immigration, Passports, Copyrights, 
 Patents, Parks, Ports, Railroads, Rivers, Sec, &c. 
 
 BELIEF AND CHARITIES. 
 
 Like everything else in Japan, the administrative regu- 
 lation in the way of Relief is most carefully managed 
 and organized. There are most numerous Charity Bu- 
 reaus and Dispensaries. The Homes for the needy in- 
 clude special provision for the Aged, Orphans, Idiots,
 
 158 
 
 Sailors, and Soldiers. There were 214 Public General 
 Hospitals in 1890. (Also 363 private hospitals.) 5,431 
 Infants were rescued and cared for in special Hospitals 
 at an expense of $28,761 in 1890. 19 Military Hospitals 
 had an average of 49,68 1 inmates per day in 1890 ; and 3 
 Marine Hospitals had an average of 4,675 inmates per 
 day in 1891, In the various Houses of Refuge there 
 were 1,829 inmates at the end of 1890. 
 
 The State has a department for the Loan of Imple- 
 ments. In 1890-91 it loaned farm tools to 12,263 families 
 at an expense of $56,175. 
 
 In 1 890- 1, it provided various kinds of Insurance as 
 follows: Accident, $29,566; Fire, $127,068; Marine, 
 $88,697; and Inundation, $629,894. 
 
 In 1 89 1 there were 68 Government Light Houses (and 
 77 local and private ones), besides innumerable buoys, &c. 
 
 In the Poor Houses during 1890 there had been 17,487 
 persons, costing $128,872. During the year 1890-91, 
 38,196 families had been temporarily housed, at an ex- 
 pense of $166,783. In the same year 95,797 families had 
 been aided with Farm Seed at an expense of $196,806. 
 Tax Loans were granted to 85,284 families, amounting to 
 $234,199. During the same year the State provided 
 8,218,835 days' work for the unemployed, paying there- 
 for $224,307. 
 
 SANITATION AND SAFETY. 
 
 There is a National Fire Bureau, which reported 15,- 
 120 fires, burning 39,504 habitations in 1890. Forestry 
 Fountains, Garbage Gathering, General Health, Parks, 
 Quarantine, Sanitaries, Sewerage, Street Cleaning, &c. 
 are under public management. 
 
 The number of businesses required to be registered is 
 enormous, and the statistics of social conditions and pro- 
 gress which the State is thus enabled to gain are exceed- 
 ingly interesting and important.
 
 150 
 
 LEEWxVRD ISLANDS. 
 
 (west indies. BRITISH.) 
 
 AREA, 701 sq. mi. POPULATION, 127,723 in 1891. 
 
 This group of small islands forms one of the many- 
 British colonies off the east coast of the American con- 
 tinent. It is organized in the usual way, and has reached 
 the average stage of socialization. No special instances 
 of advacement in the spirit of cooperation are reported. 
 By thus speaking, it must not be understood that there 
 exists no socialism there. We must continually avoid 
 this misconception. Society means cooperation. Coope- 
 ration of effort is socialism. To the extent that a people 
 cooperate for mutual benefit to that extent have they a 
 socialized state. 
 
 MASSOWAH. 
 
 (red sea. ITALIAN.) 
 
 AREA, 3,110 sq. mi. POPULATION, 219,600 in 1892. 
 
 This is an Italian colony on an island off the eastern 
 coast of Nubia. The people are of the mixed Arabian 
 and African type. They take to civilization slowly, hav- 
 ing for centuries been accustomed to nomadic and pre- 
 datory life. Moreover, the spirit of the Italian Govern- 
 ment is not specially predisposed to that type of social 
 moral action which makes a state advance rapidly. Be- 
 sides the ordinary machinery for colonial government, 
 there are 17 mi. of Military Railway under State owner- 
 ship. To this must be added the management of a Postal 
 Service, and 382 mi. of Telegraph. 
 
 MAURITIUS. 
 
 (INDIAN OCEAN. BRITISH ) 
 
 AREA, 705 sq. mi. POPULATION, 371,655 in 1S91. 
 
 The island of Mauritius lies several hundred miles east 
 of Madagascar in the midst of the Indian Ocean. As
 
 160 
 
 everywhere on the globe, where British subjects have 
 settled, so here we have a thriving colony in an advanced 
 state. In 1892 the British garrison stationed here con- 
 sisted of 834 men (40 of whom were officers). The ex- 
 pense of the garrison was ;{^58,2i9, ^3 of which was borne 
 by the colony. The government owned the 92 mi. of 
 Railway on the island. The receipts of the Railway for 
 1892 were 1,490,642 rupees; expenses, 984,025 ; profits, 
 506,617 rupees, (i rupee is about 25 cents.) There is a 
 complete system of Telegraph, and an organized Postal 
 Service. Various other means of Distribution are under 
 public control. In 1892 there were 168 Primary Schools, 
 with 16,457 pupils ; 2 or 3 High Schools, with 313 pupils ; 
 and I College, with 201 students. The Government 
 grant for Education in 1S93 was 457,040 rupees. The 
 Government is through a Governor-General, Council, 
 and various municipal elected authorities. 
 
 MEXICO. 
 
 AREA, 767,005 sq. mi. POPULATION, 11,642,720 in 1S91. 
 
 The Republic of Mexico has been making rapid ad- 
 vances in recent years. For a very long time it had 
 previously been one of those stagnant Spanish civiliza- 
 tions (or more accurately barbarizations) which followed 
 in the track of Spanish conquest. But Spanish rule 
 overdid itself It became sated with the wealth and 
 luxury brought home by the successors of Columbus 
 and by the extortionate revenue collectors. Wealth and 
 idleness of the ruling classes brought on decay of the 
 national power, and the colonies beholding the trembling, 
 tottering tyrannv have ope by one thrown off the yoke 
 and become independent republics. Some of them were 
 worse cursed than others. Of this class was Mexico. 
 It \\\\\ doubtless be long before this naturally fertile, 
 beautiful, and prosperous country can entirely shake off 
 the ignorance and degradation imposed upon it by the 
 stupid Spanish priestcraft.
 
 IGl 
 
 A few facts regarding the socialized condition. The 
 Regular Army in 1893 numbered 36,605 (of whom 2,270 
 were officers) ; the Militia numbered 128,397 (1,430 of- 
 ficers) ; and the Navy, 490 men (<S4 officers) with 2 Port 
 Defense Ships, 4 Cruisers, and 5 Torpedo Boats. 
 
 (Railways are all under private control, many of them 
 unfortunately owned by American and English capitalists. 
 There were 6,900 mi. in 1893.) The Telegraph is largely 
 in possession of the State. In 1893 there were altogether 
 38,125 mi. of line, with 800 offices. In 1892 there were 
 1,411 Post-offices ; with receipts amounting to ;^i, 142, 182; 
 expenses, ;^i,2ii,277; and deficit, ;S79,o95. As in all 
 other similar civilizations, the Roads, Streets, Harbors, 
 and Bridges are public property. 
 
 There were in 1888, 10,726 Primary Schools, with 
 543,977 pupils; 7,334 Secondary (1889), with 412,789 
 pupils ; Colleges ; Law ; Medical ; Art ; Music ; Techno- 
 logical ; Industrial ; Agricultural ; Military ; Nautical, 
 2 ; &c. The State paid in 1889 toward public Educa- 
 tion, ;^3,5i2,ooo. There are various other educational 
 instrumentalities : such as Bureaus of Agriculture, Cen- 
 sus, Education, Meteorology ; Libraries, Museums ; &c. 
 
 Government Irrigation dates from the early part of 
 the 1 6th century. 
 
 The chief executive is the President and his Cabinet. 
 The National Congress consists of a Senate of 56 mem- 
 bers (elected for 3 years), and a House of Representa- 
 tives of 227 members (elected for 3 years). The other 
 socialized machinery for effecting order is rapidly de- 
 veloping. 
 
 MONACO. 
 
 (independent republic, north mediterranean.) 
 AREA, 8 sq. mi. POPULATION, 13,304 in 1S90. 
 
 This little nation has a Regular Army of 75, 5 of 
 whom are officers. It is a completely equipped govern- 
 ment, carrying on the usual functions of Distribution, 
 Education, Law and Order, S:c.
 
 1G3 
 
 MONTENEGRO. 
 
 AREA, 3,630 sq. mi. POPULATION, 236,000 in 18S0. 
 
 This is one of those South-eastern European Princi- 
 palities composed of mixed elements which have not 
 made very great progress socially. The number of men 
 under arms regularly is about 100. There is a Reserve, 
 or Militia, of 36,726. No Railways are reported. There 
 are 280 mi. of Telegraph, having 15 offices. The Gov- 
 ernment conducts the Postal Service, and there are some 
 good carriage Roads and many bridle Paths. Educa- 
 tional organization is gradually coming about. In 1S89 
 there were 70 Primary Schools, with 3,300 pupils ; there 
 were 2 Higher schools ; and some other kinds. 
 
 MOROCCO. 
 
 AREA, 219,000 sq. mi. POPULATION, 5,000,000. 
 
 Morocco is one of those countries which has scarcely 
 reached the stage called civilized. It is one of the Ori- 
 ental Patriarchal Governments. Along with many 
 things somewhat socialized in character there goes a 
 despotism that is utterly unsocial. The principle of 
 socialization begins generally, if not always, in that form 
 of cooperation which has for its object the defense of the 
 tribe or nation. If there is any society at all, it will be 
 found to show itself in the army or militia. In point of 
 time, what we now term the Militia is almost the earliest 
 socialized enterprise. The Regular Army of the Sultan 
 of Morocco numbers 12,400 ; his Militia is 18,000. The 
 people being nomadic as to mode of life necessarily do 
 not engage in many of those joint undertakings which 
 more complex civilizations are obliged to do. The 
 sources of life are open, their wants are simpler, and life 
 among them has little of complexity. Hence the charac- 
 ter of the social organization is strikingly different from 
 that of those countries where Agriculture and Manufac-
 
 turing are the modes of life, and where because of these, 
 the population is concentrated in dense nuclei of cities 
 here and there. This does not, however, deny the fact 
 that many times these nomadic communities have social- 
 istic practices and relations. In various instances they 
 practice a truly cooperative spirit. Among themselves 
 they manifest the most brotherly and helpful dispositions 
 in all the ways in which their simple society calls it forth. 
 Toward foreigners, of any and every sort, their hostility 
 is of the most unrelenting and unmerciful character. 
 
 There is a Postal Service conducted by Moorish, Brit- 
 ish and French couriers. 
 
 MOZAMBIQUE. 
 
 (PORTUGUES-E.) 
 AREA, 261,700 sq. mi. POPULATION, 1,500,000. 
 
 This is an ICast African colony which is rapidly rising 
 into importance. Only a few years ago it was a wilder- 
 ness of black savages. The Portuguese administration 
 had built in 1892, 137 mi. of Railway, and were then 
 building 210 mi. more. The Post-office was under State 
 control, and there were 230 mi. of Telegraph line, besides 
 55 mi. more being built. Various other cor)perative colo- 
 nial enterprises were under way. 
 
 NATAL. 
 
 (SOUTII-EASTERX AFKICW. BRITISH.^ 
 AREA, 20,460 s(]. mi. POPULATION, 543,913 in 1S91. 
 
 Natal is another of those enterprising British colonies. 
 In 1892 it had a defensive Militia of 1,835, which cost 
 during that year ^22,915. There was a Naval Reserve 
 company of 92 men. The Government was of the usual 
 British colonial type. To reinforce the administration 
 there was a mounted Police Force of 209 men in 1S92, 
 the expense for the maintainancc of which was ;£"3S,664.
 
 164 
 
 The State began to assume the ownership of Railways 
 in i860, and in 1892 it had 399 mi. The cost to the end 
 of 1892 had been ;{^5,82o,4i9. The receipts for that year 
 were ;^532,788; expenses, ^^365, 704; profits, ^^167, 084. 
 The State was then building 100 mi. more. There is a 
 very progressive system of management. Improvements 
 are rapidly introduced, even freight cars are provided 
 with vacuum brakes. The Postal and Telegraph Ser- 
 vices are State affairs. In 1893 there were 200 Primary 
 Schools, with 10,449 pupils, and 2 Secondary, with 125 
 pupils. The Government grant forthat year was ^^1,958. 
 the greater part of the expense being borne by local 
 authorities. 
 
 NETHERLANDS. 
 
 (or HOLLAND.) 
 AREA, 12,648 sq. mi. POPULATION, 4,669,576 in 1S92. 
 
 The Dutch are a steady, industrious, mind-their-own- 
 business kind of people. They have not the aggressive- 
 ness of the English, but on the other hand they lack the 
 vices of that aggressiveness. 
 
 DEFENSE OF NATION. The Regular Army in 
 1892 numbered 21,901 (of whom 1,750 were officers). 
 Militia numbered 47,099 ; the Navy, 10,190 (887 being 
 officers), with 22 Port Defense Ships, 88 Cruisers, 23 
 Torpedo Boats, in all 133 War Vessels. 
 
 FINANCE. The Bank of the Netherlands is a private 
 corporation, but is under strict State restrictions, and is 
 by law the State Cashier. There is a system of Postal 
 Savings Banks which had 319,106 depositors, and ^5,- 
 857,074 deposited at the end of 1891. The receipts from 
 the Customs Department in 1893 were 5,736,250 guilders ; 
 from the Internal Revenue Department 44,665,000 guil- 
 ders. The State Lotteries alone netted 661,500 guil- 
 ders. The Government controls Coinage, Note Issue, 
 Tax Collecting, &c. In 1893 the National Debt was 
 1,122,200,443 guilders.
 
 165 
 
 DISTRIBUTION. The facilities of this kind are very 
 largely under State control. The following figures, all 
 for 1S92, are instructive. There were 1 7,473 nii. of 
 Roads, besides Streets, Bridges, Markets, Wharves and 
 Harbors. The municipalities owned 598 mi. of Street 
 Railways, producing a revenue of 3,997,000 guilders. 
 The State owned 9S6 mi. of Railway which had cost at 
 the end of 1892, 262,674,000 guilders. For that year the 
 receipts were 19,743,000 guilders ; expenses, 18,896,000; 
 profits, 847,000 guilders. In 1S93 the profits on the State 
 Railways were 3,945,000 guilders. (Under private own- 
 ership there were 853 mi.) The Netherlands have 3,000 
 mi. of Navigable Rivers and inlets, and 1,907,190 mi. of 
 Canal. The receipts from the Post-office in 1S92 were 
 7, 1 84,090 guilders ; expenses, 5,685,362 ; profits, 1,488,718. 
 The State Telegraph line reached 3,398 mi., with 12,098 
 mi. of wire, and 473 offices. Its receipts in 1892 were 
 i.353>924 guilders; expenses, 1,881,580; and deficit, 
 
 527.55^- 
 
 EDUCATION. The system of Public Instruction is 
 comprehensive and excellent In 1S92, there were 993 
 Kindergartens, with 3,300 teachers and 102,608 pupils; 
 4,292 Primary Schools, with 18,248 teachers and 659,102 
 pupils; III High Schools, with 1,355 teachers and 12,479 
 pupils; 29 Colleges, with 428 instructors and 2,567 stu- 
 dents; 4 Universities, with 166 professors and 2,828 stu- 
 dents; Normal; Law; Medical; Theological; Music, 
 Art; I Technological, with 24 instructors and 245 stu- 
 dents ; Industrial ; 3 Agricultural ; 3 Military; 1 1 Nautical, 
 with 59 instructors and 359 Marines; i Blind; and 3 
 Deaf and Dumb. In 1S91 the General Government paid 
 toward Education ;g7,228,4io. The State provides num- 
 erous other educational means, such as Bureaus of Agri- 
 culture, Census, Education, Meteorology; Art Galleries ; 
 Botanic and Zoological Gardens ; Libraries ; Museums ; 
 Theatres, &c. 
 
 PRODUCTION. The Government has made Irriga- 
 tion possible, almost everywhere, by means of its exten-
 
 166 
 
 sive Canals and Waterways. The Coal mines are a State 
 monoply, and in 1S92 produced 56,840,000 kilos., with 
 receipts amounting to 249,370 guilders; expenses, 135- 
 796; and profits, 103,574. 
 
 LAW AND ORDER. The administration is in the 
 hands of the Queen, 8 Ministers, and a State Council of 
 14. The National Parliament consists of a First Cham- 
 ber of 50 members (elected for 9 years by the Provincial 
 States), a Second Chamber of 100 members (elected for 
 
 4 years). There are 11 Provinces, and 1,123 Communes, 
 each having autonomous powers. The police force num- 
 bered 1,530 (of whom 602 are mounted). There is High 
 Court of Appeals, 5 Second Courts, 23 District and 106 
 Cantonal Courts. Of Prisons, there are 46 Jails, 3 
 Houses of Juvenile Correction, 31 Reformatories and 
 
 5 Penitentiaries. The general and municipal legal mach- 
 inery is of the most elaborate order. 
 
 The provisions for the Relief and general Safety are 
 very considerable. 
 
 NEWFOUNDLAND. 
 
 (BRITISH.) 
 AREA, 162,200 .sq. mi. POPULATION, 202,040. 
 
 The colony of Newfoundland includes the territory of 
 Labrador. It has been considered, to a great extent, a 
 vast, bleak and dreary waste. This is not true. Under 
 the cooperative stimulation of the General Government 
 it would easily become a colony of considerable impor- 
 tance. It sustains a British garrison and its own Home 
 Militia. The Government owned the 311 mi. of Railway 
 existing at the end of 1S92 ; also 944 mi. of Telegraph ; 
 it has a Postal System ; a regularly constituted Govern- 
 ment, and the beginnings of a system of Education. In 
 1891 there were 547 Primary Schools, with 32,339 pupils, 
 for which the General Government grant was $129,200.
 
 167 
 
 NEW GUINEA. 
 
 (P.RTTISH.) 
 
 AREA, about 90,000 sq. mi. POPULATION, about 350,000. 
 
 The large island of New Guinea has been portioned 
 out between the Dutch and English governments. It 
 was aboriginally peopled by one of the most degraded 
 races on the globe. The climate is intensely hot and 
 malarial. Hence the propects for an early development 
 of a progressive civilization are very poor. Great pro- 
 gress may not be expected until a sufficient number of 
 people from the mother countries have become acclima- 
 ted to form a working basis. Nothing can be expected 
 from the natives, except so far as amalgamation of pop- 
 ulation takes place. At present it is largely a trading 
 post, with such regulations as are indispensable for the 
 conduct of greedy business relations. 
 
 NEW SOUTH WALES. 
 
 (AUSTRALIA. BRITISH.) 
 AREA, 310,700 sq. mi. POPULATION, 1,197,650 in 1892. 
 
 DEFENSE OF NATION. In addition to the regu- 
 lar British garrison, there was a regular Home Force of 
 625 men, a Militia of 9,-?4i, and a Navy of 694, the total 
 cost for the year being £248,^06. ■ 
 
 FINANCE. There is a State Savings Bank with 15 
 branches. The head office is at Sidney. The Governor 
 of the colony is President of the institution. It had in 
 1892, 167,726 depositors, with ^■5, 706,081 deposited at 
 the end of the year. There are also Post-office Savings 
 Banks. The Government conducts the Coinage in a 
 Royal Branch Mint. It has charge of the Note Issue, 
 Customs and Internal Revenue Departments, &c. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION. In 1S92 there were 39,113 mi. of 
 State Roads. The municipalities owned 419 mi. of
 
 168 
 
 Street Railway, which had cost ;^i, 118,471. The Gen- 
 eral Government began to assume Railway ownership in 
 1855, and at the end of 1893 it had 2,351 mi. These had 
 cost ;{J^33,456,496. The receipts for 1893 were £1,122^- 
 423; expenses, ;^i, 250,099 ; profits, ;^ 1,972,344. (Only 
 81 mi. of Railway were under private ownership. These 
 had cost ;^438,S4i.) There were 1,423 Post-offices in 
 1893, the receipts from which had been ^447,945 ; ex- 
 penses, ;^447,726 ; profits, £2\g. The Money Orders 
 drawn amounted to ;^i,762,7i3. The State owned in 
 that year 26,443 rn'- of Telegraph wire, which had cost 
 x^8oi,9i8. The receipts were ^"203,417 ; expenses, 
 ;^269,79o (including Telephone) ; and profits, ;,^ 185,0 14 
 (including Telephone). The State owned 303 mi. of 
 Canal. Streets, Bridges, Harbors, Markets, Wharves, &c. 
 must be added. 
 
 EDUCATION. In 1S92 there were 2,488 Primary 
 Schools and 236 Secondary, having 4,636 teachers and 
 210,641 pupils ; 243 Roman Catholic Primary, with 1,268 
 teachers and 31,217 pupils ; i University, with 44 instruc- 
 tors and 1,068 students ; Law ; Medical ; Art ; i Tech- 
 nological, with 6,205 students ; 2 Industrial, with 562 
 students ; and Blind and Deafand Dumb Schools having 
 99 pupils. The Government grant in 1892 for Primary 
 and Secondary education was;i^768,395. The public Li- 
 brary at Sidney contains 97,348 volumes. Other educa- 
 tional facilities may be inferred. 
 
 LAW AND ORDER. At the head of the adminis- 
 tration is the Governor appointed by the English Crown. 
 The National Parliament has 2 houses: the Legislative 
 Council of 70 members (appointed by the Governor 
 for life), the Legislative Assembly of 141 members 
 (elected for 3 years). The latter receive salaries of 
 £2,^0 a year. There are 165 Districts and many Muni- 
 cipalities. The Police Force numbered 1,665 ^^ 1891. 
 There is a Supreme Court, various Circuit, Quarter 
 Sessions, and Magistrates Benches. The Prisons include
 
 169 
 
 Police Stations, 60 Jails, and Penitentiaries. There are 
 Jury Commissioners and Juries. Other legal machinery 
 in great variety. (See New Zealand.) 
 
 In the way of Production and La«^ ownership, it must 
 not be omitted that the State owns 130,309,466 acres of 
 pastural land which it leases to tenants, and 97,712 acres 
 distributed in 21 State Forests, for the care of which 
 there is a Forest Conservation Department. 
 
 NICARAGUA. 
 
 (CENTR.\L .\MERICA.) 
 AREA, 49,500 sq. mi. POPULATION, 312,845 in 1SS9. 
 
 This is another of those hot-blooded Spanish Ameri- 
 can republics. There is in these a sort of constant sur- 
 prise that the form of government should be Republican 
 while the general education is in such backward state. 
 
 The Regular Army contains about 1,200 men, and the 
 Militia a possible force of 15,000, The State owns all of 
 the 91 mi. of Railway, The cost of this at the end of 
 1891 had been 1^2,700,000. There were 53 Post-offices in 
 189 1 ; and 59 Telegraph offices connecting, 1,700 mi. of 
 line. The report in 1887 shows 213 Primary teachers, 
 having 13,660 pupils ; 3 Secondary Schools ; and 2 Col- 
 leges. The State supports the Roman Catholic Church. 
 The administration is by a President and Cabinet. The 
 National Congress has 2 houses: a Senate of 18 mem- 
 bers (elected for 6 years), and a House of 21 represen- 
 tatives (elected for 4 years). 
 
 NORWAY. 
 
 AREA, 124,445 sq. mi. POPULATION, 1,988,674 in 1890. 
 
 Norway and Sweden are parts of one empire. Nor- 
 way has its own Parliament but the general administra- 
 tion is under the Swedish Crown. The Storthing (or 
 Parliament) has 114 members (elected for 3 years). It
 
 170 
 
 has 2 divisions : the Lagthing (one-fourth of the mem- 
 bers) and the Odelsthing (three-fourths). (For the rest 
 of the Law and Order organization, see Sweden.) 
 
 The Regular Army in 1S92 contained 30,900 men ; the 
 Navy 525, with 5 Port Defense Ships, 18 Cruisers, 8 Tor- 
 pedo Boats, in all 31 War Vessels. There is a Naval 
 Reserve of about 23,000 men. 
 
 The means of Distribution are very largely under pub- 
 lic control. The State began to assume ownership in 
 Railways in 1854. In 1893 it owned 929 mi.; while pri- 
 vate companies owned but 42 mi. The Railways were 
 constructed partly by public subscription. The receipts 
 in 1893 were 7,390,875 kroner; expenses, 5,924,545 kr. ; 
 profits, 1,466,330 kr. ; (a kroner is about 27 cts.) The 
 Telegraph line belonging to the State covered 4,887 mi. 
 with 9,663 mi. of wire, and 178 offices in 1893. The re- 
 ceipts for that year were ^69,061 ; expenses, ;!^66,383 ; 
 profits, ;^2,678. (There were 9S5 mi. more of Telegraph 
 line on railroads partly State and partly private.) The 
 Post-office receipts for 1893 were ;^i73,9i6; expenses, 
 ;^ 172,867 ; profits, ;^ 1,049. There were about 14,000 mi. 
 of Roads, and about 100 mi. of Canals. The Streets, 
 Harbors, Wharves, Bridges and Markets belong to the 
 public. 
 
 The reports for 1889 show 6,251 Primary Schools, 
 with 208,960 pupils; 82 High Schools, with 10,368 pu- 
 pils ; I University (which had in 1S92) 54 professors and 
 1,366 students ; 6 Normal, with 321 students ; Law ; Medi- 
 cal ; Industrial, &c. In 1891 the State grant was 9,705,- 
 329 kroner. 
 
 The State owns 3,870 sq. mi. of Forests, and has a re- 
 gular staff for overseeing it. 
 
 ORANGE FREE STATE. 
 
 AREA, 48,326 sq. mi. POPULATION, 207,503 in 1890. 
 
 This is rapidly rising colony in Southeastern Africa. 
 Its Defensive force in 1S90 consisted of 57 Regulars and
 
 171 
 
 300 Militia. The State owned 120 mi. of Railway, and 
 was then engaged in building several lines. There are 
 Roads for ox-wagons in all parts. The Telegraph, i 500 
 mi., was State property. The receipts for the Post and 
 Telegraph in 1S90 were ;^22,-ooo; expenses, £2^,(i\2. 
 There is a Public Library at Bkemfountain. The 
 State assists all churches to a small extent. In 1893 the 
 Government grant to the Dutch Reformed, Wesleyan, 
 ICpiscopalian, Lutheran, Roman Catholic and Jewish was 
 ;^9,ooo. There were 134 Primary Schools and 45 Secon- 
 dary, with 4,795 pupils. (Others not reported.) The 
 Government grant in 1893, for Education, was ^34,500. 
 Other educational means are coming into being. The 
 Volksraed (Parliament) consists of i Chamber of 50 
 members (elected for 4 years). Irrigation is conducted 
 by the municipalities, aided at the start with Government 
 loans. 
 
 PARAGUAY. 
 
 AREA, 98,000 sq. mi. POPULATION, 480,000 in 1S93. 
 
 The Regular Army numbered 1,427 (82 being officers); 
 and the Navy consisted of 3 Port Defense Ships. The 
 Railways, 150 mi. in 1891, are one half owned by the 
 Paraguay government and the other half by English 
 capitalists. In 1891, there were 502 employees ; ^17,807 
 receipts ; ;^i5,945' expenses ; ;^ 1,862 profits. The State 
 owned 210 mi. of Telegraph Line ; and had 69 Post-offices 
 in 1892. The Postal receipts were 26,290 pesos. 
 
 P^ducation is backward. In 1891 there were 292 Pri- 
 mary Schools with 44S teachers and 18,944 pupils ; about 
 100 Higher schools ; i College, with 15 instructors and 
 150 students. The State grant in 1891 was $314,615. 
 The State Church is Roman Catholic. There arc pub- 
 lic Libraries, Museums, &c. 
 
 The form of government is republican. At the head 
 stands the President and Cabinet. The National Congress
 
 172 
 
 has a Senate of 30 members (elected for 4 years), and a 
 Chamber of 55 Deputies (elected for 4 years). Much 
 other socialized machinery is implied. 
 
 PERSIA. 
 
 AREA, 628,000 sq. mi. POPULATION, about 9,000,000 in 1891. 
 
 In the way of Defense there is a standing army of 
 24,500 men, a Militia of 53,520, and a Navy of 2 Port 
 Defense Ships. The habits of the people are very 
 largely nomadic and therefore the social organization 
 is loose in character ; and the State is scarcely out of 
 the state of barbarism. There are 26 mi. of Railway 
 under private ownership. 182 mi. of Road are reported 
 as fit for carriages. There is a Postal Service with 95 
 offices run by an Austrian company in Persian employ. 
 3,400 mi. of Telegraph are worked by the Persian gov- 
 ernment ; 675 more miles are worked by the English 
 government; and 415 miles by companies. Education 
 is under Mohammedan supervision. The elementary 
 sort is widely diffused, and there are a great number of 
 socalled Mohammedan colleges supported by public 
 funds. There is a Technological school in Teheran 
 (opened 40 years ago) which has some European pro- 
 fessors. 2 Military schools are also reported. The Shah 
 is regarded as the Viceregent of the Prophet, although 
 Mohammedanism is steadily losing its hold. 
 
 The government is an absolute despotism. The laws 
 are based on the precepts of the Koran. It is administ- 
 ered by the Shah and his 8 Ministers and their deputy 
 governors. The social development has not proceeded 
 far enough to differentiate the legislative judicial and 
 executive functions. The dispensation is too summary 
 to make Prisons and much other legal machinery ne- 
 cessary.
 
 173 
 
 PERU. 
 
 AREA, 463,747 sq. mi. POPULATION, 2,700,945 in 1S90. 
 
 The Regular Army has 5,900 men ; and the Navy, 2 
 Port Defense Ships and i Cruiser. The State owned 770 
 mi. of Railway in 1S92 (private companies owned 122 
 miles). The cost to the State had been ;^36, 000, coo (in- 
 cluding those railways ceded to Chili). The State also 
 owns lines of Steamboats. The receipts for both in 1892 
 were ^348,500; expenses, ^215.000 ; profits, ^133,500. 
 It also received ;^3,247 from lines of Railway leased. 
 The number of Post-offices w^ere 314, and Telegraph 
 offices 2)^, with i,oSo mi. of line in 1893. The Roads, 
 Streets, Harbors, Wharves, Bridges, Markets, &c., are 
 public property. 
 
 The Educational report is for 1S90, and mentions 810 
 teachers in Primary Schools with 53,276 pupils; 51 
 Higher schools ; 5 Colleges ; Law ; Medical ; Theologi- 
 cal ; Technological, &c. The State grant in 1890 was 
 ;^303,58i. The State religion is Roman Catholic, but 
 others are tolerated, though against the written law. 
 Much other imperfect educational machinery exists. 
 
 The Government is republican, having a President, 
 Cabinet, and National Congress. The latter consists of 
 40 Senators (elected for 5 years), and So members of the 
 House of Representatives (elected for 6 years). These 
 are supplemented by Courts, Police, Prisons, and the 
 various Assessing and Registering officers. 
 
 PHILIPPIA'E ISLAjS'DS. 
 
 (SPANISH.) 
 AREA, 114,326 sq. mi. POPULATION, about 7,000,000. 
 
 The progress of civilization in these islands has been 
 very slow, and for 2 reasons : first, because of the density 
 on the part of the natives, and next, because of the lack 
 of enterprise on the part of the Spanish. There is an
 
 174 
 
 organized government under the Spanish administration, 
 and local provinical autonomy by the natives. There 
 are some towns and cities of loosely governed character, 
 which own their Streets, Markets, &c. Education is 
 backward and can scarcely be said to be organized. 
 
 PORTO RICO. 
 
 (SPANISH.) 
 
 AREA, 3,550 sq. mi. POPULATION, 806,708 in 1S92. 
 
 In 1892, 12 mi. of Railway were reported as belonging 
 to the Government, also 470 mi. of Telegraph. There is 
 an organized Post-office, The Roads, Streets, Harbors 
 and Bridges are public property. Education is largely 
 under the control of the Catholic church, and this also 
 receives State assistance. The Government is of the 
 Spanish colonial type. There is a Governor Captain- 
 General. The people elect representatives to the Span- 
 ish Cortes. The colony is in many respects similar to 
 Cuba, and its socialization is in the same condition, so 
 far as the Spanish administration is concerned ; but the 
 people are less progressive and have less of the love for 
 freedom, taken as a whole. 
 
 PORTUGAL. 
 
 AREA, 34,038 sq. mi. POPULATION, 4,708,178 in 1881. 
 
 Portugal is one of those countries of which the world 
 at large hears little. This is to a great extent caused by 
 the extremely prevalent illiteracy of the people, which in 
 1S78 exceeded 82 % of the population. 
 
 A large and useless Standing Army is maintained. In 
 1S92 it numbered 34,971 (of which 2,346 were officers). 
 The Navy had 4,113 men (213 being officers). There 
 were 31 Cruisers, and 9 Torpedo Boats. The good 
 Roads cover about 2,000 mi. Streets, Bridges, Har- 
 bors, Wharves and Markets are public. The State
 
 175 
 
 owned in 1S91, 505 mi. of Railway. (Private com- 
 panies owned 829 mi., all receiving subventions from 
 the State.) The Government first undertook Railway 
 management in 1863. It owned in 1889, 3,985 mi. of 
 Telegraph, with 8,839 mi. of wire and 366 offices. The 
 receipts for 1891 (including Postal Service) were 6,057,- 
 789 fr. ; expenses, 7,196,653 fr. ; deficit, 1,138,864 fr. 
 The number of Post-offices was 3,091. 
 
 PZducation is of late advancing. In 1890 there were 
 3,864 Primary Schools, with 181,738 pupils; 175 Adult 
 Primary Schools, with 6,774 pupils ; 4^8 Secondary, with 
 95,449 pupils ; I University, with 75 professors and 1,166 
 students ; 5 Normal with 300 students ; Law ; Medical ; 
 18 Theological (in 1883), with 2,038 students; i Art, 
 with 436 students; 2 Technological, with 566 students; 
 25 Industrial, with 5,695 students ; 7 Agricultural, with 
 187 students; 2 Military, with 546 cadets ; 12 Nautical 
 (one of which is for Naval officers and has 93 students). 
 The general Government expense in 189 1 was 1,745,506 
 milreis. (One milreis equals 4 s. 5 d., or about ;^i. 07.) 
 There is a public Library at Lisbon with 200,000 vol- 
 umes, I at Coimbra with 84,000 volumes, and i at Oporto 
 with 100,000 volumes. There are various other Educa- 
 tional facilities. The State Church is Roman Catholic, 
 and receives support. 
 
 One-third of the island of Madeira is under Irrigation, 
 largely public. Some levados are from 60 to 70 mi. in 
 length. 
 
 The Government is constitutional monarchy. The 
 general administration is by the King and his Ministers. 
 The Cortes has 2 Houses: that of the Peers with 162 
 members (consisting of the Princes of the royal blood, 
 12 Bishops, 100 life Peers appointed by the Crown, and 
 50 elective Peers — 45 of whom are chosen by the districts 
 and 5 by scientific bodies); and the Chamber of 175 
 Deputies (elected for 4 years). The Police, Courts, Pris- 
 ons, Consulates, and various Bureaus are organized sim- 
 ilarly to those of Spain, and employ large numbers.
 
 17() 
 
 QUEENSLAND. 
 
 (AUSTRALIA. BRITISH.) 
 AREA, 668,497 sq. mi. POPULATION, 421,297 in 1892. 
 
 Queensland merits careful attention as a social study. 
 It is one of the most enterprising of British colonies. 
 The energies of the people in the function of the State 
 are directed in the most useful ways. 
 
 The Regular Armed Force in 1892 numbered only 
 140; the Militia, only 4,506; and the Navy had but 3 
 Port Defense Ships and i Torpedo Boat. There is a 
 Government Savings Bank, with 123 branches, having 
 47,093 depositors, and ^1,708,393 deposited at the end 
 of 1S92. The State still owns nearly all of the land, 
 only 2 % (or 10,576,268 acres) of the total area had 
 been alienated in 1891. During that year it leased for 
 pasturage 280,535,893 acres. Over 140,000,000 acres 
 more were leased for agricultural purposes. There is 
 a settled policy of preventing aggregations in large 
 estates. 
 
 Railway ownership was undertaken by the Govern- 
 ment in 1865. It now owns all the Roads, and permits 
 no private lines. In 1892 there were 2,353 mi., and 53 
 mi. more being built. The cost of the Roads then built 
 had been ;!^i6,258,993. For 1892 the receipts were 
 ;^i,04i,222 ; expenses, ^632,321 ; profits, ;^4oS,9oi. The 
 Telegraph is likewise all owned by the Government. In 
 1892 there were 9,996 mi. of line with 17,646 mi. of wire, 
 and 354 offices. The receipts were ;^82,952 ; expenses, 
 j^ii2,99i ; deficit, ^30,039. The number of Post-offices 
 in 1892 was 951, with receipts of ;!ri35,723 ; expenses, 
 _;^2oi,82i ; deficit, ^,^66, 098. The enterprise of the Gov- 
 ernment is shown in the provision of these great requi- 
 sites in advance of a demand large enough to pay the 
 expenses. Various other means of Distribution, such as 
 Roads, Streets, Tramways, Bridges, &c. belong to the 
 State or municipalities.
 
 177 
 
 The Primary Schools, in 1S92, numbered 657, with 
 1,498 teachers and 64,563 pupils; the Secondary, 10, 
 with 57 teachers and 793 pupils. There are Colleges, 
 Technological, and other schools. The Government 
 grant for 1892 was ;^25 1,683. 
 
 The general administration is by the Governor (appoint- 
 ed by the Imperial Government), and 8 Ministers. The 
 Legislation is by 2 Houses : a Council of 40 members 
 (nominated by the Crown, for life), and the Assembly of 
 72 members (elected for 5 years). There were 900 Police 
 in 1891. The different types of Courts included Supreme, 
 District, and Magistrate. The Prisons included 16 Jails, 
 and a Penitentiary, The other machinery for carrying 
 on a well-regulated state is not wanting. vSo too, the 
 various public institutions for Relief and General Safety. 
 
 ROUMANIA. 
 
 AREA, 48,307 sq. mi. POPULATION, 5,800,000 in 1893. 
 
 Roumania had in 1893 a Regular Army of 51,771 men 
 (2,936 officers); a Militia of 81,843 ; and a Navy of 1,526 
 men, with 8 Port Defense Ships, i Cruiser, and 2 Tor- 
 pedo Boats. There was a small Naval Reserve of 200 
 men. The State owns all its Railways, which in 1S93 
 covered 1,598 mi. 340 mi. more were being built. It 
 has 1,100 mi. of Navigable Rivers and Canals. The 
 people own the Telegraph, which, in 1892, had 3,524 
 mi. of line, 8,000 mi. of wire, 411 offices, and took 
 receipts amounting to 2,498,919 fr. There were 352 
 Post-offices in 1892, with receipts of 3,650,123 fr. 
 
 Education is advancing. In 1891 there were 3,566 
 Primary Schools, with 3,584 teachers and 220,683 pupils ; 
 52 Secondary, with 10,227 pupils; 2 Universities, with 
 no professors and 900 students; 8 Normal, with 770 
 students ; Law ; Medical, &c. The Government is a 
 Constitutional Principality. The National Legislation 
 is through a Senate of 120 members (elected for 8 years),
 
 178 
 
 and a Chamber of 1S3 Deputies (elected for 4 years.) 
 Further statistics are difficult to obtain, and yet it is 
 easily seen that there must be, besides these, a vast 
 amount of public enterprise. 
 
 RUSSIA. 
 
 AREA, 8,660,282 sq. mi. POPULATION, 126,000,000 in 1892. 
 
 The Russian Government comprehends more territory 
 than any other in the world. Russia is an anomaly. One 
 does not think of absolute monarchy as out of place in 
 China. The Chinese have brought their creed and cus- 
 toms out of the hoary ages of the past. But Russia is 
 a modern nation. It has grown up in what may be called 
 very recent times. There are within its realm a large 
 number of intelligent and cultured people. How the 
 iron hand of despotism can yet hold sway is difficult to 
 explain. The great absolute powers of the past have 
 occupied themselves in enterprises of military aggression 
 and conquest. This great Russian anachronism (although 
 it is military to a fault) is spending immeasurable efforts 
 in the direction of social reorganization and paternalistic 
 socialization. It seems bound to keep up with the times 
 without doing the one thing which distinguishes these 
 times from all others, viz : the development of democratic, 
 political and economic institutions. More than any other 
 country, Russia illustrates a type of socialism which 
 comes from the wrong direction. Every institution is 
 the result of paternalistic governmental care, and not the 
 outcome of spontaneous, democratic, cooperative initia- 
 tion. In order to keep all the great advantages in the 
 hands of the aristocracy who rule, and at the same time 
 to keep the nation as a whole in association with the 
 more progressive countries, they introduce measure after 
 measure which belong to a state of social freedom. 
 Hence the facts which follow (as also those given under 
 the heading of similarly grounded governments), are
 
 179 
 
 instances of socialism in a peculiar sense. They have the 
 form, but lack one of the most vital elements, viz : they 
 are not done by the spontaneous will of the people. 
 
 DEFENSE OF NATION. One can hardly compre- 
 hend the gigantic character of a social organization 
 which keeps under arms, as Russia did in 1892, 868- 
 762 men (33,529 of whom were officers). Its Militia 
 numbered 1,661,899 (21,428 being officers). Its Navy 
 had 45,064 (2,364 being officers), with 17 Battle Ships, 
 25 Port Defense Ships, 59 Cruisers, 159 Torpedo Boats, 
 making a total of 260 War Vessels. 
 
 FINANCE. All financial institutions have existence 
 by virtue of Imperial permission. The Government 
 manages a system of Savings Banks ; conducts a Coin- 
 age exclusively ; controls Note Issue, collects Customs, 
 and Internal Revenue, &c. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION. In 1890, 63,000 mi. of good Roads 
 were reported. In 1891 the Government owned 6,824 
 mi. of Railway, and was then building 893 mi., besides 
 the new Siberian line which will be 4,950 mi., and is ex- 
 pected to be finished by 1897. Private companies run 
 and partly own 11,617 mi. ; but of these the Government 
 owns 92 % of the cost value. Moreover the charters of 
 all companies are terminable in from 37 to 85 years, 
 after which the roads revert to the Government. The 
 total cost of all Russian Railways up to December 31, 
 1892, was ^316,887,500. The receipts on the Govern- 
 ment roads for the year 1891 were 78,130,258 roubles; 
 expenses, 46,023,237; profits, 32,107,021. (i rouble 
 equals about 77 cts.) The number of employes on all 
 Russian Railways in 1891 was 259,719. In that year 
 there were 453 mi. of State Canals, and 33,463 mi. of 
 Navigable Rivers. The number of Post-offices was 6,55 7. 
 The Government owns 19-20 and runs all of the 88,280 
 mi. of Telegraph (1891), having 172,360 mi. of wire and 
 3,796 offices. The receipts of the Postal and Telegraphic 
 Service in 1891 were 30,925.903 roubles; expenses. 25.219,- 
 619; profits, 5,705,284. There were 1,376 mi. of Tele-
 
 180 
 
 phone wire. Streets, Bridges, Harbors, Wharves, Mar- 
 kets, &c., are State property ; and Street Lighting and 
 many other similar things are at Government expense. 
 
 EDUCATION. Although the schools of Russia seem 
 numerically considerable, yet the illiterate condition of 
 the vast mass of the people is most deplorable. In iS88 
 only 1-5 of the Army could read and write. In 1S92 
 only 1.08 % of the population were at school, while in 
 Germany 18.8 % were in school. In the whole Empire 
 (exclusive of Finland) there were only 743 periodicals 
 published. In Finland alone there were 145. In 18S7 
 there were 46,880 Primary Schools, with 2,243,566 pu- 
 pils. In 1 89 1 there were 702 Secondary Schools, with 
 4,218 teachers and 165,594 pupils; 11 Colleges, with 
 190 instructors and 2,496 students ; 10 Universities, 
 with 923 instructors and 13,259 students; 78 Normal, 
 with 822 instructors and 5,586 students; i Medical, 
 with 754 students; 4 Theological, with 127 instruc- 
 tors and 761 students; 45 Technological, with 5,007 
 students ; i Agricultural, with 306 students; 4 Military, 
 with 464 cadets; and 113 Nautical and Military, with 
 21,109 students. The General Government expended in 
 1892, 43,884,534 roubles. In addition to these, there are 
 many public provisions for culture — Libraries, Museums, 
 Observatories, Art Galleries, and Bureaus of different 
 kinds. 
 
 LAND. In Russia alone, there are altogether 1,098,- 
 517,780 acres. Of this there belongs to the General Gov- 
 ernment 410,801,867 ; to the Imperial Family 19,890,835 ; 
 to the general Government, but leased to peasants 373,- 
 310,496; and to private owners 294,504,582 acres. If 
 this report is correct, the State owns substantially 804,- 
 013,198 acres ; i. e., in Russia alone, 4-5 of the land still 
 remains in possession of the people. This is a remark- 
 able fact, and would seem to indicate that as the new age 
 of socialized enterprise and common social ownership 
 comes on, Russia is not likely to pass through the stage 
 of completely disintegrated individuality in ownership.
 
 181 
 
 The other great realms of Law and Order, Relief and 
 Charity, &c., cannot be satisfactorily treated. Legisla- 
 tion that is legislation for classes, is not socialized, al- 
 though it may and does employ its hundreds of thous- 
 ands of agents for the common, social regulation. So 
 too, in the realm of Public Relief, it is only half publicly 
 done. In these various phases one part of the commu- 
 nity is simply trying to preserve an unjust advantage 
 with one hand and to make some amends therefor with 
 the other. They legislate for themselves and thereby 
 bring want and distress upon thousands ; and then they 
 set up shabby institutions for the meagre relief of those 
 their greed has pauperized. 
 
 SALVADOR. 
 
 (central AMERICA.) 
 AREA, 7,225 sq. mi. POPULATION, 777,895 in 1891 
 
 This little republic has a Standing Army of 4,000 men 
 and a Militia of 15,000. For a Navy it supports i Crui- 
 ser. There are reported 2,000 mi. of good Roads. In 
 1892 the State owned the 53 mi. of Railway then existing. 
 The receipts for that year were ^191,558; expenses, .$131- 
 876 ; profits, ^59,672, The State managed 54 Post-offices 
 in 1892 ; and 1,467 mi. of Telegraph line, with 131 offices. 
 585 Primary Schools, with 29,427 pupils reported in 1S93; 
 also 13 Secondary; i University; 2 Normal; 3 Techno- 
 logical ; Law ; Medical ; &c. The State Church is Ro- 
 man Catholic. There are Libraries, Museums, and other 
 provisions for Education. The President, Cabinet, and 
 a National Congress of 70 members are at the head of 
 the Government. 
 
 SANTO DOMINGO. 
 
 (west inhies.) 
 AREA, 18,045 sq. mi. POPULATION, 610,000 in iSSS. 
 
 This hot-blooded little government maintains a small 
 Regular Army, Militia and Naval Reserve. It has pro-
 
 182 
 
 vided some good Roads, 72 mi. of Railway, 58 Post- 
 offices, 300 Primary Schools, some Secondary, Collegi- 
 ate, Normal, and other educational means. There is a 
 President, Cabinet and Chamber of 22 Congressmen. 
 
 SERVIA. 
 
 AREA, 19,050 sq. mi. POPULATION, 2,226,741 in 1S92. 
 
 The Standing Army numbered 18,000 in 1893, and the 
 Militia, 192,000, There are 7 Forts. 3,495 mi. of good 
 Roads are reported. In 1892 the State owned 2,^6 mi. 
 of Railway, which had cost 90,810,703 dinars. (A dinar 
 equals i fr., or about 20 cts.) The State managed 107 
 Post-offices and 143 Telegraph offices having 1,942 mi. of 
 line in 1892. The Post and Telegraph receipts were 
 1,035,913 dinars; expenses, 1,375,457 ; deficit, 259,544. 
 There are 394 mi. of Navigable River. 
 
 The reports for 1892 give 803 Primary Schools, with 
 1,478 teachers and 75,278 pupils ; 26 Secondary, with 440 
 teachers and 6,422 pupils; i University, with 37 instruct- 
 ors and 557 students; 2 Normal, with 487 students; i 
 Theological, with 70 students ; 2 Technological ; Law ; 
 Industrial ; Agricultural ; Military. The General Gov- 
 ernment paid for Education in 1892, 3,923,696 dinars. 
 The State Church is Greek Orthodox. To these must 
 be added Libraries, Museums, &c. The general admin- 
 istration is by the Prince and his Ministers. The Par- 
 liament (or Skupshtina) has 200 members (elected 
 for 3 years). There are 800 Police, various Courts, 
 Prisons, &c. 
 
 SIAM. 
 
 AREA, about 300,000 sq. mi. POPULATION, 6,000,000 in 1892. 
 
 There is a loosely organized Army of 12,000 and a 
 Navy of 4 old Ships, There is no Public Debt, and 
 expenses are kept within the receipts. (The Railways
 
 183 
 
 are private.) A Postal Service with 98 offices was repor- 
 ted in 1890. There is a Minister of Public Instruction, 
 and P^ducation is being systematized. There are 3 large 
 Government Schools, and English is taught. The State 
 has constructed many large Canals for purposes of Irri- 
 gation. The sluices leading to the fields are made at 
 private expense. The system is very ancient. 
 
 The Government is a monarchy assisted by a Council 
 of State. This Council consists of 8 Ministers, 6 royal 
 princes, and from 10 to 20 members appointed by the 
 king. The king's successor is appointed by the Council. 
 
 SIERRA LEONE. 
 
 (WKST AFRICA. BRITISH.) 
 
 AREA, 15,000 sq. mi. POPULATION, iSo.ooo in 1891 
 
 Besides the British garrison, there is a Home Militia 
 of 400. Some good Roads, Navigable Rivers, Canals, 
 and Lagoons aid in Distribution. There is a State Postal 
 Service, and some Cables are reported. In 1892, 85 
 Primary and 6 Secondary Schools had 10,500 pupils. 
 There was i College. The Government spent for Edu- 
 cation in that year ^711. The Law and Order are pro- 
 vided for in the usual British colonial manner. There 
 are Supreme, Circuit and Police Courts, and a Police 
 Force of 500. 
 
 SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC. 
 
 (transv.v.vl.) 
 AREA, 113,642 sq. mi. POPULATION, 487.557 >" 1S92. 
 
 This is a newly formed Government. There is a small 
 force of Militia Artillery, The republic owns all its 
 Railway which in 1893 covered 200 mi., with 213 mi. 
 more building. The State Telegraph in 1892 had 41 
 offices, 1,681 mi. of line, and 174 employes. There was 
 a State Postal Service. In 1892, 484 Primary Schools,
 
 184 
 
 with 7,932 pupils; and 13 Secondary, were reported. 
 ;^2o,ooo were voted in 1869 toward establishing a Univer- 
 sity, and ;^34,962 were spent that year for general Edu- 
 cation. Dutch is the official language, and English that 
 of everyday life. 
 
 There are 14,000 Government Farms, and 16,000 pri- 
 vate farms. Land is irrigated and leased by the Govern- 
 ment. It also furnishes loans for municipal irrigation. 
 
 The Parliament (or Volksraed) has 2 Houses of 24 
 members each (elected for 4 years.) 
 
 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 
 
 (BRITISH.) 
 AREA, 903,690 sq. mi. POPULATION, 320,431 in 1891. 
 
 The Defense is by a British garrison, a Home Militia 
 of 2,486 in 1S92, and i Cruiser, 
 
 There is a Government Savings Bank with 139 branches, 
 78,795 depositors, and ^2,217,431 deposits at the end of 
 1892. The National Debt in 1891 was i^2i, 133, 300, three- 
 fourths of which was for Railways, Telegraph and Water- 
 works. The Revenues from these are now paying more 
 than the interest. The State began ownership in Rail- 
 ways in 1S56. In 1S92 it owned the whole 1,810 mi. The 
 cost to the middle of 1891 had been ^^11,398,839. The 
 receipts for 1S92 were ^1,223,999; expenses, ^^617, 179; 
 profits, ^^606,820. In the same year there were 638 Post- 
 offices ; 5,267 mi. of Telegraph line, with 12,911 mi. of 
 wire, and 247 offices. The receipts exceed expenses, 
 after paying interest on borrowed capital. The reports 
 mention 4,737 mi. of excellent Road. 
 
 There were 597 Primary Schools with 53,457 pupils in 
 1892. The State has recently endowed a University with 
 ^50,000 and 50,000 acres of land. There are several 
 Colleges, Normal, Law, Music and other schools. The 
 State grant in 1891 was ;^453,529-
 
 185 
 
 At the head of the Government is the Governor- Gene- 
 ral and 6 Ministers. The Parhament has 2 Houses ; a 
 Legislative Council of 24 members (elected in sections 
 every 8 years), and a House of Assembly with 54 mem- 
 bers (elected for 3 years). There are 41 counties and 
 S3 municipalities. The Courts include Supreme, Circuit, 
 Insolvency, and 68 Magistrate. Other socialized ma- 
 chinery can be easily inferred. 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 AREA, 197,670 .sq. mi. POPULATION, 17,565,632 in 18S7. 
 
 The history of Spain is one of the darkest pages of the 
 past. At the close of the Middle Ages, it became one of 
 preatest powers of Europe. It took the lead in the mari- 
 time discoveries of the i6th century. But the reaction- 
 ary movement of the Church at this time put a blight on 
 the intellectual advancement of the nation, and it soon 
 lost its position of greatness. It stands even yet at the 
 bottom of the list in the matter of progress. Although 
 dominated by an effete monarchy, legislated over by a 
 greedy aristocracy, bound in ignorance and superstition 
 by a grasping hierarchy, it still has many socialized 
 institutions. Indeed, the reader must constantly remind 
 himself that all social organization is to that extent con- 
 crete socialism. 
 
 The Regular Army in 1S92 numbered 115,735; the 
 MiHtia, 967,860; the Navy, 23,537 (1,007 being officers), 
 with I Battle Ship, 2 Port Defense Ships, 65 Cruisers, 
 and 40 Torpedo Boats, in all 108 War Vessels. There 
 were 14,000 mi. of first-class Roads. (All the Railways, 
 6,710 mi., are under private ownership. Nearly all the 
 companies have obtained guarantees or subventions from 
 the Government.) The Navigable Rivers and Canals 
 reach 1,100 mi. 2,688 Post-offices, and 1,177 Telegraph 
 offices, with 15,988 mi. of line existed in 1891.
 
 18G 
 
 Education is relatively in a very low state. In 1SS9, 
 61. 1 % of the population could neither read nor write. 
 The "better educated" press into the literary, political 
 and religious careers, neglecting industries, agriculture, 
 &c. Thus the nation is neglected. If done at all, the 
 Mines are worked, the Railways built, the Irrigation 
 effected by foreign capital and foreign officials. Educa- 
 tional statistics are hard to obtain. The report for 18S5 
 shows 24,529 Primary Schools, with 25,271 teachers, and 
 1)552,534 pupils; i inefficient Higher School in each 
 province; 10 Colleges, under theological domination; 
 13 Military ; and some Art, Music, and Agricultural. 
 In that year the General Government expended on 
 Education ;^4,909,48i. The State Church is Roman 
 Catholic, and is supported entirely as a Government 
 Institution. 
 
 About 2,000,000 hectares of Land are irrigated, assist- 
 tance being rendered by the General Government. (The 
 total area of Spain is 50,000,000 hectares or 133,500,000 
 acres.) 
 
 The form of Government is constitutional monarchy, 
 but of the most hidebound character, owing to its being 
 dominated through and through by the dogmatic and 
 restraining influences of the Church. At the head is the 
 King and his Ministers. The Cortes has 2 Houses ; a 
 Senate of 360 members (consisting of the King's sons 
 over 21, Grandees having an income of over ;^i2,oco, 
 Captains, Generals, Admirals, and 100 members nomi- 
 nated by the Crown, and 180 members elected by the 
 States, the Church, Universities and learned bodies), 
 and a Chamber of 431 Deputies (elected for 5 years). 
 Mention should be made of the Courts, Prisons, Police, 
 Consulates, Embassies, Assessing and other Boards, &c. 
 
 There is a vast number of Relief and Charitable insti- 
 tutions. These are very largely under the control and 
 management of the Church, but the Church in Spain is 
 a socialized institution.
 
 187 
 
 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. 
 
 (east indies. BRITISH.) 
 
 AREA, 40,600 sq. mi. POPULATION, 512,342 in 1891. 
 
 This recently formed Ikitish colony includes portions 
 of the peninsula of Malacca and neighboring islands. 
 The British garrison is entrenched in a Fort which cost 
 ;^ 100,000. An additional Militia of 103 men is named. 
 There are Government Post-offices, Telegraph, Road.s, 
 Streets, &c. 192 Primary Schools, with 11,310 pupils 
 were reported in 1892. The administration is by Gov- 
 ernor and Executive Council. There were 2,035 Police, 
 Magistrate Courts, &c. 
 
 SWEDEN. 
 
 AREA, 170,079 s<|. mi. POPULATION, 4,806,835 in 1892. 
 
 Sweden is in many respects an important country for 
 the student of sociology. Its monarchy is of the mildest 
 type, and the people have a large freedom of autonomy. 
 
 The Regular Army in 1S92 numbered 38,845 (of whom 
 1,953 were officers) ; the Militia, 233,708 ; and the Navy, 
 16 Port Defense Ships, 19 Cruisers, and 18 Torpedo 
 Boats, in all 53 War Vessels. • 
 
 Financial provision is very highly' socialized. The 
 Rix Bank belongs to and is managed entirely by the 
 State. It is a bank of exchange, accepts deposits, pays 
 interest, and lends money where there is no speculative 
 object in the borrower's intention. Its assets in 1891 
 were 133,698,185 kronor. (i kronor equals about 27 
 cts.) The State conducts Postal Savings Banks, which 
 at the end of 1891 had 277,540 depositors, and 16,264,- 
 062 kr. deposited. The State cares for Coinage, Note 
 Issue, Customs, Internal Revenue and Tax Collecting. 
 The Government Poorest land in 1SS4 was valued at 
 ;^i 2,000,000.
 
 188 
 
 The State owned yi of the Railways, or 1.770 mi., 
 in 1892. (Private 3,484 mi.) The State Railways cost 
 265,069,683 kr. Its receipts in 1891 were 49,130,834 kr.; 
 expenses, 30,474,788 kr. ; profits, 18,656,046 kr. The 
 Telegraph lines in 1891 (including Railway companies) 
 covered 5,477 mi. with 14,600 mi, of wire. In the same 
 year there were 37,634 mi. of Telepnone wire with 24,987 
 instruments. The annual rental, put up free of cost and 
 connected with every city, is ^lo. (In America where 
 the Telephone was invented, but where monopolistic 
 monarchy rules, telephones rent for from 10 to 25 times 
 this amount, and with less privilege). The Post-offices 
 in 1891 numbered 2,337, and took in receipts amounting 
 to 7,513.415 ^r. ; expenses, 7.192,363 ^^ I profits, 321,052 
 kr. There were in 1892, 36,000 mi. of good Roads, 264 
 mi. of Navigable Rivers, besides Streets, Bridges, Mar- 
 kets, &c. 
 
 Education is liberally provided for. There are schools 
 of every kind. The reports for 1890 show 10,702 Primary 
 Schools, with 13,797 teachers and 692,360 pupils; 103 
 Secondary, with 15,401 pupils; 2 Universities, with 2,230 
 students (1892); 12 Normal, with 898 students; Law 
 Medical; Theological; Art; Industrial; Agricultural 
 Domestic Economy ; 8 Technological ; several Military 
 10 Nautical, with 321 Marines ; and 19 Blind, Deaf and 
 Dumb, with 8,500 pupils. On Elementary P^ducation 
 alone the Government grant in 1S91 was 13,566,826 kr. 
 The State also provides for the support of the Lutheran 
 Church, for Libraries, Museums, Observatories, Bureaus 
 of various kinds, &c. 
 
 By way of Law and Order provision there is a Parlia- 
 ment of 2 Chambers: the First having 147 members 
 (elected by the provinces and municipalities for 9 years 
 with no pay), the Second having 228 members (elected 
 by general suffrage for 3 years, with 12,000 kronors 
 salary). Each of the 24 counties has a Governor and 
 subordinate officers. The King has legislative and ex- 
 ecutive power, but his legislation must receive the sane-
 
 189 
 
 tion of the Rigsdad (Parliament). The Council of State 
 (Statsrad) has lo members, of whom 7 are heads of ad- 
 ministrative departments. The Courts include i Royal 
 Supreme, a Board of Assessors, a Board of Magistrates, 
 206 District, 90 Urban, and 116 Country. Then there 
 are the Police, Prisons, Registering Boards, Embassies, 
 Consulates, and hundreds of municipal enterprises. 
 
 No data are at hand regarding institutions of Relief 
 and Charity, but Sweden is among the best. 
 
 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 AREA, 15,976 SCI. mi. POPULATION, 2,917,754 in 1S88. 
 
 From the point of view of natural advantages, Switzer- 
 land is the poorest country in P>urope ; and yet this little 
 inter-mountain people have made a social progress that 
 puts the rest of Europe to shame. This very undesira- 
 bleness of territory has doubtless proven the social sal- 
 vation by its unattractiveness to the aristocratic pirates. 
 Not being so badly oppressed, and at the same time see- 
 ing the dependent condition of the masses in other Euro- 
 pean states, the people of Switzerland have learned to 
 prize liberty and exercise their political freedom by the 
 development of a model republic. Along with this there 
 has gone on a great progress in the socialization of var- 
 ious economic relations, as the following figures will 
 show. 
 
 DEFENSE. There is really no standing Army. The 
 men are called out for yearly drill, and all men capable 
 of bearing arms belong either to one or another branch 
 of the so-called Army. They are divided into 2 classes ; 
 one, the class under drill during a stated number of 
 years ; the other, the men who have received that drill 
 but who still keep in practice. Of the first class there 
 were in 1892, 131,424 men ; and of the second class, 
 81,485. The Military expense in 1894 is set down in the 
 Budget at 24,422,491 fr.
 
 190 
 
 FINANCE. There are State Banks in most of the 
 Cantons. Connected with the Post-office is a system of 
 Postal Savings Banks. This idea originated in Bern in 
 1778. In Switzerland, the Government is professedly 
 and openly the owner of a large amount of property. 
 This is called the "Federal Fortune." It consists in 
 domains of Forest, cultivated Lands, City property, and 
 funds. Its estimated value is upwards of 400,000,000 fr. 
 Besides this, numerous special funds, amounting to many 
 millions, are the property of communes and municipal- 
 ities. For example, that of Schaffhausen is 10,000,000 
 fr., that of Zurich is 20,000,000 fr. Every commune owns 
 some land, some wood, and some water-right. There 
 are about 300,000 peasant proprietors in a population of 
 less than 3,000,000, 28.4 % of the land is unproductive. 
 The Forest area covers 833,299 hectares, three-fourths 
 of which belongs to the State or communes. The Gen- 
 eral Government has done much toward aiding and stim- 
 ulating the re-creation of wasted Forests. The National 
 Debt in 1892 (at only 3j4 %) was 64,128,423 fr. The 
 available Federal Fortune was 98,850,758 fr. Hence 
 there was a Net Fortune of 34,722,336 fr. The State, 
 of course, has charge of the Coinage, Note Issue, Cus- 
 toms, Internal Revenue, Tax Collecting, &c. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION. The Public Paths over the moun- 
 tains and through narrow valleys are very numerous. 
 Many good Roads have been built at immense cost, and 
 are famous for their well-kept condition with no tolls. 
 Municipal ownership of Street Raihvays is coming about. 
 The City Council of Zurich has lately (1894) decided to 
 own and operate this public convenience. Geneva and 
 Neufchatel each own small steam railways. The Fede- 
 ral Government has bought the greater part of the stock 
 in the great Jura-Simplon Railway, and thus controls it. 
 (Otherwise the Railways, 2,105 ^i- i^i 1892, are owned 
 by private companies. At the end of 189 1 these had cost 
 i>oi 7*738, 064 fr. The Government dictates the width of
 
 101 
 
 track, strength of axles, lettering of cars, method of 
 keeping accounts, way of transferring stock, &c., &c.) 
 
 The Postal Service had 1,491 offices, and 7,399 em- 
 ployes in 1892. It sent in Money Orders 386,772,041 
 fr., and received 37,760,575 fr. The Telegraph lines in 
 1892 (including those for Railways) covered 4,515 mi., 
 with 1 1,990 mi. of wire, and 1,439 offices. The receipts 
 for that year (including Telephone) were 4,628,145 fr., 
 expenses, 3,780,323 fr.; profits, 847,822 fr. There were 
 14,369 Telephone offices. 3,613 mi. of line with 16,660 
 mi. of wire. The State Postal System includes the man- 
 agement of numerous Stage Coach lines, and a Parcel 
 Post. 
 
 There are 500 mi. of Navigable Lakes and Rivers, 
 and the Government has spent vast sums in River Im- 
 provement. It owns Harbors, Wharves, Bridges, and 
 Markets. Salt is sold by the Government only, although 
 for the most part produced by private enterprise. The 
 wells of Bex have been worked since 1554. 
 
 EDUCATION. In 1891 there were 563 Kindergar- 
 tens, with 703 teachers and 25,202 pupils ; 3,847 Primary, 
 with 9,332 teachers and 467,596 pupils; 505 Secondary, 
 with 2,060 teachers and 36,550 pupils ; 7 Colleges and 
 Universities, with 431 instructors and 2,758 students; 
 38 Normal, with 368 teachers and 2,029 students ; (Law, 
 Medical, and Theologieal included in Universities); i 
 Technological, with 703 students ; 6 Industrial ; 2 Agri- 
 cultural ; Military ; Blind and Deaf and Dumb. The 
 Federal Government expense for Education in 1890 was 
 ;g4,6o9,i25. Besides these, are many provisions in the 
 way of Bureaus of Agriculture, Census, Education, 
 Printing, Geography, Meteorology, &c. ; Libraries ; Mu- 
 seums ; Art Galleries ; Reading Rooms ; Botanical and 
 Zoological Gardens, &c. 
 
 PRODUCTION. Alcohol is a Government monopoly. 
 There are 64 Distilleries producingin 1891, 22,773 nietric 
 quintals of alcohol valued at 2,053,586 fr. The retailing
 
 192 
 
 is mostly in private hands. The municipality of Basel 
 retails the high grade liquors. The total Government 
 receipts from the Distilleries in 1891 were 13,660,000 fr. ; 
 expenses, 7,830,000 fr. ; profits, 5,830,000 fr. The State 
 owns a Cement Factory, the only Coal Mine that is pro- 
 ductive of royalty, a Slate Mine (at Glarus), and manu- 
 factures Gzinpowder. 
 
 LAW AND ORDER. The Government of Switzer- 
 land is a republic in which neither executive nor legis- 
 lative officers have very great control. The National 
 Executive consists of a Federal Council of 7, one of 
 whom is President. The Federal Assembly has 2 
 Houses : the Staenderath of 44 members (2 from each 
 Canton elected for 3 years), and the Nationalrath of 
 147 members (elected for 3 years). The system of /«z- 
 tiative and Referendjun prevails, and by it the people are 
 protected from political jobbery. The Cantons and 
 Communes have each their legislative and executive 
 offices. Reelections are frequent, and public duties are 
 well performed. There are Civil and Criminal Courts 
 for each Canton, a Supreme or Federal Tribunal with 
 14 judges and 9 supplementary judges (the salaries of 
 the President being 13,000 fr., and of the others 12,000 
 fr.), and 2 Commercial, in Zurich and Geneva. There 
 are various grades of Prisons, with a total number of 
 1,317 inmates at the end of 1892. One feature to be 
 noticed especially is the Civil Registration of every in- 
 habitant. Still others are the Railway Commission, 
 Assessing and Registering Boards, Embassies, Consu- 
 lates, Copyright and Patent Offices, &c. 
 
 RELIEF AND CHARITIES. In these provisions 
 the State is liberal. It provides protection against Ava- 
 lanches, has numerous Charity Bureaus, Homes for 
 Orphans and Idiots, General and Infant Hospitals, Ine- 
 briate and Insane Asylums, and provides Insurance 
 against Accidents, Sickness (since 1890), and Fire. 
 The latter was begun by Cantons in 1S08. The State 
 now monopolizes the business and makes it obligatory.
 
 193 
 
 It also provides Public Pawn Shops, a Pension Depart- 
 ment, Poor Houses, and work for the unemployed. On 
 June ist, 1S93, there were only 153 beggars and tramps 
 in this nation of 3,000,000 people. 
 
 Among the provisions for Sanitation and Safety is 
 especially to be noted the Physicians for cities provid- 
 ing medical service and medicines. This was inaugu- 
 rated as a State department in 1894. In addition to this, 
 either Federal or Municipal authorities make provisions 
 for Drinking Founts and Troughs, Fountains, Fire 
 Department, Forests, Garbage Gathering, Parks, Sew- 
 erage, Slaughter Houses (in Bern), Water Works, &c. 
 
 TASMANIA. 
 
 (BRITISH.) 
 AREA, 26,215 sq. mi. POPULATION, 146,667 in 1891. 
 
 This beautiful island was cursed in the beginning of 
 its European settlement, from being made a penal colony 
 by the British government. It was not to be expected 
 that it would show (even when the transportation of 
 prisoners ceased) a very rapid progress in social develop- 
 ment. Although not equal to some of the other Austra- 
 lasian colonies, it is yet making commendable advanc- 
 ment. 
 
 Its Militia numbers 601. There were 3,219 mi. of Post 
 Roads in 1891, besides many Turnpikes. In 1870 the 
 Government began to assume the ownership of the Rail- 
 ways. In 1892 it possessed 475 mi., only 49 mi. being 
 left to private companies. The 399 mi. opened at the end 
 of 1890 had cost ;^3,oS8,S82. They pay working ex- 
 penses and a little more. The Post-offices in 1892 num- 
 bered 345 ; had 615 employes ; took in ^54,736 ; expended 
 ^54,066 ; and had net profits of ^670. The State Tele- 
 graph lines in 1S92 covered 2,222 mi. with 3,38^ mi. of 
 wire, and 232 offices. The Telephone wire was 555 mi. 
 The receipts for both were £i<),o^6 ; expenses, ^28,646 ;
 
 194 
 
 deficit, ^9'59°- (The year before there was a profit of 
 ;^i,8o2.) In 1892 there were 366 mi. of Cable. Some 
 Street Railways, Street Lighting, Express Service, Har- 
 bors, Wharves, Bridges and Markets are public property. 
 
 Education till recently has been very backward. In 
 1891, 25.38 % of the population could neither read nor 
 write. There were 564 children attending ragged 
 schools. In 1892 the Primary Schools numbered 251, 
 with 20,659 pupils. There were 14 Secondary, with 
 1,742 pupils; I University; 5 Technological, and other 
 schools. The Government grant in 1892 was ;^46,o56. 
 The Government contributes annually ^^"775 for various 
 religious purposes. There are 35 Public Libraries, and 
 various other public educational facilities. 
 
 The Governor General and 6 Ministers lead the admin- 
 istration. Parliament consists of 2 Houses : a Legislative 
 Council of 18 members (elected for 6 years), and a House 
 of Assembly with 36 members (elected for 3 years). Be- 
 sides these are the county and municipal offices. The 
 Courts comprise Supreme, Quarter Sessions, General, and 
 Petty. There were 314 Police in 1891. Other legal ma- 
 chinery includes Prisons, Assessing and Registering 
 Boards, Consuls, and Railway Commissions. 
 
 lu provision for Relief there were at the end of 1891, 
 2 Poor Houses with 700 inmates, Hospitals, Dispensaries, 
 Lic:ht Houses, &c. 
 
 TONQUIN. 
 
 (farther INDIA. FRENCH.) 
 
 AREA, 34,740 sq. mi. POPULATION, about 9,000,000 in 1884. 
 
 Tonquin is a comparatively recent acquisition of the 
 French Government. The people are of the Indo-Chi- 
 nese type, and civilization among them is in a low state. 
 The French maintain garrisons, and have organized na- 
 tive defense forces. As before stated the lowest govern- 
 ment is, to the extent that it is a government at all, a
 
 195 
 
 cooperation, a social compact, tacit or expressed. In 
 any country where millions of people live together in 
 comparatively small areas, the feeling of social relation- 
 ship is very extensively developed. Simple though such 
 a society may seem to us because of our relatively more 
 complex organization, it is yet ages and ages on the way 
 of socialized effort. Such peoples must have common 
 Paths, Roads, Streets, Bridges, Markets, Rivers, Schools, 
 Public Grounds, various modes of mutual assistance, and 
 considerable paraphernalia for the maintainence of I.aw 
 and Order. In such countries, almost no statistics are 
 obtainable ; and yet many of the facts regarding their 
 socialization are clear. 
 
 TRINIDAD. 
 
 (west indies. BRITISH.) 
 AREA, 1,754 sq. mi. POPULATION, 200,028 in 1S91. 
 
 This interesting island lies a few miles off the northern 
 coast of South America. It is a British colony of pro- 
 gressive importance. In 1891 its home Militia consisted 
 of 600 men. There is a Colonial Bank with a note cir- 
 culation of ^^135, 000. The Postal Savings Bank at the 
 end of 1892 showed 7,784 depositors, and £106, "jGy de- 
 posited. The Government owns all the Railways, 543^ 
 mi. in 1892, the cost of which had been^6o2,638. The 
 receipts for that year were ^'54,841 ; expenses, }C;^G,642 ; 
 profits, ;^iS,i99. It had also an established Postal .Ser- 
 vice with 440 offices; and 137 j{ mi. of Telegraph line. 
 There were also 600 mi. of Telephone wire. 
 
 In 1892, 169 Primary Schools, with 18,247 pupils ; and 
 2 Colleges, with 224 students are reported. Various 
 other Schools also exist. The Government grant for 
 elementary PMucation was ;^25,372 in 1892. The Gov- 
 ernment owns a Pitch Lake which in 1892 produced a 
 revenue of ^37,346.
 
 196 
 
 It has the British colonial type of Government ; some 
 idea of the scope of which may be obtained from the 
 fact that in 1S93 the Police Force numbered 531. 
 
 TUNIS. 
 
 (frexxh.) 
 
 AREA, 45,000 sq. mi. POPULATION, 1,500,000 in 1891. 
 
 Tunis is related to France much as Algeria is. It is 
 less advanced socially. There were about 260 mi. of 
 Railway in 1892, all of which was State property. The 
 Postal Service then had 46 offices, which were also Tele- 
 graph offioes for the 2,000 mi. of State line. The report 
 for 1889 shows 67 Primary Schools, with 9,494 pupils. 
 The Government expense for Education in 1892 was 
 617,106 fr. 
 
 TURKEY. 
 
 AREA, 1,147,578 sq. mi. POPULATION, 27,694,600 in 18S5. 
 
 These figures include the territory in Europe and Asia. 
 Turkey, from a political point of view, is yet an absolute 
 despotism, restrained only by religious tenets and pow- 
 erful customs. The Sultan is the representative of the 
 Prophet, hence religion is a matter of State patronage. 
 Before 1S44 Mohammedans could not change faith with- 
 out being liable to capital punishment. Although Islam 
 generally prevails, yet other religions are tolerated 
 (though their safety has often been precarious, and is 
 even yet, as the Armenian atrocities of the present year 
 clearly show). 
 
 The regular Army in 1892 numbered i So, 000; the 
 Militia, 520,620; the Navy, 40,389. There were 2 Battle- 
 ships, 7 Port Defense Ships, 67 Cruisers, 31 Torpedo 
 Boats; in all, 107 War Vessels. In 1892 reports make 
 the State the sole owner of the 1,878 mi. of Railway (904 
 in Europe and 974 in Asia), with 286 mi. more then build-
 
 197 
 
 ing. Its Postal Service then included 1,150 offices; 20- 
 3>So mi. of Telegraph line, 31,700 mi. of wire, and 671 
 offices. Its receipts for the year 1S92 were 51,615,526 
 piastres; expenses for salaries, 17,669,044; profits, T,Sr 
 946,482 piastres, (i piastre equals 2.16 d. or about 4^ 
 cts.) Turkey has numerous towns and cities, and, like 
 all large nations, has a vast amount of State and muni- 
 cipal property in the form of Roads, Streets, Rivers, 
 Harbors, Bridges, Markets, &c. Irrigation by primitive 
 methods is carried on over extensive areas. In Palestine, 
 Syria and elsewhere it dates from very ancient times. 
 The Ministry of Public Works has lately (1894) deter- 
 mined on the reconstruction of the ancient water con- 
 duits about Jerusalem. These include the ancient " Sol- 
 omon's Pools," &c. 2,500 cu. meters daily is expected 
 to be the capacity. Of this, 1,000 cubic meters are to be 
 given free to the poor. The total expense will reach 
 2,000,000 fr. 
 
 In 1SS7 there were 6,639 Primary Schools, with 7,244 
 teachers and 130,000 pupils ; 21 Secondary Schools, with 
 2,431 pupils; 15 Colleges, with 2,347 pupils ; Law; Medi- 
 cal ; and Theological. Over 100 pupils are educated in 
 France, England, Austria, and Germany at Government 
 expense. This is a distinctly broadening tendency in 
 the direction of democracy. 
 
 U R A G U AY. 
 
 AREA, 72,110 sq. mi. POPULATION, 72^.447 in ^§92. 
 
 The Regular Army is very small, numbering only 
 3,650 ; the Militia, 3,264; and the Navy, 179, with 6 Port 
 Defense Ships and 3 Cruisers. 
 
 (The Railways are private, 980 mi. were constructed 
 and 140 more under construction.) The Postal Service 
 had in 1892, 474 offices ; the State owned 2,930 mi. of 
 Telegraph line. (974 mi. more were owned by railway
 
 198 
 
 companies.) Besides these must be mentioned Roads, 
 Streets, Bridges, Markets, &c. 
 
 In 1892 there were 491 Primary Schools, with 879 
 teachers and 45,953 pupils ; i University, with 74 instruc- 
 tors and 781 students; 2 Normal; i Industrial, with 163 
 students; i Military, with 8 instructors and 61 cadets; 
 besides many religious Seminaries. The cost to the 
 General Government for Education in 1892 was $658,276. 
 There is a National Library of 22,000 volumes and 2,500 
 manuscripts. There is also a National Museum and 
 various other means of information. The State Church 
 is Roman Catholic, but there exists complete toleration. 
 
 The Government is in the form of a republic. At its 
 head stands the President, Cabinet and Congress of 2 
 Houses: a Senate of 19 members (elected for 6 years), 
 House of 53 Representatives (elected for 3 years). These 
 are supported by a Police Force of 3,980, by various 
 Courts, Prisons, &c. 
 
 VENEZUELA. 
 
 AREA, 593,943 sq. mi. POPULATION, 2,323,527 in 1891. 
 
 Venezuela had a Regular Army of 7,280 in 1893; a 
 Militia of 60,000 ; and a Navy of 3 Cruisers and i Tor- 
 pedo Boat. It has nothing to offer in the way of exper- 
 ience in advanced social experiments. (Its Railways, 
 287 mi., are under private ownership.) The State man- 
 ages the Postal System, and had Telegraph lines to the 
 extent of 3,528 mi., with 102 offices in 1890. The Tele- 
 graph receipts for that year were 326,904 bolivares ; ex- 
 penses, 924,607 ; deficit, 597,703. (i bolivar equals about 
 20 cts.) 
 
 The meagre reports regarding Education showed in 
 1891, 1,566 Primary Schools; 24 Colleges; 4 Normal; 
 Law; Medical; Music; Technological; Industrial; 9 
 Military ; Nautical ; and a Government expense of $669,- 
 144 in 1890. The National Library contains 32,000
 
 199 
 
 volumes. There is a National Museum. The Roman 
 Catholic is the State Church. Others are tolerated, "if 
 silent." The Government is republican. The Congress 
 has a Senate of 24 members (elected for 4 years), and 
 a House of 52 Representatives (elected for 4 years). 
 Much other Law and Order machinery exists. 
 
 VICTORIA. 
 
 (aUSTR.\LIA. BRITISH.) 
 
 AREA, 87,884 sq. mi. POPULATION, 1,140,405 in 1891. 
 
 Victoria, is potentially one of the best countries on the 
 face of the globe. Its climate is as near perfect as man 
 could wish it. The average temperature is 47°, while the 
 coldest ever experienced was 32°. Moreover, the colo- 
 nists have taken advantage of their splendid opportunity 
 and are developing a social organization which is already 
 an example to many older countries. 
 
 DEFENSE. The Standing Armed Force in 1892 was 
 7,360 (of whom 379 were officers) and the Navy 237, 
 with about 7 Cruisers, &c. There was a Naval Reserve 
 of 379 men. 
 
 FINANCE AND LAND. The Coinage is in the 
 hands of the Royal Branch Mint, at Melbourne. There 
 were 370 Postal Savings Banks in 1892. The National 
 Debt in 1891 was ;^43,6io,265. It was incurred almost 
 entirely for Railways, Water-works, and School houses. 
 The State Land is of several sorts : Agricultural, 12,187,- 
 000 acres ; Pastural, 14,020,000 ; Forest, 4,680,000 acres ; 
 Gold-bearing, 1,049,000 acres; and Roads, 1,678,000; 
 total, 33,614,000 acres. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION. In public ownership of the means 
 of Distribution, Victoria is one of the leading countries 
 of the world. The Railways all belong to the State. It 
 began its ownership in 1854. In 1892 the State owned 
 2,903 mi., and on June 30th of that year the total cost 
 had been i^3 7, 085,309. The receipts for that year were
 
 200 
 
 ;^3, 095,122; expenses, £2,1^8,1^9; profits, ^956,983. 
 The net income is sufficient to pay a large part of the 
 Federal taxes. In 1890 the Victorian Railways carried 
 71,058,940 passengers, "Compared with the popula- 
 tion, scarcely any country in the world carries so many 
 passengers by rail as Victoria." The Telegraph lines 
 are also State property, and in 1892 extended over 7,100 
 mi., with 14,000 mi. of wire, and 810 offices. The receipts 
 for that year were ;^ 166,248. The Postal Service in 1892 
 had 1,766 offices. Its receipts were ;^336, 552. The 
 combined receipts of Telegraph and Post were ;^502,8oo ; 
 expenses, ;^756,i9o ; deficit, ;!{^252,39o. In the same year 
 there were 587^^^ miles of Telephone line, with 8,603 mi- 
 of wire, and 3,700 sets of instruments. To the State or 
 towns belong also the Roads, Streets, Bridges, Harbors, 
 Rivers, Wharves, Markets, and Express Service. In the 
 nine and one-half years ending with 1873, the State 
 spent for Public works, ;^2,22i,7i i. 
 
 EDUCATION. The culture of the people is being 
 rapidly provided for. In 1892 only 2^ % of the popu- 
 lation were illiterate. In the same year there were 2,140 
 Primary Schools, with 4,977 teachers and 248,725 pupils; 
 208 Secondary, with 705 teachers and 21,799 pupils; i 
 University; 3 Colleges; 36 Technological, with 196 in- 
 structors and 8,500 students; 15 Industrial; 2 Agricul- 
 tural ; Art ; Normal ; Law ; Medical ; Theological ; Blind ; 
 Deaf and Dumb. For Primary Education in 1S92 the 
 State expended ;^ 740,600. The other means of Public 
 Information at Public expense are numerous. Of Li- 
 braries alone in this small country there are 405 with a 
 total of 640,000 volumes. Add to these the various 
 Bureaus of Agriculture, Census, Geography, Ethnology, 
 Meteorology ; the Botanic and Zoological Gardens ; the 
 Expositions ; Fairs ; Museums ; Observatories ; Reading 
 Rooms, &c. 
 
 LAW AND ORDER. The Governor receives ap- 
 pointment by the British Crown. He is assisted by 10 
 Ministers, heads of departments. The Parliament has 2
 
 201 
 
 Houses : a Legislative Council of 48 members (elected 
 by the provinces for 6 years, Ys every 2 years), and Leg- 
 islative Assembly of 95 members (elected for 3 years). 
 There are 37 counties and 1S7 municipalities, all having 
 their own public institutions of various sorts. The 
 Courts include License, County, Petty Sessions, Mines, 
 Insolvency, and Supreme. Their judgments are carried 
 out by Police, and the various Prisons. 
 
 WEST AUSTRALIA. 
 
 (BRITISH.) 
 AREA, 975,920 sq. mi. POPULATION, 49,782 in 1891. 
 
 This is the newest of the Australian colonies. Scarce- 
 ly more than a generation ago this vast region was con- 
 sidered a hopeless wilderness. Numerous settlements 
 are now under way and an organized colony is instigat- 
 ing many measures of improvement. In 1892 there was 
 a Militia of 6 1 4 (31 of whom were officers), which cost in 
 that year ;^ 7. 4 1 7. The system of Postal Savings Banks 
 has been established, and at the end of 1891 there were 
 deposits amounting to ;!^44,767. In 1873, almost at the 
 beginning of the Colony, it undertook the ownership of 
 the Railways. In 1893 it owned and managed 309 mi., 
 and was then building 2 76 mi. more. (Private companies 
 owned 243 mi.) The 309 mi. then built had cost ^914,- 
 823 ; and in 1S92 had receipts of _;^94,2oi ; expenses, 
 jC9°,^54', profits, ^3,547- This young colony has started 
 in right in various other ways. It owns the Telegraph, 
 and in 1892 had 3,288 mi., with 4,013 mi. of wire and 47 
 offices. The receipts for that year were ;^i 4,997. It 
 was then building 375 mi. more of Telegraph. The 
 Postal Service in 1892 took in receipts of ;!^34,978. The 
 total receipts of Telegraph and Post were ;^49,975 ; ex- 
 penses, ^35,188 ; profits, ^14,787. It has had the warn- 
 ing of m.onopolies in Europe and America, and is getting 
 possession of the various chief means of Distribution.
 
 202 
 
 Of course, the greater part of the Land is still in the 
 hands of the people collectively. 
 
 Education is being organized, though the population 
 is scattered. There were 117 Primary Schools, with 179 
 teachers and 5,973 pupils in 1S92. For them the State 
 expended ;^ii,i53. The Law and Order phases of the 
 colony are on the usual British plan of an appointed 
 Governor with his Ministers (5), and a Home Parlia- 
 ment. The latter has 2 Houses: a Legislative Council 
 of 15 members (now named by the Governor but even- 
 tually to be elected), and an Assembly of 30 members 
 (elected for 4 years). West Australia became a respon- 
 sible government in 1890. It is now rapidly evolving a 
 complete social organism. It has its Courts of Justice, 
 Prisons, and the various Boards. Moreover it has begun 
 those enterprises of Relief and Charity which must in- 
 variably follow in the train of our unequal social devel- 
 opments. In 1891, in this new land where the effects of 
 greed ought to be entirely wanting, there were 2 Poor 
 Houses which together had 169 inmates. There were 4 
 Orphan Homes, 13 General Hospitals, and i Insane 
 Asylu.m, 
 
 WINDWARD ISLANDS. 
 
 (west indies. BRITISH.) 
 
 AREA, 133 (?) sq. mi. POPULATION, 55,333 in 1S92. 
 
 This term is rather vaguely used. The principal 
 islands of the group are Barbadoes, St. Vincent, Gre- 
 nada, The Grenadines, Tobago, and St. Lucia. The 
 group is named with reference to the trade-winds and 
 the Leeward Islands. They each have a local govern- 
 ment (except the Grenadines). Altogether, they form 
 part of a larger colony whose Governor-General resides 
 in Barbadoes. Some of them have local legislatures of 
 elected members. They have also the various legal ma- 
 chinery which belongs to this stage of development.
 
 203 
 
 There are towns and cities, with the innumerable social- 
 ized institutions necessary to municipalities. There is 
 public provision for Education, and numerous Public 
 Relief institutions. 
 
 ZANZIBAR AND PEMBA. 
 
 (east AFRICA. BRITISH.) 
 
 AREA, 0S5 sq. mi. POPULATION, about 200,000. 
 
 This was formerly a Portuguese colony. It is inhabit- 
 ed by the m.ost varied peoples, from Africa, India, Ara- 
 bia and Europe. It has been a trading post for slaves, 
 ivory and gold. Civilization has had no chance. Until 
 recently, this concentration of illegitimate commercial 
 interests has barbarized rather than civilized. Under 
 British influence, something like the organization of 
 these seemingly incommensurable elements is being 
 brought about. 
 
 ZULULAND. 
 
 (south-eastern AFRICA. BRITISH.) 
 
 AREA, 8,900 sq. mi. POPULATION, 160,700 in 1892. 
 
 The Zulus are one of the best strains of African blood. 
 They are among the most warlike people of the world. 
 Their last king, Cettiwayo, was able to raise an army of 
 300,000 warriors, from his own and dependent tribes. 
 He was conquered by the English general Wolseley in a 
 great war between 1S77 and 1S79. Since then, indepen- 
 dent chiefs have ruled the various tribes under English 
 advice and protection. The country as a whole is nomi- 
 nally annexed to Natal. There is one main Road run- 
 ning through the territory, with many branches. In 
 1892 the Government had an established Postal Service, 
 and 30 mi. of Telegraph line. There were iS native 
 Primary Schools, S Circuit Courts, 250 Police, and many 
 other socialized efforts.
 
 204 
 
 Existing Socialism. 
 
 A classified list of 337 SOCIALIZED BUSINESSES, 
 ENTERPRISES, and INSTITUTIONS, together with 
 225 Businesses, Enterprises, Institutions and Events, 
 controlled in some degree by Governments, making 562 
 types of human effort that the people (of various coun- 
 tries) have already reclaimed from absolute individual 
 management. 
 
 DEFENSE OF NATION. 
 
 Regular Army. 
 
 Militia. 
 
 Armories. 
 
 Armory Boards. 
 
 Forts. 
 
 Navy. 
 
 Battle Ships. 
 
 Port Defense Ships. 
 
 Cruisers. 
 
 Torpedo Boats. 
 
 Naval Reserve. 
 
 FINANCE. 
 
 Banks, National. 
 
 Banks, State. 
 
 Banks, Savings. 
 
 Banks, Savings, Postal. 
 
 Banks, Savings, School. 
 
 Coinage. 
 
 Customs Collecting. 
 
 Debt, National, State, &c. 
 
 Internal Revenue. 
 
 Land, State. 
 
 Lotteries. 
 
 Note Issue. 
 
 Office Buildings : — 
 
 National. 
 
 State. 
 
 Municipal, 
 State properties. 
 
 Loans. 
 
 Tax Collecting. 
 
 Treasury. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION. 
 
 Paths. 
 
 Roads. 
 
 Streets. 
 
 Street Railways by :- 
 
 Electric power. 
 
 Cable power. 
 
 Steam power. 
 
 Horse power. 
 
 Surface. 
 
 Elevated. 
 
 Underground. 
 Street Lighting by :- 
 
 Gas. 
 
 Electricity. 
 Stage Coaches. 
 Express Service. 
 Railways. 
 Rivers, Navigable. 
 River Improvement. 
 Canals, State. 
 Harbors. 
 Breakwater. 
 Wharves and Piers. 
 Ferries. 
 Tugs. 
 Ballast.
 
 205 
 
 Viaducts. 
 
 Bridges. 
 
 Bridge Engineers. 
 
 Surveyors. 
 
 Postal Service. 
 
 Postal Money Orders. 
 
 Postal Notes. 
 
 Telegraph Lines. 
 
 Cables. 
 
 Telephones. 
 
 Pneumatic Tubes. 
 
 Subways. 
 
 Cattle Yards. 
 
 Markets. 
 
 Hotels. 
 
 Restaurants. 
 
 Saloons. 
 
 Drug Stores. 
 
 Salt Selling, 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Agricultural Bureaus. 
 Archaeological Research. 
 Art Galleries. 
 Band Concerts. 
 Biological Research. 
 Books for Public Schools. 
 Botanic Gardens. 
 Celebrations and Parades. 
 Census Bureaus. 
 Churches, State. 
 Clocks, Town. 
 Coast Surveys. 
 Concert Halls and Casinos. 
 Educational Bureaus. 
 Engraving Bureaus. 
 Etonological Bureaus. 
 Exploring Expeditions. 
 E.xpositions and Fairs. 
 Geographical Surveys. 
 Geological Surveys. 
 Libraries. 
 
 Meteorlogical Bureaus. 
 Monuments and Statues. 
 Museums. 
 Nautical Almanac. 
 
 Newspapers. 
 Observatories. 
 Polar Expeditions. 
 Printing. 
 Reading Rooms. 
 Schools, State : — 
 
 Kindergartens. 
 
 Primary. 
 
 Secondary. 
 
 College. 
 
 University. 
 
 Normal. 
 
 Law. 
 
 Medical. 
 
 Dental. 
 
 Theological. 
 
 Art. 
 
 Music. 
 
 Domestic Economy. 
 
 Post and Telegraph. 
 
 Technological. 
 
 Forestry. 
 
 Mines. 
 
 Industrial. 
 
 Agricultural. 
 
 Veterinary. 
 
 Military. 
 
 Naval. 
 
 Nautical. 
 
 Nobility. 
 
 Blind. 
 
 Indian. 
 
 Deaf and Dumb. 
 
 Reformatory. 
 Technical and Mechanical Ex- 
 periment Bureaus. 
 Theatres. 
 
 Theological Research. 
 Zoological Gardens. 
 Zoological Research. 
 
 FOOD PRODUCTION. 
 
 Breweries. 
 
 Cooling Plants. 
 
 Cow Meadows. 
 
 Distilleries.
 
 206 
 
 Farming. 
 
 Fish Commissions. 
 
 Guano. 
 
 Irrigation. 
 
 Mineral Springs. 
 
 Salt Mines and Wells. 
 
 Salt Works. 
 
 Vineyards. 
 
 Wine Cellars. 
 
 MEANS PRODUCTION. 
 
 Alcohol. 
 
 Blast Furnaces. 
 
 Car Building. 
 
 Cats in Postal Service. 
 
 Cement Factories. 
 
 Cinchona Farms. 
 
 Clay Pits. 
 
 Coal Mines. 
 
 Cobalt Mines. 
 
 Copper Mines. 
 
 Dry Docks. 
 
 Engineering Department. 
 
 Foundries. 
 
 Gold Mines. 
 
 Gunpowder. 
 
 Iron Mines. 
 
 Lead Mines. 
 
 Lime Quarries. 
 
 Locomotive Works. 
 
 Matches. 
 
 Opium. 
 
 Pearl Fisheries. 
 
 Peat Beds. 
 
 Pitch Lake. 
 
 Porcelain Factories. 
 
 Quinine. 
 
 Quarries. 
 
 Rope Walks. 
 
 Saw Mills. 
 
 Ship Building. 
 
 Silk Culture. 
 
 Silver Mines. 
 
 Slate Mines. 
 
 Smelting Works. 
 
 Sulphate of Copper Mines. 
 
 Tapestry Factories. 
 Timber. 
 Ultramarine Works. 
 
 LAW AND ORDER. 
 
 Accounts Commissioners. 
 
 Advertising. 
 
 Allotments. 
 
 Ambassadors. 
 
 Apportioning Boards. 
 
 Appraising Commissioners. 
 
 Aqueduct Commissioners. 
 
 Arbitration Commissioners. 
 
 Assaying Commissioners. 
 
 Assessing Boards. 
 
 Attorneys, District. 
 
 Auditing, Boards. 
 
 Bankrupt Registry. 
 
 City Chamberlains. 
 
 Civil Registration. 
 
 Civil Service Boards. 
 
 Comptrollers. 
 
 Consuls. 
 
 Copyright Bureaus. 
 
 Coroners. 
 
 Corporation Counsels. 
 
 Courts of Justice : — 
 
 Civil. 
 
 Criminal. 
 
 Claims. 
 
 Police. 
 
 Oyer and Terminer. 
 
 General Sessions. 
 
 .Supreme and Cassation. 
 
 Superior. 
 
 Common Pleas. 
 
 Surrogate. 
 
 District. 
 
 Arbitration. 
 
 Military (Court Martial). 
 
 Commercial. 
 
 Ecclesiastical. 
 
 Mines. 
 
 Insolvency. 
 
 License. 
 Customs Collecting.
 
 207 
 
 Dock Board. 
 Elections Bureau. 
 Encumbrance Bureau. 
 Executive Departments : — 
 
 National. 
 
 Provincial. 
 
 Municipal. 
 Immigration Bureaus. 
 Inter-State Commerce Com- 
 missioners. 
 Jury Commissioners. 
 Juries, Grand. 
 Juries, Petit. 
 Labor Bureau. 
 Legislative Assemblies : — 
 
 National. 
 
 Provincial. 
 
 Municipal and Aldermanic. 
 Marriages. 
 Marshals, District. 
 Ministers, Foreign. 
 Municipal Examining Boards. 
 Park Commissioners. 
 Patent Oflfices. 
 Pilot Boards. 
 Police. 
 
 Port Wardens. 
 Pounds. 
 Prefects. 
 Prisons : — 
 
 Police Stations. 
 
 Jails. 
 
 Houses of Juvenile Correc- 
 tion. 
 
 Reformatories. 
 
 Penitentiaries. 
 
 Military. 
 Railroad Commissions. 
 Registrars of Deeds. 
 Revenue Cutters. 
 River Commissions. 
 Secret Service. 
 
 Sinking Fund Commissioners. 
 Subway Commissioners. 
 
 RELIEF AND CHARITIES. 
 Annuity Grants. 
 Charity Bureaus. 
 Dispensaries. 
 Homes for : — 
 
 Aged. 
 
 Orphans. 
 
 Idiots. 
 
 Sailors. 
 
 Soldiers. 
 Hospitals : — 
 
 General. 
 
 Epidemic. 
 
 Inebriate Asylums. 
 
 Infant. 
 
 Insane. 
 
 Lying In. 
 
 Marine. 
 
 Military. 
 
 Eye and Ear. 
 
 Orthopedic. 
 Houses of Refuge. 
 Implements Loaned. 
 Indian (or Aborigines) Depart- 
 ment. 
 Insurance : — 
 
 Accident. 
 
 Fire. 
 
 Storm or Marine. 
 
 Life. 
 
 Old Age. 
 
 Sickness. 
 
 Inundation. 
 Leper Farms or Villages. 
 Life Saving. 
 Light Houses. 
 Lodging Houses. 
 Nurseries. 
 Pawn Shops. 
 Pension Department. 
 Poor Houses. 
 Poor, Housing of. 
 School Meals. 
 Seed, Farm. 
 Signal Corps. 
 Tax Loans.
 
 208 
 
 Trust Offices. 
 Unemployed, Work for. 
 
 SANITATION and SAFETY. 
 Avalanche Protection. 
 Baths. 
 Cemeteries. 
 Dock Department. 
 Drinking Founts and Troughs. 
 Electric Lighting. 
 Fire Alarm Telegraph. 
 Fire Department. 
 Fisheries Commissioners. 
 Forestry. 
 Fountains. 
 
 Garbage and Refuse Gather- 
 ing. 
 Gas Ligliting. 
 
 Health Department. 
 Heating Plants. 
 Parks. 
 
 Physicians for the City. 
 Pilots Commissioners. 
 Play Grounds. 
 Quarantine. 
 Sanitaries. 
 Seats in Parks, 
 Sewerage and Drainage. 
 Slaughter Houses. 
 Street Cleaning. 
 Street Sprinkling. 
 Vaccination and Vaccine. 
 Wash Houses. 
 Watering Places. 
 Water Works. 
 
 Government Interference 
 
 In businesses, affairs or events v/hich it requires shall 
 be REGISTERED, LICENSED, INSPECTED, or 
 RESTRICTED. 
 
 Air Shafts. 
 
 Alkali Works. 
 
 Amusements. 
 
 Anchors. 
 
 Asphalt Factories. 
 
 Asylums. 
 
 Baby Farms. 
 
 Bakeries. 
 
 Banks. 
 
 Bankers. 
 
 Bicycles. 
 
 Bills of Sale. 
 
 Bird Stores. 
 
 Births. 
 
 Boarding Houses. 
 
 Bolts. 
 
 Boiler Inspection. 
 
 Breweries. 
 
 Blacking Factories. 
 
 Blacksmith Shops. 
 
 Boiler Factories. 
 
 Bone Yards. 
 
 Box Factories. 
 
 Bridges, Highway, 
 
 Bridges, Railway. 
 
 Brokers. 
 
 Buildings. 
 
 Burials. 
 
 Butcher Shops. 
 
 Cabmen. 
 
 Canal Boats. 
 
 Candy Factories. 
 
 Carpenter Shops. 
 
 Cattleyards. 
 
 Cats. 
 
 Cellars. 
 
 Cesspools. 
 
 Chains. 
 
 Chemical Works. 
 
 Cheese Factories. 
 
 Chimneys. 
 
 Cisternb.
 
 209 
 
 Cigar Factories. 
 
 Clothing Factories. 
 
 Clotiies Poles. 
 
 Clothes Cleaning. 
 
 Coal Yards. 
 
 Cold Storage. 
 
 Copyrights. 
 
 Coats of Arms. 
 
 Coffee. 
 
 Common Lodging Houses. 
 
 Cows. 
 
 Dairies. 
 
 Dams. 
 
 Dancing Rooms. 
 
 Dead Animals. 
 
 Deaths. 
 
 Deeds. 
 
 Dentists. 
 
 Distilleries. 
 
 Divorces. 
 
 Dogs. 
 
 Dog Carts. 
 
 Druggists. 
 
 Drug Mills. 
 
 Dumps for Garbage. 
 
 Dye Works 
 
 Dynamos. 
 
 Electors. 
 
 Elections. 
 
 Electric Works 
 
 Electric Lamps. 
 
 Elevators. 
 
 Elevator Factories. 
 
 Endowed Charities. 
 
 Endowed Schools. 
 
 Engineers. 
 
 Excavations. 
 
 Explosive Works. 
 
 Factories. 
 
 Fat Rendering. 
 
 Fences. 
 
 Ferries. 
 
 Fertilizers. 
 
 Fish Curing. 
 
 Fish Markets. 
 
 Fisheries. 
 
 Fire Escapes. 
 
 Foods. 
 
 Fowls. 
 
 Foundries. 
 
 Friendly Societies. 
 
 Fruit. 
 
 Fur Dressing. 
 
 Game Dealers. 
 
 Gaming Houses. 
 
 Gas Meters. 
 
 Gas Engines. . 
 
 Gas Works. 
 
 Gas Stoves. 
 
 Goats. 
 
 Grain. 
 
 Grease Works. 
 
 Grocery Stores. 
 
 Gun Barrels. 
 
 Gut Cleaning. 
 
 Hat Stores 
 
 Heating and Power Plants. 
 
 Hair Picking. 
 
 Hide Cellars. 
 
 Hide Cleaning. 
 
 Hospitals. 
 
 Hogs. 
 
 Hotels. 
 
 Hunting. 
 
 House Numbering. 
 
 Ice Factories. 
 
 Insurance. 
 
 Iron Works. 
 
 Jinrikichas. 
 
 Junk Dealers. 
 
 Kindling Wood Factories 
 
 Laundries. 
 
 Lawyers. 
 
 Leather Factories. 
 
 Lime-kilns. 
 
 Limited Companies. 
 
 Locomotives. 
 
 Lotteries. 
 
 Lodging Houses 
 
 Lumber. 
 
 Machine Shops, 
 
 Manure Vaults.
 
 210 
 
 Markets. 
 
 Matches. 
 
 Marriages. 
 
 Mattress Factories. 
 
 Meat. 
 
 Merchant Shipping. 
 
 Merchant Vessels. 
 
 Midwifery. 
 
 Mines. 
 
 Milk Stores. 
 
 Moulding Mills. 
 
 Music Halls. 
 
 Naturalization. 
 
 Newsboys. 
 
 Newspapers. 
 
 Notaries. 
 
 Offal Docks. 
 
 Offal Wagons. 
 
 Oil Works. 
 
 Omnibuses. 
 
 Oyster Saloons. 
 
 Passports. 
 
 Patents. 
 
 Patent Medicines. 
 
 Pawnbrokers. 
 
 Peddlers. 
 
 Periodicals. 
 
 Physicians. 
 
 Pharmacists. 
 
 Piano Factories. 
 
 Piano Playing. 
 
 Pickle Factories. 
 
 Pigeons. 
 
 Piers. 
 
 Places of Worship. 
 
 Planing Mills. 
 
 Plate Dealers. 
 
 Plays. 
 
 Playing Card Makers. 
 
 Ponds of Water. 
 
 Plumbing. 
 
 Print Works. 
 
 Printing Houses. 
 
 Privy Vaults. 
 
 Post Office Depredations. 
 
 Rabbits. 
 
 Rag Shops. 
 Railways. 
 Railway Depots. 
 Raw Cotton. 
 Real Estate Sales. 
 Restaurants. 
 Roof Tanks. 
 Rubber Goods Factories. 
 Saloons- 
 Sausage Works. 
 Saw Mills. 
 Schools. 
 
 Schools of Anatomy. 
 Seamen. 
 Sewer Pipes. 
 Second Hand Stores. 
 Ships. 
 Silk Works. 
 Skylights. 
 Slop Sinks. 
 Smelting Works. 
 Slaughter Houses. 
 Spice Mills. 
 Smoke Houses. 
 Stables. 
 Steamboats, 
 Steam Engines. 
 Street Railways, 
 Soap Factories. 
 Stone Yards. 
 Steam Heating Pipes. 
 Storage Warehouses. 
 Surgeons. 
 Tea. 
 
 Tenement Houses. 
 Theatres. 
 
 Theatre and Concert Licenses. 
 Tobacconists. 
 Trade Marks. 
 Tug Boats. 
 Urinals. 
 Vaccination. 
 
 Vivisection Laboratories. 
 Weights and Measures. 
 Wells.
 
 
 MAP OF THE WORLD 
 
 SHOWING IN RED THE COUNTRIES WHICH 
 OWN THEIR RAILROADS WHOLLY OR IN PART
 
 211 
 
 THE FOLLOWING 
 
 54 Governments own their Railroads, 
 
 WHOLLY OR IN PART: 
 (from the most recext reports.) 
 
 Name of 
 
 Date of first 
 
 Miles 
 
 Date of 
 
 Country. 
 
 Ownership. 
 
 Owned. 
 
 Report. 
 
 Algeria, 
 
 
 • 1,956 
 
 (1892) 
 
 Argentina, 
 
 (1862) 
 
 . i,8'7 
 
 (18 ) 
 
 Austria- Hungary, 
 
 (1840) 
 
 ■ 7,029 
 
 (1892) 
 
 Belgium, 
 
 i^^ZZ) 
 
 2,018 
 
 (1892) 
 
 Brazil, 
 
 
 1,568 
 
 (1893) 
 
 Bulgaria, 
 
 
 306 
 
 (1892) 
 
 Canada, 
 
 
 1,397 
 
 (1892) 
 
 Cape of Good Hope, 
 
 (1862) 
 
 2,252 
 
 (1892) 
 
 Ceylon, 
 
 
 230 
 
 (1892) 
 
 Chili, 
 
 (1865) 
 
 686 
 
 (1892) 
 
 Cochin China, 
 
 
 51 
 
 
 Colombia, 
 
 
 238 
 
 
 Congo Independent State, 
 
 
 25 
 
 (1893) 
 
 Denmark, 
 
 (IS80) 
 
 ' 992 
 
 (1892) 
 
 Dutch East Indies,* 
 
 
 S50 
 
 (1891) 
 
 Ecuador,* 
 
 
 63 
 
 (1891) 
 
 Egypt, 
 
 (.856) 
 
 1,225 
 
 (1892) 
 
 Finland, 
 
 
 • 1,176 
 
 (1891) 
 
 France, 
 
 
 3.643 
 
 (1892) 
 
 Germany, 
 
 (•843) 
 
 23.843 
 
 (.892) 
 
 Greece, 
 
 
 92 
 
 (1892) 
 
 Guiana, British, 
 
 
 23 
 
 (1893) 
 
 India, 
 
 (1852) 
 
 6,000 
 
 (1893) 
 
 Italy, 
 
 (i860) 
 
 8,047 
 
 (1889) 
 
 Jamaica,* 
 
 
 89 
 
 (1892) 
 
 Japan, 
 
 (I8S3) 
 
 551 
 
 (1892)
 
 212 
 
 Xame of 
 
 Date of first 
 
 Miles 
 
 Date of 
 
 Country. 
 
 Ownership. 
 
 Owned. 
 
 {eport. 
 
 Massowali, 
 
 
 . '7 
 
 
 Mauritius, 
 
 
 ■ 92 ( 
 
 1892) 
 
 Mozavibiqiie, 
 
 
 137 ( 
 
 1892) 
 
 Natal, 
 
 (i860) 
 
 399 ( 
 
 1892) 
 
 Netherlands, 
 
 
 986 ( 
 
 1892) 
 
 Newfoundland, 
 
 
 311 ( 
 
 1892) 
 
 New South Wales, 
 
 (1855) 
 
 2.351 ( 
 
 1893) 
 
 New Zealand, 
 
 (1863) 
 
 1,886 ( 
 
 1893) 
 
 Nicaragua, 
 
 
 9^ 
 
 
 Norway, 
 
 (1854) 
 
 929 ( 
 
 .1893) 
 
 Orange Free State, 
 
 
 120 
 
 ^1890) 
 
 Paraguay, (State owns 
 
 'j the Stock) 
 
 
 .1891) 
 
 Peru, 
 
 
 770 
 
 [1892) 
 
 Porto Rico,* 
 
 
 12 
 
 J892) 
 
 Portugal, 
 
 (1863) 
 
 505 < 
 
 I 891) 
 
 Queensland, 
 
 (1865) 
 
 2,353 < 
 
 ^1892) 
 
 Roumania, . 
 
 
 ^598 1 
 
 ^893) 
 
 Russia, 
 
 
 . 6,824 
 
 J891) 
 
 Salvador,* . . . 
 
 
 53 ( 
 
 J 892) 
 
 Santo Domingo,* . 
 
 
 72 ( 
 
 J 892) 
 
 Servia, 
 
 
 336 
 
 ^1892) 
 
 South African Republic, 
 
 
 200 
 
 ;i893) 
 
 South Australia, 
 
 (1856) 
 
 i,8io 
 
 ^1892) 
 
 Sweden, . , 
 
 
 . 1,770 
 
 1892) 
 
 Switzerland, (City Subi 
 
 irban Roads,) 
 
 
 
 Tasmania, 
 
 (1870) 
 
 475 ( 
 
 1892) 
 
 Trinidad, 
 
 
 54 ( 
 
 .1892) 
 
 Tunis, 
 
 
 260 
 
 ^1892) 
 
 Turkey,* 
 
 
 . 1,878 
 
 ^1892) 
 
 Victoria, 
 
 (1854) 
 
 • 2,903 
 
 [1892) 
 
 West Australia, 
 
 (1S73) 
 
 309 
 
 [1893) 
 
 *Note. In several cases the reports do not make it 
 clear whether the Government is the sole owner. In all 
 the cases marked with a star, the Government influence 
 predominates, and in many others not here mentioned, 
 the private lines receive Government support.
 
 213 
 
 The Governments are sole owners of all lines in those 
 countries printed in italics. In several countries in 
 Europe and Australasia the private lines have a very 
 small mileage. 
 
 This list covers the leading nations of the world, and 
 the United States "is not in it." We claim incompetency, 
 and yet we boast that "we are the greatest nation on 
 earth" that "wr are the people,'' that "we are the most 
 ingenious in mechanism, the most fertile in resource, 
 the most daring in method, and the most persistent in 
 action." And yet we can't run railroads ! We can't 
 prevent ourselves from being swindled out of untold 
 millions every year! Where is our greatness to thus 
 submit to all manner of imposition at far higher rates 
 than is paid in Europe, Asia, Africa, or Australia? 
 
 ONLY 
 
 Private or Company Railroads 
 
 IN THE EOLLOWING COUNTRIES :— 
 
 Barbadoes. Morocco. 
 
 Basutoland. Persia. 
 
 Bolivia. Siam. 
 
 Costa Rica. Spain. 
 
 Cuba. UNITED STATES. 
 
 Guatemala. United Kint^dom, 
 
 Hawaii. (Great I'.ritain.) 
 
 Honduras Republic. Venezuela. 
 
 Mexico. Zululand. 
 
 Montenegro. 
 
 No Railways Reported in 
 
 China. Corea. 
 
 Falkland Islands. F'iji. 
 
 Guiana, Dutch. Guiana, French. 
 
 Haiti. Windward Islands.
 
 214 
 
 THE FOLLOWING 
 
 68 Governments own their Telegraphs 
 
 (from the most recent reports.) 
 
 
 Mi. of Line. 
 
 Mi. of Wire. 
 
 Algeria, 
 
 4,310 
 
 10,000 
 
 Argentina, 
 
 11,250 
 
 
 Austria-Hungary, 
 
 31,862 
 
 89,244 
 
 Barbadoes, 
 
 
 
 Basutoland, 
 
 
 
 Belgium, 
 
 4,617 
 
 22,739 
 
 Bermudas, 
 
 32 
 
 
 Brazil, 
 
 8,620 
 
 
 Bulgaria, 
 
 4,710 
 
 8,484 
 
 Canada, 
 
 2,699 
 
 
 Cape of Good Hope, 
 
 5,482 
 
 
 Ceylon, 
 
 
 1,550 
 
 Chili, 
 
 8,000 
 
 
 China, 
 
 
 
 Cochin China,* 
 
 1,840 
 
 
 Colombia, 
 
 6,016 
 
 
 Congo Independent Sta 
 
 te,* 
 
 
 Corea,* . 
 
 
 
 Costa Rica, 
 
 630 
 
 
 Cuba,* . 
 
 
 
 Denmark, 
 
 2,816 
 
 
 Dutch East Indies, 
 
 4.247 
 
 
 Ecuador, 
 
 1,074 
 
 
 Egypt, . 
 
 1,922 
 
 
 Finland, 
 
 
 
 France, . 
 
 59,693 
 
 197,622 
 
 Germany, 
 
 73,197 
 
 259,628 
 
 Greece, 
 
 4.751 
 
 5.630 
 
 Guiana, British, 
 

 
 215 
 
 
 Mi. of Line. 
 
 Mi. of Wire. 
 
 India, 
 
 38,625 
 
 120,159 
 
 Italy, 
 
 22,014 
 
 69,428 
 
 Jamaica,* 
 
 695 
 
 
 Japan, 
 
 3,143 
 
 9,114 
 
 Massovvah, 
 
 382 
 
 
 Mauritius, 
 
 
 
 Mexico, 
 
 38,125 
 
 
 Montenegro,* 
 
 280 
 
 
 Mozambique,* 
 
 230 
 
 
 Natal, 
 
 
 
 Netherlands, 
 
 3.398 
 
 12,098 
 
 Newfoundland,* 
 
 944 
 
 
 New South Wales, 
 
 
 26,443 
 
 New Zealand, 
 
 5,479 
 
 13,459 
 
 Norway, 
 
 4,887 
 
 9,663 
 
 Orange Free State, 
 
 1,500 
 
 
 Paraguay, 
 
 
 210 
 
 Persia, 
 
 4,075 
 
 
 Peru, 
 
 1,080 
 
 
 Porto Rico, 
 
 470 
 
 
 Portugal, 
 
 3.985 
 
 8,839 
 
 Queensland, 
 
 9,996 
 
 I 7,646 
 
 Roumania, 
 
 3,524 
 
 8,000 
 
 Russia, 
 
 88,280 
 
 172,360 
 
 Salvador,* 
 
 1,467 
 
 2,421 
 
 Servia, 
 
 1,942 
 
 3.717 
 
 South African Republ 
 
 ic, 1,681 
 
 
 South Australia, 
 
 5,267 
 
 12,911 
 
 Spain,* . 
 
 15,988 
 
 35,094 
 
 Sweden,* 
 
 5.477 
 
 14,600 
 
 Switzerland, 
 
 4,515 
 
 I 1,990 
 
 Tasmania, 
 
 2,222 
 
 3,383 
 
 Trinidad, 
 
 137 
 
 
 Tunis, 
 
 2,000 
 
 
 Turkey,* 
 
 20,380 
 
 3' 700 
 
 United Kingdom, 
 
 34,056 
 
 209,046 
 
 (Great Britian and Irel 
 
 ind.) 

 
 216 
 
 
 Mi. of Line. 
 
 Mi. of Wire. 
 
 Uruguay, 
 
 2,930 
 
 
 Victoria, 
 
 7,100 
 
 14,000 
 
 West Australia, 
 
 3,288 
 
 4,013 
 
 Zululand, 
 
 30 
 
 
 *The reports are not clear as to the full extent of Gov- 
 ernment ownership and control. The number of miles 
 are not given in all reports. 
 
 Private or Company Telegraphs 
 
 Only exist in the following countries: 
 
 Bolivia. Cuba. 
 
 Cyprus. Hawaii. 
 
 Honduras Republic. UNITED STATES. 
 
 "A man is known by the company he keeps." How 
 about a nation ?
 
 217 
 
 STATE SAVINGS BANKS 
 
 Exist in the following; countries 
 
 Argentina. 
 
 Austria-Hungary. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 Canada. 
 
 Ceylon. 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 Finland. 
 
 France. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Hawaii. 
 
 India. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 Netherlands. 
 New South Wales. 
 New Zealand. 
 Norway. 
 Queensland, 
 South Australia. 
 Sweden. 
 Switzerland. 
 Trinidad. 
 United Kingdom. 
 Victoria. 
 West Australia.
 
 218 
 
 The following works have been found helpful, and will 
 be interesting to those seeking further information : 
 
 Statesman's Year-book, 1S94. 
 Halzell's Annual, 1S94. 
 Constitutional Year-book, 1S94. 
 Year-book of Australia, 1S93. 
 Mulhall's Dictionary of Statistics, 1892. 
 Canada Statistical Year-book, 1891. 
 Colonial Ofifice List for 1889 and 1893. 
 Poor's Manual of Railroads, 1893. 
 
 United States Special Consular Reports. Canals and Irriga- 
 tion. Vol. 5, 1891. 
 
 Whittaker's Almanack, 1894. 
 
 Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia, 1893. 
 
 Johnson's Universal Cyclopedia, new edition, 1894. 
 
 Encyclopedia Britannica, ninth edition. 
 
 Chambers' Cyclopedia, last edition. 
 
 Resume Statistique de 1' Empire du Japon, je annee- Tokio, 
 
 1893- 
 
 J. M. Vincent, State and Federal Government in Switzerland. 
 
 Almanac de Gotha, 1893. 
 
 Compendium of United States Census, 1893. 
 
 Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1893. 
 
 Official Catalogue of the Exhibition of the German Empire, 
 World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893. 
 
 The Manual of American Waterworks, edited by M. N. Baker, 
 for 1S91. 
 
 Atlantic, July, 1894. 
 
 Century, July, 1894. 
 
 Century, vol. xxxix (1889-90). 
 
 Review of Reviews, February, 1893, and August, 1S94. 
 
 New Review, July, 1894. 
 
 Scottish Review, vol. xx. 
 
 H. L. Loucks, Government Ownership of Railroads and Tele- 
 graphs, 1893. 
 
 H. L. Loucks. The New Monetary System, 1893. 
 
 H. M. Hyndman, Commercial Crisis of the Nineteench Cen- 
 tury, 1892. 
 
 Thomas Kirkup. A History of Socialism, 1S92.
 
 219 
 
 Wm. H. Dawson. German Socialism and Ferdinand Las- 
 salle, 1888. 
 
 Sidney Webb, Socialism in England, 1889. 
 
 A. H. D. Ackland and Benjamin Jones, Workingmen CoOpera- 
 tors, 1884. 
 
 William Morris, Socialism and Social Reform, 1892. 
 
 Echoes from the Sunset Club, 1891. 
 
 R. T. Ely, Socialism and Social Reform, 1894. 
 
 Thomas F. Gilroy, Wealth of New York, North American Re- 
 view, vol 157. 
 
 Moses King, Handbook of New York City, 2d edition, 1893. 
 
 E. S. Nadal, New Parks of the City of New York. Scribner's 
 Monthly, vol. xi. 
 
 Report of the Department of Public Works of New York City 
 for 1893. 
 
 Report of the Comptroller of the City of New York for 1892. 
 
 Report of the Board of Health of the City of New York for 1892. 
 
 Report of the Board of Education of New York City for 1893. 
 
 Report of the Supervisory Board of Commissioners of the New 
 York Municipal Civil Service for 1893.
 
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