THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA DAVIS STATE OF CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC W0RK8 PUBLICATIONS OF THE DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES EDWARD HYATT, State Engineer Reports on State Water Plan Prepared Pursuant to Chapter 832, Statutes of 1929 BULLETIN No. 28 ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER Below Confluence of Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers 1931 i0996 LIBRARY UNfVERSlTY OF CALIFORNIA DAVIS TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENT 6 ORGANIZATION 7 ENGINEERING ADVISORY COMMITTEE 8 CONCURRING STATEMENT OF ENGINEERING AD^aSORT COMMITTEE___ 9 DISSENTING STATEMENT OF C. E. GRUNSKY 10 STATEMENT IN REPLY TO DISSENTING STATEMENT OF C. E. GRUNSKY 12 FEDERAL AGENCIES COOPERATING IN INVESTIGATION 15 STATE AGENCIES COOPERATING IN INVESTIGATION 17 INDUSTRIAL ECONOMICS COMMITTEE 18 SPECIAL CONSULTANTS 18 CHAPTER S32, STATUTES OF 1929 19 FOREWORD 20 Chapter I INTRODUCTION, SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 21 Previous investigations 22 Scope of present investigation 24 Cooperative investigations 26 Results of investigation 27 Salinity conditions 27 Location and cost of barrier 30 Effect of a barrier on regimen of bay and rivers 31 Industrial development 31 Industrial water front structures 32 Fishing industry 33 Navigation 33 Municipal development 33 Sewage and industrial waste 34 Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta 34 Marshlands and uplands adjacent to Suisun and San Pablo bays 35 Salinity control and water supply and service for the upper bay and delta region 36 Conclusions 41 Chapter II LOCATION AND COST OF SALT WATER BARRIER 45 Location of barrier 45 Upper sites 45 Intermediate sites 45 Lower sites 46 Choice of site 46 Design features of barrier 47 Plans for Chipps Island site 48 Modification of designs and plans 49 Cost of barrier 50 Salt-clearing locks 52 Cost of salt-clearing locks 54 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter III Page DEVELOPMENTS AND ACTIVITIES IN UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY AND SACRAMENTO-SAN JOAQUIN DELTA REGION AFFECTED BY SALT WATER BARRIER 56 Manufacturing industries 56 Magnitude of present industrial development 56 Growth of industries 58 Industrial water supply 60 Present use and cost of industrial water supply 62 Future industrial water supply and service 64 Industrial waterfront structures 64 Infestation of marine borers 65 Life of piling 66 Capital cost of present timber pile structures 66 Annual cost of timber piling 68 Effect of a salt water barrier on industrial water front structures 69 Life of timber piling under fresh-water conditions 69 Estimated annual cost of timber piling under fresh-water conditions- 69 Indicated saving in cost of timber piling under fresh-water conditions 71 Fishing industry '72 Magnitude of fishing industry 73 Habits of fish 73 Effect of a salt water barrier on fishing industry 74 Navigation 74 Magnitude of water-borne commerce 74 Interest of federal government in navigation 76 Water-borne traffic ^ 76 Effect of salt water barrier on navigation 77 Municipal development 78 Population 78 Municipal water supply 79 Future water supply and service 83 Sewage and industrial waste 83 Present conditions and effects of pollution 83 Effect of salt water barrier on sewage and industrial waste disposal 84 Agricultural development 85 Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta 85 Lands and crops 85 Water supply and irrigation operations 86 Levees 86 Salinity conditions 87 Protection of delta from saline invasion 89 Effect of barrier on irrigation in delta -, 89 Effect of barrier on drainage operations in delta 90 Effect of barrier on levee maintenance 94 Benefits of protection from saline invasion 94 Suisun and San Pablo Bay marshlands 95 Natural conditions prior to reclamation 95 Reclamation development 96 Character of present development and operations 99 Present crops and vegetation 100 Soils 100 Alkali content of soils 103 Tolerance of crops to alkali 104 Possible future development of marshlands 105 Uplands adjacent to Suisun and San Pablo bays 108 Quality of lands 109 Present crops 111 Local water supplies and present extent of irrigation 111 Immediate water requirements 116 Future water supply and service 116 TABLE OF CONTENTS 3 Chapter IV Page ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS OF SALT WATER BARRIER 117 Ultimate water requirements and supply for upper San Francisco Bay and delta regions 118 Upper San Francisco Bay region^ 118 Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta 121 Control of salinity 122 Control of salinity with a salt water barrier 122 Barrier lake storage 122 Required control flow 126 Required control flow with salt-clearing locks 132 Control of salinity by stream flow without a barrier 135 Total water requirements for control of salinity 135 Stream flow available for salinity control 136 Supplemental water supply required for control of salinity 138 Value of supplemental water supply 143 Comparative merits of alternate methods for control of salinity 144 Water service for upper San Francisco Bay region 144 Cost of main water service conduits 146 Importation of water to San Joaquin Valley 147 Comparative merits of alternate plans of development, with and without a barrier 148 Required physical works for alternate plans of development 149 Comparative costs of alternate plans of development 150 Appendix A INDUSTRIAL SURVEY OF UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO A SALT WATER BARRIER BELOW CON- FLUENCE OF SACRAMENTO AND SAN JOAQUIN RIVERS 155 Appendix B FEASIBILITY AND SUITABILITY OP COMBINING A HIGHWAY CROSS- ING WITH A SALT WATER BARRIER BELOW CONFLUENCE OF SACRAMENTO AND SAN JOAQUIN RIVERS 22?, Appendix C EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO A SALT WATER BARRIER BELOW CONFLUENCE OF SACRAMENTO AND SAN JOAQUIN RIVERS 245 Appendix D GEOLOGY OF UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY REGION WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO A SALT WATER BARRIER BELOW CONFLUENCE OF SACRAMENTO AND SAN JOAQUIN RIVERS 309 Appendix E SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE DISPOSAL AND WATER REDEMP- TION WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO A SALT WATER BARRIER BELOW CONFLUENCE OF SACRAMENTO AND SAN JOAQUIN RIVERS 3 61 Appendix F THE FISHING INDUSTRY WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO A SALT WATER BARRIER BELOW CONFLUENCE OF SACRAMENTO AND SAN JOAQUIN RIVERS 435 PUBLICATIONS OF THE DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES 447 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1 Number and size of navigation locks 50 2 Capital cost of barrier 51 3 Annual cost of barrier 52 4 Additional capital and annual cost for salt-clearing locks 54 5 Magnitude of industrial development in upper San Francisco Bay region 57 6 Rate of growth of industrial development in upper San Francisco Bay region, 192 4-1929 58 7 Use and cost of industrial water in upper San Francisco Bay region 63 8 Life of timber piling in upper San Francisco Bay region under present average salinity conditions 66 9 Capital cost of present industrial water front structures on timber piles in upper San Francisco Bay region 67 10 Capital cost of present timber piling in upper San Francisco Bay region 67 11 Annual cost of present timber piling in upper San Francisco Bay region under present salinity conditions 68 12 Annual cost of present timber piling in upper San Francisco Bay region under fresh-water conditions 70 13 Comparison of capital and annual cost of timber piling in present water front structures of upper San Francisco Bay region with present salinity conditions and with fresh-water conditions 71 14 Commercial catch of fish in upper San Francisco Bay and Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta regions 73 15 Water-borne commerce in upper San Francisco Bay and Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers 75 16 Present water-borne traffic passing barrier sites 77 17 Annual loss to navigation interests due to lockage delays with a barrier 78 IS Population of municipalities in upper San Francisco Bay region 79 19 Developed resources, use and cost of public water supplies in upper San Francisco Bay region 82 20 Leveed and unleveed marshlands adjacent to Suisun and San Pablo bays 98 21 Present crops and natural vegetation on Suisun and San Pablo Bay marsh- lands 101 22 Classification of uplands adjacent to Suisun and San Pablo bays 110 23 Present crops in uplands adjacent to Suisun and San Pablo bays — 112 24 Usable storage capacity in barrier lake 125 25 Salt-water inflow and fresh-water outflow past a barrier by lockage opera- tions with standard locks 129 26 Required rate of flow during summer months for control of salinity with a barrier with standard locks 130 27 Required rate of flow during summer months for control of salinity with a barrier with salt-clearing locks 132 28 Monthly water requirements for control of salinity with and witliout a barrier 136 29 Stream flow into Suisun Bay during period 1920 to 1929 137 30 Supplemental water supply for control of salinity with and without a barrier 140 31 Difference in annual amount of supplemental water supply for control of salinity with and without a barrier ; 141 32 Indicated value of annual amount of supplemental water supply saved by controlling salinity with a barrier under future conditions 143 33 Capital cost of major physical works for alternate plans of development of upper San Francisco Bay region, with and without a barrier 151 34 Annual cost of alternate plans of development of upper San P^'ancisco Bay region, with and without a barrier 152 LIST OF PLATES Plate Page I Typical sites for salt water barrier Following 22 II Industrial and agricultural developments in upper San Francisco Bay and Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta regions related to a salt water bar- rier Following 56 III Tidal reference planes in San Francisco Bay and delta of Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers Following 90 IV Crops and vegetation on lands adjacent to Suisun and San Pablo bays Following 100 V Major units of State plan for development of water resources of Cali- fornia Following 118 VI "Water requirements for control of salinity with a barrier with salt-clearing locks 133 VII Relation of available water supply to water requirements for control of salinity, with and without a barrier 139 VIII Main water service conduits and reclamation works for ultimate develop- ment of upper San Francisco Bay area Following 146 ACKNOWLEDGMENT In the investigation of the economic aspects of a salt water barrier, valuable assistance and cooperation have been rendered by many indi- viduals and public and private agencies. Particular appreciation is due the executives and owners of the industries of the upper San Francisco Baj^ region, who furnished detailed data on their respective plants. Without this assistance it would have been impracticable to carry out the economic studies rela- tive to industrial development. Many individuals and public officials in the upper San Francisco Bay and Sacramento-San Joaquin delta regions also have furnished information on agricultural developments and operations which has been of great assistance in the economic studies as to the relation and effect of a barrier on the agricultural industry. Valuable cooperation has been rendered by several departments of the federal government. Many departments of the state have made studies and reports covering important phases of the investigation. Stanford University and the University of California have contributed materially to the investigation. Special commendation is due the members of the Engineering Advisory Committee whose advice and assistance have been invaluable. (6) ORGANIZATION Walter E. Garrison . . . . Director of Public Work^ Edward Hyatt - State Engineer This bulletin was prepared under the direction of A. D. Edmonston Deputy State Engineer By Raymond Matthew Hydraulic Engineer E. E. Blackie Principal Assistant Assistants J. A. Case E. L. Clark 0. H. CosHOW B. Harrison A. H. Hubbard J. T. Maguire E. N. Sawtelle Delineators R. R. Ege W. A. Laflin D. G. McBean F. H. Paget G. Stubblepield D. R. Warren L. R. Creek J. A. Parenti The field work in connection with the investigation of salinity was under the immediate direction of Harlowe Stafford Hydra u lie En gin eer M. H. Blote Principal Assistant J. J. Haley, Jr. Administrative Assistant (7 ) ENGINEERING ADVISORY COMMITTEE This investigation was outlined and the report prepared with the advice of and in consultation with the following- consulting engineers : G. A. Atherton G. A. Elliott B. A. Etcheverry C. E. Grunsky A. Kempkey C. T. Leeds C. D. Marx T. H. Means (8) CONCURRING STATEMENT OF ENGINEERING ADVISORY COMMITTEE The undersigned members of the Engineering- Advisory Commit- tee, -svho liave acted in an advisory capacity to the State Engineer throughout the progress of the investigation of the economic aspects of a salt water barrier, are in full accord with the procedure and methods of analysis and concur in the findings and conclusions of the investigation as presented in Bulletin No. 28. ^:>^A-^6 /?(^. c/c4ju/^^ 31iiiihcrs of Engineering Advisory Committee. November 21, 1931. (9) 10 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES DISSENTING STATEMENT OF C. E. GRUNSKY Although conversaut with the studies made by the State Engineer of the problems connected with a salt water barrier, I can not subscribe to the final conclusion that a salt water barrier "is not necessary or economically justified as a unit of the State Water Plan." The finality of this condemnation of the project does not seem warranted at this time. I am convinced that this project will come up again in the future with further discussion as to its merits and in particular with greater attention to the benefits which it would confer. In order that my attitude toward a state water policy be made clear I wish to have it understood that I regard the water of the country its greatest natural resource. It is a mistake to place the regulation of stream flow under private control for private benefit. All storage reservoir for the regulation of the flow and for the conserva- tion of waste water on international and interstate rivers as also some reservoirs on important navigable streams should be permanently under the control of the Federal Government. The comprehensive plan of regulating the flow and conserving the waste water of such streams should originate with the government. Rights to reservoir and dam sites necessary for such regulation should never be permanently alien- ated from public ownership. Likewise in the case of local waters, i. e., rivers within individual states, the plan of regulation should originate with the state and the control of all important reservoirs even when municipalities or districts or private parties have been per- mitted to construct the dams, should never be relinquished by the state. Holding this view I believe that the working out of a state plan for water conservation is timely, and nothing that I here say is to be considered as opposed to a state policy of flow control and stream reg- ulation by storage reservoirs. Referring now to this Bulletin No. 28, my convictions and opinions in the main can be summarized as follows : 1. The bulletin gives the impression of having been prepared as an argument against any salt water barrier. For example, the facts have not been presented which would permit a comparison of itemized benefits, conferred by such a barrier, with the cost of its construction and operation. 2. The type of barriers which have been brought under discussion in the report are impractical. Therefore the cost estimates based thereon should not be accepted as conclusive. There is in the files of the Department, submitted by me, a preliminary sketch of a barrier of a type which will not require a bed-rock foundation, which has automatic gates for the passage of flood waters, and which will require a minimum of attention and which, while serving as a barrier, could also serve as a support for a highway and a railroad.* * See Final Report Marine Piling Committee (Marine Borers and their Relation to Marine Construction on tlie Pacific Coast), pp. 43-47. ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 11 3. The cousideration of barrier locations anywhere except down- stream from San Pablo Bay was unnecessary because any barrier else- where located will raise the flood plane in the delta region of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers and for this reason alone should be condemned. 4. The quantity of water that would be required to operate a bar- rier is over-estimated in the report. This is due to the types of barrier and of navigation locks taken into account, and to other causes. 5. The computation of available storage space above the barrier is based on a fluctuation of only one foot in vertical elevation of the water surface. The permissible fluctuation should be taken at two feet or more. 6. The alternative water supply service proposed in the report for a portion of the area which would become riparian or which would be proximate to fresh Avater above a salt water barrier would involve a new state policy. The state should confine itself to wholesaling water and power developed at the works for stream regulation. The state should not go into retail business. For further information relating to my views, reference should be had to the comments on these and similar matters which I have submitted to the Department from time to time. <:> / i^ . ^^>'j^^tc.'^.^u- W 60 80 100 '=^ ^ ^. ^ ■'•vs;? ^ ■' - '^'"N "6 'K 7 , 1 Needle ^^ % ? jr"x / ^ ^' ® ^ JS o- o jy ^ , ^1 TYPICAL SITES ' ^ - -5 SALT WATER BARRIER 33 jl € Ol o»ac — p. 22 ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 23 invasions of saline water began to be of nnusual extent in 1918, and in 1920 saline water penetrated farther into the delta channels than at any previous time of authentic record. These conditions resulted in considerable apprehension and alarm on the part of the owners of lands in the delta as well as the industrial interests in the upper bay region, j-.nd culminated in the filing of the "Antioch" suit. This was filed by the City of Antioch. an appropriator from the San Joaquin River, against the upper irrigation users on the Sacramento River, and sought to enjoin their diversions and to restore natural stream flow conditions in the Sacramento River. Dui-ing tlie trial of the suit, the proposal of a salt water barrier as a constructive measure to take care of the salinity problem was broached. Recognizing the possible merit of a barrier, efforts were made following this latest proposal to carry out studies as to its feasibility. A preliminary study and report* were made by C. S. Jarvis, Captain, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A., in 1921. In 1923, A. Kempkey made a study and report** for the State Department of Public Works, of tentative designs and cost estimates for a barrier located at the upper end of Carquinez Strait. As a part of the investigations from 1920 to 1927 by the San Francisco Bay jMarine Piling Committee,*** C. E. Grunsky made preliminary studies and designs of a barrier in the "Narrows" below San Pablo Bay. As a result of these preliminary studies, a great deal of interest was aroused and concerted efforts were made on the part of those interested to have a thorough study of the proposed structure carried out. The upper irrigation interests, represented by the Sacramento Valley Development Association, and the delta interests, represented by the Delta Land Syndicate, requested the United States Bureau of Reclamation to make an investigation for the purpose of determining the feasibility, probable effectiveness and the approximate cost of a barrier. This investigation was finally carried out under a cooperative contract, drawn January 26, 1924, between the United States Bureau of Reclamation, the State Department of Public Works (Division of Engineering and Irrigation) and the Sacramento Valley Development Association. Funds were provided equally by the United States Bureau of Reclamation and the State of California, supplemented by private subscriptions from agricultural interests in the Sacramento Valley and the delta, and industrial interests of the upper bay region. Actual work was started in April, 1924, and actively prosecuted from that date until March, 1926. A report! covering the investigation was completed in June, 1928. and published in 1929. The investigation was directed chiefly to the physical aspects of a salt water barrier. Eleven sites were considered, of which three were selected for special investigation and study. These comprised Dillon Point and Army Point sites in Carquinez Strait and Point San Pablo ♦"Control of Flood and Tidal Flow in the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers, California," Transactions of the American Society of Civil Elngineers, Volume 84 (1921). ** "Proposals for Preventing Salt Water Encroachment by Dam Construction," Proceedings of Sacramento Paver Problems Conference, January, 1924. ***Final Report of San Francisco Bay Marine Piling Committee, "Marine Borers and Their Relation to Marine Construction on the Pacific Coast," 1927. tBulletin No. 22, "Report on Salt Water Barrier," by Walker R. Young. Engineer U. S. Bureau of Reclamation, (2 volumes). Division of Water Resources, 1929. ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 23 invasions of saline water began to be of unusual extent in 1918, and in 1920 saline water penetrated farther into the delta channels than at any previous time of authentic record. These conditions resulted in considerable apprehension and alarm on the part of the owners of lands in the delta as well as the industrial interests in the upper bay region, ;nd culminated in the filing of the "Antioch" suit. This was filed by the City of Antioch, an appropriator from the San Joaquin River, against the upper irrigation users on the Sacramento River, and sought to enjoin their diversions and to restore natural stream flow conditions in the Sacramento River. During the trial of the suit, the proposal of a salt water barrier as a constructive measure to take care of the salinity problem was broached. Recognizing the possible merit of a barrier, efforts were made following this latest proposal to carry out studies as to its feasibility. A preliminary study and report* were made by C. S. Jarvis, Captain, Corps of Engineers" U. S. A., in 1921. In 1923, A. Kempkey made a study and report** for the State Department of Public Works, of tentative designs and cost estimates for a barrier located at the upper end of Carquinez Strait. As a part of the investigations from 1920 to 1927 by the San Francisco Bay Marine Piling Committee,*** C. E. Grunsky made preliminary studies and designs of a barrier in the "Narrows" below San Pablo Bay. As a result of these preliminary studies, a great deal of interest was aroused and concerted efforts were made on the part of those interested to have a thorough study of the proposed structure carried out. The upper irrigation interests, represented by the Sacramento Valley Development Association, and the delta interests, represented by the Delta Land Syndicate, requested the United States Bureau of Reclamation to make an investigation for the purpose of determining the feasibility, probable effectiveness and the approximate cost of a barrier. This investigation was finally carried out under a cooperative contract, drawn January 26, 1924, between the United States Bureau of Reclamation, the State Department of Public Works (Division of Engineering and Irrigation) and the Sacramento Valley Development Association. Funds were provided equally by the United States Bureau of Reclamation and the State of California, supplemented by private subscriptions from agricultural interests in the Sacramento Valley and the delta, and industrial interests of the upper bay region. Actual work Avas started in April, 1924, and actively prosecuted from that date until March, 1926. A report! covering the investigation was completed in June, 1928, and published in 1929. The investigation was directed chiefly to the physical aspects of a salt water barrier. Eleven sites were considered, of which three were selected for special investigation and study. These comprised Dillon Point and Army Point sites in Carquinez Strait and Point San Pablo ♦"Control of Flood and Tidal Flow in the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers, California," Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Volume 84 (1921). ** "Proposals for Preventing Salt Water Encroachment by Dam Construction," Proceedings of Sacramento River Problems Conference, January, 1924. ***Final Report of San Francisco Bay Marine Piling Committee, "Marine Borers and Their Relation to Marine Construction on the Pacific Coast," 1927. tBulletin Xo. 22, "Report on Salt Water Barrier," by Walker R. Young, Engineer U. S. Bureau of Reclamation, (2 volumes). Division of Water Resources, 1929. 24 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES site at the upper end of the "Narrows" below San Pablo Bay. Field work consisted of detailed surveys of sites together with rather exten- sive diamond-drill borings to determine the character of the founda- tions at three typical sites. In addition to the surveys and drilling explorations, preliminary geological studies were made at each of the sites. Studies were made of tides, floods, navigation, storage, salinity, silt, and water requirements for operation of a barrier. The report presents nineteen alternate plans and cost estimates, covering various modifications of design for the three sites and for a fourth site at Benicia not explored in detail. The estimates of cost range from $38,900,000 to $97,100,000, not including interest during construction. The important conclusion of the investigation was that a salt water barrier would be physically feasible of construction at any of the sites investigated. No studies were made of the economic aspects of a barrier other than to point out some of the indicated advantages and disadvantages. However, the recommendation was made that an economic study would be necessary to determine whether the benefits to be derived from con- struction of a barrier would be commensurate with its cost. Scope of Present Investigation. The present investigation of a salt w'ater liarrier has been directed chiefly to a study of its economic aspects. This has involved a survey and study of the upper bay and delta regions, with particular reference to manufacturing industries, industrial water front structures, irriga- tion, reclamation, flood control, navigation, fishing, municipalities, sew- age and industrial waste disposal, and the effect of a barrier thereon. Estimates have been made of immediate' future and ultimate water requirements for all purposes. An essential feature of the investiga- tion has been a study of alternate plans, with and without a barrier, to provide the basic requirements of salinity control and dependable fresh-water supplies for the upper bay and delta regions. The purpose of this study has been to determine, if possible, the most practicable and economical means of supplying present and ultimate water demands and facilitating the development of industries, municipalities and agriculture in the area. Finally, consideration has been given to the necessity and economic justification of a barrier, not only as a means for serving the needs of the upper bay and delta regions but also as a unit for attaining the maximum conservation and utilization of the state's water resources. . Additional studies have been made of the physical aspects of a barrier to ascertain more completely some of the more important physi- cal elements affecting its cost and operation. The preliminary plans and cost estimates for a barrier, as presented in Bulletin No. 22, have been reviewed. A similar preliminary plan and cost estimate for a barrier at an upper site at Chipps Island have been prepared in order to carry out economic studies for a barrier at a typical upstream loca- tion for comparison with lower sites. A complete geological investi- gation has been made of the entire area in which the barrier sites are situated. Additional studies of tidal action, movement of silt and water-borne debris, floods and navigation have been carried out. Detailed studies and estimates have been made of the loss of water bv ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 25 evaporation and transpiration from a liarrier lake and the water requirements for operatinu' a barrier, leading to estimates of its con- servation efficiency. Work was started in the summer of 1929 with the initiation of an intensive studv of the variation and control of salinity in the upper bay and delta/ The results of the salinity investigation, based upon an exhaustive analysis of the records of salinity obtained during the period of the last ten years, are presented in a separate report.* Esti- mates have been made^ of the amount of stream flow required for con- trolling invasion of salinity at various points in the upper bay and delta region and for various degrees of salinity control, and the amounts of supplementary water supply required in addition to present stream flow to eft'ect the desired degree of control. For the purpose of obtaining the basic data required for carrying out the economic studies, a series of seven questionnaires were prepared and used, covering the following: Industries, industrial water front structures, public water supplies, irrigation and reclamation develop- ment in the delta, irrigation and reclamation development in the Suisun and San Pablo Bay region, sewage and industrial waste disposal and fishing industry. The industrial survey embraced the area from Antioch and Isleton on the east to Richmond on the south on both sides of the bay, involving a total of 114 separate industries. The questionnaire consisted of 26 pages and covered information for each industry on products, date of location, reasons for and advantages and disadvantages of location, sources of raw materials, markets, power and fuel used, period of con- tinuous operation, transportation facilities, labor, water supplj^ (con- sumption and cost), sewage and industrial waste disposal, reclamation works, statistical information on capital investment, assessed valuation, cost of raw material, gross value of sales, number of employees, payroll, and questions covering the economic advantages and disadvantages of a barrier. Representatives of each industry were personally inter- viewed. The survey extended over a period of about six months. The results of the compilation and analysis of these data supplied an essential part of the basic information for the study of industrial development made by the special industrial economics committee, whose report is presented as Appendix A. Industrial water front structures on both sides of the bay from the lower end of the delta to Point Richmond were examined. Data were obtained as to type of structure, character of construction, type of piling, and capital and annual costs. Information also was obtained on the effect of marine borers, including the additional capital and annual costs necessitated by reason of their attacks. The survey included the examination and gathering of detailed information on 256 structures. Public water suppl.v systems serving towns and industries in the area from Antioeh to Richmond were surveyed, including a total of 22 separate systems. Data were obtained on sources and consumption of water, character and costs of plant and equipment, co.st of water, and statistical data covering the growtli of eadi system. * Bulletin No. 27, "Variation and Control of Salinity in Sacianieiito-San .Ii>a- quin Delta and Upper San Francisco Bay," Division of Water Resources, 1931. 26 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES A comprehensive study was made of irrigation and reclamation developments in the delta and the marshland and upland areas adja- cent to Suisun and San Pahlo bays. This study embraced an area of about 850,000 acres, of which about 500,000 acres lie in the delta and the balance in marshlands and uplands adjacent to Suisun and San Pablo bays. Field surveys were made and questionnaires used to obtain data on crops, soil, irrigation and reclamation works, extent of irrisfation, water requirements, irrigation and drainage costs and data relating to the effect of a barrier on irrigation and reclamation M'Orks and operations. An important feature of the investigation has been a study of the consumption of water by evaporation and transpiration from a bar- rier lake and the amount of water required for barrier operation. Estimates of transpiration from vegetation are based partly upon measurements carried out cooperatively with the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture during the last six years, and partly upon special studies presented in Appendix C. Estimates of evaporation are based upon a special study, presented in Appendix C, of all available evapora- tion and meteorological records including special measurements taken during the investigation. The water requirements for barrier opera- tion are based in part upon estimates submitted by the United States Army Engineers. Cooperative Investigations. The report of the State Division of Highways (Appendix B) presents the results of a study of present and future traffic require- ments, present and proposed bridge facilities and the relation thereof to traffic requirements, and the necessity, desirability and feasibility of the use of a barrier at any of the proposed sites as a highway crossing for both present and future needs. The special investigation and study made by the Bureau of Sani- tary Engineering of the State Department of Public Health, pre- sented in Appendix E, has included detailed field surveys of sources and character of pollution, effect of present pollution on quality of water and an anal3^sis of the effect of present and future estimated pollution on the ciuality and redeemability of water in a lake created by a barrier, together with a consideration of treatment and disposal works necessary to take care of sewage and industrial waste in order to protect the quality of the water and make it redeemable for all purposes. The report of the State Pish and Game Commission in Appendix P presents data and statistics on the commercial fishing industry in the upper bay and river channels, information on the habits of the more important commercial fish and studies of the possible effect of a barrier upon fish life and the fishing industry. The investigation by the United States Army Engineers of a salt water barrier has included studies of the barrier plans, with particular regard to navigation and flood control features, and studies relating to the effect of a barrier upon navigation, silt and water-borne debris, flood control and tidal action. This has involved extensive field work, with complete new hydrographic and aerial photographic surveys of Suisun and San Pablo bays, measurements of tidal currents, tidal flows, movement of both suspended and bed-load silt, installation and operation ECONOMIC ASPECTS OP A SALT WATER BARRIER 27 of automatic tide gages, special evaporation and meteorological measure- ments, detailed counts of water-borne traffic, and determination of vol- ume, source and destination of water-borne commerce. Special studies also have been made to obtain data for estimating the amount of water required to operate a barrier, especially in connection with lockage of vessels through locks of the usual or standard type. This has involved a program of laboratory experiments with models. From these experi- ments, data have been obtained on the action and effect of salt water entering a barrier lake throush standard locks and the amount of fresh water required to flush out the accumulations of salt water in order to prevent the lake from becoming harmfully polluted thereby. Data from these studies have been made available and used in this report. Results of Investigation. The results of the investigation are briefly summarized in the fol- lowing portion of Chapter I. The detailed presentation and studies are contained in the folloAving chapters and appendixes. Salinity Conditions* — The waters of San Francisco Bay are a combination of the salt water of the ocean, which enters the bay through the Golden Gate, and the fresh waters of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers and local streams of the San Francisco Bay region, which discharge into the bay. The salinity of the water resulting from this combination is extremely variable both geographically and during different periods of the year and depends upon the amount of fresh water discharged into the bay by the streams. In general, the more saline waters are found in the lower bay nearest the ocean, the fresher waters in the upper bays and tidal estuaries and channels through which the fresh water enters the bay, while in between are found gradations of salt to fresh water. The flow of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers, which dis- charge their waters through the network of channels in the delta, con- verging into a common mouth at the upper end of Suisun Bay (See Plate I), has the most profound effect on salinity of the water in Suisun and San Palilo bays and the delta channels. These two great- river systems carry the run-off from 32,000 ^ square miles of mountain and foothill land or 39 per cent of the entire mountain and foothill catchment area of the state. The combined discharge of these streams into the delta for the period 1S71 to 1929 has ranged from about 6.000.000 acre-feet to about 80,000,000 acre-feet, with an average of about 31,000,000 acre-feet per season. Eighty per cent or more of the total flow in any season is usually discharged during the six months of January to June, inclusive. The period of the remaining six months is usually one of low stream flow, with the minimum rate of flow during the season usually occurring in midsummer. The channels of the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta form a part of the tidal basin of San Francisco Bay. The regimen of these chan- nels is affected by tidal action, the extent and magnitude of which is dependent at any particular time upon the amount of stream flow * The detailed records and studies of salinity conditions are presented in Bulletin No. 27, "Variation and Control of Salinity in Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta and Upper San Francisco Bay." Pivision of Water Resources, 1931. ' Does not include Kings River. 28 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES (lischarjriiii:- tliroiiyh the channels into the bay. During summer periods of low stream tiow the effec-t of tidal action in these channels is a inaximuin and is characterized by the rise and fall and flood and ebl) of the channel waters. As stream flow increases with the winter season and floods occur, these tidal efi'ects are diminished and often eliminated from all or a large portion of the delta channels ; and during extreme floods the effect of tidal action is diminished over a large portion ot the upper bay. The pulsating action of the ocean tides, which accompanies the tidal flow into and out of the tidal basin of San Francisco Bay, exerts a positive force, tending to push upstream the more saline waters from the lower bay and mix them with the fresher waters of the upper bay. with a resulting upstream advance of salinity. Opposed to this action, stream flow resists this upstream advance of salinity and tends to push the fresher waters downstream. The relative magnitude of the oppos- ing forces exerted by tidal action and stream flow controls the advance and retreat of salinity in the upper portions of the tidal basin through which the streams discharge. The force exerted by tidal action toward advancing salinity upstream is measured by the total amount of tidal flow into and out of the basin. Since the amount of tidal flow passing any section in a basin decreases the farther the section lies upstream and the smaller the tidal volume becomes in the basin above the section, the force exerted by tidal action in advancing salinity decreases progressively for farther upstream sections. The salinity at any point in the tidal basin is constantly changing with the rise and fall of the tide. Wide variations occur during a tidal cycle, amounting to as much as 200 per cent above and 80 per cent below a mean value for the tidal cycle. The maximum salinity during a tidal cycle occurs at the time of slack water following high high tide and the minimum at the time of slack water following low low tide. The salinity at any time during a tidal cycle is directly related to the height of the tide above lower low water, increasing in direct proportion to the height of the tide above its lower low stage. Salinity increases only slightly with depth. The maximum varia- tion of mean salinity during a tidal cycle from surface to bottom for water with an average salinity about half that of ocean water was fountl to be 0.3 per cent increase per foot of depth. The amount of increase is gradually less as the water becomes either more fresh or more salty. There is little lateral variation in the salinity of water as found in the channels of the delta. The waters in an entire channel section are quite uniform in saline content at any particular time, except for a tendency toward some increase in salinity at greater depths. There is no evidence of high concentrations of salt water creeping along either the bottom or sides of any channel. The salinity conditions in the upper bay and delta regions during any season are characterized by marked cyclic variations which result directly from the variations in stream flow entering the basin. As the stream flow gradually decreases with the approach of summer, the salinity gradually advances upstream until the maximum extent of advance and degree of salinity at any point is reached in late summer, some time after the minimum stream flow for the season occurs. The salinitv starts to retreat as soon as the stream flow has increased suffi- ECONOMIC ASPECTS OP" A SALT WATER BARRIER 29 cieutly above its ininiimim summer flow and continues as the stream flow gradually increases v.ith the coming of winter until it reaches a point of maximum retreat at the time of maximum flood flows during the winter season. The invasion of saline water from the lower bay into the upper bay as far as the lower end of the delta is a natural phenomenon which has occurred each year at least as far back as historical records reveal. Under conditions of natural stream flow before upstream irrigation and storage developments occurred, the extent of saline invasion and the degree of salinity reached in the lower delta and upper Suisun Bay usually was smaller than during the last ten to fifteen years. However, the evidence of all information available, including the records of barge travel of the California-Hawaiian Sugar Company back to 1908, the testimony of the early inhabitants of the upper Suisun Bay and lower delta section and other historical information, miscellaneous records of salinity observations made prior to 1920, and the analyses of the present investigation of estimated salinity for conditions of natural stream flow, all point to the conclusion that saline water from the liay has advanced as far upstream as the vicinity of Collinsville and Antioch causing a noticeable degree of salinity of ten parts or more of chlorine per 100,000 parts of water at some time every year during the period of low stream flow. The extent of saline invasion and the degree of salinity reached at any point vary widely from year to year as a direct result of the wide variations in the total amount and distribution of seasonal stream flow entering the delta and upper bay. The extent of advance and retreat of salinity are related approximately to the total seasonal stream flow into the delta, the records indicating that the drier the season and the smaller the total amount of stream flow entering the delta, the greater will be the advance and the smaller the retreat of salinity. The advance of salinity is related more closely to the total amount of summer stream flow into the delta. Records show that the smaller the total amount of stream flow into the delta during the summer period of June 15 to September 1. the farther upstream will be the advance of salinity and the greater will be the degree of salinity reached at any point in the upper bay and delta channels. The actual occurrence of advance or retreat of salinity at any point or channel section in the upper bay or delta regions is dependent upon the rate of stream flow passing the section and the degree of salinity present in the water at the particular point at an.y time. For any particular degree of salinity at any particular point or channel section there is a rate of stream flow which will equalize the action of the tides and prevent the advance of salinity. If the rate of flow at any time is less than that required to prevent the advance of the particular degree of salinity, the salinity will tend to advance to points farther upstream and to increase to greater degrees at the particular point or channel section. If, on the other hand, the rate of flow is greater than that preventing advance, the salinity will tend to retreat to points downstream and to decrease to smaller degrees at the particular point or channel section. At any particular section, the rate of stream flow required to prevent the advance of salinity increases as the degree of salinity at the particular point or channel section decreases. For any 30 DIMSION OF WATER RESOURCES particular degree of .salinity the rate of flow required to prevent the advance of salinity becomes smaller the farther upstream the point or channel section. During certain years since 1917, the invasion of saline water into the channels of the upper bay and delta has occurred in greater degree and extent than ever before as far as known. The extent of invasion was particularly notable in 1920, 1924 and 1926, and resulted for the most part from subnormal precipitation and stream flow in the seasons immediately preceding the summer of these years, augmented to some extent by increased upstream diversions. At the time of maxi- mum invasion of salinity during the 1924 season, the water in the channels of about one-half of the delta had a salinity of 100 parts or more of chlorine per 100,000 parts of water or a greater salinity than has been assumed generally to be the limit of suitability for irrigation of most crops. In 1920 and 1926, about one-fifth of the delta was simi- larly affected. The invasions of salinity into the delta that have occurred up to 1930 have had no apparent adverse effect on the quality of land in the delta. It is possible that the invasion, especially in 1924, resulted in some decrease in crop yields on account of the necessity of discontinuing irrigation, but no definite information is available as to any losses in crops or yields. However, a longer period and greater extent of saline invasion than has occurred up to 1930 might result in loss of crops and damage to lands. The menace of saline invasion into the delta has tended to lower the market value of the delta lands. The greater degree and period of saline invasion during recent years has also substantially reduced the amount of fresh-water supplies which the industries, especially in the Antioch-Pittsburg area, could obtain from the lower river and upper Suisun Bay channels. The limitation in this source of supply for these industries has made it necessary for them to seek other sources for their fresh-water needs, entailing addi- tional capital expenditures and more expensive supplies than those obtained in the lower river and upper bay channels. The prevention of the invasion of salinity into the upper bay and delta channels, in order to insure a dependable source of fresh-water supply from the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers for the delta and for the use of industries, municipalities and agricultural lands in the upper bay region may be accomplished by either of two methods: namety, by means of a physical barrier at some feasible point below the confluence of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers, supple- mented by release of necessary water supplies from mountain storage reservoirs; or, without the use of a physical barrier, by means of release of fresh-water supplies from mountain storage reservoirs suffi- cient in amount to supplement the stream flow available, thus prevent- ing the invasion of saline water into the delta. The comparative merits and costs of the two alternate methods of controlling salinity and of alternate plans of development, with and without a barrier, to serve the needs of the delta and upper bay region are an essential part of the economic studies presented in this report. Location and Cost of Barriet . — For the purposes of this economic study, three typical sites have been considered representative of an upper, intermediate and lower location. These comprise the Chipps Island, Dillon Point and Point San Pablo sites, respectively, as shown on ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT \VATK1; HARRIER 31 Plate I. The capital and anniuil eosts t'oi- n barrier at each of these sites are estimated as follows : Cost (if Still Willi r llitrricr Capital cost Annual cost Chipps Island Site $40,000,000 $3,300,000 Dillon Point Site 50,000,000 3,900,000 Point San Pablo Site 75,000,000 5,600,000 These estimates are based upon the provision of the usual or standard type of navigation locks, the operation of which would allow salt water to enter and pollute a barrier lake. If a barrier were con- structed, the locks should be designed to prevent such pollution. Salt- clearing locks could be provided at estimated additional capital and annual eosts as follows : Additional Cost of Salt-Clearing Locks Capital cost ' Annual cost Chipps Island Site $3,500,000 $300,000 Dillon Point Site 4,000,000 360,000 Point San Pablo Site 7,000,000 660,000 Effect of a Barrier on Regimen of Bnij ana Rivers. — The studies of the present investigation on the effect of a barrier on the regimen of the bay and rivers, including floods, movement of silt and water-borne debris and tidal action, have been made by the United States Army Engineers. The final results of their field investigations and office studies are not as yet available for presentation in this report. Preliminary considera- tions indicate that flood gates could be provided in a barrier which would have sufficient capacity to pass the largest floods without appre- ciably raising the flood plane levels in the lower river channels of the delta above those which may be expected to occur without a barrier. The flood gates provided in the plans upon which the cost estimates are based are deemed to be sufficient for this purpose. Preliminary studies submitted by the United States Army Engi- neers indicate that a barrier at Point San Pablo site would so greatly reduce the tidal flow through the Golden Gate into and out of San Francisco Bay that it would seriously affect the maintenance of the navigation channels across the bar outside the Golden Gate. This barrier would also have some detrimental effect on the maintenance of channels in San Francisco Baj' below Point San Pablo site. A barrier located at either Dillon Point site or Chipps Island site would have a much smaller eft'ect upon the tidal flow into and out of San Francisco Bay, and would probably not materially increase the problems and difficulties of navigation channel maintenance on the Golden Gate bar. However, it appears probable that a barrier at either of these two latter sites would have a detrimental effect on the channels in San Pablo and Suisun bays below either site, and increase the cost of channel main- tenance. The elimination of tidal action would have some adverse effect upon navigation channels in San Pablo and Suisun bays and the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers above a barrier, especially with the lower site, but the effect probably would not be serious. Industrial Development. — The present industrial development in the upper San Francisco Bay region from Antioch to Richmond is an 3—80996 32 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES important part of the industrial structure of the San Francisco Bay territory and California. In 1929, the capital investment was about $115,000,000, the annual pay roll about $27,000,000 and the gross annual value of products about $300,000,000. In the Suisun Bay area above Dillon Point, in 1929, the capital investment was about $43,000,000, annual pay roll about $13,000,000 and the gross annual value of prod- ucts about $112,000,000. The region is an attractive one for indus- tries, as evidenced by the rate of growth during the five years preced- ing ,1929 when the value of products increased at a rate about one-third greater than the average for California and about five times as great as the average for the United States as a whole. All factors are favorable for industrial development with the one exception of fresh-water supplies. At present, industrial fresh-water supplies are obtained partl}^ from private wells, partly from public water supply S3^stems and partly from the bay and river. In 1929, the amount of fresh water used for boiler and process purposes totaled about sixteen million gallons a day for the industries in the entire area and about thirteen million gallons a day for those above Dillon Point. The average cost of water per thousand gallons was about twelve cents for the entire area and about seven cents for the industries above Dillon Point. The supplies furnished by public water supply systems are relatively expensive, and the cheaper supplies obtained by private wells and diversions from the bay and river are limited and not depend- able. Additional dependable fresh-water supplies are required both for the immediate needs and for future growth of industries, and a smaller cost than the present would be desirable A much larger quantity of water is used by the industries for cool- ing and condensing purposes, amounting in 1929 to about 65 million gallons per day in the entire area and 38 million gallons per day above Dillon Point. Most of the supply for this purpose is obtained from the river and bay at an average cost of about 2.1 cents per thousand gallons. The use of salt or brackish water is satisfactory for cooling and condensing purposes, and hence saline invasion does not limit the use of water from bay and river for this purpose. Industrial Water Front Structures. — The industrial water front struc- tures in the upper bay region have been seriously affected during the past ten to fifteen years or more by an infestation of marine borers, chiefly the teredo, which attack and destroy timber piles in saline water. For the existing structures, the bulk of the damage has already occurred and capital investments have already been made for replacement by more resistant types of piling. However, a change to fresh-water con- ditions above a barrier probably would effect savings in annual cost of piling in place and in capital expenditures for new piling. Untreated timber piles could be used for future structures anxi for replacement of piling in existing timber pile structures instead of the more expensive treated timber piles now generally required and used. If the piling in present timber pile structures were replaced by untreated timber piling, it is estimated that the present annual cost would be reduced by $247,000, $96,000 and $14,000 for the structures above the Point San Pablo, Dillon Point and Chipps Island sites, KCOXOMir ASPIXTS OF A SALT AVATi:iJ I'.ARKIER 33 respectively. 'I'hese indicated savings might be increased to (l(iiil)lc these amounts at some future time, possibly in 25 years. Fishing Industri/. — The studies made by the Fish and Game Commis- sion indicate that the construction and operation of a barrier might prove to be a serious detriment to the fishing industry. The major varieties of commercial fish, including salmon, striped bass and shad, are migratory in their habits and it is apparent that a barrier Avould oifer an obstruction to their free migration into and out of the bay and rivers. Fishways could, of course, be provided in a barrier struc- ture for the passage of fish, but there is considerable uncertainty as to their effectiveness, especially for striped bass and shad. ^Moreover, a barrier might eliminate tlie shallow brackish water areas which are now present in the upper bays and which are necessary as a source of food supply for the young fish fry. which gradually float downstream after the spawning season, and also for the adult striped bass and shad. Xavigaiiaji. — Navigation operations in the Upper San Francisco Bay region would be considerably affected by the construction of a barrier. Vessels would have to pass through locks, resulting in some delays. Based upon studies made by United States Army Engineers, the water- borne traffic past the three typical barrier sites at present (1929) and that predicted for a future time about 2o years hence are shown in the following tabulation : Present and Predicted Future Water-lorne Traffic Past Barrier Sites Average nuviher of vessels per day Present Estimated for Barrier site (1929) 25 years hence Chipps Island 61 97 DiHon Point 67 112 Point San Pablo 148 255 It is estimated by the United States Army Engineers that the increased cost to navigation interests due to the delays occasioned by passage of vessels through the locks would amount to $4.50 per vessel lockage for present traffic and $7.50 per vessel lockage for future traffic. ^Maintenance of navigation channels above and below a barrier would be increased in cost, especially for a barrier at Point San Pablo, which would affect the maintenance of the channels across the Golden Gate bar. As against these detriments, it is believed that navigation operations above a barrier would be improved and assisted by the i-emoval of tidal currents and fluctuations Avhich under natural con- ditions result in some difficulties and delays to navigation operations. Some advantage would accrue also if a higher constant water level and greater average depth of navigation were maintained above a barrier. Moreover, a barrier lake woukl provide a fresh water anchorage for vessels which might be an advantage to navigation interests for the removal of marine growths from the bottoms of vessels. Municipal Development. — Along the shores of upper San Francisco Bay are numerous urban and suburban districts, more or less intimately related to the industrial and agricultural activities of the region. Most 34 DIVISION OF V'ATER RESOURCES of the larger cities have experienced a substantial growth during the last three decades, chiefly as a reflection of growth of industry. Water supplies for these cities and towns are obtained locally from wells and streams. Antioch obtains its supply from the San Joaquin Kiver near its mouth. A public utility serving several cities and towns in Contra Costa County obtains a considerable portion of its supply from the lower river channel about two miles west of Pittsburg. In the entire area from Antioch to the northerly limits of Eichmond on both sides of the bay. 4.6 million gallons per day were used for municipal and domestic purposes in 1929, with an average cost to the public water supply systems of 34 cents per thousand gallons and with a somewhat higher water rate to the consumer. The present available supplies would appear to be sufficient for present requirements but the additional supply that is capable of economic development is limited and it will be necessary to import supplies from some suitable outside source to take care of the ultimate requirements which may be expected. Sewage and Industrial Waste.- — A large amount of sewage and indus- trial waste is now discharged into the upper bay channels and Sacra- mento and San Joaquin rivers. The surveys and studies of present pollution in the channels of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers and the delta from Sacramento and Stockton to the lower end of the delta show that, from an oroanic and bacterial standpoint, the waters in the lower channels of the delta are satisfactory and redeemable for all purposes under present conditions of pollution and would be satis- factory and redeemable for a long time in the future. Under present conditions of pollution in the upper bay channels, tidal action assists in the removal of sewage and industrial waste with little, if any, nuisance resulting therefrom. This method of disposal under conditions similar to the present, would be satisfactory probably for an indefinite period in the future. If a barrier were constructed, the beneficial action of the tides in removing the sewage and industrial waste discharged along the shores of the bay would be eliminated. The studies indicate that if sewas'e and industrial waste, in the increasing amounts to be expected with the future growth of indu.stries and urban districts along the shores of the bay, were discharged into a barrier lake, it would pollute the water of the lake so as to make it unfit and unredeemable for domestic and industrial process uses during a portion of the year. Disposal and treatment works involving substantial expenditures would be required to prevent such pollution. Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. — The Saeramento-San Joaquin Delta has a gross area of nearly a half million acres of some of the richest agricultural land in the state, of which about 350,000 acres are now under cultivation. All lands in the delta feasible of reclamation have been reclaimed at large expense with levees and interior drainage ditches and pumping plants. The lands in the delta are composed of peat and sediment soils and for the mc^t part lie at an elevation below mean sea level. The market value of the lands in the delta is estimated at $85,000,000, with an estimated assessed valuation of $45,000,000. The value of crops in 1929 is estimated to have been $30,000,000. ECONOMIC ASPECTS OP A SALT WATER BARRIER 35 The network of channels which separate the lands of the delta into islands and throuiih which the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers discharge into Suisun Bay is not only the source of water supply for the irrigation of crops in the delta, but also provides efficient and economical water transportation for the products of the soil and materials, equip- ment and supplies. The consumptive use of water for irrigation of crops in the delta and for transpiration from nalural vegetation and for evaporation from open water is estimated to vary from a minimum of 400 second-feet (in mid-winter) to a maximum of 3700 second-feet (in mid- August) with an average consumption during July and August of 3500 second-feet. The total annual consumption is about 1,250,000 acre-feet or over 2.5 acre-feet per acre on the gross area. The stream flow into the delta during the ten-year period, 1920 to 1929, has been insufficient during the summer months of certain of these years to supply the consumptive demands in the delta. Moreover, the invasion of saline water from the bay into the delta channels during recent years, especially in 1920, 1924 and 1926, has made the water in a portion of the channels unfit for irrigation so that diversions could not be made for crops over considerable areas of the delta in the latter part of the irrigation season. The irrigation supply in the delta is, therefore, not dependable under present conditions. The menace of saline invasion has tended also to depreciate land values in the delta. Marshlands and Uplands Adjacent to Suisun and San Pahlo Bays — Adjacent to Suisun and San Pablo bays, there is a gross area of about 130,000 acres of marshlands about equally divided between the two bays. In the Suisun Bay area, about 46,000 acres are leveed, of which only 5000 acres are farmed. In San Pablo Bay area, there are also about 46,000 acres leveed of which 24,000 acres are farmed. Farming operations have not been very successful on account of the saline conditions. Most of the marshlands are heavily impregnated with salt, which is estimated to average 2 per cent of the dry weight of the soil. This would have to be removed before most crops could be grown successfully. At present, much of the marshland, especially in the Suisun area, is devoted to duck preserves and apparently is more val- uable for this purpose than any other. These lands if furnished with a fresh water supply might be completely reclaimed and brought into agricultural production. This would involve the building of levees and drainage works and removal of salt from the soil, all of which would be difficult and expensive. The cost of completely reclaiming these lands is estimated to be considerable greater than the average market value of fully developed and producing lands in the delta and of large areas in the San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys served with a water supply and ready to be farmed. Under present conditions, large expenditures for development of these marshlands to agriculture would not be eco- nomically justified. Adjacent to upper San Francisco Bay, there are upland areas below the assumed limit of present economic pumping lift of 150 feet, totaling 246,000 acres, about 118,000 acres bordering on Suisun Bay and about 128,000 acres on San Pablo Bay. About 190,000 acres are suitable for irrigation development and some 12.000 acres may be classi- fied as urban and industrial areas. About half the area is now under cultivation, of which about 40 per ctMit is devoted to a valuable devel- 36 DIVISION OF ^VATER RESOURCES opment of orchards and vineyards, about the same amount to grain and hay and the balance in miscellaneous field and truck crops. Only a small area is now irrigated. Some of the areas, now under irrigation, are deficient in water supply. Others, such as Napa Valley, aii])ear to have sufficient local water, if properly conserved and applied, to meet their ultimate iri'igation requirements. tSome of these areas, par- ticularly the Ygnacio and Clayton valleys and the area between Antioch and Knightsen lying south of the San Joaquin River, are in immediate need of a supplemental supply. Salinity Control and Water Supply ami Service for the Upper Bay and Delta Region.— A study of the ultimate water requirements and sources of supply for the San Francisco Bay Basin indicates that, in addition to the water supply obtainable from a complete feasible devel- opment of all local water resources and the imported supplies from the Tuolumne and Mokelumne rivers, there would be required about 600,000 acre-feet of water annually, principally for the upper bay region. Additional supplies will also be recpiired for both present and ultimate water requirements of the delta. The stream flow into the delta during the summer months has been insvrffieient in five years of the period 1920 to 1929 to meet the consumptive demands of the delta. The shortage in supplv reached a maximum of 277,000 acre-feet in 1924, and amounted to 225,000 and 140,000 acre-feet in 1920 and 1926, respectively. There were also small shortages in 1928 and 1929. The water requirements of the delta and all, or the greater por- tion, of the additional water supply required to be imported into the upper San Francisco Bay region could be furnished under the operation of the proposed mountain storage reservoirs of the State Water Plan. The water supply for the upper bay region could be made available in the lower channels of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers, thus providing a nearby source of supply for the area to be served. In order to make this source of supply dependable at all times, provision must be made to control the invasion of saline water into the delta. This objective could be attained either by a salt water barrier or by means of stream flow without a barrier. In both methods of salinity control, supplemental water supplies would have to be furnished from mountain storage reservoirs. There has been a somewhat prevalent idea that a physical barrier below the confluence of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers would, in itself, positively prevent invasion of saline water above the struc- ture. This would be true if a barrier could be built and operated as a continuous tight dam. However, a barrier must be provided with navi- gation locks for the passage of vessels and a large number of flood gates to pass the floods discharged by the Sacramento and San Joacpiin rivers. This would permit the entrance of salt water into a barrier lake by leakage around the flood and lock gates and by the operation of the usual or standard type of navigation locks. Substantial quantities of fresh water would be required to flush out this salt water and in addi- tion take care of the direct losses of water during lockage and by leak- age around the flood gates and lock gates and for operation of fish lad- ders. ^Foreover. a barrier lalce Avith a large area of water surface and extensive marginal vegetation wouhl result in large evaporation and ECONOMIC ASPECTS OP^ A SALT WATER BARRIER 37 transpiration losses which could not be prevented and which would liave to be supplied as part of the water requirements for salinity con- trol with a barrier. Contrary to what has been popularly supposed, a barrier would not create a storage reservoir in which large amounts of water could be impounded for utilization as necessity demanded. The level at which water could be held in a barrier lake would be limited both as to its maximum and minimum elevation. On account of several limiting factors, the range of fluctuation of water level in a barrier lake and the usable storage capacity therein would be limited to about one foot below a maximum elevation of three feet above mean sea level. The usable storage capacities above each barrier site are shown in the fol- lowing tabulation : Usable Storage Capacihj i)i Barrier Lake Usable capacity Earlier site in acre-feet Chipps Island 45,000 Dillon Point — 75,000 Point San Pablo 155,000 The quantity of water which would be made available by the util- ization of this limited amount of storage would be so small as to be of relatively small importance. The usable storage would be far from sufficient to take care of the water demands for salinity control with a barrier. Even if a greater range of fluctuation were allowable, the storage would conserve only a small per cent of the tributary run-off. The rate of flow required for controlling salinity with a barrier under both present and future conditions, with the utilization of navi- "■ation locks of the usual or standard type, is shoAvn for each typical barrier site in the following tabulation. The basis of these estimates is presented in Chapter IV. Rate of Flow During Summer Months for Control of Salinity With a Barrier With Standard Locks Hate of flow in second-feet Present Future Barrier site conditions conditions Chipps Island 1300 2800 Dillon Point 2300 2650 Point San Pablo 5550 7500 Inasmuch as a salt water barrier properly should be considered in the light of future development and requirements of the upper bay and delta region and of the State Water Plan, the water requirements for salinity control under future conditions are of especial importance and significance. If a barrier, entailing a large expenditure, were constructed for the primary purpose of preventing the invasion of salt water, it is obvious that the structure, especially the locks, should be so designed as to prevent, if possible, the entrance of salt water into a barrier lake. Studies indicate tliat salt-clearing lodes could be provided which would be practical in opcralioii. rcasiblc in cosl of consti'uctiou and effective 38 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES in preventing entrance of salt water into a barrier lake and substanti- ally reducing water requirements for lockage operations. The esti- mated water requirements for control of salinity with a barrier with salt-clearing locks are shown in the following tabulation : Rate of Flow during Summer Months for Control of Salinity With a Barrier With Salt-Clearing Lochs Rate of floic in second-feet Present Future Barrier site conditions conditions Chipps Island 900 1200 Dillon Point 1900 1500 Point San Pablo 3600 3300 The portion of the water requirements for gate leakage and fish ladders and evaporation and transpiration are identical with the previous tabulation, the only change being in the requirements for lockage operations. The more significant and important figures are those for future conditions and it may be assumed that the estimates of water required with salt-clearing locks represent the minimum amounts which would be required for control of salinity with a barrier under future condi- tions with any design of locks practical in operation and feasible in cost of construction. These required rates of flow based upon the use of salt-clearing locks have been adopted as the basis for the estimates of supplemental water supply required for control of salinity with a barrier. The alternate method for control of saline invasion by means of stream flow without a barrier is based upon an intensive study of the variation and control of salinity in the upper bay and delta. It is concluded from this study that the invasion of saline water into the delta can be positively prevented and salinity controlled by provision of a fresh-water supply sufficient to maintain a flow in the two rivers of not less than 3300 second-feet past Antioch into Suisun Bay. With such a control at the mouth of the rivers, a source of diversion of a fresh-water supply of equal dependability and quality to that provided in a barrier lake would be available in the channels of the delta and not far distant from the upper bay area. The flow of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers into Suisun Bay during most of the last ten years has been insufficient during the months of low stream flow to supply the water required for salinity control either with or without a barrier. Therefore, in order to provide for salinity control with either alternate plan, supplemental supplies would have to be furnished from mountain storage reservoirs. For future conditions, a larger amount of supplemental supply would be reriuired for salinity control without a barrier than with a barrier with salt-clearing locks. With stream flow as it occurred during the period 1920-1929, the average, maximum, and minimum annual savings in supplemental water supply which the estimates indicate would be obtained by controlling salinity with a barrier, are shown in the follow- ing tabulation. In making these estimates, the water required under future conditions for control with a barrier witb salt-clearing locks has ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 39 been used aud the usable .storat-e capacity in a barrier lake at each barrier site has been credited as an additional water supply deducted from the supplemental supply required for control with a barrier. Amount of Supplemental Water Supply Saved by Controlling Salinity with a Barrier ivith Salt-clearing Locks Under Future Conditions Annual supiyJementnl water supplv savtd in acre-feet Minimum Average Maximum Barrier Hitc 1920 to 1929 1920 to 1929 1920 to 1929 Chipps Island 112,000 279,200 561,000 Dillon Point 112,000 274,400 523,000 Point San Pablo__ 112,000 148,400 160,000 If the usual or standard type of locks were used in a barrier struc- ture, the indicated maximum saving- in supplemental water supply with a barrier would be reduced under future conditions to annual amounts of 172,000 acre-feet and 240,000 acre-feet for the Chipps Island and Dillon Point sites, respectively, while, for the Point San Pablo site, a much greater supplemental supply than that required without a barrier, amounting to 1,262,000 acre-feet a year, would be required. Under both the initial and ultimate developments of the State Water Plan,* the studies of water supply, yield and demand show that, in addition to supplying the full water requirements for either the initial or ultimate development of the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys, the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta and the upper bay region, ample water supplies would be available for providing positive control of salinity at the lower end of the delta without a barrier. If supplies were needed in addition to those provided under the ultimate State Water Plan, additional reservoir capacity is available on tributaries of the Sacramento River for development of substantial increases in sup- ply and additional supplies could be economically developed and brought in from the Eel River. Therefore, the amount of supple- mental water supply Avhich the estimates indicate might be saved with a barrier would not be needed to furnish the full initial and ultimate requirements of the Great Central Valley and the upper bay region. From the standpoint alone of supplemental water supplies saved by a barrier, the cost of the maximum indicated amounts of water saved would be about three times as much for the Chipps Island site, four times as much for the Dillon Point site and twenty times as much for the Point San Pablo site, a.s the cost of developing equal amounts in mountain storage reservoirs. As a means of providing a fresh-water supply from the lower Sac- i-amento and San Joaquin Rivers for the present and ultimate needs of the upper bay and delta region, the two alternate methods of salinity control are fundamentally equivalent. Water supplies now or here- after made available in the delta channels would be protected from saline invasion by either method of control and would be suitable in quality for all u^es both in the delta and in the upper ])ay region. With either method, conduits would be required to transport water to the areas to be served in the upper bay region. The only salient difference between the physical features of the plans for water service ♦Bulletin No. 25, "Report to T.,egislatnre of 19S1 on State Water Plan," Division of Water Resources, 1930. 40 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES under the two methods of salinity control would be in the length and size of conduits. Either plan would render equally favorable service. The determination of the better plan must, therefore, rest upon the question of cost. Preliminary plans and cost estimates on a strictly comparable basis have been made of the major conduit units for water service and other required works, for alternate plans of development providing equivalent service and accomplishments with and without a barrier. The alternate plans provide for main canals only, extending from the source of supply whether from the delta or a barrier lake, both north and south of the bay, and designed to eco- nomically serve the areas. In the alternate plan with a barrier, sewage and industrial waste disposal works to prevent a harmful pollution of a barrier lake are included. In the alternate plan without a barrier, the physical works include additional levees and facilities assumed as required for reclaiming the marshlands of Suisun and San Pablo bays, and also a connecting channel between Sacramento River and San Joaquin River Delta to provide for transfer of surplus Sacramento River water across the delta for exportation to the San Joaquin Valle.v. Based upon these studies of alternate plans, it is estimated that a plan of ultimate development with conduits extending from con- trolled fresh-water channels of the lower delta, together with addi- tional works for the reclamation of the marshlands of Suisun and San Pablo bays and channel enlargements in the delta, could be consum- mated for a capital expenditure of about $18,000,000, as compared to costs ranging between about $52,000,000 and $86,000,000 for an equiva- lent development with a barrier. The estimated annual cost (including interest, amortization, operation, maintenance and depreciation) of the required physical works alone would be about $2,100,000 for the plan without a barrier, as compared to annual costs ranging from about $4,800,000 to $7,100,000 for the alternate plan with a barrier. These costs do not include the additional cost of salt-clearing locks. It is unquestionable that there would be substantial benefits accru- ing to many interests by the consummation of either plan of develop- ment, with or without a barrier. These would include reduced costs of water supplies for industries, municipalities and agricultural lands in the upper bay region, increased values of industrial, urban and agri- cultural lands in the upper bay and delta, and elimination of costs of litigation between the lower and upper river interests. In addition there would be many more or less intangible benefits, emanating from the stimulation of growth and the greater prosperity of industrial, agricultural and municipal developments in the upper bay and delta region, which would be enjoyed by the northern bay and delta counties, the metropolitan areas of the East Bay and San Francisco and the state and nation. Estimates might be made of the value of these various benefits but all would be common to both of the alternate plans of development with or without a barrier, and hence it is entirely unnec- essary in the present investigation of the economic aspects of a barrier to evaluate these common benefits. There are, however, certain tangible benefits and detriments directly attached to a barrier which have been estimated and included in final comparisons of annual cost of the alternate plans. The direct tangible benefits of a barrier include reduced annual costs on timber piling of ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 41 industrial water front structures and savings in supplemental water supply required for control of salinity. The tangible detriments charge- able directly to a barrier include delays to navigation and increased drainage and levee maintenance costs in the delta and bay marshlands. An evaluation has been made of these direct tangible benefits and detriments in the final economic considerations of comparative annual cost of the alternate plans of development. Other detriments which might accrue from a barrier include possible losses to the fishing indus- try and the possible increase in cost of maintenance of navigation chan- nels, but these have been considered too uncertain to include in the estimates. Taking into account these benefits and detriments directly attached to the alternate plan of development with a barrier, the esti- mated net total annual cost with a barrier would range from $4,500,000 to $8,000,000, as compared to $2,100,000 without a barrier. Based upon this study of the comparative merits and costs of alter- nate plans of development, with and without a barrier, it is evident that the plan without a barrier would fully satisfy the basic needs of the upper bay and delta region at a cost of less than one-half of that for a plan with a barrier. Therefore, the salt water barrier has not been included as a unit in the State Water Plan, but provision is made in the plans for controlling salinity at the lower end of the delta by stream flow with necessary supplies furnished from mountain storage reser- voirs to supplement the stream flow available for this purpose. The proposed plans for the initial development of the State Water Plan provide for an initial conduit unit to serve the immediate pressing needs of the present developed industries and agricultural lands in upper Contra Costa County. The estimated capital cost is $2,500,000 with an estimated annual cost of $300,000, or $6.90 per acre-foot (2.1 cents per 1000 gallons) for water delivered at points along the conduit. Conclusions. 1. It would be physically feasible to construct a salt water barrier at sites in Carquinez Strait and at Point San Pablo. Founda- tion conditions at the Chipps Island site are not as favorable for constructing a barrier at this location. The capital cost of a barrier would vary Avith the location and type of structure from $40,000,000 to $75,000,000 and annual cost corresponding to the same would vary from $3,300,000 to $5,600,000. 2. The amount which mis-ht be contributed from highway funds towards the building of a barrier, by reason of present facilities and savings effected, is small in comparison with the total cost of a barrier and can not be considered a controlling factor in selecting the site, methods of financing or time of construction ; and the combination of a highway crossing with a salt water barrier is not economically warranted. 3. The furnishing of an adequate and dependable cheap fresh- water supply for industries, municipalities and agricultural lands in the upper San Francisco Bay region would benefit these developments and stimulate their growth. It would no doubt prove an especial attraction to industries requiring large amounts of fresh water. If this were accomplished by the assistance of a barrier with a fresh-water lake maintained by 42 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES adequate Avater supplies furnished from mountain storage reser- voirs, the benefits to all these interests and the attraction to industries might be still further enhanced. However, other competing industrial areas naturally would offer counter attractions, such as comparable water rates, and hence it can not be expected that there would be any rapid influx of industries to locate on a barrier lake. Moreover, the large expenditure required for a barrier might result in these benefits being entirely offset by the burden of additional taxes which the local indus- trial, municipal and agricultural interests might have to assume as their share of a barrier cost. Therefore, in so far as fresh- water demands of the upper bay region are concerned, the essen- tial requirement would be the furnishing of adequate fresh- water supplies by the consummation of the most practicable and economical plan which can be devised. 4. A salt water barrier could be operated to prevent saline invasion into the upper bay and delta channels and maintain a fresh- water lake from which water supplies now or hereafter made available from the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers could be utilized for industrial, domestic and agricultural purposes in the upper bay and delta region. Its function as regards water supply and service would be primarily that of a diversion struc- ture. In order to control salinity with a barrier, substantial quantities of fresh water would have to be furnished from upstream storage developments, to provide for barrier operation (lockage, flushing and leakage losses) and unavoidable losses (evaporation and transpiration) from a barrier lake. A bar- rier in itself would not create the water supplies required either for present or future needs of the area. The usable storage capacity would be insufficient to supply even the water required for barrier operation and unavoidable losses from a barrier lake. Only a small percentage of the tributary run-off could be conserved in a barrier lake. Therefore, the necessity and desir- ability of a barrier as a means of controlling salinity and serv- ing the fresh-water demands of the upper bay and delta region must be determined on the basis of the comparative cost of a plan of salinity control and water service with a barrier and an alternate plan without a barrier providing equivalent service and accomplishments. 5. The control of saline invasion, so that water supplies now or hereafter made available in the delta from the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers could be maintained fresh and utilized for all purposes in the upper bay and delta region, could be pro- vided with equal certainty without a barrier by means of fresh water released from mountain storage reservoirs to supplement the available stream flow. With salinity controlled by this means at the lower end of the delta, not only would the delta be fully protected and its water requirements satisfied, but also a fresh-water supply equivalent in dependability and quality to that in a barrier lake could be made available in the delta chan- nels for use in the upper bay area and not far distant therefrom. ECONOMIC ASPECTS OP A SALT WATER BARRIER 43 6. A barrier is not necessary for the exportation of water from the Sacramento River to the San Joaquin Valley above the delta. AA^ith salinity controlled at the lower end of the delta by stream flow and with additional channel capacity connecting the Sacra- mento River to the San Joaquin River delta, there would be no physical impediment to the transfer and diversion of water up the San Joaquin River. 7. A barrier would not be essential to the feasibility of reclaiming the marshlands adjacent to Suisun and San FahXo bays. 8. A barrier would probably effect substantial savings in the capital and annual costs of water front structures in the barrier lake above, but such savings would be more than offset by the losses suffered in delays to navigation, additional costs of drainage and levee maintenance in the delta and bay marshlands, possible increased cost of navigation channel maintenance, and possible damage to the fishing industry. Moreover, construction of a barrier would precipitate a sewage and industrial waste disposal problem which would require substantial expenditures for con- struction of disposal and treatment works for its solution. 9. The proposed alternate plan, with salinity controlled by means of stream flow without a barrier, providing conduits from the delta to serve the fresh-water demands of the upper bay area, additional works of channel enlargment between the Sacramento River and San Joaquin River Delta and works for the reclama- tion of the upper bay marshlands, could be consummated for a capital and annual cost of less than half that required for a plan of equivalent scope and service with a barrier. It would have the additional advantage of requiring im.mediate expenditures of but a small fraction of the cost of a barrier for initial conduit units that would amply serve the needs of the immediate future. Moreover, it would lend itself to a program of progressive devel- opment with expenditures made only as required to keep pace with the growing demands, thus keeping both capital and annual costs to a minimum for the progressive and ultimate stages of development. 10. All present and ultimate fresh-water requirements and the com- plete development of the ultimate potentialities of industries, municipalities and agricultural lands in the upper San Fran- cisco Bay region would be provided for under the proposed alternate plan of development and service, with salinity con- trolled to the lower end of the delta by stream flow supple- mented with fresh-water releases from mountain storage. The plan would include main conduits extending westerly from the delta along the north and south sides of the bay, located and designed to serve the fresh-water demands in the upper bay area. The upper bay channels Avould continue to serve as outlets for sewage and industrial waste and as a source of supply for cooling and condensing water for industries, with advantages resulting for both purposes. Preliminary designs and studies of the proposed plan demonstrate its physical feasibility and economical advantage and give assurance of satisfactory service. 44 DIVISIOX OF WATEK nESOt'HCES The proposed alternate plan wonlfl not disturb the present aud future developments and operations in the upper San Fran- cisco Bay aud delta region and, to a large extent, would restore fresh-water conditions in upper San Francisco Bay equivalent to those existing under natural conditions before the expansion of irrigation and reclamation in the Great Central Valley and mountain storage developments. 11. "Water in the amounts that might be saved in controlling salinity with a barrier would be available and could be furnished at con- siderably less cost from mountain storage reservoirs. The con- servation efi&ciency and value of a barrier would be small in comparison with the cost. 12. The final conclusion of this investigation of a salt water bar- rier located at any of the three typical sites is that this struc- ture is not necessary or economically justified as a unit of the State Water Plan. ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SAL'l' WATEH BAKKIER -15 CHAPTER II LOCATION AND COST OF SALT WATER BARRIER The location and cost of a salt water barrier are important basic elements of the economic study of this structure. The advantages and disadvantages which might accrue from construction and operation of a barrier and the capital and annual costs of a structure would differ considerably for different barrier sites. The value of benefits and detriments and the comparative capital and annual costs of a barrier at dift'erent locations therefore must be given consideration in order that a decision may be reached not only as to the most advantageous location, but also as to the economic justification for a barrier at any location. In all of the studies of a salt water barrier, including the present investigation, all locations considered have been below the confluence of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers. This naturally fol- lows from a consideration of the maximum benefits desired to be attained by the construction and operation of a barrier in its primary functions of preventing saline invasion and providing a means for diversion of fresh-water supplies for the upper bay area. From the standpoint of these primary functions of a barrier, it is evident that the maximum benefit to industrial, municipal and agricultural develop- ments of the upper bay area would be obtained with a barrier located as far downstream as practicable. On the other hand, considerations of interference with navigation and other interests, and of conserva- tion efficiency, point to a location as far upstream as practicable. Finally, consideration must be given to the physical elements con- trolling the choice of a site, especially the geology and the foundation material, as these elements directly affect the physical feasibility and cost of construction. Location of Barrier. In the investigation by the Bureau of Reclamation,* eleven sug- gested sites for a barrier, located at various points from the confluence of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers to the Golden Gate, were considered. Upper Sites. — The upper sites comprised one at the westerly end of Sherman Island and another at Chipps Island, near the 0. and A. ferry (Sacramento Northern Railroad ferry). These sites were eliminated from consideration early in the investigation because a barrier at either location would not provide the amount of storage deemed necessary and desirable in the operation of a barrier. Intermediate Sites. — The intermediate sites are located in Carquinez Strait and comprised Army Point, Benicia, Dillon Point and Vallejo * Bulletin No. 22, "Report on Salt Water Barrier Below Confluence of Sacra- mento and San Joaquin Rivers," Division of Water Resources, 1929. 46 DIVISION OF WA'l'ER RESOURCES Junction. Of these four sites in Carquinez Strait, the Army Point and Dillon Point sites appeared to be the more feasible and, hence, the more intensive studies, surveys and explorations were made at these two sites. The proposed location at Benicia was not so seriously con- sidered because the structure, as planned, crossed an active fault line. The Vallejo Junction site was not studied in any great detail because it appeared to offer no advantages not found in the Dillon Point site. The Dillon Point site offers the narrowest location and has the greatest depth of water of any of the available sites. Lower Sites. — The lower sites comprised Point San Pablo (Point San Pablo to Point San Pedro), IMolate Point to Point San Quentin, Castro Point to California Point, Point Richmond to Bluff Point, and Golden Gate. With the exception of the site suggested at the Golden Gate, all of these sites lie in what is known as the "Narrows" of San Francisco Bay. The width of channel at all of these sites is considerably greater than at any of the intermediate sites. For example, at the Point Rich- mond to Bluff Point site, the channel is 3.3 miles wide. The depth of water at this site is comparatively great, especially on the west end. A barrier at the Golden Gate could not be seriously considered, because a structure at this site would obstruct the full use and development of San Francisco Bay as a harbor and naval base. While there are other important disadvantages for a barrier at this site, the one stated above is sufficient to eliminate it from consideration. The same objec- tion holds true for a site extending from San Francisco through Alca- traz and Angel islands to the Tiburon Peninsula, which has more recently been suggested. The Point San Pablo site was selected for detailed study, exploration and design because it appeared to offer greater advantages with smaller cost than any of the other sites in the ' ' Narrows. ' ' Choice of Site. — The final selection of an exact location for a salt water barrier is not within the scope of the present study and report because it is not necessary to a consideration of its economic aspects. It has been deemed sufficient in the present study to consider three sites representative of an upper, intermediate and lower location. The typical sites selected (see Plate I) for the economic study are: Upper site — Chipps Island. Intermediate site — Dillon Point. Lower site — Point San Pablo. As far as physical considerations are concerned, a barrier could be constructed at any of the three typical sites, although foundation conditions at Chipps Island site are rather unfavorable. All of the sites proposed in Carquinez Strait are satisfactory from the standpoint of foundation rock. However, there are two active faults, designated the Sunol-Southampton Bay fault, which crosses the strait in the vicinity of Benicia, and the Franklin Canyon-Mare Island fault, which crosses the lower end of the strait near Selby, that must be considered in a final design and location of a barrier in Carquinez Strait. The Dillon Point site, which has been selected as typical of an intermediate loca- tion, appears especially satisfactory from the standpoint of foundations and geologic conditions. Geological studies in the vicinity of the Point ECONOMIC ASPECTS OP A SAI.T WATER HARRIER 47 San Pablo site indicate that fonndation rock eonditions are less satis- factory than in Carquinez Strait, bnt that a barrier could be built at this site if properly designed. The geology of the region in the vicinity of the Chipps Island site and the foundations revealed by borings made at the railroad com- pany's ferry crossing show that the foundation conditions are rela- tively unfavorable for the construction of a barrier. The formation underlying and adjacent to the river channel consists of deposits of recent alluvium, with alternating beds of sand and clay. Considerable deposits of peat and muck overlie these alluvial deposits on the islands north of the channel. Underlying these more recent alluvial deposits, which are estimated to have a thickness of 100 to 150 feet, are rather incoherent, clayey, fine sandstone or clay-cemented sand and silt deposits which may be considered to be the bedrock underlying the upper end of Suisun Bay in so far as a barrier structure is concerned. The entire body of the recent alluvial material Avould be greatly disturbed by earthquake waves. While there are no fault lines exposed in the vicinity of this site, the records indicate that Antioch has suffered from numerous and heavy earthquake shocks in past years, possibly due to the existence of faults hidden by the great depth of alluvial and Pleistocene deposits. There are records of earthquakes at Antioch in 1866, 1872, 1889 and in 1901. 1902 and 1903, that of 1872 apparently having been the worst experienced. It was concluded from the geological investigations that while it might be possible to design a satisfactory structure supported on piles of ample length, no final approval of the site could be made until detailed exploration borings were completed. The preliminary plans prepared for a structure at this site have, therefore, been care- fully and conservatively designed in order to provide safety and stability as nearly comparable as possible with that provided by the designs for an intermediate or lower site. The preliminary plans are believed to offer a conservative basis for estimating the cost of a struc ture at such an upper location and to be sufficient for carrying out the economic studies. Without making a final choice of a barrier site, the economic studies have been made to evaluate, as far as possible, the benefits and detriments which might accrue from a barrier at each typical site, as compared to the capital and annual costs thereof. Finally, the cost of a development, with a barrier at each of the sites, for serving the ultimate water demands of the upper bay area has been compared with an alternate plan of development, without a barrier, providing the equivalent in control of salinity and service of fresh-water demands. Design Features of Barrier. The detailed plans for a salt water barrier for the intermediate and lower sites are fully presented in Bulletin No. 22 and hence will be but briefly described herein. The two basic features of the plans for the structure include, first, navigation locks suitable in size and number to expeditiously handle the passage of vessels through the structure and, second, a series of large-capacity floodgates designed to pass the maximum estimated flood flows without appreciably raising the flood plane above a barrier. The navigation locks, and the piers and sills of 4—80996 48 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES the floodgates are designed of massive concrete founded on solid bedrock. The plans generally provide for the location of locks and floodgates on one side of the channel with the balance of the structure designed as a rock-fill dam made tight by filling the voids therein with mud. The floodgates provided in the plans are of massive steel con- struction of the "stony -roller" type, while the gates in the navigation locks are of the usual standard type of design used in modern locks. The height of a barrier is governed ♦by the maximum level reached by the tide and the plans provide for an elevation for the top of the structure at ten to fifteen feet above mean sea-level. In one of the alternate plans prepared for the Dillon Point site, the entire structure was designed for construction in the present channel and would consist of floodgates covering the entire width of the channel, with the navigation locks located on one side and with no part of the structure built as a rock-fill section. This appeared to be the least expensive of the several alternate plans for this site. At the time the plans were prepared, it was thought possible that arrangements might be made for combining both highway and railroad crossing facilities with a barrier structure at both the Carquinez Strait and Point San Pablo sites. Accordingly, several of the alternate designs made pro- vision for combinations with overhead bridges to accommodate highway and railroad traffic. Plans for Chipps Island Site. — In order to carry out the economic studies for a barrier located at an upper site, it was deemed desirable to prepare preliminary designs and cost estimates for a structure located inunediately below the confluence of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers. The site chosen, designated the Chipps Island site, is located near the present railroad ferry crossing of the Sacramento Northern Eailroad (more frequently called the 0. and A. Ferry). No rock foundations exist at this site. The preliminary design prepared was adapted from the plans presented in Bulletin No. 22, the super- structure and details of the locks and gates being practically identical. The preliminary plan provides for locks on one side of the channel, with the remainder of the structure consisting of a series of 45 flood- gates 50 by 55 feet in size across the entire width of the present chan- nel. The main structure is designed of massive concrete, with the gate sills and floors of the locks of lieavier construction than in the structures designed for rock foundations and with the addition of a liberal provision of steel reinforcement to take care of the effect of earthquake shocks for a structure on an unstable foundation. A line of steel sheet piling extends for the entire length of the main structure under the upstream edge of the floodgate sills. Extending downstream from the gate sills, a heavy concrete apron is provided, terminating on a line of sheet piling. The entire structure is supported on timber piles 60 feet in length, extending into the heavy clay formation. The remainder of the barrier structure consists of an earth levee extending from the main structure across Chipps and Van Sickle islands to the mainland on the north and across the lowlands to higher ground on the south. While the plans prepared are preliminarj^ and subject to considerable revision for a final design, thev are nevertheless deemed ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SAI/I' WATHR HARRIER 49 sufficient as a basis for obtainiim' a reasonable estimate of cost for use in this stud3^ Modification of Designs: and Plans. — As previously stated, the bar- rier plans presented in Bulletin No. 22 are considered adequate as a basis for estimating the cost of a barrier at the various sites con- sidered. It is possible that a final design study of a barrier would result in some alteration in the type of structure which might be finally selected. A suggestion has been made by C. E. Grunsky for a considerably different type of structure than that proposed in Bulletin No. 22, which would be adapted to a long shallow site such as one in the "Narrows" below Point San Pablo. The suggested design would pro- vide for a weir-tj'pe structure to be built of concrete in sections constructed on shore and floated out in tlie form of caissons and sunk on a prepared foundation. Provision would be made for a long flood- gate section consisting of shallow gates in pairs, one of which would be designed to operate automatically to prevent the entrance of tidal waters and at the same time carry off excess waters from the barrier lake above. A preliminary estimate of cost was made for a structure of this type, located at a suggested site between Molate Point and San Quentin Point in the "Narrows," below San Pablo Bay. This indi- cates that the cost of such a structure probably would be as much or more than the cost of a structure at the nearby Point San Pablo site as planned in Bulletin No. 22. As far as design features of a barrier are concerned, the present studies have been directed to a consideration of those features which might be changed on the basis of more com- plete information and studies of requirements, and which might affect the cost estimates. The features particularly considered have included those for navigation and passage of flood waters. Inasmuch as the final plans for a barrier would necessarily be approved by the United States Army Engineers, particularly in regard to navigation and flood control features, studies of the present investi- gation on these matters have been carried out by the Army Engineers. New and more complete information was obtained as to the character and magnitude of water-borne traffic at each of the sites. Based upon this additional information, the Armj' Engineers have proposed modi- fications in number and size of the navigation locks to take care of present and future navigation requirements. Their proposals as to number and size of locks for each of the three typical sites are shown in Table I. For comparative purposes the data on locks provided for in the plans of Bulletin No. 22 also are shown in parallel columns. It will be noted that the number and size of locks proposed by the United States Army Engineers are larger than those provided for in the plans of Bulletin No. 22 and hence would tend to increase the cost estimates to some extent. It also has been proposed by the Army Engineers that "guard gates" included in the plans for locks pre- sented in Bulletin No. 22 be omitted; and, also, that one of the "emer- gency dams" provided for in the plans for each lock might be omitted where two locks of the same width are used ; and costs reduced accord- ingly. These proposed modifications of the Army Engineers have been used as a basis for the revised estimates of cost presented herein. 50 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES TABLE I NUMBER AxND SIZE OF NAVIGATION LOCKS Proposed by U. S. Army engineers Plans of Bulletin No. 22 Site Number of loclcs Length, in feet Width, in feet Depth on sill, in feet Number of locks Length, in feet Width, in feet Depth on sill, in feet Chipps Island Dillon Point Point San Pablo 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■ 1 2 2 1 1 150 300 500+300 800 150 300 500+300 800 150 300 500+700 1,200 45 60 90 90 45 60 90 90 45 60 120 120 14 20 20+16 40 14 20 20+16 40 14 20 37 41 ■1 '1 ■1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 200 500 825 200 500 825 200 500 825 1,000 40 60 80 40 60 80 40 60 80 110 26 33 40 26 33 40 26 33 40 44 ' In Bulletin No. 22 no plans were presented for the Chipps Island site. For comparative purposes, data are given on the farthest upstream location at Army Point. The studies made by railroad interests and the State Division of Highwa3's as to the feasibility and suitability of combining railway and highway crossings with a barrier eliminate from consideration all previous proposals of such combinations. The Division of Highways concluded that the combination of a highway crossing with a salt water barrier is not feasible nor economically warranted. One of the important considerations leading to this conclusion was that a modern main highway crossing must be so constructed that there will be no undue delays to traffic. A high level crossing which would clear navi- gation traffic is therefore necessary and hence no great economy in the construction of a bridge would result from its combination with a low level barrier structure. This consideration is of equal impor- tance in connection with a railroad crossing which must also be designed at a sufficient height above water level so that no undue delays will be caused by passage of vessels. Hence, both highway and railroad cross- ings would have to be elevated a considerable distance above a barrier structure and the bridge foundations that would have to be provided would be the same as if no combination were made with a barrier. The Southern Pacific Eailroad Company has already constructed a bridge across Carciuinez Strait. For these reasons, the features of the designs in Bulletin No. 22, providing for combinations of highway and railroad crossing facilities with a barrier, were eliminated from the plans upon which estimates of costs were prepared. Cost of Barrier. The estimates of capital cost for a barrier at the Dillon Point and Point San Pablo sites are based upon the plans of Bulletin No. 22, modified as previously described as to number and size of locks and by the omission of features for highway and railway crossing combina- tions. The quantities for all major items and the unit prices used are the same as presented in Bulletin No. 22. Unit prices are repre- sentative of contract prices for recent years on similar construction ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 51 work and are believed to be conservative and strictly comparable to those used for other units of the State Water Plan presented in other reports. These same unit prices also have been applied to the preliminary plans prepared for a barrier at Chipps Island site. One important additional unit price not included in Bulletin No. 22 is that for nntreated timber piling, estimated at 50 cents per lineal foot in place. The estimated capital costs for a barrier at the three typical sites are summarized in Table 2. These include interest during construction at 4i per cent, compounded semiannually for an assumed construction period of six years, and 25 per cent to cover contingencies, admin- istration, engineering and other miscellaneous expenditures. The cost estimates presented in Bulletin No. 22 included 25 per cent for overhead, but did not include interest during construction. For the Dillon Point site, those estimates range from $38,900,000 to $97,100,000, covering different alternate plans. The plan, which is perhaps the most comparable to that upon which the cost estimate pre- sented in Table 2 is based, was estimated to cost from $50,000,000 to $53,000,000, including a bridge and approaches. At Point San Pablo site, the estimates of cost in Bulletin No. 22 range from $66,000,000 to $82,100,000. The plan with the minimum estimated cost is perhaps most comparable to that used as a basis for the cost estimate presented in Table 2. TABLE 2 CAPITAL COST OF BARRIER Item Barrier site Chipps I Dillon 1 Point Island Point San Pablo S4,750,000 51,940,000 $6,820,000 1,250,000 900,000 2,960,000 8,050,000 12,900,000 4,340,000 12,350,000 17,850,000 23.100,000 610,000 310,000 ( 13,250,000 600,000 610,000 1 1,300,000 6,900,000 8.630,000 : 12,940,000 5,490,000 0,860,000 10,290,000 $40,000,000 $50,000,000 j $75,000,000 Unwatering Flood channel Control works ' Na\-igation locks ' Rock and earth fill Miscellaneous Contingencies, administration and engineering Interest during construction Total ' The control works provide flood gates as follows: Chipps Island site — 45 gates, 50 feet wide by 55 feet high Dillon Point site — 21 gates, 70 feet wide by 80 feet high Point San Pablo site — 15 gates, 70 feet wide by 82 feet high - See Table 1 for number and size of locks provided. A preliminary design and cost estimate also is presented in Bul- letin No. 22 for a barrier at Benicia site. The estimated cost of this structure, without a bridge, is given as $40,200,000. The site used in the plans crosses a major active earthquake fault and is not considered a desirable site for a barrier. It is possible that a barrier might be located at some site in the vicinity of Benicia, upstream from this major fault line, which might prove to have some advantages over Dillon Point site. The possibilities of such a location are presented in Appendix D. It appears probable that the cost of a barrier at a site near Benicia, or at any other site in Carquinez Strait, would be approxi- mately the same as that estimated for the Dillon Point site. In any event, it is believed that the difference in cost would be relativelv 52 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES small and would not affec-t conclusions as to comparative costs and bene- fits in the present economic studies. No estimates of annual cost of a harrier were presented in Bulletin No. 22. Inasmuch as this plays an important part in the economic analysis undertaken in the present investigation, estimates have been made and are presented in Table 3 for each of the three typical sites. The estimates of annual cost are based upon the following percentages applied to the capital cost : Interest — 4-^ per cent. Amortization — 1.05 per cent (4 per cent sinking fund basis for 40-year bonds). Depreciation — On 4 per cent sinking fund basis. Gates and operating equipment 8.0 per cent Structural steel 2.0 per cent Concrete 0.3 per cent Rock and earth 0.3 per cent Flood channel (excavation) and unwatering_ 0.0 per cent The estimated costs for operation and maintenance include operat- ing organization and cost of electric power, materials, supplies, and miscellaneous maintenance and repair work. TABLE 3 ANNUAL COST OF BARRIER Barrier site Item Chipps Island Dillon Point Point San Pablo 11,800,000 420,000 $2,250,000 525,000 $3,375,000 787,000 Depreciation: 338,000 408,000 3,000 11,000 320,000 411,000 387,000 1,000 11,000 315,000 271,666 727,000 Rock and earth fill - -- -- 58,000 12,000 370,000 Totals $3,300,000 $3,900,000 S5,600,000 The estimates of annual cost of a bai'rier, as shown in Table 3, range from $3,300,000 to $5,600,000 and are believed to closely approxi- mate the probable range of annual cost which might reasonably be expected for the operation and maintenance of a barrier at available sites which might be utilized. It will be noted that the item of interest alone ranges from 55 to 60 per cent of the total estimated annual cost, while interest and amortization together make up 68 to 75 per cent of the total. Salt-clearing Locks. If a barrier were constructed for the purpose of preventing saline invasion, it appears obvious that navigation locks in the structure should be designed, if possible, to prevent the entrance of salt water into a barrier lake. With the usnal or standard type of navigation ECONOMIC ASPECTS OP A SALT WATER BARRIER 53 lock, salt M'ater would be discharged into the lake during lockage opera- tions and, if allowed to accumulate, would pollute the fresh-water lake and possibly limit its utilization to such an extent as to defeat the primary purpose of a barrier. Considerable study has been made of possible modifications of design for navigation locks to prevent entrance of salt water into a barrier lake during operation of the usual type of lock. In Bulletin No. 22, a plan for a salt-clearing lock as proposed by W. M. Meacham of Seattle, Washington, is presented. In general, the suggested plan provides for displacement of salt water present in the lock with fresh water, introduced from the lake above, before the upper lock gate is opened for the vessel to enter the lake on upstream lockage. No pro- vision was suggested for saving the fresh water which normally would be lost on downstream lockages. This plan appears to have considerable merit and preliminary designs and cost estimates for each site have been made for a salt-clearing lock designed from the standpoint of practical operation. The lock would be designed with ports in the floor of the lock lead- ing to conduits do^vnstream and ports on the sides of the lock, opening out above the maximum water level therein, leading to a fresh-water conduit extending to the barrier lake. The method of operation would he briefl}^ as follows : With a vessel locking upstream and with salt water in the lock chamber, the downstream lock gate would be closed after the vessel entered and fresh Avater introduced through the fresh-water conduit and ports on the sides of the lock at the surface of the water in the lock chamber. At the same time the salt water in the lock chamber wonld be drawn off through the ports in the bottom of the lock and discharged through the conduit leading below the barrier. In this manner the salt water in the lock would be gradually displaced by the fresh water let in on the surface. In order to get all of the salt w^ater out some fresh water of course would have to be wasted. With a vessel locking downstream, and the lock full of fresh water, the upstream gate would be closed and salt water introduced through the ports at the bottom of the lock chamber, gradually displacing the fresh water, which would be carried oft' through the open ports on the sides of the lock and conducted through the conduits back into the lake. Here again it would not be possible to save all of the fresh water in the lock. If the scheme should prove practical, however, a large portion of the fresh water which would be lost directly with the ordinary type of lock would be saved and, likewise, the scheme would prevent the entrance of salt water into the lake, with a fresh-water loss of only a small fraction of that required to flush out the salt w^ater after it had entered the lake in the operation of the ordinary type of lock. In order to carry out these operations and avoid undue delay to lockage of vessels, large size conduits with capacities of as much as t!000 second-feet for the larger locks would be required. In addition, large-size pumping equipment would be necessary under the variable b.ead conditions to pump the water in and out of tlie locks. Pump operating costs of course would be larger. 54 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES It is estimated that the delay to vessels in locking through the largest lock would be about seven and one-half minutes more than with the ordinar}^ type of lock proposed. For the smaller lock, an addi- tional delay of about five minutes would be entailed. However, during the greater portion of a normal year, when the stream flow is sufficient to supply ample water for continuously flushing out the salt water, the salt-clearing devices Avould not have to be operated and the lockage time of vessels Avould be reduced by reason of the larger capacity con- duits. Hence, the average annual loss of time to vessels by reason of locking through a barrier probably would not be any greater than with the ordinary design of lock. The important feature about the salt-clearing lock is the possible saving in fresh water which would be required for operation of the usual or standard type of lock. Once salt water entered the lake it M ould have to be flushed out in order to preserve the fresh quality of the lake waters. Although there is some doubt as to the amount of fresh water required for flushing out salt water in the quantity which would enter a barrier lake by the operation of standard locks, it is evident from the experimental data and studies of the United States Army Engineers and the experience of operations at the Lake Washing- ton Ship Canal that the amount would be large, especially witli the vol- ume of future water-borne traffic which might be expected. Hence, if some method could be found to prevent salt water entering the lake dur- ing lockage of vessels it would increase the conservation value of a bar- rier. It is estimated that, under future navigation traffic, the amount of water which might be saved by salt-clearing locks would have a value greater than the additional annual cost of salt-clearing locks. The amount of saving in Avater which might be realized by such a modifica- tion of plans will be more fully discussed in Chapter IV. Cost of Salt-clearing Locks. — Estimates of the additional capital and annual costs of constructing this type of salt-clearing locks in place of standard locks have been prepared for each of the three typical sites and are summarized in Table 4. TABLE 4 ADDITIONAL CAPITAL AND ANNUAL COST FOR SALT-CLEARING LOCKS Barrier site Capital cost Annual cost Chipps Island Dillon Point Point San Pablo- 13,500,000 $300,000 4,000,000 I 3B0,000 7,000,000 660,000 The estimates of annual cost for salt-clearing locks include inter- est, amortization, depreciation, maintenance and operation for future traffic with stream flow into Suisun Bay as during the period 1920- 1929. The cost of operation alone would vary from year to year in proportion to the volume of water-borne traffic, and even more with stream flow, Avhieh would affect the period of operation. It is esti- mated that annual operation costs would range from $25,000 to $75,000 at the Chipps Island site, $30,000 to $90,000 at the Dillon Point site ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 55 and $55,000 to $175,000 at the Point San Pablo site, corresponding to present and estimated future traffic about 25 years hence. The question as to whether the additional cost of salt-clearing locks would be justified depends upon their effectiveness in saving fresh water, which would have to be furnished to prevent pollution from salt water entering- a barrier lake with the operation of standard locks; and the amount and value of such water saved. The effectiveness and practicability of such salt-clearing devices are subject to some uncer- tainty because of lack of precedent. These could be finally determined only by carefully conducted laboratory experiments with models and possibly only after actual experience with full size locks operating under similar conditions to a barrier. However, it is reasonable to assume that some practical design and plan of operation could be devised, which would be eft'ective in substantially reducing the fresh Avater required for operation of locks. Estimates are presented in Chapter IV of the water required for lockage operations using salt- clearing locks, based upon a consideration of the results which might be reasonably expected to be effected by their operation. 56 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES CHAPTER III DEVELOPMENTS AND ACTIVITIES IN UPPER SAN FRAN- CISCO BAY AND SACRAMENTO-SAN JOAQUIN DELTA REGION AFFECTED BY SALT WATER BARRIER The primary objectives and the resulting efifects of a salt water barrier are chiefly related to present and future developments, opera- tions and activities in the upper San Francisco Bay and Sacramento- San Joaquin Delta region. An important part of the present economic investigation therefore has involved a study of the character and needs of both present and predicted future developments, operations and activities in this region, with particular regard to the necessit}^, desir- ability and economic justification of a salt water barrier for furnishing present and future water demands and facilitating the consummation of a complete development of the ultimate potentialities of the region. The industrial and agricultural developments, with the cities and towns connected therewith, and the location of operations and activi- ties in the upper bay and delta region, are shown on Plate II, ' ' Indus- trial and Agricultural Developments in Upper San Francisco Bay and Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta Regions Related to a Salt Water Barrier," MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES The present investigation has included a survey of the manufac- turing industries of the upper bay region, including the entire indus- trial district on both sides of the bay from the lower part of the delta on the east to the northerly boundary of Richmond on the west. Magnitude of Present Industrial Development. The industries in the upper San Francisco Bay region comprise a substantial part of the industrial structure of the San Francisco Bay region and California. Plate II shows the location of the major indus- tries in this area and present and potential industrial districts. The magnitude of present industrial development may be judged from the fact that it represents a capital investment of about $115,000,000, with an estimated value in annual production of $800,000,000. About 17,000 workers are employed, with an aggregate annual pay roll of about ^27,000,000. Table 5 summarizes the more important elements of indus- trial development, subdivided as to the portion above each of the three typical barrier sites. The figures compiled from data obtained directly from the industries are shown under the column headings "Partial for 1929." These comprise about 80 per cent of the entire industrial development. Based upon this information and other available data, an estimate was made of the total industrial development, which is shown under the column h(>adings "Estimated total for 1929." The PLATE II xC 3^ J. /.^: !^)LOD V/i'. ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 57 < O o u z < b Z w Q < I CO Q Z p— I b O u Q D H -o ^_ III oo ■So'"' CO o o oo r- -o j_ — oo II f~00 §§ lo 2'"' cr. -M S ooo §§ oo [«S CK^ oo 1" OO -o ^ TOOO l-l oToo oo W"" e© S £ Sl3c ooo oo -H oo oo ooo o o cooo oo 1-H o o o o ooo o o i-H oo o o ooo o c> CJ Oi O O Oi O O O O OOO oo t^o o oo oo oo ooo oo ^ oo oo ooo oo tP o o o o oo oo ooo oo oo oo ooo ■^o o oo coo O "to O t: « ^ ^ fl c3 C = w /^ w --|c '.' aV' ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 57 CD ^ .S3 S'V -3 rt 3a .s-« 3 O, «2; ElsS o o o oo CO o o o o lO Oi CO "o o o 00 oi o 00 000 00 CO 00 100 00 00 a ex ^ fl rt C = r 58 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES table also shows estimated totals for 1940, based upon the rate of growth exhibited by the industries during the last five years. It is interesting to note the distribution of industrial development with respect to the three typical barrier sites. For the area above the Chipps Island site, which comprises the industrial district from Pitts- burg to Antioch, the average number of employees and annual pay roll amount to 29 and 27 per cent, respectively, capital investment 16 per cent, annual value of products 9| per cent, and assessed valuation 13^ per cent of the total for the entire area above Point San Pablo site. For the industries above the Dillon Point site, the average num- ber of employees are 50 per cent, annual payroll 48 per cent, capital investment 37 per cent, value of products 37 per cent and assessed valuation 57 per cent of the total for the entire area above Point San Pablo site. Growth of Industries. There has been a substantial growth in the manufacturing indus- tries up to the present time. The evidence of the rate of growth is available only for the period of the five years preceding 1930, for which sufficiently complete statistical data were obtained from the industries reporting. The rates of growth in average number of employees, annual pay roll, capital investment and annual value of products are shown in Table 6. TABLE 6 RATE OF GROWTH OF INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT IN UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY REGION, 1924-1929 Item Average number of employees Annual pay roll Capital investment Average value of products Average annual rate of growth in per cent Above Chipps Island site 9.4 17.4 15.9 9.3 Above Dillon Point .site 10.7 14.5 14.0 5.5 Above Point San Pablo site Excluding industries in Napa- Petaluma 7.5 10.2 6.5 5.5 Including industries in Napa- Petaluma 7.5 10.0 6.G 5.1 As compared to these rates of growth, the average annual increase in value of industrial products during the period 1923 to 1927 was less than 1 per cent for the United States as a whole and a little over 4 per cent for California. In average number of employees and annual paj- roll during the same period, there was a decrease for the United States as a whole and an increase of less than 2 per cent for California. The comparison clearly indicates the healthy growth experienced by the industries in the upper bay region. Thus, in value of products, the rate of growth during the last five years in the upper bay region has been about one-third greater than the average for California and about .five times as Great as tlie average for the Ignited States as a whole. ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 59 Table 6 shows that the industries in the Pittsburg- Antioch area above Chipps Island site have experienced a much greater percentage of growth than the other parts of the upper bay region. Thus, in capital investment, the percentage of increase has been about two and one-half times the percentage of increase for the entire area, while in value of products the percentage increase has been almost twice that for the entire area. The history of growth of the manufacturing industries in the upper bay region shows that there has been at least one important industry located and put into operation in each decade since 1870. Starting with the location of the arsenal at Benicia and the navy yard at Mare Island by the federal government in the early fifties, the num- ber of major industries whir-h have located in the area during the several decades are as follows: Before 1881 6 1903-1910 12 1881-1890 4 1911-1920 6 1891-1900 2 1921-1930 13 The above figures indicate the rate of growth only in a general way, inasmuch as the type and size of industry is of greater impor- tance. Further details as to the type and character of these industries are presented in Appendix A, which also presents a complete tabulated list of the present major industries in the upper bay region. How- ever, the above figures give a general indication that there has been not only a continuous growth, especially during the last 30 years, but also that growth during the past decade perhaps has been fully as substantial and important as in any of the previous decades. It has been distinguished by three outstanding developments: (1) the Johns Manville Company, manufacturing asbestos products, established in 1925; (2) the United States Steel Products Company's tin plate mill, added to the steel mill in 1929; and (3) the Shell Products Company's chemical plant, established in 1930. A new plant of the Stockton Brick Company also has been established during 1930. It thus appears that no serious obstacles have arisen in the area to materially hamper the industrial growth to the extent that might be reasonably expected. If the industrial groAvth of the entire area were to continue during the next ten years at the same rate of increase as during the last five years, the number of employees would increase 75 per cent, pay roll 100 per cent, capital investment about 65 per cent and value of products 50 per cent above their present magnitude. The estimates for 1910, based upon the application of the average rates of growth during the last five years, are shown in Table 5. There is, of course, considerable uncertainty as to the accuracy of such estimates of future growtb and the figures can be deemed to be indicative only of the possibilities if the rates of growth experienced during the past five years continue during the next ten. The actual rate of growth will depend upon a number of factors which can not be foretold. It is evi- dent, however, that most of the factors which influence the location of industries are favorable in the upper bay region. Plate II shows many of these favorable physical elements for indus- trial growth in the upper bay region, such as suitable industrial sites, 60 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES deep water transportation, ample rail facilities, electric power and natural gas lines and fuel oil supplies. These favorable elements, together with the westward trend of industry as discussed in detail in Appendix A, form the basis for the reasonable expectation that the upper bay region will experience a continuation of substantial growth in industrial development. Industrial Water Supply. The one element among the factors influencing the location of industries which appears at present to be unfavorable is that of fresh- water supplies for boilers, processes and similar uses by industries. At present the industries in the upper bay region obtain part of their sup- ply from private wells, part from public water supply systems operating in the area and part from the upper bay and lower river. During the summer and fall months when the combined flow of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers into the delta and upper bay is small, saline water from the lower bay gradually invades the upper bay and lower river channels. During this five or six months' period of low stream flow, the water of the upper bay and lower river channels becomes so brackish that it is suitable only for cooling and condensing purposes. The period during which the water is brackish and unfit for industrial process use varies considerably geographically. Thus, in the Antioch- Pittsburg area the water may be fresh enough for all purposes for a period of six or seven months, depending upon the normality of the seasonal run-off and upon its distribution during the season. Below Pittsburg, the periods during which fresh Mater is available for all uses becomes progressively shorter the farther downstream. The records show that fresh water is available for a brief period in many years as far down as Carquinez Strait. However, there is seldom any time when the waters in San Pablo Bay are fresh enough for industrial process use, and then only at infrequent intervals during abnormally large floods from the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers. As a direct result of these conditions, it is found that only in the Antioch-Pittsburg district is any large use made of the river as a source of industrial fresh-water supplies. In the remainder of the upper bay region, fresh- water supplies are obtained almost entirely from private wells and public water supply systems. In former years it was possible for the industries along the shores of Suisun Bay to obtain more of their fresh-water supplies from the bay than has been possible during recent years. Because of the greater degree and duration of saline invasion into the upper bay and lower river channels since about 1917, the use of this source of fresh-water supply by the industries, especially in the Antioch- Pittsburg district, has been curtailed considerably. This has made it necessary for the industries to find other sources of fresh-water supply. Local ground water supplies in the Antioch-Pittsburg area have been developed at considerable expense to supplement the supply of fresh water obtainable from the lower river channels. Some of these well supplies have turned saline, giving rise to considerable apprehension as to the dependability of underground sup- plies in this district. The cause of the well supplies turning saline has been investigated by one of the large industries in this area and found to be due to the fact that more water is being pumped from the under- ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SAIjT WATER BARRIER 61 ground basiu than the amount of natural repleuisliraent from the tribu- tary drainage area, thus resulting in a lowering of the ground water level below the river level and allowing saline water when present in the river channel to enter the aquifer and pollute the well supplies. The industries in the lower Suisun Bay area also have been required to obtain a greater portion of their fresh water than in former years from private wells and by purchase from public water supply systems, generally entailing an increase of cost of supply. The California-Hawaiian Sugar Company at Crockett, which prior to 1920 obtained all of its fresh-water supply from the upper bay and river channels by means of water barges w^hich were filled at points upstream where fresh water was found, has, since 1920, obtained a part of its supply from IMarin County because of the greatly increased dis- tance which the barges had to be towed to get fresh water from the river under the conditions of saline invasion during recent years. Due to the greater expense and difficulty of obtaining fresh-water supplies by barge in this manner, the company is now (1930) developing an entirely new supply from wells in the lower end of the Napa Valley, and conveying the water by pipe line to Crockett. Inasmuch as the industries in the Pittsburg-Antioch district are relatively heavy users of fresh water for industrial process purposes, the lack of dependability in the present available sources of fresh-water suppl.y, both from the river and from underground, is a matter of concern. As a consequence, the industries in this area in particular have naturally focused their interest on the consummation of some plan which would make possible the diversion of fresh-water supplies throughout the year from the river, which evidently offers the cheapest and most logical source of industrial fresh-water supply. In order to make this supply available throughout the year some plan would be necessary to prevent the invasion of salinity into the upper bay and low^er river channels. A salt water barrier located at some point below has been proposed as one means of accomplishing this purpose. In the area from Pittsburg to Martinez, almost half of the indus- trial fresh-water supply is obtained from public water supply systems although a considerable portion is obtained from private wells. Only about 20 per cent of the total fresh-water supply consumed is obtained from the river or bay. In the San Pablo Bay area from Carquinez Strait to Richmond, about 70 per cent of the total fresh-water supply used is obtained from public water supply systems, while most of the remainder is obtained from the river. However, the water obtained from the river for use in this area is not a direct local diversion, but is made up almost entirely of the fresh-water supplies used by the Cali- fornia-Hawaiian Sugar Company at Crockett, which have been obtained by barges filled at points upstream where fresh water was available. One public utility serves the fresh-water demands of several indus- tries in Contra Costa County. This company, which originally obtained most of its supply from wells in the vicinity of Concord at the low^r end of Ygnaeio Valley, recently has completed a new development with a pumping plant at Mallard Slough, about two miles below the city of Pittsburg, and a pipe line from this point to a new reservoir near the town of Clyde, south of Bay Point. Water is pumped during a period usually of three to five months each year, when fresh water 62 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES is available at the point of diversion, and stored in the reservoir for use throughout the year. With this new development, M^hich is capable of considerable enlargement, the water company expects to have ample supplies to take care of all municipal and industrial demands in the portion of Contra Costa County it serves. The facilities probably could be made entirely ample to serve all industrial needs in this area. The unfavorable feature in connection with this supply is its relatively high price, which ranges in cents per thousand gallons from 23.3 for large users to 46.7 for small users. The industries using this supply have expressed a desire to obtain cheaper water. It is probable that a much cheaper water supply could be obtained from this or a similar type of development if all the industrial fresh-water demands in the area were combined under one system and the expense of water treat- ment eliminated. North of the bay in Solano, Napa and Sonoma counties, the indus- trial fresh-water supplies are served almost entirely by public utility and municipal water-supply systems, including those in Vallejo, Napa, Petaluma, Benieia and Suisun. The price of water is relatively high. Supplies are sufficient for the present needs in most of these districts, but there has been some difficulty in meeting present demands during recent dry years, especially at Benieia. Present Use and Cost of Industrial Water Supi)ly. — The present use of fresh water by the industries in the entire upper bay region is about sixteen million gallons per day, of which about thirteen million gallons per day is used in the area above Dillon Point and ten million gallons per day in the area above Chipps Island. The present cost of fresh water per thousand gallons, based upon the data submitted by the indus- tries, ranges from a minimum of 1.2 cents for water obtained from the river to a maximum of 93 cents for water obtained from public water supply systems, with an average cost from all sources (river, private wells and public water-supply systems) ranging from 2.3 cents for the industries above Chipps Island site to 11.9 cents for the industries in the entire area above Point San Pablo site. The lowest costs of industrial fresh water are found in the Pittsburg- Antioch area, where supplies are obtained cheaply from both river and underground sources. In the area below Pittsburg, about half of the fresh-water supplies are obtained from public water-supply systems at an average cost of about 37 cents per thousand gallons. The above costs of water include opera- tion, maintenance, depreciation and interest on the fresh-water supply systems of each industry. For supplies obtained from public water supply systems the cost includes also the price paid for water. Addi- tional details as to cost of industrial fresh-water supplies as related to source of supply and industrial district are presented in Appendix A. The fresh-water demands of the industries make up but a small part of their total water demands. By far the greater part of the demand is for cooling and condensing purposes, amounting at present in the entire area to 65 million gallons per day or about four times the fresh-water demand. The present demands for this purpose above the Dillon Point and Chipps Island sites are 38 and 10 million gallons per day respectively. The availabilty of the water supplies present in the ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 63 bay and lower river cliauiiels for this purpose is not limited by saline invasion. It is true that the use of saline water for cooling and con- densing causes a greater degree of corrosion and increased rate of depre- ciation in the cooling and condensing equipment, especially if the equip- ment is not designed for saline water conditions. However, most of the industries along lower Suisun Bay and San Pablo Bay have installed equipment designed for saline water. In general, all industries have installed equipment which will result in the least cost of maintenance and depreciation for the particular conditions and quality of water at their plants. The average cost of cooling and condensing water to the industries based on the data obtained from them ranges from 2 to 2.1 cents per thousand gallons. This includes the cost of maintenance, operation, depreciation, and interest on the investment for the cooling water sj'stems. Thus, the cost of cooling and condensing water to the industries is low and it is evident that the utilization of the bay waters for this purpose is satisfactory. The data on use and cost of industrial water in the upper San Francisco Bay region are summarized in Table 7. These data are compiled from the information obtained from the industries by the State Engineer's questionnaire, except for a small part of the amount .shown for the water used for boiler and process purposes which was estimated from other information for a few industries not reporting. The corresponding figures tabulated in Appendix A show only the ^vater used by industries reporting. The table also shows an estimate of the industrial water requirements predicted by the present indus- tries themselves for their needs in 1940. TABLE 7 USE AND COST OF INDUSTRIAL WATER IN UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY REGION (Compiled from data furnished by the industries) Area Amount used in 1929, in million gallons per day Predicted use in 1940, in million gallons per day Cost in 1929, in cents per thousand gallons Maximum Minimum Average Waterforboiler, process and miscel- laneous purposes Present industries above Chipps Island site Present industries above Dillon Point site - - 9.8 13.0 16.1 16.4 10.5 38.3 64.6 64.6 16.3 20.6 24.6 25.1 20.8 58.7 98.0 98 38.2 93.0 93.0 93.0 39.0 39.0 39.0 39.0 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.1 0.8 0.4 0.4 2.3 6.9 11.9 11.9 2.0 2.0 Present industries above Point San Pablo site: (a) Excluding Napa-Petaluma (b) Including Napa-Petaluma area Water for cooling and condensing purposes Present industries above Chipps Present industries above Dillon Point site - Present industries above Point San Pablo site: (a) Excluding Xapa-Petaluma (b) Including Xapa-Petaluma area 2.1 5—80996 64 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES Future Industrial Water Supply and Service. — There is room for con- siderable improvement in the present situation both as to source and cost of industrial fresh-Avater supplies in the upper bay region. As previously stated, this is the one unfavorable factor in the present situa- tion which might limit the future industrial growth in this region. It would be desirable to effect some means of obtaining fresh-water supplies both for the present and future needs of industries which not only would be dependable as to quantity and quality, but also cheap as possible and comparable to water rates in competing industrial areas. The furnishing of an adequate and dependable cheap fresh-water supply- would no doubt prove to be an attraction to heavy users of industrial water and would prol^ably stimulate industrial growth m the upper bay region. This objective might be attained by providing some means of controlling the invasion of salinity into the upper bay and delta channels so that water supplies uow or hereafter made avail- able in the lower channels of the Sacramento and San Joacjuin rivers could be utilized at all times for industrial fresh-water demands. The consideration of alternate plans with and without a barrier for con- trolling saline invasion and serving the industries as well as the munici- pal and agricultural developments of the upper bay region with required fresh-water supplies from this source is of primary importance in the present investigation and is presented in Chapter TV. INDUSTRIAL WATER FRONT STRUCTURES In connection with the industrial development and commercial activities of the upper bay region, there are a large number of docks and wharves along the shores of the bay for handling incoming and outgoing water-borne commerce. Most of the major industries are situated directly on the shores of the bay in order to take advantage of the cheap water transportation afforded by the upper bay channels communicating not only with ocean trade routes, but also with the inland waterways of the interior valley. Ocean-going vessels discharge and take on cargoes directly at the docks of many of the upper bay industries. In addition to the docks and wharves directly connected with major industries, there are dockage and warehouse facilities, especially in the Carquinez Strait area, in which cargoes of grain from valley shij^ping points, brought down by barge and other shallow river craft, are temporarily warehoused and later loaded aboard ocean- going vessels. In the present investigation, all of the industrial water front structures in the upper bay region from Antioch to Richmond, on both sides of the bay, were surveyed and examined and information obtained as to the character and type of structure and the capital and annual costs. As far as possible, the owners of the structures were personally interviewed and desired information obtained with the aid of ques- tionnaires. In cases where no data or only partial data could be obtained from the owners, an examination was made of the structures and estimates prepared of capital and annual costs, based upon data obtained on structures of similar type and character. In all, 256 water front structures were examined and information obtained thereon. Many of the structures examined were small, both as to size and value, ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 65 iiud Avere eliminated from i-oiisideratioii in the final studies and iinalyses. The studies presented hereafter have been confined to 150 water front structures Avhich, it is considered, might be affected by a change to fresh-water conditions above a barrier. No trestles or similar jiile structures on railroads in the area were included. The ferry slips and piers of the Southern Pacific Company at Benicia and Port Costa were omitted from the studies because of the imminence of their aban- donment. Similarly, those of the Sacramento Northern Railroad Com- pany ferry at Chipps Island (0. and A. Ferry) also were excluded iK'cause of the possibility of their abandonment in the not distant • uture upon construction of a proposed railroad bridge at this location. Infestation of Marine Borers. The industrial water front structures in the upper bay region have been seriously affected during the last ten to fifteen years by an infesta- tion of marine borers, chiefly the teredo, which attack and destroy tim- ber piling in saline water. Prior to the occurrence of this infestation, most of the industrial water front structures in the upper bay region, even on the shores of San Pablo Bay, were supported on untreated timber piles. Many of these structures stood for a considerable period of years without molestation by marine borers, although it is evident that the degree of salinity present in the waters of San Pablo and Suisun bays in most years would have made it possible for the teredo to live and attack the timber piling. The first discovery of the teredo in the upper bay channels was made in lOl-i', when a borer, later iden- tified as Teredo navalis, was reported in a structure at ]\Iare Island. There was also some evidence that it had been there in 1913. Its activities in this area of the bay were temporarily curtailed between 1914 and 1917 because of the occurrence of heavy precipitation and run-off with large floods discharged from the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers freshening up the upper bays and either killing the liorers or temporarily curtailing their activities. During this period, liowever, the teredo infestation spread to all parts of the lower bay, where waters of higher salinity prevailed, thus adding this borer Teredo navalis to the marine borers which already existed in the lower bay, including the hanl'ia and Ibnnoria. Beginning with the subnormal period of precipitation and run-off in the year 1917, the teredo infesta- tion in the upper bay region soon developed renewed activity and by 1919 most of the untreated timber piling supporting the water front structures had been destroyed. ^Nlany wharves collapsed in 1919 with ;^dditional failures occurring during 1920. According to the report liased upon the exhaustive investigation of the San Francisco Bay Marine Piling Committee,* the destruction by the teredo affected 50 structures with a damage estimated at $15,000,000 up to 1920. By 1921 all of the untreated piling in the upper bay region had been destroyed and the same authority estimates the total damage amounted to at least $25,000,000. In the upper bay region every untreated pile structure as far upstream as Antioeh was attacked in varying degree. * "Marine Borers and Their Relation to Marine Construction on the Pacific Coast." Final report of the San Francisco Bay Marine Piling Committee, 1927. 66 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES Following this destruction of the untreated piles, reconstruction was immediately started using treated timber and concrete piles. Thus, at present, capital investments have already been made to replace most of the original untreated timber piles with more resistant types. How- ever, untreated timber piling is still in use to some extent. The most permanent of the resistant types of piling is that of reinforced concrete which, if properly constructed, may be considered as permanent in so far as freedom from attack of marine borers. The other resistant types of piling, including creosoted timber and timber piles with concrete jackets, are still subject to some attack because of the imperfections in the protection afforded. Life of Piling. Excluding the more permanent concrete piling, the timber piling in the present industrial water front structures comprises in general six distinct types of round piles and three of sheet piling. Based upon information obtained from the owners of tliese structures and other sources, the average life of each of these types of piling has been esti- m.ated for each of the areas for present average conditions of salinity in the bay and is shown in Table 8. TABLE 8 LIFE OF TIMBER PILING IN UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY REGION UNDER PRESENT AVERAGE SALINITY CONDITIONS Estimated life in years Type of piling Above Chipps Island site Between Chipps Island and Dillon Point sites Between Dillon Point and Point San Pablo sites Napa- Petaluma area Round piles (') 30 20 (') 15 6 (') 25 20 15 30 15 10 (') 5 (') (') C) 15 30 15 (') 5 3 40 (0 15 30 25 20 Sheet piling 40 (I) 30 ' No piles of the particular type are now present in the particular area. Capital Cost of Present Timber Pile Structures. The capital cost of timber pile structures segregated as to type of piling and for the areas above and between barrier sites are shown in Table 9. These costs are compiled from data obtained from the owners of the structures and include the original cost of piles, bracing, caps, stringers, decks and superstructure. As shown by this table, the total cost of all industrial water front structures with timber piling in the upper bay region between Point San Pablo site and Antioch aggregates $5,900,000, of which about 7 per cent is above Chipps Island site, 28 per cent between Chipps Island and the Dillon Point sites and about 62 per cent between Point San Pablo and Dillon Point sites and but 3 ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 67 TABLE 9 CAPITAL COST OF PRESENT INDUSTRIAL WATER FRONT STRUCTURES ON TIMBER PILES IN UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY REGION (Compiled from data furnished by owners of industrial water front structures) Capital cost Type of piling Above Chipps Island site Between Chipps Island and Dillon Point sites Between Dillon Point and Point ■ San Pablo sites Napa- Petaluma area Entire upper bay region Round piles $103,000 923,000 335,000 19,000 $337,000 1,381,000 586,000 Vf,o6o^ $440,000 Fir — creosoted, best construction-- Fir — creosoted, inferior construc- S26,000 196,000 2,331,000 1,117,000 19,000 Redwood, gum and cedar, 78,000 121,000 56,000 331,000 96,000 66,000 100,000 6,000 200,000 274,000 826,000 Sheet piling 102,000 3,000 8,000 3,000 Fir — untreated 843,000 11,000 862,000 Totals $432,000 51,654,000 S3,630,000 $184,000 $5,900,000 per cent in the Napa-Petaluma area. The structures in the Napa- Petaluma area are of small importance and value relative to the major industrial water front structure development of the upper bay region, and may be eliminated from further consideration. The estimated capital cost of timber piling in place in the upper bay region is shown in Table 10. The figures show the estimated cost per lineal foot for round piles and per cubic foot for sheet piling. These are based upon data obtained from the owners and are repre- sentative of average costs during recent years in the entire upper bay region. The cost of the better type of creosoted timber pile is about two and one-half times that of an untreated pile in place, while the concrete- jacketed timber piles are estimated to cost over three times the untreated timber pile. TABLE 10 CAPITAL COST OF PRESENT TIMBER PILING IN UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY REGION Type of piling Estimated unit cost in place' Materials Labor Total Round piles Fir — concrete-jacketed Fir — creosoted, best construction Fir — creosoted, inferior construction.. Fir — creosoted, redriven Redwood, gum and cedar — untreated Fir — untreated Sheet piling Creosoted — best construction Redwood — untreated Fir — untreated $0.80 $0.20 $1.00 .75 .25 1.00 .70 .20 .90 .40 .20 .60 .42 .18 .60 .22 .18 .40 1.50 .50 2.00 .80 .40 1.20 .65 .35 1.00 1 The cost estimates for round piles are on the lineal foot basis, while those for sheet piling are on a cubic foot ba.sis. 68 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES Annual Cost of Timber Piling. Based upon the estimated capital cost and life of the various types of timber piling for the several geographical subdivisions of the upper bay region segregated by barrier sites, the annual costs of present piling under the present averase conditions of salinity have been estimated and are presented in Table IL These estimates include interest, main- tenance, repairs, insurance, miscellaneous expense, and depreciation, and are shown per lineal foot for round piles, per cubic foot for sheet piling and in total for both types. Interest is assumed at 6 per cent TABLE 11 ANNUAL COST OF PRESENT TIMBER PILING IN UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY REGION UNDER PRESENT SALINITY CONDITIONS Type of piling Estimated annual unit costs' Total quantity of piling Area Interest, repairs, insurance and mis- cellaneous expenses Depre- ciation Total (round piles in lineal feet, sheet piling in cubic feet) Esti- mated total annual cost Abnve Chipps Island site Round piles Fir— «reosoted, best con- SO. 11 0.10 0.06 0.04 0.10 0.09 $0.01 0.02 0.03 0.06 0.02 0.03 $0.12 0.12 0.09 0.10 0.12 0.12 15 000 z < CO Q Z < o H Z U) <; «0 Q Z "" a 3 8 Z < z < » C) C^ CJ C^J C^ CQ ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 83 important cities and towns in the upper bay region, based upon data obtained from the various municipalities and public utilities. The data are subdivided as to location of the towns above the three typical bar- rier sites. There are a few smaller towns not shown, because complete data were not available. The public water supply systems shown in Table 19 report devel- oped water resources of about eiGrhteen million o-alions per da}^ with an average use of 7.5 million gallons per day in 1929. The cost of water per thousand gallons to the companies and municipalities averages 34 cents for the entire upper bay region, ranging from an average of 25 cents for the area above Chipps Island to 38 cents for the area between the Dillon Point and Point San Pablo sites. The relatively high cost of water is due to the large expenditures required for development of the limited local water resources and the small use relative to the amount of developed supplies. Actual water rates to consumers are somewhat larger on the average. Future Water Supply and Service. Looking forward to the future, it is evident that additional sources of water supply will become necessary to provide for the increasing water demands of urban and suburban districts as they gradually grow with the future increase of industrial, agricultural and commercial activities. The studies in regard to a plan for meeting the future municipal water supply requirements are presented in Chapter IV. SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE The problems of sewage and industrial waste disposal are of such a nature that they have been the subject of a special study and report made by the Bureau of Sanitary Engineering of the State Department of Public Health, presented as Appendix E. The present sources, amounts and character of pollution and its effect on the quality and redeemabilitj' of water supply have been determined by field surveys and laboratory analyses. Studies have been directed to a consideration of the eflPect of present and predicted future sewage and industrial waste pollution, under present methods and means of disposal, upon the quality and redeemability of water in a barrier lake, and of dis- posal and treatment works required with a barrier. Present Conditions and Effects of Pollution. At the present time, the channels of San Pablo and Suisun bays and the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers receive most of the sewage and industrial waste from cities, towns and industries in the upper bay and delta regions. On the Sacramento and San Joaquin River chan- nels below Sacramento and Stockton, respectively, even the present amounts of sewage pollution during the period of low stream flow seriously affect the quality and redeemability of the water supplies for some distance downstream, both from a bacterial and organic standpoint. However, the natural processes of oxidation which result in the consumption of organic matter and the extinction of harmful bacteria are so effective that redeemability of the waters is regained a few miles below the sources of pollution. The studies show that. 84 DIVISION OF WATEK RESOURCES by the time the waters reach the lower ehaniiels of the Sacramento- San Joaquin Delta, they are satisfactory and redeemable for all pur- poses under present conditions of pollution and would probably be satisfactory and redeemable for a long time in the future. The water in the lower delta would be practically normal as regards oxygen con- tent and the bacterial content would be small and easily taken care of by the usual treatment methods. In the bay region below the mouth of the rivers, tidal action materially assists in the removal of sewage and industrial waste discharoed into the channels and little if any nuisance results therefrom. Tt is believed by the Bureau of Sanitary Engineering that the present methods of disposal under the same or similar tidal conditions as the present would probably be satisfactory for an indefinite period in the future. Effect of Salt Water Barrier on Sewage and Industrial Waste Disposal. If a barrier were constructed creating a lake in the upper bays, tidal action would be eliminated above the structure and its present effectiveness in removal and disposal of the pollution would be lost. Probable results of discharging sewage and industrial waste into a barrier lake can best be measured by the effect of sewage pollution in the Great Lakes region, where conditions are closely comparable to those which would obtaiu for a barrier lake. Based upon the effect of sewage pollution in Lake Erie, it is concluded that the continued discharge of sewage and industrial waste into a barrier lake, especially in the increasing amounts to be expected with the future growth of industries and municipalities, would pollute the lake to such an extent that the water would be unredeemable for domestic and higher indus- trial process uses. The pollution would be particularly serious in the portion of a barrier lake in what is now Suisun and San Pablo bays, where industrial and urban developments along the shores are now and would continue to be of greatest density and would discharge heavy pollution loads into the lake. There would also be polluted areas in the river channels, especially below Stockton nnd Snrramputo. and at other points of pollution, but their effect would be local as far as redeemability of water supply is concerned and a satisfactory supply would be available in the lower delta channels. In order to preserve the quality of water supply in a barrier lake so that there would be no limitation upon its use for all purposes, it would be essential to provide sewage and industrial waste disposal works to intercept and convey the effluents to some point below a bar- rier. It would be feasible to construct such necessary disposal and treatment works, but substantial expenditures would be involved. Pre- liminary designs and cost estimates for disposal and treatment w^orks required indicate that, for a barrier at Dillon Point site, there would be involved a capital and annual cost of $3,800,000 and $400,000, respectively ; for a barrier at Point San Pablo site, a capital and annual cost of $6,800,000 and $780,000, respectively. If anything, these fig- ures of estimated cost are believed to represent the minimum amount of expenditures which might be required for this purpose. It is pos- sible that temporary measures of relief might be obtained by a disposal at some poiut in a barrier hike fur distant from the points where ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 85 water supplies would be extracted. Studies of such projects have been made, but it is concluded that the safest and surest method of handlino; such a situation would be a disposal below a barrier. By such a plan, all of the sanitary sewage and the troublesome industrial wastes, consisting of various deleterious chemicals and wash waters from oil refineries, would all be conveyed below a barrier lake and the waters thereof thus preserved fresh in quality for industrial and domestic uses. Some of the industrial w^astes now discharged with the cooling water effluent could be separated out with rather simple arrangements and the cooling water thus returned without pollution to a lake. In this way about 80 per cent of the waters diverted for cooling and condensing purposes could be saved and returned to the lake. AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT The agricultural areas, comprising present and potential irrigation and reclamation developments, which might be aifected by construction and operation of a barrier include the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, and the marshlands and uplands adjacent to Suisun and San Pablo bays. (See Plate II.) At present there is considerable variation in the character and intensiveness of agricultural development and activi- ties in these several areas. The most intensive development and utili- zation of lands for agricultural purposes is within the delta. The bay marshlands have been only partially developed and are utilized to a limited extent for agricultural purposes at present. On the upland areas adjacent to the two bays, the lands are mostly dry farmed, w^ith irrigation applied on but a small part of the area. Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. The Saeramento-San Joacpiin Delta, embracing a gross area of about .500,000 acres, contains some of the richest and most highly developed agricultural lands in the state. These lands were originally swamp and overflow areas, built up by deposits of silt and aecumlations of decayed vegetation. Reclamation development w^as started prior to 1860 and was continued at a more or less uniform rate until the lands were practically all reclaimed at the beginning of the last decade. The entire area is a typical delta formation, consisting of numerous islands separated by a network of channels through which the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers discharge their waters into Suisun Bay. Lands and Crops. — The total net area of present reclaimed agricul- tural lands within levees aggregates 421,000 acres, of w^hieh about 350,000 acres are now devoted to crop production. In 1929, about 9000 acres of these reclaimed lands were temporarily flooded. The crops grown include asparagus, potatoes, sugar beets, corn, beans, celery and other truck crops, alfalfa, wheat and barley, and a consid- erable acreage in orchards, mostly of pears and peaches. The value of crops raised in 1929 is estimated at $30,000,000. The taxable wealth of the delta area is approximately $45,000,000. A large part of the soils on these delta islands, especially the southern portion of the delta on the San Joaquin River side, consists of peat. These peat soils extend for some little distance up the lower channels of the Sacra- 86 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES mento River and the lower reaches of the Mokelnmne River. The northern portion of the delta along the Sacramento River is composed mostly of silt soils hnilt up by deposits from the river. Water Suppl!/ and Irrigation Operatiom. — IMost of the crops in the delta are irrigated. Water supplies for irrigation are obtained directly from the delta channels surrounding the islands. A large portion of the delta lands lie at an elevation below mean sea level and even below low tide level. "Water is diverted from the channels very generally by means of siphons over the levees or through large gates in the levees. However, for the higher lands along the Sacramento River above Rio Vista and in the southerly part of the delta on the San Joaquin River, water is diverted by pumping. As a general rule, the irrigation supply diverted through siphons or gates is carried in the same system of main ditches that are used for draining the lands and controlling the water table. These main ditches are filled and water diverted therefrom through smaller ditches, ten inches wide by eighteen inches deep and from 70 to 200 feet apart, depending on the crops, and held therein six to eight inches below the ground surface and allowed to seep out into adjoining fields. After the water table has arisen sufficiently, the drainage pumps are operated to lower the water in the ditches so that the water table can be con- trolled within the desired limits. This is the typical method of irriga- tion throughout the delta with the exception of the higher lands, along the upper part of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers, where the usual methods of surface irrigation are practiced. In a large part of the delta lands natural seepage from the adja- cent channels is of considerable amount. The water which enters the islands by natural seepage contributes materially to the moisture consumed by crops, vegetation and soil evaporation on the delta lands. In some cases of deep-rooted crops, such as asparagus, the ground water originating from natural seepage is depended upon to furnish moisture requirements of the crop. In general, hoAvever, irrigation is necessary to obtain a more flexible and more rapid regulation of the moisture requirements of different crops and different depths of water table best suited to the different crops grown. Extensive systems of drainage ditches and drainage pumping plants are an essential part of the regulation of the water table and moisture requirements. Levees. — The levees which have been constructed for the reclamation of the delta lands have been brought to a grade and cross section which at the present time afford protection, except for extreme floods. The construction of the levees has involved many years of continuous work and large expenditures. This is especially true for the levees which have been built in peat formation. These peat formations subside under the weight of levee material and it has been only by continued work year after year that such levees have been brought to desired grade and cross section. Even at the present time, there still exists many weak sections of levee which require constant attention. Settle- ment of the levees is still being experienced on many of the islands and it is necessary to operate dredges periodically in order to maintain the grade and cross section. In the areas of silt formation, especially ;dong the Saci-amento River, no difficulties of this kind are experienced. » ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 87 However, considerable maiuteuanee work is required from time to time, especially along the main channel of the Sacramento River, consisting of revetments and bank protection devices to repair the damage of erosion caused by floods. Throughout' the delta, much levee maintenance work consisting of bank protection to repair and resist wave erosion is required. This is true especially for unprotected sections of levees which lie in a direction across the main path of the prevailing winds. In addition to wind erosion, the waves set up by passing vessels and small craft, cause considerable erosion damage. Remedial measures to repair the effects of this erosion are necessary from time to time. Salinity Conditions. — During certain years since 1917, the invasion of saline water into the delta channels has been of rather serious magni- tude and has threatened the dependability of water supply used for irrigation. Notably in 1920, 1924 and 1926, the invasion of saline water extended a greater distance up the channels of the delta than had ever occurred before as far as is known. At the time of maximum extent of invasion in 1924, the water in the channels of nearly one-half of the delta had a salinity in excess of 100 parts of chlorine per 100,000 parts of water. The amount of salinity in irrigation water that crops can stand varies ^^^th different crops and different soil and drainage conditions. Information is not available to fix a definite limit of suitability, but it has been generally assumed for average conditions in the delta that a salinity of 100 parts of chlorine per 100.000 parts of water is about the maximum amount which would be safe for use on most crops. In 1920 and 1926, about one-fifth of the delta was similarly affected. These saline invasions have made it necessary to cease irrigation diversions in certain areas of the delta during the latter part of the irrigation season. This has resulted possibly in some decrease in crop yields but no definite information has been found as to any losses in crops for any year up to 1930. Earlier and more prolonged invasions of salinity than have occurred up to 1930 might result in material loss in crop production. There has been considerable speculation upon the effect of saline invasion on the quality of the lands within the delta. In so far as can be a.scertained by the present investigation, the invasions of salinity which have occurred up to 1930 apparently have not affected the qual- ity of land. This appears to be true even for those lands which lie nearest the lower end of the delta, including such areas as Sherman. Jersey, Bradford, Twitchell, and Brannon islands and the Webb Tract. The waters in the channels adjacent to these lands have been invaded by saline water to an extent sufficient to make the water unfit for irrigation use during limited periods in several of the past ten years. However, the period of saline invasion into the delta is usually of relatively short duration, comprising about three to six months of the summer and fall in the lower delta channels and correspondingly lesser periods at points farther upstream. It appears that the period of saline invasion has not been suffi- ciently extended during any year up to 1930 to seriously affect the quality of the lands adjacent to the invaded channels. Any effect of saline water entering the islands from the adjacent channels would 88 DnaSION OF WATER RESOURCES presumably be indicated first by an increase in the salinity of ground water within the islands. Samples were taken in 1929 and 1930 of the water in the drainage ditches inside of both Jersey and Sherman islands. These records show that, for these years at any rate, the salin- ity of the waters inside the islands was not seriously affected or increased by reason of the greater salinity present in the adjacent channel waters during the period of invasion. Usually, no water is diverted into these islands when the Avater in the adjacent channels is of harmful saline content. Just what the effect of a longer period of saline invasion than has been experienced up to 1930 would be on these delta lands is impos- sible to state, nor can a statement be made with any degree of certainty as to what period of saline invasion could be experienced by these lands without affecting their quality. It appears probable that the saving feature in the conditions which have been experienced during the past ten years or even farther back is the fact that fresh water is present in the adjacent channels during a major portion of the year and is therefore the predominating source of the ground water supplies which fill the voids in the island masses. A fresh water supply thus stored up in the ground is available for a considerable period of time and apparently its quality within the reach of plant roots is unaffected by invasions of saline water in the adjacent channels which extend over periods of considerable duration. However, if water of a high salinity were to remain present in the channels of the delta during a larger portion of the year, it appears possible that the ground waters in the islands would gradually become saline and thus affect the quality and utilization of the soil. Conditions would tend to approach those which are found in the marshlands of Suisun Bay, w^here saline water conditions have predominated over a longer period of time. Although the evidence appears to show that the delta lands and crops have not been materially damaered by saline invasions which have occurred up to 1930, the salinity menace has tended to depreciate land values in the delta. Until this menace is removed there exists a more or less constant threat of more extensive and prolonged saline invasions than have occurred up to 1930, which might result in material damages to crops and lands in the delta. There does exist a more or less serious problem of salt accumula- tions in the soils of the delta islands which it is deemed desirable to discuss in this connection, inasmuch as there has been a considerable tendency to confuse this problem with the invasions of saline water from the bay. Because of the method of irrigation in the delta with ground water levels held from six inches to three feet below the ground surface to supply the moisture requirements of the crops, there results a positive tendency for the gradual accumulation of salts in the surface layers of the soil. This is due to the fact that capillary- action draws the moisture from the water table to the ground surface and, upon evaporation, leaves in the surface layers of the soil whatever salt con- tent it had. Where the water is generally very pure and contains but a small amount of salts, the accumulation of salt by this action is extrem.ely slow and it takes many years to accumulate enough salt to affect crop production. While the water supply in the delta is com- paratively free from salt, the man}' years of irrigation under the p ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BxVRRIER 89 methods used tends to result in the gradual accumulation of salt in the surface layers of the island soils. Direct rainfall when of suffi- cient quantity', helps considerably in leaching out such accumulations. However, during- periods of subnormal precipitation such as the last thirteen years, the leaching action of rainfall is greatly diminished. Thus far the problem has not reached serious proportions except in a few isolated instances. However, the evidence of actual accumu- lations is sufficiently clear to have brouu'ht it to the attention and serious consideration of many of the delta landowners. It is evident that measures should be taken before many years to eliminate these accumulations of salt which tend to gradually occur. The evidence shows that the salt which has been accumulated in tlie surface layers of soils in the delta is chiefly the result of the meth- ods used in irrigation involving the maintenance of high water tables for the growing of crops. Fresh water is especially important with this method of irrigation, as the use of water of greater salinity would tend to increase salt accumulations in the soil. Protection of Delta from Saline Invasion. — The delta could he pro- tected from saline invasion by a salt water barrier at some point below the confluence of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers; or, without a barrier, by stream flow. The detailed consideration of these two alter- nate methods of salinity control is presented in Chapter IV. With either method of control, adequate and dependable water supplies could be provided for the needs of the delta by furnishing additional supplies from mountain storage reservoirs to supplement the stream flow available to the delta under existing upstream irrigation and storage developments. With the method of control by streamflow without a barrier, the present regimen of the delta channels and the operations in the delta would be unaffected. If salinity were controlled with a barrier, how- ever, the physical conditions would be considerably altered, and hence consideration must be given to the effect such changes might have on the developments and operations in the delta. The principal change would be the elimination of tidal action and the maintenance of a fairly constant barrier-lake level in place of the present fluctuating level in the delta channels. Such a change would have some effect on opera- tions in the delta, including irrigation, drainage and levee maintenance, and the costs of the same. The proposed level, which would be more or less continuously held in a barrier lake, is about three feet above mean sea level, or a higher level than the present average water level in most of the delta throughout a major portion of the year. The pres- ent average, maximum and minimum water levels in the delta channels during the period of low stream flow are graphically shoAvn on Plate III, "Tidal Keference Planes in San Francisco Bay and Delta of Sac- ramento and San Joaquin Rivers." Effect of Barrier on Irrigation in Delta. — The effect of a barrier upon irrigation operations and costs in the delta would be somewhat variable. For most of those portions of the delta where water is now diverted through siphons or gates, conditions probably would be equally satis- factory. In other portions of the delta, notably in the upper reaches (if the San Joaquin River channels, where the present levels at high tide 90 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES are above the level proposed in a barrier lake and permit of gravity diversions, it would be necessary to divert water by pumping. For these areas, cost of irrigation would be increased. For such delta lands as now are irrigated by pumping from adjacent channels, irrigation costs would tend to be decreased by reason of a higher average level and a resulting smaller pumping head. The studies indicate that the increased irrigation costs which would be entailed in some areas would probably be about balanced by the decreased cost which would be realized in other areas. In any case, the increase or decrease in cost would be relatively small and not important in this economic study. Effect of Barrier on Drainage Operaiions in Delta. — In the matter of drainage cost, however, a constant barrier-lake level higher than the present average level in the delta would tend to increase drainage costs, both by reason of increased seepage and greater pumping head. This would be especially true for the islands in peat formation where there is apparently a considerable amount of seepage from the adjacent channels. No exact infonnation as to the quantity or rate of seepage into the islands is available as there is no method by which an exact measure- ment can be made of the same. It is pos.sible, however, to obtain a fairly close approximation of the amount and rate of seepage on the basis"^ of available records for three of the islands. On Staten Island, Jersey Island and District 999, data have been obtained upon which fairly accurate estimates have been made of the amount of water pumped from the island by the drainage pumps, the amount of water artificially diverted into the islands, and the amount of water added by rainfall. In addition to these records, an estimate has been made of the consumption of water by crops and vegetation. Records of this kind are available for Staten Island covering the period January, 1929, to June, 1930 ; for Jersey Island from June, 1929, to May, 1930 ; and for District 999 for the period May to October, 1927. Over a long period of time it may be assumed that the total amount of water put into an island from all sources would be equal to the total amount of water taken out of the island by all agencies during the same period. This assumption would be exactly true if the average elevation of the water table at the beginning and end of the period considered were exactly the same. Unfortunately, no detailed records are avail- able of the fluctuation of the ground water level in these islands, except for District 999. However, over the period of a year, it appears reason- able to assume that the average level of the water table at the beginning and end of the period would be practically the same. The total amount of water put into an island emanates from three sources, namely, rain- fall, irrigation diversions, and seepage. The total amount of water taken out of the island consists of the water actualh' consumed by crops, vegetation and evaporation and the amount of water pumped by the drainage pumps. Actual records are available for estimating all of these quantities on these three islands, with the exception of seepage. On the assumption of a balance between the total amount of water put in and the total amount taken out, it has, therefore, been possible to finally make an estimate of the total amount of seepage into these islands for the period during which records were available. As a SACRAMENTO RIVER PLATE III s v> tide _ 1 1 1 1 r __ __ — — 1 -4 1 1 1 1 — ^ 1 ;*?••••■ 1 Mean < ea level ^ \ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 cri t: 70 80 SO 100 no SAN JOAQUIN RIVER iO-» "• ■* I Maximum hightide i Mean hi.'^htide Mean half tide Mean low tide Minimum low tide w a: o q: e 3 (TJ CO O ■- 70 80 90 100 ranee in miles from the Golden Gate 110 -^. rds /els lan- con- TIDAL REFERENCE PLANES IN SAN FRANCISCO BAY AND DELTA OF SACRAMENTO AND SAN JOAQUIN RIVERS SOUTH SAN FRANCISCO BAY SAN FRANCISCO SAN PABLO CARljUINEZ SUISUN I SACRAMENTO RIVER TIDAL REFERENCE PLANES SAN FRANCISCO BAY AND DELTA OF SACRAMENTO AND SAN JOAQUIN RIVERS ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 9] result of these studies, the estimated amounts of seepage computed as an average rate during the period of record for the several islands are as follows : Staten Island, 1929 0.135 acre-foot per acre per month Jersey Island, June, 1929, to May, 1930 0.174 acre-foot per acre per mouth District 999, lower unit. May to October, 1927 0.083 acre-foot per acre per month In the computations from the records in District 999, a correction was made for the lowering of the ground water level during the six months' period. In the case of both Staten and Jersey islands, how- ever, covering a full year's period, no correction was made for any difference in ground water level, it being assumed that the average ground water level was the same at the beginning and end of the yearly period considered. The estimated seepage rates for these three islands, while not to be considered exact, nevertheless are believed to be approxi- mately correct. It is interesting to note that the computed figures indicate that the greatest average rate of seepage is on Jersey Island, which is probably representative of a typical peat soil formation, while on Staten Island, which is partly composed of peat and partly of silt, a smaller average rate of seepage is indicated ; and that the average rate of seepage on District 999, which is probably typical of the delta islands of silt formation, is about half that for the typical peat formation as shown on Jersey Island. If the water level in a barrier lake were held at a constant eleva- tion higher than the average level under present conditions, it is evident that the rate of seepage into the islands would be increased. This is demonstrated not only by actual observations of increased seepage occur- ring during periods of high water in the delta, but also from the fundamental laws and experiments of hydraulics. The rate of seepage is a function of the differential head between the water level in the delta channels and the ground water level in the adjacent land area. Hydraulic experiments have shown that the rate of seepage flow through soil varies directly with the differential liead. Thus, the seepage rate would be increased in the ratio of the dift'erential head with tlie higher barrier-lake level to the average differential head now experienced. In addition to the increase in seepage into the islands, a higher barrier-lake level would increase the pumping head through which all drainage water would have to be lifted. The actual cost of pumping operations, especially energy consumption, varies directly with the pumping head and hence the actual cost of drainage pumping would be increased in proportion to the increase in pumping head. The total amount of drainage water pumped emanates from three sources, namely : rainfall, irrigation diversions, and seepage. The por- tion of the total quantity supplied from each of these three sources, which is not consumed by crops, vegetation and evaporation, must be pumped by the drainage pumps. It appears reasonable to assume that the relative amounts of water contributed from these three sources to the total amount of drainage water to be pumped out would be in about the same proportion as the ratio of the quantity from each source mmmmf^ qT(«?WTl ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 93 {!rea. At the same time this additional quantity of water would have to be pumped against a greater head than now experienced, the increased cost of Vhich would be in direct proportion to the increased pumping head with a barrier lake. The present operating costs for pumping of seepage water, estimated at half of the total operating costs as above shown, therefore would be increased with a higher barrier- lake level in direct proportion to the ratio of the squares of the differ- ential heads with a barrier lake and with the present average water level. The estimated cost of pumping seepage water alone with a higher barrier-lake level is expressed by the following formula : Let Cb = Cost of pumping seepage water with a barrier lake Cp = Present cost of pumping seepage water H = Present average pumping head assumed as the difference in elevation in feet between the ground water surface and the channel water surface at mean half tide. li = Additional pumping head with a barrier lake (equals the difference in elevation between a barrier-lake level and the elevation of mean half tide). fH + hV Then, Cb=Cpj \ Finally, increased cost for pumping seepage water == Cb — Cp In addition to the increased cost of pumping seepage water alone, the operating cost for pumping the drainage water from other sources, representing the remaining half of the total operating cost, also would be increased by reason of the greater pumping head. The amount of increase would be in direct proportion to the ratio of the pumping head with a barrier lake and the present average pumping head. Both of these increases in drainage pump operating costs would apply to that period of the year when a barrier-lake level would exceed the average level now experienced in the delta. During the winter season of large stream flow, present average levels would tend to approach the proposed barrier-lake level. It may be assumed that, under average conditions in the central portion of the delta wherein this study of increased drainage cost directly pertains, the increase in drainage cost would apply to a period of about nine months each year. Based upon the above assumptions, an estimate has been made of the probable increased cost of drainage pumping operations in the delta which would result from the maintenance of a barrier-lake level of three feet above mean sea level. This estimate is confined to the central portion of the delta wherein the islands of peat or predomi- nantly peat formation lie and wherein a barrier-lake level would be higher than the present average water level during the greater portion of the year, assumed at nine months for the purpose of the estimate. In arriving at the total estimated increased cost, consideration was given to the difference in seepage rates, as shown by the data available on two of the typical islands within this area, and also to the variable difference between the present average level in different portions of the area and a barrier-lake level. Based upon these considerations, it is estimated that the cost of drainage pumping operations in the delta with a barrier would be increased on the average about $100,000 annuallv. 94 DI VI SI ox OK AVATKK* RESOURCES Effect of Barrier on Levee Mainicnance. — There is considerable uncer- tainty as to the effect of a constant barrier-lake level on the mainte- nance of levees in the delta. At present, the exposed sections of levees lying at right angles to the prevailing winds are subjected to serious erosion and damage due to wave action. Of perhaps greater impor- tance, however, there also is a considerable erosion damage on exposed levee slopes due to the waves set up by passing boats. This latter is reported to be much more serious than is generally known or realized. It is stated by representatives in the delta, who are best qualified by knowledge of conditions in this region, that the erosion from waves of passing boats would be more serious, both as to magnitude and effect, if concentrated at a constant elevation of water instead of the fluctuat- ing level as at present. The integrity of the levees in the delta must l)e constantly guarded and damages due to erosion must be repaired periodically in order to maintain their strength. The capital invest- ment in levees in the delta is estimated at $27,000,000 and hence it is essential to protect this large investment from serious damage as far as possible. Maintenance work to repair erosion damage caused by passing boats usually consists of removing the undercut portion of the levee cross section and placing the same, with additional new material, on the landward slope of the levee so as to once again provide a stable levee section and slope on the water side. IMaintenance work of this kind is said to be necessary about once in twenty years. With a con- stant water level, it is estimated that this maintenance work would have to be done perhaps every ten to fifteen years. The cost of such mainte- nance work has been estimated from typical cross sections of eroded levees obtained for representative levee sections in the delta. The amount of earth work involved in removing the undercut portion of the levee cross section, providing a smooth slope on the water side, and reinforcing the levee on the landward side, is estimated at ten yards per foot of levee, with an estimated cost of $1.15 per foot or about $6,000 per mile. To supply the funds on a 5 per cent sinking fund basis to do this maintenance work once in 20 years would require an annuity of $181 per mile, while, for once in twelve and one-half years, an annuity of $357 per mile would be required. The annual cost of such maintenance work with a barrier would therefore be increased an indicated annual amount of $176 per mile. The total number of miles of levee which would be affected under this consideration is uncertain. However, it appears probable that it would apply mostlj^ to those levees which lie in the San Joaquin Delta and the lower Sacramento Delta. There is a total of about 1100 miles of levees in the entire delta. It is estimated that 700 miles of this total should be considered as being affected by increased rate of erosion requiring more frequent maintenance work by reason of a constant barrier-lake level. Based upon the foregoing assumptions, the increased annual cost of levee maintenance in the delta with a barrier is estimated at about $120,000. Benefits of Protection from SaUne Invasion. — The prevention of saline invasion into the delta either by means of a barrier or by stream flow without a barrier and the furnishing of dependable fresh-water supplies for irrigation in the delta channels would materially benefit the delta ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SAT-T WATER BARRIER 95 arva. Thore would b*^ no eurtailmeul in irrigatiou !supi)lies and hcnc*' there would be no diminution in crop yields such as may have occurred in certain years of the period 1920 to 1930. Of much greater impor- tance, however, would be the benefits resulting from the removal of the menace of saline invasion, which now^ threatens the integrity of crop production and land values in the delta. If coupled with the furnish- ing of necessary supplies to take care of the full consumptive needs of the delta, the control of salinity would tend to increase land values in the delta and would eliminate the possibility of expensive water liti- gation as between the delta and up-river users. The value of these benefits might be estimated but such estimates would involve intangible and uncertain elements. However, it is evident that the beneficial results of whatever nature or value would be the same with either method of salinity control. Hence, no evaluation of these benefits has been made in the economic studies presented in Chapter IV. Suisun and San Pablo Bay Marshlands. Adjacent to Suisun and San Pablo bays there is a gross area of about 130,000 acres of marshlands which are partially farmed at pres- ent and which might be completely reclaimed ultimately and developed for agriculture. As shown on Plate II, these marsh areas are about equally divided between the two bays, 69,000 acres of the total lying in the Suisun Bay area and 61,000 acres in the San Pablo Bay area. Information as to the natural conditions and original character of the marsh lands and the history of developments and activities thereon has been obtained mostly from old time residents of these areas, and is believed to be the most authentic information available. The data presented hereafter with reference to these matters is based upon this source of information, supplemented to some extent by information found in previous federal and state reports, early newspapers, and other publications. Xatural Conditions Prior to RecJomation. — In their original state of nature, these areas had the typical characteristics of salt or brackish water marshlands, consisting of islands separated by a network of tidal sloughs. Before reclamation, a large part of these lands were sub- merged by the high tides occurring each day. Limited areas of higher ground bordering the sloughs and along the exterior borders of the marsh area were submerged only by the occasional extremely high tides. During the winter season, however, when large floods occurred, most of the marshland area adjacent to both bays was submerged for consider- able periods of time. The ciuality of the water in the sloughs of the marsh area varied considerably during different periods of the year. In the Suisun Bay area, the winter floods from the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers and the adjacent local streams usually provided fresh water in the marsh channels for a considerable period of each year. During the period of low stream flow, however, saline water from the lower bay gradually replaced the fresh water in these chan- nels, generally resulting in the presence of water of considerable salinity for a period of five to six months or more each year. The amount of salinity was not uniform throughout the entire marsh area, but was greatest in the channels downstream near the lower end of 7—80996 96 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES Suisun Bay and gradually decreased to smaller amounts in the extreme upstream portion immediately below the confluence of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers. In the San Pablo marsh area conditions were similar. The flood waters of the Napa River and Sonoma and Petaluma creeks generally put fresh water in the sloughs and channels interspersing the marsh area during the winter. It is probable, how- ever, that the water in the San Pablo marsh sloughs has always been of greater average salinity and has remained saline a longer period of time each year than commonly has been the case in the Suisun marsh area. The old time residents of the marsh areas state that the original native vegetation on these lands consisted of various aquatic plants (tiiles, cat-tails, sedges and wire grass), salt grass, pickle weed, and some red top and clover on the high lands bordering the sloughs. The aquatic plants generally grew where water was normally present con- tinuously, whereas the salt grass grew on the higher ground not usually flooded and the pickle weed in isolated pockets lacking drainage. Salt grass was the predominating growth over most of the marsh area. Before any reclamation occurred, these marshlands were used for pasturing beef and dairy cattle with generally satisfactory results. Their use for grazing was usually alternated with upland pastures. However, it was necessary each year to remove the stock during periods of high water when the marshlands were inundated. Frequently, delays in removal of the stock resulted in serious loss from drowning. Reclamation Development. — No exact data are available as to the time when the first reclamation work was initiated on these marshlands. In the Suisun Bay area, the available information indicates that the earliest reclamation efforts were started subsequent to 1860. The "Arkansas Act" was passed by Congress on September 28, 1850, grant- ing all swamp and overflow lands to the state. This was followed in 1855 by State legislation providing for the transfer of swamp lands to private individuals and, in 1861, by the first reclamation act of the State Legislature creating a board of swamp land commissioners. The first report of the Swamp Land Commission, made about six months after the passage of this act, listed some 28 districts formed under the act. Two of these, containing about 3000 acres, were in the Suisun marsh area. More than 20 districts, embracing practically all of the swamp lands east of Suisun and Goodyear sloughs on the north side of Suisun Bay, were formed during the period, 1860 to 1880. Following their formation, most of these districts completed a partial reclamation system, consisting largely of levees high enough to protect the lands from normal tidal inundation. A few districts have been formed in this locality during the last 20 years. At present, most of the reclama- tion districts are practically inactive or inoperative. In the San Pablo Bay area, the first definite information as to the initiation of reclamation work appears to place the same about 1880. Most of the reclamation work in this area has been carried out by private individuals, with only a few swamp land or reclamation districts being formed. The earlier reclamations were made on the rim lands bordering the main marsh area. These were followed by construction of levees and reclamation works covering various island units. E(^ONOMr(' ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 97 The first reclainatiou works consisted of the so-called "China levees." Those were small embankments built with Chinese labor by cutting out sections of the sod, approximately eighteen inches square and a foot thick, and piling them up to form an embankment, averag- ing three to five feet high and with a narrow top width and steep side slopes. It is reported that the contract price for these levees was .^1.12| a rod. As the sod dried out an additional layer was placed and an effort made to cause the roots to unite the sod into a solid mass. AVhen built of silt sod, the levees were tight and would withstand over- topping. When built of peat sod, considerable difficulty was experi- enced, due to shrinkage and cracking, resulting in leakage and frequent failures. To drain off seepage and water slopping over the top of the levees, simple wooden floodgates were provided in some of the sloughs that naturally drained the enclosed lands. These levees were built only slightly above the normal high tide level. The lands still were subjected to flooding during the river flood stage, but the embankments were quite successful in keeping out the high June tides, unless they were coincident with a strong southwest wind. Following this initial levee construction work, more effective utilization of the lands was Diade for cattle gTazing by filling up the smaller sloughs with material borrowed from the higher ground adjoining. However, the larger sloughs were generally left open for drainage purposes. This improve- ment work resulted in the gradual replacement of aquatic vegetation with salt grass and some red top. The earliest attempts to grow crops on the Suisun and San Pablo Bay marshlands were confined chiefly to the raising of hay and grain. Hay and grain were successfully raised on several of the reclaimed areas after leaching operations had effected a sufficient removal of the salt from the soil. This leaching was effected partly by utilization of direct rainfall which was allowed to accumulate on the land and, after standing a few days, drained oft* through flood gates; and partly by flooding the land with fresh water diverted when available from the adjacent channels. Early efforts in raising crops such as sugar beets, beans, and other field crops, are reported to have been largely unsuc- L-essful. There are, however, certain isolated instances reported of ]iotatoes and other crops grown on small areas in the Suisun Bay marshes. Winter Island, lying in the extreme upstream portion of the Suisun Bay area, is reported to have been farmed some 30 or 40 years ago. Much difficulty was encountered in maintaining levees against high river flood stages and June tides and this is reported to have beeji the chief reason for the abandonment of farming operations on this island. Similar difficulties in maintaining levees, resulting in the fail- ure of efforts to produce crops, were encountered on Chipps and Van Sickle islands and other marshlands of peat formation. The informa- tion available indicates that the area cropped on the Suisun Bay marsh lands has always been relatively small and probably never much greater, if any, than the present cropped area. The principal utiliza- tion of these marshlands always has been for cattle and dairying. Up to about 20 years ago the original "China" levees formed the only protection to these marshlands. Incidental maintenance work and necessary repairs were made from time to time but the construe- 98 mVISION OF WATER RESOURCES tion of the present levee system is a development of the last 20 years. The original levees have been strengthened and raised by dredges to their present sections. This has been a more or less continuous process due to the fact that the levees continually settle on the soft marsh formations. Therefore it has been necessary to place the material in thin layers gradually building up the levees to grade and cross sec- tion over a considerable period of years. As a matter of fact, settlement still continues in many sections of the levees and additional work will be required for a considerable period in the future. The present levees have an average height of five or six feet, a top width of six to eight feet and side slopes of about two or three to one. Except for very high tides, combined w^ith strong southwest winds, or high river flood stages, the existing levees success- fully protect the enclosed land. Within a few years from the time of construction, most of the levees are reported to silt up and compact to such an extent tliat the seepage through them is relatively small. The levees built in the sections of peat formation have always given trouble and require continuous maintenance even at present. At present about 67 per cent of the marshlands adjacent to Suisun Bay and 76 per cent of tliose adjacent to San Pablo Bay are enclosed in levees. Table 20 shows the areas within and outside of levees in the two areas. TABLE 20 LEVEED AND UNLEVEED MARSHLANDS ADJACENT TO SUISUN AND SAN PABLO BAYS Location Area of marshlands in acres Leveed land in per cent of total Leveed Unleveed Total Suisun Bay North side 44,600 1,900 14,100 8,300 58,700 10,200 76 19 Subtotal 46,500 45,400 500 22,400 13,200 1,700 68,900 58,600 2,200 67 San Pablo Bay 77 South side.. ... 23 Subtotal - 45,900 14,900 60,800 76 Totals 92,400 37,300 129,700 71 As shown by Table 20, 71 per cent of the entire area of marsh- lands adjacent to both bays now is enclosed within levees. The chief development is for the areas lying north of both bays where the main bodies of marshlands lie. The marshlands along the south side of Sui- sun Bay and along the southerly or easterly side of San Pablo Bay comprise only a small area and have received very little attention from an agricultural standpoint and it appears probable that their future utilization will be largely devoted to industrial and commercial activi- ties, and that little, if any, agricultural development will be made thereon. Considerations of future agricultural development of these upper bay marshlands may therefore be confined to the main marsh- land areas lying north of the two bays. ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 99 Charade)' of Present Development and Operations. — Although a large portion of the marshlands are reclaimed to the extent of being enclosed within and protected by levees, the provision of drainage works and the improvement of the soil for the utilization of the lands for crop pro- duction is not only extremely variable but far from complete. In the Suisun Bay area, only 5000 acres, or 11 per cent of the land within levees, now are farmed. In the San Pablo Bay area a much larger per- centage of the leveed land, amounting to 24,000 acres, or 52 per cent of the total within levees, now is farmed. In the Suisun Bay area, most of the lands are poorly drained, with no adequate system of drainage ditches. Only a few drainage pumping plants are installed and drainage of the lands is effected for the most part by operation of tide gates, which allow the interior waters to drain out during periods of low tide only. Owing to the fact that most of the marshland lies at an elevation at or below mean tide level, the soil drainage is very imperfect as far as crop production is concerned. On lands farmed at present, drainage systems are in operation with fairly satisfactory results. In connection with tw^o small areas devoted to crop production, tile drainage systems have been installed connecting with main open drains and drainage pumping plants. The tile used is four to six inches in diameter and spaced in lines 30 to 150 feet apart. Where the larger spacing is used the tile drains are usually supplemented with "gopher hole" drains made with a special subsoiler run at right angles to the tile drains and spaced at intervals of six to eight feet. The depth to tile drains averages four to five feet and the "gopher hole" drains are about one foot shallower. The cost of tile drainage is stated to be relatively high. The lands farmed in the San Pablo Bay area are generally provided with adequate open drains. Drainage is controlled mostly by tide gates, and only a few drainage pumps are operated. A large part of the Suisun marsh area now is devoted to private duck preserves, which at present occupy about 28,000 acres, or 60 per cent of the total area within levees. Although the first private duck clubs in the Suisun area were started many years ago, their rapid devel- opment and expansion has occurred largely during the past ten to twenty years. Due to the splendid duck hunting in this area and its nearness to metropolitan centers, a situation has developed wherein the bulk of the Suisun marshlands now appear to be more valuable as duck hunting preserves than for any other purpose. Thus, a large portion of these leveed lands adjacent to Suisun Bay are operated pri- marily for duck hunting, supplemented in some cases by cattle grazing outside the duck hunting season. In the normal course of operations most of these duck preserves are flooded with water by means of flood- gates in the month of August or September and remain flooded until the end of the duck hunting season and for a considerable period there- after before they can be drained. The water which is used to flood these lands in the fall is usually rather heavily impregnated with salinity. Hence, this general practice of operation by the duck clubs probably has increased the saline content of the lands. In the San Pablo Bay area there has also been some development of duck preserves, about 4500 acres now being occupied for this purpose. The lands so 100 DIVISION OF "WATER RESOURCES ocenpied have gone back to tlieir original salt marsh character and whatever improvements might have been made by previous leaching operations have been entirely lost. The lands which have been cultivated and farmed continuously liave also tended to become more saline due to the fact that the saline water is generally present in the adjacent channels during a large por- tion of the year, thus resultinsr in no fresh-water supply being available for a considerable period to freshen the ground water inside. Due to capillary action, there tends to be a gradual accumulation and increase of salinity in the surface layers of the soil. Rainfall is effective and is largely depended upon for leaching out the salts which tend to accumu- late in the surface of the soils on which hay and grain are grown. It is reported that there appears to be an increase in salinity in these soils during recent years, probably due to deficient rainfall. In the unculti- vated areas within levees, there also has tended to be a gradual increase in the saline content of the soil, as a result of the elimination of Deriodi- cal fioodings of the land with fresh water which occurred under natural conditions. Present Crops and Vegetation. — A field survey has been made of the entire marshland area to classify the present natural v^egetation and cultivated crops. The results of this survey are summarized in Table 21, and graphically shown on Plate IV, "Crops and Vegetation on Lands Adjacent to Suisun and San Pablo Bays." Only about 7 per cent of the total marsh area adjacent to Suisun Bay is cultivated and farmed, whereas about 40 per cent of the total adjacent to San Pablo Bay is at present under cultivation. By far the most important and extensive crop in both areas is grain and hay, three-fourths of the farmed area in Suisun Bay marshes and 98 per cent of that in San Pablo Bay marshes being devoted to this crop. The other crops culti- vated are small in extent and economic importance. The asparagus culture in the Suisun Bay area, which comprises 500 acres on Grizzly Island, is a recent venture. The greater portion, consisting of a 400- acre tract, is just coming into bearing in the third year since planted and, while it appears to be growing with satisfactory results, the final success of the undertaking can not be predicted at this time. No expense has been spared in the development and preparation of this land, on which a complete tile drainage system, open drains, and drain- age pumping plants have been installed. Beans and other crops grown in 1930 were only partially successful where the soil conditions were sufficiently favorable. The native vegetation of pickle weed, salt grass, foxtail and various aquatic growths are of particular interest because of their consumptive use of water and also because they indicate, with a fair degree of accuracy, the character and quality of soil, especially in respect to salt content. It will be noted from the data shown in Table 21 that pickle weed comprises about one-quarter and one-third of the total area of native vegetation in the Suisun and San Pablo Bay marshes respec- tively; while salt grass comprises about three-eighths and one-eighth, respectively, of the total. Soils. — The soils of the Suisun and San Pablo Bay marshlands consist of deposits of silt brought down by the rivers and adjacent local streams PLATE IV ^' K'^ — ' A"M E D A^ *^<^an Leandro Orchards aiid Grain and miscellaneous field crops LTncultivaled or wild pasture Aqtiatic vegetation. ie.. tides and cat-tails Sail ^rass. pickle weed and miKcellaneous weeds CROPS AND VEGETATION ON I^NDS ADJACENT TO SlUSUN AND SAN PABJ.O BAYS Scale ol" miles ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 101 C^OOOOO CO — lO 00 en CO ^ CO CO CO CD Q 3 ■*-'—« c^ c >> • - 3 S5 S^ C5 « O 3 O CCS < C.O -a M sa< § c oooooo o oo oooo o O o o 5 « - S CC »-H O — in oo Oi o — ■* — CO oo Sec ;3iO >n o ■^ o. 9t3 rC 05 COiO CO CO eo ^ C-l" -^' CO fc C5 M C5 ^ _^ OOOOOO o t-Ol o^a'-'TCO ^ CO CO o S " • — s'rt •«■ ■^ tC o "t^ ^ 2^ O f "*^ -a-a < o, o ^ ti Ji « O ' ' 'OO C5 oo oooo — , o o o o St3 C 3 ^ , . , „ .^ ooor^Tf Tf CO c3 e c: ' ■ ■ c-1 — CO CC C^l — 'iOCC Cl oo ■^ C-l_ t-. 00 '.s ^ ; i i s; •*— " o"odco" c? o -— _ ooo oooira ^r OOO t-ooo "l7 ^ "c7" CO o ■ - 3'rt ira o C3 es" S O ea ■^ ^ fee«_ o <: 0.0 'rt j= P-i o CO o i i loo o OO O i i 1 o o o o . S M ' ' .00« CI oo C3a OO i 1 1 >o Ci ^ cc o a C4 C CO 1 1 1 c- ■2|« — ooooo „ t^t~ OiO->}.CO ~«" CJ OJ •^ o •^ u^ o cf S o T3 <; S.O .3 o o ' 1 'oo o OO OOOO o o o o Q Z - S oo . ■ -mco COC^l cooor^M' o o .-3 £ co_ «= £ S n \ \ \ Co" •o-'o U3 00 CO of _r oo < 3 ^' 1 1 , CI ^" CO lO ■" .s-s-« >n— .o-"00 ,^ CO .— .nu5«-. !0 ^ CO "^ o ■3 a: CC CI CO 00 o S3 s'E^ C y: -c-c < ao 3 3 oooo !o o oo OOOO o o (^ ^ (;j a-a - S C^l -.c ^ O ' -^ t^OC OCOI^I^ CJ t~;^>« IC tM o U? CO c^ ^f r- t^ t^ 35 O 3 Ij lO Cf TT i-~^co c; ..- -^ o „^_ OOOOOO o =r.-. oco«— . _; CI ^o~ o o C^ CO 31 o a u o & 0) pa J= -S o.'o s 3 o 1 ! 1 i 1 o ^2 oooo o o o o o cc t^o OOOiO — ^ 05 o CC a g CiCO CO t^ 03 (- £S c^co CO d^ cS "^.S •S"S« cc_o— • OO oo COOi iOX!^^ ~U5~ ■.»' «~ t*. o CO ^ c^ o <-" o o S i_ ■** •g < S. o i 1 J3 ■£ oooo lo o oo OOOO O o o ^ o O §i O0K>— iO 1 — :o OOO O lO CO o z -.3 lO lO ■ CO 35 >raM_r^-.3 o cc^ QC s CO ! ■* oT-T ^co C5 «-; ~ « 00 ' -J s i : i ' c a> 1 , , 1 >l i i i is. '. I'S 3 -O -3 , , 1 , ^ 1 ' S ' ' ' •g :g .2 i „•='■' '2 C I i£ ^ . I , 3 ■" !J3 09 i 11 i ; ; :1 IliJI^l g§ S^ 3 E £ ■£ J :£ .£ ■ ■ s 1 '^1 © X i) °*- Scc<£< sedges, wire Foxtail Wild oats Miscellaneous X vegetation Water surface pool.;, etc.). Koads and bai 1 o 2 .2 CJ z z / %^^dL/'' -8jfn3% If! ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 101 1 NOOOOO c^ ^ O QO OiCO *-* CM CO CO to o a >. .£^•3 IM o i^ . fll .*J rt t> o OJ . -*^ 3 o £ fc.- CCS <: o, o •a a gfi< = c oo oo o o O OO oooo O o o o o 1^ a M CO — O — lO to oo CTJ O-HTf" — CO CO oo o BM C3 £ CO_iO «OC<1CO QOO COO^_t^ C7S o .^ »o t^ °| rC C5 OiO CO^Cm'cO" 0-f -t' CO tc t35 ■^ .5^3 oooooo O t^ en o i< ^ iM to CM CM ^ £-, J3 m •^ ■<1< >o 2 l-i 03 S "O C 3 < D.O 2 ° o 1 ' loo O oo oooo (^ o o o o - 2 ,-1 1 . 1 ,— -<9^ o •"H ^H OOO t^-^ 05 r , 1 00 O 1^ o o o •n ■^ CM to o lO — . r^ o >t a n ^3 ^ fet4_ o -i; 0.0 13 JS 3 o 1 1 loo o oo o 1 1 1 Q o o o o O - S CO 1 1 .QO— 1 0-*CM •a C) CM Tji o ■* o cf o O "O t, ^t,_, <; o, o J3 O o 1 1 loo O oo oooo o o o o o - S QO • 1 icon ■^ CO CM CM 00 t^ -^r o o o cc ^^ ■^ CM to to "^.S CO ' ' ' CO M*"o lOodcM c>r W ,-H cm" QO =~) 1 1 1 (M " CO >o J3 -Jl jl a-o o a ira— 1 o— ■ oo " CO to TT o o o oo 1 o O oo oooo o o o o o . s CM CO ^ O 1 '-' 1^ 00 O CO t^ 1^ 00 o B £ t^ Ut. lO ' O-l O lOCO CM.<:rt^t^ ■ra c-j_ t^ li co' 1 ■o of^ r^co "3 cf c-f •rf oo ■" .s|3 OOOOOO o OJ-H OCMrt-H o c-1 oo o o CMCO CM o C3 S "O >i a ^ .■*^ m 15 ■< S.'S 3 O 1 t 1 ' 1 o oo oooo Q CD O o o '3 o ca rt £ TJ1 1 1 1 1 t ■* i>-o ooom— . ifi o OSCM^ t-.,-! — . ^1 -^ t- cm' CO CM Ol o "*J '^ .s|3 CO^O— lOO ~^ f?2 ^--^^-^ U5 -, CO t~ o o ca" S o S t- ''^ 3 <: 0.0 x: oooo lo o oo C20 o o o O o o - £ ;o ooo OiracM to 00 trs Z ■.0_>0 lO 1 i i i i is. 1 1 3 - 1 1 1 a '-6 ' ! :"i : ! ! ■5 1 cjs ultivated crops Grain and grain 1 Blue grass Alfalfa Asparagus Corn Truck and field c 3 3 CC ative vegetation Salt grass, Pickle weed Aquatic growths sedges, wire gr Foxtail Wild oats Miscellaneous "o "3 cc vegetation Water surface (d pools, etc.) Koads and bare 1 ees and mud fi; o cc K 1 U z z 1 102 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES intermixed Avith variable amounts of accumulated decayed vegetation. The Bureau of Chemistry and Soils of the United States Department of Agriculture, in cooperation w^ith the Division of Soil Technology of the University of California, has recently completed a field soil survey of the marshland area on the north side of Suisan Bay and the portion of the marshlands north of San Pablo Bay within Solano County. The results of this survey are as yet unpublished but preliminary informa- tion has been obtained for the purpose of this investigation. Tn the Suisun marsh area, about 25,000 acres have been fullj^ classified. The balance, or somewhat more than half, has not as yet been classified in detail and has been designated preliminarily^ as '' undifferentiated marsh- lands. " The detailed survey covered all of Grizzly Island and most of the marshland to the south and east thereof. The "undifferentiated marshlands" include the area north and west of Grizzly Island, the westerly part of Wheeler Island, and Roe, Ryer, Simmons, Freeman, Dutton and Snag islands. Independent observations and comparisons, however, indicate that the soils in this latter area comprise the same types as found in the area classified in detail. There are three main soil types classified by the soil survey : namely, Ryde clay loam, muck and peat, and Ryer silt loam. The names "R^'de" and "Ryer" are provisional. The "Ryde" will probably be correlated with the "Sacramento" series of soils and the "Ryer" with the "Columbia" series of soils. In addition, there is a recently filled-in area of about 1700 acres in the northeastern part of Grizzly Bay that is as yet unreclaimed and which has been classified as tidal marsh. The three principal types of soil are described as follows : "Ryde Clay Loam" has a light grayish brown or brownish gray surface soil eighteen to twenty-four inches in depth. It is friable, easily handled, tillable, noncalcareous, has a good water-holding capacity, and is moderately well supplied with organic matter. The subsoil is stratified with alternate layers of peat and sediment. The same type of soil, in a slightly different phase, occurs on Ryer, Grand and Sutter islands in the Sacramento River Delta, particularly in the interior of the islands. About 60 per cent of all the Suisun marshlands and most of the San Pablo marshlands evidently come under this classification. This type of soil occurs along the slough banks and extends out there- from for appreciable distances. It was upon this soil that the redtop and clover were reported as growing up to about ten to twenty years ago. "Muck and peat" has a surface layer about 24 to 36 inches deep, is dark brown in color, fibrous and spongy and contains no great amount of mineral matter. Underlying the surface soil is decomposed organic matter, which is finely divided and described as muck. This soil has enough mineral matter in it to be satisfactory for crops and has a very high water-holding capacity. It occurs largely in the interior of the islands, away from the slough banks, and makes up about one-third of the total Suisun marsh area. Only small areas exist between the Napa River and Sonoma Creek in the San Pablo Bay area. "Ryer silt loam," covering less than 5 per cent of the Suisun marsh area, occurs in a strip from half a mile to a mile wide along the southerly side of Grizzly Island and in a narrow strip extending west- erh' from Collinsville for about two miles. It is very similar to a ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 103 soil found on Ryer, Grand and Sutter islands in the Sacramento River Delta. The soil is of a light brown or light yellowish brown color, is friable, has a good water-holding capacity, and has only a moderate content of organic matter in the top soil. The subsoil is about the same in color, but mottled because of poor drainage. The soil is noncal- c-areous, has a rather uniform texture throughout the top six feet and is apparently a rather new soil. The portion near Collinsville is used at ]iresent for raising a mixture of blue grass and oats for feed, while that on Grizzly Island is planted to barley, except for about 300 acres in asparagus and beans. Alkali Content of Soils. — Neither the present soil survey nor previous ones have included field determinations of alkali or salt content. There- fore, the quality of the soils, as regards allvali or salt content, must be based upon the visible evidence from inspection of the lands, together with the indications of native vegetation and the results of farming operations. An examination and estimate of alkali or saline conditions have been made by representatives of the state and the soil experts of the United States Bureau of Chemistry and Soils and the University of California. Over considerable areas, evidence of the presence of salts in the soil is clearly visible on the ground surface. For the unculti- vated areas, the native vegetation forms the best index of the presence and amount of alkali or salt. At present the uncultivated marshland area is largely covered with salt grass and pickle weed. The amount of alkali salts indicated by salt grass and pickle weed is somewhat uncertain, because of variable conditions of soil and soil moisture. Extensive investigations by the United States Department of Agriculture and experiment stations of various states have been made in the arid-west region, including Cali- fornia, to determine the indicator value of these plants as to presence and amount of alkali. The published results of these investigations in many reports have been used as authority for the following data on alkali content indicated by these plants, and the tolerance of various crops to alkali. General statements to follow are based upon the average chemical character of the so-called "white alkali" salts. The so-called ''black alkali," which, unlike the white alkali salts, is chem- ically alkaline in reaction and of corrosive character, is generally absent or occurs only locally as traces in this region. Salt grass and pickle weed are two of the most salt resistant plants which will grow with a high water table. Of the two, pickle weed grows in the presence of greater concentrations of salt, usually with not less than two per cent and frequently with four per cent or more, expressed in terms of dry weight of soil. Salt grass will grow on lands containing salt concentrations from as low as 0.2 per cent to as high as two per cent or more, and hence is not as valuable as pickle weed as a quantitative index of salt content. It is believed, however, that presence of salt grass will usually indicate an alkali content averaging one per cent or more. The presence of the various aquatic plants such as tules, cat-tails and sedges, found by actual observation along the borders of the sloughs and channels of both the Suisun and San Pablo Bay marshes, indicates that these plants will stand a considerable range of salinity without appre- ciable effect. However, at present, tules and cat-tails predominate in the Suisun Bay area, while sedges predominate in the San Pablo Bav 104 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES area. Inasmuch as the average saline content and period of salinity are greater in the San Pablo marsh channels than in the Suisnn marsh channels, it may be concluded that the tules and cat-tails indicate fresher water conditions than the sedges. Foxtail and similar grasses will grow under salt concentrations of 0.6 to 0.8 per cent. On the uncultivated marshlands of both the Suisun and San Pablo Bay areas, pickle weed and salt grass occur mixed in various propor- tions all the way from a pure stand of one to a pure stand of the other. Quite frequent^ the pure stands of pickle weed are found growing in clumps several feet in diameter with bare ground in between which was apparently too strongly impregnated with salt for even pickle weed to get started. These bare spots often clearly show white crystalline deposits of salt on the surface. Based upon this evidence of present natural vegetation, it may be reasonably concluded that the salt content of the soil in the upper few feet of depth will probably average about two per cent. Tolerance of Crops to Alkali. — The alkali or salt content of a soil which prevents successful growing of various crops is generally expressed on the basis of the percentage of salts to the dry weight of soil. However, inasmuch as the amount of soil moisture and hence the strength of the saline solution has a wide range, the effect of given amounts of alkali is subject to considerable variation. The more moisture in the soil, the lower will be the concentration of alkali in the soil moisture, and the less harm will the alkali do. Sandy soils hold much less water for any particular depth than loam or clay soils and hence a given percentage of alkali in terms of dry weight of soil will produce a much more concen- trated saline solution. A large amount of organic matter such as is con- tained in a peat soil greatly reduces the harmful effects of alkali. In set- ting up the limits of tolerance of various crops to alkali, it is generally assumed that the soil contains a degree of moisture favorable for the growth of the particular crops. The normal limits of alkali tolerance also generally refer to the more common types of soil encountered of a loam or clay loam nature. The limiting amounts of alkali "which crops can resist generally apply to maturing crops. For germination and growth during the seedling stage the limits will in many cases be considerably lower than those commonly stated. The limiting amounts of alkali "which crops will stand also depends upon the kind of alkali salt present. Crops will generally tolerate a greater amount of the sulphates than chlorides, whereas the presence of black alkali (sodium carbonate) will prevent growth of practically all crops. If the alkali is largely concentrated in the surface of the soil, the limiting amount which a given crop can resist will be lower, especially at the time of seeding. In the following data on limiting amounts of white alkali salts under which various crops can be successfully grown, the amount of alkali is expressed in terms of percentage of dry weight of soil within the depth penetrated by the plant roots. The data have been taken from the published reports of the investigations of the United States Department of Agriculture and various state experiment stations previously referred to. "Where the surface foot of a soil contains an alkali content of 0.2 to 0.5 per cent, the soil is usually considered unfit for the cultivation of most crops. However, the toxicity of alkali to various crops varies con- ECONOMIC ASl'KCTS OF A SAI/r WATER BARRIER ]()o siderably. Crops such as oat hay, grain, barley and asparagus success- fully withstand alkali concentrations of from 0.4 to 0.6 per cent, and barley hay 0.6 to 0.8 per cent. These are the crops that have been grown most successfully in the marshland areas adjacent to both bays. The areas which are now farmed to these crops may be assumed to have an alkali content in the top soil of as much as 0.5 to 0.6 per cent on the average. The present freedom of these particular areas now farmed from a harmful degree of salt content has been effected by continuous farming operations, utilizing the leaching action of direct rainfall and inundations of fresh water when present in the adjacent channels to carry off the accumulations of salt which naturally tend to occur in the soils. Efficient drainage works are an essential feature to the success of present farming operations. Possible Future Development of Marshlands. — If the marshlands of Suisun and San Pablo bays are to be developed and utilized for general agricultural purposes, extensive improvements in drainage and reclama- tion works and much development work would be required. The present soil conditions, as previously described, are characterized by heavy con- centrations of alkali salts, which must be removed at least from the upper three feet or more of the soil before crops of all kinds can be grown successfully. It is possible that this could be accomplished over a considerable period of development by means of adequate works, but the expenditures required would be large. In order to successfully accomplish the leaching out of salts from these soils, a thorough and complete drainage system is essential. As a second essential, ample quantities of fresh water must be available at all times. These fresh-water supplies must be applied to the surface of the land, allowed to percolate through the soil, and immediately carried away by adequate drains. It is only by this process that the salts can be gradually leached out so that the soil may become suitable for general crop production. Inasmuch as these lands all lie at a low elevation with respect to the water levels in the adjacent channels, adequate drainage pumping plants, which could be operated continuously, if necessary, also would be essential. During the period required to completely leach out the salts, it probably would be possible to successfully grow certain crops, such as hay, which would assist in carrying the expense of development. Thus, if these essential elements for the successful development of these lands were provided, it is probable that the bulk of the marshlands of both Suisun and San Pablo bays could be put into condition for general crop production. HoAvever, there are prob- ably some areas in which the saline content of the soil is so heavy that leaching operations would prove unsuccessful. In addition to the drainage systems required and the develop- ment operations of leaching out the soils, the complete reclamation of fhese lands also would involve ultimately substantial improvements in the present levee systems, which would have to be strengthened and enlarged to protect the lands from the highest floods and tidal waters, or combinations thereof, likely to occur. ^ When the demand arises for the complete development and utili- zation of these marshlands for agricultural purposes, consideration must be given to the best means of accomplishing their successful devel- opment and esper-ially as to the best means of providing these lands. 106 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES with adequate and dependable fresh-water supplies, which would be essential. The creation of a fresh-water lake by construction of a barrier at some site below these marshlands would result in placing fresh water in the channels and bays interspersing and surrounding these lands. If necessary supplemental water supplies were furnished from mountain storage to take care of all the consumptive demands from a barrier lake, including those of the marshlands, the water requirements of the marshlands would be conveniently served by this means. Kowever, a constant barrier-lake level held at about three feet above mean sea level would offer an unfavorable element for drainage and leaching operations. This constant level at a considerably higher elevation than the present average tide level w^ould tend to increase seepage into the islands, increase the pumping head for all drainage water to be pumped, and thus increase the cost and difficulties of drainage operations. The present range of water levels in Suisun and San Pablo bays is shown on Plate III. It will be noted that the mean tide level ranges from about 0.5 foot in San Pablo Bay to 1.0 foot in Suisun Bay above mean sea level, while mean low tide is 2 to 2.5 feet lower. Thus, under present tidal conditions over a large part of the year and during a considerable portion of each day, the water level surrounding these marshlands is at or below the elevation of the lands themselves. These conditions and the occurrence of the low low tides each day, which drop to an elevation of two and one-half to four feet below mean sea level, afford the present possibilities of draining these lands by gravity through the operation "of automatic tide gates. The maintenance of a high barrier-lake level, about three feet above mean sea level, which is desirable and necessary to accomplish more important functions of a barrier, would be a detriment to the marshlands due to its increasing the difficulties and expense of drainage. Therefore, from the stand- point of the marshlands it would be much more satisfactory if a plan could be devised which would not raise the surrounding water level, but, if possible, would lower the level so that drainage operations w^ould be simplified and costs reduced. If fresh-water supplies were to be furnished these marshlands in both Suisun and San Pablo bays directly from a barrier lake, it would be necessary to construct a barrier at some point below San Pablo Bay such as at the Point San Pablo site. A barrier constructed at an inter- mediate site such as Dillon Point would afford fresh-water supplies for the Suisun Bay marshlands, but would not furnish a direct supply to the San Pablo Bay marshlands. Thus, with a barrier at an interme- diate site, the San Pablo Bay marshlands could only be supplied with fresh water by conveying the same from a barrier lake through con- duits. If a barrier were constructed at an upper site, such as at Chipps Island, conduits would be required to furnish water to both of these marsh areas. This would be phj^sically feasible of accomplishment. The marshlands of both Suisun and San Pablo bays could be fur- nished with ample and dependable fresh-water supplies without the construction of a barrier. As will be described in more detail in Chapter IV, necessary fresh-water supplies could be conveyed through conduits from the controlled fresh-water channels of the delta and the water demands taken care of equally as well as from a barrier lake. ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SAI.T WATER BARRIER 107 A plan of development for these marshlands, which appears to have many advantages, would be the leveeing-off of the entire area of marsh- lands adiaeent to each bay with master levee systems. Development within these master levees conld be carried out in several different ways. It could be accomplished either in units or with a comprehensive unified scheme to take care of the entire marsh area. The natural channels could be used for the combined purposes of distributing irrigation sup- plies and receiving and carrying off the drainage water from the islands; or separate conduit systems could be provided for irrigation supplies and the present channels utilized only for receiving and carry- ing off drainage water. Drainage pumping systems could be provided for separate units in each marsh area, or it would be possible to pro- vide large central drainage pumping plants to take care of larger units. The latter would have the advantage of greater efficiency and smaller operatinsr expense per unit of area served. A unified plan of develop- rnent with master levee systems for the marshlands of each bay would attain the great advantage of a considerably smaller length of protec- tive levee to construct and maintain. Moreover, regardless of the variations in the detail character of development inside these master levees, the plan would have the added advantage of making possible the holding of a water level in the interior channels at an elevation considerably lower than a barrier-lake level. The water level could be held at an elevation most desirable, both from the standpoint of drainage and irrigation. All operating conditions, both as to irrigation and drainage, would be under control and would be much more flexible, and therefore of considerably greater advantage, than the conditions which would be obtained either with a barrier lake or present fluctuat- ing tidal conditions. If it should prove undesirable or impractical to carry out plans of unified development involving chiefly the master levees to cut off the entire marsh areas from the bay, it would be possible to carry out a development of these marshlands in smaller units and furnish them fresh-water supplies required, without the construction of a barrier. The plan of development would be similar in character to that of a unified plan. The main difference would be that the natural channels could be used only as drainage outlets and the water levels in the same would be subject to tidal fluctuation as at present ; and the necessary fresh-water supplies would be brought to the various units by separate conduits. From the above considerations it is evident that a barrier is not essential to the feasibility of fully reclaiming and developing the marsh- lands of Suisun and San Pablo bays. When the demand arises for their complete development and utilization for agricultural purposes, the furnishing of fresh-water supplies and the additional works and operations necessary for improvement of the soil could be provided without a barrier. The comparative merits and costs of alternate plans, with and without a barrier, for serving and developing these marsh- lands will be discussed in Chapter IV. Regardless of the means by which water supplies may be furnished to these marshlands, either with or without the assistance of a barrier, the operations, facilities and expenditures required to improve these lands and make them suitable for general crop production would be 108 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES practically the same. The principal cost would be the removal of alkali salts from the soil, reqiiirino: the installation of expensive drainage systems and large operating costs. Moreover, their complete reclama- tion would involve the construction of levees of ample height and cross section to protect the lands from the highest flood stages likely to occur, and the cost would be the same with and without a barrier. Furthermore, it appears that the most advantageous plan of develop- ment, either with or without a barrier, would include the construction of a master levee system, which would protect and cut off the marshland areas from the main bay waters and thiLs provide more flexible and advantageous conditions for the reclamation of the lands inside. It is believed that the demand for the development and utilization of these marshlands for agricultural purposes may be considered to be postponed to some future time when conditions justify the costs of development. Preliminary estimates of cost of physical works alone required for complete reclamation show that the cost per acre probably Avould exceed the present average market value of fully improved and cultivated lands in the !Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. Moreover, at the present time, there are some million acres of good agricultural land in the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys, served with a water supply and ready to be farmed, which can be obtained at a price much smaller than the cost of developing and improving these marshlands. There- fore, it appears evident that large expenditures for the development of these marshlands to agriculture would not be economically justified at present. Uplands Adjacent to Suisun and San Pablo Bays. The uplands adjacent to Suisun and San Pablo bays comprise what may be considered chiefly an agricultural area, both as to present and future potential development. Within this area are splendid farming lands, a large portion of which are already devoted to intensive crop production of considerable economic value. The more important present agricultural developments and better lands are located in the several valleys which lie within this upland area. These major valleys include Ygnacio and Clayton valleys in Contra Costa County, Suisun and Green valley's in Solano County, Napa Valley in Napa County, Sonoma and Petaluma Creek valle3^s in Sonoma County, and Novato Valley in Marin County. In addition to these valley lands, there are also some foothill areas having excellent soils for crop production. Some of these areas are at present farmed mostly to grain. The orchard and vineyard development in the area south of the San Joaquin River from Antioch to Knightsen is included with the upper bay uplands because it nat- urally would be served from the same general source of water supply. The present investigation has included a field survey of the larger portion of these adjacent uplands, including the entire area from the limits of the marsh, or approximately mean sea level, up to an elevation of 150 feet above mean sea level, which at present may be considered to be the upper limit of economical pumping lifts for the irrigation of the upper bay lands from the lower Sacramento or San Joaquin rivers or upper bay channels. This field survey has included the classification of lands as to quality of soil and adaptability to irrigation, classification of crops and vegetation, and the gathering of available information as to ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 109 extent of present irrigation, irrigation works and operations, available local water supplies and the desirability and necessity of additional water supplies for irrigation both for present and ultimate develop- ment. Information was obtained from representative land owners, county officials and farm organizations in each area to supplement the information obtained from the direct field survey, which embraced a total gross area of 246,200 acres. Qualitji of Lands. — The lands embraced in the upland area were classi- fied on a similar basis to that used in the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys. The standards of land classification used were as follows : Class 1. Lands where the soil texture, alkali or topography do not limit the feasibility of irrigation or crop yield. Lands capable of good yield at reasonable cost of preparation. Class 2. Lands of medium ability to carry irrigation costs because of hardpan, roughness, alkali, deficient soil texture, and other detri- mental factors. Class 3. Lands which by present standards do not justify irriga- tion with regulated supplies, but which may eventually come into Class 2 with improvements in methods of alkali removal or reduction in cost of preparation. Class 4. Lands suitable only for pasture and of too poor quality for the usual crops. Supplementing this direct field classification in accordance with the above schedule, the results, as yet unpublished, of a recently completed soil survey by the United States Bureau of Chemistry and Soils and the published soil survey reports of the upper San Francisco Bay region by the same authority were used in making up the final classification of the quality of lands within this area. Based upon this survey and supplemental information from soil surveys, the agricultural lands were classified in accordance with the above schedule and the urban and industrial areas were also determined. These are summarized in Table 22. The total gross upland area comprises 117,800 acres adjacent to Suisun Bay and 128,400 acres adjacent to San Pablo Bay, or a total area below the 150-foot contour of 246.200 acres. Of this total about 115,000 acres, or 47 per cent, are classified as Class 1 land adapted to general crop production and warranting the expense of irrigation at some time for more intensive and profitable culture. Class 2 lands com- prise an area of about 75,000 acres, or 30 per cent of the total. Most of these lands may be considered as suitable for general crop production, but somewhat limited, because of one or more unfavorable elements, in character and amount of crop production and ability to stand the expense of irrigation supplies. The ultimate intensive development of the agricultural uplands probably w'ould result in a demand for the irrigation of most of the Class 1 and 2 lands, or over 75 per cent of the total area, if their fullest possible utilization is to be obtained. The remaining areas, classified as 3 and 4, doubtless would continue to be utilized as at present for pasture and some dry farming of grain and hay. The urban and industrial area amounts to 6400 acres in the Suisun Bav region and 5900 acres in the San Pablo Bay region, or a total of 12,300 acres. no DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES fS H (S H U 7 -J U U () f. < oooooooo O OOOOOOOOOO O o oooooooo O OOOOOOOOOO o o ^ in-^i^-^\aooc<>-^ 00 ■^c^t^cotoooot^r^i^ •^ CM £ » o--'^" —"-a-'oCus h-T O Qtf CO L'T C>f i« -r -JS o 00 to « s "rt " -" '" CM ■S.E H »ooii— trso*^— ICO m OOTOOcOOiraO'MOTO tr> w c -^ — ^- — H CI ^- •—I .- C rt ^ CJ ■♦^ •T3 rt u o a -a a ■^ p.^ ^ a 23 ^ oooooooo o OOOOOOOOOO o o "C"^ oooo ooo oo o o o o o o a 3 »OC^«3^^ (M ^ t^ ■«• as CO 1^ l<0->»'t^t--TO -«< TO c -s— ■ CI TO CM ■ -= C C3 - O) -*^ C3 U O t- fee« •w -j; 0.0 i o oooooooo o OOOOOOOOOO O O c to ■a- TO CT>ir>ooo •^ ^ COCM ■^ to to s's £ § ^ -a g S (M •"■ CO c £ « ^ -i-*IMCM>-IM C) TO --CM a o o ■< CM C3 < Ko s oooooooo O OOOOOOOOOO o o ■^ CO^^IOCOCOCDCOCO-^ t^ •" rr oo«0 r-^tqio O 03t->0«lt~t^-H^C»CM t^ OO ^T^irT -^h-TTP 00 ^od-o od-^_r TO CO -* S fe TO t~ -< <:OiOt^C-3»r30I^W3 _, iOCOU5-^t^^H05COiO»D CI r^ ■S^-a t^.r I>rcDCMCO^^C> ! 1 1 ! ! ; ;& ;> :^ : : : c i 1-5 ;n to Antioch to Bay Point and Clayton valle z to Dillon Point- iUe to Denverton. on to Suisun Cordelia to Dillon Point- - to Napa Valli to Sonoma V 3y ;y to Petalun Uey lley to Novat !y ly to San Rafi Dillon Point u. c 3 1 an Pablo Bay Dillon Point Napa Valley. 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"rt z ;cn ; I ' "^ : ! OS » ' § ;s>.>. :|:| :g,>,a a. ; ij 3 3 3 ' ■5^ c3 m ja 2 > -j; -".3 = a UI^"o «'g CO iJiii CO <^ 1 S S 1 *^ eg r M ^T3 3 3 D. C, aa .3 3 as o o a.a 3 C O O E o. o o ECOXOMIC ASPECTS OF A SAT.T WATER BARRIER 113 have been able to obtain irrigation supplies have maintained normal yields, whereas imirrigated orchards have suffered some loss in yield. The most extensive area irrigated at present in the upper bay uplands is the orchard development in Suisun and Green valleys. The first irrigation development in this district consisted of pumping from Suisun Creek in about 1895. The first irrigation well is stated to liave been drilled and put in operation in 1897. The period of more extensive irrigation development, however, did not begin until about 1906. Since this latter date, many additional wells have been devel- oped. The wells are generally about 200 feet deep. The ground water level at present fluctuates between depths of fifteen and thirty feet below ground surface, averaged over the valley. This is reported to be about ten feet below the original corresponding levels. The total amount of irrigation applied is stated to be about one acre-foot per acre each season, with a cost reported at $3 to $5 per acre- foot. The amount applied is only barely sufficient to keep the trees in normal growing condition and support normal yields. Although no detailed studies have been made of the amount of available under- ground water supply, it appears probable that it is completely utilized at present. Hence, am' extension of irrigation would necessitate the development of new supplies from local surface streams or importation from outside sources. The city of Vallejo has completed a storage development in Gordon A^alley on a branch of Suisun Creek and exports supplies for municipal use from this watershed. This development has been followed by considerable litigation between the city and the agri- cultural interests in lower Suisun Valley, which has not as yet been finally settled. It appears probable, however, that Yallejo's develop- ment on this watershed will have taken a large part of the surplus of the local sources of supply capable of economic development. In Ygnacio and Clayton valleys south of Suisun Bay, irrigation is of rather recent development. Originally the water table over most of the valley floor was at comparatively shallow depth and, with the aver- age rainfall conditions, orchards and other farm crops w^ere success- fully grown with profitable results without irrigation. More recently, however, due to a considerable period of subnormal precipitation, com- bined with drafts upon the underground water supply by a public utility and industries, ground water levels have dropped to such an extent that irrigation has become more and more essential to orchard development. The only irrigation practiced in early j'ears was diver- sion of surface waters during freshets from the creeks in the valley in order to store up moisture for use during the growing season. It is stated that the first irrigation well was sunk in 1912 for a 50-aere Malnut orchard. Since then several wells have been developed for orchard irrigation. These wells are limited in capacity, varying from 50 or less to 250 gallons per minute. The total seasonal irrigation applications are reported to vary from six to fifteen inches in depth. At present, only about 2200 acres are irrigated below the 150-foot con- tour, although some 3500 acres are under irrigation in the entire area of these valleys. In the fall of 1930, the depth to water table in Ygnacio Valley ranged from 20 to 90 feet, with an average of 35 feet, while in Clayton Valley it ranged from 50 to 100 feet, with an average 114 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES of about (i5 feet. These levels are from ten to thirty feet below the corresponding levels in 1919. The present cost of irrigation supplies obtained from wells is stated to amount to $10 to $20 per acre-foot of water applied. Due to the apparent serious shortage in local water supply exist- ing in Ygnacio and Clayton valleys, a special study was made of the availability and amount of ground water resources. As a result of this study, it was found that at present the average annual extractions from the underground basin amount to about 8000 acre-feet, over half of which is b.y a public utility and industries and the remainder for irrigation. With this amount of extraction, the water table in the two valleys has been lowered during the past eleven years (1919 to 1930) an average of about seventeen feet, sliowing that the extractions have exceeded the average replenishment during the period. It was con- cluded from this study that the safe annual yield of the underground water basin under these two valleys would average 5000 acre-feet under the present natural conditions of replenishment during a similar period of run-off as during the last eleven years. The amount of natural replenishment might be increased somewhat by the construction of works to artificially spread the stream flow and increase seepage and absorj^tion into the underground formation. However, conditions in these two valleys are not favorable for carrying out such measures to any great extent. It also is possible that the average annual amount of natural replenishment might be greater than during the subnormal run-off period of the last eleven years. However, it is evident that the continuation of successful orchard culture and growing of other agri- cultural crops in these two valleys will necessitate irrigation, requiring water supplies from some suitable outside source. The present under- ground water supplies are being overdrawn, and the cost of obtaining water by wells is excessive. In Napa Valley, irrigation is much less extensive than in either Suisun or Ygnacio valleys. Only about 1600 acres are under irriga- tion at present. Irrigation supplies are obtained partly by diversions from Napa River and partly b}^ wells. Until the recent period of sub- normal precipitation, the problem in much of the lower area of the Napa Valley was one of drainage, rather than that of the need of irriga tion. The orchards and vineyards in Napa and Sonoma valleys have been successfully developed and favorable production obtained without the need of irrigation. However, since the advent of the series of subnormal precipitation seasons, increased attention has been paid to the desirability and need of irrigation supplies. In 1930 ground water levels in the valley ranged from an average depth below the ground surface of about ten feet in the spring to eighteen feet in the fall. Comparison with 1918 water levels indicates that there has been prac- tically no lowering of the water table during the last thirteen years of subnormal precipitation and run-off. It appears that the available underground water supply in Napa Valley is capable of some greater utilization than at present. In addition there is at least one possibility and perhaps others of developing storage reservoirs on tributaries of Napa River, the consummation of which would greatly increase the availability of local water resources. Based upon the information obtained thus far, it appears probable that the local water resources, ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 115 ii' properly developed and utilized within the valley itself, would be sufficient to take care of most of its ultimate water requirements. Tn Sonoma Valley about 500 acres are irrigated by diversion .from Sonoma Creek and from wells. Local water supplies are considerably less abundant than in Napa Valley and there appears to be no reser- voir sites of any size which could be developed economically for storage of flood waters and increasing the availability of local supplies. Pres- ent conditions of available water supply and crop production appear to l)e satisfactory, but any more intensive future development and utiliza- tion of these' lands for agriculture probably would require imported supplies to provide for irrigation. Inquiry within the area indicates that there is no present demand for additional irrigation supplies. In the Petaluma Creek area, from Petaluma to Cotati, the chief agricultural activity is poultry raising, although there is a considerable area devoted to hay and grain. The poultry farms are generally in small units, averaging about six acres each. They usually have small fields planted to kale or similar green poultry feed irrigated by small individual pumping plants or windmills. The underground water supplies obtained are generally small in volume and only sufficient for the limited use to which they are put. Pumping lifts range from 70 to 100 feet. But very little of the feed required by the poultry interests in this district is raised within the area, most of the grain and meals used being imported. Under these conditions the poultry industry in this district evidently has flourished. Hence, there seems no reason to believe that the type of agricultural activity will change greatly in the future. There is little present demand for irrigation supplies and it seems probable that there would be no appreciable demand for many years in the future. The principal agricultural development in Marin County within the upper bay uplands is in Novato Valley. Considerable areas are ])lanted to orchards and vineyards on the fertile lands of the valley floor. There also are numerous poultry farms on the outer slopes of the valley. Very little irrigation is practiced in this area, with supplies obtained by wells. It is reported that some efforts have been made toward obtaining a water supply for irrigation from the Marin Munici- pal Water District. No study has been made of the amount of avail- able local water supplies, nor of possibilities of storage development. As far as known, no reservoir sites economically feasible of development are available. Hence, when the demand arises for complete irrigation of the lands in this area, it appears probable that the necessary supplies would have to be largely imported from some outside source. The orchard and vineyard development in the area lying south of the San Joaquin Kiver between Antioch and Knightsen is practically all dry farmed at the present time. A few small tracts within the area are irrigated from wells. The underground supplies appear to l)e extremely limited in amount and are difficult to obtain in the (juantities required for irrigation. The orchards and vineyards, during the subnormal period of precipitation of the last thirteen years, have suffered from lack of adequate moisture with resulting decrease in yields. The productivity of this area would be substantially increased l)y irrigation. The logical source for the necessary irrigation supplies would be from the channels of the lower delta. 116 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES Immediate Weiter Requirements. — As far as the present and immediate future needs of the upland agricultural areas are concerned, the most serious water shortage and need for supplemental M'ater supplies from some outside source is in Ygnacio and Clayton valleys and the area south of the San Joaquin River between Antioch and Knightsen in upper Contra Costa County. Within Ygnacio and Clayton valleys, there are at present about 18,000 acres of cultivated lands with local underground water supplies sufficient for the irrigation of only about 3000 acres. There appears to be a demand for an extension of irriga- tion in this area and it is estimated that a gross area of 7000 acres in these two valleys might be expected to use an irrigation supply, if made available, in the near future. Likewise, in the area south of the San Joaquin River between Antioch and Knightsen, it is estimated that a gross area of about 6000 acres might be expected to use an irrigation supply. It appears probable that the utilization of the available local water su])plies in Suisun Valley will be sufficient for the needs of this area, until there is a demand for an extension of irrigation to new lands in this territory. In the San Pablo Bay uplands, there appears to be no present or immediate future demand for an extension of irriga- tion that can not be cared for by utilization of available local water resources, with the possible exception of the Novato Valley in Marin County. This latter area would probably use irrigation supplies, if available, but it appears evident that, unless supplies can be developed locally or possibly obtained from the Marin Municipal Water District, there is no immediate possibility of importing water from a more dis- tant source unless or until there is a general demand in the San Pablo Bay upland area for irrigation service. Future Water Supply and Service. — Based upon the foregoing descri])- tion of conditions in the several areas in the upper bay uplands, it may be concluded that the ultimate intensive agricultural developuK^nt of these lands will require the importation of irrigation supplies, to supple- ment available local water resources which are feasible of development, for the entire area with the possible exception of Napa Valley. The necessarj' irrigation supplies could be adequately and feasibly furnished from the lower Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers. This appears to be not only the nearest source of supply but also the cheapest available. The required supplies could be obtained by pumping the same through conduits extending from a barrier lake or extending from controlled fresh-water channels of the delta. The comparative merits and cost of serving the ultimate water requirements of the upper bay uplands from this source by two altenuite plans. Avith and without a ban-ier, are presented in Chapter IV. ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 117 CHAPTER IV ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS OF SALT WATER BARRIER The final considerations of a salt water barrier must be directed to the determination of its necessity and desirability in supplying present and ultimate water requirements and facilitating immediate future and ultimate full potential development of the upper San Francisco Bay and Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta regions; and as a unit of the State Water Plan in the consummation of the most practicable con- servation and utilization of the state's water resources. The proposed State Water Plan, which is described in detail in another report,* is shown on Plate V. "]Major Units of State Plan for Development of Water Resources of California." The portion of the State Plan par- ticularly related to a salt water barrier involves the proposed plan for exportation of surplus water from the delta by the San Joaquin River pumping system, and the furnishing of supplies to the delta and upper San Francisco Bay region. The data and discussions presented in Chapter III show that imported water supplies will be reciuired, both in the immediate future and ultimately, for industrial, municipal and agricultural developments of the upper San Francisco Bay region. The nearest and most logical sonrce for these necessary water supplies is the lower Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers. However, in order to make this source of supply available and dependable at all times, the invasion of saline water, which during recent years has occurred annually into the lower delta chan- nels, must be prevented by some adequate means. One method of pre- venting invasion of saline water would be "vvith a salt water barrier. If necessary supplemental water supplies from mountain storage were pro- vided for the operation of a barrier and the unavoidable losses from a barrier lake, saline invasion would be prevented above the structure, and the barrier lake would provide a source for diversion of fresh- water supplies, if made available. The invasion of saline water also could be controlled without a barrier by stream flow. proWded in suf- fi( lent amount, by means of supplementary supplies released from mountain storage, to maintain fresh water in the channels of the delta down to the lower end near Antioch. With this alternate method of controlling salinity, not only could ample fresh-water supplies be made availa1)le for the delta, but also for the upper bay region. Therefore, the determination of the desirability, necessity and economic justifica- tion of a salt water barrier must depend fundamentally upon a eon- -ideration of the comparative merits and cost of alternate plans, with and without a barrier, for accomplishing these purposes. ♦Bulletin Xo. 25, "Report to Legislature of 1931 on State Water Plan," Division of \\^ater Resources, 1930. 118 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES ULTIMATE WATER REQUIREMENTS AND SUPPLY FOR UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY AND DELTA REGIONS The ultimate water requirements of the upper San Francisco Bay and delta regions are based upon studies of the predicted character and magnitude of industrial, municipal and agricultural developments m the upper bay region and the estimated rates of water demand for each purpose, and detailed experimental data of consumptive use of water in the delta. Upper San Francisco Bay Region. The ultimate water requirements of the upper San Francisco Bay region are closely allied with those of the San Francisco Bay basin as a whole, which have been presented in a previous report.* In order to estimate the ultimate water requirements, a study was made of the probable future utilization of the entire basin. It was found that out of a total gross area of about 4000 square miles in the entire basin, about 1500 square miles, or approximately 1,000,000 acres, comprising major valleys and areas bordering the bay, probably could be expected to be intenselj^ developed in the future. This area was classified as urban, suburban, industrial and rural. Water requirements for any particular area vary not only in amount with the use to which the w^ater is put and in monthly demand, but also with the point at which the water is measured. The geographic position of the source of supply in relation to point of use, methods of conveyance, the extent of the area to be supplied and the opportunity afforded for reuse of water controlled by topographic, geographic and geologic conditions are factors that have an important bearing on water requirem.ents. For these reasons some variation in treatment of the problem of requirement and supply for different areas has been necessary. The variation in treatment has in turn necessitated the use of different terms defined as follows : 1. "Gross allowance" designates the amount of water diverted at source of supply. 2. "Net allowance" designates the amount of water actually deliv- ered to the area served. 3. "Consumptive use" designates the amount of water actually consumed through evaporation, transpiration by plant growth and other processes. 4. "Net use" designates the sum of the consumptive use from arti- ficial supplies and irrecoverable losses. The ultimate water requirements were computed on the basis of the predicted utilization and estimated use of water per unit of area for each type of development. In metropolitan areas, the water require- ments are approximately in direct proportion to the density of popula- tion. Statistics on amount of water used, population and areas in the cities of California and of the United States, indicate that the water requirements for urban and suburban areas, expressed in feet depth per annum, range from an average of about one foot for a population ♦Bulletin No. 25, "Report to Legislature of 1931 on State Water Plan," Division of Water Resources, 1930. PLATE V /lAJOR UNITS OF STATE PLAN FOR _OPMENT OF WATER RESOURCES OF CALIFORNIA jiiCONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATKR BARRIER 119 (lciisit.\- of ten persons per acre to about four and one-half feet for forty persons per acre. The future water requirements of urban and snliurban areas have been estimated on the basis of predicted densit.y of jiopnlation in the several districts of the bay region. The water requirements of industrial districts have been estimated on the basis of available data on use of water per unit of area for present industrial districts in the bay region and other cities of Cali- fornia and the United States. Industrial water requirements vary widely, depending upon the type of industry and intensity of develop- ment. The data obtained during this investigation on industrial water use in the upper bay region were given particular weight in estimating the unit water requirements for the ultimate predicted industrial dis- trict. The amounts used in estimating the industrial water require- ments vary from two to five feet in depth per annum in the various areas oi' the bay region. Inasmuch as the water supplied for urban, suburban and industrial use is generally conveyed in pipe lines, con- veyance losses are small and hence the gross allowance for these pur- poses is approximately equal to the net allowance. For the rural or agricultural areas of the basin, the ultimate water requirements have been estimated on the basis of the best data available as to the amount of water required for irrigation. The net allowances were estimated for the assumed irrigable areas, and range from 1.25 feet in depth per season for the Santa Clara Valley and the valleys north of San Pablo Bay to two feet in depth per season for the Liver- more Valley and the areas north and south of Suisnn Bay. The gross allowance is based upon the net allowance with the addition to the latter of estimated conveyance losses in serving the several areas. On this basis, the ultimate water requirements of the upper San Francisco Bay basin were estimated at 1,735,000 acre-feet annually. This annual gross allowance for the entire basin is equivalent to 1.7 feet depth over the gross area of intensive development, or a uniform demand of about 1550 million gallons per day or 2400 second-feet. A portion of these ultimate water requirements could be obtained by development of local water resources of the San Francisco Bay basin. The local drainage area above the vallej'S and plains comprises over 2200 square miles. The total mean seasonal run-otf from local sources for the 40-year period 1889-1929 is estimated at 824,400 acre-feet ; for the 20-vear period 1909-1929, 633.600 acre-feet; for the ten-year period 1919-1929, 526,100 acre-feet; and for the five-year period 1924-1929, 599,800 acre-feet. Thus, if it were possible to develop the entire amount of more dependable mean run-off, as shown by the last ten-year period, the local water resources would supply only about 30 per cent of the ultimate water requirements of the San Francisco Bay basin. However, under the most favorable conditions, only a part of this mean run-off could be fully developed. Its utilization would require construction and operation of all surface reservoirs capable of economic development and utilization of underground storage where available. Many of the more favorable reservoir sites within the basin have already been con- structed. There are further possibilities of additional storage develop- ment, notably on the tributary streams of the Santa Clara Valley, on Lagunitas Creek in ]\rarin County, and on tributaries of the Napa River in Napa County. The present developments of local water sup- i<;CONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 119 density of ten persons per acre to about four and one-half feet for forty persons per acre. The future water requirements of urban and suburban areas have been estimated on the basis of predicted density of population in the several districts of the bay region. The water requirements of industrial districts have been estimated on the basis of available data on use of water per unit of area for ]n'esent industrial districts in the bay rec^ion and other cities of Cali- fornia and the United States. Industrial water requirements vary widely, depending- upon the type of industry and intensity of develop- ment. The data obtained durintr this investigation on industrial water use in the upper bay region were given particular weight in estimating the unit water requirements for the ultimate predicted industrial dis- trict. The amounts used in estimating the industrial water require- ments vary from two to five feet in depth per annum in the various areas of the bay region. Inasmuch as the water supplied for urban, suburban and industrial use is generally conveyed in pipe lines, con- veyance losses are small and hence the gross allowance for these pur- poses is approximately equal to the net allowance. For the rural or agricultural areas of the basin, the ultimate water requirements have been estimated on the basis of the best data available as to the amount of water required for irrigation. The net allowances were estimated for the assumed irrigable areas, and range from 1.25 feet in depth per season for the Santa Clara Valley and the valleys north of San Pablo Bay to two feet in depth per season for the Liver- more Valley and the areas north and south of Suisun Ba}". The gross allowance is based upon the net allowance with the addition to the latter of estimated conveyance losses in serving the several areas. On this basis, the ultimate water requirements of the upper San Francisco Bay basin were estimated at 1,735,000 acre-feet annually. This annual gross allowance for the entire basin is equivalent to 1.7 feet depth over the gross area of intensive development, or a uniform demand of about 1550 million gallons per day or 2400 second-feet. A portion of these ultimate water requirements could be obtained by development of local water resources of the San Francisco Bay basin. The local drainage area above the valleys and plains comprises over 2200 square miles. The total mean seasonal run-off from local sources for the 40-year period 1889-1929 is estimated at 824,400 acre-feet ; for the 20-year period 1909-1929, 633.600 acre-feet; for the ten-vear period 1919-1929, 526,100 acre-feet; and for the five-year period 1924-1929, 599,800 acre-feet. Thus, if it were possible to develop the entire amount of more dependable mean run-off, as shown by the last ten-year period, the local water resources would supply only about 30 per cent of the ultimate water requirements of the San Francisco Bay basin. However, under the most favorable conditions, only a part of this mean run-off could be fully developed. Its utilization would require construction and operation of all surface reservoirs capable of economic development and utilization of underground storage where available. Many of the more favorable reservoir sites within the basin have already been con- structed. There are further possibilities of additional storage develop- ment, notably on the tributary streams of the Santa Clara Valley, on Lagunitas Creek in ]\[arin Countj^ and on tributaries of the Napa River in Napa County. The present developments of local water sup- 120 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES plies for municipal, industrial and aj^ricultural uses in the basin amount to about 240 million gallons per day, or 269,000 acre-feet per year. Of this total, approximately 134 million gallons per day, or 150,000 acre-feet per year, have been developed and are in use for municipal purposes, 100 million gallons a day, or 112,000 acre-feet per annum, for irrigation, and about six million gallons per day, or 7000 acre-feet per year (from private wells), for industries. Most of the present developed irrigation supplies in use also are obtained from wells. Municipal supplies are obtained largely from surface storage on local streams, supplemented to minor extent by well supplies. Based upon present knowledge of possibilities of additional storage reservoirs capable of economic development, it is estimated that an additional water supply from the local water resources of the basin could be made available to the amount of 150 million gallons per day, or 168,000 acre-feet per year. Thus it appears that the total amount of local water supplies available and capable of economic development in the San Francisco Bay basin would amount to about 390 million gallons per day, or 437,000 acre-feet per year, or only about 25 per cent of the total ultimate water requirements of the basin. This deficit of 1160 million gallons per day, or 1,298,000 acre-feet per year, must be taken care of by importation from outside sources. Two pro.jects for the importation of supplies from outside sources now are partially completed or under construction for this purpose. These comprise the San Francisco water supply project to bring water from the Hetcli Hetchy watershed of the Tuolumne River, which will furnish a supply when completed of 400 million gallons per day ; and the project of the East Bay Municipal Utility District to bring water from the Mokelumne River watershed, and which, when fully completed, will supply 200 million gallons per day. After these supplies are brought in, there still w^ould remain a deficit of 560 million gallons per day, or 626,000 acre-feet per year, in supplying the ultimate water require- ments of the basin. The bulk of this deficit applies to the upper San Francisco Bay region. After the Hetch Hetchy and the entire Mokelumne River sup- plies are brought in and the additional local supplies of the lower bay counties, chiefly in Santa Clara, Alameda and Marin, are fully devel- oped, the ultimate water requirements of the lower San Francisco Bay region evidently would be amply provided. As previously stated, there are some possibilities of additional storage development for increasing local supplies in the upper bay region, notably in Napa County. How- ever, the upper bay region must evidently depend for its full ultimate water requirements upon the importation of water supplies from the most suitable outside sources available. The nearest and most logical source for these additional supplies appears to be the delta channels of the lower Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers. The studies of water supply, yield and demand, with the proposed units of the ultimate State Water Plan operating, and with stream flow as during the period 1919 to 1928, demonstrate that ample water supplies would have been avail- able for full ultimate requirements of the two valleys and the Sacra- mento-San Joaquin Delta, and, in addition, for the greater part of the ()26,000 acre-feet ultimately required for the San Francisco Baj' region. Witli Ihe units as proposed operating. ;i supjily of 403,000 acre-feet per \ ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 121 season would have been available in the delta channels for the upper San Francisco Bay region, with a raaximuni seasonal deficiency in a year similar to 1924 of 35 per cent in only that portion of this supply for irrifration. The remaining 223.000 acre-feet per year also could be obtained from this source l)y additional storage developments on the tributaries of the Sacramento River; or, with the same units, but allow- ing a small deficiency in the Sacramento Valley supply in a critical year. As an alternate, this amount of water might also be obtained by developments on the Eel River. The question as to which source ulti- mately should be used, necessarily would involve chiefly the cost of the two alternate sources of supply. However, the studies show that all of the additional water supplies ultimatel.v required for the upper San Francisco Bay region, could be furnished from feasible developments on the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers, and the supplies made available therefrom in the delta channels near the area to be served. Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. The ultimate water requirements of the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta are based upon measurements of consumptive use of water by crops, vegetation, and evaporation in the delta. The results of these measurements, conducted over a period of six 3'ears, are presented in another report.* Practically all lands in the delta are now reclaimed and largely utilized for crop production. Conditions in the delta are yjeculiar in that the consumption of water by crops, natural vegetation, and evaporation from the open water in the delta is only partiall.v subject to control. Natural seepage into the islands from the ad.jacent channels contributes a material portion of the water consumed by crops and vegetation within levees on a large part of the delta lands. How- ever, irrigation supplies are artificially diverted for practically all crops grown, and irrigation is essential for the more flexible and more rapid ]-egulation of the moisture requirements of crops. The consumption of water by natural vegetation along the banks of the channels and on unreclaimed islands and along the interior drains and ponds is a con- liiuious process throughout the entire growing season of these plants. Tules and cat-tails consume large quantities of water at rates amounting to about three to five times as much as those of various crops. Finally, evaporation from open water surfaces is a substantial consumer of water, the consumption going on continuously throughout the year but having its greatest rate during the summer months. The present estimated consumptive use in the delta varies from 400 second-feet (in mid-winter ") to 3700 second-feet (in mid-summer). This includes water consumed by crops, natural vegetation and evaporation. The estimated total annual consumption amounts to about 1,250,000 acre-feet, or over 2.5 acre-feet per acre on the gross area. It is believed that the ultimate water requirements of the delta will approximate the present rates and total amounts of consumptive use. The stream flow entering the delta during the summer aionths has besni insufficient in five years of the period 1920 to 1929 to take cart- (^f the full consumptive needs of the delta. The maximum deficiency occurred in the latter part of the season 1923-24, the driest of record ♦Bulletin No. 27, "Variation and Control of Salinity in Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta and Upper San Francisco Bay," Division of Water Resources, 1931. 122 DIVISION OF WATER REvSOURCES during this period, -when a total shortage of 277,000 acre-feet occurred during the months of June, July and August, 1924:. The maximum monthly shortage in this year amounted to 127,000 acre-feet in July. The shortage in 1920 totaled 225.000 acre-feet, with a maximum monthly shortage of 151,000 acre-feet in August. A shortage, totaling 140.000 acre-feet, with a maximum monthly shortage of 80,000 acre-feet, occurred in 1926. Small shortages also occurred in 1928 and 1929. In the remainder of the years during this period, sufficient water flowed into the delta in all months to take care of the consumptive needs. The operation of the proposed units of the State Water Plan for both the initial and ultimate developments would fully take care of all water shortages in the delta. Moreover, additional .supplies could be furnished to insure the protection of the delta from saline invasion so that fresh water would be available in the channels at all times, free from any harmful saline pollution. CONTROL OF SALINITY Tile utilization of water sui)i)lies now or hereafter made available in the lower Sacramento and San Joacjuin rivers for the delta and upper bay regions requires some means of controlling the invasion of saline water from the bay so that a dependable fresh-water supply may be obtained at all times from this source. The control of salinity may be obtained either with or without a barrier. The amount of water required for control and the amount and value of supplemental water supplies required to be furnished from mountain storage are important factors in the consideration of the comparative merits of these two alternate methods of salinity control. Control of Salinity With a Salt Water Barrier. There has been a somewhat prevalent idea that a physical barrier, in itself, would positively prevent invasion of saline water above the structure. If a barrier could be built and operated as a water-tight dam. there Avould be no question of its positive effectiveness for this purpose. However, as described in Chapter II, a barrier must be provided with navigation locks for passage of vessels and a large numbei- of flood gates to pass the floods discharged by the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers. Therefore the structure would not be water-tight- but would permit the entrance of salt water during the operation of the usual or standard type of navigation locks and by leakage around both lock gates and flood gates. Moreover, contrary to what has been ])opularly supposed, a barrier would not create a storage reservoir in which large amounts of water could be impounded for utilization as necessity demanded. There would also be considerable loss of water from a barrier lake by evaporation and transpiration from marginal vegetation. These elements in the method of salinity control with a barrier are of substantial importance in the consideration of its merits, as they affect the amount of water required for control Avith a barrier, and the amount of supplemental water required fi'om mountain storage. Barrio- Lake Storage. — The level at which the water could be held in a barrier lake is limited, both as to its maximum and minimum elevation. The maximum elevation which eould be continuouslv held for anv ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 123 .substantial period of time is controlled by the height which the levees in the delta could safely withstand. The minimum elevation is con- trolled partly by the necessity of maintaining required navigation depths in the upper bay and delta channels, including especially the new Stockton ship canal ; partly by the necessity of preventing the drying- out and cracking of delta levees; and partly by the necessity of holding a barrier-lake level as high as possible to prevent infiltration of salt water and to obtain effective operating conditions for flushing out salt water which may enter a barrier lake. Plate III graphically presents the mean, maximum and minimum levels of the tide from the Golden Gate to the upper reaches of the delta. These tidal levels have been compiled from data obtained by automatic tide gage records during 1929 and 1930 and represent, especially for the delta channels, the mean of conditions during the period of low stream flow from July to November, inclusive. They, therefore, represent the more normal conditions of fluctuating water level in the various portions of the tidal basin, except during brief periods of flood flows in the winter season. The levees in the lower Sacramento Eiver and San Joaquin River deltas, which are mostly in peat formation, must be especially considered in fixing the allowable maximum and minimum continuous barrier-lake levels. The mean high tide level in these portions of the delta ranges from about two and one-half to three feet above mean sea level. Representatives in the delta best informed as to the conditions therein and the probable effect of a continuous water level held at various heights, have stated that the levees could not safely withstand a water level over any long period at a higher elevation than the mean high tide. It is therefore con- cluded that the maximum allowable continuous barrier-lake level would be limited to an elevation of about three feet above mean sea level. Navigation channels are generally i^lanned on the basis of provid- ing certain fixed depths of water below mean lower low water. This is somewhat lower than the elevation of mean low tide as shown on Plate III. The elevation of mean low tide in the upper San Joaquin River from Venice Island to Stockton is approximately at mean sea level. Thus- from the standpoint of maintaining the minimum depths required for navigation in the upper part of the Stockton Ship Canal, it would appear possible that a barrier lake level might be lowered to approxi- mately mean sea level. However, it is the opinion of the Army Engi- neers that the navigation interests, especially operators of deep-draft ocean-going vessels, might reasonably expect to have maintained depths of water corresponding to present mean tide level. This requirement in the upper San Joaquin River near Stockton would limit the mini- mum barrier-lake level to about one and one-half feet above mean sea level. Thus from the standpoint of the navigation interests, a barrier- lake level might be lowered to one and one-half feet above mean sea level. There is still another consideration which limits the minimum barrier lake level. This again involves the delta levees. It appears that if a barrier-lake level were allowed to drop below present mean tide level in the San Joaquin Delta and were held at such a lower ele- vation for any considerable period of time, it would cause a drying out and cracking of the levee material above this lower level, especially for 124 DIVISION OF WATKU RESOURCKS the peat levees. Borings were uiade l)y the United States Army Engi- neers in several places in the levees in the San Joaquin River Delta to obtain data on the line of seepage through the levees in relation to the fluctuating water level in the adjacent channels. These investigations revealed that the upper limit of the .saturated portion of the levees was about at mean tide level on the channel side, with a downward slope towards the land side. The levee material above this upper limit of saturation was found to be comparatively dry and, when consisting of peat, to contain many cracks dividing the material into irregular blocks. It appears evident that it would be inadvisable to allow the level of a barrier lake to stand at a lower elevation than the present average level for a period of time sufficient to permit the drying out and crack- ing of greater portions of the levees than now occurs under natural conditions. It might result in serious consequences, due to the greater facility offered during higher flood stages of winter for water to pass through the levees with the resulting greater possibility of failures occurring. The delta levees therefore limit a barrier lake level both as to its maximum and minimum elevations. From the standpoint of maintaining the most effective conditions for preventing infiltration of salt water and for flushing out salt water which may enter a barrier lake, it would be desirable to maintain a lake level higher than tidal levels below. As shown on Plate III, tidal levels fluctuate from about four feet below to four feet above mean sea level at the Point San Pablo and Dillon Point sites, and from about two feet below to about four feet above mean sea level at the Chipps Island site, with mean or half tide levels of 0.4, 0.5 and 1.1 feet above mean sea level at the Point San Pablo, Dillon Point and Chipps Island sites, respectively. Maximum high tides at these points of two to three feet above those shown on Plate III have occurred. With flood gates extend- ing to a depth of 70 feet below water surface, the level of a barrier lake would have to be about 1.5 feet above the level of salt water below a barrier in order to take care of the difference in specific gravity and equalize the pressure for the full depth of the gates. This is on the assumption of a salinity in the water below a barrier of about 1600 parts of chlorine per 100,000 parts of water. The difference in level between a barrier-lake water surface and the water surface below a barrier there- fore would have to be greater than this amount at all times to prevent infiltration of salt water. Salt water entering a barrier lake either by infiltration or by lockage operations w^ould tend to accumulate in the lower depths above a barrier and would have to be flushed out more or less continuously to prevent harmful pollution of the lake waters. Flushing could only be accomplished when the level in a barrier lake was a sufficient height above the tidal level below a barrier to overcome the difference in clensitj^ between the salt water below and the fresh water above a barrier and provide an additional differential head to discharge the salt water in the quantity required through the flushing outlets. Even if a barrier-lake level were held at three feet above mean sea level, the period of flushing operations would be confined largely to the stages of the tide at or below mean tide level. Any lowering of a barrier-lake level below an elevation of three feet above mean sea level would result in decreasing the effective flushing head and shortening the period of time during wliieh flushing opei'ations coukl be conducted, and ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 125 might result in making it impossible to properly flush out salt water accumulations, thus causing a pollution of the lake waters and an inter- ference with their utilization. Taking into consideration all of the limiting factors controlling the maximum and minimum levels of a barrier lake, it is concluded that it would not be safe to assume a higher maximum lake level than three feet above mean sea level, nor a greater range of fluctuation in usable storage capacity of more than one foot. Because of this limitation in maximum storage level, the height of a barrier structure is controlled by the maximum tidal levels below the structure rather than by the maximum barrier-lake level. After allowing for necessary free-board to take care of wave action, the height of a barrier structure has been fixed in the preliminary plans of Bulletin No. 22 at ten to fifteen feet above mean sea level. The amounts of usable storage capacity in a barrier lake for each of the three typical barrier sites are shown in Table 24. As a matter of interest only, the storage capacity above each site is also shown for a range of three feet. TABLE 24 USABLE STORAGE CAPACITY IN BARRIER LAKE (With a maximum lake level of 3 feet above mean sea level) Barrier site Storage in acre-feet Assumed usable capacity for range of one foot Capacity for range of three feet Chipps Island 45,000 75,000 155,000 125,000 Dillon Point 220,000 Point San Pablo 450,000 Although the total storage capacity in a barrier lake would be relatively large, amounting to about 950,000 acre-feet above Chipps Island site, 1,625,000 acre-feet above Dillon Point site and 3,100,000 acre-feet above Point San Pablo site, the usable storage capacity limited to an assumed possible range of one foot would be relatively small, comprising only about 5 per cent of the total storage capacities. Even assuming an allowable fluctuation of three feet in a barrier lake, the corresponding amounts of storage within this range would still be rela- tively small, comprising only about 15 per cent of the respective total storage capacities. When it is considered that the seasonal run-off of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers into the delta, as estimated for the period 1871 to 1929, averages over 31,000,000 acre-feet and has ranged from a minimum of about 6,000,000 acre-feet to a maximum of about 83,000,000 acre-feet, it is evident that the usable storage capacity of a barrier lake would have but small importance in effecting any great degree of conservation of the tributary run-off. The amount of water which would be made available by the utilization of the limited amount of storage would be so small as to be of little importance for the creation of additional supplies. As will be shown more clearly hereafter, these amounts of water which might be obtained in usable storage capacity would be far from sufficient to take care of even the water demands 126 DIVISIOX OF WATER RESOURCES ri'iiuired for the operation oi' a barrier and the Tuiavoi(lal»l(^ losses oL' evaporation and transpiration froin a harrier lake. Required Control Flow. — The control of salinity with a salt water bar- rier would require substantial amounts of fresh water to provide for barrier operation and unavoidable losses from a barrier lake. A large part of the fresh water required is directly due to the necessity of oper- ating locks in a barrier structure for the passage of vessels. Leakage around flood gates and lock gates and operation of fish ladders would require additional amounts of fresh water. The creation of a barrier lake with a large area of water surface and extensive marginal vegeta- tion would result in large evaporation and transpiration losses, which could not be prevented and would have to be supplied as a part of the water requirements for salinity control with a barrier. At the present time, there are large unreclaimed areas in the marshlands of Suisun and San Pablo bays and also large areas of uncultivated lands enclosed in levees growing various kinds of natural vegetation, the consumptive demands of which would have to be supplied from a barrier lake. Even under future complete reclamation and cropping of these marsh- lands, the extent of marginal vegetation and the amount of transpira- tion would be considerable. These water requirements for salinity control are of special importance in the period of low summer stream flow, when supplies would have to be released from mountain storage. The water requirements for the operation of the usual or standard type of locks have been the subject of a special study by the United States Army engineers in their cooperative investigations of a barrier. These studies have involved a series of laboratory experiments, working with models of the barrier locks, to determine the action of salt water entering a barrier lake during lockage operations and the amount of fresh water required to flush out the accumulations of salt water. These experiments were carried out in cooperation with the University of California. It was found that the salt water entering a barrier lake during operation of standard locks would collect at the lower depths immediately above a barrier and. if allowed to accumulate, would grad- ually displace and pollute a considerable volume of the lake. In order to confine such accumulations of salt water, the existence or provision of an adequate sump immediately above a barrier would be desirable and essential. The onh' barrier site having a natural depression or sump of any magnitude is that at Dillon Point. The natural con- ditions at both the Chipps Island and San Pablo sites are much less favorable. Although salt water entering through standard locks would tend to accumulate at the greater depths immediately above a barrier, the experiments showed that each volume of salt water entering a lake would pollute many times its own volume of fresh water. Moreover, when a lock full of salt water would be discharged into a lake, the dif- ference in density between the salt and fresh waters would result in setting up a considerable velocity which would tend to carry the salt water a substantial distance upstream from the barrier. Hence, unless a sump having not only considerable depth but also considerable length were naturally available or artificially provided above a barrier, the successive discharges of salt water into a lake could not be confined ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 127 « williin tlic fl(\siro(l llaI■l•()^\' limits, ft would be possible oi" course to (lre(l<:-e a suiu]i of the proper proportions required, but it would be impossible to maintain such a sump without more or less continuous dredging- operations. The experiments showed that, in order to prevent any widespread pollution of a barrier lake, it would be necessary to flush out the salt water at periodical intervals so as to limit the accu- mulations and prevent a serious extension of pollution. In addition to these laboratory experiments, studies were made of the results of lockage operations in the Lake Washington Ship Canal at Seattle, where conditions are somewhat similar to those which would occur Avith a barrier. Considerable data were available for study on the degree and extent of saline pollution which has occurred above these locks. The lake waters have been seriouslj^ polluted by saline water as far upstream as Lake Union, four miles above the locks. Serious diffi- culties have arisen in attempting to prevent this pollution. The avail- able information is of great value in the study of a salt water barrier, as it not only demonstrates that the operation of the ordinary or stand- ard types of locks results in the gradual pollution of a fresh- water lake above, but also shows that large quantities of fresh water are required to prevent such pollution assuming serious magnitude. As a result of these studies by the United States Army engineers, it was found that, in order to flush out the accumulations of salt water entering a lake, a volume of fresh water would be required amounting to one and one-half times the volume of salt water entering, at the Dillon Point site ; two and one-tenth times at the Point San Pablo site ; and two and one-half times at the Chipps Island site. The reason for the smaller volume required for flushing at the Dillon Point site is due to the existence of an excellent natural depression or sump immediately above. With this natural large sump available, the salt water could be accumulated safely above a barrier in greater volume and depth than would be possible either at the San Pablo or Chipps Island sites and hence the salt water could be discharged with a correspondingly less quantity of fresh water lost in flushing. These estimates by the Army Engineers compare favorably with the actual results of operations experienced at the Lake Washington Ship Canal, where it has been found that a fresh water flow amounting to about two times the volume of salt water discharo'ed above the locks prevents any serious pollution of Lake L^nion. The amount of fresh water recjuired for lockage operations directly depends upon the number and size of vessels passing the locks. Data on water-borne traffic based upon investigations of the Army Engineers have been presented in Chapter III. Based upon the actual counts of present traffic and the estimates of future traffic predicted for twenty- five years hence, the number and size of locks which would be required at each site have been selected by the United States Army Engineers and a study made as to the number of lockages through each size of lock required to handle the present and predicted future traffic. As a matter of detailed consideration in estimating the number of lockages through each size of lock, the traffic distribution on two typical days was used to determine the possible combinations which could be made in locking upstream and downstream vessels. Under practical operat- ing conditions, the actual number of lockages would be somewhat less 9—80996 128 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES 1 hail the total number of vessels passiivj a site l)ecanse of these jiossible eonibinations. Based on these studies the average number of lockages per day and the computed salt-water inflow and fresh-water outflow by lockages through standard locks are shown in Table 25. This table shows for each site the lock dimensions, the average number of lockages per day, both for jiresent .traffic and predicted traffic 25 years hence, and the inflow oF salt water and the outflow of fresh water in acre-feet per lockage and per day for both present and future traffic. It will be noted in this table that the total number of lockages per day for both present and future traffic is less than the total number of trips for the reason previously stated. The leakage of water around flood gates and lock gates and the operation of fish ladders in a barrier structure also Avould result in substantial losses of fresh water. In the practical design and operation of the gates, it appears improbable tliat provision could be made for making them tight against leakage. AVhen the tidal waters below a barrier are at their lower stages, there would be direct leakage of fresh water from a lake, and during i)eriods of high tide there would be leakage of salt Avater into a lake which would have to be flushed out. Under these conditions, the United States Army Engineers have estimated the fresh-water requirements for leakage and fish ladders at amounts ranging from about 300 second-feet at the Dillon Point site to about to about 500 second-feet at the Chipps Island site, the latter of which wouhl have a larger number of flood gates and hence an increased amount of leakage. The unavoidable losses from a barrier lake, including evaporation and transpiration, would be of substantial amount. The estimates of evaporation and transpiration are based upou a special study, the results of which are presented in detail in Appendix C. These unavoidable losses from a barrier lake are especially important during the summer months, when they are at a maximum and when at the same time the stream flow entering the delta and bay is a minimum for the season. During the summer months of June to Septemlier. inclusive, evapora- tion in the San Pablo and Suisun Bay areas is estimated at from about five to eight inches in depth per month. Transpiration losses from natural aquatic vegetation per unit of area are of even gi-eater magni- tude than evaporation. For tules and cat-tails during the period June to September, inclusive, the average transpiration is estimated at from 1.2 to 1.5 feet in depth per month. Large areas of such aquatic growths are at present disti-ibuted on the marshes and along the shores of the bays 1 O500 o — 05 loOtO •a- 3>_H^;c> V «0 lOt^ !OTO iiOO >o U5 CO ^ CO ^ '■3 »(5 C^ .lOM c^ '- t-ooco (->• 1 (S^ " CO Ol "rt % ki (W -js ; ■* 005 00 — o QO 1 s lO -» 00 1 aj TOOOt^t^ to a bfi 5 ^ -H .(M to -^ CO -^ 03 1- 2 fe o rt" — " rt > < J3 -S c Sfi S i a (-• o E^ ^ G j_^ ■*0«5 ' CO >o ■^ OCO iQO >n toco -^ too oo 3 m V lOCQt^ iCM 1^ ■"recto ■•«< OKor^co O 0^ —4 1 W^ TO — c^ icq >o rtCJCO t^ ■a ^ ■^ a a ^^ 1 CO 03 *^ ^SS22 t^ to to en e^ t^to to «5 Ttc CO 00 O t^ «5 (NQodl^tO COOOO — U5 IMTOtO ot-co i p ^ ^ S t^QOOMOO OOTOQO— coo r- c» oo ■«• •* 00-a, ri --o to r: s fe 3 C *^ >i OJ OicOrr >C^ -H — . UOOO Oi 1 ■"*< to r~ 0>00-<0 •o oo c2 C-» — 1(5 to *r5 to tOCOC^l c^ -^ > o <~ 4 , ■JfOO too ■"TOO to o ■^ O t^ t^ ^H — C-J1MCC-* ^ C^J C<» CO -^ '-' CO CO CO -^ 1 1 -o — C'to ^ (S§ 5j s*- c ■" U50000 "OOOOO •ooooo TJ* CO OSCiOi ■^CO O) OiOi -» to CO CO CO J3 o 'm ^ c ^ J .u » ooooo OOOOO ooooo o lO o o o o OOOOO •ooooo "Si B — ccniraoo ^-CO W5U5 00 ^^ CO »o r^ c^i ; ; : : "1 o 6 -3 = — e^ieo •* '^cim ■* •-'eo'eo -^ I'S 1 I'a 1 !■— 1 ; o E ;s.s- i^.a 1 bci ' tlH^ 1 tail :-3 => < IS — 1 C h. . C t. o ■a . C 1. 2 c :g| ;£-§ ;a^ ■z '5 (S a. c ■73 o = CO o" a. ^^ CO ^^ a H c o H c H !e :z: *o o a a. 03^ 130 DIVI8IOX OF WATER RESOURCES If reclamation develui)ment "wore completed and all the marshlands util- ized for crop production, the transpiration from such vegetation would of course be eliminated. Evaporation and transpiration would be con- siderably smaller during the winter, late fall and early spring months. The total estimated amounts of transpiration for present conditions are based upon the application of the estimated rates to the areas of present vegetation as shown on Plate IV, and as summarized in Table 21. The total amounts of evaporation are based upon the application of the estimated rates to the areas of open water determined by the recent hydrographic surveys and maps of Suisun and San Pablo bays made by the United States Army Engineers. The rates of flow required for control of salinity with a barrier with standard locks are shown in Table 26 for each typical site as an average for the months of July, August and September. The figures are shown in second-feet continuous flow for barrier operation (lockage and flushing, gate leakage and fish ladders) and for unavoidable losses from a barrier lake (evaporation and transpiration). The lockage and flushing reciuirements for present conditions correspond to present trafiic. and for future conditions to predicted traffic 25 years hence, based upon estimates of the United States Army Engineers as pre- viously described. TABLE 26 REQUIRED RATE OF FLOW DURING SUMMER MONTHS FOR CONTROL OF SALINITY WITH A BARRIER WITH STANDARD LOCKS Rate of flow, in second-feet Demand Chipps Island site Dillon Point site Point San Pablo site Present conditions Future conditions Present conditions Future conditions Present conditions Future conditions 700 2,250 500 50 800 300 1,200 1,900 300 450 2,900 350 2,300 6,100 Gate leakage and fish ladders Evaporation and transpiration^... 500 100 350 1,050 1,300 2,800 2,300 2,650 5,550 7,500 I Mean values for months of July, .\ugust and September. Water requirements for leakage and fish ladders, as estimated by the United States Army Engineers, are the same under both present and future conditions. The figures for evaporation and transpiration are the mean for the months of Juh% August and September. The amounts shown under present conditions include transpiration from all the present vegetation on the upper bay marshlands above each barrier site, while the amounts shown under future conditions are based on the assumption that the marshlands are completely reclaimed and utilized for crop production and include only transpiration from vege- tation on permanently unreclaimed marginal areas. Thus, transpiration would be greath^ reduced under assumed future conditions, while evap- oration would be slightly reduced by the elimination of open-water areas within the marshlands. For both present and future conditions, the figures for evaporation and transpiration include only that portion of a barrier lake and the marshlands below the confluence of the Sacramento ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 131 and San Joaqnin rivers and do not include the consumption of water within the delta. The estimates of water requirements for lockage and flushing involve elements of uncertainty, especially as regards the number and size of vessels predicted for future traffic 25 years hence, the number and size of locks required to accommodate future traffic and finally the number of lockages through each size of lock. Different predictions might be made as to the number and size of vessels and the number and size of locks, which would materially alter the estimated lockage and flushing requirements. However, it is believed that the estimates of traffic 25 years hence and the lockage and flushing requirements com- puted therefrom for standard locks, as submitted by the United States Army Engineers and presented in the foregoing tables, afford as rea- sonable an approximation of future traffic conditions as could be made. Because of the uncertainty in accurately predicting future water-borne traffic for any particular time, the estimates need not be considered as being especially applicable to 25 years hence, but may be considered to represent conditions which would occur at some indefinite "time in the future, either more or less than 25 years hence. In considering a barrier in relation to the State Water Plan, future conditions and requirements are the most important and governing criteria. Although it is impossible to predict how fast water-borne traffic may grow, it appears certain that if the industrial, commercial and agricultural activities of the upper bay and delta regions continue to grow as may be reasonably expected, there doubtless would be a substantial and continuous increase in water-borne commerce. The federal government, with the cooperation of Stockton, now is engaged in constructing the Stockton Ship Canal, which will make it possible for ocean-going vessels to transport cargoes to and from points as far upstream as Stockton. This development in itself may be expected to substantially increase the volume of water-borne traffic past the several l)arrier sites. For these reasons, it is believed that more importance should be attached to estimates of water requirements for a barrier under future conditions, rather than under present conditions. The volume of traffic predicted for 25 years hence might be reasonably expected to occur not many years after it would be possible to com- plete the construction of a barrier. Moreover, it might be reasonably expected that water-borne traffic at a more distant future time would be greater than that estimated for 25 years hence and such increases would further increase the water requirements above those estimated for future conditions. Taking the figures estimated for future conditions as they stand, it will be noted that the total amounts of water required range from 2800 and 2650 second-feet for the Chipps Island and Dillon Point sites, respectively, to 7500 second-feet for the Point San Pablo site. The much greater quantity of water required for the Point San Pablo site is due not only to the greater volume of traffic at the farther down- stream point, but also to the mucli greater barrier-lake area and extent of marginal vegetation. During the winter months (December. January and February), these amounts would be decreased because of .smaller evapofatioi! and transpiration to about 2750 second-feet for the Chipps 132 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES Island site, 2300 second-feet for the Dillon Point site and 6650 second- feet for the Point San Pablo site. These water requirements for control of salinitj^ under future con- ditions with a barrier with the usual or standard type of locks are unreasonably large. If a barrier, entailing a large expenditure, were constructed for the primary purpose of preventing invasion of salt water, it appears obvious that the structure, especially the locks, sliould be so designed as to prevent, if possible, the entrance of salt water into a barrier lake. Required Control Flow ivifh Salt-clearing Locks. — It is reasonable to assume from the studies of salt-clearing locks, presented in Chapter II, that navigation locks could be designed with salt-clearing devices pro- vided, which Avould be practical in operation and which would be effective in preventing entrance of salt water into a barrier lake and in substantially reducing losses of fresh water. Based upon the assumed practical and effective operation of salt-clearing devices, estimates have been made and are presented in Table 27 of the TABLE 27 REQUIRED RATE OF FLOW DURING SUMMER MONTHS FOR CONTROL OF SALINITY WITH A BARRIER WITH SALT-CLEARING LOCKS Rate of flow, in second-feet Demand Chipps Island site Dillon Point site Point San Pablo site Present conditions Future conditions Present conditions Future conditions Present conditions Future conditions Lockage Gate leakage and fish ladders Evaporation and transpiration'..- 300 500 100 650 500 50 400 300 1,200 750 300 450 950 350 2,300 1,900 350 1,050 Totals 900 1,200 1,900 1,500 3,600 3,300 ' Mean values for months of July, August and September. water requirements for control of salinity with a barrier with salt- clearing locks. The table has been compiled in parallel to Table 26, the only changes in the figures being in the amounts of water estimated for lockage. The water requirements for each month are graphically shown on Plate VI, "Water Requirements for Control of Salinit}^ with a Barrier with Salt-Clearing Locks." The same size of locks and number of lockages for both present and future traffic are used as in Table 25. The water requirements for lockage, based upon the methods of operation of salt-clearing locks described in Chapter II, have been estimated on the as.sumption that fresh water would be lost in amounts ranging from 77 per cent for the smallest lock to 39 per cent for the largest lock of the total lock volume for both upstream and downstream lockage. On upstream lockage, these amounts of fresh water have been assumed as required to completely eliminate the salt water originally present in the lock. On downstream lockage, it is assumed that these amounts could not be recovered and pumped back to a barrier lake, but would be lost downstream. It is assumed that no salt Avater would enter a lake through lockage operations and hence no water would be required for flushing as far as lockage operations are concerned. Sucli amounis of salt water as Avould infiltrate into a barrier lake around the ECOXOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 1:^3 PLATE VI 1,500 PRESENT CONDITIONS 1.000 - 500 :- EVAPORATION a TRANSPIRATION-, l"^"''''^ >' ■ FUTURE CONDITIONS T 1 1 1— ~[ I 1 ! r EVAPORATION a TRANSPIRATION, Jan. Feb Mar Apr_ MayJuneJul^ Au^SeotOct. Nov. Dae. Jaa Feb. Mar Apr Ma^JuneJuly Au^ Sept, Oct. Nov, Dec BARRIER AT CHIPPS ISLAND SITE 2.500 >^ Jan.Feb. Mar. Apr MayJuneJutyAirf. Sept Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct, Nov. Dec. BARRIER AT DILLON POINT SITE 1 — I — I — \ — I — I — I — \ — r T I I I I r Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr.May June Ju|y Au^. Sept.Oct.Nov.Dec. Jaa Feb. Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov. Dec BARRIER AT POINT SAN PABLO SITE WATER REQUIREMENTS FOR CONTROL OF SALINITY WITH A BARRIER WITH SALT CLEARING LOCKS 134 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES floodgates and lock gates would have to be flushed out and the water requirements for this operation are included in the amounts for gate leakage. The water requirements for gate leakage and fish ladders and. evaporation and transpiration are identical to those in Table 26. Here again, the important figures are those for future, rather than for present conditions. The water requirements for control of salinity under future conditions with a barrier utilizing salt-clearing locks are estimated for the summer months at 1200 second-feet for Chipps Island site, 1500 second-feet for Dillon Point site and 3300 second-feet for Point San Pablo site, or a ver,y substantial reduction from the require- ments with standard locks. During the winter months (December, Januarv and February), these requirements would be reduced to about 1150, 1100 and 2450 'second-feet for the Chipps Island, Dillon Point and Point San Pablo sites, respectively. It is believed that these estimates of water requirements for con- trol of salinity with locks equipped with salt-clearing devices are reasonable and in conformity with the operating results which should be attained if the navigation locks in a barrier were properly designed. It may be assumed that these estimates represent the minimum amounts of water which would be required for control of salinity with a barrier under both present and future conditions. The actual details of design and operation of locks might be considerably differ- ent, such as, for example, a design with multiple-compartment locks as has been suggested by C. E. Grunsky. However, it is not believed that water requirements for lockage could be reduced below those estimated for salt-clearing locks by any different design of locks, prac- tical in operation and feasible in cost. The attainment of these results would require additional expenditures, both in capital cost of con- struction of such locks and in the annual operating cost of a barrier. The estimated amounts of increased capital and annual costs have been presented in Chapter II. The studies show, however, that if the reduced quantities of water indicated could be effected by con- struction and operation of this type of lock, the value of the water saved would be greater than the additional cost. The water requirements for control of salinity with a barrier witJi salt-clearing locks, as shown in Table 27 and Plate VI, have been adopted as the basis for the following estimates of required supple- mentary water supply and for the final economic studies. The discus- sion previously presented in regard to the element of uncertainty in these estimates as to magnitude and character of future water-borne traffic, apply with equal force to the estimates of water requirements with a barrier with salt-clearing locks. The assumed magnitude and character of Avater-borne traffic upon which the estimates of water requirements for lockage for future conditions are based, are believer! to be as fair an approximation of future traffic conditions as could be made. As previously noted, however, it might be reasonably expected that the volume and character of water-borne traffic at a more distant future time would be greater than that assumed in the estimates and the water requirements might be still greater than those estimated for futurr' conditions. ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 135 Control of Salinity by Stream Flow Without a Barrier. The alternate plan for control of saline invasion by means o£ stream flow without a barrier is based upon an intensive study of the variation and control of salinity in the upper bay and delta. The results of the investigation are presented in detail in another report.* It is concluded that the invasion of saline water into the delta could be positively prevented and salinity controlled at the lower end of the delta by provision of a fresh-water supply sufficient to maintain a flow in the two rivers of not less than 3300 second-feet past Antioch into Suisun Bay. With such a control at the mouth of the rivers, the consumptive needs of the delta would be fully served and a source of diversion of a fresh-water supply of equivalent dependability and quality to that which could be provided in a barrier lake would be available in the channels of the delta and not far distant from the upper bay area. The control of salinity as proposed by means of stream flow does not rest upon theory, but is supported by the actual observed occurrence of natural control Avhich has been effected by stream flow actually available during the past ten years. It offers not only a positive and dependable means of controlling salinity, but also a method that would be feasible and economical of consummation. Under the proposed plan of control, with the major reservoir units of the State Water Plan operating to provide the required water supplies for this purpose and all other needs in the Great Central Valley, delta and upper bay region, saline conditions in the upper bay channels would be improved over those which have occurred during the last ten to thirteen years and would tend to approach the equivalent of conditions which naturally occurred prior to the extensive development of irrigation, storage and reclamation works in the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys. Total Water Requirements for Control of Salinity. The total monthly water requirements for control of salinity with and without a barrier are .shown in Table 28. Those for a barrier are based upon the use of salt-clearing locks. The requirements for a bar- rier are also graphically shown on Plate VI, which illustrates for each barrier site not only the total water required each month, but also the portion of the total for lockage, gate leakage and fish ladders, evapora- tion and transpiration. As shown by Table 2S, the amount of water required for control of salinity without a barrier is greater than the amounts required with a barrier at any site, except in certain months for Point San Pablo site, where a greater amount would be required from ]\Iay to September, inclusive, under present conditions and from June to August, inclusive, under assumed future conditions. The variation in monthly amounts of water required with a barrier directly reflect the A-ariation in amounts of evaporation and transpiration. Tliese reach their maximum during the summer months, but materially decrease during the winter months. However, as previously pointed out, the important period of Avater requirements for salinity control, either Avith or Avithout a ♦BuHetin No. 27, "Variation and Control of Salinity in Sacramento-San Joaquin pelt;! rind T'pper San P^ranoisi'o Ray," Division of AA'ater Resonrros, IfK'.l, 136 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES barrier, is during the summer months, when the available stream flow entering the delta and bay is small in amount and generally insufficient to take care of these control requirements. The deficiencies in meeting these requirements from the available stream flow must therefore be supplied from mountain storage reservoirs during the period of defici- ency. During the winter months there is usually an abundance of water flowing into the delta and bay and hence the requirements for salinity control would be more than taken care of. TABLE 28 MONTHLY WATER REQUIREMENTS FOR CONTROL OF SALINITY WITH AND WITHOUT A BARRIER Water require- ments without a barrier, in acre-feet Water requirements with a barrier, in acre-feet> Month Chipps Island site Dillon Point site Point San Pablo site Present conditions Future conditions Present conditions Future conditions Present conditions Future conditions January 203,000 184,000 203,000 196,000 203,000 196,000 203,000 203,000 196,000 203,000 196,000 203,000 50,000 45,000 51,000 51,000 55,000 54,000 57,000 56,000 53,000 53,000 50,000 51,000 71,000 64,000 71,000 70,000 73,000 71,000 74.000 73,000 71,000 72,000 69,000 71,000 52,000 49,000 64,000 83,000 105,000 111,000 125,000 119,000 104,000 90,000 69,000 60,000 68,000 64,000 74,000 77,000 87,000 89,000 93,000 90,000 85.000 80,000 70,000 69,000 100,000 98,000 125,000 171,000 216,000 210,000 234,000 225,000 198,000 171,000 129,000 112,000 148,000 141,000 165,000 April 174,000 May June July -. August September October November December 197,000 197,000 209,000 204,000 190,000 179,000 153,000 150,000 Totals 2,389,000 626,000 850,000 1,031,000 946,000 1,989,000 2,107,000 ' Barrier water requirements based on use of salt-ciearing locks. Stream Flow Available for Salinity Control. During the period 1920 to 1929, inclusive, stream gaging stations immediately above the delta were maintained on the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers and their tributaries. Based upon measurements at these stations, the stream flow into the delta has been compiled during this period. These records are presented in detail in Bulletin No. 27 and will not be repeated here. In addition to these records of inflow, experimental data have been available as previously described for closely estimating the consumption of water in the delta. Based upon the records of inflow and the estimated consumptive use in the delta, the monthly flow into Suisun Bay has been estimated for the ten- year period and is shown in Table 29. It will be noted that, during several of the last ten years, notably in the dry years of 1920, 1924 and 1926, there was no stream flow into Suisun Bay during several of the summer months. During five of the last ten years, namely, 1921, 1922," 1923, 1925 and 1927, some water flowed into Suisun Bay during each month of the j^ear. During those months and years in which there was no flow into Suisun Bay, there was insufficient flow into the delta to take care of even the consumptive needs therein, in accord with the monthly demand for water. The amounts of such shortages have been discussed previously. Water supplies in addition to those from the Sacramento and San Joaquin River systems would be available from local streams entering ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 137 Q O 5 a. o z 5 fs Q QQ cQ OOOOOOOOOOC o o -o o o c ;oo o o ^ O O I— J i-J t—J t.:> oooooo_o_ t^ CO '— as « ko ■^ CO CO c^ oooooooooooo OOCDOCDOO oooo coooooc^ooooo oooooooooooo Tf -^ r- GO c^ o c oooooooooooo OCJOOjOOOOOOOO o o o oo o^o o_oo o o rf^t-^oo-^t^to^^^ro oo-^cic^o-co r-cc»f30 oooooooooooo oo ooo oooo (M 00 -^ iO oooooooooooo oooooooooooo J O O ■<** (M to '-« oooooooooooo I OOOOOOOOOOOO ■ oooooooooooo o oosoooosoooooo o oooooooooooo I o cc 1 - -r -' r ~ -m' irf ^ i~^ re -— ' oooooooooooo oooooo oooo oooooo oooo r- Oi -^ zr. sisa- 138 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES a barrier lake during the winter months, which would increase the available supply somewhat. However, these local streams generally dry up in the summer months and hence would not increase the avail- able supply in a barrier lake during the summer period. Such addi- tional supplies in the winter months would be of no benefit because the supplies from the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers during those months would be far more than ample to take care of the salinity control requirements. For this reason no attempt has been made to estimate tlie amount of such local supjilies which would be confined to the winter months only. Tlie comj^arative amounts of available stream flow and water requirements for salinity control with and without a barrier are graph- ically illustrated on Plate VII, "Relation of Available Water Supply to Water Requirements for Control of Salinity With and Without a Barrier." The diagrams on this plate show the available stream flow into Suisun Bay, during the period of low stream flow, for the minimum and maximum years and the mean of all years during the period 1920 to 1929, inclusive ; and the water requirements for salinity control Avitli a barrier with salt-clearing locks under both present and assumed future conditions, and for control by stream flow without a barrier. Supplemental Water Supply Required for Control of Salinity The maintenance of the required flow for control of salinity eithei- with or without a barrier would necessitate the furnishing of additional water supplies released from mountain storage to su}>plement the stream flow such as has been available during the last ten years. These additional supplemental supplies would be required during the summer months of low stream flow. Based upon the control requirements as shown in Table 28, and stream flow available during the period 1920 to 1929 as shown in Table 29, the amounts of supplemental water supply required for control of salinity with and without a barrier have been estimated and are shown in Table 30. Figures are shown for each month of deficiency each year, and the total for each year. The supple- mental supplies required for control of salinity with a barrier are shown for both present and future conditions, using salt-clearing locks. In computing the amounts of supplemental supply with a barrier, the usable storage capacities for each barrier site were credited as an addi- tional water supply reducing the amount of supplemental supply which would be required otherwise. The amounts of supplemental water supply required with a barrier under future conditions are of chief importance as compared to the amounts required without a barrier, inasmuch as they are based upon the conditions which may be reason- ably expected to occur soon after a barrier could be constructed and put into operation. The figures for present conditions are therefore of interest only as a comparison with the more important and significant figures for future conditions. The required supplemental supplies have been computed for each month as the difference between monthly stream flow and monthly demand, or the average rate of flow and rate of demand for the month. Actually, however, the stream flow in certain months may be so dis- tributed in a general rise or fall that it would be greater than the demand for part of the month and less than the demand for the remaining part of the month, but Avith an average flow only slightly ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 139 PLATE VII 4.000 3.000 « 2,000 O U 1,000 Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. MajJuneJul^ Au^. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec Without a barrier T77T$ ioooJ" with a barrier at Point San Pablo Site- J %- t 1 With a barrier at Dillon Poin t Site^ With a barrier at Chipps Island Site' + + -^**^».i i- 4,000 CONTROL REQUIREMENTS FOR PRESENT CONDITIONS Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. Ma_y June July Au^. Sept Oct. Nov. Dec. 3,000 2,000 1,000 = 1 I fT^ol ^ r + + + + + Without a barrier rwwif~w :%. -z. J 'With a barrier at Point San Pablo Site ' With a barrier at Dillon Point Site^ With a barrier at Chipps Island Site'' CONTROL REQUIREMENTS FOR FUTURE CONDITIONS LEGEND Water requirements for control of salinity oooooooo Available supply flowing into Suisun Bay in a normal run-off year (i927) ******* Available supply flowin* into Suisun Bay in the minimum run-off year of record (1924) + ♦ ♦ + -t- + Available supply flowing into Suisun Bay averaged for period 1920 to I929,inclusive RELATION OF AVAILABLE WATER SUPPLY TO WATER REQUIREMENTS FOR CONTROL OF SALINITY WITH AND WITHOUT A BARRIER 140 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES •>:i'eatei' or less than the average demand. On account of such distribu- tion of flow, the supplemental supply both with and Avithout a barrier would be greater than that computed using total monthly flow or TABLE 30 SUPPLEMENTAL WATER SUPPLY FOR CONTROL OF SALINITY WITH AND WITHOUT A BARRIER Supple- mental supply required without a barrier, in acre-feet Supplemental supply required with a barrier, in acre-feet' Month ami year Chipps Island site Dillon Point site Point San Pablo site Present conditions Future conditions Present conditions Future conditions Present conditions Future conditions 1920— Julv - 203,000 203,000 186,000 12,000 56,000 43.000 29,000 73,000 61,000 50,000 119,000 94,000 18,000 90,000 75,000 79,000 225,000 188,000 54,000 204,000 180,000 Total annual 1921— August September 592,000 162,000 79,000 111,000 163,000 263,000 3,000 183,000 492,000 29,000 81,000 438,000 8,000 73,000 Total annual 1922- 241,000 118,000 40,000 3,000 110,000 27,000 81,000 Total annual 1923— 158,000 112,000 7,000 196,000 203,000 203,000 171,000 9,000 57,000 56,000 28,000 26,000 74,000 73,000 46,000 36,000 125,000 119,000 79,000 14,000 93,000 90,000 60,000 27,000 75,000 234,000 225,000 173,000 1924- 43,000 Jaly 209,000 204,000 165,000 Total annual . . 1925— 780,000 197,000 20,000 150,000 5,000 219,000 22,000 359,000 38,000 257,000 9,000 707,000 64,000 22,000 621,000 43,000 September 14,000 Total annual 1926- ,Tuly 217,000 203,000 203,000 44,000 5,000 12,000 56,000 22,000 29,000 73,000 38,000 50,000 119,000 9,000 18,000 90,000 86,000 79,000 225,000 46,000 57,000 54,000 204,000 38,000 Total annunL 1927- August . . 1928- July 450,000 125,000 114,000 203,000 68,000 11,000 102,000 28,000 169,000 80,000 108,000 19,000 350,000 215,000 296,000 169,000 Total annual 1929— July 317,000 195,000 203,000 30,000 11,000 4,000 56,000 28,000 21,000 73,000 80,000 42,000 119,000 19,000 10,000 90,000 215,000 71,000 225,000 32,000 169,000 46,000 204,000 September --- 24,000 Total annual 428,000 60,000 94,000 161,000 100,000 328,000 274,000 Average annual- Maximum annual Minimum annual 342,000 780,000 112,000 40,500 150,000 62,800 219,000 107,300 359,000 67,600 257,000 231,500 707,000 193,600 621,000 'Barrier water requirements based upon use of salt-clearing locks. ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF A SALT WATER BARRIER 141 average flow during- tlie month. Taking this factor into account, the annual average, maximum and minimum amount of supplemental sup- ply required for control of salinity without a barrier have been com- puted as 384,000, 850,000 and 149,000 acre-feet respectively. These more accurate figures have been used in Bulletin No. 27 and in Bulletin No. 25. Increases of the same proportion would be obtained for the supplemental supply required with a barrier if the more accurate distribution of stream flow were used. However, for the purpose of tliis study, the amounts computed from average monthly flow are used since consideration is directed chiefly to the difi^erence in amounts of supplemental supply required with and without a barrier and these differences would be practically the same if the more detailed distri- bution of stream flow were used. The amounts of supplemental water supply required for salinity control with a barrier with salt-clearing locks are less than those required for control without a barrier. The differences in required supplemental Avater supply have been computed and are presented in Table 31 for each year from 1920 to 1929, inclusive. TABLE 31 DIFFERENCE IN ANNUAL AMOUNT OF SUPPLEMENTAL WATER SUPPLY FOR CONTROL OF SALINITY WITH AND WITHOUT A BARRIER With barrier equipped with salt-clearing locks) Year Difference in supplemental water supply, in acre-feet Chipps Island site Dillon Point site Point San Pablo site Present Future Present Future Present Future conditions conditions conditions conditions conditions conditions 481,000 429,000 329,000 409,000 100,000 154,000 241,000 241,000 238,000 241,000 131,000 160,000 158,000 158,000 158,000 158,000 131,000 158,000 112,000 112,000 112,000 112,000 112,000 112,000 630,000 561,000 421,000 523,000 73,000 159,000 212,000 195,000 179,000 208,000 131,000 160,000 382,000 348,000 281,000 342,000 100,000 154,000 125,000 125,000 125,000 125,000 125,000 125,000 306,000 289,000 237.000 298,000 102,000 148,000 368,000 334,000 267,000 328,000 100,000 154,000 301,500 279,200 234,700 274,400 110,500 148,400 630,000 561,000 421,000 523,000 131,000 160.000 112,000 112.000 112,000 112,000 73,000 112,000 1920. 1921. 1922_ 1923. 1924. 1925- 1926. 1927. 1928. 1929. .\verage for period Maximum for period. \Iinimum for period. The differences shown in Table 31 represent the indicated amounts of saving in supplemental water supply by control of salinity with a barrier, as compared to the amounts required for control without a barrier. The maximum indicated .saving in supplemental water supply which would result from the use of a barrier under future conditions amounts to 561,000 acre-feet per year for the Chipps Island site, 523,000 acre-feet for the Dillon Point site and 160,000 acre-feet for the Point San Pablo site. Under present water-borne traffic and present conditions of vegetation and development in the upper bay marshlands, the indicated maximum saving amounts to 630.000 acre-feet at the Chipps Island site, 421,000 acre-feet at the Dillon Point site and 131.000 acre-feet at Point San Pablo site. However, these figures for present conditions 142 DIVISION or WATER RESOURCES with a barrier slioiild not be considered as significant, inasmuch as the volume of water-borne traffic may be expected to grow and approach the volume predicted for 25 years hence in a few years after a barrier could be constructed and put into operation. Whether or not the com- plete reclamation and utilization of the upper bay marshlands would be eft'ected in the same length of time as the predicted growth in water- borne traffic is questionable. The assumption that the development and utilization of these lands would be complete in estimating the future unavoidable losses by evaporation and transpiration from a barrier lake is in favor of control -v^'ith a barrier as compared to that without a barrier. If the standard type of locks were used in a barrier structure, the indicated maximum saving in supplemental Avater supply with a barrier would be reduced under future conditions to annual amounts of 172,000 acre-feet for Chipps Island site and 240,000 acre-feet for Dillon Point site. For Point San Pablo site, a much greater supplemental supply than that required without a barrier, amounting to 1,262,000 acre-feet per year, would be required. Detailed studies have been carried out under both the proposed initial and ultimate developments of the State Water Plan, with a schedule of operation providing for the amounts of water for salinity control by stream flow without a barrier. The details of these studies are presented in other reports.* Under the initial plan of operation and development of the State Water Plan, Kennett reservoir, on the upper Sacramento Eiver. would be constructed with a capacity of 2,940,000 acre-feet and operated to supplement the flow from unreg:u- lated streams and from return irrigation water, to control floods, generate a large block of hydroelectric power, maintain a navigable depth of five to six feet in the Sacramento River from Sacramento to Chico Landing, supply irrigation demands in the Sacramento Valley above Sacramento without deficiency up to 6000 second-feet maximum draft in July, furnish a complete supply withovit deficiency for the consumptive demands in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, make available a water supply in the delta to serve, without deficiency, the developed industrial and agricultural areas along the south shore of Suisun Bay in Contra Costa County, make available a supply, without deficiency, of 896,000 acre-feet for crop lands in San Joaquin Valley now being served from the San Joaquin River above the mouth of the Merced River, and finally furnish a supply of not less than 3300 second-feet past Antioch into Suisun Bay for controlling salinity to the lower end of the delta without a barrier. Under the ultimate develop- ment and operation of the State Water Plan, 24 major reservoirs would be constructed with an aggregate capacity of 17,817,000 acre-feet and operated to supply the ultimate water requirements of the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys and the upper San Francisco Bay region, and in addition furnish a water supply flowing past Antioch into Suisun Bay of not less than 3300 second-feet for control of salinity without a barrier. The results of the studies of water supply, yield and demand show conclusively that in addition to supplying the full water require- ments for the initial and ultimate development qf the Sacramento and * BuHetin No. 25, "Report to Legislature of 1931 on State Water Plan," Division of Water Resources, 1930. Bulletin No. 26, "Sacramento River Basin," Division of Water Resources, 1931. ECONOMIC ASI'i:c'r;- Ol' A salt water UAKHUOPv 143 San J()at|uiii valleys, the Saeramento-San Joaquin Delta and upper l)ay i-eoioii, ani])le water supi)lies would be available for ])rovidin*>' positive eontrol of salinity at the lower end of the delta without a barrier. If watei- supplies were needed in addition to those developed by the pro- posed major reservoir units of the State Water Plan, studies sliow thai regulated supplies could be substantially increased by construction of otlier available reservoirs in the Sacramento Basin and by development and diversion of supplies from the Eel River. Therefore, the indicated savin^^ otg osj ^j? otg *o aS sn. ^5 20 2^ ^2 2a a ■as O Industry a^ Iron, steel 42.5 41.8 41.8 43.6 36.8 35.4 28.5 48.6 Leather 42.2 50.0 44.2 43.4 34.6 33.7 52.6 Paper 44.0 47.4 41.6 44.4 39.2 36.4 27.1 43.3 Petroleum 45.7 46.3 51.4 50.0 40.3 32.5 57.4 Cement 37.8 42.5 38.0 35.7 31.0 47.2 Foundries 39.8 39.6 42.0 43.5 40.3 27.5 32.6 51.4 Meat packing- 42.0 44.8 41.9 42.0 42.1 40.0 ___ 41.9 Average for 13 industries surveyed 43.7 48.0 46.4 48.4 41.8 30.2 26.8 47.9 A comparison of average weekly pay envelopes in identical industries for the same week of April, 1929, taken from the same source of infor- mation, shows the relationship between regions as it exists when the pay of more highly skilled factory workers is averaged in with the type covered by the preceding table. East-Xorth-Central $32.15 Pacific 28.40 Middle Atlantic 27.50 New England 25.30 South Atlantic 20.15 * Monthly Labor Review, October, 1929, p. 172. 174 DIVISION OP WATER RESOURCES It will be noted that while wage scales on the Pacific coast are higher than the average for the country, they are lower in both instances than the prevailing rates in the great industrial area comprised in the east-north-eentral states.* Transportation. The area is served directly by the main lines of three transcontinental railroad systems, the Western Pacific, the Southern Pacific and the Santa Fe. The Northwestern Pacific serves the territory north from Sausalito to Eureka. Not all. parts of the bay area have equally good facilities and equally prompt service, but a common rate schedule applies over the whole bay region. Some important parts of the area have lacked the stimulus which competing rail lines afford, but the Interstate Commerce Commission seems disposed to sanction the entrance of competing lines wherever the situation seems to warrant. The bay area, in common with the rest of California, has an unusually complete network of improved motor highways. The oppor- tunity thus afforded for the use of trucks has made possible delivery direct to the purchaser, or, if rail or water shipping is necessary, delivery is made by truck to the point of shipment. The M^hole of the United States is so thoroughly covered with main lines of railroad that no section possesses any great advantage over another in that respect. Rail hauls, however, compared with water shipments, are expensive and, in the case of articles which have large bulk and weight in proportion to their value, railway charges can soon become prohibitive. It is for this reason that the greatest economic development tends to occur where water transportation is available. In addition to its foreign, intercoastal and coast-wise commerce, the bay area has a large volume of local traffic along its own shores and on the two important rivers and the smaller streams tributary to it. The following data, compiled by Dean H. F. Grady, t show in approx- imate figures the relative importance of the water-borne commerce of the port of San Francisco from the standpoint of destination : To foreign countries $1,500,000 daily average To Hawaii 250,000 daily average To Atlantic Coast of United States 330,000 daily average Coastwise 2,800,000 daily average Local 2,000,000 daily average . In his annual report for 1929, the Chief of Engineers, United States Army, gives the total water-borne commerce of the four leading Pacific coast ports as follows : Rank Rank Short among among tans U. 8. ports Value U. 8. ports San Francisco __ 41,019,000 2d $2,257,747,000 2d Los Angeles 25,696,000 4th 956,702,000 4th Seattle 8,907,000 11th 773,747,000 7th Portland 9,165,000 10th 343,220,000 13th Much is said about the advantage of plant location on deep water where ocean "freighters" can come directly to the company's dock, but relatively few concerns in the San Francisco Bay area have any * In this group are Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Michigan and Wiscnn.sin. t See footnote on page 171. INDUSTRIAL SlUNKV OF UPPKK SAX lltAXCISCO BAY AREA 175 such volunu' of shipineiits In or from i)oin(s on a given steamship route as to warrant a call for an ocean vessel. Even the very smallest of enterprises, however, finds it profitable to utilize the smaller bay and river craft in bringing in raw materials and sending out their finished .prodncts. Ocean .steamship lines are keenly competitive, and whenever a sufficient volume of merchandise is forthcoming from any point in the bay area on a sufficiently deep channel there will be no lack of such service. Foreign Commerce. We have already indicated in the preceding chapter the volume of commerce of the San Francisco customs district. The following table shows the principal items of export and import, arranged in order of total value.* Exports Imports Canned and dried fruits Raw silk Refined mineral oils Green coffee Barley Copra Raw cotton Burlap Automobiles Chinese wood, nut, or tung oil Canned fish Raw sugar Canned milk Coconut oil Asphalt Tea Redwood lumber Print paper Cigarettes Tin Canned vegetables Bananas Rice Crab meat Flour The port of San Francisco ships relatively little for other areas. Xine-tenths of the volume of products imported are consumed in northern and central California, and the same proportion of exports are produced there. As noted in the preceding chapter, an examination of products imported and exported indicates how little California has developed general manufactures such as constitute the list of exports from major eastern ports, and likewise how few manufactures are received from foreign countries by water. The following are the best foreign customers of this shipping area, according to the data for 1929 :* • United Kingdom 39 million dollars Japan 24 million dollai-s Philippines 16 million dollars Canada 7.6 million dollars Australia 27 million dollars China 16 million dollai-s New Zealand 8.4 miUion dollars The remaining amount. 74 million dollars, was distributed among the other countries of the world. It can be readilj" seen that the Orient and Australasia constitute an important part of the foreign market for the San Francisco Bay region. That adequate competition exists for the business which the bay region offers is evidenced by the following statement of the shipping facilities afforded on the routes indicated.! ♦Annual (1929) Statistical Statement of Customs District of San Francisco, t 1930 issue, Tear Book of "San Francisco Business," p. 69. 12—80996 176 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES To Australasia 8 lines Around the world 5 lines To the Orient and Hawaii 15 lines To Europe 17 lines To Central and South America 13 lines Intercoastal 21 lines Coastwise 22 lines Fuel and Power. Fuel oil is supplied by barge from the four large refineries in the upper bay. A slight advantage in cost is had by the upper bay indus- tries because of the shorter haul. The price of fuel oil per barrel in this area compares with prices elsewhere as follows : * San Francisco Bay $0.89 Portland and Seattle 1.10 Los Angeles (El Segundo) 0.85 St. Louis 1.26 Chicago $1.36-1.40 Detroit 1.57 Pittsburgh 1.68-1.73 New York 1.15 Boston 1.15 At 89 cents per barrel, fuel oil costs 14.7 cents per million British thermal units. Natural gas from the oil fields is available to the industries of the bay region. A minimum rate of 14 cents per thousand cubic feet is made to industries for that part of the flow of gas which is in excess of domestic and other similar requirements. At this rate the cost would be 12.2 cents per million British thermal units. Natural gas is being made available to certain industrial centers in the east, but comparable cost data can not be had. However, by reducing the prevailing cost of coal to a British thermal unit basis, a comparison of fuel costs may be obtained, although to make gas and coal costs truly comparable an industry would have to add to its coal cost the expense for handling, storage and labor charge for stoking and removing ashes. The following table shows in British thermal units the cost of coal in certain cities (without the added costs indicated above), the cost of fuel oil in the San Francisco Bay area, and the cost of natural gas in the same area.t Cost per million British thermal units for Fuel oil San Francisco Bay 14.7 cents Chicago 22.8 cents Birmingham Atlanta St. Louis 20.8 cents Cleveland Buffalo — Pittsburgh 28.2 cents Baltimore Electric power lines serve all parts of the bay region from a common "hookup," and at the same scale of prices. The following table, com- piled from charts prepared by the statistical department of the Pacific * Figures furnished by the Standard Oil Company of California, t Information regarding gas, coal and power rates furnished by the Pacific uas and Electric Company. for for Natural gas Coal 12.2 cents 14.3 cents 13.0 cents 16.0 cents 10.5 cents 12.2 cents 13.9 cents 9.7 cents 17.4 cents INDUSTRIAL SURVEY OF TAPPER SAX FRANCISCO BAY AREA 177 Gas and Electric C'oiupany, iiulit-ati's how prices of electi'ie eiii-rent to industrial users compare for different centers : COST OF ELECTRIC POWER TO INDUSTRIAL USERS Based on uniform load factor and use of 400 hours per month and with "incidental lighting" making up twenty per cent of the total demand Size of installation or maximum demand City or locality 100 horsepower (cost in mills) 500 horsepower (cost in mills) 1.000 horsepower (coat in mills) St. Louis 24.8 23.2 17.7 16.6 13.6 12.8 16.6 24.8 21.5 12.7 13.5 11.1 11.1 10.0 10.0 Detroit... 13.0 Chicago . It.O Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania _ _ 9.5 Los Angeles (municipal) 8.0 San Francisco . 9.0 Southern California (outside Los Angeles)... 9.0 Raw Materials and Markets. Since these are primarily problems which concern specific industries and do not lend themselves to much g-eneralization. their treatment will be taken up in detail only in connection with the plants in the upper bay area. We need only note here that cheap water transportation has compensated for the g-reat distance by land from certain raw materials, and that the surrounding territorj^ has supplied the rest. Likewise, adequate markets are afforded (1) by the presence in the western states of nearly a tenth of the nation's population, and (2) by the fully developed ocean transportation system which we have already described. Sites. The question of the cheapness and quality of industrial sites, like that of markets and raw materials, can best be dealt with in connection with specific areas. The bay with its several arms and tributaries offers a shore line more than four hundred miles in total extent, so that the possibilities for expansion along a water front, so far as mere space is concerned, are practically unlimited. In addition there are in the nine counties within a radius of forty-eight miles from San Francisco many thousands of acres of additional land offering potential industrial sites. Comparison of the Several Areas in the Bay Region. Although the chief concern of this study is with the area which borders upon Carquinez Strait and Suisun Bay, a brief comparative survey of the other principal industrial areas in the region will place the study in proper perspective. Before taking up the several areas in their turn, it will be of interest to note the distribution of the water-borne commerce, in 1929, as an index of present utilization bj^ the bay region of its several .shipping points :* t'^hort tons Value San Francisco (City) 14.400.000 .$1,613,000,000 Oakland 5.800,000 827,000.000 Richmond 5,800,000 119,000,000 San Pablo Bav 4,700,000 82,000,000 Suisun Bav 4,900,000 64,000,000 Carquinez Strait 9,700,000 228,000,000 Other points 1,800,000 54.000,000 * See footnote on page 171. 178 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES West SJiore of San Francisco Bay. — San Francisco, proper, has been zoned for light, heavy and unrestricted industry. From Fort Mason to China Basin, however, the whok water front is fully occupied. While some fairly large sites are still available back from the water front, they are attractive to the type of industry which can afford to pay prevailing prices because of certain other peculiarly favorable con- ditions. Reclamation work * at Islais Creek, authorized by the state, will make available some 280 acres which should sell for $1.50 to $3 per square foot. According to local authorities land at that price is destined for purposes of distribution and multi-story manufacturing plants, t An extensive area south of Hunter 's Point, near to a deep channel in the bay, could be made available for industries at from 50 cents to a dollar per square foot. The San Francisco city district is second in the state in value of industrial output, t but its industries have selected their locations largely because of proximity to the local market. The existence of deep water at San Francisco has fostered industries like coffee, spice and chocolate processing, which derive their products from abroad and distribute them through the channels available in a large urban center. South San Francisco, already the seat of a number of industrial plants of the heavier type, has ample acreage for large-sized plants at moderate cost. Since it lacks direct access to deep water, a 19,000-foot channel is contemplated, which would tend to increase greatly the value of the sites adjacent to it. South San Francisco, although a separate municipality, is closely connected by rail, street car and highway with San Francisco, and is in the same terminal rate area. In San Mateo County below South San Francisco, a large area of marsh and of dry land extends back from the bay to the- cities and towns built along the Southern Pacific line. Seven thousand acres of dry land are already available for industrial uses. Between South San Francisco and Port San Francisco, just north of Redwood City, further land could be made suitable for industries at from $2,500 to $5,000 per acre. In many cases, a firm foundation would have to be secured through the use of piling. At Port San Francisco, an area of about 3500 acres, and perhaps 640 acres additional, is available for development. An engineer's report states that ' ' the first unit will provide 100 acres with 500 lineal feet on thirty feet of water." Clay and shale underlie this land at a depth of 30 to 40 feet. At Redwood City, definite plans are under way for a deep water barge canal, together Avith 2800 feet of docks, cold storage facilities and a turning basin. Port San Jose, at the extreme lower end of the bay, is still another deep water outlet for the products of the Santa Clara and adjacent valleys which is being given serious consideration. * It should be borne in mind in reading this chapter of the report that on substan- tially all lands which have been filled from dredged materials the costs of foundations will be higher than where the structures are built on natural soil. This added cost has to be weighed against the advantages of having a plant located on deep water. t These data for the West Bay District furnished by the Industrial Department of the San Francisco Chamber of Commerce and Mr. P. T. Letchfleld, Industrial En- gineer, San Francisco. t U. S. Census of manufactures, 1927. INDUSTRIAL SURVEY OF UPPER SAX FRANCISCO BAY AREA 1/9 The whole territory on the west side of the bay north of San Jose has been served directly by but one railroad line, the Southern Pacific, but access is had across the bay to the other trunk lines, the same rates to outside points applyiuf? on both sides of the bay. The examiner for the Interstate Commerce Commission has recommended to the Com- mission that the Western Pacific be alloAved to build a line into San Francisco, crossincr the bay near Redwood City. This added line, with the Bayshore Highway and two transbay bridges nearby should add considerably to the attractiveness of the whole San Mateo County indus- irial area. A deep channel extends down the bay as far as Dumbarton Bridge, but access to it from the industries on the shore would have to be provided by dredging channels. San Mateo and Santa Clara counties are so admirably adapted for residential purposes that there exists a conflict of interests. Owners of attractive homes and extensive estates resist encroachment of industries. Tills situation is bound to place a limit on industrial development in these counties. Fresh water for industrial use in the San Mateo country area can be obtained from private wells or from the municipal supply. Several large industrial wells are in use at South San Francisco, but the con- stantly increasing drain upon the limited supply of underground water on the Peninsula does not offer much encouragement for additional water supplies from this source. East Bay Communities* — On the east side of the bay, below Alameda, the wide salt marshes lying between the deep water and solid ground make utilization of the land for industrial purposes a matter of the somewhat distant future. In Alameda and Oakland, land values are high, and in some sections of the former natural foundations are none too good. The typical price of $30,000 to $40,000 for available acreage is high for plants which require a considerable amount of land and find no marked advantage in being situated within an urban district. Oakland, like San Francisco, Avill probably appeal chiefly to the multi-story tj^pe of establishment whose product can absorb a relatively high land cost. A large interest operating under the name of the Berkeley Water- front Company, has obtained control of much of the shore line from the Key Eoute Pier to Richmond, and will undoubtedly develop indus- trial sites for the types of industry which require large acreage ancL at the same time, .should be located relatively close to large centers of population, and be readily accessible to deep water facilities. At Richmond, additional high class industrial property is being made available along a channel thirty-two feet in depth. Attractive sites thus will be provided for terminals and manufacturing plants requiring deep water transportation facilities. A large potential industrial area exists between Point San Pablo and Pinole Point. This would require bulkheading and filling, and would only be made available to take care of special types of plants requiring large areas free from obstruction, easy accessibility to deep water, and good labor supply. * Information on the Ea.st Bay situation was obtained from Mr. F. D. Parr of the Parr Terminal Company, San Francisco. 180 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES Some wells are in use in the plants of east bay industries, but the new east bay municipal supply from the Mokelumne River is the principal source of fresh water. The Tipper Bay. — Stockton * has recently assumed a new importance as a potential industrial area. A twenty-six-foot channel which is now under construction through the upper part of Suisun Bay and the San Joaquin River will enable ocean vessels to dock at the Stockton ter- minals. As a result, the considerable tonnage of grain, canned fruits and vegetables, dried fruits, and some manufactured products which heretofore has had to be shipped by rail or river to a San Francisco Bay port from the central A^alley area can be loaded on vessels at Stock- ton. In like manner, inbound shipments of lumber, wood pulp, and general merchandise can be brought directly to Stockton. The present industries, for the most part, are the type which serve the local area (farm machinery, containers, boats) or process its products (canneries). Ample fresh water can be had in the river, with little trouble from salinity at that distance from the Golden Gate — about ninety miles. The city is served by all three transcontinental lines. Much land is available for industries, but that which is best located is low-lying and would have to be protected by levees. t Industrial growth in the near future, as at present, will be devoted largely to serving the surrounding territory and processing its products. Sacramentot is some twelve miles farther from the ocean than Stock- ton. Sacramento also serves the great central valleys. It is located on two of the transcontinental lines and connects with the third at Stockton. It has a ten-foot river channel to Suisun Bay.§ The water in the river at Sacramento is soft and free from salinity. Abundant industrial land is available, although, as in the case of Stockton, the best situated land would have to be protected from inundation. Flour mills, fruit and vegetable canneries and a large can factory constitute the principal industries. The rest are mostly of the smaller local variety. A ship canal to Sacramento has been under consideration for a long time, but now that the Stockton project has become a realitj^ the facilities of that port should, for some time to come, prove adequate to serve the territory tributary to both cities. There is no immediate likelihood of a considerable influx of industries which are not closely related to the local area. The following data, from the Market Data Handbook of the United States Department of Commerce, 1929, show the status of manu- facturing in the several cities of the bay region in 1927 : * Document .55 4, House of Representatives, 68th Congress, 1st Session, "San Joaquin River and Stockton Channel, California," 1925. t C. E. Grunsky, Report on Sacramento Deep Water Ship Canal, 1925, p. 61. t C. E. Grunsky, Report on Sacramento Deep Water Ship Canal, 1925, esp. pp. 1-61. § The old nine-foot channel is in process of being deepened to ten feet. INDUSTRIAL SURVEY OF UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA ]81 Number of plants Number of wage earners Thousands of dollars Wages Cost of materials Value added Value of product 2,092 866 197 131 58 41,909 23,235 6,359 3,001 14,450 $61,134 35,031 8,377 4,240 $237,642 167,549 25,210 13.178 $192,086 94,227 17,759 10,718 70,000 $429,728 Oakland-Berkeley-Richmond 261,776 42,969 23,895 22,000 215.000 285,000 'Data inclrde all major basic industries below Antirch and above Richmond approximately 80 per cent being from replies to State Engineer's questionnaire, 15 per cent from Byron Times, 12th Development Edition, and 5 per cent estimated. From Point Pinole to Antioch on the south shore of Carquinez Strait and Siiisun Bay, and at Vallojo and Benicia on the north shore, are located the group of industries which are the special concern of this .'-■tud5^ Here inexpensive land is nearer to deep water than at any other point in the bay region. Large tracts have been available away from centers of population where fumes from industrial processes and the hazards of explosive manufacture create a minimum of concern, although this situation is changing M'ith the growth of the upper bay communities. No handicap of city-street rights of way, or building i-estrictions hampers the laying out of the plant. From Crockett to Martinez there is little land readily available between the hills, the railway lines and the water. To the east of i\Iartinez, a stretch of lowland has been purchased for reclamation in the general neighborhood of Point Edith. From this proposed development to Antioch, a considerable acreage of solid land is still available — the typical price is about $7,000 an acre for water front property and about $2,000 for that a half a mile or so farther back.* The Stockton deepwater project will add to the attractiveness of this area for industrial purposes. At Pittsburg, particularly, wells have been used to supply fresh water when the water in the river becomes brackish. Other industries supplement their own river supplies with the filtered and treated river supply of the California Vv^ater Service Company. The Southern Pacific and Santa Fe railroads traverse the Contra Costa side of the bay, and the Western Pacific, through its ownership and use of the Sacramento Northern, provides the shipping services of a third transcontinental system. The north shore of Suisun Bay and the strait is served by the Southern Pacific and the Western Pacific. The Mare Island Navy Yard at Vallejo, the government arsenal at Benicia, and some private industrial enterprises in these two cities con- stitute the present development. Port Sacramento, between Vallejo and Benicia, is being projected as a further extension of north shore industrial and shipping activity. Because of the wide area of marsh land and shallow water which ])revails along the north shore of Suisun Bay, it will probably not be developed industrially for some years to come. The types of industry which exist in the upper bay area have pro- ceeded to build up their own labor force with a favorable turnover rate and comparative freedom from disturbances. The typical wage of * Data obtained from a company specializing in upper bay industrial sites. 182 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES unskilled male labor seems to be 50 cents an hour. Italians, Portuguese, Mexicans, with some American laborers, furnish the common labor supply. Skilled labor averages from 75 cents to a dollar or more an hour.* The upper baj^ is, on the whole, better adapted to making products intended for distribution by steamer and rail over a wide area, than providing the populations of the large urban centers with the things they consume directly. However, so populous a region with so great a number and variety of industries, commercial firms and farms, offers no mean outlet for the products of an industrial district, even though the more basic type of industry predominates. Markets and Raw Material Sources of Upper Bay Industries. Few of the raw materials used by upper bay producers, aside from the products handled by canneries, originate within the area. The presence of manj^ of them in California and other western states and the easy accessibility of the rest, because of low water transportation costs, has prevented the raw material factor from becoming an impedi- ment to the industrial growth of the upper bay area. Row Material Sources. — Specifically, according to the statements received from the industries themselves, the problem of securing raw materials for the several types of industry in the upper bay is met as follows : Oil refineries : 1. By pipe lines from San Joaquin Valley. 2. By oil steamers from southern California. Lumber products : Eail and steamer, or combination of the two, from Oregon. Washington and California. Cane sugar refinery : Steamer from plantations in Hawaiian Islands. Steel mills : 1. Local scrap. 2. Pig iron from Utah. 3. Eastern and foreign water-borne shipments. Rubber mills : Rubber — Straits Settlements; Cotton — southern California and San Joaquin Valley. Chemical companies, including sprays, insecticides, etc. : California, Japan, Washington, Texas, Belgium. Canneries — Vegetable and fruit : Nearby ranches. * Data with respect to the upper bay area have been obtained almost wholly from a Questionnaire prepared and sent to the industries of the area by the office of the State Engineer. A brief summary of the contents, given at the end of this report, evidences the comprehensiveness and painstaking' character of this search lor per- tinent facts concerning the industrial situation and water problems of the area. For some six months after the questionnaires were placed in the hands of the industries, much "follow-up" work had to be done by the State Engineer's staff, in order that the fullest possible information might be secured. Short of a prohibitively expensive plant-by-plant investigation by a staff of experts, the data are probjibly the most complete and reliable that could be obtained. INDUSTRIAL SURVEY OF ITpi'ER SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA 183 Canneries — Fish : San Joaquin and Sacramento rivers and upper bay, and trawlers from Pacific Ocean. Explosives : Chile, Texas, Pacific coast states. Ship yards : Pacific coast and eastern United States. Dairy products : Nearby ranches. Asphalt products : Largely California, some from Trinidad, the Orient and eastern United States. Brick works: Clay at site. Beverages : Local mineral springs. Grain cleaning, warehousing, etc. : Local vallej^s. Mills — Flour and feed : California — mostly. Some from Washington, Oregon, Idaho and the east. Sand, gravel, cements, etc. : Local river and bay bottoms. Paper boxes : 1. Paper from east and mills in north. 2. Board from Stockton, Antioch and Washington. 3. Straw, scrap paper and rags from local sources and wood pulp from northern mills. Tannery : Western states, Argentina, Mexico. As has been noted, the above information was obtained from the replies to the questionnaire sent to the several industries by the State Engineer's office. No complaint was made by any of the industries to the effect that they were badly located with respect to raw material supplies. Markets for Upper Bay Products. — The following statement compiled from the State Engineer's questionnaire shows the market for the products of upper bay industries : Oil refineries: North and South America, Euroi)e and the Far East. Lumber product manufacturers: Mill work — mostly local. Some wood products sent to east and middle west. Sugar refinery : Thirty-five states of the United States. Steel mill : Eleven wcstci-n stales and the Oi'ient. 184 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES Rubber products mill : World wide market. Chemical plants : Eleven Avestern states, a small amount to the middle west and foreign countries. Canneries : The whole world. Explosive plants : The Pacific states, South America and the Far East. Ship yards : The Pacific coast ; United States Navy. Asphalt product plant : Eleven western states, Alaska, Mexico, the Orient. Brick works and other building materials : The bay region. Beverage plant : The bay and delta areas. Flour and feed mills : Poultry and stock feeds are for the most part sold locally; the Sonoma, Marin and Napa County chicken ranches comprise a large market. Flour is sold in California and the Orient. Box Factories : Local poultry and fruit interests require a large quantity of wooden boxes. Paper boxes have a world-wide market. Tanneries : Leather is sold on the coast and in thirty foreign countries. So far as most points in the west are concerned, and those foreign and eastern markets which can be reached by water, the upper bay region has no difficulty in meeting competition, provided other factors are favorable. Two or three firms, however, which cater to San Fran- cisco and Oakland trade, expressed dissatisfaction with the upper bay as a location for their industries. Dominant Location Factors in the Upper Bay Area. The following table indicates the number of times the induirtries listed the several location factors directly or by implication in replying to the State Engineer's question as to why they chose a location in the upper bay : 1. Water transportation facilities 63 2. Rail transportation facilities 53 3. Good highways 51 4. Close to the market for a particular pvoduet 43 5. Raw materials at hand or cheaply obtained 34 G. Existence of a suitable building 15 7. Satisfactory labor force 10 8. Near San Francisco and Oakland 10 9. Ample cheap fresh water at time of locating 10 10. Comparative isolation 6 11. Climate 5 12. Adequate site at low cost 3 13. Recognized center of the industry 2 14. Favorable topography 2 INDUSTRIAL SURVEY OF UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA 185 When asked to point out the special advantages and disadvantages experienced in their present locations, the various groups stressed the following : I. Fruit and vegetable canners and pickling works — Special advantages : 1. Nearness to a perishable raw material. 2. Access by rail, highway, steamer, to foreign, inter- coastal and bay markets. Special disadvantages : None specified. II. Lumber and wood j^roducts — Special advantages: 1. Raw material by water at low transportation cost. 2. Large consumption area reached by rail, water, highway. Special disadvantage : 1. Too long a haul to its two large customer areas, San Francisco and Oakland. III. Rubber products — Special advantages: 1. Crude rubber brought to dock from Orient. 2. Fabric from California cotton. Special disadvantage : 1. Very heavy water user for process. Product adversely affected by salty water pumped from bay during salinity period. IV. Chemicals — Special advantages: 1. Raw materials come from Asia and Avestern United States — transported cheaply. 2. Fumes blow away from cities. Special disadvantages : 1. Only cheap water now available is in the bay and rivers. Cooling apparatus used deteriorates at abnormal rate because of saltiness of its supply during dry season. 2. Certain processes not undertaken because of lack of cheap fresh water supply during salinity period. V. Oil refineries — Special advantages : 1. Accessibility of foreign, western and local consuming territory. 2. Head of valley pipe lines. Special disadvantages : 1. Type of apparatus used wears out faster when cooling water becomes salty. 2. Fresh water bought from public supply systems is too costlv. 186 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES VI. Fish canners — Special advantage : 1. Raw material from two rivers and the ocean. Special disadvantages : None specified. VII. Ship building — Special advantage : 1. Can float vessels directly into deep water. Special disadvantages: None specified. VIII. Creamery — Special advantage : 1. Adjacent to ranches. Special disadvantage : None specified. IX. Powder plants — Special advantage : 1. Isolation of sites. Special disadvantage : 1. Type of cooling apparatus used is destroyed relatively fast because cooling water is salty. X. Copper smelting and refining — Special advantages: 1. Ore transported to plant at satisfactory cost. 2. Prevailing winds carry fumes away from cities. Special disadvantage : 1. When river water used in process becomes salty it injures product. XI. Paper and fibre products — Special advantage : None specified. Special disadvantage : None specified. XII. Iron and steel products — Special advantage : 1. Large supply of scrap metal in populous area. New iron produced in Utah and transported at satisfactory cost. Special disadvantage : 1. Obtain present water supply from wells. Dependa- bility for future expanded program, questionable. River water is cheaper and softer, but is salty in dry season and turbid during flood period. INDUSTRIAL SURVEY OF UPPER SAX FRANCISCO BAY AREA IS I XIIT. Cane sugar refining — Special advantage : 1. Deep water from plantations to plant. Special disadvantage : 1. Hea^y user of "water of very low chlorine content. Has obtained .such supply at great expense heretofore. (Is now developing a new supply in the hope of obtaining a considerable reduction in water cost.) Summary of Location Advantages of the San Francisco Bay Region as a Whole. 1. Nearest of the manufacturing areas of the west to the west's geographical population center. 2. Large consuming population within its own limits and in adjacent valleys. 3. Lack of extremes in temperature. 4. Location in extensive fruit and vegetable canning region favorable for canneries, can companies, tin mills, makers of food machinery and implements used in planting and cultivating raw product. 5. Served by a network of railway lines. 6. Motor highway system comprehensive and up-to-date. 7. Ocean steamship lines to forty foreign countries and to eastern, southern and Pacific coast ports of the United States. 8. Labor supply adequate and comparatively free from labor troubles in plants. 9. Power — electric, fuel oil, natural gas — at rates which compare favorably with other industrial areas. 10. Xavigation between points in the bay and into Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers. 11. Accessibility to the San Francisco money market, one of the largest in the United States. 12. Numerous plant locations with bay water available for industrial uses. Obstacles to the Industrial Development of the San Francisco Bay Region. 1. ^lunicipal water supplies are being proA'ided at such great expense that a price of 2-4 to 30 cents per thousand gallons is exacted in most in.stanees. This, no heavy user of fresh water can afford to pay unless the other location factors are sufficiently favorable to wipe out the handicap. 2. L^nlike most important industrial centers of the east and south, the bay region proper,* contains no stream or lake along which an industry can locate and pump an abundant supply of fresh water the year around. 3. Private wells, which furnish an abundant supply of fresh water in some regions, are used by a few industries in the bay region, but this source of fresh water can not be relied upon to any great extent. Excludes locations on the two rivers above the line of salinity encroachment. 188 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES Summary of Outstanding Location Advantages Afforded by the Upper San Francisco Bay Area. 1. Availability of large acreage of level sites on solid ground and deep water. 2. LoAf cost of sites compared with other developed bay areas. 3. Adapted to one-floor type of heavy industry which covers large acreage and whose main markets call for deep water transporta- tion. Will not attract so readily those which can pay large rate for space in a city. 4. Equal availability, with other parts of the region in respect to raw materials from California or neighboring states, or those brought in by way of ocean vessels. 5. Relative isolation for industries that are obnoxious or dangerous to city populations. 6. Four of the largest oil refineries in California are located in this area, which assures a plentiful supply of fuel oil with a negligible transportation cost. 7. Natural gas and electric power are available to industries at as low rates as elsewhere in this region. 8. Labor supply and cost are favorable. 9. Raw material for canneries, such as the asparagus of the delta, the fruit from the two great valleys, and fish from the rivers, is close at hand. The obstacles noted in the case of the bay region as a whole apply with equal force to the upper bay. INDUSTRIAL SURVEY OP UPI'F.R SAX FRANCISCO BAY AREA 189 CHAPTER III WATER AS A PLANT LOCATION FACTOR— IN GENERAL AND IN THE AREAS UNDER SPECIAL CONSIDERATION 1. Oil refineries 11. 2. Iron and steel industries 12. 3'. "Meat packing plants 4. Soap and soap compound 18. factories 14. 5. Sugar refineries 6. Tanning establishments 15. 7. Paper manufacturing industries IG. 8. Textile industries 17. 0. Cement mills IS. 10. Explosive manufacturing 19. plants 20. Most authorities on plant location include water as a factor to be considered in the establishment of a factory. It is an item that is fre- quently weighed with such other factors as market, raw materials, labor, transportation, power and fuel. From an industrial point of view, there are three important aspects of the water situation, viz, its quantity, its quality, and its cost. Some of the industries which find the quantity of water an important item for manufacturing purposes are : Rubber product industries Plants manufacturing chemicals and allied products Industrial power stations Food canning and preserving industries D.veing industries Beverage production plants Ice making plants Paint and varnish plants Salt refineries Gelatinous product industries Cooling and condensing call for especially large quantities of water, either salty or fresh. Fresh water is used also for boiler purposes, for washing, cleaning, filtration processes, boiling or treating products, distillation, steaming, etc. Quality of water available is of primary importance in many indus- tries. Textile mills demand a great volume of soft water free from iron and sediment. Rayon mills, for example, will not tolerate such elements as iron, magnesium and calcium, which discolor goods or give hardness to the water. To remove undesirable elements in the water usually involves considerable expense and therefore various kinds of textile mills consider softness and purity of water as one of the major considerations of plant location. Suitable water has been one of several factors which have attracted rayon and other mills to the southeastern states. Canneries need a water under a hardness of 170 parts per million, a water that is clean, sanitary and low in organic nitrogen. Power producers, oil refineries and steel plants need (1) a good quality of boiler water, free from sediment and oil, fresh and soft, and (2) large quantities of either salty or fresh water for cooling and condensing. The Pacific Coast Situation. The salvation of the Pacific coast states is the oceanic wind which precipitates its moisture for the benefit of the western mountain 190 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES sl'opes. If the prevailing wind were from the opposite direction the west coast would be barreii indeed. Mountains like the Sierra Nevada, with their long western slopes, serve as a condenser for the precipitation of water from the moist west winds. Properly utilized, the fresh water afforded is ample for a large coastal civilization. Taken as a whole, the surface waters of the Pacific slope vary greatly in quality. In respect to hardness, the water is softest in the north and hardest in the south. In some parts of California water is relatively hard, but Mokelnmne Eiver water, for example, which is the source of the east bay municipal supply in San Francisco-Oakland region, has a hardness of only 40 parts per million, which constitutes a softness that is comparable with water found in such low-average states as Washing- ton, Oregon and New York. Much of the water used by municipalities, ranches and industries in California is pumped from underground. This extensive practice has led to a serious falling of the water table in many parts of the state. The wise utilization of water resources is becoming a major problem in California. Surface storage is an important means for providing against shortage of water. The Lower San Francisco Bay Area Situation. The east and west sides of the lower San Francisco Bay have both had to take steps to forestall water famine. The cities on the east side of the San Francisco Bay have formed the East Bay Municipal Utility District for the purpose of bringing water some ninety miles from the Mokelumne River to reservoirs at Oakland and Berkeley. San Francisco is incurring the heavy expense of bringing in the Hetch Hetchy water supply from the Tuolumne River. Smaller towns and various industries about the lower San Francisco Bay are depending largely upon M'ells and somewhat upon local sur- face water as a source of supply. Lack of water is retarding the development of desirable residential sites on the foothills in the region. A further exploitation of underground waters and some tying in with the large municipal supply projects will have to be done, if near future needs outside of the large cities are to be met. The Upper San Francisco Bay Area Situation. The region about the San Pablo and Suisun bays is much less densely populated than the lower bay area, hence the need for an abundant supply of fresh water has been less urgent. The public water supply companies to be found about the upper bay have thus far been able to get along with local sources of supply and have not as yet been driven to seek distant ones. The water companies, sources of water obtained, annual consumption, and cost of water to large users are as follows: INDUSTRIAIi SURVEY OF UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA 191 Organization Source of water Annual demand in million gallons Cost to large users in cents per thousand gallons Antioch Municipal Water Works 212 94 1,105 94 200 213 570 '9.3 44.0 California Water Service Corporation Sacramento River and wells Wells and East Bay Municipal supply Wells California Water Service Corporation Creeks in Napa and Solano Counties 23.3 26.7 16.7 Martinez Municipal Water Works 34.7 26.3 ' Within city limits of Antioch. It can be seen from a comparison of this table with that on page 212 that tlie cost of water to large users from public supplies is high com- pared -with prices which prevail in the United States east of the Rockies and in the Pacific northwest. This is partly due to the fact that the water-supply companies have encountered heavy costs, for which customers must pay. The California Water Service Corporation has spent one and a half million dollars at Clyde in developing a pumping project and reservoir to yield three and a half million gallons a day. An ultimate yield of eight million gallons is being planned. The point of intake is at Mallard Slough. The company sells water to Martinez and Concord and covers the territory from Pinole on the west to Bay Point on the east. AVhat the company will do in its future development program is contingent upon other developments in the region and upon its success in securing the patronage of large users of water. This same method of procuring fresh water for this area is susceptible of much further development. All told, with respect to water supply, the upper bay region is operating at an economic disadvantage. This is the inevitable result when a single coordinated plan of development is lacking. The fol- lowing illustrations show the need of careful regional planning with respect to water supply : The California and Hawaiian Sugar Refining Corporation, Limited, has been bringing water to its plant at Crockett by means of barges, which at times must go many miles up-stream to reach a source of fresh-water supply. During recent years, this source has been supplemented from July to December, inclusive, by a Marin County supply taken aboard barges at San Quentin. In an attempt to alleviate its difficulties, wells were also dug in the hope that industrial Avater could be found, but there was no success. A nine-mile pipe line from San Pablo to Crockett was projected, but the supply was found to be too uncertain. The corporation believes that its water problem has now been solved by a pipe line being constructed to bring water from wells in Napa Valley. The Hercules Powder Company at one time received its water from Pinole Creek. This source of supply ran out and, as an emergency measure, water had to be secured from Spring Valley in drums. Many wells were drilled also, and a sqiecial six-inch pipe was connected to the East Bay Water Company's system, but during the peak of its business the powder company was still hampered by lack of adequate water supply. During the war the supply of munitions from this area 13 — 80996 192 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES Avas seriously curtailed by the shortagrc of fresh water. In Solano County, durincr the war, soldiers had to be rationed as to water because of shortage. At the present time, such of the industries of Contra Costa County as must have a considerable supply of fresh water for boiler and process, depend upon wells and public supplies as a sup- plementary source when the volume of river flow is at its minimum and the salt encroachment is present. Salt Water Difficulties. The encroachment of salt water upon a fresh-water area raises a problem in connection with both domestic and industrial water supply. One reason is that saline water can not be treated and made fresh, in large quantities, without prohibitive expense ; it is particularly hard to remove dissolved salt from water. Even when some new source of fresh-water supply is found, the economic troubles in trying to surmount the water question do not necessarily come to an end. The new supply secured may be more or less temporary in nature, and still newer sources must be sought after the temporary source becomes unsuitable or deficient. Companies which turn from bay water to wells as a recourse in the time of salt water difficulty are often compelled to find new wells as old wells become useless. In their reply to the questionnaire, the representatives of a very large water-consuming industry in the upper bay area stated : Depreciation on wells is placed at 10 per cent as the wells get salty in time and have to be abandoned. Another large user states his case in the following manner : Water from our private wells has been nsed for boiler water during summer seasons until the summer of 1929 when hardness increased to 82 grains per gallon, making it unfit for boiler use. Hardness was approximately 40 grains in 1921. Another manufacturer, who uses river water for some purposes and well water for others, says : We have had three wells tuni salt since 1924. Another manufacturer makes the following statement : Since 1924 this company has been without water iu summer time with which it was possible to manufacture. In 1924 it cost $5,000 to haul water for .* Under present conditions we could not afford to manufacture this article in summer during the last four or five years. When asked as to what financial loss, if anj^, they have incurred from the salinity conditions in the upper ba}' and rivers, several typical industries replied as follows : A. Depreciation of plant equipment is double that with fresli water. Have losses due to the eating away of condenser tubes, condenser boxes, piping, and concrete by hot salt water. Salt water after it is heated by condensers and coolers eats away both concrete and steel. This would be reduced 50 per cent by the use of fresh water. B. Apparatus is designed for the use of salt water. C. Have been forced to use thicker walls for condensers, which helps to meet the corrosion problem, but cuts down the efficiency of equipment. Many other • Name of product omitted. Confidential information. INDUSTRIAL SURVEY OF UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA 193 adaptations in equipment are being made. Increased cost of manufactured products and plant operation is 5 per cent. Costs in plant maintenance and depreciation of plant equipment are 300 per cent above normal with fresh water available. Costs in 1929 in excess of costs in 1920 directly chargeable to salt water conditions amounted to $81,000. D. Financial loss due to increased salinity of river : Plant operation, $40,000 per year. Depreciation of plant equipment, $3,600 per year. Depreciation above normal with fresh water is about 200 per cent. E. Increased depreciation above normal for various types of equipment is 100 to 400 per cent. F. As close as we can figure it, the financial loss to this company due to salt water is in excess of $20,000 per year. G. Depreciation of equipment for condenser and cooling purposes — four times that resulting from fresh water. H. Mechanical roasters and power house condensers deteriorate very rapidly by reason of salt water. I. Abnormal cost due to excessive depreciation of plant equipment and added expenses in plant maintenance is 35 per cent above normal. J. High salinity does not result in abnormal depreciation of condenser and cooling equipment because necessary expenditure for equipment to resist salt water corrosion has been made. K. Depreciation rate for heated water equipment is 30 per cent above normal. L. Abnormal depreciation rate of condenser and cooling equipment is $500 per year for this company. These eases show that the water in the upper bay can be employed for certain industrial nses the year aronnd, but that (1) deterioration is increased if the type of cooling equipment used is not adapted to this most economical source of water, and (2) that a cheaper fresli-water supply should be developed for boiler and process use. The Relative Importance of Water to the Upper Bay Industries. The upper bay area, by chance or desig-n, contains an unusually large ])roportion of heavy water using industries. According to their own statements, they were not attracted to the area, primarily by the supply of fresh water which the upper bay afforded during the greater part of the year, but this factor seems to have been given considerable weight by some of them. The canneries, chemical plants, iron and steel mills, oil refineries, powder works, paper company and rubber mill, which dominate the upper bay industrial set-up, all use large amounts of water for process or cooling, or both. In no case does the water cost constitute more than a small fraction of the value of the product.* It might still be true, however, that those industries which have to meet keen competition from plants located on plentiful supplies of fresh water, other manufacturing costs being equal, would find that the water situation in the upper bay would put them under a severe handicap. None of the industries in the area have moved away because of the water situation, and four new enterprises of considerable size — The Johns-Manville Company, the tinplato mill at the United States Steel Products plants, the Shell Products Company, and the Stockton Brick Company, near Pittsburg — have located there since the salinity con- dition became troublesome. However, sucli a complication of factors * See table on page 208. 194 DIVISION OP WATER RESOURCES is* involved in the location of a new plant that one is hardly safe in attributinpc to salinity conditions the failure of still other enterprises to locate in the upper bay area. Furthermore, a representative from the bay region states that he recently engaged in six weeks of conferences with eastern officials of plants who contemplated establishing Pacific coast branches, t He reports that the industries in question were attracted by the market, labor and transportation facilities of the upper bay district, but were repelled by the cost of fresh water. Industries are likely to be frightened by the mere fact that municipal water is selling at from 9 to 44 cents per thousand gallons and averag- ing over 24 cents, that private well supplies are not altogether reliable, and that river water is salty a portion of the j^ear. On the other hand, if a careful investigation were made, it would probably show that all other factors were so favorable in the upper bay, and its water diffi- culties so far from being unsolvable, that the present unfavorable water situation could be materially discounted. On its face, the proposal to solve the area's water difficulties by the construction of a salt water barrier would add another attractive loca- tion factor to the imposing list which the upper bay district affords, pro- viding tliat such a project did not bring with it a marked increase in the tax burden of the area. If such an increase did result the barrier might repel rather than attract new plants. t statement of Mr. Warren McBryde, Consulting Engineer, San Francisco. INDUSTRIAL SURVEY OF UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA 195 CHAPTER IV THE INDUSTRIAL SITUATION IN THE UPPER BAY AREA- PRESENT AND PROSPECTIVE . The only official description of the upper bay industrial situation is that published by the Federal Government in the ''Market Data Hand- book," issued by the United States Department of Commerce. The first, and also the latest number of the handbook (1929), gives the situation for 1927 as follows: Number of establishments In Contra In Costa Solano Type of industry County County Total Food and kindred products 29 19 48 Textiles and their products 10 1 Paving material 4 4 Iron, steel and their products 5 5 Machinery 3 14 Forest products 8 2 10 Leather and its products Oil Rubber products 10 1 Roofing material 10 1 Paper industries 2 2 Printing and publishing 15 11 26 Chemicals and allied products 19 2 21 Stone, clay, glass, etc., products 7 18 Metal products, except iron and steel 2 13 Tobacco products Musical instruments Transportation equipment 10 1 Railroad repair shops 4 2 6 Totals 102 40 142 Unfortunately the handbook does not separate out the industries of Kichmond, which is in Contra Costa County, but in reality belongs to the east bay industrial area, rather than to the upper bay. From the questionnaire sent the industries, however, we are able to present the following tabulation of the more important upper bay industries, beginning at Pinole Point and extending on both sides of Carquinez Strait and Suisun Bay eastward to the mouths of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers : Location and type Number of Lofotiun and type Number of of industry industries of industry industries Antioch — Bonicia — Fibreboard products 1 Canneries 1 Canneries 3 Arsenal 1 Lumber products 1 Tannery 1 Shipbuilding 1 Chemicals 1 . Tractor factory 1 Avon — Oil refining 1 Crockett — Bay Point Grain cleaning, etc 1 Lumber products 1 S"^«»' '"^^"'"^ ^ Shipbuilding 1 Chemicals 1 Giant- Cement mill 1 Explosives 1 196 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES Location and type of industry Hercules — Explosives Martinez — Copper smelting •. Lumber products. Oil refining Number of Location and type industries of industry Port Costa — Number of industries Pittsburg — Fish products 1 2 Steel products 1 Chemicals 3 Asbestos products 1 Dairy products 1 Wood products 1 Rubber products 1 Brick works 1 Brick works 1 Grain cleaning, etc 1 Oil products 2 Rodeo (Oleum) — Oil refining 1 Selby— Ore smelting 1 Vallejo — Navy yard Flour milling Dairy products. If one undertook to describe in a sentence the nature of the industrial activity in the upper bay, he would characterize it as the type which, for one reason or another, operates best outside of congested metro- politan areas and yet finds it highly desirable from the standpoint of either its markets or material sources to have at its command as good shipping facilities as location in a large port city would afford. The Location History of the Area by Decades. Not all of the dates when these industries were established are avail- able. Such as w^ere furnished in the questionnaire are the basis for the following location record bv decades : Before 1881 Arsenal 1 (1850) Navy yard 1 (1853) Cannery (fniit) 1 (1870) Cannery (fish) 1 (1875) Grain cleaning 1 (1876) Powder mill 1 (1880) 1881-1890 Ore smelter 1 Lumber products 1 Grain cleaning 1 Flour mill 1 1891-1900 Powder mill 1 Oil refinery 1 1901-1910 Chemical plant 2 Lumber products 3 Sugar refinery 1 Steel mill 1 Cannery (fruit) 1 * Built in connection with then Copper smelter 1 Rubber mill 1 Brick works 1 Beverage factory 1 1911-1920 Oil refinery 2 Chemical plant 1 Dairy products 1 Rock products 1 Lumber products 1 1921-1930 Paper products 1 (1927) Cannery (fruit) 2 (1921) (1928) Cannery (fish) 1 (1927) ('bemical plant 2 (1923) (1930) Shipyard 2 (1926) (1928) Lumber products 1 (1927) Dairy products 1 (1922) Asbestos products 1 (1925) Tin plate mill* 1 (1929) Brick works 1 (1930) existing steel mill. It is evident that during each of the decades given, at least one important industry has chosen the upx^er bay as its location. Viewed from the standpoint of present size of plants and value of output, 1901-] 910 seems to have been the "golden era" of industrial establish- ment in the upper bay. INDUSTRIAL SURVEY OP UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA 197 The decade just coming to a close has been distinguished by three outstanding developments: (1) The Johns-lManville Company estab- lished an asbestos products plant (1925) ; (2) The Steel Corporation (1929) built a tin plate mill in connection with its steel mill; (3) The Shell Products Company is establishing a large chemical plant (1930). The new tin mill is the first one to be built west of St. Louis. It was erected at a cost of $3,000,000 and its corps of new workers mate- rially increases the steel corporation's labor force at Pittsburg. The fact that 18 per cent of the national output of tin plate was used on the coast prompted this development. All of the raw materials but the tin are produced in Utah. The latter is brought direct by steamer from the Straits Settlements. Making the tin plate near the source of con- sumption avoids the heavy rust and other damage (10 per cent) incurred in ocean shipments from the east. The Effect of Salinity on Plant Location. An effort was made in connection with this study to obtain accurate information as to what industries, if any, have been lost to the upper bay area because of the salinity problem, but results were not satis- factory.* Since no dependable list can be made, one can only report the "hunches" of numerous individuals. The result is that in the case of no industry can it be said without fear of contradiction that it was or was not frightened away from the upper bay because of the salinity problem. As was pointed out earlier, the tangible location factors, themselves, are many and they are interwoven in complicated fashion. Add to that the intangible personal factor and it is but natural that one finds much difference of opinion as to what led to the location of a given plant in a given place. Even responsible people and the industries themselves frequently find it difficult to single out the ultimate determining element. Present Growth of the Upper San Francisco Bay Area. It would be highly desirable to compare the growth of the upper bay area with respect to emploj^ees, wages, capital investment, value of output and other items with (1) the United States, (2) with California, and (3) with other local industrial areas. Unfortunately, there are no census figures for the upper bay area as such. These for the United States and for California are available for 1904, 1909, 1914, 1919, 1923, 1925 and 1927. The 1929 census has been taken but the data will not be compiled for many months; the material in the 1927 census of manufactures did not become available until 1929. Data obtained by the questionnaire method are never wholly satis- factory. No matter how carefully the questions are framed, different * Two large industries wliich chose another location after considering various sites in the San Francisco Bay region have written as follows : Industry A : "The chief factors taken into con.«ideration were adequate supply of satisfactory labor with adequate housing facilities in vicinity of plant site, sufficient power at reasonable rates, and adequate %vater supply at no cost except cost of pumping. A large factory needs large quantities of fresh, cool water, and being assured of an ample supply underneath its plant with low puir.ping cost was one of the main factors in- selecting the site." Industry B: "The water situation was one of a number of factors which influenced our decision to locate in , but it was not necessarily the deciding factor." 198 DIVISION OF WATEE RESOURCES interpretations will be placed upon them and will render them incom- parable, at least to some extent. In this case some industries did not care to reveal certain facts about their operations, while others did not liave the requisite records at hand. Particularly with respect to the capital investment figures and those covering water costs, reservations will have to be made. The replies do. however, represent a sufficient percentage of the whole and probably sufficient comparability to warrant their use in showing trends since 1924. The following figures indicate the relative change in recent years, in the three areas given : Value of the product of industries In U. 8. In California 1919 $62,000,000,000 $1,981,000,000 1921 43,618,000,000 1,758,000,000 1923 60,529,000,000 2,214,000,000 1925 62,668,000,000 2,442,000,000 1927 62,718,000,000 2,593,000,000 In the Upper Bay Area {partial total )^ 1924 $71,066,000 1927 $84,840,000 1925 80,463,000 1928 91,023,000 1926 84,172,000 1929 90,516,000 • Includes only those industries furnishing these data for all six years in State Engineer's questionnaire, being Nos. 1, 2, 8, 11, 15, 19, 21, 23, 25 and 28, as shown in the list of industries at end of this report. During the past five years the average annual growth in value of products in the upper bay has been approximately 5.5 per cent. From 1923 (the first year given after an acute depression) until 1927 the average annual increase in the value of product for the United States as a whole was slightly le.ss than 1 per cent, and for California 4.3 per cent. It is greatly to be regretted that data do not exist for tracing the trends back over an extended period for all three areas. It is needless to point out that comparisons for such short periods lose much of their value. Numhcr of employees in industries Average for the year In U. 8. In Calif 01-nia 1919 8,997,900 243,700 1921 6,944,300 198.300 1923 8,776,600 246,100 1925 8,381,500 249,500 1927 8,349,700 262,800 In the Upper Bay Area (partial total)^ 1924 8,854 1927 10,048 1925 9,566 1928 10,954 1926 10,324 1929 12,195 1 Includes only those industries furnishing these data for all six years in State Engineer's questionnaire, being Nos. 1, 2, 8, 10, 11, 14, 15, 19, 20, 21, 23, 28, 31, 32, 33, 35 and 37, as shown in the list of industries at end of this report. During the years 1924—1929 the average annual increase in workers employed in upper bay industries has been 7.5 per cent. For the INDUSTRIAL SURVEY OF UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA 199 ITnited States as a whole there was a decrease of industrial workers from 1923 to 1927, and for California an increase of not quite 2 per cent. Growth of •paiirolh In U.S. In California 1919 $10,460,000,000 .$305,000,000 1921 8,200.000.000 284.000.000 1923 11.007.000.000 .353.000.000 1925 10.727,000,000 350.000.000 1927 10,848,000,000 378,000,000 In the Upper Bay Area {partial total)^ 1924 $13,993,000 1927 $16,594,000 1925 15.369,000 1928 18,029,000 1926 17,010,000 1929 21,123,000 • Includes only those industries furnishing these data for all six years in State Engineer's questionnaire, being Nos. 1, 2, 8, 10, 11, 15, 19, 20, 21, 23, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 35 and 37, as shown in the list of industries at the end of this report. From 1924 to 1929 the averafre annual increase in the upper bay payroll was slightly more than 10 per cent. For the United States as a whole from 1923 to 1927, there was a decrease during the first biennium and, from 1925 to 1927, an average increase over the preced- ing biennium of slightly more than 1 per cent, and for California an increase over the four years of 1.8 per cent. Growth of the capital investment Since the government does not include this item in its enumerations we shall not be able to make comparisons, but the partial * upper bay figures are : 1924 $26,262,000 1927 .$28,9.30,000 1925 26.4.53,000 1928 31,928,000 1926 27,876,000 1929 34,851,000 As noted previously, this item is particularly susceptible to wrong interpretation. However, though the totals for the several years may not be dependable, they serve to confirm the impression of steady growth obtained from the other data, showing an average annual groA\^h of over 6 per cent. While no one knows w^hat the growth might have been under other conditions, the figures we have been able to procure indicate that a healthy expansion has been going on in the upper bay area, at least since 1924. Separate computations of the average annual growth in value of products, number of employees, payroll and capital iiiA'estment in the area north of San Pablo Bay, including Napa and Petaluma, show rates of growth for these items that are practically identical with those just given for the upper baj^ area, and furnish some additional confirmation of the steady expansion of industry in the entire area since 1924. The Prospective Growth of the Upper Bay Area. Representatives of the industries themselves, when asked to predict their water needs for 1940, placed their total requirement at 44 billion gallons annually, an increase of 54 per cent over present consumption. This, of course, makes no allowance for new industries. If the plant * Includes only those industries furnishing these data for all six years In State Engineer's que.stionnaire, being Nos. 1, 2, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15, 21, 25, 28, 31 and 33, as shown in the list of industries at the end of this report. Corresponding Partial totals in partial total estimated per for cent of totals 19JtO for all industries $135,200,000 75 25.800 88 $ 50,200,000 92 $276,200,000 61 200 DIVISION OP WATER RESOURCES investment increase of existing industries keeps pace with this esti- mated growth in water requirements, the 82 millions of dollars given for 1929 in the following table will have increased to 127 millions, and assessed valuation, which averages about a third of plant investment, will have increased by approximately 15 millions. But the rates of increase in investment, payrolls, employees and value of product have all been somewhat greater during the past five years than these amounts would indicate. Each decade has witnessed the establishment of important new plants. If the average annual rate since 1924 continues until 1940, we should have the following picture of the industrial set-up of the upper bay area in 1940: Partial totals for 1929 ' (a) Capital investment-- $82,346,000 (b) Number of employees 14,100 (c) Payroll $23,654,000 (d) Value of output $172,111,000 1 Includes all industries in area that made returns in State Engineers' ques- tionnaire ; or, by reference to numbers in list of industries in table at the end of this report : For (a) Nos. 1, 2, 3, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15, 17, 21. 25, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, 37 and 38. For (b) Nos. 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20, 21, 23, 25, 28 and 30 to 38, inclusive. For (c) Nos. 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20, 21, 23, 25 and 28 to 38, inclusive. For (d) Nos. 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14, 15, 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, 28, 29, 30, 31, 34, 35, 36 and 38. In making these calculations it was assumed that the actual amount (not per cent) of increase shown the last five years will continue during the eleven years from 1929 to 1940. No one knows what the future has in store with respect to any economic situation. It is a reasonable assumption, however, that, given an adequate low-cost supply of fresh water for boiler, process, and similar needs, the industrial growth of the upper bay area will at least maintain its present rate. In the first place, except for a limited list of industries, confined, for one reason or another, to some particular eastern or foreign locality, the establish- ments represented by the three hundred thirty odd commodities in the Census of Manufactures will tend to serve the Pacific coast market from Pacific coast plants. The following reasons are offered in justification of this assumption: I. A recent report on industrial development in the United States and Canada compiled from information received from manufacturers, shows that accessibility of markets is the outstanding location factor in the minds of some sixteen thousand firms. II. Pipe lines for natural gas and oil and long distance electric trans- mission lines have all but wiped out differences in power cost in the several market areas. III. The rapid progress of the science of industrial chemistry has (a) provided new raw materials, (b) made possible the utilization of lower grade and waste products. IV. Similar progress in the engineering field has eliminated much of the highlv skilled labor force which lied industries to certain areas. INDUSTRIAL SURVEY OF UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA 201 V. Improved transportation and new^ deep waterways have given cheaper access to raw materials. VI. The west has attracted so heavy a migration of workers from the east, Mexico and the Phili]ipinos, that a surplns of labor is available in most fields. VII. National advertising with its playing up of standard brands lias bnilt up a sufficient western demand for the products in question to warrant the establishment of plants on the coast from which a more satisfactory distribution service can be maintained. VIII. So far as industrial processes are concerned, heat, humidity, and other physical factors have lost their dominating influence over plant location since artificial controls have been devised, hence any unfavorable climatic elements which might be present in a western location would no longer act as a hindrance to the establishment of certain types of industry in this area. IX. The records show that industries actually are developing faster on the coast than in the United States as a whole. In the period of economic recovery, beginning with 1923 and ending with 1927 (last census available), the average annual rate of growth of industrial out- ]mt was 0.8 per cent for the United States and 4.3 per cent for California. X. The following tables procured from the Research Department of the Oakland Chamber of Commerce show how the railroad rate struc- ture with but few exceptions favors distribution of even high-class .shipments from the San Francisco Bay region over the sections indicated. FREIGHT RATE PER 100 POUNDS, FIRST CLASS Destination From San Fran- cisco Bay territory From Ohio territory From Illinois- Wisconsin territory From Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas, Louisiana territory From Indiana- Michigan territory From Northeast and middle Atlantic territory Boise. $3.31 2.95 4.20 3.66 ■ Si'A MH 2.67H .72 1.131^ 2.16M 3.66 1.39^ $4.80 4.951^ 4.95^ 3.70 6.24H 5.40 4.80 5.40 4.80 5.31 5.40 $4.35 3.98 3.98 2.73H 5.9i}4 5.10 4.35 5.10 4.35 3,98J^ 3.34H 5.10 $4.20 3.71 3.71 2.46 5.79 4.95 4.20 4.95 4.20 3.71 3.04 4.95 $4.57 4.77 4.77 3.52J^ SMH 5.25 4.57H 5.25 4.57}^ 3.98»^ 5.25 $5.25 Butte 5.40 Casper .. 5.40 Denver 4.15}^ Eurelca 6.39}^ Los Angeles 5.55 Phoenix 5.13 Portland... 5.25 Reno 5.25 Salt Lake City 5.37 Santa Fe 4.761^ Seattle. 5.55 XL With an anticipated decline in relative importance of the European trade of the United States, and an increase in the growth of trade with the Orient and Australasia, the time element involved in supplying the nations on the Pacific from Atlantic coast industries is a factor which works in favor of the establishment of additional branch plants on the Pacific coast. It should be added, of course, that as the trade with Asia and Australia increases, branch plants will begin to be built in that trade area also. In the second place, western state con- sum])tion of products of the type produced by upper bay industries is probably well in excess of the average for the country as a whole, and the population of this consuming area is growing faster than the United States as a whole. In addition, the exports of these same products 202 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES from Pacific coast ports have been increasing even faster than domestic consumption. Advertising firms and sales managers, in fixing sales quotas for vari- ous territories, calculate the percentage of the total output which the users in a given territory are likely to buy. This is done by taking such indicia as population, bank deposits, telephone connections, incomes, etc., and arriving at a resultant percentage of probable eon- sumption, or the sales quota. The latest obtainable quota for the eleven western states is 10.2 per cent. Assuming that substantially this same percentage of the products of heavy users of water is consumed in this western state area, we can ascertain its consumption of this type of products by taking 10.2 per cent of the national consumption (domestic production plus imports less exports). The following is the list of heavy water-using industries which are at all likely to supply western and export demand from plants located in the upper bay area : Consumed Exported from in west Pacific coast Rubber products $110,000,000 .$4,650,000 Glass 28,200,000 300,000 Iron and steel products— H22,000.000 2,020,000 Petroleum products 214.000,000 111,600.000 Asbestos products 4.500,000 260,000 Pipe 9,500,000 400,000 Paint and varnish 52,000,000 800,000 Chemicals 54,800.000 830,000 Soap 28.700,000 230,000 Sugar 70,300,000 100,000 Explosives 7,200,000 1,200,000 Leather 53,700,000 3,640,000 Roofing 12,300,000 630,000 Slaughtering, etc. 305,000,000 650,000 Totals $1,272,200,000 $127,310,000 Estimated total consumption for 1927, $1,399,510,000. At the rate of growtli in tlie poi^ulation of the eleven western states, predicted by population experts, there should be a 35 per cent increase in consumption in 1940. This would raise the item $1,272,200,000 to $1,717,470,000. If the same present trend continues with respect to export trade, the $127,310,000 in exports of products of the listed heavy water users will have increased to $200,000,000 by 1940, making a total demand of $1,917,000,000 in this market, for the products of the indus- tries most likely to locate in the upper bay area. With its very attrac- tive list of location factors, the upper bay area can reasonably be expected to maintain its present rate of increase and receive its share of the additional increment carried by the westward movement of industrial plants. No one is so rash as to think that all of this market's demand for the products of heavy water using industries will be sup- plied within this area, but the estimated consumption figures show what an attractive goal lies before the upper bay industries. Just how much of this estimated maximum volume of business the upper bay area could succeed in securing, no one can foretell. Such intangibles as community spirit and morale, relative skill at industrial salesmanship, and indus- trial area programs, often more than offset the tangible attractions of an industrial site. INDUSTRIAL SURVEY OF UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA 20^ CHAPTER V THE PROBLEM OF WATER COSTS IN THE UPPER BAY AREA As we saw in Chapter III, upper bay industries obtain their supplies of water from three principal sources: (1) public supply systems, (2) private wells, (3) the rivers— meaning by the latter also supplies of water pumped from any of the bodies of water which comprise upper San Francisco Bay. In all three cases, water cost figures should include all expense attached to whatever transmission and distribution lines, pumps, storage facilities and treatment are needed. Not only water bills and actual operating costs are involved, but also interest, main- tenance and depreciation. In drawing up the questionnaire sent to the industries, great pains were taken to include all of these factors, but exact comparability of data was probably not secured. Cost as Related to Source. The cheapest sources of water supply are lakes, streams and wells, in close proximity to the place of use and obtainable either by gravity diversion or by low pumping lifts. Where water supply must be pumped, the cost of water for any given capacity varies directly with the magnitude of pumping lift. As a rough approximation, for every ^100 spent to pump a given quantity of water through a head of 10 feet, $2,500 must be spent if the pumping head is 250 feet. Water from Underground Sources. — For supplies obtained from under- ground sources there are often other disadvantages which tend to increase the cost above similar supplies obtained from lakes and streams. There is usually a definite limit to the amount of available water in any underground reservoir and an overdraft by excessive pumping fre- quently results in a lowering of the water table. The variation and increase in pumping head that often occur, result in increased pumping cost. Moreover deep well pumping equipment is generally more expen- sive and of lower efficiency than surface pumping equipment and these combine to further increase the cost of pumping from underground sources. Those large upper bay industries which now pump from an under- ground water supply with low lifts at their plants report costs of two to three cents per thousand gallons, while with less favorable conditions the corresponding cost rises to nearly 25 cents per thousand gallons. Such water is harder than river water and. therefore, usually requires treatment for boiler use. The smaller u.ser of well water naturally has a greater expense per thousand gallons consumed, and his costs are found to range from 11 to 83 cents per thousand gallons. If an abundant underground supply, with a low pumping head, can be found at one's plant, this furnishes an economical solution for his water problem. But as has been pointed out before in this study, the status of the under- ground water in the San Francisco Bay region does not warrant our looking to that source as the principal dependence of domestic and industrial users. 204 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES Water frmn Puhlic SnppJy Sustrms. — Water furnished by existing public supply systems in tlie upper bay is relatively costly, even at the lower rates quoted to large users. First, no one water company has a sufficient volume of business to enable it to operate at the optimum volume and minimum cost. Second, public water supplies are designed for human consumption and are commonly subjected to such treatment as will make the water sterile and palatable. For many industrial needs raw rater would serve just about as well, hence when industries buy their water from a public system they are paying for unnecessary frills. Third, for a large supply of water, the public company or municipality must resort to a stream. Wells are used by some smaller public systems in the upper bay, but the major company in the area has ceased to rely upon this source. If river water is obtained from above the salinity encroachment area, the cost of a long pipe line is incurred in addition to the usual purification expense. If the water is pumped close at hand, there must be sufficient additional storage, main, and pump capacity to procure and store, during the fresh-water period in winter and spring, a sufficient supply to carry consumers through the dry and saline period of the summer and fall. It is not surprising then to find the industries reporting total water costs all the way from 11 to 93 cents per thousand gallons for the portion of their supply which they receive from public systems. Except for about a half dozen companies in the area the amounts consumed are small and the relatively high unit costs include the expense of special treatment or equipment, or both. So far as boiler, drinking, sanitary and other similar needs are concerned, the total volume required is so small in most industries that what seems like a heavy rate per thousand gallons places no substantial burden upon them. Water for Process Purposes. The amount and quality of water required for processing varies greatly with the industry. In the ease of sugar refining, the large amounts of process water used must be unusually free from salt. The California and Hawaiian Sugar Refining Corporation, Limited, state that they have paid as high as 4 per cent of their cost of manufacture for water, but they estimate that their newly acquired source of supply will reduce their present cost of water by some 30 per cent. Others, like the rubber and paper industries, require large amounts of process water. The rubber company evaporates river water for process uses and claims a loss in its devulcanizing plant during the high salinity period of 1929, amounting to $2,250 per month. The sugar company is not disposed to risk the water in a barrier lake for process purposes, being content with the new source of supply of which we have just spoken. Industries in the Pittsburg-Antioch area which use a large quantity of water for processing, pump it from the river, except when the salinity is too great. They must then resort to public or private supplies. The river supply for process purposes is procured by the largest user at 1.5 cents per thousand gallons. A group of moderate-sized river water consnmers report somewhat higher costs for process water generally, ranging from slightly more than one cent to over 12 cents per thousand gallons, while one of the smaller users INDUSTRIAL SURVEY OF UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA 205 i-ejiorts his cost in excess of 30 cents. The largest user, to which reference was made above, places its annual loss, because of inability to process with river water all twelve months, at some $1,600 — the amount paid for public supply water in excess of the cost of pumping it from the river. This amounts to 0.04 of 1 per cent of the value of this company's annual output and 0.3 of 1 per cent of its annual j)ayroll. The use for purposes other than cooling and condensing amounts to 425 million gallons per month for all of the upper bay industries included in this study, while the use for cooling and condensing amounts to 1880 million gallons per month. Of the 425 million gallons used for all other purposes, the one industry which was referred to as liaving suffered a loss of $1,600 a year uses nearly 115 million gallons, or more than one-fourth of the entire amount. Water for Cooling and Condensing Purposes. Cooling and condensing water is required in very large quantities in the steel, oil, rubber and sugar industries, some of the wood products and chemical plants and at the navy yard. Unless an industry is particularly well situated with respect to the other factors, industrial engineers consider that it can not afford to pay more than six cents per 1000 gallons for cooling and condensing water. The following table shows what water for this purpose is costing typical large users in the upper bay : Antiiial Cost per consumption, in thousand gallons, Industry millions of gallons in cents A 1,050 1.8 B 1,420 2.6' C 840 1.1 D 1,020 7.7' E 490 1.2 F 7,290 0.8 1 Three per cent of this water from private wells, but has no material effect on unit cost. = In this case 2 per cent of the water is obtained from public supply and has the effect of increasing the average cost about 7 per cent. Effect of Salinity. — So far as quantity of water and the cost of pumping are concerned it can be seen that industries on the upper bay have a very attractive situation. As we noted in another connection the diffi- culty lies in the damage caused to cooling equipment by salt water action during the salinity period. Tliere are two ways of eliminating the more rapid deterioration of cooling equipment due to salt water action: (1) By substituting the somewhat more expensive salt-resisting equipment for the present cooling apparatus as fast as the latter needs to be replaced (any extra expense for the new type of equipment ought to be offset to some extent at least by the lower depreciation charge) ; (2) by providing a supply of fresh water to the industries, in such volume, and at such a price, as would warrant its use for cooling and condensing, either by building a barrier or by importation by means of a conduit from the most practical source. To evaluate the additional expense of salt-resi.sting cooling and con- densing equipment over similar nonsalt-resi.sting equipment, four of the larger typical users were interviewed and their estimates of main- 206 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES tenance, depreciation and capital cost for both types of equipment obtained. A wide variation occurred in the answers obtained, due largely to the types of industries selected. All of the industries in the upper bay area were then classified into four groups, one for each of the industries interviewed, in accordance with the similarity in their use of cooling and condenser water. To each of the industries in the same group the rate of increase in capital and annual cost per unit of consumption for the industry interviewed was assumed to apply and, in combination with any industry's total use of cooling and condenser water, gave the total increase in capital and annual cost for the indus- try. Based on this method of analysis and on the data obtained from these larger typical industries, it is estimated for all industries in the area that the capital cost for cooling equipment designed for salt water conditions would be about $200,000 more than that for equipment designed for fresh-water conditions ; and that the annual cost of cooling water under salt-water conditions and with salt-resisting equipment would be about $150,000 more than under fresh-water conditions and with fresh-water equipment. The above estimated amounts of increased capital and annual cost apply to all of the industries in the entire area above Richmond. For the industries above the Dillon Point site only, the corresponding estimated amounts would be $175,000 as the increased capital cost, and $138,000 as the increased annual cost. It is believed that the above figures present a reasonably accurate picture of the total value of fresh water for cooling purposes to the entire area. They represent an increase in total capital cost of less than one-fifth of one per cent and an increase per thousand gallons of cooling and condenser water of less than two-thirds of a cent. This estimate of the additional expense of salt-resisting cooling equipment is for a complete change from nonsalt-resisting to salt-resisting equip- ment for the present salinity conditions ; neither of which conditions are generally applicable to the upper bay area. Practically all of the industries have some of each type of equipment, being more nearly on the salt-resisting basis as the industry is further downstream. To estimate the decrease in cost of cooling and condensing water with fresh water available above a barrier, the following alternate method of analysis is presented. The present costs of cooling water were reduced by the decreased depreciation figures estimated by the industries them- selves in the State Engineer's questionnaire for fresh water conditions as against present conditions. This resulted in the estimated amount of $70,000 as the indicated saving, which includes all industries above Richmond in the entire area. For the industries above Dillon Point site only, this corresponding estimated amount of indicated saving would be $43,000. However, the additional reduction in annual charges due to less interest on a smaller capital investment and to lower main- tenance cost that could be obtained with fresh water are not included. The previous study for a complete change of equipment indicated that depreciation constituted the major portion of the difference and, there- fore, it is thought that the true value of fresh water for cooling and condensing purposes lies somewhere between the two figures of $70,000 and $150,000 for the industries in the entire area above Richmond and $43,000 to $138,000 for the industries above Dillon Point site only. INDUSTRIAL SURVEY OF UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA 207 That the extra cost of using salt water for eoolino; and condensing purposes over fresli is quite small is substantiated by the following letter received from a conet>rn Avhieh uses pure sea water exclusively for these purposes : It does not seem to us that there is any additional cost of operation of steam condensing equipment utilizing salt water, as compared with fresh water. The principal source of expense with condensers, is condenser tubes, and there is a very wide variation in the life of tubes of different manufacture. Admiralty Mixture brass tubes are rather generally used for plants using salt water, and for plants using fresh water about one-half use this same tube, and the other half use Muntz Metal, which latter are about 10 per cent cheaper than Admiralty. Our experience indicates that the use of salt water in the average life of condenser tubes is about four years. However, we have had variations from six months to twenty-five years. The data which we have, indicates that fresh- water plants obtain about the same life. Temperature of the condensing water is a very important condition, because the higher the temperature, the larger the surface required /in order to obtain the same vacuum, or a larger volume of circulating water must be handled. With higher temperature fresh water, quite often sludge is formed in the tubes, which offers resistance to the flow of water : reduces the vacuum, and is quite troublesome to remove, sometimes requiring chlorination of the water as a preventive measure. At times fresh water carries incrusting solids which form scale in the condenser tubes, reducing turbine efBciency, and is troublesome to remove. "We are of the opinion that there would be but slight, if any, advantage of locating a steam power plant so as to utilize fresh water for condenser purposes. A competitor of the above company states in reply to a similar inquiry that : The extra cost of using salt water over fresh water of the same temperature for condensing purposes is about 2o cents per million gallons pumped. Still further evidence that the cost of cooling with salt water may not be much greater than with fresh is presented by a firm which manufactures cooling and condensing equipment and which replied that : The increased cost of supplying Admiralty Metal tubes in place of Muntz Metal tubes would amount to about 1^ per cent of the total cost of a condenser, the exact amount depending upon the size of the equipment and its construction. They were unwilling to estimate the relative deterioration rate with salty and fresh water because it has been their experience that simi- larly equipped plants in comparable locations have had widely differing rates of deterioration. They attribute much of the mischief done to upper bay equipment to sewage and various contaminations introduced by waste products from industrial plants. So far as the manufacturing costs of present industries are concerned, therefore, it is a question of letting them continue to bear whatever added expense salt water corrosion occasions or of substituting one A the two alternatives just set forth. 14 — 80996 208 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES Relative Importance of Water Costs. Since we have no data covering the relative importance of the various items which go to make up the respective manufacturing costs of upper bay products, we can not say with assurance just how consequential the cost of water really is. The nearest approach we can make is to compare total expenditures for water with such other items as are available, viz, capital investment, payroll and value of output. The following table has been compiled for 1929, for thirteen out- standing industries which submitted usable data : RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF WATER COSTS Capital Investment' Value of product' Pay roll' Cost of water (total) Industry Cooling water' other water' All water' As per cent of value of products A B C D E F $3,068 11,300 8,866 5,731 4,070 $2,290 60.000 9,245 37,194 '12,000 H,250 3,961 1,883 2,870 2,765 22,500 2,000 2,696 $368 1,470 4,062 2,667 1,284 570 1,323 447 543 343 480 320 186 $25.3 15.6 19.2 78.1 42.0 $33.0 161.9 26.9 113.8 40.4 21.6 63.2 3.8 9.0 3.6 5.3 3.5 11.0 $58.3 177.5 46.1 191.9 82.4 21.6 119.1 13.3 14.9 40.5 10.4 3.5 11.0 2.5 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.7 5 G 55.9 9.5 5.9 36.9 5.1 35 H I J 1,342 2,000 0.7 0.5 1 5 K 4 L 454 854 0.2 M 4 Totals 1173,654 $790.5 ! ' Values in thousands of dollars. 2 Items so marked not furnished with the other data sent by the industries to the State Engineer. They are taken from the industrial survey made by the Byron Times, and published in its twelfth annual development edition, page 5. INDUSTRIAL SURVEY OF UPPER SAN I-^RANOISCO BAY AREA 209 Present Cost and Consumption of Water for Cooling and Condensing. The followino- table for cooliTip- nrul condensing water shows the present total consumption of water and the maxiraum, minimum and average cost thereof from public and private supplies, from river, and from all sources combined for the industries in the following areas: A. Pittsburg-Antioch area above Chipps Island site. B. Crockett-Pittsburg area — between Dillon Point and Chij^ps Island sites. C. Richmond-Crockett area — between Point San Pablo and Dillon Point sites. PRESENT COST AND CONSUMPTION OF COOLING AND CONDENSING WATER IN UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA Based upon data furnished by the industries Area A Area B Area C Total A and B Total Area I. From public water supplies — a. Total consumption in million gallons per year b. Maximum cost in cents per 1000 gallons. c. Minimum cost in cents per 1000 gallons. d. Average cost in cents per 1000 gallons... II. From private sources — a. Total consumption in million gallons per year b. Maximum cost in cents per 1000 gallons. c. Minimum cost in cents per 1000 gallons. d. Average cost in cents per 1000 gallons. . . 18.0 33.0 33.0 33.0 13.2 28.0 28.0 28.0 III. From river — a. Total consumption in million gallons per year b. Maximum cost in cents per 1000 gallons. c. Minimum cost in cents per 1000 gallons. d. -Average cost in cents per 1000 gallons... IV. From combined sources — a. Total consumption in million gallons per year b. Maximum cost in cents per 1000 gallons. c. Minimum cost in cents per 1000 gallons. d. .Average cost in cents ter 1000 gallons 2.2 4.4 3,769.9 39.0 1.1 2.0 3,834.0 39.0 1.1 2.0 10,097.1 13.4 0.8 2.0 10,115.1 13.4 0.8 2.1 9,609.1 8.4 0.4 2.2 9,622.3 8.4 0.4 2.2 18.0 33.0 33.0 33.0 64.1 2.2 4.4 13,867.0 39.0 0.8 2.0 13,949.1 39.0 0.8 2.0 31.2 33.0 28.0 32.0 64.1 2.2 4.4 23,476.1 39.0 0.4 2.1 23,571.4 39.0 0.4 2.1 This table shows a regular small increase in the average cost of water from all sources as the distance downstream and the salinity increase, being 2.0, 2.1 and 2.2 cents per thousand gallons for areas A, B and C, respectively. The relatively low cost shown above for cooling water, the total use of which is over 80 per cent of the entire industrial water consumption, indicates a favorable situation for the industries as regards cooling water. The indicated saving for the entire area above Richmond, as previously estimated, which might be obtained in cost of cooling water supplied by a fresh-water barrier lake, namely between $70,000 and $150,000 annually, does not appear to be of great importance. 210 DIVISION OP WATER RESOURCES Present Cost and Consumption of Water for Boiler and Process Purposes. A similar table of consumption and cost of water for boiler, process and other uses is presented below with identical headings as regards sources and areas. PRESENT COST AND CONSUMPTION OF BOILER AND PROCESS WATER IN UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA Based upon data furnished by the industries I. From public water supplies — a. Total consumption in miilion gallons per b. Maximum cost in cents per 1000 gallons . c. Minimum cost in cents per 1000 gallons . d. Average cost in cents per 1000 gallons II. From private sources — a. Total consumption in million gallons per year b. Maximum cost in cents per 1000 gallons. c. Minimum cost in cents per 1000 gallons. d. Average cost in cents per 1000 gallons III. From river — a. Total consumption io million gallons per year b. Maximum cost in cents per 1000 gallons. c. Minimum cost in cents per 1000 gallons. d. Average cost in cents per 1000 gallons IV, From combined sources — a. Total consumption, in million gallons per b. Maximum cost in cents per 1000 gallons. c. Minimum cost in cents per 1000 gallons. d. Average cost in cents per 1000 gallons... Area A AreaB AreaC Total AandB Total Area 43.3 50.0 11.0 21.0 358.7 93.0 29.0 35.0 777.6 60.0 14.0 38.0 402.0 93.0 11.0 34.0 1,179.6 93.0 11.0 36.4 891.1 37.0 2.2 3.5 260.6 24.5 1.8 23.8 26.7 83.0 2.8 10.9 1,151.7 37.0 1.8 8.1 1,178.4 83.0 1.8 8.1 2,265.7 4.8 1.1 1.4 154.4 7.2 0.8 6.8 324.3 12.7 6.7 12.4 2,420.1 7.2 0.8 1.8 2,744.4 12.7 0.8 3.0 3,200.1 38.2 1.2 2.3 773.7 93.0 2.3 25.8 1,128.6 59.7 6.6 29.7 3,973.8 93.0 1.2 6.9 5,102.4 93.0 1.2 11.9 Estimated Cost for Present Consumption of Water from a Barrier Lake. In the course of this study estimates, based upon the data submitted by the industries, have been made as to how much the making of the upper bay area into a fresh-water lake would affect industrial water costs. Too much dependence should not be placed in the completeness and comparability of the results because thoroughly satisfactory figures would have involved a personal investigation at each plant conducted by a staff of experts. The estimated costs for present consumption are shown in the following table : ESTIMATED COST FOR PRESENT CONSUMPTION OF WATER FROM A BARRIER LAKE Based upon data furnished by the industries. Costs of water do not include any portion of a barrier cost or any extra expense that might be necessary for treatment or disposal works to obtain fresh water in or from a barrier lake Area A 3,834.0 35.7 1.0 1.8 3,200.1 40.6 1.0 1.7 Area B Area C Total A and B Total Area I. Cooling and condensing water — a. Total consumption in million gallons per year b. Maximum cost in cents per 1000 gallons. c. Minimum cost in cents per 1000 gallons. d. Average cost in cents per 1000 gallons II. Boiler and process water — a. Total consumption in million gallons per year. b. Maximum cost in cents per 1000 gallons. c. Minimum cost in cents per 1000 gallons. d. Average cost in cents per 1000 gallons... 10,115.1 12.9 0.7 1.7 773.7 13.8 0.8 3.9 1,622.3 8.4 0.4 2.0 1,128.6 10.1 0.4 2.9 13,949.1 35.7 0.7 1.7 3,973.8 40.6 0.8 2.1 23,571.4 35.7 0.4 1.8 5,102.4 40.6 0.4 2.3 INDUSTRIAL SURVEY OF UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA 211 The indicated saving which might be realized for boiler and process water supplied from a fresh-water barrier lake in place of present sources is considerably greater and more important than in the case of cooling water. For all industries submitting usable data the total estimated annual saving in the cost of boiler, process and other water, except cooling and condensing, would be about $500,000. This indicated saving, as estimated from the data furnished by the industries, includes the water supply at present used by the California and Hawaiian Sugar Corporation, which is about to complete a new water supply system to take care of its entire fresh-water requirements for the present and for some years in the future. The figure also includes the indicated savings for all industries in the area above Richmond. For the indus- tries above the Dillon Point site only the corresponding estimate of indicated saving would be about $190,000. Since salty water is not suited to most of these boiler, process and other uses, the river supply has had to be supplemented by connections with wells and public systems. The marked difference in the figure for Area A and those for B and C is accounted for by : (1) the fact that the public supply is far cheaper at Antioch than elsewhere, (2) the fact that the wells in Area A are the best in the whole region, and (3) the fact that the salinity difficulty is the least in the upper area. In all of the above estimates of indicated savings in cost of industrial water supplied from a fresh-water barrier lake in place of present sources, it should be noted that no allowance has been made for addi- tional costs which might become necessary either for water treatment or sewage and industrial waste disposal or for expensive water supply intakes. It is assumed that suitable fresh water could be obtained simply by pumping directly from a barrier lake close to the plant location on the bay shore. If expensive treatment and disposal works or water intake works were required, the cost of such works would tend to decrease the indicated savings estimated above. Comparative Water Rates in Other Localities. Some cities or water districts make special rates to heavy water-using industries on the theory that even though the rate is so low that it does not cover the cost of the service, the community will be the gainer because of the industrial growth fostered thereby. If the rate is based upon the economy of quantity consumption, such reductions are sound, but when they are so great as to constitute a ''sop," the ultimate effects are bad. An industry is in business to make money and should pay its own way. The following table shows the rates charged large industrial users in leading American cities and the minimum quantity to which the minimum rate applies: 212 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES COMPARATIVE WATER RATES City Per 100 cubic feet Per 1000 gallons Minimum quantity to which rate applies 1. Atlanta... 2. Baltimore. 3. Chicago- Cincinnati 5. Cleveland 6. Detroit 7. Los Angeles 8. Mobile 9. New Orleans 10. Oakland 11. Philadelphia 12. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. 13. Portland, Oregon 14. San Diego^ 15. San Francisco 16. St Louis 17. St. Paul.-.. 18. Seattle $0 09 08 06 12 06 04 07 209 04 05 20 216 05 03 04 $0 12 10?^ 068 16 08 05J^ 09 J^ 10 07 279 053^ 14 06% 30 288 06?^ 04 051^ Excess of 20,000 cubic feet per month. Excess of 1,000,000 feet per year. Over 100,000 cubic feet per year. Over 100,000 cubic feet per month. Eate to largest users. Over 100,000 gallons per month. Over 50,000 cubic feet per month. Over 1,150,000 cubic feet per year. 750,000 gallons or more per year. Over 120,000 cubic feet per month. For all over 33,000 cubic feet per month. Over 1,000,000 cubic feet per month. Over 500,000 cubic feet per month. Over 30,000 cubic feet per month. Three of the California cities listed are obviously making no material reduction to large con.sumers, while the fourth, with comparable water costs, has adopted a policy of fostering industrial development by means of attractive water rates to heavy users. INDUSTRIAL SURVEY OP UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA 213 CHAPTER VI SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The Background of the Survey. In the earlier part of this study the foundation was laid for this appraisal of the industrial problems of the upper bay area. An examination was made of the factors which govern industries in the selection of locations for plants. The conclusion Avas reached that plant location is becoming more a matter of careful independent investigation by the industry and less one merely of community boosting. Chambers of commerce have an important legitimate role in connec- tion with the location of industries, in the shape of collecting and placing at the disposal of industries reliable information relative to the several location factors, and in cooperating with one another in the formulation of sane and comprehensive plans for regional development. Rating the importance of location factors, apart from a specific situation, is futile. Important exceptions exist for every generalization one can make. It is noteworthy, however, that the problem of markets seems to cause industrialists the greatest concern at the present time. Progress in chemistry and engineering has done much to wipe out regional differences with respect to power, raw material, labor, water, and other important elements in plant operation. Hence many of the old bases of territorial specialization have been eliminated. The census for 1930 shows that during the preceding decade the Pacific states area was the fastest growing part of the United States, California alone having gained 64.6 per cent in population since 1920. This western state market area with some 9 per cent of the country's population consumes over 10 per cent of the national industrial output. The more rapid growth made by industries in California, compared with the United States as a whole, shows that the scientific progress to which we have just referred is enabling manufacturers to supply this large and rapidly expanding market from western plants. Coupled with the growth of domestic consumption has been the even more rapid expansion of the foreign trade of the Pacific coast ports. As one studies the industrial problems of the San Francisco Bay region he is impressed with the economic unity and interdependence of its constituent parts. This fact calls for regional planning rather than community rivalry. Factors like labor supply, cost of living, rail and water transportation, power, raw materials and markets are satisfactory for the region as a whole and for each of its several fmbdivisions. Industrial sites are available in every part of the bay region, those in the large cities being much more expensive and, therefore, probably better adapted to the multi-story type of plant. The larger industrial tracts vary from solid land to marshy or even water-covered ground. For the latter a considerable outlay will have to be made for reclamation work. Taken as a whole, the region offers almost unlimited room for factories on the extensive water front of the bay and its tributary rivers, and on the land farther back, but with access to water transportation. 214 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES Merits of the Upper Bay as an Industrial Area. The upper San Francisco Bay area affords a most attractive com- bination of location factors for industries which require relatively large tracts of land, low cost transportation, proximity to large cities and, at the same time, the comparative isolation of a country site. Other parts of the San Francisco Bay region offer comparable advantages, but the south shore of Suisun Bay contains at present one of the cheapest areas of solid ground near to deep water in the whole bay region. We have found that all of such major factors as labor supply and cost, power supply and cost, transportation (rail, water and highway), accessibility of markets and raw materials, have with very minor excep- tions been reported as favorable by the industries of the area. The only consequential disadvantage set forth has been the encroachment of salt water during the season M^ien the two rivers have too small a flow to repel the salinity invasion. The growth of the industries which have built their plants in the area indicates that the advantages claimed for it are not mere "paper" ones. We have seen that such comparable data as were available revealed a rate of growth in value of product, number of employees and size of payrolls greater than that for the state as a whole and markedly more rapid than the trend for the whole United States. All of this goes to prove that the upper bay is a valuable part of the industrial structure of the Pacific coast and that, if it is suffering from any remediable handicaps, serious consideration should be given to the problem of removing them. The Water Problem of Upper Bay Industries. Normally, water does not constitute a large part of the total cost of manufacture. Nevertheless it is just as essential to a water-using industry as are the most costly materials. Cooling and condensing call for large quantities of water. Here coldness is the quality most desired, although freedom from ingredients which cause abnormal deterioration of the cooling equipment makes possible a lower annual cost of cooling water because of the smaller initial outlay for cooling apparatus, decreased depreciation and maintenance, and a smaller consumption of Avater than is the case where special resisting materials are installed. However, the cost of cooling water is not large and the higher tempera- tures that would result in a barrier lake might offset the additional cost of salt-resisting equipment. Upper bay industries obtain some of their cooling water from wells and from public supply systems, but for the most part it is pumped from Suisun Bay, Carquinez Strait or the lower end of the San Joaquin River. For convenience we have referred to all of this supply as river water, and quite properly so, for the water from the two rivers flows through the bay and strait on its way to the sea. During the dry season, when a minimum of fresh water is being discharged into Suisun Bay from the rivers, the chlorine content of the water in the bay shows a marked increase. Naturally, the less the precipitation in the area drained by the rivers, the greater is the salinity in the bay. At such time those industries which have cooling apparatus designed to use fresh water suffer a loss from its abnormal deterioration. INDUSTRIAL SURVEY OF UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA 215 Plants which have installed salt-resisting equipment have made a heavier initial investment and consume more water, but have reduced the depreciation rate very materially. That coldness is after all the important quality in a cooling water is evidenced by the fact that great power plants are choosing sites on salt water where veritable rivers of cold salt water can be pumped through the cooling apparatus at a very low cost. One such concern, whose consumption of salt water for cooling is very heavy, reports that, including depreciation, its cooling water cost is but 1.3 cents per thousand gallons. In the upper bay, where the chlorine content is comparatively low, even when conditions are at their worst, the depreciation rate would be smaller. So far as cooling and condensing use goes, and this constitutes more than 80 per cent of the total water consumption of upper bay industries, there is little justification for undergoing great expense in substituting a year around supply of fresh water. Based upon estimates from data supplied by the industries, it will be recalled that but $70,000 to $150,000 annually would be saved by the change to the fresh water of a barrier lake and that only in case the temperature of the water in the lake is not raised. The continued use of the present water with a more suitable type of equipment appears to be the logical solution of the cooling and condensing problem. The presence of as great chlorine content as Suisun Bay contains during the period of low water in the rivers, makes the water undesir- able at that time for use in boilers and for most of the processing carried on in the area. Salt can not be eliminated from water except at prohibitive expense. While Suisun Bay has never been fresh through- out an entire year, at least so far back as the sugar corporation's records go (1908), salinity encroachment is more serious than before water was diverted from the rivers so extensively for irrigation pur- poses. Then, too, we have had a cycle of low rainfall since 1917, and this has aggravated the situation. It will be recalled that the annual indicated saving based upon the data obtained from the industries for water used for boiler, process and miscellaneous purposes would be about $500,000 with fresh water obtained from a barrier lake. It is doubtful if river water would suffice for all of these uses without treatment, and additional expense, which would tend to balance the indicated saving. It is obvious that the problem of a fresh-water supply for the upper bay merits serious atten- tion. The boiler and process costs of industries in the territory west of Pittsburg, which we designated as Areas B and C, judged by published Avater rates, are completely out of line with those of Los Angeles or Seattle, or with any of the industrial areas in the east. The boiler and process water costs in Area B averaged 25.8 cents from all sources, even when river water was available at a low pumping cost for a part of the rear. In Area C the corresponding average of the small group which "furnished data was even greater, viz, 30 cents per thousand gallons. In the case of cooling and condensing water we found the figures furnished for the cost of river water are so low, even under existing conditions, that they do not seem to warrant any considerable outlay for an alternative source of supply. For other uses, the cost should be 216 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES materially lower than it is at present, particularly for industries situated west of Pittsburg. Suggested Alternate Sources of Fresh Water. Two methods have been suggested as a possible means of obtaining fresh water at a smaller cost than that from present sources and facilities : I. Importation from Sources Outside Local Area. — If all of the upper bay region united to obtain its fresh water from a common source, a sufficient volume of consumption would be secured to warrant a large scale domestic and industrial water development. Water can be brought in from one of several adequate sources. Industrial demand for boiler, process and other water, except cooling and condensing, calls for 14 million gallons of fresh water per day, with an estimated consumption by existing industries in 1940 of 23 million gallons per day. If that part of the supply which is now bought from public systems could be furnished to large users at ten cents per thousand gallons with an additional allowance of, say, two cents per thousand for distribution and treatment, the average total cost of water for boiler and process use from combined river, public and private sources would be reduced to 6.3 cents per thousand gallons, inasmuch as industries would still be able to pump their supplies from the river during much of the year. At present, three billion of the five billion gallons used for boilers and processing is taken directly from the river, and the rest, in about equal amounts, from private wells and public supplies. If it be assumed that such a system as the one proposed would be self-supporting, there would be no tax burden to frighten industries away from the upper bay. II. Salt Water Barrier Lake. — A fresh-water lake can be created by constructing a barrier at some site yet to be determined. It is estimated that an annual charge of some four million dollars * would be incurred. The following are some of the alleged gains and losses to upper bay industries from the construction of a barrier. SOME ALLEGED GAINS 1. A constant and ample supply of fresh water at the cost of pumping it. 2. Cheaper pumping cost and softer water than in the case of a deep well, where well water is to be had. 3. Kemoval of the present limitations which the water situation has placed upon industrial growth, including the introduction of new processes and products. 4. Prolonged life of cooling equipment. 5. Safer navigation and more dependable depth of water for the ships which serve the industries above the barrier. 6. Larger local market due to the stimulation of the area's growth. 7. Elimination of the destruction of piling by the teredo, a borer which can not live in fresh water. 8. Cleansing of ship bottoms by the destructive action of fresh water upon barnacles. * Estimate of State Division of Water Resources based upon a capital cost for a barrier of $50,000,000 (including interest during construction), interest at 4J per cent per annum, amortization for 40-year bonds, depreciation, and operation and maintenance. INDUSTRIAL SURVEY OF UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA 217 SOME ALLEGED LOSSES 1. Heavy increase in the taxes of the beneficiary industries, unless much of the cost is assumed by the state, the federal government, or the two jointly. 2. Imposition of a tax burden upon industries which have no direct interest in a barrier. 3. Possible heavy expense for waste disposal in case the barrier causes Suisun Bay to be fouled from matter which would otherwise be carried out through the straits. 4. The obstruction to navigation due to the locks in the barrier, with resulting increases in freight rates. 5. Possible damage to plant sites from changes in the ground water level. 6. Shoaling of navigable channels when the scouring effect of the present open channel is lost. 7. Possible damage to industries below the barrier site if the salinity of their supply of bay water is considerably increased by the impound- ing of the fresh river water behind the barrier. S. Possible destruction of the fishing and fish canning industries, if fish do not use the opened lock gates and the fish ladder for ascending to the rivers. The question is also raised whether the young fry which now descend to the ocean through water of gradually increasing salinity could survive a sudden change from the fresh water behind a barrier to the salty water below. There are certain intangible losses now occurring that might be eliminated by a barrier lake and thus add benefit values. A typical loss of this character is the potential profit which might be realized from the manufacture of products which can not be profitably produced under present salinity conditions. There is insufficient information available to evaluate such benefits. Most of the questions raised in these two lists involve a technical knowledge of civil engineering, navigation, icthyology, or sanitation problems. Experts consulted did not agree as to what results could be expected. This much is clear, that some four million dollars * a year must be provided from some source or other if a barrier is to be built. Estimated Tax Burden. — That the present industries, by themselves, could not bear the burden is clear. Even if all of the taxpayers of the two counties most directly concerned, viz, Contra Costa and Solano, assumed the obligation, a four-million-dollar * annual charge on their assessed valuation of 129 millions (1929) would increase taxes in the two counties by $3.10 per $100 of assessed valuation. The total tax rate in Pittsburg, for example, is now $3.63. A tax from the two counties named of fifty cents per $100 of assessed valuation, such as has been imposed in the east bay for the new Mokel- umne River supply, would raise less than one-sixth of the requisite amount for a barrier. In order to estimate the maximum rate which industries in the upper bay could afford to be taxed for a barrier, the following table * Estimate of State Division of Water Resources based upon a capital cost for barrier of $50,000,000 (including interest during construction), interest at 4i per cent per annum, amortization for 40-year bonds, depreciation, and operation and maintenance. 218 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES has been compiled, covering those industries for which both assessment and water-cost figures were available : MAXIMUM TAXABLE RATE FOR INDUSTRIES FOR A BARRIER I II iIII IV Industry Assessed valuation Estimated annual savings in water cost Tax rate per $100 which would wipe out III A «344,000 $9,100 $2 65 B 173,000 4,900 2 83 C 1,663,000 21,600 1 30 D 83,000 100 12 E 44,000 F 306,000 900 30 G 5,292,000 159,300 3 01 H 3,754,000 114,600 3 05 I 387,000 4.800 1 24 J 5,483,000 64,800 1 18 K 458,000 22,700 4 96 L 254,000 3,400 1 34 Total or average for $18,241,000 $406,200 $2 23 ^Total or average for $23,735,000 $480,000 $2 02 Total or average for industries above Dillon Point $14,202,000 $223,000 $1 57 ' The figures in Column III are the estimated indicated savings with a fresh water supply available in a barrier lake at the cost of pumping only, in place of the present sources and costs of water. ' Includes all large industrial water users except Mare Island Navy Yard. The total indicated saving for the industries in the entire area corre- sponds to a tax rate of $2.02 per $100 of assessed valuation. However, for the industries above the Dillon Point site only the total indicated saving corresponds to a tax rate of $1.57 per $100 of assessed valuation. It should be noted that the increase in taxes which is estimated would occur for Contra Costa and Solano counties to take care of the estimated annual charge of a barrier costing $50,000,000 corresponds to a barrier located at or near Dillon Point. A bal*rier constructed at Point San Pablo, or nearby, would probably cost considerably more, or from $75,000,000 to $90,000,000. The tax rate which would wipe out the indicated estimated saving in water cost as computed for the industries above the Dillon Point site, viz, $1.57, is therefore directly comparable to the estimated increase in taxes, namely $3.10, to take care of the entire annual cost. Basis of State or Federal Aid. — Appropriations received from the state or federal governments toward meeting the cost of a barrier would have to be put upon one or both of two bases: first, restitution for alleged damages due to changed conditions in the upper bay area which might be partially due to developments carried out on the two river systems under federal and state laws and auspices ; second, recognition of a state-wide and nation-wide benefit in keeping with the contribution made to the project's cost. Final Conclusions. Accepting the statements made by the representatives of the indus- tries in the area, regarding the losses they are sustaining from the salinity difficulty, the present volume of industrial activity and the INDUSTRIAL SURVEY OF UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA 219 total loss alleged are far from being of a magnitude which would war- rant so elaborate and costly a remedy as a salt water barrier. The upper bay industrial area at present may be said to be "salinity conscious. ' ' So long as this state of mind prevails, it is bound to serve as an impediment to securing the share of industrial activity which the excellence of the area's attractions warrants. Definite steps should be taken to wipe out both the actual and the psychological handicaps which salt water encroachment has imposed. A fresh-water industrial lake in a region so endowed ^A-ith other advantageous location factors would no doubt prove to be an attraction to heavy users of fresh water, but if there were attached to a site along the lake a tax rate which all but wiped out the benefits of the water supply, a barrier might prove to be a boomerang, so far as its drawing power was concerned. Industries would not rush madly into the upper bay area even when a barrier was provided. Other areas with competing locations would probably match this attraction with counter attractions, such as com- parable water-rate reductions. All of which means that the present generation would assume a heavy burden with only partial com- pensatory gains in the way of some saving in water costs and a stimulated industrial development. If the entire gain credited to a barrier lake by the industries, viz, $570,000 to $650,000 per annum, were treated as the extent of damage done by irrigation, reclamation, power and other projects, this would amount respectively to 14.3 and 16.3 per cent of the estimated total annual burden connected with a barrier. Regions outside of the upper bay area would tend to be affected as follows by any development which stimulated its industrial growth: I. The East Bay. — As one of the shopping centers for the upper bay district, the cities of the East Baj' would benefit by the stimulation of the former's growth. Likewise individuals and firms in the East Bay who render professional and other personal service would benefit from an increased patronage from the upper bay territory. East Bay industries might benefit from being allowed to participate jointly with the upper bay in a project to furnish fresh water to industrial users at a cost considerably less than the 29.1 cents per 1000 gallons charged by the East Bay Municipal Utility District. If a barrier lake were created, a pipeline could be laid to the East Bay city, but as tax payers in the present Municipal Utility District and probable bearers of a part of the cost of a barrier if they enjoyed its benefits, might find that these two offsets made very substantial inroads into the anticipated saving in water costs. TI. The Remainder of the Bay Region. — San Francisco, as an impor- tant center for shopping, personal, professional and banking service, would also benefit by the stimulation of upper bay growth. Similarly, producers of poultr}^ eggs, fruit, vegetables and other products and services required by upper bay inhabitants, would profit by the larger market. In somewhat the same fashion producers of products and services needed by the upper bay industries would benefit. These gains are real, but not calculable in dollars and cents. 220 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES III. The Best of the State and the Naiion. — To the extent that a com- munity profits more from industries located in its midst than it does from those farther removed, any other section of the state or of the United States would receive less direct benefit from the location of an industry in the upper bay than from the same establishment located in its own midst. Indirectly, it does reap a gain from new developments elsewhere which broaden the market for its products and provide it with new sources of supply for the things it consumes. It is not an easy task, however, to ''sell" to areas with competing sites the idea of con- tributing to a project designed to increase the latter 's competitive advantage when they have no large volume of business with the upper bay. The whole matter in a nutshell seems to be that, while the industries of the upper San Francisco Bay have water problems which need to be solved, they do not of themselves, for the present, at least, seem to justify so elaborate and costly a remedy as a salt water barrier. It is recommended, however, that serious attention be given to adequate measures for removing the causes of salinity consciousness in the upper bay area, and for providing an adequate supply of fresh water for industrial purposes in the most economical way which competent engineers can devise. INDUSTRIAL SURVEY OF UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY AREA LIST OF INDUSTRIES IN UPPER BAY AREA Limited to those with 20 or more employees 221 Division Area A— Above Chipps Island Site. Area B — Above Dillon Point and below Chipps Island sites. Area C— Above Point San Pablo and below Dillon Point sites (exclusive of Richmond and Napa-Petaluma area). Area D — Napa and Petaluma area. Reference number 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 Name of industry Antioch Lumber and Mill Company Hickmott Canning Company West Shore Packing Company California Packing Corporation Fibreboard Products Company Fulton Shipbuilding Company National Chemical Company Great Western Electro Chemical Company.. Pioneer Rubber Mills U. S. Steel Products Corporation Redwood Manufacturers Company Jobns-Manville Company F. E. Booth Company Northern California Fisheries Association Pioneer Dairy Company General Chemical Company Coos Bay Lumber Company Cowell Portland Cement Company Associated Oil Company Mountain Copper Company ' Shell Oil Company Western Plywood Company Port Costa Brick Company Associated Pipe Line Company Port Costa Warehouse Company Benicia Arsenal Yuba Manufacturing Company California Rex Spray Company G. W. Hume Company Grangers Business Association C. & H. Sugar Refining Corporation, Ltd American Smelting and Refining Company.. Union Oil Company Hercules Powder Company Giant Powder Company Sperry Flour Company Mare Island Xa\^ Yard Maid of California Milk Company Basalt Rock Company Cameron Shirt Company Keig Shoe Company Napa Fruit Company Napa Glove Company Napa Milling Company Napa County Prune Association Sawyer Tanning Company Petaluma Cooperative Creamery Balding Hemingway Company Camm and Hedges Company Golden Eagle Milling Company Coulson and Company Geo. P. McXear Company Swift and Company Western Ice and Refrigerator Company Petaluma Box Company Vonsen Company McNear Brick Company Daniel Contracting Company Location Antioch Antioch Antioch Antioch Antioch Antioch Pittsburg Pittsburg Pittsburg Pittsburg Pittsburg Pittsburg Pittsburg Pittsburg Pittsburg Bay Point Bay Point Bay Point Avon Martinez Martinez Martinez Port Costa Port Costa Port Costa Benicia Benicia Benicia Benicia Crockett Crockett Selby Rodeo Hercules Giant Vallejo Vallejo Vallejo Napa Napa Napa Napa Napa Napa Napa Napa Petaluma Petaluma Petaluma Petaluma Petaluma Petaluma Petaluma Petaluma Petaluma Petaluma McNears McNears 222 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES SUMMARY OF CONTENTS OF STATE ENGINEER'S QUESTIONNAIRE A. General and Miscellaneous Information. Type of industry ; Products ; Date of location ; Reasons ; Advan- tages and disadvantages of site; Sources of raw materials; Markets ; Power and fuel used ; Period of continuous operation. B. Description of Transportation Facilities. Rail; Water; Highway. C. Labor. ^Source ; Type : Adequacy of quality and quantity ; Cost ; Disputes. D. Water Supply — From Public and Private Systems and the River. Quality ; Quantity ; Pumps ; Storage ; Distribution ; Treatment ; Value of plant : Present consumption from each source for boiler and process, cooling and condensing, and other uses ; Annual cost of water for each source ; Estimate of financial loss due to salinity of water ; Estimated demand in 1940 for each of the sev- eral purposes and sources; Proposed plans of the industry for water supply development ; Importance of water to the industry ; Desirable cost figure ; Additional tax it could afford for satis- factory supply. E. Domestic Sewage Disposal. Area and population served ; Quantity ; Present and proposed methods of disposal ; Description of outfall ; Present and proposed methods of treatment. F. Industrial Waste Disposal. Quantity and type of waste : Description of outfall ; Present and proposed plans for disposal and treatment. G. Reclamation Works. Present and proposed work ; Areas involved ; Drainage works, their cost and value. H. Effect of Construction of a Salt Water Barrier. Up river from the plant : Down river ; Benefits and detriments. I. Statistical Information (for each year from 1906 to 1929, inclusive). Capital investment ; Assessed A'aluation ; Cost of raw material brought in from outside of county ; Gross value of sales ; Number of employees (average per year) ; Total pay roll; Annual con- sumption of boiler and process water, cooling and condenser water and water for other uses, from each of the three sources, viz, public systems, private wells, the river; Annual water cost for each principal source and use ; Total value of the water sys- tem and total annual maintenance cost for each of the three principal sources of supply ; Estimated annual saving if suitable raw river water were available ; Actual cost of treating raw river water for each of the types of use. PLATE A-I PRESENT AND POTENTIAL INDUSTRIAL DISTRICTS IN THE SAN FRANCISCO BAY REGION SCALE OF MILES J PLATE A-I PLATE A-II I ( / 1^ ^-loDiir/li^ ^X?'*^ yy -^-li ■ J. ,v/.01A0»^J APPENDIX B FEASIBILITY AND SUITABILITY of Combining a HIGHWAY CROSSING With a SALT WATER BARRIER Below Confluence of Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers 15—80990 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. . 226 ORGANIZATION 227 Chapter I SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 229 Possible highway routes 229 Conclusions 229 Chapter II FEASIBILITY AND SUITABILITY OF A BARRIER AS A HIGHWAY CROSSING 231 Conflict between higliway and water traffic 233 Limitation of barrier as a highway crossing 237 Chapter III CONSIDERATION OF INDIVIDUAL ROUTES AND CROSSINGS 239 Route A 240 Route B 241 Route C 242 Route D 242 Route E 243 Route F 243 Estimates of costs 243 LIST OF PLATES Plate Page B-I State highways and possible routes of travel for utilization of a salt water barrier as a highway crossing 238 (225 ) LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL Mr. Edward Hyatt, State Engineer, Sacramento, California. Dear Sir : Please refer to your letters of January 3 and February 25 requesting the Division of Highways to undertake a study of the feasibility of using a salt water barrier as a highway crossing. I am transmitting herewith a report of such a study. A detailed field and office study of the various locations of the salt water barriers, as outlined in the report, were made ; tentative routings to meet these crossings were outlined and investigated on the ground. Studies of traffic flow and density were made and comparative estimates of cost of such routings and crossings were prepared. The report covers the main features and brings out the resulting conclusions of these studies which indicate that the combination of a highway crossing with a salt water barrier is not feasible nor eco- nomically warranted. Very truly yours, State Highwav Engineer. Sacramento, California, November 29, 1930. (226) ORGANIZATION DIVISION OF HIGHWAYS C. H. PuRCELL State Highway Engineer The report covered by this appendix was prepared under the direction of the Division of Highways by F. J. Grumm, Engineer of Surveys and Plans, and T. A. Bedford, Assistant Engineer of Surveys and Plans. (227) CHAPTER I SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Barrier locations considered for their possibilities as a highway crossing over the Carqiiinez Strait and upper bay area were : Chipps Island site on upper Suisun Bay. Martinez site. Benicia site. Dillon Point site. Vallejo Junction site. San Pablo site. Possible Highway Routes. The following routes have been worked out, utilizing the above sites . Route A — Chipps Island crossing. Sacramento to Oaldand via Birds Landing, Chipps Island, Lawler Ravine, Walnut Creek and Tunnel road — 78 miles. Route B — Martinez crossing. Sacramento to Oakland via Fairfield, Army Point, Martinez, Walnut Creek and Tunnel road — 83 miles. Route C — Benicia crossing. Sacramento to Oakland via Fairfield, Benicia, Franklin Canyon and Richmond — 82 miles. Route D — Dillon Point crossing. 1, Sacramento to Oakland via Fairfield, Suisun Bay, Dillon Point, Franklin Canyon and Richmond — 84 miles. 2. Sacramento to Oakland via Fairfield, American Canyon, Dillon Point, Franklin Canyon and Richmond — 84.5 miles. Route E — Vallejo Junction crossing. Sacramento to Oakland via Fairfield, American Canyon, Vallejo Junction and Richmond— 80 miles. Route F — San Pablo Point site. Redwood Highway to Richmond — 16 miles. These routes are shown on Plate B-I. Conclusions. 1. The present Carquinez Bridge is adequate for present traffic and l)robably will servo for the next fifteen or twenty years witliout the necessity of enlarging its capacity. ( 229 ) 230 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES 2. The Carquinez Bridge is now far ahead of traffic needs and superior to the highway facilities leading up to the bridge. The development of these facilities offers the least expensive method of serv- ing traffic. They are now a part of the State highway system and should first be developed to their ultimate capacity. 3. Only under exceptional conditions, at preferred locations and with special design could a proposed salt water barrier be utilized advan- tageously as a basis or support for a highway crossing. 4. The amount which might be contributed from highway funds towards building a barrier, by reason of present facilities and savings effected, is so small in comparison with the total cost of a barrier that it could not be considered a controlling or influencing factor in selecting the site, methods of financing, or time of construction. 5. Traffic requirements preclude the possibility of using a barrier as a low level crossing and, therefore, the resulting design and construc- tion would assume the character and nature of an individual structure which could be more advantageously placed to meet highway require- ments. 6. On the San Pablo Strait crossing, provided the franchise granted for construction of the bridge could be canceled or acquired and plans for a barrier altered to provide a high crossing over the locks without draw spans and without materially increasing the cost, it might be possible to work out a cooperative arrangement and plan for the utiliza- tion of a barrier as a highway crossing on the basis of a contribution to the extent of three or four per cent of the cost of the barrier ; but such participation, based on traffic prediction, M'ould not be warranted until 1955. FEASIBILITY OF COMBINING A IIKillWAY CROSSING 231 CHAPTER II FEASIBILITY AND SUITABILITY OF A BARRIER AS A HIGHWAY CROSSING Before considering each individual project in detail, a general dis- cnssion on the feasibility and snitability of a salt water barrier as a highway crossing seems expedient. Reference is made to Bulletin No. 22, "Report on Salt Water Barrier Below Confluence of Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers, ' ' by Walker R. Young, Engineer, U. S. Bureau of Reclamation. The following quotations are made from this report : "Type of Dam Proposed. "The type of structure to which principal consideration is given is one in which the ship locics and flood gates are located at one side upon roclt foundations, tlie closure of the present waterway being effected by means of an earth and rock fill dam to be brought up to its desig-ned height after completion of the ship locks and flood gate structure. In another type studied the flood gates form the closure between concrete piers sunk to bedrock foundations in the present waterway by the open caisson method. Both types have been designed with and without provisions for carrying a railroad and highway." (Page 28.) "Although railroad and highway bridges are contemplated in most of the designs they are not regarded as indispensable and are omitted in some in anticipation of indifference on the part of railroad and highway interests toward the opportunities afforded by the barrier. In the studies made it is considered that traffic over them is subject at all times to the convenience of navigation. The bridges are designed to give a vertical clearance of 50 feet above high water when in the lowered position and 135 feet when raised. The interruptions to bridge trafflc, as they would have been on July 6 and 7, 1925. as summarized in Table 6-40." (Page 31.) "The construction of a barrier at the Point San Pablo site probably would be looked upon with disfavor by the Navy Department for the reason that it would restrict free navigation through San Pablo Bay to the Mare Island Navy Yard by the necessity of passing war vessels through ship locks. This objection does not apply to the Dillon Point, Benecia or Army Point sites." (Page 32.) "The Sherman Island and Chipps Island sites were dropped from consideration early in the investigation for the reason that even though foundation conditions might be found favorable, a dam at either place would develop comparatively little storage back of it and, as will be brought out in this report, storage is desirable in the operation of the barrier. The foundation at either of the sites would be of peat, sand and silt, similar in character to that found in the delta and described in Chapter II." (Page 57.) "Although the Benicia site has been attractive from the beginning, it was not selected for development by drilling for the reason that a brief geological examina- tion made by Mr. Alfred R. Whitman for the State Division of Engineering and Irrigation in 1922, had tentatively fixed the location of the Sunol fault as crossing Carquinez Strait from the west side of Martinez to the east side of Southampton Bay. Reference to Plate 3-2 will show that a fault line so located would cut through the point off Benicia, where, if that site were adopted, the flood gates and ship locks would probably be located to take advantage of shallow rock foundations. Moreover, a barrier at this site, built to take advantage of the shortest distance across the strait, would be transverse to the general trend of fault lines in this locality which would not be desirable." (Page 57-58.) "By reference to Plates 3-1 and 3-2. it will be noted that the Army Pomt, Dillon Point and Point San Pablo sites are all located away from the principal fault zones and in each case the direction of the barrier would be approximately parallel to the general trend of the faults. In reporting upon his examination of Carquinez Strait, Alfred R. Whitman says : " 'If a severe earthquake were to be produced by a longitudinal differential movement on the Sunol or Avon Fault there would probably be a tendency for the mud of the strait to shift forward and backward in the direction of the fault movement, rupturing the dam if this lay diagonal to it ; but if the dam lay along a line parallel with the faults it would be least in danger from shifting mud. The safest point and direction for the dam would be between the Sunol and Avon faults extending from Bulls Head Point to a little northeast of Army Point.' 232 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES "In summarizing the Bryan report the following points are of particular interest: "1. The region is one where earth movements of considerable magnitude have taken place in comparatively recent times. "2. He predicts that earth movements will continue and states that they may be considered as an irregularly recurrent hazard to structures. "3. Regardless of the risk of earth movements, engineering structures should be built to meet present conditions and contingencies. "4. In the design of structures for this region consideration should be given to the possible effect of earthquakes. "5. Major fault lines should be avoided as they represent lines of greatest weakness along which earth movements are most likely to recur. "6. Minor faults, between the major fault zones, have little effect on the character of the sites as future movements on these lines are unlikely. "7. A fault is suspected as lying in the draw just east of Bckley and crossing the strait into Glenn Cove. It would be of the older type, considered no longer active, but if it exists it may cut through the southerly end of the Dillon Point site. "8. There is no objection, geologically, to the Army Point, Dillon Point or Point San Pablo sites with the possible exception mentioned under (7). Mr. Bryan apparently does not consider the exception as of any importance. "9. The rocks at all sites are suitable as foundations for structures of ordinary size. "10. The quartzite in the vicinity of the Point San Pablo site is excellent material for riprap and for crushed concrete aggregate. "11. The harder sandstones found at the upper sites are suitable for riprap. "12. As material for embankments under water it seems likely that the shales and fragments of sandstone from the thinner beds will fill the voids of the larger stones derived from the massive sandstone beds and form a tight and relatively stable structure." (Page 60.) Several of the plans for barriers show alternative designs for dams topped with a 20-foot highway alone and with the combined highway and railroad bed having a total width of 64 feet, of which the highway occupies 31 feet. The widths indicated are not considered adequate for main trunk highways, but it seems probable that by revision in design provision can be made for furnishing an adequate width for highway use. This is estimated to be 56 feet as a minimum. The design for embankment or rock and earth filled dams should furnish suitable foundation for a low elevation highway at any desired width. For the low elevation drawbridge of 50-foot clearance, there probably would be no difficulty in founding the approach to the bridge on top of the embankment. While the barrier report contains some sixteen separate estimates of completed barriers on different designs, both with and without highways, no two are sufficiently parallel nor in sufficient detail to permit of deductions as to the increase in costs occasioned by adopting the barrier to highway purposes. However, it is apparent the added cost of the low elevation road would be only a fraction of the cost of a separate highway bridge built on the same location. The report presents but one design for a high crossing and that is an alternative design for the Dillon Point site. This design provides for a series of concrete piers on 120-foot centers, separated for the lower portion by concrete core walls and for the upper portion by floodgates. These piers carry steel tOM'ers supporting the highway and railroad tracks. Around these concrete piers and core walls the rock fill is then placed. This design and location could possibly be utilized by making some sacrifices. There has been insufficient time to check its adequacy and there are several features in connection with it which are open to question. Among these is what effect settlement of the rock fill would have on the concrete piers and core walls carrying the higliway structure. The bridge piers would puncture and weaken the embankment and the lateral displacements in the embankment, caused by settlement or uneven ground, would endanger the bridge piers, some of which must be 200 feet or more in height. FEASIBILITY OF COMBINING A HIGHWAY CROSSING 283 Conflict Between Highway and Water Traffic. For the low elevation road with oO-foot clearance, requiring draw- bridges, interruptions in highway traffic would be inevitable. In reality it would not be a conflict for, since the water traffic has the right of way, highway traffic simply would have to wait. As the water traffic increased tlie liighway traffic interruptions would be multiplied, and when highway traffic increased at the same time the highway difficulties again would be multiplied. The attached tables, copied in part from Bulletin No. 22, depict water traffic conditions as they appeared in 1925. As pointed out in Bulletin Xo. 22, a substantial increase may be expected in this water traffic from year to year. TABLE 6-38' OPERATION OF LIFT SPAN TO ACCOMMODATE WATER TRAFFIC AS OBSERVED JULY 6-7, 1925, DILLON POINT' Lockages as in Table 6-29, neglecting vessels not requiring lifting of span bridge at upstream end of locks with 50-foo under-clearance.' Date' Lift span operation' Begun Ended Bridge traffic' Waiting, minutes Moving, minutes* Number of boats passed July 6. July 6. July 6. July 6. July 6. July 6. July 6. July 6. July 6. July 6. July 6. July 7 July 7. July 7. July 7. July 7. July 7. July 7. July 7. July 7. July 7. July 7. July 7. July 7. July 7. July 7. July 7. July 7. July 7. July 7. July 7. July 7. July 7. July 7. 6.37 6.48 7.10 7.44 8.45 9.32 9.41 p.m. p.m. p.m. p.m. p.m. p.m. p.m. 10.12 p.m. 12.09 2.41 3.14 3.32 a.m. a.m. a.m. a.m. 3.44 a.m. 8.14 9.21 10.17 11.02 11.17 11.52 12.37 1.54 2.29 3.57 4.10 a.m. a.m. a.m. a.m. a.m. a.m. p.m. p.m. p.m. p.m. p.m. 5.35 p.m. 7.34 9.10 p.m. p.m. 6.44 p.m. 6.55 p.m. 7.20 p.m. 7.54 p.m. 8.59 p.m. 9.39 p.m. 9.51 p.m. 10.24 p.m. 12.16 a.m. 2.51 a.m. 3.24 a.m. 3.42 a.m. 4.05 a.m. 8.24 a.m. 9.28 a.m. 10.24 a.m. 11.09 a.m. 11.24 a.m. 11.59 a.m. 12.44 p.m. 2.04 p.m. 2.39 p.m. 4.04 p.m. 4.20 p.m. 5.52 p.m. 7.44 p.m. 9.17 p.m. 145 23 249 57 49 38 8 28 38 70 25 78 6 75 ' These portions of table taken from Table 6-38 of Bulletin No. 22 of the Division of Water Resources, "Report on Salt Water Barrier Below Confluence of Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers," » Time elapsed before next interruption. 234 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES TABLE 6-391 OPERATION OF LIFT SPANS TO ACCOMMODATE WATER TRAFFIC AS OBSERVED JULY 6-7, 1925, POINT SAN PABLO' Lockages as in Table 6-32, neglecting vessels not requiring lifting of span bridge at upstream end of locks with 50-foot under-clearance. ' Lift span operation' Bridge traffic' 60 and 80-foot locks 110-foot locks Number Date> Waiting, minutes Moving, minutes' of boats passed Begun Ended Begun Ended July6 1 July6 July 6 July 6 J July 6 6.17 p.m. 6.4? p.m. ?.27 p.m. ?.46 p.m. 8.11 p.m. 8.41 p.m. 6.29 p.m. 6.54 p.m. 7.34 p.m. 12 7 7 17 7 18 17 10 7 10 10 10 17 14 10 7 ? 7 18 33 12 8 23 8 37 16 310 18 9 3 6 8 98 28 4 17 4 1 July 6 1 July 6 \ July 6 / July 6 8.03 p.m. 8.18 p.m. 8.54 p.m. 2 1 July 6 July6 \ July6 J July 6 ... - 1 4 8.52 p.m. 8.59 p.m.] July 6 1 Ju!y6 / July 6 9.0? p.m. 10.01 p.m. 10.2? p.m. 3.44 a.m. 4.12 a.m. 4.31 a.m. 4.44 a.m. 5.0? a.m. 9.24 p.m. 10.11p.m. 10.34 p.m. 3.54 a.m. 4.22 a.m. 2 July 6 July? July? July? July? 1 July? / July? 1 July? i July? 5.01 a.m. 5.20 a.m. 2 ■ 3 5.11 a.m. 5.21 a.m.] July? July? July? July? 5.29 a.m. ?.17 a.m. 7.52 a.m. 8.03 a.m. 5.39 a.m. 7.24 a.m. 7.59 a.m. 8.10 a.m. 1 1 1 1 ■ These portions of table taken from Table 6-39 of Bulletin No. 22 of the Division of Water Resources, "Report on Salt Water Barrier Below Confluence of Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers." * Time elapsed before next interruption. FEASIBILITY OF COMBINING A HIGHWAY CROSSING 235 TABLE 6-39 »— Continued OPERATION OF LIFT SPANS TO ACCOMMODATE WATER TRAFFIC AS OBSERVED JULY 6-7, 1925, POINT SAN PABLO' Lockages as in Table 6-32, neglecting vessels not requiring lifting of span br^dje at upstream end of loJks with 50-foot under-clearance.' Lift span operation' Bridge traffic' 314-foot span 140-foot span Number Date' Waiting, minutes Moving, minutes' of boats passed Begun Ended Begun Ended July 7 8.27 a.m. 8.52 a.m. 9.38 a.m. 10.49 a.m. 11.16 a.m. 11.29 a.m. 1.04 p.m. 1.29 p.m. 2.34 p.m. 8.37 a.m. 8.59 a.m. 9.56 a.m. 10.59 a.m. 11.23 a.m. 11.39 a.m. 1.14 p.m. 1.36 p.m. 2.41 p.m. 10 7 18 10 7 10 10 7 7 38 10 10 13 10 7 10 7 10 10 15 39 53 17 1 July 7 -- 1 July7 \ July 7 / 2 July 7.... \ July 7 J 2 July 7 1 July 7 1 July 7 / 85 15 58 29 11 3 5 45 9 12 16 7 15 2 July? 1 July? 1 July 7 1 July? 1 3.10 p.m. 3.30 p.m. July? July? 1 July?.... \ July? J July? \ July? / 3.29 p.m. 3.59 p.m. 4.12 p.m. 4.27 p.m. 5.25 p.m. 5.44 p.m. 6.03 p.m. 6.29 p.m. 6.43 p.m. 7.08 p.m. 3.48 p.m. 4.09 p.m. 4.22 p.m. 4.40 p.m. 5.35 p.m. 5.51 p.m. 6.13 p.m. 6.36 p.m. 6.53 p.m. 7.18 p.m. 5 9 July 7 1 July? \ July? / 2 July 7 1 July? 1 July? 1 July 7 / 2 July? 1 July 7. 1 July? 1 ' These portions of table taken from Table 6-39 of Bulletin No. 22 of the Division of Water Resources, "Report on Salt Water Barrier Below Confluence of Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers." ' Time elapsed before next interruption. 236 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES < Q O _ «5 em 8 't O o < b P S H S ^ a.s ^- a rtQ ^2 3 O a C-II Meteorological records at Crockett and Alvarado, California, for 1929 259 C-III Relation of average monthly temperatures and relative humidity 262 C-IV Relative water and air temperatures in Suisun Bay region Following 264 C— V Floating evaporation pan in shallow water 265 C— VI Evaporation land pan 266 C-VII Relation of monthly evaporation and temperature at Oakdale and Alvarado, California Following 268 C-VIII Creek sedge near mouth of Petaluma Creek 271 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL Mr. Edward Hyatt, State Engineer, Sacramento, California. Dear Sir: I herewith transmit my report on "Evaporation and Transpiration With Special Reference to a Salt Water Barrier Below Confluence of Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers." This report has been prepared as requested in your letters of June 2, June 7 and August 22, 1930. Conclusions herein relative to rates of evaporation and transpiration are based u])on all pertinent data available to date. Evaporation rates, although based on estimates, are believed to closely approximate the actual values, especially during the period of greatest intensity, includ- ing the summer months. Transpiration rates are believed to be rea- sonably accurate, but are subject to possible modification in the future, if and when further data become available. Classified acreage data, as furnished by your office, are included in the report, with discussion of probable changes due to construction of a barrier and recommended rates of evaporation and transpiration to be applied. Estimated total losses by evaporation and transpiration from natural vegetation have not been determined, as it was understood this would be done by vour office. Respectfully submitted. prLx^ Consulting Engineer. San Francisco, California, August 27, 1930. (251 ) ACKNOWLEDGMENT In the preparation of this report helj^ful assistance and data have been obtained from the engineering staff of the Division of Agricul- tural Engineering, Bureau of Public Roads, United States Department of Agriculture, headed by W. W, McLaughlin, Associate Chief; the United States Army Engineers, working under the direction of Major E. H. Ropes; the San Francisco office of the United States Weather Bureau, under the direction of E. H. Bowie, Meteorologist; Pro- fessors F. J. Veihmeyer and W. W. Weir, and others of the College of Agriculture, University of California; C. W. Schedler, President, Association of Industrial Water Users, Pittsburg. Cooperation of the following organizations and individuals in mak- ing available valuable meteorological and evaporation records also is acknowledged : Shell Oil Company, Hercules Powder Company, California and Hawaiian Sugar Refining Corporation, Ltd., Union Oil Company, Mountain Copper Company, Ltd., American Smelting and Refining Company, Chabot Observatory, University of California, Department of Geography, University of California Farm at Davis, Alviso Salt Company, East Bay Municipal Utility District, H. L. Haehl, Consulting Engineer, San Francisco. Information relative to the physiological characteristics of natural plant species found in a salt water barrier area has been furnished by : Dr. J. G. Brown, 'Professor of Plant Pathology, University of Arizona. Dr. D. T. MacDougal, Director of the Carnegie Botanical Labora- tories. Dr. W. W. Robbins, Associate Professor of Botany, University of California at Davis. (252) CHAPTER I SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Construction of a barrier to stop the advance of salt water into the npper reaches of Siiisun Bay and the delta of the Sacramento and San Joaqnin rivers would greatly increase the demands for fresh water in these areas. Evaporation losses from water surface, which, in ])eriods of shortage in stream flow, are now supplied by the inflow of salt water from San Francisco Bay, would have to be provided from river flow or mountain storage. The same source would have to be depended upon to supply trans]iirational losses from marginal vegeta- tion. Salt marsh and salt-resistant vegetation, from which transpiration is now curtailed by excess of salinity, would be replaced by fresh-water varieties which consume water at a greater rate and which will extend over a larger area. These increased water losses, because of the exten- sive areas involved, would have an important bearing not alone upon plans for mountain storage in connection with a salt water barrier, but possibly upou its feasibility. The purpose of this report is to present the results of studies to determine the evaporation and transpiration losses to be expected from a lake created by a salt water barrier and to describe the avail- able data and the analytical methods used in reaching conclusions. Because of the great importance of these losses in any study of the feasibility of a barrier, unusual efforts have been made to arrive at accurate values for the rates of evaporation in different portions of the barrier area and for the rates of transpiration from different types of vegetation. These studies are described on the following pages with supporting data presented in the form of tabulations and plates at the end of the report, and have resulted in the following conclu- sions : 1. A salt water barrier area would extend over four topographic units within which the meteorological factors influencing the rate of evaporation from water differ appreciably. 2. The following tabulation indicates the average rate of monthly evaporation from fresh water, as found for each topographic unit: Month San Pablo Bay Carquinez Strait Suisun Bay River Delta Januar>' - In inches 0.98 1.70 2.53 3.58 5.00 5.00 5.75 5.35 4.70 3.40 1.60 1.02 In inches 0.96 1.65 2.55 3.82 5.80 6.55 7.10 6.25 5.25 3.80 1.60 1.02 In inches 0.93 1.65 2.81 3.82 6.15 7.10 7.60 6.90 5.90 3.85 1.60 1.02 In inches 93 February 1 60 .March 2 75 .\pril... 4 12 May . 7 25 June . 9 10 July.._ . . 10 10 August 9 35 September 7 15 October 4 00 November . 1 65 December 1 01 Year 40 61 46.35 49.33 58 98 ( 2.->.'^ ) 254 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES 3. Aiij^ degToe of salinity which might reasonably occur above a salt water barrier would not appreciably reduce the rate of evapora- tion below that for fresh water. 4. The types of natural vegetation now growing on marginal and other lands within a barrier area are : San Pablo Bay — Samphire, pickleweed, creek sedge. Suisun Bay — Tule and cat -tail, salt grass, and mixed growths of foxtail with salt grass, samphire and pickleweed with salt grass, and tule with creek sedge. Delta — Tule and cat-tail, willow. 5. The probable ultimate types of natural vegetation, after con- struction of a barrier, would be : San Pablo Bay — Tule and cat-tail, salt grass. Suisun Bay — Tule and cat-tail, salt grass, willow. Delta — Tule and cat-tail, willow. 6. Values for average monthly rates of transpiration from natural vegetation which ultimately would grow in a barrier area have been adopted, after study of all available information, as follows: Willows Tule and cat-tail Salt gras.s' Month In large groves Isolated trees January February March April May In feet 0.16 0.09 0.30 0.74 1.10 1.28 1.53 1.32 1.18 0.98 0.59 0.36 In feet 0.06 0.08 0.12 0.24 0.36 0.43 0.56 0.58 0.39 0.29 22 0.14 In feet 0.04 0.03 0.08 0.20 0.30 0.35 0.42 0.36 0.33 27 16 0.10 In feet 0.09 0.05 0.16 0.41 0.60 0.70 July August September October 0.84 73 0.65 54 32 December 0.20 Year 9.63 3 47 2.64 5.29 I Values for average aimual depth to water table of two feet. 7. Values for transpiration from oak trees may be considered as 60 per cent of that from willows. EVAPORATION AM) TKANSI'IKATIO.V 255 CHAPTER II AREAS The locations foi- a salt watei' Itatricr extend over t'our topographic units as follows: San Pablo Bay, Carquinez Strait, Suisun Bay and the delta, the latter extending from the junction of the two rivers at Chain Island to the head of tidal action in the period of low stream flow as indi- cated in Plate C-I, "Geographical Variation of Mean Monthly Tempera- ture in San Francisco Bay and Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta Region. ' ' Each of these areas has distinctive meteorological characteristics and also differing types of marginal vegetation. Thus they naturally constitute separate units for the ditferentiation of rates of evapora- tion and transpiration. For purposes of estimating losses which would occur from the back water area above each barrier site, a further sub- division has been made for the various sites as follows : Point San Pablo, Dillon Point, Benicia and Chipps Island, also shown on Plate C-I. The areas considered in this report are those from which evapora- tion and transpiration would occur with construction of a salt water barrier, the source of w'hich would be fresh w'ater from the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers and their tributaries. It was assumed that average water surface behind a barrier would be at elevation 2.5 feet above U. S. Geological Survey mean sea level datum. The areas would consist primarily of fresh-water surfaces in the two ba3's, open sloughs, and sloughs, drains, ponds, etc., within levees. Surrounding and adjoining these water surfaces would be large areas of natural vegeta- tion. There also would be irrigated and cultivated lands within reclaimed areas bordering the bays and in the delta. Water losses from the latter and areas in weeds are not considered in this report. The sources of data for land and water areas in San Pablo Bay are a detailed field survey made by the State in August, 1930, using U. S. Coast and Geodetic charts, and U. S. Geologic Survey maps, and an airplane photographic survey made by the U. S. Army Engineers. The results of these surveys are shown under the first and third columns of the tabulation beloAv. The middle column indicates the probable classification during the years following construction of a barrier and prior to more extensive use of the land for agriculture, as indicated by field inspection. The basis for this change in classification is discussed in Chapter IV. The land and water classification data for Suisun Bay are based on a detailed field survey made by the State in August, 1930, using copies of the airplane photographs obtained by the U. S. Engineers. The results of the survey are tabulated below, the second column indicating the conclusion as to probable classification during the years 17—80996 256 DIVISION OF WATER REHOUKCES following constrnction of a barrier and prior to more extensive use of the land for agrienltnro. LAND AND WATER CLASSIFICATION— SAN PABLO BAY AREA Survey of August, 1930 Present classification Open tidal water Point San Pablo to Dillon Point* Grain and plowed ground Pickle weed- - Foxtail - - - Tule, cat-tails, sedges, etc Salt grass Wild oats Drains, ponds, inland water, etc Levees and roads.-.- Natural grasses Bare Corn and truck - Wire grass Weeds Lamb's-quarter. Mud flats Greasewood. Total... Probable classification during years immediately following construction of a barrier Water Crop Salt grass. Salt grass Tule Salt grass Weeds Water Levees and roads. Salt grass Bare Crop.. Tule Weeds Salt grass Tule Crop Brush ■ Elevation phis 2.5 U. S. G. S. Datum. LAND AND WATER CLASSIFICATION— SUISUN BAY AREA Survey of August, 1930 78,400 23,910 11,210 8,580 5,870 4,310 2,670 1,490 750 720 440 330 230 150 50 50 20 20 139,200 Present classification Probable classification during years immediately following construction of a barrier .Area in acres Above Chipps Island site Above Benicia site Above Dillon Point site Open tidal water* Salt grass Pickle weed . Tuleg, cat-tails, etc Grain, stubble, plowed, etc Foxtail Wire grass Drains, ponds, inland water, etc. Bare land Levees, roads, etc. (bare portion). Wild oats . Blue grass Mud flats Asparagus Lamb's-quarter Weeds (unclassified) - Miscellaneous. Eucalyptus Alfalfa Water Salt grass. Salt grass - Tule Crop Salt grass- Tule Water Bare Bare Weeds Salt grass - Tule Crop Salt grass. Weeds Crop Bare Trees Crop. 2,730 2,400 1,000 1,050 480 150 390 130 50 100 20 560 90 32,480 22,540 14,250 13,930 3,720 3,430 3,220 2,540 930 790 770 560 450 500 390 270 210 90 20 10 Totals. 9,IJ0 101,100 33,810 22,570 14,380 13,970 3,720 3,430 3,220 2,540 930 790 770 560 520 500 390 270 210 90 20 10 102,700 ' Elevation plus 2.5 U. S. G. S. Datum. Delta areas are as furnished by the State, and are based on U. S. Geological Survey maps for land areas and U. S. Army Engineers' maps for tule and water surface areas, with examination in the field, particularly of tule areas. It is not believed material change in natural PLATE C-I LEGEND T Temperature station H Relative humidity station W Wind station — — ■ — . Isotherm -i— Sbit water barrier sites »»»»»^ Crest of air drainage divide ■ Water evaporation station Boundary of delta area o-.^.,..,,-^ Boundary of Suisun and San Pablo Bay marsh land area GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION MEAN MONTHLY TEMPERATURE SAN FRANCISCO BAY AND SACRAMENTO-SAN JOAQUIN DELTA REGION 1 #^£>t^ IWA^J I 4? MEAN ISOTHERMS FEBRUARY J ^.n.. ' N^% '■ 1 \ ' f \ <^^ MEAN ISOTHERMS i"' / ^-^o V ■...^;-^— ^r >^ o.,.^i.., ;..,_. APRIL r""--^ '^"' ■^>' o| li] ^3ijf ,} -v'^,f%.* '--•."'■' »i«ia««fl--~.a.«js»«:^- EVAI'OUATIO.V AXI) TliANSPlKA'PlOX 257 vegetation Avonld take place in the delta after construction of a barrier. The classification for present conditions is as follows : LAND AND WATER CLASSIFICATION OF DELTA AREA OF SACRAMENTO AND SAN JOAQUIN RIVERS 1929 Survey Acres I. Total gross area' . 488,bOO II. (iross unreclaimed area in channels: A. Area of water surface 38,700 K. Areaof tules. _ 5,300 C Area of willows 1,200 D. Area of brush and oaks _ ., 1,800 Total 47,000 III. (Jro.ss reclaimed area: A. Levees — 1. Willows -.- 4,400 2. Weeds and bare land 7,400 Total 11,800 15. Area within levees — 1. Sloughs and drains: a. Water surface 6,400 b. Tules 2,100 Total 8.500 2. Agricultural lands: a. Irrigated crops' 321,800 b. Nonirrigated crops and idle land above five feet in elevation — U. S. G. S. Datum 64,000 c. Idle improved lands below five feet — U. S. G. S. Datum 26,300 d. Flooded land within delta boundaries 9,200 Total 421,300 Total (ItemB) 429,800 Total (Item III) 441,600 Total area of water surface': (From Items II-A, III-B-1-a and III-B-2-d) 54,300 Total area of tules: (From Item.s II-B and III-B-1-b) 7,400 Total area of willows: (From Items II-C and III-A-1) 5,600 ' This total gross area includes 1100 acres of water surface between delta boundary and stream gaging stations, dross area of delta equals 487,500 acres. - Based upon 1929 crop survey of Sacramento-San Joaquin River Supervisor. '■' Includes 1100 acres of water surface between deltalboundary and stream gaging stations. .\rea of water surface in delta equals 53,200 acres. The above classifications for conditions during the first few years after construction of a barrier and prior to extension of agriculture as the result of availability of a continuous supply of fresh water have been summarized in Table C-1 accompaiwing this report. The areas in this table may be used for application of monthly evaporation and transpiration values in computing total evaporation and transpira- tion losses for the different barrier sites. 258 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES CHAPTER III EVAPORATION Meteorology. The rate of evaporation from a water surface for any period of time is largely controlled by various meteorological factors, such as temperature and humidity of the air, wind movement, precipitation, etc. Temperature of the water surface also is an important factor and for highl}^ mineralized water specific gravity must be considered. Of the meteorological factors, air temperature is by far the most important. Humidity and wind have a minor influence over long periods, but may be of great importance during intervals of one or two days. The relation of evaporation to these meteorological factors is illus- trated strikingly by daily values at Alvarado for the year 1929 as reported by the U. S. Weather Bureau and set up in Plate C-II, "Meteorological Kecords at Crockett and Alvarado, California, for 1929.'' Temperature fluctuations throughout the year are consistently reflected in evaporation, except when suppressed by high humidity accompanying' rain storms, while wind effects are onlj^ apparent on isolated days, such as February 26th and October 28th, when dry north winds occurred. Humidity observations are not made at Alvarado, but conditions at Crockett, on the upper end of San Pablo Bay, are quite similar. A continuous record of relative humidity is kept there by the California and Hawaiian Sugar Refining Corpora- tion, and daily averages from this record have been plotted at the top of Plate C-II. Reference to this plate indicates the unimport- ant influence of humidity upon evaporation, except for short periods. Temperature- — In view of the importance of temperature, a detailed study has been made of average monthly air temperatures throughout the project area. For this purpose the records published by the U. S. Weather Bureau have been very useful. It was found that sufficient long term records (exceeding ten years) were available to draw isotherms, or lines of equal air temperature, upon a small scale map of the bay region as has been done in Plate C-I. The records at 76 stations were used, extending from Ukiah and Nevada City, on the north, to Monterey, Merced and Sonora, on the south, which records are set forth in detail in Table C-2. Isotherms were drawn on working sheets upon which all stations were plotted in order to establish the broad aspects of temperature distribution throughout central Cali- fornia. Isotherms for the bay region, as shown on the more restricted area embraced in Plate C-1 were traced from the working sheets. Temperature differences of two and one-half degrees Fahrenheit are represented bj^ the isotherms. Study of the various monthly isotherms reveals some very interest- ing conditions. The months November to March are characterized by slight temperature differences throughout the area, with maximum EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION 259 PLATE C-II Jan. Feb. March April May June July Aug. Sept Oct. Nov. Dec. 1 ' ' . • ' i*^ '^^^■h^viV/^''^^''\^^^ ^r yvjv» ^ rW \rv} I DAILY AVERAGE RELATIVE HUMIDITY AT CROCKETT DAILY MEAN TEMPERATURE AT ALVARADO DAILY WIND MOVEMENT AT ALVARADO DAILY EVAPORATION AT ALVARADO DAILY PRECIPITATION AT ALVARADO METEOROLOGICAL RECORDS AT CROCKETT AND ALVARADO CALIFORNIA I 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 A i 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ! 1 1 - A h J^ ^^^^^/^M ^Lh f A f A ,J\iAf\ h/^ Mw^ ^^ ^^^-iA. A \(v/\r' "" V 1 ' ! V \ 1 ' - \ 1 'III. H - - ■ 1 ' ! " 1 ■ ■ " t " t " 1 1:' ^■l■^■ 1^ 'i^--'H - - 1 1 ■ • - ■ 1 ■ J i. . i, I: ; J I L ll, ' ■ ' i 260 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES differences between various points not exceeding five degrees and a range during the five months of from 45 to 55 degrees. November shows clearly the local tempering effect of the warm bay water. The months April to October show a far different condition. Temperatures remain fairly constant along the coast at approximately 55 degrees, but build up progressively in the interior to a July maximum of 80 degrees on the west side of the San Joaquin Valley and 82.5 degrees on the west side of the Sacramento Valley. The controlling factors in temperature distribution during these months are, first, the centers of heating represented by the flat land areas of the valleys and especially the Great Valley; and second, the great area of cool water in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of Cali- fornia. The heating influence of the valleys is first apparent in April and disappears in October. The cooling influence of the ocean is not effective until the trade winds from the west begin during the lattei' part of May. It continues until the middle of September. The topography of the bay region has a strong influence upon distri- bution of the cool air from the ocean. The Coast Range nets as i\ barrier to inland air movement, except through the gap from the Golden Gate to Colma Valley, just south of San Francisco. Here cool air flows into the San Francisco Bay area and thence southeast toward Santa Clara Valley and northeast into San Pablo Bay. From the latter there is a strong flow through Carquinez Strait gap, across Suisun Bay and into the Great Valley through the gaps north and south of IMontezunia Hills, shown by the months of May to September on Plate C-T. One arm of cool air extends into the Sacramento Valley beyond Sacramento and another into the San Joaquin to a point slightly southeast of Stockton. Beyond these points there is general mingling of warm and cool air with loss in identity of the cool streams from the bay. The sharp differences of temperature induced by these cooling air currents within comparatively short distances are ample evidence of the importance of a temperature study in connection with evapora- tion from the lake of a salt water barrier. During July, for example, there is a 20 degree difference in temperature between the lower end of San Pablo Bay and the warmest portion of the delta. There also are important differences between air temperature over water and adjacent land throughout the area. Relative Humidity — Relative humidity is the percentage of water vapor in the air at a given temperature, as compared with that at saturation with the same temperature. It is a measure of the ability of the air to absorb moisture. A high relative humidity, such as 90 per cent, indicates the air is nearing saturation, while a low value, such as 20 per cent, indicates extreme dryness of the air. There are insufficient stations at which relative humidity is observed to map relative humidity variations for the project area. The only station at which a continuous record is kept, from which daily maxi- mum and minimum values can be obtained, is that maintained by the California and Hawaiian Sugar Refining Corporation at Crockett. Other stations at which measurements are made at fixed hours each day are those maintained by the U. S. Weather Bureau at San Francisco, San Jose, Mount Tamalpais, Point Reyes, Sacramento, Fresno and Red EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION 261 Bluff. Records of a similar character nlso are kept at Oakland by the Chabot Observatory, at Berkeley by the University of California, and at Hercules by the Hercules Powder Company. All available relative humidity records have been compiled in Table C-3, segregated according to time of observation. The location of these stations is indicated on Plate C-T. It ai)pears from this table that relative humidity is fairly constant throughout the year near the coast at San Francisco and Berkeley, with a slight increase during the sum- mer months when fog prevails much of the time. At interior points, however, there is considerable variation between winter and summer, winter values being equal or slightly higher than those in the bay region and summer values far less. The stations at Hercules and Crockett, on San Pablo Bay, although but a short distance from San Francisco and Berkeley, show a marked reduction. There is a close relationship between humidity and temperature observable in the records in Table C-3, both for the same station and among widely separated stations. Tu order to study this relation Plate C-IIT, "Relation of Average ^lonthly Temperatures and Relative Humidity.'' has been prepared. This ])late shows that among the four stations, San Francisco, Crockett, Sacramento and Fresno, the average monthly relative liumidity varies uniformly in an inverse ratio with average monthly temperature during the months April to October, and that there is a similar relation at the individual stations of Fresno, Sacramento and Crockett. Only minor variations occur during the winter months and the relationship is not so clear. The data is suffi- cient, however, to indicate a uniform variation of relative humidity with air temperature throughout tlie project area for at least the months April to October. This relationship has been utilized in later studies presented in this report. Wind Movement — Wind movement is measured in term.s of miles trav- eled by the air during a stated period of time, as registered by an anemometer. It varies greatly at the same geographic location, depend- ing upon the height of the point of measurement above the ground surface. Robert E. Horton publishes a table, based on experiment, for reduction of wind velocity at any level to that one foot above the ground.* The following typical values taken from this table indicate the great differences to be expected at various levels : Wind velocity in miles per hour at height H Wind velocity in miles per hour one foot above ground H=10 feet H=50 feet H=100 feet H=200 feet 2 5 10 20 30 1.85 4.25 7.75 13.90 19.30 1.53 3.30 5.70 9.70 13.20 1 37 2.84 4,85 8.10 10.85 1.22 2.48 4 12 (i 80 9.10 It is evident that in comparing wind movement at two stations con- sideration should be given to the height of the anemometer above the ground. * Hydrology of the Great Lakes by Robert K. Horton in collaboration with C. E. Grunsky, 1927. 262 DIVISION' OF WATER RESOURCES PLATE C-III 60 65 70 75 Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit RELATION OF AVERAGE MONTHLY TEMPERATURES AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY EVAPORATIOX AXD TKAXSI'IRATION 263 All available wind movement records in the vicinity of a barrier are listed in Table C-4. with a description of each record, including height above the ground. Average montldy wind movements at all stations are listed in Table C-5. Wind movement at Alvardo, Davis, Oakdale and Suisun l)ay is measured jn-actically at the ground level and can be directly compared. It is to be noted that Alvarado and Oakdale are in close agreement, while windage at Davis is less than one-third that at these stations and Suisun Bay 50 per cent greater. Instru- mental exposures are at widely differing heights above the average ground surface at other stations set forth in Table C-4 and direct comparisons of the records can not be made without correction. It is apparent, hoAvever, that with the exception of Davis and wind gaps such as at Selby. great differences of windage do not occur at ground level in the vicinity of the area under consideration. Precipitation — Average monthly and annual precipitation at stations in the vicinity of this area, as observed by the U. S. Weather Bureau, are presented in Table C-6. The greatest annual precipitation occurs near the coast, generally ranging between 22 and 26 inches. In the interior valleys the annual precipitation ranges from twelve to nineteen inches. As is characteristic of precipitation throughout California, the months of June, July and August are practically without rain, while very little falls during ]\[ay. September and October. More than 80 ]>er cent falls during the cooler month.s — November to A]unl. The abnormal meteorological conditions occurring during storm periods are tluis confined to the months of least evaporation. Mi'feorological Districts — The topography of the area exerts a control- ling influence upon meteorological conditions during the period of trade winds when evaporation rates are at a maximum. The successive ranges of hills, all at right angles to the direction of prevailing wind, Met as barriers to the flow of cool air from the Pacific Ocean. Air currents are concentrated at wind gaps such as Golden Gate, Colma A'alley. San Pablo Strait, Carquinez Strait and to the north and south of ^lontezuma Hills. The successive basins between wind gaps are successive stages iji changing air temperature and relative humidity as set forth in Plates C-I and C-III. Because of these conditions San Pablo Bay. Carquinez Strait, Suisun Bay and the delta, each i-epre- sent distinct meteorological districts and have important differences in i-ates of evaporation. These districts have been selected as natural units within which uniform evaporation rates may be determined. Temperature of Bay Water. The basic law governing evaporation, discovered by John Dalton more than 100 yi^ars ago, is that evaporation rate is proportional to the difference between vapor pressure in the air above the water surface and the maximum vapor pressure of the air at the tem])erature of the water surface. Temperature of bay water is therefore pertinent to a study of evaporation. The only extended record of this character obtainable is that kept by the Shell Oil Company at the ]\Iartinez Refinery at the lower end of Suisun Bay and reproduced on Plate C-IV, "Relative Water and Air Temperatures in Suisun Bay Region." Observations are made 2300 264 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES feet from the south shore approximately 1000 feet off the center line of the main channel and adjacent to the company's wharf. Water is subject to tidal action and minor river currents. Temperatures are observed at a uniform level of thirteen feet above the bottom at a depth of ten feet at hif>h water and one foot at low water. Comparison of average monthly air temperatures at Antioch, 20 miles upstream, and Crockett, five miles downstream, indicates that water temperature closeh^ follows air temperature, but with a varying degree of lag. The difference is greatest during June, July and Aug- ust, the months of maximum temperature, and in November and Febru- ary, when rapid changes occur in air temperature. The tempering effect of warm river and bay water upon cooler air temperature during November is noticeable on the isotherm map for November. Evaporation from Fresh Water. Evaporation is the process by which substances pass from liquid to vapor. It represents a definite loss in weight and volume of the liquid, which loss can be readily measured. The usual method of measuring the rate of evaporation from water surface is by observing, at regular intervals, the level of water in a pan or tank exposed to the atmosphere. The rate of eva])oration differs greatly for different exposures and sizes of the container in which measurements are made and factors must be applied to any measuring device of this character to obtain the evapo- ration from a large water surface exposed to similar meteorological conditions. Measurement — The measurement of evaporation often is complicated by precipitation falling into the container. The amount of precipitation at any point beai*s no relation to the amount of evaporation at that point, so that to make comparison of evaporation rates at different points it is necessary to determine the absolute or gross evaporation. This is accomplished by placing a rain gauge near the evaporation con- tainer and after a storm adding the observed depth to the last previous evaporation gauge reading. This requires attention during heavy rain so that water may be dipped out if the container threatens to overflow. Evaporation records are often kept without giving attention to precipi- tation. Defective records have not been considered in preparing this report, all data, as far as known, having been observed in an approved manner and represent gross evaporation. Local Evaporation Data — A thorough canvass has been made for evapo- ration records kept in the vicinity of a lake formed by a salt water barrier. Fifteen such records have been assembled and all pertinent data compiled in Table C-7. These data include location, authority, period of observation, type of equipment, size and setting of pan or tank and measured annual depth of evaporation. Tabulations of monthly evaporation at each station are presented in tables accom- panying this report, as follows : Table C- 8 — Alvarado (near), U. S. Weather Bureau. Table C- 9 — Alviso (near), Alviso Salt Company. Table C-10— Lake Chabot, East Bay Water Company. Table C-11 — Upper San Leandro Reservoir, East Bay Water Com- pany and East Bay Municipal Utility District. PLATE C-IV itember ~~rn — r October 1 r November December I I I --^^^^^^ I I I n I I i 80 70 60 = 50 £ 40 S 1 — I — I — I — \ — I — r 1 — ! — I — I — r I I I J_J. 1 — \ — I — r 80 70 60 5 H -^ 50^ 40 30 LEGEND /ater temperature opposite Shell Oil jmpany refinery near Martinez monthly air temperature at Crockett monthly air temperature at Antioch R AND AIR TEMPERATURES IN ISUN BAY REGION PLATE C-IV January February March April May June July August September October November December 80 r TT — I — m TT^'T — i~\~!^r-\ — I — I — I — I \ — r 1 r~i i i i i i \ i i^i r : i i i i i j i i n i i i i i m — rn — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — r~\ — i — i — n — i — i — i so .p,,^ -nJt K _L_I i I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I c 1928 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 77r^~ XfV^J 1 ^""K.::;^ ' Kzz/'\j—r\ P^-— - r" 1 L 1 1 I.I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i—L.I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -J-l 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 ' 1 1 1 1 1 ,i..J. J 1 1 1 1 1 1929 3:r^?T- I I I I I "T — I — I — I — r ^^^ r^ 1930 LEGEND — \j — Bay water temperature opposite Shell Oil Company refinery near Martinez Mean monthly air temperature at Crockett Mean monthly air temperature at Antioch RELATIVE WATER AND AIR TEMPERATURES IN SUISUN BAY REGION EVAl'OKATIOX AND TRAXSPIRATIOX 26.1 PLATE C-V FLOATING EVAPORATION PAX IX SHALLOW WATER Located near Xoyce Slough in Suisun Bay and maintained by United States Engineering Department. Also shows typical growth of tules and aquatic vegetation. rt -?TfiM TRindf"^ vii&ijnK L fzz — on J—J — I 0* ^-m 08 njr r.nr --^~ ~zsi ---^ 03 i '^'•. ^-~~^ < -""^ J L I I I I I I I.I I ,il«. 0^ sr -I n 3 06 ' • * -- T — ! — r I V — — -1^- - J I 'I I I I I oeer '1 r li I I I I I I I I I I OY oa 04^ ■^S .q — 9eC08 EVAPORATION' AND TRAXSI'TRATIOX 265 PLATE C-V FLOATING EVAPORATION PAN IN SHALLOW WATER Located near Noyce Slough in Suisun Bay and maintained by United States Engineering Department. Also shows typical growth of tules and aquatic vegetation. 266 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES Table C-12 — San Pablo Reservoir near outlet tower, East Bay "Water Company and East Bay Municipal Utility District. Table C-13 — Same at dam. Table C-14 — University of California Campus at Berkeley, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations. Table C-15— University of California Campus at Davis. Table C-16— Reclamation District No. 999, U. S. Department of Ag-riculture, Division of Agricultural Engineering. Table C-17- — Woodward Reservoir near Oakdale, U. S. Weather Bureau. Tables C-18, C-19, C-20— Suisun Bay. U. S. Engineering Depart- ment. PLATE C-VI EVAPORATION LAND PAN Located on Dutton Island and maintained by United States Engineering Department. Typical growth of salt grass in background. These measurements have been kept in various types and sizes of containers and under widely different surroundings. At Alvarado, Alviso, Davis and Woodward Reservoir, the U. S. Weather Bureau Class "A" ground pans have been used and observations made in accordance with a prescribed routine. Records at Lake Chabot. Upper San Leandro and San Pablo Reservoirs and Suisun Bay are from float- ing pans, and at Berkeley and Reclamation District No. 999 in soil tanks. No rigid routine of observation was followed in procuring the floating pan and soil tank records, but it is believed the records, as tabulated, are reasonably accurate. Where there were gaps of several days or question existed regarding the procedure followed with respect EVAl'OKATION AN'I) TRANSPIRATION 267 to precipitation such portions of the record were omitted from the tables. Correction Coefficicnts~~The experimental work of various investi- gators has shown that wide differences exist between the results of evaporation measurements made in small containers and that from a large water surface such as a reservoir or lake. There also is a wide variation even among small containers, as is well illustrated by the column in Table C-7 headed "Observed Annual Depth of Evaporation." The first seven stations, all of which are adjacent to San Francisco Bay and have similar meteorological conditions, show results differing by as much as 40 per cent. It is obvious that before definite monthly and annual rates can be determined for the different subdivisions of the area some method must be found for correcting observations in small containers for application to a large water surface. The most complete experimental work published on this subject, is that carried on by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Public Koads, Division of Irrigation Investigations, at Denver, Colo- rado. This work was conducted under the direction of the late R. B. Sleight. Preliminary results were published in the Journal of Agricul- tural Research (^July 30, 1917) and final data are to be found in Trans- actions, American Society of Civil Engineers (Vol. 90, pages 308, 309 and 373). In the latter publication Sleight summarized all his work with varying shapes, sizes and setting of containers. He classified the containers in common use as follows : C^'lindrical ground surface pans (l'. S. Weather Bureau Class A Sta- tions, etc.) Square ground tanks. Cylindrical ground tanks. Square floating pans (U. S. Geological Survey Standard). Cylindrical floating pans. Curves were prepared for each type, showing the relation between area of water surface and evaporation as a percentage of that from a twelve-foot ground tank set two and three quarters feet* in the soil. Most of the coefficients thus determined have been recently confirmed at Fort Collins, Colorado, in more thorough investigations by the U. S. Department of Agriculture. In these an 80-foot water-tight tank was used as a basis for comparison (Unpublished manuscript by Carl Rohwer). After reviewing the ^vork of Sleight and Rohwer and becoming acquainted with conditions at each local evaporation station, an appro- priate coefficient for use in reducing local records to the conditions of a large water surface, such as has been done in Tables C-7 to C-20, was selected. The greatest reduction is that for the U. S. Weather Bureau Class A stations where a factor of 0.70 has been applied. The least reduction was for the four-foot circular floating pan for which a factor of 0.96 was adopted. Values for other containers lie between these extremes. Method of Estimating Evaporation — An examination of available evap- oration records, corrected for large water surface conditions, indicates * Transactions, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 90, figure 9, page 309. 268 DIVISION OF WATER Rp:sOUI{C'ES that, although the values at different local stations differ consistently with the dift'ering local meterological conditions, there are yet no rec- ords which can be directly applied to the four meteorological subdivisions of the area as indicated in Table C-7 and Plate C-I. A method has therefore been devised to utilize the longest and most reliable records by modifying the values in conformity with local meteorological conditions in each subdivisional area. This method is based upon meteorological relations established ; first, as to the controlling influence of air tempera- ture upon evaporation, as shown on Fiatt^ C-Il ; and second, the uniform variation of relative humidity with air temperature within a barrier area as shown on Plate C-III. The first step in applying the method was to select two base evapora- tion stations. Meteorological conditions at Alvarado are very similar to those surrounding iSan Pablo Bay, and the record extends over a period of six years. Conditions at AVoodward Reservoir near Oakdale are generally comparable with those at the eastern margin of the delta region and a twelve-year record is available, of which six are common to both stations. These two stations, representative of the extreme ends of the area, were chosen as base stations. Inspection of isotherms on Plate C-I shows a progressively^ increas- ing temperature from San Pablo Bay to the delta, especially during ilie months April to October, while Plate C-III indicates a uniform variation of relative humidity with temperature between these two points. The evaporation at points intermediate between San Pablo Bay and the delta, being controlled by both temperature and humidity, should therefore be proportional to temperature alone. Graphs show- ing this relation are presented on Plate C-VII, "Relation of ^lonthly Evaporation and Temperature at Oakdale and Alvarado, California." These afford a means of determining monthly evaporation for any point or area in the vicinity of a salt water barrier where average temperature is observed or can be estimated. As a check upon the method, the monthly evaporation has been computed at seven stations lying between Alvarado and Oakdale and set up in Table C-21 for comparison with the corrected measured values. The comparison is aided by reference to the percentage values in Table C-22. The annual evaporation depths, as computed, agree within five per cent at all stations except Davis, where the computed value is 23.9 per cent greater than measured. This difference probably is due to the low windage at Davis, which i.s approximately 25 per cent of that at other stations in the bay and delta region such as Alvarado, Berkeley, San Jose, San Francisco, Sacramento and Oakdale. Comparison of monthly values shows agreement to within ten per cent during summer months, both for floating pan and ground tank records. The measurements made by the U. S. Engineering Depart- ment in Suisun Bay in deep water are in especially close agreement, as well as those at Upper San Leandro and San Pablo reservoirs. In late summer the computed values at Reclamation District No. 999 are high, due possibly to vegetation around the tank and the low watei- level in the tank at the end of weekly periods of observation. Monthly values as computed in the early part of tlie year exceed measured values, probably due to the fact that base station records are from ground pans on platforms where water temperature follows air PLATE C-VII 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 - - PRIL III 1 1 1 1 -r GUST I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I I I I I I I 1/^ I M I I I June^^TJuly Apr.® -1^ ^SepL Feb.^ «(n Jan. @^^ Dec. ALVARADO (near) I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 Average monthly mean temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit £ 8 c o E < >" Jan. I'll 111111111111 Apr. -A I 11 I I I I I y Maygf / z / I I I I I I I I I Junejgf' )PAug. ©Oct I I I I ^July OAKDALE (near) I I I I I I 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I 8 £ 85 90 >% I M I 1 I M I I '2 2 EMBER I 70 75 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 SO Average monthly mean temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit LEGEND • Alvarado 'near' ° Oakdale (near) Numbers shown at points on diagrams indicate year of record ® Observed average for Alvarado 1925-30 ® Observed average for Oakdale 1925-30 — Evaporation from pan ^— — Evaporation from large water surface ■Pan .0.70 RELATION OF MONTHLY EVAPORATION AND TEMPERATURE AT OAKDALE AND ALVARADO, CALIFORNIA '•^1^ PLATE C-VII 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -I n 1 - • ' ? - -jSi^ ^^sb:^ - JANUARY 1 1 1 1 r 1 1 f U 1 1 1 - - - ? ? #4^ - - ^ iv FEBRUARY _ - 1 1 1 1 ^ - * - - :>^ - ^^ MARCH MM MM «t* MM MM - w. ^ - - '> ^ - MM Mil MM 1 M 1 APRIL 1 M L lj ' 1 1 M 1 1 degrees Fahrenheit MM Mil - - - - °7 - - 2 - - V /' - / - / - MM MM 1 1 1 I MM MAY - MM - - SS / / - - sis / - - / / .0/ / / - - / « / / - / / - / _ / A - MM MM MM JUNE - " / '^ - - >-'" - - / / / /^ - / / / / / - - / y - - / - _ / / / - MM JULY ■ / •" / - - f---" - ^ / / / - " / / - - / ^ - ■ /7 - MM MM AUGUST MM ■ Ill M M 1 II M 1 Jun Ma,^' I^Au,. - Ap f . ^Sep / - - 1 ."..,^^^^ Oct. - Jan.®^D«. ALVARADO (near) II M 1 1 M 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Average monthly mea n temperatures n degrees Fahrenheit - MM - - / / / / f - - May^ / / S^Sept. / - - / / > / - - Apr. 4 ^ ' 1 - - - MM MM OAKDALE .near. M 1 1 1 M M 1 1 1 I 1 1 M 1 1 degrees Fahrenheit Average monthly mean temperatures In degrees Fahrenheit MM MM MM MM "■; - « V - / / / - / / - - ~ '/ ' Mil MM MM MM SEPTEMBER - - - / - - r,'iL / / - - .™° /oh - / ^ - // - Mil ^i 1 1 Ml II II OCTOBER II II 1 M IJ 1 M M - - - - - - - - ---- S^ ^ - MM ^"V- — MM lilt -NOVEMBER 11 M 1 1 M 1 ll 1 II MM MM - - - - - - ^^ - 'r^,^ ■-.»' DECEMBER] r. t"" MM 1 1 1 1 MM. III! ® Observed average tor AK ® Observed averaoe for Oa ^ — — Evaporation from pan ■■ Evaporation from larfle v RELATION OF MONTHLY EVAPORATION AND TEMPERATURE AT OAKDALE AND ALVARADO, CALIFORNIA Monthly mean temperatur( degrees Fahrenheit EVAl'ORATIOX AXD TKAXsriKATIOX 269 temperature vers' closely. Cheek records on the other hand are from fj:roimd tank or floatinj; pans, the temperature of which follows the well known temperature lap- of soil and water. In the latter part of the year computed values fall below measured values for the same reason. On the whole, the comparison shows a remarkable agreement between computed and observed values and adds to the confidence with which this method can be used. Estimated Monthly Evaporation — Application of the method consists of the computation of average monthly evaporation for each meteoro- logical subdivision of the area, using the average monthly air tempera- tures as determined from the monthly isotherms plotted in Plate C-1. These values are entered on Plate C-VII and the average monthly evaporation read off. The results are tabulated in Table C-23 for the subdivisional areas of San Pablo Bay, Carquinez Strait, Suisun Bay and the delta. The annual depths of evaporation applicable to large fresh-water surfaces in each of these areas are as follows: San Pablo Bay 40.61 inches (3.38 feet) Carquinez Strait 46.35 inches (3.86 feet) Suisun Bay 49.33 inches (4.11 feet) Delta 58.98 inches (4.92 feet) The similar value used by Walker R. Young in estimating evapora- tion from all portions of a salt water barrier lake was 3.50 feet (Table 10-1, Bulletin 22, Division of Water Resources, State Department of Public Works). Evaporation from Salt Water. The presence of soluble salts in solution tends to decrease the rate of evaporation from water. There is no published data on this subject pertaining to sea water. An experimental study of evaporation from Owens Lake brine, varying in specific gravity from 1.11 to 1.37, has been made. This experimental determination, which was checked by detailed lake level and inflow measurements and pan evaporation obser- vations on Owens River, indicated the rate of evaporation from Owens Lake brine, expressed as a percentage of that from distilled water, varies proportionally Avith the specific gravity of the brine, but in inverse ratio.* It is probable the results obtained for Owens Lake brine are applicable to sea water. At a specific gravity of 1.03, which approximates that of sea water, the rate of evaporation as determined is 97 per cent of that from fresh water. For any degree of salinity which might reasonably occur above a salt water barrier it is improbable there would be any appreciable reduction in evaporation rate below that for fresh water. * Transactions, American Society of Civil Engineers, VoL 90, page 333. ._.._1 1____ n il I i M M 1 1 n r i ^.-lJ. l imdmAi I I M I I I I M M I I ■X rr \ -'6 ••'-■■ es v or ee i 1 ^ — h i ,1 L i M ; ..:■■ ,,_aecos EVAPORATION AND TKANSPIRATION" '260 temperature very closely. Cheek records on the other hand are from ground tank or floating pans, the temperature of which follows the well kno^^^l temperature lag of soil and water. In the latter part of the year computed values fall below measured values for the same reason. On the whole, the comparison shows a remarkable agreement between computed and observed values and adds to the confidence with which this method can be used. Estimated Monthly Evaporation — Application of the method consists of the computation of average monthly evaporation for each meteoro- logical subdivision of the area, using the average monthly air tempera- tures as determined from the monthly isotherms plotted in Plate C-1. These values are entered on Plate C-VII and the average monthly evaporation read otf. The results are tabulated in Table C-23 for the subdivisional areas of San Pablo Bay, Carquinez Strait, Suisun Bay and the delta. The annual de]iths of evaporation applicable to large fresh-water surfaces in each of these areas are as follows : San Pablo Bay 40.61 inches (3.38 feet) Carquinez Strait 46.35 inches (3.86 feet) Suisun Bav 49.33 inches (4.11 feet) Delta 58.98 inches (4.92 feet) The similar value used by Walker R. Young in estimating evapora- tion from all portions of a salt water barrier lake was 3.50 feet (Table 10-1, Bulletin 22, Division of Water Resources, State Department of Public Works). Evaporation from Salt Water. The presence of soluble salts in solution tends to decrease the rate of evaporation from water. There is no published data on this subject pertaining to sea water. An experimental study of evaporation from Owens Lake brine, var^nng in specific gravity from 1.11 to 1.37, has been made. This experimental determination, which was checked by detailed lake level and inflow measurements and pan evaporation obser- vations on Owens River, indicated the rate of evaporation from Owens Lake brine, expressed as a percentage of that from distilled water, varies proportionally with the specific gravity of the brine, but in inverse ratio.* It is probable the results obtained for Owens Lake brine are applicable to sea water. At a specific gravity of 1.03, which approximates that of sea water, the rate of evaporation as determined is 97 per cent of that from fresh water. For any degree of salinity which might reasonably occur above a salt water barrier it is improbable there would be any appreciable reduction in evaporation rate below that for fresh water. * Transactions, American Society of Civil Engineers, VoL 90, page 333. 270 DIVISION OF WA'I'EH KESOUKCES CHAPTER IV TRANSPIRATION FROM NATURAL VEGETATION Transpiration is the physiological process by which plants, growing in air, give off water vapor from their breathing organs. It is one phase of the process of plant respiration by which air is inhaled and waste products exhaled. The respiratory mechanism of plants is com- posed of innumerable breathing cells contained in the foliage. These cells cannot perform their functions unless the interior lining of the cell is moist. Plant leaves are enclosed in a relatively impervious skin or epidermis which protects the walls of breathing cells from drying. When exposed to light the food manufacturing processes of a green plant are stimulated and require a continually changing volume of air in contact with the moist cell walls. Automatically controlling the flow to and from the breathing cells are small openings in the epidermis known as stomata, occurring principally on the under side of the leaves. These pores are guarded by two lips whicb act together as a delicately' adjusted valve responding instantly to changes in light intensity, tem- pei-ature, humidity, water supply, etc. One of the principal functions of the stomata is to maintain the proper degree of moisture on the walls of the breathing cells. This is accomplished by their control of the amount of air admitted to the cell and hence the rate of water lost by evaporation from the cell walls in the process of transpiration. Any reduction of water supply in contact with the plant roots, causing deficiency of moisture for plant use, causes the stomata to close until the proper quantity of air is being admitted for the plant to do its work under the new conditions. Plants subject to great variation in water supply or arid atmospheric condi- tions develop exterior mechanism for throttling transpiration, such as thickening of the epidermis, growth of hairs on the under side of the leaf, etc. A thin smooth epidermis, such as exhibited by the willow tree, is most favorable for a high rate of transpiration. The rate of transpiration differs for different plant varieties, for different light and meteorological conditions, for changing amount and character of water supply, and during the different periods of the annual growth cycle. Plants which naturally grow with their roots submerged or in contact with the water table so as to have an abundant and permanent water supply are among the most active consumers of water. Exception occurs, however, for plants whose roots are in contact with water containing large quantities of salt or alkali. The presence of excessive amounts of mineral salts retards or stops growth and causes plants to develop protective measures similar to those employed in the presence of deficient water supply. A common method is by the addition of water storage cells in the stems and leaves, thus producing a fleshy type of growth such as the samphire or pickle weed when growing in salty or alkaline soil. EVAPORATION' AND TKAXSPIKATIOX 271 Classification of Natural Vegetation. Field insi)iH'ti()n lias shown riio t-xisleiiee of several types of natural vegetation growinji' on the island and marginal land within the area. In 8an Pablo Hay the er<'ek sedge (spartina glabra) ])redominates in marshland subject to periodic flooding by the salt-water tides. This plant, shown in Plate C-VIII, is a vivid green in color antl from a dis- tance has the appearance of a coarse grass- On uncultivated reclaimed land or higher swampy land the fleshy samphire (salicornia), or pickle- weed, predominate, with occasional areas of salt grass (distiehlis spi- cata) and on higher land foxtail. The salt grass is shown on Plate C-VI. All of these varieties, although growing with an abundant water supply at their roots, have low rates of transpiration due to protective measures against the accumulation of excessive amounts of salt. In view of the change from salt to fresh water in San Pablo Bay, if a barrier w^ere built at the Point San Pablo site, no study has been PLATE C-VIII CREEK SEDGE XEAR MOUTH OF PETALUMA CREEK made of transpiration from existing types of vegetation in this area as changes in predominant types would occur. It should be noted, how- ever, that in brackish water areas near the heads of sloughs where winter run-off is discharged, the ])redominant vegetation is of fresh- water types such as tule. cat-tail, etc., and that here little change could be expected. In Suisun Bay, the tule, shown in Plate C-V, a variety of sedge (.scirpus), and cat-tail (typha) predominate in marsh areas. These species grow with their roots submerged. Scattered areas of creek sedge and samphire or pickleweed also are to be found, especially along the Contra Costa shore. The tule and cat-tail growth in Suisun Bay is not as luxuriant as in the delta, but its presence on tidal overflow and submerged marginal land is in great contrast to the bare tidal flats of San Pablo Bay. The small amount of tule in San Pablo Bay mar.shes indicates it is not adapted to water that is predominantly salty. It is probable that the advance of salt Avater into Suisun Bay during the summer months lias a retardant elfect upon the tule growth. 272 DIVISION OP WATER RESOURCES Reclaimed land, which is not cultivated, and swamp land at too high a level to be flooded support a predominant growth of salt grass, with occasional areas of wire grass (fresh-water sedge) on low-lying land, foxtail on higher land and samphire or pickleweed on soil with a high mineral content. It is probable that with the construction of a barrier the area of tule and cat-tail in the Suisun Bay area would increase with corresponding decrease of creek sedge and samphire or pickleweed. Salt grass probably would remain for many years, replacing foxtail on higher levels. Natural vegetation in the delta of the Sacramento and San Joaciuin rivers, due to reclamation and intensive cultivation, is almost entirely confined to slough and stream borders, submerged levee berms, etc. It consists principally of tules and cat-tails, with a few isolated areas of reed grass. Willow trees grow quite generally along tops and higher slopes of levees. It is probable that prior to reclamation of delta lands, beginning about 1900, the 180,000 acres of peat land in the delta all supported a tule, cat-tail and reed growth. This has largely dis- appeared, due to drainage and the encroachment of cultivation. Construction of a salt water barrier would bring about certain changes in natural vegetation in the area. The tule and cat-tail would probably soon replace creek sedge around the margins of San Pablo Bay, and it is possible that, with the permanent maintenance of water level at 3.0 feet above mean sea level, there might be an extension of the area capable of supporting tule growth. Salt grass would gradually displace much of the samphire or pickleweed and foxtail now growing on the higher lands. In Suisun Bay the existing tule and cat-tail growth would become more luxuriant, replacing creek sedge where now present, and extending into new areas where the higher water level would provide conditions favorable for growth. Salt grass would prob- ably persist on higlier ground, slowly replacing present areas of sam- phire or pickleweed and foxtail. In the delta little changes of natural vegetation could be anticipated as a result of the construction of a salt water barrier. Three types of natural vegetation would ultimately prevail through- out the area — tule and cat-tails on land flooded either permanently or during the early part of the growing season, salt grass and associated species on higher swampy ground and uncultivated reclaimed land where the average depth to water table is approximately two feet, and willows along levees and on uncultivated reclaimed land with permanent water table. Areas of weeds may also be expected. Measurement of Transpiration. Measurements of transpiration rates from growing vegetation have been made by various methods. The most accurate method is by meas- urement of the total amount of water, including precipitation, received by field plots during the growing season, correction being applied for difference of soil moisture percentage at the beginning and end of the season. This method is only practical where the water table is at con- siderable depth and there is no loss by deep percolation. Tlie more common method is by growing plants in tanks where all water used during the growing season can be volumetrically measured. The results of tank measurements have been found to closely check field measure- ments where the tanks are located in a field of the growing vegetation FVAPORATIOX AXD TRAXSI'IRATIOX 273 and are closely surrounded so that there is no appreciable gap between vetretation within and without the tanks. For isolated tanks a reduc- tion factor must he applied to results in order to correct for the increased loss due to greater wind movement, light intensity and tem- perature, and the absence of an extensive vapor blanket. Xo conclusive work has been done to determine the value of reduction factors applic- able to various types of vegetation growing in isolated tanks and the best factor to use in any given case must be arrived at by approxima- tion. Practice dilfers with regard to the inclusion of evaporation from soil with transpiration. For individual large plants and trees some experi- menters have sealed the top of the tank so that transpiration alone lias been measured. Transpiration measurements from field crops, how- ever, usually include evaporation from the soil beneath and immediately surrounding the plant, as well as the actual loss by plant transpiration. All transpiration data used in this report, except that from willows, include both soil evaporation and transpiration. Tule and Cat-tail. Tule and cat-tail thrive in fresh-water marsh areas and along sluggish stream borders. The plants grow close together and attain an average height of from six to eight feet. The stalks are not hollow and jointed like grass, but are filled with continuous pith from root crown to tip. They habitually grow with roots submerged, at least during the early portion of the growing season. The roots draw moisture directly from the water and in order to obtain the necessary amount of plant food a far greater amount of water must be pumped up through the plant than in the case of ordinary types of vegetation which draw upon soil moisture with its greater percentage of mineral matter in solution. The structure of the tule is so well adapted to its work that it may well be called a "natural pump." A relatively thin and smooth epidermis with numerous stomata completely envelopes the whole plant. The area of the epidermis of a tule stalk one inch in diameter at the base and eight feet high is 96 times that of the horizontal cross section of the stalk at the water surface. The cat-tail is similar in character to the tule. It is evident that a high rate of transpiration is to be expected from vegetation of this type. The most extensive series of transpiration measurements for tule and cat-tail are those by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Public Eoads, Division of Agricultural Engineering, in Reclamation District Xo. 999 near Clarksburg. Six tanks each of tule and cat-tail were set in the ground in an open field and water added weekly so as to flood the soil surface. The record covers a complete annual cycle and is given in Tables C-24 and C-25. Measurements also have been made by the U. S. Department of Agriculture from single tanks at Santa Ana and in Temescal Canyon near Corona, the latter tank being set in the river bottom and surrounded by hea\y vegetation. The U. S. Geological Survey also has made measurements from a tank set in a tule marsh at Mud Lake. Idaho. The results of measurements at Clarksburg and Santa Ana agree substantially, the annual totals being 19.27 and 17.79 feet, respectively. 274 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES The lower value at Santa Ana is probably due to lower summer temper- ature and higher humidity, with resulting lower rate of evaporation. The results at Temescal Canyon are considerably lower than at Santa Ana. This must result largely from the differing surroundings, since evaporation rates are practically the same. The tank in Temescal Canyon reflects more nearly the conditions in a large stand of tule than does the isolated tank in the open field at Santa Ana. The measure- ments at Mud Lake reflect marsh conditions, as well as lower tempera- tures and shorter growing season, and. when corrected for temperature, agree closely with the results obtained in the Temescal Canyon tank. The group of tule and cat-tail tanks in Reclamation District No. 999 are exposed to meteorological conditions typical of the delta and Suisun Bay and the observations set forth in Table C-25 cover a complete annual cycle. The results obtained from these tanks should be closely representative of tule and cat-tail growth in the delta and Suisun Bay when corrected for conditions of close growth. The correction factor applicable to circular ground surface water evaporation pans of the same diameter as the tule tanks (25^ inches) is 0.59.* Such pans are placed on a wooden platform slightly above the surface of the ground and the conditions closely simulate those for isolated tule tanks, except that the water surface lies slightly below the rim of the pan, while the tule growth is fully exposed to wind, which would suggest a factor less than 0.59. Comparison of measurements at the tule tanks in Temescal Canyon and at Santa Ana for the months of April and May, 1930, given in Table C-25, when grooving conditions in the two tanks were most nearly comparable gives the following result : Tank A in Temescal Canyon 2.15 feet = = 0.64 Tank 19 near Santa Ana 3.35 feet This value is probably greater than the true factor as it is not evident that vegetation surrounding Tank A is in close contact with that in the tank so as to give a continuous stand. During the summer of 1930 the Department of Agriculture estab- lished two soil tanks each of tule and cat-tail on King Island in a thick stand of tules. The tanks were placed in recesses on either side of an avenue four to six feet wide and 30 feet long, cut into the lee side of a large tule stand. The cleared space around the tanks was eighteen inches and a barrier was placed at the entrance of the avenue to prevent air circulation. The tule i^lants were dug up, including 90 per cent of the root system, and planted with as little disturbance as possible. Measurements commenced July 23, 1930. The results, as reported by Major 0. V. P. Stout, are as follows : 23 to August 2(1, 1.18 feet in 31 days. :!1 to August 14, 1.31 feet in 31 days. 23 to August 20, 1.44 feet in 31 days. 31 to August 14, 1.31 feet in 31 days. fi to August 20, ].31 feet in 31 days. 23 to August 20, 1.31 feet in 31 days. 31 to August 14, 1.31 feet in 31 days. 6 to August 20, 1.31 feet in 31 days. 23 to August 20, 1.44 feet in 31 days. 31 to August 14, 1.31 feet in 31 days. * Transactions, American Society Civil ICiigineers, Vol. 90, page 308, tank No. 69. Tank No. 1 (cat-tai il): =Julv July Tank No. 2 (cat-tail): =July July August Tank No. 3 (tules) =July July Tank No. 4 (tules) =August .luly July EVAPOKAT[(»N- AXl) TRAXSPIRATIOjST 275 The averao:e rate for the four tanks for the period July 31 to August 20, when conditions had become settled, is 1.31 feet per month. The rate for the ten tanks at Reclamation District No. 999 for the same period is 2.85 feet per month. Comparing these measurements a factor of 0.46 is obtained. This value is possibly low and may increase as the roots become better established in the King Island tanks. It is believer! the errors in the above three values are more or less compensating and that some intermediate value will represent as close an approach to the true value of the factor as present information will permit. A value of 0.5 has been adopted for use in this report as the correction factor to be applied to transpiration measurements from isolated tule and cat-tail tanks. This value is tentative and may be changed when comparative measurements covering a longer period of time are available. The monthly values for transpiration from tule and cat-tail in the delta and Suisun Bay, as computed from Reclamation District No. 999 data by use of this factor, are tabulated in Table C-28. Salt Grass. Salt grass is a coarse perennial which grows in alkaline soil with an average depth to water table of between two and ten feet. It is sod forming and can be easily transplanted, although it requires more than one season for the roots to reestablish themselves to the water table. Its habit of growth does not favor abnormally large transpiration. In fact, in order to protect itself from the toxic effect of excessive alkali salts it has exterior protection against too active transpiration, consist- ing of a hard scale on the exterior surface of the epidermis. The most complete set of measurements of transpiration from salt grass is that made near Independence, California.* Seven large soil tanks were established in an area of luxuriant natural salt grass. Fresh sod was placed on the soil on each tank during the early spring and the water table raised to within a few inches of the surface and then allowed to slowly recede to fixed depths, varying in the different tanks from one to seven feet. Water was introduced at the bottom from a feed tank and careful record kept of all water used by the growing plants. Root sj^stems were not fully established the first season and it was not until the third season that dependable values were obtained for all tanks. Transpiration values were plotted against depth to water table and graphs drawn, from which transpiration can be taken off for any depth to the water table. This information is given in Tables C-24 and C-26. Due to the surroundings of these tanks a correction factor is not required for reduction of measurements to field conditions. In order to make use of the data in a salt water barrier area, however, a reduction factor is necessary in accordance v/ith the well established fact that transpiration is proportional to evaporation.f Measurements of salt grass transpiration extending over one season have recently been made at Santa Ana by the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture. Six tanks were used, the water table being held at two-foot depth in one set of three tanks, and at four-foot depth in the • Transactions, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 78, pages 181 to 193. t Same, Vol. 78, pages 227 to 2.30. 276 DIVISION OP WATER RESOURCES other. This information also is given in Tables C-24 and C-26. The season's results indicate less transpiration for similar depths to water than at Independence, but the monthly values show an increasing rate of loss during the second season. It is believed that the observed monthly values at Santa Ana during the first growing season do not represent values which will be obtained when root systems have become fully established. Measurements from October, 1929, to April, 1930, however, may be reasonably close to final values for the tanks with two- foot depth to water. Values for the months of May to September, 1929, are probably as much less than tliose for the same months in 1930. as were the 1910 results at Independence below those of 1911. The increase at Independence from 1910 to 1911 was 30 per cent * and it is believed a similar percentage may be used to correct observed final values at Santa Ana. Such values may be used as representative of average conditions in the Suisun Bay area, where salt grass is most prevalent, since the measured annual evaporation rate at Santa Ana, as reported by the United States Department of Agriculture and corrected for large water surface (70.51 incliesX0-70=49.3o inches), equals that estimated for the Suisun Bay area in Table C-23. Another and probably more accurate method for arriving at montlily values for transpiration from salt grass in the Suisun Bay area for the months of May to September, is by reduction of the 1911 measure- ments at Independence ])r()portionally to tlie respective evaporation depths at Independence and Suisun Bay for the same months. Com- parison of the evaporation depths at Independence and Suisun Bay gives a correction factor of 0.75. t The results by tlie two methods are practically equal for the whole year as indicated by the following tabulation : MONTHLY TRANSPIRATION FROM SALT GRASS AT SUISUN BAY FOR DEPTH TO WATER TABLE OF TWO FEET Month Computed from Santa Ana measurements Computed from Independence measuremen s January - _ In inches 0.72 0.92 1.40 2.90 3.18 5.72 7 33 7.20 4.60 3.52 2.66 1.64 In inches 0.72 0.92 1.40 2.90 4.31 5.17 6.71 6.90 4.65 3 50 2.66 1.64 In feet 0.0(i February O.OS 0.12 April - - - - - 0.24 0.3(i 0.43 July ... 0.56 0.58 September October . . 0.39 0.29 November - 0.22 0.14 41.79 41.48 3.47 It is believed that the monthly results computed from Independence measurements are most nearly representative of transpiration from salt grass in the Suisun Bay area for depth to water table of two feet, and these values have been adopted in this report and are given in Table C-28. * Transactions, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 78, page 192, figure 10. t Transactions, American Society of Civil Enp;ineer.s, Vol. 7 8, page 177. EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION 277 Willow. The willow is a water-loving tree and in semiarid and arid regions is found only where its roots can easily feed upon capillary moisture in the soil directly above a water table or adjacent to a permanently flowing stream. Freedom from alkali in the soil or high mineral con- tent ill adjacent water are necessary for its growth. The habit of growth and physiological structure of the willow is favorable among trees for relatively large transpiration losses during the growing season. It has dense foliage of thin smooth leaves, with high density of stomata per unit leaf area and leaves arranged so as to receive a maximum of direct sunlight, together with ample continuous supply of pure water at its roots. In the delta region the meteorological environment is also favorable to high transpiration rate with high percentage of sunlight hours and warm temperature. The most extensive experimental data upon which to base compu- tations of transpiration losses from trees are those obtained by F. R. Hohnel at the Austrian Forest Experiment Station at Mariabrumm from 1878 to 1880. The method followed was to measure, during thf' growing season, the water consumed by five to six-year-old seedling trees growing in pots and at the end of the season to determine the dry weight of the matured leaves, not including twig, branch or trunk. The result was expressed as pounds of water transpired per pound of dry leaf as indicated in Table C-27. These experiments give results typical of Central Europe. The first year's work was to determine the minimum amount of water necessary to maintain normal growth under the local conditions. The experiments of the second and third years were to determine the maximum amount trees would consume under most favorable atmospheric and water supply conditions. The year 1880 was particularly favorable for this purpose because of the shortage in rainfall and consequent dryness of the atmosphere. The water supply was constant and its amount limited only by the consum- ing ability of the trees. Inspection of the tree varieties for which data was obtained shows that there are three broad classes of trees represented. First, broadleaf deciduous trees with normal occurrence on stream borders or in moist soil (Nos. 1 to 5) ; second, deciduous trees with normal occurrence away from streams in well drained soils and on hillsides (Xos. 6 to 12) ; and third, evergreen conifers (Nos. 13 to 16). Examination of the aver- ages at the bottom of Table C-27 shows that the average transpiration per pound of dry leaves agrees within a rea.sonable range for eaeli of these groups, being greatest for the first group and least for the third. The first group is representative of the willow, alder and cottonwood. The water supply- conditions under which willows grow in the delta correspond most nearly with those under Avhich the experiments of 1880 were carried on, since the trees feed directly from a permanent and shallow water table. It is believed the results obtained in 1880 for the first group of trees is most representative of the willow as it grows in the delta. The average of these results is 948.6 pounds of water per pound of dry leaf substance. Correcting this for the difference in water evaporation rates (58.98/24=2.46) a value of 2330 pounds of water per pound of dry leaf substance is obtained for delta conditions. 278 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES The weight of dry willow leaves per acre of land surface varies ,t>-reatly, depending upon the size and age of the trees and the proximity of adjacent trees. An isolated tree or line of trees obvionsly will pro- duce a larger quantity than a thick grove where most of the foliage is at the top of the trees. The leaves from a group of year-old sap- lings, ten feet in height, in close growth on sandy bottom land with shallow water table, have been gathered and found to represent a dry weight per acre of 2367 pounds. For the average run of trees in the delta, 3500 pounds would ])robably be nearer the truth. The above values indicate a transpiration rate of 2330 pounds of water per pound of dry leave.s x 3500 pounds of dry leaves per acre 43,500 square feet x 1 foot x 62.5 pounds • = 3.00 feet in depth per lumum The only available local data are those obtained by the U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture at Santa Ana during 1930. In the early spring a clump of willow was planted in a six-foot diameter tank three feet deep, in which the water table was maintained at a depth of two feet below the surface. Very little water was lost by evaporation from the soil. The area of top foliage was approximately equal to that of the tank and the height varied from seven to eight feet. The measured transpiration was 0.415 feet for June and 0.611 feet for July. The loss during the same months from the adjacent tule tank (No. 19) was 1.92 and 2.38 feet, respectively, the willow lo.ss thus being 21.6 and 25.6 per cent of that from the tule. It is probable that with full establish- ment of the willow roots this value might increase to possibly 27.5 per cent. As both willow and tule tanks were in the open and the foliage had a similar exposure, this relation may be considered as indicative of the relative transpiration rates of willow singly or in clumps, and tule in isolated tanks. For willow in large groves a correction factor of 0.5, as found for tule in tanks, may be applied to values for isolated trees. An average of the values for large gToves and isolated trees may be used for trees in rank along levees. 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S ^ :3 o c. .-. >. >> s? -a 3 >> B •-= c " -B s ■3 C g -3 :3 :3 ^ i L> ^ "^ ^ = OQ ■< 1:2 C J= a s -* >> (^ 3 3 C n CC — COC»«00 r^ — CO O CO «o 00 CO i>> aa 00 00 l^ »0 ?0 00 GO t- ^H OOOCOU5 5D ir* »0 »0 t^ 00 CD O '-« Cl cC 00 1^ C^ O -^ CX> CS . e>< lO Oi t^'* 50 00 00 =0 • r-oo •— < CO »o • ■^ ^ 00 00 r* 00 to t<- 00 00 00 000l>"00 00 00 l>- oat* 00 10 CO 00 CO t* 00 00 00 .2 El, ►::; 2 ty: cc ffi EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION 283 0)OC»ico50eoeooo CO OS ^* '^ t^ '-^ t^ ro COCOWOCOTftDi QO'^^DC^COMOOS C0CS^CC iS "1 § H ►? g-aSg c o_o « 0) 5 ^ ojrj:^ S o 2 2 „ o^ o o-t: S S S B o O O O o g 284 DIVISION OF WATER RESOTTRCES 2 S '*'= 3 _M g g 3t2v I 03 > ti : K -Q «; 1 § r^ooTfookoco — lOOTCs'^o-'** »-;r^eo»o«t^co(MCMiciooo !0 CD ^^o oi ■^_io_-^r -^^o o ^ S Ci" « ^ CC -^ »0 CC CO '<*'tDocj:r:oc;u:i J CNi_-v_C5 -v^oc^ccSr^oSS^ o c^TO co-^'^'co— 'ci-^io-co't-T u o t-. »2002'00<^-00'WOOC^CVJCO a »5 — O'^O — cCc^OC-lt--t^-<»« "^^OC O OJ^^O O^CR ^^cc c^oco CO ecu— '^"'q^— "-rf ^ccio i>^eooo c cc lO-^fMuStCsr-OOOiOM^OO t^COt^OCCOCCCOOOOt^O-^OO 3 « -'T OO oaoocir-TPCC^o^cc TT -^r -^' ^'' o --r c^r ^' to o" -^r ^ < s 92^^3r<^'^t^'^oco50oot^ «.» a ooioooocccs-^-^o-^rcoo ^ *-i >^ -*}^_oi_cr. io c^.^i,— «:_r- cc t- S i?5 S.^ .5 3 •-5 ■^ -^ »o»o —T-^c^tc'^ocr-^jrc^ eOtC •— 1 1— 1 *— I "3 -•^ o E- 0'-'OOCOOCSCCa300C^--5 u5cooocoo(ri:ooi>-=ccct^(M coc^i OcOtQO — OOOCO^CCSCCOOCO QOCO >> W3 CD ^oo(M iococcu^!:c;co:cio 03N a ■* ■<*"-H uDo'-^'eo ^ -"T oo •«: OOCROO-hO — c»ooot-*»oc» .a ■^i— 't^'^r-^OiCiiOiO'^'— 'Cs »0 —^O C^t^iO CC CC lO i«00-^05^CiC:00C0O C3 cs c^»-Hc^cc 0'^r-.c^' ea 3 1 :::::;::;:•■ a _o c (Freei CO 1 1 Aivarado' (nea Berkeley' Davis* Fresno Independence. Mt. Tamalpais Oakdale (near) Oakland' Point Reyes.. Sacramento... San Francisco - San Jose Selby' Suisun Bay* I ca c .2 1 « - fe =a^ 5 a o c o H O -g S O O O ^ £ ?±.!:.!: 3 O =3 '^ " =5 .S «> ■- = = S M"S5 rt ^ ^ w: 0^*^*0 S E g = g E o o > o c o (^ b CC b. b. &L. 286 DIVISION OF WATIOK RESOURCES o -^ o •-' ': 3'^CCtCOl'— 'OOC iMtot-r^oscooo'^ciocor OJ I ■^'Tf-^Tr— '•-■coc-^o^-ooooiutlC?5r^- -Q *0i^it^»co^O^ccMOcccrii-ii-^i--.«CT 0'-"0■ ooo o oo ooo o ^ oci-^050osai-. O — O^^OOOOOOOOOOO'-^ ^ D. o— .^CI^^ — — '- — c — — — o — ^ »o oo f-- r- o -^ ■■ ■*r-'iOl--'^OOi»OC Oi05-^a>»OC*30ikO<^t~-»0»0'— "COt^T— «c J— '(MTfoor— i— ooci^f: ■< QO C^I I^ 00 O W GO CO C". C oo »0 00 -^ O CO »« ^ 3ja go «> d o> C-) ^ _,■ ■0 cc " CO ■* ^* ^^ CO = = -S o c T-MIb « ^ m fficien for .stmen large ater rfaee c^ N o» a» oa CO d d 00 d 00 d 00 d 00 d 00 d d d 00 00 d g =0*3 1'*' " a » _» CO (U •* U3 00 W3 00 CO CM CO ■0 10 > gj3 g-g c a a a 00' d 1 a si|-2.s ■0 U5 •«< ■^ ■^ CO '^•c ?.S s c c a s » a s 8 C-t b ja ^ ^ *2 _c c 3 ■s U3 ■« bC □. "o. iri 0. CO ":g C g •0 ■s T3 "S ■2 -a g T3 •0 ■r3 Ta c U) S) etf U) s -0 C c 1 CO 3 S; i- 3 3 3 s « s s & ^ ti> J a J3 J 1 ^ » &> u 5 s 3 03 3 CO 3 03 eg c C c ^ « 00 QO 00 a> o> -^ >" ^7 . . ^- bT ^ 5 t- fe CO _g I.' £ 2 ^ » 0> 1 ■*^ C3 03 i B " E C3 3 1. 3 1 E a a 03 ^2 a; -i ^ a T3 d l| =5 d .Si . ■0 a eg c"^ c-a '■S •"■0 £-3 tS-O ■— TZ c-o — ■a 'Z'^ •■^ M "^ CO ^ S » « ^ SP -« ^ S V- "" OT S «-. S v^ t3^ *J ° ■^ d •2 -a ' JS CO a." CO a; OS ■s^ •g^ -g^ •2.S <£ c Jl .Sj ^.5 ^•1 ^'.5 .as •2 J .5 J •2 .5 ■^ -* n (M CO CO CO ■«i CO CO ■0 T3 M C C a g M T3 a c c eS ed ed ed _S ed O. a 0. cs jg ^ -^ ! a <»: < -0 Ul CO em .S T3 < C3 ed m C E- ^ § g ed ed od ed 3 i 1 ■0 ■a c _S D. ^ a. &-• £ 3 ^ s (^ s >-:) OT T3 j'S ^ to m'S' M „ «3 09 ed C t-"* £ c b fc- k. »i "SS eS ed ?-« ed s Cj CS — JiJ M'S i OJ O) C3 a> » ed « »^ 5^ >> ;>> >> >> >. >^ >> >>-^ 2 ra *"■ *-i a> eo t^ :0 T-r "5 ^ a-° 0. 1 C3 -a ^i IE T3 03 4. a; -^ V = > M C B C C c C 5 .2 ■^ •0 •S •u T3 -.§ 2 « T3 t- •S -a £j c c C C — B Kef 0. .2 ' 0. 1 a c'§ 3 ■5 c.'43 ai a a i § |z 1 s 1 -la-S fe ° s t » a ; 03 m «■ « .«"£ 3 >> c4 . w- H^ W^ ^ ii i 1 c 1I -Si! -Q.S ed . >. 1-^ Q.i S3 3 eg c li C.S! OQ '> -1 «| «l »l «| -^ ^^ »^ t3 < ti a [a H w tJ C3 :3 t3 ; -3 ■© ■3 > •0 . 3 c 8 ^ .S 0. >> a 5 -d i ; s hJ i OS •3 s ©0 c ••« > _. flS 1 ■ ■3 5 -a > < 1 > t c c 5 1 1" n 1' i.l 35 2| 13 Q c 15 D i 19— 8099C 288 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES 3 > .s Z c ^^ (3 S 1 o; tN o u u W 05 ca 7, < O H H < A > U tf u H < i? i tij 0£ b b H CO ,- o Is'l-i o CQ J rt t ~ CJ 3 fl5 o c ?§^t:i s ^ - Coefficien . for adjustmer to large water surface o to -x> => o o o a (O (U « served nual th of oratio nches "5. a QO "o. a « £* Ji c o. c— o o c g c: *" '& a ■s "S bo to 1 1 1 3 3 c -a eg a •a >> >» 3 o o o "^ 13 ^ ^ ■■s *■£ c cd c3 "- O flH CW CO o 00 oo c^ '-' *-i .^ ^ , ^ c: -S c; fc u a> S g. a a a a '3 § s « -t =s| a Zfj S ^■o a'O c-S CT3 C) f'l "" WJ '" rr. •S.S 0) a> ^_g S " S " aj o .-J C! =2 c ■S. c CO ■«** "* TT c C -id M o. a s. c C3 bC S-. ■*-* ■^ c S H -o c 1 1 ^ hJ p^ Pl, T3 CO -^ ^-T3 C ^ -£3 M S £ ^ c cl 3 C c: Q> >. a a ""o -1- s M CO c^ j *3 C« OJ t3 en wi c -o 13 c 1 O L. 2 T3 *S) § § «52 g o £ W K o CJ OJ .^ 0^ a> a g-2 ca ^ c -<: £•■3 §■ = Q-g Q-g w^ W-S «5^ "^-^ m g CO g t3 & ti t> ^ 1 c _o ll c •2 J2 -a 1 11 3| .2 h4 c "c c o o I '3 cnJ2 ■%% C S 3 3 «_5 1 -l« CO c7 1 EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION 289 TABLE C-8 RECORD OF MONTHLY EVAPORATION NEAR ALVARADO From records of U. S. Weather Bureau. Class A Land Pan; four feet in diameter Montli Depth m inches 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 Average 2.111 2.246 4.201 4.909 6.092 8.222 8.453 7.234 6.061 4.181 2.307 1.840 1.004 2.890 3.509 5.162 7.013 6.922 7.599 6.413 5.431 3.709 1.854 1.305 1.312 2.470 3.222 5.129 6.075 7.623 6.912 5.797 4.801 3.611 1.829 0.976 1.095 2.635 3.984 4.876 6.740 7.134 8.082 6.898 4.845 4.007 2.168 1.279 1.462 2.273 4.180 5.630 6.612 7.604 7.751 1.397 February. 2.503 4.850 4.978 7.262 7.304 7.850 6.638 5.964 3.479 2.735 2.194 3.991 5.114 May. . . . 6.632 Jime 7.468 July 7.774 August September— 6.643 6.028 3.861 2.962 2.235 6.604 5.522 3.808 2.309 1.638 57.677 52.811 49.757 53.743 54 760 Correction factor for large fresh-water surface — 0.70 (Tables 15 and 45, Transactions, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 90, pages 308 and 373). TABLE 0-9 RECORD OF MONTHLY EVAPORATION AT ALVISO From records of Alviso Salt Company. Class A. Land Pan, U. S. Weather Bureau type; four feet in diameter Month Oepth in inches 1929 1930 Average 0.678 1.929 4.030 5.754 7.348 0.678 February. . ._ . . . .. _ 1.929 March 4.030 April-.- - - 5.103 7.671 7.912 8.915 8.082 4.688 4.417 2.338 1.889 5.428 May 7..510 June - - .... - 7.912 July 8.915 8.082 September 4.688 4.417 2.338 1.889 57.816 Correction factor for large fresh-water surface — 0.70. 290 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES TABLE C-10 RECORD OF ADJUSTED MONTHLY EVAPORATION AT LAKE CHABOT From records kept by Peoples Water Company and East Bay Water Company, prepared by Hydrographic Division, East Bay Municipal Utility District, L. Standish Hall, chief hydrographer. Floating Pan, 21 inches in diameter. Month Depth in inches 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 Average 1.60 0.32 1.02 3.17 6.43 6.65 7.22 5.13 2.21 2.40 3.25 4.88 4.31 7.80 7.68 6.06 6.72 5.85 4.25 1.35 97 0.74 0.94 2.10 3.41 5.96 7.38 6.89 6.19 3.85 2.71 1.51 1.77 2.49 4.73 2.80 4.29 4.85 6.12 6.93 6.05 5.34 3.25 2.50 3.04 2.66 2.11 2.83 4.20 3.83 4.89 4.76 3.89 1 92 February 1.12 1.16 1.84 4.61 5.94 6.72 6.85 5.92 5.31 3.18 2.10 1 62 March 2 20 April 2 94 May.. 4 54 6.38 6.65 6.86 6.16 4.26 1.56 0,88 5 92 July 6 66 6 21 September 5 82 4 92 November 2 95 December . 1 67 Annual 47 34 Correction factor for large fresh-water surface — 0.825. Exterpolated on curve U. S. Geologieal Survey, Standard Floating Pan for area 3.06 square feet, figure 9, page 309, Vol. 90, Transactions, American Society of Civil Engineers. TABLE C-11 RECORD OF MONTHLY EVAPORATION AT UPPER SAN LEANDRO RESERVOIR From records of East Bay Municipal Utility District. Floating Pan (No. 5) ; three by three feet square. Month Depth in inches 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 Average 1.54 1.95 2.67 3.96 4.65 8.35 1.54 February ■1.14 3.85 3.04 3.64 6.70 7.60 6.10 5.10 3.50 2.00 1.41 1.09 2.54 4.00 5.04 1 52 March ... ... 3 02 April 3.67 May. 4.72 9.30 6.26 6.00 6.51 4.02 4.51 June . . . 4.32 8.12 7.52 5.72 ^2.44 7.17 July 7.33 6.54 September 5.78 October.. .. . . 3.76 2.00 1.41 Total 48.25 > Record begins February 6, 1925. - Record ran October 1 to 12 only. Correction factor for large fresh-water surface — 0.89 (Table.s 15 and 45, Transactions, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 90, pages 308 and 373). EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION 291 a -z <0 z - z «* o -B 6 2 < (^ O -8 ^ I > Q ^ £ ii o « Q 1 8 1 « o S 0«— '•— 'CO»/5t~-iOiO>O0OC^'— ' 03 O OS O ^ cO(MC OOC 'lOCO Tf*(M OC '— '•— 'coeo:Cit~-t*oioco» ir^eooooi-^c^oioo»«oc<>o C00S00Oc0O3<0t>-0SC0C *-"^CO-^COt^COt o^cccc^-^^-Os 1^-^^ 1 M'* p t» K i! 8 ST 2 o a S t ??5 292 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES 0- fe S -a o >. Q pq OS -" o I ^ -3 QOO»-.C0^ «C5t— oicioeoocct-* ^ M cc to o c C^t>-l005lOOiOiC5000"^CM eOCDCCOO'-'t^'^COCiOO'^CO r-t*-4CO'^^COlO^»'OTCO'^»-l as Be 296 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES TABLE C-18 RECORD OF DAILY EVAPORATION FOR MAY, 1930, AT U. S. ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OBSERVATION STATION IN SUISUN BAY From original records of United States Engineering Department. Depth in inches Day of month 'Deep water pan near Freeman Island 'Shallow water pan No. 1 in Noyce Slough 'Marsh pan on Simmons Island 242-inch circular land pan on Dutton Island 1 '0.170 .179 .201 '.063 .144 .246 .224 .220 .224 .269 «.224 .134 224 .201 .179 .224 .224 .224 .224 .201 .224 .246 .269 .224 .269 .269 .269 .269 .134 .224 .269 '0.170 .224 .201 '.063 .144 .246 .269 .210 .224 «.240 '.268 .179 .224 .269 .313 .224 .224 .224 .224 .224 .269 .246 .269 '.224 .269 .269 .224 .287 .179 .269 '.336 2 3 • ..--- -- 0.201 '.063 .145 .224 .225 .165 .220 .180 .225 .180 .180 .225 .225 .180 .224 .180 .225 .180 .225 .202 .225 .269 .225 .269 .180 .225 .135 .180 .225 0.224 4 • '.063 S .144 6 .224 7 .269 8 .164 9 .250 10... .269 11 .265 12 .179 13 .269 14 .313 15 .269 16 .269 17 .269 18 . - -. .269 19 .313 20 .313 21 .269 22 .291 23 .358 24 -- .358 25... .313 26 .313 27 .269 .269 29 - .134 30 .224 31 - .291 Totals - - 6.665 7.205 ' Floating circular pan, four feet in dia-n^' >r, eighteen inches deep; water surface approximately six inches below rim on outside and three and one-half inches inside. Correction factor for large fresh-water surface — fl.96. 2 Set on surface of ground. ' Estimate from United States Weather Bureau evaporation record near Oakdale. ' Estimate from comparison of deep and shallow pan records for adjacent days with similar pan temperature differ- ences. * Rain filled all pans to overflowing. No refill necessary. EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION 297 TABLE C-19 RECORD OF DAILY EVAPORATION FOR JUNE, 1930, AT U. S. ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OBSERVATION STATION IN SUISUN BAY From original records of United States Engineering Department Depth in inches Day of month 'Deep water pan near Freeman Island 'Shallow water pan No. 1 in Noyce Slough iMarsh pan on Simmon.s Island 242-ineh circular land pan on Dutton Island 272-inch circular land pan on Dutton Island =24-inch circular land pan on Dutton Island 224-inch square laud pan on Dutton Island United States Weather Bureau Class A land pan on Dutton Island 1 0.224 .269 224 ^246 .246 .224 .269 .269 .313 .291 .269 .403 .313 .313 .269 .269 .358 .313 .291 .179 .246 .269 .269 .246 .291 .291 .224 .269 .269 .224 '0.280 *».336 '.268 .313 .291 .291 .313 .358 .358 .358 .336 .425 .403 .403 .358 .209 .313 .269 .269 .179 .291 .269 .313 .269 .291 .313 .246 .358 .381 .313 0.202 .225 .225 .247 .247 .225 .270 .225 .270 .270 .180 .225 .225 .269 .090 .180 .180 .202 .090 .157 .180 .180 .180 .180 .135 .157 .202 .180 .180 0.313 .313 .313 .358 .336 .336 .403 .403 .358 .358 '.358 .134 .459 .448 .358 .358 .358 .381 .358 .179 .291 .358 .358 224 ^358 .291 .336 .425 .493 381 3 4 5 6 7 8 - .-. 9 10 11 12 0.172 .389 .359 .299 .299 .366 .374 .344 .127 .262 .299 .299 .239 .314 .306 .269 .389 .374 .381 6.488 .538 .538 .404 .134 .404 .404 .337 .134 .304 .337 .270 .304 .337 .337 .337 .404 .404 .471 0.547 .625 .416 .364 .312 .390 .416 .416 .182 .364 .364 .312 .364 .364 .416 .416 .468 .521 .573 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 0.293 20 .155 21 .275 22 .293 23 .293 24 .275 25 .344 26 .310 27 .344 28 .379 29 .430 30 .465 Totals 8.150 9.434 10.442 ' Floating circular pan, four feet in diameter, eighteen inches deep; water surface approximately six inches below rim on outside, and three and one-half inches inside. Correction factor for large fresh-water surface —0.96. 2 Set on surface of ground. ' Estimate from comparison of deep and shallow pan records for adjacent days with similar pan temperature differences. ' Moved marsh pan to new location. • Land pan out for cleaning approximately one hour. * Moved shallow pan to new location. 298 DIVISION- OF WATER RESOURCES TABLE C-20 RECORD OF DAILY EVAPORATION FOR JULY, 1930. AT U. S. ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OBSERVATION STATION IN SUISUN BAY From original records of United States Engineering Department Depth in inches Day of month 'Deep water pan near Freeman Island 'ShaUow ,j^ water pan „„„ No. 1 in ^Zl Noyce ^imn Slough ^^'^ rsh on 3ons nd '42-inch circular land pan on Dutton Island '72-inch circular land pan on Dutton Island '24-inch circular land pan on Dutton Island '24-inoh square land pan on Dutton Island United States Weather Bureau Class A land pan on Dutton Island 1.. 0.291 .269 •».291 .269 .269 .269 .358 .336 .268 .224 .269 .291 .268 .313 .269 .291 .269 .269 .268 .246 .313 .291 .246 .291 .224 .268 .269 .246 .223 .246 .291 0.403 .358 .403 .313 **3 .358 .314 .358 .335 .268 .224 .313 .335 .358 .358 .313 .335 .336 .336 .313 .313 .380 .291 .313 .291 .281 .291 .291 .291 .246 .314 .291 202 247 225 180 180 157 180 157 134 134 179 157 180 180 180 180 180 157 179 180 224 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 157 180 225 0.515 .493 "500 .403 .425 .380 .381 .358 .290 .336 .335 .380 .336 .403 .448 .380 .403 .358 .403 .380 .369 .336 .358 .291 .358 .358 .380 .291 .269 .291 .515 0.418 .359 .396 .359 .358 .328 .381 .336 .231 .240 .328 .344 .322 .388 .351 .396 .299 .358 .262 .373 .403 .328 .324 .337 .284 .336 .299 .321 .231 .246 .426 0.538 .404 .471 .404 .438 .404 .336 .404 .201 .336 .404 .370 .404 .472 .404 .404 .404 .404 .371 .302 .370 .404 .308 .269 .506 .404 .336 .336 .336 .404 .472 0.521 .468 .521 .468 .442 .390 .416 .468 .260 .364 .364 .416 .416 .520 .520 .416 .416 .416 .390 .442 .442 .364 .364 .312 .364 .520 .312 .364 .312 .468 .572 465 2 396 3 431 4 413 5 431 6 344 7 397 8 . 326 9 327 10 .327 11 465 12 310 13 .362 14 .585 15 . .448 16 .516 17 .379 18 516 19 .379 20... - 1 344 21 .379 22 .344 23 .336 24 .327 25 .310 26 .379 27 .327 28 .310 29 - .276 30 .441 31 .413 Totals - 8.505 9.9^4 5 594 11.723 10.362 12.020 13.028 12.039 ' Floating circular pan, four feet in diameter, eighteen inches deep; water surface approximately six inches below rim on outside and three and one-half inches inside. Correction factor for large fresh-water surface — -0.96. = Set on surface of ground. ' Estimate from comparison of deep and shallow pan records for adjacent days with similar pan temperature differences. *Deep and land pan out for cleaning. '*Marsh pan out for cleaning. EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION TABLE C-21 299 COMPARISON OF AVERAGE MONTHLY EVAPORATION FROM LARGE FRESH-WATER SURFACE, AS MEASURED AND COMPUTED FOR VARIOUS STATIONS IN VICINITY OF A SALT WATER BARRIER Alvarado (1924 to 1930) Lake Chabot (1917 to 1924) Month -Average tempera- ture in degrees Fahren- heit Measured evaporation 'Com- puted evapora- tion in inches 'Average tempera- ture in degrees Fahren- heit Measured evaporation 'Com- puted evapora- tion in inche.s Pan evapora- tion in inches 'Corrected evapora- tion in inches Pan evapora- tion in inches •Corrected evapora- tion in inches 47.8 52.0 54.8 56.4 58.2 61.4 62.7 61.9 61.6 59.1 54.3 50.6 1.40 2.50 3.99 5.11 6.74 7.35 7.64 6.60 5.52 3.81 2.31 1.52 0.98 1.75 2.79 3 58 4.72 5.15 5.35 4.62 3.86 2.67 1.62 1.06 0.98 1.75 2.79 3.58 4.70 5.15 5.35 4.60 3.86 2.68 1.62 1.06 48.5 51.0 53.5 56.0 60.0 64.0 64.5 63.0 63.0 60 54.5 48.5 1.92 1.62 2.20 2.94 4.54 5.92 6.66 6.21 5.82 4.92 2.95 1.67 1.58 1.34 1.82 2.43 3.75 4.89 5 50 5.13 4.81 4.06 2.43 1.38 1.01 1.65 2.52 April 3.49 May - 5.40 6.15 July 5.80 5.00 September 4.45 October 3.03 1.61 December 1.03 Year 56.7 54.49 38,15 38.12 57.2 47.37 39.12 41.14 TABLE C-21— Continued COMPARISON OF AVERAGE MONTHLY EVAPORATION FROM LARGE FRESH-WATER SURFACE, AS MEASURED AND COMPUTED FOR VARIOUS STATIONS IN VICINITY OF A SALT WATER BARRIER Upper San Leandro Reservoir (1925 to 1929) San Pablo Reservoir at dam (192 to 1929) Month 'Average tempera- ture in degrees Fahren- heit Measured evaporation 'Com- puted evapora- tion in inches 'Average tempera- ture in degrees Fahren- heit Measured evaporation 'Com- puted evapora- tion in inehe.s Pan evapora- tion in inches •Corrected evapora- tion in inches Pan evapora- tion in inches •Corrected evapora- tion in inches 48.0 51.0 54.0 56.5 60 5 64.5 65.5 64.0 64.0 61.0 54.0 48.5 1.54 1.95 3.26 3 50 •4.34 7.17 7.33 6 54 5.78 3.76 2.00 1.41 1.37 1.74 2.90 3.12 3.86 6.38 6.53 5.82 5 15 3 35 1.78 1.26 0.99 1.65 2.62 3.60 5.60 6.30 6.40 5.40 4.85 3.40 1.64 1.03 47.5 50.5 53.3 56.5 61.0 63.0 64.5 64.0 64.0 61.0 54.5 48.5 0.96 1.30 2.65 3.83 5.49 6.37 6.82 6.52 5.83 3.94 2.33 1.56 0.86 1.16 2.36 3.41 4.89 5 67 6 07 5 81 5 19 3 51 2.07 1.39 0.95 1.60 2,50 3.60 May 5.80 5.78 July 5.80 5.40 4.85 October 3.40 November 1.61 1.03 Year 57.6 48.58 43.26 43.48 57.4 47.60 42.39 42.32 300 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES TABLE C-2I Continued COMPARISON OF AVERAGE MONTHLY EVAPORATION FROM LARGE FRESH- WATER SURFACE, AS MEASURED AND COMPUTED FOR VARIOUS STATIONS IN VICINITY OF A SALT WATER BARRIER Berkeley, University of California Campus (1905) 'Average tempera- ture in degrees Fahren- heit Measured evaporation Pan evapora- tion in inches ^Corrected evapora- tion in inches Com- puted evapora- tion in inches Davis, University of California Campus (1926 to 1930) 'Average tempera- ture in degrees Fahren- heit Measured evaporation Pan evapora- tion in inches 'Corrected evapora- tion in inches Com- puted evapora- tion in inches January... February. March April May June July August September October... November December. Year.. 48.7 50.6 54.3 55.1 55.6 58.4 61.4 59.8 60.4 58.0 52.9 47.4 1.00 1.36 2.11 3.14 4.70 5.68 5.52 5.09 4.65 4.27 2.68 1.35 0.76 1.03 1.60 2.39 3.57 4.32 4.20 3.87 3.54 3.25 2.04 1.03 1.02 1.61 2.68 3.28 3.70 4.00 3.90 3.40 2.27 1.68 1.02 45.4 49.4 53.2 56.0 63.5 72.5 74.3 72.3 68.2 63.2 53.4 44.7 0.92 2.07 2.99 4.83 7.98 9.45 10.64 9.41 7.53 4.87 2.15 1.43 0.64 1.45 2.10 3.38 5.59 6.62 7.45 6.59 5.27 3.41 1.50 1.00 0,84 1.50 2.45 3.49 6.75 9.40 9.45 8.40 6.60 4.22 1.66 0.99 55.2 41.55 31.60 33.36 59.7 64.27 45.00 55.75 TABLE C-21— Continued COMPARISON OF AVERAGE MONTHLY EVAPORATION FROM LARGE FRESH- WATER SURFACE, AS MEASURED AND COMPUTED FOR VARIOUS STATIONS IN VICINITY OF A SALT WATER BARRIER Suisun Bay, deep water (1930) Suisun Bay, shallow water (1930) Month 'Average tempera- ture in degrees Fahren- heit Measured evaporation Com- puted evapora- tion in inches 'Average tempera- ture in degrees Fahren- heit Measured evaporation Com- puted evapora- tion in inche.s Pan evapora- tion in inches Corrected evapora- tion in inches Pan evapora- tion in inches Corrected evapora- tion in inches 47.0 51.0 54.5 57.5 61.5 67.0 70.5 69.5 67.0 62.0 55.0 48.0 0.93 1.65 2.72 3.82 6.00 7.30 8.00 7.50 6.10 3.80 1.59 1.03 47.0 51.0 54.5 57.5 61.5 67.0 70.5 69.5 67.0 62.0 55.0 48.0 93 1 65 March 2 72 April.. 3 82 May... 6.66 8.15 8.50 '5.99 '7.31 •7.41 7.20 9.43 9.92 6.91 9.05 9.51 6 00 June . - -- - 7 30 .July 8 00 7.50 September . 6 10 October 3 80 1.59 December 1 03 Year .. . . 59.2 50.44 59.2 50 44 EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION TABLE C-21— Continued 301 COMPARISON OF AVERAGE MONTHLY EVAPORATION FROM LARGE FRESH- WATER SURFACE, AS MEASURED AND COMPUTED FOR VARIOUS STATIONS IN VICINITY OF A SALT WATER BARRIER Reclamation District 999 (1926 to 1928) Oakdale (1924 to 1930) Month ■Average tempera- ture in degrees Fahren- heit Measured evaporation 'Com- puted evapora- tion in inches ^Average tempera- ture in degrees Fahren- heit Measured evaporation •Com- puted evapora- tion in inches Pan evapora- tion in inches •Corrected evapora- tion in inches Pan evapora- tion in inches •Corrected evapora- tion in inches 45.5 50.5 54.5 58.5 63.5 70.0 74.5 73.0 69.5 62.5 53.0 46.0 0.85 1.60 2.72 4.05 6.75 8.45 9.50 8.65 7.10 4.00 1.67 1.00 43.0 49.0 52.7 55.4 63.5 72.3 76.3 75.0 68.4 62.3 52.8 44.3 1.01 2.09 3.38 4.80 9.63 13.33 14.80 13.42 9.50 5.56 2.41 1.41 0.71 1.46 2.36 3.36 6.74 9.33 10.36 9.40 6.65 3.89 1.69 0.99 0.71 1.45 2.35 3.35 9.36 10.92 11.03 8.76 7.45 5.30 7.58 8.85 8.90 7.11 6 04 4 30 6.75 June July . - - 9.35 10.35 9.40 6.65 October 3.90 1.68 0.98 Year 60.1 56.34 59.6 81.34 56.94 56.92 ' Long term average as taken from isothermic map. • Average as observed for period of evaporation record. ' From evaporation — temperature diagrams. ' P^or large water surface; for correction factor see Table C-7. > Correction factor for 1.7 degrees higher temperature of water surface in pan above bay water — 0.935. ' Correction factor for 2.2 degrees higher temperat\ire — 0.91. 302 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES i % O w Z o .^ -*3 Ol Q-3 ^"e E p. o o. * & oooooooooooo oooooooooooo ooo ooad • CCOOOOOTj<(MOOt +^+" (NW^C^<:D-^COOOOC<1<:00 I I -Cflt^-efi-tCOOiMOOlOCncO 711+^11 i-«.-H^!liCOOt— lOiCiO-^GO-^ I +++++" I i 000000000000 000000000000 3-S « ^ "^ a s a a >-. 4£^^^4^S.r^6y.Q EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION TABLE C-23 303 ESTIMATED MONTHLY DEPTH OF EVAPORATION FROM LARGE FRESH-WATER SURFACES FOR DISTINCTIVE METEOROLOGICAL AREAS ABOVE A SALT WATER BARRIER Month January... February.. March April- May June July August September. October.- - November- December . Totals San Pablo Bay, San Pablo to Dillon Point barrier sites 'Average air tempera- ture in degrees Fahren- heit 47.8 51.5 53.5 56.4 59.0 61.0 64.0 64.0 63.7 61.0 55.0 47.8 'Depth of evap- oration in inches Carquinez Strait, Dillon Point to Army Point barrier sites 57.1 0.98 1.70 2.53 3.58 5.00 5.00 5.75 5.35 4.70 3.40 1.60 1.02 40.61 'Average air tempera- ture in degrees Fahren- heit 47.5 51.0 53.7 57.5 61.0 65.0 67.5 66.6 65.0 62.0 55.0 48.0 58.3 'Depth of evap- oration in inches 0.96 1.65 2.55 3.82 5.80 6 55 7.10 6.25 5.25 3.80 1.60 1.02 46.35 Suisun Bay, Army Point to Chipps Island barrier sites 'Average air tempera- ture in degrees Fahren- heit 47.1 51.0 54.9 57.5 62.0 66.5 69.0 68.5 66.5 62.2 55.0 48.0 59.0 'Depth of evap- oration in inches 0.93 1.65 2.81 3.82 6.15 7.10 7.60 6.90 5.90 3.85 1.60 1.02 49.33 River Delta, above Chipps Island barrier site 'Average air tempera- ture in degrees Fahren- heit 46 5 50 5 54 7 58.8 64 8 71,8 75 7 74 75 69 5 62 5 53 75 47.0 60 9 Depth of evap- oration in inches 90 1.60 2.75 4.12 7 25 9 10 10 10 9 35 7 15 4 00 1 65 1 01 58 98 ' Data from Isothermic Maps, Plate C-I. = Data from temperature — evaporation graphs for large water .surfaces, Plate C-VII. 20—80996 304 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES filZ Adjusted annual depth of evaporation, CD USOOM S2 Coefficient for adjustment to large area CO o 3 OOO oo Observed annual depth of transpira- tion and evaporation in feet OS lOOOPl a o, '3 z a a H 1 1 o B 1 s •a-S |.| ill s ■s c.E ja . 3 S Ji 2-2 c S ^ a d III C C 5=1 3.2 8 _c -g c -a 1.1-2 — -T3 05 5l 2 o a 00 1 a a s eg Reference i 1 a s *" d c -g 1=3 1 IS a'ooS ill £ d si '1 "3 "o 1 ll p a as! 3 <: c a as > 1 s o CO IS 2 =*> tn c . * 1 l| a « ■J < 1 eg H Em o ■a 3 s □ c o. a 03 eg c .2 1 1 "5 1 2 a ^ .«; ^ ^ ^ eg _y CJ cs « OJ EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION 305 ^ OS .^S g « o O : a 3^ - H 3 D.^'- rt "3 "c ^ ° " :: e a J. ■ < s t. 3 •<1* 05 ^^ OiO COOOOOOO»OCOW3 CO C^ O to C5 e*3 C^ -^ C5 1— • y. d o o o -< ■<*» »0 CD t^ 00 '-^ eo coco Oa ^H t— 1 W (M-H -H O W3 OOt^OOfMOO 1-H CO lO ■<*« 00 03 CO J d d d -- -< -H « 0=00 3 I it 3 ® a: o .2 ©■"do _5 CO ^^ CO CO o 306 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES TABLE C-26 RECOREXS OF MONTHLY EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION FROM SALT GRASS (For description of records see Table C-24) U. S. Department of Agriculture experimental plot near Santa Ana' U. S. Geological Survey experimental plot near Independence' Depth to water table two feet Depth to water table four feet Month Depth to water table one foot Depth to water table two feet Depth to water table three feet Depth to water 1 1929 1930 1929 1930 table four feet January . In inches In inches 0.72 0.92 1.40 2.90 In inches In inches 0.31 0.33 0.44 1.01 In inches 0.54 0.54 1.08 3.24 6.75 8.10 10.52 10.85 7.29 3.24 1.35 0.50 In inches 0.46 0.46 0.92 2.76 5.75 6.90 8.96 9.20 6.20 2.76 1.15 0.46 In inches 0.38 0.38 0.76 2.28 4.75 5.70 7.42 7.61 5.14 2.28 0.95 0.38 In inches 30 February 30 March ... 30 April 60 May 2.45 4.40 5.64 5.53 3.54 3.52 2.66 1.64 6.33 0.79 2.43 2.96 1.70 1.67 0.77 0.63 2 40 June __ 4 20 July 6 00 August - 7 81 September 5 40 October 1 80 November 60 December 38 .Subtotal 29.38 5.94 11.28 2.09 Year 35.32 13.37 54.00 46.00 38.00 30 00 ' V'alues are average for three tanks as measured. Tanks installed February, 1929. 'Totals from Transactions, American Society Civil Engineers, Volumne 78, page 192, Figure 10, 1911 curve, and monthly dktribution in accordance with average percentages as computed from Tables 2 to 7; tanks installed .\pril, 1909. TABLE C-27 AMOUNT OF WATER TRANSPIRED BY DIFFERENT FOREST TREES IN CENTRAL EUROPE PER POUND OF DRY LEAF SUBSTANCE i Variety of tree Pounds of water transpired per pound of dry leaf No. 1878 1879 1880 Average for 1879 and 1880 1 Ash . 566.89 983.05 1,018.50 959.70 933.00 918.00 913.80 871.70 883.40 822.80 703.80 611.80 691.50 492.20 140.20 121.05 93.80 70.05 1,000.78 959 70 2 Aspen 3 Alder 933 00 4 Birch 679.87 472.46 562.51 845. i3 859.50 759.01 881 57 5 Beech 886 65 6 Hornbeam... 815 36 7 Linden 883 40 8 Ehn 407.31 435.77 462.87 283.45 253.33 58.47 58.02 44.02 32.07 555.00 618.30 517.22 622.21 614.22 206.36 103.72 77.54 99.92 688 90 9 Maple (A. campestic) 661 05 10 Norway Maple ... 564 51 11 Oak(Q.robor) 656 86 12 Oak (Q. cerris) 553 21 13 Norway Spruce .. ._ 173 28 14 Scotch Pine 112 39 15 16 Fir....... Austrian Pine . 85.67 84 99 .■Average moist s or broadleaf deciduous ta-ees with normal oc oil, Nos. 1 to 5 ... Burrence on stream borders or in 948.6 932 54 Average : soils an or deciduous trees with normal occurrence aw d on hillsides, Nos. 6 to 12 ■ay from streams in well drained 725.3 689 04 .Average : or evergreen conifers Nos. 13 to 16 106.2 114.08 » Compiled from experimental data obtained by F. R. Hohnel at Austrian Forest Experiment Station. Origina data in "Forschungen auf dem Gebiete der Agrikulten-Physik," Bd. 4, pages 435 to 445. Note. — Observations during vegetative .'reason April 1 to October 30. .atmospheric and experimental conditions in 1880 favorable to ma xim u m water consumption, and in 1878 were such that results show the minimum water require- ment under the local conditions. EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION 307 TABLE C-28 ESTIMATED MONTHLY DEPTH OF EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION FROM NATURAL FRESH-WATER VEGETATION GROWING IN AREA ABOVE A SALT WATER BARRIER Tulc and cat-tail Salt grass" Willows Month , In large groves Isolated trees In feet 0.16 0.09 0.30 0.74 1.10 1.28 1.53 1.32 1.18 0.98 0.59 0.36 In feet 0.06 0.08 0.12 0.24 0.36 0.43 0.56 0.58 0.39 0.29 0.22 0.14 In feet 0.04 0.03 0.08 0.20 0.30 0.35 0.42 0.36 0.33 0.27 0.16 0.10 In feet 0.09 0.05 0.16 0.41 May - 0.60 0.70 July 0.84 0.73 0.65 October 0.54 0.32 0.20 Year 9.63 3.47 2.64 5.29 ' Values for average annual depth to water table of two feet. APPENDIX D GEOLOGY OP UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY REGION With Special Rcforeneo to a SALT WATER BARRIER Below Confluence of Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers by C. F. TOLMAN Pr.ATE D-I 1'. f \ KI-l.IKF MOnivT, OF CAIJFORXIA S(n<;tr, — p. 'nil TABLE OF CONTENTS i'agc LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL : 314 ACKNOWLEDGMENT 31G Chapter I SITMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS .UT Fault movements and earthquakes 317 Bedrock displacements along faults 318 The earth wave 318. Earthquake intensity scales . 318 Rossi-Forel scale of earthquake intensities Sift Comparison of earthquake intensity scales 320 Earthquake hazard in this region 320 Sites grouped according to geological environment 321 Geology of area near confluence of Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers 321 Suitability of barrier sites between Suisun Bay and confluence of Sacra- mento and San Joaquin rivers 322 Geology of Carquinez Strait region 322 Suitability of the Carquinez Strait sites 323 Army Point site 323 Benicia site 323 Dillon Point site 323 Sites near the Carquinez bridge 324 Summary and conclusions 324 Gi'ology of the San Pablo region . 325 Siiilability of San Pablo site 326 Chapter II SCOPE OF INVESTIGATION 327 Purpose of geological studies in connection with foundation sites--, 327 Locality investigated in study of- barrier sites 328 Chapter III TOPOGRAPHY . 329 General description , ^ 329 Topographic divisions of the region 329 Lower Sacramento River and Suisun Bay area 329 Topography of Carquinez Strait region 330 Topography of San Pablo Bay area 330 Chapter IV GEOLOGIC AND PHYSIOGRAPHIC HISTORY OF THE REGION 331 ICpoch of intense folding and faulting 331 Epoch of Pleistocene erosion 331 Present day surface 332 Chapter V GEOLOGY 334 Franciscan formation 334 Cretaceous formations — Knoxville and Chico 334 Eocene formations 335 Tejon formation 336 Lower Miocene, Monterey formation 336 Upper Miocene, San Pablo formation 336 Pliocene, Pinole Tuff and Orinda formation 336 Pleistocene, Pittsburg sandstone, terrace sand and recent alluvium 336 Recent alluvium 336 (311) 312 TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter VI Page GEOLOGIC STRUCTURE 338 Antioch-Suisun Bay region 338 General structure and geological formations 338 Faults 338 Data available regarding Quaternary and recent formations of Antioch- Suisun Bay region 339 Carquinez Strait region 340 General description of folded structures 340 Faults 340 Haywards fault 342 Richmond platfoi-m and San Pablo and San Pedro peninsulas 342 Chapter VII SUMMARY OF GEOLOGY AND STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF BEDROCK BEARING ON SUITABILITY OF BARRIER SITES 344 Chipps Island site 344 Carquinez Strait sites 345 Point San Pablo site 346 Chapter VIII EARTHQUAKE RECORD 347 Conclusions from study of earthquake record 351 Addendum I ERODED FAULT BLOCK CONCEPT OF LAWSON AND OTHERS 352 Complicated topographic history 35" Addendum II DISCUSSION OF DETAILS OF AREAD AND STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY AND COMPARISON OF RESULTS OF THIS STUDY WITH THE WORK OF OTHERS 354 Correlation of formational divisions with those used by Weaver 354 Mt. Diablo thrust 354 Contact between Chico and Martinez formations 355 "Martinez Fault" 355 "Martinez Fault" of Lawson and Waterfalls 355 Supposed earthquake cracks at Benicia 355 Complicated geology between Martinez and Southampton fault 356 Mare Island-Franklin Canyon fault zone 357 Fault assumed by some to extend down the center of Carquinez Strait as a branch of the Southampton fault 357 Addendum III DESCRIPTION AND CORRELATION OF FORMATIONS 358 TABLE OF CONTENTS 313 LIST OF PLATES IMate Page D-I Rolief model of California Following- 310 D-II Figure A — General panorama of Carquinez Strait. Figure B — Southampton fault, south of Carquinez Strait Following o.'JO D-lII IMare Island fault, south of Carquinez Strait Following 332 D-IV Cretaceous sandstone and shale, crushed and faulted, along west branch of Mare Island fault Following 336 D-V Characteristic exposure of Cretaceous (Chico) shale with minor layers of sandstone Following 336 D-VI Characteristic exposure of Cretaceous (Chico) massive sandstone inter- layered with shale Following 336 D-Vll Outcrop of massive Martinez sandstone Following 336 li-VIII Panorama showing general geologic structure and formations of hills south of Suisun Bay Following 338 I>-1X Geology of upper San P'rancisco Bay region in relation to salt water barrier sites -Following 360 D-X C.oologic cross-sections of upper San Francisco Bay region Following 360 LETTER or TRANSMITTAL jMr. Edward Hyatt, State Engineer, Sacramento, California. Dear Sir: I transmit herewith a report on the "Geology of Upper San Francisco Bay Region With Special Reference to a Salt Water Barrier Below Confluence of Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers." The geology of the region closely adjacent to the salt water barrier sites has been worked out in great detail, and the surrounding region has been studied in less detail. On account of the seismic history of the region, all known faults, possible faults and faults suggested by other writers have been investigated in detail. Two sites have been reported on adversely, namely, the original site at Benicia (site D on the geological map) and the site at Vallejo Junc- tion (site F on the map). The unfavorable foundation features are emphasized for the site opposite Crockett (F') and also for the sites (A and B) near the confluence of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers. Two alternate additional sites have been suggested in place of the original site (D) at Benicia. These are shown on the geological map as sites D' and D". Alternate sites C and C" are suggested for site C at Army Point. Attention has been called to the seismic history of the region and on account of past seismic activity it is concluded that no site should be selected across a known fault, especially an active fault. Sites should be parallel to the faults. Barriers should be designed to with- stand earthquake shocks of intensity of X, Rossi-Forel scale. Respectfully, ^'^^:^^- Professor of Economic Geology, Stanford University. Stanford University, California, August 22, 1930. (314) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This region has been studied by several geologists, but because of the complexity of the geology, especially the geological structure, there is considerable diversity in the geological maps and the interpretation of the structure as advanced by these geologists. For this reason the area adjacent to the river was mapped independently and in detail, and the geological maps of adjacent areas, especially those of Andrew C. Lawson and C. E. Weaver, were checked and modifications and addi- tions made where cheeking necessitated them. The detailed study of the faulting indicated that some of the faults depicted on the various geological maps did not exist; others were noted that were not shown on the existing maps. Andrew C. Lawson 's* map of the Concord and San P^'raneisco (juailrangles was used to good advantage, although only the San Pablo and San Pedro barrier sites lie within the area mapped by him. Most of the remaining area has been mapped in detail by C. E. Weaver. A copy of his map appears in Bulletin No. 22 of the Division of Water Rescources, "Report on Salt Water Barrier Below Confluence of Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers," volume 2, plate 3-2. Advantage was had of a more detailed cop3' of Weaver's map. Weaver has spent most of his field seasons since 1916 mapping the area lying north of Carquinez Strait. His map is excellent, and without it the area could not have been covered in the allotted time. A field trip was made with Weaver, the differences in mapping and interpretation were discussed with him, and a general agreement was reached in regard to the mooted questions. Bruce Clark loaned a copy of his geological map of Mt. Diablo, which lies just south of the area studied in detail. He also made a trip in the field and discussed and assisted with his detailed paleontological and stratigraphic studies on the southwest border of the Carquinez Strait. He also made paleontological correlations of the formations exposed on Mare Island. Other geological maps which were made available are those of Grant Corby, who made studies for the Marland Oil Company ; Jas. M. Kirby, wlio is now mapping the region for the Standard Oil Company of Cali- fornia; H. J. Hawley and W. H. Corey, who have made a detailed geological map of the San Pablo Peninsula; A. R. Whitman, who mapped a portion of the region for the Division of Water Resources; L. N. Waterfalls, who mapped in detail the eastern portion of the Carquinez Strait area under Andrew C. Lawson. This map formed the geological basis for reports by Andrew C. Lawson and Bailey Willis on the IMartinez Bridge, now being built by the Southern Pacific Com- pany. * The San Francisco Folio, No. 193, published by the United States Geological Survey. (315) 316 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES A report criticizing the conclusions of Lawson and Willis on the so-called Martinez fault as mapped by Waterfalls, was made by J. A. Taff and G. D. Hanna. Copies of the reports dealing with the Car- quinez Bridge area were made available by the courtesy of C. R. Harding, assistant to the president of the Southern Pacific Company. Frank Tolmau made trips in the field and micro-paleontological studies which assisted in the correlation of the strata on the two sides of the western portion of Carquinez Strait. H. A. Sedelmeyer kindly gave permission to use a photograph of his recentlv constructed relief model of California, which is reproduced as Plate f)-T. CHAPTER I SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS This report presents the results of a detailed geological study in the vicinity of the salt water barrier sites from below the confluence of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers to, and including, the San Pablo Peninsula at Richmond and the San Pedro Peninsula north of San Rafael, and also the results of such general geological studies of the adjacent region as were deemed necessary to work out the general geologic structure. These studies have been carried on since April, 1930. Approximately thirty days were spent in field work, and a somewhat longer period in laboratory and office work, including examination of the drill cores collected during the cooperative investigations for a salt water barrier carried on during 1924 and 1925 by the Federal Government and the State of California. No detailed study of construction materials available at each site was made. There is abundant material of two kinds, namely the Fran- ciscan and the Chico sandstones. Information as to the former can be obtained from the numerous quarries on the San Pablo Peninsula and Point San Pedro. The latter is well exposed in the cliffs adjacent to Carquinez Strait. Detailed estimates of the cost of material at each site is an engineering undertaking. No studies were made on the effect of a completed barrier on the ground water conditions in the vicinity, although this is an important phase of the general problem of such a project. The results of the geological investigations are applied merely to determine the suitability of the foundation rock to support the pro- posed structure, and to evaluate the earthquake hazard and the prob- able intensity of the future earthquakes that may occur in the region. This involved a general geological study and mapping of the entire region and a detailed investigation of all known or supposed faults. It also involved a study of the seismic record and an interpretation of the distribution of earthquake intensities in relation to the faults as mapped. Fault Movements and Earthquakes. A fault is a fracture along which movement of the rocks has occurred on either or both sides. A sudden displacement along a fault produces an earthquake or earth tremor. This vibration, set up at the point of slipping on the fault plane, moves outward in all directions. The ilestriictive effect of this enrth wave is developed only at the surface where loose objects, such as soils, delta clays and artificial structures, are set in motion. There are two different disturbances which must be considered in studying the earthquake hazard affecting a contemplated structure. (317) 318 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES First, tlie bodily displacement of the soil and underlying rock along the earthquake fault; and second, the vibrational wave traveling through the rocky framework of the earth. Bedrock Displacements Along Faults. Horizontal displacements up to a maximum of 21 feet were observed along the San Andreas fault during the earthquake of 1906, and com- bined horizontal displacement of ten feet and vertical displacement of 25 feet along the Lone Pine fault zone in Owens Valley during the earthquake of 1872. It is evident, therefore, that any structure built across an earthquake fault will be broken and displaced by the move- ment occurring at that locality. This situation may be met (1) by building either a rock fill or earth till structure of sufficient size to take up the foundation movement with- out severing the broken sides of the structure, or (2) far better, by not building across a known fault, especially in a region of high seismic activity. The second alternative is recommended in this report. The Earth Wave. The vibrational wave generated by movement on a fault can not be avoided and structures should be designed to withstand earthquakes at least equal to the strongest shock recorded in the region. Theoretically the shock should be most intense a short distance on each side of, and should diminish in intensity away from, the fault. As a matter of fact, however, the character of foundation material may be more important in determining intensity of shock than close proximity to the fault. Soft alluvial fill is notoriously poor foundation material and greatly magnifies the destructive eil^ect of an earthquake. The three disastrous shocks suifered by Antioch may be due, in part, to the delta clays on which a portion of the town is built. A second factor atfecting the distribution of intensities is brought out by the study of the earthquake record. The record often shows dis- astrous effects along a well known active fault, and also a marked intensification of the earthquake shock in the vicinity of a "contribu- tory fault," which may be many miles away from the one chiefly responsible for the shock. The above suggests that building across, or in close proximity to, any known major fault should be avoided if possible, even if the earth- quake record does not indicate increased seismic activity in that vicinity. Earthquake Intensity Scales. No scale of earthquake intensity lias been devised that is thoroughly satisfactory from either the scientific or the engineering viewpoints. The earth wave, like all other waves, has measureable amplitude, period, velocity and acceleration. The destructive effect depends not only on all the above, but also on the tj'pe and vibration period of the structure. The character of the wave is greatlj' modified by passage through the material on which the structure rests. Many scales of earthquake intensity have been suggested, some of which use the disturbance caused to structures, surface rock and soil GEOLOGY OP UPPKR SAN FRANCISCO BAY REGION 310 and tlie effect on the senses of men and animals to measure the shock, and some classify intensities according: to the acceleration of the wave. Because of the difference of opinion regarding classification of inten- sities, the simplest and most generally used scale (the Rossi-Forel scale) is adopted in the following discussion. The deficiencies of this scale are recognized, but, notwithstanding, it is believed to be sufficient for the general discussion of the foundation sites. Engineers are beginning to appreciate the importance of a better understanding of the principals of designing rigid structures to with- stand earthquake shocks. The effect of vibration on structures and on foundation material is now being investigated at the vibration laboratory at Stanford University.* Because of the seismic history of the region, all plans should be reviewed by one who has followed the recent studies of vibration effects, especially the work of Professor L. S. Jacobsen of Stanford University, before any strvicture receives final approval by the investi- gating committee. Rossi-Forel Scale of Earthquake Intensities. The Rossi-Forel scale for classifying earth-shock intensities is as follows : I. Microseismic shock: Recorded by a single seismograph or by seismographs of the same model, but not by several seismo- graphs of different kinds; tlie shock felt by an experienced observer. II. Extremely feeble shock : Recorded by several seismographs of different kinds ; felt by a .small number of persons at rest ; some startled persons leave their dwellings. III. Very feeble shock: Felt by several persons at rest; strong enough for the direction or duration to be appreciable. IV. Feeble shock : Felt by persons in motion ; disturbances of mov- able objects, doors, windows; creaking of ceilings. V. Shock of moderate intensity : Felt generally by everj-one ; dis- turbance of furniture, beds, etc. ; ringing of swinging bells. VI. Fairly strong shock : General awakening of those a.sleep, general ringing of house bells ; oscillation of chandeliers ; stopping of pendulum clocks; visible agitation of trees and shrubs; some startled persons leave their dwellings. VII. Strong shock : Overthrow of moveable objects ; fall of plaster ; ringing of church bells ; general panic, without damage fo buildings. VIII. Very strong shock: Fall of chimneys; cracks in walls of buildings. IX. Extremely strong .shock : Partial or total destruction of some buildings. X. Shock of extreme intensit}' : Great disaster ; buildings ruined ; disturbance of the strata ; fissures in the ground ; rock falls from mountains. • Progress Report on Vibration Research at Stanford University, Bulletin Seis- mological Sociey of America, Vol. 20, pp.113-237, September, 1930. 21 — 8099C 320 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES Tho (lestnu'tive intensities of the " Rossi-Forel scale," compared with the "Omori scale," the "San Francisco scale" and the "Accelera- tion scale" are shown in the following chart:* COMPARISON OF EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY SCALES Rossi-Forel scale Omori scale San Francisco scale Acceleration nun. per sec. per sec. No. 7 Grade .\ 10 No. No. 5 C.rade B " 000 9 No. 4 1 "00 No. 3 Grade C g No. 2 Grade D 7 No. 1 Grade E * Report California Earthquake Commission; Vol. 1, pages 222-227. Earthquake Hazard in This Region. A study of the earthquake record indicates this region is of high seismicity. Since 1854, the date of the first recorded earthquake, 58 shocks, the majority of which were strong to severe and no less than four of which were of catastrophic intensity (X, Rossi-Forel Scale), have affected the region. These were the earthquakes of : October 21, 1868 — (Intensity X, Rossi-Forel Scale) at Haywards. April 3, 1872 — (Intensity X, Rossi-Forel Scale) at Antioch. March 30, 1898— (Intensity X, Rossi-Forel Scale) at Mare Island. April 18, 1906 — (Intensity X, Rossi-Forel Scale) in San Francisco, Santa Clara and Marin counties. The shocks affecting the region have originated along the San Andreas, the Haywards and the Sunol-Southampton faults, and possi- bly along the Mare Island fault, the latter of which is shown on Plate D-III, and probably on a "covered fault" near the vicinity of Antioch (see geologic maps). This was determined by a study of the distribu- GP:or-OOY OF upper sax rnANcisco bay reotox 321 tioii of ejirthquake intensities in respect to the known faults of the reprion. These are therefore the "active faults" of the re \I1 OKOLOCiV OF UPPKR SAN FRANCISCO BAY REGION 337 drill holes along the Sacramento River show cemented sand and gravel, overlain by sticky blue and green clays, black tule clays and sandy clays. These cemented sands and gravels represent the earliest forma- tion laid down in the present bedrock channel of the Sacramento River. The recent alluvial material only is without strength, but the clays are extremely slippery and dykes and embankments built on these may settle for years before equilibrium is obtained. Structures of any importance must be supported on piles. 338 • DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES CHAPTER VI GEOLOGIC STRUCTURE The geologic structure is an important item in determining the strengtli of any foundation site. If the formations dip, it is important that the man-made structure be built if possible to take advantage of the slope of the strata. If alternate strong and weak strata occur, the strong members of the foundation should be selected as foundation rock. If shear zones have cut the foundation area, the zone least affected by shearing should be selected as the site for the structure. In regions of seismic activity all of the faults should be scrutinized closely, the position of the contemplated structure in respect to the faults should be considered and localities floored with incoherent mate- rial, such as clay and sand, should be studied most carefully before a structure supported on piles is undertaken. The area is divided into three structural regions. This division corresponds closely to that used in the discussion of the topography and structural units are as follows : 1. Antioch-Suisun Bay region. 2. Carquinez Strait region. 3. Richmond Platform, and the peninsulas of San Pedro and San Pablo. Antioch-Suisun Bay Region. Oemeral Structure and Geological Formations — Suisun Bay is a basin, both topographicall,y and structurally. It is surrounded on the south by the northerly dipping Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks, which plunge under the flat lying Quaternary sands at a steep angle at the margin of the Mount Diablo range (Plates D-VI and D-VIII). On the east the horizontal Pleistocene formations are well exposed in the Montezuma Hills, and northwest of these are the drowned ranges, which are made up of closely folded and upturned Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks, pro- truding above the recent alluvium of Suisun Bay. The south side of this line of drowned hills exposes southerly dipping sedimentary rocks and forms the north rim of the Suisun basin. The Franciscan formation and Knoxville shale and lava flows, which belong to the series denominated the Napa andcsites, bound the basin on the west. Tliese are folded and faulted, but at the margin of the sloughs, which bound Suisun Bay on the north, the general dip is to the northeast and the strata therefor constitute the southwestern limb of the Suisun syncline. Faults — The Mount Diablo thrust lies at the western edge of the region. This has been described as a low angle thrust, old geologically compared with the other faults of the region. Clark describes folding and faulting of this old thrust plane. It is probably not active. •f^T 80996 — p. : LATE n-VIII KAMA sriuwiM. i-.i:\i:iiAr. ni-.m.ooic STiU'cri i(]^ and fok.mations cu' iiii.i.s soi Tii ui' srisrx bay GEOLOGY OF UPPER SAX FRANCISCO BAY REGION 339 No other fault is exposed in the area. However, the east end of the Potrero hills is cnt by a fault and a second parallel fault is known in Vaca Valley. The.se, projected, would pass a mile or so east of Antioch. The cover of alluvium and Pleistocene deposits hide these faults, if they exist. Antioch has suffered from numerous and heavy earthquake shocks due, possibly, to the covered faults. Data Available Begarding Quaternary and Recent Formations of A)itio('h-Suisun Bay Region — The Quaternary soft sandstones and silts, terraced gravels and sands and the recent sands, clays and muck of the river channel and delta area are the important formations, in so far as the barrier studies are concerned. The data regarding these formations are meager. Little is learned from surface examination as the delta region is an expanse of swamp and w-ater. The following data were made available regarding the materials of the river channel and adjacent delta lands in the general vicinity of the Chipps Island site : 1. Test borings in the vicinity of New York Slough, opposite Pitts- burg, furnished by the U. S. Engineer's Office, Sacramento (June, 1928). These holes Avere 25 to 40 feet deep and penetrated "soupy peat," dry peat, clay and some fine sand. 2. Chart of borings at the ferry cro.ssing. Chipps Island, furnished by the Engineering Office, Sacramento Northern Eailroad. These bor- ings were all 125 feet deep, measured from mean tide level. They record soft mud, blue clay, yellow clay and sands, and below 50 to 75 feet stiff clays and hard sands were encountered in some of the holes. In many of the holes, however, the bottom formations were blue clay and sand. The data were not sufficient to assure a hard clay or sand bottom across the channel at the depth of 125 feet and the tentative conclusion was drawn that at that depth the material is to be classified as "Recent Alluvium" of incoherent clays, muds and sands 3. Only three satisfactory logs of wells in the neighborhood of Chipps Island site were obtained in the data collected on water wells. Tw^o of these wells are on Van Sickle Island and one at Buttons Landing. These furnish an indication only of the character of the alluvial fill of the delta area. The well at Buttons Landing records: to 6 feet, peat. 6 to 26 feet, blue mud and quicksand. 26 to 200 feet, blue clay and gray clay in alternating layers. 200 feet plus, hard, dry clay, brown sand, hardpan, etc. (probably the Pittsburgh formation). The well three-fourths of a mile west of the drawbridge over Monte- zuma Slough is critical in the study of the Chipps Island site. It records 107 feet of ])eat. blue mud, fine blue sand and blue clay, and from 107 to 141.5 feet, alternate yellow clay and yellow sand (probably the Pittsburg formation). Several wells in the delta area report 60 feet of "muck" and well pipe shoved down this distance. It is concluded from the meager data available that the recent forma- tion of clays, tule muds, silts and "muck" is 125 feet thick, on the average, and in some cases thicker. GEOLOGY OF UPPER SAX FRANCISCO BAY REGION 339 No other fault is exposed in tlie area. However, the east end of the Potrero hills is cut by a fault and a second parallel fault is known in Vaca Valley. These, projected, would pass a mile or so east of Antioch. The cover of alluvium and Pleistocene deposits hide these faults, if they exist. Antioch has suifered from numerous and heavy earthquake shocks due, possibly, to the covered faults. Data Available Regarding Quaternary and Recent Formations of Antiovh-Suisun Bay Region — The Quaternary soft sandstones and silts, terraced gravels and sands and the recent sands, clays and muck of the river channel and delta area are the important formations, in so far as the barrier studies are concerned. The data regarding these formations are meager. Little is learned from surface examination as the delta region is an expanse of swamp and water. The following data w^ere made available regarding the materials of the river channel and adjacent delta lands in the general vicinity of the Chipps Island site : 1. Test borings in the vicinity of New York Slough, opposite Pitts- burg, furnished by the U. S. Engineer's Office, Sacramento (June, 1928). These holes were 25 to 40 feet deep and penetrated "soupy peat." dry peat, clay and some fine sand. 2. Chart of borings at the ferry crossing. Chipps Island, furnished by the Engineering Office, Sacramento Northern Kailroad. These bor- ings were all 125 feet deep, measured from mean tide level. They record soft mud, blue clay, yellow clay and sands, and below 50 to 75 feet stiff clays and hard sands were encountered in some of the holes. In many of the holes, however, the bottom formations were blue clay and sand. The data were not sufficient to assure a hard clay or sand bottom across the channel at the depth of 125 feet and the tentative conclusion was drawn that at that depth the material is to be classified as "Recent Alluvium" of incoherent clays, muds and sands 3. Only three satisfactory logs of wells in the neighborhood of Chipps Island site were obtained in the data collected on water wells. Two of these wells are on Van Sickle Island and one at Buttons Landing. These furnish an indication only of the character of the alluvial fill of the delta area. The well at Duttons Landing records : to 6 feet, peat. 6 to 26 feet, blue mud and quicksand. 26 to 200 feet, blue clay and gray clay in alternating layers. 200 feet plus, hard, dry clay, brown sand, hardpan, etc. (probably the Pittsburgh formation). The well three-fourths of a mile west of the drawbridge over Monte- zuma Slough is critical in the study of the Chipps Island site. It records 107 feet of ])eat, blue mud, fine blue sand and blue clay, and from 107 to 141.5 feet, alternate yellow clay and yellow sand (probably the Pittsburg formation). Several wells in the delta area report 60 feet of "muck" and well pipe shoved down this distance. It is concluded from the meager data available that the recent forma- tion of clays, tule muds, silts and "muck" is 125 feet thick, on the average, and in some cases thicker. 340 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES Carquinez Strait Region. Considered as a structural unit, the region extends beyond the mouth of the strait at the promontory of Oleum and includes all of the Berke- leA^ Hills fronting San Pablo Bay up to Pinole Point. This block includes complexly folded and faulted Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks, up to the Haj'wards fault which separates this area from the Richmond Platform of Franciscan rocks, covered by recent alluvium. The structures extend across Carquinez Strait, for the ancient river cut its channel without regard to geological stinicture or rock formation, and on the walls of the canyon thus carved is depicted the geology of the folded, faulted and upwarped Berkeley range. General Description of Folded Structures — The salient structural features of this region are the Martinez syncline and the Rodeo syncline. These synclines are separated by a folded anticline, the parallel folds of which are well exposed in the town of Crockett. The folding is com- plex and intense. The northeast limb of the Rodeo syncline is over- turned, as is the we.st limb of the Martinez syncline. The folded struc- tures are cut by faults described below. Along these faults the most ■^intense folding and overturning has taken place. Along the Southampton fault, exposures on the banks of the strait show crumpling, close folding and overturning of the strata. Between the two branches of the Franklin Canyon-^Iare Island fault zone, tlie most intense folding has taken place. On the south coast of Mare Island some five closely oppressed folds are exposed within a distance of about a mile. The folded structures, so well exposed along Carquinez Strait, con- tinue along the southeastern boundary of San Pablo Bay to Pinole Point. The southern limb of the Rodeo syncline exposes an even greater thickness of Tertiary rocks than the northern limb. The syncline is cut by the Pinole fault at Pinole, and some complex folding brings up the youngest of the Teritiary rocks, the Orinda formation, at Pinole Point. Then comes the Ha.yw^ards Rift, which separates the faulted Tertiary block of the Berkeley Hills from the Richmond Platform, made uji of the Franciscan formation. Faults — The first fault that crosses in the neighl)orli()od of x\rmy Point is the well known Mount Diablo thrust. This fault has been mapped in detail in the Mount Diablo region by Bruce Clark, and in the Carquinez area and the region to the northwest by Dr. Weaver. As previously stated, it is believed to be an old geological feature and since it has undergone later cro.ss-faulting and folding it could not remain a ])lane of weakness along which recent movement and earthquakes could take place. Therefore it is not considered an active fault. Its position is shown on the accompanying geological map. The next important fault is designated as the Sulphur Springs Moun- tain fault zone. Its existence is clearly shown east of Sulphur Springs Mountain, where the Franciscan formation lies against the Knoxville shales. The fault has been encountered in a mine tunnel passing through the Knoxville shale into the Franciscan formation. The exposed fault plane dips 50 degrees northeast. The western branch of the fault occurs along an outcrop of Cretaceous shale, which lies against the Franciscan formation, and the combined GEOLOGY OF UPPER SAX FRANCISCO BAY REGION 341 faults ooutiniie dowu the Sulphur Springs canyon. This fault prob- ably crosses between Vine Hill and the ridges on which the Shell Oil Company refinery is situated. It lies about a mile east from the Army Point barrier site and is approximately parallel to the direction of the site. No physiographic evidence of recent movement was noted in the study of this fault. The third fault is the Southampton Bay fault, probably the most interesting geological feature of the region. It is believed to be the continuation of the well known Calaveras or Sunol fault. This fault is characterized by intense disturbance of the strata in the vicinity of Port Costa. This is shown by the attitude of the dips plotted in the geological maps. There also is evidence in the topography of fairly recent movement. The general topographic surface of the hills is decidedly higher on the southwestern side than on the northeastern side of the fault. Also, the fault passes through certain topographic draws that may be the result either of erosion, because of the softness of rock weakened by it, or may actually be due to fault movement. Study of the seismic records of the region proves the fault zone to be active. One barrier site has been suggested from Benicia across the strait in a southwesterly direction. This site lies across this fault, and the site is not approved. All the other barrier sites are approximately parallel in direction to the main faults, and it is believed this is the most satisfactory orienta- tion for such a structure. It would not be advisable to build a barrier across a known fault, when a satisfactory location, which does not cross the fault, can be had. The Dillon Point barrier site lies about half a mile west of the Southampton fault and while this is fairly close, it is believed a rock fill or earth fill structure, built on a good foundation, would be safe at that distance. The Franklin Canyon-Mare Island fault system cuts off the folded anticlinal structures, or anticlinorium, lying between the Kodeo and Martinez synclines. The extraordinary folding on Mare Island, between the two branches of these faults, has been described. South of this area Lawson mapped this fault as a relatively low angle thrust, and described the Cretaceous formation as thrust over and resting upon the Tertiary rocks. His mapping and interpretation were verified by these studies. However, at the point where the faults branch, the fault planes appear to steepen up and the block between the planes has been greatly compressed, as if the thrusting movement was taken up by fold- ing of the strata at the point where the attitude of the planes becomes steeper. The relations suggest strongly the close connection between folding and faulting in the highly deformed incompetent strata of the region. No topographic evidence definitely indicative of recent move- ment along the fault was observed. The gullies along the two branches of the fault may be explained as due to the erosion of soft and crushed shale. The severe earthquake at Mare Island on March 30, 1898, followed by seven minor shocks in 1899 and 1900, has been attributed to the Haywards fault, but it is quite probable the shock generating movement occurred along the Mare Island fault. This fault is therefore classi- fied as probably active. 342 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES The next important fault to the southwest is the Pinole fault. This fault separates the Pinole syncline from a highly-folded area to the west. It is too far away to have any direct bearing on a barrier site in Carquinez Strait. Haywards Fault. This fault separates two very different geological units — the Rich- mond Platform of bevelled Franciscan rock and the Berkeley Hills area of folded Cretaceous and Tertiary rock. Next to the San Andreas fault it has displayed the highest seismic activity of any fault in cen- tral California. The topographic evidence of recent movements are most striking. An interesting feature along this fault is that evidence of actual dislocation begins opposite Berkeley and extends southward in the Haywards and Pleasanton quadrangles. Offset stream channels are described by Buwalda* and Russellt, and the rift valley and fresh fault scarps are striking. North of Berkeley the fault degenerates rapidly into a fold which decreases towards the north into a scarp of less than 100 feet in the vicinity of the town of San Pablo. This is in contrast to a A^ertical movement of 1500 feet opposite Berkeley and Piedmont. As far as surface indications go, the fault dies out north of Berkeley and the fold is nearly gone at San Pablo. The Orinda formation is draped over the line of the fault in the northern portion; hence it is concluded that since Orinda times (Pliocene) there has been no rupture along the fault from Berkeley to San Pablo Bay. This may be inter- preted as indicating the fault is innocuous in the vicinity of the bay and also that earth stresses find relief along this line from Berkelej^ south, while to the north they find relief along the Sunol fault system and possibly the Pinole fault, the ^Nlare Island fault and faults farther east. Richmond Platform and San Pablo and San Pedro Peninsulas. The structure of the Richmond Platform is largely unknown. Pos- sibly a complete study of the logs of the wells dug in that region might furnish the critical data needed, but this line of investigation was not taken up. The Richmond Platform is composed exclusively of the Franciscan rocks. These rocks were bevelled by the erosion and hard and soft members were cut to a peneplain. Bounding this platform on the west is the peninsula of San Pablo. This mountain range rises approxi- mately one thousand feet above the Richmond Platform. It is some five miles long and averages less than half a mile in width. The range is continued another mile by Brookes Island on the southeast. The San Pedro Peninsula on the northwest is exactly on a line with the San Pablo Peninsula. The alluvial cover hides the geological relations of the San Pablo range to the Richmond Platform, but the detailed study by H. J. Hawley and W. H. Corey of w^ell logs northeast of the San Pablo ridge indicates an important fault bounding the peninsula on that side ; * John P. Buwalda — Nature of the Late Movements on the Havwards Rift, Central California. Bulletin Seismological Society of America, Vol. 19, pp. 187-199, (1929). t J. R. Russell — Recent Horizontal Offsets Along the Haywards Fault. Journal of Geology, Vol. 39, pp. 507-511, (1926). GEOLOGY OF UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY REGION 343 also the faultin<2:. which hrinjis cliert and volcanic breccia against Franciscan sandstone and shale at the point approximately one mile east of Point San Pablo, is interpreted as a part of this same fault zone. The fault probably bounds the San Pedro Peninsula on the northeast and lines up with the known fault east of the Dumbarton Hills, 30 miles to the southeast. This fault is referred to herein as the San Pablo-San Pedro fault. The other faults tentatively located on the brief reconnaissance of the region are the Corte Madera fault and the San Rafael fault, strik- ing northwesterly, and the northeasterly McNear and Stetson faults. A nortli-south fault, witli strong horizontal striae on the face, was located west of the swamp land in the embayment north of San Pedro Peninsula. None of these faults are known to be active, nor were any data noted indicating seismic activity. As indicated above, no detailed mapping was done in either the San Pablo or San Pedro regions. The lines of crushing and disturbed dips, taken to indicate faults, may not indicate major faults. The San Pablo-San Pedro fault is the only one established with fair degree of certainty. The reconnaissance work and the geological map, by Hawley and Corey, of the San Pablo Peninsula were sufficient to show the main structural features of the region. It would be inferred from Dr. Law- son's map, on which the half-dozen dips shown are parallel to the direc- tion of the range, that the San Pablo ridge is a strike ridge developed along the strike of the harder strata. This is not the case. The massive l)eds strike at an angle of about 30 degrees to the direction of the penin.sula. The shape of the ridge is controlled by faulting on the northeast, and minor faulting and shearing, which truncates the massive sandstone beds, on the southwest side. Both peninsulas are cut into blocks by innumerable minor faults, .shears and joints. The massive standstone members are jointed and sheared ; the shale members are intricately contorted. 344 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES CHAPTER VII SUMMARY OF GEOLOGY AND STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF BEDROCK BEARING ON SUITABILITY OP BARRIER SITES Chipps Island Site. The Chipps Island site, shown in Plate D-IX, "Geology of Upper San Francisco Bay Region in relation to Salt Water Barrier Sites," crosses the Sacramento River to Chipps Island, west of Pittsburg. The geological formations of importance here are : 1. The Pittsburg sandstone of Pleistocene age. 2. The sands and gravels of the older Sacramento River fill. 3. The recent fill of slippery clays and tule mud. The Pittsburg sandstone is probably a flood plain deposit laid down as the river was struggling to maintain its course across the rising barrier of Berkeley Hills. The sands and gravels of the older fill were deposited after the channel was cut to its maximum depth and are encountered in all the borings in the Carquinez Strait. The recent alluvium is the fill of the island or delta region. It is almost wholly made up of clays. The present channel of the river contains sand bars that are believed by some to have been brought down since hydraulic mining was started in California. No boring has been made of this site, and the only data available are the logs and bore holes made by the Sacramento Northern Railroad to explore for a contemplated bridge across the river, shallow holes to explore for river improvements, and unsatisfactory water well data. The bore holes crossing the river apparently penetrated, but did not go througli, the treacherous clay fill, and no borings were made in the slough area north of the river, where continuous maintenance trouble has affected the railroad embankment of the Sacramento Northern Rail- road. The data on wells is unsatisfactory as it is merely the recollection of the drillers and not based on recorded logs. It suggests a depth of 150 feet for the sticky clays. If the advantages of this site, especially elimination of the evaporation loss from Suisun Bay which would occur if any of the other sites were to be utilized, make further consideration of this site advisable, it should be drilled. The depth to the older alluvial sand and gravel and to the Pittsburg sandstone should be determined. A structure supported on piles driven into, but not through, the recent clays would be subject to slow settlement and might be seriously disturbed by earthquake. Incoherent alluvial deposits magnify the effect of earthquake waves, even at a long distance from the parent active fault. Bedrock is exposed in the line of drowned hills mentioned above. This line continued would cross the river not far from the site. It is GEOLOGY OF UPPER SANT FRANCISCO BAY REGION 345 probable tho bedi-ock rid^'o continues in this direction, but of course is covered by the recent delta clays. The extent of this ridge and the (leptli of the cover can only be determined by drillinor. Carqiiinez Strait Sites. The Army Point site has been drilled and further information gained by the ^construction of the Southern Pacific Bridge. The results of examination of drill cores and data obtained from the Southern Pacific Company has made it possible to determine the geological structure under the river. The bridge building operations have proved the absence of any important fault cutting the line of the bridge. The drill- ing of the V. S. Bureau of Reclamation shows a second "basining" of the iMartinez syncline under the strait, as .slunvn on the geological map. If a barrier were to be built northeast of the line of contact between the Martinez formation and the Chico formation, as shown on the geo- logical map, it would rest on the inner-layered sandstone and shale of the Chico formation shown in Plate D-VI; if southwest of the contact it would rest on the Martinez formation of thick-bedded sandstone and minor shale shown in Plate D-VIT. The Chico formation has two zones of massive, thick-bedded sandstone which could be utilized as the central rib of the foundation, as the structure could be built parallel to the strike of the formations. The location C" is suggested as a site of a barrier to take advantage of the massive Chico sandstone east of the Southern Pacific Martinez bridge. There is a very massive bed of Martinez sandstone at the contact as mapped. Plate D-VII, and this probably would constitute the best barrier site. The dip of the beds is uniformly about 60 degrees down stream. Location C is the suggested position of a barrier to take advantage of the massive sandstone ledge at the base of the Martinez formation. There is a sheer plane or minor fault exposed in the rail- road cut 600 feet northeast of the bridge head. This minor foundation flaw is not serious. The site is respectively three miles and two and one-half miles distant from the Southampton Bay fault and the Sul- ]iliui' Springs ^Mountain fault. The site is satisfactory for structures as planned in Bulletin Xo. 22. The Benicia site extends from Benicia Point southwesterly across the strait. It was very properly dismissed from detailed consideration because it crosses the Southampton fault, and because it lies at right angles to the trend of the faults. It is well established that, because of the horizontal shift that commonly occurs along the California faults, structures parallel to the fault lines are less disturbed than those nor- mal thereto. There is no reason, however, why a structure could not be built south- ea.sterly from Point Benicia. The structure would then be parallel to the Southampton fault and nearly a mile distant therefrom. It would cross the Martinez syncline and therefore rest on flat strata for a por- tion of its length. This would be more satisfactory than steeply dipping strata. The two positions tentatively suggested are indicated on the geological map, Plate D-IX, as D' and D". The Dillon Point site crosses the narrowest part of Carquinez Strait. The rock formations are alternating thin-bedded sandstone and shale, with occasional thick beds of sandstone of the Chico formation. One 3-46 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES massive bed of sandstone occurs at the point and would furnish a satis- factory landing place for the structure. The strata dip southwesterly and strike at an angle of 30 degrees to the orientation of a barrier. The foundation rock is satisfactory. The structure would lie one-half mile west of the active Southampton fault and since it would not cross the fault it probably could be built to withstand the earthquake shocks. Two sites on either side of Carquinez Bridge have been suggested, but apparently not considered seriously. The easterly one, froiu near Semple Point to Crockett, has a northwesterly trend parallel to the faults. The bed rock is the Chico shales, which have been closely folded south of the barrier site landing at Crockett. The westerly site, from the old Tower Hill to a point between Yalona and the now abandoned Vallejo Junction, extends southwesterly to the east branch of the Frank- lin Cam'on-Mare Island fault and ends on the south in broken shale. This site is not recommended. Point San Pablo Site. The quartzite and .sandstone ledges of the Franciscan formation at San Pedro and San Pablo points are hard and massive. The inter- stratified shale, however, is weak and causes slipping where the slope is steep. The highly developed jointing and shearing has reduced the foundation strength. A barrier here would have to be designed to meet the condition of high seismicity and thorough fracturing of the foundation beds. A study of the quarries will show the conditions to be met in constructing a barrier here. GEOLOGY OF UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY REGION 347 CHAPTER VIII EARTHQUAKE RECORD A list of earthquakes in central California, especially in the San Francisco Bay, San Pablo Bay, Carquinez Strait and Suisun Bay regions, follows.* The Roman numerals in the second column of the tabulation are the earthquake intensities on the Rossi-Forel scale. (See Chapter I.) DATA ON EARTHQUAKES IN CENTRAL CALIFORNIA 1854. 1866. Date October Location and intensities References Benicia, V. Smart. (Also felt A Catalogue in San Francisco, followed by of Earth- 1857. January a sea wave.) Martinez and Benicia, III. Faults causing earthquakes^ San Andreas and Sunol (?). 1860. September 23 Martinez, IV. Local. quakes on the Pacific Coast, by Edward Holden. Holden. Sunol fault system. Alta, October Sunol fault 1, 1860. 1861. July 5 1864. March 1865. October 8 1865. October 13 1866. March 26 1866. May 27 1866. July 14 Light in San Francisco (IV?) Hittell's but very heavy near Liver- Resources, more (IX?). Also felt at Stockton. Santa Rosa to Stockton, VI. Holden. Severe. Also severe at Visalia, Santa Clara and San Jose. San Francisco, San Jose, Stock- San ton, Santa Cruz, up to Sac- Francisco ramento. Very severe, VIII. Bulletin, Followed by a continuous October 9, vibration lasting ten hours. 1865. Angel Island and San Francisco, Holden. V. Also Oakland and Santa Clara. San Francisco, Stockton, Sacra- mento, San Jose, etc. Pacheco, Contra Costa County. Holden. Bancroft's History of California. Sacramento, Contra Costa and Bancroft. Sierra counties. Heavy in Sac- ramento ; light in Contra Costa and San Francisco. 1866. December 17 Antioch, local. 1866. December 18 Pacheco, local. Bancroft. Holden. December 20 Antioch, local. Two, morning, Bancroft, and 4 -.15 p.m. system, (By Harry O. Wood). San Andreas ( ?) and Sunol. San Andreas or Hay wards, (By Harry O. Wood). San Andreas and other faults. San Andreas and other faults. San Andreas and Haywards faults. Sunol fault system. Haywards fault and possibly faults east. Antioch and Potrero Hills covered faults. Sunol fault system. Antioch and Potrero Hills covered faults. • Compiled by Beatrice Henderson from data assembled In the office of the Seis- mulogical Society of America, August 26, 1930. 348 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES 1868. DATA ON EARTHQUAKES IN CENTRAL CALIFORNIA— Continued Date October 21 Location and intensities References Martinez, IX. Haywards, IX. Holden. Mare Island Navy Yard, VIII. Also San Vallejo, VIII. Antioch, VIII. Francisco Pacheco, IX. San Francisco, Call, October faults IX. "Central and northern 25, 1868. California. Preceded by a number of shocks in the Kern River country. Martinez courthouse wrecked. Haywards very severe, 22 shocks during the morning ; 'not a building that was not damaged or wrecked.' Brick and concrete buildings in Pacheco destroyed. Mare Island Navy Yard, 'Chimneys thrown down and a person walking thrown down.' 'Open crack in Hay- wards.' " Faults causing earthquakes^ Haywards, with possibly Sunol contributory 1869. January 22 Haywards, local. San Francisco Herald, January 23. 187 0. February 17 Vallejo, San Rafael, San Fran- Bancroft. Cisco Bay region, V. Also Petaluma, Sacramento, San Jose, Santa Cruz. Monterey, III. Haywards fault. San Andreas fault. 1870. April 2 Smart shocks Contra Costa Bancroft. County, V. Two smart shocks at San Francisco, V. Berkeley, VI. Haywards fault. 1871. April 2 Contra Costa County, IV. Also Bancroft, at San Francisco. Haywards and the Sunol fault .system. 1872. April 3 Antioch, X. "Terrible shock." Bancroft. Antioch and Potrero Hills covered faults. 1872. October 21 Vallejo, San Rafael, III. San Bancroft. Francisco, IV. 1881. September 18 Angel Island, III. San Fran- Holden. Cisco, V. 1883. October Port Costa, VI. San Francisco, Bancroft. VI. Not felt at Sacramento, but severe at Davisville. San Andreas fault. San Andreas fault. San Andreas and Sunol faults. 1885. January 26 Central California, IV, including Holden. San Francisco Bay region. 1885. December 30 Vallejo, Port Costa, Martinez, V. Holden. San Francisco. III. San Jose, HI. San Mateo, V. Peta- luma and Napa, V. 1886. October 15 Mare Island Lighthouse and Fort Holden. Point Lighthouse, local shock. 1887. January 19 Mare Island Lighthouse, local. Holden. San Andreas fault probably. Sunol fault system. Mare Island fault. Mare Island fault. 1887. October 19 Vallejo, III. Also Napa County, San Petaluma and San Francisco. Francisco Chronicle, October 5. 1887. December 4 Haywards, VI. San Francisco Chronicle, December 5. Impossible to estimate, because of inaccuracies in times given. Haywards fault (H. O. Wood). GEOLOGY OF UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY REGION 349 DATA ON EARTHQUAKES IN CENTRAL CALIFORNIA— Continued Date Location and intensities References 1888. February 29 Mare Island Lig-hthouse, IV. San Martinez, VI. San Francisco Francisco and Point Reyes, V. Oak- Ctironicle, land, II. Not felt in Berk- February 29 eley. Petaluma, VII. and March 1. Also Alta, and San Francisco Bulletin, same dates. 1889. May 19 1889. July 31 1890. April 24 1891. October 11 1891. 1892. October 14 April 19 1892. April 20 1892. April 21 1892. April 29 189: June 30 Mare Island, VI, Antloch, VII. All San Haywards, VII. Stockton, VII. Francisco San Fi'ancisco, Mills, San Jose, papers of VI. Modesto, Napa, VII. May 20. Berkeley, VI. Oakland, VI. Mare Island Lighthouse, VI. Holden. Martinez, V. Benicia, V. Felt all through central California, except Sacramento. Benicia, VI. Oakland, San San Francisco, Salinas, Los Gatos, Francisco Brentwood, Gilroy, San Jose, Examiner, Hollister, VI. April 25. Suisun, Fairfield, VII. Central Holden. portion of state, V and VI. Suisun, VI. Berkeley, Petaluma, Holden. Napa, San Francisco, V or VI. Suisun, VII. Martinez, VII. Holden. Benicia, VII. Vallejo, VI. All central California region, including Sacramento, Grass Valley, Marysville and Winters. Felt at Reno, Nevada, very slightly. Same places given above, but Holden. lighter intensities. Martinez, Suisun, Fairfield, IV. After- shock of April 19. Martinez, VII. Benicia, VI. Hay- Holden. wards, VI. Suisun, VIII, and same north-central portion of the state as given above for April 19. Buildings were wrecked in all these cities. Free Library at Martinez cracked so badly it was after- wards unsafe. Some damage done in the State Capitol at Sacramento. Suisun suffered a great deal of property damage. All north-central California, VI. Holden. Vallejo and Mare Island, V or Holden. VI? San Rafael, VI. Peta- luma and Niles, VI. Faults causing earthquakes-^ San Andreas and Sunol system (?). Haywards fault, Sunol fault system, and Antioch and Potrero Hills covered faults. San Andreas, Sunol contributory. San Andreas fault, with the Sunol system possibly contributory. Sunol fault system and possibly Antioch and Potrero Hills covered faults. Same as above. Same as above. Same as above. Same as above. 1895. December 8 Fairfield, VI, local. Holden. Sunol fault system, and possibly Antioch and Potrero Hills covered faults. Mare Island system? Antioch and Potrero Hills covered faults. 1896. July 23 Vallejo, V. "Sharp shock. Holden. Vallejo-Mare Island faults. 350 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES DATA ON EARTHQUAKES IN CENTRAL CALIFORNIA— Continued Date 1898. March 30 1899. 1899. 1899. 1899. 1900. May 10 June 13 Location and intcnKitivs San Francisco Bay region, as far northeast as Stockton and Sac- ramento. "This earthquake wrought such damage at Mare Isla^id Navy Yard that it may properly be known as the Mare Island Earthquake. For- tunately, the loss of life was small, owing to the hour." Mare Island, III. References Faults causing earthquakes-\ Alexander Mare Island McAdie's system with "Catalogue of contributory Earthquakes faults, on the Pacific Coast, 1897 to 1906." McAdie. Vallejo, College Park, San Jose, McAdie. Napa. June 19 Mare Island, slight. McAdie. June 21 Mare Island, slight, local. McAdie. March 26 Vallejo, Napa, Vacaville. McAdie. Mare Island fault system. Mare Island fault system, with possibly contributory faults of that district. Same fault. Same fault. Mare island fault system with Sunol system contributory. 1900. June 13 1900. June 17 1900. June 21 1901. December 15 Mare Island, San Berkeley, II. Mare Island, local, slight. Mare Island, local, slight. Francisco, McAdie. McAdie. McAdie. 1902. May 19 1903. June 11 1906. April 18 1911. July 1. 1914. December 28 1916. August 6 Mare Island fault system. Same fault. Same fault. Antioch and Potrero Hills covered fault system. Chiefly Sunol fault system with contributory faults. Sunol fault system with contributory faults, chiefly the Haywards fault. The San Francisco earthquake, Report of the San Andreas X. All the towns in this dis- California fault with trict suffered from the shocks. Earthquake contributory Commission. faults. Antioch, Oakland, San Francisco, McAdie. San Leandro. Antioch, Suisun, Vallejo VII. McAdie. All north-central portion of California had quite heavy shocks on this date. Antioch, Haywards, Livermore, McAdie. Vallejo, and all north-central portion of California. Niles, V. wards, V. Niles, III. tinez, IV. Suisun, IV. Mare Island. Hay- Bulletin of the Haywards fault with Seismological contributory Society of America, March, 1912. faults — H. O. Wood. ( See article in Bulletin, March, 1912.) Benicia and Mar- Bulletin of San Andreas Seismological fault — E. F. Society of Davis. (See Ainerica, Bulletin.) March, 1915. Sausalito, III, slight shock. Bulletin, Seismological Society of America, March, 1917. Haywards fault — Andrew Palmer. (See Bulletin.) t Determination of faults causing earthquakes after Harry O. Wood and C; Tolman. GEOLOGY OF UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY REGION 351 Conclusions from Study of Earthquake Record. The abovo tabulated seismic record brings out the followinj?: 1. Prior to the San Francisco earthquake in 1906 the Car- quinez Strait and the Suisun Bay area probably exhibited the hifrhest average seismic activity of any region in Central Califor- nia. This statement is believed to be justified even in view of the incompleteness of the older records and the fact that much of Cen- tral California Avas sparsely inhabited. 2. Since that time the activity has been very slight. 3. The record indicates that five active fault lines generate earth- quakes which affect this region. These are : (a) The San Andreas fault. (b) The Haywards fnult. (c) The Mare Island fault system. (d) The Sunol-Southampton Bay fault system. (e) The possible buried fault near Antioch, which may be continued in minor faults of the Eastern Potrero Hills and the Suisun-Fairfield region. This system has not been studied and no accurate information is available. 4. The earth stresses relieved along the Haywards fault, south of Berkeley, are expended farther north along the Sunol- Southampton fault and possibly other faults to the east. 5. A great shock on one fault induces contributory movement on adjacent faults. The surface geology indicates recent activity along the faults as follows : The San Andreas fault — highly active throughout its entire length. Haywards fault — active from Berkeley south, at least as far as opposite San Jose. The Mare Island system — data inconclusive. Possibly active from the Franklin Canyon Highway north. The Sunol-Southampton fault — probably active. No geologic or topographic data observed regarding the other faults indicated recent activity. Structures contemplated in this region should be designed to with- stand a shock of intensit}^ of X, Rossi-Forel scale. No structures should be built across a major fault. The proposed barrier should be aligned parallel with the major faults (average bearing north 40 degrees west). Excessive disturbance is to be expected in the marsh- land adjacent to the river. ^Moderate seismic water waves might affect a barrier. 23 — 80996 352 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES ADDENDUM I ERODED FAULT BLOCK CONCEPT OF LAWSON AND OTHERS The reader familiar with Lawson's discussion of structure in his San Francisco Folio* and Willis' ideas of a great number of fault blocks, crushed against and interacting on each other, will note that the struc- tural provinces of this region are not described here as fault blocks. Lawson describes three "earth blocks" in the San Francisco region, namely, the Montara block, the San Franciseo-Marin block, and the Berkeley Hills block. He describes them as bounded by major faults. The first two have an "asymmetrical outline characteristic of tilted fault blocks. ' ' He recognizes the more complicated structure of the Berkeley Hills block, which he states "is bounded on the southwest by a zone of acute deformation. ' ' Willist states "all of the blocks" (a large number are described in the Berkeley Hills and adjacent regions) "are bounded by faults, that is by planes on which they have been parted from the adjacent masses by shearing. The pattern of the faulting can be seen in the topographic map, since the valleys and gullies have been worked out chiefly on faults." This simple notion of tilted fault blocks bounded by active faults is easily understood and has been rather widely accepted as the character- istic feature of Coast Range geology. Although tilted blocks exist in the Coast Ranges, it has been found that this is not the dominant type of structure. It is difficult to understand how the great series of weak sedimentary rocks of the Coast Ranges could be faulted and tilted regularly under compressive stress; or if the underlying granitic base- ment has been faulted and tilted and carried the draping sedimentary rocks with it, how they could be closely folded. It is believed that a thick series of weak sedimentary rock yields irregularly to compressive stresses. The belt of yiekling is a belt of close folding and faulting at moderate depth, and doming or l)iilging near the surface. Tilted fault blocks are developed only where the strong crystalline rocks lie near the surface, covered, if at all, by a relatively thin veneer of sediments. Active faults cut through folded upwarps or downwarps as often as they bound fault blocks. There is little to support the prevalent idea that active faults occur only at the boundary of fault blocks. If this were so, it would be easy to discriminate between "active" and "dead." In discussing the topographic history of a tilted fault block, Davis has repeatedly explained that the fault face will retreat under erosion and deflating and form the erosion scarp. The old surface will be pre- served longest on the top of the ridge and a regular, even sloping ridge will develop between the new gullies, due to deflation and rainwash. In this case the old erosion surface is not deformed, yet the general cross- sectional profile of the range is curved or domed. Usually, however, * Polio 193, U. S. Geologic Survey (1914). t Suisun Bridge, Geology and Earthquake Risk. Private report. GEOLOGY OF UPPER SAX FRANCISCO BAY REGION 353 as recognized first by Willis, the old surface is actually deformed. This is certainly true of the Berkeley Hills block. The bowing of the old surface north of Berkeley would be classic if it were adequately described. The notion that the active faults an- confined to the margins of struc- tural fault blocks is less true, as a generalization, than that the fault block structure is commonly developed in a thick series of weak sedimen- tary rocks. The San Andreas fault cuts through Lawson's "Montara Block ' ' and it is believed most California geologists will agree that the San Andreas is an old fault and not a recent feature as described by him. In the vicinity of Carciuinez Strait, the Hay wards fault does sepa- rate regions of unlike geology, but the Mare Island, the Sunol- Southampton, and the Sulphur Springs faults cut closely folded blocks and mark lines of close folding and overturning. The studies in the Carquinez Strait area have confirmed the belief that folding and faulting may be the result of the application of the same .set of compressive stresses and therefore may be contemporaneous; that each block or zone of yielding is characterized by its individual type of failure under compression ; that close folding and faulting at depth may be represented by faulting and gentle doming at the surface. Complicated Topographic History. The complicated topographical history of this region will be appre- ciated by one reading Buwalda's recent paper on the Nature of the Late Movements on the Playwards Rift, Central California.* He states: "The observations set forth in this report are believed to indicate that : "1. The northeastern part, at least of the San Franeisco-Marin Block, for- merly stood higher instead of lower, as at present, than the southwestern part of the Berkeley Hills Block; a northeastward-facing fault scarp, instead of one sloping southwest, presumably rose ahmg the approximate site of the present hill front. This means a rather striking reversal of the physiographic and drainage conditions now existing in the P^astbay region. "2. Reversal in direction of the vertical-component movement along the Haywards fault zone occurred, giving rise to the present topographic relations. This movement was in part warping. ■■;>. The latest movement has been an essentially horizontal nortwestward displacement, relatively, of the San Francisco-Marin Block, with reference to the Berkeley Hills Block, by at least 1400 feet. "The late relative movements of the former block, with i-eferencc to the latter have therefore been successively upward vertically m- obliiiuely. dture of the ground which I take to be significant of a recent movement on this fault or on a branch of it. The phenomena are very clear, the rupture of the ground having nccurred probably less than 10() years ago. and ai-e sufficient to warrant the vipw that the Southampton fault is a live fault upon which future movements may be expected.'' The trenches resemble somewhat the fault trenches of Owens Valley, Avhicli lie directly over the fault planes of the great Owens Valley earth- quake fault. However, it appears that they were artificial and that material had been thrown out at tlie north side of the trenches. Inquiry brought out that they were trenches dug for natural cement rock. T. F. Connolley reports that 50 or 60 years ago his father and others dug tliese trenches in layers of cement rock. The cement rock was sold to tlie owners of the Benieia Cement Mill ; first, Henry Martin and then James Clyne and J. C. Johnson. Tom Clyne, now at Redwood City, and Charles 0. Clyne, sons of James Clyne, verified the information that cement rock was mined in the vicinity at that time- This question was investigated because of the high standing of those who reported tlie cracks, and also because an earthquake such as would have affected the solid rock strata on a hill would liave resulted in a tremendous disturbance of the clays of the river and Southampton Bay. Complicated Geology Between Martinez and Southampton Fault. The geology between the city of Martinez and the Southampton fault is complicated, and the geology, as mapped, is the interpretation fav- ored, but other interpretations ^re possible. The difficulty in locating the Martinez-Chico contact has been men- tioned. The exact contact can only be located by detailed micropale- ontological study of the shales. The Martinez formation fronting the strait is overturned, dipping at steep but variable angles to the south. The Cretaceous also is overturned, dipping to the south in like manner. Farther south the Cretaceous maintains its southerly dip, but the dip is regularly at a moderate angle and then it dips to the north. Ordi- narily these dips would indicate a syncline. In this case the older formation (the Cretaceous) would be in the syncline. This of course is impossible. The interpretation advanced is an overturned anticline in the Cre- taceous, just south of the contact between the Martinez and Cretaceous formations. The north limb is overturned and the south limb in nor- mal position. A fault is postulated at the change in dip from north to south. This fault is certainly present in the big gully at the contact of the Cretaceous and the Martinez formation farther west. It is a branch or spur of the main Southampton fault. The Southampton fault (Sunol fault) has been described in detail in the body of the report. In the preliminary study the evidences of recent movement were not appreciated. ]\Iore detailed study brought out its affect on topography as shown in Plate II-B. The study of the seismic record leaves little doubt in regard to recent earthquakes originating on this fault. GEOLOGY OF UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY REGION 357 Mare Island-Franklin Canyon Fault Zone. This fault was described as a very flat thrust plane by J. C. Merriam when the tunnel of the Santa Fe Railroad between Christie and Glen Frazer was being- dug. A. C. Lawson mapped the Chieo formation thrust over the Tertiary formations in this vicinity. One branch of the fault was mapped in this study as passing through the contorted Cretaceous shales in the gully back of Vallejo Junction. The second branch separated the massive Cretaceous yellow sandstone from the upper portion of the Martinez formation, which is completely cut out a mile to the south. The eastern branch projected would pass through Mare Island Strait shown in Plate D-III. The geology on the two sides of the strait calls for a fault. The western branch, projected, passes west of the island. The dip of these two planes cannot be flatter than 45 degrees, as shown by the contacts on the steep slope. The close folding on Mare Island has been described. Fault Assumed by Some to Extend Down the Center of Carquinez Strait as a Branch of the Southampton Fault. In some of the geological maps of the region, the Sunol fault is turned down along the course of the Carquinez Strait and then northwesterly into San Pablo Bay, past Mare Island. In this region of high seismic activity, the building of a structure across a branch of an active fault would be hazardous. Every effort therefore was made to determine positively whether or not this fault exists. The data on which this fault was postulated probably were the following : 1. The course of the strait might have been governed by a line of Aveakness, such as a fault. 2. The important Sunol fault might be expected to register more prominently in the geology north of Southampton Bay. 3. The strike and dip of the Cretaceous formation are quite divergent in places on the two sides of the strait. As to topographic evidence, the strait was excavated by an ante- cedent river, regardless of underlying structure. The two sides of the strait show no greater elevation of one side than the other. Topo- graphic evidence is against the existence of a fault in the channel. Geological study showed that the differences in dip and strike on either side is due to folding of the Cretaceous shales and sandstones and not to faulting. Positive geologic evidence of absence of faulting was discovered. The massive concretionary sandstone, with alternate shales and shaley sandstone, occurring between the Southern Pacific tunnel at Selby and Vallejo Junction on the .south side and at the southeast end of Mare Island were proved to belong to the upper horizon of the Cretaceous by paleontological evidence. The underlying dark gray shales are the same lithologically and contain a similar Cretaceous fauna. These strata therefore extend across the strait on the line of strike without dislocation. Because of the importance of this question, micro- paleontological and niicrolithological studies of the sections on either side of the strait were undertaken by Frank L. Tolman and he corre- lated identical zones on each side of the strait. 358 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES G &^ S 5 D. m T3fe 2 > O ^fe a & 3.2K ^ ^ ►J H o c S 12 C-n S O '"^ 3 CT3 as."' s .. ^ ryj O. O) O te — -2 2"- ?oo .2 o S c ■is 3 "2 ■« tC «! =^ ■gT3 ■§ S. .^ " III S.^--ij Q O 2 D-'-S a.-=- « -s g B O.S a m.S £->>>., rt S rt':^ - =5^2 3 £ o g- o .S Sa2J3 Si s* = g a 6 C3 O §"£ — -"Ji S ca: fej3 = "^'S • o 2 2-^ 2-0 «H 5 gfec- 'to S g I S p 3 B .§-o 2 a I'i-a-; -I i'Qr — "2 c 2 -^ fc Si a c a'-a^ ill -. „ ai _3 O S) ^ ^ o O CO J S-5 o >, 0) c 3 a) ■t? "0-5 3. >. ^ J) c2 -2 GEOLOGY OF UPPER SAX FRANTCISCO BAY REGION 359 H •2 3^ 3i?S =-!° 5io fe 5 ^ —'5— ^ ^ X ^ ■^ c 2 g-= g O u. ~ go. S-H2 s 'g a « •7. ^ C.-- — c r = « !« -^ • O i^ •r S J?* 3-g 3< fc s 3^ M-5 1 ilsi^^l £ >>5 >, o '„ d » - 5-1'^ 1^ Sis"" s fe-g -i a £. o o g c3 = - = S S cH 5? = i >> - "T'e* I £ ? 5 S 25S o o o 3 « o o .^. ^ = a ■§ >■ 5 o 2 " a • ^-S 3J. ^ s-5's^ o « >> a 5 ^•- » i„ « o 213 6 ° <-—' i: ° B, CM -S =— = S^.Sf o >> C 5 :., a s.-^_ °ja 2 g-c a"-^ - S^ ^^j-^a-o^l^. I „ e ^°ji^— .>,3 ^ S^a § " = 5 S-0.2 GEOLOGY OF UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY REGION SALT WATER BARRIER SITES lOOOf 2000 E SECTION I -J t Sea : Level Kch Emz Ral Etj Mm Etj Emz Kch Ral Kch Pit Ral ttj MspPp Pb Pip Hal ''/',''■ 'V''''vv'' V ^^^Qg SULPHUR SPRINGS MT. FAULT ' M T. DIABLO THRUST 1000 ^ 2000 ^ FRANKLIN CANYON FAULT 1000 — 2000 ^ + SECTION G-H Eto EtJ Hal EtJ Pit Etj Pit Etj Ral Kch Ral " SUNOL-SOUTHAMPTON BAY FAULT SECTION E-F Etj Pit Ral Pit Emz Kch Carqulnsz Strait FRANKLIN CANYON FAULT ' ^SUNOL-SOUTHAMPTON BAY FAULT SECTION C-D 1^1 Fault line j^^^l Known active fault 1-^ y| Anticlinal and synclinal axes I'-'""! Fault covered or position not accurately located Pinole Toff Recent Alluvium [ ^' Terrace Formation Pittsburg Formation Orinda San Pablo " Monterey Tejon Martinez Chico Note: See Plate D-IX for Location of Geologic Sections. 1000 2000 ""^ Ral Mm Ral Msp Pp Msp Mm Emz Kch ^ CanpjUnez Straff FRANKLIN CANYON-H/IARE ISLAND FAULT' SECTION A-B GEOLOGIC CROSS SECTIONS OF UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY REGION SCALE OF MILES APPENDIX E SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE DISPOSAL AND WATER REDEMPTION "With Special Reference to a SALT WATER BARRIER Below Confluence of Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers / I TABLE OF CONTENTS Page I^ETTER OF TRANSMITTAL 367 ORGANIZATION 368 Chapter I INTRODUCTION, SUMAIARY AND CONCLUSIONS 369 Area involved in pollution of a barrier lake 369 Pollution loads in upper San Francisco Bay and delta regions 370 Problem of river pollution 370 Effect of sewage and drainage water from delta islands 372 Problem of sewage and waste disposal in a barrier lake 373 Waste problems of industries 374 Bacterial contamination 375 Health conditions 375 Conclusions 376 Chapter II STREAM POLLUTION AND SELF-PURIFICATION 377 Oxygen demand phenomena • 377 Oxygen reabsorption from the air 379 Oxygen production by Plankton 379 Estimating the oxygen balance 380 Bacterial contamination 381 Population equivalents of industrial pollution 382 Chapter III SANITARY SURVEY OF THE DRAINAGE BASIN OF THE SACRAMENTO AND SAN JOAQUIN RIVERS 388 Conditions in Sacramento River above Sacramento 388 Conditions in Sacramento River below Sacramento 391 Pollution surveys in the Sacramento River 394 Incidence of typhoid fever in delta region and adjacent territory 405 Conditions in San Joaquin River above Lincoln Highway bridge 407 Conditions in San Joaquin River below Lincoln Highway bridge 407 Pollution surveys in the San Joaquin River 410 Chapter IV SANITARY SURVEY OF SUISUN AND SAN PABLO BAY BASINS 413 Conditions in Suisun Bay area 413 Pollution surveys in Suisun Bay 424 Conditions in San Pablo Bay area 424 Pollution surveys in San Pablo Bay 428 Summary of organic pollution load 428 Chapter V REMEDIAL MEASURES 429 Sewerage for the lower Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers 429 Sewerage for the area above Dillon Point 429 Conservation of sewage water 431 Sewerage for the area above Point San Pablo 432 Conservation of sewage water 432 (363) 364 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES Page Oxygen demand per capita at 20 degrees centigrade 377 Approximate population eciulvalents of industrial wastes 384 Summary of organic pollution load in the lower Sacramento River in terms of human equivalent 394 Summary of pollution surveys on the Sacramento River Following o9t; Sacramento River pollution survey — April 19-20, 1925 397 Sacramento River pollution survey — July 30, 1929 398 Sacramento River pollution survey — July 31, 1929 399 Sacramento River pollution survey — July 1, 1930 400 Sacramento River pollution survey — July 30, 1930 401 Sacramento River pollution survey — September 3, 1930 402 Sacramento River pollution survey — September 4, 1930 403 Sacramento River pollution survey — September 4, 1930 403 Cases of typhoid fever in the river area of Contra Costa, Sacramento, San Joaquin, Solano and Yolo counties 400 E-14 Summary of organic pollution load in the lower San Joaquin River in terms of human equivalent 410 E-15 San Joaquin River pollution survey, July 1-2, 1930 411 E-16 Summary of organic pollution load in Suisun Bay in terms of human equivalent 424 E-17 Summary of organic pollution load in San Pablo Bay in terms of human equivalent 427 E-18 Summary of organic pollution load in lower Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers and Suisun and San Pablo bays in terms of human equivalent 42S Table E- ■ 1 E- . 2 E- ■ 3 E- ■ 4 E- • 5 E- • 6 E- • 7 E- ■ 8 E- ■ 9 E- ■10 E- ■11 E- -12 E- -13 TABLE OF CONTENTS 365 LIST OF PLATES Plate Page E-I Oxygen reabsorption from the air 378 E-II Location of principal sources of pollution and sampling stations of pollu- tion surveys in upper San Francisco Bay and Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta Following 396 E-III Organic and bacterial pollution in the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers Following 396 E-IV Hypothetical organic pollution in the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers for average organic pollution loads during the critical season and given flow conditions Following 396 E-V Distribution of typhoid fever cases in upper San Francisco Bay and Sac- ramento-San Joaquin Delta regions during period 1925-1930 404 E-VI Typical industrial process charts Following 410 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL ^Ir. Edward Hyatt, Htaie Engineer, Sacramenio, California. Dear Sir: In accordance with your request, there is transmitted herewith a report on "Sewage and Industrial Waste Disposal and Water Redemption With Special Reference to a Salt Water Barrier Below Confluence of Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers." The report is in reference particularly to barriers located at the Dillon Point and Point San Pablo sites. Consideration has been given particularly to the aspects of pollu- tion by sanitary sewage and organic industrial waste, and in collabora- tion witli the Division of Highways, through its Testing and Research Laboratory, examination has been nuide of the pollution and possible disposal of mineralized wastes by the various industries now established ;dong the shores of Suisun Bay. ^lany data useful in this investigation have been contributed to the bureau by various city otificials, industrial plant executives and land owners throughout the region. Much assistance has been rendered by the Testing and Research Laboratory of the Division of Highways, particular!}' in the chemical analysis and investigation of inorganic industrial wastes. The Division of Epidemiology of the State Department of Public Health has investigated the incidence of typhoid fever in the area covered by the investigation and that report, with accomjianying sta- tistics, is presented as a ])ortion of this report. Respectfully submitted. Chief, Bureau of Sanitary Engineering, California State Department of Public Health. Berkeley, California. December 22. 1980. 24 — 8099G ( 307 ) ORGANIZATION DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC HEALTH W. M. Dickie Direefor of Public Health The report covered by tliis appendix was prepared by C. G. Gillespie Chief, Bureau of Sanitarij Engineering Assisted bj- J. M. Sanchis F. E. DeMartini ( :5 would be safe I'or a domestic 374 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES supply intake. Oxygen depletion probably would cover a much larger area than the bacterial contaminated area, considering the high percen- tage of organic waste compared to human sewage. Some areas actually would be septic. The only escape from such conditions is a general sewer system. This will be discussed subsequently. The main constructive recommendations of this report, therefore, narrow down to disposal of sewage and industrial and chemical wastes, which would be produced alons- the shores of a barrier lake, in such a way as to allow the taking of water for domestic, boiler, process and cooling purposes anywhere offshore. Waste Problems of Industries. At the outset, the disposal of the watery wastes of the industries |)resents an unusual problem. From Antioch downstream to Richmond file industries now discharge to the bay about 75 million gallons per day. The bulk of the flow is harmless water, but several industries add highly concentrated wastes, for Avhich a different disposal would be required should a barrier be constructed. At present the difficult chemical wastes fall into three classes: (1) iron sulphate wastes, (2) wastes containing the sodium radical, and (3) wash and rinse waters from the oil refineries. The latter are high in sulphurous com- pounds and contain so much gasoline that it is unsafe to carry them in sewers because of the danger of -explosions. In addition to this type of industrial waste, there are the many solids poured into the rivers, delta channels and bays by the canneries and other types of industries operating in the area above and adjoining the barrier sites. The principal solid waste is asparagus butts, emptied into the streams during the early spring canning season. The butts are dumped into the streams without any form of treatment in most instances. They do not decay rapidly and, as a result, would offer an unusual disposal problem in a barrier lake if they were continuously dumped therein and allowed to accumulate. These solid wastes, together with the chemieal wastes poured into the water ways by the industries, would present conditions in a barrier lake much more detrimental to a satisfactory water supply in upper San Francisco Bay than would human sewage, unless special steps were taken for their control. All organic factory wastes should be regarded in the same category as sanitary sewage because of their ]Hitrescibility. The magnitude of the industrial orsanic load represented has been stated previously. It is found that most of tlie troublesome industrial chemical wastes could be singled out from the huge volume of general waste water and bandied witbout great hardship by the producing industry. The segre- ii'ated oil refinery wash water, amounting to around 500,000 gallons per day, appears to be the most undesiralile waste. Were it not for its gasoline content, its disposal by way of a regional sewer system would not be burdensome. However, with so many records of explosions in sewers, the only disposal that can be offered is a separate carriage of Ibis water in a closed pipe line. By this procedure the waste could be Viy-passed around treatment works and the reduced cost thereof would partly offset the cost of the separate pipe line for refinery wastes. SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE 375 Bacterial Contamination. While it appears that where water in tlie Saeramento and San •ioaquin rivers is redeemable from a bacterial contamination standpoint it also is redeemable from an orsanie and oxy.s:en-containinir standpoint, it is not known whether sueh wonld be the ease in a barrier lake more hiiihiy })olluted bv industrial wastes. The experience of eastern cities, notably Cleveland, which sewers to Lake Erie, and those sewering to Lake Michigan thronuh the Indiana Harbor Ship Canal, together with surveys made by this Bureau around deep salt-water sewer outlets along the coast, lead to the belief that the untreated sewage of 1000 l>eople entering a barrier lake could pollute 50 acres thereof beyond the point of redemption for a domestic supply. "With the several larger commu)nties sewering into the bays, sloughs and streams adjacent thereto, and with industries empt>ing large volumes of dangerous industrial wastes into the same streams, to be gathered behind a barrier if one were built, it also appears that ultimately, unless proper steps were taken to remove the sewage and wastes, the whole lake shore would he a nuisance and would be useless for a water supply from end to end, or even for the industrial expansion which is the goal of those urging eonstruction of a barrier. Health Conditions. Past and present typhoid fever outbreaks in upper San Francisco Bay and the delta district also must be taken into consideration in sur- veying health conditions that would follow creation of a barrier lake. Whih^ it is true much progress has been made in checking outbreaks of this disease among transient workers in the seasonal industrial plants and agricultural districts of the upper bay and delta, there still exists a special typhoid problem in that area. Investigations made by the State Department of Public Health reveal that, largely through immunization work, the number of typhoid fever cases in the river areas of Contra Costa, Sacramento, San Joaquin, Solano and Yolo counties has been reduced from 110 in 1925 to 61 in 1930. Of the 1930 total, 19 cases were in Sacramento County, 37 in San Joaquin, two in Contra Co.sta, two in Solano and one in Yolo. These fil cases compare with a total of 685 for the state as a whole in 1930. This progress in reducing delta typhoid cases, the State Department of Public Healtli holds, is about all that ean be expected, as the type of country in the delta region and the army of laborers working in and out of it make the complete control of typhoid almost impossible. The hygienic reputation of the lower Sacramento River is not good, and the typhoid outbr<^aks in the regions bordering it probably can be associated with sewage contamination and use of the river for naviga- tion and swimming. The San Joaquin River's reputation hygienically also is bad. the appearance of its waters being such that discriminating persons probably would prefer not even to .swim in it. A portion of the t.\'phoid throughout the area is undoubtedly water- borne and the i)ossib!e iiitei-i'uption of the tidal cui-rents which now help scatter contamination would, in a small measure. imi)rove health condi- tions in the delta and upper bay. 376 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES Conclusions. The important conclusion that must be drawn after a survey of existing health, sewage and industrial waste disposal conditions, to determine wliat might be anticipated with a barrier cutting off tidal action in the upper San Francisco Bay and delta region, is that par- ticularly acute sanitary and waste disposal problems that do not now exist would result along the water front behind a barrier, and would be chargeable to a barrier. Similarly, in the event there were subnormal upland river flow past Sacramento and Stockton, sanitary problems would be created at each sewage outfall in the not far distant future. It is believed that septic areas, though probablj* not very extensive, would be created. The oxygen depletion, bacterial contamination and trade waste pollution to be anticipated would prevent the utilization of a wide strip of the water impounded behind a barrier unless steps were taken to prevent such pollution. Notwithstanding, it is concluded the sanitary problems would be feasible of solution at a reasonable cost as sewage disposal costs go. The result of a proper program of sewage disposal and waste segregation would be a suitable quality of Avater along the shore for domestic and industrial purposes. By a slight rearrangement of sewerage within the industries, about 80 per cent of the industrial waste water tributary to the bays could be kept unpolluted and returned to a barrier lake for re-use. The trouble- some chemical wastes would have to be disposed of below a barrier. Whether the organic waste and sanitary sewage also could be conserved behind a barrier with uniform satisfaction is a question almost impos- sible to decide in advance of actual experience, bearing in mind the sluggish shoal waters in which the disposal would be attempted and the uncertainties as to the future organic loads. The outlook, however, is unfavorable for successful sewage disposal in a barrier lake. Although the costs of works for disposal without complete sewage treatment into a barrier lake would be somewhat cheaper than for disposal below a barrier, sewage disposal anywhere behind a barrier should be accepted as speculative and its success not reliable unless complete treatment were given the sewage. If complete sewage treatment were added, the costs, both capital and annual, would exceed those of diversion of scAvage below a barrier by a considerable amount. The more conservative project would be to dispose of the liquid organic wastes and sanitary sewage, after appropriate treatment, and the chemical wastes at a point well below a barrier in such a way that tidal action could be taken advantage of in causing its dilution. The estimated outlays for projects of this nature, which would gather and carry all the sewage and organic wastes from the settlements and industries in the area above a barrier to treatment works and thence to tidal outfalls below a barrier range from $3,800,000 to $6,800,000, depending on whether a barrier were built at Dillon Point or Point San Pablo, respectively. The respective annual costs for these sewer sys- tems and treatment and disposal works are estimated at $400,000, or $68.50 per million gallons, and $780,000 or $74 per million gallons, with an operating capacity averaging 15 and 29 million gallons per day, respectively. SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE 377 CHAPTER TT STREAM POLLUTION AND SELF-PURIFICATION Oxyjien has an important part in riddini^' a waterway of pollution. It may be contained in the water in its unpolluted state, absorbed through the action of wind and tidal currents or produced by aquatic ])lant growths. This phase of the purification of water for industrial and other uses is worthy of detailed consideration. Oxygen Demand Phenomena. It is well known that organic substances are unstable chemically and, therefore, in a state of change. The native oxygen of the water with which these substances are in contact is consumed until their oxygen demand is satisfied. The process is not instantaneous, but goes on at a gradually decreasing rate for a long time, because of the varying stability of the compounds composing the substance. Average values as used in this report of the rate of oxygen demand, by organic matter in sanitary sewage, expressed in pounds of oxygen per person, are shown in Table E-1. TABLE E-l OXYGEN DEMAND PER CAPITA AT 20 DEGREES CENTIGRADE Period in d;iys Demand in pounds per capita Period in days Demand in pounds per capita 1 _ .. 05 09 12 0.145 165 6 7 10 15 20 0.183 2 198 3 218 4 236 0.240 Temperature changes the rate of demand for oxygen. Higher tem- peratures speed up biologic activity and increase the rate of oxygen demand, at the same time shortening its period of action. The values just given are for 20 degrees Centigrade, which probably is a fair value of the average summer temperature that would ]u"evail in the water i)ehind a barrier. In the case of sludge deposits, which lie stationary, the action is most intense in a restricted area. Jt may last over several months in the same area, or until the oxygen avidity is fully satisfied. For this reason the removal of sludge from sewage improves the condition of the receiving water to a marked degree. As oxygen in the diluting water is consumed, the first damage is to water supplies. Then fish life disappears. When the disappearance of the oxygen is complete, the water becomes black and septic and is apt to give off vile odors. 378 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES PLATE E-I Percent of saturation OXYGEN ABSORPTION | Undisturbed surface Wind and waves | 80 60 40 20 Cubic centimeters per sq ft. per day Pounds per acre per day Cubic centimeters per sq ft per day Pounds per acre per day 25 75 175 3.18 9 SO ::ro 115 280 S60 14,6 35.5 71,0 NOTE Compiled from data In Trjnsacfions, AS,C.E.,Vol. LXXXV, p.730. 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Pounds of oxygen absorbed per acre per day 100 OXYGEN REABSORPTION FROM THE AIR SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE 379 Oxygen Reabsorption from the Air. Offsetting this loss of oxygen, restoration sets in at once. The oxygen can come from several sources. It may be supplied to the affected areas from an adjacent area richer in oxygen, through the instruments of tidal and wind-blown currents and upland flow. Uni- versally, however, unless the surface water is sealed against it, as by oil or scum, oxygen is absorbed from the air, following the simple law of oxygen pressure equilibrium in water and the adjacent air. There- fore, the nearer a water approaches septicity. the more rapidly it ^\ill absorb oxygen from the air. The oxygen obtainable by readsorption from the air has been investigated in Xew York Harbor, and some work has been done on the effect of winds. The transfer is greatly aided by wind and wave action or by any influence that disturbs the Avater surface. For example, in still water 80 per cent saturated with oxygen, the rate of absorption lias been found to be about one pound per acre per day. If an 8.5 mile per hour wind is blowing the corresponding rate of oxygen absorption is nearly fifteen pound>;. Still water 40 per cent saturated absorbs oxygen at the rate of about ten pounds per acre per day. The SSy mile per hour wind will increase this absorption rate to over 70 pounds. It is doubtful, however, if a higher oxygen reabsorption rate than 120 pounds per acre per day is attainable under usual wind conditions even when conditions are actually .septic and the thirst for oxygen at its peak. The results of these investigations are shown on Plate E-1, "Oxygen Reabsorption From The Air." It also shows the reabsorp- tion expected under the wind conditions apt to occur in the area above the barrier sites being studied. The wind was assumed to average 8.5 miles per hour and to prevail one-third of the time. Assuming the removal of settleable sludge, the oxygen demand of the effluent would be about 0.12 pound per person for a three-day interval during which the effluent might lie in a zone critically low in oxygen. It can be computed from this that the settled scAvage of 1000 persons Avould reduce one acre of water surface to septicity. Since the Antioch area now produces wastes having an oxygen demand of over 80,000 per.sons, at least SO acres of water surface would be septic at the out.set. In the course of years this septic area would greatly increase. Since the tOAvns and industries from Antioch to ^Martinez are, or will be, almost continuous along the shore, it follows tliat shore outlets would be likely to ruin the entire waterfront. Oxygen Production by Plankton. Another source of oxygen normally available is that produced by the plant life known as plankton and commonly called "moss,'" if the water is not too low in oxygen to support the green plants. This is not only the stringy moss familiar to most people, but includes micro- scopic moss noticeable to the eye by the green or brown color it imparts to the water. Plankton thrive in the presence of sunlight and the fertilizer furnished by organic waste, quite the same as do land plants. In fact, it has been said that, acre for acre, water and soil in the same region can produce about an equal tonnage of plant life. There is little accurate measure of oxygen production by plankton. -Measurements on the mud flats of Potomac River indicated an oxvgen 380 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES production of 17.7 pounds per acre daily and "less in a mixture of fresh and salt water. " An intense plankton growth occurs in the Sacra- mento and San Joaquin rivers. Oxygen supersaturation of the San Joaquin River reaches as high as 150 per cent of normal. In the predic- tions of future conditions, which is a part of this study, the oxygen production by plankton has been taken at fifteen pounds per acre daily. However, no allowance for oxygen from this source has been made when the oxygen falls below 30 per cent of saturation. In the bays below the mouth of the two rivers, tidal currents and wind keep so much silt in suspension that sunlight can not pene- trate the water deeply and plankton growth is not in evidence. Behind a barrier, it is likely that there would be plankton growth in the deeper water, as in the case of the rivers, but along the shallow shores it is probable wave action would keep sufficient silt in suspension to prevent plankton growth. In the last few years these various phenomena of oxygen depletion and restoration have received more or less evaluation. This meager data, supplemented by tests on any particular water under investigation and by recourse to judgment a)ul comi)arable precedents elsewhere, afford the best procedure available for i)redicting future conditions in a stream. In the case of a more or less still body of water or a lake, where the only currents are wind-induced and whimsical, the method is less satisfactory and one must put chief reliance on judgment and precedents. Estimating the Oxygen Balance. The procedure in the application of the foregoing data to ah esti- mate of the oxygen status of a given stream is to construct the accumu- lative oxygen demand exerted downstream, taking into account the mean time of travel and increments to the pollution load as it passes points of new pollution. This gives the oxygen debit side. On the credit side is the oxygen supply at the beginning, plus oxygen restoration along the way from air and from plankton. Knowing the width of the stream and the distance covered in any given time, the oxygen derived from these sources can be evaluated. To ascertain the amount derived from air, a net degree of saturation is first tentatively assumed for the point in question, and if the final result does not agree closely a new value is assumed. After a few trials the answer is obtained. At the conclusion of such a series of calculations the net expected dis- solved oxygen along the course of the stream can be set down. Com- paring the calculated oxygen values for the Sacramento River with those actually determined by test for similar river flows, quite close agreement is to be observed.* This supports the reasonable correctness of the derivation of oxygen depletion and restoration. In such a lake-like area as would be created by a barrier, sludge deposits would form readily, unless the sludge were previously settled out, and the water over the sludge would become particularly obnoxious. Sludge removal, therefore, often accom]ilishes a striking cleanup and is one of the first steps in sewage treatment. If there are sludge *See Plates E-III, "Organic and Bacterial Pollution in the Saci-amenti) and San Joaquin Rivers," and B-IV, "Hypothetical Organic Pollution in the Sacramr-nto and San .loaquin Rivers for Average Organic Pollution Loads During the Critical Season and (iiven Flow Conditions." SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE 381 deposits and the dissolved oxygen approaches 20 per cent of saturation, the dang-er of septic conditions is p:reat. Tf there are no sludge deposits, a lower percentage may suffice to avoid septic conditions. Bacterial Contamination. If there were nothing other than dilution to reduce the health hazard from sewage contamination, the city of Sacramento, as an example, woiUd require a river floAV of about 100,000 second-feet just to keep the i-iver redeemable for a water suppl}^ with careful treatment. To meet drinking water standards without treatment, would require a flow of fully 200,000,000 second-feet. Sewage organisms do not thrive in water. Typhoid bacteria and the sewage index organisms, B. Coli, die quite rapidly and at nearly equal rates in ordinary waters. So far as known they do not multiply in natural waters. In a few days, or in a few miles of river flow, a majority will die. More than 90 per cent ordinarily will have disap- peared within a week or two. As the number of bacteria declines the rate of disappearance slows up. Final disappearance is too slow a process to occur practically in any of these rivers. On the other hand, a water redeemable for domestic use by treatment is reached fairly soon in the course of river flow. In the ease of the Sacramento River, such reduction ordinarily takes place some distance above Courtland, which is about 22 miles below the city of Sacramento's sewer outlet. Sacramento River water is easily redeemable for a domestic supply considerably above Walnut Grove and, except for local areas of repoUution, this condition is true clear to the mouth of the river. In the San Joaquin River also the same phenomenon of limitation of travel of bacterial contamination is found. Hence, the excessive bacterial contamination around outfalls to the river is not all-pervading, but affects only a local area around or below the sewer outlets and feathers out to a rather persistent residual, found to lie between about ten and twenty-five B. Coli per cubic centi- meter not many miles away. Comparing the point at which a redeemable water supply is reached below Sacramento and the dissolved oxygen findings, it appears that, where the water is redeemable from a bacterial contamination stand- point, it also is redeemable from an organic and oxygen containing standpoint. Whether this also would be true in a barrier lake, more highly polluted by industrial wastes, is a question. Within a lake formed by a barrier the same tendencies for disappearance of the sewage organism w^ould prevail. However, there is only meager prec- edent to say how far the resultant contamination would travel. In the case of Cleveland, with a population of about 800,000 sewer- ing along the shore of Lake Erie, it is reported that the waters are not redeemable for water supply for a distance of two miles offshore and for a distance of sixteen miles along shore. The sewage is chlorinated to protect shore bathing. This indicates an area of contamination of about 30 acres per 1000 i)eople. The Indiana Harbor Ship Canal empties the sewage of 115,000 people close to the shore in Lake IMichi- gan. Surveys show contamination beyond that of a redeemable water to reach nearly 7000 feet offshore on an average, varying from 3000 to 10,000 feet, depending on wind. The length of shore afl'ected to the 382 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES sHiiu' (Icjii't'e is from one and a lialf to fifteen miles, averaging ten miles. This Avonld indicate an average zone of contamination of not less than three acres per 1000 people, and not more than 130 acres per 1000 people. The average figure was 100 acres per 1000 people. The range of the values illustrates the effect of wind piling the contamination on the shore, or driving it away. Prom surveys of the Sacramento River, its contamination factor is found to be about 15 acres per 1000 people. It is said that B. Coli have about the same longevity in salt Avater as in fresh. This bureau has made several surveys around deep salt water sewer outlets along the coast and the contamination factor has been found to lie between about one acre per 1000 people for large cities and five acres per 1000 people for small communities. From all this evidence it appears that, to be reasonably conserva- tive, it should be assumed untreated human sewage of 1000 people could contaminate and pollute 50 acres of lake water beyond the point of redeemability for a domestic water su])ply. In still water the con- taminated zone would approximate a circle. Due to wind-induced cur- rents and outlets in shallow water near the shore, however, the shape of the area would elongate or indent under the pressure of winds and cur- rents. Outside of the limits of the area so polluted, it appears that the water not only would be redeemable on hygienic grounds, but it would be far from stagnant or unusable due to organic pollution. In determining the location of a water works intake for domestic and most industrial process water, the estimated area of pollution should be plotted for the given locality and the intake kept well outside of it. Of the present communities, A\here such a test should be applied, Pittsburg, Antioch and the Oalifornia Water Service Company intake near Mallard Slough would seem most concerned. In the Pittsburg area, for example, it appears that the sewers already present might make domestic and industrial water diversion dangerous within an area of 500 acres. This might easily elongate a couple of miles up and down the shore and overlap neighboring zones of pollution, such as that due to the Antioch sewers. Ultimately the whole shore would be a nuisance if each community were to run its sewer offshore with no comprehen- sive i)lan, and the shores would be rendered useless from end to end for water supply and even for industrial occujiation. Population Equivalents of Industrial Pollution. It is convenient iij comparing the i)ollutional possibilities of indus- trial wastes, often varying widely in their characteristics, to determine the oxygen demand of the particular waste and to express its strength in terms of its oxygen demand compared to the more constant oxygen demand of human sewage. This strengtli of the waste is designated as its "population equivalent." Since this nomenclatui'c and pro- cedure is one of the developments of recent years in sewage disposal, all available information from various sources giving population equiva- lents of numerous industrial wastes is assembled here, iiielnding also special work ])erformed in this particular investigation. These popu- lation equivalent values are summarized in Table E-2. When sewage treatment is practiced, the oxygen demaml, and hence tlip jjopulation e(|uivalent. is icduced in proportion to the amount SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE 383 of treatiuent the wastes receive. The percentage reduction factors of oxygen demand employed in this report are : Type of treatment Per cent reduction of oxygen demand Type of treatment Per cent reduction of oxygen demand Fine screens. Septic tank. Chiori nation Imhofl tank. 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DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES CHAPTER III SANITARY SURVEY OF THE DRAINAGE BASIN OF THE SACRAMENTO AND SAN JOAQUIN RIVERS The Sacramento River, rising on the slopes of Mt. Shasta, is a beautiful mountain stream for miles at its headwaters. However, it receives sewage almost at its source, and sewage and waste are added to it every few miles to its mouth. Settlements, industrial plants and other improvements, contributing to the river's ]iol]ution. border the main stream and the several tributary rivers, including the ]\IcCloud, Pit. Feather, Yuba, Bear and American, and also several smaller tribu- taries. Conditions in Sacramento River Above Sacramento. ^It. Shasta City, formerly Sisson, is the farthest upstream settle- ment sewering into the Sacramento River. The city maintains a septic tank discharging its effluent to a small creek, which empties into the river about three miles away. Five miles downstream from the mouth of this creek is an old and well-known resort area. The owners of this outing spot endeavor to restrain all sewage of that locality in cesspools, but some of it may escape to the river. To this point the river still maintains the beauty of a mountain stream. Lying just below this resort area is Dunsmuir, the next city of note making use of the river as a depository for its sewage. The sewage is gathered in a complete city sewage system, and quite effectively treated in an activated sludge plant below the city. The effluent then is run to the river. A railroad roundhouse maintained here occasionally loses some oily waste to the river. At this jioint the river begins to show signs of mass clinging to .stones and banks, but otherwise it is clear and clean. In the next six miles there are several resorts and the small settle- ment of Castella. Sewage pollution in the area may occur occa.sionally due to overflowing cesspools. Each mile of the river now shows a notice- able deterioration, principally in clearness. For the next 40 miles, or to the point of entry of the Pit River, there is scarcely any added con- tamination, but the waters fail to regain their original clearness and are more or less mo.ssy and unpalatable. The Pit River, which also carries the flow of the ]\IcCloud River into the Sacramento River, is more or less polluted for much of its length. Alturas. at its head, recently installed a new sewer system yielding a high grade effluent, which passes through ponds, where it is still further purified, before being emptied into the river. For 40 or 50 miles below Alturas the Pit is a badly discolored, slough-like stream flowing through a high Sierra ])lateau and is subject to much pollution by'stoi'k. Individual sewers at Adin and Bieber also contribute some pollution to Hie Pit as it wends its way toward the lower levels in the SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE 389 drainaiie basin. On i-eaeliinfr tlio Sacramento River the waters of the Pit have regained their bine appearance. Tlie MeClond River water, carried into the Sacramento by the Pit, i.s particnlarly free of contamination. However, some contamination may oecnr from occasional sewage overflow from the McCloud sewer farm several miles away from its channel. It is often muddy, due to mud flows from ^It. Sliasta. Fourteen miles below the junction of the Pit and Sacramento rivers is the city of Redding', which obtains its water supply from the Sacramento River and treats the water by aeration and chlorination. Redding: has a complete sewer system discharging raw sewage to the river. It is now the uppermost source of any considerable contamina- tion of the Sacramento River. However, the sewage mixes quickly with the large flow of the river and, except for a bad odor at the sewer outlet, tliere is no physical impairment to suggest the presence of sewage. The next main source of pollution downstream is at Red Bluff, about 44 miles from Redding- by river. It has a sewer system but no sewage treat- ment. It depends on dilution in the Sacramento River and conditions are similar to those below Redding-. About 20 miles below Red Bluff is the town of Corning, which also sewers raw sewage to the Sacramento River without noticeable pollu- tional effect. From Corning- to the mouth of the Feather River, about 85 miles by air line, no sewage drains to the Sacramento River. In the neighborhood of Colusa, Butte Creek discharges the drainage of the rice fields on the east side of the Sacramento Valley. Along the upper Feather River is another of the great playgrounds of the State. The river undergoes substantially the same impairmeut as does the upper Sacramento. The first important source of sewage pollu- tion, however, is at Oroville, at the foot of the Sierra. The citj' is com- pletely sewered and its sewage is treated in a septic tank. From all appearances the river is clean. The water is popular for swimming- and is largely diverted for irrigation. The Feather River is levied from Oroville to its mouth. Yuba City and Marysville lie on its banks, but neither of these places has contributed scAvage, except during; floods when their sewer farms overflow. The Yuba River joins the Feather at Marysville. Nevada City sewers raw sewage to Deer Creek, a tributary of the Yuba River. Other- wise there is no pollution worth mentioning. The Bear River is tribu- tary to the Feather about 20 miles upstream from its mouth. Wlieat- land has a filter bed in the dry sands adjoining the Bear River, which is generally dry, or nearly so, at this point in summer. Like the Yuba, the Bear River receives most of its pollution by way of small creeks. One of these is Wolf Creek, which carries the raw sewage of Grass Valley. On another creek is Weimar Sanitarium, having a com- plete sewage treatment. On still another is Colfax, having a septic tank and sewer farm. Between the Bear River and the American River, the waters of several creeks di-ain acro.ss the vallej' and, after having gathered sewage from various towns, collect in small lakes and marshes behind the Sac- ramento River levee and tlien are discharged into the river. Towns seAverinir to the river bv this indii-oct route include Auburn and New- 390 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES castle, each with Imhof? tanks; Lincoln with a septic tank; and Rose- ville with a separate sludge digestion tank. On the west side of the Sacramento River are extensive rice fields. Their drainage finds an outlet to the river at Knights Landing or to Yolo By-Pa.ss. The acreage of rice land has varied from 75.000 to 160,000 acres in the past ten years. The irrigation practice is to begin flooding tlie rice early in April. The duty of water is about six acre- feet per acre. A steady run-off of highly vegetable and more or less mineralized drainage water occurs throughout the growing months. In the harvest months of September and October the rice fields are de-watered in the course of a few weeks' time. Hence, a considerable portion of the dry weather and early fall flow past Sacramento is rice field drainage. From a pollution standpoint, the principal result of rice field drainage is a con.siderable increase in the incrusting and corrosive properties of the water and an extremely high plankton growth in the river. These properties introduce a difficult water treatment problem at Sacramento. The plankton remain a prominent characteristic down- stream nearly to the river's mouth, where silt turbidity destroys thera. However, even without the rice fields to supply plankton to the river, it is probable the fertilizing elements of the sewage of the city of Sacra- mento alone would sustain plankton growth in scarcely less diminished amount. The Amerit-an River empties into the Sacramento River just above Sacramento. This stream receives the raw sewage of Placerville by way of Webber Creek and the supposedly chlorinated sewage from Foisom State Prison, about 25 miles east of Sacramento, as well as the sewage effluent from Foisom City, just below the penitentiary. Before entering the American River the sewage effluent from Foisom City first is passed through an ImhofE Tank and then over the coarse dredger fields near the city. It must percolate through these fields and several hundred feet of river sediment before entering the stream. Generally speaking the Sacramento River above Redding and its major tributaries above the foothills have the characteristics of moun- tain streams, with successive rapids and pools of still water. From a short distance above the mouth of Stony Creek down through the valley to its mouth, the Sacramento River flows on a delta ridge. This is true also for the lower reaches of the main tributaries. To confine flood waters, the banks have been leveed and the river currents are more or less uniform and actually sluggish in the late summer and early fall. The levees also regulate the points of entry of tributary drainage water, a more or less polluted, highly colored run-off of rural areas. This vater is collected behind the levees at a few points only and pumped into the rivers. In summer nearly all the natural run-off of these streams now is used for irrigation and the larger part of the flow reaching Sacramento is simply return water from irrigation operations. No diversion for domestic supply occurs between Redding and Sacra- mento. SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE 391 Conditions in Sacramento River Below Sacramento* The city of Saeranieiito has ohtained its water supply at a point just below the confluence of the Sacramento and American rivers for some time. The river water is coagulated, settled, passed through rapid sand filters and chlorinated in one of the most complete water purifi- cation plants in the state. Since its first sewers were constructed, Sacramento has discharged its sewage into the Sacramento River. In recent years North Sacra- mento has sewered to the river through the Sacramento system. In round numbers, the combined population of these cities was 45,000 in 1910, 67,000 in 1920 and 96,000 in 1930. All wastes, storm water and sanitary sewage flow through the same system of sewers into sumps located at two levee pumping stations. No. 1 being at the foot of U street and No. 2 farther south near the southern outskirts of Sacra- mento. From the sumps the sewage is pumped through the levee into the Sacramento River. The only treatment, if it may be so called, is passing the sewage throngh coarse screens to remove foreign matter that might damage the pumps. For many years, prior to the erection of plant No. 2, all the city's sewage was brought to sump No. 1. Since the erection of plant No. 2 the practice has been to divert as much of the sewage as possible to this plant, because of its remoteness from the intake to the city's water works. This is especially true in summer, when tidal currents fre- quently reverse the river flow. The records of power and pumpage for 1929 indicate that during the rainy season plant No. 1 handled about 60 per cent of the total flow in the sewers and from May to November only 20 per cent. The remainder was pumped by station No. 2. During the summer and fall periocls one can not detect by eye signs of sewage-foulinu' in the vicinity of the outfall at pumping plant No. 1. This probably is due to the small quantity of sewage discharged and to the fact that the outlet remains submerged. At station No. 2, how- over, the pump outfall discharges into a shallow bay, formed by a protecting wall extending about 50 feet into the river channel. When the river is low, as it is in summer, the relative quiescence of the water in this bay results in offensive sludge banks in the shallow water and conditions in the immediate vicinity are septic and disgusting. At Sacramento, as throughout the entire lower Sacramento River area, industrial waste outranks human sewage in ])ollutional effect. The most important waste producing industries are canneries and cream- eries. One cannery, located in the river bottom, however, settles its wastes through a septic tank and disposes of its effluent by broad irri- gation instead of through an outfall to the river. The combined population equivalent of all industrial wastes at Sacramento varies from about 5000 in winter to 12-1,000 at the height of the canning season, making a maximum scAvering load, including sanitary sewage, equivalent to that of approximately 220,000 persons. Across the river from Sacramento is the unincorporated village of Broderick. It has no sewer .system and its inhabitants depend on *See Plates E-II, "Location of Principal Sources of Pollution and Sampling Stations of Pollution Surveys in Upper San Francisco Bay and Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta," and E-V, "Distribution of TAphoid Fever Cases in Upper San Fran- cisco Bay and Saoramento-San Joaquin Delta Regions During Period 1925-1930," in explanation of following discussion. 392 DIVISION OP WATER RESOURCES cesspools and privies behind the levees for the disposal of sewage. Hence, little, if any, contamination reaches the river therefrom. The Sacramento River, especially below Sacramento, is a busy navigable stream. Scores of vessels, large and small, moor along the banks at Sacramento. The large vessels plying the river are the prin- cipal means of freight and passenger transportation by water between river and bay points. The extent of pollution contributed by naviga- tion is difficult to estimate, but it must equal that from any of the lower river communities. The Sacramento River flows between high levees for over 50 miles through the rich delta region below Sacramento. This region having some of the richest land in the State is sometimes called the "Nether- lands of America." The land for miles on both sides of the stream is extensively cultivated to asparagus, corn, grain, beans, alfalfa, beets, potatoes, fruit, seed, celery and other similar crops. Most of the ]ieople live just behind the levees. There are several small settlements and, here and there, wharfs, canneries and fruit-packing plants on the river's edge. In each of these plants, from 10 to 100 or more persons are employed at the height of their season. Between Sacramento and Walnut Grove, a distance of 32 miles, there are several small settlements, including Freeport, Clarksburg. Hood, Courtland and Locke. These places all lie just back of the levees and, with the exception of Locke, create no sewage contamination or river pollution problem. Like other communities along the river, they get their water supply from wells nearby. Near Clarksburg, about 16 miles below Sacramento, the river begins to divide into typical delta channels. Supplemented by dredger cuts, these channels form a large number of delta islands, each sur- rounded by levees. Homes and settlements cluster along these levees, especially in the Sacramento River delta area, where bridges and ferries interconnect many of the islands. Nearly all the homes use vault privies, cesspools or septic tanks for sewage disi)osal because of the expense of pumping small quantities of sewage to the river. Only two of the settlements. Walnut Grove and Rio Vista, sewer to the river. Considerable cannery and ])acking-house wastes, however, are dumped into the river in this area. Locke, 30 miles below^ Sacramento, has a population of about 500 people, whose sewage is pumped into sloughs back from the river. A cannery in this vicinity discharges its wastes, mainly asparagus butts amounting to 15 tons daily, into the river. The population equivalent is about 8000 people. In August and September tlie jilant handles pears and the waste then has a population equivalent of about 6500 persons. Immediately below Locke is Walnut Grove with a population of 500 to 2000 or more. It is the largest settlement on the lower river. Three different sewerage systems serve this community. One sj^stem serves the hotel and carries the raw sewage of about 30 persons direct to the river. Another serves about 15 houses and business structures, including the bank and post office. It discharges its sewage, after settling in septic tanks, into a small ditch east of town. The effluent then passes into a drainage canal and generally see])s away into the sandy loam soil within a few hundred feet. The third system serves the Ja])anese and Chinese quarters and tlie remainder of the community. SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE 393 taking care of a population varyinp- from 450 to 2000 persons during the cannery season. It discharges its sewage into a concrete sump at the easterly edge of the town. The effluent is pumped from this sump into the Sacramento River. At Ryde, two and a half miles below Walnut Grove, there are about 400* people. Sewage is disposed of by vault privies, cesspools or septic tanks, with no sewerage to the Sacramento River. Two can- neries in this vicinity handle asjiaragus. The wastes, comprising about 35 tons of asparagus butts daily from April to July, represent a popula- tion equivalent of about 17. ()()(). The butts are dum])e(l iiito the river without treatment. Several canneries are located on Andrus Island in the six and a half miles between Ryde and Isleton. They discharge about 90 tons of asparagus butts to the Sacramento River, with a population equivalent of about 36.000 per.sons. One canning plant operates on spinach from March to April, asparagus from April to June, and pears from xVugust to September. Two others handle asparagus as their only product and operate from April to June. Still another operates on spinach from ^March to April, asparagus from April to July, and tomatoes from September to November. These plants dispose of their liquid wastes by discharging them away from the river into the drainage system of Andrus Island. These wastes are pumped, with the general drainage of the island, into Georgiana Slough, eventually reaching the San Joaquin River. A similar disposition is made of the wastes originating at a cannery near the mouth of Georgiana Slough which cans spinach and asparagus from March to June. The population equivalent of asparagus wastes dumped into Georgiana Slough is 7000 persons. All other solid wastes, such as spinach and tomato trimmings, pear cores, etc., are dumped on land. Each of these canneries, as well as the town of Isleton, settles domestic sewage in septic tanks prior to discharging it into the island drainage system. Cache Slough joins the Sacramento River from the north at a ]ioint three miles below Isleton. Cache Slough is the outlet end of Yolo By-Pass, which begins opposite the mouth of Feather River and follows down the west side of the Sacramento River. The by-pass is in-actically dry, excejit during floods when it carries a wide stream of M-ater polluted by enormous ]iastures and the raw sewage of Woodland, which is emptied into the by-pass continuously. The next source of river pollution is at Rio Vista, about five miles below Isleton. The domestic sewage of about 1200 of its inhabitants is discharged into the river without treatment. A septic tank formerly used slid into the river recently, and has not been replaced. All the wastes produced at a local .cannery, which include about 50 tons of asparagus butts daily, are dumped directly into the Sacramento River. This plant operates on asparagus between April and July, and its wa-stes have a population equivalent of nearly 20,000. Collinsville, a small fishing colony, is located at the mouth of the Sacramento River about twelve and a half miles below Rio Vista. It is built almost entirely over the watei-, and the sewage from the few homes is dropped directly into the river. A summary of the aggregate pdlluliou reaching the Sacramento Rivei'. below the mouth of the American, is given in Table E-3. 394 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES TABLE E-3 SUMMARY OF ORGANIC POLLUTION LOAD IN THE LOWER SACRAMENTO RIVER IN TERMS OF HUMAN EQUIVALENT Human Human equivalent of industrial waste Sources of pollution June July August September Winter months City of Sacramento (including North Sacramento) 96,000 Four canneries _ 29.780 5,090 840 250 56,300 5,090 840 250 117,800 5,090 840 250 117,800 5,090 840 250 5,090 50 Packing and rendering plants.. 250 Locke. , ■(300) ■(200) 1,000 '(100) '(280) ■(280) '(500) 1,200 Cannery 8,630 6,500 6,500 Walnut Grove.- Ryde Two canneries 17,170 Isleton . . 36,400 (=) {') {■') Rio Vista Cannery __. _.. 19,900 Totals 98,200 117,460 62,480 130,480 130,480 5,390 ' Figures in parentheses do not sewer to Sacramento River and do not appear in the total. = Wastes during this time and blr.nching water during June diverted to Georgiana Slough and thence to San Joa- quin River. Tlie organic load on the Sacramento River from Sacramento to its moutli is appraised as the sanitary .sewage of about 98,000 people and an industrial load, occurring principally late in summer, equivalent in its oxygen demand to the sewage of at least 130,000 people. Below Sacramento the waste having the greatest oxygen demand is asparagus butts. The fruit wastes run without treatment to drain- age canals, but the asparagus butts are dumped directly into the river. The combined capacity of the plants, in terms of asparagus received, is about 400 tons daily, of which ap]iroximately 50 ]^er cent is asparagus butts. These are dumjnnl into the river and may be seen floating there in white masses until fall or winter. In the course of a season about 14,000 tons of butts, with a poi^ulation equivalent of about 90,000, are disposed of. Probably the principal objections to their presence in the river are their unsightliness, the fact that they choke screens and fish nets, and the likelihood that they M'ill give more or less trouble in future waterworks. It is believed the river should be freed of these butts to realize the fullest advantage of a barrier. In .some cases the butts are ]5ulverized into a mulch, but this .seems to be a ste]) in the wrong direction as the fibrous ma.ss causes a rapid extraction of oxygen from the diluting stream, which is not the case as long as the butts are ]n-otected by the outer skins. Another method of disposal used by some canneries is composting on land. This is a simple operation, but requires considerable isolation because of odors and flies. This method has merit, however, and should be perfected. Pollution Surveys in the Sacramento River. — Twelve stream pollution surveys have been made of the Sacramento River by the Bureau of Sanitary Engineering during the iiast five rears, 1925 to 1930. SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE 395 Sampling points are shown on Plate E-II, "Location of Principal Sources of Pollution and Sampling Stations of Pollution Surveys in Upper San Francisco Bay and Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta." The results of tlie tests are presented in Tables E-4 to E-12, inclusive. The tests for dissolved oxygen and B. Coll are especially instructive and are shown on Plate E-IIL "Organic and Bacterial Pollution in the Sacra- mento and San Joaquin Rivers." On a dissolved oxygen basis, depletions have been found to occur from the lower sewage pumping plant of the city of Sacramento to the vicinity of Clarksburg. The tests covered periods in which the river flow ranged from 2450 second-feet to 56,200 second-feet. For the same flows and stations the percentage of oxygen saturation varied as much as 30 per cent. The point of lowest dissolved oxygen was in the vicinity of Freeport, running as low as 60 per cent of saturation. Oxygen restoration was quite rapid in the next 15 miles, and at a point a few miles above Walnut Grove the river had returned practically to normal. B. Coli tests showed the water to be redeemable for domestic purposes at about the same point. The data on pollution surveys presented in this report comprise all survey data available up to and including 1930. No pollution sur- veys were made during periods of low stream flow such as occurred in the summers of 1920 and 1924, when the upland flow past Sacramento dropped to about 300 and 700 second-feet respectively. However, no septic conditions were reiiorted during these periods of low flow either in 1920 or 1924. Subsequent to the preparation of this report, the dry season of "1930-31 occurred, resulting in an unprecedented low stream flow in the Sacramento River in July. 1931. During a period of several days, the flow of water past Sacramento was almost entirely a tidal movement with the flow reversing up and down stream at intervals of about six hours. Tidal cycle stream flow measurements made at Sacramento indicated an average tidal flow of about 2200 second-feet up and down stream during flood and ebb tides. Pollution surveys were made during this period of low flow, showing that the pollution load discharged into the river at Sacramento was distributed by the tidal currents and flow- to some 500 acres of river channel, covering a stretch of 10 to 12 miles up and down stream. Oxygen was found present at all points in this polluted stretch of river and no septic areas were found. At the most critical stage, the average was 50 to 60 per cent of saturation and the lowest single value observed was 20 per cent of saturation. Oxygen depletion was found to effect approximately 5 acres of river surface per 1000 persons served by the sewer, as compared to about 15 acres which was found by the surveys made during times of greater upland flow passing Sacramento which had tlie effect of distributing the sewage over a greater stretch of river channel downstream from the sewage outfall. The conditions found by these pollution surveys in 1931 indicate that the purification was evidently not unlike that taking place in oxidizing lagoons and fish ponds. Tt appears probable that under similar conditions of low stream flow passing Sacramento as in 1931, the present sewage load at Sacramento could not be more than doubled without danger of septic areas being formed in the channel in the vicinitv of the sewage outfall. However, such septic areas would cer- 396 Dmsiox of water resources taiiily remain local and cover a relatively short streteli of river. During this period of low stream flow in 1931, the surveys showed that B. Coli contamination dropped sharply from 700 to 1000 per c.c. at points of high concentration to less than 50 per c.c. just beyond the stretch of river to which the tides carried the sewage. During these summer investigations ]:)lankton have always been prolific clear to the mouth of the Sacramento River and musty and fishy smells Avere noticeable close to the water and even on the levees during warm evenings. The general appearance of the river, however, is that of a normal, clean, low-land stream, the waters of which would be easily redeemable for domestic supply. The most noticeable signs of pollution are the green color due to moss growth, and the vegetable debris, dead tules. logs and the like close to the water's edge. Studies have been made to estimate the etfect of present and future organic pollution on the Sacramento River from Sacramento down- stream, under the conditions which would obtain if a barrier were constructed below the confluence of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers, eliminating tidal action from the river channel above. The results of these calculations are sho^vn on Plate E-IV, ''Hypothetical Organic Pollution in the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers for Average Organic Pollution Loads During the Critical Season and Given Flow Conditions. ' ' The conclusions to be drawn from these hypothecical pollution studies, are as follows : 1. Septic nuisances would be likely with the amount and distribu- tion of pollution now reaching the lower Sacramento River, provided the river flow fell below 500 to 1000 second-feet. 2. Such zones of complete oxygen depletion may be expected to extend three to four miles downstream from the outfall of pumping plant Xo. 2 at Sacramento and cover about 230 acres, or somewhat over one acre per 1000 people. 3. Oxygen recovery would set in below the septic area and prac- tically reach saturation at Walnut Grove. 4. There might be another slight depletion below Walnut Grove, but oxygen saturation again would be reached just below Rio Vista. ' 5. A river flow of 2000 to 2500 second-feet seems necessary to prevent septic nuisance with three times the p/esent organic loads. PLATE E-II ^^-# <=I LEGEND "*■ Existing sources of pollution SAMPLING STATIONS O Foot of "Y" St^ Sacto. @ 200 ft. below outfall of Pumping Plant N92, Sacto. (D Riverside (4) Freeport Bridge (5) Hood Ferry © Paintersville Bridge (7) Walnut Grove sleton Bridge (D Rio Vista Bridge (J (jo) Three Mile Slough Bridge (jT) Antioch Bridge ® Wulff s Landing 13) Southwesterly corner of Empire Tract @ Gortons Landing ® Borden Highway Bridge at Stockton © Brant's Bridge (q) Lincoln Highwa_y Bridge LOCATION OF PRINCIPAL SOURCES Of POLLUTION AND SAMPLING STATIONS OF POLLUTION SURVEYS IN PPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY AND SACRAMENTO -SAN JOAQUIN DELTA SCALE OF MILES 80 PIRATE E-II LEG END SAMPLING STATIONS O Foot of "Y" St, Sacto ® 200 ft. below outfall of Pumping Plant N?2. Sacto @ Riverside © Freeport Bridge (D Hood Ferr_y © Paintersuille Bridge @ Walnut Grove ® Isleton Bridge (D Rio Vista Bridge U @ Three Mile Slough Bridge @ Antioch Bridge '<; ® Wulff's Landing ^ @ Southwesterly corner of ^7 Empire Tract @ Gorton's Landing © Borden Highway Bridge at Stockton © Brants Bridge ® Lincoln Highway Bridge LOCATION OF PRINCIPAL SOURCES OF POLLUTION AND SAMPLING STATIONS OF POLLUTION SURVEYS UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY AND SACRAMENTO -SAN JOAQUIN DELTA PLATE E-in POLLUTION SURVEYS ON THE SACRAMENTO RIVER DISSOLVED OXYGEN POLLUTION SURVEYS ON THE SAN JOAQUIN RIVER DISSOLVED OXYGEN AND B.COLI INDEX B.COLI INDEX -. l[^ _: i y ^ \ - u 0)350 Q- °300 CO O250 ■^200 o o m 100 ll L| \ - / \ \ - li \ - ^J 1 _ \ > |o - \ 4 f 1 i f" t^^ ii \ \ 1 1 i- S \ •'■' \ sL\ 1 " _ i V--^ ll 1 1 4 A /-■■■ ^■"^^ ^^ V- ^''^ 1 ...A ya=E3 iTii-r^ — ^-^ Distance in miles from Sacramento Pumping Plant N^l \ - \ - - \ V - - \ - - \ ^N^^ \ ^1^70 Second-feet.July 2,1930 / / - - ■i^ .Dissolved oxygen ^— / / -^ - 1 I 1 ^M_ / / - ' ; Lb. Coll index / / - 1 1 - ■ 1 1 - - I 1 1 ^ - - 1 1 * a 1 f 1- > ■oO - - ,b 1 1 \'^ 1 f - - ll •i 1 1 / 1 - ' 1 ~^«v 1 1 s "-VL 1 / 1 ^ Distance in miles from Lincoln Highway Bridge across the SanJoaquin River LEGEND Pollution Surveys - Sacramento River ° 56,200 Second-feet Apr. 20,1925 4.240 3,470 3,470 3,120 — 2.630 2,680 — 2,450 n Surveys ~ SanJoaquin July 1,1930 Sept. 4, 1 930 Sept, 4, 1 930 Sept. 3,1 930 July3l,l929 Ju^ 30,1929 July 30,1930 a B.Coli index 1 flow for Sacramento River as computed at Sac- and for SanJoaquin River as computed at Vernalis ORGANIC AND BACTERIAL POLLUTION SACRAMENTO AND SANJOAQUIN RIVERS S0996 — p. 396 PLATE E-IV HYPOTHETICAL STUDIES ON THE SACRAMENTO RIVER OXYGEN BALANCE OR DISSOLVED OXYGEN ^" : .^•~° ' ^■'^ -1 i / ^D AC '§= -S ^ ^ ■— :i; rl::^'' :. ^i--;? 1 i- E -■ 1 1^ J^f 1 ■■^"^ =56^=' ....„,., „^^- ^ ^-„;." 1 ' 1 1 , HYPOTHETICAL STUDIES ON THE SAN JOAQUIN RIVER OXYGEN BALANCE OR DISSOLVED OXYGEN OXYGEN SUPPLY - / - ,......,.*. , , -•■' / - ■ ^.«.^. / - r-r , 1 - OXYGEN DEMAND -a 11 X...-' ^_ ^ - '■■•"'1 \ r - - 1 r 1 1 ^sss^-=P-- I 1 .9 1 Distance in miles from Lincoln Highway Bridge across the San Joaquin River note: Distance in miles from Sacramento Pumping Plant N?! LEGEND Hypothetical Studies -Sacramento River i" 500 Second-feet o 1.000 = 1,500 ■ o 2500 • Threetimes presentav or-(4— — 1,500 " "' (Future) ^anic lo3ds.Au^ conditicms.t^ ?,500 " ,June " • 1,500 Pollution Studies -San Joaquin River o Actual river survey.1.570 second- feet at Vernaiis July 2, 1930 Present avcraft or«nic(»— — 200 Second-feet loads,Aug.conditiol\s !»--— 500 Threetimes present av or- 1,000 " " (Future) ^anic load^Au^. conditions. The effect of tides has not been taken into consideration in these udies, since tidal movements would not exist should a salt water bar- er be built. HYPOTHETICAL ORGANIC POLLUTION IN THE SACRAMENTO AND SAN JOAQUIN RIVERS FOR AVERAGE ORGANIC POLLUTION LOADS DURIN6THE CRITICAL SEASON AND GIVEN FLOW CONDITIONS 80SS6— p. 396 TABLE E-4 SUM.MARY OF POLLUTION SURVEYS ON THE SACRAMENTO RIVER B. Coli and Dissolved Oxygen Intake at Sacramento filtration plant Foot of Y Street. Sacramento Outfall of pumping plant number 2. Sacramento Riv niide Freeport Bridge Hood Ferry Paintersville Bridge Walnut Grove Bridge Islcton Bridge Uio Vista Bridge Date Dissolved oxygen, saturated B. Coli index Dissolved saturated B. Coli index Dissolved oxygen, saturated B. Coli index Dissolved oxygen, saturated B. Coli index Dissolved per cent saturated B. Coli index Dissolved oxygen. saturated B. Coli index Dissolved saturated B. Coli index Dissolved oxygen, per cent saturated B. Coli index Dissolved per cent Saturn ted B. Coli index Dissolved oxygen. saturated B. Coli index 93 2.5 97 250.0 95 00.0 25.000.0 97 25.0 11.0 25.0 11 92 2.500.0 70.0 250.0 0-6 60.0 110 70.0 mo 500.0 100 96 '0.0 '0.0 105 93 0.6 6 100 92 25.0 112 99 88 59 80 US 84 101 92 76 72 61 6 6.0 11.0 6.0 '" 'JO 90.0 104 103 9t 88 84 '6.6 0.0 11.0 25 35 16 164 108 90 84 118 72 0.6 '0 11.0 1 3 25 50 107 120 90 87 6 13 11 2 5 1 n 1 |.j^(| 73 73 110 1,100 0+ 88 m 2.5 100 120 60.0 75 87 103 100 1.100 0+ 25 104 105 1.5 s failed to disclose presence of B. Coli. 'J — I'atjiis sy6-:jo I i! J T e£ _L dF. SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE 397 > 3 z o H D M O U '^ -J a ffl w Predominant types Plankton in standard units u Si. a^-s . a «j a 3 3 a «* « « c3 u c3 'a o 'i °^ .g2.ri,§i.ri 11 (£ feCB St»S£SES£ C T3 N cq w o o iM 00 C^ •^■^o»ooo»«o ° •-■ X OOCOiO— ■t^ooc^t^ -S " -2 -> C-) w (Nl rt CO — -M CT3-S c— c c 53 a 3 Ph » ^_^___^_ .^ « OO (N CO 00 CO fe t. a fe ill o o o o o o -"Jl d d d w' a g <; ag •^■S c O "J- QO ^ •* ^ CO o C o woo -^ 3 o o o c> d O E 00 CD r^ ^ C5 1^ (M — c i-S S.§ ■"f m ■»< ■* lO o^ §111 IM C5 ■* (M p 00 CO 00 CO _>> i.sSi t^ 00 irj -H "3 c3 * CO — 1-5 3-«p a 1 ^ ^ •<>• in « -r [^ t^ CO r^ CO CO r^ i^ 03 S "g O -XI o CO CO CO ca "o S o o o CO d d .1 ■ c fS •< ^ g c-ra^ c lO CO »o - CM CO CO CO H •T3 ^.H Sjg ^ >- 2 — ; -H e-i c^ C-J — 1 CM CO >> S -g°-§-S a ^i'O o in o -H -* •* r^ —• e S-2 o o o ^^ 0000 w _ rt — 1 g e^ egg -H W W J >i ^ fc- 3 OJ -*a o a M 'a T3 Kf r^ _> ) ■0 CO CO ■^ -^ cq '-' •^' 2 ii 2 a '• ' ' 3.0 ■■§ ; g ; "c I ■ ■g s ! § : 1 ' ci} ! o, a : -s ; ; S, rs : OJ : ^ « : "a 2 ; 1 ; .-2 PQ 1 1 2 ! CO ^J ^ -s oj c! '35 OJ £ SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE 399 i 26—80996 CO £ 3 ■7 "^ ^ (")«■£ P S K D S d H " -n ft- = ^ 05 i -i o I &> 7 * "2 Z o " U 5= -g ill ^COOO-^-^WDO-"** I IM 00 T)> » O « O 5— oo — oo — '^■*CC-^'<4«'^^-0 0300000— O O '-I O -^ -.3 O O "■-:£>> - a^ X -t- o. > — 5 - t- ° >5 S CO CO or^QO : r cc CM ! CO lO ooicioasiooc OWJi^ii^^COiOiC SSSSSccS ' d , a \ ^ 'CO ; Sis 1 1 "o (1> rH ;3a o o '>'.?^ ^ S ? — s £ tiadixS^S 400 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES Z o H D ao H u O ffl w H o I z I < V) £ 1 1 >> 'X 3 5 M 3 3 ; a c'n rt o Si o"5 rt ■§ f3^ 5 c3 -5 O ssiss i ; h 3 >> *- u o o ' •|||-| 3| 1^^ o 1 IJIII o ; 3 ' <£ ,§ Z J S a: g, kS h S cc E 1 S^E2S(l,^ft.oS C T3 o rq »o t^ CO O CO O •- m 00 o 00 00 CO o o ti =3-2 re PO C-. S ^ -^ CTT ■" C— c = « C3 3 E 1? •«< oo ■a> M 00 CO oo -1 2 eg ~^ t^ -a" e^l o o _i-= C.J CO ■<*• 00 ro cc cc -^r ;°-S-2j§ ^•n^a c. t. oo CO CO M oo oo C f .£.= ag CO in iO W5 J! >^*^:= <-|a K a o o C o o o o >o o d „■ „■ -^ h- c-> "" "" 03 -S >■ "s C-3^ C M r- oc ■^ t. C<5 oo CO iiilitii 00 o " CM CO — S -gS-S.5 S -^"O CO 00 X C5 o O oo ■■■5 c £- r^ oo en C5 bC £ " S. >. '"' »- 3 X o £.« ■a — D g il si O 2 °^ 1 > § M CO a - o s H s 2 I ^ ^" u < 'a S '1 o Synedra Syndcra Synedra Synedra Synedra Synedra Mongeotia Mongeotia Mongeotia Mongeotia Mongcotia Mongeotia Plankton in standard units 350 412 308 108 348 292 252 180 356 748 1,500 1,280 2 1 .is 3 o a Chlo- ride in parts per million »o -^-^C5 io c^ in »n -^ -^ -^ "^ Alkalin- ity, in parts per million ^ ^ o *-■ O . t^ CO CO to «0 O CO ^- 6.0 0.6 0.6 110.0 1,100.0+ 1,100.0+ 1,100.0+ 70.0 6.0 25.0 1.3 2.5 Five-day bio- chemical oxygen demand, in parts per million M O a In per cent saturated t^ cot^^* c S h a, . "c ca c 1 ■a Plankton in standard units Is la o a^ s < o-a a Chlo- ride in parts per million Alkalin- ity, in parts per million a a. rt C^O— "H ca-- Five-day bio- chemical oxygen demand, in parts per million M d 1 5 egg a ^ 01^0-*!0 -2 a !3 >- o a as Temper- ature, in degrees centi- grade a 3:50 p. m. 3:20 p. m. 2:30 p. m. 1:45 p.m. 1:00 p.m. 1 "i i e c 1 £ 3 Ill I a .2 g 1 1 •1 " a c 1 g en 1 TO >^ 'o o p2 > g T3 m 1 c2 1 •c « 1 o = 1 SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE 403 > D g zl 2i ti o o a » jag < > s •^ a - o a z J ^ S ? -a 'i 1 1 'a Plankton in standard units 2 1 .1 fe 3 Hi c a 0^ Chlo- ride in parts per million Alkalin- ity, in parts' per million K so-* wooo 33. S 3.5 500.0 90.0 3.5 25.0 Five-day bio- chemical oxygen demand, in parts per million c u >, -3 > C •r. a In per cent saturated 104 103 68 72 86 68 .2 c - t. Temper- ature, in degrees centi- grade 22 5 24.0 23.0 23.0 22.5 22.0 a 10:22 a. m. 11:15 a.m. 9:35 a. m. 9:00 a. m. 8:15 a. m. 7:30 a. in. 1 t 1 £ 6 [ s 1 1 s ci c 1 m g 1 > "■1 a 1 c ^v ^ z 5 = 02 = (s J ^- _■ _ 1 m '-5 a O o c 0, c a U CQ ttj S < > S u, " CO •^ a - 0« a- t- $ Z o U "^ ^ - u < B .= c a = a 1 Plankton in standard units 2 Jfe a C 3 i 2 S ill < c-a 1 a Chlo- ride in parts per million Alkalin- ity, in parts per million c. ■^■^ 05 05QOOO t^ f^ :D , 6 -0 "0 5 - g a U5 •»■ — -"l" IM 0000 « osr^ i; t- Temper- ature, in degrees centi- grade 24.0 24.5 23.5 23.5 24.0 23.5 Time 00 p. ra. 10 p. m. 20 p. m. 55 p. m. 00 p. m. 20 I), m. «-*^""=^ 'c c 1 1 1 ■y 3 § ; i '■ us ! ' li 2 ; S ; -0 r w 6 ■z =.-2 a 1 404 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES PLATE E-V DISTRIBUTION OF TYPHOID FEVER CASES IN UPPER SAN FRANCISCO BAY AND SACRAMENTO- SAN JOAQUIN DELTA REGIONS DURING PERIOD 1925-1930 SCALE OF MILES 8 6 SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE 400 Incidence of Typhoid Fever in Delta Region and Adjacent Territory. The hyoienic reputation of the Sacramento River is not good. It is well established that it Avas annually responsible for several hundred eases of typhoid fever in Sacramento prior to water treatment there. Even now there is a good deal of typhoid in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta islands and adjacent communities, probably associated with the sewage contamination and use of the river for navigation and swimming. The incidence of Ty])hoid fever from 1925 to 1930 in that area has been studied by the Division of Epidemiology of the State Department of Public Health. Only those cases reported from districts directly adjacent to the delta channels and bay were noted, particularly those which most pi'obably resulted from drinking raw river water within the incubation jieriod of the infection. These data are sum- marized in Table E-13 and shown graphically on Plate E-V, "Distri- bution of Typhoid Fever Cases in Upper San Francisco Bay and Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta Regions During Period 1925-1930." Typhoid fever is continuous in certain sections of the delta and upper bay region. The raw water of the area is a potential source of infection, and in the delta district the infection is largely water-borne. The type of country and the army of laborers working in and out of there make control of typhoid fever most difficult. The labor turnover is high, so that immunization, unless constantly practiced, does not materially aft'ect the annual incidence. In San Joaquin County, where an immunization program was established for laborers in the delta region, there has been a marked reduction of typhoid fever in certain groups. However, changes in the percentage distribution of the differ- ent races, with more Mexicans coming in, have resulted in an increase in the number of cases in the ^Mexican quarters sufficient to offset the decrea.se amonc- Orientals. 406 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES TABLE E-13 CASES OF TYPHOID FEVER IN THE RIVER AREA OF CONTRA COSTA, SACRAMENTO, SAN JOAQUIN, SOLANO AND YOLO COUNTIES January, 1925, to December 1, 1930 Location 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 Total Contra Costa County— Antioch. 2 1 1 4 1 1 Crockett ._. 1 1 Martinez 3 3 1 5 2 1 3 1 1 1 g Pittsburg 1 12 Oakley 1 2 3 1 1 1 Franks Tract 1 Total for Contra Costa County Sacramento County- 8 4 5 8 3 22 1 8 4 6 15 3 13 5 7 1 4 5 1 2 1 1 2 1 6 9 3 2 2 2 7 3 32 12 11 39 46 Sacramento vicinity (outside city) 11 Walnut Grove 3 44 3 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 } 3 2 Near Rio Vista . 1 1 7 Rvde 2 1 1 2 1 Twitchell Island 2 2 2 2 1 3 10 Tyler Island 4 2 2 Total for Sacramento County - San Joaquin County- 54 47 29 21 24 20 1 195 I 4 4 Holt 3 4 7 3 8 1 6 8 2 1 3 11 3 9 1 1 1 43 Stockton vicinity (outside city) _ . 14 1 1 1 1 •) 1 9 1 4 1 Bouldin Island 1 1 1 8 1 5 20 1 2 1 1 2 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 Rah n Tract . - -- - 1 1 1 2 5 1 2 1 5 6 21 1 1 8 2 1 3 6 3 2 4 1 2 2 22 2 4 1 1 2 12 Rough and Ready Island 1 2 6 1 1 1 2 4 1 9 2 1 2 1 4 1 1 1 4 1 1 Wright Tract . . 4 1 5 Zucker Tract - 1 1 Total for San Joaquin County. Solano County — 45 24 29 48 4 21 2 36 2 203 8 1 1 1 1 Total for Solano County 2 4 2 2 10 SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE 407 TABLE E-13 — Coniinued CASES OF TYPHOID FEVER IN THE RIVER AREA OF CONTRA COSTA, SACRAMENTO, SAN JOAQUIN, SOLANO AND YOLO COUNTIES January, 1925, to December 1, 1930 Location 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 Total Yolo County— Broderick 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 1 Holland Tract ._ 1 9 Total for Yolo County Total for area Total reported for CaUfornia. , 3 110 853 81 1,022 63 683 6 86 869 1 50 613 1 61 685 11 451 4,545 Conditions in San Joaquin River Above Lincoln Highway Bridge. The upper San Joaquin River is cleaner, hygienically, than the Sacramento River above Sacramento. For one thing: the Tulare Lake drainage has practically disappeared in recent years, and there is no sewerage to the upper San Joacpiin River itself, except at a few power houses in the Sierra Nevada where the sewage is well treated. The San Joaciuin River above Stockton, however, resembles the Sacramento River, except that its waters are dark or brown, due to land drainage, algae and vegetation growing in its sluggish waters. Through the valley proper most of the channel is leveed to prevent flood damage to adjacent lands and, as in the case of the Sacramento River, drainage waters are pumped or freciuently gravitate to the river. On its tributaries some pollution occurs. The Merced River now receives the seepage from land filtration of Yosemite Valley sewage, but this soon will be replaced by a complete sewage treatment plant discharging to the river. At Merced Falls, as the stream reaches the San Joaquin Valley, a small lumber community discharges chlorinated septic tank effluent to the stream. By way of small creeks, the Tuol- umne River receives the septic tank effluent of Sonora and some raw sewage from Jamestown. At Modesto septic tank effluent and sludge from the city sewer farm occasionally escapes to the river, but the occurrence grows more infrequent as the city takes greater pains with its sewage disposal. The Stanislaus River receives the raw sewage of Angels Camp and Oakdale, and the septic tank overflow and the waste from a tomato cannery at Riverbank. In the Sierra foothills are several settlements which dispose of raw sewage by dilution in adjoining creeks and rivers but, so far as summer conditions are concerned, the pollution never reaches the San Joaquin River. San Andreas, on the Calaveras River ; ]\Iokelumne Hill, on the Mokelumne River ; and lone. Sutter Creek, Jackson, Plymouth and Amador, on Dry Creek, are among this class of settlements. Conditions in San Joaquin River Below Lincoln Highway Bridge. Just above the Lincoln Highway Bridge the main channel of the San Joaquin River begins to subdivide into its delta channels, which reunite a few miles above Antioch. Between these points, the river system consists of numerous interconnected sloughs flowing in leveed 408 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES and tule-grown channels surrounding many highly fertile, intensively cultivated islands. All of the channels are subject to tidal action most of the year. INIost of the delta islands are irrigated from the river by gravity and their drainage is pumped to the river. The domestic sewage of the 4000 residents of Tracj^ and the effluent from four small milk product plants, having a population equivalent of about 600, flow through the city sewers to the sewage treatment plant. The treatment of this sewage consists of settling through an Imhoff tank and a sprinkling filter, which is only half-filled with rock and very inefficient in operation. The treated effluent then flows to a barge canal, tributary to the sloughs of San Joaquin River about seven miles away. A beet sugar factory located nearby disposes of its four million gallons per day of waste water by broad irrigation on several acres of land adjoining the plant. The city of ]\Ianteca has a population of 1600. The town is com pletel}^ sewered. The principal industries discharging organic wastes into the city sewers are creameries and canneries. The combined wastes from this source represent a population equivalent varying from 400 in winter to 20,000 at the height of the peach-canning season. The city sewage is pumped into a Doton septic tank and the effluent is dis- charged into a series of ponds covering about tAvo and one-half acres. Overflow is into a nearby drainage ditch, and thence to French Camp Slough about eight miles away. The effluent reaches the slough about four miles above its junction with the San Joaquin River. A slaughterhouse and tallow works near French Camp discharge settled effluents into short sloughs tributary to San Joaquin River a mile away. The combined population equivalent of the wastes from these plants is about 1400. Conditions in the sloughs are filthy as a result. The city of Stockton has a population of 48,000 and is well sew- ered. Stockton Channel, a ship canal, divides the city and its sewer system into t\\o parts. The system south of the canal serves about 24,000 people and industries having a population equivalent estimated at 30,000. The south system discharges into an Imhoff tank and pump- ing station adjacent to The Santa Fe Railroad and about 800 feet from the San Joaquin River, to which sewage is pumped. The average load was 1.347 million gallons per day from 1922 to 1924 and 1.303 million gallons per day from 1926 to 1929. The system north of the canal serves about 25,000 people and indus- tries having a population equivalent of about 20,000. The sewage con- centrates at a fine screening and pumping plant on Smith Canal, in the northwestern part of the city. The effluent is pumped 4500 feet to San Joaquin River. The average daily pumpage has been 2.520 million gallons for the last five years and averaged 1.790 million gallons for the four and one-half years preceding. The sewage pumped in the later period is 1.4 times that in the first four and one-half years' operation of the plant. The average age of the scAvage reaching the treatment plants is tAvo and one-half hours. The outfalls of the tAvo systems are about three miles apart. SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE 409 Aside from the indnstrios now diseliarfrin": their wastes into the eity sewers, there are a few others that have their own systems for sewage disposal. One larore indnstry on ]\IcDouo:al Canal makes paper pulp by a mechanical process, turninsr ont about 250 tons daily. The process is illustrated on Plate E-VI. "Typical Industrial Process Charts." except that there is no strawboard waste. The waste amounts to about three million gallons per day, said to contain about 3000 pounds of waste pulp having a population equivalent of 50,000. The waste is emptied into I\IoDougal Canal, which is fed by water originating at a gas well and by waste water from mineral baths. The canal is thickly overgrown with tules and bamboo, so that a good deal of the suspended fiber in the plant effluent is mechanically removed before it reaches ^Mormon Channel, a mile from its mouth. Nevertheless, fully "lOOO feet of ^Mormon Channel is very septic. This corresponds to an area of nearly ten acres. A slaughterhouse east of the city discharges its settled effluent into the Stockton Diverting Canal, at a point about two and one-half miles from the junction of this canal and the Calaveras River, and thence by way of the Calaveras River to the San Joaquin River. The population equivalent of the wastes from this plant has been evaluated at about 2500. Waste producing industries connected to the Stockton sewer system include four large fruit and vegetable canneries, various milk and butter depots, which handle about 12.000 gallons per day, roundhouses and a brewery. With completion of the Stockton Ship Canal, a further addi- tion to industries is expected, which Avill cause an increase in the dilution requirements for sewage. Unlike the lower Sacramento River, the lower San Joaquin receives very little repollution. This repollution is limited to that by river boats plying between Stockton and the bay and the drainage of the delta islands. Construction diiificulties presented by the poor bearing qualities of jieat lands and the nearness of the water table to the ground surface limit the use of modern methods of sewage treatment and disposal in the islands. As a result, about 80 per cent of the delta islands' popula- tion of some 17.000 people sewers directh' into the main drainage system of each island or has privies built over drain ditches. The remainder use vault privies, generally built on the inner side of the levees. The land drainage ditches empty into the main drainage canal of each island. These lead to pumping plants, which operate at inter- vals of a few hours to a few days and boost the drainage over the levee. When the huge drainage pumps are operating, the accumulated mass of sewage must set up an intense local pollution. Wells on the islands yield a poor quality water for domestic purposes because of excessive mineral content and many people use the river water, which may have been grossly contaminated not far above. Bowel diseases and typhoid are probably of more common occurrence here than in any equal area in the state. A summary of pollution entering the San Joaquin River and the channels of the delta, with allowance for such sewage treatment as is employed, will be found in Table E-14. 410 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES TABLE E-14 SUMMARY OF ORGANIC POLLUTION LOAD IN THE LOWER SAN TERMS OF HUMAN EQUIVALENT JOAQUIN RIVER IN Human Human equivalent of industrial waste Sources of pollution June July August September Winter months Tracy' 3,060 440 440 440 440 440 320 180 80 3,950 80 3,950 80 3,950 80 80 Slaughter and tallow works Stockton — a. South sewer plant' Canneries and dairy pro- 20 16,800 3,130 3,130 3,130 3,130 3,130 7,000 21,000 21,000 21,000 7,000 fa. North sewer plant' Canning and preserving 22,800 6,950 550 90 50,000 19,000 550 90 50,000 19,800 550 90 50,000 19,800 550 90 50,000 550 90 c. Not connected to sewer* 50,000 7,000 1,000 8,500 900 3,540 Totals- - 51,000 76,920 98,240 99,940 102,580 61,290 1 Tracy sewage treated in ImhofI tank and run through incomplete sprinkling filter. 2 Manteca sewage treated in septic tank and ponds. ' Sewage from plants near Stockton treated in settling tanks. ' Sewage from plants in south Stockton run into Imhoff tank. ' Wastes from north Stockton system run through fine screening. • Wastes from Stockton plants are not treated in any way. ' Sewage run directly to delta drainage ditches. Pollution Surveys in the San Joaquin River.'* — There is little test work data available on the San Joaquin River. Hygienically, the reputation of the river is bad. Above and below Stockton the river water has a rather low grade appearance, in which discriminating persons probably would prefer not even to swim. French Camp Slough, receiving slaughterhouse waste, is in a filthy condition, as is Mormon Channel, in Stockton, which received a waste load e(iuivalent to that of some 50,000 persons. At the highway bridge across Mormon Channel and down stream almost to the ship canal, the channel is highly septic. Gas ebullition and masses of sludge breaking on the surface maj'' be seen more or less constantly. The visible septic area would amount to about twelve acres, or a quarter of an acre per 1000 persons. Oxygen depletion, however, may extend further than this. Bacterially, except in the vicinity of the drainage pumps and the Stockton sewer outfalls, the river would pass as redeem.able at most points. Plankton growth is prolific throughout the whole valley portion and results in an oxygon-supersaturated water where sewage pollution is low. The only field tests on the San Joaquin River are for July 1 and 2, 1930. The results are summarized in Table E-15, and graphically shown on Plate E-III. These tests were made when the river flow at Vernalis, just above the Lincoln Highway Bridge, w^as about 1600 sec- * See Plates E-II,' "Location of Principal Sources of Pollution and Sampling; Stations of Pollution Surveys in Upper San Francisco Bay and Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta," and E-III, "Organic and Bacterial Pollution in the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers." PLATE E-VI CANE SUGAR REFINING Raw sugar Ma^ma Primary Centrifugals |Aff irtation syrup Suhr sred -es- ^^ i] Low grade blow-up tanks ~~t — — : — r ~ High Kieselguhr charge filtered by gravity to form Low Kieselguhr charge filtered by pump pres- sure through I :ar jor t Filtered river water for filter washing Smear in Sweetland presses * i * Clear liquor " cake d pum- grade ~^ Charcoal filters | I Brown liquors! | Clea r liquors] Spent Kieselguhr sluiced to i Cloudy and excess effluent I Equalizing tank | -I Oliver filters \* Vacuum pans -J-" Vacuum pans ^X^ — Brown sugar | | White sugar mcssecuixe i mossecurre mcsse T T Filtrate to stor- age for sluicing filter presses T Kieselguhr cake| Centrifugals] |Centrifugal5| Drying and revivifying kilns Brown sugars of various color grades White sugars of varied particle si Sweater i Revolving drier I Dried sugar J * I Hummer screens | Granulated and -«- | berry sugars I Grindin| mills ] | gyrup [ Screening plant I \ (^ . [ Mo,din^^achines | I Revivified I Kieselguhr Small amount of sludge Powdered and dessert sugars Shipping ^ I Cube sugar | ■* \ Carquinez Strait \ *- )ublesome waste leBvy solid lines. i waste waters lashed lines. TYPICAL INDUSTRIAL PROCESS CHARTS ASPARAGUS CANNING PEACH CANNING SPINACH CANNO^G deposed of on ^^WM] ^•[MM STEEL MILL APRICOT CANNING 1 Apricots 1 -1 'SmlnS 1 ["Si'KH 1 ExhaustinS | 10- j 1 "pfing 1 1 Retortinj | Plant and equip- ment wasn.lav- alories.etc^sr. H c..l,n« f^ «-•=,■; z-\ aiippinS 1 1 ( ,|cs. nZr MEDIUM SIZED CREAMERY MANUFACTURE OF RAG, PAPER AND STRAWBOARD PRODUCTS CANE SUGAR REFINING LEATHER TANNING Sulphuric acid MSptnt acid ao- t^hro™ tanninljl c„t,„,j 3„j I ] 1 ZOOOj^Lperte IChuminiicreamJ KASgaLiSrday 1 Pasteur.iEr 1 Pasteurizer 1 1800 si: 1 Separator 1 li^isd 1 1 cottage cheese, i480lbs,pef^dayh J Butter milk. L nsofial.perdaj-r 1 I^'EI O^alperda;- 100 ^al per day 1 1 Wtiey. leOOSaLperda 1 JHogorpOlitlrjl \^^^i^''T\ 1 RinM water fron floors, equipment, etc, 70.006 gals. soda. 150 gals. SARDINE CANNING PETROLEUM REFINING- DISTILLATION PROCESS IScreenlnS plant ] | I Shipping h r TYPICAL INDUSTRIAL PROCEISS CHARTS SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE 411 s >■ e C4 3.H.H a .2 3 .2 3 w II _a ■5 =3 s i i 2 « t. u >- t. u-= 1- I. S ■- t- u 1 O O) o I'liiil a; SCSSEzSSESSS: SmS § "E lO (M CO O 00 — CO as lo »o *c ■S =5 i2 c^ !rc -^ ■* ■re -M n-o-s C— c c rt r3 3 CL, ■£ 50 N O 00 C-1 -<»' cs ^ O « — 1 o o o o o o O —1 d o a fe -< aa ■^-S £'■=: = CS (M Tj" OO ■■r CO o o O. o o o o o o '-* ^* S 3 o o o o o o o o E u oo re 1^ ^ ■^ — ■ o i.SS.g — ^ -^ o CO in "i J=-a-2 = <^1« a a t. O IM ■» O 00 00 CO •-= a § ■«Si -O (M -* C-l CO ^ c ,^-— ^.5^ = < «S a K « "o ir^ o ira lO O o K5 !>) O^ O M C< — ' o im' o 03 — « "3 c-a^ c CO O 00 o <» CO CO '^ ' ■" J^, G t t_ o ^ lO S3 1 b>a ^■c.s fa -go-S.H a -^■3 IN CO oo o o o o Oi Ci oo o^ o b> *"■ fc- 3 o ag IM CO N 05 CO C>4 CO o -S c m it.© 00 00 t^ I^ 00 O IM rt 23 — (5 — c..-= ►5 a mper- ire, in grees ;nti- rade lO o o o --H CO CO CO IM « n ^OO « ^O M O TT CO -* -i^ ! ^ 1 ! o 1 o I 1 1 -AA 1 1 •1 ' 3 ' ', tic I ^ .S i -i: .^ & J j "3, So -s -s : "§ & ■a ^ ■a "C M t» s ^ a ■O X V ■ c ♦* C .2 s -afe J ■a 1 g B 3 a = o o 3 a <■ #: W O » 03 ;j r ^ 5nittu0 •je: — ^nibsiO ettud eu|6T >^60 00 -loviR Ol/IIHHAD HDAm'=?? liosniqfe , ^riyoicf bnc-H L ±D4 I ~. ~S.Ji-.ZJ \r-J- TZ^ :J.,.J J^^ on .q- SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE 411 y • > M a; « :s z 3 S o •-5 a a> T3 < E 8 <-, o 7. 3^ < w fi s a >. B 9i §JJ S J 3 JS J S§ _g •o g -a g T5 g g 1 03 O c« rt O — 22°2S°2=<2a£°°2« -oobc;c^oa;0;:,o^^Oo liJIi SooSua'cc 1 s •« lO ffq O O 00 — CO O fc- „ 35 i« m in CM O! i~ Ji s-o-- C-— c = C3 rl 3 eu ■g 50 M O 00 c-» •»< CM i i 2 fe O N -. O -1 o « d d o o o o o s s ^ ag -.■§ Sfc e N '^1 tr 00 -»■ to o u C o o b O O O — CM 3 c3 o o o o o o o o CL, t. 00 « 1^ iC ■'T ^ O ^•s^l — -^ O O O u- lO ^•o ■**" ol§s — ^ O O) Tf O 00 00 =o •-i" - ^.2 ■««« cc C^i '^r -^ CM CO i^.= « = < s E a K O U5 in o o "5 CM d M CM — ' d c* o 33 — & "i c-3^ a CO o 00 O 00 CO CO "o JL*— £i- 5 b I- C5 •m' -.r ^ c; CM ■"a CM O oo o o o o c = -S C5 C5 00 C5 o CM in ^ Cog >» •"^ t- 3 Oi *3 o a c3 5Q CM ro CM CJ5 CO CM CO -2 c S >- <= t^ I^ 00 O CM !^ S-** (5 a S = ■5 S mpcr- ire, in tgrees enti- rade m o o o in o o d -o « ^ ^ o - i; 6 M ^.a a .8 a £ s a o a ■^o o cS d d d a ■Sin m o o in .2 ^ o c^_ -7^ o -ti; --• CM CO ^ ^ ^ ! 1 1 ! 1 o ; 1 1 ; <^ 1 < ' ■ 1 1 i 1 i i --S i ^ .s .; M "H. gi> .5 ^ ; ^ 1 «> tc a rH ''^ o ' c _a r2 ja eg a J H ; i s ? s ja y. .2 >c •afc s -^ 1 g = ^= a = o o 2 .= •< S- a o a oa -J 412 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES Olid-feet. One hundred and fifty per cent of oxygen saturation, prob- ably due to plankton, was found at the Lincoln Highway Bridge ; 120 per cent of saturation at Brandt's bridge; 100 per cent at Borden High- wa}' Bridge ; 96 per cent at Gorton 's Landing, north of Roberts Island ; 88 per cent at the Empire Tract; and 96 per cent at Wulff's Landing. At some point between the Borden Highway Bridge and the upper end of the Empire Tract the river had recovered from its B. Coli contamination and represented water redeemable with safety. Due to tidal action available in greatest degree during low stream flow, it is unlikely that septic conditions would arise in the San Joaquin River for many years. Should a barrier be built, upland flow only would be available for sewage disposal and to determine its amount it was necessary to resort to calculation as indicated in Plate E-IV. For an assumed flow of 500 second-feet and present pollution loads, oxygen depletion down to about 50 per cent is to be expected, but recovery would be almost com- plete at the upper end of the Empire Tract. With an assumed flow of 1000 second-feet and three times the present pollution load, the calcula- tions indicate oxygen depletion down to about 20 per cent over the same stretch, and recovery well established near the lower end of the Empire Tract. These calculations, however, are not based on a diluting water supersaturated with oxygen above Stockton. If water super- saturated with oxygen continues to be available to dilute the sewage, as is to be expected, conditions would be much improved over the esti- mates. Septic odors would be likely if the flow passing Stockton fell below the above amounts. There is considerable drainage from the delta islands which carries human sewage to the river. It appears also that the island drainage water is quite high in organic seepage, as the river shows some oxygen depletion throughout the islands. The sanitary sewage from the islands is particularly dangerous because of a high typhoid incidence among the island dwellers. The situation among the residents is said to have improved in recent j^ears, due to a campaign of typhoid immunization carried on by the San Joaquin County Local Health District. However, among the itinerant population the typhoid rate still is high. SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE 413 CHAPTER IV SANITARY SURVEY OF SUISUN AND SAN PABLO BAY BASINS The region adjacent to Suisiin and San Pablo bays, particularly alono- the south shore, is one of considerable present and much greater potential industrial development. It naturally follows that the wastes from the factories are of great importance in a study and solution of the problem of a redeemable water supply in a barrier lake. These wastes, therefore, must be carefully considered along with the sanitary sewage of the several rapidly growing industrial centers in the area. The wastes from these industries are both organic and inorganic. The former are considered in terms of their oxj'gen demand, as pre- viously discussed. The latter, consisting mainly of iron sulphates, com- pounds containing the sodium radical and oil-containing wash waters, present a separate problem. Conditions in the Suisun Bay Area.* Along the shores of Suisun Bay there" now are four incorporated cities. Of these Antioch, Pittsburg and Martinez are on the south shore and Benicia is on the north shore. Smaller settlements are located at Bay Point, Nichols, Avon, Concord and Clyde. At present the most pol- luting organic wastes are from fruit and fish canneries in the vicinity of Antioch and Pittsburg and from a paper manufacturing plant at Antioch. Two large oil refineries and several other industries within the area are large producers of chemical wastes. The survey indicated that sanitary sewage from about 25,000 people and industrial wastes, with a peak population equivalent of fully 125,000 persons in the sum- mer and about 85,000 in winter, sewer directly to the bay practically at the shore line. At low tide some odors are noticeable at the outlets in Pittsburg and Antioch. In general, the sewage disposal would pass as unoffensive and, at present, does not constitute a problem. Tidal currents are good and, in addition, prevailing winds are strong and parallel to or off- shore. In view of the tidal velocities, it is doubtful if sludge banks form. The city of Antioch discharges the raw sewage of its 3500 inhabi- tants directly to the San Joaquin River. A cannery and a paper prod- ucts plant, both of which discharge their untreated effluents into the river, are the onh' local industries of pollutional importance. The cannery operates on asparagus from April to June, apricots and peaches from July to August and pears from August to September. The maximum tonnage handled is 55 tons daily. The population equivalent of the wastes resulting from the A'arious canning processes varies from 8000 in May to 20,000 from July to October. Water con- *See Plates E-II, "Location of Principal Sources of Pollution- and Sampling Stations of Pollution Surveys in Upper San I<>aneisco Bay and Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta," and E-VI, "Typical Industrial Process Charts." 414 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES sumption is given as 85,000 gallons in a ten-hour clay. This concern expects to increase its operations 25 per cent in 1931. An attempt has been made at this plant to dispose of the fifteen tons of asparagus butts produced daily during the asparagus season by dumping them on land. The method now used is rather crude and not altogether satisfactory but, if improved upon, may result in a possible solution of the waste disposal problem existing throughout the delta region. The paper products plant manufactures paper board and straw- board products from old paper and straw by the process shown on Plate E-VI. Two machines operate on mechanically prepared pulp and one operates on straw pulp prepared by digesting straw with lime and soda ash. The whole plant discharges from one and a half to two million gallons of waste water per day into the river. The waste is said to contain from four to five pounds of pulp per 1000 gallons. The approximate population equivalent of the wastes, as the plant now is operated, has been estimated at 250,000 persons. It is said that a system of save-alls, recently installed on the strawboard waste, will reduce the loss of pulp about 75 per cent. It is planned to treat all wastes in this manner. When consummated, the population equivalent should drop to about 66,000 persons, nearly two-thirds of which would be from the manufacture of strawboard. If a barrier were constructed, it is concluded that the strawboard waste, at least, would require diver- sion to a regional sewer system, while the waste paper pulp machines might safely discharge their waste to the river as thej- now do, provided an excellent system of save-alls were used. Antioch has taken its water supply from San Joaquin River for 50 years or more. For the past fifteen years the water has been filtered and chlorinated and there have been no kno■s^^l outbreaks of typhoid fever. During the past five or six years, because of encroachment of salinity around its intake in the summertime, the city has made it a practice to use water from an impounding reservoir, which it fills by pumping from the river in the winter and spring months. This has yielded a very safe supply. About a mile below Antioch the river divides. The main channel, which is nearly three-quarters of a mile wide, turns north to join the Sacramento River. The other channel, running westerly for about three miles, is known as New York Slough and, although only about 1000 feet wide, carries a considerable portion of the river flow. The absence of shoal areas, particularly near shore, probably is responsible for the fact that the most compact industrial activity in the region lies along New York Slough. Pittsburg is located at the westerly end of New York Slough, six miles below Antioch, and discharges raw sewage of 9600 inhabitants into the slough through four separate outfalls distributed along its shore line. It is essentially a manufacturing community. Among its more important industries are chemical, lumber, asbestos products and fish packing plants, steel and rubber mills, canneries and creameries. Bacterial contamination is intensive opposite Antioch and Pitts- burg. Prior to 1920, Pittsburg obtained its water supplj^ directly off- shore from the heart of the city. The treatment was far from perfect and, in a period when chlorination was not practiced, a serious typhoid outbreak occurred. The epidemic was reasonably attributed to the SEWAGE AXD INDUSTRIAL WASTE 415 river watei'. Since then the eity lias obtainetl its water from wells. Pollution by mineralized wastes is more likely here than at any other part of the drainage system. A large chemical industry in this vicinity has three main activities. The largest of these is the manufacture of sodium hydroxide, or caustic soda, with chlorine gas and bleaching powder produced as by-products and amounting to something like 8600 tons yearly. The second major activity of this plant is the manufacture of anhydrous sulphur dioxide, and the third is the manufacture of xanthate. Caustic soda, in addition, is nuide by a separate process. The waste water for this plant is prac- tically all condensing and cooling water, amounting to from three to four million gallons per day. A grab sample on December 3, 1930, and a continuous 24-hour composite on December 4, 1930, were taken from the main outlet flume. These were analyzed by the Testing and Kesearch Laboratories of the State Division of Highways and showed the following : In parts per million Constituents Turbidity, silica standard Oil and residual organic compounds Free acid, as Hj30< Iron and alumina, as oxides Combined sulphates, as S0< Chlorides, as CI Lime, as CaO Magnesia, as MgO Most of the chlorides found in the analyses come from New York Slough water, which is the plant's main source of water supph'. Some chlorides, however, enter as impurities with the sodium sulphate waste from the ''white liquor" plant. On December 11, 1930, the chlorides in the slough water itself amounted to 933 parts per million. Sulphates amounted to 120 parts per million on November 18, 108 parts per mil- lion on November 24 and 150 parts per million on December 11. The conclusion is that, if waste from the ''white liquor" plant, amounting to some 10.000 gallons per day and containing 3000 to 5000 pounds of sodium sulphate, were excluded, the waste water could be returned to a barrier lake without harmful results. The other major activities of this plant produce only small quan- tities of wa.ste. Anhydrous sulphur dioxide, manufactured by burning sulphur, yields a waste of about 1400 gallons per day of hot water con- taining traces of sulphur dioxide. The production of xanthate is from alcohol, carbon bisuljihide and caustic soda. A small amount of waste, said to amount to 500 gallons per day, containing traces of xanthate and caustic soda, is run to the .slough. Another chemical plant in this vicinity manufactures arsenic com- pounds to be u.sed as insecticides and germicides. The various processes of manufacture involve reactions, decantation and distillation or evapo- ration. From 8000 to 10.000 gallons of water per day are used for making solutions, cooling and other uses around the plant. The onlv 27 — 80996 416 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES wastes finding their way into the river result from cleaning equipment, and amount to from 6000 to 10,000 gallons of water three or four times a year. A steel mill in this locality, the operation processes for which are shown on Plate E-VI, operates rolling, sheet, wire nail and tin mills. Scrap iron, Avith a portion of pig iron, is heated to a molten mass in open hearth furnaces and ]>oured into ingots. The resulting slag is disposed of as a till. The ingots go to the rollino- mill where they are lu*ated and rolled to the desired shapes between rollers requiring a cooling water supply of about 2.8 million gallons per day. This is the main soun-e of waste water from the plant. The water contains merely .some discoloration and iron scale. Part of the output of the rolling mill is structural steel. The balance goes to the sheet mill, the wire nail mill and the tin mill. In the sheet mill the plates are first reheated and rerolled and then inimersed in one of two pickling tanks, holding about 1700 gallons of strong sulphuric acid, to obtain a clean iron surface. After a short contact, in which some iron sulphate solution forms in the pickle tanks, the lot is lifted to rinsing tanks. There, the lot is washed Avith a con- tinuous stream of water, amounting to about 250,000 gallons per day. When the iron sulphate concentration in tlie pickle tanks reaches about 18 to 22 per cent, it is emptied into the drainage system, generally twice a day. From the rinse tanks the sheets are put through a hydrochloric acid bath, consuming nearly 100 pounds of acid daily. The sheets then go to galvanizing tanks and to stock. In the wire nail mill, wire rods go through a similar pickling operation to clean the surface. The vats hold about 3000 gallons. The rods then are rinsed in continuous tlow tanks, discharging about 500,000 iiallons per day to the drainage system. Next, the rods go through a small lime tank, where tliey take on a lime lubrication. The lime tank is emptied at long intervals and is of no consequence as a waste pro- ducer. Prom this point on, the process is a mechanical one of shaping the nails. In the tin mill the sheets are reheated, rerolled and immersed in pickling tanks holding almost 8000 gallons. These are similar in their use to the other pickling tanks. The plates then are lifted to continuous flow rinse tanks, then to a weak soda ash bath, after which they are annealed, repickled, rinsed and tinned. The rinse water streams from all the processes involving' pickling aggregate about 600,000 gallons per day. The normal monthly use of sulphuric acid in the sheet mill is 60 tons, in the wire nail mill -17 tons and in the tin mill 20 tons. It is expected to increase the tin mill operations so as to consume about 25 tons monthly. The whole plant operation may increase these figures 25 per cent in five years, hence the daily consumption of sulphuric acid would average close to six tons in a few years. The fresh batch of pickle contains from 4 to 6 per cent acid. When dumped, it contains about 1 per cent acid and 18 to 22 per cent iron sulphate. In the transfer of the plates or rods from the pickle vats to the rinsing tanks, a small percentage of the vat contents is carried over from the pickle tanks to the main drainage system. This loss would be difficult to avoid. It might amount to about 1000 to 1200 SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE 417 l)Oiinds per clay of iron sulphate and 800 to 400 pounds per day of acid. The remainder is drained from the pickle tanks and aggregates about oO.OOO pounds per day of iron sulphate and 2500 pounds per day of ;u'id, being contained in some 30.000 gallons of water. It is understood that, at many of the steel mills on eastern streams, it is necessary to divert tliis iron sulphate solution to crystallizing beds for disjiosal. Such disposal would be unavoidable here if a barrier were built, otherwise New York Slough water would be unusable for most purposes, at least throughout the summer. The great bulk of waste water, amounting to about four million gallons per day, is quite liarmless and, after settling, could continue to run to the adjacent water front. A rubber products industry in this vicinity i)roduces mechanical rubber goods. It requires about 1000 pounds of crude rubber and 25 tons of old tires dail.v. The latter are reclaimed by the alkali process, using about 500 pounds per day of caustic soda. The total amount of water used is given as 150,000 gallons per day, part of which is returned directl.v to New York Slough and part first passed through settling basins and thence to the slough. Some caustic soda undoubt- edly reaches the slough. The plant was not running during the investigation and little is known of the waste. A grab sample of the v.aste in the pump sump December 8. 1980. shows : Constituents In parts per million Turbidity, silica standard Oil and residual organic compounds. Free acid, as H»S04 Iron and alumina, as oxides Combined sulphates, as SO* Chlorides, as 01 Lime, as CaO Magnesia, as MgO Trace nil 130 1300— Indications are that there would be 300 pounds or so of caustic soda reaching the slough daily ; otherwise, the waste appears to be low in minerals. Since the plant was not running, the organic character of the wa.ste could not be investigated. The literature indicates that wastes from this t.v])e of industry resemble sewage in their poUutional eit'ect on streams and, in this ease, if a barrier were constructed, it prob- ably would be inadmissible into New York Slough. Another large industry in the Pittsburg area manufactures about eight tons of rag felt and ten tons of asbestos felt daily. The process is largely mechanical and losses are essentially fibrous. The volume of Maste in a twelve-hour day is given as 600,000 gallons from rag felt operations and 900,000 gallons from the asbestos plant. The daily losses are given as 2400 pounds of rag felt and 2600 ])ounds of asbestos, which is inert. It is understood the fibrous losses injure fish life. The })opulation equivalent is considered to be 2500 persons. Save-alls would reduce the losses materially. The a.sbestos waste probably could go to New York Slough, but it would be safer to divert the rag felt waste to a regional sewer, if a barrier were constructed. A large cannery in Pittsburg discharges as]iaragus butts and all liquid wastes into the slougli. Its water consumption is about 150,000 418 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES gallons per day. From Augiist to February the plant handles up to 240 tons a day of sardines, using the process illustrated on Plate E-VI. The average is 165 tons daily and the seasonal total 21,000 tons. Coarse refuse goes to a fertilizer plant. The cooling water, amounting to 125,000 gallons per day, is clear, but there are about 30,000 gallons per day of polluted waste water, said to contain nearly a ton of solids. The population equivalent is roughly estimated at 10,000 persons. The com]iany also cans tomatoes from September to November, handling about 65 tons daily. The seasonal total is approximately 2600 tons. Loss to the river is given as about half a ton of trimmings per day, and 150,000 gallons of wash water. In the peach season, July to September, the company cans about 2000 tons, averaging about 50 tons daily. Waste to the slough is said to be 800 gallons of spent lye water, 2000 gallons of blanching water, 25,000 gallons of cooking water and 80,000 gallons of cooling water per day. In the asparagus season, April to June, the company handles about 40 tons daily, or about 3700 tons for the season. It is estimated by the company that refuse reaching the slough amounts to about 1000 tons of asparagus butts for the season. 5000 gallons per day of asparagus blanching water and 72,000 gallons per day of cooling water. The latter could safely be returned to the slough indefinitely, but the otlier wastes should be turned into a regional server if a barrier were built. Plans are being pei'fected to erect another sardine packing plant at Pittsburg to handle about 150 tons per day. The population equivalent of its wastes would be about 8000 persons. Waste disposal problems would resemble those previously described for the other sardine canning plant. One large creamery, making butter and cheese, receives about 2000 gallons per day of whole milk and 145 gallons ])er day of churning cream. All waste Avater. amounting to about 70,000 gallons per day, goes to the river. There also are several fresh fish packing i)lants in Pittsburg, handling shad, bass, catfish and salmon for both market and smoking. Shad refuse is sent to a fertilizer plant nearby. The waste to the slough is refuse from the other fish. Heavy shad fishing is in March and April, when perhaps fifteen tons daily are handled. The salmon season is best from July to September, with the catch amounting to two or three tons daily. About one-third of the total catch is returned to the river as refuse. In the vicinity of ^Mallard Slough about two and a half miles below Pittsburg, a public utility recently has established a water supply intake. Fresh water is pumped in the flood season and stored in a reservoir near Clyde, after the same principles employed at Antioch. The present capacity of the works, including filters, is understood to be three million gallons per day. This water is furnished to consumers along the south bay shore from Pittsburg to Rodeo. In this area there are a few developments from wells. Another large chemical plant in the Antiocli-Martinez area pro- duces sulphuric and nitric acids, aluminum sulphates and insecticides, chiefly lead arsenate. Salt water is used for condensing purposes at an average rate of 5000 gallons per minute, although it varies from 1000 to over 6000 gallons per mimite. dejiending upon the plant activity. SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE 419 In sulphuric acid manufacture, sulphur is burned to sulphur dioxide, which then is converted to sulphuric acid by a catalytic process usinji' platinum. The residue is an iron oxide slag, containing a slight amount of copper which is sliipped to another plant nearby. In manu- facturing nitric acid, sodium nitrate is treated \Yith sulphuric acid, with the evolution of nitric acid. The solid residue is sodium bisul- phate, which is stoivd and sliip])ed. Li(iuid wastes from these processes are slight losses of acid through leakage and spilling. In making aluminum sulphate, bauxite — an aluminum oxide — is treated with sulphuric acid and crystalline aluminum sulphate results from the reaction. The residue, consisting of undigested bauxite, silica and inert solids, is stored on waste land. There are no liquid wastes. To make lead arsenate, litliarge and arsenic acid react to form lead arsenate. The mixture then is evajjorated. leaving behind the dry insecticide. There are no wastes from this process. Other insecti- cides are similarly produced, positively retaining the liquid as the. insecticide and rejecting the solid to waste land. All liquid wastes from the ]ilant go through a settling pond, about 200 feet by 250 feet in plan and from one to two feet deep, which (iverflows to the bay. No particular waste disposal i)roblem exists at tliis plant and there is no reason why future wa.ste disposal problems could not be taken care of at the plant. Bay Point, with a po[)ulation of 1600, discharges domestic sewage at the head of a tidal canal about twenty feet wide and three-fourths of a mile long. Conditions do not appear offensive. Clyde, with a l)opulation of 200, is located just below Bay Point and has an Imhoff tank discharging to a slough about ten feet wide that leads to Suisun Bay. four miles away. Concord is inland four miles. It has a popu- lation of ai)proximately 1200 and sewers to a septic tank and sewer farm, but the sludge and overflow runs to Walnut Creek and thence to 8uisun Ba>' via Avon. The seiitic tank is becoming quite unsatis- factory and the city logically would sewer to a regional sew^er, if per- mitted. Avon, a couple of miles west of Clyde, has a population of about 600. Part of the sewage goes to a septic tank and thence to a slough, the terminus of Walnut Creek which also may receive the Concord sewage, and ])art of the sewage runs to an oil refinery's ponds. There are two large oil refineries near Martinez producing a full line of fuels, lubricating oils, greases and similar products from asphal- tic base crude oil. One plant now uses the fractional distillation process in producing petroleum ])roduets varying from gasoline and kerosene to motor oils and greases, but is making a change to the cracking process. The distillation process is illustrated on Plate E-VI. The I'esidue is used for fuel oil. In the distillation part of the ])rocess the liquid waste is cooling or condensing water, which may contain some oil due to leakage or oil spillage at various parts of the plant. The amount of this condensing- and cooling water is giA^en as fourteen million gallons per day. The kerosene distilled off is purified by the sul]ihur dioxide process and no further liquid waste results in this step. A considerable portion of the lighter distillates are so pure that, after a slight water wash using about 10,000 gallons daily, no other treatment is necessary. Other gasoline and lubricating oil distillates are purified by successive con- 420 DmSIOK OF WATER RESOURCES tact Avith from five-teiith.s to three per cent of sulphuric acid and alkali. Following contact with the acid and again with alkali, the distillates are washed with water. There are variations in this part of the treat- ment, and in strength of acidification, de})ending upon the type of products being made and the raw material itself. The first waste is an acid sludge, drawn off in batches from the bottom of the separators. This waste now goes to the oil separating ponds with the other wastes. However, it can be burned. The acid it carries imparts an acid reaction to the contents of the oil skimming ponds. After the acid sludge is drawn off in the separators, the gaso- line is washed Avith Avater. Oils receive two or more such Avashings. depending upon the product. The amount of Avash Avater so used at one of these plants aggregates close to 350.000 gallons per day. A similar amount is believed to be used at the other. Avhich is of about the same size. This Avash Avater contains slight traces of acid or alkali and smells strouirly of gasoline. It now is disposed of to the oil .skim- ming ponds and thence to the bay. When mixed Avith the cooling Avater, the gasoline odors become only faintly noticeable. HaA'ing no information other than these obserA'ations, it would ap])ear uuAvise to pollute the Avaters behind a barrier Avith this Avaste. Furthermore, the amount of gasoline in the water Avould make it dan- gerous to carry it in scAvers. because of the great danger of explosions. In all scAA-er projects iuA-estigated it has been planned to carry the rinse Avaters in a separate scAver. In the cracking process of refining noAv being installed to replace the distillation process, crude oils are heated to high temperatures and then are given an acid treatment tAvo or three times stronger than required in the distillation process. This results in the production of a greater amount of acid sludge and the inclusion of pyridine, phenol and sul- phuric compounds in the Avash Avater foUoAving the acid or alkali treat- ment. These Avash Avastes. likcAvise. carry a strong smell of gasoline and the remarks above. relatiA'e to a separate line for the gasoline- containing Ava.ste.s, apply to those from the cracking process. Analyses of the skimming ponds' effluents in November. 1930. are as follOAA'S: In parts per million Constituents On November 10, 1930 On November 24, 1930 East ponds West ponds East ponds West ponds Turbiditv, silica standard 40 43 580 60 23 120 37 870 6,000 210 650 150 49 740 30 940 7,300 250 590 47 Oil and residual organic compounds Free acid, as HjSOi - _ nil 5 Iron and ammonia, as oxides 21 Combined sulphates, as S0« 1,000 7,500 t)80 Chlorides, as CI _ _ 5.400 Lime, as CaO .._ 200 Magnesia, as MgO _ 120 This Avaste iiii^ht cause injury to barrier lake Avaters, chiefly because of the sulphates and free acid. The origin of the troublesome waste is thought to be the acid sludge and the acid Avash Avater. both of Avhich could be disposed of Avithout fouliuf;- the harmless cooling SEWA(3E AND INDUSTRIAIj WASTE 421 water. Samples taken December 15, 1!)3(), to ascertain the origin of tlie acidity and sulphates gave the foUowinu' resnlts: In parts per million Source of sample Fresh water supply . Mixed salt and fresh supply as used Condenser and cooling water M ixed wastes from pond These tests tend to contirni the supposition that the main source of acidity and sulphates is not the condensing water and is either in the acid sludge or in the wash water, or both. It appears from this Ihat the sulphates wonld augregate about five tons per day. In a bar- rier lake such quantities of sulphate wonld cause considerable boiler incrustation and in septic sewage wonld cause considerable odor. The other oil refinery already employing the cracking process now uses from three to five million gallons per day of salt water and one million gallons per day of fresh water. The wash water aggregates i^^O.OdO gallons per day, as previously stated. The acid sludge at this plant now is burned, and the acid wash waters disposed of to the bay. (rrab samples November 10 and 24, 1930, showed the following resnlts: Constituents Turbidity, silica standard Oil and residual organic compounds. Free acid, as HjSOj Iron and alumina, as oxides Combined sulphates, as SOi Chlorides, as CI Lime, as CaO Magnesia, as MgO. In parts per million On November 10, 1930 East pond 75 16 1,700 1,480 10,200 West pond 38 37 1,710 39 1,440 9,700 340 860 On November 24, 1930 East pond 35 21 nil 37 1,.530 8,700 310 500 West pond 40 28 nil 36 1,460 8,500 300 470 Samples of particular batches taken on December 15, 1930, to ascertain the origin of the sulphates and the acidity, show : In parts per million Source of sample Sulphates, asS0« Acidity, as H,SO. 1,030 1,180 1,640 1,350 10 38 800 120 From this series of tests it appears that the sulphate imparted to the wastes aggregates about 3.5 tons per day, but only half a ton daily can ])e accounted for as due to the wash waters. It may be that sludge remaining in the ponds was still imparting a sulphate ijollution. The 422 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES results do not agree with those found at the other plant. Further work would be desirable to make certain the condensing water could safely be run to a barrier lake. Still another chemical plant in the Antioch-^lartinez area has as its chief product a mineral phosphate fertilizer. It also manufactures sulphuric acid and reclaims copper by a leaching process. To make phosphate fertilizer, rock is ground to a flour and treated in vats with sulphuric acid. The phosphate in the rock is converted to a water soluble superphosphate. No wastes result from this process. To make sulphuric acid, pyrites, an iron sulphide ore containing some copper, is roasted to liberate the sulphur used as the starting point. The sulphur then is burned to sulphur dioxide and converted to sulphuric acid by a catalytic process. From 400 to 500 pounds of sodium bisulphate are produced daily as a by-product which, at present, is washed out through the sewer. The flow of water is given as 75,000 gallons per day. The sodium bisulphate need not be alloAved in the sewer, as it could be stored as a solid and disposed of to waste land or by other methods, if necessary. Other liquid wastes consist of some small amounts of acid from leakage or spilling. In reclaiming copper, the cinders from tlie roasting of the pyrites, which contains some copper, are leached in contact with sulphuric acid for about 36 hours. The treatment results in the formation of a solu- tion of copper sulphate, which is drawn off and evaporated, forming copper sulphate crystals. The acid-soaked cinders are washed with salt water several times after the drainable acid is drawn off. The washings contain a small amount of copper sulphate. They are con- ducted to a tank with iron scrap suspended in it and follow a circuitous path through the tank. The copper in the solution is precipitated as metallic copper, being replaced by iron. The waste water thus con- sists of an acid solution of iron sulphate. About 200 tons of iron scrap per year are dissolved in this treatment. The waste w^ater from this process amounts to about 25.000 gallons per day. It is expected to double the capacity of this part of the plan within the next year. Grab samples, collected November 24, 1030, showed : Constituents In parts per million Leaching plant overflow Main sewer overflow Total solids Free acid, as HjSO*..- Free acid, as HCl Combined sulphates, as SOi. Iron and alumina, as oxides- Magnesia, as MgO Chlorides, as CI Zinc, as ZnO Lime, asCaO 73,000 660 30,700 19,000 250 6,100 6,250 370 130 530 1,120 190 5,200 140 31 Although the volume of waste is small, the constituents are high, particularly from the leaching plant. The waste can be concentrated through reuse and evaporation to a point where it can be crystallized. The remaining wastes could theu go into a regional sewer. SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE 423 The city of ^Martinez discharges its untreated sewage into the upper end of Carquinez Strait. The main sewer, having an eighteen-inch ontfall, sewers about 90 per cent of the area of the city and serves about 5000 popuhition. This outfall is located near the western edge of the city. The end of the outfall is about 75 feet beyond the high water mark on the shore and has two feet of submergence at high tide. At low tide, the water line is at least 300 feet beyond the outlet. The shore here slopes very gradually and, hence, the tidal action is an important factor in flushing away the sewage. There are two other outlets. An eight-inch sewer, serving 500 to 1000 population, is located several hundred feet upstream. A six-inch sewer, serving about 100 popula- tion, is located about a mile farther u])stream. Two sections of the city, with a combined population of 1100 to 1200, sewer a septic tank effluent to the strait through a drainage ditch. From Martinez to Eckley, opposite Dillon Point, the steep hillsides come down almost to the shore and there is little room for further expansion. Port Tosta discharges the untreated sewage of about 500 population into the relatively deep water of Carquinez Strait. As previously mentioned, the city of Benicia is the main source of pollution on the northerly shore. The sewage of about 2300 persons, whieh represents about 80 per cent of the total population, is discharged into Carquinez Strait through three separate outfalls. The rest of the l)opulation utilizes cesspools and vault privies. Just above Benicia is the T'^nited States Arsenal, with a present population of about 200. Raw sewage is discharged directly to tide water. The main waste producing industry at Benicia is a cannery, which operates on asparagus, peaches and tomatoes at various times during the canning season and discharges all its wastes directly into the strait. The plant can handle 50 to 80 tons daily. Peach canning runs about 2200 tons per season and consumes about two tons of lye per day, or 70 tons ])er season. Water used totals about 100,000 gallons per day. The waste, or the greater part of it. could be handled with the sanitary sewasre. The population equivalent of these wastes varies from 7000 to 10,000. Fifteen miles northerly, on Suisun Slough, are the cities of Suisun, and Fairfield, with a combined population of about 2000. Suisun Slough is tributary to Suisun Bay and its waters are brackish. It is about 100 feet wide at Suisun but widens out shortly below and has a more or less uniform -width of several hundred feet to its mouth. It has a diurnal tidal range of nearly seven feet. Suisun discharges raw sewage to the head of the slough through si^ outlets. Fairfield sewers to the slough a mile lower down through a single outlet. In Suisun there also is a cannery, canning asparaGfus from April to June, apricots in June and July and peaches from July to September. All wastes, including about 20 tons a day of asparagus butts, which are chopped to a mulch, are run to the slough. The population equivalent is estimated to vary from 8000 to 16,000 persons, depending on the crop. During the time the cannery is not in operation the condition of Suisun Slough has been reported as fair, there being only small areas near the outlets showing a sewage field. During the canning season, however, considerable trouble is created by the accumulation of large amounts of cannery wastes in the upper end of the slough. This portion 424 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES becomes septic soon after operations start and remains so practically throughout the canning period. Fortunately, the prevailing winds blow away from town toward open waste land to the east and no serious com- plaints have arisen regarding the method of disposal. The cannery waste and sewage undoubtedly would require disposal in some other manner if Suisun Slough ever were considered as a source of fresh water supply following completion of a barrier. Pollution Surveys in Suisun Bay. — Sanitary conditions on Suisun Bay are generally good. In New York Slough there is little to suggest the presence of sewage, except smells at sewer outlets when the tide is low and a bacterial contamination at all times. At Martinez and Benicia, the waters are more shallow at the sewer outfalls and are susceptible to the formation of sludge deposits but, according to reports, the conditions are not serious. A summary of organic pollution loads on Suisun Bay is given in Table E-16. TABLE E-16 SUMMARY OF ORGANIC POLLUTION LOAD IN SUISUN BAY IN TERMS OF HUMAN EQUIVALENT Human Human equivalent of industrial wastes Sources of pollution June July .\ugust September Winter months Antioch- _ 3,540 8,000 66,000 20,000 66,000 19,800 66,000 19,800 66.000 66,000 9,600 '8,900 1,130 180 2,500 9,400 1,130 180 2,500 17,400 1,130 8,180 2,500 15,800 1,130 8,180 2,500 8,000 1,130 8,000 2,500 1,570 160 480 6,300 590 2,300 200 Clyde > 6,900 70 10,000 70 10,000 70 10,000 70 70 200 650 200 1,200 15,000 16,000 16,000 16,000 Fairfield Total 26,990 24,940 108,680 93,680 125,280 109,280 141,080 125,080 139,480 123,480 85,700 Total, exclusive of Fairfield and 85,700 ' Treatment — septic tank. Conditions in San Pablo Bay Area. Adjacent to San Pablo Bay are Crockett, Selby, Oleum, Rodeo, Pinole, Hercules, Giant, San Pablo and Richmond, at intervals along the south shore, and Vallejo and ^Mare Island, on the north shore. Wastes from all these cities find their way into the bay, and, in addition, the wastes reaching the north side of the bay from Vallejo are aug- mented by those from Napa and Petaluma, which flow to the bay through Napa River and Petaluma Slough, respectively. Crockett discharges the untreated sewage of its 4200 inhabitants into Carquinez Strait near the entrance to San Pablo Bay. Four sewer SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE 425 outlets are located at various points along a three-quarter mile water front. All these outfalls, with the exception of the most westerly one, are in <^'ood depths of water and in strong- tidal currents. At Crockett there is a cane sugar refining plant, the i)rocess being illustrated on Plate E-VI. This plant discharges to the strait about 1.5 million gallons per day of discolored water from the charcoal filters and wash water from the Oliver filters. This waste water contains some sludge. The combined population equivalent of the wastes is about 47, ()()() persons. Turbid wash waters from the water filters also are poured into the strait. At Selby, just below Crockett, is a smelter which uses about 600,000 gallons per day of salt water for cooling purposes in the smelting of lead. Hot slag is dumped along the shore, forming a fill. The raw sewage of about 80 employees is run directly to the bay. An oil refinery at Oleum discharges waste water amounting to about five million gallons per day, which is similar in character and variation to the wastes from the oil refineries previously described. The wastes are run through several acres of skimming ponds and thence to the bay. The town of Rodeo and vicinity discharges the domestic sewage of about 1500 people into tidal mud flats without treatment. The sewer outfall is located at the northern end of the town. It extends about 200 feet beyond the high water mark, but is wholly uncovered at low tide. Proceeding westerly down the bay is Hercules. Part of the untreated sewage of about 400 residents is discharged through a pipe line extending into a tidal marsh. The rest of the wastes are allowed to overflow into a nearby creek at a point a few hundred feet from the bay. At Pinole, adjoining Hercules on the west, the raw sewage of about 1000 people reaches the bay. Powder plants at Hercules and Giant dispose of over a million gallons per day of cooling water used in manu- facturing explosives. There also is some waste water which contains traces of acid from nitroglycerine manufacture. It is said that at times as much as 300 to 400 pounds of acid escapes to the bay. The cooling water could undoubtedly return to the bay. In addition, the raw sewage of about 370 employees at these plants is disposed of in the bay. Waste water from oil storage tanks near Giant is drained from the tanks and run to plowed fields and cultivated in, but in winter it might reach the bay. It contains some crude oil. At San Pablo, just north of Richmond, the sewage of a population of 1500 is discharged without treatment into the shallow waters of the bay. x\t Richmond, most of the sewage is discharged into San Fran- cisco Bay about four miles south of Point San Pablo. One 30-inch sewer, however, discharges into a cove north of the city. It serves about 1500 ])eople and several factories. One of these plants has a consider- able quantity of waste water, which seems to contain a certain amount of emulsified oil. A large oil refinery easily could dispose of all, or part, of its wastes on either side of a barrier at Point San Pablo, as might seem desirable. About 100,000 gallons per day of wash water from locomotives of a railroad company are run to the bay in the vicinity of the 30-inch sewer. The waste is passed through oil skimming ponds 426 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES where about 150 gallons of oil are recovered daily. The effluent appears to contain some oil films. One industry above Richmond is devoted principally to the manu- facture of rag; felt, used as base material in the manufacture of roofing products. The raw materials used at the plant consist principally of rags witli some paper. The process is similar to that used at the paper products plant previously described. The wash water, containing large amounts of fiber and dirt, is passed through a save-all rotary screen, where most of the fiber is supposed to be recovered. The effluent from the save-all passes through a settling basin. The settled water is pumped into the system and again used in the process. Some 144,000 gallons per day of fresh water are taken into the system to displace an equal amount of unreclaimable water run to the city sewer. About 1800 cubic feet of material is collected in the settling basin and flushed into the sewer once a w'eek, frefpiently causing a stoppage in the sewer. The remainder of the plant houses a paint manufacturing department, where rolling, grinding, mixing and packing of paints and varnishes is carried on. There are no wastes resulting from these various processes, other than the dried paint removed while cleaning the equipment. These paint scraps are disposed of by incineration. On Mare Island Strait, an arm of San Pablo Bay, are Vallejo and Mare Island. The city of Vallejo discharges the raAV sewage of about 14,000 people into Mare Island Strait through some fifteen short out- falls. Tidal currents are good and the water front looks clean. There are several milk-handling plants in Vallejo, one of which is planning to make cottage cheese. The largest plant receives about 1600 gallons of milk and 300 gallons of cream daily. The milk is separated, the cream churned and the skim milk and buttermilk are sold for chicken feed. Floor and can wash goes to the sewer. A large milling industry at Vallejo discliarges about 175,000 gallons per day of waste water to the tidal flats. The waste, resulting from washing wdieat and other cereals, is milky and foams in the sewers, possibly due to fermentation. The population equivalent of all these industrial wastes is about 19,000. On the opposite side of the strait, and facing the Vallejo water front, is Mare Island Navy Yard. The sewage from an estimated present population of about 2000 and a transient population equivalent to about 2500 inhabitants is discharged through 36 outlets into Mare Island Strait. The population is quite variable and may increase sev- eral fold in war time. Napa River, tidal as far upstream as Napa nearly all the time, empties into Mare Island Strait at Vallejo. Dilution is inadequate during low water periods but, while the slough is not strictly clean, a nuisance may not actually exist. Wastes sewered to it are mainly from Napa and the Napa State Hospital, with the city of Napa representing the principal source of pollution. This community discharges the untreated sewage of some 6600 people through eight separate outfalls located along the river's banks. A tannery is the main source of factory waste. The population equivalent of the waste produced at this plant has been estimated at about 5000. The process is illustrated on Plate E-VI. Other wastes of lesser importance are from fruit packing plants and creameries, the combined population equivalent of these wastes being evaluated at 1000 persons. Two and one-half miles below Napa, at SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE 427 Spreckels Bend, the Napa State Hospital discharges the raw sewage of 3400 inmates and employees to the river. During certain seasons of the year, the sewage is used intermittently for the irrigation of crops on a 200 acre farm adjoining the river. Sewage treatment of a high degree would seem to be required at both Xapa and the Napa State Hospital, if a barrier were built at Point San Pablo. Petaluma Slough is tributaiy to San Pablo Bay. The only import- ant source of pollution is the city of Petaluma, situated at the head of the slough. Petaluma discharges tlie raw sewage of its 8200 inhabitants tlirough nineteen outlets into nearby bodies of water. Seventeen of tliese outlets discharge directly into Petaluma Slough. One discharges into Thomas Creek, about 100 yards above the entrance of the creek into Petaluma Slough, and the other overflows into a canal leading to Petaluma Slough. There are creameries, canneries, poultry products and feed plants and other industries producing oxygen consuming wastes at Petaluma. The combined population equivalent of the wastes from these plants is estimated at 4100 persons. However, the organic wastes vary widely, depending principally on the amount of whey produced in the milk factories, and it is conceivable tlie population equivalent may be fully three times that estimated. In the vicinity of Petaluma, the slough had a decided appearance of septicity at the time of inspection. During periods of low run-otf, odors are said to extend several hundred feet from the slough. During the rainy season, how- ever, this condition is substantially improved. It is doubtful if con- struction of a ])arrier at Point San Pablo would make conditions notice- ably worse than at present. TABLE E-17 SU.MMARY OF ORGANIC POLLUTION LOAD IN SAN PABLO BAY IN TER.MS OF HUMAN EQUIVALENT Human equivalent of industrial wastes Sources of pollution Human June July .August September Winter months Crockett and Valona 4,300 47,000 47,000 47,000 47,000 47,000 150 1,500 250 200 1,000 170 1,500 1,500 15.000 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000 6,600 Canning, tanning and dairy 5,270 5,270 6,090 6.090 5,270 3,400 14,360 19,100 19.100 19,100 19,100 19,100 2,000 2,500 8.200 3.500 500 100 3.500 500 100 3,500 500 100 3,500 500 100 3,500 500 .Silk plant 100 Total 47,630 90,470 90,470 81,100 91,290 81,100 91.290 81,100 90,470 Total, exclu.sive of Napa, Napa State Hospital and Petaluma - 29,435 81,100 81,100 ' Portion sewering to San Pablo Bay only. 428 DIVISION OF AVATER RESOURCES I'olhilioii Siirfeijs iv Sav Pablo Ihuj. — Tiispet-tion of the shores of San Pablo 15ay dnrins- the summer of 1930 did not disclose objectionable conditions alon^ir the southern water front. On the northern shore con- ditions are less satisfactory. In the \dcinity of the tiour mill at Vallejo there is a considerable accnmnlation of sludge on the tidal mud fiats. These sludge banks are formed by the continuous washing to shore of material orginating at the fiour mill. This situation is not considered objectionable at present. Conditions in Napa Rivei' and Petaluma Slough have been mentioned previously. In Table E-17 are corn-piled the organic pollution loads for San Pablo Bay. Summary of Organic Pollution Load. For the whole area, heading at Sacramento and Stockton and terminating at Point San Pablo, the population equivalents of the organic pollution loads are appraised in Table E-18. TABLE E-18 SUMMARY OF ORGANIC POLLUTION LOAD IN LOWER SACRAMENTO AND SAN JOAQUIN RIVERS AND SUISUN AND SAN PABLO BAYS IN TERMS OF HUMAN EQUIVALENT Human Human equivalent of industrial wastes Sources of pollution June July August September Winter months Lower Sacramento River, Sacra- 98,200 51,000 26,990 47,630 117,460 76,920 108,680 90,470 62,480 98,240 125,280 90,470 130,480 99,940 141,080 91,290 130,480 102,580 139,480 91,290 5,390 61,290 85,700 90,470 Lower San Joaquin River, Lincoln Highway Bridge to Antioch Suisun Bay above Dillon Point, Antioch to Benicia San Pablo Bay above Point San Pablo and below Dillon Point-- Grand total above Point San Pablo. 223,820 203,870 176,190 24,940 393,530 369,160 303,060 93,680 376,470 351,100 286,000 109,280 462,790 436,600 371,500 125,080 463,830 437,640 372,540 123,480 242,850 Total, exclusive of Fairfield, Sui- sun, Napa, Napa State Hospi- tal and Petaluma Total for lower Sacramento, lower San Joaquin and Suisun Bay 233,480 152,380 Total, Suisun Bay above Dillon Point, exclusive of Fairfield and Suisun 85,700 I SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE 429 CHAPTER V REMEDIAL MEASURES ("onstruc'tion of a harrier at Dillon Point, or Point San Pablo, would precipitate the most nnmistakahle sanitary problems along the shores of the lake so created. P]lsewhere on the river system and tribii- Tary sloughs, sanitary problems will develop even without a barrier, but at certain points, as at Napa, Suisim and Fairfield, a barrier would liasten and intensify unsanitary conditions due to the removal of tidal currents. Sewerage for the Lower Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers. l>clow the outfalls of the city of Stockton, sanitary conditions are not now a nuisance, but nuisance would likely result if tidal currents were eliminated. The uncertainty as to future conditions of the San Joaquin River below Stockton lies in the outcome of the State Water Plan* to reverse the How of the lower San Joaquin River for irrigation purposes. It is concluded that a flow of 1000 second-feet, whether upstream or downstream being- immaterial, would dispose of the Stock- ton sewage without nuisance for many years to come. On the Sacramento River the flows normally have been adequate to i)revent sewage nuisance, but there have been years when the flow wr:s critically low. Since the organic load is constantly increasing, particularly at Sacramento, a recurrence of these low flows probably would result before long in a nuisance immediately below that place. However, investigations show the problem, which would be created there at such times, would be local in character. It would extend only about halfway to Suisun Bay, terminating at a point above Walnut Grove. Consummation of the State Water Plan* also would solve this local nuisance problem between Sacramento and Walnut Grove. Bacterially, the river water would be classed as unsafe without proper treatment. Sewerage for the Area Above Dillon Point. On the .shores of Suisun Bay. present sewerage and sanitary condi- tions ai-e not at all a nuisance. As far as one can anticipate the indus- trial development, whatever pro])lems would arise in the natural course of events without a barrier would he a long way oft" and, moreover, would be simple of solution through the utilization of the tides. There is, iiowever, considerable bacterial contamination along the shores. If a barrier were constructed, the c(mditions, at least along the shore of the lake so created, would become a nuisance at once, and the waters would be highly mineralized by the chemical industrial wastes. After reviewing the processes now employed in the industries, it ajipears that the troublesonu' wastes coiUd be segregated out of the main stream of ♦Bulletin No. 25, "Report to LeKisiature of 19?,1 on State Water Plan," Division of Water Resources, 1930. 430 DIVISIOX OF WATER RESOURCES waste Avater by rather simple rearrangements. They then could be disposed of, by methods other than dilution, without great hardship on the individual industries. Thereupon, fully 80 per cent of the waste water produced could be returned to a barrier lake just offshore. There would remain for disposal the sanitary sewage, organic wastes of the industries, small amounts of chemical wastes and the wash waters of the oil refineries. A separate method of disposal must be sought for these wastes if a barrier were constructed. The methods of disposal selected should preserve the cleanliness of the shores, and especially intakes for domestic supply. Some idea of the magnitude of the problem may be had from the fact that the population to be taken care of above Dillon Point and below Antioch is now about 25,000 persons and that the organic matter from industries would impose a burden equal to that of about 125,000 persons. The most commendable sewerage project, with a barrier at the Dillon Point site, would be diversion to San Pablo Bay with an outfall terminating at a point about one mile offshore from Oleum. This is a suitable site for sewage sedimentation works and one which would put the sewage Avell below a barrier. Such a project would prove the most satisfactory in the long run, due to the greater security in results. The sewage from the Contra Costa County shore could be con- veyed below the barrier by successive boosting, while that from the Benicia side could be pumped across Carquinez Strait by way of the barrier structure and into the main line. The oil refinery wastes, estimated at less than 7 per cent of the total flow, should be carried to the same outfall in a separate line, due to the danger of explosions. Under such an arrangement, the present day sewage flow, which would be carried in the sanitary sewer, appears to average not over six million gallons per da.y, with about 400,000 gallons per day originating on the Benicia side. The refinery wash water now amounts to al)out 500,000 gallons per day. In view of this information, it is considered adecj[uate to provide for an average sewage flow of 13.7 million gallons per day from the south shore, for 1.3 million gallons per day from the Benicia side and for one million gallons per day in the refinery wash line. A system of such capacity would be capable of handling approximately two and one-half times the present needs. Eough estimates indicate that the outlay required for such a proj- ect of sewage diversion of the above capacity would be approximately $3,800,000. The annual cost of the system, based on capacity operation, is figured at $400,000, or $68.50 per million gallons. This is not at all unreasonable for sewage disposal alone, without considering the special advantages in water supply that complete seAvage disposal Avould bring. One of the outstanding precedents for seAvage diversion is in Chi- cago. While still a small city, it went to the expense of diA^erting its scAvage out of the Lake Michigan Basin at a cost of about $90,000,000. The city has never regretted this expenditure. It may be mentioned, too, that it has been necessary in recent years to divert more and more sewage beloAv the Charles River Basin Dam at Boston in orderto main- tain proper sanitary conditions for the recreational actiA'ities for AAdiicli the lake above the dam is dedicated. This Avas not necessary in the early operations of the structure. SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE 431 Conservation of ISmuigc Water. — In the project of sewage diversion below a barrier, approximately thirty million gallons per day of the more harmless waste waters wouhl be conserved above a barrier at the present time, but approximately six million gallons per day of the stronger wastes, disposed of below a barrier, would be lost to beneficial use. In the course of fifteen to twenty-five years, the quantities lost might reasonably double or even treble. It has been suggested that it would be desirable to consider full conservation of all wastes behind a barrier. This would require a different scheme of sewerage, which should hinge on developing a sewage disposal as far as possible from domestic and industrial water supply intakes and also as far as possible from usable shores. Assuming that a barrier be built at the Dillon Point site, such a project has been laid out. This project would intercept the sanitary .sewage, organic wastes and refractory chemical wastes from the south shore of Suisun Bay and pump them under the bay to Cliipps Island. The sewage would be treated there in settling tanks and the eiSuent dispersed through several outlets into Honker Baj'. Wash waters from the refineries would be carried in a separate pipe line and emptied just below the barrier. Rough estimates indicate that such a project, laid out on the same basis of flows as assumed for the plan of sewage diversion below a barrier, would cost in the neighborhood of $2,225,000 for the south shore, and $225,000 for the Benicia side, or a total of $2,450,000. The annual cost of the south shore sy.stem, based on an average annual flow of 13.7 million gallons per day in the sanitary sewer and one million gallons per day of refinery wash water, is figured at $247,000, or about $46 per million gallons. For the Benicia side, annual costs, based on an average of 1.3 million gallons per day, are figured at $59.20 per million gallons. For both shores the annual costs are figured at $275,- 000, or $47.20 per million gallons. It is difficult to predict how satisfactory such a sewage disposal scheme would prove. It should be anticipated that the pollution load on Honker and Suisun bays, even after the sewage treatment proposed, would eventually equal that of 375,000 persons. In Honker Bay the waters are shallow and opportunities for dispersal are not the best. Furthermore, the concentration of sulphates in the wastes of industries already located along the south shore is conducive to odor production out of the ordinary. Since septic areas in the dispersal field undoubt- edly would occur, the nuisance Avould be widespread. The project, therefore, is not offered with confidence. Diversion of the sewage below a barrier would be the safer method. If this project of maximum conservation of the water values behind the barrier .should be entered into, it should by all means contemplate the eventual necessity of sewage oxidation works in addition to mere sewage desludging. The additional expense required for complete treatment would approximate $500,000 and the added annual cost would be in the neighborhood of $200,000. With this refinement of treatment, the project should be tenable on sanitary grounds. It would be necessary to decide whether the added annual cost would justify the conservation of the 5500 million gallons of water per year, which the project would make possible. 28 — 80996 432 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES Sewerage for the Area Above Point San Pablo. The discussion of the preceding projects was based upon a barrier located in Carquinez Strait. In the event that a barrier were placed below San Pablo Bay, such as at Point San Pablo, the sewage disposal of Crockett, Vallejo, Mare Island, Napa, Petaluma, part of Richmond and several other communities would become affected. All these places sewer without treatment into San Pablo Bay or tributary channels. The survey indicates a human population of about oO,000 and an indus- trial waste equivalent, practically constant throughout the year, of about 81,000 peo])le thus sewering to San Pablo Bay. Napa and Petaluma both sewer into what amounts to the head end of small tidal slough systems. Sewerage conditions are already bad at both places but, for the present, appear to be tenable. It is probable sewage disposal improvements would be precipitated at Napa and the Napa State Hospital if tidal influence were eliminated. Else- where water front conditions on San Pablo Bay are fair to good at present. Inasmuch as sewer outlets are short and there is no sewage treatment, all these places would have to make changes if the tidal currents were excluded from San Pablo Bay. Complete interception, treatment and disposal below a barrier at Point San Pablo, of all sewage and injurious industrial wastes would be a huge project. Obviously, it -would set a higher standard of cleanli- ness for San Pablo P>ay. To keep the bay waters below Point San Pablo clean an outfall into the bay one and a half to two miles long is considered necessary. A rough estimate of outlay, ])robably not conservative, for complete interception and treatment of all sewage and injurious industrial wastes on both sides of the bay, amounting to an average of 29 million gallons per day with delivery 8000 feet offshore below Point San Pablo, is $6,800,000. The annual cost is figured at $780,000, or about $74 per million gallons. Oil refinery wash water would be disposed of in San Pablo Bay under these estimates. It is contemplated that the Benicia-Vallejo area could be served by a line crossing on Carquinez Bridge. In the preceding chapter it was shown that the population equiva- lent of the sewage and wastes now produced in the area adjacent to Suisun and San Pablo bays is 260,000 persons in round numbers. A pollutional load equal to that of fully 800,000 should be counted on within the life of the sj^stem. Conservation of Sewage Water. — With a barrier at the Point San Pablo site, approximately twice as much water could be saved for reuse as with a barrier at Dillon Point. The value of the water so conserved would have to be balanced against the additional cost of treatment necessary to prevent contamination of the .barrier lake. The problem of sewage disposal from Martinez to the mouth of Carquinez Strait, including Vallejo and Mare Island on the north, would be decidedly baffling and expensive, because of the long sewers required, the dearth of sewage treatment sites and the desirability of keeping the fresh water of Carquinez Strait fairly clean. Interception of the sewage, together M'ith multiple pumping plants, desludging works and long outfalls discharging into San Pablo Bay proper, is the most reasonable type of project that can be outlined for these conditions. SEWAGE AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE 433 The Vallejo-Benieia area would have a similar disposal problem to work out. That part of the Richmond sewage now disposed of by emptying into the bay and which would be caught behind such a barrier could be diverted westerly with comparative ease to a point below the liarrier. This plan of sewerage, like the others that haA'e been outlined heretofore, would contemplate keeping tlie shores free of sewage so that water supply projects would not be difficult or unwieldly. The success of this scheme would lie in desludging treatment, plus long outfalls to San Pablo Bay, which is very wide. Xo estimates have been made for -ucli a project. It probably would be somewhat less costly than com- plete diversion of all the sewage below Point San Pablo. APPENDIX F THE FISHING INDUSTRY With Special Reference to a SALT WATER BARRIER Below Confluence of Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers TABLE OF CONTENTS Page I.KTTBR OF TRANSMITTAL i 439 ORGANIZATION 440 FISHING INDUSTRY 441 Importance of commercial fishing industry 441 Principal species of anadromous fish 442 Salmon 443 Shad 443 Striped bass 444 Sturgeon 444 Effect of a salt water barrier 444 Conclusion 445 (437) LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL Mr. Edward Hyatt, State Engineer, Sacramento, California. Dear Sir: In compliance with, your request, there is transmitted herewith a report on "The Fishing Industry with Special Reference to a Salt Water Barrier below Confluence of Sacramento and San Joaquin Kivers." The report was prepared by N. B. Scofield, who is in charge of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries. The report presents information on the fishing industry and the principal species of commercial fish in San Francisco Bay and the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers, and deals with the effect that a salt water barrier, if constructed, might have on fish life and the fishing industry. Respectfully submitted. Executive Officer, Division of Fish and Game, California State Department of Natural Resources. Sacramento, California, January 2, 1931. (439) ORGANIZATION DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES DIVISION OF FISH AND GAME ¥. G. Stevenot Director of Natural Resources John L. Farley Executive Officer, Division of Fish and Game The report covered by this appendix was prepared by N. B. SCOFIELD Chief, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries (440) PISHING INDUSTRY The waters included in tlie San Francisco Bay region and tributary rivers are the largest inland commercial fisheries of the State of Cali- fornia. The fish within these waters are a natural resource of much importance. Serious consideration should be given to any development which might adversely affect the continuance of this resource. The erection of a salt water barrier in tide water would be such a develop- ment. Tliese waters are the entering area for a vast number of migrating fish. It is here also that the young fish, while on their way to the sea, must become gradually accustomed to salt water before their migration into the ocean. The disturbance of the existing condition of a gradually increasing saline content in the waters, from the fresh water of the spawning reaches of the rivers to the salt water of the ocean, where the greater portion of the adult life of the fish is spent, might well be detri- mental not only to the fishing industry within the delta and upper bay area, but to ocean fishing as well. There are three important bay and river fisheries, all of which would be affected by the building of a salt water barrier below the confluence of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers. These are the salmon, shad and striped bass. Fisheries of less economic importance, but which would be affected by such a barrier, are the sturgeon and the soft shell clam. The four fish mentioned are anadromous, entering the bay and continuing up the rivers in the spring or fall for the purpose of spawn- ing. The resulting young must find their way to the ocean. None of these fish can exist unless they are permitted to pass back and forth between salt and fresh water. Commercial fishing is carried on in the bays and in the rivers as far upstream as Sacramento and Stockton. Commercial fishing has been prohibited above these two points, and in most of the sloughs and tributaries, in the interest of conservation. There are many other restrictive laws, all of which are designed to permit a sufficient number of the fish to escape the nets of the fishermen and to reach their spawning grounds farther up the rivers, and thus perpetuate the supply of each species. Importance of Commercial Fishing Industry. The importance of the fishing industry in the upper San Francisco Bay and Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta region can be best measured by the commercial interests involved. Recreational fishing in the area is of importance, but no definite figures are available as to the amount of catch nor capital involved. The licensed commercial fishermen in Solano, Yolo, Sacramento, San Joaquin, Contra Costa and Alameda counties, who fish in San Pablo Ba}', Suisun Bay and the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers, (441) 442 DIVISION OF WATER RESOURCES definitely gain their li^-eliliood from the fishing industry. The numbers so licensed during the 1928-1929 year were as follows : Solano-Yolo 117 Sacramento-San Joaquin 125 Alameda-Contra Costa 303 Total 545 Probably 50 of these fishermen were engaged in taking catfish, or working out of Oakland and Richmond, and would not be affected to any great extent if a salt w^ater barrier were built and in any way influenced the salmon, striped bass and shad fisheries. Other people engaged in cannery and packing activities, however, would be affected. Capital invested in the fishing industry would be affected by any detrimental influence upon the fisheries. Plant investment would have small salvage A^alue. although equipment could be largely salvaged. The capital invested in this area in 1929 is estimated as follows : Estiviated Plant valKc Pittsburg, six plants $160,000 Stockton, two plants 30,000 Sacramento, one plant 10,000 Martinez, Benicia, Rio Vista, "Walnut Grove 5,000 Subtotal $205,000 Equixtme^it 275 boats, fishing and pick-up — $412,500 550 gill nets and trammel nets 151,500 300 fyke nets 6,925 Subtotal $570,925 Total, plants and equipment $775,925 The annual catch in pounds of commercial fish for the year 1928 in the upper San Francisco Bay and Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, divided into the principal species taken, was as follows : Total striped commercial Shad Salmon ia^s catch District in pounds in pounds in pounds in pounds Solano-Yolo 334,973 116,485 43,712 514,553 Sacramento-San Joaquin 103,058 180,679 126,333 736,834 Contra Costa-Alameda 1,567,977 256,613 298,551 2,332,911 Totals 2,006,008 553,777 468,596 3,584,298 Of the total catch taken from this area in 1928. 3.028,371 pounds were of the three species separately listed, while the miscellaneous species taken amounted to 555,927 pounds. Of this latter figure, the catfish taken amounted to 384,475 pounds and carp accounted for 81,533 pounds. Principal Species of Anadromous Fish. The three important commercial fish and the sturgeon are the principal anadromous species entering the fresh waters of the rivers from the salt water of the ocean. Each of these has separate charac- teristics, knowledge of which is pertinent to determining the affect of a salt water barrier upon its continued existence. FISHING INDUSTRY 443 i'<URTH DA A' ">r -lAY ■3. ,- NOV Jul G fi£CO 'id?^ DEC. 5 am APR 8 1 1978 :, DAVIS - intlRlibrary loan ] r.ENT AhtL u:: n LvVij MrI£Rl£Cci2L-.1 31^78 ^] ArK XO HlU L)BookSlip-25m-7,'53(A8998s4)458 L-'S. tiA PHYSICAL SCIENCES LIBRARY 2SA UBKAKT DIVERSITY OF CAUFORNU DAVIS 111596 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA DAVIS 3 1 75 02037 68