Os] 
 
MEN AND WOMEN OF THE 
 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
by the Same Author 
 
 MAXIMILIAN THE DREAMER. 
 
 Demy 8vo, cloth gilt, fully illustrated, 12*. 6rf. net, Stanley 
 Paul & Co. 
 
 THE ROMANCE OF A MEDICI WARRIOR. 
 GIOVANNI DELLE BANDE NERE. 
 
 Demy 8vo, cloth gilt, fully illustrated, 10*. 6d. net. Stanley 
 Paul <fe Co. 
 
 A PRINCESS OF THE ITALIAN REFORMATION. 
 GIULIA GONZAGA. 
 
 CHARLES DE BOURBON, CONNETABLE DE 
 FRANCE. 
 
 ISABELLA OF MILAN. 
 
 COURTS AND CAMPS OF THE RENAISSANCE. 
 BALDASSARE CASTIGLIONE. 
 
 THE LIFE OF LOUIS XI. 
 MARGUERITE OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 A QUEEN OF QUEENS AND THE MAKING OF 
 SPAIN. 
 
 THE MOST ILLUSTRIOUS LADIES OF THE 
 ITALIAN RENAISSANCE. 
 
 THE STORY OF BAYARD. 
 DANTE THE WAYFARER. 
 

 
 
 
 , 
 
 ' d 
 
MEN AND WOMEN 
 
 OF THE 
 
 TALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 BY 
 
 CHRISTOPHER HARE 
 11 
 
 AUTHOR OF 
 
 "MAXIMILIAN THE DREAMER," "THE ROMANCE OF A MEDICI 
 WARRIOR," " A PRINCESS OF THE ITALIAN REFORMATION," ETC. ETC. 
 
 WITH 7 ILLUSTRATIONS 
 IN PHOTOGRAVURE 
 
 LONDON 
 
 STANLEY PAUL & CO 
 31 ESSEX STREET, STRAND, W.C. 
 
First published in 1914 
 
TO 
 
 ELIZABETH 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 RENEE OP FRANCE, DUCHESS OP FERRARA . Frontispiece 
 
 FACING PAGE 
 
 CARDINAL POLE . . . .- . . . .48 
 PIETRO MARTIRE VERMIGLI (PETER MARTYR) . . 80 
 JEAN CALVIN . ...112 
 
 VlTTORIA COLONNA, MARCHESA DI PESCARA . . .144 
 
 FRA BERNARDINO OCHINO 224 
 
 GlULIA GONZAGA, COUNTESS OF FONDI .... 240 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 MY recent book on " A Princess of the Italian Refor- 
 mation " has been so well received that I have been 
 encouraged to devote myself to the study of other 
 men and women of the Italian Reformation ; less 
 highly placed than my Princess Giulia Gonzaga 
 Colonna, but not less interesting. 
 
 The story of these Italian Protestants has proved 
 most absorbing ; full of adventure, of heroic deeds, 
 and too often of tragedy. We see the most highly 
 gifted, the noblest in character and intellect of the 
 sons and daughters of Italy in the sixteenth century, 
 strongly drawn towards the doctrines of the Reforma- 
 tion. We follow them one by one, until the in- 
 evitable moment when they openly proclaim their 
 new belief ; henceforth they are marked down by 
 the Roman Inquisition, and the end is only a question 
 of time. 
 
 We watch their career with breathless interest as, 
 filled with all the devotion and fortitude of the early 
 Christian martyrs, they shew forth the truth in their 
 lives and seal their faith undaunted ; in the flames 
 of the Inquisition, or the more lingering martyrdom 
 of lonely exile in an alien land, far from all that 
 makes life precious. 
 
 vii 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 INTEODUCTION 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 PRECURSORS OF THE REFORMATION 
 
 Precursors of the Italian Reformation St. Augustine Francis of 
 Assisi Dante Catherine of Siena Arnold of Brescia Girolamo 
 Savonarola, etc. Revolt against despotism Freedom of thought 
 Value of the printing press Influence German Literature 
 Adrian VI His vain efforts Pressing need of reform within 
 the Church Early Italian Reformers Circles of religious thought 
 and study in various cities pp. 1-11 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 "ORATORY OF DIVINE LOVE" 
 
 The "Oratory of Divine Love" in Rome, composed of distinguished 
 Churchmen Reform within the Church their chief aim Hatred 
 of schism Paul III forms a council "Consilium de emendano 
 Ecclesia " Composed of Gaspero Contarini, Giacomo Sadoleto, 
 Giovan Pietro Caraffa, Federigo Fregosa, Matteo Giberti, 
 Reginald Pole, Aleandro. Archbishop of Brindisi Life of Cardinal 
 Contarini . . *', *. PP- 
 
 iz 
 
x CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER HI 
 
 CARDINALS GIBERTI, SADOLETO AND MORONE 
 
 Lif e of Cardinal Gian Matteo Giberti, Bishop of Verona, Papal Datary 
 Life of Cardinal Jacopo Sadoleto, Bishop of Carpentras 
 Life of Cardinal Giovanni Morone, Bishop of Modena Perse- 
 cution of the Reformers of Modena Dispersion of the Academy 
 of Modena Morone made Governor of Bologna After the elec- 
 tion of Pope Paul IV, he was sent to the Council of Trenk He 
 died in Rome in 1580 pp. 24-34 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 CARDINAL POLE 
 
 Life of Cardinal Reginald Pole, of the Royal House of England His 
 education at Padua Persecution of his family by Henry VIII 
 Appointed Governor of Viterbo His intimacy there with Vittoria 
 Colonna Some account of Vittoria Influence of Ochino's 
 teaching upon her Her poems .... pp. 35-44 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 RELIGIOUS CIRCLE AT VITERBO 
 
 The "Oratory of Divine Love" at Viterbo Cardinal Pole Vittoria 
 Colonna Marcantonio Flaminio, poet and philosopher The 
 " Beneficio," a little golden book Life of Bernardino Ochino 
 His marvellous preaching His persecution and flight The 
 effect on Pole and Vittoria Colonna . . . pp. 45-58 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 CATERINA CIBO, DUCHESS OF CAMERINO 
 
 Caterina Cibo, Duchess of Camerino Ochino finds a refuge in her 
 palace at Florence Story of Caterina's life Early marriage 
 Stormy adventures A warrior princess, she defends her home 
 Leaves Camerino to her daughter Giulia, married to Guidobaldo 
 of Urbino Caterina settles in Florence An earnest Reformer 
 Her religious dialogues with Ochino . . . pp. 59-72 
 
CONTENTS 3d 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 PETER MARTYR AND OCHINO 
 
 Story of Peter Martyr (Pietro Martire Vermigli) Born at Florence 
 Enters Augustinian monastery at Fiesole His wonderful 
 preaching His persecution and flight with Ochino from Italy 
 They are invited to England by Archbishop Cranmer Peter 
 Martyr appointed Regius Professor of Divinity at Oxford 
 Ochino made Canon of Canterbury They leave England on 
 Queen Mary's accession Death of Martyr and of Ochino 
 
 pp. 73-84 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 RENEE OF FRANCE 
 
 Story of Renege of France She marries Ercole of Ferrara Splendid 
 wedding Literary society at Ferrara Ariosto, Tasso, Clement 
 Marot, etc. Visit to Venice Death of Duke Alfonso d'Este, 
 1534 And of Clement VII Duke Ercole opposes the spread of 
 Reform at Ferrara Sends away some of his wife's friends Her 
 distress , . . . . . . pp. 85-96 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 CALVIN AND HIS VISIT TO FERRARA 
 
 Life of Calvin At the University of Paris Marguerite of Navarre 
 His patron Writings of Calvin "Institution Chretienne " 
 Calvin visits Ferrara Circle of Reformers in that city Clement 
 Marot translates the Psalms into French verse Prohibited by 
 the Inquisition pp. 97-105 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 THE SORROWS OF RENEE 
 
 The sorrows of Renee Visit of Vittoria Colonna to Ferrara Death 
 of Isabella d'Este Visit of Paul III He gives Renee a private 
 Brief Martyrdom of Fannio Ren6e imprisoned and persecuted 
 by Inquisitor Her unforeseen release Her outward conformity 
 to the orthodox ceremonies . * v . . pp. 106-119 
 
xii CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 RENEE IN FRANCE 
 
 Election of Paul IV Renewed persecution at Ferrara Death of 
 Duke Ercole His son Alfonso succeeds Persecution of Ren6e 
 She gives up her home and family Returns to France 
 Letters of Calvin to her Her life at Montargis Terrible Wars of 
 Religion in France Massacre of St. Bartholomew^ Ren6e receives 
 the Huguenot refugees Her splendid courage Her death in 
 1575 . . . . . . ,-., . pp. 120-136 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 PIETEO PAOLO VERQERIO 
 
 Pietro Paolo Vergerio, Bishop of Capo d'Istria Educated at Padua 
 Sent as Nuncio to Germany His acquaintance with Marguerite 
 of Navarre in Paris He openly joins the Reformers His 
 escape to the Grisons Becomes Minister of Vicosoprano His 
 correspondence and friendship with Olympia Morata He dies at 
 Tubingen in 1565 pp. 136-147 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 OLYMPIA MORATA 
 
 The story of Olympia Morata Her early life and classical education 
 Attains wonderful proficiency Lectures on Cicero At the Court 
 of Ferrara as teacher of Anna d'Este Her friendship with Lavinia 
 della Rovere Death of her father, Fulvio Penegrino Morato 
 
 pp. 148-168 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 OLYMPIA MORATA (continued) 
 
 Trouble and persecution for Olympia Morata She devotes herself to 
 religious study Much impressed by the endurance and martyr- 
 dom of Fannio Olympia marries Andrew Grunthler, a young 
 German physician She is driven to leave Ferrara Travels with 
 her husband to Augsburg He receives an appointment in his 
 native town of Schweinfurt .... pp. 159-169 
 
CONTENTS xiii 
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 OLYMPIA MOEATA (continued) 
 
 Life of Olympia Morata and her husband at Schweinfurt Her literary 
 work and education of her brother Emilio Troubles in Germany 
 concerning the " Interim " News of fresh persecution at 
 Ferrara Olympia translates some of the Psalms into Greek 
 verse Her correspondence with Curione War in Germany 
 Albert of Brandenburg seizes Schweinfurt The city is besieged 
 by other great nobles pp. 170-179 
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 
 MISFORTUNES AND DEATH OF OLYMPIA 
 
 Siege of Schweinfurt The city sacked and pillaged Terrible suffer- 
 ings of Olympia Her escape to Heidelberg with her husband and 
 brother Her destitution and loss of her library Generosity of 
 her friends The plague at Heidelberg Devotion of Andrew 
 Grunthler Illness and death of Olympia Morata Her wonderful 
 writings Memorial hymn to her memory Death of Andrew 
 Grunthler and the young Emilio Morato . . pp. 180-192 
 
 CHAPTER XVII 
 
 CELIO SECUNDO OUEIONE 
 
 Life of Celio Secundo Curione At the University of Turin Adopts 
 the Reformed opinions Taken prisoner on his way to Germany 
 Sent to a monastery His escape to Milan Life at Casale, at 
 Pavia, and Ferrara Friendship with the Morata family Com- 
 pelled to seek refuge at Lausanne, by persecution Works of 
 Curione His splendid talent and scholarship His family 
 Tragic losses Death of Curione, 1569 . . -pp. 193-206 
 
xiv CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 AONIO PALEARIO 
 
 Life of Aonio Paleario Born at Veroli Early studies Visits Padua 
 and Perugia Settles at Siena His eloquence and learned 
 writings Persecuted at Rome for his opinions Professor at 
 Lucca, and at Milan Condemned by the Inquisition ; taken to 
 Rome, where he suffered martyrdom, 1570 Attended by the 
 Misericordia Letters to his wife and children . pp. 207-218 
 
 CHAPTER XIX 
 
 A REFORMATION AT NAPLES 
 
 The Reformation at Naples Circle of Juan de Valdes His earlier 
 Life His writings " Mercuric y Caron " Brief account of 
 Giulia Gonzaga, Countess of Fondi The influence of Vald6s on 
 her religious faith The " Alfabeta Cristiano " (Dialogues 
 between Valdes and Giulia) She devotes her life to works of 
 charity Her former brilliant literary society at Fondi, when 
 Ariosto and Tasso sang her praises . . . pp. 219-230 
 
 CHAPTER XX 
 
 VALDES AND GIULIA GONZAGA 
 
 The religious teaching of Valdes His devoted circle of friends at 
 his home at Chiaja The " Cento e dieci Divine Consider a tione " 
 They were highly praised by Nicolas Ferrer and George Herbert 
 Valdes dedicates his " Studies on the Epistles " to Giulia 
 Gonzaga Vittoria Colonna, Costanza d'Avalos, Isabella Brisegna 
 and other noble ladies amongst his disciples Death of Valdes, 
 1541 Various letters of Giulia . . . .pp. 231-240 
 
CONTENTS xv 
 
 CHAPTER XXI 
 
 GIULIA GONZAGA, COUNTESS OF FONDI 
 
 Giulia Gonzaga has the care of her nephew Vespasiano, son of her 
 brother Luigi (Rodomonte) Gonzaga Devotes herself to his 
 education and career Vespasiano enters the service of Charles V, 
 and later of Philip II Attempt to force the Inquisition on 
 Naples is frustrated Letters of Giulia Her failing health 
 Ippolita Gonzaga Death of Giula Gonzaga, 1566 . pp. 241-251 
 
 CHAPTER XXII 
 
 GALBAZZO CABACCIOLI 
 
 Story of Galeazzo Caraccioli, a young noble of Naples Influence of 
 the teaching of Peter Martyr Galeazzo studies the Reformed 
 doctrines He resolves to forsake his native land and his family, 
 and travels to Geneva, where he can openly confess his faith 
 Imploring entreaties from his father and his wife He remains 
 firm to the end Half his life spent in Geneva . pp. 252-262 
 
 CHAPTER XXHI 
 
 PIBTBO CAENESECCHI 
 
 Life of Pietro Carnesecchi Born at Florence Clement VII invites 
 him to Rome A brilliant scholar Sack of Rome, 1527 Carne- 
 secchi goes to Florence, meets Ochino, and later at Naples is 
 introduced to Valdes by Giulia Gonzaga Joins the Reformers, 
 in the circle of Valdes at Naples Meets Vittoria Colonna and 
 Cardinal Pole at Viterbo Visits Venice, the centre of German 
 literature Meets Caterina Cibo at Florence Summoned before 
 the Inquisition, but released by Paul III . . pp. 263-275 
 
xvi CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV 
 
 CARNESECCHI IN PARIS 
 
 Carneseochi goes to ParisMeets Marguerite of Navarre Presents 
 her with the poems of Marcantonio Flaminio Paul IV threatens 
 fresh persecutions Carnesecchi tried by the Inquisition His 
 constant letters to Giulia Gonzaga She advises him not to escape 
 to Geneva Many of his friends in the prisons of the Inquisition 
 
 pp. 276-288 
 
 CHAPTER XXV 
 
 CARNESECCHI HIS MARTYRDOM 
 
 Death of Paul IV Revolt in Rome The people storm the Inquisition, 
 set free the prisoners Carnesecchi remains in Rome to have 
 his sentence reversed Long anxious waiting He goes to Florence 
 On the accession of Pius V (Michele Ghislieri), Carnesecchi is 
 given up by Cosimo, Duke of Florence He is taken to Rome, 
 and suffers martyrdom His trial by the Inquisition ; and inci- 
 dentally, all his friends are arraigned for heresy, living or dead 
 
 pp. 289-300 
 
 CHIEF AUTHORITIES CONSULTED . * . pp. 301-304 
 INDEX pp. 305-309 
 
MEN AND WOMEN OF THE 
 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 PRECURSORS OF THE ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 Precursors of the Italian Reformation St. Augustine Francis of 
 Assisi Dante Catherine of Siena Arnold of Brescia Girolamo 
 Savonarola, etc. Revolt against despotism Freedom of thought 
 Value of the printing press Influence of German literature- 
 Adrian VI His vain efforts Pressing need of reform within 
 the Church Early Italian Reformers Circles of religious thought 
 and study in various cities. 
 
 THE Reformation of the Sixteenth Century, in Italy 
 as elsewhere, was born from the combined action of 
 spiritual forces and of the new intellectual move- 
 ment and social upheaval, in every land and amongst 
 men of every degree. This great awakening of the 
 religious spirit was no new thing in the world's history, 
 for the Reformers claimed kindred with many heralds 
 and precursors, since the very dawn of Christianity. 
 Luther boldly asserted this truth when he declared 
 that " St. Paul and St. Augustine had been Hussites." 
 He had discovered that he himself was a Hussite, 1 
 without knowing it, when compelled to give reasons 
 
 1 John Huss, the Bohemian martyr, who preached the doctrines of 
 Wycliffe in the fourteenth century. A friend of King Wenceslaus and 
 his Queen. 
 1 
 
2 A ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 for the Faith that was in him, at that momentous 
 discussion before the Diet of Augsburg in 1518. 
 
 Through the long centuries of darkness and oppres- 
 sion, we see the torch of spiritual and evangelical 
 teaching handed on from one devout, courageous 
 teacher to another, so that the truth was never 
 without a witness upon earth. The note of St. 
 Paul's doctrine rings through the writings of the 
 earlier Saints and Confessors, until we hear its 
 echoes in St. Augustine's mystical dream of an ideal 
 city in the Heavens : " De Civitate Dei." In that 
 earnest cry to God : " Thou hast made us unto 
 Thyself, and our heart is restless until it rests in 
 Thee/' we find the key-note of St. Augustine's " Con- 
 fessions/' The same spiritual idea is carried out as 
 we trace the inspiring roll-call of that noble army of 
 the early mystics, who prepared the way for the Refor- 
 mation by their fiery ardour and spiritual devotion. 
 
 Amongst these pioneers of a purer worship, some 
 names have for us an undying charm. Take St. 
 Francis of Assisi, at once the holy prophet of Umbria 
 and the child-like saint, who passed like a ray of 
 sunshine through the gloom of the Middle Ages 
 and, himself the very soul of cha,rity, preached a 
 God of mercy and love. 
 
 Or again Dante, the mystic and the seer ; was 
 there ever more passionate zeal for reform than 
 inspired the pilgrim of the " Divina Commedia " ? 
 Consumed with the fiery zeal of the Ghibelline 
 against the despotism and ambition of the Church, 
 he leads us entranced through Hell and Purgatory 
 and Paradise, ever the stern denouncer of sin and 
 the sweet singer of the joys of purity and holiness. 
 
 In the next century, we cannot pass over the 
 
PRECURSORS OF THE REFORMATION 3 
 
 gallant-hearted St. Catherine of Siena, whose passion 
 for encouraging peace upon earth was as great as 
 her earnest desire for a complete reform of the Church. 
 We see her leading a life of devoted self-sacrifice, 
 winning all hearts by her boundless charity, recon- 
 ciling the opposite interests of fierce faction leaders, 
 causing wars to cease, and finally leading back in 
 triumph a Sovereign Pontiff to his duties in Rome. 
 Amongst the precursors of the Reformation, men- 
 tion must be made of the splendid work done by a 
 succession of pious impassioned preachers through- 
 out Italy, such as Arnold of Brescia in the twelfth 
 century, Giovanni of Vicenza in the thirteenth, 
 Giacoponi di Todi in the fourteenth century, and by 
 San Bernadino of Florence in the fifteenth. But 
 last and perhaps greatest of these inspired teachers 
 of pure religion was Girolamo Savonarola (1452- 
 1498). His story is so well known that I will merely 
 touch upon his marvellous passion and eloquence, 
 strengthened by that magnetic influence which has 
 power to move the souls of men. His idea of the 
 Church was mediaeval, his theology was that of 
 Aquinas, but the most famous humanists of Florence 
 became his disciples. Amongst these were Pico 
 della Mirandola (the admirable Crichton of his day), 
 who had " sought to reconcile the dialectics of 
 Aristotle with the oracles of Chaldea," and Ficino 
 of the Academy. Lorenzo the Magnificent sent for 
 the Friar to minister at his deathbed, while over 
 the masses of the people his influence spread with 
 the overwhelming force of a great revival. Deeply 
 ingrained with the reforming spirit, he boldly de- 
 nounced iniquity in high places, and called upon 
 all to repent and serve God, in spirit and in truth. 
 
4 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 But we know the sad end ; how his wonderful 
 career ended in a cruel death, and the people whom 
 he had sought to save were only affected for a time ; 
 his standard was too high for all but his most devout 
 listeners. As Villari says : " He chiefly helped 
 Luther by giving the world a final proof that it was 
 hopeless to hope for the purification of an Italian 
 city/' But all the earlier mystics of thought, and 
 word, and deed, had done their work ; and when 
 Luther and the later Reformers added the authority 
 and guidance of the Word of God in the Bible, and 
 taught with St. Paul : " Being therefore justified 
 by faith, we have peace in God " ; the more thought- 
 ful and earnest of the modern mystics were amongst 
 the first to embrace the new doctrine. Here was 
 the guiding truth they wanted, which mysticism 
 alone could never give. 
 
 Moreover on all sides there had long been a loosen- 
 ing of bonds and a widening of horizons ; a revolt 
 against despotism which would learn nothing, and 
 a growth of enterprise and personality. We see this 
 very clearly with regard to the marvellous beginning 
 of the world's exploration, which in earlier days was 
 crushed as much as possible by Papal opposition. 
 Thus the doctrine of the " Antipodes " was held to 
 be a damnable heresy, and Pope Zacharias declared 
 it " perverse and iniquitous/' Peter of Abano was 
 condemned by the Inquisition in 1316, and a few 
 years later Cecco d'Ascoli was burned alive in 
 Florence, both partly on account of their belief in 
 the " Antipodes/' But later on, when Columbus 
 and other great explorers had proved all that the 
 Church so emphatically denied the shape of the 
 earth, the races living where theologians had asserted 
 
PRECURSORS OF THE REFORMATION 5 
 
 that none could live . . . the prestige of the Pope's 
 omniscience was severely shaken, and the minds of 
 men were quickened by the dream of vast possibili- 
 ties. It was the same with regard to the astronomical 
 theories of Copernicus, and of Galileo, who died a 
 prisoner of the Inquisition ; but truth was destined 
 to spread and prevail, and set the world free from 
 the heaviest fetters of superstition. 
 
 But the " most formidable instrument of modern 
 reason/' as Symonds calls it, was undoubtedly the 
 Printing Press, invented about the middle of the 
 fifteenth century, and made really effective by the 
 coincidence of cheap paper being first available. 
 This has been called the greatest event in history, 
 and it is impossible to over-state its importance. 
 Knowledge was no longer the property of the favoured 
 few ; the art of printing spread the wisdom of the 
 past and the most advanced ideas of the present 
 broadcast throughout the world. It turned a mere 
 discussion amongst scholars at Wittenberg into a 
 revolution which shook the Church of Rome to its 
 very foundations. The printing press diffused 
 throughout Europe innumerable copies of the 
 Bible, without which the Protestant movement of 
 the sixteenth century could never have met with 
 success. 
 
 There were many reasons why the first awakening 
 of the Reformation should take place in Northern 
 Europe, where the influence of the Renaissance 
 had been chiefly confined to Theology and scholastic 
 Philosophy. In Germany the free towns of the 
 twelfth century had long been homes of civil and 
 intellectual liberty, and the democratic spirit had 
 conduced to a robust temper, and independent mind 
 
6 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 hostile to sacerdotalism. The conditions hi Italy 
 were far less favourable to freedom of mind or body. 
 When the earnest religious movement of the North 
 spread across the Alps, it was at first looked upon 
 by the humanists of the Italian Renaissance such as 
 the dilettanti of Florence as a mysterious barbaric 
 force, and the eternal conflict was renewed between 
 the man of faith who lived for the future, and the 
 man of taste who lived for the past. 
 
 Still, the intercourse between Italy and Germany 
 was very close, and the demand for liberty of opinion 
 was felt by both countries, while the need for Reform 
 became everywhere a growing conviction. 
 
 But Christian zeal might conquer Pagan culture, 
 and it often chanced that the highly strung devotee 
 of the Classical Renaissance who came to criticise 
 the new teaching, remained to cast down his pride, 
 in lowly prayer. As it was with Pico della Mirandola 
 at the preaching of Savonarola, so we shall see it 
 happen again and again in the following story of 
 the Men and Women of the Italian Renaissance. 
 
 In tracing the progress of this great religious 
 movement in Italy, it is interesting to observe how, 
 at first, it aimed at little more than the internal 
 reform of the Church, by limiting the power of the 
 Curia, asserting the supreme authority of the General 
 Councils, putting an end to corrupt practices and 
 raising a higher standard of personal devotion and 
 moral conduct. Men who came under the influence 
 of the New Spirit, and desired to carry out these 
 reforms, were able to work together in the beginning ; 
 but as time passed on they drifted far apart, as some 
 more ardent spirits felt it necessary to withdraw 
 from a Church which would not be reformed, while 
 
PRECURSORS OF THE REFORMATION 7 
 
 others hated the very thought of schism and refused 
 to take any step which would separate them from 
 the Communion of the Church of Rome. Amongst 
 those who looked upon the movement as a protest 
 against practical abuses, we must mention Adrian 
 of Utrecht, Bishop of Tortosa, who had been tutor 
 to Charles V and had already carried out great 
 reforms in the religious Houses of Spain. A man of 
 deep piety and learning, he ascended the papal 
 throne in 1522 with a stern resolution to set the 
 Church in order. He gave an example of extreme 
 simplicity and austerity in his own household, but 
 when he attempted to influence the Curia, he soon 
 found that the Cardinals were firmly resolved not to 
 be reformed. Quite satisfied with the scholastic 
 theology of St. Thomas, he himself had no desire for 
 doctrinal changes, although he vainly besought his 
 friend Erasmus to come and help him in the struggle 
 against abuses. Pope Adrian died within two years, 
 having apparently achieved nothing. 
 
 Still, all honest effort must leave some trace behind, 
 and Adrian VI was at least sincere in his desire for 
 real reform. We are not surprised at the refusal of 
 Erasmus to help him in so mighty a task, for he was 
 not the man to take up a forlorn hope ; yet we cannot 
 resist a passing vision of the vast possibilities which 
 might have arisen before the great German scholar, 
 had his brilliant talents been supported by the whole- 
 hearted courage of his opinions. 
 
 Not even the most ardent defenders of the Romish 
 Church have attempted to deny the terrible abuses 
 which had crept in on every side, and Adrian was 
 by no means the first Pope who had boldly struggled 
 against them. We cannot forget how Gregory VII 
 
8 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 had openly thundered out his denunciations from 
 the Chair of St. Peter ; and there was another Pope, 
 Enea Silvio Piccolomini, Pius II, who wrote in his 
 epistles : " The Court of Rome gives nothing without 
 money ; the laying on of hands and the gifts of 
 the Holy Spirit are sold ; pardon is only given to 
 those who can pay for it." Perhaps the strongest 
 language comes from a saint : Catherine of Siena, 
 who, after having compared the Pope to Judas, Pilate 
 and Lucifer, writes : " The ten commandments are 
 converted into one, ' Bring us money ! ' Rome is 
 a gulf of Hell, where the Devil presides and sells the 
 benefits which Christ acquired by his Passion, whence 
 comes the proverb : 
 
 " ' Curia Romana non petit ovem sine lana ; 
 
 Dantes exaudit, non dantibus ostia claudit.'" 
 
 A certain preacher, ending his sermon with the usual 
 appeal to " abundant alms/* thus illustrated his 
 demand : ' You ask me, dearest brethren, the way 
 to Paradise ? The monastery bells teach it you with 
 their ringing cry : * Give ! give ! give ! ' (' Dan-do ! 
 dan-do! dan-do!')." 
 
 So great was the wealth and corruption of the 
 ecclesiastics, that the Third Lateran Council was 
 obliged to impose sumptuary laws ; thus, there was 
 a limit of forty or fifty carriages for a cardinal, thirty 
 or forty for an archbishop, bishops were to be 
 satisfied with twenty-five, archdeacons with five or 
 six, and deacons with only two horses each. In order 
 to maintain their sumptuous establishments, these 
 churchmen combined many benefices under their 
 control, forty or fifty being often held by one man. 
 This same corruption was found in all orders of the 
 
PRECURSORS OF THE REFORMATION 9 
 
 Church ; everywhere the sacraments were sold, the 
 evil life of priests was the common jest of every writer 
 on social subjects, many of the monasteries had lost 
 all discipline and were hotbeds of corruption. So 
 much has been written on this subject that it will be 
 enough for our purpose to state a few salient and 
 undisputed facts. 
 
 But amidst all these widespread signs of a low tone 
 in morality and religion, there was not wanting, 
 below the surface, a general reaction of the national 
 conscience in Italy, and this was undoubtedly to a 
 great extent strengthened by the influence and 
 example of the German Reformers. Their books 
 were already spreading throughout the country to 
 an extraordinary extent, and every famous printing- 
 house was busy with new editions of the Fathers, 
 Translations of the Bible, and Commentaries on the 
 Epistles, etc. All these were read and studied by men 
 of note and influence, who were to take a leading 
 part in the reforming movement. Gian Matteo 
 Giberti, highly honoured for his piety and sincerity, 
 was one of those who carried into action the opinions 
 he had accepted. He was appointed Datary by 
 Clement VII, and Bishop of Verona in 1524, where 
 his administration of the diocese and successful 
 reform of the clergy was a shining example to other 
 prelates. Giberti also founded a learned soceity in 
 Verona and a Greek printing-press which published 
 good editions of the Fathers of the Church. 
 
 Reginald Pole, at this time still a layman, was 
 one of the professors at the University of Padua, and 
 his household also became a centre of Catholic reform. 
 In Venice, where toleration was a State principle, there 
 was a large Teutonic colony, having its centre in the 
 
10 ITALIAN REFOBMATION 
 
 Fondaco de' Tedeschi, and the books of Luther found 
 * their way here as early as 1519, and were eagerly 
 bought, although by command of the Patriarch, 
 many of them were seized and destroyed. However, 
 even at this early date, works of the German reformers 
 were translated into Italian and published anony- 
 mously, with a wide circulation. Amongst these 
 were Luther's sermons on the Lord's Prayer, and 
 Melanchthon's " Loci Communes," under the title of 
 " I Principii della Teologia." Fra Andrea of Ferrara, 
 who preached during Christmas 1520, at San Marco 
 and in the open air, was described as " following the 
 doctrine of Martin Luther." The same was said of 
 Giambattista Pallavicino, a Carmelite friar who 
 preached at Brescia in the Lent of 1527 ; while three 
 " heretic teachers " are spoken of at Mirandola in 
 1524. 
 
 Amongst these earlier reformers in North Italy, 
 we are told of a Florentine physician Girolamo di 
 Bartolemmeo Buongrazia, who confessed that he 
 had accepted the teaching of Luther in 1527. Como 
 appears to have been a centre of disaffection since 
 the days of Julius II, and various Austin friars de- 
 sired to leave their native land and join Zwingli in 
 1525 ; while some priests at Como preached against 
 the current doctrine of the Eucharist, and " were 
 laying hands on others who were to administer the 
 Eucharist in both kinds." These are only a few 
 instances, but we shall see how, after the death of 
 Clement VII in 1534, the Keforming spirit spread 
 and increased on all sides, and was especially strong 
 in certain cities, which formed well-defined centres. 
 Of these the most important were, Venice and its 
 neighbourhood ; Vicenza, Brescia, Cittadella, Miran- 
 
PRECURSORS OF THE REFORMATION 11 
 
 dola, Como, Padua ; Ferrara, Modena, Rome and 
 Viterbo ; Milan, Piacenza, and last but not least, 
 Naples and Lucca. 
 
 It will be interesting to follow out the history of 
 all these various circles, to trace the steady rise and 
 progress of this religious movement, and to enter 
 fully into the most interesting, and too often tragic 
 story of the devoted Men and Women of the Reforma- 
 tion, who endured sorrow and suffering for their 
 religion and, in many cases, sealed their faith by a 
 martyr's death. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 ORATORY OF DIVINE LOVE 
 
 The Oratory of Divine Love, formed by a number of distinguished 
 churchmen Reform within the Church their chief aim Hatred 
 of schism Paul III forms a council : " Consilium de emendando 
 Ecclesia " Composed of Gaspero Contarini, Giacomo Sadoleto 
 Bishop of Carpentras, Giovan Pietro Caraffa, Federigo Fregoso, 
 Matteo Giberti, Reginald Pole, Aleandro Archbishop of Brindisi, 
 Gregorio Cortese and Tomaso Badia Life of Cardinal Contarini. 
 
 IT has been suggested that those who took part in 
 the Reforming movement of the sixteenth century 
 in Italy, might be divided into three distinct classes. 
 
 First : those earnest and devout members of the 
 Church of Rome, who were aware of the serious 
 abuses which had crept in on every side, in morals, 
 in discipline and in every form of religious govern- 
 ment, and who felt that a complete reform of the 
 hierarchy and of all institutions connected with the 
 Church of Rome, was absolutely indispensable. But 
 if they desired a return to the simpler forms of an 
 earlier Christianity, at the same time they firmly 
 adhered to the dogmas and doctrines of the Roman 
 Catholic Church of their day. 
 
 Secondly : were those who fully agreed in advo- 
 cating the necessity of external reform, but whose 
 opinions had been influenced to some extent by 
 the new doctrines of Luther anism, and who longed 
 for a simpler creed. They were especially drawn 
 
 12 
 
ORATORY OF DIVINE LOVE 13 
 
 towards the doctrines of justification by faith, and 
 salvation by the merits of Christ, and were disposed 
 to look upon the Bible as the sole authority in matters 
 of belief. But the members of this class had, as yet, 
 no wish to withhold allegiance from the Pope as the 
 Head of Christendom, and they shrank with horror 
 from the thought of schism, or cutting themselves 
 off from the Catholic communion. 
 
 Thirdly : we find a small band of whole-hearted 
 and devoted disciples of the Reformed Faith, who 
 were willing to sacrifice everything for their religion, 
 which to them was far dearer than life or liberty 
 martyr spirits who gladly, for conscience' sake, went 
 forth to meet persecution, exile or death. 
 
 Yet it was not possible for these three classes of 
 reformers to be severed by any clear line of demarca- 
 tion ; as we shall see in the coming history of the 
 Men and Women of the Italian Reformation, one 
 division imperceptibly melts into the other, or indeed 
 one reformer may actually pass through all three 
 phases. 
 
 Belonging in a great measure to the first class of 
 Reformers was a most interesting group of nearly 
 sixty members which, as early as the reign of Leo X, 
 began to meet in Rome for the purpose of attempting 
 to reform the Catholic Church from within. This 
 pious society, which was called " The Oratory of 
 Divine Love," was founded in 1523, in the rectory of 
 Giuliano Dati, close to the little church of S. Dorotea 
 in Trastevere, on the slope of the Janiculum, near 
 the traditional site of St. Peter's martyrdom. In 
 the religious circle, united by one high moral ideal, 
 were churchmen of every rank, and laymen alike 
 distinguished by learning and virtue, men of every 
 
U ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 tendency of thought ; but the humanist and the 
 ascetic, the doctrinal and the practical reformer 
 worked together in harmony. The society was 
 founded on the principle that the reform of the 
 Church must be built upon the religious reform of the 
 individual, as well as upon that of the spiritual 
 hierarchy. Full of zeal and devotion, they pledged 
 themselves to devote more time to private and 
 public prayer, and by religious reading and medita- 
 tion, to do all in their power to deepen and spiritualise 
 the foundations of Christian life. 
 
 One striking feature of these meetings was the 
 revival of the study of St. Augustine's works, which 
 had been so great a power in the mediaeval Church. 
 As Reginald Pole said : " The jewel which the Church 
 had so long kept half concealed was again brought 
 to light." 
 
 It is strange to find amongst the leaders of this 
 religious movement, who thus worked together in 
 apparent brotherly love, the names of men who in 
 after years were ranged in opposite camps amongst 
 the persecutors of the Roman Inquisition on one 
 side, and the victims and martyrs of that dread 
 tribunal on the other. Here we see the gentle 
 Gaspero Contarini, made Cardinal in 1535 ; Giacomo 
 Sadoleto Bishop of Carpentras, Gian Matteo Giberti 
 Bishop of Verona, Bonifacio da Colle, Paolo Con- 
 sigliere, Tullio Crispaldo, Latino Giovenale, Luigi 
 Lippomano, Giuliano Dati, Gaetano da Thiene the 
 founder of the Theatines, canonised later and many 
 others, amongst whom, last not least, was Giovan 
 Pietro Caraffa, later zealous Inquisitor and Pope 
 under the name of Paul IV. 
 
 Caracciolo, in his Life of this Pope Paul IV, grows 
 
ORATORY OF DIVES E LOVE 15 
 
 enthusiastic at the mention of those early days when 
 Caraffa was a member of the Oratory of Divine Love, 
 which he describes as " a tower or citadel to defend 
 the laws of God and to drive back the impetuous 
 attacks of vice and irreligion." 
 
 If the endeavour failed in its high purpose of reform 
 and unity, it had at least the merit of creating a kind 
 of public opinion on the necessity of such reform 
 within the Church, as should cause the laws and 
 customs of the Church to follow the example and the 
 precepts of its first Founder. We may add that it 
 was in reality a peaceful conspiracy which almost 
 carried out its high purpose by the sacrifice of the 
 noblest of the conspirators. It proved a hopeless 
 task to check the course of vice and corruption ; the 
 Council of Trent was a final attempt, but the most 
 gallant pioneers met with nothing but ingratitude 
 and disaster. 
 
 The Oratory of Divine Love, which had fought in 
 vain against the pagan and worldly life in Rome, 
 did not survive the terrible storm of the capture 
 and sack of the city in 1527. But in Venice, which 
 offered almost the only safe place of refuge in Italy, 
 a community joined to form an oratory of somewhat 
 the same kind. Here Caraffa, Priuli, Contarini, 
 Reginald Pole, and some Florentine fugitives amongst 
 whom was Antonio Bruccioli, the translator of the 
 Bible into Italian, and the poet Marcantonio 
 Flaminio, met together for prayer and meditation. 
 Somewhat similar societies were also formed later 
 in many other Italian cities ; Naples, Modena, 
 Ferrara, Florence, Bologna, Lucca, Viterbo, etc., 
 which we shall have occasion to consider later. 
 
 It was to the group of pious and learned men who 
 
16 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 had joined the first Oratory of Divine Love in Rome 
 that Pope Paul III turned for help, in his famous 
 effort to reform the Church, in 1537. He summoned 
 Cardinal Contarini from Venice, and requested him 
 to form a Council of distinguished churchmen to 
 carry out his wishes. Contarini gladly undertook 
 the congenial task, and suggested the names of Caraffa 
 Bishop of Chieti, Federigo Fregoso Bishop of Gubbio, 
 Sadoleto Bishop of Carpentras, Matteo Giberti Bishop 
 of Verona, Reginald Pole who was then living at 
 Padua, Gregorio Cortese a Benedictine monk, 
 Tomaso Badia Master of the Palace, and Aleandro 
 Archbishop of Brindisi. Briefs were sent to all who 
 were absent by the Pope, who received them with 
 flattering courtesy, expressing his high opinion of 
 their learning and judgment. These nine chosen 
 members of the Conference were requested to note 
 in writing what reforms they thought needful in 
 the Church, and at the same time were sworn to 
 secrecy. 
 
 During two years, constant meetings were held in 
 the house of Cardinal Contarini ; the whole subject 
 of abuses in the Church and their remedy, was 
 thoroughly discussed, and Cardinal CarafEa, who 
 from his age had most experience, appears to have 
 drawn up the twenty-eight articles relating to ec- 
 clesiastical discipline, under the title of " Consilium de 
 emend anda Ecclesia." Had it been thoroughly carried 
 out, it would indeed have been a self-denying ordi- 
 nance on the part of the cardinals and other great 
 prelates who drew it up ! Here it was enacted that 
 " the power of the Keys was not to be used for gain 
 of money, but according to the command of Christ : 
 freely ye have received and freely give." Pensions 
 
ORATORY OF DIVINE LOVE 17 
 
 were not to be established on the incomes of benefices, 
 save for charitable purposes and for the poor clergy; . . . 
 the succession of benefices to relations was forbidden 
 and also plurality of benefices ; . . . bishops were to live 
 in their sees ; and cardinals also ; . . . dispensations 
 for marriages etc. were only to be granted in very 
 special cases and then always " gratis." . . . Certain 
 printed books especially the " Colloquies of Erasmus/' 
 were interdicted . . . there were recommendations to 
 encourage peace and harmony and to watch over 
 hospitals and the care of orphans and widows . . . 
 etc. etc. 
 
 But no one was satisfied with the " Consilium." 
 The most ardent supporters of the Church were furious 
 at having so many abuses enumerated ; while honest 
 men like Cardinal Contarini, felt that no real progress 
 was made in the direction of reform, until abuses 
 were actually put an end to. A copy of the great 
 Edict had prematurely reached Germany, and it was 
 published with a stinging preface by the famous Jean 
 Sturm of the Academy of Strasburg. He compli- 
 mented the Pope and the Cardinals on their good 
 intentions, but he asked " why there was no mention 
 of preaching the Gospel, of reading the Bible, of 
 reforming the faith and life of the nations ? '' The 
 only remedy for abuses was to put an end to super- 
 stitious fables, and scholastic quibbles which darken 
 the mind without satisfying the conscience. It was 
 the old story of the Pharisees who " strain at a gnat 
 and swallow a camel." 
 
 Luther expressed his opinion of the vaunted 
 
 " Consilium," by a picture in the frontispiece of his 
 
 book, representing the Pope seated upon a very 
 
 high throne, surrounded by Cardinals, who held in 
 
 2 
 
18 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 their hands long poles to which the tails of foxes 
 were fastened by branches of flowering broom. 
 
 By a curious irony of fate, when Cardinal Carafia 
 became Pope as Paul IV, he placed this " Consilium " 
 in the Index of prohibited works for the year 1559. 
 He also arraigned for heresy before the Roman 
 Inquisition, most of the colleagues who, under his 
 direction, had drawn up this unlucky document. 
 Indeed almost all of those who had joined the Oratory 
 of Divine Love became the object of suspicion and 
 of cruel persecution ; some were only saved by 
 premature death from the flames of the Inquisition. 
 
 It will be interesting at this point, to give a short 
 account of a few of the more distinguished members 
 of the learned and religious society. 
 
 Gaspero Contarini was born in the year 1483, in 
 Venice, at a time when that city was at the height of 
 her prosperity and magnificence ; when her merchant 
 princes ruled the sea, before the discovery of America 
 had raised up rivals in her world-wide commerce. 
 The father of Gaspero was a prosperous merchant 
 who would have had his son follow in his steps, had 
 not the boy shown so strong a taste for learning as 
 to kindle the ambition of Luigi Contarini, who had 
 him taught by the most famous professors of Venice. 
 He was sent to Padua at the age of eighteen to learn 
 Greek under Marco Musurus, the distinguished pupil 
 of Lascari, and he studied the philosophy of Aristotle 
 with the great Mantuan scholar, Pietro Pomponazzo. 
 Amongst his companions at Padua were the traveller 
 and historian, Andrea Navagero and the physican 
 Fracastoro, whose theories were so much in advance 
 of his time. 
 
 A splendid career opened out before Gaspero, who 
 
ORATORY OF DIVINE LOVE 19 
 
 in 1521 was sent by the Republic as ambassador to 
 the Emperor Charles V. He was much attracted by 
 young Contarini, and took him from Worms to the 
 siege of Tournay in his suite ; thence to England and 
 lastly back to Spain. Here he was able to solve a 
 mathematical problem which puzzled the wise men 
 of the day. In September of the year 1522, a certain 
 ship named the Vittoria arrived from the East, laden 
 with cloves and spice from the Molucca Islands which 
 it had reached sailing west. It was the first ship 
 which had thus sailed round the world, and the 
 captain, Sebastian de Elcano, was rewarded by the 
 Emperor with armorial bearings of a terrestrial globe 
 and the proud motto : " Primus circumdedisti me." 
 Sebastian had kept an exact account of each twenty- 
 four hours during the voyage, but he was amazed 
 to find, when he reached San Lucar at the mouth of 
 the Guadalquiver the port of Seville that it was 
 not Sunday, September 7, as he believed, but Monday 
 the 8th. 
 
 This was much discussed amongst the learned, but 
 it was Contarini who made the calculation, that by 
 sailing westward round the world, they had lost 
 a day. 
 
 After the sack of Rome in 1527, Contarini was sent 
 as ambassador from Venice to Pope Clement VII, 
 in order to induce him to lessen his enormous demand 
 upon the Republic of 100,000 ducats of gold, as a 
 salt-tax. He was able not only to serve his country 
 with the Pope but also with the Emperor, whom he 
 met at Bologna and from whom he obtained very 
 advantageous terms of peace. On his return, the 
 Senate appointed him one of the chief magistrates 
 of his native city. A few years later, in 1535, a 
 
20 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 messenger from the new Pope, Paul III, brought the 
 surprising news that Gasparo Contarini had been 
 raised to the dignity of Cardinal. He was at first 
 doubtful whether he would accept this honour, but 
 he yielded to the persuasion of his friends, with the 
 hope that he might be useful in promoting the much- 
 needed reform of the Church. 
 
 This appointment gave general satisfaction, and 
 Reginald Pole, who was in Venice at the time, said 
 that he had heard of virtue being honoured for its 
 own sake, but had never before seen so striking an 
 instance of it. It was when Cardinal Contarini 
 was established in Rome, that he was called upon by 
 Paul III to carry out the scheme of reform of which 
 we have already seen the practical failure in spite of 
 Contarini's earnest efforts. The new Pope was, 
 however, quite satisfied with his futile attempt at 
 reforming abuses, and he was easily persuaded by 
 interested prelates and cardinals that no more could 
 be done without danger to the whole policy of the 
 Roman Court. However, he was quite aware of 
 Contarini's honest zeal, and willingly took his advice 
 in the creation of new Cardinals of high character. 
 Amongst these we find, Federigo Fregoso, Sadoleto, 
 Matteo Giberti, Reginald Pole and Gregorio Cortese, 
 a Benedictine monk of the convent of Lerins in 
 Provence. 
 
 When, in 1538, Paul III went to Nice to meet the 
 Emperor and the French King, Francois I, Contarini 
 accompanied him and was received with special 
 honour by Queen Marguerite of Navarre, who had 
 heard with the greatest interest of his reformed 
 opinions. Two years later, after various ineffectual 
 efforts to settle religious differences amongst his 
 
ORATORY OF DIVINE LOVE 21 
 
 subjects, the Emperor convoked a Diet at Ratisbon 
 and, desiring the presence of a prelate of authority 
 and learning, he asked the Pope to send Cardinal 
 Contarini as his Legate. Paul III readily agreed, 
 and both Charles V and his brother Ferdinand gave 
 the warmest reception to their old friend. At this 
 moment, there seemed more hope of agreement 
 than ever before, as earnest men of both sides felt 
 that the peace of Europe hung upon their decision. 
 No one could have been better suited than Contarini 
 to bring these momentous discussions to a satisfactory 
 end, and the Emperor, who himself presided at the 
 Diet, desired nothing more earnestly than a complete 
 agreement between the opposing views. 
 
 While at Ratisbon, Cardinal Contarini had written 
 a tract, in the form of a letter, on the vexed question 
 of " justification by faith," in which he came to the 
 conclusion that this doctrine was the foundation of 
 the Christian Faith. Many Romanists as well as 
 the Protestants appeared to agree upon this difficult 
 subject, although in point of fact different meanings 
 were given to the words, and there was a constant 
 quibble about the expression " faith alone." Faith 
 must be living and active ; and justification must 
 depend both on " inherent " and " imputed " right- 
 eousness. But the serious obstacle to all concord 
 was the secret duplicity of the Pope and his most 
 devoted adherents, such as Caraffa and Aleander. 
 He was informed from day to day of all that passed ; 
 his consent was needed for every point, and he was 
 absolutely opposed to any reform of doctrine which 
 would interfere with the papal prerogative. After a 
 time it became quite clear that no final settlement 
 could be carried at this Conference, which was there- 
 
22 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 fore brought to an end by the Emperor after nearly 
 three months of weary discussion. 
 
 It had been a time of great anxiety and disappoint- 
 ment to Contarini, but Charles V fully appreciated 
 the strenuous and earnest labours of the Cardinal, 
 who was in failing health, and had exerted himself 
 beyond his strength. He was rewarded by being 
 appointed to the Government of Bologna, where he 
 was received by the inhabitants with the greatest 
 enthusiasm. Here he was able to carry out his high 
 ideal of a just and careful rule, for he devoted him- 
 self to the good of his subjects ; was always patient 
 in hearing disputes and trying to act as peacemaker 
 by preventing lawsuits. He gave public audience 
 once a week in a large hall open to all his people, 
 where those who thought themselves wronged or 
 aggrieved came to make complaint, and the Cardinal 
 employed his keen intellect and warm charity in 
 righting wrongs and turning foes into friends. 
 
 Paul III had been anxious to send him on a diplo- 
 matic mission to the Emperor, but he was suddenly 
 taken ill with fever in the great heat of the month of 
 August, 1542 ; and when his devoted secretary 
 Beccadelli expressed the hope that he would soon be 
 ready for his journey, he replied : "I must prepare 
 myself to appear in the presence of another and a 
 greater Emperor/' He spoke with deep gratitude 
 of the blessings he had received, and expressed his 
 readiness to depart this life. His only regret was 
 that he could not do more for his poor people, and 
 he passed away in peaceful hope and faith. 
 
 His death was an irreparable loss to the cause of 
 conciliation, and the universal grief of rich and poor 
 was a well-deserved testimony to his noble and loving 
 
ORATORY OF DIVINE LOVE 23 
 
 character. He was a man of great learning and 
 wide study, not only in theology but in every branch 
 of philosophy. His knowledge of Aristotle was so 
 profound that it was commonly said " if the books 
 of that author were lost, he could reproduce them 
 from memory, word for word." His fearless and 
 outspoken honesty won him the highest respect and 
 admiration, and made him a great favourite with the 
 Emperor who hated flattery, while it gave him power- 
 ful influence for good on Paul III. Contarini was 
 ever a generous patron to poor scholars, and his 
 hospitality was boundless to all who needed it, for 
 as he said : " God has not called me to this high 
 station for my own convenience but for the service 
 of others." It has been well said of him that 
 " he was one of the noblest figures in an age of 
 great men, and the blessing of the peacemaker was 
 his." 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 CARDINALS GIBERTI, SADOLETO AND MORONE 
 
 Life of Cardinal Gian Matteo Giberti, Bishop of Verona, Papal Datary 
 Life of Cardinal Jacopo Sadoleto, Bishop of Carpentras 
 Life of Cardinal Giovanni Morone, Bishop of Modena Perse- 
 cution of the Reformers of Modena Dispersion of the Academy 
 of Modena Morone made Governor of Bologna After the elec- 
 tion of Pope Paul IV, he was sent to the Council of Trent He 
 died in Rome in 1580. 
 
 AMONGST the members of the Oratory of Divine Love 
 who deserve a special notice, the most important, 
 after Cardinal Contarini, is Gian Matteo Giberti 
 Bishop of Verona, one of the most eminent men of 
 his tune for learning and piety. His talents were 
 early recognised by Pope Clement VII who appointed 
 him Papal Datary, 1 and was much under his influence. 
 At the terrible sack of Rome in 1527, Giberti took 
 refuge with the Pope in the Castle of St. Angelo, 
 and endured later great suffering and peril as one 
 of his hostages. After this awful experience, the 
 Bishop retired to his See at Verona, where he devoted 
 himself to the wise government of those under his 
 rule, to the reform of ecclesiastical abuses, and to 
 theological study. In order to encourage this, he 
 started a printing-house in his own palace with the 
 chief object of giving to the world correct editions 
 of the Greek Fathers. 
 
 3 Originally meaning the Secretary who dated answers to memorials. 
 
 24 
 
GIBERTI, SADOLETO AND MORONE 25 
 
 As we have already seen, he was one of the col- 
 leagues selected by his friend Contarini for the impor- 
 tant task of drawing up the famous " Consilium," and 
 he shared the cruel disappointment of this failure in 
 advancing the cause of true reform. His home 
 became a centre of religious and literary activity, 
 where all the illustrious men of his day gathered 
 together for encouragement and study, and to profit 
 by the wise counsel of the Bishop who had gained 
 so broad an experience in diplomacy during his 
 various important missions to England and France. "1 
 One of his most devoted admirers was the delightful 
 poet Marcantonio Flaminio, who had studied under 
 Giberti at Padua, and who accompanied him as 
 secretary to Verona. Another special friend and 
 constant correspondent was Reginald Pole, who as 
 early as 1525, when he went to Rome, was surprised 
 at the wonderful reception awaiting him in Florence 
 and other towns, and only later discovered the 
 honours thus paid him, were due to the kindness of 
 the Bishop of Verona, whom he had not yet seen. 
 
 We have not space even to touch upon the extremely 
 interesting correspondence of Cardinal Giberti and 
 his friends, but on the occasion of a stay at Liege 
 in July 1537, we have a vivid picture of the life they 
 led. 
 
 " The Bishop of Verona is our master of ceremonies. 
 After Office, we hear Mass and dine at midday. 
 During dinner there is reading from St. Bernard and 
 conversation. On leaving table, the Bishop of Verona 
 generally reads a chapter of Eusebius : ' De Demon- 
 stratione Evangelica/ Then some two hours pass in 
 agreeable and useful talk until an hour and a half 
 
26 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 before supper, after which we sing Vespers and 
 Compline, and the Legate . . . lectures upon the 
 Epistles of St. Paul to Timothy, to the great satisfac- 
 tion of Giberti and the others." 
 
 The views of Giberti on the subject of a reform in 
 doctrine as well as in discipline, closely resembled 
 those we have already mentioned of Cardinal Con- 
 tarini, whom he survived little more than a year, 
 dying on December 30, 1543. The loss of these two 
 earnest and devoted prelates was an irreparable blow 
 to the hopes of conciliation between the Church at 
 Rome and the Reformers. 
 
 Amongst the band of prelates who desired to 
 reform the Church from within, Sadoleto and Morone 
 survived, but as we shall see in the following short 
 account of their lives and work, they had not the 
 needful force of character to fight a losing cause. 
 The same may be said with still more force of Reginald 
 Pole, whose history will find its place in that of the 
 circle at Viterbo, in which Vittoria Colonna plays so 
 large a part. 
 
 The story of Jacopo Sadoleto, who was born at 
 Modena in 1477, carries us back to the gay and cul- 
 tured days of the Renaissance under Leo X, to whom 
 both he and Pietro Bembo played the part of secre- 
 taries and companions. They were also amongst the 
 most brilliant ornaments of that polished and literary 
 circle. But as time passed on, Sadoleto was not 
 blind to the coming changes, and with clear insight 
 foresaw the approaching storm, before the invading 
 horde had reached Rome in the days of Clement VII. 
 He even warned the Pope of his danger, but rinding 
 his words unheeded, he obtained permission to leave 
 
GIB1RTI, SADOLETO AND MORONE 27 
 
 the city, just twenty days before its capture, and he 
 retired to his bishopric of Carpentras, near Avignon. 
 He had a most disastrous journey, for the plague 
 broke out on board his ship at Nice. All his 
 precious books were also lost. Here it was that he 
 received a letter from Erasmus that " not the city 
 but the world has perished and the present sufferings 
 of Rome are more cruel than those brought on her 
 by the Goths and the Gauls." A mournful letter of 
 Sadoleto from Carpentras in which he dwells upon 
 past glories, has been well called by Gregorovius 
 "the swan's song a farewell to the cheerful world 
 of humanist times/' 
 
 It was in 1532 that Sadoleto formed an enduring 
 friendship with Reginald Pole, who had settled in 
 Avignon in order to pursue his studies and live un- 
 observed out of the way of Henry VIII, whom he 
 had opposed concerning his divorce. Here Pole was 
 near Carpentras, where he found a kindred spirit in 
 the Bishop who was at that time finishing his " Treatise 
 on Education," intended for his nephew who was to 
 succeed him in his diocese. This MS. he entrusted 
 to Pole that he might take it to Bembo at Venice 
 and read it himself on the journey, and he received 
 in return a most eloquent letter of praise and admira- 
 tion. A little later Sadoleto had two works on hand ; 
 one was a commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the 
 Romans, and the other was in Praise of Philosophy. 
 He asked the advice of Bembo as to which he should 
 finish first, and his old friend was in favour of the 
 latter. But Pole's opinion was also asked, and his 
 advice was so full and comprehensive that it quite 
 decided his future work. As Sadoleto writes : "I 
 shall never forget the faithful and prudent advice 
 
28 ITALIAN EEFORMATION 
 
 you gave me ... to addict myself chiefly to that 
 whose reward extended beyond this world into the 
 next. This answer turned me to sacred literature." 
 He remarked later that he found " Plato and Aristotle 
 languid and flat compared with St. Paul/' 
 
 The well-known Protestant poet and philosopher 
 Aonio Paleario was a friend of his, and he wrote a 
 beautiful letter in praise of the poem on the " Im- 
 mortality of the Soul," greatly admiring the author's 
 religious views. When Sadoleto was summoned to 
 Rome to take part with Contarini, Giberti, and others 
 in the " Consilium," we are told of his primitive mode 
 of travel on the journey through Milan and Modena, 
 with two mules, on one of which were packed his 
 bed and baggage, including his books. He did not 
 willingly show himself at Court, indeed this is the 
 testimony borne to him by Cranmer, in a letter to 
 Henry VIII. Speaking of Pole and his friends he 
 quotes : " They be all singular fellows, ever absenting 
 themselves from court, and desiring to live holily, 
 as the Bishops of Verona and Chieti . . . and Sadoleto 
 Bishop of Carpentras." Sadoleto was always more 
 timid than his colleagues in any matters of doctrinal 
 reform, but although he did not display the courage 
 of his opinions, he too was branded with heresy in 
 the later proceedings of the Inquisition. Aonio 
 Paleario to the last declared that " he was a man as 
 learned as he was holy," and he certainly had reason 
 to be grateful for the kindly recommendation and 
 support which he received from the old Cardinal, 
 when he desired to obtain the Chair of Eloquence at 
 Lucca. Giacomo Sadoleto did not live to see the 
 triumph of his orthodox and prudential doctrines 
 at the later Council of Trent in 1562, and he had the 
 
GIBERTI, SADOLETO AND MORONE 29 
 
 disappointment of seeing some of his religious writings 
 condemned by the Church. He died in Rome in 
 1547, the same year as his old friend Cardinal Bembo. 
 In dealing with the history of Sadoleto's fellow 
 citizen Giovanni Morone who became Bishop of 
 Modena, it will be interesting to give some account 
 of the strong reforming movement in this city. 
 Giovanni was the son of the famous Girolamo Morone, 
 Chancellor of Milan, who was betrayed and denounced 
 to Charles V, by the Marquis of Pescara. He was 
 born in 1509, and so highly distinguished himself 
 in his scholastic career at Padua, that he was barely 
 twenty years of age when Clement VII named him 
 Bishop of Modena, although his post was contested 
 by the younger Cardinal Ippolito d'Este, and he 
 had to wait until 1532 before he took possession of 
 his diocese. He was sent as Nuncio to Bohemia at 
 the Court of Ferdinand I, in 1536, and after his 
 successful interposition at the Council of Spires in 
 1542, he was made Cardinal the same year. He had 
 warned the Pope that there was an absolute necessity 
 for a Council and for most energetic measures of 
 reform if the Church was to be saved in Germany. 
 
 He was deputed as Legate, with Cardinals Parisio 
 and Pole, to the Council of Trent in 1542, and here, 
 to the amazement of all, the leadership devolved 
 upon him. (This we are plainly told from the secret 
 documents of the Inquisition, recently made known.) 
 When Cardinal Morone returned from the Diet of 
 Ratisbon in 1542, he found serious religious troubles 
 awaiting him in his See of Modena, a distinguished 
 centre of learning whose Academy had long been 
 suspected of heterodoxy. Although his own views 
 were in many respects modified by the reformed 
 
30 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 opinions, more especially in regard to justification by 
 faith, yet his own high position in the Papal hierarchy 
 was a strong barrier against his leaving the Roman 
 Catholic Church. He was horrified to " hear it 
 openly said that this city is become altogether 
 Lutheran," and he felt that he could only free himself 
 from suspicion of heresy, by taking strong measures 
 against those preachers who openly declared rebellion. 
 
 Not only had most of the learned members of the 
 Academy studied the Scriptures and read the works 
 of the Reformers, but a certain Paolo Ricci, a doctor 
 in theology, and formerly a Sicilian monk, had been 
 spreading reformed doctrines amongst all the people 
 until " both men and women disputed everywhere, 
 in the markets, the public places and the churches, 
 concerning the Faith and the law of Christ, quoting 
 and misquoting Scriptures and doctors which they 
 had never read/' 1 The general interest in such 
 subjects had been still more fully aroused by a sermon 
 preached on February 28, 1541, by the eloquent 
 friar, Bernardino Ochino, when the church was " so 
 thronged with academicians and the common people 
 that there was not even standing room for all who 
 wished to enter." 
 
 News of the religious excitement at Modena soon 
 reached the Pope, who wished to excommunicate 
 such of the academicians of Modena as had openly 
 declared their heretical opinions ; Cardinals Sadoleto 
 and Morone with great difficulty effected a temporary 
 conciliation, but the preacher Paolo Ricci was arrested 
 and compelled to recant under pain of death. 
 
 Morone sought by love and charity to win back 
 the wanderers to the fold of the Church, but these 
 
 1 The Annalist, Tassoni il Vecchio. 
 
GIBERTI, SADOLETO AND MORONE 31 
 
 were not the views of the Papal authorities, and in 
 September 1542, a form of confession of faith was 
 sent from Rome to be signed by the people of Modena, 
 and all preaching was forbidden except by official 
 command. Three Cardinals connected with Modena 
 headed the list of signatures, Sadoleto, Paolo Cortese 
 and Morone ; then followed the generals of the 
 monastic orders, some of the magistrates, and all the 
 academicians who had not been able to escape from 
 the city. This was a cruel and ineffectual act of 
 tyranny, for those who had signed against their will, 
 only held their former opinions more strongly. This 
 was shown clearly when in March 1544, Cardinal 
 Morone sent a monk named Bartolommeo della 
 Pergola, whom he believed to be orthodox, but 
 concerning whom this account was given by an eye- 
 witness. 
 
 " All the academicians, who are now more than 
 twenty-five in number, go to hear him, also Antonio 
 Gadaldino the bookseller, who was one of the first to 
 introduce forbidden books in the mother-tongue, 
 which have since been burned at Rome as heretical. 
 This friar only preaches the Gospel, and never men- 
 tions male or female saints, nor the Fathers of the 
 Church, nor Lent, nor fasting, nor many other things, 
 which preaching was much to the taste of the aca- 
 demicians." 
 
 We are not surprised to hear that the courageous 
 nonk was arrested and tried by the Inquisition ; 
 md two years later a most cruel edict was published 
 igainst " keeping any heretical or suspected books 
 n the house or disputing either in public or private 
 
32 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 about religion " (for the third offence complete 
 confiscation of property and the penalty of death to 
 be inflicted). The Academy of Modena could not 
 resist such terrible threats ; it dispersed and was no 
 more heard of. The most earnest Reformers fled to 
 other lands where they openly professed the Gospel ; 
 the more timid remained and conformed, for Faith 
 itself grew faint before the dread fires of the Inquisi- 
 tion, which many endured at Modena. 
 
 As for Cardinal Morone, he certainly had not the 
 martyr's zeal, and we shall see how from this time, 
 he stifled his religious desires for reform and lived in 
 outward conformity. He resigned his Bishopric of 
 Modena in 1550 and the Duke of Milan made him 
 Bishop of Novara, while the Pope rewarded him with 
 the Government of Bologna on his return from Spires 
 where he was sent to complain of the Emperor's 
 indulgence to heretics. On the succession of Caraffa 
 as Paul IV, his old colleague caused Morone to be 
 tried for heresy, and he was imprisoned in the Castle 
 of St. Angelo where he remained until the death of 
 Paul IV (who had refused to own that he was inno- 
 cent). He sat in the Conclave which elected Pius IV, 
 and it was said that he narrowly escaped the Tiara 
 himself, as San Carlo Borromeo proposed him as a 
 candidate. 
 
 Morone was sent by the new Pope as Legate to the 
 Council of Trent (1562), and here he acted as a 
 useful tool of the Papal pretensions, and succeeded 
 in reducing the proposed reforms of doctrine and of 
 the Sacred College to a mere shadow. Amongst the 
 earnest men of learning and piety, who had set forth, 
 so full of hope and courage, on the pathway of re- 
 ligious reform alike in doctrine and in discipline, the 
 
GIBERTI, SADOLETO AND MORONE 33 
 
 Bishop of Modena is one of the most striking ex- 
 amples of one who turned back faint-hearted, after 
 putting his hand to the plough, although in the 
 course of this History, we shall meet with many others. 
 Of his later years, we are told that he remained in 
 well-merited favour with the Pope ; he was sent to 
 the Diet of Ratisbon in 1576, and he died in Rome 
 where he owned a house in the Trastevere in 1580 ; 
 the " Vicolo Morone " still recalling his name. He 
 was buried in the Church of Santa Maria sopra 
 Minerva, and left behind various literary works, 
 enumerated by Argelati in his "Biblioteca degli 
 scrittori milanesi." 
 
 But the spirit of Reform still prospered in Modena 
 to such an extent that the attention of Paul IV was 
 again called to the rebellious city. In October 1555, 
 a Brief demanded that four of the leaders should be 
 arrested and handed over to the tender mercies of 
 the Inquisition. One of these was Bonifacio Valen- 
 tino, Provost of the Cathedral, who some years 
 before had publicly announced that " he wished to 
 sell his books, and said he would not read the Holy 
 Scriptures any more, for upright men are not allowed 
 to study." His brother Filippo Valentino was 
 warned in time and made his escape, as also did 
 Lodovico Castelvestro, who had translated the writings 
 of Melanchthon into Italian. But Bonifacio was 
 taken to Rome and with him the famous bookseller 
 Antonio Gadaldino ; they were tried before the 
 dread Tribunal, found guilty and condemned to 
 perpetual imprisonment. Overcome with horror at 
 the carrying out of this cruel sentence, Bonifacio 
 was at length induced to recant after a year of suffer- 
 ing, on condition that he would publicly submit to 
 3 
 
34: ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 the humiliation of repeating his denial of his faith, 
 in the Cathedral of Modena. Castelvestro was burnt 
 in effigy, and died in 1571 at Chiavenna, neither he 
 nor his brother Giammaria being suffered to return 
 to their native land, under penalty of death. 
 
 But the persecutions for heresy did not end with 
 these, for the registers of the Inquisition contain the 
 names of many more suspected heretics, and their 
 condemnation ; for we learn that in the city of Modena 
 alone, in the year 1568, thirteen men and one woman 
 perished as martyrs at the stake. This is only an 
 isolated instance of the cruel and persistent manner 
 in which any effort at reform was stamped out in 
 the various cities of Italy. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 LIFE OP CARDINAL POLE 
 
 Life of Cardinal Reginald Pole, of the Royal House of England Hia 
 education at Padua Persecution of his family by Henry VIII 
 Appointed Governor of Viterbo His intimacy there with Vittoria 
 Colonna Some account of Vittoria Influence of Ochino'a 
 teaching upon her Her poems. 
 
 WE have seen how the failure of the famous " Con- 
 silium," and also of the Colloquy of Ratisbon (1541), 
 to effect a conciliation, had disappointed the hopes 
 of those who wished to reform the Church from 
 within. But they did not altogether lose heart 
 although Contarini, their leader, was looked upon 
 with suspicion by Carafe and other Cardinals and 
 when he died in 1542 at Bologna, his place as head 
 of the reforming movement was taken by Cardinal 
 Reginald Pole. At this time, the young English 
 nobleman plays such an important part, at least in 
 the hopes and expectations of his followers, that some 
 account of his previous life will be interesting. 
 
 He was the son of Sir Richard Pole and Margaret f 
 Plantagenet, sister of Edward Earl of Warwick, and 
 could claim royal descent from both father and 
 mother. Reginald was the third son, born at Stourton 
 Castle, Staffordshire, on March 3, 1500. His father ^ 
 died five years later, and the boy appears to have 
 spent some years at Canterbury in the Benedictine 
 School, before he went to Oxford at the age of 
 
 35 
 
36 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 thirteen, and was entered as a nobleman at Magdalen 
 College. Amongst his teachers were the famous 
 Greek scholar Thomas Linacre, and William Latimer, 
 both of whom had taken degrees at the University 
 of Padua, and inspired their young pupil with their 
 own love of Italy. Pole showed great intelligence 
 and talent ; he took his B.A. degree at fifteen, but 
 we are surprised to learn that two years later he 
 was appointed to the Prebendary of Roscomb and 
 also that of Gatminster Secundo, both in Salisbury 
 Cathedral, and soon after was made Dean of Wim- 
 borne Minster in Dorsetshire. He was scarcely 
 twenty when he was allowed to carry out his desire 
 to study at Padua, and set forth with a generous 
 allowance from Henry VIII and a princely retinue. 
 Padua was then looked upon as the "Athens of 
 Europe/' in the words of Erasmus ; students flocked 
 there from every land, the professors were the most 
 famous of their day, and the art of printing had 
 brought all the treasures of the ancient writers 
 within reach. Amongst the friends who were to 
 influence the future life of " the King of England's 
 cousin," as Pole was called, one of the most important 
 N was the Venetian Pietro Bembo, who was the pride 
 of all Italy for his writings in Latin and " Toscana." 
 Born in 1470, Bembo was thirty years older than his 
 new acquaintance, who became a constant and welcome 
 guest in the delightful circle of his literary friends. 
 Here the young Englishman became intimate with 
 Marcantonio Flaminio, a much-admired poet and 
 teacher of Eloquence and Philosophy, whom he 
 later persuaded to join his household and " to attempt 
 in Latin metre the divine strength and harmony of 
 the Psalms." Lazaro Bonamico, the labourer's son 
 
LIFE OF CARDINAL POLE 37 
 
 of Bassano, and Longolio of Flanders, both distin- 
 guished scholars, were also attracted to choose him 
 as their patron. The seven years which followed 
 were the happiest of Reginald Pole's life, spent mostly 
 in serious study at Padua, where he was treated 
 with the highest honour on account of his royal 
 birth. He occasionally made excursions to 
 
 and other places in Northern Italy, and paid one' 
 visit to Rome in the Jubilee year 1525. Early in 
 1527, he returned to England where there had been 
 sad trials for his family and friends, to which we can 
 only allude : the judicial murder of the Duke of 
 Buckingham, the father-in-law of his sister Ursula, 
 and the imprisonment of his eldest brother Lord 
 Montague, who only obtained his freedom by the 
 sacrifice of most of his fortune. 
 
 At this time Henry VIII had set his heart on 
 marriage with Anne Boleyn, and was moving heaven 
 and earth to obtain a divorce from Katherine of 
 Aragon, but we have no space to dwell upon the 
 endless intrigues and crimes which followed ; the 
 whole story is told in many languages and in every 
 history of the tune. Reginald Pole with great \ 
 difficulty obtained permission to leave his disturbed 
 country, in order to study in Paris. But on his 
 arrival he received a most unwelcome commission 
 from the King to advocate the subject of his divorce, 
 and when he demurred, he was summoned home on 
 the death of Wolsey in 1530, and offered the magnifi- 
 cent bribe of the Archbishopric of York or the See of 
 Winchester. He had the courage to refuse, and was 
 thankful to escape once more in 1532, when he left 
 England on his long exile of so many years. 
 
 He first settled at Avignon, as a quiet place of 
 
38 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 study where he might avoid political complications, 
 and here it was that he made the acquaintance of 
 Sadoleto, Bishop of Carpentras, near by. They 
 had similar tastes and opinions both on literary and 
 religious matters, so that a warm friendship grew 
 up between them, which lasted till they were severed 
 by death. This made another link between Pole 
 and many distinguished and learned men who had 
 belonged to the Oratory of Divine Love. On his 
 return to Padua, in 1532, the young Englishman 
 renewed his old friendships and won the hearts of 
 some new admirers. One was Alvise Priuli, a young 
 patrician of Venice whose two brothers were raised 
 later to the dignity of Doge, and the other was 
 Gasparo Contarini, the famous Cardinal whose history 
 we have already told. 
 
 Reginald Pole appears to have had a gift for 
 friendship ; he was a man who could not bear to be 
 alone and who always had some devoted companion 
 by his side. At Venice, he met Caraffa, whom he 
 calls " a most holy and learned man," and with whom 
 he was so much associated later on the subject of 
 reform. He was chiefly engaged at this time on his 
 book, " De Unitate," in which he expressed his views 
 on the conduct of Henry VIII in the most outspoken 
 manner, trying to win him over to repentance, for he 
 had the courage to send it to the King, immediately 
 after the execution of Anne Boleyn. Henry VIII, 
 who some years before had desired him to write on 
 the subject (" the Unity of the Church "), was furious, 
 and commanded Pole to return to England, but from 
 this his friends strongly dissuaded him. He had 
 already sacrificed much for his opinions, as he was 
 now almost destitute, and no longer lived in state 
 
LIFE OF CARDINAL POLE 39 
 
 and magnificence, for all his supplies had been 
 stopped. 
 
 Pole was summoned to Rome to take part in the 
 consultations on the " Consilium," and in 1537, he, 
 Caraffa and Sadoleto were all made Cardinals by 
 Paul III to reward them for their labours. There 
 was dismay in England at Pole's promotion, but 
 the Emperor was well pleased as this put an end 
 to the long-suggested scheme of marrying him to 
 the Princess Mary. The Pope next commissioned him 
 as Legate to England, but when attempts were 
 / made upon his life on the way and a great price was 
 ( set on his head, he was not suffered to go farther than 
 LieJge. The English King's rage knew no bounds; 
 Pole's eldest brother Montague and his cousin Exeter 
 were tried for high treason and beheaded. In the 
 midst of his terrible grief, Reginald Pole was sent on 
 a legation to Spain and then to the Court of France. 
 But still deeper domestic sorrow was to follow, for 
 later, by an Act of Attainder and the King's warrant, 
 the revered and venerable Lady Margaret Pole, 
 mother of the Cardinal, was put to death, and as 
 far as it could be carried out, all her family were 
 exterminated. 
 
 It was not long after this tragedy, that Pole was 
 appointed by the Pope to the government of Viterbo, 
 a most important post. This was in August 1541, 
 and here it was that he was brought much into 
 contact with one of his greatest friends in Italy, 
 Vittoria Colonna, Marchesa di Pescara. The story 
 of this noble lady is so well known that it will only 
 be needful briefly to allude to her earlier life. 
 
 Born in 1490, Vittoria was the daughter of Fabrizio 
 Colonna, and was married at nineteen to the young 
 
40 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 Marchese di Pescara, to whom she was greatly 
 devoted and whose death after the battle of Pavia, 
 in 1525, was the great sorrow of her life. Hence- 
 forth she turned away from the brilliant social and 
 literary life of which this talented Roman lady was 
 so great an ornament, and devoted her poetical talent 
 to the memory of her beloved husband, and to religious 
 influences which became stronger with time. It is 
 with this side of Vittoria's character that we are now 
 specially interested. 
 
 In the first desolation of her widowhood she retired 
 to the Convent of San Silvestro, but the Pope inter- 
 posed to prevent her taking the veil, and it is very 
 doubtful if such a life of absolute seclusion would 
 have suited her. Henceforth religion was certainly 
 the key-note of her life, but her eager restless spirit, 
 her versatile tastes and interests, her keen desire for 
 deeper knowledge in religious matters, would never 
 have suffered her to be contented with the stagnant 
 life of a nunnery. She was a woman of many friends 
 and, as we learn from her wide correspondence, one 
 of the earliest, at this critical time of her life, was the 
 pious old Bishop of Verona, Gian Matteo Giberti. 
 In his letters he paid her the high compliment of 
 dwelling upon his desire for stringent reforms in the 
 Church, not only in matters of discipline but in 
 returning to the simpler creed of the early days of 
 Christianity. Cardinal Contarini also wrote to her 
 in the same strain, and dwelt at some length on his 
 central doctrine of Justification by Faith. Thus was 
 awakened in the heart of Vittoria a keen interest in 
 the new movement for Reform, which is so noticeable 
 in her eagerness to obtain and read the works of 
 Valdes and other Reformers. 
 
LIFE OF CAKDINAL POLE 41 
 
 Pietro Bembo was another of her early friends who / 
 remained devoted to her through life. This dis- 
 tinguished man of letters highly admired her poetry 
 and they addressed sonnets to each other ; but in 
 the later years, their correspondence touched upon 
 more serious matters. They both came under the 
 influence of that marvellous preacher, Bernardino 
 Ochino, born in Siena 1487, who became General of 
 the Osservanza, and then joined the stricter rule of 
 the Cappucini. She had first made his acquaintance 
 in Rome, and is afterwards constantly found in the 
 various cities where he preaches. At Bembo's re- 
 quest, she induced the eloquent friar to go to Venice 
 for the Lent sermons, and her friend thus writes to 
 thank her. 
 
 "February 23, 1539. 
 
 " I send your most illustrious Ladyship the par- 
 ticulars of our very reverend Frate Bernardino, whom 
 I have heard all the days of this present Lent with 
 such great pleasure as I cannot adequately describe. 
 I confess that I never heard anyone preach more 
 usefully or devoutly than he. Neither do I wonder 
 that your Ladyship loves him as much as you do. 
 He is very different from all the others who have 
 occupied the pulpit in my time ; he speaks in a more 
 Christian manner and with a more lively charm, and 
 of better and more profitable things. He pleases 
 everybody beyond measure and I believe, when he 
 goes, he will carry away with him the hearts of all 
 this city. For all that we owe undying thanks to 
 your Ladyship, who sent him to us, and I, more than 
 others, feel eternally obliged to you." 
 
 In other letters Bembo speaks in the same strain. 
 
42 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 " I am speaking to your Ladyship in the same 
 strain as I spoke this morning to the reverend Father, 
 Frate Bernardino, to whom I opened all my heart 
 and mind as I would have opened them to Jesus 
 Christ, to Whom I believe him to be most dear and 
 acceptable, nor do I think I ever spoke with a holier 
 man than he." 
 
 Again he says : 
 
 " Our Frate Bernardino whom I shall henceforth 
 call mine in speaking to you is now adored in this 
 city ; there is neither man nor woman here who does 
 not praise him to the skies. how great his influence 
 is, how he pleases, how strongly he helps us ! " 
 
 In the autumn of the same year, Vittoria heard 
 Ochino preach in the Cathedral of St. Gennaro in 
 Naples. This splendid building was crowded to 
 suffocation, and we are told that the Frate spoke in 
 strong impassioned language against luxury and vice ; 
 then with soft persuasive eloquence preached on the 
 truths of the Gospel, dwelling fully upon justification 
 by faith, and on the joy and happiness of walking 
 in the love of God and the ways of holiness. He 
 struck a more personal note than men had ever 
 heard, dwelling upon the Bible promises, until men 
 began to see that in the Gospel all were invited to 
 share its blessing. 
 
 " Then the unlearned artisan and even the women 
 ventured to converse upon the Epistles of St. Paul 
 and to compare one text with another. There was 
 so great a spiritual awakening, that when Bernardino 
 
LIFE OF CARDINAL POLE 43 
 
 left Naples, numbers took to study the Bible as the 
 chief authority in matters of Faith. " 
 
 It is interesting to remember that this was the 
 teacher in whom Vittoria delighted more than any 
 other, during six years of her life, from 1536 until 
 the tragic ending in 1542, which will be fully described 
 later. So great was her interest in matters of re- 
 ligion, more especially in the new movement of 
 Reform, that when Cardinal Contarini published his 
 " Epistola de Justificatione " at Ratisbon, concerning 
 the questions of Free Will and Justification by Faith, 
 Bembo immediately sent it to the Marchesa. This 
 is the more important in that Contarini's definition 
 of the vexed point of " justification " was the one 
 actually accepted by the Protestant party under 
 Melanchthon and Bucer. As the Council drew up 
 sixteen heads and thirty anathemas on the subject of 
 " Justification," I will refer the reader to a standard 
 book on the subject for full particulars. 1 Luther 
 and the Pope were less moderate, and could come 
 to no compromise on the subject. 
 
 In the religious poems of Vittoria Colonna it is 
 worthy of notice that she ever clings to the Gospel 
 simplicity of the Christian Faith ; Christ the Sacrifice, 
 and the Mediator, is ever her favourite theme. In 
 her sequence of sonnets on the Passion, there is a 
 very beautiful one beginning, " Veggio in croce il 
 Signer nudo e disteso," and another on " Good 
 Friday," which may be rendered thus in English : 
 
 " The angels, to eternal bliss elect, 
 Desire this day to suffer painful death 
 
 1 Dr. Harold Browne, Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles, 
 Historical and Doctrinal, p. 286, Article XL 
 
44 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 Lest in the Courts celestial it befall 
 
 The servant be more favoured than his Lord. 
 
 Man's ancient mother weeps the fatal deed 
 
 That closed the gates of Heaven against her sons ; 
 
 The two pierced hands she weeps, whose work of grace 
 
 Found for His own the path which she had lost. 
 
 The sun in dread doth veil his shining orb, 
 
 The living rocks are torn, the mountains burst, 
 
 Earth and sky tremble and the waters quake. 
 
 The evil spirits weep, who wish us ill, 
 
 The added burden of their captive chains. 
 
 Man only weeps not, yet was weeping born." 
 
 As another token of the spiritual nature of her 
 religious faith, a touching Latin prayer of hers is too 
 typical of her character to omit. 
 
 " Grant, I beseech Thee, Lord, that by the humility 
 that becomes the creature, and by the pride Thy 
 greatness demands, I may adore Thee always, and 
 that in the fear Thy justice imposes, as in the hope 
 Thy clemency justifies, I may live eternally and 
 submit to Thee as the Almighty, follow Thee as the 
 All-wise, and turn towards Thee as towards perfection 
 and goodness. I beseech Thee, most tender Father, 
 that Thy living fire may purify me, Thy radiant 
 light illumine me ; that, never finding let or hindrance 
 in things of this world, I may return to Thee in happi- 
 ness and safety/' (Translation.) 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 RELIGIOUS CIRCLE AT VITERBO 
 
 The Oratory of Divine Love at Viterbo Cardinal Pole Vittoria 
 Colonna Marcantonio Flaminio, poet and philosopher The 
 " Beneficio," a little golden book Life of Bernardino Ochino 
 His marvellous preaching His persecution and flight The 
 effect on Pole and Vittoria Colonna. 
 
 IN his beautiful home at Viterbo, Cardinal Pole was 
 the central figure of one of the rarest and most 
 interesting literary and religious gatherings in Italy. 
 Amongst those who assembled in the Governor's 
 palace at Viterbo, we have already noticed the 
 Marchesa di Pescara, whose friendship with the 
 Cardinal was already of some years' duration. When 
 Reginald Pole met her in Rome in 1536, he saw that 
 " the Lady Vittoria was injuring her health by too 
 much fasting and mortification of the flesh, and he 
 gently reminded her that the Christian is bound to 
 take care of the tabernacle of the body until it pleases 
 God to release him from it." 
 
 His remonstrance was effectual, " so that lady 
 began to mitigate the austerity of her life and brought 
 it, little by little, to a reasonable and honest modera- 
 tion." In a letter written later by Vittoria to Giulia 
 Gonzaga, she says : "I therefore who owe the health 
 of my soul and that of my body to his Illustrissimo 
 Reverendissimo ; for the one through superstition 
 
 45 
 
46 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 and the other through ill-government stood in 
 peril " 
 
 Amongst the distinguished company who here 
 carried on the traditions of the once famous " Oratory 
 of Divine Love/' at Rome, but as we shall see with 
 far more advanced and reformed religious doctrines, 
 one of the most leading spirits was Marcantonio 
 Flaminio, the Latin poet. He was born in 1498, the 
 son of Giannatonio, Professor of Literature at Sera- 
 ville near Treviso, and was early distinguished for 
 his precocious talent. His Latin poems attracted 
 the attention of Leo X, who gave him a warm welcome 
 at Rome and was a generous patron to him. The 
 youth's pastoral poem, the " Arcadia," was as much 
 admired as his Latin work, " De partu Virginia." He 
 visited Naples and there had many admirers, and the 
 following year was invited by Baldassare Castiglione 
 to the Court of Urbino. In memory of this visit, 
 he composed an Eclogue under the name of Thyrsis, 
 in which he sang the praise of Castiglione. In 1522, 
 he joined a literary Academy at Genoa, for a time 
 under the guidance of Stefano Sauli, and next passed 
 into the service of Gian Matteo Giberti, who was 
 then living at Padua. 
 
 Marcantonio was thus a friend of the most dis- 
 tinguished literary men of his day and was looked 
 upon as a talented young poet. He accompanied 
 Giberti to his See of Verona, and it was here that he 
 applied himself to the study of Aristotle and trans- 
 lated into Latin and paraphrased the twelfth book of 
 his Metaphysics. In the religious atmosphere of 
 the good Bishop's society, Flaminio soon turned his 
 talents to the study of sacred subjects, and devoted 
 his time to a beautiful paraphrase of thirty-two of 
 
RELIGIOUS CIRCLE AT VITERBO 47 
 
 the Psalms, a work which was printed at Venice in 
 1537. When he began to read the Scriptures with 
 an open candid mind, he could not resist painful 
 doubts on some points of doctrine, and as he came 
 across the works of the German Reformers, he became 
 more and more troubled in mind. At this critical 
 time, being obliged to leave Rome on account of his 
 health, Marcantonio went to Naples, and here under 
 the teaching of Valdes, he found rest for his soul in 
 accepting the simple truths of the Gospel. He 
 occupied himself in translating many of the works of 
 Valdes into Italian, and threw himself with en- 
 thusiasm into the improvement and revision of a 
 little book on : " II Beneficio della morte di Cristo," 
 believed to have been the work of a Benedictine 
 monk Benedetto of Mantua who wrote it in his 
 monastery at the foot of Mount Etna. 
 
 This " little golden book " became the " Credo of 
 
 the Italian Reformation," for as Vergerio says : 
 
 ' Nothing was ever printed so entirely pious and 
 
 simple, or so adapted to teach the weak and ignorant, 
 
 especially in the matter of ' justification by faith/ ; 
 
 Che " Beneficio " consists of six chapters ; and begins 
 
 vith man's state before he sinned, describes his 
 
 Condition afterwards, points out the purpose of the 
 
 Fewish dispensation, and asserts that " Justification, 
 
 emission of sins and our entire salvation depend 
 
 ipon Christ alone." Origen, Basil, Ambrose, Hilary, 
 
 Augustine and Bernard are quoted, to show that 
 
 heir works contain a foreshadowing of the same 
 
 ruth of a free salvation without the works of the 
 
 <aw. 
 
 This book was destined later to have an immense 
 access, when it was printed in Rome and Venice to 
 
48 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 the number of 40,000 copies. But when Flaminio came 
 to Viterbo, after the death of Valdes, he brought the 
 "Beneficio " in MS. and it was one of the chief books 
 discussed and delighted in by the reunion of pious 
 students. Pole wrote to Contarini from Viterbo : 
 
 " The rest of the day I spend in the good and 
 useful company of Signor Carnesecchi and our 
 Messer Marcantonio Flaminio . . . and I may indeed 
 call it edifying because in the evening Marcantonio 
 reads to us and so gives us a portion of that spiritual 
 food which does not perish, in such a manner that 
 I do not remember ever having received greater 
 consolation and edification. . . ." 
 
 Other books which this religious society discussed 
 with intense interest were translations of the works 
 of Juan Valdes, such as the "110 Considerationes " ; 
 some of these were brought by Flaminio, while others 
 were sent by the Lady Giulia Gonzaga, who also 
 presented Cardinal Pole with " conserves of roses." 
 Of Pietro Carnesecchi, we shall have much to say 
 later, when the story is told of the circle of Valdes 
 and his followers at Naples ; by far the most impor- 
 tant of all the centres of the Italian Reformation. 
 
 It is a striking fact that this devout and much- 
 appreciated book of the " Beneficio " was placed upon 
 the Index of prohibited works by Monsignor della 
 Cosa, Nuncio at Venice, in 1549, and the Inquisition 
 made such a determined effort to stamp it out, that 
 for a long time it was believed that every copy 
 had been destroyed. Moreover, all those who were 
 known to have read it, were condemned for heresy 
 on that charge alone. 
 
RELIGIOUS CIRCLE AT VITERBO 49 
 
 Vittoria Colonna appears to have thoroughly 
 enjoyed the earlier part of her stay at Viterbo, where 
 she dwelt in the secluded Dominican Convent of 
 Santa Caterina, but spending many hours every day 
 in the religious discussions which took place in the 
 Governor's palace. In a letter, dated December 8, 
 1541, which she wrote to Giulia Gonzaga, she specially 
 mentions her pleasure in the profitable society of 
 Flaminio, Priuli and Carnesecchi, besides that of 
 Cardinal Pole. She alludes to meeting Giulia at 
 Fondi, and expresses a strong desire to see her again, 
 adding : 
 
 " It would indeed be well that your Ladyship 
 should revisit your country in Lombardy for a while, 
 now that you are so well instructed about the celestial 
 country . . . and we should indeed rejoice if as you 
 pass by here, you could stay a couple of months. . . . 
 I have heard that your Ladyship has sent us the 
 Commentary of St. Paul [by Valdes], which was 
 greatly desired, and especially by me as I have the 
 most need of it ; wherefore I thank you the most, 
 and will thank you more when I see you, please God." 
 
 It is curious to remember that this letter and the 
 most intimate accounts of Vittoria's religious life 
 were discovered in the secret records of the Inquisi- 
 tion, when twenty years after her death, she was 
 arraigned for heresy before that ghoulish tribunal. 
 All that she said and did was watched by spies, 
 and not only was she herself condemned, but all her 
 friends, her brother Ascanio, and even the nuns of 
 her convent at Viterbo were looked upon as tainted 
 with her heresy. 
 4 
 
50 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 | 
 
 There is a strange irony of fate in this, for it was 
 here, in Viterbo, in the midst of their peaceful dis- 
 cussions on justification by faith and kindred sub- 
 jects, that the thunderbolt fell, which drove Cardinal 
 Pole and Vittoria Colonna back, in dismay, to the 
 arms of the Church. It was nothing less than a 
 letter from Frate Bernardino Ochino, to the Marchesa 
 di Pescara, hitherto his devoted pupil and friend, to 
 say that he had been accused of heresy by the 
 Roman authorities, that he was about to depart from 
 Italy, and justifying his decision. 
 
 In order to understand how this catastrophe had 
 come to pass, it will be needful to touch upon the 
 life of Ochino during several years before that fatal 
 August 1542, when flight seemed to him his only 
 refuge. In 1534, he had resigned his position of 
 General of the Observants to join the Capuchins 
 the most austere and ascetic of all the religious 
 bodies as a simple friar. In the following year, 
 when Clement VII had been reluctantly persuaded 
 to expel the Capuchins from Rome, Vittoria Colonna 
 hastened from Marino to advocate their cause. This 
 was the first time she was brought into personal 
 relation with Ochino ; and it is interesting to remem- 
 ber that Caterina Cibo, Duchess of Camerino, also 
 hurriedly travelled from Florence on the same mission, 
 for both great ladies were warm admirers of the 
 religious Order of Capuchins. They were successful 
 in their mission, for Pope Clement relented. 
 
 From this time we may date Ochino's marvellous 
 and unique success as a preacher, to which we have 
 already alluded. His published sermons are most 
 striking and interesting, and a careful study of them 
 shows the gradual change which was taking place 
 
RELIGIOUS CIRCLE AT VITERBO 51 
 
 in him, towards a more earnest and simple faith ; 
 a religion of the heart rather than of outward observ- 
 ances. We also gain a vivid insight into the state 
 of his religious opinions at this time in the "Seven 
 Dialogues/' in most of which the conversation is 
 carried on between the Friar and the Duchess Caterina 
 Cibo, whose story will be told in connection with 
 the Reforming centre at Florence. 
 
 Bernardino Ochino had been elected Vicar-General 
 of the Capuchins in 1538, but when his Order wished 
 to elect him for another three years in 1541, his 
 friends had much difficulty in persuading him to 
 accept the honour. He had also been appointed 
 Apostolical missionary by Paul III. It had long 
 been a time of painful struggle between his inner 
 conviction and his feeling of loyalty towards the 
 Roman Church, for he had been brought into close 
 communion with the learned and pious Juan Valdes 
 at Naples, and had taken a definite place as one 
 of his disciples in the reformed doctrines. Amongst 
 his fellow students were Flaminio, Paleario, Carnesec- 
 chi, Pietro Martire Vermigli, 1 Galeazzo Caraccioli, 
 the Lady Giulia Gonzaga and many others, whose 
 names are in the roll-call of martyrs. All these were 
 devoted to the one aim of attaining a purer form of 
 Christianity, and of showing it forth in their own 
 lives. Absorbed in these thoughts, Ochino asked 
 himself, as the people thronged to listen to his words, 
 and looked upon him as one inspired : 
 
 " Shall I continue to preach Christ in masked 
 jargon ? " and his heart burnt within him. 
 
 He was deeply agitated by this struggle between 
 his office and his convictions, and was preaching in 
 
 1 Better known as Peter Martyr, in England. 
 
52 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 Venice when his friend Giulio Terenziano, a teacher 
 of theology and a pupil of Valdes, was thrown into 
 prison on account of his religious opinions. Upon 
 hearing this, Ochino could no longer restrain him- 
 self ; in a sermon before the Senate and chief citizens 
 of Venice, he cried aloud in anguish : 
 
 " Oh sirs, what remains for us to do ? To what 
 end do we waste and consume our lives ? If in thee, 
 most noble city of Venice, Queen of the Adriatic 
 if in thee, I say, those who announce to you the 
 truth are here imprisoned, loaded with chains and 
 fetters, what place then remains to us, what other 
 field is free for the Word of God ? Would to God 
 that we might but preach the truth freely ! How 
 many blind eyes would be opened, and how many 
 stumbling in the dark would be illuminated ! " 
 
 From that moment, Ochino knew that a sword 
 hung over his head. He was at once denounced by 
 the Nuncio, and forbidden to preach, but all the 
 citizens rose up in defence of their preacher. Giulio 
 remained a prisoner, and it was not until some years 
 later that he succeeded in escaping to the Valtelline, 
 where he became minister of an Evangelical congre- 
 gation. Bernardino went to Verona and there began 
 a course of lectures on the Epistles of St. Paul to the 
 members of his Order, and remained in the most 
 intimate daily converse with the venerable Bishop 
 Giberti. Soon after, he received a citation to Rome 
 from the newly established Inquisition. Greatly 
 troubled in mind, he took counsel with the gentle 
 pious Bishop, who trusted everyone, and advised 
 obedience " when all must surely be set right/' 
 
RELIGIOUS CIRCLE AT VITERBO 53 
 
 Ochino knew better. He was quite aware that per- 
 secution and probably death awaited him ; still he 
 set forth on his journey. He says : 
 
 " Although I knew that a hard struggle was awaiting 
 me in Rome, I still set out on my journey thither. I 
 arrived at Bologna ; there I conversed with the Car- 
 dinal Contarini who was on his sick-bed, and con- 
 vinced myself that there was not the smallest hope 
 that the doctine of justification would be received at 
 Rome. Contarini even added that he himself had 
 been in great danger, because it was said that he had 
 not sufficiently opposed the Protestants at the Diet. 
 He barely escaped death. He even added, in a low 
 voice, ' If only I have escaped it/ l I made answer : 
 ' If they have dealt thus with the green tree, how 
 shall it be with the dry ? ' " 
 
 Ochino was now certain about the intentions of 
 the Inquisition, under the sway of the implacable 
 Cardinal Carafla. Three courses were open to him. 
 If he went to Rome and retracted all his convictions, 
 he had good reason to believe that he would be 
 rewarded with the purple. If on the other hand he 
 resolved to remain firm in his faith, he was privately 
 informed " that he would be quietly put to death and 
 buried without uproar." The third alternative was 
 flight, and this he chose. His letter to Vittoria 
 Colonna written from Florence gives a faithful picture 
 of his agitation and grief : 
 
 " I am still here tormented with doubts, having 
 come hither with the intention of going to Rome, 
 
 1 Poison was suspected. 
 
54 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 although I had been much dissuaded from doing so 
 . . . and again by Don Pietro Martire (Vermigli) 
 and others, for I should be forced either to deny Christ, 
 or to be crucified. I will not do the first ; the second 
 only with His grace, if He Himself wills it. I feel no 
 call to go to death of my own free-will ; if it is God's 
 will, He will know where to find me. Christ has 
 several times taught us to flee into Egypt and to 
 Samaria, and also bade us, if we were not received in 
 one city, to flee into another. What can I do in 
 Italy ? Preach as a suspected person, and preach 
 Christ obscurely, under a mask ? . . . For this and 
 other reasons I am compelled to leave Italy entirely 
 and without delay. ... I am the same person your 
 Ladyship has known. Any one who has heard me, 
 can give an account of my doctrine. They have 
 declared me a heretic, without hearing me. It is 
 hard for me. I know you will think so. ... It 
 would have been extremely grateful to me to have 
 your opinion or that of Monsignor Pole, or to receive 
 a letter from you, but I have not had one for more 
 than a month. Pray to God for me ; I desire more 
 than ever to serve Him by the help of His Grace. 
 Salute all. Florence. August 22, 1542." 
 
 It so chanced that just at that time Peter Martyr 
 had come to Florence under the same conditions as 
 his friend, for he had been cited before the Augustinian 
 Chapter at Genoa, and he had already written to 
 inform Cardinal Pole of his intention of flight. There 
 is no doubt that Martyr's advice and example in- 
 fluenced Ochino's decision to take this step, which 
 to him was heart-breaking. At the age of fifty-five, 
 in failing health and practically an old man, worn 
 
RELIGIOUS CIRCLE AT VITERBO 55 
 
 out with his ascetic life, his constant labours and 
 long weary journeys ever on foot ; losing all that 
 he loved and desired exile was to him far more 
 bitter than death. 
 
 But Cardinal Pole had no compassion for a ruined 
 man, a proclaimed heretic ; and horrified by the 
 scandal of Ochino's flight, his only thought was to 
 save himself, his high position, and his ambitious 
 hopes of the supreme position in the Church which 
 might be within his reach. He had been imprudent 
 in dallying with any thought of reform ; all un- 
 consciously he had stepped too near the brink of 
 that awful yawning gulf of heresy ; and his only 
 thought was to save himself by hurrying back into 
 the sheltered fold of orthodoxy. Under his stern 
 direction, Vittoria Colonna stifled all feelings of 
 sympathy and pity for the once revered preacher, 
 to whom she owed so much of her spiritual life. 
 Overruled by a stronger will, which she had not the 
 courage to resist, she weakly yielded before the 
 storm of obloquy which followed Ochino's flight, 
 and failed him in the hour of his deepest need. The 
 great Roman lady also had her position to consider 
 as a shining light in the religious circle where she was 
 looked up to as a saintly Queen ; like Pole, she had 
 too much to lose, and her inner convictions were not 
 strong enough to make her face shame and persecu- 
 tion on a charge of heresy. They both shuddered 
 at their narrow escape, and henceforth would run no 
 risks. 
 
 There was to be no more playing with fire no 
 reading of anything not stamped with the approval 
 of the new Inquisition for we find Vittoria some- 
 what sharply reproved for her " curiosity " in desiring 
 
56 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 to read the Scriptures, the Expositions of Valdes, and 
 such-like. She was positively forbidden to hold any 
 communication with ;bhe excommunicated heretic, as 
 we see in this letter, which she sent in a parcel she 
 had received from Geneva, to Cardinal Cervini. 
 
 " MOST REVEREND MONSIGNOR, . . . 
 
 " The more opportunity I have had of observing 
 the actions of the most reverend Monsignor of Eng- 
 land [Pole], the more he seems to me a true and most 
 sincere servant of God. So when in his charity, he 
 condescends to answer any question of mine, I think 
 I am secure from error in following his advice. And 
 since he told me that, in his opinion, if a letter or 
 anything else should come to me from Fra Bernardino, 
 I had better send it to your most reverend Lordship 
 without answering it. Having to-day received the 
 enclosed with the little book which you will see, I 
 send them to you at once. The whole was in one 
 packet, without any other writing inside, and was 
 sent by an express courier who came from Bologna, 
 and I have chosen to send it on to you by one of my 
 servants. I beg your Lordship will pardon my 
 giving you this trouble, although as you see, it is in 
 print. And our Lord God preserve your most 
 reverend Lordship 's person in that happy life which 
 all your servants desire for you. 
 " From Santa Caterina di Viterbo. December 4, 
 1542. 
 
 " Your most reverend and most 
 
 illustrious Lordship's servant, 
 
 " THE MARCHESA DI PESCARA. 
 
 " It grieves me exceedingly that, the more he 
 
RELIGIOUS CIRCLE AT VITERBO 57 
 
 thinks to excuse himself, the more he accuses himself, 
 and the more he thinks to save others from shipwreck, 
 the more he exposes them to the deluge, being himself 
 outside that Ark which secures and saves." 
 
 It was the last blow to the exiled Ochino that his 
 dearest friend should have been so alienated from 
 him that she never sent any answer to his most 
 pathetic defence, indeed that she was probably 
 forbidden to read it. We do not know how much 
 Vittoria may have grieved in secret, but she was 
 certainly very ill almost immediately after the date 
 of this letter, which was in fact a kind of betrayal 
 of one she had loved and trusted. 
 
 In a letter of her wise physician Fracastoro, he 
 alludes to some " trouble of the mind which becomes 
 a tyrant, wastes and destroys the soundness of the 
 body. ... I fancy that all the Marchesa's sufferings 
 have their origin in this." Broken in health, she 
 returned to Rome at the end of 1544, and made her 
 home in the Benedictine Convent of Santa Anna 
 de' Funari, in the quarter of St. Eustachio, on the 
 site of the ruined Circus Flaminius. Here she lived in 
 seclusion, but her great friendship with Michelangelo, 
 which was so deep a joy and comfort to them both, 
 was unbroken until her death, which occurred on 
 February 25, 1547. She saw much of Cardinal Pole, 
 who remained the director of her conscience, and as 
 time passed on, she had the sorrow of losing many of 
 those she loved Cardinal Giberti, her nephew the 
 Marchese del Vasto, and the faithful Bembo, amongst 
 others. 
 
 As for Reginald Pole, his later life does not concern 
 us, except in so far that we know how he sought to 
 
58 ITALIAN EEFOEMATION 
 
 purge himself from all suspicion of heresy, by cruel 
 persecution of rebels against the Pope in England. 
 But the declaration in his Will that " he had always 
 held the Pope, and this one in particular [Paul IV], 
 to be the true successor of St. Peter, and the Vicar 
 of Christ, and that he had always revered and obeyed 
 him as such, nor had he differed from him in anything, 
 nor from the opinion of the Roman Church . . ." was 
 a great blow to his reformed friends in Italy. Car- 
 nesecchi wrote : 
 
 " It has pleased me wonderfully that Donna Giulia 
 has not approved of the declaration made by the 
 Cardinal of England, being superfluous, not to say 
 scandalous, especially at this time. . . . What a 
 difference from the teaching of Valdes, and how this 
 verifies the proverb : 
 
 " ' The end shows forth the life, the evening praises 
 the day ! ' " 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 CATERINA CIBO, DUCHESS OF CAMERINO 
 
 Caterina Cibo, Duchess of Camerino Ochino finds a refuge in her 
 palace at Florence Story of Caterina's life Early marriage 
 Stormy adventures A warrior princess, she defends her home 
 Leaves Camerino to her daughter Giulia, married to Guidobaldo 
 of Urbino Caterina settles in Florence An earnest Reformer 
 Her religious dialogues with Ochino. 
 
 WHEN Bernardino Ochino had come to the bitter 
 decision that flight was inevitable, it was in the 
 palace at Florence of Caterina Cibo, Duchess of 
 Camerino, that he took refuge. This noble lady had 
 listened year after year to his stirring, eloquent 
 sermons, she had held earnest converse with him as 
 her spiritual teacher, and in the hour of his necessity 
 she did not forsake him. With eager hospitality, 
 she gave him a refuge at the risk of disgrace and 
 condemnation for herself ; she provided the friar 
 with lay garments and all that was needful for his 
 long and dangerous journey. 
 
 Undistinguished as Florence might be as a centre 
 of Reform, for the sake of Caterina alone, and the 
 literary and religious meetings under her roof, it 
 would be worthy of notice. But in this city of the 
 Medici, many famous Reformers were born, only to 
 mention Pietro Carnesecchi, Pietro Martire Vennigli, 
 and Bruccioli and Teofilo, the well-known translators 
 of the Scriptures into Italian. 
 
 59 
 
60 ITALIAN REFOEMATION 
 
 The eventful history of the Duchess of Camerino 
 is well worthy of being recorded. Caterina Cibo 
 was born in 1501, in the Villa of Panzani near Florence ; 
 she was the daughter of Franceschetto Cibo the 
 brother of Pope Innocent VIII, while through her 
 mother, who was one of the Medici, she was also closely 
 connected with Pope Leo X and Clement VTI. 
 Caterina was educated at Rome in those palmy days 
 of a high-born girl's opportunity, when the most 
 learned professors devoted themselves to teaching 
 not only the Tuscan tongue in its full beauty, but 
 Latin, Greek and Hebrew with such success, that in 
 after years their pupils could take great delight in 
 reading those languages, and appreciating classical 
 writers at the fountain head. But the most amazing 
 thing to us, is that all this erudition should have been 
 acquired at such an early age ; for a beautiful girl 
 so highly connected as Caterina had many suitors, 
 and at the age of twelve, was betrothed to Giovanni 
 Maria Varano, afterwards Duke of Camerino, a 
 princely estate situated about forty miles south-west 
 of Ancona, on the way to Foligno. 
 
 After her marriage, the young Duchess can have 
 had but little tune to continue her studies, for her 
 troubles began within the first year, when Camerino 
 was attacked by Sigismondo, the nephew of Varano, 
 who had to take refuge in Rome and there seek for 
 armed support. He returned with a strong force, and 
 with the help of the citadel which had remained loyal 
 to him, he took possession of the city after a sharp 
 contest. Meantime Sigismondo had made his escape 
 to Rome, and was preparing to renew the struggle, 
 when he was assassinated, not without suspicion that 
 the blow had been struck by order of the Duke. 
 
CATERINA CIBO, DUCHESS OF CAMERINO 61 
 
 In 1523, a daughter was born to Caterina, who 
 received the name of Giulia, and of whom we shall 
 have more to tell later. The affairs of Camerino 
 appear to have been still in an unsettled condition, 
 and the Duchess spent most of her time in Rome, 
 where the presence of her uncle Pope Clement VII, 
 and of her brothers Cardinal Cibo, and Giambattista, 
 Bishop of Marseilles, gave her a position of much 
 interest and importance. Even in these early days, 
 while living in a city which was the very stronghold 
 of Catholicism, Caterina with her keen intelligence, 
 was already affected with that intense desire for 
 reform of the abuses in the Church, which she saw all 
 around her. One of the first signs which she gave of 
 this reforming spirit was her warm advocacy of the 
 Friar Matteo de' Bassi, in his efforts to reform the 
 Franciscan Order, which had fallen into careless and 
 irreligious ways. Greatly through her influence, 
 in 1526, Matteo was authorised by Clement VII to 
 found a reformed branch of Franciscans, which in 
 life and doctrine was to go back to the simple rule 
 of their founder. They came to be known as Capu- 
 chins by their garb ; and they sought to revive all 
 the austerities of St. Francis himself, his absolute 
 poverty, his self-denial and his charity. 
 
 The other religious orders and especially the 
 Observants, were furious at this new departure, which 
 was a tacit condemnation of their own lives and 
 practices, and it needed all the devoted support of 
 the Duchess of Camerino and others to protect the 
 Capuchins against the dangers and persecutions 
 which beset them. The Duke of Camerino, who was 
 twenty years older than his wife, had died in 1527, 
 when Caterina succeeded to his estates and returned 
 
62 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 to her palace in Camerino. We are told that " on 
 July 10, 1528, there came to Camerino a Capuchin 
 friar, who went through the city followed by a crowd 
 of children (Mammoli), crying with a pitiful voice, 
 ' Misericordia ! ' " Great crowds gathered round him, 
 and he preached every afternoon to admonish the 
 people that they should turn away from their evil 
 doings and give a good example to others ; and 
 every evening he went crying through the streets 
 with a loud voice : " Misericordia ! " We are not 
 surprised to hear that the Duchess took the Capuchin 
 under her protection, and that he was made a welcome 
 guest in her palace. From about this time she be- 
 came one of the leaders of the reformed movement, 
 and carried on intimate correspondence with Vittoria 
 Colonna, Giulia Gonzaga and others who were 
 interested in the cause. 
 
 Caterina Cibo was not only a great lady of in- 
 tellectual talent and a most interesting personality, 
 but she was also one of the famous " warrior women " 
 of Italy, almost a rival of her name-sake Caterina 
 Sforza the Lady of Forli. The Duchess of Camerino 
 had not long been settled in possession of her city 
 before Rodolfo Varano, an illegitimate son of the late 
 Duke, taking advantage of her feeling of security, 
 suddenly attacked the Castello, took it by surprise 
 and made Caterina a prisoner. Her brother Giam- 
 battista, Bishop of Marseilles, hastened to her rescue 
 with a small force, but Rodolfo summoned his friends 
 led by Ascanio Colonna, to help him ; they entered 
 the city and put it to fire and sword. Clement VII 
 thereupon invited the Duke of Urbino to help in 
 liberating his niece, and he joined with Ercole Varano 
 and others until Ascanio Colonna was compelled to 
 
CATERINA CIBO, DUCHESS OF CAMERINO 63 
 
 make terms and Caterina was set free. But Ercole 
 Varano and his sons made fresh trouble, for they 
 could not agree as to their share. Caterina, feeling 
 the insecurity of her position, sought to find a strong 
 protector by offering her only daughter and heiress 
 Giulia, as bride to the young son, Guidobaldo, of the 
 Duke of Urbino. This roused the anger of Ercole 
 Varano, who himself attacked Camerino, but the 
 Duchess defended her city successfully and the Pope 
 excommunicated Ercole and his sons. 
 
 For a time Caterina and her young daughter were 
 left in peace, but after the death of Pope Clement, 
 Matteo the son of Ercole Varano, made another 
 attempt on Camerino on the night of April 13, 1534. 
 With a small company, he scaled the walls of the 
 city and arrived unexpectedly in the palace. Here 
 Matteo had the Duchess in his power, but she had 
 contrived to send Giulia in haste to the care of the 
 custodian of the Castello. He told Caterina that 
 he had come to try his fortune, and that he was re- 
 solved, by persuasion or force, to marry her daughter 
 and thus settle the succession. Seeing that his words 
 were in vain, Matteo threatened to kill her unless 
 she instantly agreed to his wishes. " She, with a 
 strong soul worthy of immortal fame, not only denied 
 his request, but seeing that he stood over her with a 
 drawn sword, and with his hand raised to strike, she 
 fell upon her knees, and raising her veil, bent her 
 head forwards, recommending her soul to God." 
 
 But meantime, the whole city had been roused, 
 and Matteo changed his mind, determining to retreat 
 and take the Duchess with him. She had already 
 been carried about two miles beyond the city gates, 
 when she was overtaken and rescued by some of her 
 
64 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 own people and was conducted in safety back to her 
 palace. But in the fight which took place, about 
 twenty of Matteo's followers were taken prisoners, 
 and were promptly condemned to death by the 
 indignant Duchess. She wrote the following fiery 
 letter to her brother the Cardinal, to announce the 
 events of that night : 
 
 "Having told you the outrage they have here 
 committed, you will understand that they deserved 
 sentence of death, for they are evil livers and assas- 
 sins. ... It will certainly appear to your Lordship, 
 as it does to us, a wild dream, that sixty persons 
 should set out to pillage Camerino, should dare to 
 take me prisoner, then should carry me off, and 
 at last let me go without a word, and escape without 
 being killed ! . . . For my rescue I do indeed return 
 thanks to God, and that all should have ended so 
 well." 
 
 There had been many suitors for the hand of Giulia, 
 the heiress of Camerino, but the Duchess remained 
 firm in the resolution of keeping her promise to the 
 Duke of Urbino, and in 1534, the young girl's marriage 
 was carried out with Guidobaldo della Rovere. Soon 
 after this, Caterina resigned the government of the 
 city and surrounding province to her daughter and 
 son-in-law. But their dominion was only of brief 
 duration, for the new Pope Paul III, who had in vain 
 summoned Caterina to Rome with Briefs and threats 
 of excommunication, now sent his commissioner 
 Ascanio Parisani, to administer the Duchy. 
 
 Under this Farnese government in Rome, times had 
 sadly changed for the Duchess since those delightful 
 
CATERINA CIBO, DUCHESS OF CAMERINO 65 
 
 days in the time of Leo X and of Clement VII, when 
 she had held a literary Court of her own in the Eternal 
 city. Amongst her friends we find the satiric poet 
 Francesco Berni, who wrote the " Orlando Inna- 
 morato," a poem which contained such strong 
 Lutheran doctrines that it had to be carefully muti- 
 lated and edited after his death, by the Romish 
 censors. Another writer who joined these gatherings 
 was Agnolo Firenzuola, who dedicated his " Con- 
 versazione sulFAmore " to Caterina Cibo, and a 
 collection of his stories, somewhat in the style of 
 Boccaccio, to Vittoria Colonna. He also wrote a 
 prose work on the beauty of women, which he summed 
 up in one sentence : "A beautiful woman is one 
 who has the all-pervading gift of charm, and is 
 universally pleasing." He praises Caterina for " her 
 nobility and sweetness of mind, born with her and 
 ever increasing with the passing years," and speaks of 
 " the charm and brightness of her conversation, 
 which made her reunions like an Athenian Academy." 
 The historian Serdonati writes of her : 
 
 " Caterina Cibo was noted alike for her beauty and 
 for her brilliant intelligence. She learnt four lan- 
 guages, Hebrew, Greek, Latin and our Tuscan, and 
 understood them all so thoroughly, that she not 
 only made great progress in Humanist studies, but 
 also in sacred theology. It was for this purpose 
 that she perfected herself in Hebrew, in order that 
 she might read the holy Bible in that language ; and 
 she was also able to make use of the commentaries 
 of Greek Doctors of Divinity, in the original. She 
 was also far advanced in the study of philosophy ; 
 in short she was a mirror of doctrine and of religion." 
 5 
 
66 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 When she left Camerino, the Duchess took up her 
 abode in her palace at Florence, where she remained 
 for the rest of her life, until her death on February 17, 
 1557. Here she was the centre of a literary and 
 religious society, in which the poet Marcantonio 
 Flaminio took a leading part. From letters of his 
 to Caterina, we see the extreme interest which she 
 took, not only in abstruse philosophy, but in the 
 burning question of religious reform. From these, 
 it is quite evident that she fully shared the Valdesian 
 doctrines of Giulia Gonzaga and Vittoria Colonna, 
 concerning justification by faith. 
 
 In published records of the " Holy Office," we find 
 a special accusation against this lady : " Ducessa 
 Camerini haeretica sectatrix haereticorum et doctrix 
 monialum haereticorum." The nuns whom she was 
 supposed to have led astray with her heretical doc- 
 trines, were those of Santa Marta outside Florence. 
 This convent is beyond the Barriera del Ponte Rosso, 
 on the hill of Montughi, which rises above the plain of 
 the Mugnone. It stands higher up than the pictur- 
 esque Capuchin Monastery, which was built through 
 the influence of the Duchess of Camerino. 
 
 But there are other and even more serious imputa- 
 tions against Caterina. In the private records of 
 Carnesecchi's trial before the Inquisition, we see how 
 carefully she and her friends had been watched by 
 spies. When Giberti, Pole and Carafla had passed 
 through Florence and visited the Duchess, their 
 private conversations were taken down ; it was also 
 proved that she had asked Carnesecchi to recommend 
 evangelists to her ; that she protected in her house 
 a certain Fra Paolo, an apostate monk, formerly of 
 San Benedetto ; that she certainly held the doctrine 
 
CATERINA CIBO, DUCHESS OF CAMERINO 67 
 
 of justification by faith, and continued in still more 
 heresy as time went on ; and that she used all her 
 influence to save various advanced thinkers from 
 persecution, also helping them to escape. It was 
 brought up against her that, from her house, Ochino 
 wrote his famous letter to Vittoria Colonna to an- 
 nounce his flight, and that the Friar had dedicated 
 to her his heretical work, " Seven Dialogues," in four 
 of which she is made to take the part of a learner, 
 and that she kept up a correspondence with him 
 after his rebellion and flight. Caterina was thus 
 arraigned for heresy ten years after her death, but 
 the Inquisition did not venture to molest her in life ; 
 the scandal would have been too great, to condemn 
 to the flames a lady so nearly connected with three 
 Popes, the sister of a Cardinal and a Bishop. 
 
 A brief allusion to the "Seven Dialogues " of Ochino, 
 will give some idea of his mode of teaching. 
 
 The First Dialogue treats of "Love to God." 
 Ochino laments that so few are filled with love to 
 God, while all love the creatures and themselves. 
 For in God is infinite goodness ; in Him alone are 
 perfect endless wisdom, beauty, truth, power, mercy, 
 love and charity. He only sends us sorrow because 
 He loves us ... and would not have us lost. Then 
 the question is put whether man can rightly love Him 
 in return ? 
 
 The dialogue answers this question, carefully 
 develops the requirements of a true love to God, 
 and introduces the Platonic definition of virtue. 
 
 ' While all other virtues consist in a certain mean 
 which they cannot overstep . . . , love to God can 
 never be great enough. We ought all to love Him 
 
68 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 boundlessly, to prefer Him to all things else, and 
 never to leave Him, whether for good or for evil, for 
 
 gain or loss, for joy or sorrow, for honour or shame 
 
 On the wings of this love, the soul is able to soar 
 above itself. ... If the brave citizen is able to sacrifice 
 his life for his country, and to renounce for its sake 
 everything dear to him, how much more can the 
 good Christian give up his life for the sake of God 
 and His heavenly country, and love his God more 
 than himself, as did the martyrs and other holy men. 
 " We can at least give our hearts to Him through 
 Jesus Christ, and say : ' If God wills it, I would give 
 up my life for His sake. I would endure all pains 
 and privations if I could thus please God/ 3 ' 
 
 As we know, a few years later, Ochino proved by 
 his deeds that these were not mere words. 
 The Duchess replies : 
 
 " I now see that, although difficult, it is yet possible 
 to love God sincerely. But what must I do to fill 
 my heart with love towards Him ? As Christ says, 
 man cannot serve two masters ... it is therefore 
 impossible to serve God and the world from the heart. 
 Therefore whoso wishes to stand before God with 
 his whole love, must leave himself and all creatures 
 behind. He cannot be chained to earth by his love, 
 and rise to God. . . ." 
 
 Ochino replies : 
 
 " The contempt of this world is the fruit of our 
 love to God, but love to God does not arise from 
 contempt of the world. . . ." 
 
CATERINA CIBO, DUCHESS OF CAMERINO 69 
 
 The Duchess then points out that a second road 
 leading to the love of God is the knowledge of God. 
 
 " We only love what we know loving without 
 previous knowledge is inconceivable. The desire 
 to know serves that desire which is king in us 
 namely the will ; it precedes the will and carries the 
 light, so that it is impossible for the will to arrive 
 where knowledge has not forestalled it. To my 
 mind therefore, the best means of loving God well, 
 consists in striving to know Him better, and frequently 
 making Him the object of our meditations. . . " 
 
 Ochino acknowledges the connection between the 
 knowledge of God and the love to Him, within 
 certain limits. He distinguishes two modes of know- 
 ing God a speculative, and a practical one, and it 
 is only this last which has the power of kindling true 
 love to God. . . . 
 
 " It is not the speculative knowledge such as the 
 wise of this world may have, but the practical 
 knowledge of God, within reach of all men, which 
 leads to love. The knowledge that God is the highest 
 good, that He loves and cares for us, that He gave up 
 His Son, even to the cross, out of love for us. This 
 knowledge can be easily gained, even by the un- 
 learned, ' for of such is the kingdom of heaven/ . . . '' 
 
 Then follows the question, whether enjoying God 
 helps us to love Him. 
 
 The Second Dialogue is a short discussion between 
 Ochino and the Duchess, " concerning the means of 
 being happy/* It is here clearly shown, and illus- 
 trated by passages from Plato and Seneca 
 
 " That true happiness does not consist in the 
 
70 ITALIAN EEFORMATION 
 
 possession of earthly goods, nor in enjoyment of 
 worldly pleasures, in honour, in riches or even in 
 knowledge ; but that setting aside all these things, 
 real happiness can be ours in our earthly pilgrimage, 
 a happiness we may find in ourselves, in the peace 
 of a soul absorbed in God. 
 
 " The central truth is that happiness is in ourselves. 
 We need not go outside to seek it, for all our longings 
 are stilled and find their rest in God. Whoever 
 thinks to satisfy the longings of his soul by the things 
 of this world, is like a man who tries to satisfy his 
 thirst by eating salt. Whoever wishes to quench 
 his thirst must go to that holy spring of fresh water, 
 clear, pure and inexhaustible." 
 
 We will pass over the Third Dialogue, carried on 
 between a master and scholar, in which the human 
 soul is represented as a Court. 
 
 The Fourth Dialogue, between Ochino and the 
 Duchess, deals with the marvellous conversion of 
 the thief on the cross, a very favourite subject with 
 the Scholastic teachers, who became involved in 
 most curious tangles. Many extraordinary sugges- 
 tions had been made, but perhaps the following were 
 the most popular. 
 
 Some declared that it was the shadow of the 
 crucified Christ which passed over the thief, and 
 suddenly worked the miracle within him. There 
 were others who believed that it was the loving, 
 adoring gaze of Mary fixed upon the Saviour which 
 so moved and touched his heart that it worked his 
 conversion at the eleventh hour. But Ochino rejects 
 all these materialistic explanations. In this case 
 also, simple belief in Christ is to him a free action. 
 
CATERINA CIBO, DUCHESS OF CAMERINO 71 
 
 " The thief looked upon Christ, he saw Him endure 
 everything without a murmur ... he heard His words 
 and saw His wonderful patience, His all-embracing 
 love ; it was all this, that kindled in him the belief 
 that Christ was in truth the Son of God." 
 
 We pass the two next Dialogues, and the last and 
 Seventh is a conversation between Ochino and the 
 Duchess concerning " vows/' 
 
 The Duchess asks : ' What must I do to secure 
 the salvation of my soul and my highest happiness ? ' ; 
 Ochino replies : ' You must make a vow." To this 
 Caterina objects as she does not know of any Order 
 that would satisfy her ; but she is told that there 
 is one which will please her, as it is perfect in every 
 respect. 
 
 " The members of this Order do not change their 
 dwelling, but only their customs, not their clothing, 
 but their lives. They cut off all sinful thoughts and 
 desires instead of their hair. They pray with their 
 hearts and not only with their lips. They obey God 
 and not man." 
 
 There is a quaint human touch in the answer of 
 the Duchess: 
 
 " I should like to be perfect, but it must not give 
 me too much trouble." 
 
 Ochino continues, after further explanations : 
 
 " In the whole world there is no lighter Order than 
 this. It is called the Divine, and its name is typical 
 of the lives of those who belong to it. ... In this 
 Order, there are no novices, the vows must be taken 
 
72 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 at once, and only noble souls may enter. If you 
 wish to join, this is the vow which you must take 
 with all your heart. . . ." 
 
 Then follows a brief epitome of simple Christian 
 doctrine and a declaration of faith. Caterina learns 
 to thank God for all the blessings she has received ; 
 to proclaim her creed in her life, and her desire so to 
 work upon others that they may love and seek God 
 alone in Christ. 
 
 The vow : 
 
 "Be it known to all by these presents that I 
 Caterina, Duchess of Camerino, led by the grace of 
 God and light divine, have resolved to turn to God 
 with the whole power of my love, now and for ever. 
 I promise to live in eternal poverty, that is without 
 love for the creature, and acknowledging that I 
 myself have nothing, and cannot do, will, know, or 
 accomplish anything. I promise implicit obedience, 
 that is, now and for ever to follow God's commands, 
 and never to strive against them. . . . 
 
 " Thus united with God, I promise to serve Him, 
 my Lord, purely and without blame, and to bring 
 others to His service. I hope to gain salvation 
 through Christ alone . . . and to attest this, I Duchess 
 of Camerino, have signed with my own hand. 
 MDXXXVIII." 
 
 These "Dialogues" are essentially Protestant, 
 for the idea is the doctrine of justification by the 
 grace of God alone, as taught to the disciples of 
 Valdes. It is on this note, that we close the story 
 of the gallant Caterina Cibo, Duchess of Camerino. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 PETER MARTYR AND OCHINO 
 
 Story of Pietro Martire Vermigli (Peter Martyr) Born at Florence 
 Enters Augustinian monastery at Fiesole His wonderful 
 preaching His persecution and flight with Ochino from Italy 
 They are invited to England by Archbishop Cranmer Peter 
 Martyr appointed Regius Professor of Divinity at Oxford 
 Ochino made Canon of Canterbury They leave England on 
 Queen Mary's accession Death of Martyr and of Ochino. 
 
 IT was in Florence that Bernardino Ochino came to 
 that final decision which raised throughout Italy the 
 cry of lamentation or obloquy : " He has forsaken 
 the ark of salvation." It was the same Florence 
 which four years before had beheld his highest 
 honour, his election as Vicar-General of his Order. 
 It was here that he renounced all that made life dear 
 to him, the love and reverence of devoted friends, a 
 position of unrivalled honour and fame ; the work of 
 a whole life-time of strenuous devoted zeal. It was 
 here too that he may possibly have been influenced 
 by the advice and example of his friend and fellow 
 exile, Pietro Martire Vermigli, who is of sufficient 
 importance to claim a special notice. 
 
 Peter Martyr, as he is known in English history, 
 was born at Florence in September 1500, and his 
 parents, Stefano Vermigli and Maria Fumantina, 
 were both members of ancient and distinguished 
 families in their native city. They had lost several 
 
 73 
 
74 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 sons before the birth of this boy, and in the hope of 
 saving his life, they dedicated him to St. Peter 
 Martyr of Milan, put to death by the Arians. The 
 boy early showed great intelligence and was taught 
 Latin by his mother, who translated with him the 
 comedies of Terence. As he grew older, nothing was 
 spared for his education, and he had the best teachers 
 in that palmy age of learning for the Florentine 
 Republic, amongst whom was Marcello Virgilio, the 
 famous professor of Greek and Latin. 
 
 But the result of Peter's precocious talent was 
 disappointing to his father, who had high ambitions 
 for his clever son, for at the age of sixteen, he had 
 decided to choose the monastic life, possibly as giving 
 him greater opportunities for quiet study, as well 
 as a holy life. He entered the monastery of St. 
 Augustine at Fiesole, which was especially suited to 
 him, as it possessed a fine library of classical works, 
 philosophy and theology, given by the Medici family. 
 
 'He was warmly welcomed by the Austin Canons, who 
 hoped that his brilliant talents would add to the fame 
 of their Order. It was an additional blow to Stefano 
 Vermigli when his only daughter, Gemma Felicita, 
 followed her brother's example, and took the vows 
 in the Convent of S. Pietro Martire. 
 
 After three years at Fiesole, Peter Martyr was 
 sent to the monastery of S. Giovanni di Verdaro, 
 near Padua, in the hope that he would continue his 
 
 -studies with the same perseverance and success at 
 the famous University of Padua. During the eight 
 years which followed, he devoted most of his time to 
 the study of Philosophy, under the direction of the 
 learned abbot Albert, and the teaching of Branda, 
 Gonfalonieri and Genua ; until his learning and 
 
PETER MARTYR AND OCHINO 75 
 
 eloquence were so much appreciated that he was 
 invited to take part in public discussions. Not 
 satisfied with studying Aristotle in a Latin transla- 
 tion, he determined so thoroughly to master the 
 Greek language, that he could read not only the 
 orators and philosophers of ancient Greece but all 
 the best poets, in the original language. He and 
 his friend Benedetto Cusano often spent the whole 
 night in study, so eager were they to enjoy the new 
 world of knowledge which opened before them. At 
 the age of twenty-six, he received the degree of 
 Doctor of Divinity, and was honoured by being 
 placed in the Order of Preachers, " who were most 
 carefully selected in the Augustinian Order, for their 
 talent, learning and eloquence." 
 
 He first preached at Brescia, then in the chief 
 cities of Italy, Rome, Venice, Bologna, Mantua, 
 Bergamo, Pisa and Montserrat, while all his spare 
 time was devoted to the study of the Scriptures. 
 He could not rest until he had learnt enough Hebrew 
 to read the Old Testament in the original. His work 
 was so much appreciated that he was made Abbot of 
 Spoleto, where the serious task awaited him of 
 reforming the terrible abuses into which the monas- 
 teries and convents had fallen, and this he carried 
 out even at the risk of his life. After three years 
 at Spoleto, he was appointed Prior to the great 
 house of S. Pietro ad Ara, at Naples, a position of 
 much responsibility and importance. Here it was 
 that he met Juan Valdes, the Spanish reformer, 
 and was greatly influenced by his teaching. Just at 
 this time, he happened to meet with Bucer's Com- 
 mentaries on the Gospels and on the Psalms, with 
 which he was deeply impressed. This and other 
 
76 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 works*of|the Reformers made him conscious of the 
 serious abuses of the Church of Rome, until he felt 
 an earnest desire to return to the original simplicity 
 of the Christian Church. His own feelings were 
 much strengthened by the constant religious meetings 
 in the house of Valdes, and the society of his friends, 
 amongst whom were Benedetto Cusano, and the poet 
 Marcantonio Flaminio. 
 
 As his honest and sincere spirit became gradually 
 enlightened, we cannot wonder that a change came 
 over the message which he preached. This was 
 especially noticed when, in the presence of the 
 brethren of his Order and an immense crowd of eager 
 listeners, he preached a series of sermons on the 
 First Epistle of St. Paul to the Corinthians, with his 
 usual marvellous eloquence. One day he came to 
 the passage in the third chapter " and the fire shall 
 try every man's work of what sort it is," on which 
 the doctrine of Purgatory is supposed to be founded. 
 He interpreted it as a figurative allusion to the entire 
 consumption of all merit outside Christ, our sole 
 salvation ; and proved this by quotations from the 
 more ancient Fathers. It began to be whispered 
 by some jealous monks that his doctrine was heretical 
 and that he did not believe in Purgatory ; he was 
 watched, and accused to the Viceroy, the bigoted 
 Toledo, who was persuaded to forbid him to preach. 
 
 But Peter Martyr appealed to the Pope against 
 this sentence, and he had such powerful friends at 
 Rome ; Gonzaga, Contarini, Pole, Bembo and Fregoso 
 all of them Cardinals and in high favour with 
 Paul III that the prohibition was removed, and he 
 continued to preach at Naples with ever- increasing 
 success. Amongst those who were most deeply 
 
PETER MARTYR AND OCHINO 77 
 
 influenced by his teaching were Francesco Caserto, 
 who died a martyr for the Reformed Faith, and the 
 young nobleman Galeazzo Caracciolo, whose interest- 
 ing history will be told later in connection with 
 Reform at Naples. 
 
 It was soon after the death of Valdes, that Peter 
 Martyr was taken seriously ill with a contagious 
 fever of which his friend Benedetto Cusano died. 
 His superiors, anxious to remove him from the un- 
 healthy miasma of Naples, appointed Martyr Visitor- 
 General of their Order in Italy, a task which gave 
 him reforming work after his own heart, and which 
 he carried out with the strongest measures, showing 
 neither fear nor favour. He was rewarded with the 
 position of Prior at S. Frediano in Lucca, with 
 episcopal authority over half the city. It was a 
 difficult position, but he met with his usual success, 
 and devoted himself especially to the young, choosing 
 men of learning and piety to teach not only Greek 
 and Latin, but theology; while he himself gave 
 a daily exposition in Italian on the Epistles of St. 
 Peter. He also gave Lectures on the Psalms, and 
 preached every Sunday to crowded congregations in 
 their native tongue. During Advent and Lent he 
 confined himself to the Gospels. 
 
 We shall not be surprised to hear that, in somewhat 
 later days, Lucca had the honour of containing more 
 converts to the reformed faith than perhaps any other 
 city in Italy. 
 
 In 1541, the Emperor Charles V and the Pope met 
 at Lucca, and the friends of Peter Martyr feared that 
 there might be trouble for him but Contarini arrived 
 at the same time, and renewed his intimate acquaint- 
 ance with the Prior of S. Frediano, taking up his 
 
78 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 abode in the Convent, where they had earnest re- 
 ligious talk together and all passed off well at this 
 time. But the clergy in the Pope's train carried back 
 to Rome an evil account of Lucca, and the Bishop, 
 who dared not attack Martyr on account of his great 
 popularity, ordered the town authorities to arrest 
 some of his companions, amongst whom was his 
 friend Celio Secondo Curione, who found a refuge 
 later at Ferrara. 
 
 The high reputation of Peter Martyr had made 
 him secret enemies who kept strict watch, and were 
 always ready to bring a charge of heresy against him. 
 One complaint against him was " that he had given the 
 communion to many citizens, teaching them only to 
 partake in remembrance of Christ's death, and not 
 because they believed the wafer contained His most 
 holy body." As time went on, the danger increased, 
 and at length when he was summoned to appear 
 before the Council of his Order at Genoa, he received 
 a warning that it would be fatal for him to obey. 
 
 Most unwillingly, he resolved to secure safety by 
 flight, and leaving many of his religious books in 
 charge of a friend who was to send them to Germany, 
 he set forth with three friends for Pisa, where he met 
 with some earnest students of the reformed opinions ; 
 he also wrote letters of farewell giving his reasons for 
 leaving his post, with final words of advice and 
 blessing. From Pisa he went on to Florence, where, 
 as we have seen, he met Bernardino Ochino, who 
 was in the same unfortunate position as himself. 
 The story of these two exiles for their faith is from 
 this time greatly linked in their various adventures, 
 and may be told to some extent together. They 
 decided to leave Italy by different roads ; Ochino 
 
PETER MARTYR AND OCHINO 79 
 
 set out two days before his friend, and appears to 
 have passed through Ferrara, where the Duchess 
 Renee showed him much kindness, as she did to all 
 who were persecuted for their religious opinions. He 
 then struck across the plain of Lombardy, visiting 
 the Marchese del Vasto at Milan, on his way. He 
 then continued his journey through Chiavenna to 
 Zurich, where many Italian fugitives from the 
 Inquisition were already taking refuge. The Swiss 
 Pastor Bullinger says that the 
 
 " Signor Bernardino of Siena remained here two 
 days, before going on to Geneva, and we had much 
 religious converse. He is celebrated for his sanctity 
 and his learning ; a venerable man with a tall figure 
 and an imposing appearance. ... In Italy he was so 
 greatly revered that he was adored almost as a god/' 
 
 Peter Martyr also reached Zurich, where he was 
 welcomed with great kindness, but as there was no 
 office vacant in the ministry there, he went on to 
 Basle, from whence he was invited to Strasburg as 
 Professor of Theology, through the influence of 
 Martin Bucer. We have a long and extremely 
 interesting letter which he wrote to his friends at 
 Lucca, describing his joy in a land of freedom, where 
 he could dare to teach the whole truth, without fear 
 of bringing persecution upon his disciples. During 
 the five years which he spent at Strasburg, Martyr 
 went through most of the Old and New Testaments in 
 his public lectures, which were given in Latin ; and 
 he was highly appreciated for his learning and 
 eloquence. 
 
 Here he was joined for a time by his friend Ber- 
 
80 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 nardino Ochino, who later received a post as preacher 
 to the Italian congregation of Augsburg with a salary 
 of two hundred gulden. He also continued his 
 literary work, chiefly Expositions and sermons on the 
 Epistles of St. Paul. But the Protestant community 
 at Augsburg was not long unmolested, for the city 
 was taken by the Emperor in January 1547, and 
 many ministers in Germany were compelled to 
 abandon their work. 
 
 Meantime, on the accession of Edward VI in 
 England, both the Duke of Somerset, Lord Protector, 
 and Archbishop Cranmer were anxious to advance 
 the reformed religion, by inviting " learned and 
 godly men " from abroad, to promote at once learning 
 and the Protestant faith. Both Peter Martyr and 
 Ochino were amongst those invited to Engknd and 
 warmly welcomed by the Archbishop ; Martyr was 
 appointed Regius Professor of Divinity at Oxford, 
 and Ochino was made a Canon of Canterbury, with 
 a dispensation of residence. We have a curious 
 record of the needful expenses in providing for this 
 journey, and in the outfit for Ochino, a fur cloak is 
 mentioned and also a dagger and belt, as it was not 
 the custom to travel long distances unarmed. Cran- 
 mer had expressly desired that all necessary books 
 should be obtained, and we find that Martyr bought 
 the Basle editions of Augustine, Cyprian and Epi- 
 phanius, costing 13J guilders, while as much as 
 40| guilders .were spent on Bernardino's books. 
 These were all packed at Basle and sent by sea, 
 through Antwerp. 
 
 Ochino lived in London and was appointed preacher 
 to the Italian Protestants in the city, and a church 
 was found for his congregation. Other friends of his 
 
PETER MARTYR AND OCHINO 81 
 
 came over from Germany, after the troubles caused 
 amongst the Reformers by the " Interim," which had 
 restored most of the Roman Catholic doctrines, 
 notably that the services were to be performed in 
 Latin, " lest they should fall into contempt if the 
 people understood the language/' Amongst the 
 Reformers who accepted Cranmer's invitation to 
 England were Bucer and Fagius, both men of great 
 learning, but the climate did not suit them, and 
 they did not long survive. 
 
 There were serious tumults in Oxford, excited by 
 the Romish priests, in 1549, and Peter Martyr was 
 at one time in danger of his life ; but when peace was 
 restored, the young King Edward VI gave him an 
 audience at Richmond, warmly congratulated him 
 on his escape, and promised him the first vacant 
 canonry at Christ Church. He had many friends at 
 Oxford, Bishop Hooper and Miles Coverdale attended 
 his Lectures, and he saw much of the Bishops Latimer 
 and Ridley, and other distinguished Reformers, who 
 later suffered martyrdom for their faith. In 1552, 
 Martyr was appointed one of the committee under 
 Cranmer, to revise the Book of Common Prayer. 
 
 But a great change was at hand, when Edward VI 
 died on July 15, 1533, and was succeeded by his 
 sister Mary. She at once overthrew all that had 
 been done in favour of the Protestants, and the 
 foreign Reformer soon saw that there was no safety 
 but in flight. Peter Martyr had recently recovered 
 from a severe illness, and was in deep sorrow for the 
 loss of his wife, " a most devout and pious woman/' 
 He was strongly advised by Cranmer to lose no time 
 in making his escape, and after a perilous voyage, he 
 was landed at Antwerp in the middle of the night, 
 6 
 
82 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 and at length reached Strasburg in safety. Here he 
 was, after a time, appointed by the Senate to his 
 former office of expounding Scripture. He was able 
 to show much kindness and hospitality to the English 
 exiles, amongst whom was Jewel, then a very young 
 man. But Strasburg was no longer a peaceful haven, 
 as there was much dissension amongst the Reformers 
 there, and after a few years Martyr was very thankful 
 to accept a post as Professor of Hebrew at Zurich. 
 The most important event in his later life was his 
 journey to the Colloquy of Poissy, where he took part 
 in the famous controversy between Protestants and 
 Roman Catholics. He died at Zurich on November 12, 
 1562, in the midst of his friends, full of years and 
 honours, dearly beloved and deeply regretted. 
 
 Bernardino Ochino had a far sadder fate. His 
 troubles and disappointments appear to have preyed 
 upon his mind, and his writings after this date became 
 unwisely outspoken. He strongly opposed the doc- 
 trine of unconditional predestination, asserting the 
 freedom of the will, and in his "Labyrinth," which he 
 dedicated to Queen Elizabeth, he gave much offence 
 to the followers of Calvin. " But his last work 
 occasioned him the most unhappy fate ; it caused 
 him to be deprived of his pastorate, to be driven from 
 Zurich and afterwards from Basle, during a severe 
 winter. He was forced to fly to the distant kingdom 
 of Poland and thence to Moravia. ' He was tossed 
 about the world hither and thither like a ball/ He 
 had already reached his seventy- sixth year, and was 
 suffering from the troubles and infirmities of age 
 this man who had been equipped with such exceptional 
 endowments, and had brought the Reformed Church 
 so much honour/' The work to which this writer 
 
PETER MARTYR AND OCHINO 83 
 
 (Schellhorn) refers is the ' ' Thirty D ialogues, " published 
 in 1563. 
 
 In this curious book, Ochino lays himself out to 
 misunderstanding by the profound honesty with 
 which he states the point of view of the " adversary." 
 Thus in discussing such a subject as the " Trinity," 
 he says that " we should regard it with reverence and 
 faith, and not overstep the limits which God has set 
 to his revelation thereof." But then he suffers the 
 " adversary " to use the strongest and most learned 
 arguments against the doctrine of the Church. Other 
 subjects considered too sacred for discussion are 
 treated in the like manner, but possibly that which 
 gave the most offence was a dialogue on " polygamy," 
 in which the " adversary " clearly proves that it is 
 not forbidden in the Old Testament. This was quite 
 enough to condemn Ochino in the popular mind, 
 though of course the conclusion was against the 
 " adversary." 
 
 His biographer, Benrath, thus sums up the evidence 
 concerning the fate of Bernardino Ochino : 
 
 " His thoughts and the standpoint he took, have 
 in the course of time, become common-places, but 
 they far transcended the general intellectual level 
 of his own time. . . . There is something deeply tragic 
 in the fact of his final cruel persecution by the Re- 
 formers for his free and tolerant spirit." 
 
 The last we hear of him is that he was struck down 
 by the plague, but partly recovered, and wearied to 
 death, he bade his friends and companions in the 
 Faith, a last farewell on Advent Sunday, 1564, and 
 died in solitude at Schlackau, in Moravia. 
 
84 ITALIAN REFOEMATION 
 
 ' When near the close of his long life, he looked 
 back with tears upon his long path of sorrows, he was 
 still able to say, for the consolation of his friends : I 
 have had to suffer many things, but that is spared 
 to none of Christ's disciples and apostles. But that 
 I have been able to endure all things, shows forth the 
 might of the Lord." l 
 
 1 Karl Benrath. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 RENEE OF FERRARA 
 
 Story of Renee of France who married Ercole of Ferrara Splendid 
 wedding Literary society at Ferrara Ariosto, Tasso, Clement 
 Marot, etc. Visit to Venice Death of Duke Alfonso d'Este, 
 1534 and of Clement VII Duke Ercole opposes the spread of 
 Reform at Ferrara Sends away some of his wife's friends Her 
 distress. 
 
 FERRARA, which had long been distinguished as a 
 seat of classical learning and of the fine arts, was also 
 destined to become famous as a centre of Reformed 
 opinions and a refuge for those who were exiles for 
 their religion. Ercole, the son of the reigning Duke 
 Alfonso, sealed an alliance with France against Pope 
 Clement VII, by his marriage with Renee the daughter 
 of Louis XII, in the year 1528. 
 
 During the lifetime of her mother, Anne de Bretagne, 
 more ambitious hopes had been entertained for the 
 young princess, but they had all fallen through, and 
 her brother-in-law Fran9ois I, was quite satisfied to 
 bestow her hand upon an Italian Prince, who would 
 not require the half of her mother's possessions. 
 Renee had been brought up at the French Court with 
 her cousin Marguerite, who became Queen of Navarre, 
 and both the young girls were distinguished for their 
 talent, and seem to have been already attracted by 
 the new spirit of religious reform which was spread- 
 ing over all Europe. 
 
 85 
 
86 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 The Princess Renee was certainly not beautiful, 
 she was even slightly deformed ; and her father 
 remarked one day when she was about five years old 
 that " it would be difficult to find a husband who 
 would love her/' But the Queen replied coldly that 
 " the love of mere beauty soon passed, it was the 
 beauty of soul which inspired a lasting affection." 
 
 It is a doubtful question whether Ercole d'Este 
 was a man to appreciate this higher form of beauty, 
 and his marriage may certainly be looked upon rather 
 as one of policy than of love. It was a brilliant success 
 to obtain a King's daughter for his bride, and the 
 wedding festivities were gorgeous enough to satisfy 
 his highest ambition. The marriage was celebrated 
 at Paris on June 28, 1528, with great pomp and 
 splendour. We have a very full account of all the 
 great personages present, and of the Princess Renee 
 in her regal robes, of crimson velvet covered with 
 precious jewels ; probably some of those which she 
 had just received from the Duke of Ferrara to the 
 value of 100,000 crowns in gold. Her long fair hair 
 her chief beauty streamed over her shoulders, from 
 beneath the crown of precious stones ; and the 
 bridegroom rivalled her in the magnificence of his 
 priceless gems. 
 
 The festivities continued for more than a month ; 
 there were balls and banquets, as well as hunting 
 parties at St. Germains and Fontainebleau, so that 
 it was not until September that the wedding party 
 set out towards Italy ; travelling by slow stages 
 through Lyons, Turin, Parma, Reggio and Modena, 
 where they were received with great state, and the 
 bride was warmly welcomed by Isabella d'Este, sister 
 of Duke Alfonso. The wedding party sailed in superb 
 
RENEE OF FERRARA 87 
 
 Bucentaurs on the river Po, to the city of Ferrara, 
 where the bride's reception was still more magnificent. 
 With all the church-bells ringing and the salvo of 
 cannon, she was borne in a litter, beneath a superb 
 canopy, through the richly decorated streets ; with a 
 train of eighty noble pages in crimson brocade, 
 wearing rose-coloured caps with white plumes. These 
 were preceded by the prelates, priests and professors, 
 and a long procession of nobles on horseback. After 
 the nuptial benediction in the Cathedral, the bride 
 was presented with the keys of the city on a silver 
 salver. 
 
 Yet all this magnificence could scarcely veil the 
 deep depression which hung over Ferrara, where the 
 plague had raged so terribly during the summer, that 
 20,000 persons were said to have fallen victims to it. 
 There may have been still some risk of infection, for 
 we learn that one of the French ambassadors who 
 had accompanied the wedding party, died at Modena 
 of the dreaded disease. It almost seems as if a 
 shadow hung over Renee from the first. It was 
 unfortunate for her that almost immediately after 
 this, the armies of France began to lose ground in 
 Italy, and one defeat after another led up to the 
 Treaty of Cambrai, when there was real danger that 
 Ferrara would be sacrificed to the Pope's vengeance. 
 
 But Duke Alfonso hastened to do homage to the 
 victorious Emperor, and through his wise diplomacy 
 the peril was averted. Even when the alliance with 
 France had lost political value, Alfonso always be- 
 haved with the utmost kindness to his daughter-in- 
 law. He was a man of enough talent and intelligence 
 to appreciate Renee 's intellectual tastes, and he 
 showed every encouragement to the distinguished 
 
88 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 scholars, who had followed her from France or who 
 gathered round her Court from various parts of Italy. 
 Amongst the friends of the Duke, Lodovico Ariosto, 
 the author of the " Orlando Furioso," was one of the 
 most famous. His heroic poem, in forty cantos, the 
 fashionable reading of the day, had been written 
 sixteen years before, but the last edition published 
 in his lifetime, saw the light at Ferrara in 1532. 
 Learned and accomplished as she was, Renee did not 
 speak Italian well, and was obliged to use an inter- 
 preter in these early days. We can understand 
 therefore that she was much more at home with the 
 French members of her suite, Madame de Soubise her 
 governess poetess and translator of the Psalms 
 and her distinguished family. She had been the 
 earliest patron of Clement Marot, the typical French 
 poet of his day, who " combined the valour of a 
 soldier and the manners of a courtier," with the most 
 delightful literary taste and wit. He was a frequent 
 visitor at the Court of Ferrara, especially in later 
 days when his reformed religious views were more 
 pronounced. 
 
 Amongst the poets of Ferrara who wrote verses in 
 honour of Renee, was Bernardo Tasso, to whom she 
 showed much favour, and who was appointed her 
 secretary as early as the year after her marriage. 
 Amongst the distinguished men who joined her circle 
 in these early days, we may mention the learned Celio 
 Calcagnini, Canon of the Cathedral and Professor of 
 Literature, and Albert Lollio joint founders of the 
 Academy of the " Elevati." Science as well as 
 literature was represented in the persons of Giovanni 
 Mainardi and his distinguished scholar, Antonio Musa 
 Brasavola, Professors of Medicine. Antonio, who was 
 
RENEE OF FERRARA 89 
 
 the son of Count Francesco Brasavola, was Reader in 
 Dialectics at the University at the age of eighteen, and 
 two years later held public disputations at Padua 
 and Bologna ; on theology, philosophy, mathematics, 
 astronomy and medicine. He had travelled to France 
 as chief physician, with Ercole at the time of his 
 marriage, and was consulted at various times both 
 by the Emperor and the Pope. His favourite study 
 was botany, and he introduced many new herbal 
 remedies. 
 
 But Renee found her most intimate friends in the 
 family of Madame de Soubise, who had been Lady in 
 Waiting to Anne de Bretagne, and whose two youngest 
 daughters, Renata and Carlotta, had accompanied 
 her to Ferrara as well as her son Lusignan de Par- 
 thenay. His companion in arms, the young Count 
 Antoine de Pons, was betrothed to his eldest sister 
 Anne de Parthenay, the special favourite of the 
 French Princess, who shared all her studies and her 
 tastes, and was destined, with most of her family, 
 to dare and suffer much for the reformed doctrines. 
 Anne soon joined the Court of Ferrara of which she 
 was a brilliant ornament, and here, early in 1534, 
 her marriage with Antoine de Pons was solemnised 
 with all the honours and festivities which Renee 
 could arrange. Her husband Ercole, had no friendly 
 feeling towards any of the companions she had brought 
 from France, and he appears to have avoided the 
 wedding by going to spend the Carnival at Venice. 
 
 Other interests had entered into the life of Renee, 
 for in November 1531, a daughter had been born to 
 her, who received the name of Anne, from her grand- 
 mother. Two years later there had been great 
 rejoicings in Ferrara on the birth of a son and heir, 
 
90 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 who was named Alfonso, and was held at the font by 
 the Cardinal Ippolito d'Este, as proxy for Fra^ois I. 
 This event appears to have lightened the gloom which 
 hung over the city since the death of the poet Lodovico 
 Ariosto, in the previous June, 1533. This was a 
 great blow to the French Princess and her literary 
 circle, for he was a brilliant, genial companion, ever 
 ready to take a part in organising the Plays which 
 formed a part of all public entertainments. He was 
 a great admirer of Renee and has immortalised her 
 in the following lines. After speaking of other 
 ladies of the House of Este, he says : 
 
 " Non voglio ch'in silenzio anco Renata 
 Di Francia, nuora di costei, rimanga, 
 Di Luigi duodecimo re nata, 
 E de 1'eterna gloria di Bretagna. 
 Ogni virtti ch'in donna mai sia stata, 
 Di poi che'l fuoco scalda e 1'acqua bagna, 
 E gira intorno il cielo, insieme tutta 
 Per Renata adornar veggio ridutta." 1 
 
 Dante had once exclaimed that Ferrara had no 
 poets ; but now it was no longer true, for we have 
 seen here the death of one famous writer, and another 
 was to be harboured later within her walls ; the 
 singer of " Armida," Torquato Tasso, the son of 
 Renee 's secretary. 
 
 It was in the spring of 1534 that the French Princess 
 paid her eventful visit to Venice, in order to see the 
 Festa of the Ascension. Duke Alfonso had gone to 
 Milan for the wedding of his nephew, the Duke 
 Francesco Sforza with Christina of Denmark, taking 
 Titian with him to paint their portraits. Ercole 
 remained at home, but his wife was supposed to 
 
 1 " Orlando Furioso," xiii. 71. 
 
RENEE OF FERRARA 91 
 
 represent him and she went in great state, taking 
 with her, by special request of Fra^ois I, the Count 
 de Pons as her Lord in Waiting, and his bride Anne 
 de Parthenay. She was received with great ceremony 
 and conducted to the Este Palace, the Fondaco dei 
 Turchi, a beautiful Byzantine building of the ninth 
 century, one of the earliest buildings, not ecclesi- 
 astical, in Venice. It was not far from the Rialto 
 bridge, then built of wood. 
 
 ReneVs visit was one succession of splendid enter- 
 tainments. She was taken to see the Arsenal, the 
 treasures of the Signoria were spread out before her ; 
 she was conducted in state to Murano, and finally was 
 the most honoured guest in the splendid ceremony 
 of the betrothal of the Doge to the sea, in the gorgeous 
 procession of Bucentaurs. It is interesting to re- 
 member that the Doge Andrea Gritti, who received 
 the Princess cap in hand, who embraced her and 
 conducted her with torches to the steps of her palace, 
 was the same Doge who had endured the terrible 
 defeat of Agnadello, and was now receiving the 
 daughter of his conqueror, Louis XII, and all for the 
 sake of his friendship towards the House of Este. 
 It was a costly expedition, for we learn that 1,584 lire 
 were spent in gifts. 
 
 But the real importance of this stay in Venice to 
 Renee and many of her suite, was that here they 
 found the Reformed doctrines openly taught by 
 disciples of Calvin, and were able to have religious 
 conversations, and to obtain freely, books of the 
 Reformers. It is quite possible that her strong 
 interest in all that she heard of Calvin, may have had 
 some connection with the visit which he paid to 
 Ferrara two years later. 
 
92 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 The year 1534 was an eventful period for the Este 
 family. On September 25, Clement VII, the great 
 enemy of Ferrara, breathed his last, and Duke Alfonso, 
 for the first time in his life, felt secure of his dominions. 
 But his peace on earth was of short duration, for 
 within a month he too passed away after a short 
 illness. He was much beloved by his people and 
 deeply regretted by them as well as by his daughter- 
 in-law, to whom he had always proved a faithful friend 
 and champion. His son and successor, Ercole II, 
 was a far weaker character than his father, with 
 narrower views and less intelligence and generosity. 
 
 He had always disliked the French members of 
 ReneVs Court whom she had brought with her from 
 Paris, and he suspected that they were responsible 
 for the growing feeling of estrangement between 
 himself and his wife. The new Duke was also well 
 aware of the reformed opinions held by Madame de 
 Soubise and her family, and now that he was very 
 anxious to be on good terms with the Pope, he re- 
 solved to dismiss all the French suite. But he met 
 with great opposition, not only on the part of the 
 Duchess, but of the King of France, who strongly 
 pleaded that she should be allowed to keep her friends. 
 
 Amongst other visitors at the Court of Ferrara 
 about this time was one in whom Renee took special 
 interest, Clement Marot the poet, in whose gay 
 society and brilliant intelligence she had taken great 
 delight before she left France. His life had already 
 been full of adventure, for in the service of Fra^ois I, 
 who delighted in his merry society, he had accom- 
 panied the King to Italy, and had been wounded 
 and taken prisoner at the Battle of Pavia. On his 
 return to Paris, he was arrested for heresy and cast 
 
RENEE OF FERRARA 93 
 
 into the dungeon of the Chatelet, but when he was 
 tried before the Bishop of Chartres, this genial prelate 
 only confined him in a comfortable house near his 
 palace. There is a legend that the townsfolk of 
 Chartres used to sing his own songs beneath the 
 window of his room to cheer his mild captivity. 
 Besides his special patroness, Marguerite of Navarre, 
 it was well for him that he had many powerful friends, 
 as he was always getting into trouble for his opposition 
 to authority, and his outspoken opinions. 
 
 After various vicissitudes, in the midst of which 
 he married, he settled at Lyons and became a member 
 of its lively literary circle. In 1533 came the terrible 
 persecution of the French Protestants, and Marot, 
 warned in time, fled to the Court of Marguerite at 
 Beam. Feeling insecure even under the protection 
 of the King's sister, in the early summer of 1535, he 
 crossed the Alps and presented himself at the Court 
 of Ferrara. Here Marot received a warm welcome 
 from the Duchess, who " looked upon him as another 
 Ovid," so he tells us in his " Coq a Fane." She 
 appointed him her secretary, with an income of 
 200 livres a year, and the poet was so delighted that 
 he wrote a poem, in the form of a letter to his friends, 
 which begins thus a play upon her name Renee 
 (born again) : 
 
 " Mee amis, j'ay chang6 ma Dame : 
 Une autre a dessus moy puissance, 
 Nee deux fois, de nom et d'ame, 
 Enfant de Roy par sa naissance : 
 Enfant du Ciel par connoissance 
 De Celuy qui la sauvera. . . ." 1 
 
 It was no new thing for Marot to write in her 
 
 1 Marot CBnvres, torn. ii. p. 57, ed. a la Haye. 
 
94 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 praise ; lie had already, in 1528, composed a " Chant 
 nuptial du mariage de Madame Renee fille de France 
 avec le due de Ferrare," in ten long stanzas, bringing 
 in a great deal of adulation and mythology, and 
 beginning with a kind of trumpet strain of welcome 
 to Ercole (who was not yet Duke) : 
 
 " Quel est ce duo venu nouvelleinent 
 En si bel ordre et riche a 1'avantage ? 
 On juge bien a le voir seulement 
 Qu'il est yssu d'excellent parentage. 
 N'est-ce celluy qui en fleurissant age 
 Doit espouser la princease Renee ? " 
 
 Brantome tells us that Marot's residence at Ferrara 
 served to confirm her attachment to the reformed 
 doctrines, by the accounts which he gave of the 
 persecutions in France, of the sufferings and constancy 
 of her friends ; and also his keen satire of the Koman 
 Church. The poet found himself in a congenial 
 atmosphere at Ferrara, for Madame de Soubise, the 
 warm patroness of his father Jean Marot, had always 
 shown him great favour, while his witty epigrams 
 and the " piquant gallantry of his verses were the 
 delight of the whole company/' 
 
 Meantime Duke Ercole II had carried out his long 
 delayed expedition to Rome that he might offer his 
 congratulations to the new Pope Paul III on his 
 accession to the Papal dignity. He set forth on 
 September 19, 1535, taking with him the famous 
 doctor Brasavola, and a suite of 260 persons, arriving 
 at Rome on October 9, after a slow and stately journey. 
 He did not meet with the success which he anticipated, 
 either in his negotiations with the Pope and Cardinals, 
 or later, when he went to Naples to meet the Emperor, 
 who had returned from a successful expedition in 
 
RENEE OF FERRARA 95 
 
 Africa. Ercole was also much worried by news from 
 Ferrara, where he was told by his spies that there 
 was an intrigue on foot to induce Renee to go to 
 France. 
 
 He had so far delayed his purpose of expelling all 
 his wife's French friends, as she was in delicate health, 
 and he wished to spare her until after the birth of her 
 child. In December 1535 a second daughter was 
 born to Renee, who received the name of Lucrezia, 
 and was in after years the object of Torquato Tasso's 
 adoration. The Duke himself did not return to 
 Ferrara until January 13, the next year, and finding 
 his wife ill and depressed, he wrote to invite his aunt 
 Isabella d'Este to pay them a visit, and spend the 
 carnival at Ferrara. The Marchesa arrived on 
 January 30, and seems to have much enjoyed the 
 festivities given in her honour. Clement Marot, with 
 the curious fantastic taste of that age, had addressed 
 a poem to the yet unborn child of Renee, beginning 
 with these words : " Petit enfant, quel que sois, fille 
 ou fils . . ." continuing : 
 
 ' You will find a century in which you can quickly 
 learn all that a child can understand. . . . Come 
 then boldly, and when you grow older, you will 
 find something better still : you will find a war 
 already begun the war against ignorance and its 
 insensate troops. . . . Oh, happy days to those who 
 know, and happier still to those who are born to-day. " 
 
 Rabelais, in a letter written this year, says : "I 
 fear the Duchess will suffer much, as the Duke has 
 sent away Madame de Soubise, her governess, and 
 the French waiting-women, so that she is served 
 
96 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 entirely by Italians/' This had taken place on 
 March 20, 1535, and it was quite true that Renee 
 had felt the parting bitterly, but she had long ex- 
 pected it. Marot wrote a charming poem of farewell 
 to his kind patroness, in which he recalls how she 
 was a favourite and friend of Anne of Bretagne, how 
 she and her noble house were always beloved of the 
 Muses, how she had encouraged poets and learned 
 men, and how bitterly she will be regretted in Ferrara 
 after seven years of faithful service. With all his 
 light-hearted frivolity, Clement Marot had very 
 strong religious views, and it is believed that a serious 
 poem on such matters which he wrote to Franois I, 
 from Ferrara, induced the French King to invite 
 Melanchthon to Paris that he might help in making 
 peace between the religious parties in France. But 
 this was never to happen ! 
 
 Early in the year 1536, Marot himself was driven 
 from his peaceful shelter at Ferrara, and compelled 
 to take refuge in Venice. From there he wrote the 
 well-known poem to Marguerite of Navarre, in which 
 he appeals to her on behalf of Renee her sister-in-law, 
 in 37 verses, of which I will quote three : 
 
 " Ha ! Marguerite, escoute la souffrance 
 Du noble coeur de Renee de France ; 
 Puis comme sceur plus fort qne d'esperance 
 Console-la. 
 
 " Tu sais comment hors son pays alia, 
 Et que parents et amis laissa la, 
 Mais tu ne sais quel traitement elle a 
 En terre estrange. 
 
 " Elle ne voit ceult a qui se veult plaindre, 
 Son ceil rayant si loing ne peut attaindre ; 
 Et puis les monts pour ce bien lui estaindre 
 Sont entre deux." 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 CALVIN AND HIS VISIT TO FERRARA 
 
 Life of Calvin At the University of Paris Marguerite of Navarre 
 his patron Writings of Calvin " Institution Chre'tienne." 
 Calvin visits Ferrara Circle of Reformers in that city Clement 
 Marot translates the Psalms into French verse Prohibited by 
 the Inquisition. 
 
 WE have now reached a most interesting point in 
 this " History of the Men and Women of the Italian 
 Reformation." In the year 1536, Ferrara gave 
 shelter to a greater Reformer than any of Italian 
 birth, for the visit of Calvin was an epoch in the 
 eventful life of the city. A brief account of his 
 earlier life may not be out of place, in order to 
 understand the point at which he had then arrived 
 in his mental and religious development, and the 
 importance of his meeting with the Duchess Renee. 
 
 Jean Calvin was born on July 10, 1509, in Noyon, 
 a cathedral town of Picardy. It was the year when our 
 Henry VIII came to the throne, when Melanchthon 
 at the age of thirteen matriculated in Heidelberg, 
 when Erasmus was in Rome, when Luther had been 
 called to Wittenberg. Calvin was of humble birth ; 
 his ancestors had been bargemen on the river Oise, 
 but his father Gerard Calvin had risen to the position 
 of " Notaire Apostolique, and Secretaire de I'Evesche/' 
 His mother Jeanne is spoken of as a beautiful woman 
 and remarkably devout. Beza tells us that the father 
 7 7 
 
98 ITALIAN EEFOEMATION 
 
 was rich enough to bring up his family in a good 
 position, and to give his talented second son, Jean, 
 an excellent education. Being in favour with the 
 Bishop of Noyon, he was able to obtain for the boy 
 the equivalent of a scholarship at the present time 
 the revenues of a chapel in the cathedral, and later 
 those of a curacy near. In 1523, Jean was sent to 
 the old and famous University of Paris, which was 
 then in a terrible condition as regards morals and 
 discipline, if we are to believe half that we are told 
 by Erasmus and Kabelais. 
 
 But this lad of fourteen appears to have so chosen 
 his friends as to pass unharmed through the ordeal, 
 and he was fortunate in having as his teacher, the 
 enthusiastic and learned Mathurin Cordier, who, in 
 later years, became his pupil in religion, and followed 
 him to exile in Geneva. The same devotion to the 
 reformed faith was shown by Michel Cop, youngest 
 son of Guillaume Cop, the King's physician, whose 
 family showed the utmost affection to young Calvin. 
 In 1528, his father decided that Jean should devote 
 himself to law rather than theology, and for that 
 purpose sent him to Orleans, where he studied 
 jurisprudence under Pierre de FEstoile, and Greek 
 under Melchior Wolmar. Here he first met Theodore 
 Beza, then a boy of ten. Gerard Calvin died in 1531, 
 and the next year Jean published a Commentary on 
 the " De dementia " of Seneca. This first work was 
 a splendid success, and the youth of twenty- three 
 was declared to have excelled in classical knowledge, 
 Aleander, Eeuchlin and Erasmus. 
 
 In October 1533, Calvin went to Paris, where 
 Marguerite of Navarre held her Court, showing great 
 favour to the preachers of the reformed doctrines, 
 
CALVIN AND HIS VISIT TO FERRARA 99 
 
 amongst whom was her almoner, Gerard Roussel, 
 and she warmly welcomed the coming of Jean Calvin. 
 In the King's absence, some strict theologians had 
 just prohibited her " Mirror of a Sinful Soul/' to 
 her great indignation. The subject came before the 
 University, and it was Calvin who wrote the famous 
 rectorial address, which the rector, Nicolas Cop, 
 revised and delivered. In this we see how far the 
 young scholar had advanced on the road to Reform. 
 He had learnt from Erasmus to compare the Church 
 of his own time with the ideal of Christ, while by 
 Luther's " Exposition of the Beatitudes " he had 
 been taught the difference between Law and Gospel 
 and the involved doctrines of Grace and Faith. With 
 splendid courage he defended the cause of the perse- 
 cuted Reformers, amongst whom was the martyred 
 Etienne de la Forge ; and the result of this frankness 
 was that he had before long to flee from Paris. 
 
 He went to Noyon and resigned all the offices he 
 held, leaving himself penniless ; was thrown into 
 prison, but set free by royal influence. He returned 
 for a time to Orleans, and here wrote a most interesting 
 treatise against the belief of the Anabaptists, that the 
 soul of man falls into a sleep of unconsciousness 
 between death and judgment. He maintained that 
 " conscious personal being was too precious in itself, 
 and in the sight of God too sacred, to be allowed to 
 suffer even a temporary lapse." As profound study 
 brought deeper knowledge, Calvin became more 
 strongly confirmed in the cause of reform, which he 
 found it impossible to serve aright with the stake 
 waiting for him ; and as much for the safety of his 
 friends as his own, he retired from France and settled 
 at Basle in the winter of 1534. 
 
100 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 This home of freedom and learning was indeed 
 a welcome refuge to the weary exile, who in the 
 stimulating society of earnest and devoted Reformers, 
 could work unhindered at his great book, " Christiana 
 Religionis Institutio." The letter which dedicates it 
 to Fra^ois I, is " one of the great epistles of the 
 world, a splendid apology for the oppressed and 
 arraignment of the oppressors." It breathes a spirit 
 of righteous anger against injustice in high places, 
 and of noble enthusiasm for the cause of truth and 
 freedom. The book itself is a masterly account of 
 reform in religion, dwelling more on worship, on 
 morals and on polity than on dogma. 
 
 The First Chapter treats of the Ten Commandments 
 as a rule of duty and conduct ; the Second, with Faith 
 as described in the Apostolic symbol ; the Third, 
 with prayer as taught by the words of Christ ; the 
 Fourth, with the Sacrament as given in the New 
 Testament ; the fifth touches on the false sacraments 
 as defined by tradition and commanded by Catholic 
 rule and custom ; and the Sixth deals with Christian 
 liberty, and the relation of Church and State. Liberty 
 Calvin defines as ; " freedom from the law as a means 
 of acceptance with God ; the spontaneous obedience 
 of the justified to the Divine will, and freedom either 
 to observe or neglect those external things which are 
 themselves indifferent," 
 
 This work gave to the French Reformers that which 
 they so much needed, a definite system of theology ; 
 a profession of Faith which would serve to unite their 
 forces in one serried line of battle. Only by thus 
 giving up the spirit of free enquiry could the Pro- 
 testants in France attain that cohesion, which would 
 enable them to remain steadfast and hold their own 
 
CALVIN AND HIS VISIT TO FERRARA 101 
 
 against the terrible persecution which they had to 
 endure. Thus we see how, during the next twenty- 
 five years of their deepest need, they turned for 
 strength and support to the writer of the " Institution 
 Chretienne," the strong man who ruled that far-off 
 city of freedom. 
 
 Calvin had scarcely left Paris in the winter of 
 1534, before the storm of persecution broke forth 
 with fury. Two hundred persons were accused of 
 heresy and sent to prison by the middle of 
 November, and before the year ended, the number 
 was doubled. Eight martyrs had been burned before 
 Christmas, and when Fra^ois I returned to Paris at 
 the beginning of the year 1535, he announced his 
 purpose of exterminating heresy from France. In 
 January six more persons were burned, and seventy- 
 three members of the Reformed faith who had fled 
 from Paris, were summoned before the Courts, and 
 failing to appear, sentence of attainder and confisca- 
 tion of their goods, was passed upon them. Amongst 
 these were Clement Marot, then safe at Ferrara, and 
 the great friend of Calvin, Marthurin Cordier. Far 
 worse was to follow, and we shudder at the thought 
 of the coming Massacre of St. Bartholomew, and the 
 devastating persecution, when, in three months, 
 more than ten thousand so-called heretics were slain 
 by the pitiless Inquisition. 
 
 " I/Institution Chretienne " was published in March 
 1536, and immediately afterwards, Calvin set forth 
 on a hurried journey to Ferrara. Many legends 
 have grown up regarding this visit, but we have few 
 trustworthy details of it. Theodore Beza, the friend 
 and biographer of the great Reformer, simply remarks 
 that when his book was finished, he was seized with 
 
102 ITALIAN EEFOKMATION 
 
 a strong desire to pay his respects in person to the 
 Duchess, of whose piety he had heard so much. He 
 longed for a passing glance at Italy which was awaken- 
 ing to a strong interest in the reformed doctrines ; 
 and he earnestly hoped that the Court of Renee 
 might become a centre, as well as a refuge for those 
 who were seeking to restore the Christian Church to 
 its primitive purity and simplicity. 
 
 At this moment there was peace in Europe, and 
 the previous November the Emperor Charles V had 
 made a triumphant entry into Naples, where he was 
 hailed as conqueror of the dreaded Barbarossa, and 
 champion of Christendom. It was therefore possible 
 for Calvin and his friend Louis du Tillet, to travel 
 in safety across the Alps and reach Ferrara without 
 encountering hostile armies. He assumed the name 
 of Charles d'Espeville, being too well known as a 
 leader of Reform, to travel under his own. Here in 
 Ferrara, he found a group of earnest disciples who 
 attended his religious conferences in the private 
 apartments of Renee ; not only the French members 
 of her Court who still remained with her after the 
 dismissal of Madame de Soubise, but Italians and 
 others are mentioned. There was the accomplished 
 Anne de Pons, and her husband Antoine, who re- 
 mained faithful to the reformed faith and, with her 
 brother Jean de Parthenay, was massacred on the 
 fatal night of St. Bartholomew. The Vicomte 
 d'Aubeterre the brother of Madame de Soubise, had 
 been perfidiously invited to Paris from Geneva, 
 whither he had fled as a Protestant ; and being 
 obliged by the laws of the Republic to live by some 
 trade, he had chosen that of a button-maker. 
 
 A young Italian lady of the Court, Francesca 
 
CALVIN AND HIS VISIT TO FERRARA 103 
 
 Burcyronia, and two German students at the Univer- 
 sity, Johann, and Kilian Sinapius who was tutor to 
 ReneVs children, were also amongst the earnest 
 disciples of Calvin. The elder brother, Johann, 
 became a distinguished physician, and when in 1543, 
 he married Francesca Bucyronia, he and his wife 
 wrote to their spiritual guide, with whom Johann 
 had kept up a constant correspondence since that 
 meeting at Ferrara : 
 
 ' We beseech you in the name of that friendship 
 of which you gave us so many proofs during your 
 stay at this Court, to continue us the benefit of your 
 counsels. Teach us, in the midst of the dangers 
 which surround us, how to conduct ourselves as 
 beseems a Christian man and wife, how to live in 
 holiness before God, and render to Him the honour 
 due to His name." 
 
 This Johann Sinapius was in after years a friend 
 and correspondent of Olympia Morata, the daughter 
 of Professor Fulvio Peregrino Morato, whose story 
 will be told later ; she was only a child of ten when 
 Calvin came to Ferrara. This visit of his, although 
 so brief, seems to have had great value and import- 
 ance, for it gave him a vivid insight into the perils 
 of ReneVs position, and the difficulties she would 
 have to face in the future. We see this very plainly 
 in the long and earnest letters which Calvin constantly 
 wrote to the Duchess, seeking by every means in his 
 power to strengthen her faith, and give her courage 
 to face the sacrifices which an open confession would 
 involve. 1 Under his influence, we shall see that in 
 
 1 Lettre* de Calvin, recueillies par Jean Bonnet. Paris, 1864. 
 
104 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 1540 she refused to make her confession or hear 
 mass any longer. 
 
 There must have been a strong party in Ferrara 
 holding reformed views, and amongst these was a 
 youth named Jehannot, who had fled from France 
 when a companion of his, who was not so fortunate, 
 was burnt at the stake for heresy. He was a friend 
 of Clement Marot, and Renee had obtained for him 
 a post as singer in the church choir. On Good 
 Friday, April 14, unfortunately while Calvin was at 
 Ferrara, when the cross was presented to the people 
 for adoration, the young Jehannot loudly protested 
 that such worship was idolatry. A tumult followed, 
 and the chorister was arrested ; under pressure from 
 Rome, Duke Ercole began to make enquiries as to 
 how far the Protestant heresy had spread, and to his 
 horror, he found that most of his wife's suite were 
 involved. He at once used strong measures and 
 expelled most of her fellow countrymen, and amongst 
 them Calvin, who appears to have left Ferrara at 
 this time, after a stay of about twenty-two days. He 
 is believed to have travelled through Zurich to 
 Lyons, and to have even dared to visit his old home 
 at Noyon, for the sake of family affairs. He certainly 
 reached Paris, and before the end of July, he had 
 travelled through Germany to Geneva. Here he 
 was persuaded by the devoted Protestant preacher, 
 Guillaume Farel, one of the famous Society of Meaux, 
 to remain and help him in his work of an evangelist. 
 Calvin was at first unwilling to preach in public, as 
 he believed his mission to be rather that of the scholar 
 than the preacher. But it was thus that began his 
 connexion with Geneva, and we know with what 
 success it was crowned. With his later life we are 
 
CALVIN AND HIS VISIT TO FERRARA 105 
 
 not at present concerned, as it belongs to the general 
 history of the Reformed Church. 
 
 Clement Marot had been driven from Ferrara at 
 the same time as his friend Calvin, but he had ob- 
 tained permission later to return to France, and there 
 devoted his poetical talent to the translation of the 
 Psalms into French verse. They made a great 
 success and were sung everywhere to the most popular 
 tunes of the day, even at Court, where each chose a 
 Psalm according to his taste. The King chose : 
 " As the hart panteth after the waterbrooks," which 
 he sang out hunting. Catherine dei Medici sang to a 
 doleful tune : " Lord, I cry unto Thee ; make haste 
 unto me." 
 
 " Vers 1'Eternel des oppresses le Pere 
 Je m'en iray, lui montrant 'impropere 
 Qu'on me faict, lui ferai ma priere 
 A haute voix, qu'il ne jette en arriere 
 Mes piteux cris, car en lui j'espere." 
 
 But however fashionable the songs of the ancient 
 Hebrew race became, such pressure was brought to 
 bear upon Franois I, that he was persuaded to 
 prohibit the metrical Psalms, and Marot, finding 
 that he was still looked upon as a heretic, took leave 
 of France and found a refuge at Geneva. Here he 
 continued his translation until he had completed 
 seventy Psalms, and Calvin was so delighted with 
 them that he had them set to noble music. When 
 printed in Protestant books, they were so severely 
 prohibited by the Roman Church, that to sing one of 
 these spiritual songs was looked upon as a declaration 
 of the Reformed Faith. 
 
CHAPTEK X 
 
 THE SORROWS OP REN^E 
 
 The sorrows of Renee Visit of Vittoria Colonna to Ferrara Death 
 of Isabella d'Este Visit of Paul III He gives Ren6e a private 
 briefMartyrdom of Fannio Renee imprisoned and persecuted 
 by Inquisitor Her unforeseen release, and her outward conformity 
 to the orthodox ceremonies. 
 
 AFTER the expulsion of her friends, a sad time followed 
 for Renee. She wrote pitiful letters to the King of 
 France, but he was unable to help her, for Duke 
 Ercole was determined to remain on the best of terms 
 with the Pope, and therefore did his best to crush 
 out reformed opinions from Ferrara. In the following 
 year, the Duchess gladly welcomed a visit from 
 Vittoria Colonna, with whom she had so much in 
 common with regard to her religious views, and who 
 was godmother to her second daughter Lucrezia. 
 
 One reason why the Marchesa of Pescara was 
 anxious to visit Ferrara was that she might induce 
 Duke Ercole to found a Capuchin convent there 
 under the direction of Bernardino Ochino. This was 
 done in August 1537, and during the following Advent 
 the eloquent Friar preached in the Duomo. His 
 sermons were a great consolation and interest to 
 Renee, and she saw much of her friend Vittoria, who 
 had come with six ladies in her suite, and took up 
 her abode in the convent of Santa Caterina. She 
 wrote to Cardinal Gonzaga : 
 
 106 
 
THE SORROWS OF RENEE 107 
 
 " It has pleased God that I should find much quiet 
 and consolation at Ferrara. Thanks be to God, the 
 Duke and all of them leave me the liberty that I 
 desire to attend only to true acts of charity, and not 
 to such mixed ones as are produced by conversation. 
 May it please the Divine Goodness that all my time 
 here may be so spent that none of it may be mine, 
 but all Christ's." 
 
 Yet when occasion offered, the Marchesa enjoyed 
 great entertainments at Court. Thus we hear of 
 her, on the evening before her departure, taking part 
 in a festival arranged by Isabella d'Este, who had 
 come on a visit at her nephew's request. Her gay 
 ladies were in their element with abundance of 
 dancing and music, while Vittoria struck a more 
 serious note, by reciting five of her sonnets. She 
 left in February 1558, for she was so arranging her 
 time as to follow Bernardino Ochino to all the various 
 cities where he was preaching. 
 
 ReneVs great interest from about this time, was 
 the care and education of her children. Anna the 
 eldest, who was now seven years old, showed great 
 intelligence, and on the occasion spoken of above, it 
 appears that Isabella d'Este was greatly delighted 
 with the " Signora Anna, who played some pieces on 
 the gravicetnbalo excellently. She also danced several 
 dances in the most perfect time and with most ex- 
 quisite grace." We shall hear much about the 
 education of this little girl, as the following year, 
 1539, the famous Olympia Morata was invited to be 
 her companion and teacher. A shining light of the 
 Italian Reformation, this young girl is of sufficient 
 interest to need a special biography of her own. 
 
108 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 Her father, Pelligrino Fulvio Morato was one of 
 the learned men of the University of Ferrara where 
 he was Professor of Literature. He wrote an ex- 
 position of the " Lord's Prayer " in 1526, and a 
 " Rimario di tutte le cadentie di Dante e Petrarca " 
 in 1528. He had to leave the University in 1533, 
 and the reason assigned for this was that he had 
 written in favour of the reformed opinions. After 
 being an exile for six years, he returned to Ferrara 
 with his family. He had met Celio Secundo Curione, 
 the ardent Reformer, who at a later period found a 
 refuge under the protection of Renee. Another 
 distinguished man at her Court was the poet Calcag- 
 nini, who also with the brothers Johann and Kilian 
 Sinapius, combined in carrying on the education of 
 her children. 
 
 In April 1539, a second son was born to the Duchess ; 
 he received the name of Luigi, and Paul III was his 
 godfather. Isabella d'Este died this same year ; she 
 was a great loss to Renee, as her kindness and common 
 sense would have had influence over Duke Ercole, 
 when he listened to cruel calumnies against his wife 
 and exiled her French Gentleman of honour, Antoine 
 de Pons, sending him off in the very depth of winter. 
 The King of France was most indignant when he 
 heard of this, and he wrote a very dignified, and at 
 the same time indignant letter to Duke Ercole : 
 
 " My cousin, I have heard that after the long and 
 devoted service of the Seigneur and Lady de Pons, 
 to my dear sister, your wife, and the constant and 
 laborious care which they have bestowed upon her 
 and me, you have become discontented with them 
 and for all reward of their services you have treated 
 
THE SORROWS OF RENEE 109 
 
 them very badly. And as they are personages of 
 such high quality and my subjects and servitors, for 
 whom I have the highest esteem and respect, ... I 
 am sending to fetch them and pray you my Cousin 
 to send them back to me in such favour and honour 
 as they went to you. And you may trust the said 
 Seigneur de Lavau, and take what he will say to 
 you as from myself." 
 
 Ercole only cared just then to please the Pope, 
 and he sent poor Renee away in disgrace to the 
 desolate Castello of Consandola, a distant spot on 
 the borders of Romagna. It suited him better to hint 
 at a scandal, than to own that his wife had become 
 a heretic in the eyes of the Roman Church. The 
 unfortunate lady appears to have had a very dreary 
 time, away from her home and her children, and it 
 was not until she was needed at the Court of Ferrara 
 to receive a visit of reconciliation from Pope Paul III, 
 that the Duchess was allowed to take her proper 
 position again. 
 
 The Pope had a magnificent reception and his 
 progress through the streets of Ferrara was like a 
 triumphal procession ; he was accompanied by 
 eighteen Cardinals and forty Bishops, was borne 
 under a gorgeous canopy, and received the keys of 
 the city on a golden salver. There was a pontifical 
 mass in the Cathedral, and he presented the Duke 
 with the Golden Rose. Although Paul III only 
 remained two days, he had time to see a magnificent 
 tournament, and to be entertained with a comedy of 
 Terence, the " Adelphi," acted by the children of 
 Renee, on whose education she had spent so much 
 care. Anna took the part of the lover, Alfonso was 
 
110 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 the hero, Lucrezia, aged eight, recited the prologue, 
 Leonora, the next sister, was an " ingenue," and 
 the four-year-old Luigi appeared as a slave. They 
 were all beautiful children, and inherited the charm 
 of the Este^family. 
 
 The Pope was most gracious to the Duchess, and 
 hoping that her persecution was now at an end, she 
 obtained from him a Brief, signed July 5, 1543, by 
 which she was to be exempted from every jurisdiction 
 but that of the Holy Office at Rome ; which in those 
 early days of its creation, she looked upon as a 
 tribunal of abstract justice. But the troubles of 
 Renee were only just beginning, and perhaps there 
 is no more pathetic story than that of this royal lady, 
 an exile from her distant home, surrounded by spies 
 and enemies, of whom not the least cruel was her 
 husband a bigoted Roman Catholic, whose unceasing 
 persecution of her friends and her Faith, made her 
 life one long torture. 
 
 Yet the Duchess still had the courage to make 
 Ferrara a refuge for Reformers like Ochino, Peter 
 Martyr, the poet Marcantonio Flaminio, Celio Secundo 
 Curione and others. She also showed herself a de- 
 voted friend to the learned professor Francesco Porto, 
 a native of Crete who succeeded Kilian Sinapius at 
 the University ; and also to Antonio Bruccioli, the 
 Florentine, who translated and printed the Bible, 
 and strongly advocated that all should be free to 
 read it. Renee employed him to teach Greek to her 
 daughters, and he was the first person attacked by 
 the Jesuits sent to Ferrara to suppress the Lutheran 
 heresy, and especially to bring their full power to 
 bear upon the Duchess. When we consider her 
 isolated and helpless condition after the death of 
 
THE SORROWS OF RENEE 111 
 
 Fran$ois I, in 1547, her gallant and spirited defence 
 of her friends appears truly heroic. Although she 
 was herself in imminent danger, she writes the most 
 touching and urgent letters to Duke Ercole, imploring 
 him to spare and save them. 
 
 "... I would very humbly pray you to set free the 
 prisoners you have given over to the inquisitors of 
 St. Dominic ... for they are not guilty. I pray and 
 entreat you to grant this request. . . . 
 
 ' Your very humble and very obedient wife, 
 
 " RENEE OF FRANCE." 
 
 It is thus she writes in the earlier days, when the 
 Inquisition had not gone beyond imprisonment and 
 torture, but worse was to come. Meantime she had 
 domestic troubles ; her eldest daughter Anna being 
 married, without consulting the mother's wishes, to 
 Francois Lorraine, Due d'Aumale, in September 
 1548. This was through the influence of the new 
 French King, her nephew Henri II, who never showed 
 any sympathy or affection for his aunt Renee ; and 
 who arranged this marriage as a matter of policy. 
 Aumale was the head of the Popish party, and the 
 chief enemy of the reformed opinions in France. 
 Anna herself had of course no choice in the matter ; 
 she was always a warm advocate on the side of mercy 
 for those in peril on account of their religion, and 
 kept up her friendship with Olympia Morata, although 
 she outwardly conformed to her husband's creed. 
 
 The death of the Pope, Paul III, in November 1549, 
 was a distinct misfortune for Renee, as he was not 
 only personally friendly to her, but he was a man of 
 amiable disposition and always on the side of gentle- 
 
112 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 ness in dealing with heretics. During his time no 
 one was put to death in Italy for religion, but now 
 began the real terrors of the Inquisition. 
 
 At this time a certain Fannio, of Faenza, was in 
 prison at Ferrara for his religious opinions. As he 
 is believed to have been one of the first Protestant 
 martyrs in Italy, some account of him will be interest- 
 ing. In his native city he had early adopted the 
 reformed opinions, through reading the Bible ; but 
 at Ferrara he was taken before the Jesuit Inquisitor, 
 Girolamo Papino, and threatened with death unless he 
 returned to the Roman faith. During his time in 
 prison, his wife and family made such lamentable 
 appeals to him, that in a moment of weakness, he 
 recanted, and was set free. But so bitterly did he 
 repent of having denied the truth, that in order to 
 make amends, he went about openly preaching in 
 every city, the most advanced Protestant doctrines, 
 with the result that he was arrested at Bagnacavallo, 
 taken to Ferrara and there condemned to death as a 
 relapsed heretic. He was kept in prison for eighteen 
 months and was often tortured, but he remained 
 constant through all his suffering and made many 
 converts in the prison itself. 
 
 When Paul III died in November 1549, and was 
 succeeded by Julius III, a Brief was sent from Rome 
 the next year, commanding the immediate execution 
 of Fannio. The utmost efforts were made to save 
 him. Renee hurried at once to Ferrara from her 
 country palace, and wrote a letter of most passionate 
 earnestness to the Duke, imploring him to save the 
 condemned man. 
 
 "... It will be a scandal and a shame in all your 
 
THE SORROWS OF REN!E)E 113 
 
 country, to your subjects and your servants, if God 
 does not put it in your heart to prevent this, as I 
 pray that He may. ... I cannot lament any more as 
 I have poured out all my lamentations . . . and I 
 myself would suffer rather than this poor father, 
 snatched from his little children and their mother. . . . 
 I implore you, Monsieur, to have pity and rescue him 
 from those cruel hands, if I can obtain favour from 
 you, and most humbly do I recommend myself to 
 you, reminding you of the charity which you owe to 
 the unfortunate . . . and to your subjects." 
 
 But all her prayers and entreaties were in vain, 
 and on August 22, 1550, Fannio endured martrydom 
 with the most splendid hope and courage. He was 
 first strangled and then burnt, while his ashes were 
 cast into the river Po. Within nine months another 
 judicial murder took place of a priest named Giorgio 
 Siculo, who was hung at night without trial, for his 
 opinions described as " Lutheran Heresy." 
 
 Now began a terrible time of unrelenting persecu- 
 tion for the unfortunate Duchess. It was known 
 that she had kept up a correspondence with Calvin, 
 that her palace had been a refuge for persecuted 
 Reformers, and that she was still on the most intimate 
 terms with Olympia Morata, her daughters' governess, 
 who had made no secret of her Protestant opinions 
 and had recently married a young German physician 
 of the same views. They were now safely at Augsburg. 
 But ReneVs worst offence was that she had refused 
 to receive the Jesuit priest sent by Ignatius Loyola 
 to be her confessor. The sad story is best told by 
 the letter of Duke Ercole, when he consults with the 
 young bigot Henri II, as to the most effectual means 
 8 
 
114 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 of breaking down the brave spirit of his wife, Henri's 
 aunt. The long letter is dated March 27, 1554. The 
 following are merely brief quotations : 
 
 " To the Sacred and Most Christian Majesty. 
 
 " SIRE, I kiss the hands of Your Majesty. . . . 
 Madama the Duchess, my wife, came with me to 
 Italy twenty years ago . . . born of the blood royal, 
 and educated in the Most Christian Court and com- 
 pany. . . . She had not been here very long before she 
 suffered herself to be persuaded and converted by 
 certain ribald Lutherans, of whom as Your Majesty 
 knows better than I do, that the world is seen to be 
 full of them at the present day . . . she began to 
 change her opinions and little by little she joined this 
 new and perverse religion, which does not believe in 
 the sacrament of mass, in confession or communion 
 . . . which Holy Church holds to be so necessary for 
 the Christian life. In testimony of this, it happened 
 of late that when one of her attendants, Hippolito 
 deTutti, was ill and likely to die, I told Madama three 
 or four times that he must confess and receive the 
 rites of the Church or there would be a scandal . . . 
 but she replied that the aforesaid Hippolito stood 
 well with God and had no need of any other con- 
 fessor. . . . When I desired her to make her confession 
 and to attend mass, she refused my good and holy 
 wish, and actually replied that the mass was idolatry. 
 . . . When I sent my chaplain to insist that she and 
 my daughters should hear the mass, she declined to 
 obey my commands and sent away the priest without 
 permitting him to celebrate the said mass. . . . For 
 this persistence in evil-doing, I am compelled to find 
 some strong remedy. . . ." 
 
THE SORROWS OF RENEE 115 
 
 The Duke then continues to explain his plan in 
 many pages. He asserts that, as they have already 
 agreed, force must be used, and he asks the King to 
 send a very strong Confessor, who if he cannot 
 persuade the Duchess, can frighten her and compel 
 her to recant ; having complete power to use any 
 means needful to exorcise the devil which has taken 
 possession of her ; but all is to be managed without 
 open scandal. 
 
 King Henri, the nephew, was quite of the same 
 opinion as the husband, with the result that a suitable 
 " confessor " was found in the Inquisitor Mathieu Ory, 
 who arrived at Ferrara with the sternest determina- 
 tion to succeed in his mission, " so good, so holy and 
 so salutary/' as it was described. We may imagine 
 the tender mercy which the helpless lady was likely 
 to receive. The King of France had sent the fullest 
 directions. The Inquisitor was first to discuss with 
 the Duchess concerning the points in which she had 
 strayed from the Church. Then he was to give her 
 a letter, written by the King's own hand, in which 
 he laments her apostasy " by which she has incurred 
 the loss of both body and soul, . . . when he sees her 
 cleansed and purified from those ' damnees ' dogmas, 
 . . . his relief will be as great as if he saw her raised 
 from the dead." He adds that " the pure blood of 
 the Most Christian house of France has never been 
 sullied by any monstrous birth/' (This remark 
 from the son of Franois I.) Then in an ominous 
 threatening note, he adds : " and if she remains 
 obstinate ... he will then consult with her husband 
 what means of extreme severity may be needful to 
 bring her to reason. . . ." 
 
 In a letter to the Duke, it is suggested that Renee 
 
116 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 is to be shut up in solitary confinement, her children 
 are to be taken from her, and all her attendants and 
 friends who show any leaning towards the reformed 
 doctrines, are to be tried by the Inquisition and suffer 
 the extreme penalty of the law. Hitherto Renee 
 had been discreet in avoiding any open declaration of 
 her opinions, but during this summer of 1554, she 
 appears to have behaved with more courage, and to 
 have definitely refused to make any concessions. 
 At last came the terrible moment when all those 
 dark mysterious threats were to be carried out. On 
 September 7, the Duchess was removed by night 
 from her house near San Francesco, by the Bishop of 
 Rosetti and the Cavalieri Ruggieri, to a kind of state 
 prison in an old palace of the Este family, and here 
 shut up in the " Stanze del Cavallo," in absolute 
 seclusion. 
 
 On the subject of this imprisonment, many legends 
 have arisen, but the truth is now known from the 
 secret papers of the Vatican. We are not told what 
 form of " persuasion " was used by the grim In- 
 quisitor Ory, so cunning a tempter and so infinitely 
 learned in his cruel part, but Renee would certainly 
 be spared no deadly threats of present bodily 
 torture and future hell-fire, to herself and her 
 friends. But at the dramatic moment, the victim 
 turned against the oppressor. We cannot attempt to 
 describe the scene, when the priest pronounced his 
 terrible final sentence and the words died on his lips, 
 as the Duchess presented to him the Papal Brief 
 signed by Paul III at Bologna in April 1543. By this 
 document, as we have seen, Renee was invulnerable, 
 for she was declared to be " under the protection of 
 the Pope and the Holy Office at Rome, and absolutely 
 
THE SORROWS OF RENEE 117 
 
 free from the jurisdiction of all others, who, if they 
 should accuse her of heresy, were liable to excom- 
 munication and could be handed over to the secular 
 
 arm." 
 
 Here was a bolt from the blue, and the Inquisitor 
 saw at once that all was over, and there was nothing 
 for him but a hasty flight. In order to save ap- 
 pearances, it was publicly announced in Ferrara, that 
 the Duchess had yielded to the convincing arguments 
 of Ory, who had therefore departed, as his work was 
 done. Meantime, the Jesuit Pelletario visited the 
 Duchess, who was also engaged in long conversations 
 with the Duke, and before she returned home on 
 July 23, she appears to have conformed outwardly, by 
 making her confession to the Jesuit, and being present 
 at the celebration of mass in the Romish fashion. 
 There is here a mystery which has never been cleared 
 up. 
 
 At the very moment of her triumph, when she 
 appeared to have thoroughly discomfited her foes, 
 she gives up the fruits of victory, and consents " to 
 bow down in the house of Rimmon," which she had 
 bravely and steadily refused to do, for so many years. 
 We can only suppose that her nerve had utterly 
 broken down before the ghastly threats and terrible 
 denunciation of Ory, and she knew too well that, if 
 she had escaped this time, she was standing on the 
 edge of a precipice. One word from the present Pope 
 who was under the influence of the great Inquisitor 
 of Rome, the fierce Caraffa and at any moment she 
 might be sentenced to the flames. The martyr 
 spirit, which can defy torture and death with un- 
 shaken courage, is not given to all of us ; and besides, 
 we cannot tell how much the tender spirit of the 
 
118 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 Duchess may have been influenced by the fear of 
 bringing imprisonment or death upon certain members 
 of her household. 
 
 The news of her apostasy brought great sadness 
 to all the Reformers in Italy and those who were exiles 
 for their Faith. Calvin wrote : " There is sad in- 
 telligence about the Duchess of Ferrara . . . overcome 
 by menace and reproach, she has fallen. What can 
 I say, but that examples of fortitude are rare amongst 
 princes." He had written a letter of counsel and 
 encouragement to her before her imprisonment ; 
 also telling her that, as she desired, he was sending 
 her an excellent and pious lady, to help her in the 
 ruling of her household. Calvin wrote another long 
 letter in the following February, full of hope and 
 encouragement, although tempered with gentle re- 
 proach. He remarks : " It is a bad sign when those 
 who warred so fiercely against you to turn you from 
 the service of God, now leave you in peace." 
 
 This was only partly true, for Renee had many 
 troubles, and hers was a sad and anxious life, during 
 the remaining years of her time at Ferrara. All her 
 property, her jewels and her money from every 
 source had been taken from her, and were never 
 returned ; so that she was no longer able to help her 
 friends at Ferrara, or those in exile who needed it 
 still more. This was a great trial to her generous 
 spirit, and the more so that she lived in an atmosphere 
 of suspicion and distrust, in the midst of spies, some 
 of whom were sent from France by her nephew, to 
 the great annoyance of the Duke, who himself was 
 always on guard, and read all her letters and private 
 papers. Another source of domestic trouble was the 
 absence of the young Prince Alfonso, the eldest son, 
 
THE SORROWS OF RENEE 119 
 
 at the Court of France, whither he had made his 
 escape in May 1552, without the permission of his 
 father. He took only a few servants and he was 
 far on his way to Paris before the Duke heard of his 
 departure, and discovered that he had secretly 
 borrowed nine thousand crowns for his journey. 
 
 The young Alfonso was well received at the French 
 Court, decorated with the Order of St. Michael, and 
 entrusted with the command of one hundred soldiers 
 with a liberal salary. Ercole was furious at his son's 
 flight, and hung in effigy a statesman who was 
 supposed to have assisted him in it. His policy in 
 Italy was hampered by the fact of Alfonso being a 
 kind of hostage with the King of France, and the 
 Duke found himself drawn into a League with the 
 Pope, which proved so costly that he had to impose 
 cruel taxation upon his people; and he even closed 
 the famous University of Ferrara, and applied the 
 salaries of the professors to the expense of the war. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 REN^E IN FRANCE 
 
 Election of Paul IV Renewed persecution at Ferrara Death of 
 Duke Ercole His son Alfonso succeeds Persecution of Renee 
 She gives up her home and family Returns to France 
 Letters of Calvin to her Her lif e at Montargis Terrible Wars of 
 Religion in France Massacre of St. Bartholomew Renee receives 
 the Huguenot refugees Her splendid courage Death in 1575. 
 
 EARLY in 1555, Giovanni Pietro Caraffa, the fierce 
 leader of the Inquisition, was elected Pope as Paul IV, 
 and in the reign of terror which followed, the Duchess 
 of Ferrara appears to have remained in outward 
 conformity with the State religion. She had made 
 peace with her husband when he went to Rome to 
 pay his respects to the Pope, and he restored to her 
 the greater portion of her jewels, but still kept her 
 very short of money for the most needful expenses. 
 In this year Renee received a visit from a most 
 resolute and devoted Reformer, Galeazzo Caraccioli, 
 Marchese of Vico, who had given up all his worldly 
 possessions, his home and his family for the sake of 
 his belief. His friends had never given up the 
 hope of winning him back, and had obtained a safe- 
 conduct from Paul III, who was a near relation of 
 his, for Galeazzo to come from Geneva to meet his 
 father, in the hope of persuading his wife and children 
 to join him. But the young Reformer would yield 
 to no compromise, and after taking leave of his 
 father, he paid a visit to Ferrara, where he was 
 
 120 
 
RENEE IN FRANCE 121 
 
 introduced to the Duchess by Francesco Porto, the 
 Greek professor. 
 
 She was greatly interested in hearing the latest 
 news of Calvin and the Italian Church at Geneva ; 
 and showed deep sympathy for the troubles which 
 Galeazzo himself had endured. Renee was already 
 acquainted with the works of Valdes, whose earnest 
 disciple this young noble had proved himself. When 
 he took his leave, she sent him in her own carriage as 
 far as Francolini on the Po, where he was able to 
 take boat for Venice and return to Geneva by the 
 route over the Grisons. Of course news of this visit 
 reached Rome, and brought fresh humiliation upon 
 the Duchess. 
 
 It was at the end of this year, 1555, that Renee 
 had the grief of losing her friend Olympia Morata, 
 who had left Ferrara some years before, on her 
 marriage, and had passed away in far-off Heidelberg. 
 Her most interesting story will be fully told in a 
 later chapter. 
 
 We have no space to enter into the general history 
 of this eventful period, but we cannot omit to mention 
 that the end of this year saw the abdication of 
 Charles V, the succession of his son Philip II in Spain 
 and the Netherlands, and of his brother Ferdinand 
 to the Empire. Ercole had meantime patched up a 
 peace with his son Alfonso, whom he now allowed to 
 go to France, while he imprisoned his brother Luigi, 
 who wished to join Philip II in Spain. As we have 
 seen, he joined the League, but many troubles and 
 misfortunes followed, until the defeat of France at 
 the Battle of St. Quentin, 1557, and the recall of the 
 Due de Guise from Italy, left the Pope without 
 defence. 
 
122 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 Circumstances had now changed, and we find 
 Ercole anxious to propitiate Philip II, making a 
 marriage alliance for his son with Lucrezia, the third 
 daughter of Cosimo, Duke of Florence. This was 
 much against his will, and his son Alfonso was still 
 more opposed to it, for the proposed bride was a most 
 unattractive girl of thirteen. But as a matter of 
 policy, it had to be carried out, and we are told that 
 young prince " married in haste and fury," and left 
 Florence immediately after the ceremony to hurry 
 back to Paris, apparently giving as a reason, his 
 bride's immature age. It is strange that his mother, 
 the Duchess, does not appear to have disapproved a 
 marriage which was so much against the French 
 interests ; we learn this from three of her letters of 
 the time. 
 
 In the month of September of the following year, 
 1559, Duke Ercole d'Este was taken suddenly ill 
 and after eight days in which the " most experienced 
 doctors did their utmost, he passed away on the 
 3rd of October, to the great grief of his Court and 
 the city of Ferrara, and above all to Madama Renee 
 his wife, our Duchess, and his illustrious daughters, 
 Madama Lucrezia and Madama Leonora . . . 
 at which the Lord Alfonso d'Este his eldest son, 
 and the Lord Luigi, his younger son, Bishop -elect 
 of Ferrara, were away at the Court of France. ..." 
 The two brothers of Ercole were also at a distance, 
 but the Duchess at once bravely took up the reins of 
 government, and sent a fleet messenger to her son 
 Alfonso. She also caused the Castello and the gates 
 of the city to be well guarded, and took every pre- 
 caution that all might go well with the succession. 
 Alfonso immediately set forth in haste, and King 
 
RENEE IN FRANCE 123 
 
 Henri accompanied him some way, settling upon 
 him a pension of 20,000 golden crowns to make sure 
 of his alliance. 
 
 The young Prince travelled from Marseilles to 
 Leghorn and from thence to Florence to visit his 
 bride Lucrezia, the daughter of Cosimo. He reached 
 Ferrara on November 20 ; the solemn funeral rites 
 were performed with great state on the 27th, and 
 the new Duke made his public entry with great 
 magnificence on January 19, 1560. 
 
 It was not until about a month later that his 
 young bride Lucrezia was received in the palace of 
 the Belvidere by her sister-in-law Lucrezia d'Este, 
 and three days later made her public entry into the 
 city and there did obeisance to the " old Duchess," 
 her mother-in-law. 
 
 The late Duke in his Will, had left to his wife the 
 palace of the Belvidere, with all its gardens and 
 buildings ; also the half of the rental of the estates 
 belonging to it, " so long as she continued to live 
 there as a good Catholic," but if she should return to 
 France, she would forfeit everything. To his two 
 unmarried daughters he left large sums for their 
 dowry, and to his younger son, Luigi, afterwards 
 Cardinal, he bequeathed the " Palazzo de' Diamante/* 
 with a sum of money to complete the building of it. 
 
 Duke Alfonso went to Rome to pay homage to the 
 Pope, Pius IV. who had succeeded the year before 
 to Paul IV, on whose death there had been a great 
 reaction in Rome against the Inquisition ; the 
 buildings of the Holy Office had been burnt by the 
 mob, and all the prisoners set free. However, Pius IV, 
 comparatively tolerant as he was, had talked to 
 Alfonso about his mother's religious errors, and 
 
124 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 deeply regretted the obstinacy she had shown. 
 Renee had a very full account of this, on her son's 
 return in June, and he even went so far as to tell 
 her that, " although he would not be wanting in 
 affection to her, yet he felt it his duty to counsel her, 
 either to give up her Protestant opinions or to leave 
 the country." This was a great blow to Renee, 
 as she had hoped to be much more free to confess her 
 faith publicly, than she had been during her husband's 
 life. After much painful thought, she came to the 
 conclusion that if she wished to live openly and 
 sincerely in the sight of God, it could only be at the 
 price of a great sacrifice. She must give up her high 
 position, the country which had been her home for 
 more than thirty years, and take a life-long farewell 
 of her sons, and her two daughters still unmarried, 
 whose future would depend so much on a mother's 
 influence. She must give up her most familiar 
 delight in the beautiful palace of the Belvidere ; with 
 its lovely gardens gay with rare flowers ; the terraces 
 and shady walks, the fountains, and the aviaries 
 where she had a choice collection of birds of every hue 
 and plumage. 
 
 In short, she would be leaving her beautiful home 
 in sunny Italy and all her accustomed surroundings 
 for a new and strange world her native land, it is 
 true but where she was little more than a memory. 
 She had evidently asked the advice of Calvin, on the 
 death of her husband, but his long letter is very 
 guarded, and he warns her that " although the 
 captivity in which she has lived may be hard, yet it 
 is possible she may be only changing one abyss for 
 another." He points out the disturbed state of 
 France with its wars of religion, and he fears that 
 
RENEE IN FRANCE 125 
 
 she will find it as difficult to serve God in simplicity 
 and truth, in France as in Ferrara. He prays that 
 she may have courage openly to show forth her faith, 
 and to remember that her inheritance and her eternal 
 rest are not to be looked for here below, but in Heaven 
 above. 
 
 But Calvin, at a distance, could not fully appreciate 
 the youthful intolerance of the new Duke Alfonso, 
 who was quite determined that his mother should 
 not be a stumbling block in the way of his ambition. 
 Renee herself knew better, and she seems to have had 
 a passionate desire for freedom from the chains which 
 had bound her so long. 
 
 Her departure was a terrible loss to the poor and 
 oppressed in Ferrara, for in studying the documents 
 of the Inquisition, we are quite amazed at the amount 
 of her charities, and the immense number of people 
 accused of heresy, whom she supported and protected. 
 No one ever appealed to her in vain. In a list of 
 more than 150 names and particulars, we find many 
 letters from all sorts and conditions of men and 
 women, praying for her help ; from the galleys of 
 Venice, the prisons of Florence and other cities, not 
 to mention the large number of suspected " heretics " 
 in Ferrara who depended solely on her bounty. It 
 is interesting to notice how many of the applicants 
 had been priests or monks, and there is even a hermit. 
 In one letter, Madama hopes that " in time these 
 good Christians will no longer be persecuted for their 
 belief, as they have been. . . ." 
 
 Even on her journey into exile, the devoted lady 
 writes to the Duke of Savoy, imploring pardon for 
 a prisoner accused of Lutheran doctrines. 
 
 It was in September 1560, that the Duchess of 
 
126 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 Ferrara set forth on her journey, with a retinue of 
 about three hundred people, including those in charge 
 of her baggage. We are told that she rode in a coach 
 drawn by four horses, somewhat of a novelty in those 
 days, and her son Luigi, who was soon to become a 
 Cardinal, rode on horseback by her side. It was a 
 most leisurely journey, for she took about six weeks 
 to travel from Ferrara to Orleans. She had scarcely 
 reached Modena before she wrote an affectionate 
 letter to her son Alfonso, and she sent him news of 
 her progress from Borgo San Donnino, from Kovara, 
 from Turin, and from Carmagnola, where she parted 
 from her son Luigi. From thence, she went on to 
 Grenoble, to Dijon and to Orleans, where the French 
 Court was then established. Here she was met by 
 her daughter Anna, with her husband Fran$ois de 
 Guise, and she was kindly received by the Queen- 
 mother, Catherine dei Medici. 
 
 The States General were at that time sitting at 
 Orleans, and Renee was proud of a high place near 
 the young King Frangois II until the Prince of 
 Conde, who had recently been arrested for rebellion, 
 was brought for trial and then the tender-hearted 
 Princess could no longer endure to remain, lest she 
 should witness his condemnation. During the last 
 two months, the Court had been agitated with news 
 of disturbances in the provinces. As we know, 
 Conde was condemned to death and executed before 
 the end of the year. The Duchess was anxious to 
 hasten her departure, not only on this account, but 
 because the Queen-mother actually asked her to 
 remain at Court and take charge of the King's sister, 
 a child of seven. 
 
 Renee appears to have given as an excuse for 
 
RENEE IN FRANCE 127 
 
 refusing, the necessity that she should go on to her 
 city of Montargis, in order to look after her large 
 estates in that neighbourhood. During this stay at 
 Orleans, the Duchess of Ferrara had received in 
 audience amongst other ambassadors, the Englishman 
 N. Throckmorton, from Queen Elizabeth of England. 
 In the State Papers, we have a most interesting 
 account of their conversation, given in a letter to 
 the Queen. 
 
 The Duchess received him with great courtesy, 
 and made him sit beside her. She wished to express 
 her warm admiration for so Christian and virtuous a 
 Princess, who in her reign had established the true 
 worship of God, and thus promoted the honour and 
 glory of the Most High. If only her good example 
 and her constancy might induce other princes to do 
 the same ! She could not love and honour the Queen 
 of England enough, and it was plain that the blessing 
 of God was upon her. Renee adds that she believes 
 the Queen-mother Catherine is really anxious to 
 know the truth, and she trusts that Elizabeth will 
 use all her influence to persuade her. It was a very 
 long and interesting interview, but, as we know, had 
 no result. In the first place, Catherine dei Medici 
 was only playing with Reform, on the chance that 
 it might prove of political value. She certainly went 
 rather far when she wrote to Pius IV asking him 
 to reform the Church, and suggesting that " the 
 Holy Father should suppress the use of images ; 
 that baptism should be given only ' par Feau et la 
 parole ' ; that the communion should be given in 
 two kinds ; that the Psalms should be chanted in the 
 vulgar tongue ; and that the Feast of St. Sacrament 
 should be abolished," 
 
128 ITALIAN EEFOEMATION 
 
 The death of Francois II, at the end of the year 
 1560, and the succession of Charles IX, a boy of ten, 
 ended the dominion of the Guises, and it was now 
 on the King of Navarre that the hopes of the Pro- 
 testants were centred. He had married the spirited, 
 brave-hearted Jeanne d'Albret, in 1548, the daughter 
 of Marguerite of Navarre, a great friend of the exiled 
 Duchess of Ferrara, with whom she had much in 
 common. 
 
 The year 1562 brought news to Eenee of the death 
 of Lucrezia, her daughter-in-law, the unloved wife 
 of Alfonso, who was as unfortunate as the rest of her 
 family, and whose untimely end aroused the usual 
 suspicions of foul play, but doubtless unjustly. 
 The Duke's youngest sister, Leonora, had a serious 
 accident the same year, which caused her mother, at 
 a distance, much anxiety. A sad and trying time 
 had now arrived for the Duchess, on the outbreak 
 of the wars of religion in France. 
 
 It appears that the Duke of Guise was returning 
 from an expedition when on March 1, 1562, passing 
 through Vassy with his company he attended mass. 
 Presently the voice of the celebrant was drowned by 
 loud singing close by, which was found to come from 
 a congregation of Huguenots in a barn near. Guise 
 sent them a rude message, that " they must wait till 
 mass was over and then they might sing till they 
 burst." The worshippers took no notice of this 
 insulting command, whereupon they were attacked 
 by the Duke's followers ; the Huguenots defended 
 themselves boldly with stones and other missiles, 
 but in the frenzy of war, the unarmed multitude, 
 without regard to age or sex, was cruelly massacred 
 to the number of three hundred. Such is said to 
 
RENEE IN FRANCE 129 
 
 have been the beginning of the terrible civil war 
 which had long been threatening and which ravaged 
 France for nearly thirty years. 
 
 The Huguenots retaliated and there was more 
 fighting in the neighbourhood of Orleans, which 
 always remained a strong centre of reformed doctrine. 
 We are not surprised to hear that a number of fugi- 
 tives made their way to the protection of Renee, 
 the " Mother of Charity " as they called her, while 
 their enemies accused her of having converted the 
 city of Montargis into a hospital (Hotel Dieu). When 
 the Duke of Guise, her son-in-law, came one day with 
 an armed force, and threatened to batter down the 
 walls with cannon if she did not dismiss the rebels, 
 she replied that " she would herself mount the 
 battlements and see if he dare kill a King's daughter." 
 
 Her strong fortress of Montargis had defied the 
 attacks of foreign foes in past time. It stood on a 
 hill commanding the town, and was defended by deep 
 ditches, strong walls and battlemented towers. With- 
 in were three vast courts which could lodge a garrison 
 of 6,000 men ; these surrounded the royal apart- 
 ments which were attached to the keep. Again and 
 again was Montargis to prove a refuge for the perse- 
 cuted Protestants, and we see from Calvin's letters 
 how warmly he appreciated the courage and devotion 
 of the Duchess. Being only forty miles from Orleans, 
 she was in the very centre of the coming wars, to 
 her own constant peril. The determined siege of 
 Orleans began early in 1563, but the situation was 
 changed by the death of> the Due de Guise from the 
 treacherous attack of a fanatic. By the temporary 
 treaty of peace which followed, Renee was permitted 
 to have the reformed preaching within her own 
 9 
 
130 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 castle, and had more freedom, of which she took 
 advantage so far as the plague both at Montargis 
 and Paris permitted to see her daughter Anna and 
 to correspond with her friend the brave Jeanne, 
 Queen of Navarre, whom she rarely met at Court. 
 
 In the letters of Calvin, he continues to show his 
 high admiration of her courage, and her generous 
 devotion to the persecuted Reformers who took refuge 
 at Montargis. On one occasion he sent her a gold 
 coin which her father Louis XII had caused to be 
 struck when at war with Julius II, bearing the well- 
 known motto: " Perdam Babylonis nomen." Renee 
 writes in reply : 
 
 ' With regard to the present you have sent me, 
 it has given me great pleasure ; I praise God that the 
 late King took this motto. If God did not enable 
 him to execute it, perhaps that task is reserved for 
 some descendant of his, who standing in his place, 
 may be able to accomplish it." 
 
 When Calvin however openly expresses his satis- 
 faction at the death of the Due de Guise, the Duchess 
 bravely defends him in many respects, and considers 
 it unfair to lay the whole burden of persecution on 
 his shoulders. In her long letter, she incidentally 
 makes charming allusion to Jeanne, Queen of Navarre, 
 saying that " as her mother was the first princess 
 in this kingdom to uphold the Gospel, I trust that 
 her daughter will succeed in establishing it, for as 
 woman and princess I admire her more than any 
 I know. I love her with a mother's love, and 
 admire and praise all the grace that God has given 
 her." 
 
RENfeE IN FRANCE 131 
 
 Calvin's last letter to the Duchess was written soon 
 before his death on May 27, 1564, and in it he implores 
 her to encourage her niece the Duchess of Savoy (the 
 daughter of Frangois I) openly to profess her reformed 
 faith, and trusts to her devotion and zeal that God 
 may be honoured and rightly served, ever more and 
 more. 
 
 Meantime there were more changes in her family. 
 Her widowed daughter Anna, was married to Jacques, 
 Due de Nemours, quite as fierce an opponent of 
 reform as the Due de Guise had been. Her son 
 Alfonso had married a second wife, Barbara of 
 Austria, to whom he was much devoted, but she died 
 after seven years of marriage, leaving no children. 
 A few years later, in 1568, there appears to have 
 been a terrible outburst of persecution in Ferrara, 
 of suspected Protestants. Great numbers were sent 
 to the prisons of the Inquisition, many were con- 
 demned to the galleys and some were burnt to death. 
 The Duchess wrote imploring letters to her son to 
 use his authority in saving certain former retainers 
 of hers, especially a poor saddler, Jean Courtault, 
 recently cast into prison, and another was a cloth 
 worker who had been in her service. But she appears 
 to have barely saved their lives, and they were sent 
 to the galleys, after cruel torture. 
 
 We have not space to dwell upon the terrible wars 
 of religion in France except in so far as they concern 
 the Lady of Montargis. In 1569 there was a Popish 
 rising and a massacre of two or three hundred Hugue- 
 nots. On this the people of the towns and villages 
 of the plain fled in crowds to Montargis, as their 
 only refuge. The Duchess received them with open 
 generosity, but after a time there came urgent com- 
 
132 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 mands from the Court at Paris, and a strong force 
 of soldiers, which compelled her to suffer the dismissal 
 of 460 persons, more than two-thirds of whom were 
 women and children in arms. Renee burst into 
 tears and told the King's envoy that if she had his 
 sword in her hands, he would deserve to die, as a 
 messenger of death. When all her entreaties failed, 
 she provided 150 big wagons, eight coaches and a 
 number of horses, to help the unfortunate sufferers 
 on their sad and hopeless journey. They were 
 attacked and dispersed on the way, by their 
 enemies. 
 
 Besides such heart-rending tragedies, the Duchess 
 had grievous personal troubles with regard to her 
 property in France, which her son Alfonso used 
 every effort to obtain, while she vainly endeavoured 
 to give her daughters their share. The poor lady 
 was in fact attacked and robbed on every side, for 
 Catherine dei Medici and the King were resolved to 
 recover possession of her fiefs for the French Crown. 
 A long and pitiful struggle followed ; Anna de Ne- 
 mours appears to have found some document of 
 Louis XII which again raised a claim to Bretagne 
 for his second daughter, and the Court, in some 
 apprehension, offered a compensation in money. 
 This Renee was compelled to accept, as she was 
 practically helpless, and little by little, all her lands 
 were being taken from her. Gisors and Vernon were 
 given to the Due d'Alengon, Caen and Falaise had 
 been seized by Alfonso for debts, Chartres and Mon- 
 targis were to belong to the Duchess of Nemours, 
 but Renee was suffered to remain as a pensioner in 
 her own castle. Her son Alfonso was furious and 
 wrote the most bitter letters to his mother, whom he 
 
RENfeE IN FRANCE 133 
 
 never forgave, for yielding any possible claim to 
 Bretagne. 
 
 In 1571, the second daughter of the Duchess, 
 Lucrezia, at the age of thirty-five, was married to 
 the heir of Urbino, Francesco Maria. But it proved 
 a most unhappy match, for her large dowry of 
 150,000 crowns had been the chief attraction for the 
 young prince, who was fifteen years younger than 
 his bride. She left him after two years with his full 
 consent and returned to Ferrara. Leonora, the 
 youngest, was never married, to her mother's great 
 disappointment ; she did not even take the usual 
 alternative of retiring to a convent, possibly from 
 some secret leaning to the reformed views. 
 
 The Peace of St. Germain in 1570, had ended the 
 third war of religion, and brought some relief to 
 Renee. Despoiled of all her possessions, it was a 
 bitter thought to her that, had it not been for the 
 " infamous Salic Law," as she called it, she might 
 have inherited the throne of France and, reigning 
 like another Elizabeth of England, have won her 
 country to the Huguenot faith. 
 
 But at least, she was a Daughter of France, and 
 received full recognition from the Court, on great 
 State occasions, taking precedence of almost all 
 the princesses ; and she could not refrain from going 
 to Paris now and then, to assert her high position. 
 Thus it was that in the summer of 1572, she was 
 present at Court, when preparations were being 
 made for the marriage of Henri of Navarre with 
 Marguerite, the King's sister. She rejoiced to meet 
 Henri's mother, her dear friend Jeanne, but had the 
 great sorrow of losing her, after a short and sudden 
 illness, on June 9, not without suspicion of poison. 
 
134 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 This was only the beginning of tragedy, for after 
 the marriage of the young King of Navarre had 
 taken place on August 18, there followed that awful 
 massacre of the Huguenots on the Feast of St. Bar- 
 tholomew, the darkest stain on the history of France. 
 
 How Renee herself escaped we scarcely know, save 
 that she was lodging with her daughter Anna and 
 the ultra-Catholic Due de Nemours. When all was 
 over, the Duchess was taken back to Montargis, 
 escorted by horsemen of the Due de Guise. It was 
 a sad homecoming, for all Huguenot services were 
 now sternly forbidden by the King, and the massacre 
 of Paris was repeated in many towns of France, 
 notably in Orleans, which was only forty miles 
 distant from Montargis. 
 
 The life of Renee of France was now drawing to 
 a close. Broken in health and fortune, but un- 
 daunted in spirit, she ruled her great castle of Mon- 
 targis in lonely state ; neglected and forgotten by 
 her sons and daughters, on whom she had bestowed 
 all that remained of her possessions. But her 
 charity never failed, and, to the end, we hear of her 
 thoughtful kindness for all the sad and suffering 
 who came within her reach. She dictated her last 
 Will and Testament, in which she made a very full 
 declaration of her firm belief " that we are saved 
 by Faith and not by works," also in which she re- 
 membered her friends and all who had served and 
 loved her ; she kept it near her, adding many codicils 
 from time to time. With all the stately pride of 
 royalty, she begins : 
 
 " In the Name of God. 
 
 " We, Renee of France, Duchess of Chartres, 
 
RENEE IN FRANCE 135 
 
 Countess of Gisors, Lady of Montargis, widow and 
 dowager of the late Monseigneur of good memory 
 Ercole II of Ferrara, Daughter of the late King 
 Louis XII and the late Queen Anne, Duchess of 
 Bretagne . . ." 
 
 But when she gives directions for her funeral, it 
 is with deep Christian humility and a clear recognition 
 of the vanity of all earthly things. She directs that 
 her body shall be placed in a wooden coffin and 
 buried in the earth within the Chapel of the Castello, 
 without pomp or ceremony, accompanied by her 
 officials, her ladies and her servants ; and she does 
 not wish for any monument. Her death took place 
 on July 2, 1575, in the sixty-fifth year of her age. 
 As we take leave of Renee, so sorely tried and tempted, 
 we may surely trust that " to her much will be 
 forgiven, for she loved much." 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 PIETRO PAOLO VERGERIO 
 
 Pietro Paolo Vergerio, Bishop of Capo d'Istria Educated at Padua 
 Sent as Nuncio to Germany His acquaintance with Marguerite 
 of Navarre in Paris He openly joins the Reformers His 
 escape to the Orisons Becomes Minister of Vicosoprano His 
 correspondence and friendship with Olympia Morata He dies at 
 Tubingen in 1565. 
 
 BEFORE taking leave of the Duchess Renee and her 
 friends and relations at the French Court, it will be 
 interesting to touch upon the history of an Italian 
 Reformer who appears to have been much influenced 
 by Marguerite of Navarre and her circle. 
 
 Pietro Paolo Vergerio was born at Capo d'Istria, 
 on a small island in the Venetian territory, in 1498. 
 Like his more famous ancestor, the friend of Petrarch, 
 he was educated at the University of Padua, where 
 he greatly distinguished himself. Amongst his com- 
 panions were Peter Martyr Vermigli, Flaminio the 
 poet and the brilliant Bembo, who were all at that 
 time attracted by the fame of Luther's learning and 
 audacity. Vergerio was very anxious to go to 
 Wittenberg and make his acquaintance, and hoped 
 to take advantage of a curious opportunity. 
 Frederick, the Elector of Saxony, had a fine 
 collection of relics, and his chaplain had written to 
 Padua to ask that other precious bones should be 
 sent to him. As a trusty messenger was needed for 
 
 136 
 
PIETRO PAOLO VERGERIO 137 
 
 this purpose, Vergerio offered to take the relics to 
 Wittenberg, and set forth with his brother Giacomo, 
 but they were taken ill on the journey and were 
 compelled to return to Padua. Meanwhile, the 
 doctrines of the Reformation made such rapid progress 
 in Saxony, that another letter arrived from the 
 Elector's chaplain saying that : " Faith in God and 
 love to mankind were now considered more needful 
 than relics/' and these were no longer required. 
 
 Vergerio next became a notary, and was made vicar 
 of the Podesta at Padua. Then in 1526 he resolved 
 to go to Venice, and his friend Bembo wrote a warm 
 letter of introduction, speaking of him as a man of 
 high reputation for his learning and eloquence. 
 Four years later he went to Rome, where his brother 
 Aurelio was Secretary to Clement VII, with the 
 intention of taking orders, as a sure high-road to 
 honour. He soon won golden opinions both from 
 Cardinal Contarini and the Pope, who took Pietro 
 into his service, and sent him on an important mission 
 to Germany. In this he was so satisfactory that he 
 was sent as Nuncio to the Court of the new Elector 
 of Saxony, to propose a General Council, but the 
 German Protestants would not submit to any Council 
 under the authority of the Pope. 
 
 On the accession of Paul III, Vergerio was again 
 sent back to Germany, to visit the Reformed princes 
 and cities, and especially to win over the Protestant 
 preachers by promises of favour, so that a joint 
 Council might be held in Italy. There are various 
 accounts of the Nuncio's meeting with Luther, but 
 there is no doubt that his early desire was now 
 gratified. It must have been a most interesting 
 interview, but all the plausible casuistry of the expert 
 
138 ITALIAN KEFORMATION 
 
 Vergerio failed before the simple honesty of the great 
 Reformer. 
 
 In vain did the Nuncio point out that if Luther 
 would only come to the proposed Council at Mantua, 
 and " behave with gentleness and charity/ 5 the 
 scheme of reconciliation with the Church would be 
 a success. In vain did he delicately hint that no 
 reward would be too great to expect from the Pope, 
 and alluded to distinguished men who by giving up 
 their private opinions, had become Cardinals and 
 even Popes. We may imagine the indignant and 
 crushing reply of Luther to such futile temptations, 
 and we are not surprised that Vergerio had a very 
 unsatisfactory report to take Paul III. No sub- 
 mission was to be expected from Luther or his dis- 
 ciples, who would attend no Council which was not 
 absolutely free, and held in their own land. 
 
 Vergerio was next sent to the Emperor to urge that 
 he should make war on the Protestants, but Charles V 
 was already fully engaged with France. In 1536, 
 Pietro was made Bishop of Capo d'lstria, his native 
 place, as a reward for his services to the Pope. But 
 residence in his see does not appear to have been 
 necessary, for Vergerio, in June, paid a visit on his 
 own account to Germany, and later on, his letters 
 speak of his keen interest in the religious Society at 
 Viterbo of Vittoria Colonna, Contarini, Pole, and 
 Fregoso. 
 
 His opinions on the subject of Church reform had 
 certainly undergone a great change before 1540, 
 when he was sent with Cardinal Ippolito d'Este on 
 a mission to France. Here he made the acquaintance 
 of Queen Marguerite of Navarre, and he gives a most 
 interesting account of her in several letters to the 
 
PIETRO PAOLO VERGERIO 139 
 
 Marchesa di Pescara. He naively describes the 
 splendour of the Court at Paris, the noble personages 
 whom he meets, and above all, the overwhelming 
 fascination of Queen Marguerite. In his first letter 
 he says : 
 
 " I saw and observed the Most Serene Queen, for 
 more than an hour, while she was speaking to my 
 Cardinal, and I beheld in the expression of her 
 countenance ... a most harmonious union of majesty, 
 modesty and benevolence. Besides this, I discerned 
 that fervour of spirit and that clear light which God 
 has imparted to her ; thus she can walk in the blessed 
 foretaste of eternal life." 
 
 In his next letter, Vergerio writes, after a salutation : 
 
 " As St. John saluted the elect lady . . . God does 
 not observe whether we attend to worldly customs . . . 
 but whether we nourish ourselves with His word, and 
 say and do all to the Glory of His Divine Majesty. 
 I am now to give you an account of the great joy 
 and consolation I have received these few days past 
 from the Most Serene Queen of Navarre. We con- 
 versed long on the state of the Church of God, the 
 study of Divine things, and those points of spiritual 
 doctrine, which your Excellency desires we should 
 have ever in our heart and on our lips. ... I can hardly 
 describe the fervour and eloquence with which she 
 dwells on the Grace of God and the power of His 
 word. . . ." 
 
 He then alludes to other kindred spirits whom he 
 has known. " In Ferrara, the Lady Renee of 
 
140 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 France, in Urbino, the Lady Leonora Gonzaga, and 
 many others/' 
 
 The subject of Marguerite of Navarre's true re- 
 ligious opinions is a very difficult one, and we can only 
 lightly touch upon it. There seems to be no doubt 
 that the Protestant doctrines had a strong mystical 
 attraction for her, and that all who came in contact 
 with her were deeply impressed with her earnestness 
 and sincerity ; still more perhaps by her charm of 
 voice and manner. She wrote most pious evangelical 
 poems like the " Miroir de FAme pecheresse" which 
 Queen Elizabeth, as a girl of eleven, translated into 
 English, 1 and presented to her step-mother Catherine 
 Parr. 
 
 The Sorbonne condemned this poem as heretical ; 
 it clearly spoke of Christ as the only Saviour and 
 Advocate for the soul, and made no allusion to saints 
 or priestly rites. When Frangois I heard that the 
 learned body had dared to condemn his sister's work, 
 he was furious and insisted on the sentence being 
 withdrawn. " My sister Marguerite will always be- 
 lieve as I do, and she will never do anything to inter- 
 fere with my position/' was his proud declaration. 
 There was really much truth in this, for she was 
 devoted to her brother, and for his sake was always 
 ready to conform outwardly to the dominant religion. 
 
 Vergerio and others took Marguerite very seriously. 
 He wrote to her from the Diet of Worms, bitterly 
 regretting its failure, when the efforts of so many 
 good and earnest men were utterly defeated, through 
 the Pope's repression. " They reason about Justifica- 
 tion, the Grace of God and the Sacraments as though 
 
 1 The MS. of " The Mirour of a guilty Sowle " is still in the 
 Bodleian Library. 
 
PIETRO PAOLO VERGERIO 141 
 
 they were profane matters in some common law- 
 suit. Your Majesty knows well that the doctrines 
 and mysteries of God cannot be thus learned or 
 taught. . . ." 
 
 In sadness and disappointment, Vergerio now 
 retired to his bishopric, determined to do his duty 
 and to reform the great abuses which had arisen on 
 every side. At this time he had no idea of leaving 
 the Roman Catholic Church, as he believed it was 
 possible to restore it to the simplicity and pure 
 doctrines of early Christianity. To this end, he set 
 to work earnestly to check all scandalous and corrupt 
 practices amongst the friars and priests. This at 
 once aroused the most furious opposition, which was 
 greatly increased when the Bishop ordered the re- 
 moval from a church of the images of St. Christopher 
 and St. George on horseback, pointing out the super- 
 stitious folly of suffering them to be objects of worship. 
 A strong party was soon roused to oppose him ; the 
 Podesta, a son of Bembo, made no effort to take his 
 part, and Vergerio was formally accused of heresy 
 to the Papal Nuncio at Venice, who expressed 
 disapproval and passed a censure upon him. To 
 make matters worse, a priest openly preached against 
 him in his own city, attributing the long drought of 
 that summer and the failure of the crops, to the 
 Bishop's impiety towards the images. 
 
 The general indignation was now so great, that 
 Vergerio went to Mantua to consult his friend, 
 Cardinal Ercole Gonzaga. During his absence, the 
 Nuncio sent his inquisitors to search the Bishop's 
 palace at Capo d'Istria for heretical books, and they 
 found so many Protestant works as to form a strong 
 ground of accusation. Amongst these were, the 
 
142 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 famous " II Beneficio di Christo " the Credo of the 
 Reformers " II Summario della sacra Scrittura," and, 
 a satire on the Pope by Celio Secundo Curione, called 
 " Pasquino in Estasi." Not satisfied with this raid, 
 the inquisitors appear to have collected all the com- 
 plaints made by the friars against their spiritual lord. 
 
 In August 1546, Vergerio published a full defence 
 against all these accusations. He explained that in 
 a certain church, there were three gigantic figures of 
 pasteboard representing St. George, the king's 
 daughter and a, horrible beast hanging so low that 
 they took up most of the church. These he had 
 ordered to be removed ; and he also remarked that 
 Paul III had already taken out St. George from the 
 breviary. He did not deny that he had publicly 
 proved the imposture of a woman who had been paid 
 to say the Virgin had given her a message ; that he 
 had reproved a friar who boasted from the pulpit 
 that he had a tooth of St. Apollonia which cured 
 tooth-ache ; he did not deny that he had said it was 
 better to give the oil to the poor than to burn it 
 before the unseemly image of St. Anne giving birth 
 to the Virgin, and he owned that such was the evil 
 life of the friars, that a church were better burned 
 down than made a place for their unholy practices. 
 As for the works he had published at that time, there 
 was nothing that could be accused of heresy. ... In 
 short there was no evidence to condemn a Bishop 
 who only aimed at reforming glaring abuses. 
 
 However this was but a temporary reprieve, for 
 his enemies, and especially the Franciscans, were 
 determined to ruin him. He had excited their hatred 
 in Capo dlstria, for separating a convent of nuns from 
 a Franciscan monastery, by causing a public thorough- 
 
PIETRO PAOLO VERGERIO 143 
 
 fare to be made between the two buildings. In vain 
 did his friend, the Cardinal Gonzaga, make earnest 
 appeals on his behalf, entreating that he should not 
 be summoned to Eome, as the Inquisition at Venice 
 had pronounced him to be " innocent and highly 
 praiseworthy/' 
 
 Pietro Vergerio was dismissed from his bishopric 
 by the Legate, before the end of 1548, and he obeyed 
 the command, retiring to Padua. Here a tragic event 
 made a great impression upon him. A certain 
 Francesco Spiera, who was well known as a successful 
 lawyer, became converted to the reformed opinions. 
 He was summoned to appear before the Legate at 
 Venice, and was there induced by threats and possibly 
 torture, to recant and promise obedience to the Church. 
 Pardon was granted, on condition that he should 
 make public confession at Padua, and deny all that 
 he had openly professed. On his return home, how- 
 ever, he had already repented of his weakness, and 
 only the persuasion of his family induced him to make 
 a public disavowal of all his errors. Then conscience 
 asserted itself, and in his utter despair, he believed he 
 had committed the unpardonable sin, that there was 
 no hope of pardon in this world or the next. His 
 reason gave way, he refused food and died in agony 
 of mind and body. 
 
 Pietro, who had often watched by his bedside in 
 those terrible hours, was so overcome with horror 
 at the tragic fate of this poor man, that when he was 
 summoned to Rome to justify himself, he readily 
 listened to the advice of Cardinal Gonzaga, who 
 knew the danger of such a step, as the Pope was 
 strongly prejudiced against him. Vergerio resolved 
 to secede at once from the Romish Church, and on 
 
144 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 December 13, 1548, lie wrote to announce his decision, 
 enclosing an account of the tragedy of Spiera. The 
 following July, he effected his escape, by Milan and 
 Chiavenna, to the Grisons, where there was already a 
 large settlement of Italian Protestants. Here he 
 undertook the ministry of Vicosoprano, the capital 
 of the rich Val Bregaglia, which was vacant by the 
 death of another Italian exile, and in that neighbour- 
 hood he had many opportunities of preaching. 
 
 The apostasy of a Bishop of so much learning and 
 eloquence was a great blow to the Church of Rome, 
 and he was excommunicated and burnt in effigy. 
 This added to Vergerio's reputation in his new sphere 
 of work, and the people crowded to hear him whenever 
 he ascended the pulpit. On one occasion when he 
 was returning from the Valteline, he lodged at the 
 village of Pontresina, at the foot of Monte Bernino. 
 The parish priest had died that day, and the people 
 had gathered together to consider who should be his 
 successor. Vergerio offered to address them, and 
 they accepted out of curiosity, but were so much 
 interested in his teaching that they begged him to 
 preach again the next day. With his usual persuasive 
 earnestness, he set forth the main doctrines of the 
 Reformed Faith : the merits of Christ's death and 
 justification by faith. He made so deep an impression 
 that his hearers were actually induced to invite a 
 Protestant divine to become their next pastor. 
 
 More than once, Vergerio was accused before the 
 civil authorities because, as the result of his preach- 
 ing, all the images had been thrown down in the 
 Roman Catholic church of the village where he had 
 been. He does not appear to have been very popular 
 amongst the Protestant divines, possibly, for one 
 
PIETRO PAOLO VERGERIO 145 
 
 reason, because he refused to call himself a Lutheran 
 or a Calvinist, but said he was simply a Christian. 
 He also appears to have excited their jealousy by 
 asserting a sort of authority amongst them, as a 
 superintendent of the Italian churches ; and it was 
 made a complaint by some that " he had not laid 
 aside the mitre." 
 
 Vergerio undoubtedly did most valuable and useful 
 work, both by his eloquent preaching in scattered 
 places, far and wide, and by his many works, of which 
 a large portion are directed against the errors and 
 abuses of the Church of Rome. Many efforts were 
 made to induce him to return to his allegiance ; the 
 last was at Tubingen, where he was invited by the 
 Duke of Wittenberg, to a discussion with the Nuncio 
 Delfino. But he remained firm against every tempta- 
 tion, and died a Protestant at Tubingen on October 4, 
 1565. In his funeral sermon, and in his epitaph, he 
 was compared to St. Paul, both having been opposed 
 to the truth, and both having " obtained mercy 
 because they did it in ignorance/' 
 
 I cannot close this brief sketch of Pietro Paolo 
 Vergerio, without touching upon the more sympa- 
 thetic side of his character, and the way in which he 
 was looked upon by those who were proud to call 
 themselves his friends. 
 
 Amongst the letters of one of the most interesting 
 characters of the Italian Reformation, Olympia 
 Morata, we find one addressed to Vergerio from 
 Heidelberg, in the year 1555. 
 
 " MOST EXCELLENT VERGERIO, 
 
 " I should have replied long ago to your 
 letter, which I received through the Jurisconsult, 
 10 
 
146 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 Charles Dumoulin, if I had not been prevented by 
 a serious illness from which I have not quite recovered. 
 I will no longer delay . . . for I long to write to you 
 since I have read the works in which you take in 
 hand the defence of the truth with so much ardour. 
 I did not doubt your zeal in the support of our Church, 
 but I did not dare to ask this testimony. ... It seemed 
 to me that I could not be the first to write to you, 
 without exposing myself to the reproach of presump- 
 tion and pride. I am most happy now to be able, 
 thanks to your letter, to speak to you with full 
 freedom. I must thank you first for your most 
 gracious gift of your books, and then I must address 
 you a prayer which I did not dare to make before. 
 
 " As your zeal is so great for the spreading of the 
 truth, could you not translate into Italian the Cate- 
 chism of the Doctor Martin Luther, already translated 
 from German into Latin ? It will be sufficient for 
 you to read this book in order to judge what immense 
 profit our countrymen would gain from it, especially 
 the children in our schools. That is why I dare 
 to implore you, in the name of Jesus Christ, and for 
 the love of our brethren in Italy, who have a right 
 to all our services, that you will undertake this work. 
 
 " I am well aware that a great division has arisen 
 amongst the Christian Churches concerning the 
 sacraments. But these sad discords will soon fade 
 away, if men will keep more in sight the glory of Christ 
 and the salvation of His Church, of which the secret 
 is in the union of all its members. I return therefore 
 to the subject of my letter, and repeat once more that 
 you will render a great service to Italy, in presenting 
 her with the Catechism of Luther. 
 
 ' The news you give me on the subject of the 
 
PIETRO PAOLO VERGBBIO 147 
 
 Duchess of Ferrara had reached me last December 
 in a letter from a pious friend in that city. I grieve, 
 without being astonished, at the fall of that Princess 
 whom I learned to know in other days. I wonder 
 more at the sad falling oft of others. My mother has 
 remained firm through the storm, Glory be to God 
 and to Him be all the honour ! I implore her to 
 leave this Babylon, with my sisters, in order to come 
 and join me in this country. 
 
 " My husband thanks you for the offer that you 
 make him of your services ; his heart towards you is 
 all that you can desire. I join with him in praying 
 you not to miss a favourable opportunity to come 
 and see us. This visit will make us all most happy. 
 Adieu. Heidelberg. 1555." 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 OLYMPIA MORATA 
 
 The story of Olympia Morata Her early life and classical education 
 Attains wonderful proficiency Lectures on Cicero At the 
 Court of Ferrara as teacher of Anna d'Este Her friendship with 
 Lavinia della Rovere Death of her father, Fulvio Peregrino Mora to 
 
 IN taking up once more the account of the Reforma- 
 tion in Ferrara, we have now reached the story of a 
 noble heroine who " failed not for sorrow, faltered 
 not for fear," and who rises before us as one of the 
 most fascinating and striking figures of the Italian 
 Reformation. 
 
 In the brilliant circle which surrounded the Duchess 
 Renee at the Court of Ferrara, one of the most dis- 
 tinguished was the professor Fulvio Peregrino Morato. 
 A native of Mantua, he had devoted himself to classical 
 studies, and had taught Greek and Latin literature 
 with success in the most celebrated universities of 
 Italy. He had been appointed tutor to the younger 
 sons of Duke Alfonso, but for some reason he had to 
 leave Ferrara in 1533 ; possibly because he had 
 written " in favour of the reformed doctrines. He 
 was recalled in 1538, by Duke Ercole II, and once 
 more lectured in the University, to the great delight 
 of his pupils, amongst whom the most famous was to 
 be his own daughter, Olympia Morata. 
 
 She was born at Ferrara in 1526, and brought up 
 in such an atmosphere of learning that, from her 
 
 148 
 
OLYMPIA MORATA 149 
 
 earliest years, the names of the great writers of 
 antiquity were familiar to her as household words. 
 To the eager, receptive child, their language and their 
 sentiments became a very part of her life, and in this 
 bygone classical world, her spirit dwelt and blossomed 
 like some rare orchid in a treasured hothouse. 
 
 With passionate enthusiasm, her father devoted 
 himself to Olympiads education ; and in order to be 
 confirmed in his own proud estimate of her wonderful 
 talent, as well as to ensure its successful training, he 
 called in the help of the famous Greek professor, 
 Kilian Sinapius. Her progress was so rapid that, 
 before she was twelve years old, she could speak the 
 languages of Virgil and of Homer with equal facility, 
 " a very miracle to those who heard her/' not only 
 in the eloquence of her speech, but in the keen in- 
 telligence with which she grasped the images and 
 ideas of the most learned classical writers. 
 
 The fame of Olympia Morata soon spread beyond 
 her quiet home, and she found herself the centre of 
 an admiring circle, chiefly composed of her father's 
 learned friends. Amongst these were Johann Sina- 
 pius the Court physician, brother of her tutor Kilian, 
 the poet Leon Jamet, Alberto Lollio, and above all 
 his colleague, the Canon Celio Calcagnani, at once 
 mathematician, poet and archaeologist, the most 
 intimate friend of Fulvio. He had first been at- 
 tracted to the wonderful child when her father was 
 in exile at Vicenza, and he once wrote to her : 
 
 " You were ever a chosen disciple of the Muses ; 
 the love of poetry came to you with your mother's 
 milk, and by a divine mystery, you drew from the 
 same source both bodily and spiritual life." 
 
150 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 Olympia was happy in her home life, with the 
 devoted affection of her talented mother Lucrezia, 
 and of her three young sisters ; but on her father's 
 return to Ferrara, another prospect opened before 
 her. The Duchess Renee, herself a most accomplished 
 and talented woman, had heard of this brilliant young 
 scholar, and invited her to become the companion 
 and teacher of Anna her eldest daughter, at that 
 time a child of eight years old, while Olympia was 
 only five years older. This gave great satisfaction 
 to her father, who felt that he could still continue 
 her education, while the young girl, released from all 
 home duties, could now give herself up entirely to 
 study. As her friend Celio Calcagnani wrote to her : 
 " You can henceforth devote yourself entirely to 
 literary work, giving up the distaff for the pen, and 
 needlework for books. . . ." He prays her to keep 
 her modest simplicity and the holy discipline of her 
 home, amongst all the greatness and elegance of a 
 Court. A warm friendship soon sprang up between 
 the two girls who had so many tastes in common, 
 for nothing had been spared in the education of Anna, 
 who was very well advanced for her age : she was 
 already learning fragments of Cicero to recite, and 
 was translating the fables of ^Esop. With the 
 companionship and encouragement, as well as the 
 actual instruction of her friend, she made excellent 
 progress. 
 
 As for Olympia herself, she wrote at this period, 
 " To the Glory of Mucius Scevola," in Greek, and a 
 wonderful series of notes on Homer, which she trans- 
 lated with great vigour and charm. She composed 
 many poems, and also dialogues in Greek and Latin 
 in imitation of Plato and Cicero, in suck admirable 
 
OLYMPIA MOKATA 151 
 
 style that they were greatly praised by scholars. 
 Calcagnani wrote to her that " the talents of many 
 women are like unto flowers woven in a garland, which 
 soon fade, but yours are like the immortal amaranth 
 of the Muses which never dies/' But perhaps the 
 most interesting instance of the young girl's wonder- 
 ful talent was given in her three Latin essays on the 
 " Paradoxes of Marcus Tullius Cicero," when she 
 was barely sixteen. These she delivered from 
 memory, as Lectures in the private Academy of the 
 Duchess of Ferrara. 
 
 We do not wonder that she was full of shy modesty 
 at the prospect of thus speaking in public, and that 
 she usually began with a prologue, in which she 
 implored the indulgence of the audience. It was thus 
 that she introduced her third discourse : 
 
 " I am well aware of the rare kindness of those who 
 listen to me, yet the natural timidity of my youth, 
 combined with the weakness of my talent, inspire 
 me with well-founded alarm. I tremble and my 
 voice fails, like the orator before the altar of Lyons. 1 
 
 " Notwithstanding, at your command, I will 
 obey. . . . For the third time I will endure this test, 
 like a sculptor unskilled in his art, and unable to 
 carve a rough stone. But if he is offered a block 
 of marble from Paros, he no longer thinks his labour 
 lost ; the material will incite him to make his work 
 worthy of it. Perhaps it may be the same with 
 mine. 
 
 ' There are melodies so full of harmony, that even 
 played upon the most simple instrument, they pre- 
 
 1 She alludes to the famous contest of eloquence instituted at Lyons 
 by the Emperor Caligula and described by Suetonius. 
 
152 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 serve all their sweetness. Such are the words of my 
 favourite author ; listen to them. Even in passing 
 through my lips, they can lose nothing of their grace 
 and their majesty." 
 
 Olympia had been trained in pronunciation and 
 delivery by her father, with such extreme care, that 
 all who heard her speak were delighted with the 
 musical intonation of her voice, and the marvellous 
 dramatic expression which brought out vividly the 
 meaning of her words. Her father's friend, the 
 reformer Celio Secondo Curione, never forgot the im- 
 pression which she made upon him, and he says in 
 after years : 
 
 ' Then we heard her declaiming in Latin, impro- 
 vising in Greek, explaining the Paradoxes of the 
 greatest of orators, and replying to all the questions 
 addressed to her. She could only be rightly compared 
 to one of those wonderful learned Sybils of Greece 
 or Rome." 
 
 We have seen how, under the care of Olympia, her 
 pupil Anna d'Este became an accomplished scholar. 
 In the story of Renee, we have already mentioned 
 the entertainment her precocious children gave to 
 Pope Paul III on the occasion of his visit to Ferrara 
 in 1543, when they acted before him the Latin 
 comedy of Terence, " the Adelphi," but we can well 
 imagine how much of its success was due to the 
 devoted Olympia. 
 
 It was about this time that the young girl wrote 
 her Greek Odes, which we may still read with ad- 
 miration in her collected works, but which for us 
 have lost the charm of her living presence and the 
 
OLYMPIA MORATA 153 
 
 attraction of the young girFs voice and manner as 
 she recited them to an admiring Court, who listened 
 as to another Muse, and applauded in such words as 
 these : "If the ancient world rightly praised such 
 inspired women as Sappho, Praxilla and Corinne ; 
 surely we are justified in acclaiming Olympia as the 
 honour and glory of Ferrara." 
 
 Hitherto the young girl had been scarcely touched 
 by the wave of reforming thought and study which 
 was sweeping over Italy. It is true that we are told 
 of Anna and her young teacher reading and studying 
 the Bible together in the original Greek. But in 
 that brilliant Court of Ferrara, there were so many 
 intellectual and especially classical attractions, that 
 Olympia had not yet thought very seriously on the 
 subject of religion. The Duke was now on intimate 
 terms with the Pope, and to all outward appearance 
 the orthodox religion reigned supreme. But the 
 Duchess bravely received at her Court and gave a 
 refuge to many distinguished Reformers, from Calvin 
 downwards ; while there were also many fervent 
 disciples of the new doctrines amongst the professors 
 of the Academy of Ferrara. Distinguished in this 
 company were, Bartolommeo Riccio, engaged with his 
 book on "Glory"; Lilio Giraldi, the writer of the 
 "History of Gods and Poets," and his "Dialogue on 
 Contemporanean Poets," which Rome looked upon 
 with suspicion ; Angelo Manzolli, the physician of Duke 
 Ercole, whose satirical poems were directed against 
 the Papacy. Last but not least, was the delightful 
 poet Marcantonio Flaminio, who enjoyed the circle 
 of the Duchess Renee, for he found there the same 
 freedom of thought as he had enjoyed at Naples, in 
 the company of Juan Valdes and his friends. 
 
154 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 The Greek teacher of Olympia Morata, Celio 
 Calcagnini, had passed away in 1541, but there still re- 
 mained the two brothers Sinapius. They had brought 
 their reformed opinions from Germany, and had been 
 still more strengthened in their belief by the visit 
 of Calvin himself. The elder brother Johann, as we 
 have already seen in the story of Renee, had married 
 a young lady of her Court, Francesca Bucyronia, and 
 they both became most intimate friends and corre- 
 spondents of Olympia, in later years. But possibly 
 no one had greater influence over both Peregrino 
 Morato and his daughter than the earnest Reformer 
 Celio Secundo Curione. When he was compelled to 
 leave Ferrara and seek a refuge at Lucca, he was 
 deeply regretted by the Morato family as a " divine 
 preceptor/' who had led them in the way of true 
 wisdom. 
 
 We find the earliest trace of Olympiads changed 
 opinions on the subject of religion, in two dialogues 
 written about this time. Curiously enough, she chose 
 two stories from Boccaccio to translate into Latin, 
 and they appear to have been selected because they 
 are a satire upon the abuses of the Roman Church. 
 One remembers the account of that Jewish merchant 
 who, when his conversion was earnestly pressed by 
 a Christian friend, decided first to visit the seat of 
 Christendom. He arrives in Rome, sees everything, 
 observes with his own eyes the corruption of church- 
 men ; and suddenly convinced of the divinity of a 
 religion which can exist in spite of all these abuses, 
 is at once baptised on his return home. 
 
 The other story is of the hypocrite who, at the end 
 of an evil life, desires to die with the outward ap- 
 pearance of a saint. He deceives his confessor, lies 
 
OLYMPIA MORATA 155 
 
 until his last breath, " and performs as many miracles 
 as any other saint," says Boccaccio. Surely we can 
 discern a deeper meaning in this choice of subjects, 
 and see something more than a literary essay in these 
 translations, for the schismatic ideas are scarcely 
 veiled by the stately language of Cicero. Yet we 
 learn from her own letters in after years, that the 
 young girl had not yet been awakened to any deep 
 sense of religious truth, and that this was merely an 
 intellectual perception of Romish abuses. 
 She writes : 
 
 " Oh how necessary it was that I should be put to 
 the test of misfortune ! I had no taste for divine 
 things ; the reading of the Old or the New Testament 
 only inspired me with repugnance. If I had re- 
 mained much longer at the Court, there would have 
 been an end of me and of my salvation." 
 
 Knowledge alone was not sufficient for her ; she 
 needed the discipline of sorrow to strengthen and 
 spiritualise her character. 
 
 It was at this time that Olympia was fortunate 
 enough to contract a friendship which was the 
 delight of her happy days and the consolation of 
 dark hours to come. This new friend was Lavinia 
 della Rovere, a lady of Lucca, who had married in 
 1541, Paolo Orsini, the son of Camillo Orsini, Papal 
 governor of Parma. She was a few years older than 
 Olympia, and appears to have spent much of her 
 time at the Court of Ferrara, for she saw very little 
 of her husband, a distinguished soldier who was in 
 the service of King Henri II of France. Lavinia 
 is spoken of as a noble-hearted woman with a 
 
156 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 brilliant intelligence, and the two friends appear to 
 have been drawn together by similar tastes and 
 studies ; a great devotion to philosophy and literature, 
 and a growing interest in the doctrines of the Reforma- 
 tion. The two sisters-in-law of Lavinia, Maddalena 
 the wife of Lilio de Ceri, and Countess Giulia Rangone, 
 were admitted into this intimate circle and discussed 
 the problems of philosophy and the mysteries of 
 religion, in which they had scarcely advanced beyond 
 the stage of doubt and uncertainty. 
 
 We learn this from subsequent letters of Olympia, 
 who appears to have been much troubled at this 
 time in trying to understand the doctrine of pre- 
 destination. It was only later that this formidable 
 doctrine lost its terrors for her, when the feeling of 
 divine adoption, which does not exclude moral liberty, 
 became for her the principle of a new life. 
 
 We have a striking instance of her power of detach- 
 ment from religious subjects, in the absolutely Pagan 
 inspiration of the last Greek ode composed by Olympia 
 during her residence at the Court of Ferrara. The 
 famous Cardinal Bembo had died in February 1547, 
 and the news of his death had excited universal 
 regret amongst all the lovers of literature whom he 
 had so long charmed by his writings. The talented 
 young girl was asked, on behalf of the House of Este, 
 to express the universal regret, and the Greek language 
 seemed best adapted as a homage to this devoted 
 student of ancient literature. This is a translation 
 which can do but little justice to the beauty of the 
 original lines. 
 
 " Bembo the glory of the immortal sisters, the 
 sun of Venice, mistress of the sea Bembo is no 
 
OLYMPIA MORATA 157 
 
 more ! Amongst all the famous men of this century, 
 none can equal him in the glory of his life, or the 
 charm and sweetness of his language. He is dead, 
 and with him has passed away the glowing spirit of 
 eloquence ; Cicero seems to have descended once 
 more into the sombre regions of silence/' 
 
 These lines have an importance for us as marking a 
 turning point in the life of Olympia. Hitherto her 
 education had been almost entirely devoted to the 
 study of the classics ; she had lived in those past 
 centuries of fame and magnificence, and she only 
 knew the life of the present, through her books, and 
 the learned scholars who were unanimous in the 
 praise of her genius. Her only troubles had been 
 those of an enquiring soul, which has begun to question 
 its faith, and which struggles against doubt. Other 
 and more overwhelming troubles were in store for 
 her. An awakening was at hand from those rosy 
 dreams of youth, when she dwelt in a sunny Arcadia, 
 or a stately Parnassus with Gods and Heroes and 
 Muses. Now the stern realities of life were before her. 
 
 The first blow of misfortune struck Olympia in 
 her dearest affections. Her father, Peregrino Morato, 
 who had for some time given up his duties as pro- 
 fessor, on account of his failing health, was taken 
 seriously ill in 1548, and she at once left the Court to 
 devote herself to him. Soon he grew worse and all 
 hope was given up, but his end was calm and serene, 
 for he looked beyond the horizon of this uncertain 
 world to the glorious hopes of eternal life. 
 
 The loss of her dear father was only the beginning 
 of the grievous troubles which came upon Olympia 
 with crushing force, one after another. She was still 
 
158 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 watching by the sick-bed of Peregrine Morato, when 
 a marriage was arranged for her devoted pupil and 
 companion, Anna d'Este, which would take the young 
 princess, now seventeen years of age, away from the 
 Court of Ferrara, at the time of Olympiads greatest 
 need. The chosen bridegroom was Frangois de 
 Lorraine, so notorious later as that Due de Guise 
 who was the most inveterate foe of the French 
 Protestants. The alliance had been arranged by 
 Henri II King of France, the nephew of Renee, who 
 had very little voice in the matter. The wedding 
 took place on September 29, and was followed by 
 the departure of the Princess Anna, who was deeply 
 regretted by all who knew her, but above all by 
 Olympia, to whom in her coming troubles, the loss of 
 a faithful friend at Court was irreparable. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 OLYMPIA MORATA (continued) 
 
 Trouble and persecution for Olympia Morata She devotes herself to 
 religious study Much impressed by the endurance and martyr- 
 dom of Fannio Olympia marries Andrew Grunthler, a young 
 German physician She is driven to leave Ferrara Travels with 
 her husband to Augsburg He receives an appointment in his 
 native town of Schweinfurt. 
 
 AT this distance of time, it is difficult to trace out 
 and understand the events at the Court of Ferrara 
 which caused ReneVs change of feeling towards 
 Olympia Morata. There is no doubt that the great 
 influence which the young girl had obtained, and 
 the unbounded admiration expressed on all sides for 
 her talents, had awakened envy and jealousy amongst 
 others less favoured. But the exciting cause appears 
 to have been the arrival at Ferrara of a certain 
 Jerome Bolsec, who had escaped from a Carmelite 
 monastery at Paris, and had been received by the 
 Duchess with her usual kindness towards exiles, and 
 appointed her almoner. For some unknown reason 
 his hatred was aroused against Olympia and her 
 friends, and unfortunately, Renee appears to have 
 believed the calumnies which she heard against her 
 former favourite. Olympia was summoned to Court 
 to answer some vague accusations ; she was over- 
 whelmed at finding herself in the midst of enemies, 
 while even the Duchess said nothing in her favour ; 
 
 169 
 
160 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 her defence was not listened to, and she returned 
 home, disgraced and broken-hearted. 
 
 In one of her letters, she thus describes her grief 
 and humiliation : 
 
 " After my father 's death, I remained alone, 
 betrayed, abandoned by those who ought to have 
 supported me, exposed to the most unjust treatment. 
 My sisters shared my fate, and we only received 
 ingratitude as a return for so much devotion and 
 such faithful service during many years. You cannot 
 imagine what was then my despair ! No one, amongst 
 those whom we had formerly called our friends, 
 dared to show any interest in us ; and we were 
 plunged in an abyss so profound that it appeared 
 impossible for us ever to rise from it." 
 
 Her friend Lavinia della Rovere seems to have 
 been away at Parma at this time, for her devoted 
 affection never failed ; and there were others who, 
 if they had not the courage openly to take the part 
 of the accused, were only waiting their opportunity 
 to befriend her. 
 
 But in this hour of darkest despair, the courage of 
 Olympia rose to the emergency, and she gallantly 
 took up the burden which she had inherited. The 
 greater part of his income had passed away with her 
 father's death ; she had to face poverty, the care 
 of an invalid mother, the education of three younger 
 sisters, and her little brother Emilio, still a child. 
 In fulfilling her duty, with singlehearted devotion, 
 she found peace and rest for her soul ; all her doubt 
 and uncertainty vanished, for in the time of trial, 
 the secret of her father's faith was revealed to her. 
 
OLYMPIA MOBATA 161 
 
 Henceforth slie devoted herself with as much eager- 
 ness to the study of the Scriptures and sacred litera- 
 ture, as she had formerly given to the classics of her 
 favourite authors. A fragment of Greek verse has 
 been preserved from this period, which shows her 
 change of thought. 
 
 THE CRUCIFIX 
 
 " As in the desert, the brazen serpent raised on 
 high was the means of saving those who were struck 
 by the poisonous fangs of the serpent ; so the soul, 
 wounded by the darts of sin, finds healing and salva- 
 tion in contemplating the Son of God hanging on the 
 Cross." 
 
 Olympia was in sore need of consolation, for 
 troubles thickened around her, and her situation 
 became more painful every day. During the last 
 five years, the one object of Home had been to crush 
 out the faint beginning of the Protestant faith in 
 Ferrara. Not only had the Morato family suffered, 
 but the few friends who had remained true to them 
 were included in their condemnation. Since his 
 last alliance with the Pope, the Duke himself was 
 ready to help, and to adopt measures of proscription. 
 
 The first victim to this persecuting zeal was a 
 certain Fannio of Faenza, in which city he was 
 denounced by the local inquisitor, for having in his 
 possession the Bible in Italian and other forbidden 
 books ; and also, as he himself confessed, " for having 
 preached to the people, and endeavoured to restore 
 the image of God in their souls." In that city of 
 potters, the simile was well understood. Fannio 
 was seized and cast into prison, where he was visited 
 11 
 
162 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 by his wife and his friends, whose tears and earnest 
 
 entreaties so prevailed upon him that, in a weak 
 
 moment, he abjured his faith and was set free. But 
 
 he had scarcely left his prison before he was overcome 
 
 with remorse, and immediately set forth on foot 
 
 through the towns of Romagna, preaching the 
 
 doctrines of reform with more devotion and courage 
 
 than ever. It was not long before he was arrested 
 
 within the dominions of Ferrara, laden with chains 
 
 and shut up in the city prison, where he was destined 
 
 to await his sentence during a long and cruel captivity 
 
 of more than eighteen .months, while he was tried by 
 
 the Inquisition of Rome, as a relapsed heretic. In 
 
 his dungeon, he was visited in secret by several 
 
 devoted disciples ; amongst others who listened to his 
 
 teaching were Lavinia della Rovere who had recently 
 
 returned to Ferrara after a long absence, and her 
 
 friend Olympia. Both these ladies used their utmost 
 
 efforts to obtain the release of Fannio, and as we 
 
 have already seen, the Duchess Renee wrote the most 
 
 imploring letters on his behalf, but in vain. 
 
 As time passed on a new interest came into the 
 life of Olympia. Amongst the foreign scholars who 
 had been attracted to the University of Ferrara, was 
 a young German named Andrew Grunthler. He was 
 a native of Schweinfurt in Bavaria, of honourable 
 and distinguished talents, who although a good 
 Latin and Greek scholar, had especially devoted 
 himself to the study of Philosophy and Medicine ; 
 he was under the immediate tuition of the Professors 
 Johann and Kilian Sinapius, who took a special 
 interest in him as being fellow countrymen. He 
 lived in their house where he was treated like a son, 
 and it was through them that he made the acquaint- 
 
OLYMPIA MOEATA 163 
 
 ance of Olympia Morata, the daughter of their oldest 
 friend. His admiration of the young girl's talents 
 soon changed into a deeper and more tender feeling. 
 When trouble and unmerited disgrace fell upon her 
 after her father's death, his sympathy knew no 
 bounds, and she could not be otherwise than touched 
 and attracted by his devotion to her, and the courage 
 with which he defended her, and gladly accepted for 
 himself the hatred and affronts of the Court and 
 even of the Duke himself. 
 
 Towards the end of the year 1550, their marriage 
 was celebrated with the simple rites of the Reformed 
 Church. The Greek ode which Olympia wrote on 
 this occasion has been preserved to us. 
 
 " Oh Almighty God, King of Kings, Creator of 
 man and woman ; Thou Who gavest a companion to 
 the first man, that the race of mortals might not 
 perish ; Thou Who has ordained that the fallen soul 
 of humanity should become the mystic bride of 
 Thine own Son, and that this Divine Son should give 
 His life for her ; Oh, pour down harmony and peace 
 upon the man and woman at this moment united 
 before Thee ! Thy law is the nuptial blessing, and 
 the hymen of eternal love/' 
 
 This marriage of kindred souls was overshadowed 
 by the dread of coming separation, for the situation 
 of the Reformers in Ferrara was becoming each day 
 more critical. The brothers Sinapius and others 
 were already preparing for departure to Germany, 
 the land of freedom, and Andrew Grunthler, having 
 obtained his degree of Doctor of Medicine, felt that 
 his best chance of making a suitable provision for 
 
164 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 his wife would be in his own country. He had 
 every hope of becoming professor in one of the 
 Universities of Bavaria, but it was necessary that 
 he should go first to prepare the way ; and he wished 
 to spare Olympia the hardships of a long journey in 
 winter. Lavinia della Rover e strongly urged this 
 plan upon him, and she promised to watch over the 
 Morato family during his absence. She had already 
 used all her influence in the endeavour to reconcile 
 Olympia with the Court of Ferrara, but failing in 
 this, she devoted herself to her friend and the helpless 
 family with the warmest affection. 
 
 In the letters of Olympia to her husband, we see 
 with what anxious love she followed all the steps of 
 his journey ; and her words of tender affection and 
 of resignation to the sorrows of absence, have a 
 curious note of detachment when written in stately 
 Latin. Her scholarship was so deeply ingrained in 
 her nature, that she seems to have found her chief 
 consolation at this time in writing a series of Latin 
 dialogues, in which she and her friend Lavinia discuss 
 philosophical and religious questions. One of her 
 admirers remarks that they might have been " written 
 by a disciple of Plato beneath the groves of the 
 Academy, if they were not raised to the higher note 
 of Christian inspiration/' The Dialogues are too 
 long to quote, beyond a few words near the end, 
 where we listen to the enthusiasm of faith, adoration 
 and prayer. 
 
 " . . . I am the daughter of men, created from the 
 dust . . . born in sorrow, wrapped in swaddling- 
 clothes, and only kept alive with infinite care and 
 trouble. It is thus that all the kings of the earth 
 
OLYMPIA MORATA 165 
 
 are born ; for the children of men are all alike in 
 their birth and their death. But my earliest desire 
 was for the gift of wisdom. I valued it at a higher 
 price than thrones and empires, than gold and pearls. 
 I loved it more than beauty, more than life, and my 
 prayers were heard. A divine light shone in the 
 darkness of my soul, and that glory which cannot 
 fade, takes for me the place of all worldly treasures. . . . 
 Oh God, the boundless source of mercy and love, give 
 me wisdom, that greatest gift of Thy glory. Inscribe 
 me in the number of Thy servants, for to Thee alone 
 will I belong during the few days that Thou hast 
 assigned to me on earth. . . ." 
 
 While Olympia thus sought relief from her anxiety, 
 the news from Germany became more alarming 
 every day. The discontent aroused by the pro- 
 clamation of the " Interim " of Leipzig, in November 
 1548, had borne deadly fruit ; the Protestant Princes 
 were in open rebellion, and we have a curious account 
 by the English Ambassador of the despair in Augsburg 
 when the ministers were condemned to exile for 
 refusing to say Mass in their reformed churches. 
 
 " They were compelled to leave the city, which 
 remained disconsolate ; there were few shops in 
 which people might not be seen in tears ; a hundred 
 women besieged the Emperor's gates, howling and 
 asking in th^ir outcries where they should christen 
 their children and where they should marry. . . . For 
 all this the Papist churches have no more customers 
 than they had ; not ten of the townsmen in some of 
 the greatest synagogues. The churches where the 
 Protestants did by thousands at once communicate 
 
166 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 are locked up, and the people being robbed of all their 
 godly exercises, sit weeping and wailing at home." 
 
 To Olympiads anxiety, she heard that the roads 
 were full of armed bands, and there was no safety 
 for travellers. She scarcely dared to hope that it 
 would be possible for her husband to travel through 
 the cities of the Danube and the Rhine, and return 
 in safety to Ferrara. For a time, no news reached 
 her even when she wrote to her friends established 
 in Germany, and in one of her letters to Johann 
 Sinapius she exclaims : " Truly you seem to remember 
 us no more than if you had already crossed the land 
 of shadows and oblivion/' 
 
 But after many months of anxiety, Andrew Grunth- 
 ler came back to Ferrara, having been received in 
 the most flattering manner, at the various Universities, 
 although his hope of obtaining an appointment had 
 not yet been fulfilled. It was at length decided 
 that his wife should accompany him to Augsburg, 
 where George Hermann, Councillor to the King of 
 the Romans, was eager to offer them hospitality 
 during their period of suspense. 
 
 In those days when travel was so difficult and slow, 
 Olympia felt that in thus going forth into distant 
 exile, she was losing the friends she left behind as 
 though they were taken from her by death. Lavinia 
 della Rovere was then at Parma with her husband, 
 but she promised to watch over the mother and 
 young sisters of her friend, as though they were her 
 own kindred. As for the boy, Emilio, now eight 
 years old, Olympia settled to take him with her, and 
 continue to devote herself to his education. It was 
 in the early days of June that the young wife took 
 
OLYMPIA MOEATA 167 
 
 her last farewell of the city which had so long 
 been her home, and of the dearly- loved mother 
 and sisters, whom she was never to meet again on 
 earth. 
 
 Perhaps the saddest fate was for those who were 
 left behind. We find Olympia writing later with 
 a brave heart : 
 
 " The Lord has united me to a husband who is 
 dearer to me than life. I would follow him with 
 assurance through the bleak and lonely wilds of the 
 Caucasus, or the frozen regions of the West, as I do 
 across the passes of the Alps. Wherever he leads the 
 way, I will follow in his steps with a glad heart. The 
 home of man is everywhere beneath the sky ! There 
 is no distant shore unwelcome to us, if we can there 
 serve God with liberty of conscience. " 
 
 Their journey had led them up the course of the 
 river Adige ; they reached Trent during the excite- 
 ment of the Council, and passed on through the 
 valleys of the Tyrol. They found the environs of 
 Innsbruck occupied by the Imperial army, but after 
 safely crossing the outposts, they descended into 
 the plains of Bavaria, reached Augsburg without 
 adventure, and were warmly welcomed by the 
 venerable Councillor of King Ferdinand. 
 
 The great banking house of the Fuggers occupied 
 the same place in the German city which the Medici 
 filled in Florence. They were the great patrons of 
 art and learning, and had long been interested in 
 the writings of Olympia Morata, while the talents of 
 her husband made a most favourable impression 
 upon them. During this stay at Augsburg, she had 
 
168 ITALIAN REFOKMATION 
 
 the satisfaction of renewing her correspondence with 
 her father's old friend, Celio Secundo Curione, whose 
 friendship was a precious inheritance from the father 
 to the daughter. He was at this time Professor of 
 Latin Literature in the University of Basle, and he 
 was greatly touched and interested by receiving from 
 her a full account of her father's death, and of the 
 troubles through which she had passed. She also 
 sent hinTsome of her more recent religious poetry 
 a Psalm translated into Greek. He wrote her the 
 following letter of thanks : 
 
 "How can I thank you, dear Olympia,for remember- 
 ing me after an interval of so many years, and not- 
 withstanding the distance which separates us ? No 
 one loved and esteemed your noble father, during his 
 life, more than myself ; and it is a joy to me to carry 
 on this affection to a daughter in whom his talents 
 and his piety live once more. Next to my wife and 
 daughters, there is no one in the world for whom I 
 care more than for you. I feel towards your husband 
 as if he were my own son-in-law. God be praised 
 Who has rescued your youth from the poisonous 
 atmosphere of a Court, and Who has given you that 
 liberty which is more precious than gold. I have 
 read the psalm which you have translated into Greek, 
 and I can indeed praise it. Heaven grant that you 
 may carry out the same work on a great number ! 
 We should not then envy Greece her Pindar. Courage, 
 my Olympia, follow the call of thy Muse, and crown 
 thy forehead with the sacred laurel. . . . Write to me 
 often ; nothing could give me greater pleasure. The 
 elegance, the charm and the piety of thy letters have 
 given me true delight/' 
 
OLYMPIA MORATA 169 
 
 Tliis reply of Curione did not reach Olympia until 
 long afterwards, but it served to bridge the abyss of 
 time and space between the two friends, and to renew 
 their warm sympathy as exiles from the same beloved 
 country, for the sake of their religious faith. 
 
 During his stay at Augsburg, Grunthler was able 
 to show his gratitude to his hospitable friend, by 
 devoted care during a serious illness, and it was with 
 much regret on both sides that he and his wife took 
 their departure and travelled to Wiirtzburg, where 
 they were welcomed by Johann Sinapius, who was 
 glad to avail himself of the young physician's help, 
 while Olympia devoted herself to her literary pur- 
 suits and to the education of her little brother Emilio. 
 She kept up a constant correspondence with Ferrara, 
 and was deeply interested in the efforts made by 
 devoted ladies, such as Lavinia della Rovere and 
 her sister-in-law Maddalena Orsini, to save the life 
 of the imprisoned Fannio. It needed no small 
 courage on their part to interpose in favour of a man 
 condemned by the dread Inquisition of Rome. 
 
 In October 1551, Andrew Grunthler received an 
 invitation from his own native city of Schweinfurt 
 to accept a medical appointment to the large garrison 
 of Spanish troops stationed in the city. He accepted 
 it in the hope of also obtaining a professorship in 
 the neighbourhood ; and thus it was that after five 
 months had elapsed since the day she left Ferrara, 
 Olympia found herself settled in this far-distant end 
 of Bavaria, more than ever separated from all her 
 friends, amidst the most uncongenial surroundings. 
 
CHAPTEK XV 
 OLYMPIA MORATA (continued) 
 
 Life of Olympia Morata and her husband at Schweinfurt Her literary 
 work and education of her brother Emilio Troubles in Germany 
 concerning the " Interim " News of fresh persecution at 
 Ferrara Olympia translates some of the Psalms into Greek 
 verse Her correspondence with Curione War in Germany 
 Albert of Brandenburg seizes Schweinfurt The city is besieged 
 by other great nobles. 
 
 WE can scarcely conceive a greater change for Olympia 
 Morata than her life at Schweinfurt, in a half-bar- 
 barous country, whose language never became familiar 
 to her ; in a bleak ungenial climate, so different from 
 the sunny skies and radiant scenery of Italy. Ac- 
 customed to a brilliant and learned society where 
 her talents were admired and appreciated, she now 
 found herself in obscurity and isolation. But her 
 gallant spirit rose to the occasion, and before long, 
 she and her husband were destined to give a strong 
 proof of their courage and constancy. 
 
 The young physician received from the King of 
 the Romans, an offer of the professorship of Medicine 
 in the Academy of Lintz, the capital of Upper Austria. 
 It was a splendid position, with immense advantages, 
 but there was one drawback ; they would not have 
 the privilege of professing openly their reformed 
 opinions, as these were enduring a severe persecution 
 in the orthodox city of Lintz. It was Olympia herself 
 
 170 
 
OLYMPIA MOKATA 171 
 
 who wrote the letter of refusal, which shut out all 
 hopes of their return to a pleasant and congenial life. 
 She calmly points out that " they are enrolled under 
 the banner of Christ, a Prince of so supreme a 
 majesty that He has the right of life and death 
 over His subjects. Wherever they may dwell, they 
 must openly confess their allegiance, and preserve 
 intact the shield of their faith, which is their sole 
 refuge. . . . Their firm resolution is to remain faithful 
 to the doctrines which they have embraced. . . ." 
 
 They realised indeed what a priceless boon was 
 this freedom of religion, when they saw from afar 
 how their fellow-believers in Italy were called upon 
 to seal with their blood, the faith that was in them. 
 This cruel persecution made it very difficult and 
 dangerous for Olympia to receive any letters from 
 home, and she writes to a friend at Padua : " Fourteen 
 long months have passed, and I hear nothing of my 
 mother and sisters. All my letters remain un- 
 answered. Of your pity, tell me about them. ..." 
 
 When the news arrived at last, she heard that new 
 troubles had awaited her mother and sisters after her 
 departure ; the Duke had been unforgiving, and 
 the ladies of the Court more unkind. Their only 
 support had been the devotion of Lavinia della 
 Eovere, who had taken the youngest sister, Vittoria, 
 to Kome with her, and had found a home for the 
 other two one with Helena Rangone of Bentivoglio, 
 and the other with a daughter of this lady who was 
 married at Milan. This young girl became kter the 
 wife of a young man of noble birth, who showed 
 great kindness and attention to the widowed mother 
 Lucrezia Morata, who had been left alone at Ferrara. 
 At the same time came the sad account of religious 
 
172 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 persecution in Milan, and the final tragedy of FamnVs 
 martyrdom, on the accession of Pope Julius III in 
 1550, of which the story has already been told in the 
 annals of Ferrara. 
 
 This sad event dissipated all illusive hopes of the 
 friends of the Reformation, and was like a sentence 
 of final exile on all who had fled for their faith. 
 Olympia writes to her friend Curione at this time : 
 
 " You advise us to pass through Basle, in case we 
 return to Italy. Alas ! it is only too probable that 
 we shall never take that journey. . . . You are well 
 aware of the cruel persecution carried on by the 
 present Pope, he has his spies all over Italy and is 
 deaf to all prayers. ... It would be wiser to seek a 
 refuge at the extremities of the earth, than to return 
 to a country where we should have so much to suffer. 
 ... No foreign city in the world would be more 
 agreeable to me than yours ; near you, I should feel 
 as if I were in the midst of my own people. And it 
 would be nearer Italy, so that I could write oftener 
 to my mother and sisters whose image is constantly 
 before my eyes. . . ." 
 
 She was ever a most devoted daughter, and never 
 failed to send her mother all that she could possibly 
 spare from her small means, with the greatest economy. 
 We also see her constant affection for her home in 
 the many letters preserved which she wrote to 
 Lavinia. Some of the Dialogues which she sends 
 to her friend are extremely interesting. In one, 
 which is a dissertation on true happiness, " the 
 language of antiquity lends a peculiar grace to the 
 severe inspiration of Christian thought. It is the 
 
OLYMPIA MORATA 173 
 
 genius of the Renaissance smiling at sorrow/' 1 
 Lavinia is represented as Philotima and Olympia as 
 her friend Theophila, and they discuss all the various 
 forms of so-called happiness, all that wealth and 
 luxury and splendid surroundings can give. 
 
 ' We devote infinite care and thought on the 
 adornment of our perishable body, we delight in 
 riding in a great chariot with magnificent spirited 
 horses, in order to pass over more quickly this short 
 journey which is our life, and do not dream of taking 
 our place on the chariot of faith, which alone can 
 carry us from earth to Heaven. We toil and labour 
 to convert our tents of a day into a magnificent 
 dwelling, and we give no thought to those celestial 
 halls whose beauty is beyond the dream of man. . . . 
 Ah, my dear Philotima, what blindness is ours ! 
 And how shall we ever find happiness if we seek it 
 from earthly objects which can never bestow it ? 
 
 " Theophila. . . . The greatest trials are easy to 
 accept when they are of short duration. Now, is there 
 anything shorter than the life of man ? How many 
 Princes of our time and illustrious men of our century 
 are already laid in the tomb ? Even their name is 
 buried in the dust, and the world remembers them 
 no more than if they had never existed. So true is 
 it that the life of man, always threatened by death, 
 is like unto a faint breath, a passing vapour. There 
 is no solid happiness here below, and the soul, after 
 vainly wearing itself out in pursuit of perishable 
 things, can only find rest in God." 
 
 " Philotima. . . . You speak truly, Oh Theophila ! 
 and I desire henceforth to devote myself to God alone, 
 
 1 Jules Bonnet. 
 
174 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 Who is the sovereign good. But the memories of a 
 sinful life rise up between me and Heaven, and close 
 the road which leads thither. 
 
 " Theophila. . . . Christ has opened the way once more 
 by His sacrifice, and therefore God has given Heaven 
 back to us. Seek Christ by reading the Scriptures, 
 by prayer, by adoration, and you will find Him. Ask 
 for the gift of the Holy Spirit and you will receive 
 at the same time peace and serenity. Farewell/' 
 
 This dialogue was written in the second year of 
 Olympiads life at Schweinfurt. Besides her home 
 duties, her many charitable works and her studies, 
 she found time to carry on the careful education of 
 her little brother Emilio, and with him she taught 
 Theodora, the daughter of Johann Sinapius. The 
 children learnt Latin and Greek, and made especial 
 study of the works of Plutarch, Virgil and Homer, 
 for as their devoted teacher remarked in one of her 
 letters : " Masters cannot teach their disciples every- 
 thing, but they can at least point out to them the 
 sources of wisdom/' To Sinapius she wrote : 
 * Your little girl learns something every day ; it 
 is thus that, little by little, she accumulates her 
 treasure/' 
 
 But all too soon, these delightful lessons were 
 interrupted, and the little Theodora was recalled 
 home by the death of her mother, the charming young 
 Italian lady of the Court of Ferrara, Francesca 
 Bucyronia. She and her husband had kept up a 
 constant correspondence with Calvin ever since his 
 visit to the Duchess Renee ; and now it was the 
 sad duty of Johann to send the great Reformer the 
 news of Francesca's death. 
 
OLYMPIA MORATA 175 
 
 " Since the time when we met and made acquaint- 
 ance at the Court of Ferrara, you have given me so 
 many tokens of your kind remembrance, and your 
 religious teaching has been so valuable to me, that 
 I must now tell you of my misfortune. I have lost 
 her, that dear companion, so gentle, so faithful and 
 so holy, whose death has plunged me into inexpressible 
 sorrow. . . . When my wife was taken ill, I was away 
 from Wiirtzburg. My return and that of Theodora 
 her beloved daughter, whom we had confided to the 
 care of a matron as pious as she is learned, Olympia 
 Morata, whose name is no doubt known to you 
 brought her some comfort. But alas ! her illness 
 became so much worse that all hope vanished. A 
 few days after Pentecost, she died in my arms, 
 without struggle or agony, simply asking us to pray 
 for her. What a faithful and tender friend I have 
 lost in my Francesca ! She gladly followed me to 
 Germany, and soon became familiar with the language 
 and customs of this country. . . . May the God of 
 mercy and peace receive her dear soul into the rest 
 of the saints ! 3i 
 
 Olympia felt the loss of her early friend very deeply, 
 and in order to distract her grief, she devoted herself 
 to the translation of more Psalms into Greek verse, 
 which her husband set to music. In those wonderful 
 hymns of the prophet-king, who pours out in song, 
 his fears and his sorrows, his hopes and his triumphs 
 she found encouragement and consolation in the 
 midst of the storms which threatened on every 
 side, while all Europe became a battle-field for 
 the mighty duel between the Reformation and 
 Empire. 
 
176 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 The triumphant cry of faith which rings through 
 the centuries : 
 
 " Why do the heathen so furiously rage together ; 
 and why do the people imagine a vain thing ? 
 
 " The kings of the earth stand up and the rulers 
 take counsel together ; against the Lord and against 
 His anointed. . . . 
 
 " He that dwelleth in Heaven shall laugh them to 
 scorn ; the Lord shall have them in derision. . . . 
 
 " Be wise now therefore ye kings ; be learned 
 ye that are judges of the earth/' 1 
 
 Perhaps the stately majesty of this 2nd Psalm 
 has never been rendered with more vigour and beauty 
 than in the Greek ode of Olympia. Again in the 
 46th Psalm, which inspired the courage of Luther 
 as he travelled to Worms, she found a happy inspira- 
 tion in the rapid, impetuous rhythm of Sappho, as 
 she proclaimed those heroic words which raise the 
 spirit above all suffering and sorrow. 
 
 " God is our hope and strength, a very present help 
 in trouble. 
 
 * Therefore will we not fear though the earth be 
 moved, and though the hills be carried into the midst 
 of the sea. . . . 
 
 " The Lord of hosts is with us ; the God of Jacob 
 is our refuge/' 2 
 
 It was in this labour of love that Olympia joined 
 the great army of heroes and martyrs of saints and 
 sinners, of all the sad and suffering, who, through 
 
 1 Carra. Olym. Morata, lib. ii. p. 226. 2 Ibid., lib. ii. p. 232. 
 
OLYMPIA MORATA 177 
 
 the ages, have found in the Psalms of David a treasure- 
 house of comfort and strength. 
 
 ' With the words of a Psalm on their lips, such 
 diverse characters as Polycarp, Columba, Hildebrand, 
 Bernard, Francis of Assisi, Huss, Jerome of Prague, 
 Columbus, Henry V, Edward VI, Ximenes, Xavier, 
 Melanchthon, Jewell, breathed their last. In the 
 darkest hour of persecution, Chrysostom, Athanasius, 
 Savonarola turned for consolation to the Psalms." l 
 
 Only a few of the Psalms which Olympia translated 
 into Greek have been preserved ; those which she 
 herself sent to her friends and especially to Celio 
 Secundo Curione, whose praise was to her so great 
 an encouragement. When he wrote to thank her 
 for her trust in him, he rejoiced that neither time nor 
 distance could change her friendship for him, at the 
 same time that he expressed his warm admiration for 
 her work. 
 
 But a time of trial and affliction was drawing near 
 when she would no longer be able to find consolation 
 in her pious and literary work. It was on February 
 18, 1546, that the death of Luther had seemed to 
 give the signal for those terrible civil wars, rarely 
 broken by brief intervals of peace, which only came 
 to an end a century later with the Peace of West- 
 phalia. The great work of the Reformation was to 
 be no longer carried on solely with the spirit of prayer, 
 of devotion, and of sacrifice but was to enter into 
 the arena of the battlefield, where victory or defeat 
 would be alike fatal, in making it subject to the yoke 
 either of its foes or its friends. The Protestants of 
 
 1 Dean Stanley, "The Jewish Church," p. 147. 
 12 
 
178 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 Germany had rebelled against the " Interim/' which 
 had been forced upon them, and many had fled from 
 their homes rather than accept its dictates. 
 
 At the Diet of Augsburg in 1550, Maurice of 
 Saxony had sent word that he would not submit to its 
 decisions on religion, unless the Protestant ministers 
 were allowed to vote. When the Council of Trent 
 had assembled, the Emperor Charles V took up his 
 abode near at Innspruck that he might watch the 
 progress of events, and was so full of confidence in 
 his security that he had only a small guard of troops. 
 He was suddenly startled with the news that Maurice 
 had taken possession of Augsburg and was marching 
 against him. The Emperor, who was suffering from 
 a serious attack of gout, had barely time to escape by 
 night across the mountains, in frightful weather, 
 before the city was taken by the German troops. 
 
 The Elector of Saxony had taken arms, not only to 
 secure freedom of conscience for the Protestants, but 
 to defend the liberty of the German States and to 
 obtain the freedom of his father-in-law the Landgrave 
 of Hesse. He succeeded in all his aims, and Ferdinand, 
 now King of the Romans, used his influence to 
 arrange the Treaty of Passau, which was signed on 
 August 2, 1552, and being later confirmed by the 
 Peace of Augsburg, seemed to guarantee the rights 
 of the German States and to close for ever the era of 
 revolution. But the storm which had already broken 
 over Upper Germany and had dispersed the Council 
 of Trent, was about to do its worst on the hapless 
 cities of the Maine. 
 
 Amongst the partisans of the Empire were some 
 hot-headed princes who refused to be bound by any 
 treaties. One of these was the Margrave Albert 
 
OLYMPIA MORATA 179 
 
 of Brandenburg, who looked upon war as only an 
 opportunity for brigandage. He was a typical 
 instance of the mercenary warrior of the Middle 
 Ages ; fierce, bold and cunning ; without faith or 
 law. He chose the unfortunate town of Schweinfurt 
 for his stronghold, whence he could send forth his 
 lawless bands to ravage and rob the neighbour- 
 hood, on both banks of the Maine, carrying every- 
 where terror and desolation. The great nobles of 
 the country round, the Bishops of Wiirtzburg and 
 Bomberg, the Duke of Brunswick and the Elector 
 Maurice, combined against the brigand host, and laid 
 siege to Schweinfurt, having joined their banners to 
 those of the city of Nuremberg, to crush this lawless 
 foe in the city which he had chosen as his refuge. 
 
 Nothing could be more terrible than the situation 
 of the unfortunate inhabitants ; at the mercy of a 
 brutal soldiery within the walls, and a determined 
 host outside, between whom nothing less than a war 
 of extermination was raging. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 OLYMPIA MOEATA (concluded) 
 
 Siege of Schweinfurt The city sacked and pillaged Terrible suffer- 
 ings of Olympia Her escape to Heidelberg with her husband and 
 brother In her destitution and loss of her library, generosity of 
 her friends The plague at Heidelberg Devotion of Andrew 
 Grunthler Illness and death of Olympia Morata Her wonderful 
 writings Memorial hymn to her memory Death of Andrew 
 Grunthler and the young Emilio Morato. 
 
 THE siege of Schweinfurt began in April 1553, and 
 continued almost without intermission for fourteen 
 months ; a time of terrible and heart-rending ex- 
 perience for Olympia Morata, her family and friends. 
 The noise of the cannon continued night and day, for 
 the walls of the city were bombarded incessantly 
 with the most powerful artillery of the time. There 
 was no rest for the citizens from constant anxiety 
 and terror, for if the attack on the fortifications gave 
 them any pause, bands of ferocious soldiers paraded 
 the streets, broke into the carefully closed houses, 
 and compelled the poor people who had sought in 
 vain to find a hiding-place to give them all the food 
 and money which still remained to them. The 
 heartless brigands jestingly declared that this was 
 only due payment for the protection which they 
 supplied. 
 
 But even this was not the worst ; for the crowding 
 of so great a multitude within the narrow boundaries 
 
 180 
 
OLYMPIA MORATA 181 
 
 of the city, the insufficient and wretched food, com- 
 bined with hopeless depression of mind, prepared 
 the way for the coming of the plague, whose infection 
 was always at hand in those mediaeval towns. This 
 awful disease spread like wildfire, and before long, 
 nearly half the inhabitants were dead or dying, while 
 the survivors were driven nearly mad with fear and 
 horror. 
 
 But the courage of Olympia and her husband never 
 failed in the midst of these scenes of desolation ; the 
 young physician, with heroic devotion, passed from 
 one plague-stricken chamber to another, bearing 
 everywhere with him rest and healing for the souls 
 of the dying, when it was beyond his power to fight 
 the deadly scourge, or do more than soothe the last 
 anguish of the poor human body. Only a miracle 
 could have saved Andrew from contagion under such 
 circumstances, and before long, he too was laid upon 
 a bed of sickness, a victim to the terrible disease. 
 With marvellous fortitude, his loving wife watched 
 and tended him night and day, never losing hope, 
 although there seemed scarcely a chance of recovery, 
 for by this time even the usual remedies were entirely 
 exhausted. But Olympia's constant prayers, and the 
 intercession of the church at Schweinfurt, were heard, 
 and the life of Andrew Grunthler was spared. 
 
 By this time the siege had lasted so long, that the 
 people were reduced to the last extremity. The walls 
 of the city were still standing, but the besiegers, 
 enraged at this long defence, had sent for new and 
 stronger artillery, which battered the houses and 
 often set them on fire, so that they no longer offered 
 a safe refuge. The besieged were reduced to such 
 straits that they were compelled to take refuge in the 
 
182 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 underground cellars, and it was in one of these dark 
 and dreary caves that Olympia with her young brother 
 Emilio and her husband, scarcely convalescent from 
 his dangerous illness, were hidden for several weeks, 
 and almost reduced to starvation. This is the 
 account of their past sufferings which she had already 
 given in a letter to her friend, Lavinia della Rovere. 
 
 "... When in the course of his arduous and de- 
 voted labours, my beloved husband was seized with 
 the terrible disease, he rapidly grew worse and was 
 in such great danger that there seemed no hope of 
 his life. . . . Under the heavy burden of all these 
 sufferings, one only consolation remained to us, 
 prayer and meditation on the Word of God. I never 
 once turned my thoughts towards the land of Egypt 
 from which we had taken our flight. Far better 
 would it be for us to perish under the ruins of this 
 ill-fated city than to enjoy all the pleasures of life in 
 a land of unbelievers. . . ." 
 
 Meantime the climax was at hand. Albert of 
 Brandenburg, the bandit warrior, had exhausted all 
 his resources in this desperate conflict which he had 
 so boldly carried on against the most powerful princes 
 of the Empire. He could no longer defend the 
 stronghold which threatened to become his tomb, 
 and he resolved to make a desperate effort to escape 
 by night with all his army. With great skill and 
 bravery, he carried out this dangerous manoeuvre, 
 to the intense relief and joy of the inhabitants, who 
 hoped to receive pity and help from their conquerors. 
 But an awful disappointment awaited them. The 
 Elector Maurice of Saxony and the Duke of Brunswick 
 
OLYMPIA MORATA 183 
 
 had immediately hastened in pursuit of the brigand 
 host whom they were destined to overtake and 
 defeat on the field of Siewershausen while the 
 Bishops of Wiirtzburg and Bomberg were left to deal 
 with the forsaken city of Schweinfurt. 
 
 Cruel indeed were the tender mercies of these 
 noble churchmen ; and their barbarity exceeded all 
 that had gone before. They hurled themselves with 
 their greedy followers upon the defenceless city, 
 pillaged it with the utmost craft and violence, and 
 finally set fire to it. The scenes which followed in 
 a place thus taken by assault were heart-rending 
 beyond all description. In vain the terrified multitude 
 pressed towards the gates ; they were mercilessly driven 
 back to certain death. Some fell on their knees and 
 vainly implored mercy from the victorious barbarians, 
 others found their cruel fate in the shelter of their 
 desecrated homes, while the greater number appear 
 to have crowded to the church as a last refuge. 
 Amongst these were Olympia Morata with her 
 husband and young brother, who were swept along 
 with resistless force by the mass of distracted sufferers 
 until they had reached the church door. Then a 
 strange thing happened ; through the growing dark- 
 ness, an unknown soldier approached and implored 
 them to escape at once lest they should be buried 
 in the ashes of the burning city. They instinctively 
 obeyed this warning, and followed their mysterious 
 guide who, taking them by narrow devious ways, 
 led them in safety outside the walls. 
 
 Already the flames were rising up towards the sky, 
 the houses were crashing to the ground with a deafen- 
 ing noise, and the church itself was not spared, for 
 the unfortunate people who had taken refuge there, 
 
184 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 were either suffocated in the flames or crushed be- 
 neath the ruins. In a letter written in Italian to a 
 friend, Olympia gives a thrilling account of their 
 marvellous escape from the burning city. 
 
 " Rejoice with us, dear Cherubina, and return 
 thanks to God Who, in His great mercy delivered us 
 from the perils to which we have been exposed for 
 the last fourteen months. He preserved us in the 
 time of famine, so that we were able to help others. 
 He raised up my husband from his bed of sickness 
 when the pestilence raged through the town for seven 
 weeks ; for He had mercy on me in my deep sorrow, 
 when I should have lost all hope without the help of 
 that Faith which pierces through the secrets of the 
 invisible world. . . . 
 
 ' You remember that passage of Isaiah . . . ' Fear 
 not, Israel, for the Lord will be with thee when thou 
 passest through the fire/ Thus was He with us in 
 the midst of the devouring flames ; and this is no 
 allegory but the simple truth. The princes of the 
 Empire and the bishops came to besiege Schweinfurt ; 
 day and night the artillery attacked us. ... 
 
 " The city was taken by treason, and against the 
 orders of the Emperor it was pillaged and set on fire. 
 We escaped almost by a miracle, led by an unknown 
 soldier. . . . Twice my husband fell into the hands of 
 the enemies. . . . What was my distress ! And if 
 ever I have prayed with all my heart, it was then. I 
 cried to the Lord in my agony : ' Help me ! Help 
 me ! for the love of Thy Name ! ' and I never ceased 
 to pray until Andrew was restored to me. Could you 
 have seen my dishevelled hair, my clothes in rags . . . , 
 my feet cut and bruised, for in my flight I had lost 
 
OLYMPIA MORATA 185 
 
 my shoes and we had to escape along the bed of the 
 river, over stones and rocks. ... At every step I 
 cried : ' I cannot go on, I am dying. Lord, if Thou 
 wilt save me, send Thine angels to bear me on their 
 wings. . . . 
 
 " It seems to me impossible that I was able to 
 travel ten miles that night. I had been ill, I was 
 still frail and suffering, and the terrible fatigue 
 brought on a fever which continued all that journey. 
 . . . The Lord had pity upon our distress . . . after 
 many dangers and adventures we met with kind 
 help, and at length reached this city of Heidelberg, 
 where my husband has been made Professor of 
 Medicine, and we are in the midst of friends." 
 
 Then she tells of the hospitality they received at 
 the Court of the Count Eberhard of Erpach, who 
 had risked both life and fortune for the Reformed 
 Faith, and whose wife, a sister of the Count Palatine 
 Frederick II, joined him in the warmest appreciation 
 of the talents and devotion of Olympia Morata. She 
 was taken to the palace and nursed through her 
 serious illness which followed, by the Princess herself 
 and her daughters. In the terrible disaster of 
 Schweinfurt, everything had been lost and the 
 Grunthler family were absolutely destitute. But 
 most of all Olympia felt the loss of the whole of her 
 precious books which had been brought with infinite 
 trouble from Ferrara. One book only had been 
 saved from the flames and was found beneath the 
 ruins of her house ; a volume of the Lives of Plutarch, 
 which Johann Sinapius bought and sent to her 
 husband, because he had found the name of Olympia 
 written on the last page. Other friends were eager 
 
186 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 to replace some of her treasures, and Celio Secundo 
 Curione writes to her : 
 
 " If you have lost all your worldly goods, my 
 beloved Olympia, yet you must not forget that you 
 still possess all that is most precious ; your genius, 
 learning, wisdom, innocence, piety and faith. ... I 
 wrote about the books to your husband. Our printers 
 have sent you in my name, Homer and other classical 
 books as my gift. If they are to be found at Frank- 
 furt, you shall have the Commentaries on the Lamenta- 
 tions of Jeremiah, that you may meditate with him 
 on the sorrows of your husband's unhappy country. 
 We have sent you all the works of Sophocles which 
 are extant, and I trust that you will now take up 
 again your interrupted studies, and compose a noble 
 work worthy to obtain the sacred laurel wreath which 
 you have so long deserved." 
 
 Her other friends combined to replace to some 
 extent her lost library, and she writes : 
 
 ' Thank Operinus, Hervagius, and Frobenius 1 for 
 the gift which they have bestowed upon me of so 
 many precious books ; nothing will ever make me 
 forget their generosity towards me. . . ." 
 
 The University of Heidelberg, founded in the 
 fourteenth century by the Count Palatine, was a 
 great centre of learning and had a magnificent 
 library. The new-comers were so much appreciated 
 that, as we have seen, Andrew was appointed to be 
 Professor of Medicine, and one historian says that 
 
 1 Famous publishers at Basle. 
 
OLYMPIA MORATA 187 
 
 Olympia was invited to lecture upon Greek literature. 
 But for her, the dreams of literary ambition, the 
 triumphs of genius and scholarship were at an end. 
 After all the terrible trials which she had endured, 
 her failing health left her scarcely strength for the 
 household duties which now, in her poverty, devolved 
 upon her in loving care for her husband and brother, 
 as she could not afford a servant. 
 
 About this time, her friend Johann Sinapius lost 
 his wife Francesca, and was anxious to place his 
 daughter Theodora once more in the charge of Olympia. 
 She gladly accepted, but ventured to ask that the 
 young girl should bring her bed with her, as they 
 had not been able to buy much furniture. Yet 
 nothing could put a check to her generosity, for she 
 sent help from her poor savings to Schweinfurt, only 
 to receive the reply : ' The poor women whom you 
 used to visit at the hospital and for whom you feel 
 so deeply, have disappeared and no one knows what 
 has become of them. . . ." Her tender heart was full 
 of sympathy for other friends in distress. The 
 recent accession of Queen Mary in England had driven 
 away the Reformers who had taken refuge there. 
 She wrote to her sister Vittoria : "I hear that 
 Bernardino Ochino of Siena, that pious and elo- 
 quent man, has been compelled to seek a refuge at 
 Geneva. . . ." Peter Martyr and others had also 
 narrowly escaped with their lives. 
 
 Above all, Olympia grieved over the cruel persecu- 
 tion of her friends in Ferrara, but she thanks God 
 that her mother and sisters had remained firm in their 
 faith, and she implores them to join her in a free 
 land. The sufferings of the Protestants in France 
 move her to tears, and she writes an imploring letter 
 
188 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 to her former pupil, Anna cTEste, now Duchess of 
 Lorraine : 
 
 " As the Lord has given you the blessing of knowing 
 the truth, you cannot be ignorant of the innocence of 
 the men . . . who are exposed to such cruel torments 
 for the sake of Christ. It is your duty to intercede 
 for them ... to implore their pardon. If you remain 
 silent, if you let them suffer and die without defence, 
 you become an accomplice of their persecutors. I 
 know that in pleading their cause you may provoke 
 the anger of the King, that of your husband and 
 the fury of your enemies. I reply that it is better 
 to offend men than God. ... If God is for us, who 
 can be against us ? ' 
 
 We are thankful to know that Anna d'Este made a 
 noble response to this appeal, although her plea of 
 intercession was raised in vain. 
 
 As her health failed, Olympia still occupied all 
 her spare time with the education of Theodora and 
 her own little brother Emilio, who read with her 
 Horace, Virgil, Cicero and Homer, and joined with 
 her in the study of the Bible. He appears to have 
 been a most promising child with a charming dis- 
 position. Her last letter to Lavinia della Rovere 
 shows how her thoughts dwelt upon the instability 
 of earthly things. 
 
 " Believe me dear Lavinia, that no one can escape 
 troubles who lives a holy life. We are strangers and 
 pilgrims upon this earth. . . . The adversary of our 
 souls, as the poet puts it, follows the sailor on his 
 ship and rides behind the horseman. We must pray 
 
OLYMPIA MORATA 189 
 
 without ceasing that we fall not in the conflict, and 
 that we may obtain the crown of life. . . . War is 
 raging on every side and the saints are exposed to a 
 thousand tribulations. . . . But their trials should 
 fill them with joy, because they foretell the day, so 
 glorious and so near, when they will enjoy together 
 the bliss of Heaven, Here below, our souls only 
 meet in letters, and behold each other in the spirit. 
 The semblance of this world is passing away ! . . ." 
 
 In the beginning of the summer of 1555, the plague 
 broke out in Heidelberg, and there were many 
 victims. Notwithstanding Olympiads failing health, 
 her husband was constantly called away from her 
 bed of sickness, and in her brave unselfishness, she 
 would not have it otherwise. In July her life was 
 despaired of, although her friends at a distance could 
 not believe that this brilliant scholar whom they 
 remembered so full of life and radiance could be 
 taken from them before she had reached her prime ; 
 she was not yet twenty-nine. The touching story of 
 her last moments is told by her husband in a letter 
 to her devoted and life-long friend Curione. 
 
 " She passed away with eager joy as though she 
 already beheld the glorious realities of the heaven 
 she was about to enter. . . . Not long before her death, 
 she awoke from a short slumber, and smiled with a 
 mysterious air, as though she were ravished by some 
 ineffable thought. I drew near and asked her why 
 she smiled so happily. ' I saw in my dream/ she 
 said, ' a place filled with the most pure and beautiful 
 light . . / she could say no more from weakness. 
 ' Courage, my beloved/ said I ; ' you will soon dwell 
 
190 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 in that perfect light/ She smiled again, and gave 
 a sign of assent. A little later, she said : ' I am 
 happy, absolutely happy/ Then after awhile, as 
 her sight grew dim, she whispered : ' I scarcely see 
 you, but all around me there are beautiful flowers/ 
 Those were her last words. An instant later, she 
 seemed overcome by peaceful sleep and breathed out 
 her spirit. . . ." 
 
 This was on November 7, 1555.. Her husband 
 was broken-hearted at the loss of his gallant, un- 
 daunted companion who had been his support and 
 comfort throughout all his trials. All the letters of 
 her friends bore the noblest testimony to her splendid 
 character. They are too long and numerous to 
 quote, but a few words from one written by Curione 
 to the bereaved mother at Ferrara, show the high 
 estimation in which she was held. 
 
 " Our Olympia is not dead ; she rests from her 
 labours in a blessed and immortal life. She lives in 
 Paradise, and she lives also here below in our hearts 
 and in the memory of those who know her beautiful 
 works, those wonderful monuments of her exquisite 
 talent. 
 
 By a strange fatality, her husband did not long 
 survive her. The plague continued its ravages at 
 Heidelberg. The University was closed, and the 
 city was almost deserted ; yet Andrew Grunthler 
 visited the survivors with constant and devoted care, 
 until he too was stricken down with the deadly 
 infection for the second time. He passed away on 
 December 22, the month after his wife's death, with 
 the words of the 42nd Psalm on his lips : 
 
OLYMPIA MORATA 191 
 
 " Like as the hart desireth the water-brooks, so 
 longeth my soul after Thee, God. 
 
 " My soul is athirst for God, yea even for the living 
 God ; when shall I come to appear before the presence 
 of God ? " 
 
 The boy Emilio was to have been sent to the loving 
 care of Curione, " in order that he might be so taught 
 as to emulate the reputation of the sister by whom 
 alone he had hitherto been educated." But another 
 fate was in store for him ; already weak and suffering 
 in health, he fell a victim to the dread disease which 
 had carried off his brother-in-law, whom he shortly 
 followed to the grave. The three who had been so 
 united in life were buried in the same grave, in a 
 chapel of the Cathedral of Heidelberg, where the 
 touching inscription to their memory may still be seen. 
 Amongst the many appreciations of her friends, 
 one of the most interesting is the following memorial 
 hymn in her honour, by Celio Secundo Curione. 
 
 " Knowest thou why this spot is laden with flowers 
 and breathes forth the perfume of violets and lilies ? 
 Listen, and I will tell thee. Remember the three 
 Graces and the nine Muses, so famous in the poems of 
 antiquity, by all that nature and art can combine to 
 add to their glory. She who, by a pious illusion, is 
 supposed to sleep within this tomb, deserves to be 
 known as the tenth Muse and the fourth Grace. 
 Daughter of heaven by her poetry, she received the 
 name of Olympia. Fulvia was her second name 
 because, tested in the crucible of misfortune, she was 
 found purer than gold ; or because, following the 
 example of the eagle living in the regions of light, 
 
192 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 she early took her flight from here below. Finally 
 her splendid talents, combined with a most noble and 
 holy life, made her worthy of the surname of Morata. 
 
 " Christ, her great Master, only suffered her to 
 appear upon earth for a brief instant, and she had 
 scarcely suffered the pains of exile before He called 
 her back to Heaven. She has entered into her rest 
 and tastes the bliss of eternal felicity. 
 
 " Passer-by, whoever thou art, mayest thou live 
 longer days upon this earth, showing forth those 
 virtues which will make thee happy for ever ! " 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 
 CELIO SECUNDO CURIONE 
 
 Life of Celio Secundo Curione At the University of Turin Adopts 
 the reformed opinions Taken prisoner on his way to Germany 
 Sent to a monastery His escape to Milan Life at Casale, at 
 Pavia, and Ferrara Friendship with the Morato family Com- 
 pelled to seek refuge at Lausanne, by persecution Works of 
 Curione His splendid talent and scholarship His family 
 Tragic losses Death of Curione, 1569. 
 
 IN the memoir of Olympia Morata, we have so often 
 had occasion to allude to her most intimate friend, 
 Celio Secundo Curione, that it seems an appropriate 
 moment to tell the story of his life. 
 
 This distinguished Italian Reformer was born at 
 Turin in the year 1503, and he was the youngest of 
 twenty-three children, many of whom died in early 
 life. His father, Jacomino Roterio Curione, was of 
 noble birth, and his mother, Carlotta de Montrolier, 
 was sister of the French Master of the Horse. The 
 family name was derived from an ancient castle 
 which was handed down from distinguished ancestors. 
 Carlotta had been Lady in Waiting to the Duchess 
 Bianca of Savoy, a daughter of the House of Monte- 
 feltro and wife of the young Duke Carlo. 
 
 Celio was only nine years old when he was deprived 
 of his parents, and besides his inheritance shared 
 with the surviving two brothers and two sisters, his 
 father left him the Curione home and surrounding 
 
 13 193 
 
194 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 farms. He also gave to this favourite child, a beauti- 
 ful MS. copy of the Scriptures, illuminated with 
 miniatures on fine parchment, which in later years 
 was to be his greatest treasure. The boy early 
 showed great intellectual promise, and his earliest 
 teaching was at a small grammar school, where he 
 so much distinguished himself that his relations sent 
 him to continue his studies at the University, where 
 Erasmus had recently, in 1506, taken his degree. 
 Living in the house of his aunt Maddalena, he at- 
 tended the lectures of all the great scholars of the 
 time, such as Dominico Macaro, Giovanni Brema 
 and Giorgio Carrara, poets, historians and orators. 
 He also devoted himself to the study of Civil Law, 
 under the teaching of Francesco Sfodrato, of Milan. 
 
 At this period, the idea of reform was in the air, 
 and it is not strange that the eager young scholar 
 had a strong desire to hear all about the new doctrines, 
 which in the Augustinian convent where he had taken 
 up his abode, were condemned as heretical and untrue. 
 He first became acquainted with Luther's book on 
 " Indulgences/' then his " Babylonish Captivity/' and 
 also readUlrich Zwingle's "De vera et falsa religio," 
 and several works by Melanchthon. He was en- 
 couraged in this study by one of the monks, Girolamo 
 Negri, who if not in any sense a Protestant, was yet 
 most desirous of the internal reform of the Church. 
 
 Celio was so much impressed by his reading that 
 he resolved to go to Germany and there learn more 
 on these interesting subjects from the teaching of 
 Erasmus and Melanchthon themselves. Two of his 
 young friends, Francesco Guarini and Giacomo 
 Camillo (who later became ministers of the Reformed 
 Church), were eager to join him, and the three young 
 
CELIO SECUNDO CURIONE 195 
 
 men, all under twenty, were full of high spirits at 
 the thought of their pilgrimage over the Alps. They 
 made no secret of their intentions and seem to have 
 talked so imprudently on religious subjects, that 
 they were arrested on the way by order of Boniface 
 the Cardinal Bishop of Ivrea, who caused them to be 
 imprisoned in separate dungeons. For two long 
 months, young Curione was confined in the castle of 
 Capranio, and was only released through the inter- 
 cession of his relations. On making his acquaintance, 
 the Cardinal was so much interested in the brilliant 
 scholar, that he offered to assist him in his future 
 studies, and for this purpose and also to confirm the 
 youth in the orthodox faith, he placed him in the 
 neighbouring Priory of St. Benigno. 
 
 The Cardinal could not have sent Curione to a worse 
 place for his purpose, as the monks were entirely 
 given over to superstition and were proud of possessing 
 relics and bones of saints, to which people crowded 
 for miraculous cures. Celio Curione could not believe 
 in these r and he openly expressed his opinions to his 
 companions. He went still farther, and one day took 
 an opportunity of opening a box of relics on the altar, 
 and put a copy of the Bible in their place with this 
 inscription : " This is the ark of the Covenant, which 
 contains the genuine oracles of God, and th true 
 relics of the saints." 
 
 The box was adored as usual until, on a solemn 
 festival, it was opened, and when the discovery was 
 made, suspicion fell upon Curione, who fled and made 
 his escape to Milan, and thence to Eome, which he 
 had always desired to visit. After a time he returned 
 to Milan where he made many influential friends, 
 and found employment in teaching the classics, both 
 
196 ITALIAN KEFOKMATION 
 
 in that city and at Pavia. All this neighbourhood 
 had recently been ravaged by war, which brought 
 famine and plague in its train ; and when others 
 fled from the danger, the young scholar had the 
 opportunity of showing quite heroic devotion in 
 nursing the sick and destitute, and helping them 
 with all that he possessed. This generous conduct 
 attracted the attention of a noble family of the 
 name Isacchi, who invited him with friendly hos- 
 pitality to their villa outside the walls, where later 
 he married the daughter, Margherita. 
 
 Not long after this, he was fortunate in obtaining 
 an invitation from the old Bishop Giovanni Giorgio, 
 who, on the death of his young nephew, had become 
 Marquis of Monferrato, and who now offered him 
 interesting literary occupation and a quiet home in 
 his capital of Casale Monferrato, beautifully situated 
 on the river Po, between Pavia and Turin. The 
 Marquis was old and infirm, but he must have been 
 a man of broad views in religion, to become an 
 intimate friend of young Curione. It was probably 
 with some reluctance that Giovanni Giorgio was 
 induced by the Emperor to marry the rejected bride 
 of the Duke of Mantua, the Infanta Giulia d'Aragona. 
 In April 1533, this marriage was celebrated at Ferrara 
 with great solemnity, but when the bride reached 
 Casale on the 21st, the poor old Marquis was confined 
 to his bed with illness, and died within a week. The 
 wife of the young Duke Federico of Mantua, Mar- 
 gherita Paleologa, was the next heir to Monferrato, 
 which was soon annexed to Mantua. 
 
 These changes may have induced Curione to leave 
 Casale, and lay claim to his patrimony, now that 
 both his brothers were dead. But one of his sisters 
 
CELIO SECUNDO CURIONE 197 
 
 and her husband had already taken possession of it, 
 and they at once brought a suit against him for 
 heresy. Driven out of Italy, he withdrew to Mon- 
 calieri, in the dominions of Savoy, where he had some 
 property, and could also obtain various educational 
 work. He happened to be in Turin one day when a 
 Dominican monk was preaching against the Lu- 
 therans, accusing them of the most hateful vices, 
 and in order to prove this, giving false quotations 
 from a book of Luther's. Celio Curione obtained 
 permission to answer these accusations, and he read 
 out from the " Commentary on the Epistle to the Ga- 
 la tians " enough to prove their falsehood. The con- 
 gregation were so indignant that they drove the 
 friar out of the city. 
 
 The Inquisition of Turin at once ordered Curione 
 to be arrested ; his home was pillaged and destroyed 
 and he was shut fast in prison, but with great skill 
 and ingenuity, he contrived to escape. His friends 
 at Pa via received him with joy and made him a 
 professor in the University, where for three years 
 he was protected from the Inquisition by a strong 
 guard of students. Not until the Pope threatened 
 the town with excommunication did he retire to 
 Venice, and later to Ferrara. Here he was most 
 kindly received by the Duchess Renee, and warmly 
 welcomed by his old friend, Fulvio Pellegrino Morato, 
 whose acquaintance he had made some years before, 
 during his travels, wnen he stayed at Verceil in 
 Piedmont. 
 
 These two men were drawn together by a similarity 
 of tastes and studies, to which was soon added a 
 warmer sympathy in their devotion to the Reformed 
 Faith. Thus there grew between them a warm and 
 
198 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 intimate affection which was only destined to be 
 severed by death. A most interesting correspondence 
 between these two distinguished scholars has been 
 preserved, in which, unshaken by all the terrible 
 events which took place around them, they calmly 
 discuss literature, art and science. Now it is a 
 dissertation on the authenticity of a work attributed 
 to Cicero ; then a description of the route across 
 nameless sea and land, undertaken by the genius of 
 Vasco de Gama. Curione points out the stopping 
 places in the immense itinerary which divides Lusi- 
 tania from the Indies ; he measures the distance and 
 exclaims : 
 
 * What names have appeared and disappeared one 
 after another on those shores ! What changes the 
 centuries bear onwards in their majestic flood ! 
 Empires and nations fade away with even their 
 names. How many nations and cities, once flourish- 
 ing, to-day cover the earth with their dust ! The 
 spectacle of so many accumulated ruins should excite 
 us to continue our course towards the Heavenly 
 Jerusalem, that enduring and eternal kingdom, where 
 we shall inherit true riches and true felicity/' 
 
 During the close intimacy of the two friends for 
 a whole year in Ferrara, it was the younger man, 
 Celio, who took the lead in pointing out the Reformed 
 doctrines which he had so earnestly studied. When 
 the angry suspicions of the Duke of Ferrara made 
 it unsafe for him to remain longer in the city, and he 
 had accepted an invitation to Lucca, Morato wrote 
 to him : 
 
 " Never have I felt such grief as now, at your 
 
CELIO SECUNDO CURIONE 199 
 
 departure from us ; it is as if my human body had 
 lost its soul. Formerly I only read, or turned over 
 at my leisure, certain pages of St. Paul or of St. John, 
 or some other portion of the Holy Scriptures and 
 that was all. It was your voice alone, my dear 
 Celio, which found the way to my heart. The light 
 which shone forth from your words showed to me 
 the way of salvation. As I look back upon the dark 
 shadows in which I dwelt, I see how you brought 
 radiance around my path, so that it is no longer I 
 who live, but Christ Who lives in me. . . ." 
 
 The other members of his household felt the same 
 change, and lamented the loss of their " divine 
 teacher " ; and although the full awakening of Olympia 
 Morata was delayed for some time, yet she always 
 remembered her father's friend Celio Curione, with 
 the deepest admiration and affection, and as we have 
 seen, their friendship endured to the end. 
 
 Curione was welcomed by the Keformers of Lucca, 
 and was even appointed Professor at the University ; 
 but before the end of the year, the Pope sent a 
 command that he should be arrested and tried on 
 the charge of heresy in Rome. Feeling that he would 
 not be suffered to rest in Italy, he turned his steps 
 towards Germany by way of Zurich, and reached 
 Lausanne, where he was raised to the important post 
 of Rector in the University. 
 
 He had left his wife Margherita and his children 
 at Lucca, and when he returned to fetch them he 
 had a very narrow escape from arrest. But his 
 wonderful courage and presence of mind saved him 
 from the officials of the Inquisition, and he made a 
 quiet home at Lausanne for the next four years. 
 
200 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 In the year 1547, his fame had spread in all 
 directions, and he was invited to Basle and ap- 
 pointed to the Chair of Roman Eloquence in that 
 city. Pupils flocked to hear him from distant 
 countries, and the Prince Palatine sent his son to be 
 taught by him. He refused offers from Kings and 
 Princes ; the Emperor Maximilian II invited him to 
 the University of Vienna, Vaivod King of Tran- 
 sylvania invited him to Weissemburg, and the Duke 
 of Savoy offered him a post at Turin. Even the 
 Pope made splendid offers to win him back, but he 
 remained firm to his faith, and lived in Basle the rest 
 of his life, twenty-two years. 
 
 Amongst his pupils were many distinguished 
 scholars, amongst whom was the famous Basil 
 Amberbachio, and two sons of Bullinger, Henry and 
 Johann, and a young Polish noble Abraham Sbaski. 
 The special subjects in which Curione was most 
 successful were History, Philosophy and Theology, 
 in which his chief work was " De Ajnplitudine regni 
 Dei." In this book he gives full scope to his eager 
 hope and enthusiasm. 
 
 " The Kingdom of God will prevail and spread 
 throughout the earth. Christ is the Prince of our 
 fortified city and its three towers are Faith, Hope and 
 Charity. The joyful sound of the Gospel has in our 
 own day reached the Scythians, Thracians, Indians 
 and Africans. Christ, the King of kings, has taken 
 possession of Rhcetia and Helvetia ; Germany is 
 under his protection ; he has reigned and will again 
 reign in England. He sways his sceptre over D enmark 
 and the Cymbrian nations, Prussia is his ; Poland 
 and the whole of Sarmatia are on the point of yielding 
 
CELIO SECUNDO CUEIONE 201 
 
 to him ; he is pressing forward to Pannonia, Muscovy 
 looks toward him ; he beckons the kingdom of France 
 to his feet ; Italy, our native country, is travailing 
 in birth, and Spain will soon follow. Even the Jews 
 are no longer averse to Christianity, since they see 
 that we acknowledge one God, the Creator of Heaven 
 and earth . . . that we worship neither images, nor 
 symbols, nor pictures . . . and that we acknowledge 
 that we received Christ from their Jewish race. . . ." 
 
 History has told us how much and how little these 
 eager hopes were realized ! But Curione 's fame rests 
 not only on his printed works. His letters are ex- 
 tremely interesting and of these a great number 
 still remain in manuscript within the University of 
 Basle. There are some which he wrote to our Queen 
 Elizabeth, on whom all the hopes of the Protestants 
 in Europe were fixed, and when he edited the works 
 of Olympia Morata, he dedicated them to the Queen 
 of England. Melanchthon was a great admirer of 
 Celio Curione, and wrote thus to him : 
 
 " Language is a picture of the mind ; when I 
 read your writings I thought most highly of their 
 noble style, and felt that to you might be applied 
 those words of Homer : ' Wise is thy voice and noble 
 is thy heart/ Before I knew you, I loved you . . . 
 and now still more for the piety and constancy with 
 which you have suffered for your open confession of 
 the truth " 
 
 This was the beginning of a long and interesting 
 correspondence between these two learned men. 
 Curione and his wife Margherita had a large family 
 
202 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 and the training and education of their promising 
 children was a constant delight to them. The eldest 
 son Horatio, was born in 1534 ; he was sent to 
 continue his studies hi Italy and distinguished himself 
 at the University of Pisa, where he took his degree in 
 Philosophy and Medicine at the early age of twenty. 
 He went to Constantinople on a religious mission, 
 in which his medical knowledge was of great assistance 
 to him, but unfortunately the climate did not suit 
 him and he died of fever before his thirtieth year, 
 in 1564. 
 
 The eldest daughter, Violante, born in 1541, was 
 one of the most brilliant and accomplished members 
 of the gifted family. She was married to the famous 
 Girolamo Zanchi of Bergamo, who had an eventful 
 and interesting career. He was the son of Francesco 
 Zanchi and was born at Alzano ; and in early life 
 joined the Order of Regular Canons. He was an 
 ardent student of Theology, and his meeting with 
 Peter Martyr at Lucca turned him to the study of 
 the Reformed doctrines ; he followed his teacher in 
 his flight from Lucca, passing through the Grisons 
 and from thence to Geneva. His fame spread later 
 to Strasburg, where he was invited to be Professor 
 of Theology and Philosophy. Here he made the 
 acquaintance of Celio Curione, and soon after married 
 Violante, his eldest and most talented daughter. It 
 was a very happy marriage, as husband and wife 
 had similar faith and the same interest in literary 
 pursuits ; but it was of short duration. Three years 
 after, at the age of twenty- three, just after her 
 friend Olympia Morata had passed away, Violante 
 died in the same perfect hope and joyful confidence. 
 Her loss was a terrible grief to her father and mother, 
 
CELIO SECUNDO CURIONE 203 
 
 wlio were destined to suffer still more painful bereave- 
 ment within a few years. 
 
 The third daughter Angela, was born at Lausanne 
 in 1546, and was only eighteen when she fell a victim 
 to the awful plague which laid waste the city of Basle 
 in 1564. Of her, we have a most touching description 
 in a letter which Curione wrote to his son Agostino, 
 who was then continuing his studies in Italy, and 
 was already distinguished for his proficiency in the 
 art of Rhetoric. After dwelling upon the last sad 
 scene, the bereaved father continues : 
 
 " Her greatest delight was in acquiring knowledge 
 . . . which her intelligence and wonderful memory 
 made easy to her. She understood four languages, 
 Latin, Italian, French and German, and she could 
 write and speak them all with the utmost facility. 
 She had read through the New Testament seven 
 times . . . she also read many other books of learned 
 and classical literature. . . . She was a great help to 
 me in the collation of manuscripts, for the right 
 understanding of Latin authors, and she constantly 
 read aloud to save fatigue to my eyes. . . . She was of 
 a lively disposition, most gentle and pleasing in the 
 society of friends whom she charmed by her wit and 
 brightness, and her ready talent in relating anecdotes 
 and stories. She was so full of charity that she 
 never said an unkind word, and always put a 
 favourable construction on the speech and action of 
 others " 
 
 Then with loving persistence, Curione dwells upon 
 the domestic and household gifts of his beloved 
 daughter, and seems to find a kind of consolation in 
 
204 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 reflecting upon the beauty of her character and all 
 her charms of person and mind. 
 
 The terrible plague still continued, and 4,000 people 
 are said to have died in the city of Basle and as 
 many in the country round. It was only nine days 
 after the death of Angela, when the next sister, Celia, 
 who was only seventeen, began to show symptoms 
 of the same illness. It seems too overwhelming to 
 be true, and as though, never since the days of Job, 
 had losses followed in such awful succession but 
 Celia had scarcely breathed her last sigh before the 
 darling of the house, the youngest child, sweet little 
 Felice, was seized with such a severe attack, that 
 within four days, she too had passed away, leaving 
 her parents desolate indeed. 
 
 But when we consider the deadly contagion of the 
 plague, and the ignorance in those days of the simplest 
 laws of infection, we cannot wonder that whole 
 families were constantly swept utterly away. The 
 sad case was, in truth, that there should be any 
 survivors to mourn for the storm which had ravaged 
 their home. 
 
 It was immediately after this cruel disaster, that 
 Celio and Margherita received the news of Horatio 
 their eldest son's death in Constantinople, to which 
 we have already alluded. Of all their loved family, 
 there only now remained one daughter and the 
 youngest son Leo. The second son Agostino, the 
 most learned of all, who wrote the "History of the 
 Saracens," was made Professor of Rhetoric at Basle, 
 and died in 1566. Dorothea, who was their second 
 daughter, four years older than Angela, had been left 
 behind in the care of some devoted friends, when 
 her father and mother were preparing for their perilous 
 
CELIO SECUNDO CUEIONE 205 
 
 escape from Lucca. She had grown up to love these 
 as her real parents, for they had no children of their 
 own, and had warmly adopted the young girl with 
 the most tender affection. It was impossible for 
 Curione to ask for her back, but in a letter to his 
 friend Aonio Paleario, who was then Professor of 
 Eloquence at Lucca, he begged for a portrait of 
 Dorothea. This was sent to him in 1552, with a 
 long kind letter, giving a full account of her. It is 
 interesting to know that the picture can now be seen 
 in the Museum of Basle ; the girl holds in her hand a 
 letter, on which may be read the name " Dorothea/' 
 
 As for the youngest son Leo, the last remaining 
 child of Curione and Margherita, he also had been 
 sent to study in Italy, and had accompanied a certain 
 Professor named Kista to Poland, where there was 
 now freedom of religious thought. Leo Curione 
 had there obtained a state appointment, and had 
 been entrusted with several important embassies to 
 various Courts of Europe. However, with noble 
 self-sacrifice he at once obeyed his father's imploring 
 summons to return to Basle after the death of Agostino 
 in 1566 and gave up his splendid prospects in 
 Poland, without a murmur. His return was a great 
 comfort to his mourning parents, and he lived a useful 
 and honourable life in his home. He married a lady 
 of the name of Flaminia, a daughter of the Moralto 
 family, which came originally from Locarno. We do 
 not know much of his later life except that, during 
 the wars of religion in France, he was imprisoned by 
 the Guise party, and kept for some time in con- 
 finement. 
 
 Of Celio Secundo Curione himself, there is but 
 little more to say. He continued his appointed 
 
206 ITALIAN EEFORMATION 
 
 work, lecturing daily at the College of Basle, when 
 in the winter of 1569, he was suddenly taken ill, and 
 died after a few days' illness, on November 25. There 
 was a great funeral procession of learned men and 
 students who deeply grieved for the loss of their 
 honoured friend. He was laid to rest in the cloisters 
 of the Cathedral, by the side of his three young 
 daughters and his son Agostino ; his pathetic funeral 
 sermon was listened to with heartfelt sympathy by 
 the multitude in the crowded Cathedral, who had 
 long experience of his great talents and his unceasing 
 charity. 
 
 His wife Margherita, who had been his dearest 
 friend and companion for forty years, lived on in 
 quiet and patient seclusion until May 12, 1587, but 
 of her we have no further record. It must have 
 been a comfort to her to hear her husband's praises 
 on every side, and to be told that he had perhaps 
 done more than any one else to forward the Italian 
 Reformation, both by word and deed. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 AONIO PALEABIO 
 
 Life of Aonio Paleario Born at Veroli Early studies Visits Padua 
 and Perugia Settles at Siena His eloquence and learned 
 writings Persecuted at Rome for his opinions Professor at 
 Lucca, and at Milan Condemned by the Inquisition Taken to 
 Rome, where he suffered martrydom, 1570 Attended by the 
 Misericordia Letters to his wife and children. 
 
 No history of the Men and Women of the Italian 
 Reformation would be complete without some ac- 
 count of the famous Aonio Paleario, whose work 
 was so individual and independent, that we can 
 scarcely join him on to any group of Reformers. 
 
 He was born in the year 1500 at Veroli, the ancient 
 Verulam, on the confines of the Campagna of Rome. 
 His father was Marteo Paleario and his mother's 
 name was Chiara Janarilla ; he was baptized as 
 Antonio, but later changed his name to the more 
 classical Aonio. We know very little about his 
 early history, beyond the fact that his parents died 
 when he was very young, and that when the learned 
 Ennio Filonardi became Bishop of Veroli, he took 
 great interest in the promising youth. Aonio was at 
 Rome continuing his studies, for several years before 
 the terrible sack of the city in 1527. He was an 
 eager student of the classics, more especially of 
 Cicero and Aristotle, and his reputation appears to 
 
 307 
 
208 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 have obtained him a post in the library of a rich 
 Roman noble, whom he alludes to as his " Caesar." 
 Here he was falsely accused of copying some valuable 
 work about Livy, for the sake of his own interest, 
 and he was so indignant that he resigned his position. 
 We next hear of him in 1529, when he writes to 
 his friend Mauro, of Arcano : 
 
 "... So earnestly do I thirst after philosophy and 
 those studies to which, before the capture of Rome 
 by the Spaniards, I had devoted six years, that I 
 ardently desire to resume them. ... I hear that 
 literature flourishes in Tuscany ; there is nothing to 
 prevent my going straight to Siena, unless I first 
 visit Perugia, where my friend Ennio (late Bishop of 
 Veroli), is now vice-Legate. I long much to see 
 him for he has warm affection for me, and the philo- 
 sophers of Perugia are not to be despised. If the 
 inveterate barbarisms with which commentators have 
 disfigured that branch of learning, do not prevail 
 there, I can nowhere be happier . . . but otherwise, 
 I will visit Padua where Lampridio rightly interprets 
 the Greek compositions of Aristotle. . . . Farewell. 
 Rome." 
 
 This friend Mauro was a poet whose work was 
 preferred by Ruscelli to that of Berni, the clever 
 satirist. When Paleario went to Perugia having 
 we presume, discovered that a vicious style of com- 
 position did not prevail there he was received with 
 warm hospitality by his friend Filonardi, the Governor. 
 But the scholarship of the University did not satisfy 
 him and after some months, he travelled on to Siena. 
 He is delighted with the scenery, but he finds the 
 
AONIO PALEARIO 209 
 
 College there also " full of barbarisms " ; however, 
 lie remained in the hill city, engaged in study, for 
 several years. 
 
 It was not until the year 1531, that Paleario \ 
 carried out his design of visiting Padua, where his / 
 critical taste was thoroughly satisfied with the splendid 
 scholarship of the poet and linguist, Benedetto 
 Lampridio, whose private Academy attracted scholars 
 from all parts to study the classics under his guidance. 
 The University of Padua had recently renewed its 
 ancient glory, and was in a most flourishing condition, 
 and Aonio Paleario greatly enjoyed the year which 
 he spent in that city, and wrote with great enthusiasm 
 about the eloquence of Lampridio, describing him as 
 another Demosthenes. 
 
 Paleario was on his way to Rome and had travelled 
 as far as Bologna, when he was recalled to Siena by 
 a pressing appeal from a friend who was unjustly 
 accused, and who implored the help of his eloquence 
 and legal knowledge. His advocacy met with splendid 
 success ; he was able to prove that Antonio Bellanti 
 was the victim of a base conspiracy, and his eloquent 
 oration, together with his profound knowledge of 
 Roman jurisprudence, was looked upon as a brilliant 
 success ; the pleader had thoroughly established his 
 reputation. 
 
 While at Siena, he received an earnest letter from 
 the learned Bembo, strongly advising him to return 
 to Padua, and continue his philosophical studies. 
 This was in 1533, and we find him soon after com- 
 pleting his poem, " On the Immortality of the Soul," 
 and resuming his peaceful life in Padua. There is 
 a curious mixture of Christian and Pagan philosophy 
 in this poem, which begins by lauding the wisdom 
 14 
 
210 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 and power of the Creator ; then the author invokes 
 Aristotle to guide him through the labyrinths of this 
 mystery . . . and lastly he desires to describe the 
 state of the soul after death, with the rewards and 
 punishments which await us at the end of our ap- 
 pointed course in this world. . . . 
 
 Although Paleario greatly enjoyed the literary 
 society of Padua and the friendship of Bembo, he 
 was more drawn towards his older friends at Siena, 
 and decided to settle in their neighbourhood. But 
 first he paid a visit to Rome, where Ennio Filonardi, 
 his earliest patron, was now Governor of St. Angelo. 
 After this he remained for some time at Colle, an 
 interesting old city w r ith a picturesque castle on the 
 hill, and it was here that he made the acquaintance 
 of Marietta Guidotti, who afterwards became his 
 wife. He bought an estate at Ceciniano about three 
 miles distant from Colle, on the road to Volterra. 
 When he was happily settled in his new home, he 
 devoted himself once more to his philosophical 
 studies, which had already attracted the attention of 
 many learned scholars and philosophers. Amongst 
 his friends was the celebrated Piero Vettori, Professor 
 of Greek and Latin Literature at Florence, who came 
 to stay with him at Ceciniano, and he had also visitors 
 who, like himself, took a deep interest in the new 
 doctrines of reformed religion. 
 
 Troublous times were in store for him on account 
 of his outspoken attack on injustice and fraud of 
 every kind. A strolling friar came to preach at 
 Colle, and made such unfair accusations and so many 
 false statements, that Paleario felt himself compelled 
 publicly to refute them. The natural result followed ; 
 he found himself cruelly attacked and a charge of 
 
AONIO BALEARIC 211 
 
 heresy was brought against him, both at Rome and 
 Florence, while every kind of slander was invented 
 against his private character as well as his opinions. 
 We have an immense amount of correspondence 
 telling the whole story of his persecution, but his 
 letters are too long to quote. These constant attacks 
 continued for two years, during which time his 
 enemies, the Dominican monks, were collecting 
 proofs of his heresy, both from hearsay evidence 
 and from obscure passages in his theological works. 
 
 Meantime Aonio Paleario had lost most of his 
 private pupils, his neighbours were beginning to look 
 upon him with suspicion, and even his wife's relations 
 had turned against him. He went to Rome to make 
 a personal appeal, but it was of no avail against the 
 overwhelming force of his enemies, for the cry of 
 heresy was enough to rouse all the powers of the 
 Romish Church against him. In 1542, we gather 
 from his letters that he had written a book showing 
 forth the " merits of Christ's death/' and this alone 
 was enough to condemn him. For some time it was 
 supposed that it was the wonderfully successful and 
 popular treatise on the " Benefizio della morte di 
 Cristo," which has been called the " Credo " of the 
 Italian Reformation. This is now believed to have 
 been the work of a Benedictine monk Benedetto of 
 Mantua who dwelt in the monastery at the foot of 
 Mount Etna. It w r as revised at the author's request 
 by Marcantonio Flaminio, and we shall hear more of 
 it hereafter. 
 
 Paleario had a time of terrible anxiety at Rome, 
 then under the rule of Paul III, but he was strongly 
 advised by his friends not to return home, where 
 greater dangers would await him. He writes to his 
 
212 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 friend Fausto Bellanti, who has invited him to take 
 refuge in his castle of Areolo : 
 
 " In this city my sole comfort is in the society of 
 my friend Maffei and of Cincio who has just written 
 an historical account of his collection of ancient coins. 
 . . . He wishes me to consider all he has as mine. He 
 gives me coins, offers money, books and everything 
 with the greatest generosity. ... In your letter you 
 say : ' If you tire of your Roman friends, come, I 
 entreat you/ . . . The Hernici also expect me, but the 
 distance is great and the road not secure, for the 
 forest of Algidio is infested with banditti, and Val- 
 montone is said to be quite beset with them. The 
 Colonna have taken arms : I will do nothing rash. . . . 
 Take care not to mention any of these things to my 
 wife ; she is already anxious enough about me ... 
 and passes whole days in tears. Console her in my 
 name. God has hitherto protected me from evil. . . . 
 If any misfortune befall me, I commend my children 
 to your care. ,,..'" 
 
 With the kind help of Cardinal Sadoleto, Paleario 
 was able to leave Rome, by way of Viterbo, but being 
 afraid to show himself openly at Siena, he travelled 
 before dawn across the country to see his family. 
 Notwithstanding the kind influence of Cardinal 
 Sadoleto, who spoke warmly in his favour to the 
 Bishop of Siena, he was in great danger and only 
 narrowly escaped condemnation when he was publicly 
 tried for heresy. He spoke a most brilliant oration 
 in his defence before the Senate, full of feeling and 
 eloquence, in which he pointed out that the doctrines 
 he was accused of holding were but taken from those 
 ancient and revered documents : the Scriptures and 
 
AONIO PALEARIO 213 
 
 the writings of the Fathers. He spoke with noble 
 courage on behalf of Bernardino Ochino, who had 
 been driven out of the country at the very moment 
 when all Italy was hanging with enthusiasm on his 
 earnest preaching. He did not deny that he had 
 written a book in the language of the people, con- 
 cerning the " merits of the death of Christ." But he 
 boldly asks, how such a doctrine as that can be 
 contrary to true religion in a Christian country ? 
 He also remarks : " As to the passages taken from 
 Commentators, whoever accuses the Germans accuses 
 also Origen, Chrysostom, Cyril, Augustine and 
 Jerome/' This he proves by quotations. 
 
 The words of Paleario appear to have made so 
 great an impression upon the " Conscript Fathers of 
 Siena/' that he was not only absolved, but at the 
 time no censure was passed upon him. However 
 from that time, he was a marked man, and when the 
 Chair of Philology became vacant at Siena, he was 
 terribly disappointed at being passed over. Even 
 his friends did not all venture to exert their influence 
 on behalf of one who had been accused of heresy, 
 although some, like Placido Aldelli, risked their own 
 position and safety for his sake. In 1542, the stern 
 Caraffa had induced Pope Paul III to establish the 
 Inquisition at Rome. 
 
 During the next four years Paleario was in sore 
 straits, for he had lost his private pupils, and the 
 ill-will of his enemies cut him off from all honourable 
 employment. His fame had long before reached 
 Lucca, and the Senate of that free and peaceful city 
 sent him an invitation to become Professor of Elo- 
 quence and also Orator of the Republic. This post 
 he was strongly advised to accept by both Bembo 
 
214 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 and Sadoleto, who at the same time warned him to 
 be prudent. These were the last letters he received 
 from his old patrons, for Cardinal Sadoleto died at 
 Rome the following year, 1547, a few months after 
 his friend Pietro Bembo. Their loss was a great 
 misfortune to Aonio, for he had always been able to 
 depend upon their friendly help and influence in 
 Rome. 
 
 As we have already seen in the life of Peter Martyr, 
 the reformed opinions had made great progress in 
 Lucca, and the new Professor received a warm 
 welcome in that city. His post of Orator required 
 him to give two orations in the year short dis- 
 courses on the history and greatness of the Republic 
 and to encourage the patriotism of the citizens. 
 About this time he made the acquaintance of a 
 distant connection, the Prince of Salerno, from whom 
 he had hopes of promotion. But the Prince, Ferrante 
 Sanseverino, who employed Bernardo Tasso as his 
 secretary, fell into disgrace soon after with the 
 Emperor, for his high-spirited defence of Naples 
 against the establishment of the Inquisition there. 
 His efforts on behalf of religious freedom were un- 
 fortunately his own ruin, and he was unable to 
 befriend Paleario, whose one weakness appears to 
 have been a strong desire to meet with noble patrons. 
 
 Aonio Paleario remained some years as Professor 
 at Lucca, and we have most interesting and learned 
 letters of his to many literary friends, and he also 
 published several volumes of his Orations. His wife 
 and family had joined him in Lucca after the first 
 year, when he felt fully established. In one of his 
 letters, we notice that ladies of high rank were quite 
 willing to ride from Lucca to Pisa, a distance of 
 
AONIO PALEARIO 215 
 
 fifteen miles, in order to be present at a play. He 
 seems to have had many anxieties from the opposition 
 of some of the citizens, on account of his well-known 
 religious opinions, and at length he gladly retired to 
 his little villa at Ceciniano, although his poverty 
 compelled him to continue such teaching work as 
 he could obtain. 
 
 The next post, which he accepted in 1555, was 
 that of Professor of Eloquence at Milan, in succession 
 to the famous Marcantonio Majoragio. In his first 
 oration, he describes in striking words the abdication 
 of the great Emperor Charles V, who resigned Spain 
 and the Netherlands to his son Philip and the Empire 
 to his brother Ferdinand. With his usual zeal, 
 Paleario devoted himself to his work at Milan, which 
 was highly appreciated, and he made many friends 
 during the eleven years of his Professorship. 
 
 But the election of Pius V, the Chief Inquisitor, 
 as Pope in 1566, put an end to all peace and confidence 
 for the Reformers throughout Italy. One after 
 another, all the most distinguished men were picked 
 out, summoned to Rome and put to death, after a 
 mere mockery of a trial. Paleario was well aware 
 of his danger, and he took special precautions to*send 
 his manuscripts to the care of Zuinger at Basle, that 
 they might be printed in a free and Protestant city. 
 In the terrible time of persecution under this merciless 
 Pope, Aonio describes the state of terror which pre- 
 vailed through the whole land as " a yoke so grievous 
 that men were weary of their lives/' Deeds of 
 violence happened every day ; men peaceably en- 
 gaged in their usual occupations were suddenly seized, 
 sent to Rome and " given over to the secular arm to 
 be burned." We have not space to repeat even the 
 
216 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 names of the many gallant Reformers who gave their 
 lives for the faith. 
 
 Aonio Paleario was not long spared. He was first 
 accused of heresy on the strength of a Latin Oration 
 which he had given twenty-five years before other 
 charges were brought against him, and in spite of all 
 the efforts of the Senate of Milan, he was hurriedly 
 carried off to Rome, thrown into prison and tortured. 
 In a letter which he wrote at this time, he shows the 
 most noble courage and fortitude. 
 
 " These are not times for a Christian to die in his 
 bed ; it is not enough to be accused, dragged to 
 prison, beaten with rods ... it is also our duty to 
 allow ourselves to be burned with fire, if by martyrdom 
 the Truth may be brought to light. . . ." 
 
 After his condemnation, he was visited in prison 
 by members of the Society of the Misericordia, who 
 received notice the day before a victim was to be 
 executed, and helped him with the last friendly 
 offices. This notice is to be found in the registers of 
 the Society : 
 
 " On Sunday night our company was summoned, 
 and on Monday the 3d of July 1570, Messer Aonio 
 Paleario of Veroli, and inhabitant of Colle di Val 
 d'Elsa, was consigned to us as condemned and 
 sentenced by the Holy Inquisition. ... He did not 
 make any will except giving us the two letters below, 
 written with his own hand, entreating us to send 
 them to his wife and children at Colle di Val d'Elsa. 
 The holy mass was then celebrated, and at the usual 
 hour he was taken to the bridge, where he was hanged 
 and then burned/' 
 
AONIO PALEARIO 217 
 
 " To my dearest wife Marietta Paleari. 
 
 " MY DEAREST WIFE, 
 
 " I would not have you be sorrowful at my 
 happiness, . . . the hour is come when I shall pass 
 from this life to my Father in Heaven. I go there 
 in joyful humility. . . . Console yourself my dear wife, 
 for this is the will of God, and to me joy ; devote 
 yourself to our children and bring them up in the 
 fear of God. ... I am already past seventy and my 
 work is done. May God bless you, and the com- 
 munion of the Holy Spirit be yours. Rome, 3d 
 July. 1570. 
 
 " Your husband AONIO PALEARIO/' 
 
 " To Lampridio and Fedro, my beloved sons. 
 
 ' These most courteous gentlemen do not fail in 
 their kindness . . . and allow me to write to you. It 
 has pleased God to call me to Himself in the manner 
 you will hear, and which will appear to you hard and 
 bitter, but if you dwell upon the thought that it is 
 my greatest joy to conform myself to the will of God, 
 you also will patiently submit. I leave you for 
 patrimony, virtue and diligence, as also the small 
 estate which you now hold. ... I gave Lampridio the 
 account of my affairs, and there is also your mother's 
 dower. Be careful to place your little sister as God 
 may direct you. Salute for me Aspasia and Aonilla, 
 my beloved daughters. My hour approaches. May 
 the Spirit of God console you and preserve you in 
 His grace. Rome. 3d July 1570. 
 
 " Your father AONIO PALEARIO." 
 
 We learn from a genealogy in the Library of Siena, 
 
218 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 that Balearic had seven children, five of whom were 
 living at the time of his death. Besides the two sons, 
 Fedro and Lampridio, there was a daughter Aspasia 
 who married Fulvio della Rena, son of a physician ; 
 Aonilla, who was a nun in the Convent of St. Caterina 
 at Colle ; Sofonisba married Claudio Porzij and had 
 died earlier, while the " little sister " mentioned in 
 the letter was Aganippe. It was fortunate that the 
 sons were in learned professions, as otherwise the 
 family would have been destitute, for the Inquisition 
 took possession of all property left by a heretic. 
 
 The works of Aonio Paleario have been collected 
 and published ; in them we find the noblest memorial 
 of a brave, devout and learned man. 
 
CHAPTER XIX 
 
 REFORMATION AT NAPLES 
 
 The Reformation at Naples Circle of Juan de Vajd& His earlier 
 life His writings "Mercurio y Caron" Brief account of 
 Giulia Gonzaga, Countess of Pondi The influence of Valdes on 
 her religious faith The " Alfabeto Cristiano " (Dialogues 
 between Valdes and Giulia) She devotes her life to works of 
 charity Her former brilliant literary society at Fondi, when 
 Ariosto and Tasso sang her praises. 
 
 WE have now reached the most interesting point of 
 this history, when we study the religious circle at 
 Naples, the very heart and centre of the Italian 
 Reformation. The acknowledged leader of the earnest 
 and important movement in this city was Juan de 
 Valdes, a Spanish noble, who originally came here as 
 Secretary to the Viceroy, Don Pietro di Toledo. 
 
 Juan was the son of Fernando de Valdes, Regidor 
 of Cuenca, in Castile ; he had a twin brother Alfonso, 
 who long held an important post at the Court of 
 Charles V ; and was a great admirer of Erasmus. 
 Alfonso is chiefly known as the writer of the " Dialogo 
 de Lactancio," in which he sought to vindicate the 
 Emperor after the sack of Rome, 1527. He died of 
 the plague in 1532 at Vienna. 
 
 His more famous brother Juan, held for some 
 time the post of Chamberlain of honour to Pope 
 Clement VII, after he had left Spain, where he had 
 found himself compromised by a book which he had 
 
 219 
 
220 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 recently written. This was his famous "Dialogo de 
 Mercuric y Caron," which was both political and 
 religious. It justifies the Emperor's challenge to 
 the King of France, and it points out vividly the 
 corrupt condition of the orthodox Church. He thus 
 incurred the wrath of the Inquisition in Spain, and 
 about the year 1530, he left for Naples, and a year 
 later visited Rome. In 1533 we find him chosen as 
 Chamberlain of honour to the Pope at Bologna, where 
 the Pope and the Emperor were at that time both 
 present. But before Clement VII went to France in 
 the autumn of that year, Valdes returned to Naples 
 where he remained until his death. 
 
 The " Dialogo de Mercurio y Caron " is carried on 
 between Mercury and Charon, the boatman of the 
 Styx, who also converses with his passengers to the 
 other world, and by some mystical influence, each soul 
 is compelled to tell the whole truth. A famous 
 preacher is ferried across, and when he is asked the 
 secret of his wonderful reputation, he replies : "I 
 wore an air of sanctity to impress my hearers, but 
 in the pulpit I was careful never to reprove those 
 who were present. My own wealth and glory were 
 my sole aims in life, and I only wished to live like a 
 Pope. . . ." A King's councillor passes, and is greatly 
 shocked to hear that hell is his destination. He had 
 kept so many religious observances that he really 
 thought himself a good Christian ; he had even died 
 in the habit of a Franciscan ... surely he was not 
 going to hell ! 
 
 Next follows a reigning Duke, who owns that he 
 has only lived for his own enjoyment, but he had 
 built churches to make sure of Heaven, and bought 
 Papal indulgences. ... He is furious to hear that all 
 
REFORMATION AT NAPLES 221 
 
 this is of no avail. Then comes a lordly bishop who 
 had held his office for twenty years. He asks if we 
 can pass ? with proud assurance. He explains when 
 asked, that to be a bishop is to wear a white rochet, 
 say mass with a mitre, and gloves and rings ... to 
 grasp the revenue and spend it in pleasure, and 
 always have plenty of servants to wait upon his 
 caprices, and keep a good table for those who dined 
 with him. He is simply amazed to be told that he 
 should care for the souls in his charge and if needful 
 be ready to die for them ; that he should preach to 
 his flock faithfully and set them a good example, 
 that he should relieve the poor and live in prayer 
 and self-sacrifice. 
 
 Then follows a proud Cardinal who has also used 
 the sacred office for his own gratification, and is 
 filled with dismay to find that he has no passport to 
 Heaven. Next comes a King, who has fought against 
 the Turks, done some slight penance by his con- 
 fessor's advice to atone for an unholy life, and said 
 prayers which he could not understand. 
 
 Presently a soul draws near, thin and emaciated, 
 of whom Mercury remarks : ' This must be a hypo- 
 crite. Where are you going ? ' ' To Heaven," is 
 the reply. He relates how he has fasted and prayed, 
 and was looked upon as a saint upon earth. But his 
 arguments prove that he had no charity, and he too is 
 condemned. A preacher follows, who declares that 
 he was so successful in his sermons that he could 
 make his hearers believe anything, while he himself 
 neglected the Scriptures and knew not God. It 
 takes a long argument to convince him of his grievous 
 error. 
 
 A soul is now seen crossing the mountains on the 
 
222 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 heaven- ward way, and on enquiry he proves to be 
 a true Christian, a single-hearted servant of God ; 
 with deep humility he tells his story of prayer and 
 devotion, full of trust in Christ alone. After this 
 we have a saintly bishop, and that rare and delightful 
 sight, a good King ; and closely following him, a pious 
 friar who had welcomed poverty gladly, and was 
 full of heavenly charity. They go onward joyfully 
 to receive their just reward. Charon next beholds 
 the soul of a woman floating joyfully onwards. She 
 tells her story ; how she learnt the truth and tried 
 to teach others rather by her deeds than her words ; 
 how she was unhappy in her marriage but endured all 
 things in patient faith, until she had won over her 
 husband in the end. 
 
 The first work of Juan de Valdes after he had 
 settled at Naples, was the "Dialoga de la Lengua," a 
 beautiful study of the Spanish language. But hence- 
 forth, all his learning and earnest devotion were given 
 to religious subjects. He was a great student of the 
 works of German Reformers, and seems to have been 
 especially interested in the " Christian Institutions " 
 of the devout mystic Dr. Tauler, a forerunner of 
 Luther in the fourteenth century. He held the 
 doctrine that the soul can become so purified that 
 even amidst the noise and stir of the market-place 
 and the shop, it can keep such watch over the heart, 
 and such ward over the senses, as to go unharmed 
 and preserve the inner peace unbroken. On the 
 other hand, many are cloistered in body, while 
 thought and desire wander to and fro through the 
 earth. 
 
 The religious influence of Valdes soon became so 
 great, that a circle of distinguished friends gathered 
 
REFORMATION AT NAPLES 223 
 
 around him, amongst whom were such men as Mar- 
 cantonio Flaminio, the poet, the protonotary Pietro 
 Carnesecchi, the historian Bonfadio, Lorenzo Romano, 
 Montalcino, and at times, Bernardino Ochino and 
 Peter Martyr Vermigli. Amongst his pupils there 
 were also great ladies of Naples and the neighbour- 
 hood, and even from distant cities. Isabella Brisegna, 
 the wife of Garzia Manrique, Governor of Piacenza, 
 Onorata Tancredi, Vittoria Colonna, Isabella d'Ara- 
 gona, Emilia Rangone and many others ; amongst 
 whom the most famous was Giulia Gonzaga, Countess 
 of Fondi. She takes so important a place in the 
 history of the Reformation at Naples that it will be 
 needful to give a brief summary of her life. 
 
 Giulia Gonzaga was the daughter of Lodovico 
 Gonzaga of Gazzuolo, and Francesca Fieschi, of a 
 noble Genoese family ; she was born in 1513 and 
 was one of the youngest of a large and distinguished 
 family. Her grandmother, Madonna Antonio del 
 Balzo, from whom she probably inherited much of 
 her talent and beauty, was of a Provencal family 
 so ancient as to outdo all other pride in long descent, 
 for they claimed as their ancestor one of the three 
 Magi, and proudly bore on their arms the guiding 
 Star of Bethlehem. She was a great friend of Isabella 
 d'Este, who chose the peerless Giulia, supreme in 
 beauty and talent at the age of twelve, as one of 
 her ladies on her eventful visit to Rome in 1525. 
 The next year, she was married, almost a child, to 
 the great noble, Vespasiano Colonna, who left her 
 a widow in 1528, after barely two years of queenly 
 state in the ancient castle of Pagliano, in the Roman 
 Campagna. 
 
 Left a widow when not yet sixteen, heiress of her 
 
224 ITALIAN KEFOKMATION 
 
 husband's vast possessions, Giulia settled at Fondi 
 somewhat later, where she became the centre of a 
 splendid literary group of friends. She was greatly 
 devoted to her brother, the brave captain, Luigi 
 Kodomonte Gonzaga, who married Isabella Colonna, 
 and whose orphan son Vespasiano was adopted by 
 her and became later the magnificent Duke of Sab- 
 bioneta. The young Countess of Fondi had an 
 eventful life, but perhaps the most striking incident 
 was her wonderful escape from being carried off by 
 the Corsairs. The fame of her marvellous beauty 
 had spread not only through Europe but to the far 
 East, and the Corsair chief Barbarossa, had formed 
 the plan of carrying off the famous beauty as a 
 present to the Sultan Suleyman II. He had been 
 successful in raiding all the coast of the Mediterranean 
 and reached Sperlonga, the fishing village eight miles 
 distant from Fondi, in the dead of night. Then with 
 a strong body of armed men, the Corsair leader made 
 his way secretly through the woods, reaching the 
 city and the palace some hours before dawn. 
 
 At the last moment Giulia was warned by a faithful 
 attendant and escaped through the window of her 
 chamber ; horses were found and she rode in sheltering 
 darkness to a place of safety. The Corsairs in their 
 rage looted and ravaged the city, bringing upon 
 themselves later a terrible retribution. 
 
 But the touching romance of GiuhVs life was the 
 deep and hopeless affection which existed between 
 Ippolito dei Medici and herself. His uncle, Pope 
 Clement VII had made him a Cardinal, when he 
 thought he was dying, and thus raised an impassable 
 barrier between the two ; but their love never 
 changed, and after the gallant young Ippolito's 
 
REFORMATION AT NAPLES 225 
 
 premature death, the young Countess gave up her 
 splendid Court at Fondi and went to live in Naples 
 in the peace and seclusion of a cloister. 1 Here by 
 special permission of Paul III, she was allowed to live 
 as " a secular person." 
 
 In the Lent of 1536, when the Emperor Charles V 
 was at Naples, a series of sermons were preached by 
 Fra Bernardino Ochino, which created so much 
 enthusiasm that " His Majesty was wont to say, they 
 would draw tears from the very stones." It was 
 after hearing one of these eloquent discourses that 
 the Countess of Fondi was so moved that she could 
 not control her emotion, and came weeping out of 
 the Church of San Giovanni Maggiore. Her trouble 
 and agitation was noticed by Juan de Valdes, whose 
 acquaintance she had already made, and he accom- 
 panied her to the Convent of San Francesco. Here 
 Giulia earnestly questioned him with regard to the 
 teaching of Ochino, which seemed to her so very 
 different from the usual doctrines of confession, 
 prayers for the saints' intercession, etc., and which 
 appeared to make true religion a personal matter 
 between the soul and God. 
 
 It is interesting to remember that the conversation 
 which followed was the probable origin of the beautiful 
 work of Valdes, which had so great an influence on 
 the early disciples of the reformed ideas in Italy, 
 known as the " Alfabeto Cristiano." Giulia was 
 greatly impressed by the words which she had just 
 heard, and she found it a relief to take counsel with 
 one whom she already revered for his piety and 
 learning. 
 
 1 For a full account of Giulia Gonzaga's life, see " A Princess of the 
 Italian Reformation," by Christopher Hare. 
 15 
 
226 ITALIAN REFOKMATION 
 
 " Ochino's words fill me with the love of Heaven, 
 but at the same time there is a battle within me, for 
 I desire the pleasure and glory of this world. How 
 shall I escape from this conflict, and to which love 
 shall I yield ? Can I make both longings agree, or 
 is it my duty to give up one ? . . /' 
 
 In the serious conversation which follows, Juan de 
 Valdes seeks to comfort her with the assurance that 
 this turmoil of the spirit is a sign of the growth of 
 heavenly grace within her. She must not hope to 
 attain perfection at once, but he would have her 
 make daily progress on the way to salvation, neither 
 delayed by negligence nor over-strained by too eager 
 haste. 
 
 ' The Law has wounded you, the Gospel will heal 
 you. Above all I would have you strive for courage 
 to show forth your Christian life, so that your light 
 may be a guide to others. . . ." 
 
 Giulia sadly owns that admiration and applause of 
 the world, the society of brilliant and learned com- 
 panions and such worldly pleasures have still a great 
 charm for her, and she fears that to lay them aside 
 might lead to melancholy. . . . Valdes replies : 
 
 " As your heart becomes more turned towards 
 Divine things, and you gain in heavenly knowledge, 
 you will instinctively be drawn away from all 
 passing shows. But in the end you must make your 
 choice between God and the world, and seek ever to 
 find the way of perfection. Love God above all 
 things, and your neighbour as yourself. . . ." 
 
REFORMATION AT NAPLES 227 
 
 A brief conversation follows concerning the value 
 of the monastic life, which Valdes asserts is only 
 praiseworthy when chosen from the pure love of God. 
 
 " As fire is needed to give heat, so living faith alone 
 can produce charity. Faith is the growing tree of 
 which charity is the fruit, the heavenly charity which 
 suffereth long and is kind, . . . which seeketh not her 
 own . . . thinketh no evil, rejoiceth in the truth, 
 beareth all things, believeth all things, hopeth all 
 things, endureth all things. . . . For now abideth faith, 
 hope and charity, these three, but the greatest of 
 these is charity ." 
 
 When Giulia enquires concerning the way of salva- 
 tion, she is told : 
 
 " There are three ways which lead to that divine 
 knowledge ; the light of Nature which teaches us 
 the omnipotence of God, the Old Testament which 
 shows us the Creator as the hater of all evil, and last 
 and greatest, the way of light, the master-way, the 
 love of Christ." 
 
 On the subject of alms, Giulia is told : ' There is 
 no other rule than that of charity ; love God and 
 you will learn how to give alms aright/' Concerning 
 prayer, Valdes remarks that " spoken prayer often 
 kindles and elevates the mind to real and earnest 
 prayer of the soul. . . ." 
 
 Giulia exclaims : " One word more. You have 
 spoken of Christian liberty. In what does it con- 
 sist ? " She is told that the true Christian is free 
 from the tyranny of the Law, from sin and death ; 
 
228 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 and is absolute master of his affections and desires. 
 In spirit he is free, for to God alone is he responsible ; 
 while as to the body, he is the servant of all for the 
 love of Christ. . . . 
 
 This is but a very slight sketch of the conversation 
 between Giulia and Valdes, leading to the writing of 
 the " Alfabeto Cristiano," which spread the doctrines 
 of the Reformers through Italy. We cannot fail to 
 admire the humility of great ladies such as Giulia 
 Gonzaga and Caterina Cibo, who are willing in these 
 and other dialogues to appear as lowly pupils to 
 their Christian teachers. Giulia appears to have 
 inherited the spirit of her legendary ancestor, the 
 Magi king, Balthazar, who left all to follow the 
 guiding star to Bethlehem. 
 
 At this time, 1536, Giulia was not quite twenty- 
 three, but her life so full of romance and adventure, 
 of eager study, and intellectual intercourse had 
 enriched her mind to a marvellous degree. Sorrow 
 and loss had won her a rare fortitude for one so 
 young, which would be put to the proof in the 
 coming days of persecution. Henceforth Giulia 
 Gonzaga gave up her life to works of charity. She 
 passed her days in visiting the sick, in relieving the 
 poor ; in giving generous help to those who suffered 
 for their faith, and in writing the most beautiful 
 and inspiring letters to all who needed help and 
 comfort. 
 
 " Avoiding the acquaintance of mere worldly per- 
 sons, she took part in the meetings of a select society, 
 mostly under the influence of Valdes, who considered 
 religious subjects and made a constant study of the 
 
REFORMATION AT NAPLES 229 
 
 Holy Scriptures that volume of heavenly refresh- 
 ment, the aliment of the perfect." 
 
 As the biographer of Ariosto says : " She now 
 spent all her time in holy thoughts, turning to the 
 sacred Word, with a pure and sincere mind." 
 
 Ariosto himself had sung her praise in earlier days 
 and in far other words : 
 
 " Behold her whom all combine to admire, Greeks 
 and Barbarians and Latins ; never was there one of 
 higher renown than Giulia Gonzaga, who from her 
 feet to those serene and beautiful eyes, to none may 
 yield the crown of beauty, but as though she had 
 descended from heaven, like unto a goddess is by all 
 admired." 
 
 Bernardo Tasso, speaking of her splendid Court at 
 Fondi, cannot praise her beauty enough, and after 
 describing all her charms he adds : 
 
 " As her feet pass over the grass, flowers spring up, 
 and those who behold her declare that she is the 
 sister or the daughter of Spring. . . . Blessed spirits 
 rejoice in her radiance . . . and he who listens to her 
 angelic voice will hear no such divine words amongst 
 other mortals. . . . The glorious name of Giulia 
 will live so long as the sun spreads forth his golden 
 rays " 
 
 Porrino says of the same period : 
 
 " Her gentle ways and her smiles revealed a garden 
 of roses and violets a terrestrial and celestial para- 
 
230 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 dise. . . . That was indeed the true Golden Age, and 
 happy were they of Fondi." 
 
 Many another poet had sung the praise of Giulia 
 Gonzaga, but the " Alfabeta Cristiano " shows her to 
 us still in the prime of her wealth and beauty 
 with a new ambition and a changed outlook upon 
 life. 
 
CHAPTER XX 
 
 VALORS AND GIULIA GONZAGA 
 
 The religious teaching of Valctes His devoted circle of friends at 
 his home in Chiaja The " Cento e dieci Divine Consideratione " 
 They were highly praised by Nicolas Ferrar and George Herbert 
 Valde"s dedicates his "Studies on the Epistles" to Giulia 
 Gonzaga Vittoria Colonna, Costanza d'Avalos, Isabella Brisegna 
 and other noble ladies amongst his disciples Death of Valdei, 
 1641 Various letters of Giulia. 
 
 JUAN DE VALDISS had taken up his abode near 
 Naples, in the beautiful suburb of Chiaja, and here he 
 was in the habit of receiving his friends for religious 
 discussion and study, on that lovely shore over- 
 looking the Bay of Naples. Here at various times 
 were gathered together the most cultured and devout 
 men and women of the period ; amongst whom were 
 Pietrantonio di Capua, Archbishop of Otranto, Pietro 
 Paolo Vergerio, Bishop of Capo d'l stria ; Marcantonio 
 Flaminio, the poet who translated various books of 
 Valdes from Spanish into Italian, his friend Gian 
 Francesco d'Alois (II Caserto), Giangaleazzo Carac- 
 ciolo, nephew of Paul IV ; Donato Rullo, an intimate 
 friend of Cardinal Pole, Mario Galeotto, an Aca- 
 demician ; Don Placido de Sanguine, Principal of 
 the Academy of Sereni, Peter Martyr Vermigli, 
 whose story has been already told, D. Germano 
 Minadois and Sigismondo Mignoz, Governors of the 
 Hospital for Incurables, where Giulia was a constant 
 
 231 
 
232 ITALIAN REFOKMATION 
 
 visitor ; and many others who might pass through 
 Naples, like Bernardino Ochino. Amongst these, not 
 the least important was Pietro Carnesecchi, who came 
 to pay a visit to Giulia Gonzaga in 1540, and was 
 introduced to Valdes by her. 
 
 We have already mentioned most of the ladies 
 who became his earnest disciples. Sunday was a 
 favourite day for these religious meetings, where 
 Valdes read aloud a paper on some subject suggested 
 by one of the company, on which he had been thinking 
 during the week, and it is believed that from these 
 conversations arose that wonderful book " Le cento e 
 dieci Divine Consideratione." This was originally 
 written in Spanish, and like all his writings translated 
 into Italian ; it was at first handed round amongst 
 his friends in manuscript, as it was not published 
 until 1550, at Basle. It is interesting to know that 
 this book was introduced into England by Nicholas 
 Ferrar, who saw it when he was travelling in Spain. 
 He sent it to his friend George Herbert, who thus 
 writes in praise of it : 
 
 " BBMEETON, near SALISBUBY, 
 
 "September 29, 1632. 
 
 " . . .1 wish you by all means to publish the e Divine 
 Considerations/ for these three eminent things ob- 
 servable therein ; First, that God, in the midst of 
 Popery, should open the eyes of one to understand 
 and express so clearly and excellently the intent of 
 the Gospel in the acceptation of Christ's righteousness 
 (as he showeth throughout all his ' Considerations ') 
 a thing strangely buried and darkened by the ad- 
 versaries, and their great stumbling-block. 
 
 " Secondly, the great honour and reverence which 
 
VALDES AND GIULIA GONZAGA 233 
 
 he everywhere bears towards our dear Master and 
 Lord, concluding every ' Consideration 'almost, with 
 His holy name and setting forth His merit so piously ; 
 for the which I do so love him, that were there 
 nothing else, I would print it, that with it the honour 
 of my Lord might be published. 
 
 "Thirdly, the many pious rules of ordering our 
 life, about mortification and observation of God's 
 kingdom within us, and the working thereof, of which 
 he was a very diligent observer. . . . 
 
 " GEORGE HERBERT." 
 
 The "Divine Considerations'* of Valdes was 
 published at Oxford in 1638, enriched with full notes 
 by George Herbert, and I need not dwell much more 
 upon this work, from which so many earnest Reformers 
 in Italy drew their inspiration. It was long circulated 
 in manuscript copies amongst the disciples of Valdes, 
 and was not published until Vergerio carried it to 
 Hamburg in 1558. 
 
 " In this beautiful work, Valdes preaches such 
 purity of intention and thought, such sacrifice of 
 mere distinction of rank and honour, such quiet 
 suffering of injury, such a manner of beholding Christ 
 in God, and again God in Christ, as clearly to show 
 that the religion of Valdes his religion of the heart 
 was indeed the religion of the New Testament. It 
 was so in its spiritual meaning, and this brought him 
 to receive the doctrine of Justification by Faith alone, 
 in a deeper and more intimate manner than that of 
 Luther. . . . This Valdes taught to others in the name 
 of his Divine Master, in the dwelling house, or walking 
 by the way, and often, for those who had an ear to 
 hear, by parable. . . ." 
 
234 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 Amongst the other writings of Juan de Valdes, 
 there were various translations of the Psalms from the 
 original Hebrew, the Gospel of St. Matthew and the 
 Epistles of the Romans, translated from the Greek. 
 We are told that Michelangelo loved to hear this last 
 read aloud in the company of Vittoria Colonna, at 
 Monte Cavallo, within the Convent of San Silvestro. 
 Almost all these annotated translations of Valdes, 
 were dedicated with long and interesting letters, to 
 the Countess Giulia, whose keen sympathy and 
 unfailing appreciation had been of so much value to 
 him. It may be interesting to quote from one of 
 these. 
 
 " To the Most Illustrious Lady Giulia Gonzaga. 
 
 " Being persuaded, Illustrious Lady, that the 
 continual reading of the Psalms of David which I 
 sent you last year translated from the Hebrew into 
 Spanish has formed your mind to so deep and holy 
 a trust in God, as David had . . . desiring that you 
 may go forward on the sacred way, ... I now send 
 you these Epistles of St. Paul translated from Greek 
 into Spanish. . . . Read them, I pray you, with earnest 
 devotion . . . and seek to follow in the steps of St. 
 Paul, inasmuch as you see him imitate Christ. Strive 
 ever to grow in likeness to Christ, and thus recover 
 the image of God in which the first man was created. 
 ... I only wish you to take David and St. Paul as 
 examples until they lead you upwards to the likeness 
 of Christ." 
 
 One of the most striking illustrations of the en- 
 thusiasm aroused by the teaching of Valdes, we find 
 in the immense success of a book written by one of 
 
VALDES AND GIULIA GONZAGA 235 
 
 his disciples: "II Beneficio della morte di Cristo." 
 This is believed to have been written by Benedetto 
 of Mantua, a Benedictine monk, in his monastery on 
 the slopes of Mount Etna. It was revised by the poet 
 Marcantonio Flaminio, and first distributed in manu- 
 script in 1540 ; and printed in Venice and at Home 
 in 1544, when 40,000 copies were sold throughout 
 Italy. Of this " little golden book/' it is said : 
 " Nothing was ever printed so simply pious and 
 simple, or so adapted to teach the weak and ig- 
 norant/' 
 
 It is spoken of as the " Credo " of the Italian 
 Reformation, and to this fact the Inquisition soon 
 awoke. It was placed on the " Index " in 1549, and 
 such relentless effort was made to stamp it out, that 
 it was long believed that every volume had been 
 destroyed. But in recent years a copy was found 
 in the Library of St. John's College, Cambridge, and 
 several others are known to exist. 
 
 Juan de Valdes died in 1541, the year before the 
 Inquisition had been established in Rome, and he 
 was thus saved from the most overwhelming storm 
 of persecution which followed so soon after. The 
 loving affection in which his memory was held by 
 those who had been privileged to listen to his teaching 
 is well shown in a letter written by the historian 
 Giacomo Bonfadio to his friend Carnesecchi, who 
 was then at Florence. 
 
 " To Monsignor Carnesecchi. 
 
 "LAQO DI GABDA. 
 
 " . . .1 hear that you have been ill. . . . May God 
 preserve your life as the Romans watched over that 
 statue which fell from heaven ; may He protect you 
 
236 ITALIAN KEFOKMATION 
 
 for our sake, that one of the brightest lights in 
 Tuscany be not extinguished. . . . May you enjoy your 
 wonted cheerfulness, as in the days when we were in 
 Naples in the house of Signor Valdes. Would that 
 we were now in that happy company ! I know your 
 ardent longing for that fair country, and how often 
 Chiaja and the beautiful Posilipo are in your thoughts. 
 I cannot deny that Florence is beautiful, but the 
 charm of Naples with its lovely shore and eternal 
 Spring, far excels. There Nature rules with more 
 entrancing sway, filling the land with joy and glad- 
 ness. If you were now at the windows of that lonely 
 tower, so often praised by us, looking round upon 
 those sunny gardens and beyond on the broad 
 expanse of that glittering sea, a thousand dear 
 memories would refresh your heart. I remember 
 when you left, that you promised to return and 
 prayed me to do so. 
 
 " Would to God that we could recall those happy 
 days ! But where should we go, now that Signor 
 Valdes is dead ? This has been a great loss for us 
 and for the world, for the Signor Juan de Valdes was 
 one of the rare men of Europe. The writings which 
 he has left us do indeed prove this ; he was alike in 
 words and deeds and in all his teaching, a most 
 perfect man. He gave no thought or care to his frail 
 body ; his noble spirit was devoted to the high con- 
 templation of truth and of things divine. ... I sym- 
 pathise most deeply with Messer Marcantonio, because 
 he loved and admired our dear friend, even more 
 than any one else. . . . 
 
 " GlACOMO BONFADIO." 
 
 One of the most interesting of the disciples of 
 
VALDES AND GIULTA GONZAGA 237 
 
 Valdes, was the poet Marcantonio Flaminio, whose 
 full story has already been told, in an earlier part of 
 this book. After the death of the great Spanish 
 teacher, he had joined the circle at Viterbo a kind 
 of revival of the earlier " Divine Oratory " of earnest 
 reformers within the Church at Rome. As years 
 passed on, the poet's work had become more deeply 
 religious, and he spoke out the truth which he be- 
 lieved, so boldly, that his writings were put on the 
 Index by Paul IV. Yet the persuasion of Cardinal 
 Pole appears to have prevented him from openly 
 leaving the Church of Rome, and it was in the house 
 of this old friend that he died in 1549, loved and 
 lamented by all who knew him both by Catholics 
 and Reformers. His letters, of which so many have 
 been preserved, reveal the secret of the affection 
 which was felt for him, alike in their warm sympathy, 
 their humility and absence of self-consciousness, and 
 the spiritual and mystical beauty of the thoughts 
 expressed. 
 
 Amongst other disciples of Valdes and friends of 
 Giulia Gonzaga at Naples, was the noble Costanza 
 d'Avalos, a cousin of Vittoria Colonna, and wife of 
 Alfonso Piccolomini, Duke of Amalfi, who was a 
 grand-nephew of Pope Pius III. Her life had been 
 a stormy and not a happy one. Her husband was 
 a man wanting in strength and firmness of character 
 who, when he had been raised to the post of Captain- 
 General of the forces of Siena, was unable to do 
 justice to the important position. He was dismissed 
 by the Emperor in 1541, and his career being now at 
 an end, he retired with his wife to the island of Nisida, 
 near Naples, and spent the rest of his life in dis- 
 appointment and exile. This island was the " Nesis " 
 
238 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 of Strabo, an ancient volcanic crater, and Cicero 
 gives us a touching account of the retirement in a 
 villa here of another exile, Brutus, who came here 
 after the assassination of Csesar and the story of 
 his parting with Portia. 
 
 The Duchess of Amalfi found occupation and 
 happiness in the care of her young children, Inigo 
 and Vittoria, and amused her leisure in writing 
 poetry said to be " rich in noble sentiments and 
 Christian piety. " She was near enough to Naples 
 to take part in the religious meetings of Valdes in 
 company with her friend Giulia, to whom she was 
 much devoted. When she was left a widow later, 
 she followed the example of so many noble ladies, 
 and retired to the Convent of Santa Chiara, in Naples. 
 Vittoria Colonna had been a frequent guest in her 
 island home. 
 
 Another still more intimate friend of the Countess 
 of Fondi was Isabella Brisegna, the wife of Garzia de 
 Manrique, the Spanish Governor of Piacenza, and 
 sister-in-law of the famous Inquisitor Alonso de 
 Manrique, Archbishop of Seville. She was so ardent 
 and devoted a student of the Reformed doctrines and 
 a lady of so much learning and intelligence, that 
 Curione dedicated to her the first edition of Olympia 
 Morata's writings. Her husband, the Governor of 
 Piacenza, was strongly opposed to her religious 
 principles, and she had to endure most cruel persecu- 
 tion, in which her only comfort was the tender 
 sympathy of Giulia Gonzaga, who wrote to her 
 constantly the most inspiring and encouraging letters. 
 These were usually written in a special cypher and 
 were sent by sure messengers that they might run 
 no risk of danger to Isabella. But at length the 
 
VALDES AND GIULIA GONZAGA 239 
 
 poor lady could no longer endure her sufferings, and 
 she took refuge first at Naples, from whence she was 
 compelled to take flight to Ravenna, and ultimately 
 escaped to Zurich. Here in a free country, Isabella 
 dared openly to confess her faith, and she was sup- 
 ported by the generosity of Giulia Gonzaga, who 
 settled on her a sufficient income for her wants, as 
 she so often had occasion to do for other friends 
 who had fled for their faith. 
 
 Sometimes Giulia felt that she had more stern 
 duties towards her friends and dependants, as for 
 instance we see in a letter which she wrote to a 
 certain Livia Negra, who was apparently holding 
 foolish superstitions. She writes : 
 
 "... I have learnt with great displeasure that a 
 certain rogue of an alchemist has come to you, and 
 with false persuasion has so perverted your mind as 
 to make you believe that one element can be trans- 
 muted into another that from a branch, silver may 
 be made, and that silver can be converted into gold. 
 It is certainly a strange thing that these thieves, 
 beggars and fools should wish to enrich someone else, 
 and should care more for the poverty and misery of 
 others than for their own beggarly condition ! What 
 mad credulity is ours ! How infinite is the cupidity 
 of mortals ! * For what should we do if we had to 
 remain in this world perpetually, when we cannot 
 inhabit a house for three days without being dis- 
 satisfied. 
 
 " . . . We cannot remember that we are mortal ; 
 and that we have one day to leave all things behind 
 us ; for naked we came into this world, and naked 
 we shall depart hence Would you like me, Madonna 
 
240 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 Livia, to teach you a true and beautiful alchemy ? 
 Lay up for yourself treasure in Heaven, where thieves 
 do not break through and steal, where the rust doth 
 not consume, nor the moth gnaw and destroy. That 
 which is acquired by evil means is no gain, but a 
 great and dangerous loss. The promises of the 
 alchemists are like those of the astrologers, who boast 
 that they can foretell future things, and do not even 
 know the present or the past ; yet they dare to profess 
 that they can reveal heavenly matters as if they were 
 present at the council of God. I do not really know 
 whether their fraud is more shameful, or our folly in 
 believing, as we do, that which is worthy of all 
 contempt. Look within yourself, my dear Madonna 
 Livia, and if your power does not correspond to 
 your desires, at least place a rein upon them, and 
 then you will not devote yourself to alchemy/' . 
 
 This is the letter of one far advanced beyond the 
 superstition of her day, and we see her courage equal 
 to her intellect. 
 

 JJO, 
 
CHAPTER XXI 
 
 GIULIA GONZAGA 
 
 Giulia Gonzaga has the care of her nephew Vespasiano, son of her 
 brother Luigi (Rodomonte) Gonzaga Devotes herself to his 
 education and career Vespasiano enters the service of Charles V, 
 and later of Philip II Attempt to force the Inquisition on 
 Naples is frustrated Letters of Giulia Her failing health 
 Ippolita Gonzaga Death of Giulia Gonzaga, 1566. 
 
 AFTER the death of Valdes, in 1541, the little company 
 of devout students who had looked upon him as their 
 master, was in a great measure dispersed, many of 
 them joining the " Oratory of Divine Love " at 
 Viterbo. 
 
 It was about this time that a change came over the 
 life of Giulia Gonzaga, and other duties claimed her 
 attention. Her stepdaughter, Isabella Colonna, the 
 widow of her dearly-loved brother Luigi Rodomonte, 
 having married again, the care of Luigi's only son 
 had devolved upon his aunt Giulia, after the death of 
 her own father Lodovico Gonzaga. The boy was 
 now almost ten years old, and required special care 
 to fit him for his splendid position as heir to his 
 Gonzaga father and Colonna grandfather. The 
 Countess of Fondi therefore left her rooms in the 
 Convent of San Francesco, where she had passed a 
 secluded life for five years, and took up her abode 
 in a spacious palace of the Borgo della Vergine. 
 
 Vespasiano Gonzaga Colonna appears to have been 
 
 16 241 
 
242 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 an extremely intelligent and gifted child, resembling 
 his father in his splendid personal appearance and 
 showing already a strong taste for horsemanship 
 and everything connected with the use of arms. 
 Giulia was devotedly attached to him, and spared 
 no trouble with regard to his training and education. 
 It was for his sake that she once more held a stately 
 Court, and gathered around her a circle of distin- 
 guished philosophers, poets and artists, including 
 also friends of her own reformed opinions. In this 
 literary society we find Annibale Caro a friend of the 
 poet Molza, Claudio Tolomei the poet and meta- 
 physician, Dionigi Atanagi the Platonist, and II 
 Tansillo, an old friend of the Countess since her 
 Fondi period. The Ambassador of the Emperor, 
 Camillo Capilupi, Governor of Monferrato, was also 
 a frequent guest, and being a poet as well as a diplo- 
 matist, he wrote a charming sonnet in praise of his 
 hostess. 
 
 It was about this time that Titian painted a portrait 
 of Giulia, which has unfortunately entirely dis- 
 appeared. In this circle of interesting people, the 
 young Vespasiano was encouraged to take his part 
 in the various discussions and conversations ; a 
 training which made him a most accomplished and 
 delightful companion in courtly society, in the days 
 to come. Of course the only career open to this 
 young prince was that of arms, and two or three 
 years later his aunt Giulia took advantage of her 
 friendship with the Emperor, to obtain a post in his 
 household as page of honour to Prince Philip, as a 
 first stage. When Giulia took leave of the boy, she 
 gave him much motherly advice, bidding him " faith- 
 fully serve his God and his Prince, holding honour 
 
GIULIA GONZAGA 243 
 
 above all things. He must never forget to be modest 
 in speech and brave in action ; he must be true and 
 generous, avoiding alike flattery and conceit, and 
 showing knightly courtesy to all men/' 
 
 The young Vespasiano had been brought up to 
 admire above all things the gallant deeds of his father 
 which he desired to emulate in the future ; and he 
 found the Court of the Emperor an excellent school 
 of manners and discipline. He continued his studies 
 with the other noble pages, in such a manner as to 
 give great satisfaction, while he became a special 
 favourite of Prince Philip. 
 
 A cousin of Giulia Gonzaga, Don Ferrante Gonzaga, 
 Governor of Sicily, was a most intimate friend of hers, 
 and she took great interest in his young children, 
 more especially the third daughter Ippolita, who 
 remained with her for several years and to whom 
 she became very much devoted. She grew up a 
 beautiful and highly accomplished girl, and would 
 probably have married Vespasiano, had not the 
 Emperor chosen another bridegroom for her, Fabrizio 
 Colonna, Duke of Tagliacozza, to whom she was 
 married some years later. After three years of 
 happy wedded life, he was killed at the ill-fated siege 
 of Parma, and of Ippolita's later troubles we shall 
 hear more. 
 
 In 1546, Giulia Gonzaga was persuaded to pay a 
 visit to her old home in Lombardy, and stayed with 
 her young cousin Carlo Gonzaga in the Castello of 
 Gazzuolo. Many sad changes had taken place ; her 
 dear grandmother, the wonderful old lady Antonia 
 del Balzo, had passed away at the age of ninety-five ; 
 her brother Cagnino had also died, and her father 
 the Abate Lodovico had soon followed him all 
 
244 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 within three years. Her sisters were married and 
 settled in their distant homes, and the friend of her 
 youth who had taken her on that eventful visit to 
 Rome in 1525, Isabella d'Este, had passed away full 
 of years and honours. Her son Federico had been 
 made Duke of Mantua, and had married the charming 
 young Princess Margherita Paleologa, who became 
 warmly attached to Giulia Gonzaga, as we see by 
 their long and intimate correspondence. When Giulia 
 returned to Naples, she was grieved to hear of the in- 
 creasing ill-health of another friend, Vittoria Colonna, 
 who died in Rome in February 1547. 
 
 At this period, there was general unrest and 
 threatened trouble on every side. The death of 
 Henry VIII, and of Fra^ois I both early this year 
 left England and France in weaker hands, and en- 
 couraged alike the Emperor and the Pope to stronger 
 measures. Paul III thought that now would be a 
 good time to extend the Roman Inquisition to Naples, 
 and in May 1547, he sent a Brief to the Viceroy, 
 Don Pedro de Toledo, " commanding that all cases 
 of heresy should be judged by the tribunal of the 
 Inquisition." Knowing the temper of the city with 
 regard to this, Toledo did not dare to publish the 
 Brief as usual by sound of trumpet ; but he had it 
 quietly put up on the door of the Archbishop's palace, 
 and then retreated to his castle at Pozzuoli, at the 
 foot of Monte Nuovo, to await the result. This was 
 more serious than he had feared, for the paper was at 
 once torn down by the populace, who when attacked 
 by the soldiery, refused to give up the ringleaders. 
 
 A deputation was sent to the Viceroy, headed by 
 Antonio Grisone, who pointed out how hateful the 
 very name of the Inquisition was to the people, and 
 
GIULIA GONZAGA 245 
 
 implored him not to carry out this cruel act of op- 
 pression. Toledo, thoroughly alarmed, made a most 
 diplomatic reply, and for the present, the matter was 
 dropped. 
 
 But the peace was of short duration, for some 
 months later, another and more violent edict was 
 found posted outside the palace of the Archbishop. 
 The whole city rose in tumult with cries of " To 
 arms ! to arms ! " and the Pope's Brief was again 
 torn down. The nobles joined with the people in 
 furious opposition, while still declaring their faithful 
 allegiance to the Emperor. The Viceroy, who had 
 now collected a strong armed force, at once returned 
 to Naples to put down the rebellion by force of 
 arms. He had sent for Spanish troops from Genoa to 
 occupy the fortress of Castel Nuovo, whence they 
 entered Naples, fired on the inhabitants, and ulti- 
 mately sacked the city ; killing men, women and 
 children. The Neapolitans had already rung the 
 great bell of San Lorenzo, to summon all possible 
 help, and the night closed in tumult and confusion. 
 
 During the next fifteen days, the fighting continued, 
 with deadly skirmishes between the soldiers and the 
 people. The magistrates decided to send an embassy 
 to the Emperor ; and in order to show that this was 
 no mere seditious rising, they had already hoisted a 
 banner on the belfry of San Lorenzo with the Imperial 
 arms and the watchword : " Spain and the Emperor/' 
 Charles V was wise enough to bow before the storm, 
 the envoys came back with a message of conciliation, 
 and no further attempt was made during that reign, 
 to establish the Inquisition in Naples. 
 
 Meantime Giulia Gonzaga, with all her household 
 and many ladies amongst her friends, had been 
 
246 ITALIAN BEFORMATION 
 
 persuaded to take refuge in the Island of Ischia, 
 during the disturbances. She wrote to Ferrante 
 Gonzaga : 
 
 "... I have been in Ischia for the last twenty 
 days, having been induced to come here by all those 
 who love me, and indeed we were in a most perilous 
 condition in Naples ... in the Convent where I was 
 staying. . . . The great danger for the city was the 
 sacking and pillage, but the people behaved wonder- 
 fully well. . . . Your Lordship may think otherwise, but 
 to me it seems that the rigour of justice is not good at 
 all times ; this rule of violence cannot last. I and 
 many ladies are in the Castello, and the rest of my 
 people in another house on the estate, and the Signora 
 Marchese shows me the greatest kindness, and does 
 all that is possible for me. I hope to leave as soon 
 as the city has returned to its obedience, as it has 
 always offered to do on hearing the command of His 
 Majesty. ..." 
 
 When the troubles in Naples had passed over, 
 Giulia returned to the city, and spent most of her 
 time at the convent of San Francesco, although she 
 always kept up her establishment in the palace of 
 the Borge delle Vergine, both for the sake of her old 
 servants ; also that there might always be a home 
 ready for her nephew Vespasiano, and where she 
 might continue to show her princely hospitality to 
 all her friends who visited Naples. The Countess was 
 not destined to see much of her nephew, who as he 
 grew up was always engaged in military service under 
 the Emperor, and later of Philip II of Spain. He 
 had now inherited the dominions of his Gonzaga 
 
GIULIA GONZAGA 247 
 
 grandfather at Sabbioneta, and in 1559, at the age 
 of eighteen and a half, he made a rash and hasty 
 marriage with a Signora Diana Cardona, whom he 
 had met at Mantua. This was a great disappointment 
 to his aunt, who had given much anxious thought to 
 the important question of his marriage. But she 
 wrote kind letters to Diana, who appears to have had 
 rather a lonely and neglected life at Sabbioneta, while 
 her young husband was much away serving the 
 interests of Philip II. Her strange and tragic end 
 in 1550 is surrounded by mystery, but the general 
 belief is that the erring wife paid for her misconduct 
 with her life. 
 
 We have no space here for the story of Vespasiano's 
 eventful life, his matrimonial experiences, the mar- 
 vellous city of Sabbioneta which seemed to rise like 
 magic at his command, and the flamboyant mag- 
 nificence of his whole career, which is fully related 
 elsewhere. 1 
 
 We are only now concerned with Vespasiano in so 
 far as his story affects that of his devoted aunt and 
 adopted mother. There is a hint of coming trouble 
 in one of her letters to him : "I wish well to the 
 Signora Donna Diana, and therefore pray you to take 
 care that she controls herself . . . and this will be for 
 your credit as well as mine. ..." 
 
 Then, some months later comes a letter from the 
 young Lord of Sabbioneta. 
 
 " November 9, 1659. 
 
 " It has pleased God to call my wife to Himself ; 
 she died suddenly of apoplexy, without being able to 
 speak a word." 
 
 1 See "A Princess of the Italian Reformation," Christopher Hare. 
 
248 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 And after this, there is silence for ever. 
 
 Five years later, Vespasiano marries a charming 
 princess of the blood royal of Spain, Anna d'Aragona. 
 She has twin daughters and a son, in whom the 
 Countess of Fondi takes the most tender and affection- 
 ate interest, as we see from her letters, and she did 
 not live to see the sad close of this happy marriage. 
 But Giulia had recently suffered another bereavement 
 which touched her closely. 
 
 We have seen with what constant affection she 
 had watched over the chequered life of her favourite 
 young cousin Ippolita Gonzaga, who by no choice 
 of her own had been given a second husband, the 
 Duke of Mondragone. After a brief illness, Ippolita 
 died, at the age of twenty-eight, and a friend of the 
 Countess of Fondi, II Tansillo, writes this touching 
 account of her last days : 
 
 "... God has taken to himself this noble spirit . . . , 
 the Princess having communicated on the Sunday 
 before, as though she foresaw what was about to 
 happen. . . . All the circumstances which can deepen 
 our sorrow are combined in this death of Madonna, 
 for she was so young, so beautiful, so brave, and 
 such a rare and beautiful lady that the whole city of 
 Naples is plunged in grief. I do not speak of myself, 
 although I have received from her grace and favour, 
 more suitable to the greatness of her soul than to 
 my poor worth, and shall hold her memory in eternal 
 honour. May God give her a high place in His glory. 
 ... It is very sad to see the Duke deprived of her 
 now, when she is dearer to him than ever. But what 
 shall I say of our Signora Donna Giulia, whom I have 
 seen so tenderly watching over the poor girl, during 
 
GIULIA GONZAGA 249 
 
 her sad and painful journey hence, and who is now 
 overwhelmed with incomparable sorrow ? I could 
 not look upon her without tears . . . and when we 
 think that to this is added other losses of dear friends, 
 which has so afflicted the Signora Donna Giulia that 
 she has indeed need that God should help her. Now 
 she has gone into retirement, and does not receive 
 any visits, because in truth, she is far from well. 
 May it please God to spare her to us for many years, 
 as indeed, we cannot spare her. . . ." 
 
 A few days later Luigi Tansillo writes again : 
 
 " I hear that our Signora is bearing her great loss 
 with all the fortitude of her strong and Christian 
 spirit. It is four days since I saw her. . . . Our dear 
 Lady is wise with heavenly wisdom . . . may God 
 have her in His care." 
 
 With gallant courage, Giulia bore up against all 
 the grievous losses of dear friends which crowded 
 upon her in those last years : the Cardinals Gonzaga 
 and Seripando, Luigi Priuli, Vergerio, and others, 
 amongst them Bernardino Ochino, to whom she had 
 always remained a firm ally, when he was forsaken by 
 others. To the end, her loyalty, her faith and her 
 brave devotion never failed ; in spite of her own 
 increasing ill-health, her most strenuous efforts were 
 devoted above all to the care and protection of those 
 friends who had been driven into exile for their re- 
 ligious opinions. She found much comfort and 
 encouragement at this time, from the letters of Pietro 
 Carnesecchi, whom she had introduced to Valdes, 
 and whose story is so important in the history of the 
 
250 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 Italian Reformation, that it will be fully given in the 
 following chapters. 
 
 On January 7, 1566, Michele Ghislieri, the fanatical 
 Inquisitor, was elected Pope, under the title of Pius V, 
 and from that moment every distinguished Italian 
 who held reformed views was in peril of his life. The 
 Countess of Fondi and her friends had been specially 
 watched for years, and it was no secret that much 
 evidence had been stored up against them. Giulia 
 was earnestly implored by those who loved her, to 
 seek safety in flight to a land of freedom, as she had 
 helped so many others to do. But this step, she 
 firmly refused to take, as it was needful for the safety 
 and welfare of her friends that she should remain at 
 her post. In so many cases she could be a link 
 between the parted members of a family ; she could 
 help and encourage those who were still wavering 
 and in doubt, and with her large fortune she was 
 able to supply the necessities of life to many destitute 
 exiles. 
 
 In this anxious time of renewed persecution, 
 Giulia 's health was rapidly failing, and she devoted 
 much thought to the making of her will, in order that 
 she might continue as far as possible, her good works 
 and loving care for all who had any claim upon her 
 charity. Her dearly loved nephew, the Illustrissimo 
 Vespasiano Gonzaga, was made her universal heir, 
 with the exception of all the legacies and charges 
 which she enumerates. Then follow minute directions 
 for the maintenance of her exiled friends and others, 
 with full directions concerning all her dependants 
 and servants, not forgetting certain slaves to whom 
 she gives their freedom besides making full provision 
 for them. She desired to be buried in the Church of 
 
GIULIA GONZAGA 251 
 
 the Monastery of San Francesco delle Monache, 
 " where I have lived for so many years and at present 
 dwell." 
 
 Vespasiano wrote to the Duke of Mantua : 
 
 "April 1556. 
 
 " It has pleased our Lord that the Signora Donna 
 Giulia Gonzaga, my aunt, has ended her days in 
 the most Christian manner . . . called away to the 
 better life, and leaving me stricken with the deepest 
 grief. . . ." 
 
 Her death was a merciful escape from the cruel 
 persecution which followed, and we may imagine 
 her deadly peril when we hear that the new Pope, on 
 rinding her letters to Pietro Carnesecchi, declared 
 " that if he had seen these sooner, he would have 
 taken good care to burn her alive." 
 
 Tasso has some touching lines : 
 
 " Giulia Gonzaga . . . che le luci sante 
 E i suoi pensier eiccome strali al segno 
 Rivolti a Dio, in lui viva, in se morta 
 Di null'altro si ciba, e si consorta." 
 
 ("Giulia Gonzaga . . . who dwelt in the holy light, and whose 
 thoughts, like arrows to the mark, turned to God ; in Him she lived, 
 in Him she died, by no other was she nourished, with no other did she 
 abide.") 
 
CHAPTER XXII 
 
 GALEAZZO CARACCIOLI 
 
 Story of Galeazzo Caraccioli, a young noble of Naples Influence of 
 the teaching of Peter Martyr Galeazzo studies the reformed 
 doctrines He resolves to forsake his native land and his family, 
 and travels to Geneva, where he can openly confess his faith 
 Imploring entreaties from his father and his wife He remains 
 firm to the end Half his life spent in Geneva. 
 
 AMONGST the friends of Giulia Gonzaga at Naples, 
 perhaps none was more indebted to her for unfailing 
 help and sympathy than the young noble Gian 
 Galeazzo Caraccioli. He was born at Naples in 
 January 1517 the son and heir of Colantonio 
 Caraccioli, Marchese di Vico, an ancient city near 
 Castellamare, and nephew of Cardinal Caraffa, after- 
 wards Pope Paul IV. 
 
 Colantonio was not only of a very old and noble 
 family, but had distinguished himself in the service 
 of the Emperor, having been an intimate friend and 
 companion of that Duke of Orange who was made 
 Captain-General of the Imperial army, after the death 
 of the Due de Bourbon at the taking of Rome in 
 1527. Colantonio became a great favourite with 
 Charles V, and after taking a prominent part in the 
 siege of Florence, the title of Marchese was conferred 
 upon him, and he was appointed one of the Pay- 
 masters General to the Viceroy of Naples. He was 
 greatly devoted to his only son, and at an early age, 
 
 252 
 
GALEAZZO CARACCIOLI 253 
 
 arranged for him a marriage with Vittoria, the 
 daughter of the Duke of Nocera, with a dowry of 
 twenty thousand ducats. Galeazzo was in his turn, 
 received into the service of the Emperor, who gave 
 him a post at his Court, and showed the gallant young 
 noble great honour and friendship. All things ap- 
 peared to conspire for his happiness and success, and a 
 prosperous, easy life appeared to be secured for him. 
 
 He was able to spend much time in his beautiful 
 home at Naples, and it so chanced that one day, he 
 was persuaded by his friend and kinsman, Gian 
 Francesco di Caserta, to attend a sermon of Pietro 
 Martire Vermigli (Peter Martyr), a Florentine, and 
 at that time a Canon Regular, greatly sought after 
 for his wonderful eloquence. The discourse he heard 
 on that occasion was on the Epistles of St. Paul to 
 the Corinthians, and the preacher gave rather a 
 curious simile. 
 
 "If a man walking in the country, sees in the 
 distance a number of men and women apparently 
 dancing if he can hear no sound of music he might 
 think them quite distracted. But on drawing nearer, 
 the gay sound of musical instruments reaches his 
 ear, and the tune is so attractive that he too desires 
 to join in the dance. Thus it happens that, if we 
 observe in others a change in their life and customs 
 something quite unusual we may consider them 
 mad, but when the sound of the Spirit of God and of 
 His word, which is true harmony, penetrates our 
 hearts, we too understand, and join them, turning 
 aside from the world and its vanities/' 
 
 This simple allegory happened to excite the interest 
 
254 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 of Galeazzo, and he had long conversations with his 
 friend Caserta, who was already deeply interested in 
 the reformed doctrines, and who introduced him to the 
 religious circle of Valdes, of whom he soon became a 
 most ardent disciple. 
 
 Flaminio was at this time in Naples, on account of 
 his health ; he was extremely interested in the 
 enthusiasm and quick understanding of young Carac- 
 cioli, and wrote him later a long and most interesting 
 letter of congratulation on the gift which he had 
 received from God. Like the rich young man in the 
 Gospel, Galeazzo had " great possessions " ; he was 
 the idol of his father, he was greatly devoted to his 
 charming wife Vittoria and to his young children, 
 while a peaceful life of happiness, with literary 
 culture, many congenial friends and great worldly 
 success, seemed temptingly outspread before him. 
 
 But he even went farther than his teachers, for 
 when, in the service of the Emperor, he had occasion 
 to travel into Germany, he learned from Peter Martyr 
 and Luther, that it was not enough for him to accept 
 " justification by faith/' but that he must also forsake 
 " idolatry/' and therefore cast off all allegiance to 
 the Papacy, renouncing even outward conformity to 
 superstitious customs. This was indeed a hard 
 doctrine, for it must either mean condemnation and 
 death at the hand of the Inquisition, or he must give 
 up all that he loved and take his flight into a free 
 country ; thus choosing a life of exile more painful 
 than death. 
 
 Of all his family, he was the only one troubled with 
 religious doubts, or an eager desire to learn the truth, 
 and every art of persuasion and temptation was 
 used to win him back to the orthodox belief. His 
 
GALEAZZO CARACCIOLI 255 
 
 father treated his new ideas at first with ridicule, 
 for knowing what an affectionate and obedient son 
 he had been, the Marchese could not believe that 
 he would take any serious step in the matter. But 
 as time passed on, and Galeazzo attended neither 
 confession nor mass, gave up many worldly amuse- 
 ments and steadily attached himself to the company 
 of the Reformers, his father became seriously alarmed 
 and threatened him with punishment and even 
 imprisonment if he did not give up these " strange 
 new conceits/' He had a still greater trial with his 
 wife, to whom he was deeply attached ; for she was 
 constantly in tears, and implored him not to bring 
 disgrace upon themselves and the noble families to 
 which they were allied. It needed all his fortitude 
 to stand firm against all her loving entreaties ; and 
 also to face the ridicule and contempt of the young 
 companions with whom he had been accustomed to 
 lead a gay and worldly life. 
 
 The difficulty was still greater when he was at the 
 Court of the Emperor, who was extremely strict in 
 his own religious observances, and required the same 
 behaviour from his courtiers. Another still more 
 dangerous temptation was very hard to resist. He 
 found that other disciples of Valdes, in Naples, still 
 frequented the churches and showed some measure of 
 outward conformity, which he himself felt to be 
 contrary to the teaching of the German Protestants. 
 In his trouble he went to consult the Countess of 
 Fondi, and from her alone, he found sympathy and 
 encouragement. She realised how fatal it would be 
 for him to act aga'inst the dictates of his conscience ; 
 and as time passed on and he found his life of inward 
 doubt and struggle intolerable, it was from GiuhVs 
 
256 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 wise and strong support that he gathered courage to 
 make the final sacrifice, and give up all for his Faith. 
 
 It was in the month of March, 1551, when Galeazzo 
 had attained his thirty-fourth year, that he finally 
 made up his mind to forsake his native land and all 
 who were dear to him. His mother was long dead, 
 but his father's love had been the more devoted to 
 take her place, and he knew that his departure would 
 raise an impassable barrier between them. The 
 thought of leaving his wife was agony to him, and it 
 was a deep additional sorrow to picture his six 
 children deprived of his care at an age when they so 
 greatly needed him. At this time the eldest was 
 fifteen, the youngest barely four years old, and in 
 the grief of tearing himself away from them the 
 change from his splendid palace, his delightful gardens, 
 his many friends and his high position to a life of 
 exile and poverty, was almost forgotten. Two or 
 three of his intimate companions had offered to 
 accompany him, but at the last moment, they drew 
 back from the ordeal. 
 
 But this did not shake young Caraccioli's resolution ; 
 he left Naples on March 21, to travel in the first 
 instance to the Court of the Emperor at Augsburg, 
 as, if he had publicly announced his purpose, he would 
 certainly have been arrested. He only took with 
 him a sum of about 2,000 ducats, raised on the 
 property which he had inherited from his mother, and 
 thus provided, set forth on his pilgrimage. On his 
 arrival at Augsburg, he remained in the service of 
 Charles V, until May 26 of the same year, when the 
 Court moved to the Netherlands, and then he took 
 his final departure, travelling to Geneva, where he 
 arrived on June 8. He knew no one in this city, 
 
GALEAZZO CAEACCIOLI 257 
 
 but two days later he was cheered by the arrival of 
 Lactantio i^agnoni a native of Siena, and half- 
 brother of Bernardino Ochino whom Galeazzo had 
 known at Naples, and who was now a preacher to 
 the Italian congregation at Geneva, having fled from 
 persecution in Italy. 
 
 The young noble was not long in Geneva before he 
 was introduced to Calvin and other Reformers, who 
 received him with the utmost kindness, and he 
 resolved to take up his abode in this hospitable city. v 
 Calvin was deeply interested in the story of Galeazzo, 
 and the friendship begun at this time was only 
 dissolved by death. The great Reformer showed his 
 regard by dedicating to this friend the second edition 
 of his Commentary on the Corinthians. 
 
 When the news reached Naples of Galeazzo's 
 arrival at Geneva, it was a terrible blow for his 
 family. His father was quite distracted, and having 
 consulted with the unfortunate Vittoria, they de- 
 cided to send his cousin, to whom he was greatly 
 attached, with affectionate letters and most imploring 
 persuasions that he would return home, and not 
 bring down utter ruin upon his family ; as all the 
 possessions of a heretic would be confiscated, and his 
 children disinherited. The cousin found the young 
 Count in a small house and so humble a condition 
 that he was greatly distressed, and he used all his 
 efforts to induce his friend to listen to his appeal. 
 But Galeazzo had already counted the cost of his 
 final step, and no entreaties had any influence upon 
 him, although he was heart-broken at the pitiful 
 story of all that his loved ones were suffering on his 
 account. It was an additional trial to him to feel 
 that his decision was breaking the bond of friendship 
 17 
 
258 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 between himself and this cousin, who was like a 
 brother to him. 
 
 When the disappointed messenger returned to 
 Naples, there was a fresh scene of bitter anguish 
 and despair on the part of the exile's father and wife. 
 The old Marchese prepared to take a journey to the 
 Emperor to implore him not to punish the helpless 
 family for Galeazzo's crime in leaving the Church of 
 Rome. But while he was preparing for this expedition, 
 another idea occurred to him ; to make one more 
 effort by personal influence to induce his son to change 
 his mind. He therefore wrote to him at Geneva, 
 by a special messenger, commanding him, by all the 
 duty and obedience which he owed to a father, to 
 meet him in the Venetian States ; assuring him at 
 the same time of a safe-conduct from the Signoria of 
 Venice. 
 
 Galeazzo felt that he could not refuse this earnest 
 appeal, although he was quite aware of the danger 
 it might prove to him, and was also firmly resolved, 
 with God's grace, to resist all temptation. He set 
 out therefore from Geneva, on April 29, 1553, and 
 it was in Verona that the meeting with his father took 
 place. A most painful and trying time followed ; 
 all the former reasonings and entreaties were repeated, 
 and the young man had once more the bitter anguish 
 of having to refuse and cruelly disappoint one he 
 loved so dearly. 
 
 Finding that threats and persuasion were alike 
 hopeless to change his son's steadfast resolution, the 
 Marchese made him promise that he would remain in 
 Italy until he should learn the result of an appeal 
 to the Emperor, with regard to the suggested negotia- 
 tions about the property of the family. Galeazzo 
 
GALEAZZO CARACCIOLI 259 
 
 therefore gave his word that he would remain at 
 Verona until he should hear if the appeal of the 
 Marchese to the Emperor had been successful. 
 
 Meantime other friends and amongst them Girolamo 
 Fracastoro, the famous philosopher, physician and 
 poet of that day, set themselves the task of pointing 
 out to the young convert the error of his ways. But 
 he defended his action with so much wisdom and 
 modesty, that those who came to blame him, could 
 only turn away in sorrow and disappointment. As 
 soon as a favourable answer was received from 
 Charles V who forbade all confiscation of the Vico 
 property Galeazzo returned to Geneva, full of 
 thankfulness that at least he had caused no temporal 
 loss to his children, and that his father's greatest 
 grievance against him was thus removed. 
 
 He was at Basle with Calvin a little later, when he 
 met there a certain Don Celso, whose real name 
 was Massimiliano, Count of Martinenghi, of an 
 illustrious family of Brescia. They persuaded this 
 excellent preacher, who had been professor of Greek 
 with Vergerio, at Lucca, to be minister of the Italian 
 Church at Geneva ; at the same time certain Elders 
 were chosen to arrange a form of discipline and 
 worship, and Galeazzo Caraccioli was chosen to be at 
 their head. 
 
 In the following year, 1555, there were fresh 
 temptations for Galeazzo, as his kinsman Giovanni 
 Pietro CarafEa had been elected Pope under the 
 title of Paul IV. The Marchese, who could not give 
 up the hope of winning his son back to the Church of 
 Rome, took advantage of this, to obtain permission 
 for him to live in the territory of Venice, and enjoy 
 the free exercise of his religion. Having arranged 
 
260 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 the matter, he wrote to Galeazzo, sending a passport 
 to secure his safety, and entreating him to come to 
 Mantua. The young man could not refuse so urgent 
 a request, and set forth in June 1555 ; his father 
 treated him with warm affection, and implored him 
 to accept this friendly arrangement by which he could 
 live happily at Venice with his wife and family, 
 undisturbed in his Protestant faith. It was a most 
 tempting offer, but after long and serious considera- 
 tion, Galeazzo came to the conclusion that this would 
 only prove a new snare. When had Rome ever been 
 known to keep faith with heretics ? He would be 
 in constant danger so long as he remained firm in his 
 opinions, and if he were summoned before the In- 
 quisition and condemned to death, it would brand all 
 his family with shame. 
 
 After much difficulty, young Caraccioli convinced 
 his father of the risks involved, and accompanied him 
 as far as his safe-conduct made it prudent for him to 
 do so ; they parted near the border of the Venetian 
 provinces, and it was on this occasion that Galeazzo 
 paid a visit to the Duchess Renee of Ferrara. He 
 returned to Geneva by the Val Settina, and Chiavenna, 
 and was gladly welcomed back by his friends at 
 Geneva. He had in vain written to ask his wife to 
 meet him, but after his return she suggested that if 
 he would go to Lesina on the Dalmatian coast, she 
 would cross over from Vico to meet him about a 
 hundred miles of sea-voyage. This he consented 
 readily to do, but he waited in vain for her at the 
 appointed place. Apparently her confessor would 
 not trust her so far from home, but after long waiting, 
 his two eldest sons, Colantonio and Carlo, were sent 
 to meet him instead. A long correspondence followed. 
 
GALEAZZO CARACCIOLI 261 
 
 and on March 7, 1558, he again set out for Lesina, but 
 as one excuse after another was sent, he resolved to 
 risk everything and cross to Vico himself to meet his 
 family. 
 
 On his arrival, he was received in a kind of triumph, 
 evidently with full expectation of keeping him, now 
 that he had returned to his home. When he implored 
 his wife to come to Geneva with him, promising her 
 the free exercise of her religion, she at length owned 
 that her confessor had told her that to live with a 
 heretic as her husband, was to incur perpetual ex- 
 communication. This was more than he could 
 endure, and he resolved to leave without delay. 
 Upon this his father turned against him with fury, 
 and dismissed him with bitter words and even curses. 
 As he hastened to take leave of his wife and children, 
 they clung to him with passionate entreaties, and the 
 ordeal was so trying that he dared not linger, and 
 rushed to the sea-shore to embark for Dalmatia as 
 soon as possible. 
 
 He was almost broken-hearted with grief at the 
 parting, although he could not help feeling that a 
 trap had been laid for him. From Lesina, he travelled 
 rapidly to Venice where he received a letter from 
 Calvin, who was in great hopes that he might persuade 
 his wife to join him. 
 
 " To my Lord the Marchese di Vico. 
 
 " I hope this letter will reach you at Venice, for I 
 suppose that by the end of June, my Lady your wife 
 will have arrived at Lesina, and that she will not 
 keep you so long waiting in vain as she did the first 
 time. ... I feel the most anxious desire for a happy 
 
262 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 ending to your patience. . . . May God in His mercy 
 guide her to your wishes. . . . We have all been in 
 great trouble and anxiety about you. . . ." 
 
 The letter then continues to give a long account 
 of the troubles in France for the Huguenots, etc. 
 
 On receiving this, Galeazzo hastened on to Geneva, 
 where he was received with the utmost joy and 
 thankfulness, as one who had escaped from deadly 
 peril ; they exclaimed in the words of the Psalmist : 
 " He that dwelleth in the secret places of the Most 
 High, shall abide under the shadow of the Almighty/' 
 
 In his peaceful life of preaching and devotion, he 
 was once more troubled in later years by another 
 demand from his family. A young priest arrived 
 with letters from Vittoria and from one of his sons, 
 Carlo, who had entered the Church and found that 
 the heresy of his father prevented him from obtaining 
 any ecclesiastical dignity, such as that of Bishop or 
 Cardinal. Galeazzo was even offered a large sum of 
 money if he would return to the Romish Church. 
 This was more than he could endure and he threw 
 the letters into the fire. He was at that time in 
 failing health, and the excitement and grief at this 
 new attempt upon him, brought on a serious relapse. 
 
 His life was drawing to a close, and he passed 
 away in the midst of devoted friends on May 7, 1586, 
 at the age of sixty-nine years, having spent nearly 
 half his life in exile at Geneva for the sake of his faith. 
 
CHAPTER XXIII 
 
 PIETRO CARNESECCHI 
 
 Life of Pietro Carnesecchi Born at Florence Clement VII invites 
 him to Rome A brilliant scholar Sack of Rome, 1527 Carne- 
 secchi goes to Florence, meets Ochino, and later at Naples is 
 introduced to Valdes by Giulia Gonzaga Joins the Reformers, 
 in the circle of Valdes at Naples Meets Vittoria Colonna and 
 Cardinal Pole at Viterbo Visits Venice, the centre of German 
 literature Meets Caterina Cibo at Florence Summoned before 
 the Inquisition, but released by Paul III. 
 
 PIETRO CARNESECCHI was born at Florence in the 
 first decade of the sixteenth century, of an honourable 
 family who took an active part in the government of 
 the Republic. His father, Pier Antonio Carnesecchi, 
 held the position of Commissary of the Florentine 
 Republic in the district of the Maremma in 1507, 
 and we have a clear proof of the high opinion in which 
 he was held, from the letters of Macchiavelli on the 
 part of the Council of Ten. In that favoured centre 
 of humanistic study, the " cradle of the Renaissance," 
 as Florence has been justly called, the boy Pietro had 
 the advantage of an unrivalled education in every 
 branch of classical literature and philosophical 
 thought ; the name of one of his teachers has been 
 recorded, Francesco Robertello, of world- wide reputa- 
 tion later as Professor of Letters at the University of 
 Padua. 
 
 The Carnesecchi were faithful and devoted friends 
 
 263 
 
264 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 of the Medici throughout all their changing fortunes ; 
 and Giuliano, the illegitimate son of Giulio, Lorenzo 
 the Magnificent 's younger brother, took a warm 
 interest in the promising young scholar, Pietro, and 
 on his succession to the Papacy in November 1523, 
 as Clement VII, was able to prove the value of his 
 friendship. Other members of the Medici family 
 appear to have been on intimate terms with Car- 
 nesecchi ; the child Cosimo son of Giovanni delle 
 Bande Nere, who was one day to become Grand Duke 
 of Florence, and little Catherine destined to be Queen 
 of France. 
 
 Pietro had taken priestly orders in Florence before 
 he was summoned by Clement VII to the Court of 
 Rome. Here he was received with friendly hospitality 
 by the Cardinal Dovizzi, and warmly welcomed by a 
 brilliant circle of distinguished men. These were but 
 the remains of that marvellous Court of Leo X in 
 the days when " all Rome was an academy, every- 
 where songs, everywhere science, poetry, the fine 
 arts, a sort of voluptuousness of study/' The 
 distinguished Venetian scholar Pietro Bembo, the 
 friend of Castiglione who had long before chosen him 
 for his " Cortigiano," as the high-priest of the Plato- 
 nism of the Renaissance, was there, and with him the 
 learned Sadoleto, whom he warned not to let his style 
 be spoilt by too much study of St. Paul's Epistles. 
 In that highly cultured circle we find the poet Marc- 
 antonio Flaminio, whose Latin poems had been so 
 much admired by Leo X ; Gasparo Contarini, then a 
 layman and ambassador from his native Venice, 
 Antonio Bruccioli, the Florentine exile who had 
 already translated the Bible into Italian, and many 
 others ; some illustrious survivals from the period of 
 
PIETRO CARNESECCHI 265 
 
 the Pagan Renaissance, with younger men who were 
 destined to inaugurate the Catholic Revival, and 
 who were already members of the " Oratory of 
 Divine Love." 
 
 This was the world in which Pietro Carnesecchi 
 found himself absolutely at home with kindred souls 
 all around him. We are told that Sadoleto praised 
 him as a young man of great promise and unusual 
 talent, Bembo spoke of him with goodwill and 
 affection, while Benvenuto Cellini, the Florentine 
 goldsmith and artist, had occasion to be indebted to 
 his good offices in restoring him to the favour of the 
 Pope. Carnesecchi himself rose high in the estimation 
 of Clement VII, who made him first Secretary, and 
 then Papal Protonotary, which placed him in a 
 position of so much importance that it soon became 
 a common saying that " the Church was more ruled 
 by Carnesecchi than by Clement/' He also received 
 from his devoted patron two abbeys with all their 
 revenues, one being in France and the other at Eboli, 
 about sixteen miles from Salerno, in the Kingdom of 
 Naples. Eboli is splendidly situated on high ground, 
 commanding a fine view of the sea, the great forest 
 of Persano, the towns on the slopes of Monte Alburno 
 and the valley of the Silarus. 
 
 It was in the year 1531, that Pietro first made the 
 acquaintance of a Spanish nobleman, Senor Juan de 
 Valdes, who was for a time Papal Chamberlain, 
 having come to Rome with high credentials as " a 
 noble knight by grace of the Emperor." But at this 
 period they do not appear to have attained to any 
 deep religious intimacy, for Carnesecchi, although 
 an able and upright statesman, and a conscientious 
 man who discharged all the obligations of his ec- 
 
266 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 clesiastical offices, had not taken up any very serious 
 views on the subject of Reform. 
 
 It so chanced that during the Lent of the year 1534, 
 a certain Capuchin Friar, Fra Bernardino Ochino of 
 Siena, was appointed to preach the Lenten sermons 
 in the Church of SS. Lorenzo e Damaso, near the 
 Campo di Fiori in Rome. Ochino had but recently 
 left a branch of the Franciscan Order of the Ob- 
 servants, of which he had been Prior, to join a far 
 more strict and austere body of Capuchins. This 
 severity of life was not approved by the ecclesiastical 
 authorities, and the more lax Franciscans were able 
 to persuade some Cardinals to obtain by Papal decree, 
 the dissolution of this new ascetic Order, which had 
 been established barely six years. In order to avert 
 this threatened danger, all the Capuchins, numbering 
 about 125, were gathered together in Rome. 
 
 When, by Pope Clement's decree of April 25, 1534, 
 they were expelled from the city, all the lower classes 
 in Rome took the side of the friars, and rose in tumult 
 on their behalf. Two great ladies, who had taken 
 deep interest in these unworldly Capuchins, joined 
 in a strenuous appeal to the Pope. One was Clement's 
 niece, Caterina Cibo, the Dowager Duchess of 
 Camerino, and the other was Vittoria Colonna, the 
 widow of Ferrante Marchese of Pescara, who at that 
 time was on a visit to her Colonna relations at Marino. 
 The two ladies hastened to Rome and at length 
 induced Pope Clement to withdraw his edict of 
 expulsion. It was not very long after this, on Sep- 
 tember 26, that the Pope died. Carnesecchi had been 
 introduced by Cardinal Palmieri, to the Signora 
 Vittoria, and now for the first time made her ac- 
 quaintance. But far more important in its results 
 
PIETRO CARNESECCHI 267 
 
 was the influence of Fra Bernardino's preaching upon 
 the young statesman, who lost no time before visiting 
 Ochino and entering into earnest conversation with 
 him. He does not appear to have had any scholastic 
 disputations at that time, or to have heard any new 
 doctrine from this preacher, whose extraordinary 
 success was due to his personal sincerity, and to the 
 impassioned love and sympathy which shone through 
 his eloquent words and won all hearts. 
 
 After the death of his patron, Clement VII, and 
 the succession of Alessandro Farnese under the title 
 of Paul III, Carnesecchi left Rome and returned to 
 Florence. Although he had faithfully devoted him- 
 self to Pope Clement, during the latter eventful years 
 of his rule, and had shared with him the terrible 
 disaster of the taking and sack of Rome joining 
 later in the Imperial assertion of the coronation of 
 Charles V at Bologna yet Pietro Carnesecchi was 
 a man of thought, rather than action, and his official 
 position and importance had never been congenial 
 to him. In his native city, he was once more brought 
 into contact with Fra Bernardino Ochino in 1536 to 
 1537, and became still more deeply interested in 
 his striking and fascinating personality. But the 
 preacher himself had not yet adopted any strongly 
 reformed doctrines, and it was not until some years 
 later when he came under the influence of the Spanish 
 Reformer, Juan Valdes at Naples, that he definitely 
 committed himself to Lutheran teaching. 
 
 Ochino had recently been preaching in the Duomo 
 of Ferrara, where he had been invited by Renee, 
 Duchess of Ferrara, and Vittoria Colonna had gone 
 there that she might miss none of his sermons. Great 
 interest had been felt with regard to this striking 
 
268 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 pulpit orator in Mantua, for Agostino Gonzaga had 
 written to Isabella cTEste, a long letter from Rome, 
 describing the enthusiasm which he had excited in 
 the Eternal City. In Florence he met with the same 
 success, and assembled round his pulpit were all the 
 noblest and most distinguished of the citizens. Here 
 too came, besides Carnesecchi, Caterina Cibo Duchess 
 of Camerino, who remained faithful to the Friar in 
 the stormy days to come, Giammatteo Giberti the 
 pious Bishop of Verona, Giovanni Pietro Caraffa then 
 Bishop of Chieti, and later a cruel persecutor of his 
 former friends when he became Pope under the name 
 of Paul IV. Perhaps the most interesting personality 
 to us amongst these disciples for the moment, was 
 Reginald Pole, who was at the same time earning 
 a Cardinal's Hat (December 22, 1536, received) as 
 a reward for his defence of Papal rights against 
 Henry VIII of England. 
 
 Following the steps of Pietro Carnesecchi, we find 
 him in the summer of 1538, at the Baths of Lucca, 
 already famous for their healing quality, in company 
 with Vittoria Colonna Marchesa of Pescara, and 
 Cardinal Pole her intimate friend and teacher. No 
 suspicion of unorthodoxy appears to have attached 
 to this little company of thinkers, at this time, indeed 
 it was not until the year 1540 when Carnesecchi, 
 bent on visiting his Abbey at Eboli, found himself 
 at Naples, that he came to a turning point in his 
 religious life. 
 
 We have already told the story of Juan de Valdes, 
 the Spanish Reformer, who had taken up his abode 
 in Naples, and was a member of the suite of Pedro de 
 Toledo the Viceroy. His outspoken opinions on the 
 subject of reform had made it desirable for him to 
 
PIETRO CARNESECCHI 269 
 
 leave Spain, where the Inquisition had long been in 
 full force, and was keenly on the look-out for traces 
 of any differences of doctrine which might have the 
 slightest flavour of heresy. In Naples Juan had 
 devoted himself to the earnest study of philology, of 
 the writings of the German Reformers, but above all 
 of the Bible itself. In the Vice-Regal Court, he was 
 highly respected as a man of profound learning and 
 spotless life, but he was distinguished above all 
 things for the irresistible charm of his manner and 
 conversation. 
 
 Carnesecchi soon fell under the influence of this 
 commanding spirit, and became one of his most 
 ardent disciples. At this time Valdes had already 
 written his scientific study of the Spanish language, the 
 "Dialogo de la lengua " ; the "Alfabeto Cristiano," 
 a catechism of religious teaching in the form of 
 question and answer between himself and the lady 
 Giulia Gonzaga ; and he must have been engaged in 
 the year 1540, in finishing his " Cento e dieci divine 
 consideration, " a manual of devout teaching which 
 contained many of the same views as Luther held. 
 He was convinced of the necessity of a return to the 
 simple elements of Christianity in creed and conduct, 
 and considered that great reforms were necessary 
 throughout the whole body of the Church. But he 
 had no wish to encourage a schism, and had not 
 thought of denying his allegiance to the Pope, or of 
 separating from the Catholic Church. Pietro Car- 
 nesecchi found himself one of a distinguished company 
 of seekers after truth. There was his friend the 
 brilliant poet, Marcantonio Flaminio, who had been 
 living for the last two years at his villa near Caserto 
 for the sake of his health. Galeazzo Caraccioli, the 
 
270 ITALIAN REFOKMATION 
 
 distinguished young scholar of noble birth whose 
 pathetic story we have already told, was another 
 member of the circle gathered round Valdes. Aonio 
 Paleario, the famous scholar, came for a time to 
 Naples, Pietro Martire Vermigli the Florentine, 
 whose name became so well known in England later, 
 and Ochino, to whom we have alluded, were there. 
 Nor were noble women wanting in this earnest gather- 
 ing. 
 
 Vittoria Colonna was at this time living within 
 reach, in the Island of Ischia, where she was the 
 companion of her husband's sister, the Duchess 
 of Francavilla. With them came Donna Isabella 
 Brisegna, sister-in-law of the Supreme Inquisitor for 
 Spain, Alfonso Manrique de Lara. Her husband the 
 Governor of Piacenza had driven her from her home 
 on account of her reformed opinions, and she was 
 under the protection of the noble lady, Giulia Gonzaga 
 Countess of Fondi. As we have seen, Giulia, ever 
 since her coming to Naples in the winter of 1535, had 
 taken a spacious palace in the Borgo delle Vergine, 
 and although she herself chiefly lived in her rooms 
 in the Convent of San Francesco, she was always 
 ready to give a hospitable reception to her old friends 
 and to any men df learning introduced to her. Thus 
 it was that Carnesecchi came to be a guest of hers, 
 and a strong and deep friendship grew up between 
 these two kindred spirits who were both so intensely 
 in earnest concerning religious matters. It was 
 Giulia Gonzaga indeed who first helped Carnesecchi 
 to understand thoroughly the doctrines of Valdes, 
 and we see from the immense number of letters which 
 passed between these two friends, and which have 
 fortunately been preserved, how fully in accord they 
 
PIETRO CARNESECCHI 271 
 
 were and how their mutual sympathy endured until 
 the end. 
 
 After the death of Valdes, the company of faithful 
 disciples appears to have been dispersed, and early 
 in May, 1541, Carnesecchi travelled to Rome with his 
 friends Marcantonio Flaminio and Donato Rullo. 
 They were kindly received by the old Cardinal of 
 Mantua, ad arcum Portugallice, who gave them a 
 friendly welcome. But Carnesecchi soon went on 
 to Florence with his friend Flaminio, and there re- 
 mained in his own home during the summer, until 
 the middle of October. At the Capuchin Convent, 
 three miles outside Florence, they met their friend 
 Bernardino Ochino, who was preparing his sermons 
 for publication, and who had already been warned 
 that he was in serious danger from the Inquisition. 
 
 Pietro Carnesecchi renewed his friendship with 
 Caterina Cibo, the Duchess of Camerino, who visited 
 him and Flaminio in Florence, joining them later in 
 the autumn, in their pilgrimage to Viterbo, where 
 other religious friends had gathered together in a 
 society much resembling the " Oratory of Divine 
 Love/' which had originally been started at Rome, 
 under the very eyes of the Pope. Here they found 
 Cardinal Pole, who in that summer of 1541 had been 
 appointed Legate to the Patrimony of St. Peter, and 
 was practically established as Governor of Viterbo. 
 At his Court there were many adherents of the new 
 doctrines, and amongst them we may mention Luigi 
 Priuli the Venetian, Abbot of San Soluto ; Giberti 
 Bishop of Verona, Soranzo soon to be Bishop of 
 Bergamo, Vincenzo Gheria, Archbishop of Ischia, 
 Donato Rullo, and others. At this same time, 
 October 1541, Vittoria Colonna had left Rome and 
 
272 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 retired to the Convent of Sta. Caterina, as " she could 
 worship God better and more quietly than in Rome/' 
 
 We have already had occasion to dwell fully upon 
 the subjects of prayer and meditation to which the 
 members of this religious society devoted themselves. 
 It was here that Carnesecchi read for the first time 
 Luther's earlier writings, also his Exposition of the 
 Psalms, and Bucer's Commentary upon the Gospel 
 of St. Matthew. Flaminio had already given him the 
 "Institutes " of Calvin, in Florence. Vittoria Colonna 
 appears to have here read with the greatest interest 
 Luther's Exposition of Psalm XLV, without knowing 
 by whom it was written. She told Carnesecchi that 
 she had felt more joy and refreshment in the study of 
 this work than in any other modern book. 
 
 During the greater part of a year, Pietro Car- 
 nesecchi remained a guest in the palace of Cardinal 
 Pole, enjoying the peaceful rest of this interchange 
 of holy thoughts ; and he then travelled on to Venice 
 with his friend Bonato Rullo, in order to consult a 
 famous physician there, concerning an obscure illness 
 which troubled him. He lived at first in the house of 
 Rullo, who was a native of Venice, and then removed 
 into a lodging of his own where he remained for the 
 next three years. 
 
 The Republic was at that time famous for its 
 hospitality to strangers of every nation, and also for 
 its broad toleration. The Senate had suffered Ochino 
 to preach the Lenten sermons in 1542, although his 
 doctrines were already regarded with suspicion in 
 Rome. After the Inquisition had been introduced 
 elsewhere in Italy, the Republic refused for a long 
 time to prosecute for matters of faith. The writings 
 of the Reformers all found their way through Venice 
 
PIETRO CARNESECCHI 273 
 
 into other centres in Italian cities, and here transla- 
 tions of the Bible and other religious books were 
 printed. Carnesecchi found in this beautiful city 
 many who sympathised with him in his earnest desire 
 for Reform. As we shall see later, this was made a 
 special point in his arraignment before the tribunal 
 of the Inquisition. ..." In Venice thou hast for many 
 years . . . not only persisted in former heresies . . . but 
 hast imparted them to other persons. . . ." 
 
 Amongst those specially mentioned in this accusa- 
 tion, was Pietro Paolo Vergerio, formerly Bishop of 
 Capo d'l stria, who had come to Venice to oppose 
 the views of the new school of thought, but he was 
 won over to join the Reformers instead of condemning 
 them. His brother Giovanni Battista Vergerio, 
 Bishop of Pola, followed in his steps. We also find 
 the name of Lattanzio Ragnone, of Siena, an en- 
 thusiastic pupil of both Vald6s and Ochino, and last 
 in the denouncing list is Baldassare Altieri of Aquila 
 in the Kingdom of Naples, for some time Secretary 
 to the English Embassy at Venice, and therefore 
 under safe protection. Altieri is spoken of as " an 
 apostate and a Lutheran, in correspondence with 
 the German Princes and heretical Protestants. . . ." 
 Then continues the accusing of Carnesecchi as having 
 given " lodging, shelter, encouragement and money 
 to many apostates and heretics, who . . . fled into 
 heretical ultramontane countries; and thou didst 
 by letter recommend to an Italian Princess, to Giulia 
 Gonzaga, two heretical apostates . . . who as soon as 
 they were discovered, were forthwith sent prisoners 
 to this Holy Office." 
 
 A man like Pietro Carnesecchi could not long 
 escape the suspicion of the Inquisition, and in 1546 
 18 
 
274 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 he was cited to Rome and put upon his trial for 
 heresy. Strangely enough in this moment of peril, 
 it was Pope Paul III himself who proved his best 
 friend. A brief explanation is needful to explain 
 this apparent paradox. The Pope (Alessandro Far- 
 nese) was born in 1468, he was educated in the palmy 
 days of the classical Renaissance and was made a 
 Cardinal at twenty- five, by Alexander VI. He 
 lived through the reigns of Julius II, Leo X, Adrian VI 
 and Clement VII, and at the age of sixty-six was 
 raised to the Papal dignity himself. 
 
 The experience of all that had passed before him 
 was not wasted, and although at heart he was a man 
 of the older generation, he had learnt a peculiar 
 caution and diplomatic shiftiness which stood him 
 in good purpose. His strongest desire was to form a 
 solid duchy for his illegitimate sons, and to achieve 
 this he must make friends with all parties. Now 
 Carnesecchi had powerful friends in Florence ; Duke 
 Cosimo was his patron ; he himself had been the 
 Secretary and Protonotary of a predecessor in the 
 Chair of St. Peter. In his " Popes of Rome," Leopold 
 von Ranke remarks : " It sounds strange, but there 
 is nothing more true, that while all Northern Germany 
 quaked at the prospect of the re-introduction of Papal 
 power, the Pope felt himself to be the confederate of 
 the Protestants/' In any case it was Paul who 
 intervened to protect Pietro Carnesecchi, and to stay 
 the suit instituted by the Inquisition. 
 
 It is curious to notice that for this deed of mercy, 
 Paul III was never forgiven by the fanatics of the 
 " Holy Office." Twenty years later in the final 
 judgment and condemnation of Carnesecchi, we can 
 read between the lines a scathing attack upon the 
 
PIETRO CARNESECCHI 275 
 
 weakness of " Pope Paul III of blessed memory ! >J 
 But the accused man, although released from prison, 
 could no longer feel himself safe in Italy, and im- 
 mediately after he was free in 1547, he set out for 
 France, where the Reform movement had made great 
 progress, and where he had several friends. A gentle 
 scholar, Pietro had a horror of every form of violence, 
 and although he had plenty of moral courage, he 
 was in delicate health and only longed for a peaceful 
 refuge where he could quietly continue his work. 
 This he appears to have found in Paris, which he 
 reached at a most critical and interesting time, and 
 where he took up his abode for several years. 
 
CHAPTER XXIV 
 
 CARNESECCHI IN PARIS 
 
 Carnesecchi goes to Paris Meets Marguerite of Navarre Presents 
 her with the poems of Marcantonio Flaminio Paul IV threatens 
 fresh persecution Carnesecchi tried by the Inquisition His 
 constant letters to Giulia Gonzaga She advises him not to escape 
 to Geneva Many of his friends in the prisons of the Inquisition 
 
 WHEN Pietro Carnesecclii reached Paris after his 
 release from the prison of the Inquisition at Rome, 
 it was at a singularly inauspicious moment. It was 
 the year 1547, and on March 31, King Frangois I 
 had died and been succeeded by his only surviving 
 son Henri II, whose policy towards the Reformed 
 faith was from the beginning much more rigorous 
 than that of his father. The young King had no 
 sympathy with humanism and had no need of con- 
 ciliating Protestant allies ; and the policy of opposi- 
 tion to the new doctrines was one on which all his 
 advisers were agreed, both Montmorency and the 
 House of Guise. In the first year of his reign, a new 
 criminal Court was created for the trial of heretics, 
 and it richly deserved its name of "La Chambre 
 Ardente," for in the course of the next two years, 
 more than a hundred persons were condemned to 
 death, by its means, for their opinions. 
 
 We can only wonder that Carnesecchi was not 
 interfered with, but he was fortunate in having in- 
 troductions to the great Paris firm of printers, the 
 
 276 
 
CARNESECCHI IN PARIS 277 
 
 Estiennes, whose shop in the Rue St. Jean de Beauvais 
 was a kind of club for scholars, where great nobles 
 of the Court dropped in from interest in learning or 
 curiosity, and Marguerite of Angouleme herself was 
 attracted by her eager love of knowledge. Robert 
 Estiennes, the present head of the House, had married 
 the daughter of a scholar, and we are told that " all 
 the household, even the children, talked Latin." 
 Robert had written learned books himself, such as his 
 "Tresor de la langue Latine " ; he had published not 
 only the classics but works of Erasmus, the trans- 
 lation of the New Testament by Lefebre d'Etaples, 
 and other writings of the Reformers. The Estiennes 
 had long been looked upon with suspicion by the 
 Sorbonne, and only the special favour of Fra^ois I 
 and his sister Marguerite, had so far protected them 
 from persecution as heretics. 
 
 This tender-hearted Princess was broken down 
 by the loss of her brother, yet after a while, her old 
 interests somewhat revived, and she was still willing 
 to receive the homage of scholars and poets. But 
 a change had come over her, and although she still 
 accepted the latest works on the new doctrines, she 
 returned in spirit to the faith of her childhood, drawn 
 by the beauty and emotion of Catholic ritual. Car- 
 nesecchi, as an Italian of note, had been received in 
 the Court of the new Queen, Catherine dei Medici, 
 and had been greatly attracted by Marguerite of 
 Navarre. On the death of his old friend, the poet 
 Marcantonio Flaminio, he had received through 
 Priuli, " as being rightly his by inheritance/' a 
 collection of Latin hymns, recently written by the 
 poet, shortly before his death, " De Rebus Divinis," 
 and dedicated to the Princess Marguerite. Car- 
 
278 ITALIAN EEFOEMATION 
 
 nesecchi was very anxious to persuade Robert 
 Estienne to print this work in order that he might 
 present it to the great lady in a suitable form. But 
 the famous printer was acute enough to read the 
 signs of the times, and he felt that under the present 
 government of Henri II, he was no longer safe from 
 the animosity of the Sorbonne and the " Chambre 
 Ardente." 
 
 He happened to be deeply engaged in removing 
 his printing business to the secure refuge of Geneva, 
 at that very moment. Pietro Carnesecchi had there- 
 fore no alternative but to place the precious manu- 
 script of the Hymns in the hands of Marguerite, who 
 was then in failing health and aware that she was 
 drawing near her end. But she accepted the dedica- 
 tion with her usual gentle courtesy, and Pietro had 
 good reason to remember this event. For in his 
 final judgment by the Inquisition it was recorded : 
 " Out of Italy, thou hadst a book sent to thee which 
 was stained with the heresy of Valdes, and thou didst 
 present it as a gift." 
 
 Carnesecchi did not leave Paris until 1552, when 
 persecution was becoming more violent in Paris 
 and other parts of France. He stayed at Lyons on 
 the way, and his friend Lattanzio Ragnone, who was 
 Pastor of the Church of fugitive Italian Protestants, 
 strongly advised him not to return to Italy, but to 
 seek safety at Geneva. This, Pietro was most un- 
 willing to do, for all his interests were in his native 
 land, and he had a strong desire to meet the Countess 
 Giulia Gonzaga, his faithful friend and correspondent, 
 once more. Besides he had confident hope that there 
 would be no special danger for him now in Italy, as 
 Paul III had been succeeded in 1550 by Julius III, 
 
CARNESECCHI IN PARIS 279 
 
 who cared too much for his own selfish ease to trouble 
 about the State, the Church or the Inquisition, and 
 only desired to enjoy himself in lazy comfort. More- 
 over, the exile knew that he had so many friends in 
 Venice, that he hoped to be able to live unmolested in 
 the territory of the Republic. He therefore travelled 
 on to Padua where he took up his abode, as from 
 thence he could pay frequent visits to Venice. 
 
 Julius III ended his useless life on March 23, 1555, 
 and his successor, Cardinal Cervini, who took the 
 name of Marcello II, only survived the excitement 
 of his elevation to the Papacy, for twenty- one days. 
 After his death which happened on Ascension Day, 
 May 1, the Cardinals on May 23, 1555, elected Giovanni 
 Pietro Caraffa, who took the title of Paul IV. We 
 have already made his acquaintance as a member of 
 the " Oratory of Divine Love/' when he joined in a 
 company of pious men, many of them with advanced 
 views, in prayer and meditation for the reform of the 
 Church. Since then, CaranVs doctrine was greatly 
 changed, and we shall see with what suspicion he 
 looked upon all his old companions. He was the 
 founder and soul of the Roman Inquisition, and now 
 at the age of seventy- nine, he was still a man of 
 fierce, and uncompromising temper ; with two guiding 
 passions hatred of the Spaniards who were ruling 
 Italy, and fanatical ambition to maintain the most 
 rigid Catholic orthodoxy. 
 
 The abdication of Charles V, this same year, 1555, 
 had placed on the throne of Spain, his son Philip II, 
 a bigoted Catholic and a superstitiously obedient son 
 of the Church. Had this not been the case, the new 
 Pope would never have succeeded in the coining 
 struggle. He began by trying to strengthen hia 
 
280 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 position through the method of advancing his relations 
 to positions of importance ; but after a time, when 
 it was clearly proved to him that these Caraffa nephews 
 were little better than the Borgias had been ; he caused 
 a searching inquiry to be made, deprived them of all 
 their offices and banished them from Rome. 
 
 Thus it was not until the Duke of Alva, Philip's 
 Viceroy at Naples, had marched against Rome which 
 was only saved by Protestant mercenaries from the 
 Grisons ; and the disgraceful Peace of Cavi had been 
 concluded in September 1557 that Paul IV appeared 
 in his true character as a fierce persecutor of the 
 Reformers. Already that summer, the prisons of 
 the Inquisition were full. On June 5, 1557, Car- 
 nesecchi wrote from Venice to Giulia Gonzaga, to 
 inform her that Cardinal Morone, together with the 
 Bishop of Cava, San Felice, had been sent as a prisoner 
 to the Castle of St. Angelo. 
 
 Giovanni Morone, the son of Girolamo Morone the 
 Milanese Chancellor, had been a most intimate friend 
 of Carnesecchi from his earliest years, for their fathers 
 were friends, and Pietro had entered the service of 
 Morone before he was made Bishop of Modena, in 
 1535, by Clement VII, who held him in the highest 
 honour. His imprisonment was a great shock to all 
 who held reformed opinions. As Carnesecchi wrote 
 to Giulia Gonzaga, in a second letter on June 12, 
 1557: 
 
 ' Why Morone is imprisoned, no one knows ; many 
 say that the Cardinals have brought it about, in order 
 that he may be out of their way at the next election 
 of a Pope, when he would be sure to obtain the 
 greatest number of votes. The Pope intends sum- 
 
CARNESECCHI IN PARIS 281 
 
 moning all the Cardinals to Rome, in order that they 
 as a College, may judge Morone. Paul IV has also 
 summoned Soranzio of Bergamo, and Egidio Fos- 
 carari, Bishop of Modena, and a Dominican monk, to 
 Rome. Now that temporal war has been brought 
 to a close, it appears that a spiritual one shall com- 
 mence in order that the world be not idle, but 
 shall ever have opportunity to exercise both spirit 
 and flesh/' 
 
 Many other Church dignitaries were also arrested 
 and proceeded against, as well as those named above. 
 The Abbot Villamarino, house-steward to Morone ; 
 Bishop Centanni, a Venetian, Don Bartolomeo Spada- 
 f ora of Messina, a friend of Giulia Gonzaga and Vittoria 
 Colonna ; the Archbishop Mario Galeota of Sorrento, 
 Bishop Verdura and others. By a Brief, dated 
 August 9, 1557, Cardinal Pole who was in England, 
 was summoned to Rome " to purge himself from 
 suspicion of heresy," but fortunately for him, Queen 
 Mary would not suffer him to go. Paul IV remem- 
 bered him as one of the members of the " Oratory of 
 Divine Love," and this was quite enough to condemn 
 him, although his blind devotion to the Papal See 
 had long been a serious grief to his reformed friends. 
 Shortly before his death in November 1558, Reginald 
 Pole made a declaration that 
 
 " He firmly held the Catholic Faith, and that he 
 believed the Pope to be really the Vicar of Christ 
 and the successor of St. Peter, and that he had always 
 revered and obeyed this present Pope [Paul IV], as 
 such, nor had he differed from him in anything, nor 
 from the opinion of the Roman Church. . . ." 
 
282 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 Carnesecchi writes to Giulia Gonzaga on February 
 11, 1559, in answer to hers : 
 
 " It has pleased me wonderfully that Donna Giulia 
 has not approved this declaration made by the 
 Cardinal of England, being superfluous, not to say 
 scandalous, especially at this time. . . . What a 
 difference from the teaching of Valdes, and how this 
 verifies the proverb : ' The end shows forth the life, 
 so the evening praises the day/ Let us indeed thank 
 God that our Faith does not depend upon men, nor 
 is it founded upon the sand, but upon the living 
 stone upon which in the same way, have built the 
 Apostles and the Prophets and all the other elect 
 and saints of God, Whom may it please to grant us 
 grace to live and die in the same Faith, to His 
 glory. . . ." 
 
 The letter ends with a touching allusion to the 
 fact of Cardinal Pole having died sixteen hours after 
 his friend Queen Mary, November 18, 1558. 
 
 " Courage ! I only pray God that He will preserve 
 my Donna Giulia, and if He should desire to take her 
 before me, at least may He grant me the favour He 
 has bestowed upon the Cardinal of England, which 
 is that I also may quickly follow my Queen. Amen. 
 Amen." 
 
 Carnesecchi had already found himself involved in 
 a dangerous attack from the Inquisition, for Paul IV 
 was not likely to pass over the man who had escaped 
 from him through the clemency of Paul III. Pietro 
 had been cited as early as October 1557, by a Decree 
 
CARNESECCHI IN PARIS 283 
 
 " To appear before a General Assembly of the Holy 
 Cardinals of the Inquisition, at their tribunal in 
 Rome, there personally to clear himself from the 
 accusation of having long adhered to many Lutheran 
 Articles, of having had heretical books, and of having 
 maintained intercourse with heretics." 
 
 This citation was served on him at Venice, on 
 November 6. 
 
 Pietro Carnesecchi refused to appear in Rome, and 
 was bold enough to remain in Venice, which at that 
 moment was in no friendly mood towards the Pope. 
 Strained relations had arisen because the Republic 
 had refused to join a confederation against Spain, 
 and distrusted the suggestion that she should hold 
 Sicily as her own. Carnesecchi having defied the 
 Pope's citation, was declared a heretic by a decree of 
 the Inquisition, dated March 24, 1558, and having 
 the " expressed assent of the doctors, theologians 
 and canonists, was proclaimed to have incurred the 
 censures and penalties threatened in the citation " ; 
 and this edict was published both in Venice and 
 Rome. 
 
 As this step had no result, final judgment was 
 delivered on April 6, 1559, whereby Carnesecchi was 
 declared to be a heretic in contumacy, and he was sen- 
 tenced to the punishments which attach to impenitent 
 heretics. All his property was confiscated ; he was 
 deprived of his benefices, of which we remember that 
 the Abbey of Eboli was one, and the warrant issued 
 against him notified that " he would be handed over 
 to the secular arm." 
 
 In spite of the temporary protection of Venice, we 
 may imagine what an anxious life was led by the 
 
284 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 condemned man during the months which followed. 
 He found his greatest comfort in the constant corre- 
 spondence which he kept up with the Countess Giulia 
 Gonzaga ; sometimes as many as three letters a 
 week pass between them and many of them are 
 written in cypher, as the Inquisition was already 
 suspicious of Giulia and kept a close watch upon her 
 and her friends. As the persecution became more 
 bitter, many escaped to Geneva, which became a kind 
 of stronghold of the Reformers, but Giulia herself 
 refused to listen to any persuasion. She also dis- 
 suaded Carnesecchi from this extreme step, as she 
 feared it would ruin his career. She had moreover 
 great faith in the influence of his powerful friends at 
 Rome and Florence, and she could not believe that 
 he would be in real danger. We can only allude to 
 a few of the many letters which passed between these 
 two friends. In that time of trouble and anxiety on 
 every side, the thoughts of Carnesecchi turn often 
 upon death. 
 In one of his letters he says : 
 
 " Do not fear to tread the path which has been 
 trodden by our Saviour Christ, Who in dying has 
 triumphed over death and conquered it so that it 
 can no more harm us. ... But why, you may ask, 
 do I reason concerning death ? Because we should 
 become so domesticated with it that we should no 
 more fear it, not for ourselves or for others. ... It 
 is but the gate of life, through which having passed, 
 we are free from all the infinite troubles and labours 
 of this life, and above all, we are safe from the danger 
 of sinning and offending God, which is the true death 
 of the soul. . 
 
CARNESECCHI IN PARIS 285 
 
 The position of Carnesecchi became more insecure 
 every day, for although the Venetian Senate had 
 refused the first command to give him up to the 
 Inquisition, it was quite uncertain what would 
 happen next time. Meanwhile the refugees in Switzer- 
 land strongly urged him to join them. When the 
 Count Galeazzo Caracciolo came over to visit his 
 family with a safe-conduct from the Viceroy of Naples, 
 he entreated Carnesecchi to share his exile. It was 
 a strong temptation, for it meant freedom to live 
 openly according to his Faith, but he feared lest his 
 flight might do harm to his friends in the prisons of 
 the Inquisition, and he had great hope that a change 
 might come with a new Pope ; for the violence of 
 Paul IV, had alienated friends and foes alike. Thus 
 he wrote to Giulia, 1 after expressing his satisfaction 
 at not having fled from his country : 
 
 " I give thanks to God and to Donna Giulia who, 
 I often say is like a fixed star, whose light directs us 
 in our course through the midst of the darkness of 
 this blind world ; and by her example guards us from 
 many dangers, for we might easily have fallen over 
 a deep precipice. ..." 
 
 And again when he expresses his hope of a change : 
 
 " When I think on the good grounds which Car- 
 nesecchi has to calculate on the favour and help which 
 present themselves to him, as also on the goodwill 
 and mildness which Popes are wont to show when they 
 begin their rule, I do not for a moment doubt but 
 
 1 Besides the cypher, in these letters the friends have often a cautious 
 way of speaking of themselves and each other, in the third person. 
 
286 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 that he will be rehabilitated and honourably re- 
 instated unless a Bull have been issued against him 
 
 In the meanwhile this has not yet been published, 
 and would be so unjust that it is to be hoped that 
 his successor will not carry it out unless he should 
 prove to be an Alessandrino [Michele Ghislieri, who 
 became Pope in 1566. Pius V] from him or any 
 one like him, may God preserve us ! " 
 
 Giulia Gonzaga was naturally saddened by the loss 
 of dear friends and the perils of others, and she 
 greatly valued Carnesecchi's words of hope and 
 comfort. Thus he writes in January 1559 : 
 
 " What a beautiful thing is friendship, especially 
 when it is born of noble hopes and aims, growing 
 in depth as the years pass on and the judgment 
 strengthens, while the ultimate end is the love of 
 God. This we can truly say has been the friendship 
 between these two, whom God has blessed, and 
 bestowed upon them the grace to live and die in one 
 mind, happy in the same holy desires ; although 
 Carnesecchi cannot blame himself for his desire to 
 leave this world some time before Donna Giulia, not 
 only because he was born before her, although at no 
 great interval . . . but that he might perhaps, by 
 God's mercy, be of some service to guide her across 
 the dread passage to the world above. . . . And in 
 this pious and honourable devotion to each other, I 
 repeat once more that they are an example of rare 
 friendship. . . ." 
 
 In the following March, Pietro Carnesecchi writes 
 concerning : 
 
CARNESECCHI IN PARIS 287 
 
 "... The singular benefits which he had received 
 through her from the holy doctrine and conversation 
 of Valdes, whom he first learnt to know through Donna 
 Giulia, ... for of himself he would never have gained 
 that profound belief and trust which had wrought 
 such a change in him. ... He could not say enough 
 to commemorate the wonderful consolation and 
 strengthening which he had received from Donna 
 Giulia, since the beginning of his trials, and of her 
 wise advice which had ruled his conduct throughout 
 the fiery trials which he had endured." 
 
 In another letter he makes an interesting remark 
 about his belief : 
 
 "... We have agreed together about this equivocal 
 word ' catholic/ because as the Signora and I believe, 
 the catholic religion is ours, and this being so, I 
 cannot declare that I hold the catholic religion false 
 and superstitious ; but that which is universally 
 preached, and especially by most of the Friars, is 
 rather philosophy than religion, and more scholastic 
 than scriptural, and against the doctrine of the early 
 Fathers." 
 
 This point is well stated by a well-known writer : l 
 
 " Italian Reformers had become convinced of the 
 necessity of a return to the simple elements of Christi- 
 anity in creed and conduct. They considered a 
 thorough-going reform by the hierarchy of all Catholic 
 institutions to be indispensable. They leaned to 
 the essential tenets of the Reformation notably the 
 
 1 Addington Symonds, "Renaissance in Italy.'* 
 
288 ITALIAN REFOKMATION 
 
 doctrine of justification by faith, and salvation by 
 the merits of Christ, and also to the doctrine that 
 Scripture is the sole authority in matters of belief 
 and discipline. Thus . . . those who imbibed the 
 teaching of Valdes in Naples fell under the suspicion 
 of heterodoxy on these points. But it was charac- 
 teristic of the members of this school that . . . they 
 shrank with horror from the thought of encouraging 
 a schism, or of severing themselves from the com- 
 munion of Catholics/' 
 
CHAPTER XXV 
 
 CARNESECCHI HIS MARTYRDOM 
 
 Death of Paul IV Revolt in Rome The people storm the Inquisition, 
 set free the prisoners Carnesecchi remains in Rome to have 
 his sentence reversed Long anxious waiting He goes to Florence 
 On the accession of Pius V (Michele Ghislieri), Carnesecchi is 
 given up by Cosimo Duke of Florence He is taken to Rome, and 
 suffers martyrdom His trial by the Inquisition 
 
 WE have now reached a moment of intense interest 
 and excitement, not only for Pietro Carnesecchi, but 
 for all those in Italy who had adopted the Reformed 
 doctrines. The wonderful vigour of the old monkish 
 Pope, Paul IV, began to give way, and in many 
 letters to Giulia Gonzaga, her friend gives voice to 
 the general feeling of suspense and anxiety ; thus he 
 says in one of June 24, 1559 : 
 
 ' Vostra Signoria will have heard of the progress 
 of the Pope's illness, and of the judgments which 
 are passed : but I will not dwell upon more than to 
 pray you to have comfort and patience, trusting that 
 all will be well for the safety and liberation of D. 
 Bartolomeo and of Morone, and also of the restitution 
 of Carnesecchi. . . ." 
 
 At last arrives the news of the Pope's death, but 
 while he was still in the last agony, the populace rose 
 in fierce revolt and wild joy at being free from the 
 
 19 289 
 
290 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 cruel persecutor. This was on August 18, 1559. 
 The story is graphically told by Alfred von Reumont. 1 
 
 " In the Capitol, a decree was set forth by which 
 the prisons were to be opened ; then the wild masses 
 spread themselves throughout the city. They first 
 stormed the building of the Inquisition, they threw 
 all its documents out of the windows, and they 
 plundered the apartments of Cardinal Ghislieri, he 
 being the highest resident authority ; they did the 
 same to the other officials, personally maltreating 
 them ; they set fire to and burned part of the palace 
 down. The news of the Pope's death having spread, 
 they hurried to Santa Maria sopra Minerva, they set 
 free those who were imprisoned there, and would 
 have burnt down that convent and have thrown 
 the monks out of the windows, had they not been 
 prevented by Giuliano Cesarini. The other prisons, 
 the Torre Savella, the Tor di Nona, and that of the 
 Senators, were also broken open ; they set at liberty 
 four hundred prisoners, of whom . . . But they did 
 worse the day after the Pope's death. . . . 
 
 " Some months before, a statue had been erected 
 to Paul IV in the Capitol. This statue now became 
 the object on which the people vented their fury. . . . 
 When the rejoicing attained its height on the third 
 day, the Sunday, all the inscriptions and arms of the 
 Caraffa were smashed and obliterated/' 
 
 Carnesecchi wrote to Giulia Gonzaga on September 
 2, 1559 : 
 
 " Vostra Signoria will have heard how the Holy 
 
 1 " History of the City of Rome," vol. iii. part 2, p. 642. 
 
CARNESECCHI HIS MARTYRDOM 291 
 
 Inquisition has died the same death which it was 
 accustomed to inflict upon others that of fire. This 
 certainly remains a notable thing, from which it 
 appears that the judgments of that Office were not 
 pleasing to the Divine Clemency, and we trust that 
 in the future there will be less rigour and severity 
 than in the past." 
 
 He then goes on to speak of the results of the 
 Pope's death, on September 9 : 
 
 " I have rejoiced at the departure of the Pope for 
 all respects, public and private ; but above all, I 
 am most deeply thankful from having heard that if 
 he had not passed away so soon, he would have 
 given the death- stroke to Donna Giulia. ... in all 
 that happened we believe that we see the mercy of 
 God, Who permitted this in order to save Donna 
 Giulia and, for the love of her, all her friends and 
 servants." 
 
 After this we have an account of the Conclave, 
 when it seemed quite likely at first that either Cardinal 
 Morone might be elected, or Cardinal Gonzaga of 
 Mantua, who was a great friend of the Countess of 
 Fondi. Carnesecchi, believing in the justice of his 
 cause, had travelled to Rome to have his condemnation 
 by the Inquisition set aside. The College of Cardinals 
 had already set Morone free, and decided that the 
 process against him was null and void, false and 
 iniquitous ; and as such it was condemned to be 
 burnt. With regard to Morone, Pietro is very frank 
 for he writes : " Should Morone become Pope, we 
 could wish him to lay aside one fault which he 
 
292 ITALIAN KEFORMATION 
 
 showed when he voted for Paul IV ; his faint- 
 heartedness." 
 
 In the end the choice fell upon Cardinal Giovanni 
 Angelo Medici ; not one of the famous family at 
 Florence, but a Milanese of insignificant birth. He 
 took the name of Pius IV, and was in every way a 
 great contrast to the fiery dominant man who had 
 preceded him. This amiable, kindly disposed prelate 
 only wished to live at peace with all men, and ap- 
 parently for this reason, Carnesecchi found great 
 difficulty in persuading him to reopen the trial. 
 Meantime, Pietro was advised to live in complete 
 seclusion, and only to go out at night. Indeed he 
 was almost a prisoner in the Cloister of the Servites, 
 St. Marcellus, on the Corso. The revision of his 
 process dragged on wearily from week to week and 
 from month to month. Even Morone who was in 
 favour with Pius IV, scarcely dared to speak in his 
 favour. 
 
 On August 31, 1560, he wrote that he no longer 
 looked for his liberation from men, nor from the 
 Pope, but from God only. The Cardinal of Trent, 
 who had been appointed an Inquisitor, visited him 
 in his convent in September ; and in October, Cardinal 
 Seripando who was also one of his friends, went to 
 see him. Next the Duke Cosimo of Florence and his 
 wife came to Rome, and appear to have used their 
 influence in his favour. But on December 5, 1560, 
 Carnesecchi writes in despair : 
 
 !t There is no progress ! The fault lies with the 
 Inquisitors, partly because they will not judge as 
 right and duty dictate. ... God, pardon them who 
 sin through ignorance ; but the others convert. , ? f 
 
CARNESECCHI HIS MARTYRDOM 293 
 
 As to Seripando, lie cannot be relied upon for he does 
 not take his seat at the tribunal ; he is sick, and 
 would willingly act the truant, for he well knows the 
 difficulties, and has not the courage to meet them 
 single-handed." 
 
 However at last, on December 13, Pietro was 
 admitted to the presence of the Pope, who had 
 decided to withdraw the process from the tribunal, 
 and to deliver judgment himself. The plaintiff 
 appears to have been a little doubtful as to the 
 wisdom of this, but he was more hopeful when he 
 wrote on the following January : 
 
 " I have had so much to do and consider in giving 
 my answers to my shall I call them judges or 
 opponents ? that I have scarcely found time to 
 eat and to sleep ; still less to write about my affairs 
 which encountered such a storm that at times I feared 
 shipwreck. But now I trust that all is well, and 
 that I am so near the haven as to be in safety. 
 My storms sprang from my refusal to deny the 
 favourable opinions which I hold of Valdes and of 
 Galeazzo Caraccioli. ..." 
 
 At last, after eighteen months of anxiety and 
 suffering, he was able to write, on May 8, 1561 : 
 
 " All has been considered ... by these my illustrious 
 and most reverend Lords Cardinals, and has ended 
 well ... as the enclosed document proves . . . which 
 I beg you to send to Monsignor Mario (Galeota, 
 Archbishop of Sorrento) ... in order that he may 
 now rejoice over my liberation. . . ." 
 
294 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 Pietro Carnesecchi remained in Rome until October, 
 when he went to Naples to salute the Countess of 
 Fondi and his other friends. He lodged with the 
 monks of San Giovanni, who were commanded by 
 Cardinal Seripando to make him welcome, but they 
 treated him with suspicion and dislike, as a heretic. 
 During the next few years, he travelled much, and 
 it is one of the accusations made in his final judgment 
 that " he occupied himself with heretics in Rome, 
 in Naples, in Florence, in Venice and other parts of 
 Italy, supporting suspected persons with counsel 
 and with money/' 
 
 The last letter cited in these proceedings of the 
 Inquisition was one written to Giulia Gonzaga in 
 November 1563, from the Abbey of Casal Nuovo. 
 
 " Be not surprised at my great activity or wanton- 
 ness, when you contemplate me rushing like Caesar 
 with such rapidity through Italy. ... I feel more 
 robust than ever ; it appears to be God's will to 
 compensate me here on earth for the sicknesses and 
 other afflictions which, sent by Him, I have patiently 
 borne/' 
 
 In spite of all their warnings from abroad, those 
 friends of Carnesecchi who had fled to Geneva, could 
 not persuade him to leave his native land. Yet he 
 was full of anxious thought for Giulia, whom he 
 persuaded, in 1564, to send to him at Venice the 
 writings of Valdes which she had, lest the possession 
 of them should place her in danger. He appears to 
 have had some foreboding of the dark hour which 
 was drawing near. 
 
 Early in December of 1565, the mild and peace-loving 
 
CARNESECCHI HIS MARTYRDOM 295 
 
 Pope Pius IV who had achieved for the Church so 
 great a success at the Council of Trent, by his wise 
 diplomacy passed away, to the deep regret of all 
 moderate churchmen. His nephew Carlo Borromeo, 
 the sainted Archbishop of Milan, had been a source 
 of strength to a Pope who had opened a new era 
 for the Church and who was able to pass on a sceptre 
 of undisputed authority to his successors. The Pope 
 elected by the Conclave was the inexorable Dominican 
 inquisitor of Paul IV, Michele Ghislieri, Cardinal of 
 Alexandria, who took the title of Pius V. Now 
 began an era of active hostility against Protestantism ; 
 fierce persecution of all suspected heretics in Italy, 
 and by the firm alliance with Philip II of Spain, 
 attacks upon the Huguenots in France, the Pro- 
 testants in Flanders, and the English throne. 
 
 Three months after the accession of Pius V, Car- 
 nesecchi had lost his " revered queen/' Giulia Gon- 
 zaga, who died at Naples on April 19, 1566 ; and in 
 the midst of his deep sorrow at this bereavement, he 
 must have thanked God that his beloved lady was 
 saved from the evil to come. 
 
 As for his own fate, he realized the imminence of 
 his danger now that his most bitter enemy had 
 attained supreme power. He sought protection at 
 the Court of his friend Duke Cosimo at Florence. 
 One day that summer, he was sitting as a guest at 
 the table of the Duke, when the friar TomasoManrique, 
 Master of the Papal palace, was announced, as come 
 on a special mission and desiring an interview. 
 Manrique produced a letter dated June 20, 1566, in 
 which after greeting Cosimo with the Apostolic 
 Benediction, he was called upon to deliver over 
 Carnesecchi into the hands of the Inquisition. The 
 
296 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 Duke, who was probably prepared for the summons, 
 at once commanded his friend and guest to rise from 
 the table and surrender himself to the Papal mes- 
 senger. This shameful act of treachery on the part 
 of Cosimo found its full reward later when Pius V 
 bestowed upon him the crowning honour of his life ; 
 the long coveted title of " Grand Duke " of Tuscany. 
 
 Pietro Carnesecchi made a final attempt to protect 
 his friends by sending word to his household that 
 all his books and papers should be destroyed. The 
 only suspected works found were said to be Flaminio's 
 Apology for the " Benefizio " and a manuscript, 
 dedicated to Giulia Gonzaga, entitled : " Meditations 
 and Prayers on St. Paul's Epistles to the Romans." 
 As for the numerous letters which had passed 
 between himself and the Countess of Fondi, a great 
 number must have been seized by the Inquisition, as 
 they were made to furnish leading evidence for the 
 condemnation of the accused. 
 
 Carnesecchi was taken a captive to Rome and 
 lodged in the prison of the Holy Office. Then 
 followed a long series of terribly wearisome and 
 trying examinations, and when these failed to obtain 
 evidence against his friends, the rack was freely 
 employed, but still without avail. The prisoner 
 wrote from his dungeon to Morone, to the Cardinal 
 of Trent, to the Abbot of San Soluto and to 
 Bartolomeo Concino ; but the letters were seized, 
 and only served with the judges of that dread 
 tribunal, to enhance his guilt. One pathetic sen- 
 tence was : " They would fain have me say of 
 the living and the dead, things which I do not 
 know and which they are so eager to hear/' 
 
 Through fifteen long months of imprisonment and 
 
CARNESECCHI HIS MARTYRDOM 297 
 
 frequent torture, these awful examinations continued, 
 until at length, on August 16, 1567, sentence was 
 delivered by the tribunal of the Inquisition, and 
 published in Santa Maria sopra Minerva. The con- 
 demned man was then handed over to " the secular 
 arm," and led away to the most terrible and pesti- 
 lential prison in Rome, the Tor di Nona, near the 
 Porte St. Angelo, from which he was only to be 
 delivered by a cruel death, inflicted with all the 
 infamy of a public execution. For a month and more 
 Carnesecchi awaited death in the unspeakable horrors 
 of his dungeon, while no efforts were neglected to 
 induce him to recant. One Capuchin friar who came 
 to persuade him to save his life by denying his Faith, 
 was so much moved by his eloquent words, that he 
 dared not listen and departed in tears. In con- 
 sideration of his having been at one time a Papal 
 Protonotary, he was granted the favour of the 
 scaffold rather than the gallows, before his body should 
 be committed to the flames. 
 
 It was in the early morning of October 3, 1567, 
 that was enacted the final scene of this tragedy, and 
 it may be truly said that the martyr's faithful life 
 was crowned by his death. Carnesecchi was borne to 
 the Ponte St. Angelo, amidst the execrations and 
 curses of the fanatical rabble which crowded round 
 him, but he retained his courage and composure to 
 the last. They clothed him in a " sanbenito," the 
 garment of heresy, painted over with flames and 
 devils, but he had insisted that he would at least 
 appear in clean linen, and he wore a white shirt, and 
 had a white handkerchief in his hand. He was first 
 beheaded, then burnt in the flames of the Inquisition, 
 and his ashes were cast into the Tiber. With him 
 
298 ITALIAN EEFOEMATION 
 
 suffered a Friar, Giulio Maresio, of the city of Cividale, 
 of the Order of Minor Friars. 
 
 The Inquisition had condemned on the same 
 occasion, fifteen other living heretics, who were 
 condemned to imprisonment for life or to the galleys. 
 
 The full account of the great Trial of Carnesecchi 
 is probably the most interesting and most instructive 
 of all the Eecords of the Eoman Inquisition. It is 
 of special importance to us, apart from the accused 
 man himself, for he was but the figure-head, and the 
 real process was a cold-blooded arraignment of his 
 living friends, and above all of the illustrious dead. 
 
 In the roll-call of that heroic company of men 
 and women, we find the most honoured names, 
 revered by all the world of those who through good 
 report and evil, had striven for the Eeformation of the 
 Church, and had led the way by the example of their 
 saintly lives. Yet all the time, they had been secretly 
 watched and suspected by the Inquisition ; some 
 had been tried and condemned while others had only 
 escaped by forsaking all that made life dear to them, 
 and seeking a refuge as exiles in a foreign land. But 
 at the time of Carnesecchi's Trial, in 1566, most of 
 them had passed away in faith and hope mercifully 
 spared the cruel ordeal and the flames of the " Holy 
 Office." To the familiars of the Inquisition, the 
 pursuit of heresy ceased not with the grave ; the 
 sacred memory of the dead was to be stained with 
 infamy, their glory blotted out with shameful con- 
 demnation. We see them pass before us in doomed 
 procession. First the earnest prelates and laymen 
 eager for the Church's reformation, who met for 
 prayer and meditation in the " Oratory of Divine 
 Love " at Eome, led by Caraffa, who as Pope Paul IV, 
 
CARNESECCHI HIS MARTYRDOM 299 
 
 was the first to betray them. We have followed the 
 progress of Reform from city to city, the pious 
 company who gathered round Cardinal Pole and 
 Vittoria Colonna at Viterbo, those who formed a 
 devoted circle with Contarini in Venice, or sat at the 
 feet of Valdes in Naples, not to mention the groups 
 at Ferrara, at Florence and elsewhere. 
 
 With scarcely an exception, of these the living and 
 the dead were alike arraigned and condemned by 
 that fearful tribunal of Inquisitors, and Pietro 
 Carnesecchi was made the scapegoat for them all. 
 Here was the real tragedy of those fifteen long months 
 of martyrdom which he endured in body and spirit, 
 when day by day, and hour by hour, he was tortured 
 by subtle and deceptive questions, and entrapped in 
 every way by astute men of fatal inquisitorial ex- 
 perience and talent. Moreover, by means of spies 
 and the seizing of all private letters and papers, the 
 Inquisition had already the most intimate knowledge 
 of all that Carnesecchi and his friends had ever said 
 or written. This could naturally be distorted to 
 mean anything they wished to prove. 
 
 This is no mere general statement, but can be 
 proved beyond a doubt by the extraordinary chance 
 which has revealed the most secret Records of the 
 Roman Inquisition, in the case of this supremely 
 interesting Trial of Carnesecchi. l From these Records, 
 we have already seen how he was questioned at 
 interminable length with regard to Vittoria Colonna, 
 Marchese di Pescara, and when this great lady had 
 been convicted of heresy, Carnesecchi was further 
 tortured to make him betray every one who had been 
 in communication with her. No one was sacred from 
 
 1 See note at the end of the book. 
 
300 ITALIAN REFORMATION 
 
 this Tribunal. The Countess of Fondi, Giulia Gonzaga, 
 whom he revered as a saint and was proud to call 
 " his Queen," was accused of holding false doctrines, 
 and he was driven to despair by being entangled into 
 dangerous admissions with regard to her opinions. 
 
 It is true that the case of Giulia Gonzaga was 
 already pre- doomed, for on the accession of Pius V 
 (Michele Ghislieri) in 1566 he had come into posses- 
 sion of a chest containing a great number of her 
 letters to Carnesecchi and others. On reading these 
 papers, the Pope had declared that "if he had seen 
 these before her death, he would have taken good 
 care to burn her alive/' 
 
 NOTE 
 
 Amongst other treasures which Napoleon I carried away from 
 Home between 1810 and 1813, was an immense quantity of the most 
 secret Archives of the Vatican, no less than 45,818 volumes. The 
 conqueror proposed at that time to make Paris a central depot for the 
 archives of Europe. It was not until July 1817, that Louis XVIII 
 restored to Pius VII what was thought to be the whole of these valuable 
 documents. But in 1846, the Duke of Manchester bought a number 
 of Papal documents for 600, and these were examined in Ireland by 
 the Rev. Richard Gibbings, who was amazed to discover that amongst 
 these papers were the original MSS. of the Roman Inquisition, contain- 
 ing the whole of the "Trial of Pietro Carnesecchi, sometime Secretary 
 to Pope Clement VII and Apostolic Protonotary." 
 
 These were ultimately placed in the Trinity College, Dublin. Here a 
 German scholar, Professor Karl Benrath, of Bonn, who had been engaged 
 for years on the study of the Italian Reformation, found these records 
 in 1876, and put in order the fifty-seven bound volumes and twelve 
 unbound ones. He discovered that fourteen volumes of the collection 
 contained original Records of the Roman Inquisition, being the final 
 judgments in the trials of Italian heretics, between December 16, 1564, 
 and the year 1679 (and a detailed account of the whole conduct of the 
 most typical of all, the Trial of Carnesecchi). 
 
 In a collection of the Archives of the Dandini Family, bought by 
 Count Giacomo Manzini in I860, are documents which corroborate the 
 whole of the account given in the Records of the Inquisition of Car- 
 negecchi's Trial. 
 
CHIEF AUTHORITIES CONSULTED 
 
 Agostini, A. : Pietro Carnesecchi e il movimento Valdesiano. 
 
 Florence, 1899. 
 
 Alberi, Eugenic : Vita di Caterina dei Medici. Firenze, 1836. 
 Archivio secreto del Vaticano. 
 Archivio di Stato in Modena. 
 Aubigne, Merle d' : Histoire de la Reformation en Europe au 
 
 temps de Calvin. 
 
 Auton, Jean d' : Histoire de Louis XII. Paris, 1625. 
 Baguenault de Puchesse, F. : Histoire du Concile de Trente. 
 Bala, Pietro : Storia di Clemente VII. 
 Beccatelli, Lodovico : Vita del Cardinale Gasparo Contarini. 
 
 Venice, 1563. 
 
 Bembo, Pietro : Opere. Milano, 1810. 
 
 Benrath, Karl : Bernardino Ochino, von Siena. Leipzig, 1875. 
 Benrath, Karl : Vita di Caterina Cibo. 
 Beza, T. : Vita di Calvino. 1564. 
 Betts, John T. : A Glance at the Italian Reformation. Translated 
 
 from the German of Leopold Witte. London, 1885. 
 Betts, Maria : Life of Galeazzo Caraccioli (translated from the 
 
 Italian of Nicolao Balbani, 1587). London, 1907. 
 Bliimmer, Franz : Renata von Ferrara. 1870. 
 Bohemer : Le cento e died considerazione di Gio. Valdes. Halls, 
 
 1860. 
 
 Bonnet, Jules : Calvin au Val d'Aoste. Paris, 1861. 
 Bonnet, Jules : Vie tfOlympia Morata. Paris, 1851 . 
 Bonnet, Jules : Les Debuts d'un regne. Paris, 1886. 
 Bonnet, Jules : Lettres d la Duchesse de Ferrara. 
 Brant6me : Vie des dames illustres. Paris, Gamier Freres. 
 Braun, W. : Cardinal Gasparo Contarini. 1903. 
 Calvin, Lettres de, d Jacques de Bourgogne. Amsterdam, 1774. 
 Campori, Giustini : Vittoria Colonna. Modena, 1878. 
 
 SOI 
 
302 CHIEF AUTHORITIES CONSULTED 
 
 Cantii, C. : Gli Eretici d'ltalia. 3 vols. Turin, 1865. 
 Caraccioli, A. : Compendia delV Istoria del Regno di Napoli. 
 
 Venice, 1591. 
 
 Caraccioli, A. : De vita Pauli IV. Cologne, 1612. 
 Cibrario, Luigi : Lettere inedite di Santi, Papi, principe, ecc. 
 Carrasco, Manuel : Alfonso e Juan de Valdes. Geneve, 1880. 
 Comba, E. : / nostri protestanti. 2 vols. Florence, 1881. 
 Creighton, D. : History of the Papacy during the Period of the 
 
 Reformation. Vol. VI. London, 1882. 
 Crespin, Jean : Histoire des martyr es persecutes et mis a mort 
 
 pour la verite de VEvangile. Toulouse, 1585. 
 Curione, Secundo Celio : Olympiae Fulviae Moratae . . . Opera 
 
 omnia . . . Basilea ex officina Petri Pernae. 1580. 
 Dittrich, F : Gasparo Contarini. Braunsburg, 1883. 
 Duruy, G. : Le Cardinal Carlo Caraffa. Paris, 1882. 
 Feliciangeli, B. Dott. : Notizie e documenti sulla vita di Caterina 
 
 Cibo, Duchessa di Camerina. Ivi, libreria Fattorino, 1891. 
 Florabelli, A. : Vita dell Cardinak Sadoleto. 1547. 
 Fontana, Bartolomeo : Documenti Vaticani contro Veresia Inter ana 
 
 in Italia Archivio della R. Soc. Rom. di Storia Patria. 
 
 Vol. XV. Rome, 1892. 
 Fontana, Bartolomeo : Renata di Francia, Duchessa di Ferrara. 
 
 3 vols. Rome, 1889. 
 
 Ferriere, H. de la : Marguerite d'Angouleme. Paris, 1891. 
 Froude : Lectures on the Council of Trent. London, 1896. 
 Galifle, G. : Le refuge Italien de Geneve au XVI et XVII Siecks. 
 
 Geneve, 1881. 
 
 Gerdes, Danieles : Italiae Reformatae. 1765. 
 Giannone : Istoria Civile del Regno di Napoli. 
 Gibbings, R. : Trial and Martyrdom of Pietro Carnesecchi. Dublin, 
 
 1856. 
 Giovio, Paolo : La vita di Alfonso da Este, duca di Ferrara. 
 
 Venezia, 1597. 
 
 Grand, Le : Histoire du divorce de Henri VIII. 1688. 
 Guazzo, Marco: Istorie. Storie Imprese. Venezia, 1540. 
 Guicciardini, Fr. : Storia d' Italia. Firenze, 1822. 
 Guillemin, J. J. : Le Cardinal de Lorraine. Paris, 1847. 
 SHaile, Martin : Life of Cardinal Pole. 
 Herminjard, A. L. : Correspondance des Reformateurs. Gendve, 
 
 1878. 
 
CHIEF AUTHORITIES CONSULTED 303 
 
 Lavallee, J. : Histoire des Inquisitions religieuses. 2 vols. 
 
 Paris, 1808. 
 Lee, F. G. : Reginald Pole, Cardinal Archbishop of Canterbury. 
 
 London, 1888. 
 Lettere volgare di diversi nobilissimi uomini et eccellentissimi 
 
 Ingegni. Venice, 1547. 
 Lettere di Claudio Tolomei. Venice, 1547. 
 Marot, Clement : Oeuvres completes. Paris. (Marpon et Flam- 
 
 marion.) 
 
 McCrie : History of the Reformation in Italy. Edinburgh, 1827. 
 Mendham, J. : The Literary Policy of the Church of Rome. Lon- 
 don, 1830. 
 
 Muratori, L. A. : Annali tf Italia. Florence, 1840. 
 Nichols, F. H. : Epistles of Erasmus. London, 1901. 
 Ochino, Bernardino : Sermones, Dialoghi, ecc. Basle and 
 
 Geneva, 1541-1554. 
 Ochino, Bernardino : Prediche predicate neWinclita citta di 
 
 Venezia, del 1539. Basiiea, 1541. 
 Paleario, Aonio : Works of. Jena, 1728. 
 
 Pallavicino, Sforza : Istoria del Concilio di Trente. Roma, 1833. 
 Pecci : Memorie della citta di Siena. 1758. 
 Pole, Reginald : Epistolae, ecc. Ed. Quirini. Brescia, 1744. 
 Reumont, A. : Vitadi VittoriaColonna. Freiburg, 1881 ; Torino, 
 
 1883. 
 
 Ricotti : Delle revolutione protestante. Florence, 1861. 
 Rodocanachi, E. : Renee de Ferrara. Paris, 1896. 
 Ruscelli, G. : Lettere di principi. Venezia, 1574. 
 Sadoleto, I. : Opera. 4 vols. Venezia, 1787. 
 Sarpi, Paolo : Storia del Concilio Tridentino. 
 Schmidt, Dr. C. : Peter Martyr Vermigli. Heidelberg, 1809. 
 Sclopis, F. : Le Cardinal Jean Morone. 1869. 
 Tiraboschi, Girolamo, Abate : Storia detta Literatura Italiano. 
 
 Milan, 1824. 
 
 Tufo, del : Chronicle of the Theatines. 1542. 
 Turabull : The Times, Life and Writings of Olympia Morata. 
 
 Boston, 1846. 
 
 Ugolino : Storie dei conti e duchi di Urbino. Firenze, 1859. 
 Valdes, Juan : Alfabeto Cristiano. Translated by B. B. Wiffen. 
 Valdes, Juan : Dialogo de Mercurio y Caron. 
 Valdes, Juan : 110 Divine Considercezione. 
 
304 CHIEF AUTHORITIES CONSULTED 
 
 Valdes, Juan : XVII Opusculi. Translated from the Spanish 
 and Italian and edited by J. J. Betts. 
 
 Valdes, Juan : Epistle to the Romans, Commentary on. Trans- 
 lated. Triibner, 1882. 
 
 Valdes, Juan : Gospel of St. Matthew, Commentary on. Trans- 
 lated. 1882. 
 
 Valdes, Juan : Epistle to Corinthians, Commentary on. (Juan 
 Perez.) 
 
 Valdes, Juan : Commentaries on the Psalms. 
 
 Varillas : Histoire de rheresie. 
 
 Vergerio, P. P. : Opera. Tubingen, 1560. 
 
 Wiffen, Benjamin B. : Life and Writings of Juan Valdes. Lon- 
 don, 1865. With 110 Considerations, translated by J. J. 
 Betts. 
 
 Young, M. : Life and Times of Aonio Pakario. London, 1860. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Adrian VI, Pope, 7 
 
 Aldelli, Placido, 213 
 
 Aleander, Archbishop of Brindisi, 
 
 16, 21, 98 
 
 Alois, Giovanni. See Caserta 
 Altieri, Baldassare, 273 
 Alva, Duke of, 280 
 Ambrose, 47 
 Anne Boleyn, 37, 38 
 Aragona, Anna d', 248 
 
 Giuliad', 196 
 
 Isabella d', 223 
 
 Katherine of, 87 
 Ariosto, Lodovico, 88, 90, 229 
 Aristotle, 18, 23, 28, 76 
 Aubeterre, Vicomte d', 102 
 Augsburg, 80, 113, 165, 167, 168, 
 
 169,256; Diet of, 178 
 Augustine, 47 
 Avalos, Alfonso. See Pescara 
 
 Costanza, Princess of Fran- 
 cavilla, 237 
 
 Badia, Tommaso, Cardinal, 16 
 Balzo, Antonia del, 223, 243 
 Barbara of Austria, Duchess of 
 
 Ferrara, 130 
 Barbarossa, 102 
 Basil, 47 
 Basle, 79, 80, 82, 99, 168, 200, 
 
 204, 205, 206, 232 
 Beccadelli, Lodovico, 22 
 Bembo, Pietro, 26, 27, 29, 36, 41, 
 
 57, 76, 136, 137, 156, 209, 213, 
 
 214, 265 
 
 Benedetto of Mantua, 47, 211, 235 
 Berni, Francesco, 65 
 Beza, Theodore, 97, 98, 101 
 Bologna, 22, 32, 53, 56, 75, 89, 
 
 116, 209, 220 
 Bonamico, Lazaro, 36, 37 
 Bonfadio, Giacomo, 223, 235, 
 
 236 
 
 Borromeo, Carlo, 32, 295 
 Bourbon, Duke of, 252 
 
 20 
 
 Brandenburg, Albert of, 179 
 Brasavola, Antonio Musa, 88, 94 
 Bretagne, Anne de, 85, 89, 96 
 Brisegna, Isabella, 223, 238, 239, 
 
 270 
 
 Bruccioli, Antonio, 15, 59, 110 
 Brunswick, Duke of, 182 
 Bucer, Martin, 47, 75, 79, 81, 272 
 Bucyronia, Francesca, 103, 154, 
 
 174, 175, 187 
 Bullinger, 79 
 
 Henry, 200 
 
 Johann, 200 
 
 Buonarotti, Michelangelo, 57, 234 
 
 Calcagnani, Celio, 88, 108, 149, 
 
 150; death of, 154 
 Calvin, 82, 91, 97-105, 113, 118, 
 
 121, 124, 125, 130, 175, 196, 257, 
 
 261 
 
 Cambrai, Treaty of, 87 
 Capilupi, Camillo, 242 
 Capo d'Istria, 138, 141, 142, 143 
 Capua, Pietrantonio di, 231 
 Caraccioli, Colantonio, 252, 254, 
 
 255, 258, 259 
 
 Galeazzo, 51, 77, 120, 231, 
 252-262, 285 
 
 Vittoria, 253, 254, 256, 257, 
 260,261,262 
 
 Caraffa, Giampietro, Paul IV, 14, 
 15, 16, 18, 21, 32, 39, 63, 58, 66, 
 117, 123, 180, 213, 237, 269, 
 260, 281, 282, 285, 292, 293 
 
 Cardona, Diana, 247 
 
 Carnesecchi, Pietro, 48, 49, 51, 59, 
 66, 223, 232, 235, 249, 251, 263- 
 300 
 
 Caro, Annibale, 242 
 
 Carpentras, 26-29, 38 
 
 Casale, Monferrato, 196 
 
 Caserta, Francesco, 77-231, 253, 
 254 
 
 Castelvestro, Lodovico, 33, 34 
 
 Caatiglione, Baldassare, 46 
 
 305 
 
306 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Catherine of Siena, 3, 8 
 
 Ceciniano, 210, 216 
 
 Celso, 259 
 
 Cervini, Cardinal, 56 
 
 Charles V, Emperor, 7, 19, 21, 22, 
 
 77, 87, 94, 102, 121, 138, 178, 
 
 215, 220, 242, 245, 256 
 Charles IX, King of France, 128 
 Chiavenna, 79, 144 
 Christina of Denmark, 90 
 Cibo, Cardinal, 61 
 
 Caterina, Duchess of Camerino, 
 50, 51, 59-72, 266, 268, 271 
 
 Giambattista, Bishop of Mar- 
 seilles, 62 
 
 Clement VII, Pope, 9, 10, 19, 24, 
 29, 50, 60, 61, 63, 65, 85, 91, 137, 
 220, 224, 264, 265, 266 
 
 Colle, 210 
 
 Colonna, Ascanio, 49 
 
 Fabrizio, 243 
 
 Isabella, 241 
 
 Vespasiano, 223 
 
 Vittoria, Marchesa di Pescara, 
 26, 39-44, 45, 49, 53-57, 62, 65, 
 67, 106, 107, 138, 223, 234, 237, 
 244 ; death of, 266, 270, 271, 
 299 
 
 Columbus, Christopher, 4 
 Consigliere, Paolo, 14 
 Contarini, Gasparo, 14, 15, 16, 18- 
 23, 35, 53, 76, 77, 137, 138, 299 
 Copernicus, 5 
 Cordier, Mathurin, 98, 101 
 Cortese, Gregorio, 16, 20 
 
 Paolo, Cardinal, 31 
 
 Cosimo, Duke of Florence, 121, 
 
 2^2, 295, 296 
 Coverdale, Mark, 81 
 Cranmer, Archbishop, 80, 81 
 Curione, Agostino, 203, 204 
 
 Angela, 203, 204 
 
 Celio Secundo, 78, 108, 110, 
 154, 168, 177, 186, 189, 190, 191, 
 193-206, 238 
 
 Dorothea, 205 
 
 Horatio, 202 
 
 Leo, 205 
 
 Violante, 202 
 
 Cusano, Benedetto, 75, 76, 77 
 
 Eboli, 265, 268, 283 
 
 Edward VI, King of England, 80, 
 
 1 
 Elizabeth, Queen, 82, 127, 133, 
 
 140, 201 
 Erasmus, 7, 27, 97, 98, 99, 194 
 
 Este, Alfonso I, Duke of Ferrara, 
 86, 87, 94 
 
 Alfonso II, son of Ren6e, 90, 
 
 109, 118, 119, 121, 122, 123, 125, 
 131, 132, 149 
 
 Anna d', daughter of Benee, 
 
 89, 107, 109, 111, 126, 129, 132, 
 152, 153, 158, 188 
 
 Ercole II, husband of Ken6e, 
 85, 86, 89, 91, 94, 95, 104, 106, 
 108, 109, 110, 111, 113, 115, 117, 
 118, 119, 120, 121; death of, 
 122 
 
 Federico, 244 
 
 Ippolito d', Cardinal, 90 
 
 Isabella d', 85, 107, 244, 268 ; 
 death of, 108 
 
 Leonora d', 109, 128, 133 
 
 Lucrezia, daughter of Renee, 
 95, 106, 109, 122, 123 
 
 Luigi d', 108, 109, 121, 126 
 Estienne, Henri, 277 
 
 Robert, 277, 278 
 
 Fagius, 81 
 
 Fannio da Faenza, 112, 113, 161, 
 
 162, 169 
 
 Farel, Guillaume, 104 
 Fames e, Alessandro. See 
 
 Paul III 
 
 Federico, Duke of Mantua, 196 
 Ferdinand of Hungary, 21, 29, 121, 
 
 178,215 
 
 Ferrar, Nicholas, 232 
 Ferrara, 78, 79, 85-125, 126, 130, 
 
 133, 148-166, 171, 187, 199, 299 
 Filonardi, Ennio, Bishop of Ve- 
 
 roli, 207, 208, 209,210 
 Firenzuola, Agnolo, 65 
 Flaminio, Marcantonio, poet, 15, 
 
 25, 36, 46, 47, 48, 49, 51, 65, 76, 
 
 110, 136, 153, 211, 223, 235, 
 237, 264, 269, 272, 296 ; death 
 of, 277 
 
 Florence, 3, 51, 53, 54, 59, 60, 65, 
 73, 78, 122, 123, 125, 210, 263, 
 264, 267, 268, 271, 294, 295, 
 299 
 
 Fondi, 49, 223, 224, 230, 242 
 Fracastoro, Girolamo, 57, 259 
 Francois I, King of France, 20, 85, 
 
 90, 91, 92, 96, 100, 101, 105, 108, 
 
 111, 115, 123, 126, 140, 244, 
 276 ; death of, 128 
 
 Fran9ois II, King of France, 127 
 Frederic, Elector of Saxony, 136, 
 136, 185 
 
INDEX 
 
 307 
 
 Fregoso, Federigo (Cardinal), 
 Bishop of Gubbio, 16, 20, 76, 138 
 Fuggers, 167 
 
 Gadaldino, Antonio, 33 
 Galeoto, Maria, Archbishop of 
 
 Sorrento, 281, 293 
 Galileo, 5 
 Geneva, 56, 79, 98, 102, 104, 105, 
 
 120, 121, 256, 258-262 
 Genoa, 78 
 Ghislieri, Michele. See Pope 
 
 Pius V 
 Giberti, Gian Matteo, Bishop of 
 
 Verona, Cardinal, 9, 14, 16, 20, 
 
 24, 25, 40, 52, 57, 66, 268, 271 
 Giovenale, Latino, 14 
 Giraldi, Lilio, 1 53 
 Gonzaga, Ercole, Cardinal, 106, 
 
 140, 143, 249, 291 
 
 Ferrante, 243 
 
 Giulia, 48, 49, 51, 58, 62, 66, 
 223-251, 255, 270, 280, 282, 
 286, 287-296, 299 
 
 Ippolita, 243, 248, 249 
 
 Isabella, 224, 241 
 
 Leonora, 140 
 
 Lodovico, 223, 241, 243 
 
 Luigi (Rodomonte), 224, 241 
 
 Vespasiano Colonna, 224, 241, 
 243, 246, 247, 248, 250, 251 
 
 Gregory VII, Pope, 7 
 
 Grisone, Antonio, 244 
 
 Gritti, Andrea, Doge of Venice, 91 
 
 Grunthler, Andrew (husband of 
 
 Olympia Morata), 162, 163, 164, 
 
 166, 167, 169, 181, 184, 185, 186, 
 
 187, 190, 191 
 Guarini, Battista, 194 
 Guidobaldo, Duke of Urbino, 63, 
 
 64 
 Guise, Due de, 121, 128, 129 
 
 Heidelberg, 121, 145, 146, 147, 186, 
 
 189, 190, 191 
 Henri II, King of France, 111,113, 
 
 115,119, 155,158,276,278 
 Henry VIII, King of England, 27, 
 
 28, 36-39, 97, 268 ; death of, 
 
 244 
 
 Herbert, George, 232, 233 
 Hooper, Bishop, 81 
 Huss, John, 1 
 
 Innocent VIII, Pope, 60 
 
 Innsbruck, 167 
 
 Interim (of Leipzig, 1548), 165 
 
 Ischia, 246 
 Ivrea, 195 
 
 Jewel, Bishop, 82 
 
 Julius II, Pope, 10, 112, 129 
 
 Julius III, 278, 279 
 
 Lampridio, Benedetto, 208, 209 
 
 Lascari, Constantino, 18 
 
 Latiraer, Bishop, 81 
 
 Lausanne, 199, 203 
 
 LeoX., Pope, 13, 26, 60, 65 
 
 Liege, 25 
 
 Lollio, Albert, 88, 149 
 
 London, 80 
 
 Lorraine, Francois de, Duke of 
 
 Guise, 111, 158 
 Louis XII, King of France, 85, 91, 
 
 129, 132 
 
 Loyola, Ignatius, 113 
 Lucca, 77, 78, 154, 155, 198, 199, 
 
 202,213,214,259,268 
 Luther, Martin, 1,4, 10, 16, 17, 97, 
 
 136, 137, 138, 146, 177, 194, 
 
 197, 254, 272 
 Lyons, 104 
 
 Majoragio, Marcantonio, 215 
 Manrique, Garzia, 223, 228, 270 
 Manrique, Tomaso, 295 
 Marcello II, Pope, 279 
 Maresio, Giulio, 298 
 Mantua, 138, 141, 196, 268 
 Margherita Paleologa, 196, 244 
 Marot, Clement, 88, 91, 92, 93, 94, 
 
 95, 96, 101, 104, 105 
 
 Jean, 94 
 
 Martyr, Peter (Pietro Martire 
 Vermigli), 51, 58, 59, 73-82, 110, 
 135, 187, 202, 223, 231, 253, 270 
 Mary of England, 39, 81, 187 
 Mauro of Aroano, 208 
 Maximilian II, Emperor, 200 
 Medici, Catherine dei, 105, 126, 
 127, 132, 264, 377 
 
 Ippolito, Cardinal, 224, 225 
 
 Lorenzo the Magnificent, 264 
 Melanchthon, Philip, 10, 33, 43, 
 
 96, 97, 194, 201 
 
 Milan, 28, 79, 90, 144, 171, 194 
 Minadois, Germane, 231 
 Modena, 26, 28-34, 126 
 Montargis, City of, 127, 129-135 
 Morata, Lucrezia, 171 
 
 Olympia, 103, 107, 111, 113, 
 121, 145, 146, 147-192, 193, 
 199 
 
308 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Morata, Vittoria, 187 
 Morato, Emilio, 160, 166, 169, 174, 
 182, 183, 188; death of, 191 
 
 Fulvio Peregrine, 103, 108, 148, 
 149, 152, 154, 197, 198; death 
 of, 157 
 
 Moravia, 82, 83 
 
 Morone, Giovanni, Cardinal, 2 6, 29- 
 
 33, 80, 281, 289, 291, 292, 296 
 Musurus, Marco, 18 
 
 Naples, 42, 47, 75, 76, 77, 94, 102, 
 153, 214, 219-230, 237-250, 268, 
 269, 294, 295 
 Navagero, Andrea, 18 
 Navarre, Henri of, 133, 134 
 
 Jeanne d'Albret of, 128, 130; 
 death of, 133 
 
 Marguerite of, 20, 85, 93, 96, 
 128, 133, 135, 138, 139, 140, 
 277, 278 
 
 Nemours, Due de, 131, 134 
 Noyon, 97, 98, 99, 104 
 
 Ochino, Bernardino, 30, 41, 42, 
 50-57, 67-72, 73,79, 80, 82, 83, 
 84, 106, 110, 187, 223, 225, 249, 
 257, 266 
 
 Oratory of Divine Love, 12-30 
 
 Origen, 47 
 
 Orleans, 99, 126, 127, 129, 134 
 
 Orsini, Paolo, 155 
 
 Ory, Mathieu, 115, 116, 117 
 
 Oxford, 80, 81, 233 
 
 -Padua, 9, 18, 25, 29, 36, 37, 46, 74, 
 
 136, 137, 208, 209 
 Paleario, Aonio, 28, 51, 205, 207- 
 218, 270 
 
 Marietta, 210, 211, 216, 217 
 Paris, 86, 92, 99, 101, 102, 119, 
 
 130, 132, 134, 138, 139, 275-279 
 Parisio, Cardinal, 29 
 Parthenay, Anne de (later " de 
 
 Pons "), 89, 102, 108 
 
 Lusignan de, 89 
 
 Paul III, Pope, 16, 20-23, 39, 51, 
 64, 76, 94, 108, 109, 110, 111, 
 112, 120, 137, 138, 143, 144, 152, 
 211, 213, 244, 274, 275-282 
 
 Paul IV, Pope. See Caraffa 
 
 Pavia, 196 
 
 Pelletario, Jesuit priest, 117 
 
 Perugia, 208 
 
 Pesoara, Ferrante d'Avalos, Mar- 
 chesedi, 29 
 
 Pescara, Marchesa di. SeeColonna, 
 
 Vittoria 
 Philip II of Spain, 121, 122, 215, 
 
 242, 243, 246, 247, 279, 280, 295 
 Piccolomini, Alfonso, 237 
 Pico della Mirandola, 3, 6 
 Pisa, 78, 202, 214 
 Pius II (Piccolomini) Pope, 8 
 Pius III, 237 
 
 Pius IV, Pope, 32, 123, 292, 295 
 Pius V, Pope (Ghislieri), 215, 250, 
 
 251, 286, 295, 296, 300 
 Plato, 28 
 
 Poissy, Colloquy of, 82 
 Poland, 82, 205 
 Pole, Reginald (Cardinal), 9, 14, 
 
 15, 20, 25, 29, 35-39, 45, 49, 
 
 50, 54-58, 66, 76, 138, 237, 268, 
 
 271, 272, 281 
 
 Pons, Antoine de, 89, 91, 102, 108 
 Porto, Francesco, 110, 121 
 Priuli, Luigi, 15, 38, 49, 249, 277 
 
 St. Quentin, Battle of (1557), 121 
 
 Ragnone, Lattanzio, 273, 278 
 
 Rangone, Giulia, 156 
 
 Helena, 171,223 
 
 Ratisbon, Diet of, 21, 35 
 
 Renee of France, Duchess of 
 
 Ferrara, 79 ; at Ferrara, 85-125 ; 
 
 in France, 126-135; 139, 147, 
 
 162, 267 
 Ricci, Paolo, 30 
 Ridley, Bishop, 81 
 Rome, 15, 16, 19, 41, 45, 46, 47, 
 
 50, 52, 53, 57, 61, 64, 94, 110, 
 
 120, 121, 123, 144, 154, 195, 209, 
 
 210, 211, 215, 216, 217, 220, 268, 
 
 274, 276, 283, 289, 300 
 Rovere, Lavinia della, 155, 160, 
 
 162, 164, 166, 169, 171, 182, 
 
 188 
 Rullo, Donate, 231, 271, 272 
 
 Sabioneta, 224, 246, 247 
 Sadoleto, Jacopo, Cardinal, 14, 
 
 26-29, 39, 212, 214 
 Sanseverino, Ferrante, Prince of 
 
 Salerno, 214 
 
 Savonarola, Girolamo, 36 
 Saxony, Maurice, Elector of, 178, 
 
 182 
 Schweinfurt, 162, 169, 170, 174, 
 
 179-185, 187 
 Serdonati, historian, 65 
 
INDEX 
 
 309 
 
 Seripando, Girolamo, Bishop of 
 
 Salerno (Cardinal), 249, 292, 
 
 293, 294 
 
 Sforza, Francesco, 90 
 Siena, 41, 208, 209, 210, 212, 237 
 Sinapius, Johann, 103, 108, 149, 
 
 154, 162, 163, 166, 169, 174, 
 
 185, 187 
 
 Kilian, 103, 108, 110, 149, 154, 
 162, 163 
 
 -Theodora, 174, 187, 188 
 Soranzio of Bergamo, 281 
 Soubise, Carlotta de, 89 
 
 Madame de, 88, 89, 91, 94, 
 95, 102 
 
 Renata de, 89 
 Spadaforo, Bartolomeo, 281, 289 
 Sperlonga, 224 
 
 Spiera, Francesco, 143, 144 
 Spires, Diet of, 29 
 Spoleto, 75 
 Strasburg, 79, 82 
 Suleyman II, 224 
 
 Tancredi, Onorata, 223 
 
 Tansillo, Luigi, 242, 248, 249 
 
 Tasso, Bernardo, 88, 90, 95, 229, 
 251 
 
 Terenziano, Giulio, 52 
 
 Throckmorton, N., English Am- 
 bassador, 127 
 
 Tillet, Louis de, 102 
 
 Titian, 90, 242 
 
 Toledo, Don Pietro, Viceroy of 
 Naples, 76, 219, 244, 245 
 
 Trent, 167 
 
 Trent, Council of, 28, 29, 32, 167 
 
 Tubingen, 145 
 
 Urbino, Duke of, Francesco Maria, 
 133 
 
 Valdes, Alfonso, 219, 220 
 
 Juan de, 219-238, 241, 254, 
 255, 265, 267, 269, 270, 271, 
 287, 299 
 
 Valentino, Bonifaccio, 33 
 
 Filippo, 33 
 
 Varano, Giovanni, Duke of Came- 
 rino, 60 
 
 Giulia, daughter of Caterina 
 Cibo, 61, 62, 63, 64 
 
 Matteo, 63, 64 
 Vassy, 128 
 
 Venice, 47, 48, 52, 76, 89, 90, 91, 
 96, 125, 137, 197, 258, 260, 272, 
 273, 283, 295 
 Verdura, Bishop of, 281 
 Vermigli, Gemma Felicita, 74 
 
 Pietro Martire. See Martyr, 
 Peter 
 
 Veroli, 207 
 
 Verona, 9, 25, 40, 52, 258 
 Vettori, Piero, 210 
 Vicenza, 149 
 Vicosoprano, 144 
 Vienna, 200 
 Villari, 4 
 
 Virgilio, Marcello, 74 
 Viterbo, 26, 45, 49, 56, 138, 212, 
 241, 271 
 
 Wittenberg, 5, 97, 136, 137, 145 
 Wolsey, Cardinal, 37 
 Wiirtzburg, 169 
 
 Zacharias, Pope, 4 
 
 Zanchi, Girolamo of Bergamo, 
 
 202 
 
 Zurich, 79, 82, 104, 199, 239 
 Zwingle, 10 
 
 Printed fa Hazelly Walton and Viney, Ld., London and Ayletbwry. 
 
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 *;<;* PREVIOUS LISTS CANCELLED. 
 The Romance of an Elderly Poet : A Hitherto 
 
 Unknown Chapter in the Life of George Crabbe. By A. M. 
 
 BROADLEY AND WALTER JFRROLD. Demy 8vo, cloth gilt, with 
 
 many illustrations, IDS. 6d. net. 
 
 This volume, based upon a series of letters extending over the ten 
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 Polly Peachum. The Story of Lavinia Fenton, Duchess 
 
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 Napoleon in Exile at Elba, 1814-1815. By NORWOOD 
 
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 Napoleon in Exile at St. Helena 1815-1821. By 
 
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Maximilian the Dreamer, Holy Roman Emperor, 
 
 1459-1519. By CHRISTOPHER HARE. Author of " The Romance of 
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 The Emperor Maximilian lived in that important epoch in European 
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 Essentially Maximilian was a dreamer of dreams. Full of 
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 A Vagabond Courtier (Baron von Polnitz). By EDITH 
 
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 As a boy Baron Charles Louis von Polnitz, of whom Mrs. Cuthell 
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 Mrs. Cuthell tells of his travels in England (where he was a 
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The Lords of the Devil's Paradise. By G. SIDNEY 
 
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 It is now a little more than two years since the terrible truths of the 
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 Louis XL and Charles the Bold. By LIEUT.- COL. 
 
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 as his friends knew him, a noble, serious student struggling to bring 
 truth into the open. 
 
Princess and Queen of England : The Life of Mary 
 
 II. By MARY F. SANDARS. Author of "Balzac, his Life and 
 Writings," etc. Demy 8vo, illustrated, i6s. net. 
 
 Miss Mary F. Sandars, whose sound biographical and critical woik 
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 precious memoirs, which in times of danger she carried about her 
 person. 
 
 Earl Bathurst has in his possession a large quantity of Mary's 
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 Portland's papers at Welbeck have also been placed at her disposal. 
 The Earl of Orkney has kindly allowed the publishers to reproduce 
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 published. This book, therefore, ought to prove a highly important 
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 Famous Artists and Their Models. By DR. ANGELO 
 
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 In this book, from a sufficiently broad standpoint, are shown the 
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Every Man's El-doradoBritish South America. 
 
 By EDITH A. BROWNE. Author of " Peeps at Greece and Spain," 
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 In these days when most parts of the world are given over to the 
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 unbeaten tracts without discomfort, and also enable him to enjoy to 
 the full the fascination of new and unique surroundings. 
 
 Such a country is British Guiana, and the author who depicts this 
 British Colony in South America under the happy title of "Every 
 Man's El-dorado," writes entirely from first-hand knowledge and 
 observation, whilst her standpoint of discrimination is that of a 
 traveller well acquainted with many parts of the world. 
 
 Miss Browne discusses the social and commercial problems of 
 the land, which has been called "The Magnificent Province," she 
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 Western Men with Eastern Morals. By W. N. 
 
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 The White Slaves of London. By W. N. WILLIS. 
 
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 Square. It is to be hoped, as the Bishop of London says in a letter 
 to the author, " that this book will shock London." 
 
The White Slave Market. By Mrs. ARCHIBALD 
 
 MACKIRDY (Olive Christian Malvery), Author of " The Soul 
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 " This volume bears the stamp of truth." Standard. 
 
 California. An Englishman's Impressions of the 
 Golden State. By A. T. JOHNSON. Demy 8vo, cloth gilt, fully 
 illustrated, los. 6d. net. 
 
 On his title page Mr. Johnson quotes a couplet from Oliver 
 Goldsmith : 
 
 " 111 fares the land, to hastening ills a prey, 
 Where wealth accumulates and men decay." 
 
 This denotes, in some measure, the ruling spirit of California. The 
 dollar is swaying the thoughts of the multitude, and in the rough 
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 The key note of the Californian's character is an extreme egotism, 
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 effeminate, and his love of talking about himself. 
 
 Occasionally he overcomes his dislike of strangers and is thoroughly 
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 interesting book the author does not refrain from criticism. He 
 does not detail California's history or lengthily discuss its politics, 
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 Instead of climbing her lofty mountains, he traversed California 
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 Half-Hours in the Levant. By ARCHIBALD B. SPENS. 
 
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 Mr. Spens is a novelist of some repute, and in this rambling and 
 discursive book of travels in the Near East he has made use of the 
 fiction-writer's gift of retailing conversations and giving brightly- 
 written by-the-way notes on his surroundings. He visited Algeria, 
 Constantinople, Corsica, Crete, Naples, and many other places of 
 interest in the neighbourhood of the Mediterranean. The book has 
 about it much of the cheery sense of amusement of Mark Twain's 
 " The Innocents Abroad." 
 
The Human Machine. An Inquiry into the Diversity 
 of Human Faculty in its Bearings upon Social Life, Religion, 
 Education, and Politics. By J. F. NISBET. Fifth and new 
 edition. Crown 8vo, 35. 6d. net. 
 
 The Spectator says: "An undoubtedly clever and suggestive book. . . . We have 
 rarely met with anything so sound as the author's common-sense criticism of popular 
 Socialism, or the vigorous handling of the much-discussed modern ' sex* problems " 
 Truth sa} s: " A singularly lucid book . . . singularly suggestive." 
 Thf. Glasgow Herald says: "Well written and eminently readable. Mr. Nisbet 
 lias something worth remembering to say on almost every subject that engages the 
 attention of educated men." 
 
 The Physiology of Faith and Fear ; or, the Mind 
 
 in Health and Disease. By WILLIAM S. SADLER, M.D. With 
 an Appendix and Index. Large crown 8vo, 580 pp., with 44 full- 
 page illustrations, cloth gilt, 6s. net. 
 
 This book " is affectionately dedicated to all who worry, to the 
 victims of fear, moral despair, and other mental maladies ; to those 
 who are seeking to know the truth concerning the power of mind over 
 matter ; and also to those mental sufferers who have been deceived 
 and deluded by false systems of mental healing." 
 
 The author writes from the standpoint of the physiologist, and 
 separates the study of mental healing from any particular system, 
 sect, or form of religious belief. He not only calls attention to the 
 power of the mind over the body, but points out the great influence of 
 the body over the mind, and more particularly the effect of a diseased 
 or disordered physical body on the mental state and moral tendencies. 
 The work is couched, as far as possible, in simple language, void of 
 technicalities, and it is hoped that its general effect may be to 
 emphasize the harmful quality of fear, and the wholesome, renovating 
 influence of faith and religion. 
 
 " Sound common sense. Full of striking and stimulating ideas." Scotsman. 
 " Of gr^at interest. We can cordially commend this book." Sheffield Telegraph. 
 
 The Insanity of Genius: and the General Inequality 
 of Human Faculty Physiologically Considered. By J, F. NISBET. 
 Author of " The Human Machine," etc. Sixth and new edition, 
 with an Introduction by DR. BERNARD HOLLANDER. Crown 8vo, 
 53. net. 
 
 Ever since the time of Aristotle, 2000 years ago, some subtle 
 relationship has been suspected between genius and insanity, a near 
 kinship being traced between the spiritual exaltation which produces 
 poets and inventors, and the fury of the insane ; and certainly it is 
 remarkable how often eminent men have displayed morbid symptoms 
 of the mind. 
 
 In this book, Mr. J. F. Nisbet discusses the subject in the light 
 of late discoveries and the most modern methods of investigation. 
 His knowledge of the localisation of the functions of the brain and 
 of the establishment of kinship between an extensive group of brain 
 and nerve disorders, leads him to the conclusion that, apparently at 
 the opposite poles of human intellect, genius and insanity are in reality 
 but different phases of a morbid susceptibility, or want of balance, in 
 the cerebro-spinal system. 
 
 8 
 
Reflections of a Sporting Artist. By FINCH MASON 
 
 (" Uncle Toby "). Demy 8vo, cloth gilt, with about 100 illustra- 
 tions, i6s. net. 
 
 These recollections and reflections by Mr. Finch Mason, the well- 
 known sporting author and artist, whose work usually appears above 
 the pseudonym " Uncle Toby," are remarkable for the adroit 
 facility with which the writer sums up the psrsonalities of many well- 
 known people. The book includes reminiscences of Twyford School 
 under the present Dean of Durham, of life at Eton in the sixties, and of 
 the masters and schoolfellows of that period, including Lord Randolph 
 Churchill, William Beresford, V.C., and others who have since 
 become famous. A year in business, and another year as a student of 
 architecture under Mr. Edward Barry, R.A., pass under review, and 
 also the author's experiences on the turf, in the hunting field, and on 
 the moors. Numerous anecdotes add to the unique interest of the book, 
 which comprises a particularly bright and fascinating volume. One 
 hundred drawings by the author increase the value of the book. 
 
 The European in India. By H. HERVEY (Indian 
 
 Telegraphs, retired). Author of " Cameos of Indian Crime." 
 Demy 8vo, cloth gilt, fully illustrated, 125. 6d. net. 
 This work, written by a European after many years' residence in 
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 August Strindberg : The Spirit of Revolt. Studies 
 and Impressions by L. LIND-AF-HAGEBY. Crown 8vo, cloth gilt, 
 illustrated, 6s. net. 
 
 Already there is in England a growing interest in the work and 
 personality of August Strindberg, the most noted of modern Swedish 
 writers, who died on May i-jth, 1912. To many, his name still con- 
 notes a morbid madman, noxious and absurd in the writings and 
 actions ; this book, however, well written and showing sympathetic 
 understanding of the man and his career, gives a vivid picture of the 
 struggles and difficulties of his life, and makes clear the true 
 representativeness and greatness in him and his works. Strindberg, 
 who, on the Continent, takes rank with Ibsen, was a prolific writer 
 in all kinds of literature, and his works are notable for their modern, 
 scientific and socialistic ideas. He wrote seventy plays, psychological, 
 satirical, historical and mystic, and novels, stories and essays, which 
 place him in the forefront of modern writers as an observer of life. 
 This thoughtful monograph combines a critical estimate with a 
 sufficiently full and searching biography, the whole presenting a clear 
 picture of this elusive author in his relation to modern thought. 
 
 9 
 
Samphire. By LADY SYBIL GRANT 
 
 Crown 8vo, cloth gilt, 35. 6d. net. 
 
 A bright, companionable volume by the daughter of Lord Rosebery, 
 consisting of a series of essays. Among the subjects dealt with are 
 "Millionaires in Fiction," " Personal Relations," "About Snobs," 
 "Nature," "Salons," "Criticism," "Authoresses and Authors," and 
 " Literary Dodges." They are excellent satire, and have in addition 
 breadth and good humour. 
 
 A Tour through South America. By A. S. FORREST. 
 
 Author of " A Tour through Old Provence," etc. Demy 8vo, cloth 
 gilt, profusely illustrated, los. 6d. net. 
 
 Mr. A. S. Forrest, the well-known artist-author, has lately travelled 
 extensively in South America and particularly in the district of the 
 Panama Canal. He carried credentials which gave him unique 
 facilities of exploration, and much that he has put into his book cornea 
 before the public for the first time. Mr. Forrest goes on his travels, 
 sketch-book and note-book in hand, and it is an added charm to his 
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 infinite value to those wishing for an accurate and picturesque 
 presentation of the characteristics of a fascinating country. 
 
 Torquemada and the Spanish Inquisition. By 
 
 RAFAEL SABATINI. Author of " The Life of Cesare Borgia," 
 "The Lion's Skin," "The Strolling Saint," etc. Demy 8vo, 
 fully illustrated, i6s. net. 
 
 Mr. Rafael Sabatini is the first writer to attempt a study of the 
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 which they are woven, and to co-ordinate them into a historical and 
 psychological study of the actual man. 
 
 The study of Friar Thomas de Torquemada is, however, essentially 
 the study of the Inquisition, and Mr. Sabatini traces from earliest 
 Christian times the rise and development of that ghastly tribunal, and 
 its introduction into Castile under Ferdinand and Isabella, with 
 Torquemada as the first Grand Inquisitor, establishing rules of 
 procedure which were to endure until the nineteenth century. Tor- 
 quemada is not only the first Grand Inquisitor, but he may be accepted 
 as the complete type of the president of the Holy Office, and the trials 
 which took place under his rule are typical of inquisitorial trials in 
 all subsequent ages. 
 
 Mr. Sabatini deals without bias and in a purely historical spirit with 
 this phase of religious persecution. But in his hands, history is never 
 a matter of cold abstracts. He pursues his usual methods of keeping 
 the human interest paramount ; he realizes for us the spirit of the age 
 with which he deals and the personalities of the historical personages 
 he presents ; by the swift movement of his narrative and his intimate 
 attention to detail he achieves an engrossing and dramatic piece of 
 work, in the course of which he lays before us a series of poignantly 
 vivid pictures of the Inquisition at work. 
 
 10 
 
Gaiety and George Grossmith. Random Reflections 
 
 of an Apostle of Pleasure. By STANLEY NAVLOR. Crown 8vo, 
 
 cloth gilt, fully illustrated, 53. net. 
 
 ^ Mr. George Grossmith lives in the imagination of the multitude as 
 tie lightest, the airiest, the most irresponsible of men. Away from 
 the footlights, we see Grossmith, the man ; a shrewd, although tolerant, 
 observer to whom all the world's a stage the most interesting, in fact, 
 of all possible stages. He knows his London, and also his Paris and 
 his New York. To tajk to him for many minutes on friendly terms is 
 to realise that he has pondered over many more things than are 
 thought of by the most staid and elderly wiseacre. His reflections, as 
 here set forth, therefore, are good entertainment with serious thought 
 behind it, and when he treats of passers-by ' on the stage and off,' 
 or when he describes the hardships of his own gaiety, the reflections 
 of the " Apostle of Pleasure" are words of delight. 
 
 The Suffrage Annual and Women's Who's 
 
 Who. Edited by A. J. R. Vol. I. 1913. Crown 8vo, cloth, 6s. net. 
 An indispensable reference book on all suffrage matters. It will 
 contain biographies of about 1,000 prominent women in the Suffragist 
 movement, and include a list of the thirty societies, with full addresses ; 
 addresses of about r,ooo branches ; a chronological table of the events 
 in the history of the long campaign, and reliable data on every thing 
 connected with the Women's Movement. As all the Suffrage Societies 
 have contributed to the book it will be regarded as the official work of 
 reference on suffrage matters. 
 
 Modern Politics. Large crown 8vo, cloth gilt, 546 
 
 pages, 6s. net. 
 
 This volume consists of a number of leading articles reprinted from 
 " The Commentator," a journal that has become well-known for its 
 fearless plain-speaking in the Conservative interest. The articles have 
 for the most part a more or less direct bearing on the problem of our 
 country's lack of employment for its own population ; they seek to 
 remind their readers of " those old principles which, when recognized 
 and acted on by the legislature and the people, not only enabled 
 England to employ her population, but by so doing made her the 
 foremost country in the world." During the troublous times which 
 have affected the political world in the last three years, " The Com- 
 mentator" has sturdily maintained its principles, and the value of this 
 volume should be appreciated by all interested in politics. 
 
 The Commentator. The most out-spoken paper in 
 
 England. A sixpenny review for One Penny Weekly. 
 "The Commentator" is a paper which has the courage of its con- 
 victions, and speaks with no uneertain mind. Whatever doubts and 
 fears may paralyse blas politicians, " The Commentator" is free from 
 all ambiguity and vacillation. Published every Wednesday. 
 
 Paul's Simplicode By M. LEVY 
 
 Crown 8vo, cloth, is. net. 
 
 A simple and thoroughly practical and efficient code for the use of 
 Travellers, Tourists, Business Men, Colonial Emigrants, Lawyers, and 
 the general public. Everyone should use this, the cheapest code 
 book published in English. A sentence in a word. 
 
 ii 
 
STANLEY PAUL'S 
 NEW 2/- net NOVELS 
 
 Crown 8vo, cloth gilt, Pictorial Wrapper, as. net each. 
 
 i The Unholy Estate (5th edition). DOUGLAS SLADEN 
 
 a Between Two Stools (5th edition). RHODA BROUGHTON 
 
 3 The Consort (3rd edition). MRS. EVERARD COTES (SARA JEANETTE DUNCAN) 
 
 4 The Woman-Hunter (4th edition). ARABELLA KENEALY 
 
 5 The Doll (4th edition). VIOLET HUNT 
 
 7 The Justice of the Duke (and ed : tion). RAFAEL SABATINI 
 
 8 Neighbours of Mine. 70 illustrations (and edition). R. ANDOM 
 
 9 Ruffles (and edition). L. T. MEADE 
 
 10 The Three Anarchists (6th edition). 
 
 11 The Irresistible Mrs. Ferrers (6th edition). 
 
 12 The Love Locks of Diana (2nd edition). 
 
 13 The Career of Beauty Darling (3th edition). 
 
 14 The "White Owl (and edition). 
 
 15 The Free Marriage (and edition). 
 
 18 The Artistic Temperament (and edition). 
 
 19 Countess Daphne (revised edition). 
 
 at The Bungalow under the Lake (and edition). 
 
 22 Clive Lorimer's Marriage (and edition). 
 
 33 Pretty Barbara (and edition). 
 
 24 Impertinent Reflections (5th edition). 
 
 25 Lying Lips (and edition). 
 
 26 The Riding Master (6th edition). 
 a8 The Lion's Skin (and edition). 
 
 2g Young Nick and Old Nick (and edition). 
 
 30 Love, the Thief (5th edition). 
 
 31 Tropical Tales (/th edition). 
 
 32 The Cheerful Knave (4th edition). 
 
 34 Love Besieged (3rd edition). 
 
 MAUD STEPNEY RAWSON 
 
 ARABELLA KENEALY 
 
 KATE HORN 
 
 DOLF WYLLARDE 
 
 KATE HORN 
 
 KEIGHLEY SNOWDEN 
 
 JANE WARDLE 
 
 " RITA" 
 
 CHARLES E. PHARCE 
 
 E. EVERETT-GREEN 
 
 ANTHONY DYLLINGTON 
 
 COSMO HAMILTON 
 
 WILLIAM LE QUEUX 
 
 DOLF WYLLARDE 
 
 RAFAEL SABATINI 
 
 S. R. CROCKK.TT 
 
 HELEN MATHERS 
 
 DOLF WYLLARDE 
 
 E. KEBI.E HOWARD 
 
 CHARLES E. PEARCE 
 
 35 Woman Adrift. The Menace of Suffra- 
 
 gism (3rd edition). 
 
 HAROLD OWEN 
 
Intimate Memoirs of Napoleon III. : Personal 
 
 Reminiscences of the Man and the Emperor. By the late BARON 
 D'AMBKS; translated by A. K. Allinson. Two volumes, demy 
 8vo, fully illustrated, 243. net the set. 
 " A life-like study of Napoleon by a life-long friend." Evening Standard. 
 
 The Royal Miracle : A Collection of Rare Tracts, 
 
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 The First Signs of Insanity : Their Prevention and 
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 In the Footsteps of Richard Coeur de Lion. 
 
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 The Romance of Sandro Botticelli. By A. J. 
 
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 By JOHN ARMSTRONG. Demy 8vo, cloth gilt, with 160 special 
 illustrations. IDS. 6d. net. 
 " A really practical work- -full of suggestions." Outlook. 
 
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 Guerilla Leaders of the World. By PERCY CROSS 
 
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 13 
 
The History of Gravesend and its Surroundings, 
 
 from pre-historic times to the beginning of the Twentieth Century. 
 By ALEX. J. PHILIP. Author of "Gravesend, the Water-gate of 
 London," etc., etc. In four volumes, 125. 6d. net each. 
 This history of Gravesend will be issued to subscribers only, the 
 edition being limited to 365 copies of each volume, the first volume 
 to be ready about Spring, 1913. Subscription forms, with full partic- 
 ulars, will be supplied on application to the publisher. The work is 
 one of much more than local interest, the position of Gravesend giving 
 it a place in history from ancient times, and its situation on the Thames 
 linking it up with the story of the British navy. The author has 
 had special facilities for collecting materials, and his book should 
 undoubtedly be the history of the town he serves as Borough librarian. 
 
 TECHNICAL LIBRARY MANUALS 
 
 By ALEX. J. PHILIP, Borough Librarian, Gravesend. 
 
 1. The Production of the Printed Catalogue. 
 
 A practical handbook for everyone concerned with printing, 55. net. 
 This work deals with the preparation, printing, and publication of 
 catalogues of Libraries, Museums, and Art Galleries, Publishers', Book- 
 sellers' and Business houses, with an appendix of type faces. 
 
 2. The Business of Bookbinding from the point of 
 
 view of the Binder, the Publisher, the Librarian, and the General 
 Reader. Illustrated, crown 8vo, 6s. net ; half bound in sealskin, 
 75. gd. net. 
 
 This work contains chapters on the manufacture of binders' leather 
 and cloth, and a description of a working bindery with samples of cloth 
 and leather, specially displayed for colour, grain, and material. 
 Photo-micrographs of paper fibres, by Clayton Beadle, illustrate the 
 chapter dealing with book papers. The chapter on leather and its 
 preparation is by Professor Proctor. The glossary of terms has been 
 compiled with the assistance of Mr. J. Drew Appleby and others. 
 
 3. The Library Encyclopaedia, by the foremost 
 
 authorities, edited by ALEX. J. PHILIP, 305. net. ; after Spring, 
 1913, the price will be raised to 405. net. 
 
 THE LIBRARY ENCYCLOPAEDIA deals comprehensively with 
 'Library Administration, Book Purchasing, Library History, Library 
 Plans and Buildings, Classification, Cataloguing, Office Work and 
 Routine, Mechanical Aids, Advertising, and the various contributory 
 branches of knowledge, Binding, Paper, the Preservation of Records, 
 Museum Work, Practical Printing, Bibliography, Estimating, Speci- 
 fication Work, and all the numerous subjects connected with work 
 in public, proprietary, and private libraries and museums. 
 
 The Librarian, an Independent Professional Journal, 
 
 for the professional man and all interested in literature. Monthly, 
 
 6d., or 6s. 6d. per annum, post free. 
 
 " The Librarian " is an invaluable mine of information concern- 
 ing libraries, from the first stone laid in the structure of the building to 
 the last book placed upon its shelves. It is indispensable to the librarian, 
 the publisher, the bookseller, the book buyer and the book reader alike. 
 
STANLEY PAUL'S 
 NEW II- net NOVELS 
 
 Crown 8vo, stiff pictorial boards, i/- net. 
 
 1 The Widow to say Nothing of the Man (3rd edition). HELEN ROWLAND 
 
 2 Thoroughbred (2nd edition). FRANCIS DODSWORTH 
 The Spell of the Jungle (2nd edition). ALICE FERRIS 
 The Sins of Society (Drury Lane Novels) (2nd edition). CECIL RALEIGH 
 The Marriages of Mayfalr (ditto) (2nd edition). . KEBLE CHATTERTON 
 
 A Ten Pound Penalty (and edition). 
 
 Gay Lawless (4th edition). 
 
 A Professional Rider (2nd edition). 
 
 The Devil in London (2nd edition). 
 
 The Unspeakable Scot (ii;th thousand). 
 
 Lovely Woman (ggth thousand). 
 
 Fatal Thirteen (2nd edition). 
 
 Brother Rogue and Brother Saint 
 
 The Death Gamble 
 
 The Mystery of Roger Bullock 
 
 Bardelys, the Magnificent (4th edition). 
 
 Billicks (2nd edition). 
 
 The Cabinet Minister's Wife 
 
 The Dream and the Woman (2nd edition). 
 
 The Ghost Pirates (2nd edition). 
 
 The Garden of Life (2nd edition). 
 
 No. 5 John Street (igth edition). 
 
 Dr. Phillips: A Maida-Vale Idyll (3rd edition). 
 
 The Perfidious Welshman doth edition). 
 
 America through English Eyes (2nd edition). 
 
 Tropical Tales (8th edition). 
 
 A Babe in Bohemia (i2th edition). 
 
 Young Mick and Old Nick (3rd edition). 
 
 The Cheerful Knave (5th edition). 
 
 The Mystery of Redmarsh Farm (3rd edition) 
 
 The Artistic Temperament (4th edition). 
 
 In Fear of a Throne (3rd edition). 
 
 The Riding Master (7th edition). 
 
 Lying Lips (5th edition). 
 
 Maggie of Margate (2nd edition). 
 
 The Red Fleur-de Lys (2nd edition). 
 
 H. NOEL WILLIAMS 
 HELEN MATHERS 
 MRS. EDWARD KENNARD 
 GEO. R. SIMS 
 T. VV. H. CROSLAND 
 T. W. H. CKOSLAUD 
 WILLIAM LE QUEUX 
 TOM CALLOW 
 GEO. R. SIMS 
 TOM GALLON 
 RAFAEL SABATIM 
 A. ST. JOHN ADCOCK 
 GEO. R. SIMS 
 TOM GALLON 
 W. HOPE HODGSON 
 KATE HOKN 
 RICHARD WHITEING 
 FRAHK DANBY 
 "DRAIG GLAS" 
 
 "RlTA" 
 
 DOLF WYLLARDE 
 FRANK DANBY 
 S. R. CROCKETT 
 E. KEBLE HOWARD 
 ARCHIBALD MARSHALL 
 JANE WARDLE 
 R. AN DOM 
 DOLF WYLLARDE 
 WILLIAM LE QUKUX 
 GABRIELLE WODNIL 
 MAV WYNNE 
 
THE ABC SERIES 
 
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 The A B C of Artistic Photography. By A. ] . 
 
 ANDERSON. With photogravure plates and half-tone illustrations 
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 The Amateur Photographer says it is " A most delightful book, full of 
 pleasant reading and surprises. Every amateur photographer with 
 an interest in pictorial work should get it." 
 
 I Originally published under the title of "The Artistic Side of Photography," at 
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 The A B C of Japanese Art. By J. F. BLACKER. 
 
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 The ABC Guide to Mythology. By HELEN A. 
 
 CLARKE. With several illustrations, 55. net. 
 
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 The ABC Guide to Music. By D. GREGORY MASON. 
 
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 The ABC Guide to Pictures. By CHARLES H. CAF- 
 
 FIN. Author of" How to Study Pictures." Fullyillustrated.5s.net. 
 Mr. Caffin is a well-known author of books on art. In this book, 
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 The ABC Guide to American History. By 
 
 H. W. ELSON. With sixteen illustrations, 55. net. 
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 States, a considerable amount of thoughtful writing on the development 
 of nations and the art of government. 
 
 16 
 
The A B C of Collecting Old Continental 
 
 Pottery. By J. F. BLACKER. Author of " Nineteenth Century 
 English Ceramic Art," etc. Illustrated with about 100 line and 
 50 half-tone illustrations, 55. net. 
 
 In this new volume Mr. J. F. Blacker provides information and illus- 
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 The ABC about Collecting (Second Edition). By 
 
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 With numerous illustrations, 55. net. 
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 knowledge." Bookman. 
 
 The A B C of Collecting Old English China. 
 
 By J. F. BLACKER. With numerous line and 64 pages of half-tone 
 illustrations, printed on art paper, 55. net. 
 41 To the beginner there could be no surer guide." Pall Mall Gazette. 
 
 The ABC Dictionary of Modern Prose Quota- 
 tions. A Classified Dictionary of Modern Thought in the form 
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 By HOLBROOK JACKSON, Author of " Great English Novelists," 
 etc., 55. net. 
 
 A fascinating and valuable collection of the wit and wisdom of one 
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 anthology and a useful reference volume, and Mr. Holbrook Jackson 
 may be relied upon as an editor of knowledge and discretion. 
 
 More About Collecting. By SIR JAMES YOXALL, M.P. 
 
 Author of " The A.B.C. about Collecting," etc. Large crown 8vo, 
 
 cloth gilt, with about 100 illustrations, 55. net. 
 
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 so arranged that readers who have little knowledge or experience of 
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 they require put plainly and tersely. 
 
 Nineteenth Century English Ceramic Art. By 
 
 J. F. BLACKER. With coloured frontispiece and over 1,200 
 examples. Illustrated in half-tone and line. 
 
 "One of the cheapest art manuals that has appeared in the present generation. 
 Invaluable to all lovers of historic ware." Daily Telegraph. 
 
 17 
 
STANLEY PAUL'S 
 NEW SIX SHILLING NOVELS 
 
 A Grey Life: A Romance of Bath. "RITA" 
 
 Author of " Peg the Rake," "My Lord Conceit," "Countess 
 Daphne," " Grim Justice," etc. 
 
 " Rita" has chosen Bath as the setting for her new novel. She has disdained the 
 " powder and patches" period, and given her characters the more modern interests 
 of Bath's transition stage in the seventies and eighties. Her book deals with the 
 struggles of an impoverished Irish family of three sisters, living at Bath, to whom 
 comes an orphaned niece with the romantic name of Rosaleen Le Suir. " Rita " 
 claims that an Irish adventurer, named Theophrastus O'Shaughnessy, who plays 
 an important part in this book, is the male prototype of her own immortal " Peg 
 the Rake." 
 
 The Destiny of Claude. MAY WYNNE 
 
 Author of " Henri of Navarre," " The Red Fleur-de-Lys," 
 "Honour's Fetters," etc. 
 
 To escape a convent life, Claude de Marbeille joins her friend Margotde Ladrennes 
 in Touraine. Jacques, Comte de Ladrennes, a hunchback, falls in love with her, and 
 when the two girls go to Paris to enter the suite of the fifteen year old Mary Queen of 
 Scots, he follows and takes service with the Duke of Guise. There follow many 
 romantic and exciting adventures concerning the perilous childhood of Mary Queen of 
 Scots, into which the characters of the story are brought by acts of treachery and 
 the work of spies. The hero, a young officer of the Scottish Guards, is imprisoned 
 and threatened with poison, and much of the story relates his ardent search after his 
 sweetheart, who has been betrayed into captivity by the jealousy of a friend. This 
 is a thoroughly good story. 
 
 The King's Master, OLIVE LETHBRIDGE and JOHN 
 DE STOURTON 
 
 A novel dealing with the troublous times of Henry VIII., in which the political 
 situation, Court intrigues and religious discussions of the period are treated in a 
 masterly manner. A strong love element is introduced, and the characters of Anne 
 Boleyn and Thomas Cromwell are presented in an entirely new light, while 
 plot and counter-plot, hair-breadth escapes, love, hate, revenge, and triumph, all go 
 to form the theme. 
 
 The Celebrity's Daughter. VIOLET HUNT 
 
 Author of " The Doll," " White Rose of Weary Leaf," etc. 
 
 "The Celebrity's Daughter," which, like Miss Violet Hunt's other novels, is 
 founded on a much-entangled plot, only fully unravelled in the last chapter, is the 
 autobiography of the daughter of a celebrity who has fallen on evil days. The book 
 is told in the author's own inimitable style, with the humour, the smart dialogue, and 
 the tingling life of her earlier novels. 
 
 El 
 
Stanley Paul's New Six Shilling Novels continued. 
 
 Hunt the Slipper. OLIVER MADOX HUEFFER (]ANE 
 WARDLH). Author of " The Artistic Temperament," " The Lord 
 of Latimer Street," " Margery Pigeon," " Where Truth Lies," etc. 
 
 Those readers of Mr. Oliver Madox Hueffer's novels who remember his " Mariorie 
 Pigeon " and "The Artistic Temperament," will be charmed by this new novel from 
 the same pen. It is the love storv of a young Englishman of good family who goes to 
 the United States in search of a fortune. The story is founded on an ingenious plot 
 and set forth in an original manner. 
 
 Cheerful Craft. R. AN DOM 
 
 Author of "We Three and Troddles," "Neighbours of Mine," 
 etc. With 60 illustrations by Louis Gunnis. 
 
 There is nothing sombre or introspective about " Cheerful Craft," and those who 
 agree with Mr. Balfour's view of the need of lighter and brighter books will find here 
 something to please them, since broad humour and rollicking adventure characterise 
 the story. A city clerk rises from obscurity to a position pi wealth and dignity, 
 and carries us with him all the way, condoning his rascality for the sake of his 
 ready humour and cheery optimism. After all he is a merry rogue, and he works 
 no great harm to anyone, and much good to himself, and incidentally to most of those 
 with whom he comes in contact. This amusing story does credit to the writer's 
 ingenuity without putting too great a strain on the credulity of the reader. 
 
 The Three Destinies. J. A. T. LLOYD 
 
 Author of " The Lady of Kensington Gardens," " A Great Russian 
 Realist," etc. 
 
 This story relates the adventures of three young girls and a boy of eighteen, who 
 meet by chance before the statue of " The Three Fates " in the British Museum, and 
 there attract the attention of an old professor who determines to bring them together 
 again, and experiment with their young lives with the curiosity of a chemist experi- 
 menting with chemicals. The scene shifts in turn to Ireland, to Paris, Brittany, and 
 Vienna, and the hero is always under the spell of that first chance meeting in 
 front of the statue. One person after the other plays with his life, and again and 
 again he and the others report themselves on New Year's Day to the old professor, 
 who reads half mockingly the jumble of lives that he himself has produced, until in 
 the end the hero realises that these young git Is have become to him in turn modern 
 interpreters of the three ancient Destinies. 
 
 Columbine at the Fair. KATE HORN 
 
 Author of " Susan and The Duke," " The White Owl," etc. 
 
 Miss Kate Horn has here taken up an entirely new line. Leaving the style which 
 made "Edward and I and Mrs. Honeybun " so successful, she here gives a critical 
 study of a girl whose soul lies dormant until the touch of love and self sacrifice 
 awakes it by the hand of a little child. Much success is expected for her new story. 
 
 The Unworthy Pact. DOROTHEA GERARD 
 
 Author of " The City of Enticement," " Exotic Martha," etc. 
 
 The story of a young man, who, having inherited an estate from an uncle believed 
 to have died intestate, finds a will which puts as a condition of his inheritance the 
 renunciation of his faith. He hesitates to do this and hides the will for some years, 
 suffering all the while from the knowledge of his misdeed. The events resultant 
 from this secret are related with a true insight and with a sense of drama and of 
 pathos. 
 
 15 
 
Stanley Paul's New Six Shilling Novels continued. 
 The Honour of the Clintons. ARCHIBALD MARSHALL 
 
 Author of " Exton Manor," " The Mystery of Redmarsh Farm," 
 " The Eldest Son," etc. 
 
 The Clintons of Kencote will be very f am liar to the many readers of Mr. 
 Marshall's well-known novels, "The Squire's Daughter," and "The Eldest Son." 
 The central idea of "The Honour ot the Clintons" is to show the Squire 
 confronted with a serious problem, in which neither wealth nor position can help 
 him. He is in danger of falling into the deepest disgrace, and has nothing but his 
 sense of honour on which to rely. How he comes through the trial forms the main 
 interest of the story; but it is also concerned with the love affairs of the Clinton 
 twins, Joan and Nancy, now grown up into beautiful young women. 
 
 The Eyes of Alicia. CHARLES E. PEARCE 
 
 Author of "The Amazing Duchess," "The Beloved Pri cess," 
 "Polly Peachum," " Love Besieged," " Red Revenge," "A Star 
 of the East, 1 ' etc. 
 
 "The Eyes of Alicia" is the story of an impulsive, adventurous, handsome girl, 
 brought up amid narrow surroundings and yearning for greater freedom. With the 
 coming of womanhood she realizes her power of personal attraction and takes 
 advantage of it in following her wayward impulses. The result is a catastrophe 
 which shadows her whole life. The story is one of modern life in London, and while 
 the scenes and characters have a vivid actuality, the mystery of Destiny hovers 
 continually in the background. 
 
 A Modern Ahab. THEODORA WILSON WILSON 
 
 Author of " Bess of Hardendale," " Moll o' the Toll-Bar, " etc. 
 
 This is a very readable novel in the author's best manner. Rachael Despenser, a 
 successful artist, spends a summer holiday in a Westmoreland village, living at an 
 old farm-house, and making friends with the villagers. Grimstone, a local baronet, 
 is grabbing the land to make a deer run, and Rachael through championing the 
 cause of a farmer comes into collision with him, although adored by his delicate 
 little son. Right-of-way troubles ensue, and violence disturbs the peace. Grimstone's 
 elder son and heir returns from Canada, where he has imbibed Radical notions. He 
 sympathises with the villagers, and is attracted towards Rachael, whom he eventu- 
 ally marries. The baronet is determined to oust the farmer whom Rachael had 
 championed, when the tragic death of his younger son leads him to relinquish the 
 management of the estate to his heir. 
 
 Bright Shame. KEIGHLEY SNOWDEN 
 
 Author of " The Free Marriage," " The Plunder Pit," " Hate of 
 Evil," etc. 
 
 Stephen Gaunt, an English sculptor famous in Italy, is the father of a son born out 
 of wedlock of whom he has never heard. In his youth, a light attachment broken in 
 a causeless fit of jealousy drove him abroad, but when the story opens he comes home 
 to execute a commission, and meets his son without knowing him. In doing so, he 
 encounters a childless couple, who have passed the boy off as their own since infancy, 
 when his mother died. They are an elder half-brother, who has alwaj's hated 
 Stephen, and his sensitive, tender and simple wife, who loves the boy with all her 
 heart, fears to lose him, and yet is tormented by her secret. A romantic friend- 
 ship springs up between son and father; and the chain of accidents and proofs by 
 which he learns the truth, his struggle for control of the boy, and the effect of these 
 events on the boy and his foster mother make a fascinating story. 
 
 20 
 
Stanley Paul's New Six Shilling Novels continued. 
 The Strolling Saint. RAFAEL SABATINI 
 
 Author of " Bardelys, the Magnificent," " The Lion's Skin," etc. 
 
 Mr. Sahatini lays before his readers in "The Strolling Saint" a startling and 
 poignant human document of the Italian Renaissance. It is the autobiographical 
 memoir of Augustine, Lord of Mondolfp, a man pre-natally vowed to the cloister by 
 his over-devout mother. With merciless self-analysis are revealed Augustine's 
 distaste for the life to which he was foredoomed, and his early efforts to break away 
 from the path along which he is being forced. As a powerful historical novel " The 
 Strolling Saint" deserves to take an important place, whilst tor swiftness of action 
 and intensity of romantic interest it stands alone. 
 
 The Poodle-Woman. ANNESLEY KENEALY 
 
 Author of " Thus Saith Mrs. Grundy," etc. 
 
 Miss Annesley Kenealy's new novel, the first volume of the new "Votes for 
 Women" Novel Series, deals with the feminine side of the great unrest of our time 
 and endeavours to answer the question, " What do Women Want ? " It is a charm- 
 ing love story, dealing mainly with two women, a man, and a mannikin. It present, 
 femininism from an entirely fresh standpoint, and in a series of living pictures 
 shows how the games of life and matrimony are played under rules which put all 
 the best cards of the pack into men's hands. The heroine is an emotional Irish girl, 
 with the reckless romance of the Celt and the chivalry of a woman, who remains 
 sweet through very bitter experiences. The book is full of humour. 
 
 The Romance of Bayard. LIEUT. -CoL. ANDREW 
 C. P. HAGGARD, D.S.O. Author of the "The France of Joan of 
 Arc," " Louis XI, and Charles the Bold," etc. 
 
 Colonel Haggard is never more happy than when he writes of days and people 
 famous in history, and here, with much success, he has cleverly woven a romantic 
 novel out of an equally romantic historical chronicle. He gives us memories of the 
 French Court under Francis I., and of the gallant part played by the great Bayard ; 
 stories of our own Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn ; gay pictures of the meeting 
 of the two monarchs and of the jousting and feasting on the Field of the Cloth of 
 Gold ; and stirring chapters on the war in which Bayard, faithful lover and true 
 knight, met a soldier's death. 
 
 The Career of Beauty Darling. DOLF WYLLARDE 
 
 Author of " The Riding Master," " The Unofficial Honeymoon," 
 etc. (yth edition). 
 
 This novel, at present in its eighth edition, is a story of the musical comedy sUge, 
 which endeavours to set forth without prejudice the vices and virtues of the lite ; 
 and, in the account of the heroine's adventures, how she ran awav from home at 
 fourteen, went on the stage in a children's chorus, and found herself henceforth the 
 sport and spoil of the men around her, Miss Wyllarde has made plain statements 
 and has not shrunk ircm the realism of life. It is "an absorbing ttory," and 
 according to The Court Journal " should be put in the hands of all parents who have 
 daughters with any hankering after a stage career." 
 
 Francesca. CECIL ADAIR 
 
 Author of " The Qualities of Mercy," " Cantacute Towers," etc. 
 
 Miss Adair has excelled herself in Francesca, which is a delightful story full of 
 beautiful thoughts and idyllic touches. This author has been said to resemble the 
 late Rosa N. Carey in possessing all the quah'ties which make for popularity, and 
 the ability to arrest and maintain the reader s interest from the first page to the last 
 
 21 
 
Stan'ey Paul's New Six Shilling Novels continued. 
 
 Life's Last Gift. Louis DE ROBERT 
 
 With a preface by Dr. F. A. HEDGCOCK. (The book for which 
 a committee of Parisian ladies awarded the prize of 200 for the 
 best French novel published in 1911.) 
 
 This " poignant and convincing narrative" tells of a young ambitious man who 
 is overwhelmed by the dread of impending disaster. He struggles to free himself, 
 but only becomes more deeply entrapped. In his misery and dread there comes as 
 " Life's Last Gift" a romantic passion which cannot be requited but estranges him 
 for a time from those most dear, and then leaves him to turn with a renewal of faith 
 to the arms which he has shunned. 
 
 The beauty of this book lies in its absolute sincerity and truth. It speaks to all 
 men and women who realise how great and terrible a possession is life. 
 
 Brave Brigands. MAY WYNNE 
 
 Author of "The Red Fleur-de-Lys," "The Destiny of Claude,'' 
 etc., etc. 
 
 At the time of the French Revolution, during the siege of Carpentras by the " Brave 
 Brigands" the soldiers of an Irishman named Patri an attack is frustrated by the 
 cleverness and courage of a young girl, who, in her adventure?, mysteriously dis- 
 appears. In quick succession there follow events concerning the plots and counter 
 plots of aristocrats, papalists and revolutionaries, and amid adventures of love 
 and war the story leads up to the famous " Glacier Massacres." It is thrilling and 
 romantic from beginning to end. 
 
 Tainted Gold. H. NOEL WILLIAMS 
 
 Author of " A Ten Pound Penalty," " Five Fair Sisters," etc. 
 
 Gerald Carthew, a young London Barrister, whose career has hitherto been quite 
 uneventful, suddenly finds himselt involved in circumstances which leave no room 
 for doubt that a dastardly conspiracy has been formed against his lite. For some 
 time, however, all attempts to discover the instigators or their motive are unsuc- 
 cessful ; and it is not until Carthew's greatest friend has fallen a victim in his stead, 
 and he himself has been nearly lured to destruction by a beautiful American girl who 
 has been made the innocent decoy of the conspirators, that the truth is revealed. 
 The story, the action of which is laid in England, New York and at the Riviera, 
 contains some thrilling moments and a most unexpected denouement. 
 
 The Lost Destiny. G. VILLIERS STUART 
 
 " The Lost Destiny" is a novel showing the working of the 'unseen hand,' and 
 telling the story of a man who shirked his destiny and was forced to watch the 
 career of another who rose to heights of national fame, while he himself drifted 
 like chaff before the wind. It is a striking novel, full of incident, and illustrating 
 the relationship of life and destiny. 
 
 His Magnificence. A. J. ANDERSON 
 
 Author of " The Romance of Fra Filippo Lippi," " The Romance 
 of Sandro Botticelli," etc. 
 
 In this fascinating volume, Mr. A. J . Anderson gives a picture of the extraordinary 
 personality of Lorenzo de Medici (Lorenzo the Magnificent) amid a strong setting of 
 the love, fighting, plotting, assassinations, religion and paganism of the Italian 
 Fenaissance. 
 
 22 
 
Stanley Paul's New Six Shilling Novels continued. 
 
 
 The Curse of the Nile. DOUGLAS SLADEN 
 
 Author of "The Unholy Estate," "The Tragedy of the 
 Pyramids," etc. 
 
 A novel dealing with the city of Khartum and the Egyptian Desert. Mr. Sladen 
 is at his best when he is describing exciting scenes, and the book is full of them ; 
 but, like his other novels, it is also full of romance. It tells the story of a beautiful 
 white woman who, being captured at the fall of Khartum, has to enter the harem 
 of Wad-el-Neiuini, the bravest of all the generals of the Mahdi. When she is rescued 
 on the fatal field of Toski, the question arises, Can the hero, an Englishman, marry 
 her ? Great figures stand forth in Mr. Sladen' s pages above all, the heroic Gordon 
 in his last moments at Khartum. 
 
 The Memoirs of Mimosa. Edited by ANNE ELLIOT 
 
 The intimate and unflinching confession of a brilliant, erotic, and undisciplined 
 woman, who resolves " to live every moment of her life," and succeeds in so doing 
 at the cost of much suffering to herself and others. Her mixture of worldliness, 
 sentiment, fancy, passion, and extraordinary joie tie vivre make her a fascinating 
 study of a type somewhat rare. At her death she bequeathed these Memoirs to the 
 woman friend who edits them and presents them to the world. We get the woman's 
 point of view in all matters poetry, politics, sport, music, the stage, and, domin- 
 ating all, the great problems of sex. 
 
 Dagobert's Children. L. J. BEESTON 
 
 The interest of this novel is centred in a little band of franc-tireurs who, under the 
 leadership of Count Raoul Dagobert, harass the flanks of the German army corps 
 in the Franco-German War. That Dagobert and his " children " are veritable fire- 
 eaters is soon shown by the surprise and slaughter of a small but venturesome 
 company of Prussians. The account of the subsequent doings of these irregulars is 
 one of sustained excitement, and we follow the adventures of Mr. Beeston's hero 
 with the more interest since the author has been at pains to give him personality. 
 There are some vivid descriptions in the novel, which is well written and spirited. 
 
 The Redeemer. RENE BAZIN 
 
 Author of " The Children of Alsace," " The Nun," " Redemption," 
 etc. 
 
 This is a moving and profoundly powerful romance of village life in the Loire 
 country. It is the love story of a beautiful young French school teacher and a 
 worker in the neighbouring slate quarries, who are for a time separated by the 
 man's previous inclination towards a woman living away from her husband. 
 The development of the heroine, strongly held in check by her moral feelings, and 
 the attitude of the kero to the woman to whom he is already united, are told with 
 considerable insight, power and charm. 
 
 Her Majesty the Flapper. A. E. JAMES 
 
 With a picture wrapper of " Her Majesty " in colours. 
 
 A diverting chronicle of the prankish doings of a " Flipper," pretty and fifteen, as 
 recorded partly by herselt and partly by her grown-up cousin Bobbie, whose life she 
 makes quite a series of excitements and surprises. The story ends with the coming 
 out of the Flapper, when the final victimisation of Bobbie takes the form of an 
 engagement. " It is," says the Sunday Times, "one of the most amusing books that 
 has appeared for a long time," and its pages are full of bright and sparkling dialogue, 
 which make it " one of the most delightful books imaginable." 
 
 23 
 
Stanley Paul's New Six Shilling Novels continued. 
 The Fruits of Indiscretion. SIR WILLIAM MAGNAY 
 
 Author of "The Long Hand," ""Paul Burdon," etc. 
 
 A story of murder and mystery in which the interest is well sustained and the 
 characters are convincing. On the eve of a country house wedding, the best man is 
 killed on the hunting field. Captain Routham is asked to take his place, but 
 suddenly disappears and his body is found on the railway track. With the help of 
 Rolt, a famous detective, the mystery is gradually cleared up, and is brought at last 
 to a startling denouement, 
 
 The Return of Pierre. DONAL HAMILTON HAINES 
 
 With a frontispiece from a painting by Edouard Detaille. 
 
 Against the vivid background of the Franco-German War, there shines out, in this 
 novel, the very human story ot Pierre jLafitte, a French country lad. Other 
 prominent figures in the story are the woman Pierre loves, her father a fine old 
 Colonel of Dragoons and a German spy, not without attractive qualities, whose 
 fate becomes entangled with theirs. The book abounds in striking situations, 
 including the discovery and escape of the spy, the departure of the Dragoons for 
 the war, the remorse of a French General who feels personally responsible for 
 the men he has lost, a night in a hospital-tent, the last flicker of the defence of 
 Paris, and the entry of the German troops. It is a remarkable book. 
 
 A Babe in Bohemia. FRANK DAN BY 
 
 Author of " The Heart of a Child," " Dr. Phillips," etc., etc. 
 (nth edition). 
 
 Frank Danby, to gain information for this novel, joined the Salvation Army, 
 went through their training home and Refuge at Clapton, and finally became attached 
 to the depot of the so-called "Gutter, Slum and Garret Brigade," from which 
 the work among the very poorest is carried out. This full-length novel, having been 
 out of print, has now been practically re-written by the author, and although the 
 thread of the story remains, every page has been extensively revised, and it will be 
 found to be as good as anything recently done by this popular writer. 
 
 The She-Wolf. MAXIME FORMONT 
 
 Author of " A Child of Chance," etc. Translated from the French 
 by Elsie F. Buckley. 
 
 This is a powerful novel of the life and times of Caasare Borgia, in which history 
 and romance are mingled with a strong hand. The story is told of the abduction 
 of Alva Colonna on the eve of her marriage with Propero Sarelli, when she is carried 
 off to his palace at Rome and becomes his slave-mistress. The subsequent events, 
 more or less following history or tradition, include the introduction of the dark woman 
 of gipsy extraction, who enamours Caesare, and poisons the wine by which the 
 Colonna and her old lover Sarelli die. The story closes with a description of 
 Caesare's last days and death. This novel has passed through several editions in 
 France. 
 
 The Price of Friendship, E. EVERETT-GREEN 
 
 Author of" Clive Lorimer's Marriage," " Duckworth's Diamonds," 
 
 "Galbraith of Wynyates," etc., etc. 
 
 Miss Everett Green has had a remarkable output of novels in the past, but this 
 one, her latest, is the longest and strongest standing to her name. It is the story 
 of a man who impersonates his friend, from the very best of motives and plunges 
 
 himself into complicatic J J 
 
 vvith a startling climax. 
 
 himself into complications and dangers. Like all of this author's tales, it finishes 
 :lir 
 
 24 
 
Stanley Paul's New ix Shilling Novels continued. 
 
 Called to Judgment. CORALIE STANTON AND HEATH 
 HOSKEN. Authors of " The Muzzled Ox," " The Swelling of 
 Jordan," etc. 
 
 One of the most thrilling stories of mystery, love and adventure which these 
 popular collaborators have ever written. It is a vivid, human story, red-hot with 
 incident and excitement, the central character being a man, who, after ten years' 
 imprisonment for fraud, returns to the world with his past so effectively buried that 
 he is known as a man of wealth, a Member of Parliament, and an Advocate for 
 Prison Reform. The tale is said to be worthy of Poe or Gaboriau. 
 
 The Split Peas. HEADON HILL 
 
 Author of " Troubled Waters," " A Rogue in Ambush," " The 
 Thread of Proof," etc. 
 
 The interest of this story centres in the attempt of a socialistic, time-serving 
 Cabinet Minister, aided and abetted by a mysterious foreigner, who poses as a Soho 
 revolutionary but is in reality a spy, to undermine the loyalty of the British Army. 
 His efforts are frustrated by a young officer of the Guards, with the assistance of two 
 lively Eton boys. Mr. Headon Hill is himself an old Etonian, and he has put much 
 local colour into his book. 
 
 Captain Hawks, Master Mariner. OSWALD KENDALL 
 
 Admirers of the novels of Mr. W. W. Jacobs should read this. It is a story of three 
 men who cannot and will not abide dulness. Though separated superficially by 
 discipline and convention, Captain Hawks, Grummet and "Cert'nly" Wilfred are 
 brothers " under their skins," and are controlled by the same insatiable desire for 
 variety. Their thirst for the unexpected is amply satisfied in the search for an illusive 
 cargo of sealskins, purchased without having been seen by Captain Hawks. That 
 the crew are nearly drowned, frozen, starved, and smothered, proves that they 
 succeeded in a search for a life where things happen. A capital yarn. 
 
 A Star of the East : A Story of Delhi. CHARLES E. 
 PEARCE. Author of " The Amazing Duchess," " The Beloved 
 Princess," " Love Besieged," " Red Revenge," etc. 
 
 This book completes the trilogy of Mr. Pearce's novels of the Indian Mutiny, 
 of which "Love Besieged" and ''Red Revenge" were the first and second. The 
 scene is laid in Delhi, the city of all others where for the past hundred years the 
 traditions of ancient dynasties and the barbaric splendours of the past have been 
 slowly retreating before the ever-advancing influence of the West. The conflict of 
 passions between Nara, the dancing girl, in whose veins runs the blood of Shah 
 Jehan, the most famous of the Kings of Delhi, and Clare Stanhope, born and bred 
 in English conventionality, never so pronounced as in the Fifties, is typical of the 
 differences between the East and the West. The rivalry of love threads its way 
 through a series of exciting incidents, culminating in the massacre and the memorable 
 siege of Delhi. 
 
 A Gentlewoman of France. RENE BOYLESVE 
 
 This novel, crowned by the Academy, has had a great vogue in France, twelve 
 editions having been sold. It is the story of a provincial girl who makes a marriage 
 of convenience with a man who sees in her the best qualities of wifehood and mother- 
 hood. The story shows how before great temptation she stands firm and emerges 
 chastened but conquering. 
 
 In simple, direct fashion, the sweet and most admirable wife tells her story, and 
 it rings extraordinarily true. 
 
 25 
 
Stan fey Paul's New Six Shilling Novels continued. 
 Gabriel's Garden. CECIL ADAIR 
 
 Author of "The Dean's Daughter," "The Qualities of Mercy," 
 " Cantacute Towers," " Francesca," etc. 
 
 When General Gascoign learns that his son Gabriel has cheated at cards, he turns 
 him out of the house and leaves him to take refuge in a beautiful West Indian 
 Island, which had once belonged to Gabriel's mother. There the young man 
 struggles along the thorny road of a great renunciation and a supreme self-sacrifice 
 from Darkness into Light. A charming story. 
 
 The Strength of the Hills. HALLIWELL SUTCLIFFE 
 Author of "A Benedick in Arcady," " Priscilla of the Good 
 Intent," " Through Sorrow's Gates," etc. 
 
 In this novel Mr. Halliwell Sutcliffe returns to the Haworth Moorland which was 
 the inspiration of all his earlier work ; it deals with the strenuous life of the moors 
 sixty years ago and will rank with his strongest and best works. Those who 
 remember our author's "A Man of the Moors," "A Bachelor in Arcady," and 
 "A Benedick in Arcady" will not hesitate to follow him anywhere across the 
 moorlands in the direction of Arcadia. 
 
 Officer 666. BARTON W. CURRIE and AUGUSTIN 
 
 McHOGH. 
 
 An uproarious piece of American wit which has already scored a great success at 
 the Globe Theatre, London. It is from the pen of Mr. Augustin McHugh, who has 
 associated himself with Mr. Barton W. Currie in producing it as a novel. Its 
 dramatic success in England, as well as in America, has been phenomenal, and as a 
 novel it will doubtless receive an equally warm welcome. 
 
 Devil's Brew. MICHAEL W. KAYE 
 
 Author of " The Cardinal's Past," " A Robin Hood of France," etc. 
 Jack Armiston, awaking to the fact that life has other meaning than that given it 
 by a fox-hunting squire, becomes acquainted with Henry Hunt, the socialist dema- 
 gogue, but after many vicissitudes, during which he finds he has sacrificed friends 
 and sweetheart to a worthless propaganda, he becomes instrumental in baulking the 
 Cato Street Conspirators of their plot to murder the members of the Cabinet, and 
 eventually regains his old standing and Pamela. A spirited story. 
 
 Sir Galahad of the Army. HAMILTON DRUMMOND 
 Author of "Shoes of Gold," "The Justice of the King," "The 
 Three Envelopes," etc. 
 
 A tale of the French retreat from Naples through a defile of the Apenines in the year 
 1495. The opening chapters relate the use made by certain restless spirits in both 
 camps of a much -needed truce before the battle of Fornovo. 
 
 Thenceforward the development proceeds along unconventional lints, showing 
 that the hero, Sir Galahad of the Army, carries out the associations of a nickname 
 given in derision, and the grail is followed, though stumblingly and tar off at times, 
 through the incidents of war. 
 
 Brineta at Brighton. GABRIELLE WODNIL 
 
 Author of " Maggie of Margate." 
 
 An amusing story of a young girl, the paid companion of Lady Bigne, who spends 
 a holiday at a shabby, second-rate Brighton boarding-house, and falls into serious 
 difficulties through masquerading as her employer. She enjoys the exhilaration of 
 her fellow lodgers' respect, but soon meets trouble with a wealthy young man -who is 
 anxious to marry a Countess ; and at the same time the extra expenses necessitated 
 by her assumed grandeur set her farther into the mire of deception. The book, how- 
 ever, is very pleasantly brought to a happy ending, and throughout is decidedly 
 amusing. 
 
 26 
 
Stanley Paul's New Six Shilling Novels continued. 
 The Adventures of Mortimer Dixon. ALICIA 
 
 RAMSEY. 
 
 Mortimer Dixon is a young journalist who is sent by his "chief" in a. pursuit 
 which takes him into startling adventures in the Chinese Quarter of the East 
 End. This is a wholesome, bree/y story of adventure, which leaves the reaoer with 
 a sense of strong exhilaration. 
 
 Susan and the Duke. KATE HORN 
 
 Author of " Edward and I and Mrs. Honeybun," " The White 
 Owl," " The Lovelocks of Diana," etc. 
 
 Lord Christopher Fitrarden is the most delightful of young men, and adopts 
 the old family servants destined for the almshouses by bis elder brother, tbe 
 cynical Duke of Cheadle. His love story runs at cross purposes, Kit being pas- 
 sionately in love with the beautiful but ambitious Rosalind, while he in turn is loved 
 by Susan Ringford. Perhaps the most delightful part of the story describes a 
 caravanning party in the New Forest, where Cupid haunts every glen. There are 
 both fun and pathos in the tale, which should find many delighted readers. 
 
 The Irresistible Mrs. Ferrers. ARABELLA KENEALY 
 
 Author of " The Mating of Anthea," " The Woman-Hunter," etc. 
 (6th edition). 
 
 The irresistible Mrs. Ferrers is a fashionable beauty, the idol of London society 
 Hostesses fight and plot to get her to their parties. The men of her world vie with 
 one another for the privilege of driving her to Hurlingham. And yet no breath of 
 scandal touches her. For her ambition is to be known to history as the most 
 beautiful and brilliant woman of her day, who charmed all men and succumbed to 
 none. But Lord Lygon, a clever and attractive man, estranged from his wife, lays 
 siege to her, and the story turns upon the rivalry and struggle of the two women ; of 
 the wife who devotedly loves him, and of the other who, though fond of him, is loth 
 to sacrifice her dazzling impeccability and to forego her unique position for his sake. 
 There are some charming children in the book and some original views on the 
 Woman's Question. 
 
 The Three Anarchists. MAUD STEPNEY RAWSON 
 
 Author of " A Lady of the Regency," " The Stairway of 
 Honour," " The Enchanted Garden," etc. Third edition. 
 
 There are in this novel a delicate psychology, a true pathos, and a fine perception 
 of the importance of the tiny incidents and minor happenings of daily life as they affect 
 the human drama. The heroine is the unhappy young wife of an elderly, weak, cruel 
 and penurious man, and the hero is a human stepson at inevitable enmity with so 
 opposite a father. Both these characters have a craving ft r the fulness of life, the 
 woman, with a noble perception of what is right, being intensely desirous of founding 
 a real home and making real happiness ; and the youn man of warm flesh and blcod 
 responding to her pure woman's love and care with more than mere affection. 
 There are fine and beautiful things in the book. 
 
 So it is with the Damsel. NORA VYNNE 
 
 Author of " The Pieces of Silver," " The Priest's Marriage," etc. 
 
 The heroine of this striking story is decoyed by White Slave Traffickers, who krep 
 her in a miserable captivity until by good fortune she escapes. She then overrides 
 the dangers that beset her as a girl with a secret "past," and, joining a league for 
 the suppression of the Traffic in order to rescue a girl friend, finds at last the man 
 who will love her and have sympathy for her work. 
 
 27 
 
Stanley Paul's New Six Shilling Novels continued. 
 Ralph Raymond. ERNEST MANSFIELD 
 
 With eight original drawings. 
 
 In this story the hero, falsely accused of murder, escapes to New Zealand, and 
 there, after many interesting adventures among the mining camps, is finally 
 rearrested and brought back to England, whei e in an intensely dramatic scene his 
 innocence is proved. The author is h.mself a prospector well-known both in the 
 City and in e\eiy mining district the world over, and his story contains many 
 revelations of mining life and adventure. 
 
 Mrs. Brett. M. HAMILTON 
 
 Author of ." Cut Laurels," " The First Claim," etc. 
 
 The anther of "Cut Laurels" may be relied on to write a good novel, and this 
 story, the scene of which is laid in India, has been chosen as a particularly clever 
 piece of work. The plot is original and one difficult to work out, but the author has 
 succeeded with great skill and delicacy. 
 
 Galbraith of Wynyates. E. EVERETT-GREEN 
 
 Author of "Duckworth's Diamonds," " Clive Lorimer's Mar- 
 riage," etc. 
 
 The owner of Wynyates has let the property to a relative who is the next-of-kin after 
 his only daughter. Warned of the uncertainty of his own life he wills the property 
 to his daughter in trust during her minority, and appoints as trustee a relative 
 who is tenant of the property. Overhearing a conversation between the family 
 lawyer and her uncle, who discuss the wisdom of placing her in the charge of one 
 who is directly interested in her death, she imagines all kinds of evil intentions on the 
 part of her guardian, and looks with suspicion upon all his counsels for her welfare. 
 Love interests lead to complications between the heroine, her trustee and her 
 lover. "Galbraith of Wynyates" is a very readable book written in the author's 
 best style. 
 
 Maggie of Margate. GABRIELLE WODNIL 
 
 Author of " Brineta at Brighton." 
 
 " Maggie of Margate," a beautiful girl with an unobtrusive style which attracted 
 nine men out of ten, was in reality an exclusive lady of title, bored because she 
 sighed for realism and romance while affianced to a prospective peer. Maggie is 
 a delightful creation, and her very erring frailty and duplicity make us pity her the 
 mere. She cannot break away finally from her social status, but to retain it she 
 nearly breaks her heart. The man of her fancy, Michael Blair, is the most striking 
 figure in the whole story, which hol-.is us intently from the first page to the last. All 
 the world loves a lover, and, therefore, every one will love Michael Blair. 
 
 Bound to Be. WILL HUGO 
 
 This is a first-rate novel and should attract more than the average 
 amount of public notice and attention. It is full of quiet and 
 genuine humour and clever characterisation. 
 
 Selia Medhurst is one of thore charming young people who are utterly unequipped 
 with the means of earning a living. When suddenly thrown on her own resources, 
 she can think of no more nappy solution of her difficult es than to go as 
 domestic servant in a London flat. There she finds herself under the rule of a 
 mistress aged seventy and a master aged thirty, whose legal tie proves less binding 
 than the wife, at any rate, might have desired Selia's outlook, therefcre, becomes 
 more promising, and in due course her highest hopes are fulfilled. 
 
 28 
 
Stanley Paul's New Six Shilling Novels continued. 
 
 A. Wife out of Egypt. NORMA LORIMER 
 
 Author of The Second Woman," " Catherine Sterling, etc." 
 'I bis story derives its incidents from the unrest in Egypt. The faults of the British 
 brusqueness and Egyptian insincerity and incapacity are sketched with a biting pen, 
 and a side of Egyptian life much neglected by novelists the position of the native 
 Christian, ' Copt and Syrian ' is described with real knowledge and feeling. It is a 
 love story with a charming heroine. 
 
 Casserley's Wife. ESTHER MILLER 
 
 Author of " Living Lies," "When the Heart is Young," etc. 
 
 This novel has been chosen as one likely to appeal pre-eminently to women. It 
 is the story of a young man who, having inherited a title and a fortune, conies home 
 from India and is betrayed into marriage with a girl whom he imagines to be a friend 
 of seven years before. His eventual disillusionment leads to serious complications, 
 which, however, lead at last to reconcilement, and trust, and love. 
 
 Found in the Forest. THEODORA WILSON WILSON 
 
 Author of " A Modern Ahab," " Bess of Hardendale," etc. 
 There is a subtle charm inseparable from this keen study of youth, with all its 
 pathos, joy, drollery and nervous passion. The child in the story is the son of ill- 
 matched parents who deliberately separate, the boy remaining with his mother until 
 her sudden death when lie is only ten. The boy is then plunged into a whirlpool of 
 gaiety, different altogether fiom his sombre upbringing; and his relation to his 
 surroundings gives the story its interest. 
 
 Mrs. Gray's Past. HERBERT FLOWERDEW 
 
 Author of " The Second Elopement," " The Third Wife," etc. 
 Mrs. Gray, a widow with an only son, comes to live in a quaint old Cathedral 
 City, and almost at once becomes the butt ot th^ scandal-mongers. She develops 
 the mystery by holding close the veil that hides her " past," and it is only after ill- 
 natured criticism has taken the place of idle gossip, that the veil is lifted and the 
 purcness of the picture made apparent. 
 
 Youth Will be Served DOLF WYLLARDE 
 
 Author of "The Career of Beauty Darling," "The Riding 
 Master," " The Unofficial Honeymoon,' etc. 
 
 Dolf Wyllarde's new novel has for its motive the paramount importance of the 
 new generation. Incidentally it deals with the old problem of a wife's duty to her 
 husband when he is serving his country abroad in climates which would be dis- 
 astrous to her health, and to which she cannot take a delicate baby. As the story 
 unfolds, the hardships of the position become still more subtle, for personal inclination 
 turns the scale now this way and now that There is no question of sex in this book, 
 for it deals very largely with the inevitable sacrifice of the old for the young which 
 is a spirit of the age the standing aside of those who have had their day to give place 
 to the new generation, though it may chance that those who are sacrificed protest 
 that they have never had their tightful chances. 
 
 The Perfidious Marriage and other Plays. 
 
 LEONARD HENSLOWE. Author of " How Are You ? " Crown 8vo, 
 Paper boards, is. 6d. net. 
 
 This volume of one-act plays includes a drama, a comedy, and two farces. Three 
 of these plays, which can be performed without difficulty by amateurs, have been 
 produced with considerable success at West End theatres. 
 
 29 
 
STANLEY PAUL'S 'CLEAR 
 TYPE ' SIXPENNY NOVELS 
 
 67 My Lord Conceit 
 
 65 Asenath of the Ford 
 
 65 Faustine 
 
 64 Corinna 
 
 63 The Laird o Cockpen 
 
 62 The City of Enti 'emcnS 
 
 61 Exotic Martha 
 
 60 Honour's Fetters 
 
 59 Told in the Twilight 
 
 58 Golden Destiny 
 
 57 Love, the Conqueror 
 
 56 Ena's Courtship 
 
 55 A Lover at Large 
 
 54 By the Water's Edge 
 
 53 She Lion's Skin 
 
 52 The Mulberries of Daphne 
 
 51 The Spell of the Jungle 
 
 50 Red Revenge 
 
 49 The Long Hand 
 
 48 The Second Elopement 
 
 47 The Mystery of Roger Bullock 
 
 46 Edelweiss 
 
 45 Only an Actress 
 
 44 The Apple of Eden 
 
 43 Gay Lawless 
 
 42 The Dream and the Woman 
 
 41 Love Besieged 
 
 40 A Benedick in Arcady 
 
 39 Justice of the King 
 
 38 The Man in Possession 
 
 37 A Will in a Well 
 
 36 Edward and 1 and Mrs. Honeybun 
 
 35 Priscllla of the Good Intent 
 
 "RITA" 
 RITA" 
 " RITA " 
 " RITA" 
 " RITA " 
 
 DOROTHEA GERARD 
 
 DOROTHEA GERARD 
 
 MAY WYNNE 
 
 P. QUINTON RAY 
 
 P. QUINTON RAY 
 
 P. QUINTON RAY 
 
 P. QUINTON RAY 
 
 P. QUINTON RAY 
 
 P. QUINTON RAY 
 
 RAFAEL SABATIM 
 
 KATE HORN 
 
 ALICE PEKRIN 
 
 CHAKLES E. PEAKCE 
 
 SIR WILLIAM MAGNAY 
 
 HERBERT FI.OWERDEW 
 
 TOM GALLON 
 
 "RITA" 
 
 "RITA" 
 
 E. TEMPLE THUKSTON 
 
 HELEN MATHERS 
 
 TOM GALLON 
 
 CHARLES E. PEARCE 
 
 HALLIWELL SUTCLIFJE 
 
 HAMILTON DRUMMOND 
 
 "RITA" 
 
 E. EVERETT-GREEN 
 
 KATE HORN 
 
 HALLIWELL SUTCLIFFB 
 
STANLEY PAUL'S ' CLEAR 
 
 TYPE' SIXPENNY NOVELS 
 
 Continued. 
 
 34 Fatal Thirteen 
 33 A Struggle for a Ring 
 32 A Shadowed Life 
 31 The Mystery of Colde Fell 
 30 A Woman's Error 
 29 Clarlbel's Love Story 
 28 At the Eleventh Hour 
 27 Love's Mask 
 26 The Wooing of Rote 
 25 White Abbey 
 24 Heart of His Heart 
 23 The Wonder of Love 
 22 Co-Heiresses 
 
 2i The Evolution of Katherine 
 20 The Love of His Life 
 19 A Charity Girl 
 18 The House of Sunshine 
 17 Dare and Do 
 16 Beneath a Spell 
 15 The Man She Married 
 14 The Mistress of the Farm 
 13 Little Lady Charles 
 r: A Splendid Destiny 
 ii Cornelius 
 10 Traffic 
 9 St. Elmo 
 8 Indiscretions 
 7 The Trickster 
 6 The City of the Golden Gate 
 5 Shoes of Gold 
 
 4 Adventures of a Pretty Woman 
 
 5 Troubled Waters 
 
 2 The Human Boy Again 
 i Stolen Honey 
 
 WILLIAM LE QUEUX 
 
 CHARLOTTE BRAME 
 
 CHARLOTTE BRAME 
 
 CHARLOTTE BRAME 
 
 CHARLOTTE BRAME 
 
 CHARLOTTE BRAME 
 
 CHARLOTTE BRAME 
 
 EFFIE ADELAIDE ROWLANDS 
 
 EFFIE ADELAIDE ROWLANDS 
 
 EFFIE ADELAIDE ROWLANDS 
 
 MADAME ALBANESI 
 
 MADAME ALBANESI 
 
 E. EVERETT-GREEN 
 
 E. TEMPLE THURSTON 
 
 EFFIE ADELAIDE ROWLANDS 
 
 EFFIE ADELAIDE ROWLANDS 
 
 EFFIE ADELAIDE ROWLANDS 
 
 EFFIE ADELAIDE ROWLANDS 
 
 EFFIE ADELAIDF. ROWLANDS 
 
 EFFIE ADELAIDE ROWLANDS 
 
 EFFIE ADELAIDE ROWLANDS 
 
 EFTIE ADELAIDE ROWLANDS 
 
 EFFIE ADELAIDE ROWLANDS 
 
 MRS. HENRY DE LA PASTURE 
 
 E. TEMPLE THURSTON 
 
 AUGUSTA EVANS WILSON 
 
 COSMO HAMILTON 
 
 G. B. BURGIN 
 
 E. EVERETT-GREEN 
 
 HAMILTON DRUMMOND 
 
 FLORENCE WARDEN 
 
 HBADON HILL 
 
 EDEN PHILLPOTTS 
 
 ADA & DUDLEY JAMES 
 
THE "EVERYDAY' SERIES 
 
 Edited by GERTRUDE PAUL 
 
 Each book contains a Recipe for every day in the 
 year, including February 2gth. In crown 8vo, strongly 
 bound, Is. net each. 
 
 The Everyday Vegetable Book. By F. K. 
 
 The Everyday Soup Book. By G. P. 
 
 The Everyday Economical Cookery Book. By 
 
 A. T. K. e'nJBfttoW & ' 
 
 The Everyday Pudding Book. By F. K. 
 
 " If you want a tasty recipe for every day in the year, you can do nothing better 
 than purchase a copy uf the ' Everyday Pudding Book.'" Referee. 
 
 The Everyday Savoury Book. By MARIE WORTH 
 
 " Nothing could be clearer." School Guardian, 
 
 Cakes and Ales. A memory of many meals, the whole 
 interspersed with various Recipes, more or less original, and 
 Anecdotes, mainly veracious. By EDWARD SPENCER (' Nathaniel 
 Gubbins '). Crown 8vo, 4th edition, 2s. 6d. net. 
 
 Saturday Review : " Sporsmen, stockbrokers, and others with large appetites, 
 robust yet sensitive palates, and ample means, will find it invaluable when they 
 are ordering the next little dinner for a select party of male friends." 
 
 The Diner's Out Vade Mecum. A Pocket " What's 
 
 What" on the Manners and Customs of Society Functions, etc., 
 etc. By ALFRED H. MILES. Author of "The New Standard 
 Elocutionist," etc. In fcap. 8vo (6J by 3^), cloth bound, round 
 corners, is. 6d. net. Leather, 2s. net. 
 
 Intended to help the diffident and inexperienced at Dinners, Teas, 
 At Homes, Receptions, Balls and Suppers, with hints on Etiquette, 
 Dress, After-Dinner Speaking, Story- Telling, Toasts and Sentiments. 
 
 My Own Reciter. By ALFRED H. MILES. Author of 
 " The Diner's-Out Vade Mecum," etc. Crown 8vo, is. net. 
 
 "The Ballads have colour, warmth and movement. Mr. Miles is a poet of the 
 people." Bookman. 
 
 Cole's Fun Doctor. One of the two funniest books in 
 
 the world. By E. W. COLE. 384 pp., crown 8vo, cloth, 2S. 6d. 
 The mission of mirth is well understood. " Laugh and Grow Fat " is 
 a common proverb, and the healthiness of humour goes without saying. 
 
 Cole's Fun Doctor 2ND SERIES. The other of the 
 
 two funniest books in the world. By E. W. COLE. 440 pp., crown 
 8vo, cloth, 2s. 6d 
 
 Dr. Blues had an extensive practice until the Fun Doctor set up 
 in opposition, but now Fun Doctors are in requisition everywhere. 
 
 32 
 
, Stanley Caul's 
 publications 
 
 Arranged in order of price 
 
 *% PREVIOUS LISTS CANCELLED 
 
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 Prehistoric Times to the Beginning of the 2Oth 
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 34 
 
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 35 
 
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 37 
 
STANLEY PAUL'S 6/- NOVELS 
 
 Adair, Cecil 
 
 Cantacute Towers 
 
 Francesoa 
 
 Gabriel's Garden 
 
 The Qualities of Mercy 
 Adcook, A. St. John 
 
 A Man with a Past 
 Anderson, A. J. 
 
 Hla Magnificence 
 Andom, R. 
 
 Cheerful Craft 
 
 Neighbours of Mine. 70 Illustra- 
 tions 
 Avery, Harold 
 
 A Week at the Sea 
 
 Every Dog His Day 
 Barclay, Marguerite & Armiger 
 
 The Activities of Lavie Jatt 
 Barton, Heater 
 
 The Baron of Dl Fame 
 
 Basin, Rene 
 
 The Children of Alsace 
 
 The Redeemer 
 Bedford, H. Louisa 
 
 His Will and Her Way 
 
 Maids in Many Mooda 
 Beeston, I*. J. 
 
 Dagobert's Children 
 Bett, Henry 
 
 The Watch Night 
 Bower, B. M. 
 
 Lonesome Land 
 
 Boylesve, Rene 
 
 A Gentlewoman of France 
 Broughton, Rhoda 
 
 Between Two Stools 
 Bussell, Dorothea 
 
 The New Wood Nymph 
 Cambridge, Ada 
 
 The Retrospect 
 Cameron, Charlotte 
 
 A Durbar Bride 
 
 A Passion in Morocco 
 Colmore, G. 
 
 Suffragette SaUy 
 Constance, Lady 
 
 Because of a Kiss 
 Cotes, Mrs. Everard 
 (Sara Jeannette Duncan) 
 
 The Consort 
 
 Currie.Barton W, & Augustine 
 McHugh 
 
 Officer 666 
 Dan by, Frank 
 
 A Babe in Bohemia 
 Deakin, Ralph 
 
 The Broken Butterfly 
 Dihl, Alice M. 
 
 A Mysterious Lover 
 
 Confessions of Perpetua 
 
 The Marriage of Lenore 
 
 Their Wedded Wife 
 
 Draig Glas " 
 
 Madge Carrington and her Welsh 
 
 Neighbours 
 Drummond, Hamilton 
 
 The Justice of the King 
 
 Sir Galahad of the Army 
 
 The Three Envelopes 
 Dudeney, Mrs. Henry 
 
 Married when Suited 
 Elliot, Anne 
 
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 Ellis, Mrs. Havelock 
 
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 Enoch, C. Reginald, F.R.G.S. 
 
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 Everett-Green, E. 
 
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 Duckworth's Diamonds 
 
 Oalbraith of Wynyates 
 Flowerdew, Herbert 
 
 Mrs. Gray's Past 
 
 The Third Wife 
 
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 Formont, Maxima 
 
 The She-Wolf 
 Gerard, Dorothea 
 
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 Exotic Martha 
 
 The City of Enticement 
 Gilchrist, R. Murray 
 
 Damosel Croft 
 Gill, Anthony Kirby 
 
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 Haggard, Lt.-Col. Andrew C. P. 
 
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 Two Worlds : A Romance 
 Haines, Donal Hamilton 
 
 The Return of Pierre 
 Hamel, Frank 
 
 A Lady of the Garter 
 Hamilton, M. 
 
 Mrs. Brett 
 Hawker, Pellew 
 
 God Disposes 
 Hill, Headon 
 
 The Split Peas 
 
 The Thread of Proof 
 Horn, Kate 
 
 Columbine at the Fair 
 
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 The Mulberries of Daphne 
 
 The White Owl 
 
 Susan and the Duke 
 Hugo, Will 
 
 Bound to Be 
 Hunt, Violet 
 
 The Celebrity'! Daughter 
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 James, A. B. 
 
 Her Majesty the Rapper 
 Kaye, Michael W. 
 
 A Robin Hood of France 
 Devil's Brew 
 
Stanley Pnul't Six Shilling Novels continued. 
 
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 Kcnealy, Annesley 
 
 The Poodle- Woman 
 Kenealy, Arabella 
 
 The Irresistible Mrs. Ferrers 
 
 The Woman- Hunter 
 Koebel, W. H. 
 
 Hodson's Voyage 
 Lamport, R. Fifleld 
 
 Voeni the Master 
 LJoyd, J. A. T. 
 
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 Lorimer, Norma 
 
 A Wife out ol Egypt 
 
 The Second Woman 
 Lurgan, Lester 
 
 The Ban 
 Magnay, Sir William 
 
 Paul Burden 
 
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 The Long Hand 
 Mansfield, Ernest 
 
 Ralph Raymond 
 Marshall, Archibald H. 
 
 The Honour of the Clintons 
 
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 MoEvoy, Charles 
 
 Brass Faces 
 Meade, L. T. 
 
 Love's Cross Roads 
 
 Ruffles 
 Miller, Esther 
 
 Casserley's Wife 
 Mills Malet, Vincent 
 
 The Meteoric Benson 
 Mnir, Ward 
 
 When we are Rich 
 
 The Amazing Mutes 
 Nesbit, E. 
 
 Fear 
 Pearce. Charles E. 
 
 The Eyes of Alicia 
 
 A Star of the East: A Story of 
 Delhi 
 
 Red Revenge : A Story of Cawnpore 
 Rawson. Maud Stepney 
 
 The Three Anarchists 
 Ray, Anna Chapin 
 
 A Woman with a Purpose 
 "Bita" 
 
 A Grey Life 
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 Life's Last Gift 
 Sabatini, Rafael 
 
 The Strolling Saint 
 
 The Justice of the Duke 
 Serao, Matilde 
 
 The Desire of Life 
 Sbeed, George C. 
 
 The Incorrigible Dakane 
 
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 Two Girls and a Mannllda 
 Shiers Mason, Mrs. 
 
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 Shirley, Joy 
 
 Opal of October 
 Sladen, Douglas 
 
 The Curse of the Nile 
 
 The Unholy Estate 
 Snowden, Keighley 
 
 Bright Shame 
 
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 Stanton, Coralie and Heath 
 
 Hosken 
 
 Called to Judgment 
 
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 Stevenson, Philip L. 
 
 Love in Armour 
 Stewart, Newton V. 
 
 Across the Gulf 
 
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 Storey, Harold 
 
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 Stourton, John de, and Olive) 
 Liethbrldge 
 
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 Stuart, G. Yilliers 
 
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 Sutcliffe Halliwell 
 
 The Strength of the Hills 
 Symons, Beryl 
 
 Prince and Priest 
 Taylor, Mary Imlay 
 
 The Lotus Lantern 
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 Our Guests 
 Vahey, H. L, 
 
 A Prisoner in Paradise 
 
 Camilla Forgetting Herself 
 Yynne, Nora 
 
 So it is with the Damsel 
 Wardle, Jane 
 
 Hunt the Slipper 
 
 Where Truth Lies 
 Whishaw, Fred 
 
 An Empress in Love 
 Williams, H. Noel 
 
 Tainted Gold 
 Wilson, Theodora Wilson 
 
 Found in the Forest 
 
 A Modern Ahab 
 Wodnil, Gabrielle 
 
 Maggie of Margate 
 
 Brinota at Brighton 
 Wyllarde, Dolf 
 
 The Career of Beauty Darling 
 
 Youth will be served 
 Wynne. May 
 
 The Destiny of Claude 
 
 The Red Fleur De Lys 
 
 Brave Brigands 
 
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 INTRODUCTION TO ELEMEN- 
 TARY BIBLIOGRAPHY. R. W. 
 
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 The Al Reciter Series. By Various Authors. Edited by 
 
 ALFRED H. MILES. Each in large folio. Price 6d. each. 
 The A 1 Reciter. 
 The A 1 Reader. 
 The A 1 Book of Readings. 
 
 47 
 
STANLEY PAUL'S CLEAR TYPE' 
 SIXPENNY NOVELS 
 
 Albanesi, Madame 
 
 24 Heart of His Heart 
 3 Tlie Wonder of Love 
 Brame, Charlotte 
 
 33 A Struggle for a Ring 
 32 A Shadowed Life 
 
 51 The Mystery of Colde Fell 
 30 A Woman's Error 
 
 29 Claribel's Love Story 
 18 At the Eleventh Hour 
 Burgin, G. B. 
 
 7 The Trickster 
 Drummond, Hamilton 
 
 39 Justice of the King 
 
 5 Shoes of Gold 
 Everett Green, B. 
 
 22 Co-Heiresses 
 
 6 The City of the Golden Gate 
 37 A Will in a Well 
 
 Flowerdew, Herbert 
 
 48 The Second Elopement 
 Gallon, Tom 
 
 47 The Mystery of Roger Bullock 
 
 42 The Dream and the Woman 
 Gerard, Dorothea 
 
 62 The City of Enticement 
 61 Exotic Martha 
 Hamilton, Cosmo 
 
 8 Indiscretions 
 Hill, Headon 
 
 3 Troubled Waters 
 Horn, Kate 
 
 52 The Mulberries of Daphne 
 
 36 Edward and I and Mrs. Honey- 
 bun 
 James, Ada and Dudley 
 
 i Stolen Honey 
 Le Queux, William 
 
 34 Fatal Thirteen 
 Mag nay, Sir "William 
 
 49 The Long Hand 
 Mathers, Helen 
 
 43 Gay Lawless 
 Pasture, Mrs. Henry de la 
 
 ii Cornelius 
 Pearce, Charles E. 
 
 50 Red Revenge 
 41 Love Besieged 
 
 Perrin, Alice 
 
 51 The Spell of the Jungle 
 Phillpotts, Eden 
 
 a The Human Boy Again 
 Ray, P. Quinton 
 
 59 Told in the Twilight 
 58 Golden Destiny 
 
 57 Love, the Conqueror 
 56 Ena's Courtship 
 55 A Lover at Large 
 54 By the Water's Edge 
 " Rita " 
 
 67 My Lord Conceit 
 
 66 Asenath of the Ford 
 
 65 Faustina 
 
 64 Corinna 
 
 63 The Laird o Cockpen 
 
 46 Edelweiss 
 
 45 Only an Actress 
 
 38 The Man in Possession 
 
 Rowlands, Effle Adelaide 
 
 27 Love's Mask 
 
 a6 The Wooing of Rose 
 
 25 White Abbey 
 
 20 The Love of His Life 
 
 19 A Charity Girl 
 
 18 The House of Sunshine 
 
 17 Dare and Do 
 
 16 Beneath a Spell 
 
 15 The Man She Married 
 
 14 The Mistress of the Farm 
 
 13 Little Lady Charles 
 
 12 A Splendid Destiny 
 Sabatini, Rafael 
 
 53 The Lion's Skin 
 Sutcliffe, Hal li wall 
 
 40 A Benedick in Arcady 
 
 35 Priscilla of the Good Intent 
 Thurston. E. Temple 
 
 44 The Apple of Eden 
 
 ai The Evolution of Katherine 
 
 10 Traffic 
 Warden, Florence 
 
 4 Adventures of a Pretty Woman 
 Wilson, Augusta Evans 
 
 9 St. Elmo 
 Wynne, May 
 
 60 Honour's Fetters 
 
 3d. NET 
 
 The Budget and Socialism of Mr. Lloyd George. J. 
 
 BUCKINGHAM POPE. In crown 8vo, paper, 3d. net. 
 French Gardening without Capital. . KENNEDY ANTON. 
 In medium 8vo, paper, 3d. net; cloth, gd. net. 
 
 Id. 
 
 The Commentator. The real Conservative weekly. One Penny 
 Weekly. 
 
 48 
 
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE 
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 WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN 
 THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY 
 WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH 
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 1936 
 
 DEC 2 3 J993 
 
 DEC 15 1936 
 
 REC'D LD 
 
 |f&;< 16 1957 
 "SAug'57Ffj 
 
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 JUL 23 
 
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 TOKELEY LIBRARIES 
 
 300834 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY