UC-NRLF LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA GIFT OF MRS. MARY WOLFSOHN IN MEMORY OF HENRY WOLFSOHN ELEMENTS OF NATURAL HISTORY: EMBRACING ZOOLOGY, BOTANY AND GEOLOGY; SCHOOLS, COLLEGES AND FAMILIES. BY W. S. W. RUSCHENBERGER, M.D., SURGEON, U. 8. NAVY; MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY; OF THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES, PHILADELPHIA: OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOB THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE; &C., iiC. IN TWO VOLUMES. WITH NEARLY ONE THOUSAND ILLUSTRATIONS, AND A COPIOUS GLOSSARY. VOL. I. RTEBRATE ANIMALS, PHILADELPHIA: CLAXTON, REMSEN & HAFFELFINGER, 819 & 821 MARKET STREET, 1871. Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1850, by W. S. W. RUSCHENBERGER, M.D., in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States} for toe Eastern District of Pennsylvania. VOL. I. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF ANIMALS, VERTEBRATE ANIMALS. MAMMALOGY: THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MILK-EATING ANIMAL* ORNITHOLOGY: THE NATURAL HISTORY OF BIRDS. HERPETOLOGY: THE NATURAL HISTORY OF REPTILES. ICHTHYOLOGY: THE NATURAL HISTORY OF FISHES. INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MOLLUSKS, EMBRACING CONCHOLOGY. PREFACE. NATURAL HISTORY embraces every object in nature, or- ganic and inorganic. The animal kingdom contains about tw& hundred and fifty thousand species, and the vegetable kingdom about eighty-five thousand species, making an ag- gregate of three hundred and thirty-five thousand organized objects, for the study of the naturalist. Besides these, rocks and minerals of every kind are to be added, which would probably swell the number to nearly four hundred thousand. The purpose of the science of Natural History is to arrange, divide and subdivide all these objects, so that they may be collectively and individually studied, with a view to the benefit of mankind. The design of this work is not to describe the characters and habits of every animal, nor the properties of every plant, mineral and rock on the surface of the earth ; but to furnish to students in schools and colleges, and to read- ers generally, a text-book from which they may acquire the principles of the science of Natural History, which of course includes the principles of classification, and learn how to recognize the differences and resemblances, and the various properties of organized beings, as well as of inor- ganic matter. The work is divided into eight books, each one of which embraces a distinct department or branch of the science ; they are as follows : PREFACE. The First book is devoted to the anatomy and physiology of animals The Second, embraces the classification of the animal kingdom ; and the consideration of mammalia, or those animals which are suckled while in the infant state The Third, is devoted to the study of birds The Fourth, is occupied with an account of reptiles and fishes The Fifth, embraces that branch of our subject which treats of the mollusca or soft animals, and, consequently, includes the elements of conchology The Sixth, includes a consideration of articulated ani- mals, insects, myriapods, arachnidans, crustaceans, cirrho- pods, annelidans, and zoophytes, or radiated animals The Seventh, is devoted to vegetable physiology and botany And the Eighth, to Geology. To the whole is appended a Lexicon, or Glossary, which contains the derivation and explanation of between five and six thousand technical terms and names, used in the various departments of Natural History. In the Glossary, Greek words are printed in italics, and, where it occurs, the omega is marked thus (o). The volumes are illustrated by nearly a thousand en- gravings, executed by Mr. G. Thomas. The work is based chiefly, though not entirely, upon the text of MILNE EDWARDS, ACHILLE COMTE, and F. S. BEU- DANT, Professors of Natural History in the Colleges of Henri IY. and Charlemagne, in France. Besides the works of these distinguished teachers, those of Cuvier, T. Rymer Jones, Lamarck, Blainville, Thomas Say, Nuttall, Lindley, Loudon, Smith, Gray, Reed, Ansted, Lyell, Man- tel, Murchison, Trimmer, Buckland, Bakewell, Lea, De la Beche, Parkinson, Phillips, Dana, Percival, Charles T. Jackson, Henry D. Rogers, Morton, Conrad, &c., &c., have PREFACE. vii been consulted and freely used in the preparation of these 'volumes. The writer takes great pleasure in believing that, in sup- plying an elementary work on natural history, his humble labours may be beneficial to the country. As a useful bra'nch of education, natural history seems not to be suffi- ciently appreciated, or extensively regarded. By the term Natural History, we mean that science which embraces a knowledge of the structure of all bodies, whether living or inorganic, found on the whole face of the earth, or united together to constitute its mass ; a know- ledge of the phenomena observable in these bodies, the characteristics by which they may be distinguished from each other, and the parts they perform in the great total of the creation. Its domain is immense, and its impor- tance does not yield to its extent. Some men, possessing little acquaintance with science, perceive in it a mere col- lection of anecdotes, more fitted to gratify idle curiosity than to exercise the mind ; or they regard it as a dry study of technical names and arbitrary classifications ; but such an opinion has its source in ignorance, for no one possess- ing the most elementary notions of natural history can fail to recognise its great utility. The spectacle of nature, grand and harmonious as it is, showing how vastly superior in beauty the reality of the creation is to the most magni- ficent of human inventions, elevates and disposes the mind to high and salutary thoughts. A knowledge of ourselves, and of the objects which surround us, is not merely to satisfy our craving for information a craving which is developed in proportion to the increase of intelligence : it is a necessary foundation for many other studies, and is eminently calculated to impart that rectitude of judgment without which the most brilliant qualities lose their value, and, in the course of life, rather lead from than conduct us to useful conclusions. The importance of the natural A* viii PREFACE. sciences ought to be too evident to require demonstration. Geology and mineralogy render daily services to industry, by enabling us better to explore the wealth buried in the bowels of the earth ; Botany makes us acquainted with the plants, so varied and so beautiful, which supply our wants in magnificent prodigality ; Zoology gives a knowledge of those animals which produce wool, silk, and honey, and those that assist us in our toils with their strength, as well as of those which, instead . of being useful to us, destroy our crops. How important a guide natural history may be made to agriculture, the great pursuit in the United States ! Besides, let us remember the long list of diseases by which the human machine is afflicted, and bear in mind the fact that the practice of medicine is blind in action when it does not rest on a scientific knowledge of the nature of man. The practical importance of the study of natural history, we repeat, requires no proof, and must be felt, no matter what may be our career. But its influence does not stop here ; the influence it can be made to exert over our facul- ties themselves, is worthy of the most serious attention. In fact, the natural sciences, by reason of the routine sys- tem peculiar to them, accustom the mind to go back from effects to causes, and at the same time invariably submit results deduced from preceding observations to the test of new facts ; their study leads to speculations of the most elevated character, but never leads the imagination astray, because it always places material proof alongside of theory. And beyond any other- pursuit, natural history exercises the mind in habits of method, a part of logic without which every investigation is laborious, and every exposition ob- scure. Natural History ought to constitute one of the elements of every system of liberal education ; but it is not neces- sary that every young man should be a naturalist. To become a proficient in a science so vast in its scope, would PREFACE. require more time than can be spared from other classical studies, and it comprises a host of details useful only to those who are desirous of devoting themselves especially to it. What every well-educated young man ought to know is, not. the characteristics which distinguish this or that genus of plants or animals from another genus, nor the exact course of every nerve, or every artery in the human body: to charge his memory with such details, would subject him to labour which would be neither useful nor durable in its results ; but what he ought to possess, are sound views on all the great questions the solution of which pertains to the province of the natural sciences ; those on the constitution of the earth, and the physical revo- lutions that have taken place on its surface ; on the manner in which the functions of all creatures are performed, and the principal modifications observed in their structure, ac- cording to the kind of life for which they have been des- tined. This extent of information, once acquired, would not be soon forgotten ; and it is enough for those whose occupations are not closely connected with these sciences. All who desire to become naturalists must acquire, not only these principles, but also an accurate knowledge of the details alluded to above. Such are the opinions of M. Edwards, the eminent French naturalist. I am sure the propagation of these opinions in our country will advance its interests. To the science of agriculture, natural history, properly taught, is of great importance, because it teaches us the structure of animals, the mode of their existence, and what is essential to their life. This knowledge enables us to treat their diseases with a better prospect of success, and to destroy those animals which are injurious to our interests. Of the value of geology in teaching us the nature of the earth's surface, there is not less doubt. It ought not to be urged against the study of natural PREFACE. history, that it requires us to become familiar with hard words. Every branch of human knowledge every me- chanic art, has its respective technicalities. Systematic names are only difficult to those who are unacquainted with their meaning. When branches, or parts of know- ledge, or ideas, become familiar and common, the words representing them cease to be difficult : then the complaint about "hard words" ceases. Few persons acquainted with the instruments, complain that the words Thermometer, or Barometer, are "hard ;" the first is familiar to all, even to those ignorant of its construction and numerous practical uses. The names Quadrant and Sextant are not " hard words" to the most unlettered seaman, and we may remark, in passing, that the science of navigation would not be rendered of more easy acquisition, if those instruments were designated by the more familiar names of Bob and Bill. The votary of music does not find the numerous terms, such as clef, minim, semibreve, crotchet or sonata, overture, aria, or pianissimo, crescendo, forte, &c., obstacles in acquiring a knowledge of the science. It has been ob- served by an eminent botanist of our country, Dr. Darling- ton, that ladies find no very great labour in acquiring a perfect knowledge of the technical language of fashion, of mantua-making and millinery. Mousseline de laine, gros de Naples, gimp, gingham, gros des Indes, millenet, inserting, tetting, &c., are examples of words which are hard to those who do not comprehend their meaning, but easy enough to those who understand their application. Morus multicaulis is a systematic name, which was for a time well understood by almost everybody in the United States. And the same is true of the systematic names used in Natural History. Where there is a disposition to learn them, they are readily acquired at the cost of a little labour. TO TEACHERS AND STUDENTS. THERE is no easy method of acquiring knowledge. It is only to be obtained by close attention and unceasing labour. To become usefully learned in any branch of hu- man knowledge, no matter what may be the quality of his faculties, every man must toil and take advantage of all the means within his reach. It has been asserted that, to become familiar with any branch of physical science, it is only necessary to see with the eyes and hear with the ears, without resorting to other means. It is contended, for example, that Natural History is best studied without " the use of any books whatever, except the book of nature and its visible illustrations." This notion is entertained by persons of so much learning and influence, that it is worth our time to inquire briefly, whether the plan has pretensions that should lead to its general adoption. He who reads only, and draws all his knowledge from books, may perhaps become very learned, a skilful rheto- rician, a formidable critic, the author of brilliant theories, the inventor of some ingenious system, but he will never, by this means alone, be able to practice usefully, what he has thus learned ; and, in most instances, it will be found, that instead of having acquired ideas of practical applica- tion, the memory has been filled only with words. The student who is content to follow lectures, w^ill not be more successful. One learns less in this way than by reading good authors. By reading, we may correctly per- ceive the thoughts and opinions of an author, without much danger of attributing to him the reverse of what he has written or wished to express. If there i3 any uncertainty (xi) xii TO TEACHERS AND STUDENTS. as to having rightly understood the text, before confiding it to the memory, we have it in our power to review those passages which seem to us either obscure or extravagant ; the book is still there, opening its leaves to whomsoever would consult it again, patiently submitting to all kinds of questions that it may be thought necessary to propound. But the lecture is fugitive and instantaneous. In reading, on the contrary, nothing hinders comparison, or prevents the judgment from being exercised almost at the same time with the memory ; for here we have the expressions of the author remaining unchanged. In a lecture, of all the faculties of the mind, scarcely any other than that of memory is in active play ; for, it is absolutely necessary, first to catch the words of the professor ; and then, how is one to be certain that he has not misunderstood what he believed he heard? A word, or a phrase lost, a paren- thesis badly placed in the discourse, a second of inat- tention, are enough to lead the auditor into gross mistakes. To what individual has it not happened, in a simple con- versation, to be under the necessity, before clearly compre- hending, to require the repetition of the same thing once, or even oftener by his interlocutor ? How then is it possible not to be mistaken in simply lis- tening to a lecture, in which all cannot be clear, where the thoughts and phrases succeed each other with such rapidity, where the words require, as it were, to be seized upon at the moment of utterance and placed in reserve by the me- mory, and not to be submitted, until after a lapse of time, by the pupil, to all the intellectual operations necessary for judgment or deduction of opinion ? If it is sometimes difficult and even impossible for grave and intelligent men to agree upon the sense designed to be conveyed in the written phrases of an author, which are under their eyes, how can you expect students to be more successful in ac- quiring the meaning of words which make a passing iin- TO TEACHERS AND STUDENTS. xiil pression, sometimes scarcely striking upon their ears? Who has not witnessed amongst young people, between fel- low students, disputes about what the professor has said, or has not said, upon what was, or was not the opinion of this one or that, although all of them may have listened to the lecture which gave rise to the dispute ? How many errors have been propagated in this w r ay ; what baseless contro- versies have thus arisen ; how many men have, in this man- ner, been even brought to hate each other ! He who listens to a lecture without reading afterwards, may be compared to a painter who, having fixed his eye upon a passing object, retires to draw its portrait, without having the original before him. There is nothing in this, however, which argues against oral teaching. This mode of instruction has the advantage of bringing forward strong images, of keeping the atten- tion awake, of rendering descriptions more clear, if not more correct than those given in books, by mingling ges- ture with vocal intonation. In a lecture, the professor can watch the eyes of his auditors, and pass at once that which a word has sufficed to render intelligible, or repeat the same thing when he perceives it was not at first understood. Writings carry with them only to a small extent this sort of license ; in a lecture the eye and ear work together. The eye is the only sense that acts in reading ; the memory retains more readily what it receives from oral lessons than what it gets by simple reading. In listening, the impres- sions are more numerous, more vivid, more agreeable, more natural perhaps ; but they are less complete, less exact, less pure, less clear than those received from reading : there- fore, if one is wrong in listening without reading, he would be equally wrong to read and not listen. These two modes of instruction mutually assist each other, and are not reci- procally exclusive. If you would profit by them, listen, and retain as much as you can, and then study the subject xiv TO TEACHERS AND STUDENTS. in those books that treat it best. By reading, you rectify the errors of the ear ; and listening clears up what may have been obscure in reading. If you would clearly under- stand what you hear, read before or after, or both before and after the lecture, what has been published about its subject. No one would expect to become a poet or tragedian by simply listening to recitations, or witnessing the representa- tions at a theatre. Nor could any one acquire the infor- mation necessary to be a painter, by simply walking through galleries of pictures. He must resort to books, and study their contents with care and attention. In all times, and in all places, all men have felt the ne- cessity of going from spoken to written language. For- merly, pupils drew the lessons of their masters on the leaves of trees, to meditate on them afterwards at leisure. Professors now, very generally, have their respective courses printed, that the student may have the text always at hand for reference and study. An individual entering a city for the first time, will make less progress and become less perfectly acquainted with it, if he depend altogether upon his own observation and ver- bal directions, than one who joins to these means of infor- mation, guide-books and maps. To become acquainted with anatomy by merely listening to lectures, or by reading only, or by dissecting alone, unaided either by oral lessons or books, would be the labour of a life-time, even if it be possible at all ; but by joining all these means, by listening to lectures, by reading, and by dissection, he will lessen the labour, abbreviate the time to a few years at most, and attain a perfect and exact knowledge of the science. To read, to see, to hear, to study, to observe, and to lis- ten, are not too many means of acquiring solid information of any physical subject. Whoever confines himself to one of these means alone, to the exclusion of all the rest, will never acquire complete knowledge of any physical science. TO TEACHERS AND STUDENTS. xv To study natural history then with entire success, the student should listen to lectures, read and study in books, visit museums and collections ; and, in order to join the observation of material things with reading and lectures, every school, if possible, should be furnished with a mu- seum of instruction; that is, a collection containing the types of all the genera, that the student may have the opportunity of comparing natural objects with oral and written descriptions of them. In this way only can one become a thorough naturalist. Though this is not a desire of every one, still all should possess sufficient knowledge of the subject, to understand the principles upon which the objects of nature are arranged, for the purpose of conve- nient and advantageous study. If the reader of these observations will reflect upon them, and decide for himself upon their general truth, he will not think it expedient or profitable, to withhold books from students of physical science not even from those who have the opportunity of listening to the most accom- plished lecturers ; nor will he, I think, be of opinion that Natural History can be best taught, and to " beginners especially," "without the use of any book, whatever, except the book of nature and its visible illustrations." Teachers who are so disposed, will find in these pages many opportunities to show those whom they instruct, the beautiful adaptation of organization in every living thing to the mode of life it is designed to observe, and the kind of food upon which it was pre-ordered it should live. To point out, or even allude to this universal adaptation of every thing in nature, to the purposes for which it was designed by the beneficent Creator, would have carried us far beyond our limits, and interfered with the design of pre- senting, in a very short space, as many facts as possible, without obscuring the view of arrangement or classification in Natural History, a knowledge of which it is a leading B xvi TO TEACHERS AND STUDENTS. object of the work to teach. Yet, this can be advantage- ously done verbally, by every teacher; and his -pupils will soon learn that, after becoming acquainted with the general anatomy and physiology of an animal, whether it move upon the dry land, float through the air, or seek the ocean depths, its mode of life and general habits are immediately discovered. This fact will become more clearly manifest as we proceed ; and in the end, the student will comprehend how Geologists are able to deduce, not only the habits of an animal, but also the form of the animal itself, by exa- mination of only a few of its bones. In order to study Geology with greater facility and suc- cess, schools should be supplied with drawings, representing the principal facts in the science : and also with some recent marine, fluviatile, and terrestrial shells ; specimens of coral, turf, and volcanic products, all distinctly labelled ; these, after being pointed out, should be left accessible to the pupils. To teach them the composition of the crust of the earth, there should be drawings of the different stratifications, and collections of fossils characteristic of the several formations. Where fossils cannot be obtained, casts representing them will serve a good purpose. Specimens of the various crys- talline and sedimentary rocks should form a part of the teacher's apparatus. To illustrate the various effects attributable to igneous and aqueous causes, there should be some well-selected and distinctly labelled specimens, of fossil-shells, of encrinites, of echinideae, of madrepores, &c., in order to compare them with those now existing. Drawings on a large scale, of faults and crevices, of dykes and injected rocks, of basaltic bosses, and of erosions attributable to water, should also be- long to the school. During and after the lessons which refer to a particular part of the subject, these specimens and drawings should be exhibited and explained to the pupils. INTRODUCTION.* NATURAL HISTORY, which may be defined the intelligent con- templation of the works of God, is in a manner the most certain and the most noble subject, that can occupy the mind of man. In it alone, human genius is in full possession of certainty. Philoso- phy, politics, history, and morality itself, are subject to the intel- lectual revolutions of wavering humanity; but the facts of the Creation are as invariable as God, and the analysis of a plant or an insect marks its demonstration with the seal of eternal truth. The double effect of the study of Natural History is to impart certainty to the mind, and religion to the heart. The creation is a visible ladder by which man ascends towards the invisible CREATOR. Natural History, the science which is the mother of all sciences, embraces the whole world ; physical knowledge, mathematical know- ledge, are all comprehended in its domain ; and the teachings of morality here mingle spontaneously with thoughts of religion. It has been said that Natural History should be the only reading- book of the people ; I would add, it should be especially the first book of childhood. Of all the means which we may successfully em- ploy for awakening the intellect of young people, there is none, the results of which are more certain or more durable than curiosity the desire to know is as natural as reason ; it is vivid, and active at every period of life, but it is never more so than in youth, when the mind, destitute of knowledge, seizes upon all that presents itself with avidity, and willingly gives the attention and study ne- cessary to know, and very naturally contracts the habit of reflection, and of being occupied. Extracted from the "Atlas Methodique," of Natural History. (xvii) xviu INTRODUCTION. It is not the labours of the learned that are to be brought to the attention of infancy, but a study of nature, to comprehend which requires scarcely anything but eyes, and which consists in examining carefully the objects of nature, in order to admire their beauties, without diving into their hidden causes. Children are capable of this study, for they have eyes, and they have curiosity ; they desire to know, and they are inquiring. A garden, a field, a palace, all is an open book for them ; and they should be taught to read in it. " It is inconceivable/' says Rollin, " how much children might Learn if we could profit by the opportunities which they themselves afford us." To seize upon these opportunities should be a desideratum with instructors and parents. Frivolous pretexts have for a long* time been urged against teaching Natural History, and even when the description of a few plants and insects was permitted, the book was hastily closed before the reader arrived at the study of man, without dreaming that this study, which Galen pronounced a hymn to divinity, takes its place amongst those branches of knowledge most worthy of his genius. By examining the material springs of his being, man accustoms himself to raise his thoughts to their author and preserver; the more he considers their wonderful organization, the more he feels the necessity of seeking beyond himself for the Supreme Cause ; it is at this moment he feels the insufficiency of his own limited explanations to deceive the human mind into a gross materialism, and that he feels assured that this machine, which goes of itself, is regulated by a wisdom superior to his own. Constrained then to seek a motive beyond the circle of physical causes, his enlightened reason reveals to him the immaterial agent who binds all things, and directs them by rules, and to the end, which he judges to be proper. , These ideas, however reasonable they may appear, were in no- wise admissible only a few years ago ; the fear of weakening reli- gious sentiment was the motive for banishing Natural History from the schools; and nothing less than the imposing authority of the great naturalist, whose grievous loss the Sciences will for a long time deplore, nothing less than the constancy of his efforts INTRODUCTION. nx and the powerful influence of the example afforded in himself, were sufficient to win over to his opinion, those great men to whom is confided the direction of public instruction in France. M. Cuvier was happy in demonstrating the necessity of uniting to the study of antiquity, a contemplation of the most sublime and durable spectacle of all nature and the laws which preserve it in harmony ; and, that Natural History, which, only in our day, has grown to be of importance, is an indispensable element in a good education. The habit of classifying a great number of ideas in the mind, and the art of methodizing which one necessarily learns while pursuing Natural History, when once properly acquired, apply with infinite advantage to studies of a most foreign and distinct charac- ter. Every discussion which supposes a classification of facts, every research requiring a distribution of materials, must be con- ducted on the same laws; and the youth who, in the beginning, thought to pursue this science only as an amusement, is surprised at the facility with which it enables him to disentangle and arrange affairs of all kinds. By proper management and precaution with children, it is easy to avoid all those points which, by opening to it routes deceptive to their early thoughts, might cause the imagination to err. Natural History is a science of facts ; and one may, therefore, confine him- self to the description of observable facts, and he will find nothing in them, the knowledge of which can be, in the slightest degree, at variance with morality or religion. These elementary notions, early imparted to children, will contribute to the progress of their minds and reason ; render the other studies to which they may dedicate themselves more easy and more brilliant, and serve as a basis to the more profound knowledge they may acquire in riper years. The spectacle of Nature presents a striking assemblage of all that is most wise, most beautiful, most simple, and most wonderful ; the whole, however, would be ephemeral, if God had not the secret of harmoniously associating all these productions, of perpetuating them in an immutable order, and of placing man in the midst of this ever moving scene, that he might be as the mirror to reflect the various images of the universe. B* INTRODUCTION. Man was a necessity to the creation ; and it is with him alone that the intelligence of created things began. Bacon has given an admirable definition of science : " Science," pays he, "is man added to nature." In vain would the earth open its bosom to show in broad day the combinations of its metals, the agglutination of its stones, or the crystallization of its salts ; in vain would the emerald or topaz exist in transparent columns, and the waters gush through the rent rocks in limpid and living streams ; all these sublime phenomena would be without value, without object; in a word, Nature would not be understood, if man had not been created to know and describe her. Indeed, if we carry our thoughts back to the primitive ages of the world, to those epochs that preceded the appearance of man upon the earth, we discover that every thing the imagination finds to dwell upon is gigantic, without form and monstrous ; the mind passes in fear from an account of a revolution to the history of the deluge, where there is nought but destruction and submersion, painful labor and abortion. Pyrites enkindle the volcanoes; burning sulphur perpetuates these vast conflagrations; boiling waters are decom- posed in their fires ; from these craters rush forth flames and burn- ing lava; their accumulations are projected into the midst of rivers, which are thus turned violently from their course ; electric detona- tions shake the earth far and wide, and open it in frightful rents ; the ocean beholds its bed torn up by volcanic eruptions ; new isles raise their smoking heads above the waves ; and, too ponderous for the pedicles that support them, like some magic promontories, they soon disappear, and the heaps of their ruins form the base of steep rocks which may at some future time become vast continents. In these incoherent preludes we perceive chaos ; and it is only at remote periods, we are permitted to detect some unfinished phe- nomena of an uncertain and incomplete life; a life which struggles against nihility, and overcomes it only with difficulty; a life that would take possession of the globe, and which contends against the laws of inert matter, whose dominion is universal. In this, then, behold what nature was without man. . . . But if man appear, if, to recur to the brilliant thought of Bacon, " man 'ft added to nature," then Creation has a voice, a value, a sense. INTRODUCTION. Of the innumerable crowds of animals, and of plants that share between them the domain of the earth, and of the marvellous events that renew the face of things, man has become the master and the historian ; all have an equal right to his admiration, all are equally subjects of his study. From the almost imperceptible mould to the collosal productions of the vegetable kingdom; from the microscopic animalcule to the elephant and the whale; from the atom of sand to the summit of Atlas, he interrogates, he com- prehends, he explains them all. Imagination no longer has need of inventing brilliant pictures ; truth alone strikes the mind and elevates the soul; and, in place of the confused reveries inspired by chaos, appears a science of wisdom, of reason, and of order, which is, in a word, NATURAL HISTORY. The individual who enters a field, or strolls upon the bank of a stream, or roams through a forest, if he comprehend the elements of Natural History, may read a pleasant story, and acquire infor- mation at every step, from the great book of nature, which every- where lies open wide before him ; but if ignorant of Natural His- tory, this magnificent and varied work is to him of no more value than a printed volume is to one who never learned a letter. Natural History not only affords us the means of endless amusement, but teaches us to discover the riches of the earth, and to gather from them, the means of ameliorating and improving the condition of man. CONTENTS OF ELEMENTS OF NATURAL HISTORY. BOOK I. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. LESSON I. The Natural Sciences and their Divisions Definition of Zoology- General knowledge necessary to its successful study. The Struc- ture of Animals and Enumeration of their principal Organs Clas- sification of the Functions of Animals Page 19 26 LESSON II. Functions of Nutrition Nutrition of Organs Proof of the existence of the Nutritive movement Coloring of Bones The Blood is the principal agent of Nutrition Use of the Blood Study of this liquid Physical properties of the Blood Red and white Blood- Globules Serum Coagulation Venous and Arterial Blood Transformation of Venous into Arterial Blood by the action of the air P. 27 33 LESSON III. Functions of Nutrition Circulation of the Blood The Heart Arte- ries Veins Motion of the Blood in the Bodies of the Mammi- ferae- Mechanism of the Circulation Phenomenon of the Pulse Venous absorption Secretions P. 33 46 LESSON IV. Functions of Nutrition Respiration Necessity of contact with the Air Asphyxia Composition of the Atmosphere Principal phe- nomena of Respiration The Lungs Mechanism of Respiration -Animal Heat P. 4754 (xxm) xxiv CONTENTS. VOLUME I. LESSON V. Functions of Nutrition Digestion The Mouth The Prehension of Aliments Mastication The Teeth ; their structure ; the manner of their formation; their form and use Saliva Salivary Glands Deglutition Pharynx (Esophagus P. 54 64 LESSON VI. Functions of Nutrition Stomach Digestion, or Chymification Intes- tinal Digestion, or Chylification The Bile The Liver The Pan creas and Pancreatic Juice Large Intestine Chyle Chyliferous vessels Recapitulation of the Functions of Nutrition P. 64 71 LESSON VII. Functions of Relation Nervous System and Sensibility Brain Spinal MarrowNerves P. 7177 LESSON VIII. Functions of Relation Sense of Touch The Skin Hands Hair Beard Nails Horns Mode of Formation Sense of Smell Olfactory Apparatus Sense of Taste Sense of Hearing Audi- tory Apparatus P. 77 85 LESSON IX. Functions of Relation -Sense of Sight Light Apparatus of Vision Eye-brows Eye-lids Lachrymal Apparatus Muscles of the Eye Structure of the Eye Uses of the different parts of the Eye Voice P. 8593 LESSON X. Functions of Relation Apparatus of Motion Skeleton Structure of Bones their Composition Enumeration of the Bones Articula- tions or Joints Muscles Attitudes Locomotion P. 93 109 BOOK II. (Vertebrate Animals : Class 7.) MAMMALOGY; THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MILK-EATING ANIMALS. LESSON I. Classification of the Animal Kingdom Comparison of Animals Their Division into four Branches Characters of each of these Branches Division of the Vertebrata into four Classes.. . .. P 11 20 CONTENTS) VOLUME i. LESSON II. Mammalia Peculiarities of the Organization of Animals of this Class Division into Orders - P. 2027 LESSON III. Order of Bimana The only Species, Man Anatomical Characters which distinguish the Body of Man from that of the other Mam- mals Hands Feet Station Brain Human Races P. 28 33 LESSON IV. Order of Quadrumana Zoological Characters Peculiarities of their Organization compared to their Habits Division into three Fa- mi-lies ; their zoological Characters. Family of Monkeys Division into Monkeys of the Old and New- Continent Description and Habits of the principal Genera, (Ourangs, Gibbons, Guenons, Magots, Cynocephalus Howling Monkey.) Family of Ouistitis Manners. Family of Makis Description and Habits P. 33 41 LESSON V. Order of Carnaria Zoological Characters Peculiarities of their Or- ganization Division into Families Family of Cheiroptera Zoological Characters Tribe of Bats Peculiarities of Organiza- tion Habits Frugivorous Bats (example, the Roussette) Insecti- vorous Bats (example, Vespertilio, Oreillard) Tribe of Galeopi- thecus. Family of Insectivora Zoological Characters Organization and Habits of the Hedgehog, the^Shrew, and the Mole P. 414" LESSON VI. Family of the Carnivora Zoological Characters Peculiarities of Organization Division into three Tribes. Tribe of Plantigrada Zoological Characters Organization and Ha- bits of Bears (Brown Bear, White Bear, Black Bear) Badgers Use of their Hair. Tribe of Digitigrada Zoological Characters Group of vermiform Digitigrades History of the Polecats (Common Polecat, Ferret, Weasel, Ermine) The Martens (Common Marten, Beech Mar- ten, Sable) The Otters, (Common Otter, Sea Otter) Genus of Dogs History and Habits of some Races, (Wolves, Foxes) Ge- nus of Civets (Civet, Common Wildcat, Mangouste of Egypt) Genus of Hyenas Genus of Cats Habits (Lion, Tiger, Leopard, Couguar, Lynx, Cat). Tribe of Amphibia Zoological Characters Habits (The Seal, the Morse). Order of Marsupialia Zoological Characters Peculiarities of Orga- nization Habits (Opossums. Phalangers, Kangaroos) P. 48 72 xxvi CONTENTS. 'VOLUME I. LESSON VIL Order of Rod entia Zoological Characters Peculiarities of their Or- ganization Organization and Habits of the genus Squirrel Squirrels properly so called, (Common Squirrel, Flying Squirrel) Organization and Habits of the genus Rat Marmots Habits Hibernation Dormouse Rats, properly so called, (Mouse, Rat) Hamsters Field-mice Jerboa Genus of Castors Organiza- tion and Habits of Castors, properly so called Genus of Porcu- pines Organization and Habits of Porcupines, properly so called Genus Hare Organization and Habits of Hares, properly so called. (Common Hare, Rabbit) Genus of Guinea-pigs Chin- chilla General Remarks on Peltries The use of Hair in the Manufacture of Felt Glue P. 72 92 LESSON VIII. Order of Edentata Zoological Characters Division into three Fa- milies. Family of Tardigrada Organization Habits (Ai' or Sloth). Family of Ordinary Edentata (Armadillos, Ant-eaters, Manis). Family of Monotremata Peculiarities of their Organization (Orni- thorynchus, Echidna). Order of Pachydermata Zoological Characters Peculiarities of their Organization Division into three Families. Family of Proboscidiana Genus Elephant Organization Habits Use Ivory, (Elephants of Asia, Africa, and Siberia) P. 92 100 LESSON IX. Family of Pachydermata Ordinaria Genus Hippopotamus Genus Hog (Wild Hog, Domestic Hog) Genus Rhinoceros. Family of Solipedes Horse Habits Signs of the Age of Horses Principal Races Ass Zebra Couagga Onagga P. 100 106 LESSON X. Order of Ruminantia Zoological Characters Peculiarities of their Organization Rumination Ruminants without Horns Genus of Camels Camels properly so called Peculiarities of Organization Habits and Uses, (Camel with one Hump, Camel with two Humps) Lamas, Guanaco, Vi- cunia) Genus of Musks. Ruminants with Horns Genus of Stags Deer Habits, (Fallow- Deer, Common Stag, Roebuck, Rein-Deer, Elk) Genus of Giraffes Genus of Antelopes (Gazelle, Chamois). Genus of Goats, (Wild Goats, Bouquetin or Ibex, Domestic Goat) P. 106 117 LESSON XI. Genus of Sheep, (Argali, Mouflon, Domestic Sheep) Wool Meri- nos Genus of the Ox (Common Ox, Auroch, Buffalo, Bison, Yack) Use of Oxen Milk Butter Cheese Leather. CONTENTS. VOLUME I. xxvii Order of Cetacea Zoological Characters Peculiarities of Organiza- tion Habits Division into two Families Herbivorous Cetacea -M anati Common Cetacea Apparatus of the Blowers Genus of Dolphins, (Dolphin, Porpoise) Genus of Narwhals Genus o Cachalots Organization Habits Spermaceti Genus of Whales Organization and Habits Whalebone Fat Uses Whale- fishing. ...-.. P. 117 135 BOOK III. (Vertebrate Animals: Class II) ORNITHOLOGY; NATURAL HISTORY OF BIRDS. LESSON I. Class of Birds Zoological Characters of Birds Peculiarities of Or- ganization P 11 23 LESSON II. Egg Incubation Nests Migration Classification P. 23 29 LESSON III. Order of Accipitres Zoological Characters Habits Division into two Families. Family of Diurnne Zoological Characters, and Habits of Vultures (Yellow Vulture, King of the Vultures, Condor, Percnopterus of Egypt) Griffins Genus of Falcons Division into two Groups, Noble and Ignoble Falconry, (Common Falcon) Eagles Fisher Eagles Sparrow-hawks Kites Buzzards Harriers Charac- ters and Habits. Family of Nocturnse Characters and Habits (Owls Strix Due) 3046 LESSON IV. Order of Passerinae Zoological Characters Habits Division into five Families. Family of Dentirostres Shrikes, Flycatchers, Cotingas, Blackbirds, Thrushes, Water-thrushes, Orioles, Lyres, Warblers, (such as the Nightingale, Linnets, and Wrens). Family of Fissirostres, (Swallows) Habits (Swallow, properly so called, Martin) Goatsuckers Habits Family of Conirostres Larks Titmouse Buntings Sparrows Crows, (Crow, properly so called, Jackdaw, Magpie, Jay) Birds of Paradise P. 46 66 C xxviii CONTENTS. VOLUME I. LESSON V. Family of Tenuirostres Nuthatches Creepers Humming-birds. Family of Syndactylae Bee-eaters Kingfishers Hornbills. Order of Scansoriae Zoological Characters Woodpeckers Wry- necks Cuckoos Toucans Parrots Habits, (Maccaw, Paro- quets, Parrots, properly so called) P. 67 75 LESSON VI. Order of Gallinaceae Zoological Characters Habits Hoccos Pea- cocks, (Common Peacock) Turkey Guinea-fowl Genus of Phea- sants, (The Common Cock, Common Pheasant, Golden Pheasant Genus of Grouse, (The Great Heath-cock, Partridge, Quail) Genus of Pigeons Habits Carrier-pigeons P. 75 84 LESSON VIL Order of Grallatorise Zoological Characters Habits Division into eight Families. Family of Brevipennes Ostrich Organization Habits Cassowa- ries. Family of Pressirostres Bustards Plovers Lapwings. Family of Cultrirostres Cranes, (Common Crane)-^-Herons, (Com- mon Heron) Storks, (Common Stork) Spoonbill. Family of Longirostres Genus of Curlews Ibis, (Sacred Ibis) Snipe, (Woodcock, Common Snipe) The Avosets. Family of Macrodactyli Rails Water Hens. Family of Flamingos Common Flamingos Habits P. 85 98 LESSON VIII. Order of Palmipedes Zoological Characters Habits Division into. four Families. Family of Divers Grebes Auk Penguins Family of Longipennes Petrels Albatross Gulls Sea-swallow8. Family of Totipalmatse Genus of Pelicans, (Pelican, properly so called) Organization Habits Frigate-bird Boobies. Family of Lfcrnellirostres Genus of Ducks Swans Geese Ducks Eiders Genus of Mergansers P. 98-~l 10 BOOK IV. (Vertebrate Animals: Class ///.) HERPETOLOGY; THE NATURAL HISTORY OF REPTILES. LESSON I. General Characters Form Skeleton Motion Nervous System- Senses Nutrition Apparatus of Digestion Blood Respiration -Lungs Temperature secretions Eggs Classification. .P. 2127 CONTENTS. VOLUME 1. xxix LESSON II. Order of Chelonians, or Tortoises Organization Division into four Families Land Tortoises Fresh water Tortoises River Tortoises Sea Tortoises Tortoise Shell : its use P. 28 39 LESSON III. Order of Sauria Organization Classification. Family of Crocodilida Circulation Habits Crocodiles properly so called Alligators. ^ Family of Lacertinida Characters Monitors Lizards. Family of Iguanida Characters Dragons Iguanas Basilisks. Family of Geckotida Characters Habits. Family of Chamaeleonida Characters Common Chameleon. Family of Scincoidea Characters Scinques Fossil Saurians. Order of Ophidia, or Serpents Characters. Family of Anguina Characters. Family of Serpentia, or True Serpents Coluber Boa Venomous Serpents Rattle Snake Trigonocephalus Vipers Naia ; or Asps Effects and Treatment of the Bites of Vipers, &c. Family of Nuda Characters P. 39 64 LESSON IV. Order of Batrachia Organization Classification. Family of Anoura Metamorphosis of Tadpoles Habits Frogs Tree-Frogs Toads Pi pa. Family of Urodela Salamanders, or Water Newts. Family of Branchifera Axolotl Menobranchus Proteus Siren. Family of Apoda Caecilia P. 6576 (Vertebrate Animals : Class IV.) ICHTHYOLOGY; THE NATURAL HISTORY OF FISHES. LESSON V. Class of Fishes General Characters Form Integuments Skele- ton Muscular Apparatus Swimming-Bladder Senses Appa- ratus of Digestion Circulation Respiration Animal Electricity Habits Fishing Classification P. 77 9C xxx CONTENTS. VOLUME I. LESSON VI. Order of Acanthopterygians Family of Percoides, (Perches, Rock- fish) Family of Mulloides, (Red-Mullets, Flying-fishes) Family of Mailed-cheeks Family of Scienoides Family of Sparoidea Family of Menides Family of Squarnipennes Family of Laby- rinthiform Pharyngeals Family of Scomberoides, (Mackejrel) Mackerel Fishery Tunny Sword-Fish, &c P. 91 99 LESSON VII. Order of Abdominal Malacopterygians Division. Family of Cyprinoides Carp Gold-fish Gudgeon Tench, &c. Family of Esoces Pike Exocets, or Flying-fishes Family of Siluroides Electric Silurus, &c. Family of Salmonides Common Salmon Salmon Fishing Trout Smelt. Family of Clupeae Herrings Herring Fishing Shad Sardines Anchovies, &c P. 99 104 LESSON VIII. Order of Subbrachian Ma acopterygians Family of Gadoides Cods Common Cod Cod Fishery Whiting Hake Ling. Family of Pleuronectes Organization Plaice Turbot Sole Family of Discoboli. Family of Echeneis Remora, or Sucking-fish. Order of Apodous Malacopterygians Eels Common Eel Sea Eel Gymnotus Electricus. Order of Lophobranchians Organization Hippocampus. Order of Plectognathi Organization Diodon Trunk-fish. .P. 109 118 LESSON IX. Division of Cartilaginous Fishes, or Chondropterygians Organiza- tion. Order of Sturiones Sturgeons Caviar Fish-glue. Order of Selachii Sharks Saw-fish Rays Torpedo. Order of Cyclostomi Lampreys Myxines P. 1 19 128 CONTENTS. VOLUME I. BOOK V. (Second Branch of the Jlnimal Kingdom : Invertebrate Jinimals.) CONCHOLOGY; MOLLUSKS OR SOFT ANIMALS. LESSON I. General Considerations Mollusca in general Organization Nerv- ous System General Form Skin Mantle Shell Formation of Shell Digestive Apparatus Circulation of the Blood Respira- tion Senses Eggs Classification Page 9 18 LESSON IT. Class of Cephalopoda General Form Respiration Circulation- Organs of Digestion Cephalic Cartilage Organs of Locomotion Organs of the Senses Nervous System Habits Division into two Families. Family of Cephalopoda Dibranchiata Octopus Vulgaris, or Poulpe Argonaut Calmaries Cuttle-fishes. Family of Cephalopoda Tetrabranchiata Nautilus Ammonites Belemnites Foraminifera P. 19 32 LESSON III. Class of Gasteropoda General Conformation Classification. Order of Gasteropoda Pulmonea Organization Division into two Families. 9 Family of Terrestrial Pulmonea Limax Vaginulus Helix Buli- mus Pupa Chondrus Clausilia Achatina. Family of Aquatic Pulmonea Onchidium Planorbis Limnoea Physa Auricula. Order of Gasteropoda Pectinibranchiata Organization Classifica- tion. Family of Trochoides Trochus Turbo Delphinula Turritella Cyclostoma Valvata Paludina Littorina Monodon Phasia- nella Ampullaria Janthina Nerita P. 33 51 LESSON IV. Family of Buccinoides Buccinum Buccinum, properly so called Harpa Purpura Cassis Cerithium Murex Strombus Vo- luta Ovula Cypraea Conus. C * xxxii CONTENTS VOLUME I. Family of Pectinibranchiata Capuloida Pileopsis Hipponyx - Crepidula Calyptrsea Siphonaria Sigaretus. Order of Gasteropoda Tubulibranchiata. Order of Gasteropoda Scutibrancliiata Haliotis Fissurella Emar- ginula. Order of Gasteropoda Cyclobranchiata Patella Chiton. Order of Gasteropoda Inferobranchiata. Order of Gasteropoda Tectibranchiata PJeurobranchus Aplysia - Dolabella Bullea Bulla. Order of Gasteropoda Nudibranchiata Eolidia Glaucus. Order of Gasteropoda Heteropoda Carinaria. Class of Mollusca Pteropoda Clio borealis P. 526^ LESSON V. Class of Mollusca Acephala, or Lamellibranchiata Organization- Classification. Family of Ostracea Classification Oysters Gryphsea Pecten Lima Malleus Anornia Spondylus Perna Ether ia Avi- cula Pearls Pearl Fishery Pinna Area Pectunculus Tri- gonia. Family of Mytilacea Mussels, (Mytilus) Modiolus Anodonta Unio. Family of Chamacea Tridacna Chama Isocardia P. 68 82 LESSON VI. Family of Cardiacea Cardium Donax Cyclas Corbis Tellina Venus Petricola Venerupis Mactra. Family of Inclusa Lutraria Mya Byssomia Hiatella Solen Sanguinolaria Pholas Teredo Fistulana Gastrochsena Cla- vigella Aspergillum. Class of Mollusca Brachiopoda General Characters Lingula Terebratula Orbicula. f Class of Mollusca Tunicata, or Acephala Nuda Biphora Ascidia Botryllus Pyrosoma Parts of Shells P. 83 IOC BOOK I. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF ANIMALS. THE SKELETON. Bee page 97 Tor explanation. GENERAL NOTIONS ON NATURAL HISTORY. LESSON I. The. Natural Sciences and their Divisions Definition of Zoology General knowledge necessary to its successful study The structure of animals, and enumeration of their principal oryans Classification of the. functions of animals. 1. The Natural Sciences have for their object, the study of those beings, the assemblage of which compose the universe. This study is divided into many distinct branches ; but these branches are all so linked, one to the other, as to afford a mutual support. 2. Tbn different branches of the Natural Sciences are: Physics, Chemistry, Astronomy, Meteorology, and Natural History. 3. The name physics is given to that science which embraces the consideration of the general properties of matter ; which studies the motions of bodies, as well as Heat, Light, Electricity, Attraction, and which applies the knowledge thus acquired to the explanation of the great phenomena of nature. 4. Chemistry has for its object, the knowledge of the intimate composition of bodies, and the various combinations which may be made from them. It teaches us what are the forming elements of different bodies, and how these elements, by combining in various ways, may give rise to other bodies and enables us to understand the properties of all these substances. 5. Natural History, taken in its most general acceptation, should include the study of the form, of the structure, and of the mode of existence of all the bodies of nature, individually consi- dered ; but, by common consent, the domain of this science is 1. What is the object of .the natural sciences ? 2. What are the different branches of the natural sciences? 3. What does the science of physics embrace the study of? 4. What has chemistry for its object ? what does it teach ? 5. In the most general acceptation of the tenn, what is included under the name of natural history ? 20 GENERAL NOTIONS ON NATURAL HISTORY. more limited, and all that has not a direct relation to the physical history of our globe and the beings spread over its surface, is ex- cluded. Consequently, it does not embrace the study of the stars, nor of meteors, nor even of the air which surrounds our globe ; or, in other words, it comprises neither astronomy nor meteorology. 6. rfstroitomy, if we may so express ourselves, is the natural history of the celestial bodies ; by the assistance of observa- tion and calculation, it applies the general laws of physics to the study of the phenomena which the celestial bodies present, and thus determines their form, their volume, the distance which they are separated from our globe as well as from each other, and the movements which they perform in space. 7. Meteorology is in some measure the natural history of the atmosphere; it inquires the origin of thunder, of rain, of hail, of the dew, of falling or meteoric stones, (aerolites), and of the various meteors which appear in the heavens. 8. Natural History properly so called, we repeat, extends its domain over the structure of our globe, and over all the beings found upon its surface. 9. These beings are separated into three groups or kingdoms ; the mineral kingdom ; the vegetable kingdom, and the animal kingdom ; in this way Natural History is divided into three branches : 1 0. Tke natural history of Minerals, and that of the terrestrial globe, which is formed of them, bear the names of MINERALOGY, and GEOLOGY. 11. The natural history of Plants is called BOTANY. 12. The natural history of Animals is termed ZOOLOGY. It is the last of these which is to occupy our attention at present. 13. The study of animals, as well as the study of plants, is subdivided into three principal branches, according as they are considered in respect to: 1st, The characters which distinguish them one from the other, the climate they dwell in, their habits, &c.; 2nd, The internal structure of their bodies ; 3rd, The play of their organs and the manner in which they respectively produce the various phenomena of life. 6. What is Astronomy ? 7. What is Meteorology ? 8. What is Natural Histoiy properly so called ? 9. Into how many kingdoms is Natural History divided ? What are they t 10. What is Mineralogy ? Geology? 11. What is Botany? 12. What is Zoology ? 13. How is the study of Animals and Plants divided? GENERAL NOTIONS ON NATURAL HISTORY. 21 These three branches of the natural history of animals and of plants, constitute three sciences which are known under names of Zoology, (or, when plants are referred to, descriptive Botany,) Anatomy, and Pky&HHogy. 14. ANATOMY treats of the internal conformation of living deinr/s : it studies them by the aid of dissection, and acquaints us with the position, the form, and the structure of their organs. In as much as it embraces the consideration of either animals or plants, it constitutes two distinct sciences : Zoological tfitctomy, and Vegetable. Anatomy. 15. PHYSIOLOGY is the Science of Life; it teaches the use of different organs, and the manner in which these act, to produce the different phenomena, (that, is, visible qualities), proper to living beings. Like Anatomy, it may have for its domain either the animal or vegetable kingdom, and it is consequently divided into Animal Physiology, and Vegetable Physiology. 16. It is easy to understand that, without the aid of Anatomy and Physiology, the profound study of natural history would be impossible. When we wish to obtain an exact idea of a watch, we do not limit ourselves to observing its exterior form, and to noticing the manner in which the hands turn ; we open it, we examine every wheel, every chain, every spring : we would separate them one by one, and study the relations which they have to each other, and we would seek to understand their use ; afterwards, we should again put together all these pieces, and by re-establishing their mutual relations restore what we had taken from them ; that is, their movements and their play. Now, what the watchmaker does to obtain exact knowledge of a watch, the naturalist does, as far as he is capable, to study an animal or a plant ; by dissection he examines the interior of its body, separates the different organs, determines their relations, and studies their form and nature ; then he observes their play during life, and, by making experiments, becomes acquainted with their uses. Unfortunately the naturalist cannot do all that the watchmaker does; he can destroy, but he cannot re-construct what he has deranged, and restore movement to organs which he has separated to study their structure nevertheless, by anato- mical investigation, by observation of the vital phenomena and by physiological experiments, he ascertains the mechanism of these 1 4. Whiit is anatomy ? what does it teach ? 15 Wh it is physiology ? what does it teach ? what is animal physi- ology ? what is vegetable physiology ? 16. Why is a knowledge of anatomy and physiology necessary to under- stand natural history ? 22 GENERAL COMPOSITION OF ANIMAL BODIES. complicated machines, and succeeds in satisfying ardent curiosity, which is one of the characteristic traits of superior intelligence. No study can be more grand, or more interesting ; in reveal- ing what is extraordinary in animal organization, it leaves us tilled with admiration at the sight of this infinite, this most asto- nishing work of the Creator. Considered in their mechanical relations alone, the bodies of animals present us examples of complication and perfection, to which our best constructed and most perfect machines do not approach : here we find without number, models of ingenious contrivances, of which, the most successful labors of the archi- tect or optician have produced but imperfect copies. But these are the least of the wonders which the animal econo- my offers us. The forces, which put into action all the material springs of our body, are regulated and combined with a wisdom which is far beyond human science; and the more we contemplate the play of our organs, and the faculties with which they are endowed, the more we feel the necessity of recurring to the Supe- rior Intelligence who has created this admirable production, and who has placed in it, a principle of existence and of movement. To study with profit the particular history of different animals, it is necessary, as we see, to possesss some general notions of their anatomy and physiology; and it is this preliminary know- ledge which is to engage our attention in the first of our course. OF THE GENERAL COMPOSITION OF ANIMAL BODIES, AND THE FUNCTIONS PERFORMED BY THEIR DIFFERENT ORGANS. 17 All living beings are formed of a union of solid and of liquid parts. 18. The solid parts are composed of small fibres and little plates, so arranged as to contain the liquid parts, in spaces left between them; they thus form textures or tissues of various kinds, and we give the name of organization to the disposition which the tissues assume. 19. Organized bodies, that is, bodies having an organiza- tion or mode of structure which we have just indicated, are the only living beings ; because this internal conformation is necessary to the maintenance of life : therefore, non-organized or inorganic bodies, as stones, and metals are incapable of living. 17. Of what are living beings formed ? 18. Of what are the solid parts composed ? what is meant by organization? 19. What are organized bodies? Why are stories and metal* incapable ol living ? ORGANS APPARATUS- FUNCTIONS. 23 20. The different phenomena by which life manifests itself, arc always the result of the action of some part of the living body ; and these parts, which may be regarded as so many instruments, are called ORGANS. 21. Thus, an animal cannot move without the action of certain organs called muscles, or attain a knowledge of that which sur- ounds him except by the intervention of the organs of sense. 22. When several organs concur to produce the same phenome non, the assemblage of instruments is termed an APPARATUS. 23. We say, for example, tlie apparatus of locomotion to desig- nate the assemblage of organs which serve to transfer an animal from one place to another ; and, apparatus of digestion to desig- nate the assemblage of organs, by the assistance of which the animal digests its food. 24. The action of one of these organs, or of one of these apparatus or the use for which they are designed, is called a junction. 25. We say, therefore, function of locomotion, to designate the action of all the parts of the apparatus of locomotion ; the function of digestion, to designate the action of the different parts which constitute the digestive apparatus; and functions of the stomach, functions' of the intestines, functions of the teeth, $~c., to designate the vses of these different organs. With man, as well as with all quadcupeds, birds and a majority of other animals, the organs, and the functions which the latter exercise, are very various. 26. Considered individually, the body of the majority of animals is divided into three principal portions ; the htad, the trunk, and the members, or extremities. 27. The head, which is not found with all animals, oysters for instance, is subdivided into two parts ; the cranium or skull and the face. 28. The trunk is composed also of two parts; the ch*+* or thorax, and the belly Or abdomen. 20. What is meant by an organ? 21. Give an example of an organ? 22. What is an apparatus ? 23. What are the examples of an apparatus ? 24. What is a function ? 25. Give examples of what is meant by the term function. 26. How are the bodies of animals divided ? 27. Does every animal possess a head ? What are the divisions of the MA 9 Of how many parts is the trunk composed ? What are they 7 D 28. 24 DIVISIONS OF THE BODY. 29. In most of the animals at pre>ent referred to, the members exist in double pairs, and are distinguished as superior, or thora- cic, and posterior or abdominal, or inferior members, or extrem- ities. Certain animals, such as the whale, have only a single pair ; others, such as serpents, have none at all, and others again have a considerable number ; insects have three pairs of feet, spiders four pairs, crabs and lobsters five pairs, the wood-louse, or palmer seven pairs, and certain worms have as many even as five nun- died pairs 30. In all these animals, the body is enveloped on all sides in a resisting membrane, endowed with sensibility, which is termed the skin ; it is secured from the inside, and its general form ia deternrrned by a solid frame, composed of a number of bones, called a skeleton, (Frontispiece.) Farther on we shall enumerate these bones, speak of their names and various forms. 31. The skeleton does not exist with all animals; oysters and snails for example are without it ; and with others again, such as lobsters, the skin acquires an extreme hardness, and answers in place of this bony frame; but with all mammiferous animals, birds, reptiles and fishes, there exists a skeleton, arranged in a manner analogous to that of man. 32. Between this internal frame and the skin or external en- velope, are found the muscles, which constitute what is commonly called flesh, whose function is to produce, by their contractions, all the motions which the animal performs; between these muscles- are placed the vessels which carry the blood to different points of the body, the nerves which give sensibility, &c. Within the head, and in the trunk we find also other parts. 33. The face presents several cavities, which serve to lodge the organs of sight, of smell, and of taste. 34. The cranium or skull is a sort of bony box, the interior of which is filled by one of the most important organs of the 29. In the animals at present referred to, how do the members exist ? How are they distinguished ? Have all animals the same number of mem- bers or limbs ? 30. What is the skin? How is it secured? What is its form ? What is the skeleton ? 31. Does every animal possess a skeleton? What animals aie without a skeleton ? Is there any instance where the skin takes its place ? What classes of animals have skeletons ? 32. What aie muscles ? What is their function ? What are placed between the muscles ? 33. For what purpose are the several cavities in the face? 34. What is the cranium or Skull ? What dors it. contain ? Is it lull ? What is the continuation of the brain called ? What is found on each side of the Skull? FUNCTIONS OF Nl TUITION AND RELATION. 25 body, the brain which is /-'/<,. continued downward in a thick, whitish cord, called the spinal marrow. It de- scends along the back, and communicates with the principal nerves of the body. (PageTZfig.tt} 35. On cutting through the ribs and opening the bony cage, which anato- mists call the thorax, and which we commonly call the chest or breast, we find the heart (c.) and lungs, (P.P.) (AVristence of the nutritive movement Coloring of bones The blood is the principal agent of nutrition use <>f the blood study of this liquid physical properties of the blood red and while blood Globules Serum coagulation venous and arterial blood 'Iransformation of venous into arterial blood by the action oj the air. OF THE FUNCTIONS OF NUTRITION. OP THE NUTRITIVE ACT. 1. NUTRITION is the vital act by which the different parts o, the bodies of organized beings renew the materials of which they aj-e composed. 2. To effect this renovation, the animal appropriates certain substances within his reach, which are adapted to this purpose, and these substances being introduced into the body and distri- buted to the different organs, are there retained and become con- stituent parts of them. 3. At the same time that the organs thus acquire new mate- rials, they lose others, which, having become old and useless, are in some way detached and expelled. 4. Thus, then, the new materials take the place of those which have been detached from the organ, so that its substance is, little by little, renewed. 5. When a living being thus incorporates with its organs more material than it loses, its volume augments, and of course its weight increases: Thus, by the act of nutrition, the infant, which at birth weighed only five or six pounds, is found to have acquired, when it has reached the age of twenty-tive years, more than a hundred weight, and a proportionate increase in size; but if the contrary be true, and the living being loses more material than it incorporates with its organs, it grows thin, as is often ob- served when the adult approaches extreme age ; and when these two phenomena are in just equilibrium, its weight remains the same 6. This nutritive act takes place in all living beings. 1. What is nutrition ? 2. How do animals renew the materials of which their bodies are com- posed ? 3. Do the organs always retain the materials acquired ? 4. Why is the size of the organs not increased by the constant accession of new materials ? 5 When an organ receives more material than it loses, what is the con sequence ? When an organ loses more than it receives what happens ? 6. Does the act of nutrition take olace in all things 1 D2 PROOF OF THE ACT OF NUTRITION. 7. Brute bodies, as stones and minerals are not nourished. The materials of which these are composed remain the same as long as they exist, and if their volume increase it is simply by -the juxta-position of substances of the same nature as their own. 8. But animals and plants on the contrary grow by intux'tus- cfption, that is to say, by the deposite of new particles within their very substance. 9. The continual process of composition and decomposition which constitutes the nutritive act, is not perceptible to our senses ; but observations have been made which remove all doubt of its existence, even in the bones, the hardest and deepest seated parts of the body. An English surgeon, Belcher, eating of a pig which had been fed by a dyer, remarked that the bones of the animal were red, and attributing this peculiarity to the colored sub- stances which it had eaten, conceived an idea that analogous means might serve to render visible the effects of the nutritive act ; he made experiments which, repeated by a number of learned men, were crowned with entire success. 10. After feeding animals on madder for a certain time, it is always found that the bones are stained red by a deposite of this coloring matter in their substance ; and after having thus fed an animal, and then suspending the use of the madder, it is found, after a certain period, that the red matter which must have been deposited in the substance of these organs, is no longer there, but has been, as we must conclude, ejected. Now, these facts may be explained by the continuous process of composition and de- composition, to which is given the name of nutrition. 1 1. This renovation of the constitutent materials of the body is indispensable to the continuance of life: when it stops in an organ, that organ decays, and when it ceases throughout, death soon follows. 12. The nutrition of organised bodies is effected by the aid of a liquid which conveys into all the organs, the necessary ma- terials for their sustenance, and which serves at the same time, to carry away from their substance those particles which are detached hy the nutritive act, and destined to be expelled from the body lii plants, this liquid is the sap, and in animals it is the blood. 7. Are sto >i< s nourished ? How do they increase in size ? 8. How do animals and plants grow in size? 9. Is the nutritive act perceptible to ourselves? JO. How was it proved? 11. What is the consequence if nutrition ceases in an organ? If in aU the organs? 12. How is the nutrition of organized bodies effected? What are the names 01 this liquic * rrft VNIVERSfTY ... Of OF THE BLOOD. f THE ^ 'IRSfTY ) Of / OF THE BLOOD. 13. The Blood is fhe nutritive liquid of animals 14. It is this liquid which maintains life in the organs, and furnishes them with the materials of which they are composed. 1/5. The blood is the source of all the humors formed in the body ; as the saliva, tears, bile, &c. 16. In man, anil all animals resembling him in organization, the blood is red. In a great number of others, it is colourless, or of a slight yellow or lilach tint. 17. The animals which have red b/nnri, are the mammalia, birds, reptiles, fishes, and certain worms called "Annelides." 18. The animnls with white blood, are the insects, theArach- nides. (that is spiders, and other animals resembling them,) the Crustacea, (a class of animals composed of crabs, lobsters, &c.) themollusea, (or animals resembling snails and oysters) and some others. 19. It is a vulgar error to suppose that flies have red blood in the head : when one of these animals is crushed we see, it is true, an effusion of reddfsh liquid, but this is not blood, and comes from the eyes of these little beings, whose blood, like that of all insects, is white. 20. Blood is more or less thick and opaque. When examined by a microscope we perceive that it is formed of two distinct parts, namely : 1st. Of a yellowish, transparent liquid, called Scrum. 2nd Of a great number of solid particles of extremely small size which swim in the serum, and which are called the globules of the blood. 21. To these globules the blood is indebted for its red color. They are flattened and have a considerable resemblance to small pieces of money slightly drilled out in the middle (page 30. Jig. 2.) Their form and size vary in different animals. 13. What is blood? 14. What is the use of the blood ? 15. What is the blood the source of? 16. What is the color of the blood ? 17. What animals have red blood ? 18 What animals have white blood ? 19. Have flies red blood'.' 20. Is the blood transparent? Of how many parts is it composed? What are these parts called? What is serum? What are the globules of the blood? 21. Upon what does the red color of the blood depend? What is the form of the globules? Are the size and form of the globules the same in all ani. mals ? 30 GLOBULES OF THE Br.OOD. Fig. 2. * 22. In man, the dog, the horse, and all other ani- mals of the class of mammalia, the globules of the blood are circular, (a. />.) 23. In birds, reptiles, and fishes, the globules are of an oval form, (c.) 24. They are smallest in the mammalia, and largest in reptiles and fishes. 25. The blood of the mammalia and birds contains the greatest number of globules. 26. In animals with white blood, the globules are colourless, generally circular, and very few in number. [ When these globules are carefully examined, with a powerful microscope, it is seen that each one is composed of two distinct parts, and that they consist of a sort of bladder or membranous sack, in the middle of which there is found a spheroidal corpus- cule, (a diminutive body.) [ Under ordinary circumstances, this bladder is flattened, and forms, around a central nucleus, a circular border, of greater or less depth, so that, as a whole, it presents the appearance of a p. n disk, (a.) swelled or bulged in the middle. The *$' ' external envelope of the globules consists of a sort of jelly, which is of a more or less beautiful red colour, and is easily divided: it is to the presence of these vesicles, (little bladders,) that the blood owes its colour. The central nucleus of the globules is more consistant, and is not coloured.] 27. In its ordinary state, the blood is always fluid, and the globules swim freely in the serum; but when drawn from the vessels which contain it, and left to itself, it is not slow to con- geal, and to present the phenomenon of coagulation. * Fig. 2. a, blood of a man, ft, blood of a sheep, c, blood of a sparrow. These globules are magnified one thousand limes in diameter. t Fig. 3. , globule of the blood of a frosr, magnified about seven hun- dred times, and seen in profile: 6, the same globule seen in front; the envelope is torn so as to show the central nucleus. 22. What is the form of the globules in the mammalia? 23. In what class of animals are the globules oval? 24. In what animals are they smallest? In what animals largest? 25. What animals have the greatest proportion of globules in the blood ? 26. What is the form and colour of the globules in white blooded animals? 27. What is the ordinary state of the blood ? When drawn from the vessels, and left to itself, what takes place ? CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 28. When blood coagulates, the globules unite themselves to- gether in a mass, and little by little separate from the serum, to form a clot more or less solid. [Chemistry teaches us, that in man, 100 parts of blood, contain about 66 parts of water, from 6 to 7 hundredths of albumen, (1), from 14 to 15 nundredths of fihrin, (2), and colouring matter, some thousandths of fatty matters, of several salts, and traces ol the peroxide of iron. Under ordinary circumstances, we cannot discover in the blood, those substances which are found in the different humors, formed at its expense ; but if we arrest the action of those organs that are charged with secreting these humors, we then find in the blood, the matters in question. We must therefore conclude that they always exist in it, but in quantities too small to be appreciated by our methods of analysis; and that the organs just alluded to, do not form them, but separate them from the blood in proportion as they are presented.] 29. The blood contains all the materials necessary to the re- paration and growth of the organs; consequently, it furnishes to all parts the matter, of which they are in need for their nourish- ment, and also imparts the excitement necessary to the main- tenance of life. 30. To appreciate fully the importance of the office filled by the blood in the bodies of living animals, it is only necessary to bleed one, and observe the effects of the operation. 31. When the flow of blood continues for a long time, the animal falls into syncope, (fainting,) and if the bleeding be not arrested, all motion ceases in a few moments ; respiration is stopped, and life is no longer manifest by external sign. If the animal be left in this condition, reality soon takes the place of ap- pearance, and death speedily follows. But if we inject into his veins, blood similar to that which he has lost, we see with astonish- ment this semblance of a corpse return to life ; in proportion as ad- (1.) Albumen, is a kind of matter that enters into the composition of most of the organic tissues of animals, and almost by itself constitutes the white of egg's. It can be dissolved in water, but by the action of he.it, it solidifies and becomes insoluble. (2.) Fibrin, is the basn of muscular flesh. It can be separated from b'ood by beating it with rods boforo it coagulates; the fibrin adheres to the rods in the form of very elastic whitish filaments. 28. When blood coagulates what takes place ? 29. What does the blood contain ? Wiiat other use has the blood besides that of nourishing the organs ? 30. How can you show the importance of the blood to living animals? .11. How is an animal effected by bleeding ? What is the effect of inject- ing blood into the veins of an animal that lias been exhausted by bleeding' 32 NUTRITIVE QUALITY OF THE BLOOD. _. ^ ^ ditional quantities of blood are introduced into the vessels, lie revives more and more, and soon breathes freely, moves with facility, resumes his habitual gait and is completely re-established. 32. This operation, known under the name of transfusion, is certainly one of the most remarkable that has been performed, and proves, better than all we could say, the importance of tne action of the globules of the blood upon the living organs ; for if we make use of serum, that is, blood deprived of its globules, in the same manner, we produce no more effect than if we had used pure water, and death is not a less inevitable consequence of the haemorrhage. 33. The influence of the blood upon the nutrition of the organs may be demonstrated with equal facility. 34. When by mechanical means we diminish, in an appreciable and permanent degree, the quantity of this fluid received by an organ, we perceive that it dwindles in size, and often even decays and becomes reduced to almost nothing. 35. On the other hand we observe, that the more any one part of the body is exercised, the greater the quantity of blood it re ceives, and the more it augments in volun.e. Indeed, every one knows that muscular exercise tends most to the developement of those parts which are the seat of it ; that in dancers for example, the muscles of the legs, the calf in particular, acquire an extraor- dinary size, while with bakers and other men who perform hard labor with their arms, the superior members or extremities be- come more fleshy than any other parts. Now, the muscles re- ceive more blood when in action than when in repose, and by this afflux of blood, the nutritive act of which they are the seat, is stimulated and their volume is increased. 36. The blood in giving nourishment to the organs, and in ex- citing the vital movement, undergoes a change ; it is impoverished not only by the deposite of the particles which the organs ap- propriate to themselves, and incorporate with their substance, but also by receiving the old materials which are separated from the tissue of these same organs, and which, having become useless, or even injurious, have to be expelled from the body. 32. What is the operation of injecting blood into the veins called? Wha iocs transfusion prove ? 33. Does the blood influence the nutrition of the organs ? 34 What is the effect of diminishing the quantity of blood received by an organ 35. What effect does exercise produce on the different parts of the body ? Why is the volume of the muscles increased when they are much exercised ? 3fi. Does the bLod undergo any change in nourishing the organs ? VENOUS AND ARTERIAL BLOOD. 33 37. Consequently, there is a very great difference between the blood going to the organs, and that which has already passed through them, and which has contributed to their, nourishment. 38. To the first is given the name of untr.at 6.000, and to the second, the name of venous blood. 39. Arterial blood is of a vermilion red ; it coagulates very easily and contains a large proportion of globules ; and finally, it is essentially necessary to the maintenance of life. 40. Venous blood is of a blackish red color; it is. less coagula- ble and less rich than the arterial blood, but what distinguishes it above every other quality, is, that after having passed through them, it is no longer capable of exciting the vital movement in the organs. 41. Notwithstanding, the blood thus vitiated does notecase to be useful, because it easily regains its vivifying qualities. 42. By action of the air, the venous blood is changed into arte- rial blood ; it regains its vermilion color, and becomes again fit for the maintenance of life. 43. It is this transformation of venous blood into arterial blood, which constitutes the phenomenon of respiration. LESSON III. Functions of Nutrition Circulation of the. Blood- the Heart Arteries Veins Motion of the blood in the bodies of the Mam mi force Mechanism of the circulation Phenomenon oj the pulse Venous absorption Secretion. CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 1 . The blood does not remain at rest in the body ; it is con- stantly passing through the organs which it nourishes, and re- turning to the respiratory apparatus to come in contact with the air, to be again distributed to the organs. 37. Is the blood when it con es from an organ in the same condi'ion aa when it entered >. 38 What is the blood ca led that goes to the organs ? What is it called when it ln left the orgnns 1 3!'. \V hat art- the properties of artcrnl b'ood? 40. What ore t e properti s of the ven us blood? What is the essential quality that distinguishes venous from arterial i.lood/ 41. Why does blood thus vitiated cease to be useful ? 42. Tiow is venous blood changed into artetial? 43. What does this transformation of venous into arterial blood constitute 1 1. Is the blood at rest in the body? 3* 34 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 2. The continuous passage of the. blood from the respiratory apparatus toward* all the organs of the body, and the return of the blood from these organs to the apparatus of respiration, con- stitute* the phenomenon of ihr circulation. 3. This liquid, as we have seen, moves continually in a sort of circle ; after having traversed all the parts which it is destined to nourish, it returns to a particular organ to come in contact with the air, then goes back to the parts whence it came, passes through them, returns again to the apparatus of respiration, and so con tinues as long as life endures. 4. THE APPARATUS OP THE CIRCULATION, that is to say, the as- semblage of organs destined to effect this conveyance or trans- portation of the blood, is composed : FIRST. Of canal*., or pipes, in which the blood runs. SECOND. Of t/te heart which serres to set it, in motion. 5. The heart is the centre of the apparatus of the circulation ; it is a sort of fleshy pouch communicating with the blood vessels, which receiving the blood into its interior, and which, by contrac- ting on itself from time to time, forces this fluid into the canals, and thus keeps up a continual current in them. 6. Almost all animals have a heart. This organ exists not only in the mammalia, birds, reptiles, and fishes, but also in snails, oysters, and other animals of the class of mollusca ; in crabs and lobsters ; in spiders, &c. 7. The blood vessels are of two kinds, namely: 8. *st. The arteries which carry the blood from the heart to all parts of the body. 9. 2nd. The veins which bring back this liquid from all parts of the body to the heart. 1 0. The arteries spring from the heart and divide into branches which decrease in t>izr t and increase in number as they advance, and are distributed to the very numerous parts, distant from the heart. 2. What constitutes the phenomenon of the circulation ? 3. After having traversed all the parts it is destined to nourish, wha becomes of the blood ? 4. Wh it is meant by the apparatus of the circulation ? Of what part* is it composed ? 5 What is a heart ? 6. Have all animals a heart ? 7. How many kinds of blood ves els are there ? 8 What is the func'ion of the arteries ? 9. What is the function of the veins T 10. Where do the arteries take their rise? How are they distributed T CIRCULATION OF THE BT.OOD 11. The veins present a similar disposition, but which is de- signed to produce an entirely opposite result, because the blood in these vessels, pursues an inverse course. They are very numerous at a distance from the heart, but, little by little, they unite to form larger canals which, in turn, again unite, so that they terminate at the heart, in only one or two large trunks. 12. The ultimate rami- fications of the arteries in the substance of the or- gans, are continued into the radicles of the veins, so as to form a series of uninterrupted and narrow canals through which the blood passes through the organs. ^13. To these delicate canals, which establish the communication between the termination of the arte- ries and the beginning o[ the veins, is applied to the name of capillary vessels, (Fig. 4.) This name has been given to them in consideration of their ex- treme fineness, which makes them comparable to hairs.* Fig. 4. Explanation of Fig-. 4. This figure does not represent the natural arrangement of the heart and blood vessels; it is an ideal diagram, designed to convey some notion of the way in which the blood, in completing the entire route of the circulation, passes twice through the heart, and also passes through the two systems of capillary vessels, namely, those of the lungs in getting from the pulmonary artery into the pulmonary veins, and those of all the organs, in passing from the minute terminating branches or the aorta, into the radicals of the veins which end in the venae cavse. The two halves of the heart, which in reality, are only separated by a partition, are here completely isolated, ^, left side of the heart, a, the aorta, e, o, p, capillary vessels, which terminate the arteries, all of which spring from the aorta, , general venous system, rf, right side of the heart, a,p, pulmo nary artery, v,p, pulmonary vein. The arrows po'nt in the direction o/ ihe current. 11. How are the veins arranged? 12. How do the ultimate ramification of the arteries terminate? 13. What are the capillary vessels ? Why are they so called ? E 3fi CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 14. At the extremity opposite to that where we find the capil- lary vessels, the arteries and veins also communicate with each other, by the intervention of the cavities of the heart. 1.5. The result of this arrangement is, that the vascular appara- tus forms a complete circle in which the blood moves, constantly returning to its point of departure. 16. The circulating circle may be compared to a tree, the trunk of which is doubled upon itself, so as to cause the ultimate ramifications of the branches to meet the ultimate divisions 01 the roots ; the upper portion of the trunk and roots would rep- resent the veins. 17. In all those animals which most resemble man, (anatomically,) such as the monkey, the dog, horse, ox, &c., the heart is placed be- tween the two lungs, in the cavity of the chest, which Fig. 5. ac ac vsc as c a anatomists call the thorax, vg (Fit/. 5.) 18. The general form of- the heart is that of an inver- ted cone, the apex down, and a little to the left. The size of the heart is very nearly that of the fist of the individual to whom it be- longs.* * Explanation of Fig. 5. The Inngs of a man with the heart and great vessels which arise from it, P,P. the lungs, t. the trachea which conveys air to the lungs, c. the heart, od. right auricle of the heart, vd. right veri. tricle of the heart, og. left auricle of the heart, vp. left ventricle of the heait, ccs. and vci. superior and inferior venae cuvse, emptying into the right auricle of the heart, np. pulmonary artery going from the right ven- tricle to the lungs, vp. pulmonary veins, passing from the lungs to the left auricle of the heart, an. the aorta, ac. carotid arteries arising from the aorta, and conveying blood to the head, asc. snbclavian vein, coming from the arms and emptying into the superior vena cava. each 14 Have the arteries and veins any other communication with lie. than by the capillary vessels? 15. What is the result of the arrangement of the heart and blood vessel* is described ? 16. To what may we compare the circulating circle? 17. What is the "situation of the heart ? 18. What is the form of the heart ? What is its size? CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. Fig. 6. 19. This organ is enveloped in a double, membranous sac, called pericardium, and is suspended in the pericardium by the vessels which arise from its superior and enlarged entremity ; but it does not adhere at any other point of its surface to the neigh- bouring parts. 20. The substance of the heart is almost entirely fleshy ; it is a hollow muscle, the cavity of which communicates with the arte- ries and veins. 21. In man and all the mammalia, as well as birds, it has four distinct cavities. A thick, vertical partition divides it into two halves, each one forming two cavities, one above the other ; a ventricle, and an auricle. (Fig. 6.) 22. The two ventricles occupy the inferior part of the heart, and do not communicate with each other, but each one opens into the auricle above it. 23. The cavities of the left side of the heart contain arterial blood, and those of the right side, venous blood. 24. The vessels which convey arterial blood .into all the organs take their origin from the left ventricle of the heart, Explanation of Fig. 6. The heart opened to show the cavities in the in- terior of this organ. or/, right auricle of the heart, w/, right ventricle of the heart, oo-, left auricle of the he rt, v>r, lei ventricle of the heart, vcs. and vr,i, superior arid inf-ri r venae cavae, emptying 'into the right auricle of the heart, ap, pulmonary artery going from the right ventricle to the lungs, /j, pulmonary veins passing from the lungs to the left auricle of the heart, a, the aorta, o, left auriculo- ventricular opening, o', right auriculo.ventricular opening. The arrows point out the direction of the flow of the blood in the different vessels. 19. Has the heart any covering proper to it? How is it suspended in the pericardium I Does the heart adhere to thd surrounding parts ? 20. What is the substance of the heart ? Is the heart solid ? 21. How many cavities has the heart? How is it divided ? What are the cavities of the heart callttd ? 22. What part of the heart is occupied hy the ventricles? Do the veil tricles communicate with each other ? Dn they communicate with the auri- cles ? How is the auricle situated in regard to the ventricle ? 23. What kind of blood is cwitnined in the cavities of the left side of the heart? In which side of the heart is found the venous blood ? 24. From what part of the heart do these vessels arise which carry arte rial blood ? What is the name of the great arterial trunk as it arises frorr the heart? DISTRIBUTION OF THE ARTERIFS. Fig. 7. at ax through the medium of a single trunk, called the aotlu, (Fig. 7.)* 25. This great artery first mounts upwards to- wards the base of the neck, then bends down- wards, forming a sort of crook, passes behind the heart and descends ver- tically, in front of the spine, to the lower part of the belly. In its course, the aorta gives off a great number of branches, the principal of which are : 26. 1st. Thetwocflro- tid arteries mount along the sides of the neck, and supply the head with blood ; (fig. 7, ac.) 27. 2d. The two arte- ries of the upper extremi- ties, successively obtain the names of subc/acian, axillary, and brnchial arteries, as they pass under the clavicle, or cross the armpit, or de- scend along the arm to the elbow, where they divide into two branches, called the radial and v/nar, or cubital arteries : Explanation of Fig. 7. The aorta and branches which arise from it to cnvey the blood to all parts of the body, a, the aorta. c, arch of the aorta, ac, carotid arteries, at, temporal arteries, r, sc, subclavian ar- tery, r/.i, axillary artery, br, brachial artery, ra, radial artery, cu, cubital or ulnar artery, i,i, intercostal arteries, cte, coeliac artery, re, renal arteries, me, and mei, superior and inferior mesenteric arteries, 17, iliac arteries,/, femoral arteries, t, tibial artery, p, the peroneal artery. 25. Describe the course of the aorta? SJ6. What is the course and distribution of the carotid arteries? 27. What arteries supply the upper extremities? CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 28. 3rd. The intercostal arteries are several in number, and run between the ribs on each f ide of the body; 29. 4th. The ccelinv artery, which is distributed to the stomach, the liver, and the spleen ; 30. 5th. The mesenteric arteries, which ramify upon the intestines; 31. 6th. The renal arteries which penetrate into the kidneys ; 32. And 7th. The iliac arteries, which in a manner terminate the aorta, and which convey blood to the lower extremities, descend along the thighs and are there called femoral arteries ; then they divide into many branches which terminate in the feet. 33. The reins, which receive the blood thus transmitted to all parts of the body, follow very nearly the same course as the arteries; but they are larger, more numerous and generally situ- ated more superficially. A great number of these vessels pass beneath the skin, others accompany the arteries, and, at last, they all unite to form two great trunks which empty into the right auricle of the heart, and which have received the names of vena cava superior and on, a cava infer im . (page 37. fig. 6.) 34. The veins which come from the intestines present an im- portant peculiarity. After uniting in a large trunk, they penetrate the liver, and there ramify like the arteries ; there they again unite into a trunk and terminate in the inferior vena cava close to the heart. This arrangement of the vessels is called thesysiem of the Venn port a 35. The venous blood, poured by the vcnce cavce into the right auricle of the heart, descends from it into the ventricle of the same side. 36. The right ventricle of the heart gives rise to a large artery, called the fmiutonart/ aricry, which next receives this same blood,, and carries it into the lungs, (page 37. Jig. 6.) 28. What arteries run between the ribs ? 2'). What is the distribution of the Cceliac artery ? 30. What arteries ramify upon the intestines? 31. What is the distribution of the renal arteries? 31 What arteries are di tributed to the lower extremities ? 33. What i* the general course of the veins? In what respect do the veins differ from the arteries generally ? Where do the gre,.t venous trunks empty ; What are they called ? 34. What is the peculiar arrangement of the veins coming from the in- testines ? What is it called > 35. What becomes of the venous blood after entering the right auricle of the heart ? 3f>. What artery arises from the right ventricle? Into what part does the pulmonary artery carry the blood '/ E2 40 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 37. This vessel divides into two branches, one going to the right and the other to the left, to enter the two corresponding lungs, and are divided into almost an infinity of branches, which are spread over the surface of the little membranous cells of these organs. 38. The capillary vessels by which the pulmonary arteries ter- minate, give rise to veins, which unite together and finally form two large vessels, called pulmonary veins, which empty into the Jefr. auricle of the heart. ( page 36, fiy. 5.) 39. Consequently, the pulmonary veins receive the venous blood, which was brought to the lungs by the pulmonary artery, and which has now become arterial, by the effect produced on it, by contact with the air in the interior of these organs ; they carry it back again to the heart and pour it into the left auricle. 40. Finally, from the left auricle this fluid descends into the left ventricle, whence we have already seen it issue to be distributed to the different parts of the body, through the medium of the aorta and its branches. To recapitulate what has just been said, on the route pursued by the blood, in the apparatus .of the circulation in mammiferous animals and birds, we see : 41. 1st. That the venous blood arrives from all parts of the body by the general system of veins ; 2d. That from these veins it enters the right auricle of the heart ; 3rd. That from the right auricle it passes into the right ventricle ; 4th. That from the right ventricle the venous blood passes through the pulmonary artery to the lungs; 5th That in the capillary vessels, which form the termina- tion of the pulmonary artery, and commencement of the -pul- monary veins, this liquid is changed into arterial blood ; 6th. That this arterial blood returns from the lungs, through the pulmonary veins, and enters the left auricle of the heart ; 7th. That from the left auricle it descends into the ventricle of the same side ; 8th. That from the left ventricle it is forced into the aorta, by which it is distributed to all parts of the body. 37. What is the distribution of the pulmonary artery ? 38. What is the origin of the pulmonary veins 7 Where do they empty ? 39. What kind of blood do the pulmonary veins convey to the heart? How is the venous, changed into arterial blood 7 40. What becomes of the blood after it enters the left auricle ? 41 * Whut is the route pursued by th Hood in the apparatus of the circu- lation ? CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. THE PULSE. _ _4i 42. . And 9th. and finally, that in the capillary terminations of the system of canals formed by the aorta, the arterial blood acts upon the organs, is changed there into venous blood, and enters the veins to be carried again to the heart. 13. In accomplishing the circulatory circle, the blood then passes twice through the heart, in the state of venous blood on the right side, and in the state of arterial blood in the left side of this organ ; (page 36. Jig. 5. fy page 42. jig. 8.) yet, the cir- culation is complete, because the pulmonary and aortic cavities of the heart do not open one into the other, and the venous blood passes through the entire respiratory apparatus to be transmuted into arterial blood. 44 The mechanism by which the blood moves through these vessels is easily understood. The cavities of the heart contract and enlarge alternately, and by contracting they force the blood into the canals with which they (the cavities) are in communica- tion. 45. The two ventricles contract at the same time, and while their sides or parietes relax, the auricles in their turn contract. 46. The movement of contraction bears the name of systo/e, and the term diaatufa is applied to the opposite movement, or dilatation. 47. The beating or pulsation of the heart is very frequent ; in man of adult age it takes place from sixty to seventy-five times in a minute ; in old men the number of beats is a little increased, and in very young infants it is generally about one hundred and twenty. But a variety of circumstances may influence both the frequency and force of the beats of the heart; they are accelerated by exercise, by moral emotions, and by a great number of dis- eases; in swooning or syncope, they are considerably diminished, or even completely interrupted. 48. The left ventricle in dilating fills with blood, and in con- tracting afterwards, forces out the liquid which it contains. 49. This ventricle communicates only with the left auricle by an opening called the aitricnlo-crtitricnlar opening, and with the 42. Where is the arterial changed into venous blood ? 43. In accomplishing its entire circle, how many times does the blood pass through the heart? 44 What cause* the blood to move in the blood vessels ? 45. Do the auricles and ventricles >f the heart contract at the same time? 46. What is the contraction of the heart called ? What is its dilation called ? 47. What is the frequency of the heart's pulsation? Is it most frequent in infants or in old men? What circumstances influence the frequency o. the heart's pulsation ? 4rf. When the left ventricle dilates, what happens ? 49. With what does the left ventricle communicate? 4 CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. Fig. 8. np % aorta, ( Fig.8,aa.*) ; the blood, at the moment of its contraction, must then either flow back into the auricle, ap (o(/.) or enter the aorta. 50. Now, around the edges of this auricvh- ventricular opening, ( Fiy. va.) there is a sort of valve, called the mitral valve, which is so arranged as to rise up, and close this opening, when it is pushed from below upwards. From this construction, it happens, that when the blood tends towards fig. 9. entering into the auricle Co,) the mttral valce is pushed up, and interrupts the communication between the auricle and ventricle. 51. Therefore, when the left ventricle con- tracts, the blood finds no other outlet than the o aorta, and enters this vessel which it distends ra with more or less force, for its parietes, as well as those of all the arteries, are very elastic. 52. Other valves situate at the entrance of the aorta, prevent the blood from returning into vc Explanation of Fig. 8. The heart opened to s'^ow the cavities in the in- terior of this organ. osels. Explanation of Fig. 9. The right auricle of the heart opened to show the position of the valve, , in the auriculo-ventricular opening, which, during the contraction of the ventricle, (ww,) prevents the blood from enter- ing the auricle, (o,) ; we observe small cords passing from the edge of this valve and attaching themselves by their inferior extremities to the parietes of the ventricle, (c.) Like the rest of the heart, they are fleshy, and prevent the valve from turning entirely over into the auricle, when the blood, pressed by the ventricle, elevates it. The aorta is al*o open to show the valves, (a') which surround its entrance, and which are differently arranged from those of the ventricle. 50. Where is the mitral valve placed 'I What is the use of the mitral valve ? 51. Into what part is the blood forced by the contraction of the left ven- tricle ? Why does it not go back into the auricle ? 52. What prevents the blood from returning into the left ventricle from the aorta ? Are the arteries elastic or not ? CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 43 the left ventricle, so that, pressed by the elastic force of the arterial parietes, it is continually pushed forward, from the heart towards the extremities of the arteries. 53. The phenomenon known under the name of the pulse, is nothing else than the motion caused by the pressure of the blood against the parietes of the arteries, every time that the heart con- tracts According to the frequency and force of these motions, we may judge of the manner in which the organ beats, and draw therefrom, deductions useful in medicine. But the pulse is not frit in all parts; to perceive it, we must slightly compress an artery of a certain volume between the finger and a resisting sut face, of a bone, for example, and select a vessel situated near the skin, as tl e radial artery at the wrist. 54. The impulsion received by the blood at its exit from the left ventricle of the heart, is commu- nicated to the capillary vessels and to the veins, and determines the progression of the blood in them. But the return of the vrnous blood towards the right ventricle, is favoured by some other circumstances. In the veins ol the extremities, the membrane which lines these vessels, forms a pi eat many folds or vuhw, ( Fig. 10, .) which open when the blood pushes them from the extremities towards the heart, and shut so as to close the passage, when this liquid flows in a contrary direc- ti >n. Now, this arragement prevents the blood from flowing back t( -wards the capillaries, and thus facilitates its passage towards the heart; for, every time a vein is pressed by the movements of 11 ie parts in its vicinity, the blood is pushed forward. Explanation oj Fig. 10. A large vein opened to show the valves, (e,) which are found in these vessels, 0,0, openings of two of its branches, an, anastomosis of two veins, c, capillary roots of the vein. 53. What is the pulse ? Is the pulse ftlt in all parts ? What does the pulse indicate ? What oiicumstanccs are to be observed in order to feel the pulse ? 54. Whftl causes the blood to circulate in the capillary vessels? What other circumstance, besides the impulsion received from the heart, favour* Hie return of the blood towards the right ventricle ? 44 ABSORPTION. 55. The passage of the blood through the right cavities of the heart, is effected in the same manner as in the left cavities. Be- tween the right auricle and right ventricle there also exists a valve, called the tncuxnt'd valve, which prevents the blood from return- ing from the ventricle into the auricle, (p. 42.Jig.8. $ p.4&.JigAQ.) and by the contractions of this ventricle the blood is forced to circulate in the vessels of the lungs and to arrive at the left auricle. 56. It is the ventricles, as we have seen, which force the blood into the arteries and cause it to circulate. 57. The auricles are a sort of reservoirs, designed to contain the blood arriving by the veins, and to pour it into the correspon- ding ventricles. 58. Such is the march of the blood, not only in man and all the mammalia, but also in birds ; in the sequel we shall see that in reptiles and fishes, the structure of the heart is less complicated, and that the blood follows a somewhat different direction. OF ABSORPTION. 59. The blood, in passing through the veins from their capil- lary origin in the substance of the organs to their termination in the right auricle of the heart, carries with it all the fluids which in some way filter through the parietes of these vessels. Fluid sub- stances which may be in contact with the surface of the body and of the great hollow cavities in its interior, or which are deposited in the depth of the organs, are, as it were, pumped up, more or less rapidly, and carried into the torrent of the circulation. 60. To the passage of substances, of whatever kind-, from the ex- terior, into t lie interior of t/ie b!ood ves*e Is through their parietes, or particular canals, and their mixture with the blood, is given the name of ABSORPTION. 61. Substances thus absorbed, generally, penetrate directly in- to the veins ; but under some circumstances they are carried thither by particular canals, called lymphatic vessels. In des- cribing the act of digestion, we shall have occasion to refer again to these vessels. 55. Ho\v is the passage of the blood through the right side of the heart effected ? What valve exists between the right auricle, and right ventricle? How ijj thp blood forred to circulate through the lungs ? 56. What forces the blood into the arteries ? 57. What are the auricles ? 58. Is the structure of the heart, and the circulation the same in all animals ? 59. Do substances different from the blood enter into the circulation ? 60. What is absorption ? 61. Is absorption effected by the veins only ? OF EXHALATION. 45 62. All parts of the body may be the seat of -a more or less rapil absorption ; it is by this phenomenon that liquids, intro- duced into the stomach are found, a very short time afterwards, mingled with the venous blood, and that certain vapors, mixed with the air drawn into the lungs, sometimes act upon remote parts of the body, such as the brain, as happens when we breathe alcoholic vapors. It is also by absortion alone, that we can ex- plain how poisons applied to the lips, the eye, or to a slight erosion of the skin, penetrate into the interior of the body, and cause death, often with as much rapidity as if they had been conveyed directly into the stomach. 63. it is by the absorption, which takes place in the substance of all the organs, that the old materials no longer of use and separated from the living tissues by the nutritive act, are poured into the circulating torrent to be carried out of the body. OF EXHALATION AND OF SECRETION. 64. The blood, in circulating through the body, is not limited tt the nutrition of the organs through which it passes, and to mingling with it absorbed matters ; on passing into certain parts of the body, it abandons a portion of the matters which it contains, and in this way gives birth to peculiar liquids called humors. 65. This separation of the contained matters from the blood may take place in two ways : by exhalation and by secretion. 66. EXHALATION is tin; separation of a portion of the most aqueous part oi the blond, which iu some manner, filters through the pa'ictes of the resseh. 67. The exhaled liquids do not differ much from serum, ex- cept that they contain more water. Sometimes they accumulate in the internal cavities of the body , at others they are diffused over the surface and are evaporated into the air. It is in this way that a considerable quantity of vapor escapes from the lungs, and a very active evaporation takes place upon the surface of the skin. C2. Does absorption take place in al 1 parts of the body ? 63. By what process are those materials which are no longer of use, car- ried out of the body ? GJ. Is the office of the blend limited to the nutrition of the organs through which it p s-es? 65. In how many ways may matters contained in the bl.od be separated from it ? 6(i. What is exhalation? 67. What is the nature of the liquid exhaled? What becomes of the ex halations ? 4* 46 OF SECRETION. 68. SECRRTION is the production of certain /if/itids which resem- ble the scrum in nothiity, and which are alto formed at the expense oj the blood. 69. Tears, saliva, bile, urine, &c., are liquids, secreted in this way. 70. The phenomenon of secretion always takes place in parti- cular organs. Sometimes it is seated in the follicles, and some- times in the glands. 71. The fiMulrx are very small pouches which are strewed through substance of the membranes, and which open upon their surface, by small pores. 72. The fuilidf* of the skin secrete the sweat ; those on the edge of the eye-lids which secrete the yellow matter which some- times accumulates during sleep, are organs of this kind. 73. The (/lands are more voluminous organs, composed of small granulations united in a compact and distinct mass. These granu- lations are the seat of secretion, and they generally communicate externally, by small tubes or conduits, which, uniting together like the roots of a tree, finally form an excretory canal by which the secreted liquid is poured out. 74. The salivary glands which secrete the saliva, the lachrymal glands, which secrete the tears, and the liver which secretes the bile, are organs of this class. 75. The act of secretion is not designed simply to produce liquids useful in the exercise of certain functions, such as the saliva and bile ; but also to free the blood from the old materials, separated from the tissue of the organs by the act of nutrition, and other useless or injurious matters, which may become mixed with it by the effect of absorption. The secretion of urine, which takes place in the kidneys, (situated in the abdomen, one on each side of the spine) and the expulsion 'of it which follows, is the principal means by which this sort of purification of the blood is effected. 63. What is secretion? 69. Give examples of the secretions ? 70. In what part does the secretion take place ? 71. What are follicles? 72. How is the sweat produced ? 73. What are glands ? How do they communicate externally ? 74. Give examples of s creting glands ? 75. What a-e the objects of secretion? What organs secrete the urine ? RESPIRATION. LESSON IV. FUNCTIONS OP NUTRITION Respiration Necessity of contact with tin- ui.r rfspk$xiti Composition of the atmosphere I J riii' cipnl phenomena of respiration the Luiiys Mechanism of m-- piration Animal Heat. OF RESPIRATION. We have already seen that the. arterial blood, by its action upon the living tissues, loses those qualities which make it fit for the support of animal life, and after having been in this way vitiated, it regains its first properties by contact with the air. 1. Tne. transformation of venotts into arterial titooa, by I he action of the sary to all living beings f 3. If respiration be arrested what is the consequence ? 4. Do fish requi e contact with the air ? 5. What parts compose the apparatus of respiration ? F ORGANS OF RESPIRATION. 6. The IH.HUS, (Figure 11.) are very elastic, spongy organs, contained in the cavity of the chest, and formed by the union of a great number of membranous vesicles resembling little cells, which generally communicate one with another. Into these vesicles is introduced the external air: when it penetrates their cavities, it distends them and thus augments the entire volume of the lung, which happens in inspiration; on the contrary, when the lungs are emptied of the air which distends them, their volume diminishes, as happens in expiration. 7. The lungs communicate with the external air by a long c^nal which is terminated by the mouth and nose. 8. The air to reach these organs, passes through the nasal fossa3, or nostrils, or through the mouth into the pharynx, then enters into the larynx, descends along the trachea, or windpipe, and is distributed to the pulmonary cells by other canals or tubes, called bronchia3, (Fig. 11.) 9. The nasal fossa?, and the mouth terminate internally in the pharynx, or gullet, so that the supply of air necessary , < for respiration may reach this n cavity by either route. 10. At the bottom of the Fig. 11 ...mi pharynx, or swallow, we find an opening called the glottis, which leads into the larynx, and permits the air to enter therein. 11. The larynx is a short tube of considerable diameter, situated at the superior and anterior part of the neck, and which contributes to the production of the voice.^ . "^Explanation of Fig. 11. The lungs and trachea ; on the left side of the cut, the lung is represented entire (p,) and on the right, are the canals which convey uir into the interior of all the cells of this organ, 6, the mouth, mi, the lowei ,aw, A,the hyoid bone, I, the larynx, I, the trachea, or windpipe, br. bron chiai, br\ ramuscles or small branches of the bronchia, ;), the lungs. 6. What are the lungs? 7. How do the lungs communicate with the external air ? 8. Flow does the air reach the lungs ? 9. How do the nostrils terminate internally ? 10. To what part does the glottis lead ? 11. What is the larynx? ORGANS OF RESPIRATION. 4!) 12. The larynx is prolonged inferiorly into a long tube, called the irucfu-a or wind pipe, which descends through the neck, and enters into the thorax. This tube is formed by a series of cartil- aginous rings, and is lined internally by a thin membrane, whicn also lines the larynx, and is continuous with that of the pharynx. The cartilaginous rings of the trachea are very elastic, and prevent this air canal from being effaced, that is, from having its sides pressed together, and thus offer an obstacle to the passage of the air. 13. At its lower extremity, the trachea is divided into two branches, one going to each of the two lungs; they are called bronchia. 14. Soon after they enter the lungs, these bronchi are sub- divided, and ramify in an almost infinity of branches, so as to furnish every pulmonary cell with a little branch, which opens into it, and conveys there, the air necessary to respiration. 15. The instrument which causes the air to pass through these tubes, and to enter the lungs, or lo go out from them is the thorax, (Fig. 12.) 16. The mechanism by which this phenomenon is produced is very simple, and in almost every respect resembles the play of a pair of bellows, except that the air escapes by the same passage that it entered the lungs, which is not the case in the bellows. 17. The lungs are lodged in a great cavity called the chest, or thorax, the sides of which are moveable, and so arranged, as to Fig mi d Explanation of Fty. 12. The thorax. On the right side of the cut are seen the muscles which fill the spaces between the ribs; on the left side, they have been removed, e. the vertebral column, the greater part of which is con- cealr-d by the sternum, (s), e.c,c.e, ribs of the right side, mi, intercostal muscles, s, the sternum, d, the diaphragm ; a part of which is seen below thj thorax, and between the ribs on the right side, but it is concealed on the left by the ribs and intercostal muscles. 12. Wh;it is the trachea ? What is its structure ? 13. What are the brorichiae? 14. How do the branchiae terminate? 15. What causes the air to pass through the lungs? 16. To what is this mechanism comparable ? 17. Where are the lungs situated ? What happens when tne ihorax di l ate ? How does the air escape from the lungs ? 50 ORGANS OF RESPIRATION. enlarge and diminish the size of the cavity alternately ; the lungs follow these motions and dilate, and contract in consequence ; now, in the first case, (when the thorax dilates,) the air, pressed hy all the weight of the surrounding atmosphere, is forced into the chest, through the mouth or nostrils, and trachea, and tills the pulmonary cells, in the same way that water mounts in the body of a pump when the piston is raised. In the second case, (in the act of expiration), the air contained in the lungs, is on the contrary, compressed, and partially escapes by the route which served it for entrance. , 13. 18. The cavity of the thorax, (Fit/. 13. T.) is formed principally by the ribs, which are attached, posteriorly, to the spine or verte- bral column, and in front to the bone of the sternum; the spaces which exist between the \wv*m>i>^i- r ' hs ' are fi" e d U P by muscles, and below, this species of chamber is separated from the belly by a fleshy partition called the 19. Inspiration, or the enlargement of the chest, is produced in two ways; 1st. by the elevation of the ribs; 2nd. by the mus- / cular contraction of the diaphragm, which, in a state of repose, rises into the chest in the form of an arch, and which in contracting, is lowered down. Expiration, or con- traction of the chest, on the contrarv, is produced by the depres- sion of the ribs, and relaxation of the diaphragm. We observe many degrees in the extent of these movements ; and in ordinary respiration, the quantity of air received into, or expelled from the lungs, does not much exceed one seventh part of what these organs are capable of containing. The number of respiratory movements varies in different individuals according to the age ; in adult age, we count about twenty inspirations a minute, in infancy they are much more frequent. 20. We have seen that it is by the nose or mouth, the pharynx, the larynx, the trachea, and the bronchiae, that the air enters into Explanation of Fig- 13. A vertical section of tho trunk, !o show the position of fie diaphragm (<].} which separates the ahdo tien (A.) from ihe tiiorax (r.) into which ii ri^es up like an arch, CD, vertebral column, c, ribs 18. [!<>w is the cavity of the thorax formed? What separates it from '.he belly ? 19. How is inspiration produced ? How is inspiration effected? How many inspirations does an adult take in a minute ? 20 Ho A does the air act upon the blood ? COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERIC AIR. the lungs The venous blood, which is to be subjected to the, salutary influence of this air, arrives, at the same time, in the lit- tle vessels, which ramify in every direction over the sides of the cells; consequently, it is through the very sides of these capil- lary vessels that the air acts upon this fluid. 21. The blood coming to the lungs is of a blackish red color, and is not fit to support life in the organs ; but so soon as it comes in contact with the air it changes its nature ; its color becomes o. a bright red, regains its vivifying properties and acqufres all the characteristics of arterial blood 22. The atmospheric air which thus enters into the lungs, and there produces so remarkable a phenomenon, is chiefly composed of two substances which differ very much from each other ; namely oxt/ye , and azote or nitrcyfu. 23. Though the oxygen which enters into the composition of the air forms but about one fifth (21 parts in the 100,) it is its most important part, ft is to the oxygen that the air owes its property of supporting life, and of sustaining the burning of com- bustible bodies when inflamed. 24. Azote, or Mtroyen, which enters into the composition ol the air in the proportion of 79 parts in a 100, is unfit for respira- tion, and incapable of supporting combustion. It seems to serv * only to dilute the oxygen, and thus mitigate the otherwise too irritating action of this gas 25. By being breathed the air changes its nature; its oxygen disappears little by little, and is replaced by another fluid called cuibottic ctcid q(is. 26. This ctirlmnw acid r/cw is composed of oxygen combined with v.arln)n t derived from the blood ; instead of being fit to sup- port life, it acts as a poison on animals that breathe it for a short time, and causes death. 27. On this account, by the respiration of animals, the air is gradually vitiated, and, if it were not renewed, would soon occa- sion asphyxia. 21. What is th<- color of the bl oH when it enters the lungs? What change does contact with the air produce upon it? 2'2. Of what is atmospheric air composed ? 23. V\ hat is the p oportion of oxygen in the air ? What is the great use of the oxygen ? 24. \\ hut is the pro- ortion of nitrogen in the air? Is it capable of jap. porting animal life ? What seems to be its use ? 2-"). What effect is produced upon the air by breathing it 7 26. Of what is carbonic acid gas composed? Whence is the carbon derived? How does it act on those animals that breathe it? 27 What would happen if the air breathed by animals were not renewed. 52 RESPIRATION. 28. [Carbonic acid gas, which extinguishes bodies in combus- tion in the same way as azote, is formed by the combustion oi' charcoal ; also, during the fermentation of wine, and of beer, which makes it sparkling and frothy. -. "29. It is upon the action of this gas on the animal economy that the asphyxia, produced by the vapor of charcoal, depends, as well as the greater number of accidents of the same sort which occur in mines, caves, wells, and vats wherein wine or beer is fer- menting. -In a grotto near INaples, this gas is continuously disen- gaged from the earth, and gives rise to phenomena, which, at first sight, appear very singular, and excite the admiration of the traveller ; when a man enters this cavern he experiences no in- convenience in his respiration ; but a dog following him very soon falls down in a state of asphyxia at his feet, and would soon ex- pire, were he not speedily removed to the pure air. This arises from the fact that the carbonic acid gas being much heavier than the air, sinks down and forms upon the bottom of the cave a bed or stratum of about two feet thick. Now, a dog that enters the grotto is necessarily plunged over his head into this mephitic gas, and must necessarily become asphyxiate, while a man who is very much taller, only has the lower part of his body exposed to the action of the carbonic acid, and breathes freely the air which floats above. This remarable place is known under the name of the Grnttn del Cunn, ttr dot/'s groftft.'] 30. The air which escapes from the lungs is composed of the nitrogen inspired, of a portion of oxygen not employed, and of carbonic acid furnished by the act of respiration. 31. The expired air is also loaded with vapor of water exhaled from the blood during its passage through the capillary vessels of the lungs. This vapor becomes very perceptible, when the cold condenses it, at the moment of its issue from the body, and con stitutes what physiologists call pulmonary trnuspiration. 32. Since the air is quickly vitiated by respiration, and its oxy gen disappears to be replaced by the carbonic acid, we readily infer, that this fluid must be constantly renewed in the lungs, and in fact that this takes place in consequence of the alternate movements of inspiration and expiration. 1 __ 28. How is carbonic acid gas formed ? 29. Upon what do certain accidents in mine*, caves, wells, &c. depend ? What is the Grotto del Ctinn near Naples remarkable for? 30 Of wh'.t is the air which escapes from the lungs composed? 31. What is pulmonary transpiration? 32. Why is it necessary te renew the air in the lungs ? AMMAL HEAT. 33. We are informed of the degree of alteration which the air has undergone in our lungs, by the sensation which induces us to renew it. This sensation, scarcely appreciable in ordinary respi- ration, because we hasten to comply with the necessity of frequent- ly renewing the air, becomes painful if not promptly satisfied ; and is sometimes accompanied by anxiety, and even agony ; an in- structive warning of the imperious necessity of respiration. 34. In man there is commonly twenty inspirations per minute. 35. In all the mammalia, in birds, and in reptiles, respiration takes place in lungs, and very nearly in the same manner as in man. 36. In the greater number of aquatic animals, such as fishes, lobsters, oysters, &c., it is altogether different, and respiration takes place through the medium of a sort of membraneous frin- ges called branch HE; we shall recur to this in the sequel. 37. The air necessary to the support of life in insects, pene- trates into all parts of their bodies through particular canals called 38. Finally; there are some animals which have neither lungs nor braiicliia-j nor truck a, in which respiration is accomplished by the surface of the skin. The earth-worm is an example of this kind. OF ANIMAL HF.AT. 39. The greater number of animals appear cold when we touch them, and indeed, the temperature of their bodies is not much above that of the atmosphere, and changes with it. In man, and other animals that approach him in their organization, it is otherwise ; they have the faculty of producing a sufficient quantity of caloric to maintain their temperatures, nearly always at the same degree, under all atmospheric changes, and keep them- selves warm. 40. We designate under the name of cold blooded animah, all those whose proper heat is not very perceivable, and call those Wfinn l)lo(Hlt>tt uiiimuis which produce sufficient heat independently of the atmosphere surrounding them. 33 How are we made acquainted with the alteration the air has under- gone in the lungs ? 34. How many times does a man respire in a minute ? 35. Does respiration take place in lungs in all animals ? 36. In what organs docs respiration take place in aquatic animals? 37. How does air enter the bodies of insects? 38. How does respiration take place in those animals which have neither lungs, nor branchiae, nor tracheae ? 39. Are all animals of the same temperature? 40. What is meant by cold blooded animals? What is meant bv warm yl.oodeu animals? 5 ANIMAL HEAT. DIG FSTION. 41. The production of this heat, which is called animal heat, seems to depend upon the act of respiration. 42. The combination of the oxygen of the air with the venous blood, in the interior of the lungs, as we have already seen, causes the formation of a certain quantity of carbonic acid gas, in the same manner as in the case where oxygen combines with carbon, in producing the phenomenon of combustion, and, in both in- stances, must extricate a greater or less quantity of heat. 43. The faculty of thus producing heat, is common to all ani- mals ; but the greater part of them develope it in so small a degree that it is not appreciable by our ordinary thermometers, while in others, it is so great that we do not require physical instruments to ascertain its existence. 44. The only warm blooded animals are the mammalia and birds ; all the rest are cold blooded. 45. The temperature of the body of man, is about 101 degrees of Fahrenheit. It is about the same in the other mammalia, but birds produce more heat, their temperature rising to about 108 Fahrenheit. LESSON V. FUNCTIONS OF NUTRITION Digestion Month 7 he prehension of aliment* Mastication Teeth Their structure The man- ner of their formation Their form and use Saliva Salivary glands Deglutition I'harynr Oesophagus. 1. The blood, as we have seen, in nourishing all the organs, it maybe said, loses some what of its properties,and requires to retrieve the losses which it thus undergoes ; now, it is renewed by receiv- ing new materials from the productions of the earth. 2. These materials, destined to the support of the blood, and consequently to the support of the whole body, are furnished by the various aliments or food. 41. Upon what does the production of animal heat depend? 42. How is animal heat produced '( 4-'i Is the faculty of producing heat common to all animals ? 44. What animals are warm blooded? 45. What is the temperature of the body of man ? What is the tempera- ture of birds? 1 How does the blood regain those properties which it loses by nourish* .ng tne organs ? 2. What furnishes the materials for the support of the blood? DIGESTION. 55 %. That they may be nourished, all living beings require that alimentary substance should be introduced into their bodies frorp time to time. 4. Plants pump up by their roots the aliments furnished them by the earth, and these matters are mingled with the nutritious liquid called &/;, which permeates throughout their tissues without having undergone any preparation. 5. With animals it is altogether different. The aliments, pre- viously to being absorbed and diffused through the different parts of the body, to afford nourishment to the organs, and to enter into the composition of their tissues, have to undergo a certain pro- cess of preparation, called din cut ion. 6. Digestion has for its object : 1st To separate from alimentary substances the nutritive part from that which is not. 2nd. To transform this nutritive part into a peculiar liquid, fit to mix with the blood and nourish the organs, which liquid is called ckt,l<>. 7. The process of digestion always takes place in a cavity situ- ated in the interior of the body and communicating externally in such a way that aliments may enter it. 8. All animals are provided with a triffestivr tavity. 9. Plants, on the contrary, having no need to digest ali- ments, have no such cavity. [The alimentary surface of a plant is the exterior of its root spread out in the earth.] 1 0. In some animals the digestive cavity is simply a pouch, com- municating externally by a single opening, which performs the functions both of a mouth arid of an anus. 1 1. But with the greatest number it is otherwise. The diges- tive cavity has the form of a tube, open at its two ends ana enlarged about the middle. This enlarged portion of the diges- tive tube is named stomach-, and serves to contain the aliments, while the greatest part of the process of digestion Is performed. 3. That living beings may be nourished, what circumstance is neces. eary ? 4. Do the nutritious fluids, received by p'ants from the earth, undergo any process of preparation or digestion ? 5. In order to nourish animal organs, is it sufficient to introduce food int i the stomach ? 6. What is the object of f'igesiion ? What is chyle? 7. Where does digestion take place ? 8. Have all animals a digest ve cavity ? 9. Why have plants no digestive cavity? 10. What is the nature of the digestiv ca ity in some ammais? 11. What is the for n o' the dig stive cavity m the g eatest number o* animals ? What part is called the- stomach ? 56 DIGFSTTON. 12. The superior opening ot this tube is the mouth ; it is through it that ibod enters the digestive cavity. The inferior opening, called anus, is destined as an outlet to matters unfit for nutrition, which are separated from the food by digestion. 13. In quadrupeds and most other animals, we distinguish, in this alimentary tube, diverse portions, the uses of which are diffe rent; they are: 1st. The mouth. 2nd. The pharynx or swallow 3rd. The (Esophagus. 4th. The Stomach. 5th. The Intestine. 1 4. Other organs, or instruments, also concur to effect the diges- tion of food, and constitute, with the tube of which we have just spoken, the digestive apparatus ; the principal are: 1st. The teeth destined to divide and grind the food. 2nd. Certain glands, such as the liver and salivary glands, serve to form the humors, which act upon the food in order to determine its digestion. 3rd. Of particular vessels destined to pump into the intes- tine the nutritious juices, produced by digestion, and to mix them with the blood. In short we might consider as being in some sort auxiliary to the digestive apparatus, certain organs with which certain animals seize their food and introduce it into the mouth ; but these instru- ments principally serve other purposes and do not really belong to the apparatus of digestion. 15. The process of digestion is very complicated, and is made up of several phenomena or distinct acts, which take place in different parts of the digestive apparatus, and which have, for instrument?, particular organs. 16. These phenomena are: 1st. The prehension of aliments 2nd. Mastication. 3rd. Insalivation. 4th Deglutition 5th Chymiflcation, or stomach-digestion. 6th. Chylification, or intestinal digestion. 7th. Absorption of chyle. 12. What are th termin itions qf the digestive tube? 13. What arv the different po lions of the alimentary canal 1 ] I. What other organs beldng to the digestive apparatus? What is the use of t'.e teeth 1 !;>. Is the process of digestion confined to the stomach exclusively ? 1 6. What are the several acts r phenomena which constitute digestion DIGESTION. 57 8th. The expulsion of the residue, left by the aliments after digestion is finished. We will now study successively these different phenomena, and the organs which produce them. OF THE PREHENSION OF ALIMENTS. 17. The first phenomenon of the process of digestion is the prehension of aliments, that is, the act of seizing them and intro- ducing them mto the mouth. 18. The n out h is a cavity of an oval form, closed in front by the lips, on the sides by the cheeks and jaws, above by the palate, and below by the tongue; behind it is continuous with the pharynx or swallow, but is separated from it by a kind of curtain called the retain jmidit (veil of the palate,) and which may be elevated or depressed so as to close the passage or leave it free. (page OS fig 21.) 19. The entrance to the mouth may be closed or opened by movements of the jaws and lips On the prehension of aliment, the latter are separated to permit the entrance of the substance, and are immediately afterwards closed to prevent its escape. 20. With most animals the prehension of aliments is performed by the lips and jaws alone; but with some, other organs are em- ployed to seize the substances and convey them to the mouth. With man and monkeys, the hand thus becomes the chief instru- ment of the prehension of aliments; with the elephant it is his trunk, and with parrots the claw. 21. With most animals the food remains for some time in the mouth, to be chewed and mixed with saliva. OF MASTICATION. 22. Liquid aliments may be immediately swallowed ; but solid food to be swallowed and digested with facility should be previous- ly divided into very small morsels. 23 This division, called tttaxticntinu, is effected by the aid of the teeth, which, set in motion by the jaws, press upon the food und cut or crush it. 17. What is the prehension of aliments? 18. What is the mouth ? What separates the mouth from the pharynx ? 19. Is the entrance of the mouth provided with the means of being 1 closed or opened 1 20. How is the prehension o r food effected 1 21. Docs ilu- food pass at once from the mouth to fie stomach? 22. May all kinds of aliment he immediately swallowed t 23. What is mastication 7 How is it effected ? 5* DIGESTION. THE TEETH. 24. In man, and those animals which, in their organization, resemble us most, the two jaws are situated one above the other ; the upper jaw is fixed immovably to the cranium; but the lower jaw is only attached to it, at its posterior part, and is there held on each side by a sort of hinge or joint, which permits it to be separated from and approached to the upper jaw. ; . Fig. 14. 25. The muscles which serve to bring the jaws together, and which, conse- quently, act most during mastication, are placed on each side of the head, in front of the ear (Fig 14.), and when we press the teeth together, we can feel that they contract. 26. In most mammalia the edges of the ja.ws are armed with teeth. 27. The teeth are small hodies of great hardness, which resemble bone re/v much; they ai e planted in holes, hollowed info the jaws, which holes are named alueuli. 28. The fibrous pads which cover the edge of the jaws, and which are called (/inns, serve, as well as the alveoli, to fix the teeth solidly in the po- sition which they occupy. 29. Generally, each tooth is divided into two parts; one is situated with- out, and called the crow*, the other, buried in the alveolus (/*'*#. 15.), and terminated by Explanation of Pip?. 14. The head seen in profile, to show the parotid gland, (gp.} and the chief levatur, or elevating muscles of the lower jaw namely, the temporal (rnf.) ami maseter muscles, (rn,w.) Explanation of Fig. 15 Lower jaw of a man opened to show the man- ner in which the roots of the teeih (r ) penetrate its Ruhstance (g. 20. 50. The safira is a watery fluid, colourless and frothy, which is formed in particular organs, called salivary y lands, (Fig. 20.; 51. In man, these glands are six in number: three on each side of the face, and are called parotid, sub-maxillary, and sub-lingual. 52. The parotid glands are the largest; they are placed beneath the skin, between the ear and the jaw, and empty the saliva into the mouth, by a long straight tube, which opens on the inside or internal face of the cheeks. 53. The svb-maxiflarif glands are smaller than the parotid, and are lodged below and behind the lower jaw. 54. The sub-lingual glands are smaller than the preceding, and are found under the tongue. 55. The saliva serves to render the deglutition of food more easy, and contributes to accelerate digestion. OF DEGLUTITION. 56. The food conveniently prepared by mastication and insali- vation, unites upon the back of the tongue in a little mass called an alimentary hall, or bolus. 57. The alimentary ball is next swallowed. We give the name of deglutition to this phenomenon, which consists in the passing of food from the mouth into the stomach, through the pharynx and (Esophagus. 48. How are the molar feelh distinguished? 49. What is insalivation ? 50. What is saliva ? Where is it found ? 51. How many salivary glands exist in man? 52. Where art" the parotid glands situated ? Where do they open ? Which of the salivary glands are largest? 53. What is ihe situation of the sub-maxillary glands? 54. What is the situation of the sub-lingual glands? 55. What is the use of the saliva? 56. What is the alimentary bail or bolus ? 57. Wfrat is deglutition ? DEGLUTITION. .an 58. The opening which occupies the back part of the mouth, and which forms the communication between this cavity and the pharynx, is called the isfhniux of the throat, isthmus faucium. During mastication, it is closed by the veil of the palate, (velum palati,) but when deglutition is about to take place, this species of curtain is raised, and the alimentary ball is pushed into the pharynx. 59. The pharynx, ( Fiy. 2 1 , ph.) is a cavity, situate between the base of the cranium, and the front of the neck; above, it communi- cates with the nasal fossa3 by the posterior nares or nostrils, (an), as well as with the mouth, and below it presents two openings ; one, by which it is continuous with the oesophagus, the other, situated in front and called glottis, by which it communicates with the larynx and windpipe. We may compare it lo a cross-road where the route followed by the air to get from the nose to the lungs, crosses the route followed by the food to get from the mouth to the oesophagus. 60. That deglutition may be effected, the alimentary ball must pass beneath the posterior nostrils and over the glottis, without entering it, and descend directly into the oesophagus. Explanation of Fig. 21. A vertical section of the head and neck, to show how the windpipe or trachea opens into the swallow or pharynx, and how this last cavity communicates with the mouth and nasal fossae or nostrils, b. the mouth, /. the tongue, vp. arch of the palate, which separates the mouth from the nasal fossae, n,n. nasal fossae, opening externally by the nos- trils and communicating with the swallow by the posterior nares or hind nostiils, (an.) i. isthmus of the fauces, am. tonsils. c. veil of the palate, pn. the swallow or pharynx, cleft or divided like the mouth and nasal fossae, ft. oesophagus, a tube which descends from the swallow to the stomach, la. larynx, the superior opening- of which, called the glottis, (si.) is placed at the anterior and inferior part of the swallow : we see upon this organ, a species of little tongue or valve, called epiglottis, (ep.) t. trachea or windpipe, wnich descends from the larynx into the lungs, cr. base of the skull, gsm. sub-maxillary gland, gsl. sub-lingual gland, ct. thyroid gland. 58. What is the isthmus of the throat ? during mastication ? 59. What is the pharynx? 60. What is necessary to effectual deglutition ? G2 Is this cavity opened or closed 64 CTIYMIFICATION. 61. The veil of the palate, by being raised up, and placed ob- liquely against the posterior wall of the pharynx, forms beneath the posterior nostrils, a sort of screen, which hinders the food from mounting upwards, and entering the nose from behind, during the act of swallowing. 62. That the food may not enter the glottis, it closes at the moment of deglutition, and, at the same time, the larynx is raised up against the base of the tongue, a movement which forces a valve situated above the glottis, and called epiglottis, ( Fiy, 21, ep.) to fall and close the opening. 63 Sometimes, however, deglutition not being properly effected, the food penetrates into the larynx, and at once brings on a fit of coughing : when this happens, it is said , " we swallow crosswise." 64. The ces nicates with the oesophagus ; the other, called pylorus, (from the Greek, pulouros, a gate- keeper, because it shuts up the food in the stomach, until con- verted into chyme,) occupies the right extremity of this organ, and empties into the intestines. 3. Immediately after the pas- sage of the alimentary ball, the cardia closes in such a manner as to hinder it from re-ascend- ing again to the mouth. The pylorus is also closed, and the consequence is, that the food is arrested in the stomach, forced to remain there a considerable time. 4. While the aliment thus sojourns in the stomach, it imbibes a peculiar liquid, called gastric, jvicf, which converts it into chyme. 5. The yaxtric juice is a watery and acid liquid which is generated in a great number of very small cavities, lodged in the thickness of the parietes, or coats of the stomach, and named gastric fo/lic/es ; each one of these follicles communicates with tne interior of this organ by a small pore, and thus empties the gastric juice upon the food. ac ,r and Explanation of Fig. 22. Principal organs of digestion, oe. oesophagus, or gullet, es stomach, d. the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine, ig. the small intestines, c. the coecurn, ac. coecal appendix, or appendix vcrmiformis.--co. colon, r. rectum, y. the liver, of. the gall bladder. pa the pancreas, s. spleen. 2. What is the stomach ? What is the cardia ' What is the pylorus.' 3. What takes place after the alimentary ball passes in the stomach ? 4. What is added to the alimentary mass while in the stomach? 5. Wl.ai is gastric juice? Where is it formed? 6 66 CHYLIFICATION. 6. By the action of the gastric juice, the food is softened and little by little changed into a thick, grayish pap, which is called chyme. 7. As soon as the chyme is formed, the pylorus relaxes and the stomach begins to perform a series of*movements which, by de- grees, push the alimentary mass towards this opening, and then into the intestine. These movements consist in the successive con traction of fleshy fibres which surround the stomach transversely and which contract, one after the other from left to right. OF INTESTINAL DIGESTION, OR CHYLIFICATION. 8. The chyme which issues from the stomach enters the intes- tine where it serves to form chyle. 9. The i/iti'?ti HC (page 67. Jig. 23,) is a long membraneous tube, folded upon itself, which forms a continuation of the stomach and which, by its opposite extremity, opens outwardly. It is lodged in the abdomen, and is retained in its place by folds of a very fine membrane called peritoneum, which lines the parietes or walls of this cavity. The folds of peritoneum which connect the intestines to the spine, bear the name of mesentery. 10. The parietes of the intestine are furnished with fleshy fibres which surround them, and which, by contracting successively, push forward the matters contained within this tube. These movements are called vermiform or vermicular, because they resemble those of a worm when crawling. 11. The length of the intestine is always very considerable, but varies very much in different animals. It is remarked that in those which are nourished by flesh exclusively, it is much shorter than in those which live on vegetable substances : thus in the lion, winch is essentially carnivorous, it is only three times the length of the body ; while in man, who is omnivorous, its length is about six or seven times that of the body, and in the sheep which eats grass only, it is just twenty-eight times this length. 12. The intestine is composed of two very distinct portions the small intestine, and large intestine. I . . . . .-. ........ . .. ., 6. What is chyme ? 7. What takes place after the chyme is formed ? 8. What is formed from the chyme ? 9. Whai is the intestine? Where is it 1 dged ? What retains it in its place ? 10. What arrangement enables the intestine to push forward substances within it? 11. In what class of animals is the intestine longest ? What is its length in man ? CHYLIFICATION. G7 Fig. 23. 13. The small intestine, (Fiy 23, />/.) is next to the stomach ; it is narrower than the large intestine, and its ex- ternal surface is smooth. Its length is very considerable, and it is sub-divided into three portions, called : Duodenum, Jejunum, and Ilium. 14. In the small intestine, the chyle is formed, and diges- tion finished. 15. The phenomenon of chylification is produced by the mixture of the chyme, with the bile and the pancre- atic juice. 16. The bile, or gall is a greenish and very bitter liquid, secreted by the liver. 17. The/iiw, (Fig. 22, /.; is a large reddish gland, and of a granular tissue. It is lodged in the superior part of the abdomen, to the right of the stomach, and presents upon its inferior surface, a membranous pouch called the aall bladder, (o/.) The bile accumulates in this bladder, as in a reservoir, and is afterwards poured into the duodenum by a narrow canal, called the biliary duct, or ditctus conuuvnis chofedoc/ius. 18. The pancreatic juice is a watery liquid which very much resembles saliva; it is formed in a gland, situate behind the stomach, which is called pancreas. It reaches the duodenum by a narrow canal, which arises in the pancreas, and empties near the opening of the biliary duct. 19. The chyme, mixed with the bile and pancreatic juice, passes through the whole length of the small intestine; and during 13. What is the small intestine ? What are its sub-divisions? 14. What takes place in the small intestine? 15 How is chylification produced? 16. What is hile? 17. What is the liver ? Where is it situated ? What part receives the bile from the gall bladder. 18. What is pancreatic juice? Where does this pancreatic juice go after leaving the pancreas? 19 What becomes of the chyme after being mixed with the bile and pancreatic juice ? 68 ABSORPTION OF CHYLE. its passage separates into two parts; one called chyle, which is de- posited upon the sides of the intestine to be absorbed ; the other, composed of those parts of the food which are not nutritious, which continues its route and enters into the large intestine. OF THE EXPULSION OF THE RESIDUE LEFT AFTER DIGESTION. 20. The alimentary matters which are not convertible into chyle, require to be rejected and conveyed out of the body, and for this purpose they enter into thfe large intestine, and there accumulate. x 21. The large intestine' is the second portion of the intestinal tube; it differs from the small intestine in its calibre, its puffed form and in its uses. It is divided into three portions ; the crvcum* the co/o//, and the rectum, (page 67. fig- 23.) 22. The caecum is a swelling, or dilatation wherein the small in- testine terminates; we remark there a thin worm-like prolonga- tion, which terminates in a cut de sac, or blind canal, and is called the ccec.al appendix* appendiculn verniifonnia ; finally, we find on its inside a sort of valve, which hinders the matters contained in its cavity from returning into the small intestine. 23. The colon is next to the ccecnut, and is continuous with the -cctuin, which terminates at the anal opening or fundament. OF THE ABSORPTION OF CHYLE. 24. The chyle is a peculiar liquid, resulting from the digestion of food, and is deposited upon the parietes of the small intestines. 25. The physical properties of this liquid, vary according to the nature of the food from which it is derived, and according to the animals in which it is observed. In man, and most mam- malia, the chyle is generally a white, opaque liquid, very much resembling milk, of an alkaline, saltish taste, and of a peculiar odour. Examined by the microscope, it presents a multitude of globules, analogous to those which form the central nucleus of the globules of the blood. If left at rest, it forms a mass, like the blood, and after sometime, separates into three parts; a solid clot which occupies the bottom of the vessel, a liquid resembling serum, and a thin pellicle, which swims on top, and seems to be of a %tty nature. 20. What becomes of those matters which are riot convertible into chyle ? 21. What is the large intestine ? What are its divisions? 22. What ie the coecum ? What is the crecal appendix ? 23. What is the colon ? 24. What is chyle? 25. Is the appearance of chyle always the same? ABSORPTION OF CHYLE. 69 Fiy. 24. 26. The chyle is destined to be mixed with the blood, to repair the losses which this liquid sustains by nourishing the organs; and that this mixture may be effected, it is pumped up by a par- ticular set of vessels which pour it into the veins. 27. This passage of the chyle from the intestine into the circu- latory system is known under the name of absorption oj chyle. 28. The absorption of chyle is performed by the lymphatic vessels of the intestines, which are called for this reason, cky- lifcrous vessels, ( or lacteals, from the appearance they pre- sent when filled with chyle.) 29. These vessels, which are extremely delicate, arise (by imperceptible orifices on the mucous membrane that lines the bowel,) from different parts of the small intestine by a multi- tude of branches, which little by little, unite among themselves, as we remarked of the veins; and after having traversed the small organs, called mesenteric glands, empty into a conduit or canal, called the thoracic duct, (Fig. 24.) Explanation of Fiy. 24. Represents a portion of the small intestine (t) upon which we see the chyliferous vessels, 'he thoracic duct and the course fol. lowed by the ohyle to reach t!ie vrins. m. part of the peritoneum which serves to hold the intestines in their place, and which is called mesentery. ce. chyliferous vessels. gm. rnesenteric glands. r . reservoir of Pecquet or receptacle of chyle, which is a slight dilatation of the thoracic duct, soon after its commencement. I. lymphatic vessels coming from all parts of the body to the receptacle of the chy'e. ct. thoracic duct which ascends along side the aorta, (an.) passes behind the heart (c.) and empties into the left sub.clavian vein, (vsc)-v n. vena cava, descending to the right auricle. 96. What is the use of Chyle ? Into what blood vessels does the chyle tnter? 27. What name is given to the passage of chyle into the circulation ? 28. How is the absorption of chyle effected ? 29. What are the chyliferous vessels? Where do they arise ? Where do they empty ? fi* 70 FUNCTIONS OF NUTRITION. 30. This duct, or canal, which also receives the lymphatic vessels from other parts of the body, presents at its inferior ex- tremity, a dilatation called the reservoir of Pecquet, or the jecrp- incnlnni i-hyli ; it lies closely glued to the anterior face of the vertebral column or spine, and mounts towards the thorax, to terminate near the base of the neck, in the subclavian vein o the left side 31. The chyle, in passing through the mesenteric glands seem to be perfected in some degree ; it assumes a rosy tint and be comes coagulable like the blood : but it still differs very much from this liquid, and we do not know, with certainty, in what part of the body it is changed into blood. RECAPITULATION OF THE FUNCTIONS OF NUTRI- TION. Such are the different functions by the aid of which the nutri- tion of the body is effected. 32. The alimentary substances, necessary for renewing the materials of which the organs are composed, are derived, as we have seen, from sources exterior to the animal, and, in order to serve the purposes of nutrition, require to undergo a peculiar preparation to which we give the name of digestion. 33. The chief of the functions of nutrition is, consequently, in man as in all other animals, that of DIGESTION. 34. The nutritious matters, thus elaborated, do not sojourn in the digestive cavity; in order to support the organs, they pass from this cavity into the very substance of the body itself, to be mixed with the blood. To this transportation from without to within, and the passage of all substances from without into the torrent of the circulation, is applied the term ABSORPTION. 35. The blood, to convey in this way, to all parts of the body, materials to repair the organs must necessarily be the seat of con- tinual currents, and in fact, this liquid finds its way wherever there is life to be supported: this phenomenon is called the CIRCULATION 30. Where is the thoracic duct? Where does it terminate ? 31 . What change does chyle undergo while passing through the mesenteric glands / In what part of the body is chyle changed into blood ? 32. To be available for nutrition what process does food necessarily un- dergo? 33. What is the chief function of nutrition? 34. What occurs next after digestion? 35. In order to fulfil its office of nourishing the organs, what is necessary 4 x> the blood? FUNCTIONS OF/ RELATION. 71 36. In acting upon the tissues of the organs, the blood loses a part of its vivifying properties, and in order to regain them, requires to be brought into contact with the atmospheric air, which contact constitutes the phenomenon of RESPIRATION. 37. Finally, the materials separated from the substance of the organs, in consequence of the nutritive movement, are carried along by the blood, and are afterwards separated and rejected from the system in the form of liquids, or of vapours. These acts, which are in a measure, the completion of the nutritive process, bear the general n imes of EXHALATION and SECRETION. 38. To recapitulate ; we see then that the functions of nutri- tion are constituted of several series of phenomena, each having its seat in different organs, and that these different acts are : 1st. Digestion; 2nd. Absorption ; 3rd. Circulation; 4th Simultaneous decomposition and recomposition of the organs of nutrition, properly so called ; 5th. Respiration; 6th. Exhalation and Secretion. LESSON VII. FUNCTIONS OF RELATION Nervous system and sensibility. FUNCTIONS OF RELATION. 1 . The phenomena of animal life or life of relation depend upon two faculties : that of sensation and that of motion. 2. These faculties, which do not exist in an equal degree of perfection in all animals, are wanting in vegetables. They are the result of an action of two apparatuses ; the apparatus of sen- sations and the apparatus of motion. 3. The apparatus of sensations is composed of the nervous system and the organs of the senses. 36. What is the obje< t of respiration ? 37. What comoletes the phenomenon of nutrition? 38. What nre the several functions of nutrition? 1. Upon what do the phenomena of the functions of relation depend? 2. Do the faculties of sensation and motion exist in an equal degree in 1J animals? Do they exist in vegetables? Upon what do these faculties depend ? 3. Wh^t parts compose the apparatus of sensation*? H 72 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 4. The apparatus; of motion is composed of the muscles, of the bones, and of some other organs. APPARATUS OF THE SENSATIONS. 5. Sensibility is the faculty of receiving impressions from sur- rounding objects. 6 This faculty has its seat in a particular apparatus called the NERVOUS SYSTEM. 7. It is also through the medium of this nervous system that motion t ikes place, that the influence of the WILL makes itself felt in different parts of the body, and that the phenomena of intelli- gence is manifested. 8. We distinguish in this apparatus two principal parts, which are called the nervous system of animal life, and the nervous system of organic life. 9. The iiervonx system of animal life presides over the func- tions of the life of relation ; it is also called the cerebro-spinat sy*t<>ni, because the brain and spinal marrow are the most impor- tant parts of it. (page 73 /?>/, 25.) 10. The term eiice/ilta/oii, is applied to the great nervous mass formed by these two organs and the other central parts of the nervous system, lodged in the cavity of the cranium and in the canal which exists in the whole length of the vertebral column. 11. The cranium is a great cavity which occupies all the supe- rior and posterior parts of the head, and which at the inferior part or base, presents several holes. One of these holes, which is very much larger than the other and placed a little behind, gives it a communication with the veitcbm I canal. 1*2. The vertebral canal is a cavity hollowed out in the verte- bral column or spine, of which it occupies the whole length ; it consequently descends from the head, all along- the back to the lowest extremity of the trunk and even into the tail, when the animal is provided with an appendix of this sort. 4. What constitutes the apparatus of motion? 5. What is sensibility' 6. Upon what does sensibility depend ? 7. Through what means is the influence of the WILL conveyed to di ferent parts of the bo iy ? 8. What are the principal parts into which the apparatus of sensation is divided ? 9. What is the office of the nervous system of animal life ? WLj is it called the cercbro-spinal system ? 10. What is meant by the term encephalou? 11. What is the cranium ? 12. What is the vertebral canal? NERVOUS SYSTEM. 73 When we study the skeleton we shall recur to the description of these parts. 13. The brain, or cerebrum (Fig. 25, c.) is a voluminous viscus, of a very soft texture, and of an oval form, whiA fills the greatest part of the anterior of the cranium. It is divided on a middle line, by a very deep furrow, into two halves called liemisphms iff the. brain. Each of these hemispheres is subdivided, in its turn, into three lobes, and presents on its surface a great number of hollows and projec- tions, folded on themselves, called the convolutions of ike brain. We find in the inte- rior, cavities called ventricles, and we distinguish in the sub- stance of which it is composed, two sorts of matter, one white, called medullary, which occu- pies the interior of the mass of the brain, and the other, of a greyish colour, forms its super- ficies, and is called cortical. 14. Behind and below the cerebrum, or brain, we find, also in the cavity of the cranium, another nervous mass, very much smaller, but of analogous structure, which is called the cerebellum. (Fig. 25, en.) Fig. 25. ps Explanation of Fig 25. The nervous system. c. the cerebrum. cv. the cerebellum. we. the spinal marrow from which arises a great many nerves which ramify over all parts of the body. pb. the biachial plexus or reunion or assemblage of the different nerves which are distributed to t'.ie arms. ps. ^the sciatic plexus or assemblage of nerves which form the great sciatic i.erve which descends to the lower extremities. 13. What is the brain ? ITow is it divided ? What are ventricles ? Wha! is the difference between the medullary and cortical parts of the brain ? 14. What does the cranium contain besides the cerebrum ? 74 NERVOUS SYSTEM. 15. The spinal marrow, (Fig. 25, me.) arises from the inferior part of the brain and cerebellum. It has the form of a thick, whitish cord, and descends from the interior of the cranium to the lowest part of the canal which pierces the vertebral column. 16. We give the name of medulla oblonyata, to the superior portion of the spinal marrow which te enclosed in the cranium. 17. The eticephalon (which includes the brain and spinal mar- row, also called, the cerekro-spiual axis,) is surrounded by different membranes, which serve to prevent it from wounding itself against the sides of the bony case which encloses it. One of these mem- branes, called the artichnoid, is extremely fine; another called the dura mufet, is, on the contrary, very strong, and in the interior of the cranium forms plaits or folds which descend between the hemispheres of the cerebrum, and between this organ and the cerebellum, to sustain these parts, and prevent them from press- ing one upon the other. 18. A great number of soft whitish cords go from the brain and spinal marrow to all parts of the body ; they are designated by the name of nerves, (Fiy. 25.) 19. These nerves arise, some from the base of the brain, others from the sides of the spinal marrow. In man there are forty three pairs, of which, the first thirteen arise from the brain and medulla oblongata, and pass out of the cranium through holes in its base: and the remaining thirty pairs arise from the spinal marrow, and go out of the vertebral canal by holes, situate on each side of the spine. 20. The nerves are divided into branches and ramuscies, which are spread out in the different organs, and in them become so extremely fine as to escape our vision. They possess extreme sensibility, and the slightest wound of one of them causes acute pain. 21. The nerves give to different parts of the body to which they are distributed, the sensibility which these parts enjoy. They convey the impressions received by the organs to the brain, which is the seat of the perception of sensations. 15. What is the spinal marrow? 16. What is the medulla oblongata ? 1 7 What are the coverings of tne encephalon ? Wh it is the dura mater ? IS. What name is given to those cords which go from the brain and pinil marrow to all parts of the b idy ? IP. What is the origin of the nerves ? How many pairs of nerves are found in mm/ Wh.tis the origin o r the first thirteen pairs of nerves in man? 20. How arc the nerves divided ? To what part are they distributed > Are they s< nsibip ? .. 21. What office i performed by the nerves ? NERVOUS SYSTEM. 75 me It is also through the medium of the nerves that the influence of the WILL is communicated from the brain to different parts of the body, and that motion is performed. 22. Indeed, if we cut the nerves which go to a limb, it becomes immediately insensible, and ceases to execute voluntary motion, or in other words, it is paralysed. 23. Certain nerves serve only for the Fig. 26. transmission of sensations, others serve only for motion, but the greater part fulfil both these functions at the same time ; this arises from the union of a certain number of nervous fibres, of which some possess the first of these faculties, and others the second. At the point where the nerves issue from the spinal marrow, these two species of fibres are still separate, and con- stitute two distinct roots, one situated be- fore the other (/%. 26.) ; the anterior root serves for motion, and the posterior for sensibility. When in a living animal we cut the anterior roots of all these nerves, it is incapable of moving, but preserves its sensibility ; while if we cut the posterior roots without wounding the anterior, the con- trary is true. [The gang Home nervous system^also called the great sympathetic nerve, or nervous system of organic fife, is composed of a number of small, very distinct nervous masses, which are united to each other by medullary cords and different nerves, which anastemose (communicate by branches) with the cerebro-spinal system, or are distributed to the neighbouring organs. These nervous centres bear the name of ganglions: they are found in the head, neck, thorax and abdomen. Most of them are placed symmetrically on each side of a middle line, in front of the vertebral column, and thus form a double chain from the head to the pelvis; but they are found in other parts : near the heart, for example, and in the vicinity of the stomach.] Ex pin n at. of Fig. 26. me A portion of the spinal marrow, showing tho manner in which the n< rves ari.se by two sets or bundles of roots. r. tmterior roots serving for motion. rp. posterior roots serving for sensibility. g ganglionic swelling of a posterior root. 2*2. What effect would be produced by cu? ting the r/frves which goto i limb? 'J3. Do all nerves perform the same functions? How is it that some nerves serve for motion and also to transmit sensation ? Which nen'ous roots serve for motion ? Which nervous roots serve for sensation ? If we cut the anterior roots of the nerves in a living animal what happens ? What r suits from cutting the posterior roots ? H2 76 NERVOUS SYSTEM. 24. That sensations may be perceived, it is necessary that the nerves transmit them from the point where they are produced to the brain, either directly, or through the intervention of the spinal marrow. 25. The brain is, at the same time, the seat of the WILL and of the perception of sensations ; when, in consequence of a wound or strong compression, this organ cannot perform its functions, the animal becomes insensible, ceases to execute voluntary motions and falls into a state resembling profound sleep. 26. It is remarkable that the nerves which arise from the right side of the spinal marrow communicate with the left hemisphere of the cerebrum and vice versa ; this results from the crossing of the fibres in the medulla nblongutn, and hence it is that when the brain is paralysed on one side only, it is the members of the op- posite side of the body which lose their sensibility and motion. 27. Farther, the brain, although the seat of perception of sen- sations, is itself very slightly sensible ; we may prick or cut it in a living animal without causing pain. 28. The spinal marrow is, on the contrary, extremely sensi- ble, and when it is wounded, the animal is convulsed ; if it be cut or compressed so that it cannot perform its functions, all the parts of the body whose nerves arise below the point of injury are at once paralysed. 29. The cerebellum seems to be designed to regulate motion. 30. The second portion of the nervous system, or NERVOUS SYSTEM OF ORGANIC LIFE, communicates with the nerves which arise from the spinal marrow by a great number of small fila- ments, but it is distinct from it. 31. This apparatus, which is also designated under the name of yanglionic. system, or great sympathetic, on account of the con- nection which it establishes between different parts of the body, Is composed of a great number of small nervous masses called 24 What is necessary to enable an animal to perceive impressions made upon it? 25. What occurs, if, from any cause, the functions of the brain be inter- rupted ? 26. What is remarkable in the origin of the nerves ? 27. Is the brain itself'sensible ? 28. Is the spinal marrow sensible or not ? When the spinal marrow compressed or wounded^what occurs? 2). What seem-s to be the office of the cerebellum? 30. Does the nervous system of organic life communicate with the ner- vous system of relation ? 31. Why is the nervous system of organic life called the great sympa. thetic ? Why is it also called the ganglionic system ? What is a ganglion ? To what parts are those nerves distributed which arise from the ganglion*? THE SKNSES. 77 ganglions^ situated in the neck, in the thorax, and in the abdomen in front of the vertebral column, and tied to each other by com- municating cords ; a multitude of nerves arise from these gang- lions and are spread out in the heart, the lungs, the intestines, the glands and other organs of vegetative life. 32 These parts of the body which receive their nerves from the ganglionic system are slightly sensible, and the movements which they execute are independent of the WILL. 33. The principal nerves of sensibility terminate in particular organs, through the medium of which they receive and transmit to the brain, the sensations produced upon us by surrounding objects. These organs are each destined to receive sensations of a certain kind, and are called organs of the senses. LFSSON VIII. FUNCTIONS OP RELATION Sense of touch Skin Hair Heard Kails Horns Mode of formation Sense oj smell Olfactory apparatus Sense of taste Sense of hearing Jluditory apparatus. 1. We give the name of Senses to those faculties by the aid of which animals take cognizance of the properties of bodies which surround them. 2. Bodies may differ from each other in different ways ; in their weight, their hardness, their volume, their temperature, &o. by their odour, their taste, their form, and their color, or by the sounds which they afford. 3. These various qualities cannot be appreciated by the same organ ; the organ which perceives taste for example, is not sen- sible of the color, or odour of bodies ; therefore, the faculty of experiencing sensations from the influence derived from each one of these different kinds of the properties of external objects, is the attribute of a particular organ. 32. Do the movements of those parts of the body supplied with nervea from the ganglionic system, depend upon the influence of the WILL? Are the (>;irts thus supplied very sensible? 33. How do the principal nerves of sensibility terminate? 1. What arc the senses ? 2. How do bodies differ from each other? 3. I- any one organ capable of appreciating all the properties of bodies* 78 SENSE OF TOUCH. 4. These faculties or senses, in man and most animals aie rive in number; namely : touvh, t, sine//, hearing, and sight. 5 Touch and taste are only exercised upon bodies which are brought into contact with those organs which are the seat of those senses. Smell, hearing, and sight, make us acquainted with certain properties of objects at a greater or less distance frvm us. 6. All- animals do not possess the senses in an equal number with man ; in some, there is neither organ of sight, nor organ of hearing, nor organ of smell ; such is the oyster for example : in others, one or another of these instruments is wanting. We will now consider each one of the senses, and the organs which are the seat of them. OB^ THE SENSE OF TOUCH. 7. Touch is the sense which reveals to us the contact of foreign bodies with our organs and informs us of the nature of their sur- faces whether rough or smooth, their movements, the degree of their consistence, their temperature, and, to a certain extent, their form, volume and weight. 8. Tact is a passive touch, but this function sometimes becomes active : it is more especially called touch, when the sensibility is most exquisite and the surface, which is its seat, can in a manner mould itself to objects. 9. Tactile sensibility is spread out in all parts of the surface of the body, and resides in the skin. 1 0. The skin is the membrane which covers or clothes the body. It is principally composed of two parts, one called the corivm or derma, or true skin, the other, the epidermis or cuticle, or scarf-skin. 1 1. The epidermis is the most superficial layer of the skin; it is a sort of thick varnish which covers the derma and serves to protect it against the contact of hard bodies, and prevent it from oecoming dry by the action of the air. 12. The derma is the thickest and most important part of the kin; it is beneath the epidermis, and adheres to the subjacent ^ 4. What is the number of the senses? What are they called? 5. What is necessary t;rthe exercise of the faculties of touch and taste? What faculties convey to us notions of bodies withou' contact ? 6. Have all animals the same number of senses as man? 7. What is touch ? 8. What is tact? When does it become touch? 9. What is the seat of tactile *& sibility ? 10. What is the skin ? Of what pans is it composed? 11. What is the epidermis ? What is the use of the epidermis or cuticle ? 12. What is the derma ? Where is it placed ? Has 'he derma anv nerves? What fbrwi the napilliE of the derma ? Where is the derma most sensible ? SENSE OF TOUPH. 79 parts by its internal fase. A considerable number of nerves are distributed in it, and form upon its surface small elevations called papillfe. To these nerves the skin owes its sensibility, which is greatest in those parts where there is the greatrst number of papillae, as in the ends of the fingers for example. 13. The epidermis is applied upon these nervous pnpilta : it is not itself endowed with sensibility, and renders the sense of touch Jess delicate in proportion to its thickness. Frequent contact with rough and hard substances tends to increase its thickness, thus, the hands of those persons who perform laborious work have the epidermis thicker and less sensible than those whose occupation does not place them in the same circumstances. 14. Hair, beard, nails, horns, &c., are productions formed by small secreting organs, lodged in the substance of the skin ; they are developed, like the teeth, by the addition of new portions of their substance upon that already firmed, and are not like living organs, the seat of a nutritive movement. We give the name of bulb, to the secreting organs of the h dr and beard. 15. Finally, there exists in the thickness of the derma, little follicles which secrete the sweat, a liquid which is more or less acid. 16. The contact of an object with any p->int of the surface of the skin is su indent to determine a sensation there; b-it, that touch may be exercised, it is necessary that the part where this contact takes place shall be so formed as to apply itself exactly, and, in a manner, mould itself to the object which the animal wishes to feel ; this kind of perfected tact has its seat in particu- lar organs called, organs of touch. 17. In man, the hand is the special organ of touch, and its structure is admirably well adapted to the exercise of this sense. The fineness of the skin, its great sensibility, the species of cushion formed by the subcutaneous fat at the extremities of the fingers, the length and flexibility of these organs and the capabili- ty of opposing the thumb to the other fingers, like a pair ot plyers or forceps, are so many conditions essentially favourable to the delicacy of this sense, and enables us to appreciate with great exactitude the qualities of those bodies we may feel. 13. Is the epidermis itself sensibl : ? What effort has the thickening of the cuticle upon the -ensibility of a part? 14. How are hair, beard, horn", nails, (fee. produced ? What name is given Jo the secreting 1 organs of the h;iir and beard? 15. What is the origin of sweat or perspiration? 16. Does contact of an object with any part of the skin deternrne sensa- tion a* that part? Is this contact sufficient f r the exercise of the faculty ot touch / 17. What is the organ of touc'i in mm? Whit are the circumstance! rUich render the hand soadnvrably adapt d to i's purpose ? 80 SENSE OF TASTE, AND OF SMELL. 18. Most animals have very imperfect instruments of touch, and, in general, the greater part of the surface of their bodies is slightly or not at all sensible, on account of the hairs, feathers scales, and other hard parts, with which their skins are covered. OF THE SENSE OF TASTE. 19. Taste is a sense which makes us acquainted with the savor or taste of substances 20. Like touch, taste is exercised by contact only. Its seat is in the mouth. 21. The parts of the mouth where this peculiar kind of sensi- bility resides are, the edges of the tongue and the arch of the palate. 22. All substances are not sapid ; those which are not soluble in water seldom are. 23. In order to act upon the sense of taste, it is necessary that the sapid substances which the animal introduces into its mouth, should be dissolved by the fluids poured into this cavity by the salivary glands, or by some other liquid. It is in a state of solu- tion, that savors are perceived by the nerves of taste, which are spread out upon the surface of the tongue, and which transmit to the brain the impressions of this sense. OF THE SENSE OF SMELL. 24. The sense of smell reveals to us the existence of odours and enables us to appreciate them. 25. Odours are produced by extremely fine particles, which escape from odorous substances, and which are diffused in the air like a vapour. 26. That odours may act upon the sense of smell, the odoriferous particles must come in contact with the surface of the organ wherein this sense is seated. 27. The sense of smell is exercised in a peculiar apparatus, called the nasal fossae. 18. Are most animals well supplied with organs of touch ? 19. What is taste? 20. VV here is the sense of taste situated? Can this sense be exercised without contact ? 21. What parts of the mouth are endowed with the sense of taste? 22. Are all substances sapid ? 23. What conditions are necessary to operate on the sense of taste " 24. What is the sense of smell ? 25. How are odours produced ? 26. What is a necessary condition in order to act upon the sense of mell ? 27 Where is the *ense of smell situated? OF SMELL. 81 28. The nasal fossa, (Fig. 27.) are two large cavities in the face, which communicate externatty by the open- ings of the nose or nostrils, and open behind, into the pharynx, by the posterior nares or nostrils. The walls of these cavities, form in front, a more or less prominent ridge, which con- stitutes the nose, and a verticle par- tition s^p irat.es one from the other. Finally, they are lined by a soft and very delicate membrane, called the pituitary m< nthrane. 29. The first pair of cerebral nerves which are called the olfac- tory nerves, are distributed to this membrane, and transmit to the brain the impressions produced by the contact of odoriferous particles 30. The air which traverses the nasal fossae in order to reach the lungs, carries with it the odorous particles of substances, and it is by touching the pituitary membrane that these particles pro- duce the sensations of smells. The form of the nasal fossae is such, that the air is carried towards their superior parts, where the greatest number of the delicate filaments of the olfactory nerve is distributed. 31. It is vulgarly believed that the humors with which the pituitary membrane is lubricate 1 come from the brain ; but this is an error. They are secreted by this membrane itself, and the slight diseases known under the name of cold in the head, rheum oj the. head, are nothing else than inflammation of this membrane. Explanation of Fiy 27. The nasal >ssae open and seen from the inside. c. the cranium sf the frontal .sinuses, c .vities hollowed out in the substance of the frontal bo >e, and in communication witli the nasal fossae. no. the olf.cory nerve r. its branches ramifying 1 on t'>e pituitary or schneirlerian membrane. cs. cm. ci. superior, middle and inferior turbinatcd bones ; these are projec in.) is a very elastic cartilaginous plate which surrounds the entrance to the auditory apparatus, and presents, in many animals, the form of a trumpet, which serves to direct sounds towards the in- terior of the ear. In man, th^ pavilion of the ear presents many ridges and furrows, or anfractuosities, arising from the folds of fhe cartilaginous plate which forms it. 40. The auricular canal, or external auditory canal, meatus 32. What is the sense of hearing ? 33. How are sounds produced ? What are vibrations? 34. How are sonorous vibrations propagated ? di>. What condition is necessary to produce sensation from sounds? 36. What is the name of the apparatus of hearing ? Is it double or sin. gle 7 Where is it situated? What is that part of the temporal bone called which contains ihe apparatus of heating? 37. How is the ear divided ? 38. What are the divisions of the external ear? 39. Describe the external ear? 40. What is the situation of the external auditory canal? What is tha membrana tympani? SENSE OF HEARING. auditorius extern us, (Fig. 28, ca ) is a species of tube which Fiy. 28. /rtx, commences at the bottom of a widened part ilion, called concha, and buries temporal bone ; it is gaping at ts external extremity ; but ends internally, in a species of membra* nous parti- tion, named in e in brana 05 C na am /yrrif) ani, drum of the ear, which separates it from the mid- dle ear. 41. The middle ear is composed of the cavity of the tympanum, and some small accessary parts. 42. The name of tympanum, (Fig. 28, cai.) is given to a small cavity of irregular form which is hollowed out in the petrous portion of the temporal bone, and which is found to lie between ihe auditory canal and the internal ear. It is filled with air, which gets there through a canal called the Etistachian tube, which opens in the superior part of the pharynx. 43. The entrance to the tympanum is closed by a very thin partition, which is stretched like the parchment over a drum, and hence the name, tympanum. This membrane serves to facilitate the transmission of sounds from without to the very bottom of the auditory apparatus, and also to moderate the intensity of Explanation of Fig. 28 A vertical section of the organ of hearing. p, pavilion of the ear. co. concha. ca. auditory canal. t. tympanum behin 1 which is seen the cavity of the tympanum (cai.) te the Eustachian tube. flj. foramen nvale. v the vestibule, /. the cochlea. osc. the semicircular canals these canals and the cochlea constitute the labyrinth or internal ear. na. the auditory or acoustic nerve. r. the petrous bone, that is, a part o. the temporal bone which derives its name from a Greek word signifying, rocky, which has been applied to it from its very remarkable hardness. c. cells in the temporal bone. far. glenoid cavity for the articulation of the lower jaw. am. mastoid apophysisor mastoid process of the temporal bone. 41. Of what does the middle ear consist? 42. What is the tympanum ? Where is it situated ? Through what pas. age does air enter the tympanum ? 43. Of what use is the membrana tympani ? Does it modify sound* ' Bt SENSE OF HEARING. sounds ; for it is so arranged, that it can be stretched or relaxed ; and when stretched, it transmits sounds less perfectly. Fiy. 29. 44. We also remark in the interior of the tympanum, m a transverse chain, formed of four small bones, named C\ on account of their shape, (Fiy. 29.) the malleus, (m.) -^F (hammer,) incus, (en.) (anvil) lenticular bone, (I.) or os * orbicular?, and stapes, (*/.) (stirrup.) 45. The malleus rests upon the membrane of the tympanum, and affords attachment to muscles, which, by contracting, may cause it to press more or less strongly upon the membrane ; in this way it is stretched or re- laxed to adapt itself to the intensity of the sounds by O l which it is struck. /gv st 46. In the interior of the cavity of the tympanum, ^"^ there are two small openings which are closed up by membranes stretched over them p. like that of the tympanum ; they ^' lead to the internal ear. One of them, called the feneslta oralix, or foramen ovale, is in contact with the base of the stapes; the other, m called the fenestra rotunda, or foi- amen rotundvm, is situated a little '""", ''f^HHF et lower down. The cavity of the tympanum also communicates with a great number of cells which are in the substance of the petrous bone. 47. The internal ear is composed of three parts, namely, the vestibule, the semi-circular canals, and the cochlea, (Fiy. 28.) These organs are tilled with a watery liquid, in which the fila merits of the acoustic nerve terminate. 48. The vestibule, and the acoustic nerves constitute the essential part of the auditory apparatus ; the other parts which we have just enumerated are destined to perfect this apparatus, and for the most part, may be destroyed, even in man, without Explanation of Fig. 30. The tympanum with the bones of the ear,- L the tympanum, ma. the maleus or hammer, m, the handle of the maleus, which rests upon the tympanum, mm. muscles of the maleus, en. the incus, 01 anvil, et. the stapes or stirrup, me. muscles of the stapes. 44. What is found in the interior of the tympanum ? 45. What bone gives attachment to the small muscles which act on the membrane of the tympanum / 46. In the cavity of the tympanum are found two small openings ; to wl.at part do they lead * VVhich foramen has the stapes bone attached to it? With what other parts does the cavity of the tympanum communicate? 47. Of what parts is the internal ear composed? With what is thes organs filled, and what terminates in them ? 48. What essentially constitutes the auditory apparatus? SENSE OF SIGHT. deafness being the necessary consequence of their loss; they are absent in a great many animals. 49. For example, birds have not the pavilion of the ear; iep- tiles are destitute of the pavilion, and the auditory canal ; in fish all parts of the middle ear, or tympanum, are wanting, and in other animals, such as the craw-fish, the apparatus of hearing consists only of a small vesicle similar to the vestibule. LESSOR IX. FUNCTIONS OP RELATFOS. Ssnse of sight Light Apparatus of vision Eye-brows Eye-lids Lachrymal apparatus Mus- cles of the eye Structure of the eye Use of different parts oj the eye Voice. OF THE SIGHT. 1. Sight is the sense by which we perceive the form, colour volume, and position of objects that surround us. 2. This sense, which Buffbn called " distant touch," is exer- cised at a distance, through the medium of light. 3 To comprehend the mechanism of sight, it is not sufficient to know the structure of the eye ; we must also be familiar with some of the properties of light, the study of which subject be- longs to that branch of science called Optics. 4. Light is a fluid which tills space and illuminates the earth. It emanates from luminous bodies, such as the sun, the fixed stars, and substances in combustion, and diffuses itself afar with incon- ceivable rapidity. 5. In proportion as the rays become distant from the body from which they emanate, they diverge one from the other, and for this reason bodies are better lighted, the nearer they are to the illuminating body. 6. When light meets with a body, it either passes through it, or is reflected from it, or it may be absorbed. 7. Those bodies which permit light to pass through them are called transparent ; those which oppose its passage, are called opaque,. 49. Is the organ of hearing the same in all its parts in all animals ? 1. What is sight? 2. By what me;ins is the sense of sight exercised ? 3. Is a knowledge of the structure of the eye sufficient, in itself to teacfa Us the mechanism of sight ? 4. What is light? What are the sources of light? 5. Why are bodies better lighted when near the illuminating body'/ G. When li^hl meets with a body, what takes place / 1 When are bodies transparent? When are bodies or B(5 SENSE OF SIGHT. S. In order to see an object, the rays of light which emanate from it, or which are reflected by it, must reach to the bottom of the eye. For this reason, an opaque body placed between the eye, and the object at which we look, renders the latter invisible. 9. The surfaces of opaque bodies do not always reflect back the light the same as they receive it. As we have said, there are some which absorb all the rays; such bodies are called Wack. Bodies that reflect all the rays, or nearly all, are white, but tnose which decompose them, are coloured 10. Colour is not inherent in bodies ; it depends upon the man- ner in which they decompose the light, and the kind of luminous ray that the coloured body can reflect. Each ordinary ray of light, though it appears colourless to us, is composed of seven dif- ferently coloured rays: there is a very simple mode of being con- vinced of this fact; if we receive a bundle of luminous rays, which have passed through a glass prism, upon a sheet of paper, instead of producing a white image, it will form an oblong image, in which we distinguish the following seven colours, namely : Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo. Violet Now, objects appear to us white, when they reflect the light, without decompo- sing it, and coloured in this or that manner, when they decom- pose it like the prism, and absorb some rays and reflect others. 11. In passing through transparent bodies, rays of light some- times continue to follow their primitive direction : but on other occasions, they change their direction, and approach towards, or diverge from each other. For example, when a straight stick is plunged, half of its length, obliquely into water, it seems as if it were broken ; and it is by acting in this way upon light, that the con- cave or convex glasses of spectacles, enlarge or diminish the images of bodies. This deviation of light is called re.frtictin. 12. In order to see a body, the rays of light which part from it, must reach the bottom of the eye, and there paint an image of the object; the impression thus produced, is received by a par- ticular nerve, and by it transmitted to the brain which receives the sensation. 13. The apparatus of sight is composed: 1st. of the organ of vision, which consists of the globe of the eye and its nerve; 2nd. 8. What ic necessary to cnnble us to perceive n object ? 9. Do all bodies reflect light ? What is the colour of those bodies whioh bsorb all the rays ? Whut is the colour of those bodies which reflect all the rays ? What is the colour of (hose bodies which refract the rays? 10. Upon what does the colour of bodies depend? 11 What is refraction? 12. In what manner is the image of an object conveyed to the brain ? 13. Of what parts is the apparatus of sight composed ? SENSE OF SIGHT. 87 of the accessory organs of vision, that is, of the protectors and movers of the eye. 14. The ylobc. of the eye, (Fig. 31.) is a hollow ball, filled with certain humors, and so arranged that the rays of light may penetrate it, and collect upon the nerve which occupies its bottom. 15. The sides of this globe are com- posed of a very solid membrane which consists of two parts; one, situated in front, and named transparent cornea ; the other, occupying the sides and bot- tom, and called sclerotica, (Fi eye. 17 The tran&pnri'itt cornea is, on the contrary, diaphanous; it is framed into a great hole in the sclerotica, and resembles a somewhat arched watch-glass, set into a hollow white ball. 18. A short distance behind the transparent cornea, is found a sort of vertical partition, named iris, from its varied colours, which are seen through the cornea. Its centre is pierced by an onening which is susceptible of enlargement and diminution ; it is called the pupil. 19. The space comprised between the cornea and the iris, is called the anterior cliambrr of the fife, which is tilled with a trans- parent liquid called the rce of the eye. 21. Where does the optic nerve enter the eye? What is the retina ? What IK fnund between the retina and internal face of the sclerotica . Why does the pupil se m to be a black spot instead of a h< le ? 22. n what part of the eye are the imag s of objerts formed ? 23. In what manner doe< light act in the interior of the eye? What effect have the different p rts of the interior of the ey upon the light passing from the cornea to the retina? What part especially determines the concen- tration of light in the eye ? 24. What is the consequence of a too great concentration of light by the interior parts of the t ye ? -What is the cause of long sightedriess ? What kind ol spectacles are required for short-sighted people? SENSE OF SIGEIT. 8'j 25. The iris is contractile, and its principal use is to regulate the quantity of light which should penetrate to the bottom of the eye ; when the light is too vivid, it contracts, and consequently diminishes the pupil, through which the rays must pass to reao h the retina; in the dark on the contrary the pupil is enlarged. 26 Thechoroid membrane, which lines the internal face of the globe of the eye, is covered with a sort of black varnish, which bsorbs all the luminous rays, not necessary for vision. 27. Images painted, if we may use this term, upon the retina, are transmitted to the brain through the medium of the optic nerve. 28. The accessary parts of the apparatus of vision are of two kinds; the one is designed to protect the globe or ball of the eye, the oiher to move it and give the required direction to fulfil its functions in the best manner. 29 The protecting organs of the eye are: 1st, the orbit, 2nd, the eye-lids, 3rd. the lachrymal apparatus 4th, the eye-brows. 30. The n>'lrit is a great bony cavity, hollowed out in the face on each side of the nose. It has the form of a cone, the base of which is open and 'directed forward; its parietes are formed, above by the frontal bone ; below, by the superior maxillary bone ; externally, or outwardly, by the malar or cheek bone, and inter- nally by the bones which belong partly to the nose. The bottom of the orbit is pierced by a large hole, which communicates with the cranium, and gives passage to the optic nerve. 31. The ball of the eye is set into this cavity and rests upon a sort of cushion formed of fat. It is protected in the same way on all sides except in front, and there we find the eye-lids. 32. The eye-li.ls are moveable curtains, stretched in front of the ball of the eye. On the outside they are formed of the skin ; internally they are lined by a smooth membrane which is reflected over the front of the eye upon the sclerotica, and this membrane is called the membronn conjunctiva ; between these two mem- branesthe conjunctiva, and the skin there is placed a thin plate of fibrous and resisting substance, called tarsus or palpebral car- ilage, as well as muscles which serve to move these organs. In 25. What is the action of the iris? 26. What is the use of the black covering 1 of the choroid coat? 27. How are images upon the retina transmitted to the brain? 28. What are the uses of the accessary parts of the apparatus of vision' 2'D. What are the protecting organs of the ^ye ? 30. What is the orbit ? 31. Upon what does the ball of the eye rest? 32. What are the eye lids? Of what do they consist? What is then number? 3 PO SENSE OF SIGHT. man there are two eye-lids, one superior, and the other inferior. The superior eye-lid is larger than the inferior 33. Each eye-lid has two edges or borders; one is continuous with the skin, the other is free. The free border of the eye lids, is bristled with delicate hairs, called cilia, or eye-lashes. The use of the cilia is to form a kind of little grating in front of the eye, to arrest foreign bodies, the presence of which would inter- fere with the exercise of vision. 34. The eye-lids perform the double office of protecting the ball of the eye, by closing in front of it, and of rendering it inac- cessible to luminous rays, the brillrancy of which might disturb sleep. Besides, the eye-lids by their alternate movement ot depression and elevation, spread over the front of the globe of the eye, the tears, an aqueous liquid, which prevents the cornea from drying, and also favours the motion of the eye-lids. 35. The lachrymal apparatus, which secretes the tears is com- posed of several organs, some of which are destined to form this liquid, and pour it over the front of the eye; and as the presence of the tears, if too long continued, would become troublesome, other organs convey them from the eye. The first organs, are : Fio. 32. 26. 1st. The lachrymal ylaiid, a small body, the size of an almond, placed at the exterior anc ^ su P er i r P art f tne globe of the eye, be- tween it and the orbitary cavity, (fig. 32, gl.)i it serves to secrete the tears. 2nd. Several 'en sma u canals which arise in this gland, and open upon the internal face of the adhering; border of the upper eye-lid, where they constantly pour upon the conjunc- tiva the lachrymal fluid, or tears. 37. The organs destined to carry away those tears which have been spread over the front of the eye, and to convey them into the nasal fossae, or nostrils, are two little canals which open upon the free border of the eye-lids, near the internal angle of the eye, by two small orifices called the lachrymal points, puncta lachry- Explanation of Fig. 32. The eye seen in front, p. the pupil, and i. the iris, seen through the transparent cornea, gl. the lachrymal gland, pi. the lachrymal points or puncta lachrymalia, en. nasal canal. 33. What is the use of the eye lashes ? 34. What is the use of the eye lids? 35. What is the use of the lachrymal apparatus ? 36. Of what use is the lachrymal gland ? How do th* tears pass from Ihis gland? 37 What are the puncta lachrymalia ? What becomes of the tears after they have moistened the ball of the eye ? What is the nasal canal ? Explain the phenomenon of crying ? SENSE OF SIGHT. malia, {Fig 32.) Each) of these points, (which are placed one above, and the other below,) communicate with a little curved canal, which runs inwards, and opens into a vertical conduit, that is larger in size, called the nasal canal, and which empties into the nasal fossae. The function of these lachrymal pnucta is to pump up and receive the tears as fast as they are poured over the eye: in this way the fluid is carried off as fast as it is formed. Under par- ticular circumstances, the equilibrium between these two pheno- mena is destroyed ; and either that the tears are secreted in too large a quantity, or the lachyrymal puncta do not pump them off with proportioned activity, or they are obstructed in their passage through the lachrymal ducts and nasal canal, this fluid overruns the eye-lids and falls in considerable quantity along the cheeks. 38. The eye-brow*, which form a ridge above the orbit and are garnished with hairs, also belong to the protecting organs of the eye, but their use is less important than that of those organs of which we have just spoken. They assist in shading the eyes wlien exposed to strong light. 39. The niofor organs of the eye Fig. 33. consist of six muscles which are fixed, by their anterior extremities into the sclerotica, and by their posterior extremities to the bottom of the orbit, ( Fig. 33, //*.) By con- tracting they direct the ocular lobe, to the side where their mus- cular tibres are placed. 40. The apparatus of vision pre- sents nearly the same structure in the mammalia, birds, reptiles, and fishes, but in insects, the organization of the eyes is very different, as we shall see when we come to the history of these animals. 41. Through the medium of the senses we take cognizance of all that surrounds us ; but our relations with the external world Explanation of Fig. 33. The orbit, opened to show the position of the eye in this cavity, and the musc'e* which move it, cr.the cranium, wo. the orbitary arch, po. the floor of the orbit, p. and pi. the upper and lower eye-lids, s. the globe of the eye, c. the conjunctiva, n. the optic nerve, m. m. two muscles of the eye, ml. a third muscle cut so as to afford a view of the optic nerve. 38. What are the eye brows? 39. What are the motor organs of the eye ? 40. Is the organ of vision the same in all animals ,11 1171 .~. . v< uigini ui vision me same in an animals ' 41. What powers are requisite besides the senses, to complete OUT rela IMS With thu r>v*r>->nl ,,,~.1,>1 ions with the external world? VOICE. would he vory imperfect if we could not act upon these bodies, change place and express what we feel. Indeed, we do possess this power, which is the result of the faculty of producing sounds, and of the faculty of executing motion. Fig. 34. Fig. 35. br OF THE VOICE. 42. Voice consists in the pro- duction of a particular sound, by the aid of the air which escapes from the lungs. A great number of organs take part in the performance of this func- tion ; but that one which is especially its seit, is the larynx, a sort of cartilaginous tube, which, at its superior extremity, opens into the pharynx by an opening named glottis, and which, by its inferior opening communicates with the windpipe, which is, in a manner, only a prolonga- tion of it. (Fig. 34, and 35.) 43. The larynx is essentially the organ which produces the voice, and it is the passage of ait through its interior which occasions the sounds there formed. To deprive an animal of this faculty, it is only necessary to open the windpipe, for then the air finding an exit through the accidental opening, no longer passes through the larynx, nor is it subjected P to the vibrations which would have been imparted by this organ. 44. The larynx, which is composed of several cartilaginous plates, forming in front, what is vulgarly called, ManC* apple, is lined by a mucous membrane, which forms, near its middle, two broad lateral folds, directed from the front backwards, and arranged very much like the edges of a buttonhole. These folds are called the vocal curds, or inferior ligaments of the gbttit; by the aid of a little muscle, situate in their folds, the slit, or opening Explanation of Fig. 34. The l;irynx seen in front. The internal line in- dicates the shape of the internal surface of this organ, h. the hyoid bone, /. the larynx, t. the trachea, 6r, bronchiae, . ventricles of the glottis, c. vocal cords. Explanation of Fig- 35. The larynx open, seen fioTi one side, c. the rpiglottis, c. one of the ventricles of the larynx, cv. one of the vocal cords, t. the trachea. 42. What is voice? Is voice produced by the function of a single organ ? 43. What is the larynx ? How may it be proved that the larynx is essen- tially the organ of voice? 44. What is meant by the vocal cords? APPARATUS OF MOTION. of the glottis, which is between them, can be narrowed or enlarged. Under ordinary circumstances, the air expelled from the lungs, passes freely through the larynx, and produces no sound ; but when the opening of the glottis is narrowed, by the contraction of the muscles of this organ, and the passage of the air, becomes more rapid, the voice is heard. 45. Words are produced by the modifications which the column of air receives in the interior of the mouth, by the combined action of the palate, the cheeks, the tongue, and lips. LESSON X. FUNCTIONS OF RELATION. Apparatus of motion The skele- ton Structure of hones; their composition Enumeration of the bones Articulations Muscles Attitudes Locomotion. MOTION. 1. The organs of motion are divided into two classes: 1st. Those which act and produce the motive force: 2nd. Those to which the action is communicated ; or, in other words, they are divided into the active and passive organs of locomotion. 2. The first are the muscles ; the second are the bones or those parts which hold their place. OF THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM. 3. Man, and all the other mammalia, as well as birds, reptiles and fishes, have in their structure, solid parts which are called hones, and the union of these bones, one with the other, consti- tutes the Skeleton. ( page 97, fig. 37.) 4. The skeleton is a kind of frame which gives firmness to the body, in a considerable degree, determines its dimensions and its form, serves to protect the organs which are most important to life, and furnishes the passive instruments of motion to the function of locomotion. OF THE COMPOSITION OF BONES. 5. The bones are formed of a species of cartilage, composed of gelatine, (the substance which constitutes strong glue,) all the 45. How are words produced ? 1. How are the organs of motion divided ? 2. Which are the active organs of motion ? Which are the organs of motion? 3. What are bones? What do they constitute? 4. What is the skeleton ? What are its uses ? 5. Of what are the bones composed? 8 94 BONES. laminae and all the fibres of which are incrusted with a strong matter composed of lime united to particular acids, (phosphoric acid, &c.) When bone is burned, the stony matter remains alone, and is reduced to powder by slight friction, and when bone is steeped in a particular liquid, which has the property of dissol- ving this stony matter, (hydrochloric acid,) it is reduced to the state of a flexible cartilage 6 In infancy bone is at first cartilaginous, and before ossifica tion is complete, each one is formed of several distinct pieces, which run together, as it were, at a later period 7. The bones that constitute the skeleton are united one to the other by arlictilatiotts or joints, which change their name according to their form. 8. If the articulation that unites two bones permits them to move, one on the other, it is called a moreablc articulation. 9. If on the contrary, the articulation is merely to secure the solidity and firmness of the bones, it is called immoveable. 10. The more moveable an articulation, the less solid it is, and vice versa ; the more solid, the less mobility it possesses. 11. The immoveable articulations take place through the medium of asperities which dove-tail together ; this mode of union is called a suture. Ftg. 36. 12. The articular surface of the move- a ac c l able Dones > (My- 36.) is covered with ', an elastic substance which is capable of bearing the strongest pressure, and which deadens the shocks they receive ; this substance is called cartilage. The articulations are also supplied with a viscous fluid called synovia, designed Explanutionof Fip. 36. The articulation (joint) of the shoulder, show- ing how the moveable bones are attached to each other, o. the scapula. t. the head of the humerus, c. the capsule of the articulation opened, g. glenoid cavity of the scapula, a. the acromion process of the scapula, articu- lating ( jointing with the clavicle, (cl.) ac. coracoid process of the scapula, -/. ligament extending from this process to the clavicle. 6. What is the condition of bone in infancy ? 7. How are bone" joined together ? 8. What is a moveahle articulation ? 9. What is meant by an immoveable articulation? 10. What kind of articulation is most solid ? 11. What is a suture? 12. How are the articulating surfaces of moveable bones protected from the effects of friction ? What is the use of synovia ? BONES. 95 to favor the sliding of the articular surfaces upon each other- The extremities of the bones that concur to form an articulation correspond by having their respective configurations reciprocal ; they are, in general, one convex, the other concave 13. The means of union between bones is by fibrous parts which bear the name of ligaments. These are very strong bands or species of cords which surround the articulation or joint, hold- ing together the two bones by their extremities. 14. The articulations present a great variety in the motions of which they are susceptible. 15. The bones are also very different in their forms, and on account of this circumstance they are divided into long, short and flat bones. 16. The Jong bones are generally cylindrical, of considerable size, and in the interior, hollowed into a canal filled with a fatty matter called tnnrroir; this form, without injuring their solidity, diminishes their weight. At their extremities these bones are enlarged to afford a broader surface for the articulation. 17. It is easy to perceive that, if the bones were in contact by small surfaces, their union would have been less solid, they would have afforded only an uncertain and insecure motion, and their derangement would have been as common as it is now rare. 18. About their middle, the long bones are formed almost en- tirely of very compact substance ; but at their swollen extremi- ties the^y are chiefly composed of a spongy substance, which is not so heavy. It is these bones that form the solid frame work of the limbs. 19. Neither the short nor the flat bones have any cavity in the interior. 20. The short bones are formed almost entirely of spongy sub- stance, which lessens their weight without diminishing their vol- ume The chief use of the flat bones is to form the parietes of cavities which afford protection to internal organs : they are not however, insusceptible of motion ; they furnish points of attach- ment to many muscles. 13. What a>-e ligaments? 14. Do the articulations pernvt of a variety of motions? 1 >. How are the bones divided ? 16. What is the general character of the long bones? Where is the mar. row found? 17. VVhy are the long bones enlarged at their extremities ? 18. In what res ect do the extremities and middle of the long bones differ in structure ? 1!). Have the short and the flat bones any internal cavities? 20. What is the character of the short bones? K 96 THE SKELETON. 21. We remark inequalities upon the surfaces of bones, which afford points of attachment for muscles; they often present for tho same purpose, as well as for the ligaments of the joints, salient prolongations which are named afjophyses or processes. OF THE SKELETON. 2->. The skeleton is a species of frame formed by the union c 4 he different bones of the body. A great many animals are with- out it, but it exists in the mammalia, birds, reptiles, and fishes. To study it we will select the skeleton of man (page 97/2g-.37.) 23. The skeleton, like the body, is divided into head, trunk, and extremities. 24. The heal is placed at the superior extremity of the body, and is divided into two parts, the cranium and face. 25. The fare presents five great cavities destined to lodge the organs of sight, of smell, and of taste : these cavities are the two orbits ( for ike eyes) the two nasal fossae and the mouth. 26. A great number of bones concur to form the face : the principal ones are: 1st. The two -superior maxillary bones, which constitute near- ly the whole of the upper jaw, and rise at the sides of the nose to join the frontal bone. 2nd. The malar or cheek bones, which form the cheeks in part, and extend from the superior maxillary to the frontal bone^ so as to complete the orbit on the outside. 3rd. Tiie inferior ma-ciliary bone, which constitutes the lower jaw, presents nearly the form of a horse shoe. There are also other bones in the face called palate, nasal, un- guifonne or tackry trial, ftp 'may bones, and miner. 27. Trie cranium is a bony cavily of an oval form serving to contain the brain. It is formed by the union of several flat bones which are : in front, the frontal, upon the sides and above, the parietal, behind the occipital, below, and on the sides, the tem- poral, and in the middle the sphenoid, and inferiorly and in front, the etkmoid, which also serves to complete the orbits and ft rm the superior part of the nasal fossae. 21. For what purposes are those inequalities which are found on the AUJT- faces of bones? What are processes ? 22. What is the skeleton ? Is every animal provided with a nkeleton 1 23. How is the skeleton divided ? 24. What is the situation and division of the head? 25. What are the uses of the several cav.ties of the 26. What are the chief bones of the face ? 97. Describe the cranium ? THE SKELETON. 97 -/ Fig. 37. 28. On the sides of the. cranium, we remark an opening for the auditory canal, and on its inferior face or base, we find many Expla nation of Fip. 37. Skeleton of man ; the external line indicates the shape of the body. f. the frontal hone. we. the cervical vertebrae, s. the Btemurn, or breast bone, co. the rihs, vl. the lumbar vertebrae, a. the abdomen, sa. the sacrum, cl. the clavicle, o. the scapula or shoulder blade, A. the humerus, r. the radius, c. the cubit us or ulna, c. the carpus, me the metacarpus. p. and pt. the phalanges, or bones of the finders, i. the ilium, fr.the frmur, ro. the rotnla, patella, or knee-pan, ti. the tibia, per. the fibula, ta. the tarsus, mt. the metatarsus. or. the toes, cal the calcis or heel. 28. Of what use are the neveral holes at the base of the cranium? 9S THE SKELETON. 12 holes which serve to give passage to nerves and blood vessels. One of th^se holes, very much larger than the others, called the occipital hole, foramen occipital*, corresponds with the verte- bral canal, and gives passage to the spinal marrow; and on each side of this great hole we find an eminence called coudule, which serves f >r the articulation of the head upon the vertebral column. 29. The trunk is composed of the vertebral column, the ribs an 1 xter num. Fig. 33. SO. The vertebral column, or spine, is a species of bony stalk, or stem, which occupies the middle line '( of the back, and extends from the head to the poste- / vc rior extremity of the body, (Fig. 38.); it is formed by the union of small, short bones, called vertebra, (Fig. 39.) and pre- sents throughout its whole length a canal formed by the union of the holes by which each vertebra is pierced ; this canal serves to lodge the spinal marrow. Each of these bones pre- sents in front of the hole, a species of thick, solid disc, called the body of the vertebra, which is very firmly united to the body of the vertebra next to it ; behind, we remark prolongations called transverse and spinous processes which form what is commonly called the spine. 31. Tlie vertebral column is divided into five regions, namely: 32. 1st. The cervical region, which constitutes the frame of the neck : in man, and all the other mammalia, it is composed of seven vertebrae, (Fig. 38, tc.) 33. 2n 1. The dortal, or thoracic region, which gives attach- ment to the ribs which form the ch.rst 9 or thorax; the vertebrae of this region in man, are twelve in number, (Tig. 38, vd.) 34. 3rd. The lumbar region, which terminates the back below, in man, is composed of five vertebrae, (Fig. 38, vl) 35. 4th. The .sacral region which articulates with the bones of the hips, is composed, in man, of five vertebrae, so run, or fused to- gether, as to form but a single bone called the sacrum, (Fig, 38, s.) Explanation of Fi-j. 3!) A vertebra seen from above, c. ils body, /. a hole flr I he passage of the spinal marrow, at. transverse processes, sp. s-pinal process direct-ed ha 1 k wards. 29. What part-: compose the trunk? 30. What is the vertebra, column ? What is found in the vertebral canal? Jl. Into how many parts is the vertebral column divided? 32 How many vertebrae are found in the cervical region? J3. Wnat is the number of dorsal vertebrae? 34. Wh;it is the number ol lumbar vertebrse? 35. What is the siortun ? - co THE SKELETON. 99 36. 5th. The caudal or cnccyqian region, which in man i-s com- posed of four very small vertebrae, concealed beneath the skin, in many animals, is very long, constituting the tail, (Fig. 38. co.) 37. The vertebral column seen in profile, presents four curves, which correspond to the neck, the back, the loins, and the ;>*'/r/>, or basin, and which serve to augment its solidity. On its sides, we find, between all the vertebrae, a hole which gives passage to a nerve, coming from the spinal marrow. 38. The rib*) which are attached to the dorsal vertebra?, are long, flat bones, which enclose the thorax: on each side : they are curved and bear considerable resemblance to a half hoop. In man there are twelve pairs. The seven first, called true ribs, articulate in front with the sternum, through the medium of a cartilage ; the five last pairs, called false ribs, terminate anteriorly by a cartilage which joins that of the preceeding rib, or they are entirely without cartilage. 39. The aU'rnnm. is a flat bone placed in front of the thorax; it articulates with the ribs and with the clavicles. 40. The superior or anterior eytremiiie* are composed of the shoulder, the arm, the fore-arm and the hand. 41. The .\iionLier is the basis of the whole limb attached to it. It consists of two bones; the scapula or shoulder blade, and the clavicle, or collar-bone. 42. The scapula is a large bone nearly triangular in shape, which is applied against the ribs at the superior and lateral part oi the back. At its superior external angle, it presents an enlarged articular surface, slightly hollowed, which receives the bone of the arm and is called the ylenoni carity of t/ic scapula. On the posterior face of this bone there is a projecting comb or riJge which extends over the articulation of the shoulder, and arti- culates with the clavicle. This prolongation is named the acroiaion. 43. The dariclf is a long thin bone situated at the base of the neck ; it extends like a buttress between the scapula and sternum; 36. What are those vertehrae called which form the skeleton of the tail in animals ? 37 For what use ar the several holes found between the vertebra on (he liijes of the spinal column 1 38. VVhat are the ribs? Whatnumbei of ribs belong to man? How many tre true and how many are false ribs ? 33. What is the sternum? 40. How are the superior extremities divided ? 4 I. What is the shoulder ? ^ hat bones c >mpose the shoulder? 42. Wl ere is the scapula placed ? VVhat is the glenoid cavity ? WL&t iff 4ie acromion? 43. What is the use of the clavicle ? K2 100 THE SKELETON and serves to keep the first of these bones in its natural position, and to prevent the shoulder from falling too far forward. 44. The arm is firmed of a single bone called the humerus. This bone is of a cylindrical form and has a swelling at its supe- rior extremity called the head of the humerus which articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scnpula. Its inferior extremity is enlarged transversely and resembles a pully upon which moves he fore arm. 45. The fore-arm is formed by the union of two bones which are; on the inner side, the cuhitv* or n/na, and on the outside, (the side on which the thumb is placed) the radi'is. These bones are joined to the humerus by their superior extremities and to the hand by their inferior extremities. 46. The hand in man is divided into three regions ; the carpus, the metucarpns and fingers; the carpus or wrist, is composed of eight small bones, ranged in two rows and united to each other by fibrous threads which preserve their mutual relations and permit them to move a little upon each other, by aid of the smooth sur- faces by which they are in contact. 47. The metacarpus is composed of five bones which may be regarded as the origin of the fingers. They are placed parallel, one along side of the other; their superior extremities articulate with the bones of the carpus and their inferior extremities with the fingers. 48. The fingers are composed of small bones articulated one at the extremity of the other, and called phalanges. Except the thumb which has but two, each finger has three of these bones. 49. The iitfeiior extremities are formed nearly in the same manner as the superior; the hip represents the shoulder, the thigh the arm; the leg the fore-arm, and the foot the hand. 50. The hip or haunch serves to support the abdominal mem- ber or lower extremity, as the shoulder sustains the thoracic member It is formed on each side by a very large, and very strong bone, the ilium. These bones are united together in front, and behind they articulate with the sacrum, so as to form in conjunction with it at the bottom of the belly, a sort of bony belt called the pdvis or hasin. In infancy, we find that the ilium bone consists of three separate portions one of which resembles 44. What is the character of the bone of the arm ' 4-5. How is the fore arm formed? 46. How is the hand divided ? 47. What is the metacarpus? 48. How are the fingers composed ? 4!). How are the inferior extremities formed ? 50. What forms the hip ? What is the condition of the pelvis in infancy * THE SKELETON. 101 the scapula somewhat, and is called the ilium ; the second, placed in front, called the pubis, may, perhaps compare with the clavi- cle, and the third, situated below and behind, has received the name of isc/tiunt, and which supports the whole weight of the body when seated ; with age these three bones become solidified into one. At the point where they unite, we find a very deep, circular cavity called the coiyloid or more commonly the accta bttlum, in which is articulated the thigh bone. 51. The pelvis serves not only to support the lower extremi- ties, but also assists in sustaining the weight of the viscera con- tained in the abdomen, and in forming the parietes of this cavity. 52. The thiy/t is formed of a single bone called the femur, This bone is articulated by its superior extremity with the hip bone, and by its inferior extremity with the leg. 53. The teg is formed of two bones very solidly united to each other. The bone placed internally, very much larger than the other and called tibia articulates with the femur by its superior extremity. The bone which is placed externally does not quite reach to the femur, and is only united to the tibia ; it is named fibula. In front of the articulation of the leg with the thigh is placed a small bone named rotula or patella, which is designed to strengthen the knee joint. 54. The font is divided into three regions; the tarsus, the- metatarsus and tors. It differs from the hand chiefly in tne shortness of the fingers, that is, toes, their limited mobility and by the disposition of the tarsus. 55. The tarsus is constituted of the union of seven bones, one of which alone, called the astragalus, articulates with the two bones of the leg ; another one of these bones, called the c/ci.v, forms a considerable projection behind which constitutes the heel. 56. The metatarsus is composed of five bones which are united to the tarsus and to the bones of the toes, and which are ar- ranged like the bones of the metacarpus. 57. Like the fingers, the toes are composed of p' alnnges. called first, second, and third phalanges. The great toe ha-t but wo phalanges, each of the others has three. All th*H little 51. What are th- uses of the pelvis '! 5'2. What number of bones is in the thigh ? 53. How many bones constitute the leg ? What are they callet 'Vhat i he patella? 54. How do-s the foot differ from the hand ? 55. What constitutes the tarsus ? 56 Of what bones is the metatarsus composed ? 5V Of why* hoaes arc the toes composed 1 9 102 THE MUSCLES. oones are joined to each other by articular surfaces, the contact and junction of which are secured by fibrous ligaments. OF THE MUSCLR3. Fig. 40. 58. All the great motions of the body are caused by the displacement or movement of some of the bones which form the skeleton; but these bones can- , .\\.d not move of themselves, and only change their posi- tion through the action of other organs attached to them, which, by contracting, draw the bones after them. b 59. These motor organs are the mnsvlea. They are very numerous and constitute what is commonly called flesh, and form nearly one half of the total mass of the body. They are a species of ribbon or fleshy cords composed of fasciculi or bundles of fibres united > AW! together, and which have the property of contraction or elongation, (Fiy. 40.) All the muscles destined to produce the great movements of the body, are fixed to the skeleton by their two extremities. Tt, therefore, follows, that when they contract they displace those bones which offer the least resistance, and -draw them towards those which are not moveable, but serve as points of sup- port for moving the first. Now, in most instances, the bones are more moveable in proportion as they are more distant from the centre of the body: and .the muscles which are fixed between two bones, generally act upon that which is most distant, and we always tind the muscles, destined to move a bone, extend from it towards the trunk ; for example, the muscles which move the fingers, occupy the palm of the hand, and the fore-arm ; those which flex the fore-arm upon the arm, occupy the arm, and those which move the arm on the shoulder, are placed upon the shoulder, (Pig. 40.) Under ordinary circumstances, however, the muscles displace the bones which serve them as points of support. When the body is suspended by the hands, and we endeavour to raise it, the flexor muscles of the fore-arm, not being able to displace the latter, approximate the arm, and thus draw the whole body after it. Explanation of Fig, 40. The muscles of the superior extremity, d. the deltoid muscle, which extends from the shoulder to the arm, and by contract* ng, elevates the litter, b. the biceps muscle w.iich bends the arm, -f. one of the flexor muscles of the fingers. 58. How are the great motions of the body produced ? 59. What are muscles ? THE MUSCLES. 105 Fig. 43. t\ ml 60. When a muscle contracts, it swells ; its fibres, which in a state of repose, were straight, fold in zig- zag, (Figs. 41, a/,d 42.) and their two extremities are brought n n ar to each other, drawing also with them the parts to which they are attached, but their volume is not augmented. 61. The two extremities of muscles are solidly fixed to the bones, and to the other parts which they are designed to set in motion, such as the skin, through the medium of white cords, called tendons, (Fiy. 43.) or membranes of the same nature, named a/xmcuroses, or fascia. In con- tracting, they must necessarily draw towards each other the two bones to which the tendons or aponeuroses are attached. An example will enable us better to under- stand this mechanism. If we suppose the muscle, m. (Fiy. 44.) to be attached to the humerus, and to the ulna or cubitus, which articulates first, forming the elbow joint, by moveable ligaments, it is evident that when this muscle contracts, these bones will approach each other, as is seen in Fig. 45. This example will give an idea of all the motions of the skeleton. 62. The number of muscles of the human body is very con- siderable ; they are reckoned at 470 ; in general, they form about the skeleton two layers, and are distinguished into superficial and deep seated 63. The muscles which are designed to move any particulai bone, are almost always placed around that portion of the skele- Fig. 44. Expla nation of Fig. 41. A fragment of muscle showing- the muscular fasciculi (bundles of muscular fibres,) straight, and at u-st. Explanation of Fig. 42. The same in a state of contraction. Explanation of Fig. 43. A muscle (m.) with the tendons (<,/.) by which it is attached to the bonrs. Explanation of Fig. 44. Bon? of the arm (h.) and the fore-arm, (af.) with one of the flexor muscles of ihe fore-arm (m.) \\\ a state of rest. Explanation of Fig. 45. The same at the moment of contraction. 60. What changes lake place by the contraction of a muscle? 61. To wh it prLs are the extremities of the muf gravity is the name given to the point about which all points of a body recipro- cally balance each other, and if it be sustained, it is sufficient to maintain the entire mass in place. 78. It follows then that to prevent a body from falling, it is sufficient that its base be placed vertically beneath its centre ol gravity. 11. What is meant by attitude? 73. What is attraction? 74. Why do all bodies tend t-> fall towards the centre of the globe ? 75. What condition is necessary that a body may preserve its position 1 76. What is meant by base of support? 77. What is meant hy centre of gravity? 78. What is necessary to prevent a body from falling ? 106 OF ATTITUDE. 7.* It is also easy to understand that its equilibrium will be more stable in proportion to the extent of its base ; for then its centre of gravity may be more displaced, without the vertical line which passes through the centre of gravity, being carried beyond the limits of this base of support. The more the centre of gravity is elevated above the base of support, the less firm on the contrary will be the equilibrium, foi a smaller displacement from this point will then suffice to carrj the vertical line, that descends from it, beyond the base of support which soon causes the body to fall.] The term attitude is applied to any position of the body that is permanent during any considerable time. 80. The principal attitudes of man are : lying, sitting, and the erect position on his feet, or standing. 81. When a man is lying on his back or on his belly, all parts of the body rest upon the earth : he is not then required to con- tract any muscle to keep them in place, and his position unites in the highest degree the two conditions of equilibrium, to wit; the greatest possible extent of the base of lu/tpu t and the proximity of the centre of gravity to this base. Hence the attitude of re- pose is that from which it is most difficult to fall. 82. In the sitting position the body rests upon the tuberosities of the ischium or haunch bones ; the base of support is considera- ble, since it is represented by the pelvis, the extent of which is in- creased by the soft parts which cover it; this position also, next to lying, offers the greatest solidity ; but it cannot be preserved without muscular action. When the back is supported, the mus- cles of the neck alone contract to preserve the head erect ; but if the back is not supported (as when seated on a stool or a bench for example) then the greater part of muscles on the back of the trunk contract to prevent it from falling forward, and fatigue will sooner or later result from this permanent action. 83. When man is erect, the lower extremities sustain the body and transmit to the earth the weight which they support. Con sequently these limbs must not bend under the load, and must be kept straight by the contraction of their extensor muscles. 84. In this position the centre of gravity of the whole body lies in the cavity of the pelvis, and the base of support is circurn- 79. Why is a body firm in proportion to the extent of its base 7 80 What are t l 'e principal attitudes of man ? 81. What position or attitude is preserved without muscular exertion? 82. What muscles are exerted to preserve the sitting position ? 83. What supports the body when man is erect? 81. Wh re is the centre of gravity in the erect position ? Where is th* base of support in the erect position ? OF LOCOMOTION. 107 scribed hy the space comprised between the two feet. Here a slight force is sufficient to destroy the equilibrium, and it is only by enlarging the base of support in one direction more than in another that a fall can be prevented. The movements by which we regain the perpendicular in the i*ase of support are in a measure automatic. Thus, to resist A force tending to make us fall forward the foot is rapidly advanced : if the body leans to the left we suddenly extend the right arm to re-establish the equilibrium, if a force tends to throw us backward, we put a foot behind and throw the body in advance. The man who has a large belly and the man bearing a heavy load upon his shoulders are both obliged to assume attitudes that change the position of the centre of gravity. The first carries the body back- wards in order that the vertical line passing through this point may alsj fall between the two feet, and for the same reason, the second bends the body forward. A woman who carries an infant upon her right arm inclines the body to the left side: thus, we are constantly resorting to mechanics, even without possessing the most elementary notions of the science, and the most certain causes of our preservation are found in the continual application of physical laws, of which our reason has not the knowledge. When an animal rests upon its four members at the same time, his standing is more firm, more solid and less fatiguing: for the base of support is then very large. Then, without inconvenience the feet may be much smaller than in the bipeds and consequently lighter. OF LOCOMOTION. 85. The objects of the motions which we perform is either to change the position of certain parts of the body, or to transport us from one place to another. 86 The faculty of changing place is called locomotion. 87. The movements of progression by the help of which man and animals change place, are produced by certain parts of the Dody which being flexed, rest upon a resisting object, and being again immediately extended, push forward the rest of the body. 88. In man the organs of locomotion are the abdominal mem- bers, or lower extremities; in quadrupeds the thoracic as well as the abdominal members ; and in birds that fly, the wings. 89. In walking, the body of man is moved alternately by onw 85. What is the object of the motions which we perform ? bG. What is meant by locomotion? 87. How is progression effected? .^w* 88 What are the organs of locomotion ? ti'.i How is walking distinguished from running and leaping' OF THE OF 108 OF LOCOMOTION. of the feet and sustained by the other, without his ever ceasing completely to rest on the ground. This last circumstance dis- tinguishes walking from leaping and running, movements in which the body quits the earth for a moment and launches into fie air. 90. In walking, one of the feet is carried forward, while the other is extended on the leg, and as this last member is supported on the ground, its elongation displaces the pelvis and throws the whole body forward. When the foot which was advanced alights upon the ground, the pelvis turns on the femur of that side, and the leg which was at rest behind, is flexed and carried front of the other, touches the earth and in its turn serves to sustain the body, while the other limb by being extended gives a new impulse to the pelvis. By the aid of these alternate movements of flexion and extension each limb in turn bears the weight of the body, as it would do when standing on one foot, and at each step the centre of gravity of the whole mass of the body is pushed for- ward. Security in walking is always in a direct ratio to the degree of separation of the feet, and in an inverse ratio to the mobility of the surface that supports us. It is only at the end of a certain time that sailors walk securely upon the deck. When they have once " got their sea legs" it is very easy to recognise them on shore from the habit which they have of considerably separating the feet in walking. 91. Leaping or jumping is a movement by which a man pro- jects himself into the air and again falls to the ground as soon as the effect of the impulsion is lost. 92. The mechanism of the leap consists entirely in the previous flexion of the joints and their sudden extension. When a jumper wishes to spring, he shortens himself by folding himself up as it were upon himself; the leg is flexed forward on the foot, the thigh is also flexed back on the leg, and the trunk with the pelvis are flexed forward on the thigh ; and, when one wishes to spring with all his strength, the trunk is flexed upon itself like a spring. In these preliminaries of the leap, the lower extremities and the body describe a series of zigzags. At the moment ol the leap all the articulations are extended at the same instant and .raise the body with such rapidity that it leaps into the air like an elastic rod that had been bent to the ground, and then suddenly abandoned to its elasticity or spring. 90- What is the mechanism of walking ? 91. What is leaping/ 92. What is the mechanism of a leap ? OF LOCOMOTION. 93. It is easy to perceive that the parts which act most in the leap are the legs : indeed, it is upon them that the weight to be raised is most considerable. The facility and rapidity of the leap are always in direct ratio to the energy of the muscles, which determine the extension of the legs. It is observed that the most vigorous dancers and even great walkers have the calf strongly developed : indeed this part is formed of the muscles which effect the extension of the leg upon the foot. 94. Running partakes both of walking and leaping. There is always a moment in running when the body is suspended in the air, a circumstance which distinguishes it from rapid walking in which the foot that rests behind does not leave the ground until the forward one again touches it. 95. Swimming and flying are movements analogous to those of leaping, but which take place in water or in the air, fluids whose resistance to a certain extent, takes the place of that of the ground in the act of leaping. . 96. When an animal is destined to live in water and to swim, its members have a different form from that of those animals which are organized for walking only. The limbs are then short and constitute a species of paddles or oars called fins. When the animal is designed to elevate himself in the atmosphere, the thoracic members on the contrary are very much expanded and are so arranged on each side of the body as to form a kind of moveable sail or fan, fit to strike the air with force. In one of the following lessons, when we consider the mam- malia and birds, we shall recur to the study of these organs, and we shall see how the same members may constitute in different animals, the instruments of prehension, of walking, of natation, or of flight. We here conclude what we proposed to say generally, on the manner in which the principal phenomena of animal life are per- formed, and on the organs which serve as instruments for the exercise of the faculties with which animals are endowed. We shall next proceed to study each of these animals in par ticular, and see in what way they differ from each other END OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 93. What is remarkable in the legs of great dancers and walkers ? 94. What is the mechanism of running / 95. What are swimming and flying ? 96. What is the character of those animals which are destined to live in water? What is the character of the limbs of those animals destined to ilevate themselves in the air ? BOOK II. CLASSIFICATION OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. FIRST BRANCH: VERTEBRATE ANIMALS. CLASS I. MAMMALIA. MAMMALOGY: THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAMMALS, OR MILK EATING ANIMALS. BIG-ELK. CHIEF OP THE OMAWHAWS. (Type of the American Race.) MAMMALOGY. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAMMIFEROUS ANIMALS. LESSON I. CLASSIFICATION OP THE ANIMAL KINGDOM Comparison of Ani- mals Tkeir division into four BRANCHES Characters of each of these Branches Division of the VERTEBRATA into four Classes. OF CLASSIFICATION IN GENERAL. As we have seen, when considering the subject of "Physiology and Animal Mechanism," The Natural History of Animals is termed Zooloyy. For the convenience of study, Zoology has been divided into several branches, the highest of which is termed Mammalogy. This embraces the study of the Natural History of all Mam- miferous Animals, man included, and is to engage our attention at present. 1. The number of different animals inhabiting the surface of the globe, is so great, that in order to study them with ease, it is necessary to establish amongst them, divisions, and sub-divisions. Each of the groups thus formed should be characterised in such a manner as to enable us always to recognise, with certainty, the individuals which belong to it, and the group should be designated by a particular name. The assemblage of these divisions and sub-divisions constitutes what is termed a CLASSIFICATION. 2. In the classification of animals, the name Species is applied to an assemblage of individuals which bear a strong resemblance to each other, and which are perpetuated with the same essential qualities. Thus, man, the dog, the horse constitute, to the eye of the zoologist, so many distinct species. 3. Sometimes one species differs considerably from all the others ; but, in general, there is a number of them, greater or less, which very much resemble each other, being distinguished only by some unimportant differences ; the horse and the ass, the 1. What must be done to enable us to study the animal kingdom with ease? What is meant by a classification? 9 What is the meaning of the term species? 12 OF CLASSIFICATION IN GENERAL. dog and the wolf, are examples. In the natural classifications, the species which resemble ' each other, we unite into groups, called genera, and add to their peculiar or specific name a generic name which is common to them: thus, we say, to desig- nate the different species of bears, URSUS arctos, (the brown bear of Europe); URSUS Americanus, (the North American black bear); URSUS maritimus, (the polar bear, &c.); and LACERTA agilis, LACERTA ocellata, LACERTA viridis, &c., to designate the various species of the genus LACERTA or lizard. 4. Each animal has, as is seen above, two names, which may be compared to the family and baptismal names of men, with the difference that they are inverted in the order in which they are placed ; the name of the genus always precedes the name of the species. 5. Those genera which resemble each other most, are united into TRIBES, and the tribes into FAMILIES. 6. The families are distributed on the same principle, into groups of a higher rank to which the name of ORDER is applied. 7. Finally, the orders are, in turn, united into CLASSES, and the classes themselves are the divisions of the great BRANCHES of which the animal kingdom is composed. 8. Thus, to class the various animals, the animal kingdom is divided into Branches; the branches into Classes; the classes into Orders; the orders into Families; the families into Tribes; the tribes into Genera ; the genera into Species, which designate assemblages of individuals. The following table shows sti^ better the manner in which the animal kingdom is divided into groups, which in turn are sub-di- vided farther and farther, until all the individuals belonging to the different species are separated from each other. 3. What is meant by the term genera ? 4. What is the number of names given to each animal ? What is the character of these two names ? Is the generic or specific name placed first jj order ? 5. What constitutes a tribe? What is included in the term family ? G How is the term order applied ? 7. When several orders are united together, what do they constitute ? What do the classes form? 8. To enable us to study it with greater facility, how is the animal king dom divided ' M OQ !9 1 V 1 11 fa 1 i j -*vw y . rt 2 c "S 8 1 1 6 s S o 1" J i "S d J3 ^ 1 1 5 w _; ."S tf ci ecsa 14 CLASSIFICATION. 9. Each one of these divisions and sub-divisions of the animal kingdom has a particular name. For example ; one of the branches is called the branch of the vertebrata, (or vertebrated animals,) another the branch of the molluscous animals, or mollusca, &c.; the first of these branches is divided into many classes, one of which is. known as the class of birds, another as the class of reptiles, tyc. 10. To enable the naturalist to know whether the animal which he studies, belongs to this or that branch or family, &,c., it is necessary that each of the divisions and sub-divisions, under consideration, should be established by characters, easily recog- nised, and derived from the conformation of the animals themselves. 1 1. Therefore, each branch, each class, ^ach family &c., should comprise all animals which possess certain peculiarities of organi- zation which are not found in animals belonging to other branches or other divisions. The BRANCH of VERTEBRATED ANIMALS, for example, comprises every animal whose body in sustained by an internal skeleton; the CLASS OF FISHES comprises all vertebrated animals which, in place of lungs, have branchice. To know whether an animal belongs to the branch of vertebrata, it is suffi- cient to examine whether it has an internal skeleton, and this character once ascertained, it cannot possibly be confounded with any animal belonging to the other branches. To know whether a vertebrated animal belongs to the class of fishes or to another class, we must ascertain whether it be provided with branchia3 or lungs. 12. [To illustrate the utility of classification, a few examples will suffice: if one would, without resorting to some such means, ascertain the name of an animal that he had killed in the chase, it would be necessary to compare it with a detailed description of all other animals; for if, even when at the very beginning of this inquiry, we should meet with a description which seemed to correspond to the object in question, we could not be sure until we had run over all the other descriptions, that we should not find one still more exactly applicable to this being ; the labor would be consequently almost interminable. But if we employ 9. How are the divisions and sub-divisions of ihe animal kingdom designa- ted ? What are the examples ? 10. By what means is a naturalist enabled to know whether an animal belongs to this or that branch, or family ? 11. What is the distinguishing character of those animals which belong to the branch of vertebrated animals? What is the distinguishing character- stic of fishes? How do you recognise an animal that belongs to the branch of the vertebrata? How do we know whether a vertebrated animal belong! lo the class of fishes ? 12. Give an illustration of the utility of classification ? CLASSIFICATION. J5 the method of classification, we shall arrive almost at once, and without difficulty, at the end of our search. I will suppose that the animal in question is an eagle ; I find at first that it has a skeleton, and hence I know that it belongs to the branch of ver- iebrala, and it is not necessary to compare it with animals of the other branches ; I next look for the characters which distinguish the different classes of vertebrata from each other, and when it is determined in this way, that it is an animal of the class of birds, I exclude from the comparison which remains yet to be made, all the mammalia, all the reptiles, and all the fishes; I next inquire whether it presents the characters proper to this or that order of the class of birds, this or that family ; and when I have ascer- tained the genus to which it belongs I have only to compare it with a very small number of animals from which it differs only in some few, not very important particulars.] 1 3. [The use of classification permits the abbreviation, to a con- siderable extent, of the description otherwise necessary to make another recognise any particular animal ; for if we say that an animal is a vertebrata of the class of reptiles, of the order of sauria, of the family of crocodiles, it requires, in order to dis- tinguish it, only to point out the characters by which it differs from a very small number of other animals, which possess, in common with it, characters peculiar to the order and family of which it also forms a part. There exists here the same difference as would be found in seeking, by his description and number, a soldier in an army in which all the ranks were mingled, or in a well-regulated army where each division, each brigade, each regiment, each battalion, each company, would be found in the place belonging to them, and carrying with them their distinctive signs.] 14. [By the assistance of zoological classification we are enabled to assign to an animal the name which belongs to it, in the same manner as we are enabled to find a person we seek by knowing the direction of his residence ; in the latter case we first inquire his country, then the state, the county, the town, the street, the house, and finally the room in which he dwells ; and in the first case we ask to what grand division of the animal kingdom does the species under consideration belong, then to what class, what order, what family, and to what genus it must be assigned ; these questions being solved the work is almost finished.] 15. As we have seen, it is by the differences existing between 13. What is the striking use of classification? Illustrate its use? 14. What does zoological classification enable us to do? 15 By what means are we able to classify animals? On what principle 16^ THE GREAT DIVISIONS OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. animals that we are enabled to classify them, and to distinguish them with certainty ; but in order that a classification may be as useful as possible, it must serve to point out the resemblances, greater or less, which are remarked amongst them. Also, in the classifications called the natural methods or orders, the only really good ones, the characters upon which the divisions and sub-di- visions of the animal kingdom are based, are selected in such a manner that each group includes only such species as resemble each other the more in proportion as this group itself is of a less elevated rank in the classification. The animals of the same genus, for example, will differ much less from each other than those of two genera of the same family, and these latter will re- semble each other much more than those belonging to different orders, and in a still stronger degree, than those of different classes The natural classification is, in a manner, a synoptical view of all the variations met with in the organization of animals, and in knowing the place which any animal occupies in such a method or classification, we know by it alone the most remarkable features of its organization, and the manner in which its most important functions are performed, that is to say, the most important part of its history, because its habits are always correspondent with its conformation. DIVISION OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM INTO BRANCHES. 16. In ranging animals according to their different degrees of resemblance and according to the differences more or less con- siderable which distinguish them, we first remark, that there exists in the animal kingdom, four principal types according to which nature seems to have constructed all these beings ; they are divided into four great divisions or BRANCHES, namely : 1st. Animalia vertebrata vertebrated animals. 2nd. Animalia mollusca molluscous animals. 3rd. Animalia articulala articulated animals. 4th. Animalia radiate r dialed or rayed animals, or zoophytes. 17. The folio wing table presents the principal characters which distinguish these great divisions of the animal kingdom : arc the characters of animals selected in the classifications according to the a.'itural methods ? What does natural classification enable us to know ? Do the habits of an animal correspond to its organization and conformation ? 16. In classifying animals what do we first observe? What arethegrcat divisions of the animal kingdom? 17 ([HIT The following questions are answered in the table.) What are the leading characters of animals belonging tothe branch of vertebrated animals? How is this branch divided / What sort of blood have inese at imals 7 M 18 GENERAL CHARACTERS OF VERTEBRATED ANIMALS. FIRST BRANCH OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. ANIMALIA VEKTEBRATA. GENERAL CHARACTERS OF VERTEBRATED ANIMALS, 18. The vertebrated animals are, of all animated beings, those whose faculties are most various and most perfect ; whose organs are most numerous and most complicated. 19. The existence of a solid frame in the interior of the body enables them to attain a size which the articulated animals, mol- lusca and zoophytes never reach ; and this* skeleton, all the parts of which are united one to the other so as to allow of motion, gives to their movements a precision and a vigour which are rarely seen in other animals. 20. The portion of the skeleton which is never wanting, which varies least, and which is, at the same time, the most important of all, is the bony stem that encloses the encephalon, and which is formed by the cranium and vertebral column. 21. The external senses are always five in number, and the organs which are the seat of them, present with slight variation, the same disposition as in man. What are the characters which distinguish animals belonging to the branch of molluscous animals? How is this branch divided ? Have animals of this branch a brain or spinal marrow ? What is the nature of their nervous system? Do animals of this branch possess an internal skeleton/ What are the characters which distinguish animals belonging to the branch of articulated animals? What is the character of the nervous system of this branch? Has this branch an internal skeleton ? What kind of blood do animals of this branch possess ? What classes of animals are included in this branch? What are the characters which distinguish animals of the branch of radiated animals? What is the form of the bodies of animals of this branch? What is the character of their nervous system ? Have these animals a heart? What is the color of their blood ? What classes does this branch include? 18. What branch of the animal kingdom includes the most perfectly or- ganised animals ? 19. What are the chief advantages derived from an internal skeleton by animals of the branch of vcrtebrata? 20. What pan of the skeleton is never absent in the vertebrated animals ? 21. What is the number of the senses in the vertebrata? What is their disposition " [See Physiology and Animal Mechanism Lesson viii and ir. DIVISION OF THE VERTEBRATA INTO CLASSES. ^0 22. The apparatus of digestion, in this great division of the animal kingdom, offers but very slight differences. 23. The blood is always red, and circulates in vessels called arteries and veins. It is always set in motion by a fleshy heart; but the conformation of this last organ, as well as the route of the blood in the circulatory system, varies in the different classes of this branch. 24. Respiration always takes place in an apparatus situated in an internal cavity of the body, but it is not always aerial as in man ; it is sometimes aquatic, and then the lungs are replaced by branchiae. DIVISION OF THE BRANCH OF THE VERTEBRATED ANIMALS INTO CLASSES. 25. Nature seems to have followed the same general plan in the creation of all vertebrated animals, but nevertheless, these beings differ from each other, and some of the differences which they present, are of great importance in the exercise of life. 26. Therefore, that the classification of the vertebrated ani- mals may be, in a manner, a picture of the modification of their organization, it becomes necessary to establish amongst them, four grand divisions, called classes, which are named as follows : MAMMALIA, BIRDS, REPTILES, FISHES. 27. The following table presents at a view, the principa. characters of these classes : 22. What is remarked of the apparatus of digestion in this great division of ihe animal kingdom ? 23. What is the color of the b'ood in the vertebrata ? How does it circu- late ? Ho v is the blood set in motion ? Is the conformation of the heart and the route of the blood in the circulatory system always the same in the different classes of the branch of vertebrate ? 24. How does respiration take place in the vertebrata? Is it always aerial as in man ? When respiration is aquatic, is it effected through the medium of lungs? 25. In vvhat respect are the differences presented by vertebrated animals important ? 26. How many classes compose the branch of vertebrata ? What are these classes called? 27. ({\jTQueslions answered by the table."} What are the characters of am mals of the class mammalia? How many cavities has the heart? Is the blood warm nr cold in animals of this class? What is the character of the respiration in the class of birds ? Is the blood cold in this class of animals ? How many cavities has the heart ? GENERAL CHARACTERS OF MAMMALIA. Viviparous, and provided with teats, to suckle their young. Lungs; respiration simple; blood warm; circu- lation double and complete ; heart with four dis- tinct cavities. H > "5 < 2 Oviparous, and without teats. Respiration atria I ; with lungs. 1 (Classes.) Mammalia, Respiration double ; ~\ I blood warm ; circula- [ lion double and com- \-Birds. plete; heart with four j ! distinct cavities. J ] Respiration simple; ^ j blood cold ; ciiculation j incompl te; heart ge- \-Reptiles. j nerally with but th ee j ^ cavities. Respiration aquatic; with bronchia; ) . , blood cold; heart with but two cavities. C * tstie8 ' LESSON II. MAMMALIA Peculiarities of organization of Animals of this Class. Division into orders. CLASS OF MAMMALIA. GENERAL CHARACTERS OF THE MAMMALIA. 1. The class of mammalia is composed of man, and all ani- mals which resemble him in the most important parts of their organization ; this class is naturally placed at the head of the animal kingdom as comprising those beings whose movements are most varied, whose sensations are most delicate, faculties most numerous, and intelligence most developed; it interests us more than any other class, because it includes the most useful animals, either in affording us nourishment, assisting in our labors, or contributing towards our manufactures. 2. The mammalia are born alive, and in the early period of life, are nourished by the mother with milk, which is formed in glands called mammce, or teats; animals of this class alone are provided with these organs, and for this reason they are called mammalia, or mammiferous animals. What is the character of the respiiation in Reptiles? What is the char- acter of the blood of Reptiiis? Is the circulation complete ? How many cavities has the heart in the class of Reptiles ? What is the character of the respiration of fishes? How many cavities has the heart ? Is the blood of fishes warm or cold ? 1. What animals are included in the class of mammalia? Why is this cla^s placed at the head of the animal kingdom ? 2. How are animals of the class mammalia nourished? Why are they sailed mammalia or mammiferous f GENERAL CHARACTERS OF MAMMALIA. 21 3. Circulation and respiration are carried on in the same man- ner as in man. In all the mammalia the blood is warm, and the heart has four distinct cavities ; two ventricles and two auricles. The lungs are always composed of a great number of very small cells, and do not permit the air to pass from them into different parts of the body, as is the case in birds. 4. In general, it is easy to distinguish at first sight, one of the mammalia from a bird, a reptile, a fish, or any other animal, by simply considering its external form, and the nature of its integu- ments ; the mammalia are in fact, the only animals whose bodies are covered with hair ; ordinarily their general form does not widely differ from that of the quadrupeds which are constantly before our eyes, and which we naturally take as the type of the group ; but sometimes they are not recognised by so superficial an examination ; for there are some whose skins are completely bare, and whose bodies, instead of resembling that of a horse, a dog, or any other one of the ordinary mammalia, possess forms proper to fishes : the dolphin and whale are examples of this kind. (l j lat<> 6,fg. 6, 7, and 9.) 5. The hairs of the mammalia are very analogous to the feathers of birds, and serve in the same manner to protect the skin, and preserve the heat developed in the interior of the body ; in reptiles, fishes and other cold blooded animals which do not manifestly produce internal heat, there does not exist any similar envelope. 6. The hairs are produced like the teeth, by small secreting organs, lodged in the thickness of the derma, or immediately be- neath it. Each hair is formed in a little pouch or bulb, which communicates externally by a narrow opening. They grow, like the teeth, at the base, or new matter is added beneath that which is already formed. 7. On examining the hairs with a microscope, we sometimes perceive, very distinctly, that they are formed of a number of little horns received one into the other, (like a nest of boxes,) but in general, they have the appearance of a simple horny tube, the 3. How is the circulation of the blood carried on in the class mammalia? Is their blood warm or cold? How many cavities has the heart? What is the character of the lungs of these animals ? Does the air pass from the lungs to different parts of the body ? 4. What general characters enable us to distinguish animals of the clasp mammalia from those of any other class? Do all animals of the class mammalia bear a general resemblance to common quadrupeds? 5. What is the u-e of the hairs on the bodies of the mammalia'' 6. How are the hairs produced ? How do they grow / 7. What is the structure of hairs ? M2 22 _ GENERAL CHARACTERS OF MAMMALIA. interior of which seems to be filled with a pulpy matter. With most animals they are cylindrical and larger at the base than at the summit ; they are often more or less flattened ; there are some which are lamellar and similar to a slip of grass ; some- times their surface seems to be perfectly smooth, at others channelled, or armed with slight asperities, or even presenting a necklace-like (moniliform) aspect ; finally, their size, form and elasticity vary very much in different animals and in the different hairs of the same individual. 8. The names by which the different varieties of hairs are distinguished, differ according to the nature of these horny fila- ments, and according to the parts whereon they grow. They are called quill* or spinet, when they are very thick, pointed, and stiff, and when they resemble thorns, (as in the porcupine) ; bristles, when not so thick and less resisting, but still, very stiff, except towards their extremities; hairs do not differ much from bristles except in being somewhat longer and not so thick; like bristles, they are generally straight, though they are sometimes curly, particularly when very long. Wool is a species of long hair, very fine, and contorted in every direction : and down or fur is composed of hairs of extreme fineness and softness, and is generally found beneath a layer or covering of stouter hairs. 9. All the mammalia, except the cetacea, (that is, dolphins, porpoises, &c.) have two pairs of extremities or members, namely ; one pair of thoracic or anterior, or upper extremi ties, and one pair of posterior (inferior) or abdominal extremi ties; but in the cetacea this jatter pair is absent, and conse- quently, there only exists the thoracic members The structure of all these animals is nearly the same as that of man, and the differences observed, principally depend upon the relative length of the different bones, and the number of fingers, which never ex- ceeds five. 10. The conformation of the extremities varies somewhat ac- cording to the uses for which they are designed. They may serve 1. For walking, leaping, &c.; 2. For prehension and touch; 3. For burrowing in the earth ; 4. For swimming ; and 5. For flying; and when they are best adapted to the performance of one of these functions, they are in a very slight degree, or not at all suited to the others. 8. When do hairs take the name of quills or spines ? What are bristles ? What is wool ? What is fur ? What is down ? 9. How many extremities have the mammalia ? U). is the conformation of the extremities the same in all the mammalia ? GENERAL CHARACTTRS OF MAMMALIA 23 11. When the extremities are designed only to sustain the body and to move it over the surface of the ground, they enould possess great solidity, and be at the same time slender towards the end, that they may be the lighter ; now, long and flexible fingers or toes would be injurious to this solidity, and a considerable number of these organs would augment the weight of the foot without any advantage; therefore, with those animals whose four feet only serve them in moving, (walking or run- ning) the fingers or toes are generally but two or three in num- ber, short, slightly flexible, and completely enveloped at their ex- tremity, by nails, which protect them. 12. When the extremities are designed chiefly for touch, and the prehension of objects, it is altogether different ; they are then very flexible, terminated by five fingers which are long, well separated from each other, and so moveable that one of them, at will, can change position, and apply itself against the others, like a pair of plyers or pincers ; the nail is in this case flat, and only covers the back of the end of the fingers, the lower surface of which resembles a soft cushion ; and the whole hand can move upon the fore-arm, to direct itself inwardly or outwardly, as occasion may require. 13 The hoofs of the horse may be taken as an example of the mode of conformation of extremities, which are designed only for moving the animal ; and the hand of man, as an example of the conformation of these same organs when they are designed for prehension and touch. But between these extremes there are a great many intermediate degrees, and with a great many of the mammalia, the paws serve at once the purposes of progression, prehension, and touch, and discharge best, either one or other of these functions, according as their conformation most approaches to one or the other of the two modes of structure, just spoken of. 1 4. The mammalia that climb best, generally have paws more or less like our hand, and suited for seizing hold of objects ; there are some, however, that by the assistance of very sharp nails, 11. What are the characters of the extremi'ioa when they are designed merely to sustain the animal in walking? H.ive they many long flexible toes? How many toes has an animal that usually goes cm all fours? 12. What are the characters of the extremities when designed for touch or prehension ? 13. Give examples of the different conformation of extremities according to their uses ? 14. What are the means or instruments provided for those mammalia that climb? Do any of fiis C\SL s ever assist themselves in climbing- by any other means than fieir hands or feet? 3 S4 GENERAL CHARACTERS OF MAMMALIA. can climb trees simply grappling them, although their fingers are neither long, very flexible, nor opposable one to the other. Most animals of this kind have a long tail which serves them as a balance-pole, and sometimes this organ is so flexible as to b twisted around branches, and take the place of a species of hand. 15. Differences are also observed in the conformation of the extremities, according as the animal is designed to run or leap ; in the latter case, the posterior extremities are generally much longer than the anterior for example, the rabbit and particularly the kangaroo. (l j late 3,^. 1 1, and plate 4,yfy. 11.) 16. When the paws are to be used by the animal for burrow- ing in the earth, they are short, (which gives them greater strength,) stout, of a particular form, and armed with strong nails. Of all the mammalia, the thoracic extremities of the mole possess the best conformation for this purpose. (Plate 9^ fig. 10.) 17. In order that the extremities be formed in the most favor- able manner for swimming, they must be short and broad so as to strike the water with the greater force and act upon a large surface. With those mammalia whose lives are entirely aquatic, these organs are formed like great battledoors, closely resembling the fins of fishes ; the arm and fore-arm become so short that the paw seems to be attached immediately to the body ; and the fingers are all concealed beneath a common skin. (Plate 6, fiy. 6.) When an animal has to make use of these fins to drag itself on shore, their conformation approaches nearer to that of the paw of an ordinary quadruped, ( I'Litc 3, -fiy. 7,) and when the extremi- ties are to be chiefly used in running, without ceasing to be appropriate for swimming, the fingers (toes) are simply united by a loose fold of skin, called web, which is stretched when they are separated, and thus affords the requisite breadth to the paw. 18. When the extremities of the mammalia are formed for flying, they also present a peculiar disposition ; the thoracic ex- tremities become very long, and the fingers especially are elon- gated out of proportion, and sustain a fold of sldn from the sides, as the whale-bones of an umbrella stretch the silk or cloth. Bats afford us an example of this kind of organization ; their hands are in a manner transformed into true wings, (I'late %,fig 1.) 15. What is the chu.acter of the extremities of those animals that run or leap? 1 6. What is the conformation of the extremities of burrowing animals ? What animal has extremities best adapted for burrowing ? 17. What is the form of the extremities of swimming animals ? What \ the form of the extremities of aquatic mammalia ? 16. What is the form of the extremities of those ma nmalii that fly ? GENERAL CHARACTERS OF MAMMALIA. 25 There are too, some mammalia, having extremities formed for running, or for climbing solely, that can also sustain themselves for a short time in the air by the assistance of a fold of skin which extends between the posterior and anterior paws, consti- tuting a sort of parachute ; ( riate 4, Jiy. 8.) but this mode of organization does not give them the power of actually flying, like those above described. 19. Of all animals, the mammalia have most intelligence, and they also possess the most voluminous brains. But in this respect they present very striking differences amongst themselves, and it is generally remarked, they are less favored in this parti- cular, in proportion as they depart in resemblance from man, as their forehead is more retreating, and the face or snout, more projecting. 20. There also exists, very great differences among the mam- malia as respects their teeth ; and as the conformation of these organs is always in relation to the kind of food upon which the animal is destined to feed, we will say a few words about them. 21. Some mammalia that feed upon soft insects, (as ants,) or on very small fishes which they can swallow whole, are desti- tute of teeth; but almost all animals of this class possess teeth designed for the division of food. The molar teeth are gene- rally the most useful, and their presence is more constant than that of the incisor or canine teeth , the latter are necessary to seize and divide a living prey, and consequently are not wanting in any carnivorous animal ; but they are less useful to herbivorous animals, and the one or the other kind is absent in most mammalia that live upon vegetable diet. Sometimes, too, they afford no assistance in mastication, though very much developed, and con- stitute a more or less powerful means of defence. The form of the molar teeth varies according to the food of the animal. 22. In those animals that live upon flesh, the molars are com- pressed and cutting, and so arranged as to act one against the other like the blades of a pair of scissors; (Plate 2, fin. 12.) in those which feed upon insects, these teeth are studded with contig- 19. What class of animals possess the largest brains ? I* the brain of the same size in all the mammalia? 20. Are the teeth of all the mammalia the same ? 21. Are any of the mammalia destitute of teeth ? What kind of teeth is most generally present in the rmrnmalia ? In what family of animals are the incisor arid canine teeth always present? . Does the form of the molar teeth depend upon the kind of food upon which the animal feeds? 22. What is the form of the molar teeth in tho e animals that feed on flesh ? What are the peculiarities of the teeth of animals that feed on insects? What are the peculiarities of the teeth ol animals that feed on vegetables and fruits ? 26 DIVISION OF MAMM\LIA INTO ORDERS. uous points which correspond in a manner, and are received into the vacuities left between them, on the opposing teeth ; (l j late 2, fig. 5.) and when the food of the animal consists prin- cipally of the tender fruits, these teeth are simply armed with blunt tubercles, (Plate 2, fig. 6 ) and when destined to grind vegetable substances which are more or less hard, they are termi- nated by a broad surface flattened and rough like that of a mill- stone. DIVISION OF THE CLASS OF MAMMALIA INTO ORDERS. 23. The class of mammalia is divided into nine orders, which are easily distinguished one from the other, by the differences observable in the conformation of their extremities, of their teeth and some other organs. The chief characteristics of these groups are indicated, in the following synoptical table of the classification of the mammalia : 23. How is the clas of mammalia divided? How are these orders dis- tinguished from each other ? O" (Questions answered in the table.) What are the characters of the order Bimana ? What characterises the Quadrumana ? What is the num. ocr of their hands 1 What characterises the order Carnaria ? Have they any hands ? What characterises the order Rodentia? What characterises the order Edentata ? By what part of the animal is the order Marsupialia distinguished ? What characterises the order of Pachydermata ? What characterises the order of Ruminantia ? What is the conformation of the stomach in animals of the two last order? What characterises the order Cetacea ? in ='? g E3 B'5. > -^ rr! 28 NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. LESSON III. ORDER OP BIMANA. The only species, man. Anatomical characters which distinguish the body of man from that of the other mammalia. Hands. Feel. Station. Brain. Human Races. ORDER OF BIMANA. 1. The order of Bimana two-handed easily distinguished from the rest of the class of mammalia, by the existence of hands, on the thoracic extremities only, and by many other anatomical characters, is composed of but one genus embracing one species only : MAN. HOMO. 2. Our organization differs very little from that of a great num- ber of other mammalia; the functions of the life of nutrition are carried on in the same manner in them as with us, and the struc- ture of the organs of our senses presents only a few peculiarities ; but still man is placed at an immense distance from all other animals, and what especially distinguishes him, is that wonderful intelligence with which he is endowed, and the possession of an immortal soul. The principal physical differences which distinguish man, are : 3. 1. The great develnpement of his brain, which produces the prominence of his forehead. 4. 2. The conformation of his hands. The thoracic extremi- ties of man are disposed in the most favourable manner for the exercise of their functions as organs of prehension and touch : the ringers are long and flexible ; they ail have the power of moving separately and distinctly one from the other, which is not the case in other animals, not even with those that possess hands. The thumb, which is opposable to them, is much longer in pro- portion than in monkeys, and, consequently, more readily ap- plied to the extremity of the palmar face of the other fingers, and better enabled to take hold of small objects. The nails only cover the dorsal faces of the extremities of the fingers, and they 1. What is the meaning of the word Bimana? How are the Bimana distinguished ? How many genera and species compose the order Bimana T 2. Does the organization of the Bimana essentially differ from that of tho mammalia ? What especially distinguishes man from all other animals ? 3. How does the brain of man differ from that of the other mammalia? 4. What are the peculiarities of the hand of man ? NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. 29 are wide and flat, thus affording a support to the touch, without in the least interfering with its delicacy; finally, the whole hand is capable of performing extensive rotatory movements. 5. His vertical and biped position. In all the mammalia, with the exception of man, the superior (anterior) extremities are ap- plied to the same uses as the lower (or posterior extremities, and are always employed in locomotion, even when they are formed so as to be used also as organs of prehension ; in man, on the con- trary, the lower extremities serve exclusively for station, (the act of standing) and for locomotion, while the superior extremi- ties remain free to act as the organs or instruments of prehen- sion and of touch, a difference in itself sufficient to render them fit to discharge their function with a degree of perfection far above any thing seen in the monkey tribes and other mammalia. The vertical position, which under every circumstance, is so very favourable to man, has been considered by some authors, as not being natural to him, and as being solely the effect of education ; but this is an error. Even if he should wish to do so, man could not habitually walk on his four extremities; of all the mammalia the lower extremities of man are most favourably formed for sus- taining the body, and every thing, in his whole organization, is disposed for the vertical position. The foot is very large and so fashioned as to rest nearly the whole of its lower surface upon the ground ; the different bones of which it is formed are solidly united one to the other, and the leg rests vertically upon it ; the heel projects considerably behind this articulation ; the knee can be completely extended, so that the weight of the body is trans- mitted directly from the femur to the tibia; the muscles which extend the foot and the thigh are remarkable for their volume and strength ; the pelvis is much larger than in other animals, which by separating the legs and feet from each other, increases the extent of the base of support ; finally, the head is nearly balanced on the trunk, because its articulation is placed beneath the centre of its mass, and the eyes are directed forward, precisely in the direction to be most useful to him. 6. The horizontal position, on the contrary, would be extremely inconvenient for man, for then his (hind) feet, short and almost inflexible, and his very short thigh, would bring his knee against the earth, while his anterior (superior) extremities would be too flexible and too widely separated to afford him a solid support , 5. What is the position of man ? Could man sustain with ease for any considerable length of time, any other than the vertical position? Wny can lie tiot jjo on all fours? 6. Why would the horizontal pc sition be inconvenient for man? NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN. the position of the head, its weight, and the absence of the cer- vical ligament, which in quadrupeds serves to sustain this part of (he body, would not permit him to keep it elevated, and his eyes being directed downwards to the ground, he would not be able to see before him. But this position would not be one of restraint only, it would be impossible to maintain it for any length of time, because the arteries which go to the brain, are not sub-divided in man, as they are in many quadrupeds ; and their size being very considerable, the blood would be carried to this delicate organ with so much force that apoplexy would frequently result. 7. Man is the only one of the mammalia that is truly bimana and biped (two-handed, and two-footed.) The monkey which re- sembles him in many respects, has the superior extremities dis- posed like his, but the foot is very different ; it is strictly a true hand fitted for seizing and climbing, while our foot can in no manner, serve as an organ of prehension, because the toes have but little flexibility, and the great toe, (answering 10 the thumb,) is larger than the other toes (which correspond to the fingers of the hand,) and being placed upon the same line, is not opposable to them. 8. 4th. 7'hv perfection of Ids vocal apparatus. He is the only animal of this class that can articulate sounds, and it is to this faculty that he is indebted for language. 9. But man who is so much favoured in regard to his intelligence and skill, has not the advantage as regards strength. His swift- ness in the race is much less than that of animals of his stature, and Nature has not endowed him with arms either for defence or attack. The greater part of his body is unprotected, even by nair,from the inclemencies of the weather, and he is of all animals, the longest in acquiring the strength necessary to enable him to supply his own wants. 10. If God had not given to man a social instinct, a love for society, and the powerful intelligence which distinguishes him, he -would have been one of the most miserable beings that in- habit the surface of the earth, and probably his race would have soon disappeared ; but this instinctive impulse, joined to a sense of his weakness, has brought him to living in society with his fellow- men, and now, his intellectual faculties have enabled him to derive something from all that surrounds him, towards insuring his sub- sistence and happiness. 7. In what particulars do monkeys differ from man? 8. To what faculty is man indebted for language ? 9. In what respect is man superior to other animals ? Jn what is he in* feiior to them ? 10. What cii-curnst; nces render man able to secure his subsistence and nappiness/ VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 3 The detail into which we entered, relative to the structure of man, in treating on Physiology and Anatomy, in the first of this series, (See " Physiology and Animal Mechanism,") renders it unnecessary to speak of his organization in this place. THE HUMAN RACE. 1 1 . In the human race, as we have said, there is but a single species ; nevertheless, all men are far from being alike, and the principal differences which they present, are transmitted, uninter- ruptedly, from generation to generation ; so that we must admit, into this single species, several very distinctly marked varieties. 12. The people who inhabit the old world appear to belong to three principal varieties, designated by naturalists under the names of Caucasian llace, Mongolian Have, and Ethiopian Kacc. 13. The CAUCASIAN VARIETY. (Plate \,fig. l>) is distinguished oy the beauty of the oval formed by the head, by the develope- ment of the forehead, the horizontal position of the eyes, the slight projection of the cheek bones and jaws, the smooth hair, and white, or at least, whitish color of the skin; it is also remark- able for its perfectibility, for it has given origin to all the most civilized people on earth. It occupies all Europe, the western part of Asia, and the most northern part of Africa ; but it is be- lieved to have come first from the mountains of Caucasia, situate between the Caspian and Black Seas, and for this reason it has been called Caucasian. 14. The MONGOLIAN VARIETY, (Plate 1, fig. 2.) differs in many respects from the Caucasian variety ; here the face is flattened ; the forehead low, retreating and square ; the cheek bones project- ing ; the eyes narrow and oblique ; the chin slightly projecting ; the beard thin, the hair straight and black, and the skin of an olive color. The languages proper to the Mongolian races pos- sess characteristics common to them all, which clearly separate them from people of Caucasian origin : the words of which the Mongolian languages are composed are all monosyllabic. 15. This variety of the human race is found to the east of those regions which are inhabited by the Caucasian races ; we first 11. Are all the races of mm lr e e ch other? 10. Into what varieties have the people of the old world been distinguished ? 13 What are the peculiarities of the Caucasian variety? How is the term Caucasian derived ? 14. What are the peculiarities of the Mongolian variety ? What is the character of the languages of the Mongolian race ? 15 In what parts of the world is the Mongolian variety found ? What remarkable nation is composed of the Mongolian variety ? To what variety of the human race do the inhabitants of ^Japan, Corea, and the Carolina Islands bdo g ? 32 VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES meet them in the great desert of central Asia, where are found the Calmuck and other Mongolian tribes that are still wanderers: almost all the tribes of the eastern part of Siberia belong to them ; but the most remarkable nation composed of men of this race, is the Chinese, whose vast empire claims to have been civilized be- fore the rest of the world. Corea, Japan, the Marian Isles, the Caroline Isles, and all other lands which extend to the north oi the equator, from the first named of these archipelagos to about the 180th degree of east longitude, are also peopled by the Mon- golian races. Also, the inhabitants of the Aleutian Isles, and of the neighbouring part of the west coast of America, belong to this great division of the human species. 16. The Malays, who occupy India beyond the Ganges, and a great part of the Asiatic archipelago, constitute, according to some naturalists, a variety distinct from the Mongolian and Caucasian ; but most authors regard them as the offspring of the two races. 17. Finally, the Mongolian races appear to be spread through the northern region of the two hemispheres, for all the mixed or mongrel tribes met with from North Cape, in Luirope, to Greenland, who are known under the name of Laplanders, Samoides, Esqui- maux, &c., bear a strong resemblance to them. 18. A third, and very distinct branch of the human race, is the ETHIOPIAN, or NEGRO VARIETY, (t'late 1,/fy. 3.) characterised by the compressed skull, the flattened nose, the projecting muzzle, thick lips, crisped hair, and skin more or less black. It is confined to the south of mount Atlas, and appears to be composed of several very distinct races or tribes, such as the Mozambique, the Bochisman and Hottentot. 19. The primitive population of Australia, and of the numer- ous archipelagos of Oceanica or Polynesia, is also a black race, which bears a considerable resemblance to the negroes of Mozam- bique, but their hair, although coarse, is straight ; of the barba- rous and miserable people to whom the name of Alforians, or Alfores has been given, we have very little knowledge. 20. Finally, the aborigines of America are regarded by some naturalists, as belonging to neither of the three varieties of the 16. What parts of the world are inhabited by Malays ? To what variety- do they belong ? 17. To what variety do the Laplanders, Samoides and Esquimaux belong ? 18. How is the Ethiopian variety characterised ? What are the principal tribes of this variety ? 19. In what respect do the primitive inhabitants of Australia and Polynesia differ from the Ethiopian variety ? What is known of the Alforians ? 20. Do the inhabitants of America form a distinct variety or race of th human family ? What are the characteristics of Americans 1 THE AMERICAN RACE 3* human race inhabiting the old world. Some bear a strong re semblance to the Mongolian races of Asia ; others on the con- trary, approach somewhat to the Furopean form. " The American Race," according to Professor Morton, the highest authority on this subject, " is marked by a brown com- plexion, long, black, lank hair, and deficient beard. The eyes are black and deep set, the brow low, the cheek bones high, the nose large and aquiline, the mouth large, and the lips tumid and compressed. The skull is small, wide between the parietal pro- tuberances, prominent at the vertex, and flat on the occiput. In their mental character, the Americans are averse to cultivation, and slow in acquiring knowledge ; restless, revengeful, and fonc of war, and wholly destitute of maritime adventure." CRANU AMERICANA. The American Race is divided into two families : The American Family. | The Toltecan Family. (7 For the type of this race, see frontispiece. LESSON IV. ORDER OF QUADRUMANA. Zoological characters. Peculiarities of their organization compared to their habits. Division into three families. Their Zoological characters. FAMILY OF MONKEYS. Division into monkeys of the old and new continent. Description and habits of the principal genera (Ouranys, (ribbons, Guenons, Magota, Cynocephalus, Howl- ing Monkey.} FAMILY OF OUISTITIS. Manners. FAMILY OF MAKIS. Description, and Habits. ORDER OF THE Q U A D R U M A N A. 1. The order of quadrumana is composed of a considerable number of animals which resemble man more than any other of the mammalia, and which are chiefly characterised by their having both the thoracic and abdominal extremities terminated by hands. (Plate I, fig. 4, to 12.) 2. Like the Bimana, the quadrumana have incisor, canine and molar teeth. Their eyes are directed forward, or at least, ob- 1. What chiefly characterises animals of the order Quadrumana? What is the meaning- of the t< rm Quadrumana? 2. What kinds of teeth have the Quadrumana? In what particular* du the Quadrumana resemble man ? N2 34 MONKEY FAMILY. liquely and their mammae are situated on the chest. We may also add that their brain resembles that of man very much, and each hemisphere consists of three lobes, the posterior of which covers the cerebellum; and their abdominal viscera scarcely differ from ours. 3. The order of Quadrumana is divided into three families : Monkeys, Ouistitis, and Makis. The following table exhibits a synopsis of the most prominent distinctive characters of these three groups. Families. Having four incisor teeth in each jaw, placed very- nearly in a vertical position Nails compres-") sed, arched and j pointed like claws, | on all the fingers, \-Oui8titi8. except the poste- I r rior thumbs, or QUADRUMANA. { [ great toes. J Having the incisor teeth more numerous than 1 the Monkey or Ouistitis, or at least differently | disposed. Nails flat, except that of the first, or } Makis. of the two first fingers (or toes) posteriorly, | t which is pointed and raised. J MONKEY FAMILY.-SIMIA. 4. Monkeys are animals of middle or small stature, whose heads are almost always rounded, the muzzle moderately elon- gated, the neck short, the body light, and extremities slim, (Plate 1, fig. 4. to 9.) They are covered with long silky hair; nevertheless, their resemblance to marr is very considerable, and there are some, which when very young, have the facial angle not much more oblique than that of negroes ; but as they advance in age the muzzle always becomes much more projecting, and with some monkeys, this part of the face is so much developed as to resemble that of the dog. The actions and behaviour of these animals bear a strong analog> eO our own. Many ot them assume with ease an almost vertical position, particularly when aided by a stick, as we use a cane, and some walk in this way, but never so firmly as man ; on the contrary they are admi- rably organized for climbing from branch to branch. The length and flexibility of their limbs, having hands on all four extremities, 3. Into how many families is the order Quadrumana divided ? What are they? What number of incisor tteth have monkeys? How many incisors have the Ouistitis? What kind of na>ls have monkeys? What soit of nails have Ouistitis ? How are the nails characterised ? 4. What are monkeys ? Ho v are they characterised ? MONKEY FAMILY. 35 and the great strength of their muscular system, permit them to display an astonishing agility, and nature has moreover, supplied many of these animals with a long prehensile tail, which serves them as a fifth hand, in suspending themselves from branches, to balance themselves in the air, and make their spring when they wish to leap from one tree to another. 5. Monkeys are essentially frugivorous, and their teeth bear a great similitude to those of man. Their molar teeth are tuber- culated like ours, but their canine are much longer. 6. Monkeys belong to warm countries ; a single species lives wild in Europe, on the rock of Gibraltar, and what is very re- markable, all those of the new world possess characters which distinguish them from those of the old continent. 7. These zoological characteristics, so strictly in harmony with the geographical distribution of monkeys, have caused them to be divided into two tribes: monkeys of the old world, and monkeys of America. They may be distinguished by the following char- acteristics : " Molar teeth ; five on each side, in each jaw, (as in man.) Almost always possess ischiatic callosities, species of fleshy cushions placed beneath tlie pelvis, Tail never prehensile. Nares open beneath the nose, and separated by a narrow partition. Checks often hollowed into pouches called cheek pouches, which communicate with the mouth, and serve as reservoirs of food obtained by the animal. f OF THE OLD CONTINENT. SlMIA. MONKEYS. OF THE -< _NEW CONTINENT. Molar teeth ; six on each side, and in each jaw. Inchiaiic callosities never present. Tail, often p-ehensile. Narf-8, almost always separated by a broad partition, and open at the sides of the 5. On what substances do monkeys feed ? What is the character of their molar teeth ? 6. In what pirts of the wor'd are monkeys found? Are the monkeys of the old and new world alike ? 7. How are monkey- divided ? How arc monkeys of the old world dis- tinguished from those o^the new ? Wh it is ihe character of the tail ? Haw do the nares open '( How do the narcs of the monkeys of the new conti rent ooen 7 4 S6 MONKEY FAMILY- MONKEYS OF THE OLD CONTINENT. 8. These animals are quite numerous, and, in their organiza- tion, seem to form a series, which leads by degrees from man to common quadrupeds : the position of their bodies, almost verti- cal in some, becomes in others entirely horizontal, their muzzle ia elongated, and we remark at the same time, their passions be- come, proportionably, more and more violent and brutal. 9. The principal genera, composing the tribe of monkeys of the old world, may be recognised by the following characters. MONKEYS OF THE OLD CONTINENT. &i?itff*lllta -"Fir 8.^ *fB-fX5l9| r^-s^ rr. g- 1 p Q, r* *rg- ** s ^ " o R ? &. 2 ?-2 a o ' 5' " *8 r o 4r nvS* 8. What is remarked of monkeys of the old continent? 5. What are the principal genera of the monkeys of the old continent ' What are the chief distinguishing characters of the Ourangs? How do the Gibbons differ from the Ourangs ? What are the distinguishing characters of the Gurnons 1 How does the Semnopithecus differ from them 1 What characterises the Macacus ? How do you distinguish the Cynocephalus from other monkeys? MONKEY FAMILY. 37 10. The OURANGS are the only monkeys of the old continent des- titute of ischiatic callosities. The most remarkable species of this genus the OURANG-OUTANG, which inhabits the interior of Borneo, and other large islands of the Indian Ocean, when young, is said, to resemble man more than any other animal. (Plate 1. fig. 4.) 11. The body is covered with coarse reddish hair, and the face is smooth and bluish ; he sometimes attains the height of seven feet, and possesses great strength and agility; he dwells in the wildest forests and habitually keeps himself upon the trees; he climbs with the greatest rapidity and springs from branch to branch with as much facility and skill as the little monkeys of America, which are often seen in our streets. On the ground, on the contrary, Ourang Outangs walk with difficulty, and are fre- quently obliged to place their hands upon the earth ; we see them, using their long arms to rabe themselves up, and throw them- selves for ward, very much as a man would use a pair of crutches. It has been ascertained that these animals build themselves huts in lofty trees. It is very difficult to capture them when they have attained adult age, as they defend themselves in the most cou- rageous manner ; but when young they are easily taken ; they then show a good deal of intelligence, attach themselves to those who have care of them, and readily learn to imitate a great many of our actions. 12. Another species of the genus Ourang, is the Chimpanzee, (Plate l,Jig. 5.) which inhabits the interior of Africa, and is also named Jocko. Its arms are not so long as those of the Ourang- Outang, and its forehead is very retreating; its stature is less than that of man. It lives in troops. 13. The GIBBONS resemble the Ourang-Outangs in the length of their arms, but their forehead is very receding. They live in the most distant parts of the continent, and archipelago of India, and like the Ourangs inhabit the densest forests. They are not very susceptible of education, and domesticating them seems to make them lose their faculties 14. The Siamang differs from the other Gibbons in the man- ner in which the first phalanges of the second and third toes are 10. Have the Ourang^ ischiatic callosities or not? Wnen do Ourangs most resemble man? In what part of the world a e they found? 11. What is the size of the Ou'arig? Does the Ouian- characters of thu fru ivorous B.;ts? In what pait of tho world are these Bats found ? What is the Ruussette ? 14. What are the characters o" the molar t eth of the In ectivoroue Bats m *hat renpect do these B;its diff r fro>n others / INSECTIVOROUS MAMMALS. ing in many other characteristic particulars, such as the absence of the nail on the index finger. Of these animals a great many species are known. 15. Among those of France, we may cite; 1st. the Vesperti //os, or ordinary bats, which have the ears separated, and of moderate size, and the nose without foliaceous, or leaf appendix, (by which several species are distinguished, namely, the common bat, the Serotinus, Pipistrellus, fyc.) 16. 2nd. The Long-eared bats, (Oreillards) Vespcrtilio Ami- t m {Plate %) fig. I, and 2.) whose immense ears are united together upon the cranium, (the common species found in kitchens, houses, &c., in France.) 17. 3d. The Rhinolophus, or Horse-shoe Bats, which may be easily distinguished by the foliaceous membranes and crests which are fixed on the nose, altogether presenting the figure of a horse-shoe, are found in quarries. 18. In South America there is a Bat, a foot long, which has the habit of sucking the blood of other animals while they are asleep; it is known under the name of Vampire, (Plate 2, fig. 4.) and placed in the genus Phyl/ostoma, There are also several species in the United States. Tribe of Guleopithccits, 19. These animals are mentioned by travellers, under the names of flying monkeys, and flying foxes, flying cats, &c. They inhabit the Indian archipelago, and have the four extremities formed in the ordinary manner, but united by a prolongation o, skin, which extends from the sides of the neck to the tail, form- ing a great parachute, by the assistance of which these Cheirop- tera sustain themselves for a short time in the air, when they spring from one branch to another. (Plate 2. fig. 7.) They live upon trees and feed upon fruits. FAMILY OF INSFCTIVORA 20. This family is composed of Carnaria, whose molar teeth are studded with conical points like those of most of the Cheiroptera, but the skin of their flanks is not prolonged so as to form either wings or parachutes. These are feeble animals of 15. What are the characters of the Vespertilios? 16. How are the long-earrd B ts characterised ? 17- What characters distinguish the Rhinolophus ? 18. What is the Vampire? Are there any Bats in the United States? 19. How are animals of the tribe Galeopithecus distinguished ? Ha/a these animals wings ? What is their diet? 20. What are the characters of the molar teeih of the insectivora ? Have animals of this family wings? What are the habits of these animaU < Wha in their cict ? 02 INSECTIVOROUS MAMMALS small stature, which, during the day, conceal themselves in bur- rows or holes, from which they sally forth only at night Many of them pass the winter in a state of lethargy ; as their name in- dicates, they live chiefly upon insects. 21. The principal genera composing this family are the hedge- hogs, shrews, and moles which are recognisable by the following characters : Family of INSECTIVORA. Walker,, (anterior ] Body covered i paws of the ordinary J with .pirn* { form and ^rmed with , J with hair. { Diggers, (posterior paws of a peculiar "| form, and armed with very long nails, I suitable for excavating, or digging the [ earth. (Genera.) Hedgehogs. Shrew*. Mules 22. The HEDGEHOGS, Erinaceus, are small animals, which, without having the instinct to excavate burrows inaccessible to their enemies, without the activity necessary to escape their pur- suit, or strength to contend against them, are nevertheless capa- ble of advantageously protecting themselves and punishing any imprudent attack of their adversaries ; but to give them this power, nature has formed for them no new organs, but has merely modi- f f d the hairs with which their backs are covered, and given a greater extent to certain of their movements, than is common in other quadrupeds. By flexing the head and paws beneath the belly, the Hedgehog can roll itself into a ball, and it also has the faculty of drawing the skin of the back in such a manner as to envelope itself, as in a purse; now, the hairs with which this part of the tegumentary envelope is furnished, in stead of being flexible and silky, are stout, stiff, and sharp, and, when the skin is thus drawn, the spines are raised up, crossing each other in every direc- tion, bristling all parts of the animal's surface like so many spines or spears ready to lacerate and tear the mouth and paws of the aggressor. This powerfully defensive armour protects the Hedge- hogs from the attacks of most of the Carnaria, of which, with- out it, they would become the ready victims ; foxes however, are not deterred by these obstacles, and are often successful in seizing this dangerous prey. Their mouth is armed with twenty 21. What are the principal genera composing this family ? What ;ire the organic characters of the genus Hrdgehog? What are the characters of the Shrews? How are I he Moles distinguished ? ii2. What are the peculiarities of the Hedgehog? What is the number cf their teeth? How are they arranged? What are their habits ? CARNIVOROUS MAMMALS. 47 teeth in the upper jaw, and sixteen in the lower jaw. They live in the woods and keep themselves concealed during the d.-jy amongst the roots of old trees. They are frequently met with in France, and in various parts of the world, ll is said they mouse like a cat. 23. Shrews Sorex (Plate 2, fig 9.) are very small animals whose appearance reminds us of the mouse ; their body is covered with hairs, and on each flank there is found a small strip of stiff' bristles between which there exudes an odorous humor. They have eighteen teeth in the upper, and twelve in the lower jaw. They keep themselves in holes which they excavate in the earth, and feed on worms and insects. The common Shrew, (sorex araneus) has been accused, but very wrongfully, of causing a disease in horses and mules by its bite. Shrews are found in Asia, the north of Europe, &c. 24. The MOLES, Tal pa, (Plate 2, fiy. 10.) are essentially subterraneous, and burrowing animals ; their body is squat, their muzzle elongated and terminated by a moveable snout, serving to penetrate the earth, and their anterior extremities, very short, but extremely strong and thick, are directed out- wardly, and terminate by enormous nails, suitable for digging. (Plate 2, %. 11 ) By the assistance of these organs, moles dig with great rapidity and admirable skill, long galleries in the soil in the midst of which they establish their abode. The small elevations we often see upon the surface of the soil, called mole /M//.V, are formed by the riddance which these animals throw out when executing their subterranean labors. They very rarely leave their labyrinths, and feed on the worms and larvae of in- sects found there. They are destined, as we have seen, to live in total darkness; hence, their eyes are scarcely perceptible, and there is one species of mole which is entirely blind. They have twenty-two teeth in each jaw. The common mole of the fields of France, which is of a beautiful black, is found in all the fertile countries of Europe. It is said, they do not exist in Ireland, and are rarely met with in Greece. There are varieties of moles which are brown, white, ash-colored and spotted. 23. What are Shrews ? What is the numher and disposition of their teeth? What are their h.tbits ? In what purls of the world are they found ? What is their food ? 24 V\ hat are Moles? What are the peculiarities of their organization? What are tht ir habits ? Have moles very large eyes ? Is there any specie* of Mole that is blind ? What is the number and arrangement of their teeth? In what countries ure tin y found? V *%_ Or 48 CARNIVOROUS MAMMALS. LESSON VI. FAMILY OP CARNIVORA. Zoological characters. Peculiarities of organization. Division into three tribes. THIBB OP PLANTIGRADA. Zoological characters. Organization and Habits of Bears, (Brown Bear, White Bear, Black /3car.) Badgers. Use of their hnir. TRIBE OP DIGITIGRADAS. Zoological characters. Group of Ver- miform Digit igradas. Histo>y of the Poli'-cat 9 ( common Pole- cat, ferret, Weasel, Ermine.) The Martens, (common. Ma- ten, the Beech Marien, Sable.) The Otters, (common Otter, Sea Otter.) Genus of Dogs History and Habits of some races, ( Wolves, Foxes.) Genus of Civets (Civet, Common Wild-cat, llanpouste of Egypt.) Genus of Hyenas. Genus of Cats. Habits, (Lion, Tiger, Leopard, Couguar, Lynx, Cat.) TRIBE OP AMPHIBIA. Zoological characters. Habits, (Seal, the Morse.) CONTINUATION OF THE ORDER CARNARIA. FAMILY OF CARNIVORA. 1 . In its most general acceptation, the word Carnivorous belongs to all animals that feed upon flesh, but naturalists give to this word, a more limited signification, and only apply it to this family of mammalia of the order Carnaria, which includes Bats, Hyenas, Martens, Dogs, &c., and which is easily distinguished by the ex- istence of teeth for tearing and cutting flesh. 2. In these animals, which generally possess great strength, the jaws are stout, and each one is armed with two long, stout, sepa- rated canine teeth, and between these are placed six incisors. Sometimes the molar teeth are all trenchant ; sometimes they are mingled, some having blunt tubercles, but they never have coni- cal points as in the insectivora. (Plate 2, fig. 12 ) One of the great molars is ordinarily much larger and more trenchant than the others, and bears the name of carnivorous tooth, (Plate 2, fig. 12, ca.) behind it are one or two, almost flat, which are called tuberculous, (Plate 2, Jig. 12, t.) and between it and the canines, a variable number of false molars. The form and disposition of these teeth are in relation to the more or less carnivorous habits 1. How is the term Carnivorous applied ? By what means can we re- cognise the Carnivora? 2. What is the posHon of the canine teeth in the Carnivora ? What is the number of their incisor teeth? What is the character of tl\eir molar teeth ? What is the carnivorous tno'h? What is meant by tuberculous tooth? What is i he form and disposition of these teeth? Can we judge of the Uature oi' the diet of a carnivorous animal by the teeth ? How ? PLANTIGRADE MAMMALS. of these animals. Those that live most exclusively on prey have the teeth most trenchant and the jaws shortest, (which increases their power,) while those that feed on vegetable substances as well as on flesh, have the molars for the most part tuberculous; by the proportion of these trenchant and tuberculous teeth, we can judge of the more or less carnivorous nature of their diet. 3. Animals of this family generally have the paws armed with hooked nails, suitable for holding or even tearing their prey ; it is to be remarked also, that they are almost entirely without clavicles ; but the form of their extremities varies a great deal, and is in relation to the difference in their mode of progression, which is not less great. According to these characters the car- nivora are divided into the three following tribes ; Pfatttiyrnda, Dig ilia fada* and Amphibia. (Tribes.) f F< et resting their whole "1 f Having feet I le.-igth on the earth, the i formed specially | ?ol s of which arc free | for progression, j fr. m h ir. Feet n; t touching the "| ea: tli except by the ends of ' CARNIVORA. 4 the toes; the tarsus being j ^elevated in progression. J Having feet in the form of paddi'S, so "| short and so enveloped in the skin, that on 1 . land, they can only crawl; but they are f excellent swimmers. J Tribe of Plantigrada. 4. It is the zoological character of this tribe to have .five toes on all the feet, and, when the animal walks or stands, to rest the entire sole upon the earth, (Mate 2, fig 13, and 14.) which affords him a broad base of support, and greater facility of stand- ing up on his hind feet. 5. All the motions of the Plantigrades are dull. Like the in- sectivora, they are subterraneous and nocturnal in their habits, and in cold countries pass the winter in a state of lethargy, or hibernation. The most remarkable genera of this tribe are the Bears, Rackoons, Badgers, and Gluttons, which may be recog- nised by the following characters : 3. What kind of nails have the carnivora 1 What kind of clavicles have animals of this family? Is the form of tlnir extremities the sail. e in all animals of ihis cl.iss? How is t- is family divided? KT(Answered in the table.) Whnt are the organic characters that Gluttons. Indium length. J 6. BEARS are large animals with stout bodies, thick extremi- ties and short tail; their gait is very dull, but they possess pro- digious strength and considerable intelligence. The formation of their extremities, little adapted for running, enables them to keep erect on their hind feet, and quickly climb trees, which they embrace between their paws. Some of them are also very good swimmers, and they are indebted for this quality, in a measure, to the quantity of fat with which their bodies are loaded. Of all the carnivora, their organization least requires them to feed on flesh, and their diet is least carnivorous ; in fact, the structure of their teeth, almost entirely tuberculous, is more favourable for grinding roots and fruits than for tearing and cutting flesh ; hence, they are omnivorous. They eat both animal and vegetable sub- stances ; but the last constitute their habitual food. They love roots and fruits, but have a most decided preference for honey, which they will seek in the midst of a hive without much regard- ing the sting of the bees, being protected by the hard skin and thick hair with which they are covered. 7 Most of the bears live in great forests, but there is one species that inhabits the coasts and ice of the polar seas. The \T(Answercd in the table.} What is the arrangement of the teeth in the genus of Bears? What is the number of their molar teeth ? Are their car- nivorous t^eth large? How are the teeth of Rackoons arranged? Are their toes united by a membrane? How many carnivorous teeth hnve they in each jaw ? How are the teeth of B idgers arranged ? Have they carnivorous teeth 7 How many tuberculous teeth have they ? Have they long tails ? Are they palm-tie ? In what r< spect do the t eth of Gluttons differ from those of Badgers? Have Gluttons any tiil? 6. What are be irs? Are they swil runners ? Do ihey swim well ? Can .hey climb? What do they feed on? What are thty particularly fond of 7. What are the habits of Bear* ? How do they pass the winter ? GENUS OF BEARS. 51 first establish their abodes in caverns or in dens, which they dig with their strong and hooked nails ; in winter they sleep in their retreats, and when the cold is severe, pass the whole of this season in a profound lethargy. During the period of hibernation they take no nourishment, but seem to depend upon the fat, with which they abound in the autumn, for their existence; so that when they leave their retreats they are extremely thin. Prudence is the chief feature in the character of the bear. Whenever he can, he retires from what he is unacquainted with, and when forced to approach it, he does so very slowly, and with great circumspection ; yet he does not want courage, and does not seem to be susceptible of fear. He is never known to run ; he opposes strength to strength, and when his life is threatened, or his young in danger, his fury and his efforts become terrible. The fur of these animals is thick and composed of long shining hair ; it is much sought, and forms an important article of com- merce. In the winter and in the coldest countries, it is most beautiful ; therefore, it is at this season they are most actively hunted. Most of the bear skins used are from the north of Russia and America. Since they have been employed for making or adorning military caps, three or four thousand are annually con- sumed in France. Bears are found in all parts of the world, and in every latitude, except South Africa and Australia. There are several species, the chief of which are : 8. 1st The Krown BearUrsns Arctos; it is this species that the mountebanks in France train for their exhibitions. This animal may attain a length of four or five feet ; his height, when standing on all his feet, does not exceed three feet: his hair, thick and tufted, except on the muzzle and paws where it is black, is chestnut brown on the shoulders, back, thighs, and legs; yellowish on the sides of the head, ears, and flanks. It is common in the Alps, and is found in all the high mountains and great forests of Europe ; it lives solitary, and ordinarily does not attack man ex- cept when provoked ; but then he becomes very formidable, and strives to crush his antagonist beneath his feet, or strangle him in the embrace of his paws. 9. 2d. The While Bees he feed ? In what p-irlicul -ir does the White Bear d.ffer m his habits fro.n all other bears? How does the White Boa* "iss the win'er ' 5* R A CKOONS. BADGERS. He is low on his iegs ; his body, his neck, and especially his head, are more elongated than in any other species of this genus ; lastly, the interior of" his mouth is entirely black. This animal inhabits the glacial regions of the northern hemisphere ; it feeds on fishes, young amphibia, and young cetacea ; nevertheless, he is not essen- tially carnivorous, and can very well be brought to live on bread alone. He swims and dives with astonishing facility. White bears are sometimes met in numerous troops, which also distinguishes them from the other bears which are always solitary; but these animals resemble each other in requiring a retreat in winter. For this purpose they content themselves with some cleft in the rocks or even in a mass of ice ; and without preparing any bed, they there Jie down, and permit themselves to be buried under enormous masses of ice ; they pass in this way the months of January and February in a true lethargy. 10. 3d. The Black Bear Ursiis Jim ericanus lives in forests, feeds on fruits and flesh, is skilful in fishing, and dwells in the hollows of living trees. It is found in all the northern parts of America. In the Rocky Mountains and elevated regions of the Missouri, there is another species which is much larger, stronger, and fiercer: it is called the Grizzly Bear, and its fur which is greyish, is much esteemed. 1 1. The RACKOONS Procyon, very much resemble bears, ex- cept that they have a Jong tail ; they have very nearly the same habits as those animals, but are better climbers and more carnivo- rous; they are of moderate size, and inhabit the forests of America. There is one species which is curious from its singular habit of never eating anything without previously plunging it into water. 12. The BADGERS Meles are nocturnal animals, having a cringing gait, a very short tail, the toes very much enveloped in the skin, and are particularly distinguished by having a pouch situate beneath the tail, from which exudes a fatty, foetid oil. The nails on their fore paws being very long, enables them to dig with great effect. Their hair is long and silky. 13. The common Badyer, Mtli8 Europea which inhabits the temperate regions of Europe and Asia, and keeps at the bottom of an oblique, tortuous hole, is of the stature of a middle sized dog. The length of its hair veils its legs, so that its body seems to be raised but little above the earth. Formerly, the hunting of 10. What are the habit- of the BLck Bear 1 Where is it found ? 11. What are Rac-ki ons ? 12 What are Badgers? 13. What are the habits of tbe common Badtei ? What parts of the world do o S a ~^ * 1 JB <' 2- o * ^ "^ -. 2 S -^ ? a ? 6 I 1 | bJ 3* 1-3 Jlr M* CB ^* S IF 2- *i 3 si- = |a r Two tuherculous | teeth behind the car- nivorous tooth of the-^ [ upper jaw. One tuberculous tooth behind each-< carnivorous tooth. t ;J a- P r :!> 1 3 ., o H if STI *"~" w ^q I {; ^ I 1 1 5 5'f- II Q 'wn tuherculous oth : n ils not i fir Iff II S"s-g I'll |||f |.f|| || *p' ? r 1. i F C s- If 51 Ifi ^ o 5. S 3 I.- *< 3 3- 5" p ^-^ If ,- . o- ' E3- 3 1^ Id (T3 ET 3* -' ' !*) f^ ^ S ff D3 . O on rt So" O j| I a P il ii Jl J* 1 ' 1 II nd below P. Q- P gj 3 5^ f- 3 gS n 3' C ~K 2^^732 Sj 5- 9 '!'. ro 5 : | 2. * 3 =rjp ' 5 w -I __ -1 3 M " Ss ivorous ! fmi-re- I if |f 2 P Ib"! il I! l^i^^-3 1 3- =i -. ^ V -^v-*"- ^-~v~~^' T T~T ^3 ^S S- ft 'ci re ** a n ? s H 3 a ^ 1 P BIGITIGRADE MAMMALS. 55 16. These different genera maybe distinguished from each other by other characters, which are less important than those furnished by the teeth, but which are more easily remembered. The fol lowing table contains a synopsis of these secondary characters : DlGITlGRADA. Having the nails S ot I diggin Fal tec th numbe Lon diggin d by a . . tail the tail ff, Are tb;re any other characters by which the genera of the Digit*- grude *ninidls may be distinguished? 56 POLECATS. 17. The Digitigrades provided with a single tuberculous tooth in each jaw, form A SMALL NATURAL GROUP, designated under the name of Vermiform Cariiivoru, on account of their long, lank body, and short legs. They have five toes on all the feet, and exhale an odour more or less strong, caused by a liquid which is secreted by two glands situated near the anus. Although of small stature, these animals are very sanguinary ; and from their lank form, they can pass through the smallest apertures ; they are divided, as we have already seen, into Polecats, Martens, Skunks, and Otters. 18. The POLECATS, Piitoriiis, are the most sanguinary of all. Their head is round and the short muzzle extends be- yond the mouth ; the ears are rounded, and much wider than long ; the tongue is covered with rough papilla ; the coat is well furnished, shining and soft; their tail is long, and they have glands on each side of the anus which secrete a viscid and fetid matter. Their mode of life is solitary and nocturnal. They are found in both the old and new world. 19. The common Polecat, Mv stela Putorivs, is brown with yellowish flanks and white spots on the head, and is from fifteen to eighteen inches in length, without including the tail, which is six inches long. It is the terror of hen-roosts and rabbit warrens. It approaches dwellings, mounts on the roofs, and establishes it- self in hay-lofts, in barns, and in places seldom visited, from which it goes forth only at night in search of its prey. It glide? into poultry yards, mounts into dove-cots, where, without making as much noise as the Beech Marten, (Weasel,) it commits more havoc ; it cuts or crushes the heads of all the poultry, then carries them off one by one, and stores them away. If, as it often hap- pens, the animal cannot carry them off entire, on account of the hole by which he entered, being too small, he eats the brains and bears off the heads, ft is also very fond of honey ; it attacks hives in winter, and forces the bees to abandon them. Pole- cats live on prey in towns, and on game in the country ; they establish themselves in rabbit-burrows, in clefts of rocks, in the trunks of hollow trees, from which they sally only at night to spread over the fields ; in the woods, they seek the nests of par- tridges, of larks, and quails ; they also climb trees to prey ; they 17. What is meant by vermiform carnivora? By what characters is this tjroup distinguished ? 18. What is the character of the Polecats '! What is their mode of life? in what parts of the world are they found ? 19. What are the specific characters of the common Polecat? What A its habits ? On what does the common polecat feed ? FERT1ET WEASEL. 57 watch for rats, moles, and field-mice, and they wage a continual war against rabbits, who cannot escape, because they can readily enter their holes. The Polecat is found in all the temperate parts of Europe. 20. The Ferret Mustda Furo also belongs to the genus of the Polecats, and very much resembles the common polecat. Its coat is clear brown or yellowish ; its body is more elongated, more delicate, its head narrower, its muzzle more pointed than the j>olecat ; the female is smaller than the male. It is origin- ally from Barbary ; it is naturalized in Spain, but in France it is only met with domesticated, and is employed to hunt rabbits in their burrows. This animal, says Buffon, is naturally, the mortal enemy of the rabbit : when a rabbit, even dead, is shown to a young ferretrthat has never seen one, he throws himself upon it, and bites with fury ; if living, he seizes it by the neck or the nose and sucks its blood. When let into a rabbit-hole, it is muzzled, that it may not kill the rabbits at the bottom of the burrow, but only compel them to sally forth and be caught in a net with which it is usual to cover the entrance. 21. The Weasel Miistrla Vvlyaris, is another species of the genus Polecat ; it is of a chestnut colour above, white below, in length about six inches, with an addition of fifteen or eighteen lines for the tail. This animal is very common in temperate climates, and is terrible to hen-roosts, into which its small size enables it to in- sinuate itself through very narrow openings. When a Weasel enters a hen-roost, it does not attack the cocks or old hens, -but selects the young hens and chicks, kills them by a simple wound inflicted on the head, and then carries them off one after the other ; it also breaks the eggs and sucks their contents with incredible avidity. In winter, it generally dwells in granaries or in barns, frequently remaining there till the spring, to give birth to its young, on the hay or straw ; during all this time it wages war, more suc- cessfully than a cat, against rats and mice, because they cannot escape, as it follows them into their holes ; it climbs into dove- cots, and destroys pigeons, sparrows, &c. In the spring, it goes to some distance from habitations, particularly into lew places, about mills, along the banks of streams and rivers, and conceals itself in thfckets to surprise birds, and often establishes itself in the hollow of an old willow to bring forth its young. 20. What arc the specific characters of the Ferret? To what part of the world did the Ferret originally belong? What are its habits? 21. What are the specific characters of the Weasel ? What are iu iabits? In what part of the world is it found ? P2 MARTENS. 22. We will mention still another species of the genus Polecat, called the Ermine, Vlus ela Enniuea. Its body is about nine inches in length, and the tail about four. This little animal has two coats; in winter, it is white with the tail tipped with black, and bears the name of Ermine ; during the spring, it is of a beau- tiful brown above, and yellowish white below, with the end oi the tail always black: it is then the Rose/el. It is found in the northern parts both of the old and new continent ; and though not so common as the Weasel in France, it is not rare. It seeks stony countries, and avoids the neighbourhood of habitations. The winter skins of this species are very much sought as fur, and form a very considerable article of commerce; but the Ermine of the most northern countries is most esteemed, because it is so brilliantly white, while that of temperate climates always retains a yellowish tint 23. The MARTENS, Musteln, (the true Weasel) properly so called, resemble the Polecats very much, but differ from them in having a muzzle more elongated, and a tongue covered with soft papilla. The numerous species of this genus are scattered over both continents ; among them we will mention : 24. The Common Marten, Mustela Martes, brown, with a yellow spot on the throat, and of a stature rather larger than that of the Beech Marten It lives in the woods of northern Europe, avoiding inhabited places and the open fields ; it destroys a great many small quadrupeds and birds ; it takes possession of eggs, and climbs to the highest branches of trees to dislodge them. It is said to be found also in South America. 25. The Beech Marten, Mustela Foina (Plate 2, fia. 16.) brown, with all the under part of the throat and neck whitish, about sixteen inches in length, besides the tail which measures eight. It is found in European forests, and often approaches habitations, where it even establishes its abode. But it is a dan- gerous guest : when it succeeds in obtaining an entrance into a hen-roost, or a pheasant-walk, it commences by putting every thing to death in its reach, and then bearing all off, piece by piece, to its retreat ; it is a'so voraciously fond of eggs ; it seizes rats, mice, moles and birds m their nests. It is also fond of honey and hempseed. 22. What is the Ermine? Where is it found? What are its habits ? Of wh-it colour is it ? Has climate any influence on the colour of ils coat ? 23. How does the genus Marten differ from that of Polecats? 24. ft hat are the specific characters of the common Marten? What are ils habit-^? 25. What are the specific characters of the Beech Marten ? Where is i found ? What are its habits ? OTTERS. 5!) 26. The Sable Marten Mvstcla Zibelina resembles the pre- ceding species in size and colour. It differs from the other Martens in having hair growing on the under surface of the toes, which protects them from the cold. Its fur is a valuable article of commerce. It inhabits the most northern parts of Europe and Asia ; and abounds most in the mountains of frozen countries, the intense cold of which, renders them uninhabitable : as it is the winter coat that is most highly appreciated, the pursuit of the Sable is of all kinds of hunting the most arduous and perilous. 27 The Skunks iMephith are celebrated for the intolerable stench which they diffuse to a great distance. Most of them in- habit America. 28. The OTTERS, Lntra, possess a peculiar physiognomy, which prevents them from being confounded with any of the neighbouring genera. The head is large and compressed, the body squat, and tongue semi-aspirate ; their toes are armed with short nails, and are united in their whole length, by a wide and strong membrane, which renders these animals good swimmers ; the tail is flattened horizontally ; their coat is very thick, formed by two kinds of hairs, the silky quite long, stout, hard, shining, and thicker at the point than at the base ; the woolly, which are shorter, and generally more numerous, forming a thick and ex- tremely soft fur. These animals live chiefly upon fish, and in- habit bye places, or nooks, which they line with dry grass, on the banks, or in the neighbourhood of water; they remain concealed during the day, and sally in search of food only at night. Some species are known in almost all parts of the world. 29. The Common Otter, Lntra Vnlynrit, about two feet long, tail about one foot in length, brown above, greyish below, and sometimes marked with white spots, lives on the margins of ponds and rivers, in different parts of Europe. 30. The Si-a Otter Mush-la Lulrix is twice the size of the common Otter, and its black coat of the vivid brightness of velvet, forms one of the most precious of the furs. The Rnglish and the Russians hunt this animal in all the northern parts of the Pacific 26. How docs the Sable differ from other Martens? Where is it found ? 27. For whit particular quality are Skunks distinguished? In what part of the world are they found? 28. What are the characters of the genus Otter ? What are the habits of animals of this genus ? 29. What are the specific characters of the common Otter ? 30. What are the specific characters of the Sea Otter? Where is the Sea Otter found ? Does this animal contribute any thing to commerce 7 In what respect do the habits of this animal differ from those of 'tnoj species of Olt rs ? 6 *50. DOGS. Ocean, and annually convey a great number of skins to China and Jaoan. This species inhabits Kamtschatka, the most northern parts of America, and the neighbouring islands; most generally it keeps on the sea coast, and not within reach of fresh water, like the other species. It is said to live in couples. 31. The SECOND GKOUP OF DIGITIGRADE CARNIVORA, characterised by the existence of two tuberculous teeth behind the carnivorous tooth of the upper jaw, is composed of the least sanguinary ani- mals of this tribe ; they are of pretty large stature, but their courage does not correspond to their strength, and they most generally feed on carrion. 32. Amongst the genera of this group, the first that will be the object of our study, is the genus of DOGS : it is composed of species which resemble each other in the principal parts of their organization, which, nevertheless, are separated into two very distinct sub-genera ; DOGS and FOXES. 33. All these animals have three false molars above, and four below, and two tuberculous teeth behind each carnivorous tooth; their tongue is soft ; their fore-feet have five toes, and the hind ones, four; their nails are adapted for digging; their vision is excellent, their hearing fine and their sense of smell prodigious ; they mix vegetable with their animal food, and are fond of putrid meat. Generally, they are animals of moderate stature, and their proportions are indicative of their strength and activity. 34. The sub-genus of DOGS PROPERLY so CALLED, is composed of common dogs, and different species of wolves; it is distin- guished from that of the foxes by the tail, which in the latter is longer and more tufted ; by the form of the muzzle, and particu- larly by the disposition of the pupil. In dogs, as well as in other diurnal animals, this opening is circular, while in foxes it takes, when contracting under the influence of light, the form of a slit, a peculiarity which is characteristic of nocturnal animals. 35. The Domestic Doy, Canis Familiaris is distinguished from other species of this genus by his recurved tail, otherwise varying infinitely in size, form, colour, and quality of hair. This 31. How are animals of the second group of Digitigrade Carnivora distin- guished? Are animals of this group very courageous? 33. Do the species of the genus Dog resemble each other in their organi- zation ? How is this genus divided? 33. Wh;it are the general characteristics of the genus Dog? 34. What animals compose the sub-genus of Dogs properly so called ? How is this sub-genus distinguished from that of Foxes ? What peculiarity characterises nocturnal animals? 35. What are the specific characters of the Domestic Dog? What signs indicate its age I DOGS. 61 animal is born with his eyes closed, and does not open them tiU the tenth or twelfth day. The female brings forth from six to seven, and sometimes twelve young at a birth. The life of the dog is commonly limited to fourteen or fifteen years ; though some have been known to live twenty years. Its age is known by the teeth becoming blunt, unequal and dark coloured, as the animal grows old ; when young, they are white, trenchant and pointed. 36. Dogs are voracious and gluttonous ; nevertheless, they can fast for a long time ; they readily accustom themselves to all kinds of food, although, they have a special fondness for meat, and particularly for carrion. Their stomach, which is endowed with great energy, digests very readily the hardest and most com- pact bones. 37. The dog runs with great rapidity for a long distance. The pores of his skin being very much closed, he never sweats, even in the very hottest weather ; but when he is very warm, he lolls out his tongue, and frequently draws it in ; he plunges into the water without being incommoded. He drinks by lapping, so that with his tongue, he lifts the water, which, being in this way in- troduced little by little, into the stomach, is gradually warmed, and he therefore experiences no inconvenience, by the sudden cold that a considerable quantity of water, swallowed at once, produces in the interior of the body when very warm 38. The acuteness of the sense of smell, in some races of dogs, gives them a perception that is not to be found in any other species of animals, not even excepting man. This sagacity is par- ticularly manifested in the discovery and pursuit of game. The dog perceives the odorous traces with which the soil is impreg- nated, for twenty-four hours after game has passed over it, and in this way, guides himself to the cover where the animal hides. There are two principal races of dogs suited for hunting, one of which is trained to pursue animals, and the other to stand at the place where they are discovered. 39. The dog is the most complete, and one of the most useful conquests that man has achieved over nature ; the whole species has become our property, and even the trace of his primitive state has been lost. Wild dogs, which are found in many countries; belong to the domestic races that have regained their indepen- 36. What is the food of dogs ? Have Dogs good digestive powers ? 37. Do Dogs perspire freely? Wl>y do Dogs suffer no inconvenience from irinkinjr cold water? .i8. Have Do'js a keen sene of smell ? How it< this fact manifested 7 39. Is the^e any primitive race of Dogs ? 6? DOGS. dence, after having lost it for a certain number of generations, and in this way have resumed some of the traits of the primitive species. Causes as powerful as those which result from the in- fluence of difference of climate, of food, &c., are not enough to explain the numerous modifications that the domestic dog has undergone, giving rise to his different races. It has been sup- posed that our dogs have not been derived from a single species, but that they came from different species, which cannot now be recognised, on account of the mixture of their races. Some think the dog is a wolf, and others again, that he is a tamed Jackal ; dogs that have become wild, on desert islands, do not however, resem- ble either one or the other. Wild dogs, and those belonging to demi- civilized people, such as the nations of New Holland, have straight ears, which has led to the belief that the European races which approach nearest to the original type, are the Shepherd's Doy and Wolf-Dog. 40. We will now mention the principal races of dogs that are scattered over the surface of the earth. Their almost infinite mixture, joined to the influence of climate, of food and education, has produced very many varieties in their species. 41. 1st. The Shepherd's Dog, Cunis Domesticus^ is of moderate size, the ears short and straight ; his whole body, with the exception of the muzzle, is covered with long hairs ; his colour is black, or dark brown. Of all the species of dogs, this one possesses most instinct for guarding flocks. 42. 2d. The L'p/and Dag, Dog of the Esquimaux, Canis Borealis, resembles the Shepherd's dog, and inhabits the most northern parts of Europe, Asia, and America, where he is employed as a beast of burthen : they are geared from five to ten together, (sometimes more) to very light sledges, constructed of osier, and forced to run so rapidly, that they sometimes accom- plish in a single day, a journey on the ice of twenty-five leagues. 43. 3d. The Newfoundland Dou, Cani8 Terra Novce: The proportions of his body are nearly the same as those of the Shepherd's Dog. His body is thickly covered with long soft hair, and his tail recurved and tufted. His colour is ordinarily wnite, with patches of black ; he is tall, and has an elongated body. He is very active and possesses strength superior to that of any other dogs of the same size. He attaches himself strongly to his master, but is shy of strangers. He is remarkable for 40. How do you account for the numerous varieties of Dogs? 41 What are the specific characters of the Shepherd's Dog ? 42. How is the Lapland Dog employed ? 43. What; re the specific characters of the New foundland Dog? Foi what js ih:s Dog remarkable ? DOGS. G3 his toes bem? united, for about one half their length by a mem- brane, and for the facility with which he takes to the water, which seerns to him a second element. This quality has caused him to be taken to places where men are in danger of being drowned, in order to rescue tnem. 44. 4th. The Wo/f-Doy, Canis Pomeranus, is distinguished from the Shepherd's f)oy by the hairs that cover all parts of the head, and by his highly raised tail ; his colour is generally white, or black, or pale red : in some countries he is employed to watch the flocks 45. 5th The Hound, Cnnis Gnlticns: There are several varieties remarkable for the length of their pendant ears ; they have strong limbs, short hair, tail recurved ; they are white, or black, or pale red, (fawn,) or spotted with these different colours. It is the best race for pursuing game, such as the hare, deer, or wild boar, &c The Spanish pointer and setter belong to this variety 46. 6th The Turnspit, Canis Vcrtagus: In this race the legs are always very short, sometimes straight, and often crooked ; the ears are large, long and pendant. The Turnspits are prized for hunting in company with the Hound. 47. 7th. The Settmg-Uoy, Cards Avion /am, differs little from the preceding and the ordinary hound ; the muzzle is not so long, the ears are shorter, the limbs longer, and the body thicker. 48 8th. The Terrier, Cants Terrarms: This race, of which they form packs in England for chasing the fox, hare, and rabbits, is black, having the eyes, the lower part of the body, and the paws of a deep yellowish red. It possesses a great deal of viva- city and intelligence, and great ardour in the chase; it watches for mice, and catches them with as much adroitness as a cat. 49. 9th. The Spaniel, Cnnis /g distinguished from the Shepherd's Dog? 45. What are 'he sp. cific characters of the Hound ? 46. For what is the Turnspit valued? 47. How does the Setting-Do* differ from the common Hound ? 48. What art- the specific characters of tlie Terrier ? 49. What are the sp cific characters of the Spaniel ? For what is '' pained '' 5J. What are the specific characters of the Greyhound? Does the Grey hoii'id hunt by the sen-e of smel like the common Hound? 6* 54 DOGS. (hat he was the ordinary companion of gentlemen, who in those days were distinguished by their charger, their falcon, and grey- hound. It has a long body, a long delicate head, large eyes, a long mouth, teeth sharp and very white, and a deep chest. Both his fore and hind legs are long and straight, his haunches round and strong, his loins brawny and his belly thin. He is the most nimble of all the dogs, and is fit for the chase from twelvemonths old. He hunts by the eye and not by the sense of smell, and it is pretended that he surpasses them all. 51. llth The Daui.sk Ooa, Can s Danicwt, This dog pos- sesses great beauty ; he is white and spotted with an elegant pro- fusion of small, round, black spots. His sense of smell is not acute. 52. 12th. The Mastiff, Cams Mastivu* ; Dogs of this race are large, vigorous, and nimble ; their ears are demi-pendant. They are gray, white, brown and black. They carry the tail high. They are chiefly employed as watch-dogs. 53. 13th. The Water- Day, Canis Jlquaticu*, (Water Spaniel). This variety is one of the most intelligent and one of the most common in France. It is remarkable for its long curly hair ; its colour is black, or white, or mixed. These animals are strongly attached to their masters, and perform many curious tricks. They are very fond of going into the water. 54. 14th. The Bull-Dug, - Canis Molo sus : The dogs of this race are characterised by a short muzzle, and by a stout body. Of all the races, this is the least intelligent. It is divided into : 55. The English Bull- Dog, Canis rfuglicus, is easily recog- nised by the large head and body. The ears are small and demi- pendant ; his thick lips fall on each side of his mouth ; his legs are short and strong ; his coat is smooth, white and black. This dog is employed in preference to others tor baiting bulls and wild beasts. 56. The Common Bull- Dog resembles the last and differs from it, in being smaller ; it often has the nostrils separated by a deep fissure or cleft. 57. The I j vg-Dog, - Co his fricawr, resembles the two last, but the lips are less pendant and it is smaller. Its coat is 51. What is (he Danish Hog? -w 52. How is the Mastiff described ? 53. What h the character of the Water-dog? 5-1. What ore the characters of the Bull-dog? 55. By what characters is the English Bull-dog recognised ? 5(1 In what respect does the common Bull dog differ from the English Bull dog 57. VV'nat is the Pug-dog ? WOLF. JACKAL. FOX. 6A smooth and generally light coloured, except the face which is black. It does not possess much intelligence and is very heed- less. 58. The Common Wolf, Canis />;>?/, is another species of the sub-genus dog ; it is easily distinguished from the domestic dog by its tail, which is straight, in place of being recurved, as in the last. Its ears are also straight, ( Plate 3, fig. 2.) and its coat is of a pale red or fawn colour. This animal is the size o, a large dog, and it has the physiognomy of a mastiff; but far from being like the dog, eminently social, he lives almost entirely solitary, in great forests, nor does he unite with his fellows to form troops, except when pressed by hunger. He is very strong, active, adroit, and provided with every thing that is necessary to fit him for the pursuit, attack, and conquest of his prey ; never- theless, he is naturally sluggish and cowardly, and it is only when pressed by hunger, that he braves danger, and dares to attack animals which are under the protection of man, as lambs, sheep, and even dogs. Under the influence of excessive hunger, he commits great ravages. He attacks women and children, and sometimes he is bold enough to fall upon man. He inhabits all Europe. 59. The Jackal, or Golden Wolf, Canis Jlnnm, which is found in the hot parts of Asia and Africa, in its habits and con- formation, more strongly resembles the domestic dog than the common wolf It permits itself to be tamed. Many naturalists consider the Jackal as the original stock of the dog ; and many commentators suppose that it is the fox of Sampson. 69. The second group of the genus Dog includes the FOXES These animals have the same dental system as the dog; but possess a larger head, a more pointed muzzle, a longer and more bushy tail, and by day their pupils present the form of a vertical slit. They are nocturnal, burrow in the earth, exhale a foetid odour, and only attack feeble animals. Species are found in all parts of the world. Those of cold countries afford a valuable fur. 61. The Common Fojf Canis Vulpes, which is spread over all Europe, has a red coat. Every body knows this famous ani- mal through his tricks and cunning. He generally establishes his abode in the edge of a wood, in the neighbourhood of a (arm. If he gains entrance into a poultry yard, he slaughters 58. What are the characters of the common Wolf? 59. What is the Jackal ? f0. In what particulars do Foxes differ from Dogs? 6J. What are the habits of ihe common Fox ? On what does it feed? Q 6b CIVET. GENET. all the poultry, and loading himself with a part of the spoils, he hastens to deposite it at some distance, then returns, and carries oft" another part, which he disposes of in the same way, taking the precaution however to change the place of deposite. This he repeats several times. When he finds birds caught in a snare, he adroitly frees them from their bonds and carries them off to his hole. His gluttony accommodates itself to everything. When pressed by hunger, he eats rats, mice, snakes, toads, lizards, in- sects, and even contents himself with vegetables. Foxes that live near sea coasts feed upon all kinds of shell-fish. 62 The genus CIVET, Viverra, includes not only the Civet properly so called, but also the Genet, or wild cat, the Mangouste and several other carnaria, which seem to fill up the chain of re- lationship between the dogs and cats. (P. ate 2, /ft*. 17, and Plate 3, fig. \.) Like the last, their tongue is rough, and their nails are more or less retracted when walking, so that their ex- tremities are always kept very sharp. All of them have a pouch placed more or less deeply under the tail, containing a greasy matter which frequently exhales a very strong odour. 63. The iXvft properly so called, Civetfa, has been im- properly called the musk cat. It is ordinarily of "an ash colour, spotted white, sometimes striped like certain species of cats Its perfume, which consists of the greasy matter formed in the pouch we have just mentioned, is so strong that it penetrates all parts of the body, and the skin preserves the odour for a long time after it has been stripped from the animal. Although originally from hot countries, Guinea and the central parts of Africa, the Civet can live in temperate and in cold climates, if protected from the injurious influences of the air. It has been acclimated in Hol- land, where the inhabitants carry on a considerable trade in its perfume. The quantity afforded by each animal depends upon its keeping: and diet ; the more abundant its food, the more per- fum? it yields. It is said to be most abundant after the animal has been irritated, 64. The Genet, Genetta, (PlatcS.Jjff. 17.) bears consider- able resemblance to the Civet ; its colour is gray, spotted brown and black with a blackish muzzle, white spots on the brow, on the cheek, and on each side of the end of the nose ; the tail is , 62. What are the characters of the genus Civtt? What is the source of die odour which animals o r this genus exhale? 63. What fire the specific characters of the Civet properly so called' What is the source of its perfume ? To what use is this animal applied hi Holland ? 64. What are the specific characters of the Genet? MANGOUSTF.. HYENAS. 67 ringed white and black. It is met with from the south of France to the Cape of Good Hope. It frequents along brooks, near springs, &c. Its skin is an important article of peltry. Like the Civet, it has a pouch, containing a species of perfume. It clears the houses of rats and mice, which cannot endure its odour. 65. The Munyounte of Ky ///>/, or Pharaolis Rut^ Ichneumon Pkarannts Viverru Ickncnii on (Platf 3, fiy. l.)also belongs to the genus of Cioets. It resembles the Civet, but is distinguished by its large eyes, with the pupils elongated transversely ; which are susceptible of being almost entirely covered by a large wink- ing eyelid, called mcnibiana nictiians. It is larger than our cats, slender like the weasel, and of a grayish colour. This animal is the famous Ichneumon of the ancients, which was worshipped by the Egyptians All that the ancients have said in relation to its fights with the crocodile is fabulous. The Mangouste is naturally mild and timid, and renders very important service to Egypt, for it destroys a great number of crocodile eggs , it also feeds on small animals of all kinds. When domesticated it hunts mice and the small reptiles which are so common in that country. 66 The THIRD GROUP OF CARNIVOROUS DiGiriGRADES, includes those animals of this tribe which have no small teeth behind the great molar of the lower jaw. In this group are found the most cruel, the most carnivorous, and on account of their strength, the most formidable animals ; they have been separated into two genera : the HYENAS and CATS. 67. HYENAS, (i'lat? 3, fig. 3,) are distinguished from animals of the genus CAT, by the number of their fingers, which is four throughout, by their nails which are adapted for digging, and which are never drawn in or retracted when on the march, and by the position of their teeth, whose strength is so great that they can crush the bones of the strongest of their prey. Their tongue is rough, their sense of smell acute, their tail short and pendant, and, below' the anus there is a deep pouch in which a glandular apparatus secretes a viscous matter, which diffuses a very disa- greeable odour The coat is rough, not thick, composed of long hairs, which form a mane along the back. Their gait is most singular ; they keep the step of the hind legs always lower than that of the fore. These- animals are nocturnal, live in caverns, 65. What is the hist >ry of the M.mgou>le? Upon what does it usually feed? 6G. What animals are included in the third group of carnivorous Dgi'i. g-ades ? 67. What are the gene al characters of the Hyenas? What do they espjcial y feed on ? 68 CATS. and are extremely voracious; they feed especially on dead bodies, and seek them even in burial places; they possess a reputation for ferocity which they do not merit. 68. The Common IJyi'iia, Hyena Vu'yaris, is originally from Asiatic Turkey, Syria, and some countries of Africa. It is of the size of a wolf, and at first sight, somewhat resembles him. His coat is of a brownish gray, and marked with white stripes. His head is commonly carried low ; the back seems elevated like that of the hog ; he has long bristles which fall from each side. 69. The cry of this animal is peculiar : it begins with a sound that one might take for the groans of a man, and ends pre- cisely as if a person were making efforts to vomit. 70. The CATS, fc/is, a name under which naturalists com- prehend, not only common Cats, but also Tigers, Lions, &c.) of all the carnivora, are the most completely armed : their short jaws are moved by prodigiously strong muscles (Plate 3, jig. 5;) they have two false molar teeth in the upper and two in the lower jaw, followed by a very large carnivorous tooth ; their retractile nails, which are hidden amongst the toes when in a state of repose by the action of elastic ligaments, never lose either their point or edge ( Plate 3, // of the genus Cat 7 LION. TIGER. JAGUAR. 69 most frequently concealed in a bushy covert, near the source of running water, they await the animal they design attacking, and at a single bound alight upon their victim. 72. At the head of this genus is placed the Lion, Felis Leo, which is five or six feet in length from the end of the muzzle to the origin of the tail, three feet high, distinguished by a square head, the brush of hair which terminates his long tail, and the mane that covers the head, neck and shoulders in the male. It is the strongest of the carnivorous animals. It has an imposing air, a proud look, and noble gait. Such is his power that a single blow of his foot is enough to crush the sides of a horse, and to knock down the strongest man with a blow of his tail. He can clear at a single bound, a space of thirty feet, and he drags with ease to great distances the largest bullocks. Formerly he was spread over three fourths of the old world, but at present, he appears to be almost confined to Africa and some of the neigh- bouring parts of Asia The roar of the Lion is such, that when it resounds in the mountains it resembles distant thunder. This roar is hollow and deep ; in his paroxysms of rage he utters another cry not less frightful, but short, broken, and reiterated. Nothing is more dreadful than this animal when he prepares for combat. He lashes his flanks with his long tail ; his mane be- comes erect, bristling, and envelopes his whole head ; all his muscles are in- motion ; his enormous eye-brows half conceal his pupils ; he shows his teeth and frightful tongue, and he protrudes his claws which are almost as long as the finger ; his approach would freeze with terror the boldest of men. With the excep tion of the elephant, rhinoceros, arid hippopotamus, no other animal dares to contend with him. [The flesh of the Lion is eaten by the Hottentots; and a tribe of Arabs, between Tunis and Algiers, live almost entirely upon it.] 73. The animal which some authors call the American Lion, is another species of the genus cat, named Cuuguar, felis Concolor, which belongs to the new world. 74. The Rnyul Tiyer, or Eastern Tiyer, Felis Tigris, is a still more formidable animal than the Lion, for he equals him in size and strength, and exceeds him in ferocity ; his hair is rough and yellow above with transverse black stripes. (Plate 3,Jiy. 4.) He inhabits India, and there commits the greatest ravages. 75. The Jaynar, Fi-lis Onca, (the Ounce,) which is almost as large as the Royal Tiger, and almost as dangerous, inhabits 72. Wiiat aie the spi oific chaiacters of th L;ou ? Where iw lie 73. What is the American I. ion-? 74. What is ih. lio.al Tiger? 75. Wh^t are the characters of the J. guar ? Q2 70 PANTHER. LYNX. DOMESTIC CAT AMPHIBIA. the great forests of America ; his coat is yellow above, with black spots in the form of eyes or rings, arranged in four rows along the flanks, and white striped with black below. He is sometimes - distinguished under the name of American Tiger, and furriers call him the Great Panther. 76. The Panther, Felix I'nrdiix so remarkable for the beauty of his yellow coat with black spots in the form of roses, is found throughout Africa and in the warm parts of Asia, very much re- sembles the Leopard, which inhabits the same regions. 77. The name Lynx, F>-lis Lynx, The mountain cat is given to another species of c;it, remarkable for the brush of hair that tips the ears; it is about two feet and a half long to the origin of the tail, which is from four to five inches in length ; its coat is red, spotted with brownish red ; it is indigenous to tem- perate Europe, but has almost entirely disappeared from populous countries ; it is still met with in the Pyrenees, in the mountains of the kingdom of Naples, and in Africa. It climbs the highest trees of the forest, and there lies concealed among the branches to watch the Weasel, Ermine, Squirrel, &c. It commits great havoc amongst flocks, and destroys a great number of hares and game : its sight is so piercing that the ancients attributed to it the faculty of seeing through stone walls ; but we can say, that it distinguishes its prey at a much greater distance than any other carnivorous animal. 78. The Common or Domestic Cat, Felis Catus, is origin- ally from the forests of Europe. In its wild state, it is grayish brown, with transverse undulating stripes of a deeper colour above, and pale below ; the inside of the thighs and the four paws yellowish, and the tail annulated with black. When domesticated it varies in the colour, fineness, and length of its hairs, as every body knows. Ti the of Amphibia. 79. The third tribe of tne family of Carnivora comprises ani- mals which, capable of being submerged for a long time and having a body favourably organised for natation, keep them- * selves most generally in the sea, although they have a constant necessity for respiring the air. These animals have been named A ini>kil>ie of Amphibia? SEALS. MORSE. 71 only for crawling; but as the spaces between their fingers are filled up by membranes, they form excellent oars. (Mate. 3. fig. 7.) They only land to bask in the sun, to sleep, and to suckle their young. Their elongated 'body, their very moveable spine, pro- vided with muscles which flex it with great force, their narrow pelvis, their rough hair lying close to the skin, concur to render them good swimmers. They form two families: the Seal, and the Mojse. 80. SEALS, Phoca, (Plate 3, fig 7.) have a round head resembling that of a dog, a mild intelligent look, the canine teeth of moderate size, the fore paws armed with hooked nails, the posterior extremities directed backwards and in the form of fins. These animals live in numerous troops near coasts, and feed principally on fishes: they always eat in the water ; they swim with great ease and dive very well. The ancients knew these animals and introduced them into their fables. The flocks of Neptune that Proteus tended were composed of seals, and the poetic mythology of the Greeks has transformed these Amphibia into Tritons and Syrens to escort their god of the sea. Modern voyagers often designate them under the names of Sta-califcs, Sea-cows, Sea-beam, $c. This little family is divided into several genera. 81. [Seals are found on the coasts of the South Shetland Isles, and the western coast of America, and in the Northern Seas. They are much hunted for the sake of their skins. These ani- mals are of great importance to the Finnish Islanders, the Kamt- schatkadales, and particularly the Greenlanders, and to the Esqui- maux of Labrador. The two latter people live on their flesh, clothe themselves, build their summer huts, make their canoes, &c. of their skins. The chase of the seal forms their principal busi- ness, and their success in this, forms at once their fortune and glory. 82. The MORSE, Tnchei-hns, (the Walrus) is easily distin- guished from the Seal by its enormous canine teeth which, planted in the upper jaw, are directed downwards like tusks, and sometimes attain two feet in length. (Plate 3, fig. 8.) The necessarily large size of the alveoli for the accommodation of such immense canine teeth, raises up the whole front of the upper jaw into the form of a swelled jowl, and the nostrils open upwards instead of terminating the muzzle. There are neither incisor nor canine teeth in the lower jaw, which is compressed anteriorly, to pass between the enormous canine teeth or tusks of the upper one 80. What are the characteristics of Seals? What are their habits ? 81. What p:trts of the world do Seals inhabit ? 82. How is the Morse distinguished from the Seal? 72 POUCHED ANIMALS. S3. The chief use of these tusks seems to be to aid the Morse to detach from the ground and rocks the substances upon which he feeds. They also serve to secure him to the rocks before he trusts himself to sleep. 84. In other respects the Morse resembles the seal, the only species known inhaoits the icy ocean, and is sometimes twenty- feet in length. LESSON VII. ORDER OF MARSUPIALIA. Zoological Characters. Peculiarities of Organization. Habits, (Opossums, Phalanger*, Kangaroos.) ORDER OP RODENTIA Zoological Characters. Peculiarities of their Organization. Organization and Habits of the Ge tins of Squirrels. Squirrels properly so culled, (Common Squirrel, Flying Squirrel.) Organization and Habits of the Genus of /?a/. Marmots.- Habits. Hibernation. Dormouse. Rats properly so called, (Mouse, Hat.) Hamsters. Field-mice. Jerboa. Genus of Castors. Organization and Habits of Cas- tors properly so called. Genus of Porcupines. Organization and Habits of Porcupines properly so called. Genus of Hares. Organization and Habits of Hares properly so cal'cd ; (Com- mon Hare, Rabbit.} Genus of Guinea-pigs. Chinchilla. General remarks on Peltries. The use of Hair in the manu- facture of Felt. Glue. 1. The Marsupialia are unguiculate mammals whose different organs, at the time of birth, are very imperfectly formed ; and they adhere by some means to the teat of the mother until their developement is accomplished. In the majority of these animals, the skin of the belly forms, in front of the teats, a pouch which serves to lodge the young while they are suckled ; it is from this peculiarity of organization, they have obtained the name of Mar* supialia, or pouched-animals. 2. The young, incapable of motion and almost without a dis- tinct form, remain, for a certain time, fixed to the teats of the mother, and concealed in the mammary pouch of which we have just spoken. They do not detach themselves until they are 83. What use does the Morse make of its tusks ? 84. Where is the Morse found ? 1. What are Marsupialia? What is the peculiaiity of their organization from which their name is derived ? 2. During what period do the young of the Marsupials make use of. the mammary pouch ? How are the young of those Marsupialia that have no pouch enabled to cling to their mothers '/ POUCHED ANIMALS. 73 covered with hair, open their eyes and are able to live on other food than milk. For a long time after they have left this pouch, they fly to it as a place of refuge when threatened by any danger. {Hate 3, Jig. 9.) In those species that have no pouch, but a prehensile tail, the young are pendant from the belly of the mother for a certain time ; then they mount upon her back, and, for the sake of support, wrap their tails around hers. 3. All these animals which are so intimately linked to each other by the manner in which their young are developed, differ very much in other respects. In some, the dental system is pre- cisely like that of the insvctivoia, and accordingly, they feed upon similar food ; in others, that still possess the three sorts of teeth, the molars are tuberculous in place of being studded with points, and hence their jruyivorous diet; and there are some that want the canine teeth, which, if we take this circumstance into consideration,.*should be placed amongst the Rodentia, (Plate 3, fig. 12 ) These animals also differ from each other in their general form and habits. 4. The Marsupialia have only been found in America, on some of the islands of the South Sea, and particularly in New Holland, which, with some exceptions, contains only mammiferous animals of this order. 5. The order of Marsupialia is divided into six tribes, as follows : First Tribe. Two long canines in each jaw; several small incisors; molars studded with points. (Opossum.) Second Tribe. The superior canines long and pointed, but the inferior rudimentary, or entirely wanting; six small incisors above, but only two larsje ones below. Thumb large and directed backwards ; the two next fingers joined as far as the nails (Phaltingers.) Third Tribe. Two large incisors above with some small ones adjoining, and two small canines; no thumb behind; paws very short. (Koala.) Fourth Tribe. Dentul system nearly. the same as in the preceding tribe; no thumb on the posterior extremeness which, as well as the tail, are very long. (Potoroos.) Fifth Tribe. Without canines ; a long vacant space between the incisors and molars; several incisors in the upper jaw ; posterior extremiti a and tail very long. (Kangaroos.) Sixth Tribe. No canines; two long, inclosed incisors in eacn jaw; molais studded with transverse ridges ; tail short. (Phascolornys.) 3. Are all Marsupials alike? What is the nature of their diet ? Is the dental system the same in all Marsup als ? 4. In what parts of the world an- the Ma'supiils found? 5 How is the order of Marsupialia divided? Whit are the characters which distinguish the Opossum from other Marsupials? What are the or- game characters of the Phalangnrs ? By what features can the Koala be recognised ? What are the characters of the Potoroos ? What are the or game characters of the Kangaroo? 74 OPOSSUMS.- PHALAKGERS. 6. The FIRST TRIBE of Marsupials is composed of animals th ' RODENTIA. linos, which renders their surface like that of a mill-stone. Finally, the lower jaw of these animals, in place of being articulated with the cranium by a transverse condyle, (like that in the carnaria,) is joined to it by a longitudinal condyle, which only permits motion forwards and backwards: on this account, these animals cannot use their teeth either for tearing flesh or even cutting the substances upon which they feed, and they are forced, therefore, to file them as it were, in order to reduce them by continual labour to very delicate particles, and it is from this circumstance, they have obtained their name of gnawers or rodentia. 16. In conformity to this mode of organization, the gnawers must necessarily be designed to feed chiefly upon vegetable sub- stances; some of them are orrnivorous (rats, (or example;) but, for the most part, they live upon fruits, herbs, barks or roots. 17. Most of these animals are of small stature, and in general, their hind paws are much longer than the fore, so that they rather leap than walk. The hare affords us an example' of this arrange- ment, which, in some other gnawers, (the Jerboas,) is carried so far that the animal only uses his hind paws to leap with, and to rest upon. (Plate 4. fig. 11.) 18. As regards intelligence, the Rodentia are, in general, less favoured by nature than the quadrumana and carnaria, and it is remarked that their brain is less developed and presents scarcely any convolutions. Nevertheless, we rind in this order, those mammalia whose instinctive faculties .are most admirable, as we shall see when we treat of the castors, and squirrels 19. This order is composed of several small tribes, the most important of which, with their distinctive characters, are indicated in the following table: in which it will be perceived, they are all arranged in two principal sections, according as they possess a perfect, or an imperfect clavicle : the first section has been called Rodentia with clavicles; and the second, Rodentia with imperfect clavicles : 16. What is the general food of the Rodentia? Does their organization indicate the kind of i'ood on which they live / 17. What is the general mode of progression amongst Rodentia? How is their mode of progression accounted for? 18. What decree of intelligence i-s pos-e scd by the Rodentia compared wiih other animals? What is the comparative rievclopement of t'-eir brain ? 19. (Answer f.d in the table.') Flow is the order Rodent ia divided? What is tne composition of the teeth of Squirrels niid Rats? Have they any davicles? What numb; r of toes have Castors ? What tribes of this order have no clavicle, or only a very short one? What tribes of this order have moiur teeth without roots? What tribes of this order have molar teeth with roots ? In what tribes do the molar teelh cease growing when completely formed? In what tribes do the mo'ar teeth continue to grow through Ufb? o c o O 3 s " p P j^ 00 D c _ q- P O 1.1 * ?i Q- cr O <. S"! P"^ y 5 ? "2 2-2- "c * "1 3 S 8 CJ r-^ g S 5- i g rt O *"* % P CD >1 r- Qu 50 Cu 3 O Ef 9 p fD ^ j ft a 1 3 ' i 1 co if 5 r "? o ^^ ' "^ ' on; >t g 0^ 1 0^ s fr. 1 | Si'* | I B- 1 1 l^ifi IsS "! s 2 1 S* R i f ? CO ^ M O a- 5- r * > 2 K c "* o ^' P -, 2. * 5 o P 5* g S o 0^ 5 e-3 g'gp 3 g ? cr.- p: o ^ """ -j 3 * ? IS Iff ^_A o* s* -A. |l ri'T) ? I I . f Two small suplementary in- "1 ci^ors behind the two ordinary lar^e incisors of the upper jaw. J Without the suplementary in- Three molars throughout . . Four molars throughout. < [ Front toes of ordinary length. < MfU^ w Hllltl |.||| ^fs's-^r ?'! S e-o J ^^ A < o r| |.-g ^og ^<- S. P "o^^?Tcop CL .< PS* L"" ! *rl o^ S| g^ ^ E.S = 2. p"3 TO ? htj - s * 2. ? " Eg 1 3~, 7 1 <" QJ STQ-ft. , c8 5 7 r P- O > v P g" O ^j i 2 ^ O M 5? > >. > ^ 1 1 i ? 1 9 5 ? * 1 a co" i 1 P ? p 1 I L* * 78 SQUIRRELS. Tribe of Squirrel*. 20. The squirrels are recognised by their long, bushy tail, anr 1 by their lower incisor teeth, which are very much compressed. (Plate 4. fig 7 ) Their head is large, their eyes projecting and animated, and their form light ; their anterior extremities, which often serve them for conveying food to the mouth, are sustained by strong clavicles, and are provided with only four fingers which are armed with hooked nails, while the posterior extremities have five. These animals, which are remarkable for their agility, live on trees and feed upon fruits. 21. They are divided into Squirrels properly so called, Flying- Squirrels, $c. 22. SQUIRRELS PROPERLY so CALLED, Sciurus, have the hairs of the tail directed from the sides,* giving it some resemblance to a large feather. There are many species on both continents ; in France, the Common Squirrel, Sciurmt Vulgarly is met with in great numbers, and in the climate of that region, preserves its colours (a lively red on the back, and white on the belly ;) but in the north, during the winter, it acquires a beautiful bluish ash colour, (producing the fur called minever, when taken from the back only, and onir by the French when it consists of the whole skin.) Sometimes there are black squirrels ; less frequently snow white .with red eyes; and more rarely still, spotted with black and white. 23. These lively, graceful little animals inhabit the forests, and make their nests upon the highest parts of the loftiest trees ; they build them in a spherical form, of flexible twigs and moss, and leave an opening in the upper part, taking the precaution to cover it with a sort of conical roof, which prevents the ingress of rain. In this nest they pass a part of the day : they sally forth in the evening, at which time they are gay, jumping from branch to branch, and uttering a pretty sharp whistle. During the sum- mer, squirrels are occupied in making provision for the winter ; it is remarked that they have a great propensity to hide what over food may remain after feeding, The trunk of a hollow tree is their usual store-house, to which they recur when the fruits upon which they feed grow scarce ; they know how to dis- 20. How are Squinels recognised ? How m;.ny toe-, or finjjeis have they on the fore, and how nri:iy o! their voice ? FLYING SQUIRRELS 79 cover their depot when under the snow, which they remove with their paws, and their instinct teaches them not to put all the}* gather into the same place : ordinarily they make several store- houses, and when one is discovered and robbed, or exhausted, they recur to the others. By their address and agility alone, they succeed in eluding their enemies. The moment they are apprised of their approach by any extraordinary noise, they leave their nest, and through the assistance of their nails, which enables them to adhere to the bark of trees, -we see them, in order to escape from the object of their dread, place the thickness of a branch between it and themselves, which makes it difficult to see them, if one is perceived by them ; when we go around the tree to get to the same side upon which they are, they at once pass to the opposite, and if their fear becomes still greater, they cover themselves betwixt two branches and lie motionless. These animals are extremely clean in their habits ; they never soil their nests, and they are continually polishing their hairs with their fore paws, which they employ for many other purposes: it is with these, they convey food to the mouth, and pluck the moss with which they build their nests : in some instances they can oppose their rudimentary thumb with which they are provided to their fingers, so that their paws perform the offices of hands. The great length of their hind legs makes them excellent leapers ; on the ground their progression is effected altogether by leaping ; and to rest, they sit upon their hind legs, elevating the tail and spreading it over their head as a kind of canopy. It is said that they avail themselves of a piece of bark for a boat, and use the (ail as a sail when they wish to cross a stream ; but we may be permitted to believe that a stream, even for a free squirrel, when uninfluenced by the fear of danger, will always be a barrier that he will never attempt to pass ; and if he were forced through fear to plunge into the water, swimming would be his only re- source. The voice of the squirrel is a sharp cry, and sometimes he utters a feeble sound, although his mouth be shut, which is said to be a sign of impatience or anger. 24. The FLYING SQUIRRELS, Pten>rnys, (winged rat) (Ptat 4, /? ned ? 33 What arc R.-its properly so called ? What do they feed on ? How ruany species of Rats are conun n in houses ? 34. Was the Domestic R-t known to the ancients When was it iulru duced in to Europe ? R2 \TS.-MICE. where it propagates, it is really a scourge by the damage it occa- sions by eating linen, leather harness, bacon, in a word, every thing that falls in it's way. 35. The Snrntnlfif, .tivsD.-cumauv** (the Norway or Brown rat,) is the largest of tl.e rats ; it is seven inches long, without including the tail, and its coat is reddish brown. Though very abundant in Europe at the present day, it was not introduced there till sometime in the eighteenth century. Vessels trading to India carried it to England, whence it found its way into France and all other parts of Europe, America, and wherever Europeans have settled colonies. About the environs of Paris, brown rats are very numerous on the commons, and particularly on- the voirie of Montfaucon, where, towards evening, they may be seen entirely covering the carcasses of horses that have succumbed during the day ; they are also found in the sewers in the neigh- bourhood of markets, and in all places where animal substances in a state of decomposition are accumulated in any quantity, and where grain is abundant. They dig holes scarcely deep enough to hold their bodies.* 36. The Mouse, Mn* Mvtcvlus,is the smallest species of rat that inhabits our dwellings, and it is the only one that was known to the ancients. In the wood-work of our houses, and in old walls where the plaster is easily detached, these little animals excavate galleries of greater or less length, in which they habitu- ally dwell ; they feed on all articles whether animal or vegetable, that fall in their way, and are particularly fond of tallow, bacon, and other fat substances. Sometimes they are found wild in the woods, where they feed chiefly on acorns and beech-nuts. 37. The .Wtt/o/, or frifld-uitnisr, Mvs *ylvaticus, is a species of the same genus as the preceding, which is intermediate in size between the rat and the mouse, but it does not visit the habitations of man ; its ordinary dwelling place is in forests where it often commits considerable havoc, either in digging up the acorns * The voirie of Mot tfiucon, or commons, is the place where the filth of the c ty of Paris is deposited, and where dead animils arcfiayrtl for the sake of their skin-, and thu pirts which are fit for tue manufacture of glue, Stc It has been said, with what, truth we do not know, that tho r.its found hen-, were kil'ed, and sold to the mast rs of eating-houses, who served them to their customers. 35. What is the Sunuulot? Was this rat always known in Europe ? Where is it originally from? Where does it mo*t abound ? What does this rat feed on ? 36. What is the Mouse ? Where docs it dwell ? What does it feed upon when wil I ? 3" What is the Mulot? What are its habits? HAMSTERS. FIELDMICE. 83 or beech-nuts that have been pi mtel, or by gnawing the bark of young trees. It also does considerable damage to the harvest, in company with the true field mouse, by cutting the stocks of the corn (wheat, &c.) to eat a few grains and waste the rest. These animals also store provisions, acorns, filberts, chestnuts, &c,, which they deposite in holes in the ground about a foot deep, concealed by some bushes. 38. The HAMSTERS have nearly the same teeth as the rats; but their tail is short and hairy, and both sides of the mouth are hollowed into sacs or cheek-pouches, like certain monkeys, in which they carry the grain upon which they feed. 39. The ('i)tinnnn flams */-, Criretus Viilgaris, (Plate 4, //>/. 10.) is larger than the rat, reddish gray above, black on the flanks and underneath, with three whitish spots on each side. It feeds on roots and all the cereal grains cultivated by man ; it can however, live on flesh, and when pressed by hunger does not even spare its own species. It digs a hole with two galleries ; an oblique one, to carry out the riddance of the earth, and a per- pendicular one for the entrance and exit of the animal ; these channels lead to different circular excavations which communicate with each other by horizontal tunnels or galleries: one of these chambers is furnished with a bed of dry herbs which serves for the retreat of the animal, and the others are designed to contain provisions which are collected in the warm season for the winter's use. This animal lives solitary, but is numerous in Germany and different sandy parts of Europe and Asia. It is injurious to farmers on account of the quantity of grain it collects, Tribe of Fieldmice. 40. This little group is nearly related to that of the rats ; their external form is nearly the s;\rne, but their molar teeth possess a peculiar conformation, which approaches to that of essentially her- bivorous animals. In this tribe are placed Fieldmice properly so called, Lemrniiiys, ^T. 41. FIELDMICE properly so culled, jQrvicnla, have a squat form, the same number of toes as rats, armed with hooked nails fit for digging, and the tail is hairy and about the length of the body. There are several species known in France. The Campaynol, 38. How are Hamsters distinguished ? 39. What are the characters of the co-ninon Hamster? What does it eat? What are its habits? What is the character of its burrows or habi- tat'ons 'f 40. How does the tribe of Fieldmice differ from that of Rats? 41. How are Fieldmice properly so called characterised I What if thf Campagnol ? 8 84 LEMMINGS.- -j ERBO AS.- > R A T- MOL ES. C H I N C R I L L AS. Jtrvicola rfrratis, -(Mus Arvalis,) or little field-rat, is improperly called .l'/?//j in some provinces. It is of the size of the mouse, and inhabits holes which it digs in the fields. Sometimes it is excessively multiplied, and commits, as well as the Mulot t great ravages. 42. The Water Rat, Mus rfmphibws, is also a species of Jlrvicola ; it is rather larger than the common rat, and inhabits the banks of streams, but it neither swims nor dives well. 43 The LEMMINGS, (*eorycltus, (Mus Leinmus of Linnaeus,) another species of fieldmouse which is found in Siberia, are celebrated for the distant migrations they make every year in numerous troops ; they are small Rodentia that inhabit the shores of the Icy Ucean, and travel in numerous bands, laying waste every thing that comes in their way. They are of the size of the rat, and their colour varies from yellow to black. Tribe of Jerboas. 44. This tribe consists of a small number of gnawers that con- siderably resemble the rats. The tail is long and tufted at the end : but they are most remarkable in their posterior extremities, which, in comparison with the anterior, are of a most immoderate length. (Pleir fo d ? 50. For what is the Beaver remarkable? In what parts of the world ii the Beaver found ? 51. How do th< y duell ? How do llry build their huts ? 86 BEAVERS. because th^y cut the wood necessary for their building above the spot where they work, and then the current carries it where it is required. If the water is stagnant, they at once commence their houses; but if it is running, they assemble often two or three hundred in a gang, and first form a shelving dam or dyke, to maintain the water at an equal height: this dam is formed of branches interlaced with each other, the intervals of which are filled with stones and mud, and plastered over with a thick solid coat ; it is commonly ten or twelve feet thick at the base, and is sometimes of very considerable extent. At the expiration of a few years it is usually covered with vegetation and thus converted into a substantial hedge. The dam being finished, they separate into small parties of two or three families and set about con- structing their huts, which are built against the dam in the same manner, but with less solidity ; each hut accommodates two or three families ; it has two stories, the upper one being dry for the residence of 'the animals, and the lower one under water, for the store of bark upon which they feed. Only the latter opens ex- ternally, and the entrance is entirely under water. Their work is carried on in the night only, but with astonishing rapidity. When the season of snow approaches, the Castors assemble in great numbers and set about repairing the huts which they had abandoned in the spring, or construct new ones.] 52. [Beavers, whose coat is ordinarily of a uniform reddish brown, but sometimes of a beautiful black and at others white, are provided with a great abundance of a grayish, soft down of ex- treme fineness, which is concealed beneath long silky hairs, which resisting the water, or not becoming wet, protects them against cold and humidity ; but this fur, which is so useful to them, often becomes the cause of their destruction ; because it is of great use to man, and to procure it these animals are actively pursued. 53. Beaver skins are an important article of commerce ; they are used as fur, and in the manufacture of hats; the most beau- tiful are from those animals that are killed in winter in the coldest parts of North America. A single skin furnishes about a pound and a half of down which, in France, is worth from thirty-five to forty dollars the pound. As many as one hundred and fifty- thousand of these skins have been imported into Europe in a single year. 54. Castoreum, an article of commerce also furnished by these animals, is a solid, fragile substance of a strong nauseous odour 52. What is the colour of the Beaver? Why arc Heavers hunted f 53. Wlut is the use of Beaver skins ? Are they cheap? 54. What is Castoreum? PORCUPINES. 87 It is sold in the pouch in which it is naturally formed. A Castor furnishes about two ounces. The women of some savage tribes use it to grease their hair, and in Europe, and the United States, it is employed as a medicine. About three thousand pounds are annually imported into France.] Tiibe of I'orcupincs. 55. Animals of the tribe of Porcupines are recognised at first sight by the stiff and pointed quills or spines with which their back is armed, and from this peculiarity they somewhat resemble the Hedgehogs. Their grunting voice and thick truncated muzzle have caused them to be compared to the hog, and hence their French name, I'orcs-Epirs. 56. PORCUPINES PROPER, Hystrix, have an arched or more or less convex head. They have four toes before and five be- hind, all armed with stout nails. There are many species known. The Ktnofx'an 1'orcn/tiue, Hyxtric Cristuta, has very long spines annulated black and white ; a mane composed of long hairs occupies the head and back of the neck. The tail is short, and furnished with hollow truncated tubes or bristles, suspended to slender tubercles, which make a noise when shaken by the animal. 57. This animal avoids inhabited places, and selects for its re- treat stony arid hi locks with a southern or southeastern exposure, in the declivities of which, it excavates deep holes with many out- lets, where it lives in profound solitude and great security. It passes the day concealed at the bottom of its burrow, and pro- vides for its wants during the night only. Its chief food consists of berries, fruits, buds, roots, &c. For the Porcupine winter is a time of sleep ; but its lethargy does not seem to be very pro- found, because it makes its appearance on the first bright days of spring. 58. It was believed for a long time that porcupines had the faculty of discharging or shooting off their spines ; but it is ascer- tained that they are at times accidentally detached, and also by the flhock they receive when the animal raises them for its own defence. 59. This species is chiefly met with in the kingdom of Naples and the southern parts of the Roman States. 55. What is the mo^t striking feature of the Porcupine ? 56. W h;vt are the characteristics of the Porcupines proper? What are thu specific characters of the European Porcupine ? 57. What are the habits of the Porcupine? Upon what does it generally , which is carried on the back. They feed on leaves. They inhabit the forests in the anterior of South America. The most remarkable species of the many that are known, is the #/, or the Tarre Fingered Sloth, Brady-pus Truicujylus, (/'lute 4, fig. 1.) It is the only mammal that has more than seven cervical vertebra ; it has nine. It is about the size of a cat, its arms are twice as long as its legs, and the hair which covers its back is long, coarse, without elasticity, and resembles withered grass. Its name is derived from its cry. FAMILY OF ORDINARY EDENTATA. 5. Animals of this family are recognised by their pointed muzzle. Of the genera composing this family, the 6. 1st. ARMADILLOS, Diisypm^ (Plate 4, /fy. 2 ) Are very singular animals, having the head, the body, and very often the tail, covered by a hard, scaly coat, composed of compartments like mosaic. This substance which may be considered as agglu- ' tinated hair, forms one shield on the front, a second very large and convex one on the shoulders, a third similar to the preceding on the croup, and, between these two shields, several rnoveable 4. What is the character of thtir teeth? Is there any thing remarkable in the conformation of the stuma* h ? Where are S.oths found? What ii the most remarkable species kno\\n? For what feature of its organization, compared with other mauimils, i.s the Sluth remarkable ? 5. How are the Edentata lecogn scd ? 6 Whdt are Armadillos ? ANT-EATERS. MANIS. 95 parallel bands, which give the body the faculty of bending; the tail is sometimes covered with a succession of rings; and some- times, like the legs, only with different tubercles ; a few scatter- ing hairs grow between the scales, or on parts of the body that are not covered by these plates. These animals have large ears, and large nails; the number of the latter is always five behind; and sometimes four, and at others,five before. The armadillos vary in size, from that of a badger to that of a hedgehog; they are stout in the body and low on their legs. They are all origin- ally from the hot or temperate parts of America; they burrow, and feed partly on insects, partly on vegetables and in part on dead bodies. 7. 2nd. The ANT-EATFRS, Myrmecophnga^ inhabit the same countries as the armadillos, but are readily distinguished from them, because their body is hairy like that of most mammals, and their muzzle, drawn out in a long cylindrical tube, is terminated by a small mouth, which is entirely without teeth. Their jaws, which are very long, they can scarcely separate from each other, nor can they use them to seize or compress their food ; but they are provided with a very long filiform tongue, which they can project to a considerable distance beyond the mouth, and which always being covered with a viscid, gluey humor, serves them to seize the ants and other insects upon which they feed. By the assistance of their strong, trenchant nails, which vary in number according to the species, the ant-eaters tear up the nests of the Termites, or white ants, and at the moment these little insects sally forth in crowds from their retreat, to form a rampart and defend themselves, they protrude upon them their viscid tongue, and drawing it in again suddenly, convey them into their mouth. When at rest, these nails, which serve also as defensive arms, are folded back against a callosity on the wrist, and the animal only rests its foot on the side, and its gait is slow. Some species have a prehensile tail, by which they suspend themselves from branches of trees ; the largest species, called Tamamrir, does not possess this faculty; it is four feot long, and inhabits low, humid places. 3d. The MANIS, or PANGOLINS, (I'/ate 4, //V. 4) are without teeth, have a very extensible tongue, and Jive on ants and termites like the preceding ; but their body, extremities and tail, are covered with large trenchant scales, disposed like tiles, and which are raised when they roll themselves into a ball to avoid danger ; a few long bristles grow at the base of these scales. They all belong to the old continent, Asia or Africa. 7. What are Ant enters ? Upon what do they feed ? How do they seue fneir prey ? 8. VVIiiit is the Manis ? How does the Munis differ from the Ant-eater T 96 ECHIDNA ORNITHORYNCHUS. FAMILY OF MONOTREMATA. 9. It includes animals of a strange construction, which unite the characters of the mammal with those of the oviparous ani- mals, and whose place in the classification of mammalia is still a subject of controversy with some naturalists. The monotremata, like birds, have but one opening for the escape of excrement and urine ; but there is found under the belly two glandular masses, which most naturalists consider to be mammas ; besides the five nails on all the feet, the males have on the hind legs a peculiar spur traversed by a canal from which issues a liquid, which is secreted by a gland adhering to the thigh. It is asserted that wounds inflicted by them are poisonous. The accounts of travellers and of the natives of the countries which they inhabit, seem to establish that they lay eggs like birds ; but this is still doubtful. 10. They are peculiar to New Holland and Van Dieman's land. This singular family contains two genera. 11. 1st. The ECHIDNA resemble the Hedgehogs, because they are covered above with numerous spines mingled with hairs, and below they have hair only. The body is stout and short, the neck is scarcely perceptible, the tail is merely a tubercle covered with spines ; their long muzzle terminated by a small mouth, contains a very long tongue, which they protrude to seize insects, upon which they feed ; they have no teeth, but their palate is armed with several ranges of little spines directed backwards; they have short feet armed with nails for digging. These animals readily excavate the earth, and form subterraneous abodes near to trees. Like the hedgehogs, they roll themselves into a ball. 12. 2d. The ORNITHORYNCHUS, (Mate 4. fig. 5.) has a small elongated body, a small head, a very strong tail which is short, flattened, and, at its root, as wide as the body of the animal, like that of the Beaver ; it is covered with hair, and the extremi- ties are very short, and the anterior widely separated from the posterior ones The muzzle is terminated by a horny beak like that of a duck, and like it the edges are provided with small transverse plates ; in the back part of the mouth only, it has two teeth without roots and flat crowns, on each side of both jaws ; the tongue is large and soft, the nares are round, situate towards P. Wh I is pecu iar in animals of the family of Monotremata? 10. In what parts of the world ure the Moi.otremata fuund ? How many gen' ra does this family include ? 11. Wh.t are Echidna? What are th- ir habits? 12. What i< the Ornit' orynchus ? What are its peculiarities ? What are Hs hab.ts ' Wh n i> it ;ounJ ? PACIIYDERMATA. the superior extremity of the horny beak; the neck is short, ami the general form of the body is nearly cylindrical. The fore feet have a membrane which not only unites the toes, but is carried considerably beyond the nails ; on the hind feet the membrane terminates at the root of the nails. As might be anticipated from what we have said of their conformation, the Ornitkorynclii are aquatic animals ; they inhabit the marshes and rivers in the in- terior of New Holland, and live like ducks, (if we may thus apply the word,) by sifting the mud to separate from it insects and Iarva3. The species best known is the Ontithorynclius Paradoxua. ORDER OF PACHYDERMATA. 13. The animals comprised in this order are remarkable for the hard thick hide with which most of them are covered : they are unyiilutc mammals, (that is, the extremity of the foot is enveloped in a very large nail, constituting a hoof;) they have generally a simple stomach and do not ruminate. 14. Their teeth present great varieties in form and structure ; in some, the incisors are trenchant, in others they are wanting ; and in others again they are replaced by tusks. The same is true of the canines ; while some resemble ordinary canines, others be- come powerful and dangerous defensive weapons, and others again want them altogether. The molars have wide irregular surfaces suited for grinding. 15. They are entirely without a clavicle and are incapable of bending the fingers (toes) which are in number either five, or three, or only one, and rarely two. The Order of P*chydermata in- cludes the largest terrestrial mammals known. Except the Horse, they are all clumsy, and have a heavy, indolent gait ; are very dirty, and particularly fond of wallowing in the mud ; they con- tinuan'y dwell in troops, in warm covered places, in marshy situa- tions, where they find aquatic stalks and roots suited to their wants; sometimes the neck is very short, but then, as in the case of the Elt-pharif, they are provided with a trunk capable of raising from the ground all objects which they wish to convey to the mouth ; or, remaining almost constantly in the water, they can, without stooping, catch the leaves and stalks floating on its surface. 13. How are animals of the order of Puchydermata characterised? Do tfjey chew the cud? 14. Whut is the character of the d< ntal s-ystem of animals of thi 5 order? 15. What kind of a clavicle have the Pachyrlcrmata ? What is the num- ber of their toes ? What are their general hubi.i ? !13 PROEOSCIDIANA. 16. These animals, which resemble each other in the general features of their organization, are still distinguishable by impor- tant particulars, which has made it necessary to divide them into three families; the Proboscidian a, the Ordinary Pac/iydrrnnita, and the Sotiptdes, which may be recognised by the following characters : (Families.) JHavinor tusks, a prehensil trunk and ) D five tocB B on all the feet. [ PROBOSCIDUXA. Not having a pre- f Having at least "} p j Inn ile Mink, and ) two toes and at I 1 KRMATA not having five toes j most four. J RDINAIIIA ' I, on a.l the ket. (_ A single toe apparent. SOLIPEDES. FAMILY OF PROBOSCIDIAN A. 17. These are Packydermata with a trunk and tusks. They have five toes on all the feet, but incrusted in a sort of hoof of callous skin ; their nails only are apparent. They have neither canine or incisor teeth, but they have in the upper jaw two tusks of enormous size; the mammae, two in number, are placed upon the chest. This family includes one living genus only. 18. The Genus KLEPHANT, Ekpha^'Yhis genus (Plate 5, fg. 1, and 2.) comprises animals of gigantic size, naturally mild and docile in disposition, which enables them readily to bear the domestic condition. The amplitude required by the alveoli of the upper jaw to contain the two tusks, elevates it so much, and at the same time shortens the bones of the nose, that the nares, in the skeleton, are found near the top of the face ; but in the living animal they are prolonged into a cylindrical trunk, consist- ing of a double tube, composed of fibres and many small muscles variously interlaced, which is moveable in every direction and terminates above by an appendix in the form of a finger. This trunk, which communicates with the nasal fossa?, serves the Elephant to seize hold of everything he wishes to convey to the mouth, to pump up his drink, and then pour it into his throat ; it thus compensates for the shortness of his neck. By means of this.curious instrument, the Elephant can uproot trees, untie knots, 16. Into what families is the order of Pachydermata divided? What are the family distinctions of the Proboscidians ? In what particulars do the Pachyderniat.) Ordmaria differ from the Proboscidiana ? What are the family distinctions of the Solipcdes ? 17. What are Proboscidians ? How are th y recognised? Where are the mammae situate? What number of gem-ra is included in this family ? 18. What are the general characters of animals belonging to the genus of Elephants? Whit is the trunk? What functions are performed by the trunk? ELEPHANTS. 99 open a lock, and even write with a pen. The eyes are small, and the pupil round ; the ears a, r e wide and lie close against the head, but quite moveable ; the parietes of the cranium contair? great vacuities which augment the size of the head, and render the front projecting; the skin is thick, hard, and wrinkled, and almost without hair ; the tail is small. These animals have sharp sight ; their hearing is quick, their sense of smell delicate, their intelligence developed, their perception ready, their prudence ex- treme : they remember kindness as well as harshness Their gait is heavy, but the length of their steps gives rapidity to their march. 19. Although the Elephant is the most vigorous and most power- ful of quadrupeds, in a state of nature he is neither cruel nor formidable. Peaceful as he is brave, he never abuses his power, or exerts his strength, except in his own defence , he is rarely seen alone in the desert. The herds usually consist of from forty to one hundred Elephants. The oldest marches at the head of the troop, and the next in age watches the rear. 20. It has been said, the Elephant never lies down ; but this is an error ; he lies on his side, and sleeps profoundly. 21. Elephants are tamed when taken young; they may be employed for the purpose of transport. They carry about two thousand pounds weight, and will travel without being very much fatigued, a distance of from fifteen to twenty leagues. These ani- mals swim well ; they live to the age of nearly two hundred years. 22. Two species of Elephants are known: 1st. The Indian or Asiatic Elephant, Elephas 7/^/cw, has an oblong head, con- cave front, ears of middling size, and four nails on the hind feet. (Plate 5. fig. 1.) It is met with in all the warm parts of India, where the natives pursue, take, tame, and employ it as a beast of burthen and draught. Its tusks often remain very short. 23. 2d. The Ajricnn Elephant, Efepftax ./9/nYani/ir, ( Plate 5, fig. 2 ) has a round head, a convex front ; the ears ae large, and there are but three nails on the hind feet. It inhabits Africa from Senegal to the Cape of Good Hope. It is more fierce than that of India, and its tusks are much longer; the female has them as long as the male. They have not yet succeeded in taming this species. 19. Is the Elephant solitary in his habits 1 20. How does the Elephant sleep V 21. What weight can an Elephant carry ? To what age do Elephants li-e? '23. How many species of Elephants are known? What are the charac- ters of the Indian Elephant 'f 23. What are the characters of the Afiican Elephant? Has this specie* heen tamed ? 9* 10 PACHYDERM\TA ORDINARIA. 2i. [In Siam there is a variety of elephant which is white, and held in religious veneration.] 25. The tusks of elephants furnish true ivory; it is known by the curved lozenge formed lines its cut surface exhibits when polished. That which is obtained from the animal immediately after its death is called yree.ii icon/ ; it is more esteemed than the other, which comes from tusks, found a long time after they have been separated from the animal. It is said the first is least liable to become yellow. 26. An elephant, found some years ago in the ice on the coast of Siberia, appears to have been covered with a coat of thick hair and fur, which leads to the supposition that this species, which has long since disappeared from the earth, lived in cold climates. 27. The Mammoth and Mastodon are extinct species belong- ing to the family of Proboscidians. LESSON IX. FAMILY OP PACHYDERMATA ORDINARIA. Genus of Hippopotamus. Germs of Hogs, ( Wild Hog, Domestic Hog.) Genus of Rhinoceros. FAMILY OP SOLIPEDBS. Horse. Habits Signs of the age of Horses. Principal Races. rfas. Zebra. Couagga. Onagga. FAMILY OF PACHYDERMATA ORDWARIA. I. This family is distinguished from the preceding, because the animals belonging to it have no trunk, or at least no prehensile trunk, and from the family which follows, because the animals composing it have several distinct toes. They are more or less omnivorous. It is divided into several genera, amongst which we will mention the following : 24. What kind of Elephants are found in Siam ? 25. What is ivor; ? What is green ivoiy ? 26. Has an Elephant with a h iry skin ever been found ? 27. What are Mammoths nnd Mastadons ? 1. How is the family of ordinary Pachydermata distinguished from other Pachydermata ? What are the ch tract rs of the River Horse ? What are the characters of the Elog ? What are the character* of the Rhinoceros? Wh it are the characters of the Tapirs ? HIPPOPOTAMUS. 101 PACHYDERMATA ORDINARIA. Having toi s in " number C Four equal toes. 1- Equr.1, and the TwolaP|r e middle ^ ! toes,a,rm>dwilh strong appearance o| be-^ whijc the ^ ing forked ra , loes are |oo ghort ! Te" L t0 re " 1 n Ule gfOUnd> ' f Tliree toes on all Unequal, and the feel, the f ><>t not ] Four foes before and [ forked. [ three behind. (Genera.) HIPPOPOTAMUS. >Hoo. RHIiNOCEROS. TAPIR. 2. The HIPPOPOTAMUS, the River Horse, (Plate 5, fig. 4.) Animals of this genus have a massive body, short legs and tail, inflated muzzle, and the skin almost free of hair. 3. These animals, whose belly almost reaches the ground, so short are their extremities, live in the rivers of southern Africa, and feed on vegetable substances. They are brownish black, and are from ten to eleven feet long, and from four to five feet in height. They seek their food in the water as well as on land. Sometimes three or four of them are seen together in a river, or near a cataract, forming a sort of line and rushing upon the fishes which the rapidity of the current brings towards them. They swim with great vigor, and remain a longtime under water with- out any necessity of breathing the air ; they conduct themselves with so much precaution, rising so little above the surface of the water, that they can scarcely be seen. During the night, they leave the rivers to visit plantations of sugar, millet, or rice, which they devour with avidity : they are so impetuous in their march, that they break down every thing that comes in their way. Their fierce character renders them very formidable. 4. HOGS, ,Sws, also have four toes on all the feet, but two of them are very large, directed forwards, and two which are very small and external, scarcely touch the ground. Their incisors vary in number, and the canines protrude from the mouth, and are all recurved like true tusks ; their muzzle is terminated by a truncated, fleshy button, suitable for rooting the ground. Their sense of smell is very fine, and their tongue is soft. They live in troops in forests, where they feed on roots and fruits although, they manifest no repugnance to animal food. To this genus be longs: 2. How are animals of the genus Hippopotamus distinguished ? 3. What are the general characters of animals of this genus ? 4. What are the characters and habits of Hogs ? T 102 HOGS RHINOCEROS. TAPIRS. 5. The Wild Hoy, Sns Scropka, which is the parent stock of our Domestic Hog, has a thick, short body, straight ears, prismatic tusks which curve outwards, hair bristled and blackish. It is smaller than the hog, and does not vary in its colour, it is always a dark iron gray, with black ears, feet and tail. Its muzzle is longer than that of the hog, and its tusks which arise from the two jaws are much larger ; they sometimes grow to be a foot long ; the inferior ones are most formidable and inflict serious wounds. It produces six or eight young ones at a birth every year ; which are striped black and white. 6. The Domestic Hog, varies in size, in the length of its ex- tremities, in the direction of its ears and in colour ; it is white or black, or reddish, or variegated : its fecundity is much in- creased by domestication, the sow producing two litters every year of from twelve to fifteen pigs each. The hog continues to grow for tive or six years, and may live twenty. It is very voracious, and does not even spare its own young. This is one of the most useful of animals, on account of the quality of its flesh and lard, and from the facility of feeding, and multiplying it. There are many varieties. 7. The RHINOCEROS, (Plate 5. fa. 3.) is a largo, dull animal, remarkable for the great thickness of its skin, and the solid horn it carries on its nose, the bones of which are very thick, and united in the form of an arch to sustain it. This horn, which is of a fibrous, horny nature, adheres to the skin and seems to be com- posed of agglutinated hairs; it has no bony axis in its centre like the horns of the ruminants. 8. Animals of this genus inhabit the warmest parts of the old continent and are generally found in places where elephants are met with. They seek shady and humid situations, and wallow, like the Hippopotamus and Hog, to supple their hide. Their intel- ligence is very limited, and their nature is fierce and indomitable. 9. Several species are known, some of which belong to India, and the others to Africa 10. TAPIRS are animals which very much resemble the Hog, hut are distinguished from it at first sight by the small fleshy 5. What is the wild Hog? 6. What are the habits of the Domestic Hog ? Why is this a very use- ful animal ? 7. What is the Rhinoceros? 8. What are the habits of the Rhinoceros? 9. In what parts of the world is the Rhinoceros found 7 10. What are Tapirs / FAMILY OF SOLTPEDES. 103 trunk, formed by the prolongation of their nose, which is suscep- tible of being elongated and shortened, but it is not an organ of prehension like that of the elephant. 1 1. TheJinifirivau Tapir, Tapir Jlmericatnin which is com- mon in humid places in the warm countries of South America, is about the size of a small ass. Its skin, which is nearly bare, is brown. Its flesh is eaten. A second species inhabits the most elevated regions of the Cordilleras of the Andes, and has long, black hair ; it seems to have given rise to a great many fabulous stories among the Indians. A third species is found in the forests of Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula. The griffin of the ancients, which is generally regarded altogether as a fabulous animal, might have been this latter, a little disfigured by voyagers, and to which artists have added wings and a tail in architectural style. FAMILY OF SOL1PEDES. 12. The Family of Stdipedes comprises all quadrupeds that have but a single toe apparent, and consequently a single hoof. This family includes but one genus. 13. The genus HORSE, Kt/ims, com prises the Horse properly so called, the Ass, the Zebra, and several other species. 14. These animals have six trenchant incisors in each jaw, which, in the earlier years of life, have a hollow or depres- sion on the crown, and on each side of them six molars. The males have besides in the upper jaw, and sometimes in both, two small canines which are almost always wanting in the female. Between these canines and the first molar, there is a vacant space, (called bane in French,) in which rests the bit by the means of which man overcomes and controls this animal. They have a projecting eye with a pupil in the form of a long square, the ear is long and moveable, the nares without muzzle, the tongue very soft, the sense of hearing acute; their upper lip is very moveable and serves them as an instrument of prehension ; the whole body is covered in a thick coat of hair, with a mane on the neck ; their tail is of moderate size but often adorned with long hair. Horses are essentially herbivorous, though their stomach is simple in form and moderate in size. The Horse is contented with the commonest grass when accustomed to it from an early period. He is fond ot dry pasturages; in the stable he 11. What is the American Tapir ? 12. What animals belong to the family nf Solipcdes ? 13. What animals are included in the jjenus Hotse? 14. Wh;,t is the di-i;tal system of the Horse? What are the characters of the Horse? Upon what does he feed / 104 IIOKSES. feeds on hay, luzerne, trefoil, vetches, oats ; wheat, barley, and oat straw, also agree with him when he gets at the same time a portion of good hay and grain. J5. The Horse proprrly an rutlril is distinguished from other species of this genus by the uniform colour of his robe, and by his tail being ornamented with long hair from its origin. He ex- ceeds them also in height as well as in the beauty of his form. 16. The Horse, the noble companion of man in war and the labours of the field, the arts and commerce, is the most impor- tant, and most carefully attended of all the animals which we have brought under our control. It is originally from the great plains of central Asia, but is now spread in great numbers throughout almost all parts of the world, and no longer exists in the wild state, except in places where horses, previously domesti- cated, have been left at liberty, as in Tartary and America ; the importation of these animals into the latter country dates only about three hundred years back, and, nevertheless, wild horses exist there in immense numbers. It is asserted that troops con- sisting of more than ten thousand individuals are occasionally met with. 17. The Horse may live about thirty years; but when old, he loses nearly all his estimable qualities ; before he attains four or five years, he cannot be mounted or employed in draught: for this reason, it will be perceived, it is very important to be able to ascertain the age of horses; up to the age of about eight years it may be known with certainty, by the successive changes which occur in the dental system, but beyond this period, there is no positive sign of their age, and they say, they ////-A no longer, because at that time, the hollows on the surface of their incisors have been effaced. 18. Morses vary very much from each other in size, the beauty of their form, and in their speed, and several different races are distinguished amongst them. The most celebrated is the etf/W; , which is small in size but admirable in form, and extremely swift. The English horses owe their good qualities in a great measure to their mixture with the Arabian. In France, there are several races which are more or Jess prized; the horses of Limousin are most esteemed for the saddle; the Norman race is equally prized, 15. How is I he Hoisc properly to called, distinguished from other species (\f this genus ? 16. Where is the Horse originally from ? Does the Horse exist in a wild state ? 17. To what age do Horses live? By what means may we ascertain Ino age of Horses ? 18. What races of Horses are most esteemed ? ASS ZEBRA. COUAGGA.-UNAGGA. 105 but is not so fine ; the race of Bretayite is principally employed in posting, and the race of Boulogne, for draught and similar service. 19 The .#>>, E(iw& Mum, is known by his size, which is generally smaller than that of the horse ; by his long ears ; by the black cross over his shoulders, and by the tuft of hair which termi- nates the tail. Though not so powerful as the horse, but being more patient and quiet, he is not less valuable to the inhabitants of the country. Comparatively, he is stronger and hardier than his happy rival. Subject to fewer diseases, his life is sustained at little cost. He is only particular in his drink, and requires pure, limpid water. He is three or four years before he attains his full growth, and lives from twenty to twenty-five years ; he sleeps 1< ss than the horse. 20. When young, the Ass is animated and sprightly ; but bad treatment soon destroys his vivacity : he becomes slow, stupid, and headstrong 21. The milk of the Ass, which very closely resembles that of woman, is considered to be a wholesome diet, and even a remedy in some diseases, such as phthisis. 22. The Zt-bra, Eqiius '/.,- which is very like the Ass in form and proportions, is one of the most elegant and most intrac- tible of animals. His skin has the softness of satin, and is adorned with beautiful ribbon-like stripes. In the female these stripes are alternately black and white ; and in the male, brown and yellow. The body is round and full ; the limbs are remarkably slender. His voice resembles the sound of a hunter's horn. The Zebra is found principally in the southern parts of Africa ; numerous troops are often seen grazing on the extensive plains of the Cape of Good Hope. 23. [The C>nagQn,Ejtn^ Qnucchn, wh'ih resembles the Horse more than the Zebra, is striped only on the shoulders and back. His name is derived from his cry, wMch resembles the barking of a dog. The colonists of the viciriitv of the Cape of C.'ood Hope, have accustomed it to harness, and keep it with their herds, which, they say, it protects from hyenas and other ferocious animals of the same size. 24. The ()naf/f/tt,E}ints 1 7 ontanHg, or mountain horse, which has not been very long known to naturalists, is smaller 19. What is the Ass ? What are his cij'imcters ? 20. What effect has had tieutmet.t on t,.e Ass? 21. What are ihe peculiarities nf Ass's milk ? 22. What is the Zebra ? Where i the Zebra found ? 23. Whut js the Couigga? For what purpose is it use*. ? 24. What are the characters of the Onagga ? T2 106 ORDER OF RUMINANTTA. than the Ass, and is marked on the head, neck and trunk by alter- nately wide and narrow black stripes upon an Isabella or bay ground. His legs and tail are white.] LESSON X. ORDER OF RUMINANTIA Zoological Characters. Peculiarities of their organization humiliation. RUMINANTS WITHOUT HORNS. Genus of Camels. Camels proper- ly so callea. Peculiarities of organization. Habits and uses. Camel with one hump, Cairn I with two humps. llamas, (Guanaco,Vicnnia) Genus of Mwks. RUMINANTS WITH HORNS Genus of Stags. Deer. Habits, (Fallow Deer, Common ''Stag, liocbuck, Kein-Deer, Elk.) Genus of Giraffes. Genus of Jlntelofses, (Gazelle, Chamois.) Genus of Goats, ( Wild Goat, Bouquetin or Ibex, Domestic Goat.) ORDER OF RUMINANTIA. 1. All the animals belonging to this order, seem to have been constructed on the same model. Their name is derived from the circumstance of chewing the cud. 2. They all have incisors only in the lower jaw, always eight in number. 3. They have on each foot two toes enveloped in two hoofs, which apply one to the other, by their internal sides, so that their feet have the appearance of being cleft or cloven. 4. The two bones of the metacarpus, and of the metatarsus, are joined in a single one, which is called the canon bone. 5. They are all herbivorous and have four stomachs. ( Plate 6. fig. 4 and 5.) The first and largest is called the paunch (rumen,) the second is named honey-comb, or bonnet, (reticulum,) the tnird the leaflet, the Many plies, or the Omasum, (psalterium,) and the fourth the Caillette (abomamsj or rennet-bag. 1. From what circumstance do animals of the order of Ruminantia derive the name? 2. What is remarked of their incisor teeth 1 3. How many toes have Ruminants? 4. What is the Canon bone ? 5. What is the peculiarity of the digestive apparatus of the Ruminantia* RUMINATION. 107 6. When these animals feed they swallow their aliments at first without having chewed them These substances then enter into the paunch and there accumulate ; thence they pass into the second stomach (reticulum ;) but after having remained there for a certain time they are carried back again into the mouth to be chewed, and afterwards swallowed again ; and when they descend again into the stomach, they no more enter the paunch or reticu- lum, but go directly to the manijpiics (third stomach) from which they pass into the fourth stomach or rfeJtArf-fcjgf, where they are digested. 7. At first, one is astonished to see food p:iss at one time into the paunch and reticulum, at another into the mam/plus, (third stomach,; according as it has been swallowed for the first timr, or after it has been regurgitated, and one is tempted to attribute this phenomenon to a sort of tact with which the openings of these different digestive pouches seem to be endowed. But there is nothing of the kind, this result being the necessary consequence of the anatomical arrangement of the parts. The oesophagus terminates below in a species of gutter or longitudinal slit, which occupies the upper part of the reticulum, (second stomach) and the paunch, and is continued to the in-iHyplies. Ordinarily, the edges of the slit, of which we have just spoken, lie close together, and then this gutter constitutes a perfect tube which leads from the oesophagus into the ////< (third stomach;) but if the alimentary ball swallowed by the animal is solid, and somewhat large, it distends this tube, and separates the edges of the open- ing through which the (Esophagus communicates with the two first stomachs : the food falls into these pouches ; but if the alimentary ball be soft and pulpy, as is the case when mastica- tion has been completed, the matter swallowed, enters into this same tube without separating the edges of the slit, and reaches the third stomach. 8. It is by this mechanism that unchewed food which che ani- mal swallows for the first time, stops in the paunch and reticulum ; while, after it has been chewed a second time and well mixed with saliva, it penetrates directly into the manyplies. 6. What becomes of the food wh n Jirst swal owed bv Ruminants? After it has bet-n f r a time in the second stomach, what becomes of it? What becomes of the food after it has been sw-llowed a second time? 7. What is the reason why food swallowed thcjirst time does not enter the third and fourth stomach ? Why does no the food enter the first and s cond stomach after it has been ch( wed and swallowed a second time? What is the anato.j.ical arrangement of the sto.nachs a:,d (Esophagus of the fciMiin.i tia ' S, Wh*it is the effect of this arrangement? 10 108 DTVTSnN OF THE ORDE7 OF RU.AIIN \NTS. 9. The mechanism by which aliment accumulated in the first stomach is carried back to the mouth is also very simple. When regurgitation begins, the reticulum contracts and presses the alimentary mass against the slit-like opening which terminates the oesophagus ; then this opening enlarges so as to seize a pinch or portion of the alimentary mass, compresses it and forms it into a small pellet which engages in the oesophagus, the fibres of which contract successively from below upwards, to push for- ward the new alimentary ball into the mouth. 10. /{uminants are large animals without much intelligence, but which, nevertheless, render immense service to man : they furnish him with nearly all the meat that he eats ; their milk furnishes us excellent food ; their fat, which is harder than that of other quadrupeds, and named tallow is applied to many pur- poses in the arts and domestic economy ; their skin, prepared by tanning, constitutes nearly all the leather we use ; finally, their horns, their bones, their blood, and even their intestines which are manufactured into cords, are useful to us ; when living, many of these animals, employed as beasts of burthen, are equally valuable both in commerce and agriculture. 11. This order may be divided into two sections: the first comprises Ruminants without horns, and the second, Ruminants with horns, either in both sexes, or in the male only. Ruminants without Horns. 12. Ruminants, which are entirely without horns, also differ from other Ruminants in their teeth, and somewhat resemble the Pachydermata. They are divided into two small tribes which may be recognised by the following characters : (Tribes.) RUMINANTS WITHOUT HORNS. ^ Six incisor te< th .... CAMEL. The lower j;iw provided wilh ) Eight incisor teeth - - - MUSK. 13. Tlie Tribe of Camels is composed of Camels propely so called, and Lamas. These animals differ from all other Rumin- ants in the number of their incisors, which is eight in all the rest , of this order, and in their molars, of which we count from twenty 9. By what process is foo J carried back from the second st imaeh to the nnuth 7 10. What are Ruminants? In what particulars are they useful to man ? 11. How is the order of Ruminantia divided? 12- Into what tribes are Ruminants without horns divided ? How many incisor teeth have Camels? How many incisor teeth hnve Musks? 13. What animals are included in the tnhe of Camels? How many molar teeth have they ? What are the general characters of Camels ? CAMELS. LAMAS. to twenty-two instead of twenty-four. The conformation of their extremities is equally characteristic, for their feet are not cloven, and they have very small hoofs ; the neck is very long, their limbs badly proportioned, and their upper lip inflated and cleft. Their gentleness is remarkable. 14. CAMELS PROPERLY so CALLED, Camelus,- are distinguished by the enormous humps of fat they have on the back; which makes them appear hump-backed, and by the structure of their feet which are admirably adapted for travelling on the sand, so common in the regions inhabited by these animals : in fact, their two toes are joined underneath nearly to their ends by a thick, flexible sole. 15. These animals belong to the warm parts of the old conti- nent. They are celebrated for their docility, for the faculty which they possess of sustaining long journeys, though heavily laden, and particularly for their great gentleness Camels, with- out which, perhaps man never could have traversed the vast, sandy deserts which are found in Asia and Africa, have the faculty of passing several days without drinking, which is proba- bly owing to the presence of a number of cells in the parietes of the paunch, where the water is retained or continually produced ; on this account they have been called ships of the desert. 16. The two principal species of the genus of camels are; the Bactriau Camel, or Camel with two humps, and Arabian Camel, or Camel with one hump 5 which is called the Dromedary, (Jatiu'lus Dioinedarms. " The variety to which the name of Dromedary properly belongs, with the weight of a man, only, can perform very lengthened journeys, and at a very rapid quick pace. Several of these attend the caravans when crossing any of the African deserts, perform- ing the offices of scouts and keeping a look out both for danger from the wandering tribes, and for the approach to the water stations. These will travel from seventy to one hundred and twenty miles in the twenty four hours. "It is related by a modern traveller,' That one of these animals will in one night, and through a level country, traverse as much ground as any simple horse can perform in ten. It was often affirmed to him by the Arabs and Moors, that it makes nothing of holding its rapid pace, which is a most violent hard trot, for four and twenty hours upon a stretch, without showing the least sign 14. How arc Camels properly so called recognised? 15. What is th > general character of the Tarn- 1 ? What peculiar faculty is (>o-^est kinds of 'horns have Giraffes ? 24. By what process do Stags shed their horns? What are those herns culled which arc shed periodically ? 25. Wlnt kind of horns have Oxen ? 26. Whit is the number of incisor teeth in Ruminants with horns ? What is the number of their molars ? 10* 112 DIVISION OF RUMINANTS WITH HORNS. 27. Ruminants with horns are divided into genera in the follow- ing manner : O 3 SS? llw fa* Mf rr Hi 'if cc l t M-* >!= 5 * ? , n 3 sp s * 5' 3 ' In ls>S , r a- O C3 f ?* 1 V. y ' v. v ~~v~~ i t i Q O ^ O^^ 3 m o ^ r ? Q P > 1 > g 3 ' ! J 27. How are Ruminants with horns divided into genera ? (See table ) What kind of horns has the Stag? What genera have permanent horns ? What genus has the horns covered with hairy skin ? What is the character of the horns of the Antelope ? What kind of horns has the Go;,t? What kind of horns have Sheep ? What is the character of the horns of the Ox STAG. FALLOW DEER. H3 28. The genus STAG, C rvus, includes all Ruminants that, in the male sex, have deciduous horns on the head ; these horns are always wanting in the female, with the single exception of the species named Rein-deer. All these animals inhabit forests, and are fleet in the chase ; their limbs are long and slender, the body light and round, the coat clean and shining : in general they are remarkable for the beauty and elegance of their forms ; ordinarily, they shed their horns in the spring. 29. A great number of different species are known, among which we will mention, the common Stag, the Fallow Deer, the Roebuck, the Rein-Deer, and the Elk. SO. The Stag, properly so called, the common Stag, Cervtit Elrphiis, (Plate. 5. fiy. 7.) is found in forests. The female is named a Hind or Doc, and the young is called a Fawn. The male only has horns. At about six months old there is perceived on the head two tubercles ; at this time the animal is called a Kn'bhcr; at one year old these tubercles are lengthened, and though simple, they are from five to ten inches long. At this period the animal loses the skin that covers them, the horns remain naked for sometime before they fall, and the Knobber takes the name of Pricket, Broctt, or Stayyard. When the Fawn reaches his third year, he loses the spikes or spears, and the horns which replace them ordinarily have three brances and are called rfnflers. During each succeeding year to the seventh, the horns, on being reproduced, have an additional antler, so that the horns of old Stags are generally composed of seven branches which spring from a common stalk. 31. This animal is very delicate in his choice of food, which usually consists of herbs or young buds and roots of different trees. When his hunger is satisfied, he retires to the shade of some dense foliage and ruminates, but with more difficulty than the cow or sheep ; he makes a hiccough-sort of noise the whole time : his hearing and sense of smell are very fine. 32 The Fallow Deer, Cervus Dama, is not so large as the Stag ; he has a longer tail, black above and white below. His 28. W I at animals belong to the genus Stag? Have all the femules ot this genus hoi n- ? What are th > general ch .meters of animals of this genus 7 29. Is ihere more than on-i species of ihe genus St.ig? 30. Wht re is the Sftag properly so called found ? What is the female Stag Cillod ? What is a Fawn ? What is the young Stag called when its horns are hist per. eiv d ? What is the animal when it is a year oH / When do fie Anilci s appeur ? What i.s the gi\ atest number of Antlers possessed by a Stag? 31 Off what does the Stag feed? 32 What are the characters of the Fallow- Deer ? Is this Deer found wild ? U il4 ROEBUCK. REIN-DEER. ELK horns, in place of being branched and round, are flattened and piilmate. The two species dislike each other and never dwell or pasture in the same places. Fallow-deers ordinarily live twenty years, and attain their full growth at the end of three. They are rarely found wild ; they are reared in parks, and are kept for the amusement and luxury of the great. 33. They browse more closely than the Stag, and feed on many vegetables that Stags refuse to eat; they are very in- jurious to young trees, which they despoil of their bark 34. The Roebuck, Cervus Caftreo'its, is of a more or less deep yellowish gray, white buttock and almost without tail. He lives in the tall forests of temperate Europe. His horns are six or eight inches long ; they are strong, straight and divided at the extremity into three branches. The length of the Roebuck rarely exceeds three feet and his height two and a half. He is very animated, and his sense of smell is very acute. The dura- tion of his life is from twelve to fifteen years. 35. Roebucks differ from all other deer in their habits. They do not live in troops, but in families. The female manifests the highest degree of maternal solicitude and affection ; she brings forth two fawns at a birth, ordinarily a male and a female. 36. The Keiu-IJeei; Cervus T-p c.fic characters of the Argai? 3 What atiimiil is supposed to be the original stock of common Sheep' Where is the Argali found ? U2 118 SHEEP. 4. The Moitflon of Sardinia, Ovis Musimon. (Plate 5. fig. 12.) which is found in Europe, Africa, and America, differs from the JJrgali in never growing to the same size : the female rarely has horns, and when they do exist, they are very small. There are varieties of the Mouflon which are partly or entirely black: and others that are more or less white. This animal lives in troops 5. The Domestic Sheep, Ovis Aries: when young, it is called a lamb, the female, a sheep, and the male a ram ; this ani- mal is too well known to require us to enter into details upon its habits or zoological characters It is reared in numerous flocks, for the sake of the fleece, which consists of crisped hair called wool, and is sheared every year. It is manufactured into stuffs, cloth, &c. The fat of these animals, which is white and brittle, is made into candles ; the intestines twisted and dried, form cat- gut; and their excrement affords a warm compost which con- tributes powerfully to increase the fertility of the soil. The skin, freed of its wool, is manufactured into various sorts of soft leather, used for making gloves, lining shoes, &c , and prepared by other processes, it is known as clmmnis feather, paichmeut, vellum, fyc. Merii.o sheep, are remarkable for the fineness of their wool. Formerly, their exportation from Spain was prohibited ; but they are now carried to all parts of Europe, and the United States. The first Merinos were imported into France in 1776, and there are now in that country about 500,000, without counting the mixed breeds. 6. The shearing of sheep takes place every year about the month of May, June, or July, when, on separating the locks of wool, a new growth is perceived. Sometimes, the wool is washed on the back of the animal before it is cut ; but more fre- quently it is cut without washing, because the greasiness which it possesses protects it from the attacks of insects. 7. It is estimated that there are in France thirty millions of sheep, which yield annually about fifty millions of pounds of wocl, besides which about fifteen or twenty millions of pounds are imported from Germany, to supply the manufactories of " woollen goods. England also imports from Germany about twenty five millions of pounds annually, the produce of that country not being sufficient, though very large, to meet the de- mand of the manufacturers. 4. What is the Mouflon ? 5. To what u.-es is the domestic Sheep applied ? What are Merino Sheep ? 6. How is wool obtained ? 7. In what countries do S!.e p most abound 7 OX.-AUROCFJ. jl9 8. The genus of the Ox, fto.v, comprises those animals, the horns of which are directed from the side, and turn upwards or forwards in the form of a crescent ; they are Jarge animals with a broad muzzle, short stature, and stout limbs, and are found on both continents. They are also distinguished by a fold of skin that hangs beneath the neck, which is called Deiclcp. They delight in humid and marshy situations They are slower and heavier than other Ruminants. The principal sptcies are: the common Ox, the Auroch, both originally of Europe, the Buffalo, the Yack, which belong to Asia, the Bisun and iMusk Ox, which are indige- nous to North America. 9. The Common (Js, Bos 7'aurn^ which when young, is called a 6V///, is characterised by a flat forehead which is longer than it is broad ; round horns placed at the two extremities of a ridge which separates the forehead from the occiput, and four mammae which are arranged in pairs The male is called a Bull and the female a Cow. As powerful as he is docile, the Ox is of great use in domestic economy He draws waggons, ploughs, &c. 10. His flesh, which is very succulent, is eaten both fresh and salted. By boiling, his skin forms glue; by tanning, it is con- verted into Li a for, which is chiefly manufactured into shoes ; the hair enters into the composition of certain mortars ; the horns are manufactured into toys, combs, and other utensils. His fat is burned ; his blood makes good manure, and is used to manu- facture a precious blue colour, known under the name of Prussian JJ/ue ; it is also employed in refining sugars, and fish oils. The membrane that covers the intestines, when dried, forms what is called Gold-beaten? skin> and is used for covering balloons, for beating gold into extremely thin leaves; and the milk of the cow yields cream, cheese and butter. There are oxen in all parts of the world, but they are originally from Europe and Asia 1 1 The Jlttrocli, bus Urns, is the largest quadruped proper to Europe. It is distinguished from the domestic Ox, by its arched forehead, which is broader than it is high, by the horns being attached below the occipital crest, oy a sort of curly uool that covers the head and neck of the male, forming a short beard under the throat, and by an additional pair of ribs It is there- fore plain, that it is wrong to suppose that the Aurochs form the original stock of our horned cattle. 8. What an'mals belong to th genus of the Ox ? What is the Dewlap 7 What ;ire the principal species of this genus / y. How is the conin.on Ox char.c erised ? 10. To what purposes is the bo ! y o 1 ' the Ox applied? What is Prussian blue made ot ? W. at is Gold-healers' skin? What use is made of it' 11 W h ;,t is the Auroch? 11 120 BUFFALO. YACK. MUSK OX. BISOM. 12. The Auroch formerly inhabited all temperate Europe ; now the race is almost extinct, and only a few individuals are found, that have taken refuge in the great marshy forests of Lithuania, of the Krapacs, and of Caucasus. 13. The B*ffaio, 8nsBnbalns, (Plate 6, fig 1.) -originally from India and naturalised in Italy and Greece, has a convex fore head, higher than wide, and the horns marked in front by a longi tudinal ridge. It is less docile than the Ox, but is more robust, arid more easily fed. Its skin is converted into a strong, dura- ble kind of leather ; the horns are of a very fine grain, and are susceptible of a high polish. The Buffalo loves to wallow in the iriud ; he is an excellent swimmer, and sometimes dives to a depth of ten or twelve feet, to tear up with his horns certain aquatic plants that he eats while swimming. 14. The Yuck, also called the Horse-tailed Buffalo, and Grunting Cow of Tartar y, Ros (irHnniens,(I*latr5 t fiy. 13.) is a species originally from Thibet, and is of small size. The Yack has a long mane on his back and his tail is covered with long hairs like that of a horse This tail constitutes the standards still used among the Turks to distinguish the superior officers. 15. The Mask Ox of Jtawricti, U a Mund ? What kind of an animal is it ? 16. Where is the biso.i lou.id ? What are its character* ? BISON, OR, AMERICAN BUFFALO. 121 and strong, but the croup is comparatively more feeble. A fleshy hump rises on the withers between the two shoulders; this we/y, the distinctive characteristic of the Bison, is regarded by the Indians as a luscious morsel. His head is large; his horns round, short, almost straight, and set wide ap.irt at the base A thick, curly wool of a brownish black colour, which in winter, grows very long, covers his head, neck, and shoulders, while the rest of his body is furnished with smooth black hair. His skin is very thick and spongy, like that of the Buffalo. Although neavy in appearance, he is swift of foot; he is savage, but may be tamed if taken young. 17 The flesh is juicy, and well flavoured. The skin makes an excellent blanket when dressed ; and the wool has in England been manufactured into a fine cloth. Pemmican is made of the flesh and fat of the American Buffalo. 18. " The Bison wanders constantly from place to place, either from being disturbed by hunters, or in quest of food. They are much attracted by the soft tender grass, which springs up after a fire has spread over the prairie. In winter, they scrape away the snow with their feet, to reach the grass. The Bison is, in general, a shy pnimal, and takes to flight immediately on wind- ing an enemy, which the acuteness of its sense of smell enables it to do fro'n a great distance. They are less wary when they are assembled together in numbers, and will often blindly follow their leaders, regardless of, or trampling down the hunters posted in their way. It is dangerous for the hunter to shew himself after having wounded one, for it will pursue him, and, although its gait may appear heavy and awkward, it will have no great difficulty in overtaking the fleetest runner. One of the Hudson Bay Company's clerks was descending the Saskatchewan in a boat, and having one evening pitched his tent for the night, he went out in the dusk to look for game. It had become nearly dark when he fired at a Bison bull which was galloping over a small eminence, and as he was hastening forward to see if his shot had taken effect, the wounded beast made a rush at him. He had the presence of mind to seize the animal by the long hair on its forehead, as it struck him on the side with its horns, and *>eing a remarkably tall and powerful man, a struggle ensued, which continued till his wrist was severely sprained, and his arm rendered powerless. He then fell, and, after receiving two or three blows, became senseless. Shortly after, he was found ^y his companions, lying bathed in blood, being gored in several 17. To what purpose is the Bison applied ? 18. Is liie Biioa at ail times asavae animal? <22 ORDER OF GET ACE A. places, and the Bison was couched beside him, apparently wait- ing to renew the attack, had he shown any signs of life. 19. " The favourite Indian method of killing the Bison, is by riding to the fattest of the herd on horseback, and shooting it with an arrow. When a large party of hunters are engaged in this way on an extensive plain, the spectacle is very imposing, and the young men have many opportunities of displaying their skill and agility." Ricliardsoii's Travels. ORDER OF CETACEA. 20. Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises, and other animals of analo- gous structure, designated by naturalists under the name ol Ct-facea, so closely resemble fishes in their external form, as well as in their mode of living, that the ignorant always regard them as belonging to this class ; but, if we do not confine ourselves to a superficial examination of these singular beings, and study their organization and the mechanism of their (unctions, we shall at once be convinced that, in every important particular, they depart from the fishes, to approach the ordinary mammalia. Like the first, they have the trunk seemingly confounded with the head, and continued without interruption into a thick tail, terminated bv a broad fin, and the anterior extremities transformed into fins ; they want the posterior extremities, and their skin is not furnished with hair like that of ordinary mammals; but, although they keep constantly in the water, they have no branchia3, and respire through the medium of lungs ; which obliges them to rise frequently to the surface, to breathe the air which is necessary to the maintenance of their life. Their blood is warm ; the heart has two ventricles and two auricles; their young are born alive, and they are provide I with a mammary apparatus for suckling them. 21, Consequently Cetacea are true mammals; but, in place of being organized for living on land, like quadrupeds of this class, they possess important modifications in their structure which renders these anirrals essentially aquatic, and the density of the element which they inhabit, permits them to acquire dimensions which would have been incompatible with the manner of living and moving proper to other mammalia ; it is in this group that the giants of the creation are found. The very largest quadrupeds 19. What is the favourite Indian method of killing the Bison ? 20. Why is a Whale not a fLu ? 21. What are Cetacea? GET ACE A. 123 are small in comparison to many of the Cetacea, and notwith- standing these latter are so immeasurably large, they swim with great rapidity. The air enclosed in their chest, and the enor- mous quantity of fat on their body helps to sustain them in the water surrounding them, and their general form is perfectly fitted for the kind of movements they are called upon to perform. Their long, thick tail is an oar as powerful as that with which nature has endowed the most vigorous and most active fishes, and the fin which terminates it, in place of being vertical, as in the latter, is placed horizontally, a position which is singularly favourable for raising them to the surface when they require to breathe the air. '22. Their anterior extremities, as we have said, are trans- formed into fins : nevertheless, these organs possess the basis of the same structure as the arm of man, the paw of a dog, or the wing of a bat. We find in them the same bones, except that the humerus and bones of the fore arm are shortened, and those of the hand flattened and enveloped in a tendinous membrane, which confines motion almost exclusively to the articulation of the shoulder. Sometimes, the phalanges are more numerous than in other mammals; in other respects these oars only serve the ani- mal in preserving his equilibrium and changing his course ; the tail being his true organ of motion. The posterior extremities are entirely wanting : but we find at the posterior part of the abdomen, two or three rudimentary bones, suspended in the flesh, which are the vestiges of the pelvis. (See First Book of Natural History.) Beneath the caudal vertebrae, there are bones in the .form of the letter V, which afford points of attachment to the flexor muscles of the tail, and increase their strength : it is to be remarked also, that the cervical vertebrae, although seven in num- ber, are very short, and generally, almost entirely soldered together. Finally, the petrous bone, that part of the cranium which encloses the internal ear, in place of being confounded witn other parts of the temporal bone, is separate from the rest of the head, ana adheres to it by ligaments 23. The senses generally seem to be obtuse in these animals They never have an external ear ; they often want the olfactory nerves; the tongue is almost irnmoveable, and their skin is generally covered with the thickest kind of epidermic layer. They display but little intelligence. Their brain is nevertheless large, and its hemispheres are well developed. 24. In the Cetacea, the apparatus of respiration possesses pecu- liarities of structure, the utility of which is evident The nares 22. What is the general conf .rmation of Cetacsa ? 23. Do the Cetacea possess all the senses in perfection? 21. What are the peculiant'es of the apparatus of respiration ' 11* 12* HERBIVOROUS CETACEA. in general open externally on the top of the head, which enables the animal to breathe the air without raising his muzzle out of the water, arid the larynx is advanced to the posterior nares, so as to establish, independently of the pharynx, a communication be- tween the nasal fossae and the lungs, and permit him to fill his mouth with water, and swallow his food without interrupting respiration. The stomach of the Cetacea generally presents as great, if not greater, complication in its structure, than that of the Ruminants. There is no large intestine recognised, and their teeth, when they exist, are all alike. 25. This order is composed of two families which are distin- guished by their regimen, their teeth and several other peculiari- ties of organization, and may be recognised by the position of their nares ; they are : 1st. The HERBIVOROUS CETACEA, Cetacea Herbirora, the nares of which open externally at the extremity of the muzzle; 2d. The ORDINARY CETACEA, or BLOWERS, Cetacea Ordinaria, the nares of which open on the posterior face of the head. FAMILY OF HERBIVOROUS CETACEA. 26. The food of these animals being herbaceous, they possess molar teeth with flat crowns, and the faculty of crawling on land, to graze along the sea shore: their anterior extremities are more flexible than those of other Cetacea, and they do not frequent the high sea. From the circumstance of grazing like Ruminants, and being large and massive, travellers often designate them under the names of Sua-bult, Sea-cow, and Sea-calf. Sometimes they are termed Mermaids, Sea-wonieu, and it is probable these have been in question, when some modern navigators said, they had met with Sirens and Tritons : for they have a habit of often raising the anterior part of the body out of the water, and their mammae being on the chest, the hair which surrounds the snout, mk'ht at a distance appear like female tresses; and then the adroitness with which they sometimes use their fins to carry their young, gives them in certain points, some remote resem- blance to the human species. Their stomach is divided into four pouches, two of which are lateral. 27. The principal genera of this family are the Lama at Ins and Diigongs. , ; ^ 28 The Lamanting, Manahis, have an oblong body termi- nated by an elongated oval fin. Vestiges of nails are found on 25 How is the Order of Cetacea divided ? 26. What kind of teeth have the herbivorous Cetacra ? What are Mer- maids? What is the character of the s'emach of He bivorous Cetacea? 27. What are the principal genera of the family of Herbivorous Cetacea t 28 What are Lamantins ? Why have they been called Manati ? DUGONG ORDINARY CETACEA. their paws, which, having a coarse resemblance to hands, have obtained for these animals the name of Manatus, which has been corrupted into Lamanlin. Their head is terminated by a fleshy muzzle, furnished with hair, and they have eight molars with square crowns, throughout. They inhabit the warm regions of the Atlantic Ocean, near the mouths of rivers, which they sometimes ascend to a considerable distance : they live in troops, often land and are readily approached. They display the greatest attachment for their companions. The Lamantin is some- times fifteen feet in length. The flesh is eaten. 29. Dugonys, Huhcore Dugwig, inhabit the Indian Seas, and are distinguished from the Lamantins by their elongated body, the crescent-form of their caudal fins, and the pointed tusks that protrude from the upper jaw. FAMILY OF CETACEA ORDINARIA, OR BLOWERS. 30. The Cetacea of this group differ from those of the pre- ceding by having their mamma3 near the anus, instead of being on the chest, by the garniture of the mouth, the teeth, when they exist, being pointed ; by their carneous regimen ; by the position of the nares, &c.; but what especially distinguishes them, is the singular apparatus which has obtained for them the name of Blowers. 31. The great masses of water that these animals take into their vast mouth with their prey, are thrown out through the nasal fossa?, in the form of jets which may be perceived at a long distance. For this purpose the blowers move their tongue and jaws as if they would swallow the liquid ; while at the same time the commencement of the oesophagus closes with so much force as to prevent its descent to the stomach, and retains it in the pharynx. The veil of the palate at once intercepts the commu- nication between the mouth and the swallow, and the powerful muscles which surround this latter cavity, by contracting, expe. the water, which finding no outlet except through the posterior nares, passes through them and accumulates in two great mem- branous pouches, situate between the extremity of the bony por- tion of the nasal canal and the skin. A fleshy valve, arranged so as to rise up when the water presses from below upwards, 29. How are Duerongs distinguished from Lamantins ? 30. In what particulars do animals of the family of Ordinary GeUcea differ from the Herbivorous Cetacea / 31. What is the anatomical arrangement which enables the Blowers to avoid swallowing the water they take into the mouth ? What becomes ot the water after it passes through the posterior nares? What prevents the water in the reservoirs from returning to the pharynx, when they contrac* * V 126 DOLPHINS. and to intercept all communication between these cavities and the nasal fossae, when pressed in a contrary direction, prevents the water forced into the reservoirs just described, from descending into the nasal fossae ; then the fleshy fibres, which come in the form of rays from all the neighbouring parts of the cranium to be attached to the two bags, by contracting, compress them violently, and expel the water, which escapes externally through the narrow opening of the nares, (called spiracle, rent, or blow-link,) and forms a jet which sometimes ascends as high as nearly forty feet. 32. These animals do not chew their food, but swallow it rapidly. Their stomach consists of from live to seven distinct pouches. Many of them have on the back a vertical fin, formed of tendinous matter but which is not sustained by bones. The skin is smooth, and generally without a vestige of hair. 33. This family is divided into four principal genera, which may be recognised by the following characters : (Genera.) f Furnished with small ) n The head in pro- conic.l teeth in both jaws. \ W portion to the rtstj of the body. The | Without ordinary teelh, "] mouth I but armed wiih a great j- NARWHALS. I horizontal tusk. CETACEOUS BLOWERS - f- T.-eth in the lower jaw : ; The head equal j no whalebone. \ ^ (o a third, or one-^ hah of the whole I Without teeth : whale- w length. L bone in the upper jaw. 34. Dolphins are divided, according to the form of the head and the presence or absence of a dorsal fin, into Dolphins properly so called, Porpoises, &c. 35. DOLPHINS PROPERLY so CALLED, Defphinws, are recog- nised by a sort of beak formed by the muzzle, which is more slender than the rest of the head, abruptly separating from the convex forehead: they have a dorsal tin, and a considerable number of conical teeth placed along both jaws ; they count in all from one hundred and sixty eight, to one hundred and ninety, according to the species. 32. Do these animals chew their fooJ ? What kind of a stomach have they ? Is their skin rouyh or smooth ? 33. How is this family divided ? What kind of teeth have Dolphins ? What kind of tetth have Narwhiils? Are the heads or the^e annuals ex- ceedingly large ? What kind of teeth have Cachalots ? Whai kind of teeth *ave Whales ? What is the character of the head of Cachalots and While* 1 34. How are the Dolphins divided? 35. How are Dolphins properly so called distinguished ? PORPOISES. 127 36. These animals are the mo~t carnivorous, and in proportion to their size, the most cruel of all the Cetacea. Their skin, which is smooth, is ordinarily bluish black above, and white or whitish below. The vent, directed vertically, is sometimes in the form of a crescent, sometimes of a straight line, and is often found on a line with the eyes. Most of them have a triangular fin on the back. Their brain is generally remarkable for its developement and the depth of its convolutions. These animals are celebrated for their swiftness, as well as on account of the fables the ancients have mingled with their history, and on account of a species ol religious worship they received amongst the Greeks. They live in numerous troops, of which the strongest seem to be the leaders, and display strong attachment for their young; they often ac- company ships to seize upon fishes attracted by the refuse thrown overboard, and sometimes they have been known to follow a ves- sel throughout a long voyage, playing under fhe bows, while she cleaves the waves with all the rapidity that wind and sails can communicate. It is these peculiar habits, joined to a degree of intelligence far superior to that of fishes, with which the ignorant are always disposed to compare these animals, that have obtained for them their ancient reputation for sociability ; the poetic im- agination of the Greeks created for the Dolphin an assemblage of perfections, moral and physical, which the human species is far from possessing. They placed its image in their temples, im- pressed it on their coins, on their medals and made it the attribute or symbol of the god of the sea; they employed its image to recal the memory of a host of events real or fabulous, and to ex- press moral precepts ; finally, they associated it with a great number of their divinities, and what is singular, the ancients never represented it with that exactness which they habitually observed in imitating nature, but as if they designed to idealize it. 37. The species of cetacea which has received so many honours seems to be the Common Dolpliin, Delpkinna De/pltis, It is from eight to ten feet long and is found in every sea. It is black above and white below ; it has a depressed beak, which is armed on each side with from forty two to forty seven small, pointed teeth. 38 PORPOISES, Pkocveua, differ from the preceding in their short muzzle, uniformly convex, which does not resemble a beak. Their name, which signifies hog-fish, has been given to them on account of the quantity of fat found beneath the skin. 36. What are the habits of Dolphins ? 37. What is the common Dolphin? What is the number of its treth? 38. How do Porpoises differ from Dolphins? 128 GRAMPUS.-NATUVKAL. CACHALOT. 39. The Common Porpoise, Dc.lphinus Phoccena^ (Plate 6. fig. 6.) which is the smallest of all the Cetac?a, never exceeds four or five feet in length. It lives in numerous troops. 40. Another species of Porpoise known under the* name of Grampus, Delphiniis G/adiflor, is the largest animal of this tribe of Cetacea, often attaining from twenty to twenty-five feet in length. It is the most relentless enemy of the whale. They attack it in troops, and torment it until it opens its mouth, when they devour the tongue. 41. The NARWHALS, Monodon, closely resemble porpoises, but they have no teeth properly so called. The mouth is armed with two straight, horizontal tusks, one of which generally re- mains concealed' in the alveolus while the other acquires a very considerable length, sometimes ten feet, and is generally furrowed spirally. These. tusks were for a long time mistaken for the horns of a fabulous quadruped, the Unicorn Only one species of Narwhal is known : it inhabits the North Sea, principally be- tween Greenland and Iceland. Its skin is marbled brown and whitish, and its length is from fifteen to sixteen feet. Its vent is on the top of the head, and it has no dorsal fin. It swims with great rapidity, and is a formidable enemy of the whale, which it attacks in troops, inflicting deep wounds with its tusks Fisher- men seek it for the excellent oil obtained from its fat, a single Narwhal yielding from two to three tons. The tusks are also employed for the same purposes as ivory. 42. The CACHALOTS, Physeter, ( Plate 6, fig. 9,) -are Cetacea with a very voluminous, inflated head, particularly in front, whose lower jaw is armed with a row of cylindrical teeth, which, when the mouth is closed, enter into corresponding cavities in the upper jaw which has neither teeth nor whale- bone, (balen.) The head of these animals is enormous, and very much swelled-out anteriorly. Its structure is very singular; all above the face and cranium is formed into a large oval basin, the edges of which rise behind six feet above the cranium and gradu- ally diminish in front ; the parietes of this great cavity are chiefly formed by a prolongation of the superior maxillary bones, which joins a vertical crest of the occipital bone, and these latter give in- 39. Wh;it is the common Porpoise? 40. What is the Grampus? 41. What are Narwhals? What is the Unicorn ? To what purposes are Narwhals applied ? 42. What are Cachalots ? What kind o** teeth have they ? What is the rze of their head? What are the anatomical peculiarities of the head of Hie Sperm Wnale ? In what part of the animal is spermaceti found 7 SPERMACETI. AMBERGRIS. SPERM WHALE. 129 sertion, by their edges, to a sort of fibre-cartilaginous cover, which transforms the basin, we have just described, into a long, cylindrical cavity, divided into two stories by a membranous partition, also extended from the margin of one maxillary bone to that of the other. These two chambers are filled with adipocire, a sort of oil which becomes fixed on cooling, well known in com- merce under the name of Spermaceti: they communicate with canals which go to different parts of the body and are connected with the sub-cutaneous fatty tissue or blubber, and also contain adipocire: in proportion as the great upper reservoir is emptied, it refills with this fatty matter. 43. The channel of the vent, (spiracle) passes obliquely through this mass of adipocire and opens a little to the left, near the supe- rior edge of the snout which terminates the head of the Cachalot in front. The jets of water spouted from it, are directed obliquely forwards , they ascend higher and occur more frequently than in the whale, and are attended with a noise which may be heard at a long distance. The layer of fat, which lies beneath the skin, constituting what is called blubber by whalers, is not so thick and does not furnish so much oil, as in the whale. The odorous substance known under the name of Ambergris^ sometimes met with floating on the surface of the sea, appears to be a morbid concretion formed in the intestines of these animals. 44. The Cachalot inhabits, from choice, the equatorial regions of the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. They are met with in pretty numerous bands composed of females led by two or three males, which are much larger than the former. They seem to feed chiefly on the large mollusca ; but we are assured that they do not spare the largest fishes, and are objects of terror to all the in- habitants of the sea. 45. The different species are not well ascertained. The best known is the common sperm whale Physeter Macrocephulus, which has a callous prominence in place of a dorsal fin. The muzzle, which is of a cubic form, is truncated in front, and the vent or spiracle, which is double in most other cetacea, is single. The length of this animal is about seventy feet, and the bi-lobed fin which terminates the tail is about eight feet wide. 43. What is the direction of the water ppouted through the spiracle of the Cachalot? What is blubber? What is ambergris ? 44. Where does the Cachalot resort from choice ? What does the Sperm Whale feed upon ? 45. What are the characters of the common Sperm Whale ? Is the spiracle double or single ? What is the size of this animal? V2 130 WHALES. WHALEBONE. '_ 46. WHALES, ttalcena, have a head as large as that of the Cachalot, though not so much swelled out in front ; but their jaws are without teeth, and the upper one which is keel-shaped, is fur- nished with u: ha it> bo iic This name is given to great horny plates of fibrous texture, which are very elastic and fringed at their edges, that are placed transversely like the teeth of a como, strongly locked one into the other and attached to the jaw at their base, so as to extend from each side of the palate, (Plate 6 fig. 8.) forming a sort of great sieve through which, the water, taken into the immense mouth of the animal, partly escapes, without however carrying with it the small animals it contains, 47. From the size of Whales, we should be led to believe that these animals would devour the largest fishes, but it is altogether otherwise ; the absence of teeth, the species of armature of their mouth and the weakness of the muscles of their jaws permit them to seize only small marine animals; their ordinary food consists of small mollusca, of Crustacea a few lines in length, and of zoophytes whose bodies are soft as jelly, and, as the number of these beings is immense, they have only to open the mouth to swallow them by millions. They are very voracious and eat almost continually ; the water which enters their enormous mouth every time it is opened, is ejected through the nares, forming a jet above the head that falls in a sort of fine shower. Whales swim with great rapidity ; and having no means of defence and being often embarrassed by the enormous mass of their body, they are incapable of defending themselves successfully against agile and robust enemies, and a consciousness of their weakness renders them fearful and timid ; but they nevertheless become occasion- ally furious, and display all their strength in defending themselves, or in escaping from their pursuers ; when they strike the water with their tail, they produce a commotion equal to that from a cannon ball 48. Several species of Whales are known. That which is most sought by whalers is the Common Whale, Balana Myste- cetux, (I j 'afe6, fig. 7,) which is recognised by its having no dorsal fin ; it does not often exceed seventy feet in length, yet it is very large, and the mass of the body is enormous. It has been estimated that a whale of only seventy feet in length, weighs about seventy tons, equal to the weight of three hundred fat oxen. 46. How do Whales differ from Cachalots? What is Whale bone? Of what use is, it to the Whulu ? 4 1 What is the ordinary food of Whales '( What are the habits of Whales" 48 How is the Common Wh le recognised ? What is thd size of the bead ? WHALE FISHING. 131 The nead is aoouu one third of its whole length. His jaws are from fifteen to twenty feet long, and his tail very nearly twenty feet in breadth. His skin, which is black and spongy, is often in- vaded by a great number of parasites. Some attach themselves to it as to a rock, and others penetrate into its substance and are nourished at its expense. The layer of fat (blubber) which entirely covers the body of this animal is often several feet in thickness, and yields an immense quantity of oil ; finally, the whalebones are from three to fifteen feet long, according to the part of the mouth they occupy. 49. The catching of big-headed cetacea, which naturalists separate into Cachalots and Whales, but which mariners often confound under the latter name, is among the most important of maritime pursuits from the products it affords, and from the in fluence it exercises on the nautical education of sailors. Whale fisiiing was pursued in very remote times. The historians of Norway, and the account of his voyages related by Otho to Alfred the Great, King of England, show that, from the ninth century, the Normans devoted themselves actively to the taking of whales that approached their coasts, and it seems that they made the cordage used in the rude marine of that people, of the skins of these cetacea. At the period of the invasion of France by the Normans, whales were seen in great numbers in the British channel, and were there attacked by the fishermen. From time immemorial the Basques pur- sued these animals near the vicinity of the shore ; and gradually, as whales became rare in the Bay of Biscay, they pursued them on the high seas : to these hardy mariners belongs the honour of being the first to carry on a regular fishery for whales at a dis- tance. They pursued their prey along the coasts of Spain to Cape Finistere, and upon those shores may still be seen the watch-towers established by the Basque fishermen for the dis- covery of whales, and the ruins of kilns constructed for the rendering or "trying-out" their blubber. It appears that to- wards the close of the tenth century, they occupied Oporto, by the right of conquest, and founded colonies in the vicinity The fishery, at first coast-wise, was alterwards conducted on the open ocean. The mariner's compass being discovered, the Basques ventured to the north east in pursuit of whales, and it is affirmed that, as early as 1372, they arrived on the grand bank of New- foundland, whence they continued their voyages to the Gulf of St Lawrence, and the coasts of Labrador. In the fourteenth century the merchants of Bordeaux fitted out two whale ships 49. Is whale fish ng a modern practice 'I What people were the fim pursue Whales upon the high seas ? 12 WHALE FISHING. for the Frozen Ocean, which went as far as Greenland, and even to Spltzbergen. At this period, whale fishing was in a most flourishing condition on all the coast of Beam and of Aunis, and continued on the same footing till the commencement of the seventeenth century ; but then the Basques, finding no protection under their national flag, were disturbed by jealous rivals, who excluded them from the places most favourable for the fishery, and exacted from them onerous contributions. This branch of in- dustry then began to decline, and was lost to France, when in 1636, the Spaniards having taken and sacked Soccoa, Cibourn, and Saint-Jean-de-Luz, seized fourteen large ships, from Green- land, richly laden with oil and whalebone. The poor Basque fishermen were then forced to serve as guides to their more powerful rivals ; they taught the art of harpooning the whale to the Dutch and also to the English, who at that time, were ardently devoted to maritime speculations, and understood all the advantages that would accrue to them from this distant fishery. The fishing of the Dutch began in 16 12, and, although thwarted at first by tie rivalry of the English, rapidly increased. Rich companies were formed for pursuing this new branch of industry, which continued to be a source of prosperity to the whole country till the beginning of the nineteenth century ; but maritime wars opposed an insurmountable obstacle to it, and since the peace, Hol- land has made ineffectual efforts to revive the prosperity of her whale fishery, which is doubtless the best school for forming hardy and experienced seamen. While the whale fishery was so productive in the hands of the Dutch, it did not prosper in England : but the enlightened govern- ment of that country, appreciating its utility, made efforts to in- sure its success. In 1732, it granted high premiums to all vessels fitted out for this fishery, and this encouragement not producing the desired effect in 1749, they were doubled and made nearly equal to one tenth of the expense of the outfits. From that time this branch of maritime industry rapidly increased, and now be- longs almost exclusively to the English, and their ancient colonies in America, the United States,which have become their rivals. We have already seen the ground of this fishery moving more and more towards the north, in proportion as the whales were destroyed or learned to fly from the dangers with which they were threatened. Until the fourteenth or fifteenth century it was carried on in the waters of England, France and Spain ; but in tne sixteenth, whales were no longer met with by fishermen except in the seas of Greenland and Spitzbergen. These animals were I WHALE FISHING. J33 then so numerous near the shores and even in the small inlets of the last named island, that whaling vessels promptly completed their cargoes, lying near the shore, and with the object of facilita- ting their operations, the Dutch established on a small island in the neighbourhood, a village called Smerremberg, where they brought the captured whales, and tried out the oil to be after- wards transported to Europe ; but these animals soon deserted the coasts of Spitzbergen and the neighbouring islands, to seek refuse along the great icy bank that bounds the sea of Green- land on the north west. The fishermen followed them there as soon as they left the waters of Spitzbergen. From the middle of the seventeenth century the whale fishery has been most active about the 78th or 81st degree of north latitude, or in Davis* Straits, about the isle of Disco; but these waters in turn have been depopulated, and for three or four years past, the English whalers have almost entirely abandoned those places, to advance in the midst of the ice, in Baffin s Bay, to Lancaster Sound and Melville Bay. But the voyages of whalers are not confined to the northern seas. At the beginning of the eighteenth century, the American whaiers of Massachusetts began to look towards the south and visited the waters of Cape de Verd, the south western coast ot' Africa, along the coasts of Brazil and Paraguay to the Falkland islands. From that time, the Knglish have also carried on a fishery to the south, and now the whale ships of both nations plough not only the southern parts of the Atlantic, but the whole expanse of the Pacific Ocean: during the season, they cross to the waters of Japan, then descend towards the Sandwich, Marquisas, and Galapagos islands, and if their cargo is not com- plete, they touch upon the coasts of Chile and Peru, and return by Cape Horn ; but, if they wish to continue their operations, they cross the southern hemisphere in the summer to New Zealand, to return towards the north to visit the seas of Japan, or the coast of California. In this way, they sometimes keep at sea for eight months together, exposed to the greatest fatigue and privations of all kinds ; but in general, the dangers are less in this vast ocean than in the polar seas, where the stoutest vessels are sometimes crushed by the ice, and where shipwreck is unfortunately verv frequent. The northern fishery is for the common whale, while that o! the south is chiefly for the Cachalot, ( Pkyseter Macrocepkalus) or Sperm whale. The mode of attacking both these immense cetacea, is the ame. As soon as the sailor, placed in a lookout at the mast 134 WHALE FISHING. head, discovers a whale, the fishermen take to their boats, and with muffled oars approach him in silence. One of them stands erect in the bows, holding a harpoon, a species of javelin, the deeply barbed head of which is attached to a strong cord, six or seven hundred feet in length. The harpooner of the first boat that arrives within reach of the whale, throws his weapon so as to cause it to penetrate deeply and remain firmly in the body of the animal, who, feeling the wound, sometimes turns violently, and exerts his powerful tail with so much force as to shatter the boat or hurl it into the air Generally, however, the whale dives im- mediately, dragging after him the cord attached to the iron that has been planted in his flesh. This is the critical moment for the fishermen. If the cord does not run out with sufficient rapidity, or gets hitched, the whale sinks the boat and all the crew, and sometimes it has happened that sailors, by being caught in a loop of the swiftly running cord, have been almost cut in two and thrown into the sea never to be seen again on its surface. The rapidity with which the animal flies is such that the cord, from rubbing against the side of the boat, produces dense smoke, and would take fire were it not kept constantly wet. When the first line has almost run out, the fisherman attach a second, then a third, and so on till they have in use all they have on board, and all that the other boats can supply. The length of line they let out in this way, sometimes exceeds ten thousand feet: never- theless, it is not always enough, and then they are obliged to cut loose and abandon all this mass of cordage as well as their har- poon, while the whale prolongs his flight without returning to the surface. Sometimes the animal remains under water more than half an hour; but the necessity of breathing forces him to come to the surface, and the fishermen who are dispersed about, to be more within striking distance, endeavour to plant a second harpoon in his body or pierce it with lances. When the whale thus rises, he is ordinarily in a state of extreme exhaustion, and, in proportion as his blood flows, he becomes more enfeebled; often when death is near, he yet makes a last and terrible effort, raises his tail above the water, and agitates it with a convulsive movement which can be heard at a distance of several miles. Finally, succumbing altogether? he turns upon his side and ex- pires. The fishermen hasten to pierce his tail and tie to it ropes by means of which they secure the immense carcass to the side of their ship ; then, armed with large knives and a sharp instru- ment in the form of a spade, they get upon iv and cut off tho Diu&ber in slices which is after wards tried out. WHALE FISFTTNG. 135 A single whale sometimes yields as much as a hundred to a hundred and sixty barrels of oil, but as a greater number of small, than of large whales are taken, so large a quantity is not obtained from them all. Scoresby informs us that 498 whales, taken in twenty-eight successive voyages in the seas of Green- land, yielded 4,246 tons of oil, making an average of about nine tons to each whale.* The Cachalots, as we have said before, furnish much less oil, and those that are taken within the tropics are much leaner than those of cold seas A male Cachalot, seventy feet in length, yields about fourteen tons of oil and spermaceti, but six females yield scarcely as much. The northern fishery often occupies more than one hundred and fifty English ships, and the southern fifty or sixty. In 1831 there were despatched for Davis' straits and Baffins Bay, seventy five ships, which captured 330 whales, and returned with 4,100 tons of oil and 4000 quintals^ of whalebone. At the same time, the English fitted out twelve whalers for the Greenland seas, which took 86 whales, 4,100 seals, and returned with 700 tons of oil and 600 quintals of whalebone. The product of the whole English whale fishery, for the preceeding year, was valued at about a half a million of dollars. The number of whalers belonging to France does not exceed twenty. In 1837 the number of vessels belonging to the United States engaged in the whale fishery was 580 and the oil brought home that year is set down at 181,724 barrels of sperm oil, and 219,138 barrels of common whale oil. This concludes all we have to say at present, about mammiferous animals ; we next preceed to the consideration of birds, which form the second CLASS of the BRANCH of VERTEBRATA. END OF THE SECOND BOOK OF NATURAL HISTORY. A ton of oil contains 252 English gallons or eight barrels of 31$ gallons. f A quintal is one hundred pounds. 12* nait Fig. I. to 3. Order of Bimana. Fin. 't. to 12. Order of . Quadrnmana. "\ Or J LPRNlVw/ EXPLANATION OF PLATE I. ORDER OF BIMANA. Fig. 1. Head of a man of the Caucasian race. Fig. 2. Head of a man of the Mongolian race. Fig. 3. Head of a man of the Ethiopian race. (Frontispiece. Head of a man of the American race.) ORDER OF QUADRUMANA. FAMILY OP MONKEYS. Fig. 4. Head of a young Ourang-Outang. Fig. 5. A Chimpanzee. Fig. 6. The Semnopithecus entellus. Fig. 7. The Cynoccphalus, or dog-headed monkey. Fig. 8. The black Ateles a monkey belonging to the division of Sajotn Fig. 9. The Alouatte, or howling monkey ; a female carrying a young one on her back. FAMILY OF OUIST1TIS. Fig. 10. The Ouistitis. FAMILY OF MAKIS. Fig. 12. Hind paw of a Maki, to show the peculiar form of the nail M the index finger. Fig. 11. The red makL . W Plate 2. Order of Carnaria. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 2. OKDKR OF CARNARIA. FAMILY OF CHEIROPTERA. Fines of ;he wing of a bit, /, the Lumerus. 5, the fore arm. c. the thumb. hrew. Fig. 10. The common mole. Fig. 11. Bo es of the f>re-ar,n and hand of the mo'e. a, the fore-arm.- 6, the hand. Fig. 8. Teeth of an insectivorous animal. /n, the molar teeth. FAMILY OF CARNIVORA. Fig. 12. Teeth of a carnivorous animal (the Glutt >n.) i, incisor* f e&nines. /"m, filse molars. c, carniv. rous tooth. t, tuberculous tooth. TRIBB OF PLANTIGRADES. Fig. 14. Fore paw of a bear, seen Irom below. Fig. 13. White beir of the Icy ocean. Fig. 15. The Glutton. ' TRIBE OF DIGITIGRADES. Fig. 16. The common polecat Fig. 17. The common civet 14 Mate 3. Fig. 1 to 8. Order Carnvria. Fig. 9 to 12. Order Marsuvialia. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 3. tig. 1. The Mangouste of Egypt, or Ichneumon of the ancients. F,g. 3. The Hyena. Fig. 5. The s-kull of a I. ion. Fig. 4. The Royal Tiger. Fig. 2. Head of the Wolf. Fig. (i. Paw of a Digitigrade. o, the humerus 6, the fore-arm. *, the carpus. d, the metacarpus. e, the phalanges and toes. TRIBE OF AMPHIBIA. Fig. 7. The common Seal. Fig. 8. Head of a Morse. ORDER OF MARSUPIALIA. Fig. 9. The Opossum represented erect, with its y,ung ones entering the mammary pouch. Fig. 11. The Kangaroo. Fig. 10. Teeth of the Opossum. o, the incisors. 6, tl.e canines. e the molars. J^ . 12. Teeth of the giant Kangaroo. W2 Fig. 1 to 5. Order of Edentata. Fig. 6 to 12. Order of Rodentia. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 4 ORDER OF EDENTATA. Fig. 3. Skull of the AY or Sloth. Fig. 1. The AY, or Sloth. Fig. 2. The Armadillo. Fig. 4. The Pangolin, or Manis. Fig. 5. The Ornithorynclius. ORDER OF KODENTIA. Fig. 12 The Beaver. Fig. 11. The Jerboa. Fig. 10. The Hamster. Fiy. 9. The Marmot. Fig. 8. The Flying Squirrel Fig-. 6. The teeth of a squirrel. Fig. 7. Front view of the lower incisors of a Squirrel 14* I'late 5. Fifj. 1. to 4. Order of Pachydermata. Piy. 5. to 13. Order of Ruiniuantia. EXPLANATION OF PLATE i ORDER OF PACHYDERMATA. Fig. I. Head of the Asiatic Elephant. Fig. 2. Head of the African Elephant. Fig. 3. The Rhinoceros. Fig. 4. The Hyppopotamu'. Fig. 5. The wild Lama or Guanaco. Fig. 6 Head of the Giraffe. Fig. 1. The common Stag. Fig 8. Head of the female Rein-deer. Fi*. 9. Hrad of the Chamo's. F^. 10. He^d of the JEzagre. Fig. 11. Head of (he Argali, or wild sheep of Ai Fig. 12. Head of the Mouflon. Ft. 13. The Yack. Plate 6. Fig. 1 to 5. Order of Rummatia continued. Fig. 6 to 9. Order of Cetacea. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 6. F/. 1. Head of the Buffalo. Fig. 2. Head i>f the Musk Ox of America. Fig. 3. Skull of the Ox. Fig. 4. Stomach of a ruminant (sheep.) o, the oesophagus. p t the paunch. b, the bonnet or reticulurn. /, the manyplies or omassum, ca, the caill He or rennet b g. d, the intestine. 7'Vg-. 5. The same op ned to show how the (Esophagus terminates in the bonnet and munyplies. (The same letters indicate the same parts.) ORDER OF CETACEA. Fig. 6. The prrpois;. a, the \entor spiracle. Fig. 7. The Whale. Fig. 8. Skull of a Wh.lc. /, the whalebone. m, the upper jaw Uie cranium. mf, the lower jaw. " Fig. 9. The Cachalot, or Spermaceti whale. BOOK III. VERTEBRATE ANIMALS. CLASS II. AYES. ORNITHOLOGY: THK NATURAL HISTORY or BIRDS, Plate 8. Anatomy. Beaks. ORNITHOLOGY: THE NATURAL HISTORY OF BIRDS. LESSON I. CLASS OP BIRDS. Zoological Characters of Birds. Peculiari- ties of their Organization. GENERAL NOTIONS ABOUT BIRDS* Of the Organization of Birds. 1. THE CLASS OF BIRDS comprises all vertebrate animals that are the best organized for flying. They are readily distinguished by the general form of the body, and by the feathers with which they are covered ; but the most important characters possessed by them, consist in the structure of their internal organs, and the manner in which their various functions are performed. 2. In fact, they are oviparous vertebrata, in which the circula- tion is double and complete ; the heart has four cavities; the blood is warm, and the respiration is aerial, and double. 3. To distinguish them from other vertebrate animals, it is only necessary to say. they have a complete circulation and a double aerial respiration ; or simply to remember that they are the only oviparous vertebra fa having warm blood. 4. The general form of birds varies very little, and is in rela- tion to the mode of locomotion which is peculiar to them. They rarely attain a very large size, and their abdominal or posterior extremities are especially designed for standing and walking, 1. What animals compose the class of birds? By what characters are birds readily distinguished from other animals ? In what important particu- lars do birds differ from otln r animals? 2. What are birds? What is the character of the circulation in birds? How many cavitie* has the heart ? Are birds cold blooded animals ? What is the character of the respiration in birds? 3. How are birds distinguished from other veitebrate animals ? 4. What is remarked of ihe general form of birds? To what purposes are the lower extremities of birds applied ? What are the functions per- formed by their superior, or thoracic extremities? What are these extremi. tie* railed ? 12 SKELETON OF BIRD*. while the thoracic or anterior extremities never serve them for walking, nor for prehension, nor for touch; but they form a sort of broad oars, named wings, which, by striking the air, sustain and cause the animal to move in it. 5. The SKELETON, (Plate. 1. Jiq. 1.) which determines the general form of the body, and which is, at the same time, one of the most important parts of the apparatus of motion, is com- posed of nearly the same bones as that of the mammalia ; but their form and disposition vary. 6. The head is small, the bones of the cranium, are soldered together at an early period of life, and the face is formed almost entirely by the jaws which are very much elongated and consti- tute a beak. The superior mandible or jaw is articulated with the cranium, in such a manner as to allow some mobility, and the lower mandible, in place of being articulated directly with the cranium, as is the case in mammalia, is suspended from a moveable bone, called the st^vine or tympanic h< wr, which is articulated with the petrous bone; [this mode of articulation of the lower jaw is met with also in other oviparous vertebrate animals, that is, in fishes and reptiles ] These mandibles are composed of many pieces, and are enveloped in a horny substance which takes the place of teeth. 7. The articulation of the head with the vertebral column fs much more moveable than it is in mammals, and is effected through the means of a single rounded eminence, (called con- dyle,) while in the mammalia there are always two of these condyles. This arrangement enables the bird to direct his face entirely and completely backwards. 8. The neck of birds is also very moveable ; and as these ani- mals generally take their food from the ground with their beak, the length of this part of their body is necessarily in proportion to the height at which they are placed on their legs. This is in- 5. In what respect does the skeleton of birds differ from that of mammals? 6. What is remarked of the head of birds ? What forms the face ? How does the articulation of the upper jaw with the cranium differ in hirds, from the same articulation in the mammalia ? What is the peculiarity of the trticulation of the lower jaw in birds? With what bone does the square bone articulate ? Is this mode of articulation of the lower jaw peculiar to birds ? How are t ; ese mandibles composed ? 7. What is the peculiarity of the articulation of the head (of birds) with the vertebral column ? What is the advantage resulting from this anange- ment? 8. Upon what circumstances does the length of the neck seem to depend ? What is the most common number of cervical vertebrae in birds ? How many cervical vertebrae has the Swan ? How many has the Sparrow ? Are the bcnes of the neck very moveable on each other ? SKELETON OF THE TRUNK. 13 deed almost, always observed. The number of cervical verte- bras varies much ; most generally there are twelve or fifteen ; but sometimes we find a much larger number, and at others, not so many; the Swan has twenty-three, and the Sparrow only nine These bones are always very rnoveable on each other, and from the disposition of their articular surfaces, the neck may be bent like the letter S, and, consequently, be elongated or shortened accordingly as the curves are diminished or increased. 9 The bony frame of the trunk is very solid ; in birds that fly, (and with the exception of a very few, they all possess this faculty,) the vertebra? of the back, which necessarily support the ribs, and consequently afford a point of support for the wings, are entirely immoveable and are frequently anchylosed, that is, soldered together; the lumbar and sacral vertebra? are all united into one bone, having the same uses as the sacrum in the mam- malia : finally, the coccygian vertebrae are small and moveable ; the last one, which sustains the large tail feathers, is ordinarily larger than the others and marked by a projecting spine or crest. 10. The ribs of birds also possess some peculiarities of struc- ture which tend to increase the strength of the thorax; but the most remarkable part of the bony frame of this division of the body is the sternum, which, affording points of origin for the chief muscles of flight, becomes very much developed, and con- stitues a broad shield or breast-plate, which extends far back over the abdomen, and almost always presents a sort of very prominent and longitudinal crest or keel, called brisket. ( Vlate l,^fr tjuilf. lo". The new feather is at first enclosed in the sheath of its capsule which frequently projects several inches beyond the skin, and is gradually destroyed ; the feather then appears naked, and its beards display themselves laterally; the extremity of its 15. What are the uses of the feathers f How are they formed ? 16. Do birds shed their feathers? 2 16 FEATHERS. tube remains bedded in the skin, bat is generally detached with- out difficulty, and at a certain period falls to give place to a new- feather. This renewing of the feathers, which is called moulting, occurs, in general, every year after the season of laying, and sometimes it takes place twice in the year, in the spring and the autumn ; it happens earlier in the old than in the young, and is a period of indisposition during which the bird usually loses its voice. 17. The form of these tegumentary appendages varies much ; some are destitute of beards and resemble the spines of the por- cupine ; others have stiff beards which are armed with smaller beards which hook into each other, so as to form a great tissue or coat, which the air does not penetrate ; others again have the beards and the smaller beards (barbs and barbules)long, flexible, and not hooked into each other, which renders them extremely soft and light ; and there are some which resemble simple down. Their colours are infinitely varied and often surpass the most beautiful flowers or the most brilliant gems in beauty and splen- dour. Generally, the plumage of the female is not so rich as that of the male, and it is rare for the young bird to be clothed in the same colours that it will wear all its life ; they often change two or three years afterwards, and sometimes the adult wears a plumage in the spring, altogether different from that of winter.] 18. The large stiff feathers that grow on the anterior extremi- ties of birds, which are called wing feathers, or pinion feathers, expand these organs very considerably without increasing then: weight, and convert them into powerful oars destined to cleave the air, and strike against it with so much force and frequency, that the shock thus produced impels the body of the animal in a con- trary direction. The ability of the bird to sustain itself in the air, and move with rapidity, is in proportion to the expanse of the wings. The feathers which contribute most to the extent of the wings, and that are most useful in flight, are those which are attached to the hand, and, consequently, most distant from the body ; they are always ten in number, and are called primary renriyes; the feathers of the fore-arm are called secondary remiges; the scaputaiy, which are the least in strength, are attached to the humerus; the bus'ard feathers are those that grow from the thumb, an i the coverts, those feathers which cover the base of the remiges. 17. Whelhcr does the male or female bird possess the most brilliant colours? Are the colours of all birds the same throughout the year ? 18. What are the primary remiges? What is their number? What are the secondary remiges? What are the scapulary feathers? What are bastard feathers or quills? j LOCOMOTTON. 17 [ Every time a bird wishes to strike the air, he first raises the humerus with the wing still folded; next he expands the wing extending the fore-arm and hand, arid then suddenly depresses it ; the air which resists this movement now affords him a point of support, upon which he rises : he launches himself forward like a projectile, and the moment an impulse is given to his body, he folds the wing to diminish as much as possible the new resistance which the ambient air opposes to his course. This resistance and the attraction of gravitation, (which tends to cause all bodies to fall towards the centre of the earth,) gradually diminish the swiftness the bird has acquired by this blow or stroke upon the air, and if he made no new movement, he must soon descend, but if, before losing the swiftness acquired by the first blow ot the wing, he gives a second, he will add a new impulse to that which he had already, and gain an accelerated movement. Such is, in fact, the mechanism of flight. While the bird is thus suspended in the air, the whole weight of his body is supported by his wings, and to enable him to preserve his equilibrium in this position, the centre of gravity must be placed very nearly beneath the shoulders and as low as possible; it is for this reason that, while flying, he generally carries his head in advance by stretching out the neck, and that the body, instead of being elongated, like that of mammals, is always gathered up and oval In this necessity for lowering, as much as possible, this centre of gravity, we also find the reason for a peculiarity of structure, which at first sight appears singular; the principal elevating muscles of the wings, instead of being placed upon the back, as is ordinarily the case in other animals, are found upon the chest with the depressors, and they produce an effect opposite to the latter, because their tendons pass over a sort of pulley before reaching the humerus ; this arrangement is injurious to their action, but it has the advantage of accumu- lating, at the most depending part of the thorax, all the most weighty organs of the body, and, consequently of lowering thus for the centre of gravity. (See, Hist Li ok . / Natural History, I'utie 92.) It is evident that the resistance of the air is in proportion to the mass of this fluid, struck at one time by the wings, and con- s^quently, that the greater the surface of the wings, all things be- ing equal, the greater will be the swiftness acquired by depressing these oars ; hence it follows, that birds with long wings are not only able to fly with greater rapidity, than birds with short wings, but they are also able to support themselves for a longer time w the air, because they are not obliged to repeat the movements ot 18 LOCOMOTION these organs so frequently, and therefore do not become o readily fatigued: and, in fact, all birds remarkable for rapid and long sustained flight have large wings, while those that have short or moderate wings, compared with the volume of their body, fly less swiftly and require rest more frequently. To rise vertically, it is necessary that the wings of the bird should be entirely horizontal, but this is not ordinarily the case; in general they are inclined from front to rear so as to impart to the animal an obliquely ascending movement; sometimes even this inclination is such, that, to mount nearly vertically, into the atmosphere, the bird is obliged to fly against the wind. The length of the remiges influences the facility with which he can rise in a calm air ; birds that have the anterior remiges longest, and most resisting at their extremity, fly more obliquely, than those in which the wings are truncated at the end.] ,19. The feathers of the tail also assist in flight, but in a dif- ferent way ; the bird makes use ot them as a rudder to direct its course. The number of the feathers which perform this office is ordinarily twelve, and they are called rectriccs, and the name of cooertu of the tail, is given to those feathers which cover their base. [We have seen that, during flight, the centre of gravity of the bird should be near the shoulders ; in order that he may preserve his balance on his legs, which are placed near the posterior part of the trunk, these organs must be flexed considerably torward, and the toes must be sufficiently long, to be in advance of the point where the vertical line should fall that passe* through the centre of gravity, or the centre of gravity must r>e carried behind, so as to be above the base of support. (Se<> hirst book of Natural History, l*aye 92.) This explains the utility or the great flexion of the thigh and the obliquity of the tarsus on the leg ; when the foot is large and the neck can be bent so as to carry the head behind, the equilibrium is thus establishea without, the body being thrown much out of the horizontal position ; but when the neck is short and toes of moderate length, the animal is obliged, while standing or walking, to assume an almost vertical position. It is for the purpose of more easily preserving their equilibrium, that birds generally place their heads under their wing, while they sleep, perched on one leg In most of these animals this position is rendered singularly commodious by a peculiarity in the structure of the knee ; in man and most ani- mals, the extremities bend under the weight of the body the 19. How do the feathers of the tail assist in flight? What are the recirices ? What is their nuaiber ? THE SENSES BRAIN VOICE. 19 moment their extensor muscles cease to contract, and it is the continued contraction of these organs that renders standing so fatiguing ; but in the stork and other birds with long legs, it is otherwise; the lower extremity of the femur has a hollow or excavation which, during the extension of the limb, receives a projection of the tibia, which cannot escape from it without a muscular effort ; the leg once in position, it remains extended, without the animal having any necessity to contract his muscles, and without his experiencing any fatigue. 20. The sense of touch in birds is necessarily dull, on account of the nature of their internments. The sense of taste also appears to be obtuse in most of these animals : and in fact, their tongue is almost always hard and horny. In genera!, the same is true in respect to the sense of smell ; sometimes, however, this sense appears to be very delicate ; for we observe that birds of prey direct themselves by the odour alone to carrion, placed at too great a distance for them to perceive it, notwithstanding the great perfection of their sight. 21. Generally this 1 ist sense is more developed in birds than in all other animals. There is found at the back part of the eye a plaited membrane, called t,vc;eii or m arm pin m, which projects from the retina towards the crystalline lens, and seems to be of a nervous nature ; it is also remarked that the anterior face of the ball of the eye is strengthened by a circle of bony pieces, lodged in the thickness of the sclerotica, and besides the two ordinary eyelids, there is always, at the external angle of the eye, a third, named memirantt niciitau*. (winking membrane,) which may be drawn over the front of this organ like a curtain. 22. Birds have not, like most mammals, an external ear; nocturnal birds only, have a large external concha or pavilion, out it is not projecting ; and the opening of the ear is generally concealed by feathers with fringed beards. 23. The brain is less developed in birds than in most mam- mals, and differs from that of the latter in some important particulars, which we cannot enumerate at this time, 24. Finally, to conclude with the functions of relation, we will add, that in birds the voice is chiefly formed in the inferior larynx, which is situate at the extremity of the trachea, where it bifurcates to form the bronchia. (Plate 2,/fy. 2.) In the sing- ing birds this organ is very complicated in its structure ; \ve 20. Why is the sense of touch dull in birds? Why : s the sense of taste usually ohtuse ? Is the s/. I) These cavities, by means of which the air is distributed to the diiferent parts of the body, are formed of very thin laminae of cellular tissue, and are desig- nated under the name of aerial pouch s. 42. Consequently, the blood comes in contact with the air in passing through the capillary vessels of all the organs, as well as in passing through the capillary vessels of the lungs, and we might say that the respiration of I first animals, as well as their circulation, is double. A bird consumes, proportionably, more air than any other animal, and perishes more rapidly when its respi- ration is interrupted. 43. The cavity of the thorax, which contains the heart and lungs, is not separated from the abdomen by a complete muscular partition, as in the mammalia ; the diaphragm is rudimentary, and only occupies the sides of the body ; but the lungs are adherent to the ribs, so that they are forced to dilate when these bones separate from each other ; therefore, the movements of in- spiration and expiration are performed nearly in the same manner as in the mammalia. LESSON II. Eggs. Iwba t ion Ne* ts. Migration. Classifica lion. Habits of Birds. 1. Birds, like reptiles, fishes, and most of the invertebrate animals, (that is, without vertebrae,) are oviparous, that is, they lay eggs from which their young are hatched. 2. The Eyy is first formed in an organ, named ovary, and descends (Plata 2. //#. 4.) from it, through a long tube called oviduct ; it consists at first of a membranous sack filled with yellow matter, and is not surrounded with the white till it reaches the oviduct, where it receives a more solid envelope which be- comes encrusted with a calcareous matter that constitutes the 42. What are the consequences of the peculiarity uf the respiratory ap- paratus ? 43. What is the character of the diaphragm in birds 1 1. Why are birds said to be oviparous ? 2. How are eggs formed ? 24 INCUBATION MDIFICATION. shell. Upon the membrane of the yolk, or yellow matter, we perceive a whitish point, which, in the course of its developement. becomes the young animal, for the nourishment or protection of which, all the other parts of the egg are destined. 3. In order that the young bird may be developed in the in- terior of the egg, it must be maintained at a certain degree of heat ; in very warm countries, the heat of the sun is sometimes sufficient to bring about this phenomenon, and there, certain birds abandon their eggs; but in most cases it is altogether different, and both parents or the mother alone, maintain the necessary heat by sitting on them. 4. The duration of inc+balion, (or the time required by the young bird to become developed in the interior of the egg) varies in different species, but it is the same in all birds of the same species ; it is from forty to forty-five days for Swans, twenty-five days for Ducks, twenty-one days for Hens, from twelve to fifteen days for domesticated Canary birds, and only twelve days for the Humming-bird. 5. Almost al! birds construct a nest, to receive their eggs and to serve as a dwelling for their young, which, during the early period of life, are unprovided with feathers, extremely delicate, and incapable of moving, and of feeding themselves. Generally there is displayed in these structures an art, an adroitness, and an elegance which excite our admiration ; and one thing not less surprising is the regularity with which all the successive genera- tions perform the same tasks, and build nests exactly alike, even under circumstances which prevent these animals from seeing and taking lessons from their parents ; a wonderful instinct guides them, and induces them to take many precautions, all the utility of which they cannot anticipate, or appreciate before hand. 6. The form, arrangement, and placing of the nest, vary for almost every species of bird. That which is constructed by the largest birds of prey rests upon a flat surface afforded by some part of a rock, or on the platform of some tall tower ; its extent is very considerable, and every year contributes to its increase, for it is rare for these birds to abandon their first monument of maternal tenderness ; those that leave it, return periodically to lay their eggs. This nest is frequently composed of such stout 3. What circumstance is necessary to the devclopement of the egg? 4. Is the same period of time required by all birds for incubation ? 5. What means are provided for the reception of the eggs, and of the young oirds which escape from them ? 6. Are the nests of a ! l birds alike in their structure ? What is the struc- ture of the nests of birds of prey ? NIDI FTC AT ION. 2< pieces of wood, that one would scarcely believe they could be carried by a bird, if he were not aware of the extraordinary strength of their muscles ; they are so arranged as not to yield readily to the force of the wind, and they support boughs which are bound to each other by the remains of food and of excre- ment, forming a solid habitation bearing the name of eyry. Those species that, in the construction of their nests, only employ rushes and reeds, accumulate them in such quantities, and fix them so firmly to the platform that rains or storms seldom cause their destruction. 7. Most birds build their nests in the bifurcation of the branches of tre^s; in this case, bits of straw and small pieces of wood, carried in the beak, tied and interlaced by means of this, organ, and the aid of the foot, constitute the external frame, which sup- ports the moss and down that form the bed. Some species have the habit of suspending their nest, which is wrought in a still more artist-like manner, to the extremity of a flexible twig, so that, in obedience to every impulse of the winds, this cradle and the sitting bird that inhabits it, experience an almost con- tinued rocking. 8. Certain nests present, in their structure, a perfect masonry made of little sticks, gravel, or small leaves impregnated with mortar, formed of earth softened with the salivary humor of the bird, or simply mixed with it. How much toil and how frequent must be the goings and comings for the completion of this work! And, when we remember that the bird has, for the execution of its task, but a single instrument, which also serves for the transportation of the materials, we cannot withhold the admiration which is so justly merited. The form of these mortar- built nests, is ordinarily either spherical, conical, or elliptical ; they are established in the angles of windows, of chimnies, of walls, and often on the tables of sheltered rocks. They are either isolated or placed one against the other ; the entrance is made either on the top, or in one side, and sometimes in the lower part. Frequently we find in these structures several compartments ; sometimes a sort of vestibule is separated from the true nest, by a partition, and it is into this apartment that the male retires, after he has carried the necessary fodd to his sitting female companion. 7. What is the situation usually selected by the majority of birds for build- ing their nests ? 8. What instruments are used by birds in the construct! >n of their nests? What is the form of those nests that are put together, like mason work, wiib a species of mortar ? Do nests ever contain more than one apartment I Y2 i>6 INCUBATION. MIGRATION. 9. There are also birds that build their nests upon the ground, and in order to guard against their being submerged by heavy rains, elevate them on hillocks of earth : these nests are con- structed with less care : we here find only an abundance of down, sustained by flexible twigs, suitably interlaced ; finally, some birds are content to form an excavation in the earth or sand, in which they deposite their eggs, which for the most part they assiduously sit upon, but which they sometimes abandon during the day to the heat of the sun ; nevertheless, in this latter case, their solicitude induces them to cover their eggs with a light layer of sand or other matter, either to hide them from animals that seek them for food, or to protect them from the too great intensity of the sun's rays. 10. The constancy of birds in sitting on their eggs is admira- ble: sometimes both parents divide this care between them ; at other times the male only watches the nest, and brings food to the female, while she remains sitting on the eggs ; and in other species again, the female alone is charged with the incubation. Generajly, the mother only leaves her nest for a few moments when pressed by hunger, and then seeming'y with regret; and, in most cases, after her young have appeared, she bestows upon them, and for a long time after their birth, the most tender care and attention. She covers them with her wings to protect them from the cold, brings them choice food, which she often half digests, and then disgorges into their throat, to render it better suited to their tender stomach ; she guides their first steps, teaches them to use their wings, and when threatened by danger, displays as much courage as devotion in their protection. 11. In this particular, it is very interesting to study the habits of birds; but this is not the most remarkable point in their his- tory. The most singular phenomenon in the lives of birds, is unquestionably the habit, which certain species have, of making, at appointed periods of the year, long journeys, and changing their climate according to the seasons. 12. Birds that feed on insects, early leave temperate climates to go towards the south, where they find in the winter a more abundant supply of food ; other birds change their country to seek a place more propitious for their young, and go sometimes 9. Do birds always build their nests in elevated situations ? 10. Does the m ;le bird ever assist in the process of incubation ? In what way ? Are the young birds able to feed themselves when they first escape from the shel' ? 1 1. What is the most remarkable circumstance in the general history of birds? 12. What are the reasons which induce many birds to MIGRATION. 27 to the north and sometimes to the south to lay their eggs ; in others again this migration is not determined by any appreciable cause. 13. Some migratory birds perform their journeys through the air alone or only accompanied by their females ; but the number is small comparatively to those that travel in company. We admire in the latter the instinct which induces them to assemble at a cer- tain place, ten or twelve days previous to the time of departure, which is ordinarily an indication of a change of weather; for it is remarked that birds feel the influences sufficiently early to derive prognostics of the change of temperature from their deportment and certain habits. During the whole journey, the most perfect oyder prevails throughout the whole troop; to be convinced of this fact we have only to observe the flight of some large species, such as geese. The conducting of 'the troop is confided to a chief placed at the head of two files, more or less separated from each other, which meet at a point ; the chief is the summit or point of this moving angle, and opposes the first resistance of the air, clears the way, and the whole band follows him, observing the most perfect order. As the efforts of the chief are very violent, and as he cannot support them during the whole voyage, he is perceived, when overcome by fatigue, to yield his post to his next neighbour, and fall into the ranks at the extremity of one or other of the files. The period of these great migrations is fixed by nature for each species of migratory birds, and it is remarked, they follow the same route every year: hence, in certain districts, the fowlers or bird-catchers, count upon their passage as upon a revenue of rent that falls due every quarter, and calculate in advance the period, and the chances. Armed with their nets and all the apparatus of the chase, they station themselves in the gorges and valleys over which the flocks pass, and reach their several points a few minutes before their arrival. These bands or flocks are sometimes so numerous, and the in- dividuals composing them are so close together that they might be readily mistaken for dense clouds. 14. Certain birds always lead an erratic life, and seem to have no country : these are the most powerful on the wing; many seem not to be impeded by the strongest wind, and appear to delight in the midst of storms. They form a striking contrast with a small number of species, less favoured by nature, which, 13. How are these migrations formed ? At what period do these migra lions take place ? Are these periods vi ry certain? 14. Do all birds belong to some one or other country ? Are all birds act ; vo in flight? 3 CLASSIFICATION. deprived of the organs of flight, and possessing a slow and embarrassed gait, are condemned never to leave the rock on which they were born The.se birds exercise their patience in awaiting for prey that is brought to them by the rolling in of the waves ; and it is only when it escapes them, and they become hard pressed, that they venture into shallow depths in pursuit of it. 15 Birds also dilFer very much from each other in their diet or food ; some seek living prey only, and feed exclusively on the produce of their hunting or fishing; sometimes they catch other birds of prey and force them to disgorge the food which they were about to eat. There are others which, with appetites not less carneous, but wanting in the strong arms and courage of the first, only prey upon dead bodies. Others live exclusively on worms or insects, and others again, eat nothing but grains. Of the Classification how many orders is the class of birds divided ? What are the names of these orders? 19. (Answered by the table.) What orders compose the division of ter- restrial llrds ? Whut are the dis injruishingr char.icters of the Accipitres or Rapacis? What are the distinguishing marks of the Passerinae 7 By what means are the ScariForiae distinguished from the Passerinae? What are the distinguishing characters of the Gallinaccae? What ordors compose the division nf Aquatic birds? How are the Gral atorise distinguished? How are the Palmipedes recognised ? Of THE >^- III? s- I.;* *! a .? P-3 ^ 0." ? It r ^.f g I r r 8. o ? o ri 1 30 BIRDS OF PREY. LESSON III. ORDER OF RAPACES, (or jJccipitres) Zoological Characters. Habits. Division into two Families. FAMILY OF DIURNJE. Zoological Characters and Habits of Vul tines, ( Yellow Vulture, King of the Vultures, Condor, Perc nopterus of Egypt.) Griffins Tribe of Falcons Division into two groupes, noble and ignoble. Falconry, {Common Falcon) Eagles. Fisher- Eagles. Sparrow-Hawks. Kite* Buzzards. Harriers. Characters and Habits. FAMILY OF NOCTURNE. Characters and Habits. (Owl. Strix. Due.) ORDER OF RAPACES, OR ACCIPITRES. (Birds of Prey.} 1. Birds of Prey are recognised by their beak, being hooked and terminated by a point which is sharp and bent downward^ and by their feet being very strong and armed with powerful, hooked nails. (I* late 3,/fy 1, to 8.') 2. They are generally remarkable for their strength; the muscles of their thighs and legs are very voluminous and give great power to their talons ; their tarsi are rarely elongated : all of them have four toes, the first of which, or thumb, is directed backwards ; the nails of this toe, and of the internal toe are the strongest, and there is often a very small palmate membrane betwixt the bases of the external toes. Their wings are large, and the sternum, which affords place for the attachment of the principal muscles of flight, is generally very much developed and without lateral notches. 3. It is also to be remarked that their nares are pierced through a membrane, called Cera, that covers the whole base oi the beak. - 4. All the Rapaces live exclusively on flesh ; they pursue other birds and even small quadrupeds and reptiles; they are also very powerful in flight. 1. How are the birds of pr y characterised? 2. What are the characters of the legs of birds of prey ? What is the number of their toes ? What is their direction ? What is the character ol Ihe sternum ? 3. What is meant by the cera? 4. Oi what do the Rapaces feed ? BIRDS OF PREY. 31 5. Like the Passei inae and Scansoriae, birds of prey are bo'n generally naked, with the eyes closed, and cannot live without the assistance of their parents, who, during their tendei age, supply all their wants. 6. These birds form two families : the Diurnce, and the Nocturnce. which may be distinguished by means of the follow- ing characters : r Eyes directed from the side; the head and neck C Diurnai. J well proportioned ; the external toe directed for- j ward, and almost always united to the middle toe [by a small membrane. RAPACES. j f Eyes directed forward ; head very large and [_ av,v*.. na.\ ntck very short; external toe may be directed either forwards or backwards. FAMILY OF DAY BIRDS OF PREY, OR 7. The Diurnae have their eyes directed sidewise ; the head and neck are well proportioned; (Plate 3, fiy. 1. fyc.) the nares are pierced through a naked membrane, called cera, which covers the base of the beak; they have three toes in front and one be- hind without feathers, and the two external ones are almost always united at their base by a short membrane; flight power- ful ; the quills strong; the plumage close; the sternum large and completely ossified, and the fourchette semi-circular, and widely separated ; finally, the stomach is almost entirely membranous, and the intestines of small extent. 8. The family of Diurnae is divided into three principal tribes, easily recognised by the following characters: (Tribes.) A more or less consider. DlURNAL RAPACES, having able part of the head and > VULTURES. neck destitute of feathers. .,^~>., ..- ..... ~ p. Head covered W ilhfe..> GRIFrma . t thers. \ Eyes surmounted by a projecting eyebrow which ) makes them appear sunk in the head ; talons very > FALCONS. strong. \ _ strong, 5. What is the condition of birds of prey at the time of birth ? 6. Into what familit s is the order of Rapaces divided ? How are the Diurnae characterised ? In what respects do the Nocturnae differ from the Diurn?E? 7. How are the DiurnaB distinguished ? On finding p, membranous Btornnch and intestines of small extent in a bird, upon what would you infer that it habitually fed ? 8. Into what tribes is the fami ! y of Dinrnae divided? What are the characters of Vultures? How do Griffins differ from Vultures ? What are the characters of Falcons? 3* 32 VULTURES. Tribe of Vultures. 9. The Vultures, Vultur, are recognised by the nakedness of a portion of the head or even of the neck, and by the form of their beak which is elongated and curved only at the end. (Mate 3, fig. 4, mid 6.) 10. These birds have a disagreeable aspect, a tainted odour, and their habits excite disgust ; they are cowardly, and feed on the most putrid carrion rather than on living prey. The power of their talons does not correspond to their size, and they make use of their beak rather than of their claws. They are extremely voracious : but after they have been complely satiated, it seems, they can wait several weeks for an opportunity of feeding again. After they have eaten, their crop forms a large projection above the fourchette ; they become dull and stupid, and a sanguineous, foetid humor flows from the nose. The sense of smell in these animals is very fine, and enables them to perceive at incredible distances, the remains of dead bodies, which they seek for food. 11. In Peru, Egypt, and some countries of the East, they are very useful to man, for they serve to cleanse the streets of animal remains that it is customary to throw there, and they may be seen promenading many towns, in small bands, and watching even in the houses for recent or putrid dead bodies. 12. Vultures live, generally, in pairs; they prefer building their nests on inaccessible rocks, and construct them of pieces of wood, joined together by a sort of mortar : the young are covered with down when born, and are fed on half digested food, which is disgorged by their parents before them. 13. Their wings are so long, that when they walk, they keep them half extended, and they often experience difficulty in taking to flight after alighting on the ground ; their ascent is slow but well sustained, and is always effected obliquely and by constantly turning about. 14. Thetribeof Vultures is divided into four genera, namely: the Vultures properly so called, the Sarcoramphus, the Cathartes, and the Percnopterus, which are distinguished in the following manner: 9. How are Vultures recognised ? 10. What is the general character of Vultures ? 1 1. In what way do Vultures make themselves useful to man ? 12. What is the condition of Vultures when first born ? Upon what do Ihey feed ? 13. Do Vultures rise into the air readily from the ground? 14. How is the tribe of Vultures divided? How is the Sarcoramphua distinguished from the Vulture properly so called ? In what respect doe the Cathartes differ from those two genera ? How does the Percnopteru* differ from the Cathartes ? KING OF THE VULTURES.-CONDOR. r ; I ad { (Genera.) ! Without ) VULTURE cai uncles, s PROPERLY so CALLED ) Divested of | and the head feathers, as j With ) well as the \ [ caruncles. \ SARCORAMPHUS, the head; the ! nares (_ Longitudinal, CATHARTES. Js L Almost entirely feathered, PERCNOPTERITS. 15. VULTURES PROPERLY so CALLED, are distinguished by their naked head and neck, by the ruff or collar of feathers that sur- rounds the base of the neck, by their stout, strong beak, and by the disposition of their nares. (I'lute 3, /?//. 6.) They have no fleshy excrescences on the head, and they belong exclusively to the old continent, 16. The most widely diffused species, is the Yellow or Fulvous VulturCiVultur fuLus, which equals, and even surpasses the Swan in size ; it is found on all the mountains of the eastern continent. 17. The SARCORAMPHUS differs from the Vulture properly so called in the fleshy caruncles which grow above the base of the beak; it inhabits the western continent. [The genus consists of two species.] 18. The King of the Vultures, Vullnr papn y is a species of Sarcoramphus of the size of the goose, which inhabits the warm parts of South America ; it derives its name from the fear with which it inspires another species of Vulture of the same country, (the Percnopterus Urubu) which abandons its prey and always gives place to him. 1 J. To this group also belongs the Coiidw, or great Vulture of tm> dudes, Vultiir gryphus, so famous, through exagge- rated accounts, for its size and strength. It is not much more than four feet long, but its spread wings often measure more than ten feet ; it flies higher in the air than any other bird ; it inhabits the most elevated of the Cordilleras of the Andes, and never descends to the plain except when pressed by hunger. [Condors are frequently seen, on the shores of Chile and Peru, feeding on the carcasses of whales that have been accidentally thrown upon the beach, or left by whalemen.] 15. What are he generic characters of Vultures properly so called T ] 6. What species of Vulture is most common 1 Where is it found ? 17. Where is the Sarcoramphus found ? 18 From what circumstance does the King- of the Vultures derive i's name ? 19. What is the size of the Condor ? Where is it met with ? What ar ts habits ? For whit is it most remarkable ? Z 34 CATHAR1 ES. TURKEY BUZZARD.-PERCNOPTERnS. "Just before turning off from the beach, we came to the recent carcass of a mule, upon which seven large Condors and a crowd of buzzards were feasting. They allowed us to approach so near that, had we been provided with arms, we might have shot them as they arose slowly on the wing. These birds frequently destroy small animals They sometimes form a circle around a sheep, or a goat, and, spreading out their wings approach till they strike their prey, and then filling upon it, devour the body, even to the bones In the country they are caught in the following manner. A pen is formed of high palisadoes driven into the ground, and a fresh carcass placed in the centre. It is left alone. In a short time, the Condors, who scent their f >od for many miles, descend into it, and while feasting, the peones, (labouring men in Chile are so called) armed with clubs, and the body and limbs well protected with hide, enter the enclosure and commence the work of destruction. These birds cannot rise without running thirty or forty yards, which the limits of the pen will not allow, and they are clubbed to death, not however, without making resistance, and occasionally inflicting very severe wounds on their pursuers." Three Yearn in the Pacific. 20. The CA THARTUS, which have no caruncles on the head, and whose nares are longitudinal and oval, are also found in America ; there is one species ((lathwtes Vullnrinu*. also called Vwltur Cfilif rnianttsj which approaches to the Condor in size, and has wings, even longer, in proportion. The tarsi are par- tially covered by the feathers of the legs. It inhabits California. [The Turkey linzzarfl, or Gulliuaza, Vullur aura, Cathartrs aura, is of a bluish black colour, and as large as a cock. It is common in warm parts of the United States, and is occasionally seen as :ar north as New Jersey. It feeds upon carrion and filth, but never attacks living animals, except when helpless and unable to defend themselves. This bird is very common in Peruvian towns, where it acts the part of scavenger, and is for this reason protected by law.] 21. The PERCNOPTEKI, (Piutr 3, fiy.-4 ) which are distinguished from all the preceding by their feathered neck and loner, slender beak, are of moderate size, and do not possess nearly so much strength as the other Vultures; but they attack with greater avidity carrion and all sorts of filth which attract them from a distance; and they do not disdain excrement itself. 22. The Ptrcnopterug of Egypt, (Pharaoh's Bird,) Vultur ftercnoplems, or Vullur kvcocephalus, or Vultur fuscus, is of 20. What are the Cathartes? Where are they f >und ? 21. How are (he Percnopteri distinguished ? What are their habits ? 22. Wnat is Pharaoh's bud ? Where is it found ? What are its habits ? GRIFFINS FALCONS. 3.5 the size of a crow : it is very common in the warm countries of the eastern continent, and follows the caravans through :he desert to devour all that die. The ancient Egyptians respected it on account of the services it rendered the country by removing dead bodies: it is often seen represented on their monuments. Even at the present day no injury is offered to it, and there are even devout mussulmans who bequeath wherewith to support a certain number. 23. In America there is another species of Percnopterus, the Urubu, Vulturjota, which performs the same services there. Tribe of Griffins. 24. These birds, Gypae fos, (Plate 3, fig. 3.) have the head and neck almost entirely covered with feathers; the beak is strong, straight, hooked at the end, and inflated on the curve: the nostrils are covered by stiff bristles ; there is a pencil of bristles under the beak; the tarsi are short and feathered to the toes. 25. In their conformation and habits, they very closely resem- ble the Vultures. Their talons are proportionally weak, and their wings are long and partly separate when in repose. When the crop is full it projects at the lower part of the neck. 26. The Lamb Vultun', Vnltnr ba'banis. /*/c<> barbatus, (The Laemrrer-geyer) which the Greeks named Pkeue, and the Latins called Ossifraya, is the largest of the birds of prey of the eastern continent, the high mountain chains of which it in- habits: it is almost as large as the Condor, and attacks lambs, goats, chamois, and, it is said, even sleeping men Generally it endeavours to force animals to throw themselves from precipitous rocks, and devours them after they have been killed by the fall. His mantle is black with a white line in the middle of each feather, and all beneath the body as well as the neck is of a clear, brilliant, yellow colour. Tribe of falcons. 27 . The Diurnal Rapaces composing this tribe have the nead and neck covered with feathers, like the preceding, but are dis- tinguished from them by their projecting eye-brows which make 23. What is the Uruhu ? 24. How are the Griffins distinguished ? 25. In what particulars do Griffins resemble Vultures ? 26. What is fie Lmib Vulture ? Wrr re is it found '! What are its hab'.UT 27. How is the tribe of Falcons distinguished from other tribes of Dm in*.' Ra paces ? 36 FALCONS. the eyes appear as if they were sunk into the head, and give to the physiognomy of these animals an aspect altogether different from that of the Vultures and Griffins. (I'mte 3, />>/ 1, 7, und 8.) 28. These birds have a lofty, rapid, and sustained flight; their sense of sight, which is more extended and clearer than in any other animal, enables them to perceive the smallest prey, when they themselves are so high as to be out of the reach of our vision. 29 Most of them feed willingly on flesh while it is yet palpi, tating; but when pressed by hunger, they do not refuse dead bodies, as it has been generally believed, and instead of eating their prey on the spot as the vultures do, they bear it off* to their eyry ; the largest species attack mammals and birds, others live on fishes, some feed on reptiles, and others are exclusively in- sectivorous. The female is generally a third larger than the male, and for this reason, is often designated under the name of tarsel. Moulting takes place but once a year, and age induces such great change in the plumage of these birds, that naturalists have frequently mistaken varieties depending on this cause alone, for distinct species; the young are generally variegated with spots and longitudinal stripes, while the old ones are more uniform in colour, and are rather striped transversely; they are not clothed in their last or permanent livery until their third, fourth, or even sixth year, and then the colours of their plumage differ according to the *ex. 30. They all seize their prey with their talons ; some, (such as the Falcon, the Kite, &c ) precipitate themselves perpendicu- larly upon the animals they wish to possess; others, (the Buz- zard and Goshawks, for example) approach obliquely and attack sidewise only. They are, generally, silent "and very difficult to tame, although some of them can be trained to hunt on the wing. 31. This tribe, which embraces a great number of species, is divided into two principal sections, namely: Noble birds of Prey, and Ignoble, birds of Prey, so named, because the former are employed in falconry, and the latter are not; and each one of these sections is sub-divided in its turn, as may be seen in the following table : 28. How docs ihe vision of Falcons compare with that of other animals ? 29. Upon what do the Falcons feed ? 30. How do they by hold of their prey ? Are Falcons nuisy birds ? Are they easily tatnrd ? 31. How is the tribe of Falcons divided? What genera form the Noble Birds of Prey ? What is the chief distinguishing 1 feature of the Noble birds f Prey ? What genera belong to the Ignoble birds of Prey ? = ~ n - 5 i ? a 3 t Aw , OQ *** :r O 7) cs rr n *c i H I' *T3 *^ O "* P < o: V 3 5" M ** S- 0<5 j, ^ * 3 p | 3 S3 7T- \l ^ 1 ' ff 3* O P 09 f> *" s" " I I r P . /) sr 5 f s ^ 58 p N 2 g.5? W ^ 3 i 5 I? ^ i -^s s I s i o n o ? & 38 FALCONS. 32. In the DIVISION OF NOBLE BIRDS OP PUEY, the second of the wing is the longest, and only exceeds the first one a very little, which makes their wings pointed, and influences their manner of flight very much ; when the air is calm, their flight is always very oblique, and to rise perpendicularly they have to fly against the wind. 33. FALCONS PROPERLY so CALLED Falco, are recognised by the tooth or notching with which the upper mandible is armed on each side, near its point, and by their wings being almost always as long or longer than their tail. In proportion to their size they are the most courageous of all birds of prey ; a quality which corresponds with the power of their arms and the strength of their wings. They are also the most docile of the hunting birds, and the most important in the art of falconry, as they are taught to pursue the game, and return when they are called. 34. The principal species of this genus are; the Common Falcnn, f/c./ com mn -a is, which is of the size of a hen, and inhabits all the northern part of the globe ; the Hobby, Falco subbnteo, the Merlin, Falco cesca/on, and the Falco /itltO' falco, which inhabit Europe, and when young resemble the common Falcon ; the Kestrels, have shorter toes and their flight is not so rapid. The duration of the life of the Falcon is very great ; it is stated that in the year 1793, a person caught, at the Cape of Good Hope, a falcon wearing a collar of gold, upon which was engraved, this bird, in 1610, belonged to James I, King of England. It was consequently, upwards of one hun- dred and eighty years old, and still preserved its vigour. The flight of the falcon is very rapid ; it commonly feeds on large birds, such as pheasants, pigeons, ducks, geese, &c., and to possess them, it rises above its prey, and pounces perpendicu- larly upon it, This quality and the facility with which the com- mon falcon may be trained, caused it to be much esteemed when the great and wealthy were pleased to pursue game with birds, as they do now with dogs ; this bird has given its name to the art of hunting with birds of prey. The manner of training these ani- mals was by shutting 1 hem up from the light, exhausting their strength by fatigue, and fasting, and then presenting bait, and accustoming them by degrees to pursue this or that kind of game. 32. Which is the longest quill in noble birds of Prey ? 33. What is the distinguishing mark of Falcons properly so called 7 What is their general character ? 34. What are the principal species of Falcon ? What is falconry ? EAGT.FS. 35. The Gerfico*< Hiero ak-o, have the tail much longer than the wings, which are also large. Only one species is known. 36. The Gerjulco , or Iceland hnJco>^ Fa'cn candicans, and Fa/co islandiviiis, is most esteemed of all birds in falconry. It is a fourth larger than the Falcon, and chiefly inhabits the northern parts of Europe. 37. In the DIVISION or IGNOBLE BIRDS or PREY, the beak has no lateral tooth near its point, but a simple scallop or festoon, and the fourth quill of the wing is almost always the longest, while the first is very short ; in consequence of this the wings are truncate at the extremity, and their flight is more feeble. They have been called ignoble because they could never be employed in falconry. 38 This section is very numerous, and is divided, as we have already seen, into many genera, which are sub-divided again into sub-genera, many of which are sufficiently important to be noticed in this place. 39. The genus of FAGLEP, ./fyw/A?, comprises the strongest and most courageous birds of prey of the great tribe of Falcons, and is distinguished by the form of the beak ; it is sub-divided into Eagles properly so called, Fisher- Engles, Ospreys, IJarpies,&c. 40. EAGLES PHOPERLY so CALLED, J}* imperialis,J2i/HiIa heliaca, has a shorter body, and longer wings than the, common eagle ; it inhabits the high, wooded mountains of the south and east of Europe, and is quite common in Egypt. It pursues deers, roe- bucks and other quadrupeds, from which it tears enormous shreds and carries to its eyry ; it is still more terrible to other birds, and to it are to be attributed most of the exaggerated accounts of the strength, courage, and magnanimity, which the ancients gave of the Golden Eagle. 4b". The FISHER EAGLES, Halicetus-) differ from eagles pro- perly so called in the tarsi, only the upper half of which are invested with feathers ; they keep near the margins of rivers, and the sea, and live chiefly on fishes. The species which are designated by the names of (hsifrngvs and Pygargus, are found in all the northern parts of the globe. 47. The ttuld Eagle, Fulco leucocepha/us, inhabits North America, and is constantly occupied in fishing. It is of a uniform deep brown colour, with a white head and tail; its beak is yellow and it is almost as large as the common eagle of Europe. It is the figure of this bird that is represented in the national emblems of the United States. 48 The Ospreys, Pandinn, have the beak and feet of the Fisher Eagles. Only one species is known, which is found along the shores of fresh waters in almost every part of the globe. It is the Fish Hawk, or Usprey, Falco kalicetus. 49. The Great Harpy of J9un'rica, Falco harpyitr. Of all birds, this possesses the most terrific beak and claws; it is supe- rior in size to the common eagle. Such are its powers that it is said to have cleft a man's skull with its beak ; its ordinary food is the sloth, and it often carries off fawns 44. What aie the characters of the common Eagle ? 45. Where is the Imperial Eagle found? What are its habiU? 46. What are Fisher-Eagles? 47. What is the Ba'd Eagle? 48. Where are the Ospreys found? 49. Wh t is the character of the American Harpy ? 42 (ZOSriAWKS KITES. BUZZARDS HARRIETS. 50 The GENUS OF GOSHAWKS, /?/?/?, comprises the 6Y>.v- baick* properly so-called, and the Sparrow-hawks; they have the tarsi scutellated, (that is, armed in front with large scaly plates,) and are distinguished from each other by the length of this part of the claw. Although cowardly, they may be employed in falconry. 5 J . The SPARROW-HAWKS, AVsws, have the tarsi higher than the Goshawks; but the transitions from one division to the other are almost insensible. 52. The KITES, Milvus, have a forked tail and excessively Jong wings, which makes their flight exceedingly rapid ; their tarsi are short and their nails weak ; their beak (Plate 3. /if/. 8.) is disproportioned to their size, and they are the most cowardly birds of this whole tribe. The cnnmon kife of France, Fatco in j/tws, of all birds, sustains itself the longest and most tran- quilly ; the elegance of its flight has been celebrated by poets. Jt seldom attacks any thing but reptiles. 53. The BUZZARDS, Rutev, have very long wings, but their tail is equal, their feet are strong 1 , and their beak is curved from its base. The only species found in France is the Common Buzzard, Falco buteo. This bird dwells throughout the year in the forests, and appears stupid and idle ; it often remains for several hours together perched upon the same tree ; it does not seize its prey upon the wing, but awaits on a hillock of earth, a bush or a tree, from which it pounces upon its victim ; it feeds on young hares, partridges, young birds, and, when this game fails, even on toads, serpents, grasshoppers, &c. The nest of the Buzzard is built of small branches and lined inside with wool or other soft substances ; these birds lay two or three eggs, which are whitish, spotted yellow ; the mother takes care of her young for a longer time than any other bird of prey, and it is stated, that the male continues to feed them after its female has been killed. 54. The HARRIERS. Circus, differ from the Buzzards in their more elevated tarsi, and by a sort of collar formed, on each side of the neck, by the ends of the feathers that cover their ears. There are three species in France, namely; the Falco pygargus or bird of Saint Martin, which builds every where, and keeps very much in the fields ; the /-'a/co cineraceus, which has the 50. What birds are comprised in the genus of Goshawks ? 51. H w are the Sparrowhawks distinguished from the Goshawks? 52. Flow are Kites characterised ? 53. How are Buzzards distinguished ? What are their habits? 54. How do Hairicrs differ from Buzzards ? HONEY-BUZZARDS. SECRETARY 43 same habits, and the Fa/en cEniyinosus, which keeps within the reach of water courses, and feeds on reptiles. 55. The HoNKY-BuzzAKns, /Vrw/s, are distinguished from all the rest of the tribe of falcons by the feathers which cover the space between the eye and beak, which space in all other birds of this tribe is ordinarily naked, and simply furnished with a few- hairs. The (Common H -ney- Buzzard, Falcu upiut rus, feeds on inserts, and principally on bees and wasps. 56. Many naturalists also place in the tribe of Falcons, the MESSENGER or SECRETARY St'rp<>nturi>is, or (Jypoyeianu* a bird which inhabits the so :th of Africa, and which is very remark- able for the extraordinary length of its tarsi; but it differs too much from other birds of prey, to be arranged in the same tribe as the preceding, and should constitute by itself a fourth division of the family of Diurnae. 57. The Secretary, Fa ten serpentftrins, inhabits the dry and open grounds in the vicinity of the Cape of Good Hope, where it hunts reptiles on foot ; its daws consequently become much worn. "I perceived one day," says M. Smith, "a Secre- tary that made two or three turns on the wing, near to where I was. He soon settled, and I saw that he examined very atten- tively some object near the plare where he alighted. Having cautiously approached, he extended one wing which he constantly agitated. I then discovered a serpent of large size, elevating its head, and seemingly awaiting the advance of the bird to strike him ; but a quick blow of the wing of the Secretary soon turned it over : the bird appeared to wait till the serpent should rise in order to strike again, but approached, and seizing it in his claws and beak, rose perpendicularly into the air, from whence he let it fall, and thus finished the killing, and afterwards disposed of it in perfect security." FAMILY OF NOCTURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. 58 The birds of prey of the family of nncturnce, have a very large head and a very short neck, (P.afe 3, fiy 2. and 5.) ; the eyes are directed forward and surrounded by a circle of fringed feathers, the anterior of which cover the cere of the beak, and the posterior, the opening of the ear ; the pupil is very large and the sight is weak. The external toe can be directed forwards or 55. In what particulars do the Honey. Buzzards differ from other birds of the tribe of Falcons '( 56. Does the Secretary properly belong to the trihe of Falcons? 57. Where is the Secretary found ? Wkat ore its hahits? 58. What are the zoological characters of the birds of the family of Nocturn ? What is the character of the pupil ? 4* <1 NOCTURNAL BIRDS OF PREY. oackwards at will. The apparatus of flight is not strong, the fourchette is weak, and the feathers are armed with soft beard, and are covered with a very fine down ; the gizzard is somewhat muscular. 59. These birds which are often designated under the collec- tive name of OWLS, Strix, are blinded by broad day, and only see we'll in the twilight, or at night when it is not very dark, the time they choose for hunting; and as their silky feathers permit them to fly without noise, it is very easy for them to obtain possession cf birds and small mammals upon which they suddenly pounce; there are some species that hunt even in the day time, but during this period they generally retire into hollow trees or rents in walls ; sometimes they lay squat on branches of trees, and then all the little birds, of which they are the terror during twilight, come to tease and insult them. During the night they often utter plaintive cries, which the vulgar regard as un- fortunate omens ; but in reality these birds are more useful than injurious to agriculture, on account of the number of small mammals of the order of rodentia which they destroy. It is probable, the large size of the head, and their habitual tranquility, obtained for them the reputation for wisdom which they enjoyed among the ancients 60 All the nocturnal birds of prey resemble each other very much, and the differences observed pass from one to the other by such insensible intermediate shades that it is difficult to establish good generic differences in this family. til. OWLS PRORERLY so CALLED, Eared Owls, O/?/.v, (Plate 3, fig. 2.) have the disk of fringed feathers which surrounds the eyes, very complete, and itself bordered by a circle of scaly feathers ; they have moveable tufts half the length of the head, the external ear very large and furnished in front with a mem- branous operculum, and the feet are feathered to the nails. The common owl, Strix O/MS, is frequent in France and the United Stales ; its length from the top of its head to the end of the tail is thirteen or fourteen inches, and its plumage is yellow with brown spots. It ordinarily inhabits forests, and establishes its retreat in caverns, deserted houses, in ruins, and during the whoJe night utters sad and plaintive groans ; it often takes pos- session of nests abandoned by crows, ducks, &c. 59 Why are Owls designated as nocturnal birds of prey ? Upon what do they feed ? 60. Are the generic differences found in Nocturnal birds of prey easily recognised ? * 61. How are O;vls properly so called char_ctemed ? OWLS. 45 62. The HOWLERS, Vlula, only differ from the preceding owls in the absence of the tufts of feathers, which in common language, are sometimes called horns. 03. The SCREECH OWLS, Strix, resemble owls properly so called in the disposition of their ears, but are distinguished from them by the beak, which is elongated and curved only at the ex- tremity, while in the other nocturnae it is arched from its base. They are without tufts, and instead of feathers, have only hairs on the toes. The common species in France, known as the screech owl (';//VaiY,) is of all the owls, most especially regarded by the people as a bird of evil omen ; its plumage is yellow, shaded with ash colour or brown above, and prettily spotted black and white. It is found in Asia and America as well as in Europe. 64. The HOOTING OWLS, .S//r///M/w, differ from the screech owls in their auditory conch which is reduced to an oval cavity, that does not occupy the half of the height of the granium ; their feet are feathered down to the nails 65. The Dues, or HORNED OWLS, Bubo, have tufts like the eared owls, and an auditory conch as small as the hooting owls, but they have the disk of feathers around the eyes less marked than the preceding owls. The Grand Due, or Great Horned Owl of naturalists, Strix bubo, is about two feet long, and is the largest of all the nocturnae ; it is common in the great forests of the eastern parts of Europe, and is also met with in France. Its food consists ordinarily of moles and small animals of the order rodentia, but we are assured that it sometimes attacks young roe-bucks, and it often contends with buzzards, and carries off their prey. The great horned owl of the United States, Bubo virginianus, which is found in all parts of our country, feeds on the gallinaceous birds, domestic poultry, hares, opossums, &c. 66 In former times, this owl was employed in falconry to attract the kite ; they tied a fox's tail to the Due to render its figure still more extraordinary ; it flew even with the ground and alighted in the fields without perching on trees ; the kite, which perceived it from a distance, came and approached the Due, or Great Horned Owl, not to attack, but rather to examine it. and kept near it long enough to be taken by the hunters or by the birds of prey which they let slip in pursuit. 62. How do the Elowlers differ from Owls properly <-o called? (53. How are Sureich Owls characterised ? 64. In what particulars do the Hooting Owls differ from the Screech Owls t 65. How are the Horned Owls characterised? Where is the Greal Horned Owl found ? Up< n what does it feed ? 66. In what way was 'h- Great Horned Owl employed in Falconry? 2A 46 ORDER OF PASSERINE. 07. The owls of the genera NOCTUA and SCOPS, have the open- ing of the ear larger than ordinary birds, and the disk of feathers around the eyes smaller and less complete than in all the pre- ceding owls. These characters coincide with the peculiarities of their habits, which bring them near to the diurnal birds of prey. In fact, many owls see sufficiently well in the day to distinguish and pursue their prey. The Scops have the heads furnished with tufts. There is one species found in France, whose plumage is ash colour, spotted black. LESSON IV. ORDER or PASSERINE. Zoological Characters. Habits Divi- sion iu to five fa m Hies. FAMILY OP DENTIROSTRES. Shrikes Flycatchers. Coti/igas. Hlackbirds. Thrushes. Wafer-thrushes. Orioles. Lyres. Warblers, (such as the Nightingales, Linnets, and Wrens.) FAMILY OF FISSIROSTRES. (Swallow*) Habits. (Swallow, pro- perly so called, Martin.') Goatsuckers. Habits. FAMILY OF CONNIROSTRES. Larks. Titmouse Buntings. Sparrows. Crows, (Crow properly so called, Jackdaw, Mag- pic, Jay.} Birds of Paradise. ORDER OF PASSERINJE. 1. This order includes all birds that are neither swimmers, waders, climbers, rapaceous, nor gallinaceous ; that is, it contains all birds that are not assigned to the other five orders ; we find its characteristics, therefore, are purely negative; yet, although we can- not unite all the species that belong to it under a common descrip- tion, they nevertheless naturally resemble each other in the totality or assemblage of their organization. The Passerin* have neither the violence of the birds of prey, nor the fixed regimen of the gallinaceous or aquatic birds ; insects, fruits and grains consti- tute their food, which consists more exclusively of grain, in pro- portion to the largeness of their beak, and more exclusively of in- sects as it is more slender; and those that have strong beaks pursue 67. How are the genera of Noctua and Scops characterised ? Are all Owlfl incapable of seeing in the Havlitjht ? 1. What are the characters which dis'inguish the Passer inse from other orders of birds? Upon what do they feed? What is the number and arrangement of their toes ? FAMILY OF DENTIROSTRES 47 even small birds. The proportional length of their wings, and the extent of their flight are as variable as their habits. They have four toes, three before and one behind, and ocrassionally, two be fore and one behind, and sometimes all four are in front; but there aie nrwi tn:o before ami tiro behind, as in the next ORDER ; and the middle toe is joined to a greater or less extent, to the external toe by monns of a membrane. 2. The order of Passerinae is very numerous, and is divided into five families, which may be distinguished by the following characters : (Families.) The external f Notched on both sides near its ) ^ toe shorter th in the middle one, and tree for the greater part of its lonjith. Superior man- dible, The external toe almost as lon^ as the middle on^, t > ) which it is unite J as far as to the penultimate articu- > SYNDAGTYLA lalion. \ FAMILY OF DENTIROSTRES. point. f Short, wide, flattened, ) horizontally, and very > FISSIROSTRES. Without I open. \ a ^j notch. Strong and conic il, J-CONIROSTRES. ^. Slender and elongated 3. This family includes those Passerinae only that have the beak notched on both sides near the point; they are all insecti- vorous, and most of them also eat berries and other tender fruits They have been classed according to the general form of their beak, and in this way divided into many tribes, the chief of which may be recognised by the following characters : 2. Into how many families is the order of Passerines divided ? What is characteristic of the Dentirostes? How are the Fissirostres distinguished? How do the Conirosters differ from the Fissirostres ? What is the character of the heak in th Tenuirostres ? Ho.v are the Sand c'ylse distinguished from the other four families of Passerines ? 3. What are the general characters of the Dentirostres ? (Answered in the Tattle.} How are the Shrikes recognised ? By what characters are the Flycatchers known ? How are the Contingas distinguished ? How are Tanagers characterised ? What are the characters of the Ant-catchers? How are the Thrushes distinguished? By what are the Orioles known? How are the Warblers recognised? In what tribes of the family of Denti. osii is the external toe free ? How are Cocks of the Rock known? DKNTIIIOSTRKS, having the external toe 3 1 $ r C j ; r p , r-j iT -A. ? 3 1 o" I (T 3* OR 3. t \ __J Strong and modera'ely large at the ba.se ; the supt-iior man- H'lUo J 1 s f ..Ufa a S S JK* ^3 S- 0_ "t, 5T 3 3- s! 2. D.-B S.5- s" 1 1. JLa * * "* ^ P ^ ^ = S- cu 5V P . A^_ Pnrq ST =r ?r P" r OKI y^ ' 3 % .H a r jUlff rt -o P-l -3 if T 1 f S S. aq P g- p ?" 2 p r 1 , r* CO - 3 ^J^ 5 : 7 r ' n P9 D. ?r n er P , 1 1 3 P* P* ""1 5" - 5? S 11 S.SL ~ ^ IJ ^' 2 i ^* si * 3 Q" g 2T P 3 c. *o r *< ^T S "" 5- a. i"! 1- i 1 ?T" C r^ o S "^ -^ Q on? t^. J p. S- p * P ? ~ 3 3 5 ? ^ (-3 W H X a a 1 WARBLERS. 'HRUSHES, &c. Or-. IDLES. , NT-CATCHERS. TANAGERS. 1 I 1 ? 1 (Tribes.) iSliRIKES. V p SHRIKES. FLY-CATCHERS COTING AS. 4! 4. The SHRIKES, fjinhis, have a moderate, but strong beak, which is straight from its origin, and very compressed ; the upper mandible is strongly curved towards the point where it forms a hook, and is armed with a deep notch ; its base is provided with stiff hairs, and is destitute of cere. Though si. all in size, thrse birds are full of courage ; they contend with birds of prey, and, like them, 1 v by rapine. They fe d on insects and sma'l birds, and always inhabit the woods and bashes on the planes; they live in families, and fly irregularly, and p eeipitately, utter- ing shrill cries. There are five species in Europe, and several in America. The common or G eut Shrike, Lunitis e.icubitoi; which is ash coloured above, white beneath, and of the size of a Thrush; and the Butcher Bird, Lauius ntlintio, which is smaller than the others, has the back and wings fawn colour; this last bird destroys a great many small animals, birds and young toads, as well as a number of insects, grasshoppers, beetles, &c., which it has the habit of sticking on the thorns of bushes, in order to devour them at leisure, or to find them again when wanted. This little Shrike makes its appearance in the spring, and quits France and the United States in the autumn. The cassicam and vanyus, and several other genera are grouped in this tribe, and have similar habits. 5. The FLY-CATCHERS, J/uxc/capa, are found in all parts of the world. Their beak is moderate, strong, and compressed to- wards the point, which is curved, and deeply notched ; the base is furnished with long, stiff hairs, that cover the nostrils, which are lateral and oval. These birds are travellers. They feed on small birds, or on insects, which they catch on the wing; they alight on trees in the forests. Europe possesses a great many species. 6. The name of Tyrant, Tyrannus, is given to those fly- catchers of America, that have a strong beak; other birds of this division on the contrary, have a very slender beak. They defend their young even from the eagle, and drive all birds of prey from their nest. The larger species feed on small birds, and do not always despise carrion. 7. The COTINGAS, or Crown Birds. Jlmpvlis, are for the most part, remarkable for the beauty of their plumage. Their beak is short, slightly depressed, a little convex above, and sud- 4. What are the characters of Shrikes? What are their habits ? L'pon what do they feed ? From what circuuist ince dots tiie Butcher bird derive its name ? 5 What are the characters of the Flycatchers ? On what do they feed 7 6 What are Tyrants? What are their habits? 1 What are the characters of the Cotingas? 2A* 50 TANAGERS. THRUSHES BLACKBIRDS. denly flexed at the point ; their nostrils are half closed by a membrane, and covered in a degree by the hairs of the face; their feet are moderate: all the species belong to South America The plumage of the male is, in general, adorned with the richest tints of purple and azure; but these birds are not in all their beauty except in the spring, for during the rest of the year their tints are gray or brown. 8. The C '.tat/mem, Bomhycilla, have the head ornamented with a toupet of feathers. There is one species, the Bohemian Chatterer, rfmpelix yarnd is, that visits Furope in flocks, at long and irregular intervals, from which circumstance, its presence for a long time was considered as an evil omen. It is thought to inhabit the extreme north. The flesh is esteemed a great delicacy. The Cedar bird, or Ckf.rry Bird, Homoycilla carolinensis, is found throughout the American continent. Some of them re- main in Pennsylvania and New Jersey during the winter. 9. The TANAGERS, Tanagm, are small birds, remarkable for the most part, for the varied colour of their plumage. They resemble the Finches in their habits, and feed on grain, as well as on berries and insects. The Summer tted Bird, Tanagra cestiva, is of a vermillion red. It passes the greater part of the year in the tropical America. It is met with in the sandy, barren forests of New Jersey, in small numbers. 10. The THRUSHES, surdns, have a moderate beak with a sharp compressed point, but not forming a hook, and having the notches not so deep as in the Shrikes ; they are more frugivorous. It is to be r?n.arked also, that their nostrils are half closed by a naked membrane, and the tarsi are longer than the middle toe. Some remain in the country where they are born ; others travel in numerous flocks. The flesh of most of these birds is much esteemed. 1 1. We apply the name of Thrushes properly so called to those species in which the colours are uniform or distributed in large masses, and we call those Tlirmkt'* in which the plumage is dappled, that is, marked with small black and brown spots. 12. The European blackbird, Turdus merula, is found in France throughout the year ; the male is entirely black with a yellow beak, and the female is brownish. These birds are the first to hail with their songs the return of spring ; heard at a 8. Whpt are the Chatterers ? 9. What are Tanagers ? 10. What are the characters of Thrushes ? 11. How are the two kinds of Thrushes distinguished ? 12. What are the habits of the European Blackbird ? THRUSHES. distance they are very agreeable; they possess the power of p" ising from the lowest if the highest tones. In captivity their voice loses its brilliancy and becomes even hoarse and false. This blackbird lovts solitude; it only keeps in the thickest and most distant copses. It feeds on worms and insects, and very adroitly breaks snail shells against rocks or stones. The female constructs her nest with great art, which is well cushioned on the inside and covered on the outside with grass. She ordinarily lays four or five blue eggs, covered with brown spots. 13. The Grive,or Common Thrush, 7Yri/.v musicus, some- what smaller than the preceding, is brown on the back, reddish yellow with black spots on the neck and breast, white on the belly and flanks, with black spots ; the wings are brown above, yellow beneath ; the beak is brown, and the tarsi are brownish gray. It is met with in France only as a bird of passage; it arrives there in great flocks at the end of September, and sojourns nearly a month ; then it returns in March and April to disappear again in May. A few individuals however, remain, and build on low trees or bushes , they lay two or three times a year, from four to six eggs each time. The song of the Thrush is agreeable, and its flesh is delicate ; it announces the return of spring, and remains during three quarters of the year. It is often heard when the skies are heavy with clouds ; which circumstance has gained for it, in some countries, the title of bird of storms. When this Thrush is disturbed, his h arse and noisy song seems to be a mixture of warbling and cries. In its ordinary condition, its gammut is, on the contrary, a scale of soft and grave tones: it often sings many hours together without the slightest interruption. When reared with the Linnet and Nightingale, it seems to study their song, and ends by appropriating it. The .American Kobin or Migrating Thrush, Ttfigue, heua-fica. 32. The COCKS OF THE ROCK, Rupic la, are distinguished Orom all the preceding species of the family of Dentirostres, by having the two external toes, united for about one third of their length from the base. The two American species, when full grown, are of a beautiful orange colour, and have a double ver- tical crest on the head, formed of feathers arranged like a fan. They are found in the warm parts of South America. FAMILY OF FISSIROSTRES. 33. The Fissirostres are distinguished by their beak, which is short, wide, horizontally flattened, slightly hooked, without a notch, and very deeply cleft, that is, the commissure, or line of junction between the two mandibles, is extended so that the opening of the mouth is very wide, and they easily swallow the insects they pursue on the wing. All these birds are exclusively insectivorous ; they are also migratory, and migrate in the tem- perate zones. Their flight is the most extended of all terrestrial birds ; they are found in all parts of the world. 34. This family is divided into two tribes, namely: 35. First. The DIURNAL FISSIROSTRES, with a dense plumage, and a beak that opens to beneath the eyes. 36. Second. The NOCTURNAL FISSIROSTRES, the plumage of which is soft and light like that of the owls, and their beak opens to a point beyond the eyes. 37. The Diurnal Fissirostres constitute the GENITS OF SWALLOWS, Hiruudti, all of which are remarkable for the length of their wings ; this genus is sub-divided into swallows properly so called, and Swifts; the latter have a remarkable conformation of the claws; the thumb is directed forward almost like the other toes which are all separate, and each one has but three phalanges: while in the swallows properly so called the thumb is inserted behind the tarsus, and preserves the same direction as in the 31. What are the habits of the Common Lark ? 32. Flow nre Cocks of the Rock characterised / 33. What are the distinguishing characters of the Fis irostr< s ? What are their hiibiis? 34. Into how many tribes is the family of Fissirostres divided? 35. How are the Diurnal Fissirostres characterised? .^6. How are the Nocturnal Fissirostres distinguished from the Diurnal? 37. How are Swifts and Swallows properly so called, distinguished from each other ? 5* 5f, SWALLOWS. other Passerinae ; th6 external toe is united to the median, as far as the first articulation, and the number of phalanges is not unusual. 38 SWALLOWS PROPERLY so CALLED, Hintudo, have a trian- gular beak, broad and depressed at the base, a little curved at the point, the nostrils oblong, the legs short, the wings very long, and the tail ordinarily forked. These birds delight most in those places where flies and other winged insects are common : they construct their nests with great care, often of a sort of masonry in the ground ; the female sometimes lays twice a year. Most of the Swallows leave us towards the end of September, and migrate in large flocks to warm countries where they pass the winter; but return in the beginning of the spring and take pos- session of the nests they had left the preceding year, Their habits are mild, and they are remarkable for their sociability. They often join a great number together, to drive off an enemy, the attack of which any one of them may fear. The Swallow announces even to Swifts, and other small birds the approach of a bird of prey. At the sight of an owl or a hawk, it utters a piercing cry ; immediately all the birds of its species, and the Swifts assemble around it, and often march in line against the enemy, which they harass until he is forced to beat a retreat. 39. In the genus of Swallows we must mention, the Martin, Hit-undo iirbica, (l*late 4 . Jiy. I.) which is black above, white below and on the tail, and the feet are feathered to the nails. It arrives about the middle of April, and disappears about the mid- dle of September. It constructs its nest of earth, lined inside with straw and feathers, which it often places in the angles of windows and beneath the eaves. 40. The Chimney Swallow^ Hirundo rnstica, is an inch longer than the preceding, with a very forked tail and naked toes ; it is black above; the front, that is the forehead, throat, and brows are red, and the rest of the bird is ordinarily white. It arrives a little earlier than the preceding, constructs a similar nest, which it commonly places on chimneys, in stables and barns. 41. The Stlanyane, or Eaible Swallow, Hirundo esculenta, which inhabits the East Indian archipelago, is celebrated on account of its nest, which it constructs of a whitish, gelatinous substance, arranged in layers ; this substance is a marine plant which it soaks in the sea and grinds previously to using. These nests are eaten, dressed like mushrooms, and in soup ; the Chinese 38. What arc the habits of Swallows properly so called? 39. What is the Martin ? What are its habits ? 40. What are the characters of the Chimney Swallow? 41 What is the S langane ? For what purposes is the nest of this Swallow used? GOATSUCKERS. 57 regard them not only as an excellent dish, but also as a very- restorative and medicinal kind of nourishment ; a very extensive commerce is carried on in this article, which has been sold as high as five dollars a pound. From thirty to fifty thousand pounds are used in China every year. 42. The SWIFTS, Chmtura, or MARTINS, or Martinets, Cypselus, have a forked tail which consists of six quills only, while in the Swallows properly so called there are twelve; their legs are very short and their toes are directed forwards. These birds scarcely walk at all, and are seen constantly in the air, pursuing, in flocks, and with loud cries, insects in the upper regions of the atmosphere. They nestle in holes in walls, and in rocks, and climb along smooth surfaces with great rapidity 43. The Common Muriin^ Hirnndo apus, is about eight inches long, and the spread of the wings is nearly fifteen inches. It is black with a white throat. It appears in France in the month of April, and departs on the approach of cold. It ordi- narily lays from two to five eggs once a year. 44. The tribe of NOCTURNAL FISSIROSTRES is composed of the genus of Goatsuckers. 45. The GOATSUCKERS, Caprimnlf/its, (Plate 4. fig. 2.) all resemble each other in their plumage and habits. They only appear towards evening, and, for this reason, they might be called crepuscular birds. The silky nature of their feathers, and their mixed and delicate colours, give them, as far as relates to their external covering, a strong resemblance to owls. Their eyes are large ; their beak, which is furnished with strong mus- taches, and more deeply cleft or open than in swallows, is capable of receiving the largest insects which it retains by means of a viscid saliva ; the nostrils, which are in the form of small tubes, are near its base ; their wings are long, their feet short, and the tarsi feathered ; the thumb can be directed forward. 4(5 These birds live isolated, and only fly during the twilight, or in fine nights; they pursue the phalenae and other nocturnal insects, and lay a small number of eggs on the ground without taking much care to construct a^nest. When they fly. the rush- ing of the air into their wide mouth produces a peculiar humming noise. It has been said that they sucked the goats, but this is untrue; the notion arose probably from their frequenting the 42. How are the Swifts distinguished from the Swallows? 4'.}. What are the characters ot the common Martin? 44. What genus constitutes the Nocturnal Fissirostres ? 45. VVhiit are the characters of the Goatsuckers? 46 What are the habits of the Goatsuckers ? From what circumstance uo they durivt: theii name / 2B 58 GOATSUCKERS. fields, where goats and sheep were herded, in pursuit of the insects which are attracted there in great numbers. Only one species of Goatsucker is known in Europe. 47. The European Goatsucker, Caprtmn/gits europreits, (Plate 4. fig. 2.) is of a brown gray, undulated with blackish brown, with a whitish band running from the beak to the back of the neck. It arrives in France in the spring, nestles in the heath, and the moment its food begins to grow scarce it seeks a warmer climate. 48. There is one species in Africa, remarkable for a feather twice the length of the body which arises from near the carpus of each wing, and is barbed only near the extremity. The warm parts of America abound in these birds. 49 The Chuck-wills WuHw, Capfimuiymt carolhtensis, appears in the southern parts of the United States about the middle of March. The head and back are dark brown, minutely mottled with yellowish red, and longitudinally streaked with black. 50. The Whip-poor-will, Caprimvlgnt rod finis, is heard during the spring and early autumn, in the middle section of the United States. Its general colour is a brownish gray, streaked and finely sprinkled with brownish black. About the middle of May, the female lays two eggs; like all birds of this genus, she buflds no nest, but deposites her eggs upon the bare ground, in some dry and sequestered situation. 51. The N glit-Huwk, or Niy hl-Jar, Capriwulgns Jlmeri- camis is met with in all parts of the United States. It is of a brownish black, mottled with white, and a pale reddish brown above, and a grayish white, undulated with dark brown below Night-Hawks arrive in the Middle States towards the close of April. They are commonly seen towards evening in pairs, sail- ing around in sweeping circles, high in the air, occasionally descending lower to capture flying insects, chiefly of the larger kind, such as wasps, beetles and moths. About the middle of August, they begin their migrations towards the south, and may be seen as late as the middle jof September, in the evening, in scattered flocks, consisting of several hundreds together, moving towards more congenial climes, darting after insects, 01 feeding leisurely as they advance. Sometimes different species of Swallow are mingled in these wandering tribes. 47. What are the characters of the European Goatsuckei * 48. Are Goatsuckers peculiar to Europe? 49- What are the characters of the Chuck-will's widow 7 50. What is the Whip-poor-will? 51. What is the Night Hawk 't LARKS. FAMILY OF CONIROSTRES. 52. All the birds of this family have a strong beak, more or less conical, and without a notch, ( I'late 3. fig. 9.): they live on grains, more exclusively in proportion to the strength and thick- ness of their beak. The principal genera of this family are ; the Larks, the Titmice, the Buntings, the Sparrows, the Cross- bills, the Crows, and Birds of Paradise, which may be distin- guished bv the following characters : (Genera ) C Straight, strong, and longer than that of the other toes, } LARK. j ( Very slender, and fur- 'j nished with hairs at the } TITMOUSE. s base. J 1 8*3" Z ""' Short, straight and em- ble velvet [ BIRD or j PARADISE. L covered by 53. The LARKS, Jllmida, have a straight, short beak, in the form of an extended cone, (Plate 4, fig. 4.); their head is small, round, and furnished with feathers on top, which are more or less erectile ; their tail is of moderate length, and almost always forked ; their nostrils are covered by small feathers which are directed forwards; the posterior nail is straight, strong, and much longer than that of any of the other toes The conformation of their nails does not permit these birds generally to alight on trees, but it is useful to them when they run overnewlv ploughed 52. How are the Conirostres characterised ? Upon what do they feed What are the principal genera composing this family ? 53. What are the < -haracters of the Larks ? Wnat are their habits 60 TITMICE. ground; they dwell, in general, on the ground, and feed on grains, tender herbs, insects and larvae. They also have the habit of dusting themselves by fluttering on the ground. The Common Lark is found nearly throughout the eastern continent. During the summer, these birds prefer dry elevated situations, and delight in soaring to great heights in the air, singing in a strong, melodious voice. In winter, they assemble in large num- bers on the level country in search of food ; when the cold is intense they take refuge among the rocks, and along streams that do not freeze, and when pushed by want, they approach our habitations. They nestle on the ground, and without brconring familiar with man, they become accustomed to captivity. Their flesh is esteemed a delicacy. 54. The Shore Lark, Jilanda alpestris, is of a reddish gray inclining to brown above, whitish beneath with the throat and a stripe over the eye of a pale yellow ; the tail and wings, and a patch on the breast, black. This beautiful species is common in the northern parts of both continents. These birds arrive in the Northern and Middle States early in October, and generally dis- appear on the approach of snow. 55. The Sky Lark, JHaucia arver>sis, is universally known by its perpendicular mode of soaring, accompanied by its varied and powerful song. It is brown above ; whitish underneath, an 1 spotted throughout, with a deeper shade of brown. 56. The TITS, or TITMICE, Pans, have a slender and very short beak. They are extremely lively little birds ; they are constantly leaping from branch to branch in short flights, climb- ing and suspending themselves in all manner of positions, p'uck- ing the grains upon which they feed, also eating many insects, not even sparing small birds when they find them enfeebled by sickness, or entangled in snares ; they are often seen to pierce their skulls by repeated strokes of the beak to devour the brains ; they also pick the bones to a skeleton. In proportion to their size, which is very small, these are the strongest of all birds; they attack owls fiercely; they have tt.e habit of storing a provision of grains-; they ne^t in the hollows of old trees, and Jay more eggs than any other of the passerine birds. Species are found in all parts of the world, and there are several in the United States. The Tufted Titmouse * f*arus bicolor, is crested, and scarcely exists north of Pennsylvania, and New York. It is of a 54. Whil are the characters of the Shore Lark ? 55. What are characters of the Sky Lark ? 56. What are the characters of the Titmice 1 What are their habits 7 Where are they found ? What are the characters of the Tufted Titmouse ? BUNTINGS. SPARROWS. 6\ dark bluish ash-colour above, whitish beneath, and the flanks are tinned of a yellowish brown 57. The BUNTINGS, Emberiza ( Platr-3, fyj. 9.) have a short, straight, conical beak, the upper mandible being narrower, enters within the lower, and there is a projecting hard tubercle on the palate.' All these birds are granivorous, yet they also eat insects ; they inhabit thickets, fields covered with hedges, gardens, and the woods rarely. They have little foresight, and are readily caught in traps. Some of them assemble in numerous troops in the winter. The most common species in France are the Yellow Bunting, Embenza vilrimilu^ the Common Bunting, Embe- riza miliarw, and the Ortolan, Einbc.riza hortuluna, and there are several in the United States Amongst the latter may be mentioned here, perhaps, the It ice liird, or Bob-a-Link, Embcriza oryzivora, or Dutu-koiufx urtfzirorus. 58. The SPARROWS have a conical beak which is more or less thick at the base; they generally live on grains, and are for the most part voracious and destructive. They are divided into Sparrows properly so called, Weavers, Linnets, Goldfinches, &c. To the genus of SPARROWS PROPERLY so CALLED, Pyrgita, belong : 59. The Common Sparrow, Priugilla domrstica, which is brown, spotted blackish above, with a whitish band on the win,?, gray beneath, the sides of the crown in the male reddish, and hi throat black. It abounds in all parts of the eastern continent, except in those places where wheat does not grow ; this bird nests in holes in walls, and is very destructive from its voracity. The farmers complain very much of the pillage of these birds ; the destructive war they wage against caterpillars, and winged insects, compensates, however, for their passing devastations ; and every thing considered, it may be said they are more beneficial than injurious to rural economy. The sparrow is courageous, and often contends with birds ten times larger than itself, and sometimes enters dove-cots These birds ordinarily nest under eaves or in hollows of trees: the nest is constructed of hay and straw, lined with feathers ; it is placed so as not to be injured either by the sunshine or rain. The tenderness of the female for her young is very interesting. The male is distin- guished from the female by a black spot on the beak. 57. What are the characters of the Buntings ? What are their habits ? 58. How are the Sparrows characterised ? 59. What are the characters of the common Sparrow T What are lt habits? Where is it found? 2B 62 GROSBE A KS. BULLFINCHES. 60. The Common Chaffinches, F ring ilia tttifbt, are among the most common of European birds ; their habits are nearly the same as those of tn" common Sparrow, but they are more lively and their song is more varied. 61. The Common GttLi finch, Ft ing ilia carduelis, is among the most beautiful birds of Europe. It is very docile, and quickly learns to sing, and to play all kinds of tricks 62. The Yi'lLno bird, or Jitm-ricun Goldfinch, Fringillrt trixti$frhas black wings varied with white, and a black tail tipped with white. In summer, the male is dressed in yellow with a black crown, and in the autumn in brown olive, which is the permanent colour of the female and young yellow birds. It is a general inhabitant of the United States 63. The Common Snow tiird, FrioyiMu hyemalis, is a hardy and very numerous species, common to both continents. About the middle of October they pour in flocks from the northern regions into the United States, where their arrival is looked upon as the presage of winter. 64. The Linnet, Frinyilla canabiua, is found in all parts of Europe, and chiefly inhabits the planes ; its song is very agree- able. 65. The Canary Bird, Fringilln canaria, somewhat re- sembles the Linnet, though it differs from it very much in colour. It sings so agreeably, and is so easily multiplied in a state of captivity, that it has become common throughout the world. Most naturalists agree that it came originally from the Canary Islands, where it is found wild in great numbers; but some travellers suppose that it was first brought from Asia. 66. The GROSBEAKS, Cacctliranstes, are distinguished from other Sparrows by the great size of their beak which is exactly conical. The Common (Grosbeak, Loxia caccothraustcs, is the most strongly characterised, It inhabits woody mountains and eats almonds and all sorts of fruit. 67. The BULLFINCHES, Pyrrftula, have a round beak which is inflated in every direction, and sufficiently strong to crush the hardest seeds. 60. How does the Chaffinch differ from the Common Sparrow ? 61. What is the common Goldfinch ? 62. What is the American Goldfinch ? 63. What is the common Snow Bird ? 64. What is the Linnet? 65. Where did the Canary Bird come from originally? 66- How are the Grosbeaks distinguished from other Sparrows ? 67. How are Bullfinches chaructensed ? CROSSBILLS. CROWS. RAVEN. 63 63. The CROSSBILLS, Loxia, resemble the Bullfinches, but the mandibles of the beak are so much curved at the point that they cross each other. By this- singular beak they are enabled to tear out the seeds from under the pine-cones. The Common Crossbill, Cnrriruthern maritime parts of the. United States. It is sociable in disposition, and often mingles with the common Crow-blackbirds. It is omnivorous, and feeds on insects, small shell-fish, corn and small grain, so that by turns, it may be viewed as the friend or plunderer of the planter. The common Crow- Blackbird, Quisculiis versico/or, and the Rusty Blackbird, Quiscalus ferruginous, are two other American species of this genus.] 79. BIRDS OF PARADISE, Paradiscea, like the Crows have a straight, quadrangular, pointed beak, which is compressed and a little convex above ; their nostrils are covered by the velvety feathers of the front. These birds, which are indigenous to New Guinea and the neighbouring islands, are all provided with the most brilliant plumage. Their history was fora long time a tissue of fable and absurdity. The female, it was asserted, laid her eggs while flying, and had no legs ; and when sleeping, it sus- pended itself from branches of trees by the long thread like feathers of the tail ; that it fed exclusively on dew, and never touched the earth till it was dead ! All these accounts have found their place, and observation has revealed the truth. 80. The most celebrated species is the Emerald Bird of Para* dise, Poradiscea apoda. lls head is small, but ornamented with feathers that in brilliancy rival those of the peacock ; the neck is of a yellowish tint; the body is very small, but covered with long feathers of a brown tint sprinkled with gold, two long bearded filaments or thread like feathers, spring from the rump and form the tail. The long, light, and graceful feathers of this bird form the most beautiful, and most sought plumes for the decoration of ladies' head dresses. These birds travel in troops of thirty or forty under the direction of a chief, which the Indians call the king. Their light plumage does not permit them to fly against the wind, and if overtaken by a gale they rise into the upper regions of the atmosphere, and leave the storm below them. IS. What are the characters of the Great Crow Blackbiid? What are its habits ? 79. What are the characters of Birds of Paradise ? Where are they found ? SO What are the characters of the Emerald Bird of Paradise? Whal are its habits ? NUTHATCHES. 67 LESSON V. FAMILY OF ENUIROSTRES, Nuthatches. Creepers. Humming Birds. FAMILY OF SYNDACTYLJE. Bee-eaters Kingfisher*. Horubills. ORDER OF SCANSORI^E Zoological Characters Woodpeckers. Wrynecks. ( uc/toos. Toucans. Parrots. Habits, {Mac- caws, Paioquets, P an ots properly so called) FAMILY OF TENUIROSTRES. 1. Birds of this family have a slender, elongated beak without a notch, and which is sometimes straight, and sometimes arcuate. (Plate 3, Jig. 11.) The principal genera of this family are the Nuthatches, Creepers, Humming-birds, and Hoopoes, which may be recognised by the following characters : (Genera.) ^Straight, .... )> NUTHATCHES. Moderate, and < / Arcaatc, .... ^CREEPERS. TENUIROSTRES, f Very long, extensible. Very long and J very slender, tongue j Short, and "^ lying close at l Hoopos . the bottom of t the throat j 2. The Nuthatches, Sitta, have a moderate, straight, depressed beak, which is cylindrical, conical, and trenchant at the point; their nostrils are partly covered by hairs directed for- wards, and their tongue is short and very slightly protractile. They climb with agility in all directions, live on insects and nestle in the trunks of trees. The Common European Nuthatch, Sit ta Einopaa, is of a bluish ash-colour. It is sedentary, and inhabits the lofty forests The male joins the female in the spring, in constructing the nest ; they establish themselves in a hole in a tree, and if the hole is too large, they reduce it with mud, which circumstance has acquired for it the name of Mason-pie; they line the interior with a thin bed of moss, upon which the female lays from five to seven grayish eggs, marked 1. What are the characters of birds of the family of Tenuirostres? tVhat are ihe principal gentra of this family ? 2. What are the characters of the Nuthatches ? What are the habif* of the common European Nuthatch ? Upon what docs jt feed / 68 CREEPERS. with small red spots. It is said, she is so much attached to her e^rers, that she never leaves them during the whole period of incu- bation, and takes no other food than that brought to her by the male. The young escape from the shell about the month of May, and very soon retire to live by themselves. These birds feed on insects, grains, hazel-nuts, beech-nuts, flax-seed, &c. The mode of getting out the substance of the hazel-nuts, consists in fixing them solidly in a crack, and then piercing them by repeated blows with their beak. 3 [In the United States we have the W kite -breasted Nuthatch, Sitta ctinilinrnsis, which is lead colour, with the head and neck black above, and pure white beneath ; the Red-bellied Nuthatch, Sitta canaiensis, which is of a rust colour be- neath, and some others ; all of which, in their general habits, resemble the European species] 4. The CREEPERS, Ctrtkia, have a beak of moderate length, more or less arcuate, triangular, compressed and slender; their nostrils, which are horizontally pierced, are half closed by an arched membrane. 5. The Creepers property so called, Certhia, have a slanting tail, which is furnished with stiff, sharp quills ; it serves to aid them in climbing trees; their tongue is sharp and adapted for piercing insects upon which they feed. There is one species found in Europe, and one in the United States. The European Creeper, Certhia familiaris, is a small bird which is met with in different parts of Europe, as far north as Siberia ; it is con- stantly climbing trees in pursuit of insects and larvae. The firuwn Creeper, Certhia americana, is of a dark gray varied with white, brown and dusky ; white beneath ; the rump and tail rusty. This industrious forager for insects, chiefly dwelling in the seclusion of the forest, is but seldom seen in summer ; but on the approach of winter, with other hungry wanderers of similar habits, such as the small Woodpeckers and Nuthatches, he makes his appearance on the wooded skirts of the village, particularly among pine trees, and occasionally becomes familiar enough to pay a passing visit to the orchard. The species is neither common nor abundant, though their breeding range extends from Pennsylvania to Newfoundland. 3. What are the characters of the White-breasted Nuthatch ? What are the chaiacteis of the Ued-bellied Nuthatch? Where are these two species found ? 4. What are the characters of the Creepers . 5. Wlint are the characters of the Creeper properly so called? What is the European Creeppr ? What is t!ie Brown Creeper ? What are the hablta of these birds ? HUMMING-BIRDS. SYNDACTYL^L 69 6 There are several sub divisions of this genus. Those known in France under the name of ecfnle.ttes, 'Tichndrnma^ climb like the preceding, but without supporting themselves with their tail, which is feeble and rounded ; they keep more on walls and rocks than on trees. 7. The HUMMING-BIRDS, Trochilvs, ( p lafe 3, fiq. 1 1.) are celebrated for the beautiful colours and metallic lustre of their plumage, as well as for their small size; they inhabit America and the adjacent islands. Their beak is long, straight or arcuate, tubular and very slender ; their tongue is long, extensible and bifid, that is, divided into two filaments ; their nostrils are covered by a wide arched membrane, and their feet, which are very short, have the tarsi shorter than the middle toe ; their wings are very long; their plumage is sometimes ornamented with patches that are as brilliant as precious stones They feed on the nectar of flowers, about which they are seen buzzing and balancing in the air like certain flies, or rather butterflies. They sometimes eat small flies and other diminutive insects which they find in flowers. They live isolated, and defend their nests courageously, and some- times contend fiercely with each other. The Northern Hum- miny-bird, Ttochilus colubris, is golden-green ; the tail forked and dusky, and the three outer tail feathers are of a rusty white at tip. The male has a changeable ruby-coloured throat, which in the female is nearly white. This wonderfully diminutive and brilliant bird, is the only one of an American genus, of more than a hundred species, which ventures beyond the limits of tropical climates. 8. The Hoopoe*, Upupa, have an ornament on the head formed of a double range of long feathers, which they can erect at will. FAMILY OF SYNDACTYL.E. 9. In the birds of this family, the external toe is almost as long as the middle one, to which it is joined by a membrane as far as the penultimate articulation. 10. The principal genera of this family, are: the Bee-eaters, the King Fishers, and the Calaos, or Hornbills, which may be readily distinguished from each other by the form of the beak. 6. How do the eche.lr.ttes differ from the Creepers properly so called ? 7. How are Humming-birds characterised ? What are their liahits Upon what do they feed ? What are ike characters of the Northern Hum- ming-birds ? 8. How are the Hoopoes distinguished ? 9. How are birds of the famiy of Syndactylae characterised? 10. What aie the pr.ncipal genera of this family ? ac BEE.EATERS --KINGFISHERS. In the Bee eaters it is of moderate size, and slightly arcuate; in the Kingfishers, long and straight, and in the Hornbills of a disproportionate size, and surmounted by an enormous protu- berance. 11 The Ree-cnlerSiMeropSt have a moderate sized beak. which is trenchant, pointed, slightly curved, without a notch or ooth, and with an elevated edge; their nostrils are partly con- cealed by hairs directed forwards; the external toe is joined to the middle one as far as the second articulation, and the latter is joined to the external, as far as the first articulation. The Ced ? Do all climbing birds belong \o the order of Seansoriae ? 15. Upon what do the Scansoriae feed ? Are they very powerful in tnei* 16. What are the principal genera of the order of Scansoriae 7 I And rounded; tongue very exUnsibl; 1 , i ,, T I but without spines. \ W f Moderate, and slightly nrcuate, J> CUCKOOS. 72 _ WOODPECKERS WRYNECKS _ (Genera,) f And angular; tongue very extensible, ( WooDPFCincRa . and armed with spines at the tip. \ W . .* C Straight, K f t "^ < ^ c ' ,c L Arcuate, | Large, rounded on all sides, and hooked, ^PARROTS. ^ Almost as long as the body, } TOUCANS. 17. The WOODPECKERS, P/CMS, are distinguished by their long, straight black beak, which is adapted for piercing the bark of trees ; by their slender tongue, armed near the end with spines curved backwards, which can be extended considerably beyond the beak; (Plate 1, fig. 3.) and by their tail, which is composed of ten quills with stiff and elastic stalks, which serves them as a support when they climb trees. (Plated, jig. 9.) All these birds are climbers, and have a family likeness to each other. They all have the habit of tapping and raising up the bark of trees to seize the insects which it conceals, and, after having struck on one side, of quickly running to the opposite, to seize the insects, which the noise may have caused to run away It is erroneously believed that they can in this way pierce trees entirely through. Most Woodpeckers are marked with red, either on the head or body ; almost all of them are streaked or speckled with brown on the ground colour of their plumage Their cry is sharp, and their flight heavy. They are lean, little esteemed, and inhabit all parts of the world, both within and without the equatorial regions, except New Holland. There are several species of Woodpeckers in the United States, the most common of which, are the Flicker, or Golden Wiityed Woodpecker, Picus uvratus, and Red- Headed Woodpecker, Pi ens eryth > ocepka Ins. Birds resembling Woodpeckers are known, which have but three toes,two of which are directed forward, and one backwards. 18. The WRYNECKS, Ynnx, (Plate 4, fiy. 5.) have the pro- tractile tongue of the Woodpeckers, but without the spines ; their straight and pointed beak is nearly round, without any well marked angles, and is not sufficiently strong to penetrate and raise the bark of trees; like the Woodpeckers, they live on insects, but climb much less. 17. How are Woodpeckers distinguished ? What are their habits? C'pon rhat do they feed ? 18. What are the characters of the Wrynecks? CUCKOOS. TOUCANS 73 ,__ ^ ; . iJ. The European WryitfcA, Yunx torqitilla, is of the size of a lark; it is brown above, streaked in little blackish waves, and longitudinal meshes of fawn colour and black; beneath it is whitish with transverse blackish stripes. This bird, which is solitary in its habits, loves the mountain woods, and makes its appearance in France, in May, and departs again in September; without making- a nest, it lays in holes in trees soon after its arrival. The Wryneck derives its name from a habit, which is peculiar to it, of twisting and turning the neck to one side, an 1 behind, while the head is turned towards the back and the eyes half closed. 20. The CUCKOOS, Cuculns, have a moderate beak, well cleft, and slightly arcuate , the tarsi are short, and the tail long, com- posed of ten quills. (I'latr 4, fiy 6.) They are birds of passage, and live on insects. The female makes no nest, and takes no care of her young ; she deposites her eggs in the nests of other birds, most frequently in that of the Fan; cite. The strange nurse, to whom the Cuckoo confides her eggrs, becomes not only the best of mothers for the young progeny that does not belong to her, but to take care of them she neglects her own eggs, and only hatches a part of them. It is remarked that the young Cuckoos raise up the young ones of the Fauvette, and push them out of the nest, that they may not share the attentions of their common nurse. These birds remain in the nest more than three weeks after their birth, and for five weeks longer their adopted mother supplies them with food. The American species, on the contrary, are faithfully paired, and take' care of their young. The Yellow- billed Cuckoo, Of Haiti Crow, Cuculus americauiis, is dark grayish-brown, with bronzy reflections, and white beneath. 21. TheToncANs, /fr/w/7/m.s7os, (Plate 4, fiy 10.) are easily recognised by their enormous beak, which is almost as large and as long as the body ; internally it is light and cellular, arcuate towards the end, and irregularly dentate on the edge ; their nostrils, which are surrounded by a membrane, are concealed behind the horny mass that sheathes the front. Their tonuue is long, narrow, and furnished on each side with barbs, like a feather. These singular animals inhabit only the hottest parts oi America ; they live in troops, and feed on fruits and insects. 19. What are the characters of the European Wryneck? What are its habits ? From what circumstance do; s it derive its name ? 20. What are the characters of Cuckoos ? What are the habits of th female ? How does the American differ from the European species ? 21. How are Toucans characterised / What are their habits ? 2C* 7-1 PARROTS. They seek the nests of other birds, and devour their eggs, and their recently hatched young. When they obtain their prey, they do not attempt to grind it in their beak, because its structure pre- vents; but they toss it into the air, and, receiving it as it falls, swallow it whole. 22. The PARROTS, Psittacm, (Plate 4, fig. 7. and 8 ) form a genus, numerous in species, which are found in all warm countries They have a lartie, hard, solid beak, which is rounded every where, and surrounded at its base by a membrane through which the nostrils are pierced ; their tongue is thick, fleshy, and round ; their feet are short and strong. They feed on fruits, and climb trees, assisting themselves with their feet and beak. They readily become familiar, and some species imitate the human voice very well ; but their clamorous disposition renders then) disagreeable in the house. 23. The plumage of Parrots varies in colour; it is generally remarkable for its clear and vivid tints: frequently, green pre- dominates; while in certain species, on the contrary, red is the prevailing colour From their intelligence, these birds seem to claim a place at the head of their class, and form the connecting link between it and the superior beings in the scale of animals. They learn to talk, retain airs, and are in short, susceptible of education ; they convey their food to the beak with their claws ; they are frugivorous, and also feed on buds, tender bark, roots, arid sweet juices of plants. This genus is divided into Maccaws Paroquets, Parrots properly so called, Cockatoos, &c. 24. The Maccaws, jlrf',(l j late 4, fiy. 7.) have a wedge- shaped tail, which is longer than the body, a strong beak and a naked face ; they are all American. The Jira aracari, or blue 3/tTw, is one that is most frequently seen in France, where it is produced in the domestic state ; it is from thirty to thirty- two inches in length. All the upper parts, that is, the top of the head, the back of the neck, the back, the rump, the wings, and all the top of the tail are of a brilliant azure blue. The chest and all the under part of the body are of a bright yellow. The naked space on the cheeks is of considerable extent, and is of a rosy white colour, with three little horizontal lines of black feathers ; the throat is surrounded by a broad greenish collar. 25. The Paroquels, also have a wedge shaped tail, which is sometimes longer than the body, sometimes of the same length, 22. How are Parrots distinguished ? What are their habits? 23. What ie the colour of the plumage of Parrots? For what are these birds particularly remarkab'e ? How is the genus of Parrots divided ? 24. How are Maccaws distinguished ? What are the characters of thf Blue Maccaw? 25. What are the characters of the Paroquets? ORDER OF GALLINACE^E. 75 and sometimes shorter ; they have a moderate beak, and the face is ordinarily feathered. 26. [The Carolina Parrot, Psittacus carolinensis, is green , the head and neck yellow ; forehead and cheeks orange ; tail elongated. Of the more than two hundred known species of this brilliant genus, it is the only one, found inhabiting the United States. It is rarely met with north of Virginia.] 27. The Parrots property so called, have a short, square tail, a stout and strongly hooked beak, the face feathered, a large head, and a stout body. They all inhabit the torrid zone. 28. The Graif Carrot, or ,/acv;, Pxittac*H erylhacus, is entirely ash-colour with a red tail. It is originally from Africa, and is much prized on account of its gentleness, its attachment to its master, and the facility with which it learns to speak. 29. The name of Amazonian Parrots is given to those that are very large, with a stout body and green plumage. 30. The Cockatoos, have the head ornamented with a tuft of feathers. (Plate, 4, fig. 8.) The plumage of the greater number is white, and of all the various species, they are the most docile. LESSON VI. ORDER OP GALLINACEJE. Zuol-gicdl Characters. Habits. Hoccos. Peacocks, (Common Peacock.) Turkey Guinea- fowl. Genus of Pheasants, (The Common Cock, Common Pheasant, Golden Pheasant.) Genus of Grouse, (The Great Heath-cock, Partridge, Quail. Genus of Pigeons. Habits. Carrier Pigeons. ORDER OF GALLINACEJE. 1. The Order of Gallinaceae comprises : Those terrestrial birds which have a short or moderate beak, vaulted above ; the nostrils pierced through a membranous space, and covered by a cartila- ginous scale, the body heavy, and the wings, in general, short. 2. These birds are essentially granivorous, and are provided with a very strong muscular gizzard ; they delight in seeking their food on the ground amidst dust. Their sternum is weakened by two large notches which occupy its posterior part on each side; their inferior larynx is very simple, and not one of them sings agreeably. 26. What is the Carolina Parrot? 27. How are Parrots properly so called, distinguished? 28. For what is the Gray Parrot esteemed ? 29. What are Amazonian Panots? 30. What are Cockatoos? 1. What hirds are comprised in the Order of Gallinace? 2. What arc the general characters of the Gallinacese? 7b GALLINACEOUS BIRDS. 3. Most of our poultry belongs to this order ; and no other affords man so many resources for his wants or his pleasures. The flesh of many of the Callinaceae supplies a light and whole- some meat which nourishes without overloading the stomach. Their feathers are applied to different purposes ; they are employed as ornaments, and also in the useful arts These birds are almost all from the warm countries of both continents. 4. This order is divided into two families, as follows: 5. first. The GALLINACEJE PROPLRLY so CALLED, having the anterior toes united at their base by a short membrane, which is dentate on the edges ; the tail is, generally, composed of fourteen or a greater number of quills. 6. Second. The PIGEONS, having the toes entirely divided, and the tail, formed of twelve quills. FAMILY OF GALLINACE.E PROPERLY SO CALLED. 7. The Gallinacea3 properly so called, have a short, convex brak with the upper mandible arched or vaulted, and curved from its base to the point ; their nostrils, which are pierced through a broad membranous space, are covered by a cartila- ginous scale ; their three front toes are united by a short mem- brane; the posterior toe articulates high on the tarsus, above the articulations of the anterior toes : sometimes, though rarely, the posterior toe is entirely wanting, or it is very small, and in many species, principally in the male, we remark on the posterior part of the tarsus, above the thumb, a process or projection called a spur, formed of a bony spine, covered externally with horn, more or less pointed, according to the species, and which increases in length as the animal advances in age. (Piatr 4, fig. 1 1, and Plate 7, fig. 15.) The tarsi are short or of moderate length, and the feet are adapted for running or walking. These birds are very heavy ; the body is fleshy, and the wings short, which, with the weakness of their pectoral muscles, renders their flight laborious. They are all pitlverators, that is, they love to scratch the ground, and wallow in the dust; they generally feed on grains, some- times on insects, and many species, on berries and buds. To swallow fluids when introduced into the beak, they elevate their head in the air. The females live in troops with a single male. Their nest is almost always made without art, upon the ground, and the male takes no part, either in its construction or in the 3. To what uses are birds of this order applied? 4. How is this order divided? 5. What are the general characters of the Gallinacese properly so called ? 6. What are the grcneral characters of Pigeons ? 7. How aie the Gallinacese properly so called characterised ? What ar Iheir habits ? GALL I NACEOUS BIRDS. 77 incubation of the eggs, the number of which is generally con- siderable. So soon as the young ones escape from the shell, they walk, eat alone, and abandon the nest to follow their mother. They remain together forming a family until the following spring, when they separate. The sexes differ very much from each other in their plumage, at least, until they have attained an advanced age, when the female sometimes appears in the plumage of the male, which is more brilliant ; they also differ in size, the female, in most species being smallest. 8. The principal genera composing this family may be recog- nised by the following characters: ('allinaceae properly so called, having a tail 1 9 r I *tJ e ^1 Q I . 3 C g O 3 S a. cr ^ A ' ^ Cu H * s Q- Jf a. o o 3 ft C 3 *^- i> tr^ 3 Q- SOP - -^ 3 B' (D SS iflff ^Nl l J<9 2 o of twelve q namented i?^- 2 - a c a. *< 7 ^ 09 vT Sr 6. What are the principal genera of the Family of Gallinaccce proper!? o called '\ 78 HOCCOS. TURKEYS. PEACOCKS. 9. The Hoccos, Elector, are large gallinaceous birds of America, analogous to Turkeys, with a large round tail, com- posed of twelve large, stiff quills; their beak is thick, stout, compressed at the sides, surrounded at the base by a naked skin, which is sometimes gibbous ; the tarsi are elongate and without spurs ; they have four toes, three before and one behind, the latter resting a part of its length on the ground. These peaceful birds are easily tamed, and keep in great forests and on mountains. They seek their food on the ground, and perch upon the highest trees Some nest on the large branches of trees, and others on the ground. Their nest is composed externally of dried branches and moss, and internally of leaves; they lay from two to eight eggs. In some parts of America Hoccos are reared as poultry. Their head is ornamented with a tuft of elevated feathers which are curled at the end. 10. TURKEYS, MeU'ugris, have the head and top of the neck covered by a papillated skin which is destitute of feathers ; under the throat, there is an appendage which hangs from the neck, and on the front, another conical appendage which lengthens and swells in the malo during excitement. A pencil of stiff hairs or bristles hangs from the lower part of the neck of the male; the tail coverts, which are shorter and stiffer than in the Peacock, can be erected iti the same manner, so as to form a circle ; the males have feeble spurs. Turkeys, of which only two species are known, are originally from America, whence the Jesuit missionaries introduced them into Europe, The first Turkeys appeared in France in 1570, and were served at the wedding of Charles IX. They have been naturalised in all climates on account of the excellence of their flesh. 1 1. PEACOCKS, Paro, have a moderate, conical, curved beak, which is naked at the base; the superior mandible is convex and vaulted ; the head, which is covered with feathers, is ornamented with a crest ; the tarsi are armed behind with a conical spur ; but the most remarkable characteristic of these birds is, that the upper tail coverts in the male, are lon^r than the quills, and may be elevated when he spreads his tail. The Common Peacock, Pavo crintatus, has the head crowned with a crest of twenty- four straight feathers, and the feathers of the runip, which have a floating or loose beard, are of unequal size, being shorter in 9. What are the characters of Hoccos ? What are their habits ? 10. How are Turkeys character! -ed ? To what part of the world are they indigenous ? When were Turkeys first used in France ? 11. How are Peacocks characterised ? What are the characters of the Common Peacock ? Are they found wild in any part of the world ? PINTADOS. PHEASANTS. 79 proportion as they are superior, and each one is terminated, by numerous brilliant metallic circles ; the female is destitute of this ornament, the richness and beauty of which, known throughout the world, are bvyond description, particularly when the bird spreads its tail. The Peacock is still widely diffused in the wild state, in the north of India, and in most parts of the Indian archipelago. 12. The PINTADOS, or GUINEA-FOWLS, Numida, (Plate. 5, fig. 1.) have a naked head with fleshy wattles on the lower part of the cheeks, and the cranium is generally surmounted by a callous crest; their feet are without spurs; their tail is short and pendent ; and the feathers of the rump give the body a rounded form. 13. All the Pintados are originally from Africa; they live in numerous troops under bushes, and in copses, where they seek berries and small snails on which they feed. The European species have been transported to the New World, where, in many places, they have become naturalised in the wild state. 14. PHEASANTS, I'ltasianus, (f/ate 4, ftp. 11.) are naked around the eyes, and the cheeks are covered by a red skin, or by very short feathers; they have no crest, and the. lower mandible is without wattles; the tail quills, eighteen in number in most ot the species, are placed on each other in two layers like shingles on the roof of a house, or in other words, the tail is tectiform, and maintained in a horizontal position. This genus is divided into many sub-genera, among which we will cite the Cocks, and Pheasants properly so called. 15 The Cocks, Gallns, have a beak naked at the base, furnished with two pendent and compressed caruncles ; the head is surmounted by a fleshy crest, or a bundle of feathers ; the tarsi are armed with long, curved spurs, and only the end of the thumb rests on the ground; the wings are short; the quills of the tail, fourteen in number, form two vertical planes, placed back to back ; in the male the coverts of the latter are prolonged into an arch over the tail proper. 16. The Common (7>c#, tJ /iasianus gallus, the female of which is called a Hen, is originally from India it is still met with wild, in the mountains of Ilindoostan, but in the domestic \'2. How are Guinea-fowls characterised ? 13 To what country did the Pintados origin illy beloirr ? Wh .t are their he hits f 14. What are the characters of Pheasants? 15. How re the Cocks characterised? 16. To what country does the Common Cock belong 7 7* 80 PHEASANTS. state, it is spread throughout the world. There exists a great number of varieties of it. 17. The Pheasants vrnprtly so c< llei, have a loner, cuneiform tail, each of the quills of which being inclined on two planes, cover each other like the shingles of a roof. To this group belongs the Common Piieagnnt of Europe, which is also originally from Asia, and which is also remarkable for the beauty of its plumage. In the male, the top of the head and the upper part of the neck are of a silver gray, which, in the reflections of light, seems to change to blue The feathers of the che.-t, of the shoulders, of the middle of the brick, as well as those of the sHes beneath the wings, have a blackish ground with purple edges on transverse lines of gold colour ; the plumage of the female is not so beautiful as that of the male : the iris is yellow and the eyes are placed between two parts which are of a scarlet colour. It is said, that the Pheasant was originally introduced into Europe by the Argonauts from the banks of the river Phasis in Asia Minor. 18. The Golden. I'hrasant, l j /n-sianins picfns, ( Plate. 4. fig. 11.) comes from China It is one of the most beautiful birds known ; the belly is of a bright red ; a tuft of golden yellow reclines from the top of the head ; the neck is surrounded by a magnificent orange collar, sprinkled with black; the upper part of the back is green, and the lower part, as well as the rump, is yellow; the wings are bright red with a beautiful spot of blue; the tail, which is very long, is brown, spotted with gray. 19. The Argmtj Pfmsianus aigus, comes from the south of Asia. The head and neck are nearly naked ; the tarsi are with- out spurs, and the secondary feathers of the wings are covered with eye-like spots, which, when the wings are spread, give the bird a remarkable appearance 20 No true Pheasant has yet been discovered in America. 21. The (rronse, 7 J #truo, are recognised by a naked and, ordinarily, red strip, that occupies the place of the eye-brow. They are very numerous and are divided into many sub-genera, the principal of which are the following: 22. 1st. The Heath-Gwfis, have the tarsi covered with feathers and without spurs, the toes naked, and the tail round or forked : 17. How are Pheasants properly so called, characterised? From what part of the world is the true Pheasant derived ? i 18. What are the characters of ihe Golden Pheasant? '9. How is the Aryus recognised? 20. Is there any true Phea-ant in America? 21. How is the genus of Grouse recognised? What are the principal sul.genera ? 22. HuW may the Heath-cocks be known ? GROUSE. 23. 2nd The Ptarmigans, or White Grouse, which have the toes feathered as well as the legs ; 24. 3d. The Partridge*, the tarsi of which are naked like the toes, and armed, only in the male, with short spurs, or simple tubercles ; 25. 4th. The Quails, which also have naked tarsi without spurs, and in which, the eye-brow is not red. 26. The Heath-Coclllus,\s mottled; the tail is gray or ferruginous, speckled or barred with black ; the male has a ruff of broad black feathers on the sides of the neck ; in the female the ruff is smaller and dusky brown. It is known by the name of Pheasant, in the Middle and Western States, and by that of Partridge in New England. It inhabits the American continent from Hudson's Bay to Georgia, but is most abundant in the northern and middle parts of the United States. It feeds chiefly on berries. 28. The Pinnated Grouse, Tetrao cupido, is partly crested and mottled ; and the tail is rather short and much rounded. The Grouse, or Prairie-Hen, is confined to dry, barren, and bushy tracts of small extent, and in several places it is now nearly or wholly exterminated. It is still met with on the Grouse Planes of New Jersey, on the Bushy Planes of Long Island, in 23. What are the generic characters of the Ptarmigans? 24. How are the Partridges recognised ? 25. How are the Quails recognisi d ? 2G. What are the general characters of Heath-cocks? What are the characters of the Great Heath-Cock ? Where is it found ? What are its habits ? Upon what does it feed ? 27. What are the characters of the Ruffed Grouse 'I Where is it found t By what other names is it known ? 28. Where is the Prairie-Hen found? 82 GROUSE PARTRIDGES. similar shrubby barrens in Connecticut, and in the Island of Martha's Vineyard, on the south side of Massachusetts Bay.] 29. The PtttrwiganSt or White (-irouse, Luyojms, have a round or square tail, and often become white in winter. [The Ptarmigan, Tvtrao lagopns, constantly resides in the coldest arctic deserts, and in the lofty mountains of Central Europe, where, as the snow begins to melt away, it seeks out its frozen bed, by ascending to the limits of eternal ice. It is common to the extreme northern regions of both the old and new continent. It feeds on many kinds of berries, heath, young shoots of pine, and occasionally eats a few insects. To protect themselves against the entreme cold of the climate, Ptarmigans dwell in the snow. As soon as they leave their frozen retreats in the morn- ing, they fly vigorously upward into the air, shaking the snow from their warm and white clothing. They are much esteemed as food in every country where they occur, and are commonly taken in nets. Between the months of April and May, it is said, that as many as ten thousand are taken for the use of the Hud- son's Bay settlement ; and in Europe, during the winter, they are carried in thousands to the markets of Norway.] 30. Partridges live in pairs, and keep on the ground. Two species of Partridge are common in France: the gray and the red. The Gray Partridge, Tetiao tim-rens, keeps in the fields; it is ashy brown elegantly mingled with black; the tail is short and the legs are of a greenish white; the beak and feet are ash-colour. In young Partridges there is observed, between eye and ear, a naked skin which is of a brilliant scarlet. The male has on the breast a cht-stnur coloured spot in the form of a horse shoe. The female is distinguished by less brilliant and less marked colours. She lays from twelve to eighteen eggs, and makes a nest on the ground of dry leaves and moss. The young ones run the moment they escape from the shell, a part of which they frequently drag after them. It not unfrequently happens that they place the eggs of a Partridge under a hen, who sits upon, and takes care of them as if they were her own. 31. The Red Partridge, Tettao riifu.s. has the beak and feet red; it prefers to keep on hills and elevated places; its flesh is whiter than that of the gray Partridge. 32. [.American Partridges, Onyx, have the beak short, thick, .higher than it is wide ; the upper mandible curved fro*** the 29. What are the habits of the Ptarmigan ? Where is it found ? 30. What are the characters of the Gray Partridge of Europe ? 31 How is the Red Parridge distinguished ? 32 What are the characters of American Partridges ? QUAILS. PIGEONS. 8.1 base, no naked space around the eye; the nostrils half closed by a membrane. The tarsus is destitute of spur or tubercle. 33. These birds alight on low trees or bushes, sometimes roost ing in them; they also dwell on the ground, both by night and day They are usually monogamous, the male taking charge of, and protecting the young, which associate with the old until the time of pairing. These are peculiar to America. 34. The American, Partridge, or Quail, Ortt/x virginiana is without a crest ; the plumage cinnamon brown, varied with black and whitish ; throat white, bounded with a black crescent ; beak black ; tfte feet ash colour. Though the Partridges of America are exceedingly prolific, they have been so thinned in some parts of the country, that sportsmen, acquainted with their local attach- ments, have been known to introduce them into places for breed- ing, to prevent their threatened extermination.] 35. The Quails. Cntnrnix, are smaller than Partridges, and have a shorter tail. The Common Qnail of Europe, Tetrno cotitrnix, has a brown back, waved with black and dotted with white, a brown throat, and a whitish eye-brow. The female makes a nest like the partridge; she lays six or seven eggs which are of a gray colour with brown spots. They are hatched at the end of about three weeks. 36. Quails are birds of passage, and celebrated for their migra- tions; they are found throughout Europe, and in most parts of the United States In the autumn, they pass in immense troops from Europe, across the Mediterranean to the coast of Africa; they return in the spring, and at that time they rest on some one of the Islands of the archipelago. FAMILY OF PIGEONS. 37. The PIGEONS, Coluiuba, are regarded as forming the natural link or transition between the Passerinae and GallinaceaB. 38. Pigeons have a moderate, compressed, straight, vaulted beak, which is curved at the point, (I'late5, fly. 4. ;) their nostrils are in the middle of the beak, pierced through a soft skin and covered by a cartilaginous scale which is inflated or bulged at the base of the beak ; their feet are frequently red ; they have three toes in front, which are entirely separate, and a posterio** 33 What are their habits? 34. What aie the characters of the American Partridge or Quail T Whether is it migratory or sedentary in its habits? 35. What are the characters of the common European Quail ? 36. What are the h .bits of Quails? 37. What relation do Pigeons bear to the Passerinae and Gallinacece ? 38. What are the characters of Pigeons? What are their habits? 84 PIGEONS. toe which is articulated upon the same plane as the others. They fly well, and differ very much from the Common (ra/finacpce in their habits. When they drink, they do not elevate the head as the latter do, and they ordinarily perch on trees. These birds always live in a state of monogamy, and the male never leaves his female companion. They evince great mutual tenderness and express it by frequently caressing each other, and by the accents of their voice, the modulation and tone of which have been designated by the term cooing. Both unite in the construc- tion of the nest, and place it, according to the species, sometimes on the tops of the highest trees, amongst busies, or even on the ground, and other times in the cavities of rocks This nest, coarsely constructed of small branches and leaves, is very open, and ordinarily receives only two eggs, upon which the male and female alternately sit. One of these two eggs usually gives birth to a male, and the other to a female : and these two individuals being reared together remain forever after paired. They feed their young by disgorging into their little throats, grains macerated in their own stomach, and which they cause to regurgitate into the beak by a kind of contraction. 39. These birds form but a single genus; among the wild species in Europe are the Cushat, the Rock Dove, and the Turtle Dove. 40. Pigeons are reared in* vast numbers in the domestic state; one of the most celebrated races is the Garner Pigeon, which is distinguished from all others, by a broad naked band which surrounds the eye, and its deep black plumage ; it is remark- able for its rapid flight, and for the singular faculty it possesses of again finding the place where it was born, or where it left its young, after having been carried to very great distances. It has been often employed to convey letters, and it has been known to make a journey of upwards of a hundred leagues in a few hours. 41. [Among the American species, the most remarkable is the Passfinger Pigeon, Cln.mba migrutaria, which is bluish gray, with a white belly and black tail The wild Pigeon of America, it is estimated, can fly several hundred miles at the rate of a mile a minute. The whole species seems to be always congregated in one huge flock, composed of millions of individuals ; and they remain in one locality for several years, and then leave it from dearth of food, which appears to be the sole cause that deter- mines their migrations. They feed on acorns and berries] 39. What number of gene/a constitutes the family of Pigeons'? 40. What are t l ie characters of the Carrier Pigeon ? Flow is it employed ? 41. What are the characters of the Passenger Pi jjeori ? What are Ui fobita? WADING BIRDS. 85 LESSON VII. ORDER OF GRALLATORIJB. Zoological Characters. Habits. Division into eight Families. FAMILY OF BREVIPPENNES. Ostrich. Organization. Habits.- Cassowaries. FAMILY OF PRESSIROSTRES. Bustards. Plovers. Lapwings. FAMILY OF CULTRIROSTRES. Cranes, {Common Crane,} Herons^ (Common Heron.) Storks, (Common Stork.) Spoonbills. FAMILY OF LONGIROSTRES. Genus of Curlews. Ibis, ( Sacred Ibis.) Snipe, ( Woodcock, Common Snipe.) The rfvosets. FAMILY OF MACRODACTYLI. Kails. Water-Hens. FAMILY OF FLAMINGOS. Common Flamingo Habits. ORDER OF GRALLATORLS. 1. The Order of Grallatoriae is composed of birds that have the lower part of the leg naked like the tarsus, (Plate 5, fig. 5, to 11.) Almost all these birds are remarkable for the length of their legs, and appear as if they were mounted on stilts. Their feet, most generally, have a small palmate membrane betwixt the external toes, and they sometimes are without a thumb. Their form is ordinarily lank, and their neck is very long ; their beak varies in its shape, but is also, in general, very long. 2. Most of the Grallatoriae, which are also called Waders, or beach birds, frequent watery places, and wade in shallow waters to seek their food ; with some exceptions, they all feed on animal sub.ttances, and seek fishes, reptiles, or worms and insects, accor- ding as their beak is strong or weak ; a small number of them feed on grains and herbage, and these only live remote from water. And almost all these birds have very long wings; they fly well, and extend their legs behind them when they fly, whereas, other birds, on the contrary, fold them under the belly. 3. The Grallatoriae, which build their nests on trees, and in elevated situations, are monogamous, and feed their young until they are able to fly : almost all those that build on the ground are polygamous, and their young seek their own food soon after birth. 1. Wh it are the general characters of those birds that belong to the ordci of Gralhtorise ? 2. What are the general habits of the Grallatoiiae or Waders? Upon what do they feed ? H. In what respect do the monogamous differ* from the polygamous GraJ- latorue? 86 ORDER OF GR \LLATORLE. 4 This order is composed of five principal families, and three small isolated groups, which differ too much from the other Grallatoriae, to be comprised in the preceding divisions, and may, therefore, be considered as forming so many separate families. 5. The five principal families, which are characterised accord- ing to the form of the beak, are the Brevipennes, the Pressiros- tres, the Cultrirostres, the Longirostres, and the Macrodactyli. 6. The three accessory families^ each one of which is formed of a single genus, are the SheattS>ills, or Vaginals, the Glarioles, and Flamingos. These different groups may be distinguished by the following Characters : GRALLATORI*. having wing. ^F~ ~~3 of5 c ^J "-*} ""S 2L ^ ?5 * (nT^ 1 r I g P S , 3 g I s - , - , - irl |3 9 ffi g g. oSS Si - 1 I str i ^If i-?^ I iU i - 1^1 in D- Hi D* 3 * Q. O rt> c - 3 . 3 Sa'^O C^O^J^ W ^^ r^ c C r^ !> SO *" III I III 1 o Q o r 1 r o >QO WRCOg 5 a ? ^ 3 . M g 3 M r -D 4. Into how many families is the order of Grallatorise divided ? 5. What are the principal families ? 6. What are the accessory families ? OSTRICHES. 8T FAMILY OF BREViPPENNES. 7. The Brevipennes (Plate, 5, fig. 5.) are very large birds that are entirely incapable of flying, and have rudimentary wings only ; but they are remarkable for the strength of their posterior extremities, which renders them excellent runners. Here, the muscles of the chest not being required, as is the case in other birds to make the strong efforts necessary to depress the wings during flight, are very small, and there is no projecting keel in the middle of the sternum for their attachment, as in other birds ; this bone is in the form of a simple shield. It is to be observed also, that all the Brevipennes want the thumb, and that, both in the form of their beak and in their regimen, they are very analo- gous to the Gallinaceae. This family is composed of two genera: the Ostriches and the Cassowaries. The first have broad, flexi- ble feathers, and the second are covered with narrow, stiff plumes, almost like bristles. 8. OSTRICHES, Slruthio, (Plate 5. jig. 5.) are very large birds with long legs and tarsi, a long slender neck, and a very small head ; they have only rudimentary wings, composed of loose, flexible feathers with isolated barbs, which are entirely unsuitable for flight, but which these animals make use of in running The beak, which is of moderate length, is soft at the end ; the eye is large and the lids are fringed with eye-lashes; the tongue, is short and rounded like a crescent; the crop is enormous, the gizzard very strong, and the intestines volumi- nous ; and above the cloaca their is a sort of large reservoir in which the urine accumulates as in a bladder ; and this is the only bird that urinates. 9. Two species of Ostriches are known: one, proper to the eastern continent, and characterised by having only two toes ; the other, proper to America, which is recognisable by having three toes. 10 The Ostrich of the Eastern Continent, Stnithio cameivs, (l^latt*. 5, fiy. 5.) is the largest of birds ; it attains six or seven feet in height and weighs as much as eighty pounds; the head and neck are thinly covered with feathers ; the back, breast and belly are covered with black mingled with white and gray leathers, and those of the wings and tail are white; the thighs are almost as naked as the neck, and of the two toes which termi< 7. What are iho characters of the Brpvipennes? S. What are the characters of O.-triches ? 9. How many species of Ostriches are known ? How are they rii tia- guished ? 10. What are the characters of the Ostrich of the eastern continent? 8 OSTRICHES. CASSOWARIES. nate the foot, the external one is but half the length of the other, and without a nail. 11. This bird lives in numerous troops on the sandy deserts of Africa and Arabia ; it is essentially herbivorous, but it is so voracious that it indiscriminately devours everything that falls within its reach until its stomach is filled ; it even swallows stones, fragments of metal, pieces of wood, and animal as well as the vegetable substances upon which it feeds ; the strength of its stomach is enormous. It can run more rapidly than the fleetest horse. The strength of this animal is astonishing ; an Ostrich with two men on its back has been known to run faster than an excellent English courser. 12. The eggs of the Ostrich weigh nearly three pounds each; in those countries which are not very warm, the female, and even the male sits upon them ; but on the burning deserts near the equator, they leave them in the sand, exposed to the heat of the sun. The period of incubation seerns to be about six weeks, and the young are feathered when born and able to run at once. 13. The broad flexible feathers of the wings and tail of the African Ostrich are much prized as ornaments. 14. The rfmericvn, or Three-toed Ostrich, Struthio rhea, Is more than one half smaller than that of the eastern continent ; its plumage is grayish, and the feathers are scarcely of any value. It abounds in Buenos Ayres. 15. The CASSOWARIES, Casuarius, are recognised at first sight by the feathers, the barbs of which being so lightly fringed that at a distance they resemble pendent hairs; their wings are even shorter than those of the Ostrich, and are totally useless even in cunning. 16 Two species are known, namely; the Emeu, or crested Cassowary, and the Cassowary of New Holland. 17. The Emeu, or Crested Coswwary, Struthio casuarins, is almost as large as the Ostrich of the eastern continent, but not so tall ; it is remarkable on account of the azure blue and red skin that covers the head and part of the neck ; for its pen- dent caruncles like those of a Turkey, and for a sort of helmet or crest, formed by a bony prominence, covered with horn, which 11. What are the habits of the Ostrich of the old world ? 12. What is the size of the eggs of the Ostrich ? 13. The fathers of whit part of the Ostrich are used for ornament? 14. How dues the American Ostrich differ from the Ostrich of the old world ? 15. How are the Cassowaries recognised ? 16. What spec ies of Cassowary are known ? 17. Whiit are the characters of the Emeu ? BUSTARDS. 89 surmounts the head. The feathers of the body are black, and for the most part double. It runs almost as rapidly as the Ostrich. It inhabits the Indian archipelago. 18. The Cassowary of New Holland, Casuariug Novce Hol- Ifindice, is of a brownish gray, and almost the whole head as well as the neck, is covered with fringed feathers. Its speed is greater than that of the preceding species. Its flesh resembles beef. FAMILY OF PRESSIROSTRES. 19. The Pressirostres, like the Brevipennes, and many of the Longirostres, are high on their legs, and without a thumb, or the thumb is too short to touch the ground ; their beak is of moderate length and sufficiently strong to dig the earth in search of worms ; their wings are sometimes short, but can always be used in flight. (Plate 5, fig. 6, and?.) 20. This family is composed of the Bustards, the Plovers, the Lapwings, and some other genera, the characters of which are as follows : (Genera.) j f Very short, ------ .-. ^ BUSTARDS. W *j | - * f Moderate. ( Without a thumb } PLOVERS. =-2N \ E "3 * I / With a thumb, } LAPWINGS. 2 | Pretty long; | O-i ^ beak ^Strong and pointed, - - } OYSTER-CATCHERS. 21. The BUSTARDS, Otis, are large, heavy birds that resem- ble the Gallinaceae in the massive form of their bodies, and in having the upper mandible slightly vaulted. Their wings are short, and they fly but little ; most commonly like the Ostriches, they employ them only to accelerate their speed when running. Their food consists of grains, herbs, worms and insects. Two species are found in Europe, namely ; the great Bustard, and the Little Bustard. 22. The Great Bustard, Otis tarda, which is of a bright fawn colour, crossed with numerous black streaks on the back, and grayish on the rest of the body, attains to more than three feet in length ; the male is the largest of European birds ; th female is about one third smaller. It is a timid bird, and keeps 18. How is the Cassowary of New Holland characterised ? 19. How are the Pressirostres characterised ? 20. What genera compose this i'amily ? 21. What are the characters of Bustards ? Upon what do they feed ? 22. What are the characters of the Great Bustard ? What are its nabit* 7 90 PLOVERS. LAPWINGS. on naked and extended planes , it flies little, but runs with great rapidity. It nests in fields of grain, and often unites in bands of from fifty to sixty individuals. 23. The Little hustard, Otis tctrax, is more than one half smaller than the preceding; it is brown, dotted with black above, and whitish beneath. It is less frequently met with than the Great Bustard. 24. The PLOVERS, Char a drius, (Plate 5, fg. 6.) like the preceding, have no thumb; but their moderate beak is com- pressed" and swelled at the end ; their wings are moderate, and they fly well. They habitually frequent sea -coasts, the mouths of rivers, maritime marshes, and feed chiefly on worms, which they induce to crawl out of the ground by striking their feet upon it. Some species live solitary, and others in small troops. They emigrate every year, in more or less numerous troops, and it is chiefly in the autumn during the rains, that they are seen in greatest numbers; from this circumstance they have obtained their name. When on land, they are in constant motion, and they fly in a long file. Their flesh is delicate and esteemed : in those provinces where they are common, many are taken by means of nets. The species of France are seen only in autumn and spring ; they are the Dotterel, the Golden Clover, and the Ring Plow; they are all found in the United States. There are several species which have a horny spur on the carpal end of the forearm. 25. The LAPWINGS, Vanettus, differ from Plovers in having a thumb, but it is so small that it does not touch the ground. Their habits are the same, and they often go in company with them. > 26. The CRESTED LAPWING, Vanellus cristatits, inhabits Europe; it is a pretty bird of the size of a Pigeon, bronze black with a long and slender crest, (Plate 5, /fyr, 7.) It arrives in France in the spring, builds its nest in the fields, and remains through the summer ; but most of the species very soon after their arrival, continue their course to the north, and return in the autumn. 27. [The OYSTER-CATCHERS, Hcemafopus, have a somewhat longer beak than the Plovers or Lapwings. They dwell exclu- sively along the borders of the sea, frequenting beaches and 23. What are the characters of the Lit le Bustard ? 24. What are the ehar.icters of the PI .vers 7 From what circumstance io they derive their name? What are their habits? 25. How do Lapwings differ from Plovers ? 26. What is the Crested Lapwing ? 27. Bow are the Oyster-catchers characterised ? What are Iheir habits ? CRANES. 91 sandy shores, where they are seen to follow the waves in search of marine insects. The Oyster- Catcher, Hcetnatopus ostralegus, is common to the north of both continents, and is frequent on the sea shore of New Jersey and the Southern States. FAMILY OF CULTRIROSTRES. 28. All the Grallatoriae of this family have a long, thick, strong beak, which is frequently trenchant and pointed ; in general, they have a well marked thumb. 29. It may be divided into three tribes, namely: 1st The CRANES, which have a straight beak, slightly cleft, and nearly one half of it is occupied by the membranous fossae of the nostrils. 2nd The HERONS, whose beak is strong, cleft to beneath the eyes, and grooved. 3d. The STORKS, whose beak is very long, and very strong. 30. The CRANES, Grus, have a straight beak which is but slightly cleft , the toes are moderate, the external ones being a little palmate, and the thumb scarcely touches the ground. Almost all of them have the head and neck, to a greater or less extent, destitute of feathers ; their habits are more terrestrial than those of the other Cultrirostres, and their food is more vegetable. 31. The Trumpeters, Psophia, and Cranes properly so called, are ranged under this division. Among the former are the Crowned Crane, which comes from the western coast of Africa, and the NumMian Crane; and amongst the latter is the Common Crane, which is more than four feet high ; and which is celebrated for the migrations it makes every autumn from north to south, and every spring in a contrary direction, in numerous and well conducted troops. 32. [The W hooping Craw, (*rus americana, is white; primaries black, and with black shafts ; the whole crown and cheeks bald. This stately Crane, the largest of all the feathered tribes in the United States, is met with in almost every part of North America, dwelling amidst marshes, and dark and deso- late swamps ; it retires to the West Indies to pass the winter, though some have been known to linger, through the whole of the inclement season, in the swamps of New Jersey, near Cape May.] ^ 28. How are tliR Culfrirostres characterised ? 29. Into what tribes is the family of Cultrirostres divided 7 30. How are Cranes characterised ? 31. For what is the common Crane celebrated? 32. What are the characters of the Whooping Crane? S* HERONS.-STORKS. 33. The HERONS, tfrdea, are more carnivorous, and are recognised oy their larger toes, and by their strong beak which is cleft to beneath the eyes, and acuminated. They are gloomy birds, and build their nests in swamps, along the banks of rivers. They feed on fish, frogs, moles, insects, &c. 34. The tribe is divided into Herons properly so called, Boat- bills (Cancromn) &c. The beak in the first is higher than it is wide, and in the second flattened and very broad. 35. HERONS PROPERLY so CALLED, rfraea, have the eyes sur- rounded by a naked membrane, which extends to the beak ; the tarsi are scutellaled, &c. 36. The Common Heron, Jirdea cinerea, is a large bird, the plumage of which is bluish ash-colour, with the front of the neck white, sprinkled with black tears, and a black tuft on the occiput ; it is almost always solitary, and is often seen for hours together, on the same spot, standing motionless on one foot, the body almost straight, the neck bent, and the beak resting on one shoulder ; it is gloomy and timid, and, in general, flies during the night, when it utters a harsh, sharp cry ; its flight is not rapid, but very powerful, and it can soar to an immense height. Its depredations on the fishes of European rivers, render it highly prejudicial ; it is celebrated on account of the sport which the wealthy in former times, derived from hunting it with falcons. 37. The Crab- eater, is a species of Heron of small size which is found in the mountainous districts of France ; it frequents the vicinity of ponds. 38. The name of Egrets is given to certain Herons, the feathers of which, on the lower part of the back, at a certain period, are long and fringed; the most beautiful species, the feathers of which are used for ornamental purposes, are the Great and the Little Egret ; their plumage is entirely white, and they are met with in Europe. 39. The Bitterns, and Might- Herons, also belong to this tribe. 40. The tribe of STORKS is characterised by a larger and smoother beak than the preceding, and by strong, almost equal palmate membranes betwixt the bases of the toes. 33. What are the characters of Herons? 34. How is the tribe of Herons divided ? 35. How are Herons properly so called, characterised ? 36. What are the characters of the Common Heron '! What are its habits? 37. What is the Crab-eater ? 38. What are Egrets? 39. What are Bitterns' 40. How is the tribe of Storks characterised? STORKS.- SPOONBILLS. 93 41. The Storks properly so called, Ciconia, have a large beak which is moderately cleft ; their light and broad mandibles, by striking against each other, produce a peculiar clash. Their legs are reticulated and not very muscular Their movements are slow, and their steps long and measured ; in their powerful and sustained flight, they carry their head stiffly in advance, and their legs, extended behind, serve them for a rudder. 42. The \\kite Stork. Jlrdea ciwnia (I'ltte 5, Jig. 8.) appears in France and Germany in the spring, and passes the winter in Africa. It is a large, white bird, with the primaries of the wings black, and the beak and feet red. They live in pairs, and return every year to lay in the same nest There is no bird which has received, from different nations, more universal pro- tection than this, which is, in fact, every where useful in ridding the soil of prejudicial animals, without, at the same time, doing the smallest injury. Among the ancients, this veneration was carried to such an extent, that it was made a crime to kill one of these birds ; in Thessaly it was even punishable by death. Like the Ibis, the Stork was an object of worship amongst the Egyptians; and its instinctive qualities have no doubt con- tributed to increase this respect which is perpetuated among the orientals, and still observed in Switzerland and Holland. It has so much affection for its young that it does not quit them in the greatest danger ; it is recorded in history, that the Stork of Delft, which was uselessly urged to carry away her young, remained and perished with them in the conflagration of that city. The tender attentions which these birds pay to their parents in old age, are not less remarkable, and it is for this reason that the Greeks gave their name to the law which obliges children to fuinish aliment to their parents when they are in want. 43. Some species of Storks have on the middle of the neck an appendage which resembles a large sausage, on account of which they are called, Pouched Storks; t*e featners from beneath their wings form those light plumes which are called, by the French, Marabous ; one species is found in Senegal, and another in India. 44. The Spoonbills, Platalea, resemble the Storks In their whole structure; but their beak, from which they derive their name, is flat, and widened at the end into a round disk like a spatula, (Plate 5,fg. 9.) This conformation permits them to 41. What are tl e characters of Storks properly so called ? 42. What is the While Stork ? What are its' habits? For what is if remarkable? 43. What are Pouched Stork* ? 44. What are the characters of the Spoonbills? 2E M IBISES. feed only on little animals which they obtain, either by rooting m the mud, or fishing in the water One species is spread throughout the eastern continent, and another is proper to South America. FAMILY OF LONGIROSTRES. 45. The Longirostres have a long, slender and feeble beak, which is only suitable for rooting in the mud, in search of worms and small insects, (Plate 5, fry. 10.) These Grallatoriae form two tribes, SNIPES in which the beak is straight, or curved downwards ; and the AVOSETS in which the beak is curved upwards. 46 The first of these groups is composed of the Ibis and Curlews, in which the beak is arcuate, and Snipes properly so called, Sandpipers, the Ruffs, and a great number of other birds in which the beak is straight. 47. The IBISES, (Plate 5, fiy. 10.) have the beak arcuate, a part of the head, and even a part of the neck, destitute of feathers, the external toes perceptibly palmate, and the thumb sufficiently long to rest on the ground. 48. ["Species of the Ibis inhabit all quarters' of the world. Thoy frequent the borders of rivers and lakes, where they are accustomed to feed on insects, Crustacea, worms and shell fish, to which they also, at times, add vegetables. But we may place among popular fables, the reputation they have long enjoyed, of being the great destroyers of serpents and venomous reptiles, which in fact, they never touch. They migrate periodically to such distances, that the boundaries of the earth alone seem to set limits to their wanderings."] Nuttall. 49. A species of this genus, the Sacrrd Ibi*, Ibis rdigiosct, is celebrated on account of the religious worship it received among the Ancient Egygtians ; it was reared in the temples of that country, and embalmed after its death According to some, these honours were rendered to the Ibis because it devoured serpents which might have become dangerous to the country, and according to others, because its appearance announced the rise of the Nile. It is often seen sculptured on the monuments of that remarkable people. It is a bird of about the size of a hen ; the plumage is white, except the ends of the primaries of the 45. How are the Longirostivs characterised ? How is this family divided ? 46. What birds compose the tribe of Snipes? 47. What are the characters of the Ibises ? 48. W T here are Ibises found? Upon what do they feed ? 49. What is the Sacred Ibis? Why is it called sacred? What are lU characters ? CURL EVVS. SNIPES. AVOSETS. P5 wings, which are black, and the beak, and the feet, as well as the naked portion of the head am| neck, which are also black. This species is found throughout Africa. 50. The Curlew, Nmneuius, have the beak arcuated like that of the Ibis, but it is more slender and round throughout; the tip of the upper mandible extends beyond the end of the lower one, and projects a little downwards in front of it. The toes are pal mated at b ise. They are met with on our own coasts, 51. The SNIPES PROPERLY so CALLED, Scolopax, have a straight beak, a compressed head, with large eyes, placed far back, and the feet are not pal mated ; they are singularly stupid in appearance, which is not contradicted by their habits. 52. The Common Woodcock of Europe, Scofopax rutticola, inhabits lofty mountains during the summer, and descends into the woods about the middle of October ; it goes alone or in pairs, particularly in bad weather, and seeks worms and insects in the soil. 53. [The Jjl m erica n Woodcock, Scotopax minor, differs from th-e European species, in the temperature of the climates selected for its residence. It is met with, in summer, between the river St. Lawrence and the limits of the Middle States, and in the winter retires to, or beyond the boundary of the Union. It revisits Pennsylvania early in March. The sensibility of the end of the beak, as in the Snipe, is sufficiently acute to enable it to collect its food by the sense of touch without using the eyes.] 54. The Snipe, Scolnpax 63. Is there more than one genus in Die fami!y of Flamingos? 64. How are Flamingos characterised? 65. What are the characters of the Red Flamingo? What are its habiU ? Upon what do Flamingo* ietd? 2E* ^ PALMIPEDES. fishing or at rest, one of them is always on the lookout, with head erect, and if any thing alarms him, he utters a braying cry, resembling the sound of a trumpet, which is the signal for depar- ture ; as soon as the troop rises, and when they fly, they still preserve the line The manner in which they construct their nest, is also worthy of attention ; they ordinarily build on drowned or wet shores , they construct it on the water's edge, of marsh mud, in the form of a sugar loaf, truncated at top, about twenty inches high, and as they cannot, on account of the extreme length of their legs, squat in their nest, they straddle over it, the legs hanging down on each side, and resting on the ground. 66 The ancients esteemed the flesh of the Flamingos very highly, and its fleshy tongue was particularly prized by the Romans ; but the moderns, who have had occasion to eat these birds, have found the flesh oily and disagreeable. 67. The GLARioLEsand VAGINALS, or Sheath-bills, offer nothing very interesting ; the first are found in all the northern part of the eastern continent, and the second in New Holland. LESSON VIII. ORDER OF PALMIPEDES Zoological Characters Habits. Divi- sion into four families FAMILY OF DIVERS Grebes. Jinks Penguins. FAMILY OF LONGIPENNES. Petrels. Albatross. Gulls. Sea- Swali'ows. FAMILY OF TOTIPALMATJE. Genus of Pelicans, (Pelican properly so cal-fed.) Organization. Habits. Frigate Bird. boobies. FAMILY OF LAMELLIROSTRES. Genus of Ducks. Swans. Geese. Ducks. Eiders Genus of the Mergansers. ORDER OF PALMIPEDES. 1. This name is given to birds in which the toes are united by a palmate membrane, but in other respects without the conforma- tion that belongs to the Grallatoriae ; every Palmipede has, in fact, the interval which separates the toes, filled up by a broad membrane, which envelopes them to neai the nail, or in other 66. Is the flesh of Flamingos considered good food ? 67. What are Glarioles and Vaginuls ? I. What are Palmipedes? What are the rnoBt remarkable parts of their organization ? How is this order divided ? DIVERS, 99 words, they are web-footed. Their feet are made for natation, that is, they are placed far back on the body, an 1 sustained by strong, compressed tarsi. A close, lustrous plumage imbued with an oily fluid, and a thick down next to the skin, protect them against the water upon which they dwell. They are the only animals of this class, in which the neck exceeds and some- times very much the length of tne feet, for the reason that when swimming on the surface of the water, they often have to seek animals upon which they feed in its depths. The localities which they inhabit, removes most of them from the empire of man, and in rna-ny respects even from the investigation of naturalists Birds of this order generally possess a system of organization which is strong and appropriate for extensive flight; their sternum is very long, affording ample protection to most of their viscera, and has but one notch or oval hole on each side, which is filled by mem- brane, so that this bone affords a wide surface for the attachment of the depressor muscles of the wings. This order is divided into four families according to the following characters : (Families.) Having excessively sh )rt winors, and the legs "| placed so far ba k, that they are oh iged, when on ! land, to preserve an almost vertical position. They j fly little, or not at all. BRACHYPTERA or DIVERS. Having the wings of ordi- nary length* or even very long, and the feet so placed as to ('ru- ble the animal to walk when in a horizontal posi- tion. C The thumb free, "] The beak < or wanting. Wings > LONGIPENNKS. horny, ^excessively long. J (* The thumb united j to the other toes by j a common mem- l^brane. Wings long. The beak covered by a soft skin, and the edsjes furnished with transverse lamellae, or very fine teeth. TOTIPALMATJ LAMELLIROSTRM. FAMILY OF BRACHYPTER.E, OR DIVERS 2. They have the legs placed farther back than all other birds, which renders it laborious for them to walk, and generally obliges them to keep in an erect position when on land, (Plate 6, jig. I,and2.) As most of them fly badly, and as many of them cannot even fly at all, in consequence of the extreme shortness of their wings, they may be regarded as belonging, almost exclu- 2. What are the characters ofthe Brachyptei How is this family divided ? 9 ? What are their habits ? 100 DIVERS. GREBES. sively, to the surface of the water: their plumage is very close in structure, and even frequently presents a smooth surface and a silvery brightness. They swim perfectly, with the body entirely under water, and use their wings almost as if they were fins. This family is divided into three tribes, namely: 1st The DIVERS, in which the beak is moderate, strong, straight, very pointed, and compressed, and the nostrils are lateral, linear, and half closed by a membrane. 2nd. The AUKS, in which the beak is very compressed, trenchant, and ordinarily furrowed transversely. 3d. The PENGUINS, in which the beak is pointed or hooked, and the wings are furnished only with feathers, which are so short that they resemble scales. 3. The DIVERS, are sub-divided into Divers properly so called, Grebes, Guillemots, &c. 4. The DIVERS PROPERLY so CALLED, Colymbvs, are recog- nised by their long toes, which are entirely palmate, and armed with pointed nails; the thumb is short and provided with a small membrane. Their tail is very short and round. These birds never quit the water except during the season of laying, and then they walk by the assistance of their wings ; if these supports (ail them, they fall upon the belly, and have great difficulty in rising They keep habitually under water, and scarcely show any thing but the head to breathe from time to time. They fly well, but rarely, and dive at the flash of a gun, without attempt- ing to fly. They feed on fishes, spawn, and aquatic insects. The most common of its tribe, in the United States, is the Loon, or Grf at Northern Diver, Colymbus ylacialis. 5. The GREBES, Podiccps, (P'ate 6, fig. 2.) in place of true palmate membranes, have the toes widened like the Grallatoria of the genus Fulica, and the anterior ones being united only at the base by membranes. They live on lakes and ponds, and build among the rushes. They swim with ease, and dive fre- quently ; the semi-metallic lustre of their plumage has caused their skins to be applied to the same use as fur. There are several species in Europe which are not well distinguished ; the largest is of the size of a duck, and the smallest is not larger than a quail. 6. The name of GUILLEMOTS, Una, is given to Divers that want the thumb, and that have shorter wings than the preceding. 3. Ho.v are the Divers divided ? 4 How are Divrrs properly so called, characterised? What are their habits ? What is the Loon ? 5 What are the characters of the Grebes ? 6 What aru Guillemots i AUKS. PENGUINS. 101 7. Birds of the tribe of AUKS, ^/ca, have a broad, straight, compressed beak, which is very much curved at the point. The nostrils, which are about the middle of the beak, are almost closed by a membrane covered with feathers ; the feet are short, have only three toes, and are completely palmate ; the nails are slightly curved. They have the same habits as the birds of the preceding genera, and, like them, inhabit the north. With the exception of a single species, they all fly but little, and always grazing, or lightly touching the surface of the water. [The ttazor-bilt .fink, Men torda, inhabits the coldest regions of the northern hemisphere. It is gregarious in its habits, and flies rapidly, but near the surface of the water. The Great *fln/t, or Northern Penguin, Mai impennis, inhabits the highest lati- tudes of the globe, dwelling by choice and instinct, amidst regions covered with eternal ice Its wings are extremely short and use- less for flight] 8. The tribe of PENGUINS, Jl pie nndfites, (Plate 6, fig. 1.) comprises Palmipedes, not one of which can fly ; their little wings are covered with mere vestiges of feathers, which at first sight resemble scales; their feet, which are placed farther back than in any other bird, only support them when they rest upon the tarsus, which is widened like the sole of the foot of a quadruped ; they have a small thumb directed inwards, and the three anterior toes are united by a membrane. These birds never quit the water, except to lay, and then they are obliged to drag themselves along on the belly. They are only found in the antarctic seas. The Great Penguin, Jipteuodyfex palagaiiica, is the size of a goose, slate colour above, with a black mask, and a lemon coloured tail. FAMILY OF LONGIPENNES. 9. This family contains birds of the high seas which from their power of extensive flight, are every where found, and which navigators meet with in every latitude. They have sharp, slender wings, (Plate 6, fig. 4.) ; their pectoral muscles are very power- ful, their feet are widely palmate, which better enables them to repose upon the waves ; and their piercing sight, inevitably pre- vents the escape of fishes, of which they are very fond, and which they seize, not by diving, but skimming the surface. These birds are frequently met at incredible distances from land, and they are seldom seen beyond the limits of the zones, which they inhabit 7. What are the characters of the Auks ? What is the Razor-biil Auk" What is the Great Auk ? 8. What are the characters of Penguins? What regions do they inhabit? 9. What are the habits of the Longipenncs ? 102 PETRELS. through preference. They are recognised by the freedom of the thumb, or its entire absence, by their very long wings, and by their beak, which is without teeth, hooked, or simply pointed. 10. The following table exhibits the characters of the principal genera composing this family. (Genera.) /^s? f-tst^&s&j of a lube. [^ Wi(hout a vestige of a thumb, } ALBATROSS. ~ i f Legs pretty long ; tail not forked } GULLS. The nostrils oblong and f Beak compressed, ) SKA . SwALLOWg . pierced in -^ Legs | of the ordinary form. $ different very short;! places. j tail gener-j Beak like the ) [ ally forked. | blades of a pair of > SKIMMERS. l_ scissors. \ It. The PETRELS, Procellaria, have a beak, hooked at the end, the extremity of which seems to consist of a distinct piece, articulated with the remainder ; their nostrils are united in a tube laid on the back of the upper mandible ; in place of a thumb, there is a nail planted in the heel. Of all the palmipedes these remain most constantly at a distance from land ; and when a tem- pest supervenes, they are often forced to seek shelter on reefs and ships, which circumstance has obtained for them the name of Storm Birds. That of Petrel, (little Peter) is given to them, it is said, from their habit of walking on the water, by the assistance of their wings, which reminds us of the miracle of Saint Peter walking on the Lake of Gennesaret. They build their nest in holes, in rocks, and they eject upon those that attack them an oily fluid with which their stomach appears to be always filled. The greatest number of species inhabit the seas of the Antarctic pole. 12. These birds are nocturnal ; they seek their food only in the morning, or evening twilight. During the day they lie concealed in caverns and clefts of rocks. They feed on the bodies. of dead cetacea, mollusca, and worms that float on the surface of the water. To this genus belong the Stormy Petrels, or Mother Carey's chickens Procellaria pelayica, Cape Pigeons, &c. 1C. What are the principal genera of the firnily of Longipennes ? 11. What are the characters of the Petrels? 12. What are the habits of Petrels 1 ALHATROSS. GULLS. SEA-SWALLOWS. ] 03 y '-. - -_- 13. The ALBATROSSES, Dinmedca, hrtve a very long, very strong, hard, trenchant and compressed beak, which is straight at the base, and suddenly curved towards the end; the nostrils are tubular, and placed in a furrow; the feet are short and pal- mate, and have but three toes; the nails are short and dull. 14 The Albatrosses are the largest of all oceanic birds; their heavy, massive form seems to bear -very little relation to their rapid and long continued flight, which has caused them to be called by mariners Cape Sheep, or .\Jan-ol-wur-binls. The species best known, is white with black wings. Of all birds, this one is seen at the greatest distance from land ; it generally inhabits extra-tropical latitudes, and it is chiefly in those seas which wash the three great southern capes, that it is most com- monly seen. It was for a long time believed that it belonged exclusively to the southern hemisphere, and was never seen in the north. 15. The genus of GULLS, Larus, (Plate 6. /fc. 5.) have a moderate entire beak, which is naked at the base ; the upper mandible is curved at the point, and the inferior, swelled and angular beneath ; the nostrils are median and longitudinal; the tarsi are pretty long, and naked above the knee : the thumb which is articulated high up, is sometimes without a nail ; the tail is rectilinear, and the wings are long The name of (loelaitd*, or Gulls properly so called, is given to large species, the size of which exceeds that of a duck, while the smaller species are called Mouettes. 16. Mouettes inhabit the sea shore of all parts of the globe. They are clamorous and voracious ; they feed on fishes and small animals, as well as on carrion and dead bodies; their gluttony is- such that they may be easily taken by enveloping a hook with feathers which, floating on the surface, in their eyes, resembles a little fish. 17. The SEA SWALLOWS, or TERNS, Sterna, derive their name from their excessively long wings and forked tail which give them the appearance of common Swallows. Their beak is as long or longer than the head, almost straight, compressed, trenchant, acute at the point, and both mandibles are of equal length ; the nostrils are about the middle of the beak ; the feet are small, naked above the knee, the tarsi are very short, and the 13. What are the characters of the Albatross? 14. Where are Albatrosses found' 15. How are Galls characterised ? What are Goiilands* 16. What are Mnurttes ? 17. What are the cluncters o" Sea-Swallows ? 9* 1 04 SKIM MERS. PELICANS. anterior toes are united by a membrane. Their nails are small and arcuate. These birds fly a great deal, rarely alight upon the water, and do not swim. They feed on little fishes or insects which they seize as they fly, skimming the surface of the water. All birds of this genus are clothed in white, with the back, wings, and tail, pearl gray. 18. The Skimmers, (Cut- waters, or Shear- waters, Rhync/tops, are remarkable for the singular form of their beak, the lower mandible of which is much longer than the upper, both being flat- tened, so as to form simple blades, which meet without clasping. They inhabit the West Indies. [The Cut-water, or Black Skimmer, /{/lynckofts nigra, is a bird of passage in the United States It arrives from its winter quarters about the middle of May, on the sea shores of New Jersey, where it breeds : its favourite haunts are along the low sand-bars and dry flats of the strand, in the immediate vicinity of the ocean.] FAMILY OF TOTIPALMAT.E 19 The birds of this family are remarkable for having the thumb united to the other toes in the same membrane, and not- withstanding this organization, which converts their feet into excellent paddles, they are the only birds among the Palmipedes that perch on trees. They all fly well, and have short feet. The characters of the most important genera of this family are contained in the following table: (Genera.) ' Having a large cutaneous pouch or sac, suspended ) p between the branches of the lower mandible. \ f The beak f Tail round, ) I straight, com- (of fourteen quills.) ( Without a | pressed, and! sac bencaih I hooked at the | Tail forked ^ FRIGATE BIRDS. the lower j end. jaw. (. Tail pointed . . . . } BOOBIES. ^ Beak straight, slender, and pointed, } DARTERS, &c. 20. The PELICANS, Peficanvs, (Plate 6, fig. 3 ) have a long, straight, broad beak, which is very much depressed ; the upper mandible is flattened and hooked, and the lower one is formed of two bony branches between which hangs a large pouch of naked skin. The face and throat are naked, the feet are strong and short, and all the toes are united by a single membrane. These singular animals are expert swimmers, and are found both Dn salt and fresh waters. They feed on fishes, and can store an 18. How are the Skimmers characterised ? What is the Black Skimmer 7 ID. For what are birds of the family of Tolipalrnatae remarkable ? 20. How are Pelicans characterised? Where are they found? CORMORANTS. 105 ample supply of them in their pouch, which is prodigiously dilata- ble. They are spread overall the warm, temperate, and even the almost frigid climates of the globe, and one of the species, the common Pelican, may be considered a cosmopolite. 21. The Common Pelican, Pelicantts onocrotalus, (some- times called onucrotalus, because its voice has been compared to the braying of an ass,) the largest web-footed water-fowl known, is five or six feet long with an alar spread of twelve feet ; the beak alone is about a foot and a half in length, and its pouch will contain a dozen quarts of water; its plumage is more or less purely white, according to its age, and the remiges are black. It flies well, and sometimes rises to a great height ; but in general, it skims the surface of the water, or balances at a moderate elevation, in order to precipitate itself more readily upon its prey; sometimes it is seen to beat the water with its wings as if to disturb it, and alarm the fishes, and we are assured, when Pelicans are assembled in troops, they fish in company, by forming a large circle which they gradually reduce to imprison the fishes, until, at a given signal, they all strike the water at the same time, and, under favour of the confusion, dive in and seize their victims. The fishing over, they retire to some rocky point or shoal, and there digest their gluttonous meal at their ease. They can perch on trees, (which is very rare among the web- footed birds,) but they do not nest in them ; they build on the ground, in an excavation, which they line with herbs. The female lays from four to six eggs, and feeds her young by dis- gorging before them the fishes, which she brings in her pouch for their use. It is also said that she carries them water in the same way, and it is probable that the movement which she makes to empty her pouch, by pressing it against her breast, has given rise to the fable, referred by some writers, to the pretended habit which these birds had of opening their breast to feed their young family on their own blood. 22. The CORMORANTS, Phalacrocorax, have an elongated, compressed beak, the upper mandible hooked at the end, the skin of the throat is but little dilatable, and does not form a pouch as in the Pelicans; the nail of the middle toe is toothed like a saw, and the tail, which consists of fourteen feathers, is round. They are excellent divers : they ordinarily swim with only the head above water, and they pursue fishes, upon which they feed, with astonishing rapidity, entirely under water. Their flight is rapid and sustained; but on land, they walk badly, and sustain 21 . What are the characters of the common Pelican ? What are its habits ? 22. What are the characters of Cormorants? How is the common Cor aorant characterised ? 106 FRIGATE BIRDS. BOOBIES. DARTERS. themselves almost in a vertical position by the assistance of the tail. The Common Cormorant, is of the size of a goose, and its plumage is greenish black ; it inhabits the northern countries of both con- tinents ; it nests sometimes in rocky clefts, and sometimes on trees or among rushes, and feeds chiefly on eels. The Shags belong to this genus. 23. The FRIGATE BIRDS, Tachypetcs, (Plate 6, fig. 4.) also differ from Pelicans in the absence of the sub-maxillary pouch, in their forked tail, and in their short feet, the membranes of which are deeply notched ; they have long wings that spread to a great extent, and a beak, both mandibles of which are curved at the end. 24. These birds only inhabit inter-tropical regions, and their flight is so powerful and rapid, that they fly to great distances from land, and for this reason they have obtained the name of Man-of- war birds. They are met with more than four hundred leagues at sea, and they wage an active war against the flying-fish, which, in order to escape from the pursuit of other fishes, springs entirely out of water. Frigate birds also pursue Boobies, and by striking them with their wings and beak, force them to dis- gorge the product of their fishing, which they dexterously seize before it falls into the water. 25. The BOOBIES, Sula, very much resemble the preceding, but their beak is straight, slightly arcuate at the point and armed on the edges, with teeth, the points of which are directed back- wards ; the throat, as well as the vicinity of the eyes, is naked, and but little extensible ; the wings are less than those of the Frigate bird, and the tail is a little wedge-shaped. They obtain their name of Boobies from the stupidity they display in submit- ting to the attacks of man and animals. 26. The DARTERS, P lotus, (Plate 6, fiy. 8) resemble the Cormorants in the form of their body, and in their feet, but are distinguished from them by the length of their neck, their small head, and by their straight, slender and pointed beak, which is dentate on the edges. They inhabit the warm countries of both hemispheres, and their habits are nearly the same as those of the preceding. 27. The Tropic Birds, Ph&ton, differ from the other Toti- palmatae in having the head entirely feathered, and by the two long, straight feathers of the tail, which at a distance resemble 23. What are the characters of Frigate Birds? 24. What are the habits of Frigate birds f Why are they called Man-of. war birds ? 25. What are the characters of Boobies? 26. What are Darters ? 27. What are the characters of Tropic birds? Why are they so called? LAMELLIROSTRES. 107 straws. They seldom resort to the land except to breed, and rarely quit the torrid zone. Their appearance is an indication to navigators of their vicinity to that region. FAMILY OF LAMELLIROSTRES. 28. The Palmipedes of this family have a thick beak, covered with a soft skin rather than true horn, and its edges are furnished with lamella or little teeth, (/'late 6, /fy. 6, 7, and 9. and Plate 8, Jig. 14.); the tongue is large and fleshy, and dentate on its edges; they have three toes in front, united by membranes, and one behind, which is free. Their wings are of moderate length, and they live more on fresh waters than at sea. They are divided in the following manner : LAMELLIROSTRES, bavin/ the beak 38. What are the characters of Palmipedes ? 108 SWANS.-GEP:SE. 29. All the Palmipedes of the TRIBE OF DUCKS, which naturalists distinguish under the name of ANAS, have a moderate, strong, straight beak, which is more or less depressed, convex aoove, flat below, rounded at the end, and terminated by a smootn scale in the form of a nail. The edges of each mandible are armed with little projecting lamellae, which are delicate and placed trans- versely, and seem designed to permit the escape of water after the animal has seized its prey. Their food consists of fishes, mollusca, insects, grains, &c. To obtain their nourishment, some submerge themselves entirely, while others remain on the surface, and only plunge in their head and long neck. They are seldom on land. 30. This tribe is composed of Swans, Geese, and Ducks properly so called. 31. The SWANS, Cygnus, (Plate 6, fig. 9.) are the largest birds of this group, and are distinguished by the form of the beak which is as wide in front as it is behind, and higher than it is wide at its base. They feed chiefly on grains, and the roots of aquatic plants. They swim with such facility, that a man walking rapidly along the shore would have difficulty in keeping up with them, and they fly with a great deal of lightness and strength. Whether on the, water or in the air, they are almost always seen in troops. Their young quit the nest, swim and eat alone immediately after they are hatched. Their down, which is very fine, serves for many purposes. Their plumage is generally white. 32. These birds have long been celebrated for the beauty of their form, and for the grace with which they swim. Their trachea is bent on the sternum, but their voice is not rendered therefore more agreeable, and the ancients have very gratuitously given celebrity to the song of the Swan. 33. In New Holland, there is a Black Swan, which is the size of the common species, but its carriage is less graceful and elegant. 34. GEESE, dtnser, have a moderate or short beak, narrower before than behind, and higher than wide at its base; their legs which are longer than those of Ducks properly so called, and placed nearer to the middle of the body, give them greater facility in walking*. They feed on aquatic plants and grains. 29. How are Palmipedes of the tribe of Ducks characterised f Upon what do they feed ? 30. What genera compose the tribe of Ducks? 39. What are the characters of Swans? 32 What is peculiar in the trachea of Swans ? 33 ire all Swans white ? 31 tfhat are tb iharacters of Geese ? What are their habit* 7 DUCKS. EIDERS. 109 They Kve almost constantly on great humid prairies and vast marshes. Wild geese live in numerous.troops and always have some of them on the watch : they are extremely suspicious. The males are not distinguishable from the females by the colour of their plumage ; they moult but once a year ; their voice is strong and clamorous. They breed on the ground, swim little, and do not dive at all. They fly in flocks, in two lines in the form of an angle, or in a single line, when the troop is numerous ; the one which is at the point of the angle, or at the head of the line, falls into the rear when fatigued, and they all succeed each other in turn. 35. DUCKS PROPERLY so CALLED, ./?0s, (Plate 6, fig. 6.) comprise species almost all of which resemble each other, but still differ in slight particulars. They differ from Swans and Geese, not only in their beak, but also in being much smaller and having a shorter neck ; their trachea is inflated at its bifurcation. 36. Ducks are spread through all the marshy or maritime countries of the globe. They are aquatic and migratory, and approach the sea coast in flocks during autumn and winter, but frequent fresh water ponds, lakes and rivers, particularly those with grassy and sedgy borders; they prefer shallow places in which they can fathom the bottom with the beak without the necessity of diving deeply, to which they only have recourse in the breeding season, or to avoid their enemies. The species are numerous, but they are most abundant in temperate regions. 37. Ducks are divided into Sea-ducks, Eiders, Common Ducks t Teals, &c. The Common Duck has been long domesticated, and inhabits all our poultry yards. 38. [The Canvass Backed Duck, Anm valisneria, so well known as a delicacy of the table, is a species peculiar to the con- tinent of America. It is of a steel gray ; beak straight, nearly two and a half inches long, its sides parallel. The Male is white waved with black ; the head tinged with black anteriorly, and the neck glossy chestnut : a black pectoral belt. Female, dull whitish, waved with black ; head, neck, and breast, brownish.] 39. The Eider, rfnas nioUissima. ( Somateria,) is a species of Duck celebrated for the down which it furnishes, known under the name of Eider down. The male is nearly two feet long, and 35. What are Ducks properly so called ? What is the peculiarity of the trachea in Ducks properly so called 7 36. What are the habits of Ducks ? 37. How are Ducks divided ? 38. How is the Canvass Backed Duck characterised ? 39. What are the characters of the Eidur ? How is Eider down obtained? 2F* 110 MERGANSERS. its alar extent is about two feet eight inches ; it is whitish, with the front, and sides of the crown, belly, and tail, black. The female, which is smaller, is gray, speckled brown. Clothed in a thick fur, the Eiders brave the rigours of the coldest countries, and advance as far as Spitzbergen. The down which they pluck from the breast and belly to line their nest, is sought for with a great deal of pains in those countries where these birds are common : it is the softest, the lightest, the warmest, and most elastic of all downs, that which is plucked from the dead bird is of inferior quality. 40. The genus of MERGANSERS, Mergiis, comprises those Palmipede Lamellirostres that have a moderate or long, straight, slender beak, in the form of an elongated and almost cylindrical cone, wide at the base, and the point of the upper mandible is very much curved and hooked. The edges of both mandibles are serrated, and the teeth are directed backwards, (Plate 6, fig. 7.); the nostrils are about the middle of the beak; the feet are short, and the toes are entirely palmate ; the posterior toe is free, and has a border. These birds swim perfectly, often having only their head above water, and they dive still better ; their flight is rapid and sustained, but from the posterior position of their feet, they are scarcely capable of walking, tottering from side to side with the utmost embarrassment. In other respects they resemble Ducks. They dwell habitually in cold countries, and are only seen commonly in temperate climates on the approach of winter. Of the five species known, one is peculiar to America, the Hooded Merganser, Mergus cucullatus, and all are found on this continent, We next proceed to study the REPTILES, which form the THIRD CLASS OP THE BRANCH OP VERTEBRATA. 40. What are the characters of the Mergansers ? MfD OP THE THIRD BOOK OF NATURAL BISTORT. Plate 1. ms--. CO 11* Anatomy of Birds. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 1. Fig. 1. Skeleton of a bird seen in profile ms, superior or t^rper man- dible mi, lower mandible n, the nasal fossce /, the tympanic bone or the orbit oc, cervical vertebrae vd, dorsal vertebrae 7, vertebrae of the tail r-c, the ribs ae, costal appendices s, sternum om, the scapula cZ, the clavicle A, the humerus re, the radius and cubitus or ulna p, the thumb rf, the median finger pd, rudiment of the thumb i, the iliac bones, which ibrm the pelvis/, the femur ft, tibia pe, the fibula fa, the tarsus di, the internal tpe dm, median toe de, external toe dp, posterior toe. Fig. 2 The sternum and bones of the shou'der , the sternum 6, the brisket or keel c, the clavicles co, the coracoid bone o, the scapula A, a part of the humerus. Fig. 3. The head of a wood-pecker to show the position of the tongue, (/,) and the horns of the hyoid bone (i), passing from below over the back part of the head. Plate 2. m ~br r -cl Anatomy of Birds. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 2. Fig. 1. The thorax and abdomen of an Ostrich, opened to show the great air cells which communicate directly with the lungs, and transmit the air to different parts of the body, t, the trachea or wind-pipe 6, the bronchia pp, the lungs, the greater part of which are concealed by the great air cells c, c, c, c, air cells at the bottom of which may be perceived the open, ings of the bronchiae e, other cells, which communicate with the preceding co, the hearl g t the gizzard t, the intestines. Fig. 2. The inferior larynx of a singing bird f, the trachea 6r, the bronchiae 2, the inferior larynx m, muscles of the vocal apparatus. Fig. 3. The tongue and trachea of a bird Z, the tongue i, the cornu of the os hyoYdes Ztf, the superior larynx (r, the trachea , the glottis. Fig. 4. The digestive apparatus of a pigeon a, the oasophagus j, the ingluvies or crop, o, the proventruulus or bulbus glandulosus (Seepage 21.) g,the gizzard t, the small intestine i^, the large intestine /, the liver- pa, the pancreas o, the ovary 00, the oviduct r, the kidneys cu, canal of the ureter cl t the cloaca. Plate 3. Fig. 1 to 8. Order of Rapaces. Fig. 9 to 12. Order of Passer ince. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 3. (Generic names.) Fig. 1. Eagle Falco. 2. Eared Owl Otug. 3. Griffin Gypaetos. 4. Percnopterus. .... Percnopterus. 5. Great Horned Owl. . . Strix. 6. Vulture Vultur. 7. Falcon Falco. 8. Kite Mihus. Fig 9. Ortolan Emberiza. 10. Kingfisher Alcedo. 11. Humming-bird. . . . Trochilus. 12. Calao. Buceros. Order of RapacM, or Birds of Prey Order of 2G Plate 4. Fig. 1 to 4. Order of Passerines. Fig. 5 to 10. Order of Scansoriae. Fig. 11 to 12. Order of Gallinacete. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 4. (Generic Names.) Fig. 1. Swallow Hirundo. "j Order 2. Goatsucker Caprimulgus. I 3- Crossbill Loxia. T Passerittffl> 4. Lark * . . A la u da. J Ftg. 5. Wryneck Yunx. 1 6. Cuckoo Cuculus. n^ . uruer 7. Maccaw Ara. I of 8. Cockatoo. Psittacus. o.n.rl- 9. Woodpecker Picu. Scansoria. 0. Toucan Ramphastos. J Fi. 11. Pheasant Phasianus. ) Order of 12. tlocco. Alector. \ Gailinacea Plate 5. ~-- JMTUS. 6. Duck. ...... Anas. 7. Merganser. .... Mergvs. 8. Darter. .... Plotus. 9. Swan. ...... Cygnua. Order V of Palmipede* Plate 7. 12 * Anatomy. Feet. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 7. Fig. 1. A foot formed for walking and perching, claws retractile; as in the genus Falco. Fig. 2. A foot formed for walking and perching, claws not retractile, as in the Gallinaceous tribe. Fig. 3. A climbing foot as in the Woodpeckers, Picus. Fig. 4. A walking foot, as in the genus Corvus. Fig. 5. Foot of the King.fisher, showing the situation and connection of the toes. Fig. 6. A spurred leg, as in the genus Phasianus. Fig. 7. A leg bare above the knee, as in all the Waders. Fig. 8. A semi-palmated foot, as in the genus Ardea. Fig. 9. A pinnated foot, with the edges of the toes scalloped, as in the genera Fulica, Phalaropus. Fig. 10. A lobated foot, the toes margined by membranous edgingf, aa in the genus Podiceps. Fig. 11. A three-toed webbed foot as in the genus Alca, Uria. Fig. 12. A palmated foot, as in the genera Anas, Recurvirostra. Fig. 13. A palmated foot, with four toes connected, as in the genn* Pelicanus. Fig. 14. The Goldfinch ; a, beak or bill, 6, the front, c, the cheek, <7, the hind-head, or occiput, c, the breast, /, the back, g t spurious wing, A, shoulder, and lesser wing coverts, t, secondary quill feathers, j, j, greater quill feathers, fc, tertials, Z, tail coverts-, m, tail, n, great wing coverts, o, auricles or auditory conch, p, the throat. Fig. 15. A spur. Fig. 16 A pectinated foot, as in the genus Tetrao. Plate 8. Anatomy. Beaks. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 8. Fig 1. A hooked bill as in the genus Falco. Cere, a bare soft ikin it the base of the bill, Fig 15. Fig. 2. A serrated or notched bill, as in the genus Ramphastos. Fig. 3. A cultrated bill, as in the genus Corvus. Reflected vibrissce. Fig. 16. Fig. 4. A cuneated or wedge-shaped bill, as in the genus Picus. A cylin- drical or extensile tongue, Fig. 17. Fig. 5. A curvaled bill. An erected crest. Fig 18. Fig. 6. Nostrils covered by, or contained in a tube, as in the genus Procellaria. Fig 7. A straight, compressed, cultrated bill. Lore, a bare skin surround- ing the eyes, Fig. 20. Projecting edge of the upper mandible, by means of which the birds, whose beaks are thus constructed, cut their food as with scissors, Fig. 24. Fig. 8. A hooked notched bill, as in the genus Lanius, (Shrike,) the notch, Fig. 21. Fig. 9. A recurved bill, as in the genus, Recurvirostra. Fig. 10. A grooved bill, as in the genus Alca. Fig. 11. A spoon-shaped bill, as in the genus Platalea. Nail at the t| of the bill, Fig. 22. Fig. 12. A compressed bill, as in Geese. Fig. 13. A depressed bill, as in Ducks. Fig. 14. A serrated or toothed bill, as in the genus Mergua. BOOK IV. VERTEBRATE ANIMALS. CLASS III. REPTILIA. HERPETOLOGY: THE NATURAL HISTORY OF REPTILES, GLASS IV. PISCES. ICHTHYOLOGY: THE NATURAL HISTORY OF FISHES, 2H Plate 1, 5. B Reptiles. HERPETOLOGY. LESSON I. GENERAL CHARACTERS. Form. Skeleton. Motion. Nerr.out System. Senses. Nutrition. Apparatus oj Digestion. Blood. Respiration. Lungs Temperature. Secretion. Eygs. Classification. CLASS OF REPTILES. 1. That part of Natural History which treats of Reptiles, is termed Herpetology, from the Greek, erpctun, a creeping thing, a reptile, and logos, a discourse. 2. The CLASS OP REPTILES comprises those oviparous verte- brate animals that have cold blood, an aerial respiration, and an incomplete circulation. They have lungs like mammals and birds; but their circulatory apparatus is always so arranged that a part of the venous blood mingles with the arterial, without having passed through the respiratory organ, and in general, this mixture takes place in the heart, which has a single ventricle, into which both auricles open. 3. In their general form, reptiles bear a closer resemblance to mammals than to birds ; but in this respect they vary very much. The head is almost always small, and the body much elongated, (Plate \,.fig. l } 6, nnd 7.); sometimes they are entirely without extremities, or only possess vestiges of them ; but most of these animals have four paws, formed for walking or swimming. Ordinarily, their extremities are too short to prevent the body from dragging on the ground, and, instead of being parallel to the axis of the body and moving in this direction, they generally stand out from the side and move from without inwards, perpen- dicularly to the axis of the body, an arrangement very unfavour- able to locomotion ; most reptiles seem to creep rather than walk, from which circumstance they derive their name. 1. What is Herpetology ? . 2. What, are the general characters of those animals that are comprised in the Class of Reptiles? 3. What class of anirn ils do Reptiles more closely resemble in their genera! form ? What is the position of their extremities? From wh;it circumstance do they derive their name? 22 SK EL ETON. MOVEMENT. 4. The skeleton in reptiles is composed of almost the same bones as those we have already seen in mammals and birds; but it often happens that some among them are entirely wanting : serpents, for example, have no extremities, nor have they any sternum; and frogs have r.Q ribs. 5. The head, in the arrangement of its bones, resembles that of birds more than that of mammals; the cranium is small ; the face is generally much elongated, and the lower jaw is suspended from a tympanic bone, which is placed between it and the cranium. In general, the head is articulated with the vertebral column oy a single tubercle (or condyK) which has many facettes, and possesses only very slight mobility. 6. The structure of the vertebral column differs extremely in the different reptiles : in serpents it is very long and very flexi- ble ; in frogs it is very short and slightly moveable ; and in tor- to : ses its middle part is united so as to form a single bony piece. 7. Generally, the ribs are very numerous ; in serpents, they exist through almost the entire length of the body ; the same is the case in certain reptiles resembling lizards, while in others, these bones are merely rudimentary, or entirely wanting. In tortoises, they are soldered, as it were, to each other ; and with the dorsal portion of the vertebral column, form the great shield or buckler which covers the backs of these animals, and which is called carapax. 8. Without being as much developed, the bones of the shoulder are very analogous to those of birds. The anterior extremily consists of an arm composed of a single bone, the humerus ; a fore-arm consisting of a radius and ulna, generally distinct from each other, and a hand which is sometimes in the form of a fin, and sometimes resembling a foot. 9. The movements of reptiles, are, in general, less active, and less sustained than those of animals with warm blood, as might be anticipated from the more limited character of their respira- tion; for there always exists an intimate relation between these two functions. Their muscles receive less blood, and are of a whitish tint ; and it is also remarked that these organs preserve their irritability for a longer time after they have been removed from the influence of the nervous system. In warm-blooded animals, the 4. What is the character of the skeleton in Reptiles? , 5. What is the general character of the head in Reptiles ? 6. Is the structure of the vertebral column the same in all Reptiles? 7. What is the character of the ribs in Reptiles ? 8. What is the characttr of the anterior extremity of Reptiles? 9 Why are the motions of Reptiles less active than those of mammals and birds ? What are the characters of the muscles of Reptiles ? NERVOUS >YSTEM. 23 destruction of the brain and spinal marrow, or the section of a nerve is at once followed by a complete paralysis, either general or local, and, very soon after this phenomenon occurs, it becomes impossible to excite muscular contraction, by pricking or other- wise stimulating the affected parts. In reptiles, on the contrary, the faculty of moving under the influence of stimulation, is pre- served under similar circumstances, for a very long time; for example, the tail of a lizard detached from the body, continues to move for several hours, and we may often see a tortoise that has been apparently dead for several days, move its limbs when the muscles are stimulated by pricking them. We may conclude that, in these animals, the division of the physiological labour and localization of the different functions of the nervous system, are not carried so far as in mammals and birds, and hence there is a less intimate dependence of the different parts of the economy upon each other. 10. The encephalon of reptiles is but little developed ; the sur- face of the brain is smooth and without convolutions. The two hemispheres are oval, more or less elongated, and internally hollowed by a single ventricle. The spinal marrow, compared with the brain, is very much developed, and it is also remarked that the nerves are larger, proportionally to the volume of the central parts of the nervous system, than in the superior animals. 11. Most reptiles have no special organ of touch, and the nature of their integuments prevents their tactile sensibility from being much developed. It is true, that in some of them the skin is entirely naked, and the epidermis is scarcely distinct ; but, for the most part, it is covered by a thick epidermic layer, composed of horny or bony plates which are more or less hard. In reptiles with a naked skin, and an epidermis of moderate consistence, it is frequently detached and renewed ; and, in those animals where it is most consistent, it becomes detached, at different seasons of the year, to give place to a new epidermis ; sometimes this kind of moulting is partial, or at least, the epidermis only falls off in flakes ; but at other times it is entirely detached, and preserves the form of the animal upon which it grew. Serpents shed their coats in this way several times in the course of the year. 12. The eyes are ordinarily small, but in their structure, are /ike those of mammals and birds ; but there is rarely found in them any prolongation or fold of the retina resembling the pecten. 10. What is the general character of the Encephalon ? What is remark able in the nerves of Reptiles '/ 1 1. Have Reptiles an organ of touch ? Is the epiaV rmis permanent Ln Reptiles ? 12. What is the general character of the eyes of Reptiles? Have the? any eye lids ? 2 H 94 ORGANS Of SENSE. The orbits are incomplete, and generally there is a third eye-lid which is semi-transparent, and moves transversely. 13. The structure of the ear is less complicated than in the superior animals. The external ear is almost always entirely wanting; there is no auditory canal, and the tympanum is on a level with the head and exposed, or concealed beneath the skin. The organ of smell is but little developed ; the nasal fossae are generally very small, and the pituitary membrane the lining membrane of the nose presents few, or no folds. 14. Most reptiles swallow their food without chewing it, and their sense of taste appears to be very dull. The tongue is some- times thick and fleshy ; but, in general, it is thin, dry, very pro- tractile, and often bifid ; it sometimes becomes an organ of pre- hension, the play of which is very remarkable. 15. Few reptiles live exclusively upon vegetable matter. Almost all of them are carnivorous, and, with some exceptions, they hunt living prey which they generally swallow whole: the selection of the animals upon which they feed, is, in a measure, regulated by the dimensions of their mouth. Most of them drink hut little, and they can fast for a very long time without incon- venience. 16. The mouth is deeply cleft, and generally armed with teeth, which are sometimes found in the palate as well as in the jaws; they are almost always of a conical form, and, in general, in place of being lodged in alveoli, they are soldered, as it were, by their base to the bone that sustains them. In some reptiles that are without teeth, the jaws are covered by a horny plate, the edges of which are trenchant, like the beak of a bird ; but they never have fleshy and moveable lips like mammals. 17. Glandular organs in considerable numbers ordinarily surround the mouth of reptiles, and pour into it either a gluey humor or saliva ; sometimes there are also glands, very closely resembling salivary glands, which secrete a violent poison. 18. As it is not necessary for their food to remain in the mouth for mastication, a veil of the palate would have been, in general, useless, and, in fact it rarely exists. In most of these animals, the pharynx is not distinct from the mouth, and often 13. Is the organ of hearing the same in Reptiles as it is in mammals? Is the sense of smell acute or otherwise? 14. Have Reptiles a strong sense of taste ? What is the character of the tongue ? 15. Upon what do Reptiles generally feed ? Do they drink much? 16. What is the form of the teeth of Reptiles? Where are they situate ? Do they exist in all Reptiles ? 17. What is the character of the glands found about the mouth ? 18. Have Reptiles any veil of tne palate ? What is the character of the oharynx ? What are the general characters of the digestive organs? CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 2i there is not a well defined line of demarcation between the oesophagus and stomach, which is simple and various in form, The intestines are short and without acoecal appendix , the large intestine differs little from the small, and terminates in a cloaca. The liver is generally voluminous, and there is a gall bladder, pancreas, and spleen. 19. The blood of these animals is red, and its globules are elliptical. Their volume is much greater than in mammals and birds, and the number of them is considerably less. The dispo- sition of the circulatory apparatus varies; but there is always a direct communication between the vascular system of red (arterial) blood, and the vascular system of black (venous) blood, so that these two liquids mingle with each other, and the organs receive only blood, imperfectly arterialised by the act of respiraton. The heart is almost always composed of two auricles, (ot/, og,) which empty into a single ventricle, (r.) ,- ac , Therefore, the arterial blood coming from the lungs and received in the left auricle, (o- aiterial blood coming from the lungs by the pulmonary veins, (vp) and also pours it into the ventricle; ag^ad, the two aortas*which arise from the single ventricle, and which, after being carried backwards, unite to form the vertical aorta, (); oc, brancli of the right aorta which furnishes the carotid, brarlii.il arteries, &c. ap, ap t the two pulmonary arteries, the common trutlk of which arises from the ventricle along side of the aortas. The arrows indicate the course of the blood. 19. What is the colour of the blood in Reptil s? How does their circu- lation differ from that of mammals ? What is the course of the circulation in Reptiles? 2 26 RESPIRATION. TEMPERATURE. of all the posterior half of the body only receive imperfectly arterialised blood. Until lately, it was believed that, in other animals of this class, (the Batrachians,) there was, on the con- trary, but a single ventricle, but it has been demonstrated to be otherwise. 20. Respiration is carried on with little activity in reptiles ; most of these animals consume but little oxygen, and can be deprived of it for a long time without becoming asphyxiate. Temperature exerts the greatest influence over this function, and in the warm season, the necessity of breathing is more vividly felt than in winter. A frog, for example, deprived of air in the summer, perishes in less than two hours; while in winter, it will continue to live for several days. In some reptiles, there are branchiae (gills,) during the early period of life; but the lungs are soon developed, and then the branchiae disappear, so that the same animal has at first an aquatic, and afterwards an aerial respira- tion : there are some even that preserve these organs throughout life, and which, having lungs at the same time, are completely amphibious; but most reptiles have lungs only. We must not conclude however, that their respiration is exclusively aerial ; for, in many of these animals, the skin is also a respiratory organ, and can act on the air dissolved in the water as well as upon the oxygen of the atmosphere. In some reptiles, this cutaneous res- piration is even so active as to be, under certain circumstances, sufficient for the maintenance of life. 21. The organization of the lungs is not favourable to great activity of respiration ; their air cells are very large, and conse- quently the vascular surface designed for contact with the air, is but of little extent. They are not lodged in a peculiar cavity, the thorax not being separated from the abdomen by a diaphragm, and the air is renewed in them with less facility and less regu- larity than in the superior animals. 22. Reptiles are all cold blooded animals, that is, they do not produce sufficient heat to maintain a temperature above that of the atmosphere. Their whole body is warmed or cooled at the same time with the surrounding medium, and the changes of temperature which they experience powerfully influences all their functions A temperature of about one hundred, to one hundred and twenty degrees of Farenheit's thermometer, is promptly fatal 20. What is the character of respiration in reptiles ? How is it influenced by different temperatures 'f Is it always carried on by the means of lungs, "21. How do the lungs differ in organization and situation from the same organs in mammals? 22. Why are reptiles called cold blooded animals ? What are the effect* of temperature on the vital phenomena of reptiles ? DIVISION OF THE CLASS OF REPTILES. 27 to most of these animals, and cold tends to abase all vital pheno- mena in them. In winter most of them cannot digest substances taken in the stomach, and they do not take food. Their respi- ration is also lowered in the most remarkable manner. A frog, for example, which, in summer, dies from asphyxia in less than two hours by the complete deprivation of atmospheric air, or even by strangulation, can, in. the cold season, resist asphyxia for several days, and live for many months without taking air into the lungs, but solely by the assistance of cutaneous respira- tion. Reduction of temperature often induces in reptiles, a lethargic state, analogous to that of hibernating animals. 23. Except the production of poison in certain serpents, the secretions of this class of animals are not particularly remarkable, 24. Having no means of suckling their young, reptiles are re- produced like birds, by the means of eggs. In some instances, the eggs are hatched before they are laid, and the animals in which this phenomenon takes place, are said to be ovoviuiparous. 25. This Class is composed of four great natural divisions, namely : 1st. The Tortoises ; 2d. the Lizards, and other reptiles resembling them in organization; 3d. the Serpents; and 4th. the Frogs and other reptiles of analogous structure. These four Orders are designated under the names of Chelonia, Sauria, Ophidia, and Batrachia. The principal characters which distin guish them may be seen in the following table : (Orders.) C Covered by a 1 | carapax. (Jaws without teeth, and > CHELONIA. furnished with a I horny envelope.) J Without cara- ") pax. (Jaws armed j with teeth, and [ SAURIA. without a horny envelope.) No metamorpho- sis. Respiration al- ways aerial. Bran- chiae never. Body covered by scales, rings, or a carapax. Having extremities i moveable eyelids. Without extremities ; without moveable eyelids ; teeth. More or less transformation in early life; respiration at first aquatic, and ettected by thu aid of branchice, then aerial and pulmonary. Skin naked, without carapax or scales ; no nails; almost always having extremities. OPHIDIA. BATRACHIA. 23. Are the secretions of Reptiles remarkable in any particular ? 24. By what means are Reptiles re-produced ? 25. Into how many orders is the class of Reptiles divided ? How ara these orders designated? 28 TORTOISES. LESSON II. ORDER OF CHELONIANS, or TORTOISES. Organization. Damon into four Families. Land Tortoises. Fresh water Tortoise*. River Tortoises. Sea Tortoises. Tortoise Shell: its use. ORDER OF CHELONIA. Fig. 3. GREEK TORTOISE. 1. Tortoises are recognised at first sight by the curious defen- sive armour with which nature has provided them. A double shield envelopes all parts of their body, except the head and neck, the four paws and tail, which in geneial, may be also concealed in this species of solid box. 2. When studying the mammalia, we mentioned some animals that have the body protected by a sort of shell. The Armadillo furnished an example ; but that armour, formed only of aggluti- nated hair, or by a particular modification of the epidermic layers of the skin, in.no wise resembles the double shield of the Tor- toises; for the latter is composed of bones, which are widened, and intimately united to each other ; the carapux, (2.) or upper shell is formed by the union of the ribs and dorsal vertebras ; the plastrvm, (3.) or lower shell, is the sternum. Consequently, these organs are a portion of the skeleton which, instead of being lodged in the substance of the soft parts, has become superficial, and is only covered by a thin, dry skin. 3. The bony frame of tortoises, to present this unusual dispo- sition, must be, of course, extremely modified : still, we find in 1. What is the most striking feature of Tortoises ? 2. What is the essential constitution of the upper, and of the lower eheil f Tortoises? 3. How does the skeleton of a Tortoise differ from that of a mammal ? STRUCTURE OF TORTOISES. 29 it, the same pieces which compose the skeleton of the higher vertebrate animals; except that many of these pieces are changed in form and size. 4. When we examine the carapax of a Tortoise, (Fig. 4,) we see that it is formed of a considerable number of bony plates, united to each other by sutures, and that eight of these plates occupy the middle line, on each side of which, sixteen form a longitudinal row, and twenty-five or twenty-six surround the whole, like an oval frame It is then difficult to recognise the nature of these bones ; but, if \ve examine the carapax on its inferior sur- face, \\e at once see (Plate l,./fy. 3.; that the middle pl?ces are simply dependencies of the dorsal vertebrae, (vd.) In fact, we find be- neath it, the body jf each one of these bones of its ordinary form, as well as the vertebral canal' for the lodgement of the spinal marrow ; but the superior portion of the parietes of the ring, which constitutes this canal, instead of having, as is usual, the form of a transverse bony band, separated by a space from its fellows, and being surmounted by a spinous process, is here widened like a disk, and without any interrup- tion is continuous with the analogous plates belonging to the vertebra which precedes, and that which follows it. Each of these dorsal vertebrae, in this way rendered immoveable, sustain a pair of ribs as in man, and other vertebrata ; but these ribs are widened so as to touch each other throughout, or nearly throughout their whole length, and join each other by sutures (c.) ; the marginal pieces, which articulate with the extremity of the ribs, and in a degree surround the carapax, evidently represent the sternal portion of these bones, which, in mammals, remain always in a cartilaginous state; but in birds, they are completely ossified. They also remain cartilaginous in some Tortoises, and many of them laterally support themselves by the edges of the sternal plastrum. 5. The sternum of Tortoises presents an extraordinary developement ; it extends Irom the base of the neck to the origin of the tail, and covers the whole inferior surface oj the body, (Fig. 5.) The pieces which enter into its compo* sition, are nine in number, and, instead of being placed in a row as in mammals, with a single exception, they are arranged in pairs, and soldered or articulated with each other, 4. What is the Carapax ? How is it formed ? 5. What is the Plastrum? HQW is jt constituted ? 2* 30 STRUCTURE OF TORTOISES Fig. 5. so as to form a great oval plate. Some- times this shield is entire, and solid through- out its whole extent, sometimes it is divided into three portions, the anterior and posterior of which are slightly moveable, and other times it is hollowed in the centre like a frame ; and, it is fixed on each side to the carapax either by a broad bony prolongation, or by cartilages, and it is through a sort of slit, or opening left betwixt these two shields or shells, in front and behind this articulation, that the head, extremities, and tail, are protruded. 6. The carapax and plastrum are only covered by the ordi- nary skin of this animal which is ordinarily scaly. No muscle is inserted into their surface, and consequently the muscles of the neck and extremities are attached to the interior of the trunk. The shoulder, instead of being sustained by the external parietes of the thorax, is lodged in the interior of this cavity ; and the pelvis, so to speak, is contained in the cavity of the abdomen ; and the marginal pieces of the carapax are advanced beyond the base of the neck and tail, so that these parts seem to project from the same cavities. 7. The cervical vertebrae, (we.) far from being immoveable as they are in the back, are so articulated with each other as to permit, in general, of extended movements, similar to those of the neck of a bird. Their number is ordinarily eight, and their articular surfaces are alternately convex and concave, instead of being plain as in mammals. In some tortoises the neck is not retractile ; in others, it can be completely folded beneath the carapax, either by bending downwards on itself, or to one side. 8. The head of Tortoises is small compared with the body, and the cranium is small compared with the head* Generally, it is flattened, and widened posteriorly by large temporal fossae, which are ordinarily concealed beneath a bony arch. The upper jaw is solidly fixed to thp cranium, and is entirely immoveable. The square, or tympanic "bone, which supports the lower jaw, is articulated in the same manner to the adjoining bones, and forms the larger part of the vicinity of the frame of the tympanum ; the lower jaw is composed of a great number of bony pieces : there are six on each side. 6. A e there any muscular attachments on the external surfaces of the car .pax .md plastrutn ? Is the shoulder on the inside or outside of the chest? 7. Do the cervical vertebrae move freely on each other or not ? What is their usual number? 8. Is the upper jaw of Tortoises moveable? How is the lower jaw articu- lated with the nkull / Does the lower jaw consist of a single Done or more ? STURCTURE OF TORTOISES. 31 Fig. 6. 9. The bones of (he shoulder (o.) articulate on one side with the vertebral column, and with the sternum on the other, so as to form a sort of ring betwixt the carapax and plastrum, through which pass the oesophagus and trachea.* We here observe three branches, which often unite solidly with each other at an early age, and.^which converge and form by their union, the articular cavity of the humerus. One of these bones, (o.) suspended to the vertebral column, is evidently the scapula ; the second, which is directed backwards, is ana- logous to the coracoid bone of birds, and the third, which descends to join the plastrum, is the representative of the clavicle, or at least, the acro- mion process of the scapula, with which this bone ordi- narily articulates. 10. The pelvis (/;.) resembles the ring formed by the bones of the shoulder. 1 1. The extremities are not very remarkable in the disposition of their bony frame. They are always short ; sometimes they are truncated at the end, and at others flattened and elongated into a paddle ; and in all, the fingers are only slightly moveable, and in general, they are not very distinct externally. 12. The skin that covers the body of these animals sometimes preserves its softness, and is not covered by scales ; but in almost all of them, it is furnished with a horny layer, of very great con- sistence. These scales form large plates on the carapax and plastrum, the arrangement and aspect of which vary according to the species ; those which cover the carapax of a species ot *Explanation of the Figure. Skeleton of a Tortoise. (The sternal plas- trum removed to show the interior of the thorax) : t, the head, we, cervical vertebrae, vd, dorsal vertehrse, c, the ribs, anchylosed with the dorsal ver- tebrae to form the carapax, cs, sternal portion of the ribs, or marginal pieces of the carapax, o, scapula, e/, clavicle, co, coracoid bone, 6, pelvis, /, femnr, ti, tibia, p, fibula. 7, caudal vertebrae. 9. What is the peculiarity ot the connexion of ttie bones of the shoulder with the vertebral column? 10. VVhat is the arrangement of the bones of the pelvis? 11. What is the general character of the extremities ? 12. What is Tortoise shell ? STRUCTURE OF TORTOISES. Sea Tortoise, are remarkably beautiful, and are employed in the arts under the name of Tortoise skelt. 13. The eyes of Tortoises are protected by three lids like those of birds. The tympanum is large, but ordinarily concealed be- neath the skin, and the nostrils are pierced through the extremity of the muzzle. 14. As we have already stated, these animals are unprovided with teeth, and their jaws are furnished with a horny envelope, with cutting edges, like those of birds. Some live on marine plants, and others on small animals as well as vegetables. They require little nourishment, and they have been known to pass months, and even years without eating. 15. The elevator muscles of the jaw are very powerful, and when a Tortoise has seized hold of any thing in the mouth, it is almost impossible to get it away. The tongue is more compli- cated in its structure than that of most Reptiles : it is thick, and studded with tiliform papillae. The stomach does not seem to differ from the neighbouring parts of the digestive tube, except that it is rather larger ; the intestine is of moderate length, and has no caecum; the liver is voluminous. 16. The lungs are very large, and lodged in the same cavity with the other viscera,* (Fig. 7.) The mechanism by which the air enters them is entirely different from that of other animals in which the thorax is dilatable. The parietes of this cavity being immove- able in most Tortoises, the air is forced into these organs by the action of the - mouth. The jaws being closed, the animal "-co. ' owers tne hyoid bone, which enlarges the cavity of the mouth, and the air having entered through the nostrils, the posterior nares are closed, and then raising the hyoid bone, as if to swallow, the air thus in- closed, is forced to descend through the trachea. Therefore, the animal breathes by a sort of deglutition. Fig. 7. * Explanation of the Figure. Viscera of a Tortoise m, the jaws, A N the hyoid bone, o, the ossophagus, f, the trachea, /), p, the lungs, c, the heart and principal vessels,/, the liver, t, the intestines, c/, the cloaca, or, the ovaries, ea, ca, the carapax. 13. Have Tortoises any eye-lids ? What is the character of the ear ? Where are the nostrils situate ? 14. Upon what do Tortoises feed? 15. What is peculiar in the tongue of Tortoises? What is the character of the stomach and intestines ? 16. How do Toitoises breathe ? LAND TORTOISES. 31 17. Tortoises lay eggs with a hard shell, which they deposit in the sand or earth, in some situation exposed to the sun, to cause them to be hatched. The males are generally smaller than the females, and are ordinarily recognised by the plastrum which is slightly concave. The duration of life in these animals is very- great : authentic instances are known of land Tortoises that have lived a hundred and twenty years, even two hundred years, and some cases of a still greater age are related. 18. The habits of these animals vary, and these differences, which coincide with the modifications of their structure, has caused them to be divided into four principal families. Their chief characters may be seen in the following table: (Families.) f larg<>, truncate at the end, and formed for "| walking only, and having the toes united in a f LAND TORTOISES. common muss as far as the nails. incomplete. Cara- flattened, and prnvi- | pix furnish(d with V POND TORTOISES. > ded with distinct toes, scales. simply united by a pal- flattened, in the form of large swimming 1 "^ paddles, and not having Hie toes externally } SEA TORTOISES. distinct. J 19. The LAND TORTOISES, Tesfiido, (Plate 1, fig. I, have feet formed for walking only; their legs are, as it were ; truncate, and their toes are short, and united" to the nails; their number is five in front, and four behind. The carapax is very much vaulted, and they can draw the head, tail, and extremities, completely within their shell. They live in the woods, or in places well furnished with herbage : they never go into the water, but often inhabit its neighborhood. Most of them feed chiefly on vegetables, and terrestrial mollusks. They make a kind of bur- row, and in temperate climates pass the winter in a state of hibernation. Their eggs are generally spherical and furnished with a hard shell ; the female deposites her eggs in a hole, and seems to take no care of her young. The most common Euro- pean species is the Greek Tortoise, Teshido grceca, which is 17 By what agency are the rggs of Tortoises hatched ? How does the male differ from the female? What is the duration of life in Tortoises ? 18. How is the order of Tortoises divided? 19. How is ilie family of Land Tortoises characterised? What are Ihu habits of Land ToitoUes ? Where is the Greek Tortoise found ? 34 FRESH WATER TORTOISES. yellow, spotted with black, and about six inches long; it inhabits Greece, Italy, France, and the large Islands of the Mediterranean. In Itajy, and Sicily, this species is eaten. 20 THE FAMILY OF POND TORTOISES, (or Fresh Water Tor- toises, Kini/s.) much more numerous than the preceding, forms a sort of connecting link between the Land Tortoises, and those that are essentially aquatic ; it is composed of Chelonians that commonly live in marshes, and can swim, but yet differ very little from the preceding in their organization. They are chiefly distinguished by the conformation of their paws. The toes, five in number, are distinct, moveable, furnished with hooked nails, and united at their base by a palmate membrane of greater or less extent; but these characters are not always clearly marked. 21. As in the Land Tortoises, the carapax is, in general, entirely solid and oval in form ; but instead of being elevated, it is more or less depressed. The neck is almost always longer than in the preceding, and presents remarkable variations in its conformation. In some, it is cylindrical, and surrounded by a loose skin which permits it to be entirely drawn within, and at the middle part of the carapax, while in others, it is a little flattened, and covered by a close cutaneous sheath, which adheres to the muscles, so that it can only be folded laterally on the body. Almost all of them can conceal their paws between their shells, and like the preceding, they have b:jt four nails on the hind feet. Their motions are not as slow as those of the Land Tortoises, and they swim with considerable facility. Their chief food con- sists of fluviatile mollusks, batrachians, and annelides: they are found on the margins of lakes, marshes, and rivulets, in which the current is not rapid. 22. The genus of Cistudes belongs to the division of fresh water Tortoises, with a retractile neck : it is distinguished by the sternum which is furnished with twelve plates, and divided into two nearly equal parts, both moveable, and by the short tail. The European Cistude, or Mud Tortoise, Testudo eyropceo, has a depressed carapax, tolerably smooth, blackish with yellow points, and about six inches long. It inhabits stagnant waters, at the bottom of which it loves to keep buried in the mud. On the approach of the cold season, it retires into holes, to hibernate. It is found in the south of France ; but it is particularly common 20. What are Pond Tortoises? How are they distinguished from Land Tortoises ? 91. What are the characters of the Pond Tortoises? Where are they found ? 22. What are the characters of the European Cistude ? SOFT-SHELLED TORTOISES. 35 in Greece and Italy. Its flesh is used as food, and it is reared lor that purpose, with bread, young vegetables, &c. 23. Some fresh water Tortoises have the sternal plastrum divided into two flaps, which they can at will, by a moveable articulation, close against the carapax, when their head and ex- tremities are drawn in, so as to inclose themselves in a box ; this peculiarity has obtained for them the name of Box-tortoises. 24. There are some fresh water Tortoises, on the contrary, that cannot enclose themselves within the shell. Amongst these is the Snapper, Testudo serpentinn, which is readily distin- guished by its long tail, which is studded with sharp crests. It is found in the warm parts of the United States. 25. The FAMILY OF RIVER TORTOISES, ( or Soft-Shelled Tor- toises,) Trioityx, differ from all the preceding in the conforma- tion of their paws, which are designed for swimming, but are entirely unsuited for walking. The paws are very much depressed, and the toes, although very distinct, and more or less moveable, are joined as far as the nails by broad flexible membranes. The carapax is very much spread out, and almost flat, unprovided with scales, covered only by a skin which is soft, and entirely cartila- ginous throughout its border, which structure has obtained for them the name of Soft-shelled Tortoises ; the neck is generally elongated and protractile ; the nostrils are prolonged into a sort of little trunk ; the jaws are trenchant, and furnished with a fold of skin, which resembles lips; the limbs are short, and supplied with only three toes. To these external characters are added other anatomical peculiarities ; for example, the carapax has no marginal pieces, and the sternal plastrurn is not ossified in the middle. 26. These animals are essentially aquatic, and inhabit the rivers and lakes of the warmest regions of the globe: they swim with great ease, and remain on land only at night ; they are very voracious, and feed chiefly on reptiles and fishes. 27. The Nile supports one species of these Tortoises, which is useful to Egypt by devouring a great number of young croco- diles the moment they are hatched ; it is the Tyrse, Trionyx teyyptiacus, of Zoologists. Another species, which inhabits the rivers of South America, is remarkable for its ferocity, and for the delicacy of its flesh. 23. What are Box -Tortoises ? 24. What is (he Snapper? 25. What are the characters of the Soft-Shelled Tortoises ? 26. What are their habits? 27. What is the Tyrse? 36 SEA TORTOISES. Fig. 8. fc8. The FAMILY OF SEA TORTOISES, (Turtle) Chehmia.-~ The Tortoises that live in the sea, differ from all others, both in their conformation and habits. Their flattened paws, which are really paddles, are only suited for swimming, and their toes, which are closely pressed together, and enveloped in the same membrane, are entirely immoveable. Only the two first toes of each foot have nails, and these fall off at a certain time ; and the anterior extremities, in place of being of nearly the same length as the posterior, are more than twice as long. The carapax is arched and cordiform ; and near the edge of this shell, the ribs are not widened and soldered together, and, as in the preceding family, the frame open in the centre. The sternum is in the form of a nostrils are not prolonged into a trunk, but are surmounted by a fleshy mass, which acts like a valve, in closing these openings when the animal puts its head under water. The edges of the beak are very trenchant, and the upper mandible is hooked. 29. These tortoises feed principally on marine plants, and only leave the water in the laying season : they swim with great facility, and they are sometimes met several hundred leagues from land, floating on the surface of the sea : they appear to be able to sleep in this way, and they also dive very well. At the laying season, they leave their habitual haunts and resort to the shores of some desert island, to deposit their eggs in holes which they dig upon the beach. During the night the females leave the water for the purpose of laying; they drag themselves on the beach beyond the line of high tide, and with their anterior extremities excavate a hole about two feet deep in which they deposit their eggs in regular ranges, and cover them with sand, which they level off so carefully as to leave scarcely a trace of their labour. The operation over, they return immediately to the sea. The number of eggs is very considerable; sometimes as many as two hundred, and the laying is repeated two or three times a year. After exposure to the sun for fifteen or twenty days, they burst, and the young, which are not yet provided with shell, imme- diately make for the sea. Generally, they find difficulty at first 28. What are the characters of Sea Tortoises 2U What are their habits MARINE TORTOISES. 37 in plunging into it, and, before reaching it, they often become the prey of carnivorous birds, which seem to await the moment ol their birth to feast upon them. They have also to dread vora- cious fishes and crocodiles, which assemble in the same places for the same purposes ; the most part of those which escape their numerous enemies, acquire very considerable dimensions: they have been known to measure fifteen feet in circumference, and to weigh from five to six hundred pounds. 30. Marine tortoises are found in all warm seas; they abound about the West Indies, and particularly about a small archipelago near the main, known under the name of Tortugaa. 31. Among these Tortoises, we distinguish the CHELONIA, in which the carapax is covered with horny plates or scales, and the SPHARGIS, which have only a coriaceous skin. The most common species of the first of these genera, are the Green Tortoise, (Turtle); the Caret, or Hawks-bill Turtle; and the Caouane. Only one species of Sphargis is known, the Lulh. 32. The Green Tortoise, Testudo viridis, is recognised by the plates, thirteen in number, and not arranged like tiles, that cover the disk of the carapax, which is fawn colour, with a number of brown spots, glazed green. It is found in the Atlantic ocean, and feeds chiefly on a plant known to botanists under the name of zostera marina : it lays twice a year, about the months of May and June, and the total number of its eggs is about two hundred and fifty. Its length is sometimes from six to seven feet, and its weight from seven to eight hundred pounds. This species differs very little from other marine Tortoises, frequenting the same places, and is found on the coasts of Africa, and in the Asiatic seas. The flesh of all these Chelonians is very much esteemed. In England particularly it is very much sought as a luxurious disji, and to supply the London market, vessels are despatched to the Indian seas, and on certain coasts parks have been established for the preservation of Sea Tortoises. The fat of these animals, although of a greenish hue, which may be at first unpleasant, has a very delicate taste, and their eggs are equally esteemed. 33. The Caoiiaue, Testudo carefta,as in the Green Tortoise, the carapax is covered by plates simply placed together, but the number of these scales on the disk is fifteen instead of thirteen. 30. WVere are marine Tortoises found ? 31. How arc S a TorloiM-s classified ? 32. What are the characters of Green Tortoises ? Upon what do ther feed ? 33. What is the Caouane? 3 38 MARINE TORTOISES. The head is also larger, and its colour is brown or deep chestnut It inhabits the Mediterranean, as well as the Atlantic ocean ; it does not attain the same size as the preceding. Its length is about (our feet, and its weight from three to four hundred pounds. It is very voracious ; its food consists chiefly of mollusks, and its flesh is not good. Its fat is burned for light. Fig. 9. 34. The Hawks-bill Turtle (the Caret) Tesmdo imbricata, (Fig. 9.) is the most interesting species of this genus ; because it furnishes the tortoise shell. It is readily dis- tinguished by the arrangement of the horny plates of its carapax, which, in place of being simply joined together, are extended back- wards, one over the other like the tiles or shingles of a roof; we count fifteen on the disk; the colour is yel- lowish marble with a deep brown. The jaws are strong, elongated and curved towards the extremity, but without teeth on the edges ; the ex- tremities or fins, like those of the caouane, are provided with two nails, while in the Green Tortoise there is but one. Its size scarcely exceeds one third of that of the last named Chelonian ; it feeds chiefly on marine plants, but also eats Crustacea, mollusca, and small fishes. It is met in the Indian ocean as well as in the American seas, and, in the laying season, resorts to the same localities as the preceding species. At the Tortugas, for example, it arrives in June, and lays a second time in August. The total number of its eggs is about two hundred : they are said to be good food ; but the flesh of this Tortoise is bad, and it is only on account of its shell that it is sought. 35. The scale or shell which covers the carapax of the Hawks- bill is a substance which is extremely analogous to horn, but which is neither fibrous nor lamellar like it ; it is as transparent ; its hardness is greater, arid it is capable of receiving and preser- ving the most beautiful polish ; and it is very much esteemed in the manufacture of toys, &c. Each one of these Tortoises fur- nishes, on an average, from three to four pounds of these large scales, and to detach them, it is only necessary to expose the carapax before burning coals. It is brought to market without 34. Wh;it is the Hawks-bill Turtle? For what is it most valued? 35. What is Tortoise shell ? How is it obtained ' SAURIANS. 39 any other preparation, and is known as rough tortoise shall, which is afterwards manufactured in the same manner as horn. Bv softening it by the action of hot water, and afterwards pressing, it can be spread out, soldered or moulded into any required shape. What is termed rw/j, or cast shell, is obtained by agglutinating, by a similar process, the scrapings and powder, detached from the ordinary shell, in fashioning, or giving it the desired dimensions. 36. The marine Tortoises, designated under the name ot' SPHARGIS, have no covering composed of horny plates, but one of a coriaceous skin, similar to leather. Only one species is known, the Luth, which is found in the Mediterranean, and the Atlantic ; it attains seven or eight feet in length. LESSON III. ORDER OF SAURIA. Organization. Classification. FAMILY OF CROCODILIDA. Circulation. Habits. Crocodiles properly so called. Alligators. FAMILY OP LACERTINIOA. Characters. Monitors. Lizards. FAMILY OP IGUANIDA. Characters. Dragons. Iguanas. Uasilisks. FAMILY OF GECKOTIDA. Characters. Habits. FAMILY OP CHAMJELEONIDA. Characters Common Chameleon. FAMILY OF SCINCOIDEA Characters Scinques Fossil Saurians. ORDER OP OPHIDIA, or Serpents. Characters. FAMILY OF ANGUINA Characters. FAMILY OF SERPENTIA, ^or True Serpents. Coluber. Boa. Venomous Serpents. Rattle Snake. Trigonocephalus. Vipers. Naia, or Asps. Effects and treatment of the bites of Vipers, fyc. FAMILY OF NUDA. Characters. ORDER OF SAURIANS. 1. The order of Sauria comprises all reptiles that resemble lizards in their general conformation. Animals of this order always have an elongated body, terminated by a tail of greater or less length, and provided with extremities, which, with some exceptions, are four in number. 36. Flow are the Tortoises of the gmus Sphnrois characterised? 1. What is the general character of animali included in the order of BaorUI 40 ORGANIZATION OF SAURIANS. 2. Their extremities are short, and placed unfavourably for rapid movement. In general, they are wide apart, and directed outwards at a right angle with the body, so that they cannot sustain the weight of the trunk : most of these reptiles drag the belly and tail on the ground. The toes, which are very distinct, and ordinarily five in number, terminate in sharp, curved nails ; sometimes they are very long and slender, at others, widened, and furnished beneath with folds variously arranged, and at other times again, united by palmate membranes, which modifications are in conformity with the animal's mode of life. 3. The skeleton has no important remarkable peculiarity. The number of vertebrae is very variable, particularly in the caudal region : there always exist moveable ribs which often protect the abdomen as well as the thorax. The sternum is never wanting. The shoulder is ordinarily formed of three bones, (a scapula, a clavicle, and a coracoid bone,) united in a kind of ring, so as to envelope the anterior part of the chest, and all concur in the formation of the cavity designed to lodge the head of the humerus. The pelvis is also composed of three pieces, and is joined to the sacrum, which consists of two vertebrae. 4. The skin of these animals is always covered by a thick and unequal epidermic layer, which forms scales or plates of greater or less size. 5. The mouth, which is deeply cleft, is without fleshy lips ; it is armed with teeth, generally of a conical form, that serve to seize and hold their prey, but rarely to grind their food. They are often found in the palate, as well as in the two jaws. The food of Saurians consists essentially of animal substances ; the digestive canal is ordinarily quite short ; in general, the stomach is scarcely distinguishable from the oesophagus ; but sometimes it has the form of a more or less globular pouch. 6. The disposition of the circulatory system, varies in these animals ; in general, the heart is but imperfectly divided in its ventricular portion, so that the venous blood and arterial blood mingle in its interior; but in crocodiles, the separation between the two halves of this organ is complete, and the mixture of the two kinds of blood takes place only in the descending aorta. 7. The lungs, in general, are large, and extend more or less into the abdomen. The air is renewed in them by the same 2. What is the character of their extremities? 3. What is nmarkablc in the skeleton of Sauria? 4. What is the character of the skin of Sunria ? 5. What is the character and situation of thr teeth in Siuria ? 6. Is the circulation of the blood the same in all Sauria? What are ita general characters ? 7. How do the Saurian'*, breathe ? DIVISION OF SAURIANS. 41 mechanism as in mammals and birds, that is, by the alternate dilatation and contraction of the cavity of the thorax, effected by the action of the ribs. 8. The order of Saurians may be divided into six families, namely : Crocodilians^ Lacertiuns, Chumcleonians^ lguanians % d'rckotians, and Scincoidians, which may be distinguished by the following characters: SAURIANS, f . jrjl en l\ ro _ ir r* Certain fossil reptiles, which cannot be classed in any one of the above families, are also referred to this order : some of them were formed for swimming exclusively, and others for flight. 8. What is the division of the order of Sauria / 3* CROCODILES. FAMILY OF CROCODILIANS. 9. Crocodiles differ in so many respects from other Saurians that many authors think they ought to constitute a separate 10 order. Their internal organization seems to place them as a con- necting link between reptiles and the higher vertebrata. They are very easily recognised by their laterally com- CROCODILE OF THE NILE. pressed tail, and by their toes, five before, and four behind, all of them more or less united by membranes, which is indicative of aquatic habits. 10. The most remarkable peculiarity in the structure of these animals, is the disposition of their circulatory system : it is such that the whole posterior part of the body receives only a mixture of arterial and venous blood, while the head is supplied with pure arterial blood. The heart has four cavities, two auricles, and two distinct ventricles, as in mammals and birds. The arterial blood, coming from the lungs, passes from the left auricle into the ventricle of the same side, which in its turn, sends the blood into the aorta, (Fig. 1 1.) The ap venous blood, received into the right ven- tricle, finds no direct passage into the left ventricle, as is the case in other rep- tiles ; but it does not all go to the lungs, as it does in the warm-blooded verte- brata ; for, alongside of the pulmonary arteries, (ap.} is found another vessel, (a.) which also arises from the right ven- tricle, and which, after bending back- wards behind the heart, terminates in the Explanation of Fig. 11. Heart and great vessels of a crocodile: o, , veins which bring the blood from different parts of the body to the right auricle of the heart, (orf,) vt, the two ventricles which are separated inter- nally by a paitition, ap, the two pulmonary arteries which go from the right ventricle to the lungs, a, the vessel which arises from the same ven- tricle, and empties into the descending aorta, vp, pulmonary veins which convey the arterial blood from the lungs to the left auricle, (og,} from which it descends into the left ventricle, and directly enters the aorta, (ao,) and tho two arteries, (c, c,) which are distributed to the head, &c. 9. What are the general characters of the crocodiles ? 10. What are the peculiarities in the circulation in crocodiles ? CROCODILES. 43 descending aorta, (oo.) It follows, therefore, that at every con- traction of the heart, one portion of venous blood is sent to the lungs, and another portion is mingled with the arterial blood ; but this mixture takes place in the interior of the aorta, below the point of origin of those branches, (c,c.) which this vessel sends to the head and anterior part of the trunk, so that these parts receive pure arterial blood, while all those, the arteries of which arise posteriorly to the point of junction between the aorta and the vessel coming from the right ventricle, receive only a mixture of red and black blood. 11. The lungs of Crocodiles do not extend into the abdomen, like those of other reptiles, and are separated from its viscera by a sort of imperfect diaphragm. It is also to be remarked, that the canal through which the air penetrates to these organs, can *be completely separated from the mouth by letting down a fold, analogous to the veil of the palate in mammals, an arrangement, which permits them to remain under water, with the mouth open, to await their prey, without interrupting their respiration. And their nostrils, which open at the extremity of the muzzle, are closed by valves. 12 Their mouth is cleft beyond the ears, and the lo"wer jaw MS prolonged backwards beyond the cranium, which makes the upper one seem to be moveable ; bjut it only moves with the cranium. There is, in each jaw, a single row of very strong, pointed teeth, planted in distinct alveoli. The tongue is fleshy, flat, and attached to the lower jaw, very close to its edges, and hardly distinct from it, which led the ancients to believe that it was entirely wanting. The stomach is in the form of a rounded pouch. 13. The skeleton also, has several peculiarities. The cervical vertebraa rest one on the other through the medium of small false ribs, which renders lateral motion difficult. Besides the ordinary ribs, there is found, between the muscles of the abdo- men, analogous bones, which protect the viscera without extend- ing to the dorsal spine ; these reptiles are the only Saurians that want clavicles, properly so called 14. Crocodiles are large animals; their back is covered by large, square, very strong scales which are carenate (ridged,) in the middle. The tail has a similar covering, and is furnished on Top with a strongly notched crest which is double at its base ; the 1 1. What are the peculiarities of the respiratory organ* in Crocodiles? 12. Do' Crocodiles move the upper jaw ? What is remarkable in the lo^er jnw ? What is the character of their teeth ? Have Crocodiles a tongue J What are i's peculiarities? 13. What are the peculiarities of the skeleton ? 14. What is the chaiacter of the integuments of Crocodiles ? 2K 44 CROCODILES. plates on the belly are thin, smooth, and square, and arranged m transverse bands. 15. These large and powerful animals inhabit the hottest parts of both continents, and ordinarily keep in fresh water rivers and lakes. Their gait is usually slow ; though they can swim with ex- treme rapidity, and run very swiftly in a straight line, but, owing to the disposition of the vertebrae of the neck, it is difficult for them to change their direction : hence, it is easy to avoid them by turn- ing or running around them. They are very carnivorous, and formidable even for man. They cannot swallow in the water; but they generally drag their prey there to drown, and, it is said, they deposit it in some hole to putrify before eating it. J6. These animals, notwithstanding, they are so formidable, and so well furnished with protective armour, have foes to dread, and these enemies are feeble insects, a sort of ant, which intro % duce themselves into their mouth, in immense numbers, the moment they go on shore, and torment them with their stings ; but, what is very singular, little birds often come to deliver them from this scourge, and enter their great mouth without fear, in pursuit of the insects. This fact, observed by Herodotus, and afterwards treated as a fable, has been confirmed in modern times, by Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, who accompanied the Emperor Napo- leon in Egypt. A species of Plover performs this interesting service for the crocodile of the Nile, and in the West Indies, the Tody has a similar habit. 17. The family of crocodilida is composed of three genera, namely : Crocodiles properly so called, Caimans, or *fl.lliyators t and (jr (trials'. simply no'ched on ~] each side to receive [ CROCODILES the fourth t>oth of f Properly so called. B f - N I 1 3 I wide, and the whole hend oblong ; the upper jaw the lowet jaw. with a hole on each side to receive the CATMANS. fourth tooth of the j , lower jaw. J 6' I J| ^ slender, and very much elongated, ^ GAVIALS. 18. CROCODILES PROPERLY so CALLED, Crocodilus, have an oblong and depressed muzzle, unequal teeth, and the upper jaw 15. What regions do Crocodiles inhabit? 16. What are the great enemies of Crocodiles ? 17. What genera compose the family of Crocodilians ? 18. What are the general characters of Crocodiles properly so called ? Where are they found ? What are their habits? ALLIGATORS. 45 notched on each side to receive the fourth lower tooth, when the mouth is shut. The most celebrated and longest known species, is the Crocodile of the N le^ an animal that is sometimes twenty- five, and even thirty feet in length : it is bronze green, spotted and marbled with brown above, yellowish green below, and is distinguished by the square plates nearly equal in size, which form six rows along the back. We find from Senegal to the Ganges, and even beyond it, Crocodiles very similar to that of the Nile, which seem to be only varieties of this species. Formerly this reptile descended the IVile to its delta, and according to Pu.iy, passed the four winter months there, in caverns ; but in our time, it never quits Upper Egypt, where it does not hibernate. The Ancient Egyptians, particularly the inhabitants of Thebes, and the environs of the lake Moeris, rendered great honours to these reptiles; they even made them objects of religious worship, and embalmed their dead bodies. At Arsinoe, the priests raised one of these reptiles, which they kept in a temple, and adorned with jewels, and fed with great care. 19. Crocodiles properly so called, also exist in America: the Caiman of Saint Domingo, and other parts of the West Indies, belongs to this genus, and has received the name of Crocodilns acutus, or sharp nosed Crocodile, from the form of its head : it has four rows of plates on its back, and its length sometimes exceeds sixteen feet. It is a fierce and dangerous animal. At birth, the young are from nine to ten inches Jong, and growth continues for twenty years. 20. The CAIMANS, or ALLIGATORS, are readily distinguished from Crocodiles properly so called, by the disposition of the fourth tooth of the lower jaw, which, when the mouth is closed, is lodged in a hole, and not in a notch of the upper jaw. Their hind feet, in place of being notched on the external edge, and palmate to the end of the toes, are unprovided with notches, and are only semi- palmate. Many species are known, but all seem to belong to America. One of them, the Pike-nosed Alligator, Crocodilns Indus, inhabits the southern parts of North America, and, during the season of ice, buries itself in the mud, and remains benumbed until the return of a milder temperature. In Guiana and Brazil, there is another, the Spectacle Alligator, Crocodihis sc/erops, so called from the ridge which unites the projecting edges of the orbits in front. Like other Crocodiles, the last lays its eggs in the sand ; but covers them with straw or leaves, arid instead of abandoning them, defends them courageously ; it is from twelve to fifteen feet in length, and rarely attacks man. 19. Are there any CmcoHili-s in America? 20. How are Alligators distinguished from Crocodiles? 46 MONITORS.-LIZARDS. 21. The GA VIALS differ from the two preceding genera in their very long slender muzzle, as well as in their teeth, which are nearly equal. They are only met with on the eastern con- tinent. The most common is the facial of the Ganges, Lacerta ganyetica, which is said to attain thirty feet in length, but is not dangerous either to man or large animals ; it feeds exclusively on fishes. FAMILY OF LACERTIANS. 22. The Lacertians have five distinct toes on all their feet, armed with nails; the tongue is thin, extensile and terminated by two threads : their scales are arranged in transverse and parallel bands around the tail, and under the belly, some have teeth in the jaws only, and others have them also in the palate. The first form the tribe of Monitors, and the second that of Lizards. 23 The MONITORS generally have a laterally compressed tail, like that of the Crocodile. Monitors properly so called are recognised by the small scales that cover the head, limbs and whole body. Two species are found in Egypt : one, the Monitor of the A?/r, Lacerta mlvtica, is five or six feet long, and is seen sculptured on the monuments of the ancient Egyptians; the other, called the Land Monitor of Eyypt> on account of its terrestrial habits, is common in the deserts, in the vicinity of that country. 24. Other Monitors, called Sauvegardes, have the top of the head furnished with angular plates ; and the belly and tail are covered with large rectangular scales. 25. The TRIBE OF LIZARDS, is composed of Lizards properly so called, and some similar genera, in which the palate is armed with two rows of teeth, and the tail is cylindrical. Most of them are also distinguished by a sort of collar, placed under the neck and formed of a transverse range of large scales, separated from those of the chest, by a space covered only by granulations. In general, they have also, under each thigh, a longitudinal series of projecting pores, and the whole top of the head is armed with a bony shield, which is covered by large horny plates. 26. LIZARDS PROPERLY so CALLED, Lacertu, have the top of the body covered by small scales similar to granulations, while beneath the belly they have large transverse plates. These 21. How do Gavials differ from other Crocodiles ? 22. What are the general characters of the Lacertians? 23. flow are Monitors recognised ? 24. What are Sauvegardes? 25. What are the general characters of the tribe of Lizards ? 26. How are Lizards properly so called characterised ? What are their habits? Upon what do they feed? Are they poisonous? IGUAN1ANS. 47 animals are agile, light, and elegant in form ; they feed princi- pally on insects, and prefer living prey. In summer they eat a great deal ; but they can easily support a fast of several weeks in summer, and four or five months in winter; when held in cap- tivity, they generally refuse to take food; yet they bite at every thing presented to them, and close their jaws with considerable force. In our climate they pass the winter benumbed in holes, and their movements are active in proportion as the temperature is more elevated ; they Jove to warm themselves in the sun even in midsummer, and they are often seen stretched on a stone bask- ing in the sunshine. Many fables have been attached to these animals ; some have pretended, without any reason, that they are venomous ; others, without foundation, assert that they show a true attachment for man, and give him warning when a serpent is about to bite. A great many species are known. FAMILY OF IGUANIANS. 27. The Saurians composing this family have very nearly the same general form as the Lacertians: they also have a long tail, free and unequal toes, &c.; but their tongue is fleshy, thick, not extensile, and only notched at the end. 28. The mouth presents the same modifications as the pre- ceding family : sometimes they have teeth in the palate as well as in both jaws ; sometimes there are only two ranges of teeth in the upper jaw. 29. Among the first are ranged the STELLIOS; they have the tail surrounded by large scales, which are often spiny; the AGAMIANS, in which the scales on the tail are imbricate, (that is, having the scales lying over each other like shingles on a roof,) and not iwtiuittute, (that is, not arranged in a circle, around a centre) ; the DRAGONS, &c The last are distinguished from all other reptiles by a species of wing formed on each side by a deep fold of the skin. These appendices resemble the wings of a bat ; but instead of being supported and set in motion by the extremi- ties, they are altogether independent of them, and are sustained by the first six false ribs which do not surround the abdomen, but are extended horizontally in a straight line. The animal uses these wings as a parachute, to sustain itself in the air when it leaps from branch to branch ; but it cannot use them with sufficient force to fly like a bat or a bird. These singular reptiles, 27. What are the general characters of the Iguanians? 28 What are the modifications met with in the mouth ? 2:>. What are Stellios ? What are Agamians ? How are ihe Dragons characterised ? 2K 18 IGUANAS.^BASILISKS.-ANOLIS. which inhabit India, realize to a certain extent the fable of flying lizards, or serpents, spoken of by certain ancient writers ; but Fiy. 12. the Dragons of zoologists, instead of being formidable animals, 'ike those of the poets, are of very small size, and only attack insects. 30. As examples of Iguanians with palatine teeth, we will mention, IGUANAS PROPERLY so CALLED, BASILISKS, and ANOLIS. The first are covered by small imbricated scales, and have a crest of pointed scales along the back. There is also observed beneath the throat, a pendent and compressed dew-lap. Several species are known which inhabit America ; one, four or five feet in length, is common in all the hot regions of the New World : it lives mostly on trees and feeds on fruits, leaves, &c. Its flesh is reputed delicate, but unwholesome. 31. The BASILISKS, Busiliscvs, have along the back and tail, a continued, elevated crest, which is supported by the spinous processes of the vertebrae ; they feed on grains, and inhabit Guiana. 32. The ANOLIS, Jinnlius, which also belong to America, are distinguished by the conformation of their toes, the antepe- nultimate joint of which is furnished on the under part, with an oval, striated disk, by the assistance of which these reptiles cling to the surface upon which they climb. Many of them pos- sess the power of changing the colour of their skin. To the family of Iguanas also belongs an enormous reptile, called Mosasaurus, the fossil bones of which have been found at Maestricht. 30. What are Iguanas properly so called ? What are their habits? 31. What are Basilisks? 32. How are the Anohs characterised ? GECKOS CHAMELEONS 49 FAMILY OF GECKO HANS. 33. The Saurians designated under the collective name of (reckon, are nocturnal animals, dull and heavy in appearance ; their walk is crawling, and their squat and flattened form is in striking contrast with that of most of the reptiles we have here- .ofore mentioned. Their head is wide and depressed ; their eyes are very large, and very prominent ; their jaws are armed all round with a single row of small teeth ; but there are none in the palate. Their tongue is fleshy, and not extensile; the body is studded above by small granular scales, among which are larger tubercles, (the whole resembling shagreen,) and covered beneath by flat, imbricated scales ; their feet are moderate in size, and their five, almost equal toes, are ordinarily widened throughout, or in part, armed with retractile nails, and furnished beneath with a fold of skin, by the aid of which they adhere to bodies upon which they walk. This conformation of the toes enables them to walk easily on the smoothest walls, and even upon ceilings. During the day, they conceal themselves in obscure places, and, at night, more especially, they seek spiders, and other animals upon which they feed. The ugliness of these reptiles is extreme, and we are assured, that the contact of their feet on our skin, often excites a sort of inflammation : they are everywhere objects of aversion, and they are charged with being venomous, but this opinion is not sustained by positive proof. The Geckos are very numerous, and disseminated throughout the warm parts of both continents. FAMILY OF CHAMELEONS. 34. The Chameleons, Cftamaleo, are Fig.13. distinguished from all other Saurians by their toes, which are five in number on all their feet, but divided into two opposable parcels or bun- dles, an arrangement which makes these ani- mals essentially climbers, destined to live on \he branches of trees, (/'u/. 13.) A number >f peculiarities of organization separates them from all the reptiles we have thus far con- sidered. Their tail, round and prehensile, serves them as a fifth extremity, in suspend- ing themselves from branches, and aids them in their slow and awkward movements. Their 33. What are Geckos ? What arc their general characters? 34. What are the distinguishing characters of Chameleons ? Upon what do they feed ? How does the Chameleon change its colour ? What are the pecu'iarities of the skin in Chameleons ? 50 CHAMELEONS. eyes, which are very large and very projecting, are almost entirely covered by the skin ; the light reaches them only through a little hole, situate opposite to the pupil, and these organs move alto- gether independently of each other. Their mouth is armed with srt. all tri-lobed teeth, and their tongue, fleshy and cylindrical, is extremely extensile : they can dart it out of the mouth to a dis- tance that sometimes exceeds the length of the body, and they use it to seize living insects upon which they feed. Their body is compressed, and the back is ridged, or, as it were, trenchant, and the skin is covered by small scaly granulations. These singular animals are celebrated for their faculty of almost instantly changing colour; and, if we believe the ancient writers, they even possess the power of assuming successively, the hues of all the objects by which they are surrounded, in order to conceal them- selves more effectually from their enemies. The observations of naturalists have already robbed the history of the Chameleon of the fables with which it was loaded ; and, although the faculty of changing its colours, in this manner, has been denied, it has been ascertained that it really undergoes the most remarkable changes, being sometimes almost white, sometimes yellowish, at other times green, reddish, and even almost black, either entirely or only on parts of the body. These changes are particularly observed, when the animal is excited either by anger or by heat. When it has remained lor some time in a dark, cold place, it is almost white, and warming it, or stimulating it, causes it to assume a bottle green, or vinous red hue, which often becomes so intense that it appears to be almost black. For a long time, these changes were attributed to the greater or less distension of the very large lungs of this animal, and to corresponding modifications in the quantity of blood sent to the skin ; but we are assured, there is no necessary relation between these phenomena ; and dissection of the skin teaches us that we rmist seek the cause of these variations of colour in the particular mode of the structure of this membrane. We find, in tact, that it contains different colouring matters, some of which can sometimes rise to the surface, and in a degree mask the others, and at other times retire, and become hidden beneath th;. superficial pigment. 35. Only a single genus of Saurians, possessing the abv/e described organization, is known ; but many species of Clw,ie- leons have been ascertained. One of them, very common in the neighbourhood of Algiers, is met with from Spain to the Indies. N5. How many genera of Chameleons are known? SCINCOTDS. 51 FAMILY OF SCINCOIDEA. 36. The Saurians which compose this family are recognisec. by their short feet, their tongue, which is slightly or not at all extensible, and by the equal, and ordinarily im- bricated scales, which cover the body above and below. Some of them are spindle-shaped, and others have the body so much elongated, and the tail not very distinguishable from it, (Fig. 14.) that they resemble serpents. In many, the feet are too short to serve for locomotion, and there are some in which one pair of extremities, either the anterior or posterior, is entirely wanting. The Scincoidea evidently form the connecting link between the Saurians and Ophidians. 37. Among the Scincoidea we place the SCINQUES, the SEPS, the BIPEDES, the CHALCIDES, and the BIMANA In the two first genera there are four feet, and in the Seps the body is more elongated, and more vermiform than in the Scinques. The Bipedes, (Fig. 14 ) and Chal- cides, want the anterior extremities, and the Bimana have the fore feet only. 38. Long previous to the epoch of the crea- tion of man, there existed on the surface of the globe, a great number of gigantic reptiles, the bones of which are found in a fossil state. Among these Saurians, the race of which is extinct, are found Lacertians, resembling Monitors, that must have been from thirty to forty feet in length ; but many of these lost animals are particularly remarkable for their anomalous structure. In England, near Honfleur, and in other localities, we find in the very ancient formations, the remains of many species of two genera of Saurians, whose broad feet, in the form of battledores, indicate that these animals were entirely aquatic. They are designated under the names of PLESIAOSURUS, and ICTHYOSAURUS. And another reptile, (Fig. 15.) still more extra- ordinary, has been discovered in some of the ancient layers of the earth. According to the structure of its bony frame, we see, like the bat, it must have been capable of walking and flying; for its posterior extremities, and all the toes of the fore feet, with a single exception, are formed in the ordinary way; but the second toe of the anterior extremities is more than twice as long 36, How are the Scincoidea characterised? 37. What are the divisions of the Scincoidea? 38 What is the Pterodactylus ? PTERODACTYLUS. Fig. 15 as the body, and probably sustained a fold of skin, fitted to perform the functions of wings.* To indicate this singular con- formation, the generic name of PTERODACTYLUS has been given to^these fossil Saurians. ORDER OF OPHIDIANS, OR SERPENTS. 39. We ordinarily group with Serpents, or Ophidians, all rep. tiles that have a cylindrical, elongated body, without extremities ; but in order that the classification of these animals may represent the modifications introduced by nature in their organization, and indicate the degree of physiological importance of these diffe- rences, it becomes necessary to separate from the serpents, some apodous reptiles in which respiration is at first branchial, then pulmonary, as it is in ordinary Batrachians. On the other hand, the passage between the Saurians and Ophidians is so gradual, that the limits between these two orders are somewhat arbitrary. Some naturalists even think, they should not be separated, and, according to others, it would be proper to range in the division of Saurians, those reptiles that, by their internal organization, are removed from the common type of Ophidians, and approach that of the Scincoidea. 40. The apodous reptiles, which are in a manner intermediate between the Saurians and the Serpents properly so called, are * The dotted line indicates what it is presumed, was the outline of the anima!. 39, What description of reptiles belong to the order of Ophidians. 40. What are the general characters of the An^nes? What are their nabits? Upon what do they feed? What are Glass-Snakes? What are the characters of the common Angue of Europe? STRUCTURE OF OPHIDIANS. 53 the SNAKES, or ANGUES, Anyuina. They are easily distinguished by the imbricate scales, which cover the body like those of the Scincoidea ; they also approximate the Saurians by the presence of three eye-lids, organs that are not found in true serpents. The tongue is fleshy, and but slightly extensile, and the bony skull possesses the same conformation as that of the Scinques; and we find beneath the skin of most of these animals, vestiges of a pelvis and shoulder bones. On the other hand, they resemble true serpents in the general form of the body, and in the small size of their lungs. They are very mild animals, and, when taken hold of, do not attempt to bite. Their moufh is small, and armed with teeth like those of the Scincoidea ; they feed on different insects and terrestrial mollusks, and entirely conceal themselves in holes, and are torpid in winter. Their tail, like that of lizards, breaks with the greatest facility, and some Angues stiffen themselves so much when taken that the body breaks, which singular circumstance has obtained for them the name of Glass snakes. The Common Jlnguv of Europe, tfnynis fiagilis^ is about a foot long, and its tail, which is obtuse, and like the rest of the body, is of the same length as the latter. Its scales are smooth and shining ; it is blackish beneath, and of a yellowish lead colour above, with three black bands, which, as it advances in age, change to a series of points, and finally disappear ; it has no external tympanum. It digs subter- raneous galleries, and produces its young like vipers, in which the eggs are hatched before they are laid. 41. The TRUE SERPENTS, Serpentia, possess no internal trace of anterior extremities : they have no vestige of sternum or shoulder ; but many of them have, beneath the skin, rudi- ments of posterior extremities, which sometimes show themselves externally, in the form of a small hook The skin is furnished with scales, which, in general, are small, and imbricate above, and in the form of broad quadrangular plates beneath : they have no tympanum, and their eyes appear to be entirely without lids; for they are only covered by a sort of single and immove- able veil, which is set in, like a watch-glass, in front of the orbit, and which permits the passage of light. 42. The vertebrae and ribs, by themselves, form almost the whole skeleton of serpents. Their number is very considerable ; in the viper we count 198 vertebrae; in the Boa, 304; and in the Ringed Snake, 316. The form of these bones is nearly the same throughout the column, and their mode of articulation is very 41. What kind of eye lids have true Serpents? What are the general characters of Serpents ? 42. What bones are most numeious in the skeleton of Serpents ? 4* 54 STRUCTURE OF OPHIDIANS. remarkable : the anterior part of the body of each vertebra pre- sents a rounded semi-spherical tubercle which is received in a corresponding cavity on the posterior face of the vertebra next to it. This mode of articulation explains the movements of the body of these animals, which, in general, are executed laterally, and not from above downwards; in fact, the spinous processes which prevail along the back are ordinarily so disposed as to prevent the vertebral column from bending very much in this direction. The ribs surround a large part of the circumference of the trunk, and are wanting only on the caudal vertebrae. The first pair are smaller than the others ; but they commence at the head, so that these animals have no neck. We count in some instances as many as 250 pairs. 43. Serpents are essentially carnivorous ; they can endure abstinence for a long time; but, in general, when the opportunity occurs, they gorge the stomach with such a quantity of food, that, during digestion, they remain in a state of greater or less torpor : they do not chew their food ; but their mouth is armed with hooked teeth, suited for retaining their prey. Their tongue is very extensible, and terminates in two long, semi-cartilaginous, and very moveable filaments. The digestive canal is very short, and the stomach is merely a slight dilatation of this tube. 44 The circulation is carried on in the same manner as in Tortoises and Saurians, except Crocodiles. The heart is com- posed of two auricles and a single ventricle, incompletely divided into two cavities, from each one of which arises an aorta, which joins its fellow behind this organ. The lungs are very unequal in size, and generally one of the two is entirely atrophied, while the other is very large, and prolonged into the abdomen, above and beyond the stomach and liver: it is in the form of a large membranous sack, in the interior of which are found great poly- gonal cells. The air is renewed in them by the motions of the ribs and abdominal muscles, nearly in the same way as it is in saurians and birds. Probably, it is in part owing to the position of the lungs that serpents become torpid after a copious repast; for, every time they swallow H prey of large size, this organ must be compressed, and the pulmonary circulation impeded. 45. The structure of the head varies in these animals. Some- times the lower jaw, the two branches of which are solidly united in front, is supported on a tympanic bone, which is itself immedi- 43. Upon what do Serpents feed ? Do they chew their food ? What is the character of their digestive organs ? 44. What are the peculiarities of the circulation in Serpents? What is the character of their respiratory apparatus? Why are Serpents torpid after a full meal? 45. Is the structure of the head the same in all these animals 7 STRUCTURE OF OPHIDIANS. Fig. 16.* ately articulated with the cranium, as in Saurians and Chelonians, but, in general, the tympanic bones are moveable. 46. The true Serpents with immoveable tympanic bones also have the upper jaw fixed to the cranium, and the mouth but little dilatable, (l^ig. 16.): they form the small family of double walkers, Amphiibana, so called from their faculty of moving equally well, both forward and backwards. Those that form the genus of Amphisbaenji have the body surrounded by circular ranges of small quadrangular scales, like certain Scincoids ; the others. called TYPHLOPS, have small imbricate scales, and at first sight, resemble earth worms. These Ophidians inhabit the warmcoun tries of both continents: some of them are blind. 47. True Serpents having moveable tympanic bones, form a more numerous family Some of them resemble the preceding in the cylindrical form of the head and body, and in the smallness of their scales. The mouth is less dilatable than in other ophidians of this division ; for the tympanic bone is directly articulated to the cranium, while, in the last, it is suspended to a mastoid bone which is itself moveable. The genus of Tortrix, possesses this kind of organization. 48. In all the ORDINARY SERPENTS, we have yet to mention, the mouth is so formed as to enable the ani- mal to swallow bodies larger than itself. The two branches of the lower jaw are not united, and the kind of peduncle which sustains them ( the tympanic bone, Piy. 17, /.) is not only moveable itself, but is suspended to another portion 17.t * Explanation of Fig. 16. The bony head of an Ophidian of the division of Amphisbaena. ^Explanation of Fig. 17. Bony head of a Rattlesnake, c. the cranium, ma. the mastoid bone which articulates by one extremity, with the cranium, and bv the other, supports the tympanic bone, (.) mi. the lower jaw suspended from the tympanic bone, n. the vomer and nasal bones, m. the moveable upper jaw bone, pi. one of the plerygoid bones (portions of the sphenoid,) the internal of which is continuous with the palatine arches, p, pe. palatine teeth. d. the poisonous fangs. 46. What are Amphisbaenae ? . 47. What is the organization of the head in the genus Tortrix ? 48. What peculiarities in the structure of the head enable certain Sernenls to swallow bodies larger than themselves? 2L 55 STRUCTURE OF OPHIDIANS. BOAS. of the temporal bone, called mustoid bone, ( ma.) which is also separate from the cranium, and attache^ to this bony case by ligaments and muscles only ; the branches of the upper jaw are not fixed to the intermaxillary bone except by ligament, which permits them to separate more or less; the palatine arches also participate in this mobility. Another character, peculiar to this group, is the existence of sharp teeth, curved backwards, planted in these arches as well as in the upper and lower jaws. 49. In other respects the armature of the mouth varies, and these differences are of great importance ; for they coincide with the existence or absence of an apparatus for the secretion of an active poison, which the animal uses to kill the prey it bites. Ordinary serpents are therefore divided into venomous serpents, and serpents which are not venomous. Fiu. 18.* 50. The NON- VENOMOUS SERPENTS, are re- cognised by their teeth, no one of which is moveable or hollowed by a canal or gutter ; they are all fixed, and they form in the mouth four nearly equal ranges above, (Fig. 18.) and two below. 51. Those serpents that have the under part of the body and tail furnished with a single band of transverse scales are described under the name of Boas; and we give the collective name of Colubers to those in which the under part of the tail is covered by plates i m in pairs, divided on a middle line. 52. The division of BOAS is composed of Boas properly so called, of Erix, &c. 53. The BOAS PROPERLY so CALLED, have a compressed body, a prehensile tail, a hook on each side of the anus and small scales on the back of the head at least. The largest serpents known, belong to this genus; certain species attain thirty and even forty feet in length, and manage to swallow deer, and, as we are assured, even oxen. They are unprovided with venom, but, * Explanation of Fig. 1 8. The bony head of a Non-venomous Serpent seen from below : c. the cranium, im. the intermaxillary bone, m. the maxillary bones, p. the palatine bones. 49. Is the mouth, in all ordinary Serpents, armed in the same way ? How are ordinary Serpents divided ? 50. How are the Non-venomons Serpents recognised? 51. Wha^are Boas? What are Colubers? 52. How is the division of Boas divided ? 53. What are the characters of Boas properly so called? What are their habits ? To what part of the world do Boas belong ? What is the Divine Boa? POAS. PYTHONS. 57 possessing great agility, and prodigious strength, they are not the less formidable. Concealed in the grass, or suspended by its tail from the branches of a tree in a pathway, or on the bank of a rivulet, the Boa watches an opportunity of seizing its prey, which it surrounds in its folds, and presses so strongly that the animal is soon stifled, and its bones crushed. When the Serpent has, so to speak, kneaded its victim, it bathes it in slaver, and. enormously dilating its jaws, slowly swallows it. We are assured, that several days are required to swallow an entire animal, eaten in this way, and that a part of it is already digested before the whole has entered the mouth of the reptile. After a repast of this kind. Boas remain motionless in some retired spot, exhaling a fetid odour. It is then easy to kill them, and it appears, their flesh is not a disagreeable aliment, for certain Indian tribes feed upon it. During a very long time, the greatest confusion pervaded the history of these great serpents, which were confounded with the Pythons. It was believed they were found in Africa and Asia, as well as in America ; but it now seems to be certain, that they are peculiar to the western conti- nent. The most celebrated species owes its name to an error of this kind. It was called the Diciue Boa, because what was said of certain large Colubers, which the negroes of Mozambique make objects of religious worship, was attributed to it. It seem.* that the Brazilians and even the ancient Mexicans, rendered it similar honours. This enormous reptile, which is also called the Boa Constrichir, inhabits the warm and humid parts of America ; its head is covered with small scales to the end of the muzzle, and it is easily recognised by a sort of chain-links, formed along the back, of hexagonal blackish spots, and others of a yellowish colour. Two other species, which inhabit the same countries attain nearly the same size : the Boa anaconda, and the Boa auoma. 54. The division of COLUBERS includes the Pythons, the Colu- bers properly so cal/ed, and many other genera. 55. The PYTHONS, are, as it were, the representatives of the Boas in the old world : they attain the same gigantic size, and are also furnished with hooks near the anus : they have narrow ventral plates; but those beneath the tail are double instead of being simple. It is to be remarked, however, that some of these serpents have the first, others the second plates of the tail simple, which seems to establish a gradual passage betwixt these two genera, the distinction of which, in other respects, is founded upon unimportant particulars. Be it as it may, to the Pythons miiai rw referred all that has been said of the Boas of Africa and 54. What genera are included in the division of Colubers ? 55. What are Pythons ? What are their characters ? COLUBERS. VENOMOUS SERPENTS. 56. The COLUBERS PROPERLY so CALLED, Coluber, have the head covered by large plates, (Pig. 19.) and neither fossettes on 19 the sides of the muzzle, nor hooks near the anus. The number of these Serpents is immense ; the most common in France, (Fig. 19.) is the Ringed Snake, Colubei uatrixj it is ash-coloured with black spots along the flanks, and three whitish spots form a collar around the neck. Its length is about three feet ; it is found in the neigh- bourhood of stagnant waters. It swims with ease, and lives chiefly on insects, mol- lusks, and frogs ; it does not attempt to bite, COLUBER. except when very much irritated, and the wound'it inflicts is by no means dangerous. It is eaten in many French provinces. 57. VENOMOUS SERPENTS are provided with a particular gland, situate on each side of the head, whicTi pours out the poison that it secretes, by an excretory duct, the extremity of which empties Fig. 20.* into one of the maxillary teeth of the upper jaw. This gland, (Fig. 20, g.) is placed beneath the temporal muscles, so as to be compressed when they contract, and this tooth which is larger than the others, is sometimes per- forated by a canal, and at others, g ^ simply has a gutter on one side; RATTLE SNAKE. Dut in either case, its duct is in communication with the excretory canal of the venomous gland, and serves to pour the poison into the bottom of the wound made by the tooth itself. This liquid is a most violent poison. It is neither acrid nor burning, and only produces a sensation on the tongue analogous to that occasioned by a fatty matter, and may be swallowed with impunity ; but, introduced into a wound, in sufficient quantity, it causes death with frightful rapidity. ^Explanation of Fig. 20. Poison apparatus of a Rattlesnake: g-. the venomous gland, the excretory can;il of which empties into a large moveable tooth, (c,) m. the elevator muscles of the jaw which partly cover the gland nnd compress if, s. salivary glands along the edge of the jaws, n. the nostrils, beneath which is seen the fossette, or pit, which distinguishes these serpents and trigonocephali from the vipers. 56. What are the characters of Colubers properly so called ? What are the characters of the Ringed Snake ? What are its habits ? 57. What peculiar apparatus distinguishes the venomous Serpents 7 What are the properties of their venom ? VENOMOUS SERPENTS 59 58. Its energy varies according to the species, and according to the condition of the serpent. The same species seems to be more dangerous in warm than in cold or temperate climates, and the effects are serious in proportion to the quantity of poison poured into the wound : these animals are more formidable when they have fasted for sometime, and the poison has accumulated in considerable quantity in the glands where it is secreted, than when they have just bitten several times, and only "a small quantity of the liquid is left. It is remarked also that their poison does not act in the same manner on all animals. It appears that to Leeches, Snails, the Asp, the Coluber, and Angue, the venom of the Viper, for example, is not poisonous, while it kills all warm blooded animals, Lizards, and the Viper itself, with great rapidity. In general, the quantity of poison necessary to cause death is, all things being equal, large in proportion to the size of the animal wounded ; thus, when the hundredth part of a grain of the poison of a Viper is sufficient to kill a Sparrow, it would require six times as much to kill a Pigeon. 59. This poison, to act on the animal economy, must be absorbed and carried into the circulation : therefore, in cases of bites of venomous serpents, we should hasten, by appropriate means, to prevent this absorption, so as to gain time to extract or destroy the poison, deposited at the bottom of the wound. Compression of the veins above the wound, between it and the heart, and the application of a cupping-glass over the wound itself, are the most appropriate means of retarding the absorption of the poison ; but, to remove all danger completely, we should enlarge the wound, and cauterise the bottom of it, either with a red hot iron, or with some energetic caustic. Several internal remedies have been much vaunted, such as Ammonia, or Vola- tile Alkali, Arsenic, &c., but these means, though sometimes useful, should not inspire great confidence. The Indians of South America attribute still greater virtues to a plant of that country, known under the name of Guaco, or llicania gvaco; they assure us that not only the application of the leaves of the Guaco to the bite o( the most venomous serpents prevents all deleterious effects, but also that innoculation with the juice of this plant prevents these animals from biting persons so prepared. In support of this opinion the observations of Vergas, a Spanish author, and of Mutis are cited ; and the celebrated and learned traveller, Baron Ilumboldt, thinks, according to some experiments, that 5ft. IP the venom of Serpents equally act've under all circumstances ? When is it most to he dreaded? 59. What, n the hest mode of treating a person who has been bitten by a poisonous reptile ? or* 60 VENOMOUS SERPENTS. the Guaco may impart to the skin an odour which is repugnant to the serpent and prevent it from biting. 60. SERPENTS WITH MOVEABLE, VENOMOUS FANGS, are the most formidable. The fangs, (Fig. 20, c.) situate in front of the mouth, are isolated, very sharp, and pierced by a small canal, which opens near their extremity j they are fixed on very small maxillary bones, (Fig. 18, im ) and these bones being supported on a long pedicle, are very moveable, so that when the animal does not wish to use them, they are folded backwards, and lie concealed in a fold of the gum, and when required on the contrary, they are erected. There is one of these long teeth on each side, and behind each one, there are many germs to replace it, in the event of its being broken in a wound ; but the intermaxillary bones support no other teeth, and, consequently, we find in the upper part of the mouth, only two rows of palatine teeth, instead of four rows, as in Colubers. 61. The head of these serpents is generally wide behind, and their aspect is more fierce than that of the preceding. They are all Mo-viviparous, that is, they are born alive, because their eggs are hatched before they are laid. Hence the name of Viper, which is a contraction of i-iviparou*, is given to most of them. 62. The most remarkable genera of this division of venomous Serpents, are the Crotalus, Triyomtcepkalun, Viper, and A a/a. 63. The RATTLE SNAKES, Cro- talus, owe their name to a sin- gular apparatus which terminates the tail, and which distinguishes them from all other Ophidians. It consists of a series of horny scales, loosely fitting into each other like a nest of boxes, which move, vibrate and sound, when the animal moves its tail, (Fig. 21.) The number of these scales increases with age ; it seems there is an additional one after each moult, and that they are formed by the epidermis of the Serpent, turned upon itself like the finger of a glove, and retained at the 'extremity of the tail. This in- strument vibrates with extreme RATTLK SNAKE. 60. What are the peculiarities of the fangs, in venomous Serpents? 61. What is the origin of the name of Viper? 62. What are the chief genera of the division of venomous Serpent* * 63. What neculiarity gives name to the Rattle Snake? VENOMOUS SERPENTS. Cl lapidity, an I thus produces a noise sufficiently loud to be heard at a distance of several fathoms. 64. Rattle Snakes attain a length of five or six feet, and even more : they inhabit America, and are celebrated for the violence of their poison. In general, they do not bite except when pro- voked, and they rarely attack animals too large for them to swallow. Notwithstanding that their food chiefly consists of birds, squirrels, &c., they do not climb upon trees. It was believed for a long time that they possessed the power of stupifying their victims by their breath, or even charming them by their gaze, and thus forcing them to enter their mouth; but it is only the extreme terror they inspire in small animals, which confounds them so much as to prevent their flight, causing them to perform irregular movements, and even to fall into the jaws of their enemy. These serpents ordinarily keep themselves coiled spirally, near a watering-place, frequented by small mammals. There they tranquilly wait, until some victim presents itself, and, when within reach, they spring upon it with the rapidity of lightning. In parts of North America, where the winter is rigorous, they are benumbed during winter, and, we are assured, that during the cold seeson, their bite is not dangerous. In Cayenne, and other warm countries, they are never benumbed. Negroes eat their flesh. 65. Many species of Rattle Snake are known : mos>t of them have the head covered with scales like those on the back ; that which is most common in the United States, is brown, with irregular, transverse, blackish bands; that of Guiana has lozenge shaped spots, bordered with black. Both are about six feet in length. 66. The TRIGONOCEPHALI are distinguished from the preceding by the absence of the rattle; but like them they have the fossette or pit, behind the nostrils. Some of them have simple, sub- caudal plates, like the Boas and Rattle Snakes ; others have the tail furnished beneath with double plates like the Colubers, and most Vipers. They equal the Rattle Snakes in the violence of their poison, and most of them inhabit the western continent. The most celebrated species is the Yellow Trigonocephalits, also called the Yellow Snake of the West Indies, and Lance-headed Viper, 7\iyoitocephali- guished from Toads ' What are the habits of Frogs? i 1. What are Tree-Frogs ? What are their habits ? 2 M* 72 TOA^S. Tree-frog, Rana arboreu^ is of an apple green above, and pale beneath, with a black and yellow line along each side of the body. 12. The TOADS, Bufo, have a thick-set body, covered with warts, or papillae, from which exudes a viscid humor; on each side of the neck there is a large, projecting gland, (called parotid,} full of pores, which secretes an acrid humor. Their hind legs are not so much elongated as those of frogs, and they leap badly ; in general they creep rather than walk, and, when surprised, instead of taking to flight, they stop suddenly and inflate the body so as to render it hard and elastic, and cause the skin to pour out a white humor; sometimes they endeavour to defend themselves by biting; but their mouth is unprovided with teeth, and their bite is not venomous, as is generally supposed in the country. These hideous and disgusting reptiles ordinarily con- ceal themselves in shady, humid places, from which they do not go out, except at night, or immediately after the warm and abun- dant rains of summer. Like frogs, they feed on small mollusks, worms, and living insects, but they are more terrestrial in their habits; they betake themselves, in summer only, to pools and streams, where the females resort to deposit their eggs. In countries where the winter is cold, they pass the season benumbed in holes. Their respiration then becomes extremely limited, and the contact of a very small quantity of air with the skin is sufficient to maintain their existence. When placed in situations where ordinary evaporation is very inconsiderable, they can live in this way for a very long time. This explains how it is that toads, which have been enclosed in plaster, or shut up in holes, excavated in stones, are often found alive, after being many months in confinement 13. Curious experiments have been made with a view of ascer- taining the fact, (which had been often observed, but generally treated as fabulous by naturalists,) of the existence of living toads in walls, in hollow trees, and even in the interior of rocks, where they had probably remained for years, without being able to escape. Labourers who work in quarries have often met similar instances, on breaking blocks of stone, and they pretend that the toad is found enclosed in the stone on all sides, as in a solid mould, which would lead us to suppose that it had formed around the body, and that the seclusion of the reptile dated from a very remote antiquity ; but this opinion is inadmissible, and every 12. What are the characters of Toads? How are they distinguished from Frogs ? What are their habits ? 13. How is it that Toads are enabled to exist, excluded from the atmos- pneric air, shut up in rocks, hollow trees, &c.7 PIPAS. URODELA. 73 thing leads us to believe, that in such cases, the retreat of the toad communicates externally by some hole which had been accidentally closed, or had escaped observation. 14. The PIPAS are still more hideous than the toads: their body is more flattened, the head triangular, their eyes very small, their hind legs short, and their anterior toes split at the end into three or four small points; the tongue is entirely wanting. The species best known, which inhabits the warm and humid parts of South America, is celebrated on account of the manner in which its Fig. 37 young are developed. The male places the eggs on the back of the female, who immediately takes to the water, where the skin, irritated by the contact of these bodies, swells, and forms cells, in which the young are hatched, and remain until they have completed their metamorphosis ; then the mother returns to land. FAMILY OF URODELA. 15. The metamorphosis of Batrachians of this family is less complete ; for, in the perfect state, they still preserve the long tail, which, in the preceding family, only exists in the tadpole. At the time of escaping from the egg, they are without feet, and respire by branchiae, which are in the form of tufts, and three in number; they are placed on each side of the neck, and float externally. As in the Anoura, their extremities appear succes- sively, but the fore feet make their appearance before the poste- rior ; and, to complete the transformation of the tadpole, the lungs are developed, and the branchiae disappear. In the adult state, these animals have nearly the same form as lizards ; but their head is flattened, and we do not perceive the tympanum ,4. What arc the characters of Pipas ? 1 5. What are the characters of the family of Urodela ? 6 v 74 TRITONS. SALAMANDERS. externally. Both jaws, and the palate are armed with small teeth ; their tongue is placed as it is in frogs ; the skeleton has rudimen- tary ribs ; and the number of their toes is four in front, and almost always five behind. Some authors designate these animals under the name of Satawanders. 16. TRITONS, or Aquatic Salamanders, are the most common batrachians of the family of Urodela; they always preserve a laterally compressed tail, (Fig. 38.) and pass nearly all their time _,. in the water. The * *9- 8 ' most remarkable fac- ulty possessed by these reptiles, is the astonishing facility, with which they re- pair any mutilation CRF.STF.D SALAMANDER, OR TRITON. {Q W j-)ich they may be subjected. They not only replace the tail after it has been cut off, as is the case also with lizards, but their extremities are reproduced in the same manner. The same extremity, after having been cut off, has been reproduced entire with its bones, its muscles, its vessels and nerves, several times in succession, and we are even assured that, in one experiment, the eye, after having been extirpated, was reproduced in the space of a year. 17. Several species are found in the neighbourhood of Paris. Sometimes the tadpoles become very large before losing their bra-nchia3. A fossil, found in the schists of (Eningen, and be- longing to a large species of Salamander, has excited a good deal of interest; because, from a singular error, it was for a long time regarded as the skeleton of a fossil man. 18. SALAMANDERS PROPERLY so CALLED, or TERRESTRIAL SALA- MANDERS in the perfect state, have a round tail, and only remain in the water during their tadpole existence, or when they lay. Their eggs are hatched before they are laid, and the young at first have a compressed tail like ordinary tadpoles; they lose the tail, and finish their metamorphosis very promptly. In the perfect state, they inhabit shady, humid situations : they are ordinarily found under stones, or in subterraneous holes. It was for a long time believed that Salamanders had the power of resisting the action of fire; but this fable was without foundation; except, oerhaps, that when the reptile is irritated, it sweats a milky 16. What are Tritons? For what are they remarkable? 17. What led to the helief that a fossil man had been discovered? 18. What are Salamanders properly so called ? How ure they dist'n guished from Tritons ? BRANCHIFERA. AXOLOTLS. 75 humor. This humor appears to be poisonous to feeble animals, but the Salamander is not, as is supposed among certain country people, an injurious animal. 19. There has been discovered in America, a large batrachian, of the precise form of the Salamander, that has an orifice on each side of the neck, but which, it is supposed, never has branchiae. It is probable, however,that these organs do exist in the first periods of life, but disappear at an early date, as is the case in the terres- trial Salamander. These reptiles, which (orm the genus MENOPOMA, inhabit the great lakes and rivers in the interior of South America, The AMPHIUMA, which inhabit the same continent, possess the same mode of organization ; but their body is excessively elon- gated, and their extremities are but little developed. The number of their toes varies from two to three, according to the species. FAMILY OF BRANCHIFERA. 20. This family is composed of batrachians that always pre- serve their branchiae, and resemble thfe tadpoles of batrachians of the family of Urodela ; they have been regarded for a long time as being in fact, the young of some large species of Sala- mander ; but now, there is no doubt of their being perfect ani- mals, and what is very remarkable, that possessing well developed branchiae, they also have lungs, and are consequently completely amphibious. These branchiae, which are placed in the ordinary situation, have the form of tufts more or less ramified, and float externally in the water. The lungs are sometimes provided with a vascular net work as well developed as in any reptile, while hi others, their structure is very simple. The body of these animals terminates in a long, vertical tail , and their extremities are but little developed, and often are partly wanting. Four genera are known, namely ; the Jlxolotus, the Menobranchus, the Proteus, and the Siren. 21. The AXOLOTLS, rfxololus, in every respect resemble the tadpoles of Salamanders, that have acquired their fore paws. Only a single species has yet been discovered, the Jlxoloil of the Mexicans, Siren pisciforniis, (f*iy. 39.) which inhabits the lake in the midst of which stands the city of Mexico. AXOLOTL. 19. What are Monopoma? What are Amphiuma? 20. What are Rrarichifera? What are their general characters? What are ihe genera of this family ? 21. What :m tiio characters of the Axololls? 7f. PROTEANS. SIRENS. \PODA. Fiy. 40. 22. The MENOBRANCHUS, also have four feet ; but in stead of having four toes before, and five behind, they have only four throughout. 23. The PIIOTEANS, Proteus, have but three toes in front and two behind The only -species known, Proteus atuininnSi (Fig. 40.) more than a foot long, and only as thick as the finger, is found in the subter- raneous waters of some of the caverns of Oarniole. Its skin is smooth and whitish, its muzzle is elongated and depressed, and its eyes are exceedingly small, and con- cealed beneath the integuments. 24. The SIRENS, have anterior extremities only, and, in the elongated form of their body, resemble eels. Three species are known, one of which attains three feet in length, and inhabits the marshes of Carolina. O FAMILY OF APODA. 25. The APODA, or CECILIA, as we have already stated, are entirely without extremities, and, until lately, have been regarded as Serpents ; but it has been ascertained that, in early life, they have branchiae which show themselves through a hole on each side of the neck. In the adult animal we find even the arches of the hyoid bone, which served to sustain these organs. The body is very nearly cylindrical. The skin is smooth and transversely furrowed by annular wrinkles. At first sight, it appears to be entirely naked ; but on dissection, we find in its thickness rows of small and extremely thin scales, situate in these wrinkles. The eyes which are very small, are concealed beneath the common integuments, and sometimes they are entirely wanting. These animals are completely apodous, that is, without feet, and their skeleton, like that of serpents, has two long rows of ribs ; but these bones are much too short to surround the trunk, and, on the other hand, we remark, in the mode of articulation of the vertebraB, and in the disposition of their jaws, many characters which approximate them to the latter batrachians. 26. These reptiles, which establish a passage between the batra- chians and Ophidians, inhabit humid and shady places, dig holes in the ground, and seem to feed on vegetable substances as well as on worms and small insects. They are found in South America. The CLASS OP FISHES comes next in order. 22. What are the characters of Batrachians of the genus Menobranchus ? y.3. What are the general characters of the Proteans ? 24. What are Sirens? 2.>. What are the general characters of the Apoda ? 26. Where are they found? What are their habits? ICHTHYOLOGY LESSON V. CLASS OF FISHES. Genera/ Characters. Form. Integuments. Skeleton. Muscular Apparatus. Swimming- Bladder. Senses. Apparatus of Diyestion. Circulation. Itespira- tion. JJniwcil Electricity. Habits Fishiuy Classification. CLASS OF FISHES. The fourth, and last Class of the Branch of Vertebrate Ani- mals, comprises the Fishes : that part of Natural History which treats of them, is termed Ichthyology, from the Greek, iclitkus, a fish, and luyos, a discourse. 1. These animals, as every body knows, are destined to live under water, and this circumstance has impressed upon them a peculiar organization ; but the most important differences they present, when compared with other vertebrata, consist in the conformation of the apparatuses of respiration and circulation. They never have lungs, and always breathe by branchiae only. Their heart has but two cavities, and only receives venous blood, which, after being in contact with oxygen, enters a dorsal vessel, where no new motive force accelerates its course to different parts of the body. Therefore, their circulation is not as active as it is in the superior animals, and like that of reptiles, their blood is cold. Their skin is naked, or covered with scales only ; they have no mamma3 like the mammalia, and are repro- duced by the means of eggs ; their extremities are in the form of fins. 2. The external form of fishes varies; but their body is gene- rally all of a piece. The head, which is of the same size of the trunk, is not separated from it by a narrowing like the neck of the superior vertebrate animals, and the tail, owing to its size at the base, is not distinguishable from the rest of the body. Some of these animals are entirely without fins ; but in most of them we find a considerable number of these organs, some placed on the middle line of the back or belly, and consequently unpaired or singly, and others on the side, arranged in pairs. The latter 1. What are the general characters of Fishes? What is the peculiarity f their respiration '! How does their heart differ from th.it of mammals 7 2. What is the greneral form of Fishes ? What is the situation of the pectoral fins ? Where are the ventral fins placed ? What are dorsal fins 7 What is the situation of the anal fin ? What are the caudal fins? 78 STRUCTURE OF FISHES. represent the extremities of other vertebrate animals, the ante- rior extremities which correspond to the arm in man, and the wing in birds, are fixed on each side of the trunk, immediately oehind the head, and are called pectoral fins, (Fig- 41, .) The abdominal extremities (6.) less distant from each other, generally occupy the inferior face of the body, and may be placed P more forward or J backward, from be- ^^" neath the throat to the origin of the tail : they are called ventral Jins. The single or unpaired fins occupy, as we have just said, the middle line of the body, and are distinguished into first dorsal, (c.) second dorsal, (d.) anal, (e.) and caudal fins, (f.} according to their situation on the back, under the tail, or at its extremity. They are all nearly of the same structure, and almost always consist of a fold of the skin, sustained by bony or cartilaginous rays, very much in the same manner that the wings of bats and dragons are sustained by the fingers or toes, or by the ribs of those^animals. 3. We also observe on the external surface of the body, large slits placed, on each side, immediately behind the head, which serve as an outlet to the water which has laved the branchia?: they are openings of the gills. Generally, there is but one on each side, and their anterior edge is moveable, and resembles a shutter. Along the whole length of the body, on each side, there is a series of pores which form what ichthyologists call the lateral line. 4, The skin is sometimes nearly naked, but is almost always covered with scales. Sometimes these scales are in the form of rough grains ; sometimes they are very stout tubercles, or plates of considerable thickness ; but, in general, they are very thin lamellae, covering each other like shingles or tiles, and let into folds of the skin. They may be compared to our nails ; though they contain more calcareous salts. The colours with which these animals are adorned, are astonishing in their variety and bril- liancy. Sometimes they can only be compared to the most glitter- * Explanation of Fig. 41 A common Perch, a. the pectoral fin of one side, b. ventral fin, c. first dorsal fin, d. second dorsal fin, e.anal fin, /. caurial fins. 3. What are the gill openings ? What is their use ? What is meant by the lateral line ? 4. What is the character of the skin? What is the nature of scales? How do they obtain their colour ? STRUCTURE: OF FISHES. TD ing gold or silver ; sometimes they present the richest tints of green, blue, red, or black. The silvery matter which frequently gives them such a beautiful metallic lustre, is secreted by the skin, and is composed of a multitude of small polished plates. 5. The skeleton of fishes is ordinarily bony ; but in many of these animals, it always remains libro-cartilaginous, or cartila- ginous, and in some, this frame possesses even less solidity and remains absolutely membranous. In this respect, they form the connecting link or passage between the vertebrate and inverte- brate animals. 6. The bones never have a medullary canal, and the cartilage which constitutes their basis is not like that of mammals and birds ; for, when boiled in water, it does not yield gelatine. 7. The skeleton is composed of a head, to which is joined a highly developed hyoid apparatus, serving for respiration ; a trunk and extremities. u Fig. 42.* SKELETON OP A PERCH. 8. The structure of the head is very complicated : we first observe a middle portion, composed of a great number of bones joined together by sutures, and forming a sort of immoveable keel to which are suspended the bones of the jaws, cheeks, &c. This * Explanation of Fig. 42. Skeleton of a Perch: a. the skull, 6. the orbit, c. the nostrils, d. the intermaxillary bone, e. the maxillary bones, /. the lower jaw, g. the sub-orbital bone, h. the tympanic bone, and the oilier bony pieces which separate the mouth from the cheeks, and support the lower jaw, i. the operculum, j. the ante-operculum bone, I. the scapula, or shoulder blade, m. the bones of the arm, n. the coracoid bone, o. the pectoral fin, p. the pelvis, q. the ventral fin, r. the vertebrae, s. the ribs, 1. the interspinal bone?, u. the bony spine of the first dorsal fin, r. the cartilaginous spine of the second dorsal fin, x. the anal fin, y. the caudal fin. 5. What is the nature of the skeleton of fishes 1 6 What is the character of the bones of fishes? How does fish-bone differ from that of mammals? 7. How is the skeleton of fishes divided ? 8. What are the general characters nf the head ? 2N 81- STRUCTURE OF FISflKS. mivivfle portion, the form of which is that of a pyramid with three sided, with its summit directed forward, presents posteriorly the cranial box, or skull, (fig. 42, .) in which is lodged the appa- ratus of hearing as well as the brain. Its middle part is hollowed out to form the orbits, (b.) and in front, we find pits which be- Fig. 43. SKELETON OF A PERCH. long to the olfactory apparatus, (c.) There are bones which correspond to those of the heads of mammals, but most of these bones, in fishes, are composed of several pieces, which never run together into one, as happens at an early ag3 in the mam- malia and birds. 9. At the anterior extremity of this portion of the head, we find the upper jaw, which is sometimes immoveable, though it generally preserves great mobility : on each side there is an inter-maxillary bone, (, or articulated rays: they always form the caudal fin, and sometimes there are no others. 13. The lateral fins, which represent the extremities, are terminated by rays similar to those of the vertical fins, and analogous to fingers. At the base of the pectoral fin we find a series of from four to five small flat bones, comparable to the bones of the carpus, which, in their turn, are attached to two flat bones which seem to be the radius and ulna enlarged This apparatus is supported on a species of bony belt, situate imme- diately behind the gills, and on which the operculum applies: it consists of a series of three bones, extending from the cranium to the hyoid apparatus, and supports posteriorly a long stylet. The principal piece that enters into its composition is that which supports the fore-arm, which may be compared to the humerus, (See Fig. 42, 1'aye 80.) : it joins below with that of the opposite 11. What are the characters of the ribs ? 12. What are the interspinal bones ? What are the rays of the fins ? 13. What parts of fishes represent the extremities of mammals ? STRUCTURE OF FISHES. side, and with a middle prolongation of the hyoid apparatus, and is attached to the cranium through the medium of two bones, which Cuvier considers analogous to the scapula; finally, the stylet which arises from it, and is prolonged backwards upon the ribs, is ordinarily formed of two pieces, and may be compared to a coracoid bone. 14. The posterior extremity is less complicated; the rays or the ventral fin are supported by a single bone, generally trian- gular, which often becomes attached in front, to the middle junction of the bony belt of tire pectoral extremity, and at other times it is merely suspended in the flesh. 15 In cartilaginous fishes, the arrangement of the skeleton differs from what has just been described. The head especially, is much more simple in its structure. 16. The muscular apparatus is composed of muscles destined to flex the vertebral column laterally, and also to move the tail; they form the largest part of the mass of the body of fishes. By striking the water laterally, by alternate flexions of the trunk and tail, these animals communicate to their body, nearly the whole of the rapidity they have in swimming. Their vertical fins serve to increase the extent of the species of keel or oar they form, while the chief use of the pectoral and ventral fins, in general, is to influence the direction of their course, and to maintain the equilibrium of the animal. 17. A peculiarity of their organization, which is of great assis- tance in swimming, is the existence of a sort of pouch filled with air, and so placed that it can be compressed at will. This swim- ming, or air-bladder, which is placed in the abdomen beneath the dorsal spine, ordinarily communicates with the oesophagus, or stomach, by a canal, through which the air contained in it, may escape ; but this fluid does not seem to enter by that route ; it is produced by secretion, the seat of which is in a portion of the parietes of the reservoir itself, which is of a glandular structure. By the motions of the ribs, this bladder is more or less com- pressed, and, according to its volume, it gives to the body of the fish, a specific gravity, equal, superior or inferior to that of the water, and causes it thus to remain in equilibrium, to descend, or ascend in this liquid. It is remarked that it is often wanting, and that it is very small in those species that swim near the bottom, or bury themselves in the mud. 14. What is the character of the posterior extremity ? 15. Is the skeleton the same in all fishes 1 16. By what means do fishes move? What is the use of the fins? 17. What is the air bladder in fishes? What is the source of the air contained in it ? STRUCTURE OF FISHED 85 18. In a small number of fishes, the pectoral fins are so very much developed, as to enable the animal to sustain itself in the air for a few moments, when it springs out of water. There are some also, that by crawling, or by frequent leaps, are capable of progression on land. It is asserted that some can climb trees ; but instances of this kind, are very rare. 19. Fishes pass their lives almost entirely in providing for their subsistence, or in escaping from their enemies; their ex- ternal senses seem to afford them only very duU impressions, and their faculties are of the most limited character. 20. Fishes are very stupid animals; they have no remarkable intelligence or instinct, and their brain, (Fig 45, t.) is but liule developed ; it does not entirely fill the cavity of the cranium, and is surrounded by a liquid matter of a fatty nature. 21. The ear of fishes, in general, is composed only of a sesti- bule, surmounted by three membranous semi-circular canals, suspended in the cavity of the cranium, on each side of the; brain, and to which waves of sound are communicated, only after they have set in vibration the common integuments and bones of the cranium Generally, there is no appearance of an external ear. Their eyes are ordinarily very large, and are unprovided with true eye lids, and a lachrymal apparatus ; the skin which covers them is transparent ; and the iris is silvery and immoveable, or nearly so, and the cornea is almost flat, the pupil is very large, and the chrystalline lens is spherical. The nasal fossae do not open into the pharynx, as is the case in vertebrate animals that breathe air. The tongue is never truly fleshy, and the sens of taste is but little developed. Tact must be extremely ovxuse. In general, the skin of these animals is entirely covered with scales ; sometimes, however, it is naked. 22. Ordinarily fishes are very voracious, and are not very particular in their choice of food. The species which live chiefly on vegetables, are very few in number; they are almost all carnivorous, and devour each other. 23. Fishes sometimes have teeth, not only in the jaws, but also in all the bones that surround the cavity of the mouth, and that of the pharynx ; at other times they are entirely wanting. These teeth never have roots, and their form varies very much, particu- 18. Are fishes capable of progression, when out of water ? 19. Are the senses of fishes very acute? 20. What is the character of the brain in fishes ? . 21. What is the character of the ear in fishes ? What are the peculiars ties of the eye ? What are the peculiarities of the nasal fossae ? 22. Upon what do fishes generally feed ? 23. What is the character of the teeth of fishes? 2N* 84 STRUCTURE OF FISHES. larly those that are found on the pharyngeal bones, and which serve to grind the food when on its way to the oesophagus. They have no true salivary glands ; the oesophagus is very short. P ff J ANATOMY OF A PIKE 24 The other viscera of the digestive apparatus, (Fig. 45.) ure lodged in the abdomen, which is lined by a peritoneum, and separated from the cavity containing the heart by a sort of diaphragm, (s.) In some fishes, (chiefly the cartilaginous fishes,) the abdomen communicates externally by two openings, situate upon the sides of the anus, so that the peritoneum is continuous with the skin. 2.5. The stomach, (i.) is in general, very distinct; that part which corresponds to the large intestine, is not much larger than the small intestine; and there never is a coecum as in mammals. The liver, (.) is generally large, and of a soft texture; the position and size of the gall-bladder, (n ) vary ; the place of the pancreas is almost always supplied by two tubes of a peculiar tissue, placed around the pylorus ; the position of the anus varies much ; sometimes it is found under the throat, and at others, at the base of the tail. The kidneys, (p.) are very voluminous, and extend along both sides of the vertebral column, the whole length of the abdomen. Their excretory ducts terminate in a sort of bladder, the opening of which is posterior to the anus. *Explnnatwn of Fig. 45. Anatomy of the viscera of a Pike : a. the nostrils, />. the cavity of the moulh, c. a part of the lower jaw, d. the tongue, e. the branchiae, or gills f- the arch of the palate, or roof of the mouth, tr. openings through which f the Fiskes of Massa- chusetts, by Jerome V. C. Smith, M. D. Modern' times have not witnessed similar follies; but neverthe- less, for many maritime people, fishing has not been the less a source of great wealth. At one period, which is not very remote from our own, this branch of industrv employed one fifth of the total population of Holland, and in the herring fishery alone, that country covered the whole North Sea with her vessels. In England, it subsisted a co isiderable number of good and hardy sailors, and even in France, where it is of less importance, there are from thirty to forty thousand fishermen, about one third of whom venture as far as the coasts of Iceland and Newfoundland. And in the United States a very large number of people derive their living from the various fisheries. 37. The immense Cuss OF FISHES is naturally divided into two series, the Osseous and Cartilaginous fishes, which differ from each other, not only in their skeleton, but also in a great number of other characters The modification of the structure of the branchiae, the disposition of the mouth, and the nature of the tin-rays that sustain the dorsal fin, as well as the position of the ventral fins, furnish naturalists^wilh the basis for the division of the two groups into orders, as may be seen in the following table : 37. What is the first division of the Class of Fishes? What parts o* these animals afford the means or basis of classifying them? 7* .on DIVISION OF THE CLASS OF FISHES. 6 C5 S uff- II 14 rt 0^ sT 2 r jfl w* a j ^ ^ 05 ^ w .2 o ** o* o u 0) 2 ^ -3 ^ - ** ^*. J2 ci bo ^C >> ex, Cw u " i H ^ A. i "GO O -Y" a 00 Jl J a ! 8 I- || F! ll 1 . ii y i "S "3 Illi j 5 1 s l-i || 1^- i I 1 5 " -. ^al > Selachi > i / ^~ ^, a c . s c *U ~ 7 7 -J 05 3 c ill ;uate bel e abdome ill 1 S S -3 s- 5 5 . ; o f "co w movea '1 J o _= c si 3 rt W ^J 00 ~ C i ri *; V , L. ^ O C (M S .-, 3 cT | h? a 5 ^> > c h 1 'C ';*? | S| O i i CJ . t "rt J * , .i: G5 b .C C s ^ 1 ill 1 c 1 i = * T3 X " '^ c 8.^ ^ S "3 C ^j* 5 a. a. i^ ^ ^*M O ^^ 05 s S ^"^ S i 22 02 OS'S S3HSIJ JO SSVTfJ OSSEOUS FISHES. 9i LESSON VI. ORDER OP ACANTHOPTERYGIANS. Family of Percoides, (Perches, Rock-fish.} Family of Mulloides, (Red Mulcts, Flying-fishes.) Family of Mailed- cheeks. Family of Scienoides. Family of Sparoides. Family of Menidts. Family of Squamipennes. Family of Labyrintliiform pharynyeals. Family of Scorn,' beroides, ( Mackerel. Mackerel Fishery . Tunny. Sword* Fish, Sec.) DIVISION OP OSSEOUS FISHES. ORDER OF A C AN T H O P T E R YGI I. 1. The Order of Acanthopterygians is easily recognised by the disposition of the branchiae and upper jaw, and by the spinous fins Three fourths of the fishes known, belong to this group; but these animals resemble each other in so very many respects, that in spite of the numerous differences we remark among them, we can only separate them into several natural families, all ol which we are obliged to place in the same order 2. The first fin-rays of the back are always bony and spinous, (Fig. 46.) When there are two dorsal fins, these spinous rays only sustain the first; and p^ Q 45 when there is but one of these organs, they sustain at least its anterior portion; and we sometimes find them entirely free or separate. Generally there is also a bony ray to each ventral fin, and frequently the anal fin has some spines for its first rays. 3. This order is divided into six natural families, the most remarkable of which are, the Percoides, the Mulloides, the Mailed- cheeks, the Labyrinthiform Pharyngeals and Scomberoides. 4. The FAMILY OF PERCOIDES, (or fishes that resemble a Perch) is composed of fishes that have an oblong, more or less com- pressed body, covered with scales, which are generally hard ; the mouth large, and armed with teeth, situate upon the front of the vomer, and almost always on the palate bones as well as the jaws, the branchial arches and pharyngeal bones ; the operculum, or the bone situate immediately anterior to it, and therefore called pre-operculum, or ante-operculum, is dentate or spiny on its edge , 1. How is the Order of Acanthopterygians distinguished ? U. WViat is the character of their dorsal fins ? 3. How is this order divided ? 2O PEACHES, ROCK-FISfT. and the fins are always seven or eight in number. They have no beards upon the chin ; in general, they are adorned with beautiful colours, and their flesh is very agreeable food. 5. Most of these fishes have the ventral fins attached beneath the pectoral ; those in which this arrangement occurs are known under the name of Thoracic Percoides: they are sub-divided into two groups characterised by the number of the soft rays of the ventral fin, which is five in the one, and seven in the other. Among the first are those that have seven branch iostegous rays, (the small, thin, and elongated bones which sustain ihe giil-mem- brane, situate beneath the operculum, and serving to complete the external parietes of the branchial cavity,) two dorsal hns, and all the teeth very fine and close, like the pile on velvet ; they are the Perches, the Kock-Fish,. &c. 6. The PERCHES, Perca, are distinguished by their smooth tongue and by the spines and teeth on their opercula : they inhabit, fresh water. The Common Perch, Perca flumatilis, (fig. 47.) which is greenish, with vertical, blackish bands, and Fig. 47. tne ventral and anal fins red, is found 'throughout Europe, as weii as a great part of Asia, and the United States. It inhabits lakes, rivers, and running streams, COMMON PERCH. and avoids salt, or brackish water, and ordinarily keeps at a depth of two or three feet. These fishesdo not swim in numerous shoals ; they feed on worms, insects and small fishes: they spawn in the month of April, and their eggs are joined together by a viscid matter in long cords, which interlace among reeds, c. 7. The ROCK-FISH, or STRIPED BASSE, Perca labrax, \s a sea-fish that has the tongue covered with asperities, and the opercula somewhat different, but which, in other respects, closely resembles the Perches. On the sides are parallel lines, like nar- row ribbons, eight in number, which give it the name of Striped Basse ; the scales are large, of a metallic lustre, and the oper- culum is serrated in the middle plate. This fish abounds on our own coast, and is much esteemed as an article of food. 4. How is the family of Percoides distinguished ? 5. What are Thoracic Percoides ? 6. What are the characters of the Perches ? What are the characters of the common Perch ? What are its habits ? 7. What are the characters of the Rock-fish or Striped Basse ? MULLETS. FL VI NG.FISH. 93 8. The FAMILY OF MULLOIDES differs but little from that of the percoides, but is easily distinguished from it, by the large scales with, which the whole body of these fishes is covered, and by two long cirri or beards which hang from under the lower jaw. It is composed of the Mullets properly so called, of which two species are found in Europe, namely: the Red Mullet, and Surmullet. 9. The Red Mullet, Mnllus barbatus, has the body and tail red, even after the scales have been removed ; its size is ordinarily from eight to ten inches. It lives in many seas, particularly in the Mediterranean, and is much prized for tne excellent taste ol its flesh. It is celebrated on account of the pleasure which the Romans took in contemplating the changes of colour it displays while dying. Exorbitant prices were paid for Mullets of extraor- dinary size, and at entertainments, they were brought to the table alive, and cooked before the eyes of the guests. 10. The Surmullet, Mullnz snrmuletus, is larger than the Mullet, and is longitudinally striped yellow ; it is more common in the ocean, but its flesh is less esteemed. 11. The FAMILY OF MAILED-CHEEKS, Bucca loricatce, is recognised by the manner in which the sub-orbital bones are pro- longed to the opercula and protect the cheeks. 12. In this family are placed the Fying Fishes, Dactylopterus, in which the pectoral fin-rays are very numerous, and united by a membrane so as p^ 4g to form very large pectoral fins, (/%. 48.) which they use as wings, to sustain themselves in the air when they spring out of water, in the hope of escaping from their enemies. FLYING-FISH OP THE MEDITERRANEAN. Voyagers meet with them in the Mediterranean, but particularly in the tropical seas; they swim in numerous shoals, which the bonita and other voracious fishes, fiercely pursue, and when, to escape this danger, they spring into the air, another, not less great, awaits them ; for a host of sea-birds, such as the Frigate and Phaeton, also pursue them, and embrace this opportunity to 8. How is the family of Mulloides distinguished? 9. What is the Mullet? 10. What is the Surmullet ? 11. What are the characters of the family of Mailed-cheek? 12. What are the characters and habits of Flying-fishes? 94 SCTRNOIDE^. SPAROinES. SQU\MIPEN T NES. pounce upon them. These fishes cannot go very far in this way because the drying of the membrane which unites the rays of the pectoral fins forces them soon to fall back again into the sea.. J3. The FAMILY OF SCIENOIDES resembles the Percoides, but is distinguished from them by the absence of teeth on the vomer and palate. In general, the bones of the cranium and face are cavernous, and the muzzle is more or less inflated. Almost all the fishes of this group are good to eat, and many of them are exquisite. .To this family belong the Umbrina, which is a large, good fish, the Corvina which is found in the Mediterranean, and the Drum-fishes or Pagonias which inhabit our own coast ; the last are remarkable for the noise they make, which is compared to that of a drum. 14. The FAMILY OF SPAROIDES has neither the inflated muzzle, nor spiny operculum of the preceding; but the palate is free of teeth, and the body is covered with scales of greater or less size, and the mouth is not protractile. 15. In the first tribe of this family, called Spams, we find on each side of the jaws, round molar teeth, in form of paving stones, (F*y- 47-); sometimes there are also, in front of the jaws, two cutting incisor teeth, almost similar to those in man, (it is the case in the Sargtis,) some species of which live near the Mediterranean coasts: at other times, we only find in front, some conical or blunt teeth. The Daurades, Chrifsophns, are recognised by this latter character, and by the exis- tence of at least three rows of molar teeth in the upper jaw. The Common Daurade is frequent on the coast of f3ritany, as well as in the Mediterranean. Its body is oval, and its mouth is furnished with four rows of molar teeth above, and five below. It derives its name from its golden colour. 16. The small family of MENIDES is composed of fishes that very much resemble the Sparoides, but which are distinguished from them by the mouth, which is very protractile, and, at the will of the animal, converted into a tube 17. The FAMILY OF SQUAMIPENNES is recognised by having the soft, and sometimes the spinous part of the dorsal and anal fins covered by scales, and difficult to distinguish from the mass of the body, which is compressed and also scaly. Some of the Scienoides also have the fins incrusted with scales: but they 13. What arc the characters and habits of the Scienoides? 14- How is the family of Sparoides characterised ? 1. How are the Daurades recognised? 16. How are the Menides distinguished from the Sparoides? 17. What are the characters of the Squarnipennes ? SHOOTING-FISH. AN ABAS. 95 never have the teeth in the form of flexible bristles as in most of the Squamipennes, and their inflated muzzle is often sufficient to distinguish them. 18. The .Squamipennes, in which the jaws are furnished with several ranges of teeth, similar in conformation and arrangement to the hairs of a brush, have been united under the name of CH^ETODON. Their mouth is very small, and the dorsal and anal fins are so covered with scales that it is difficult to distinguish them from the body : they are very numerous in the seas of hot regions, and very remarkable for the beauty and variety of their colours. 19 The CASTAGNOLES, Brama, and the AJICHERS, Toxotes, &c. differ from the Chaetodons in many respects, particularly in having teeth on the vomerand palate. The first have the muzzle very short, the forehead vertical and a very small number of spinous rays concealed in the anterior portion of the dorsal fin : they inhabit the iMedi terra nean. The Archers, or shooting fishes have the forehead very oblique, and the dorsal fin very far back, armed with strong spines, and not covered by scales. The com- mon species, Tttxotw jaatlator, inhabits the Ganges, and the seas of India ; it is celebrated on account of the manner in which it projects drops of water on insects that frequent aquatic plants, in order to throw them down and feed on them. They throw a drop three or four feet high, and rarely miss their aim. This singular instinct is common to a species of Chaetodon that inhabits the same places. 20. The FAMILY OP LABYRINTHIFORM PHARYNGEALS, is a small family remarkable for possessing very complicated cells above the branchia3. These cells, enclosed beneath the operculurn and formed by the lamellae of the pharyngeal bones, serve to retain a certain quantity of water which keeps the branchiae humid, when the animal is exposed to the air, and enables it to live in this way for a considerable time: these fishes are in the habit of leaving the rivers and pools, their ordinary abode, and going to con- siderable distances by crawling on the grass or on the land. Those that possess this labyrintniform apparatus in the highest degree of complication, and which have received the name of ANABAS, not only remain a long time out of water, but also, as we are assured, climb trees. Most of the fishes of this family Inhabit India and China. IS. Whit are the Chaetodons ? 19. VVhat are Castagnoles ? What are the characters of the Shooting- fish' 20. VVhat are the characters of the Labyrinthi'orm pharyngeals 1 What are their habits? 2O* 96 MACKERELS. 21. The FAMILY OF SCOMBEROIDES is the most important of this order ; it comprises many fishes of considerable size, the taste of which is excellent, and the fecundity so inexhaustible, that, in spite of the continued destruction to which they are subject, they return yearly in immense legions to the same localities, and offer themselves as a certain prey to the activity of fishermen, and to the industry of those who make it a business to prepare and preserve them. The Tunny, the Bonita, and Mackerel, which are so useful to man, and form a type of this family, are easily distinguished from other Acanthopterygians ; but many of the species that are naturally grouped around them possess none of the marks which. make them known, and establish such close relations with other families, that the limits of the latter are diffi- cult to define. In general, the Scomberoides have very small scales, and a large part of the skin smooth ; they have neither spines nor teeth on the pieces of the opercula ; their vertical fins are not scaly; the tail, and the caudal fin especially, are ordinarily large and very vigorous. Most of them have the sides of the tail carinate or armed with scales in form of a shield ; and in many, the posterior rays of the second dorsal, and anal fins, are separated, and form so many falve fit *, or s turWe. Family of Discobnli. FAMILY OF ECHENEIS. liemora. ORDER OF APODOUS MALACOPTERYGIANS. Eels. Common Eel S-'a Eel. Gymnotus elect ricus. ORDER OF LOPHOBRANCHIANS. Organization. Hippocampus. ORDER OF PLECTOGNATHI. Organization. Diodou. Trunk-fislt* ORDER OF MALACOPTHRYGII SUBBRACHIATI. /. This Order is distinguished from other Malacopterygians by the situation of the ventral fins, which are placed beneath the pectorals, the pelvis being suspended immediately from the bones of the shoulder. 2. The Subbrachian Malacopterygians constitute four families, namely : Gadoides, Plenronectes-, Discoboli , and Echeneis. 3. The FAMILY OF GADOIDES is composed of Subbrachian Malacopterygians in which the body is a little compressed, and symmetrical, in which the ventral fins are sharpened to a point, and attached under the throat; they are covered with soft, small scales ; most of them live in cold or temperate seas, and they afford to man an abundance of a good and wholesome food. In. this family are placed the genera of Cod, Whiting, Ling, &c. 1. What are the characters of the Subbrachian MalacopterygianB ? *2 Into what families is tliis order divided ? 3. What are the general characters of N the fkmily of Gadoides ? 110 COD. WHITING 4. The Coos, GWwv, are distinguished by the existence of three dorsal, and two anal fins, and a cirrus at the end of the muzzle or snout The most important species of this genus is the Cod properly so culled, Gadm /tiorrhna, a fish two or three feet long, with a gray back spotted yellowish, and a white belly. Cods are found in greatest abundance in the ocean be- tween the fortieth and sixtieth degrees of north latitude. On the coasts of Norway, in the neighbourhood of Iceland, and espe- cially in the waters of Newfoundland, they are found in incalcu- lable numbers. During winter, they retire to the depths of the sea ; but in the warm season, the necessity of casting their spawn and of providing for their subsistence, causes them to approach the shore, and fathomable waters. In some localities, the cod- fishery is conducted with seines four or five hundred feet in length, but generally they are caught with a hook and line, baited with herring, the gills of cod-fish, &c. A skilful fisherman may catch in this way, four hundred cod-fishes in a day. The fish is prepared in different ways for preservation ; when simply salted, it is known in commerce as green cod ; when dried without being salted, it is stockfish : and when salted and dried in the sun, it is called dry cod. The tongues, salted or pickled with the swimming- bladders, are much esteemed, and known under the titlo of tongues and sounds. " The sound or swimming-bladder oi the cod-fish, if rightly prepared, supplies an isinglass equal to the best Russian, and applicable to all the uses for which the imported is employed." The liver yields a large quantity of pure, limpid oil, cod-liver-oif, which, in many respects, and for most purposes, is superior to the commonly used fish-oil. Catching and preparing cod-fish are very important branches of maritime industry. About twelve thousand French, and a very much larger number of English and American fishermen are yearly engaged in this business. 5. The WHITINGS, MerlanyiiSi have the same number of fins as the cod, but no cirri. The Common Whiting, Gadus 53^ merlanyvs, (Fig. 53.) which is about a foot long, silvery beneath, reddish gray or olive above, may be recognised by the upper jaw being longer than the lower : it COMMON WHITING. inhabits European seas, and is 4. How is the genus of Cods recognised ? What is the Cod properly so called ? Where are Cods found ? How are they caught ? What is Stock- 1 *h ? What are tongues and sounds ? 5. What are the characters of the common Whiting H AKE. LING.PL A 1C E. HI much esteemed for the lightness of its delicate flesh. On ti.e coast of Britany it is salted and dried like the cod. 6. The HAKES, Merlucchis, have no cirri, and differ from the cods in the number of their fins ; they have but two dorsal tins, and one posterior to the anus. The Common Hake, <*a(j. 58.) ; its bofly is elongated, and of the same size throughout, and its skin is imbued with a gluey matter : it is very common in the small rivulets and laks, and met with here and there on the immense planes situate between the Cordillera, the Oronoco, and Banda-Oriental, and it is also found in the Apure, Oronoco, Meta, &c The electric shocks which it gives, are sufficiently powerful to knock down men and horses, and the Gymnotus resorts to this means of defending itself against its enemies, and to kill at a distance, fis es upon which it feeds; for water, as well as metals, transmits the benumbing shock of this singular animal, in the same manner that the lightning rod con- ducts the electricity of the clouds from the atmosphere to the earth Its first discharges of electricity are generally feeble; but when it is irritated and agitated, they become more and more powerful, and are then terrible. When it has thus given repeated shocks, it becomes exhausted, and requires a greater or less period of rest before it regains its power It is said, that it employs this time in charging its electric organs, and that the Americans avail themselves of this circumstance to capture it without danger. To catch the gymnoti, they drive into the pools inhabited by these fishes, wild horses, which, receiving the first shocks, are soon benumbed, and thrown down or even killed ; then they obtain the exhausted gymnoti with nets, or a harpoon. 26. The electric apparatus of the gymnotus extends all along the back and tail, and consists of four longitudinal fasciculi, com- posed of a great number of membranous plates, which are parallel and very close together, and arranged almost horizontally and united by an infinity of other smaller lamella placed verti- cally crosswise: the little prismatic and transverse cells, formed by the junction of these lamenaB, are filled by a gelatinous matter : the whole apparatus is supplied with very large nerves. ORDER OF LOPHOBRANCHIL 27. This order i-s distinguished by the branchiae, which, in place of being pectinate, that is, having the form of comb-teeth, as is ordinarily the case, are divided into small round tufts, arranged in pairs along the branchial arches. They are enclosed under a large operculum, which is attached on all sides by a membrane, leaving only a small hole for the escape of water, 26. What is the situation o^ the electric apparatus of the Gymnotus? What are the characters of this apparatus 7 k J7. What are the characters of the order of Lophobranchii ? HIPPOCAMPUS. PIODON. H7 and in its thickness we find only vestiges of branchiostegous rays. These fishes are also recognised by the mail-like plates which cover the body, and render it almost always angular. They are generally small. ,-,. _ 28. To^this order belongs the Hippoc'impHSi (/'"/. 59.) the body of which is laterally compressed, and more elevated than the tail ; on curling up, after death, the HIP , O CAMP US . head and trunk bear some resem- blance tcTthe neck of a horse in miniature, which has obtained for this little fish the common name of Sea-/torse. ORDER OF PLECTOGXATHI. 29. The fishes composing this group form the connecting link Detween the ordinary and cartilaginous fishes, as much by the conformation of their jaws, as by the tardy consolidation of their skeleton. Their chief distinctive character is, that the maxillary, is solidly fixed upon the side of the intermaxillary bone, which alone forms the jaw, and that the palatine arch articulates with the cranium, in a manner which renders it immoveable. More- over, their opercula and branchiostegous rays are concealed be- neath a thick skin, which leaves externally only a small branchial slit; they have no true ventral tins; and they have only vestiges of ribs. This order comprises two families, recognisable by the opening of their mouth, namely : the Gymnodvufcs, and tne Sclvi'ixlt niti. 30. In the FAMILY OF OYMNODONTES, there are no apparent teeth ; but the jaws are furnished with a species of ivory beak, internally divided into plates, which represent the teeth It includes the Diod'w, the V'r/mr/oM, the Mole, western Europe and North America; but it is particularly in the great rivers of the eastern part of Europe, and the north of Asia, that they abound, and give rise to important fisheries. The Common Stiirycon, Jlcipi'.nser sturio, is six or seven feet long, with a pointed snout, and five rows of strong, spiny plates : it enters the large rivers of France about the month of April, and ascends in numerous shoals, the Danube, the Don, and many other streams that flow into the Caspian Sea. This species is found in the waters of the United States. The Huusen, or Great Sturgeon, J$cipeu*er kugo, ( Fie/. 61.) which attains from twelve to fifteen feet in length, and often weighs more than twelve hun- Fiq* 61. dred pounds, and sometimes even as much as three thousand is some- times seen in the Po : but generally, K GREAT it only frequents the Danube, the Don, the Volga, and other rivers which empty into the same seas. It enters them in shoals, from the end of winter, and, immediately after spawning, returns to the sea, where it is soon followed by its young. Its flesh is less esteemed than that of the common sturgeon ; but it is chiefly from its eggs and its swimming-bladder that caviar, and icktkyo- colla are prepared. It is distinguished from the last by its blunter tubercles or plates, its shorter snout, and smoother skin. The Ste.tl-t, or Little Stnrijcou, JUt'.ippnserpyf/iiue'r*, which seldom exceeds two feet in length, and which has its plates arranged in more numerous rows than the preceding species, also inhabits the rivers which flow into the Black and Caspian Seas : its flesh H said to be delicate ; it is probably the clops and acipenser so celebrated among the Romans. 5. We give the name of Polyodon, Spatularia, to certain fishes of the Mississippi river, which bear some analogy to 4. What are the characters of the common Sturgeon/ What are the characters of the great Sturgeon? Where is it found? What is th* Sterlet? 5. What is the Polyodon ? 10 122 ORDER OF SELACHIL sturgeons : they are remarkable for an enormous prolongation oi the muzzle, to which its wide borders give the figure of a leaf. The mouth is well cleft, and furnished with numerous small teeth. 6. The Chimceras form a connecting link between the preceding and the sharks, which they resemble in the general form of the body. CHONDROPTERYGII BRANCHIIS FIXIS. 7. The Chondropterygians with fixed branchiae, which form the two orders of Selachii and Cyclostomi, possess a very re- markable character in the arrangement of their respiratory apparatus, which is common to them all. Instead of having the branchiae free on the external edge, and suspended in a common cavity, from which the water escapes by a single opening, they have them, on the contrary, adherent to the integuments, so that, for the escape of the water that laves them, there is required as many openings as there are intervals betwixt them ; sometimes, however, they empty into a common canal, which serves to transmit the water externally ; and their cartilaginous arches, often suspended in the flesh, are placed opposite to the external edges of the branchiae. In other respects these fishes differ very much from each other, and are divided into two orders, according as they are provided with moveable jaws of the ordinary form, or according as these organs are solidly united into an immove- able ring, only suited for suction. The first are the Selachii, and the second the Cycloxtomi. ORDER OF SELACHII. ? 8. This order comprises the greatest number of cartilaginous fishes, Rays and Sharks, for example. Their external form varies; they have pectoral fins; ventral fins situate on the abdomen near the anus; five branchial openings in the form of slits, on each side of the neck, or on its inferior face, and the jaws are armed with teeth. In a great many of these fishes, there is on the upper surface of the head, two openings, called venfs, or xpiracles, which lead to the branchia?, and serve to carry off the water, necessary to respiration, when the throat of the animal is 6. What are Chirngeras? 7. What are the characters of Chondropterygians with fixed branchiae ? What are the peculiarities of their branchiae ? 8. How is the order of Selachii characterised ? SHARKS. distended by a voluminous prey Some of them are ovo-oivii;a* rojts, and others lay eggs covered by a hard, horny shell. It is divided into sharks, saiu-fishes, rays, &c. 9. The SHARKS, St/iialides, constitute a large tribe, recog- nisable by their general form, which differs but little from that of ordinary fishes. Their body is elongated, the tail stout and fleshy, and the pectoral fins of moderate size. Their eyes are situate as usual, on the sides of the head; their muzzle presents nothing remarkable, and the openings of their branchiae are found upon the sides of the neck ; the shoulder bones are suspended in the flesh, without articulating either with the cranium or vertebral column, and the skin is rough and their flesh coriaceous. Most of them attain a large size, and are very voracious. 10. The Rousseltes, Scyllium, are distinguished from other Squali, by a short, obtuse snout, by the nostrils being pierced near the mouth, and surrounded by a groove which extends to the lip. These fishes are provided with spiracles and an anal fin ; their dorsals are behind it, and the caudal is elongated, not forked and truncated at the end; their branchial openings are situate partly under the pectorals. There are two large species on the coast of France, the Great Roussette, or Sea~ L)og, Squaliis canicula, (Fifh 62 ) which is also found on the American coast, at- tains three or four feet in length, and the Rock- Shark, Sqnahis cutulus. The skin of these fishes, which is studded with a multitude of small, stony tubercles, becomes very rough on drying, and is then employed in the arts for polishing hard bodies, such as ivory. 11. Sharks properly so called have the nostrils without a groove, and situate under the muzzle, which is prominent. The caudal fin is more or less forked. Some of them have spiracles, and in others they are wanting. 12. The genus Carcharias, have no spiracles, and are pro- vided with an anal fin ; their muzzle is depressed and the mouth is strongly armed with pointed, trenchant teeth, which are gene- rally dentate on the edges. 9 What are the characters of Sharks? 10. How are Roussettes distinguished from othsr Sharks? 1 1 How are Sharks properly so called characterised ? l!2. What are the characters of the genus Carcharias? 124 SAW-FISHED RAYS. Fig. 63. SHARK S HEAD. 13. The While Shark) Squaluis carchurias^ which attains? twenty five or thirty feet in length, is celebrated for its ferocity. Its vast mouth, (Fig. 63.) is furnished with triangular, moveable teeth, the number of which increases with age. In the young, we see but a single row ; but, in the adult, we find six. The strength of this fish is very great, and its motions rapid ; its voracity knows no bounds ; hence, it is among the most dangerous animals Men frequently be- come the prey of sharks, and as many as eight or ten tunnies have been some- times found in its belly, f-eals, tunnies, and cods, are their ordinary food; but they attack dead bodies, and even devour each other. It appears they are found in every sea ; but voyagers often confound with the carcharias, other species of sharks with cutting teeth. 14. The SAW-FISHES, Pruttis, unite to the form of the sharks, a body flattened in front, with branchial openings beneath, as in the Rays, but they are especially distinguished by a very Jong snout, depressed in form of a sword-blade, armed on each side with strong bony spines, which are pointed and trenchant This beak, from which they derive their name, is a powerful weapon, with which they do not fear to attack the largest whales. The true teejh of their jaws are like small pebbles, (Pig. 47, Page 94.) 15. The Common Saw-fish, Sqiialns pristi*, which is found in almost every sea, attains a length of twelve or fifteen feet. Its skin is tuberculous, of a very dark gray on the back, ash-colour on the sides, and whitish under the belly. 16. The RAYS, Raid, form a large tribe. Fishes of this genus are recognised by their body being horizontally flattened, and similar to a disk, a conformation which is principally due to the disposition of their pectoral fins, which are extremely broad and fleshy, and are joined to each other in front or to the muzzle, and extend backwards on both sides of the abdomen, nearly to the base of the ventral fins; the eyes as well as the spiracles are placed on the dorsal face : the mouth, the nostrils, and the open- ings of the branchia3 are on the ventral surface of the body ; and 13. What are the characters of the White Shark? 14. How are Saw-fishes distinguished? 15. What are the characters of the common Saw-fish ? 1 $. How is the genus of Rays recognised ? TORPEDO. 125 the dorsal fins are almost always upon the tail, which is very slender. This group is divided into Rays properly so called, Tofpidoe*, &c. 17. The Rays properly so called-, Raia, have the body of a rhomboidal form, a slender tail, fine teeth, &c. Our coast fur- nishes many species, such as the Skate, Sting- Ray, &c. 18. The TORPEDOES, or ELECTRIC RAYS, Torpedo, have a short, but fleshy tail. The body is smooth and in form of a nearly circular disk, the anterior border of which is- formed by two prolongations of the snout, which, on each side go to join the pectoral tins, and leave between these p- Q^ organs, and the head and branchiae, an oval ' space ( Fig. 64.) in wnich is lodged the ' ' a electric apparatus of these fishes. This appa- ratus consists of a multitude of vertical, mem- branous tubes, placed close together like the cells of a honey-comb, subdivided by hori- zontal partitions into small cells filled with mucus, and supplied by numerous large branches of the pneumogastric nerve. In these singular organs is produced the electricity, by aid of which torpedoes communicate electric shocks to those who touch them, a faculty possessed by the malapteruri, (Page 103.) and TORPEDO^ gymnoti,(f7ell5.)but which, in these last, is seattJ in a different structure. These fishes are less powerful than the gymnoti, but can nevertheless, benumb the arm of a person touching one of them, and they probably resort to this means to obtain their prey. Several species are found on the coasts of France. ORDER OF CYCLOSTOMT. 19. This last order of cartilaginous fishes is characterised by the singular conformation of the mouth, and is composed of the most imperfectly organised of all the vertebrate animals. 20. Their body, elongated, naked and viscid, is unprovided with thoracic and abdominal extremities ; for both the pectoral * Explanation of Fig, 64. The Torpedo, or Electric Ray: a. a portion of the skin detached to show one of the electric organs, (6.) 17. What are the characters of Rays properly so called? 18. How are the Torpedoes characterised ? What is the nature of theii Wectric apparatus ? 19. How is the order of Cyclostomi characterised ? 20. What are the characters of fishes of this order? What are thn pecu liarities of their respiratory apparatus ? 10* 126 LAMPREYS. Fig. 65. and ventral fins are wanting. Anteriorly, they terminate in a circular, or semi-circular, fleshy lip, sustained by a cartilaginous ring, formed by the solid union of the palatine and lower jaw bones, or rather, cartilages. The vertebrae are reduced to simple cartilaginous rings, scarcely distinct one from the other, traversed by a tendinous cord, and surmounted by a second ring which is more solid, surrounding the spinal marrow. There are no true ribs nor branchial arches ; the branchiae, instead of being pecti- nate, present the appearance of sacks formed by the union of the face of one branchia, with that of a corresponding branchia on the opposite side. Sometimes this imperfect* skeleton is not even cartilaginous, but always remains membranous. The organs of the senses are less complicated in structure than they are in ordinary fishes. They have no swimming-bladder. 21. The LAMPREYS, Petromyzoa, are recognised by seven branchial openings which are seen on both sides of the neck, by their circular labial ring, armed with several ranges of strong teeth, and horny tubercles, (Fig. 65.); the tongue is also furnished with teeth, and is carried for- ward and backward like a piston, which enables the animal to exert the faculty of suction and use its buccal disk, not only to suck up the juices upon which it feeds, but to attach itself to solid bodies. The skin of these fishes is raised up above and beneath the tail in a longitudinal crest that takes the place of fins, which are sustained only by vestiges of fin-rays. The water necessary for respiration passes from the mouth to the branchiae, by a canal situate under the oesophagus, and pierced laterally by holes. 22. The Sea Lamprey, Petromyzon marinus, ( Fig. 66. ) which is two or three feet 'long, and marbled brown on a yellowish ground, inhabits the coasts Fig. 66. of France, and the United States, and in the spring ascends rivers to deposit its eggs. It ordinarily preys on marine worms, and small fishes, or fragments of dead bodies; but it attaches itself to large fishes, and succeeds in piercing their skin and devouring them. Its MOUTH OF A LAMPREY. SEA LAMPREY. .21. What are the characters of the Lampreys ? What is the structure of their mouth ? 22. What are the characters of the Sea Lampreys? W T hat are their habits ? What are the characters of fresh water Lampreys ? Where are Larnprcye found ? MYXINES. flesh is much esteemed. The Fre*k Water, or Riter Lamprey, Petromifznn fliiriatiiis, is a smaller species, seldom exceeding eighteen inches in length, and passes the greater part of the year in fresh water lakes, which it abandons in the spring to enter rivers. Its colour is dark olive above, and yellowish or silvery beneath. It is found in the fresh waters of New England. A third species is the small River Lamprey, eight or ten inches in length ; it also inhabits fresh waters, and is distinguished from the preceding by its dorsal fins, which are continuous or united, instead of being distinct. 23. The Hay-fakes, Myxinc have the maxillary ring entirely membranous, and armed above by a single fang-like tooth, or they are entirely destitute of teeth, while the tongue is armed on each side with two horny plates deeply serrated, so that, at first sight, they might be supposed to have lateral jaws, like articulated ani- mals with which in fact, some authors have placed them ; in other respects their organization is analogous to that of lampreys. Their body is cylindrical, and furnished posteriorly with a fin which sur- rounds the tail; their mouth is circular, surrounded by eight cirri, and its upper margin is pierced by a spiracle which communicates with its interior. They have no vestiges of eyes, and their body is lubricated by a great quantity of mucus. Thus provided, the Myxine, when it attacks its prey, uses its mouth like a cupping- glass, and plunges its fang into its flesh ; and, thus securing a firm hold, the lingual saws tear their way into its very vitals. Some, called Hrptalrennts, have seven branchial apertures on each side of the neck; others, named Gastrobranchus, have on each side, a canal, which receives, through particular holes, the water coming from the branch!, and empties externally by a hole situated at about one third of the length of the body ; and in others again, the branchial openings are arranged as in the lamprey and heptatremus; but the fleshy lip, which is unprovided with teeth, is only semi-circular, and covers only the upper part of the mouth which prevents them from using it as a means o' attaching themselves. These last myxines, which are named Jlmmocetes, have an entirely soft and membranous skeleton; they keep in the mud of small streams, and have many of the hebits of worms, which they resemble also in form. It may be well for the reader, who has followed us through our first, second, third, and fourth books, to remark that we began our account of the animal world, with a general description of the most perfectly organized being, and we found man, inde- pendently of his possessing an immortal soul, the most complete, 23. What are the characters of the Myxines? 2R ' 123 CONCLUSION. and most wonderful of all animal structures. Without any other reason, he is placed at the head of the great class of mammals, ar J it may be observed, as we advanced in our descriptions, that t>.e animals "became less and less perfectly organised : the nervous 'ystem, the respiratory and circulatory systems grow less and ess perfect as we proceed. On reaching the reptiles, we discover, for example, that their heart has lost one ventricle, and their blood is cold ; and in fishes, we find it has also lost an auricle, and consists only of a single auricle, and a single ventricle. In the tishes too, we observe striking changes in the composition of bone; and the skeleton gradually loses its hardness, until we come to the Myxines, where it is soft and membranous ; or, it might be said, the internal hard frame called the skeleton, has disappeared, and we are brought step by step, to the considera- tion of soft animals without vertebrae ; but, nevertheless, they are provided with organs suitable for maintaining the kind of life with which they are endowed by the Omniscient Creator of all things. This concludes our account of the vertebrate animals, which constitute the FIRST BRANCH of the Animal Kingdom. We have next to consider the SECOND BRANCH, composed exclusively of the Molluscous Animals, the study of which embraces Con- chology, or the History of Shells. END OP THE FOURTH BOOK OP NATURAL HISTORY BOOK V. INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. SECOND .BRANCH :-^MOLlD8CA. OLASS I.-CEPHALOPODA. CLASS II.-PTEROPODA. CLASS IH.-GA1. TEROPODA. CLASS IV. ACEPHALA. CLASS V. BRA- CHIOPODA. CLASS VI.-CIRRHOFODA. ELEMENTS OF CONCHOLOGY. SECOND BRANCH OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. MOLLUSC A: MOLLUSKS, OR SOFT ANIMALS. LESSON I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. Mollusca in general Organiza- tion Nervous System General Form Skin Mantle Shell Formation of Shell Digestive Apparatus Circula- tion of the Blood Respiration Senses Eggs Classifica- tion. The long series of vertebrate animals, the history of which we have already concluded, forms only a small part of the animal kingdom, and to make the beings we are now about to study as interesting as the vertebrata, we should be obliged to very far exceed the limits of these lessons : but these animals are less useful to us ; they attract less attention, and most of them pass unnoticed, except by those who are at the pains of becoming ac- quainted with them ; their faculties are more limited and their structure is less complicated and less perfect. 1. All these lower animals want a spinal marrow and a true internal skeleton ; this last character has obtained for them the collective name of invertebrate animals ; but in a natural classi- fication, they could not all be placed in the same group, because they are evidently formed after three different types, and there- fore should be divided into three distinct branches, namely : the mollusca, the articulata, the radiata, or zoophytes. 2. The branch of zoophytes is composed essentially of the most imperfect animals : according to the classification of Cuvier, which we follow, this branch comprises a certain number of beings which seem, in a manner, to present the first sketch of the mode of organization proper to mollusks and articulate animals; its place is therefore among the lowest grades of the animal series, and passes, by gradual shades, from the type of the radiate ani- mal to that of the two great branches which spring from it. These two latter branches, one equally with the other, present a con- stantly increasing complication of organization, and form, as it 1. What are inver'tebrate animals ? What groups or divisions include the inver'tebrate animals ? 2. What are zo'ophytes ? Why are the mollus'ca placed before the artlo alata in the series of animals ? 2R* 9 10 NERVES OF MOLLUSKS. were, two parallel series. The series of articulate animals seems to be the highest in the scale; but the mollusca, though less per- r pft in structure, seem to be less remote in their mode of orga- nization from the vertebrata, and for this reason we have deter- mined to place them first. 3. We give the name of Mollusca (from the Latin, mollis^ soft) to animals which, in the general features of their orga- nization, resemble snails, oysters, &c. They have no articu- lated skeleton nor vertebral canal, like the vertebrate animals ; their body is soft, and their skin, which is often covered by a shell, is never hardened so as to form a kind of external skele- ton composed of a series of rings, as is the case in insects and the Crustacea. 4. The nervous system, an apparatus of so much importance, the action of which regulates all the phenomena of animal life, and the functions of which must necessarily be in harmony with its mode of conformation, differs altogether in the mollusca in its general disposition, from what we observe in the vertebrata. There exists a nervous centre which to a certain extent may be compared to the brain in superior animals; but this ganglionic mass is not continuous with an organ analogous to the spinal marrow ; the other central parts of the nervous system are found on the opposite side of the digestive tube, and hence this canal is always embraced by a sort of medullary collar, from which the different nerves of the body arise. In other respects, this appa- ratus varies more in its arrangement than in the number of parts composing it. a Fig. 1. NERVOUS SYSTEM OF A SOLEN. 5. In a great many of the least perfect mollusks, such as the rfolen and many other acephala, which inhabit bivalve shells, the nervous system is generally composed of but two pairs of ganglia, united by two long inter-ganglionic cords, giving rise to different branches (fg. 1); the ganglia of the anterior pair Explanation of Fig. 1. Nervous system of an acephalous mollusk (Soien) : y, the pair of ganglia which is situate in front of the oesophagus representing that portion of the nervous system of these animals, which is 3. What are the general characters of the Mollus'ca ? 4. Whatare the peculiarities of arrangement of the nerves of the Mollus'ca? 5. What are the general characters of the nervous system in acephalous mollusks '/ What are tnc peculiarities of the nervous system of gasteropods? NERVES OF MOLLUSKS. 11 Fig. NERVES OF A JANTHINA. (a) are sometimes considerably separated from each other, and only united by an intermediate cord, and sometimes glued one to the other, or even confounded in a single mass : they are situate above the oesophagus, and far from the posterior ganglia (6), which are placed beneath the intestine towards the posterior part of the body. In some mollusks, the nervous system is still more simple in its composition ; but, in general, the ganglia tend to approximate the O3sophagus more and more (Jig' 2), and in most of these animals we find a greater num- ber of small medullary masses, some of which form a sort of nervous centre, and the others are distributed in different parts of the body. Thus, in the snails \ \(l \\\f / o and most mollusks constructed on the same plan, and named gastero- pods (from the Greek, gaster, belly, and pous, foot), on account of their mode of crawling on the ventral surface of the body, there g exists, above and in front of the p '"^ O3sophagus, a medullary mass (jig. 3, c.), which is the representative d of the anterior pair of gangWa above mentioned, and which is re- a'" garded by most anatomists as the Fig. 3. NERVES OF A SNAIL. generally called the brain ; here, these two ganglia are considerably sepa- rated from each other, and are united by a transverse band; c. nerves which arise anteriorly to be distributed to the tentacula, to the mantle, &c. ; b. ventral pair of ganglia, which are united in a single mass, placed be- neath the intestine, and joined to the anterior ganglia by two very long nervous cords ; d. nerves which arise from the posterior ganglia to be dis- tributed to the mantle, &c. Explanation of Fig. 2. Nervous system of a Janthina ; a gasteropod mollusk, in which the posterior ganglia (fe) as well as the anterior ganglia (a) are separated from each other ; but they are more approximated to the latter, so that the inter-gangl ionic cords are very short, and form a sort of closely fitting collar around the oasophagus. Explanation of Fig. 3. Central portion of the nervous system of the snail: c. ganglia situate in front of the resophagus, and constituting, by their union, the mass which is called the brain in mollusca ; o. nerves of the anterior parts of the body, the eyes, &c. ; g. the nervous mass formed by the union of the ganglia of the posterior pair ; the esophagus passes through the collar or ring which unites it to the brain ; p. the nerves of the foot ; n. nerves which go to the pulmonary cavity, &c. ; a. the nerve which accompanies the principal artery ; d. the nerve which goes to tue i, &c. 12 NERVES OF THE APLYSIA. brain of these animals : it furnishes nerves to the organs of tnc senses as well as to the neighbouring parts (o), and is continued posteriorly by two inter-ganglionic cords, which em- brace the oesophagus, and which, at a short distance, unite with a second nervous mass (g 1 ), situate beneath the digest- >ve tube, and comparable to the posterior pair of ganglia, which we remarked when speaking of the acephalous mollusks ; and two small nerves, which arise from the brain, unite to form a third ganglion (Jig. 4, tf), below the origin of the oasophagus. In other gasteropods, the o aplysice or sea-hares, for ex- ample, to these ganglia is g joined another (jig. 4, t)), si- tuated among the viscera, and united by two commu- nicating threads to the med- ullary collar which surrounds the oesophagus, and giving rise to the nerves of the in-' testines, liver, branchiae, ova- ries, &c. We also find in these mollusks a fifth gan- glion, which is very small, belonging to these latter or- gans. And, in the poulpes and the cuttle-fish (Jig. 5), A I jS^^T^\\ v in which this system acquires Fig. 4. NERVES OF THE APLYSIA. its highest degree of de- velopment, the ganglionic parts grouped around the oesophagus, are larger and more complicated ; for the cephalic and post-oesopha- geal ganglia, united in a large oesophageal collar, present laterally a third Explanation of Fig. 4. Nervous system of the aplysia (or sea-hare, as it was called by the ancients), another gasteropod mollusk ; c. the brain ; p. the nervous collar which surrounds the oesophagus ; g. the thoracic or post-oesophageal ganglia ; v. the visceral ganglion ; t. the buccal ganglion. NERVES OF MOLLUSKS. pair of ganglionic swellings, which are lodged in a cartilaginous, cra- nial cravity ; from them arise the nerves of the feet * (Fig. 5). To recapitulate, we see that, in this rt class of animals, the nervous sys- tem is essentially composed of a * medullary collar, embracing the ali- mentary tube, and formed by the communicating cords of the two pairs of ganglia, which are widely v separated in the acephalous mol- lusks, but approx- imate more and more as we ascend in the series, form- ed by the gaster- opods and cepha- iopods ; and the Explanation of Fig. 5. Nervous system of the cuttle-fish ; a, the ner- vous collar which embraces the oesophagus, the course of which is indi- cated by a bristle (s): c. the nervous mass, situate in front of the oesophagus, and commonly called the brain : the upper surface is surmounted by a very large cordiform tubercle, and from its anterior part arise two nerves that soon terminate in a circuit ganglion, which, in its turn, gives rise to another pair of nerves, which descend beneath the mouth so as to embrace the oesophagus again, and then form a small anterior ganglion from which arise the labial nerves ; b. the tentacular ganglia, from which arise the nerves of the arm ; o. the optic nerves which arise from the lateral parts of the brain, and soon swell into a large ganglion ; t. small nervous tuber- cles, situate on the origin of the optic nerves ; g. the sub-cesophageal or ventral ganglion ; r. the great nerve of the viscera, one branch of which presents an elongated ganglion (r), and penetrates into the branchiae , m nerve* which also arise from the post-cesophcgeal ganglia, and which, in their course, present a large star-like ganglion (e), the branches of whirl* %re distributed to the mantle. 2 14 FORM. SKIN. SHELL nerves which arise from each of these ganglia, to be distributed to the different organs, are at first simple, but very soon pre- sent in different parts of the body ganglionic swellings ; but these ganglia, however numerous they may be, never form a reg- ular longitudinal chain, extending along the middle line of the abdominal face of the body, as is the case in the articulated ani- mals. 6. As we have already said, in this great branch of the animal kingdom, there is neither an internal skeleton, analogous to the solid frame of vertebrate animals, nor an external skeleton, sim- ilar to the tegumentary sheath, which envelopes the whole body of articulate animals in a series of rings, and serves the same purposes as the skeleton, properly so called, of the superior ani- mals. The general form of mollusks is extremely variable. Their body is always soft, and in a very small number of them only, there exists internally some solid pieces which are unarticu- lated, and serve rather to protect the viscera than to furnish levers and points of support to the apparatus of locomotion. The muscles are attached directly to the integuments and act but very little beyond their point of insertion ; their motions are slow, and in general ill directed. In a small number of these beings, there are elongated and flexible appendages, designed for locomo- tion (jig. 7, page 23) ; but in most instances the animal can change its place, only by successively contracting different pointa of the inferior surface of its body, and, even when it possesses extremities, they are united in a group at one end of the body, and never arranged in a symmetrical series, as they are in verte- brate and in articulate animals. 7. The skin of mollusks, always soft and viscid, often forms folds that more or less completely envelope the body, and this disposition has caused the name of mantle to be given to thai portion of integument which ordinarily furnishes these expansions. Frequently this mantle or pallium is almost entirely free, and constitutes two large veils which conceal all the rest of the ani- mal, or rather, these two laminae or membranes unite together so as to form a kind of tube; but at other times, it consists only of a sort of dorsal disk, the edges of whicft alone are free, or sur- round the body more exactly under the form of a sack. 8. In general this soft skin is protected by a sort of stony cuirass named shell. It is a secretion having some analogy to 6. What kind of a skeleton have mollusks ? What are the general cha- racters of their body ? How is locomotion effected in mollusks ? 7. What is the mantle or pallium? 8. What is meant by shell ? What is meant by naked mollusks ? What are testacea ? GROWTH OF SHELLS. 15 that of the epidermis which produces this envelope. The follicles, ordinarily lodged in the edges of the mantle, deposit upon its surface a semi-corneous matter, mixed with a greater or less pro- portion of carbonate of lime, which moulds itself upon the sub- jacent parts and solidifies. The lamina or layer, thus formed, thickens and grows by successive deposits of new matter. Its superficies is not stony, but in form of a kind of epidermis. Sometimes it preserves a horny consistence throughout its whole thickness. In general, however, the proportion of carbonate of lime that it contains rapidly increases and imparts to it a stony hardness. The internal surface is often harder than ihe rest, and possesses a particular structure which renders it vitreous or shining and nacreous. Sometimes the shell always remains en- closed in the thickness of the skin ; but, in general, it is external, and extends beyond the mantle, so as to afford the animal perfect protection. Those which are unprovided with shells, or only have an internal shell, are called naked mollusks, and those in which the shell is visible are included under the name of con- chifera, or sometimes testa'cea. 9. The manner in which the shell grows is easy to under- stand. If we examine the shell of an oyster, for example, we observe that it consists of a multitude of superposed lamina?, the separation of which may be effected by the assistance of heat. These laminre are formed successively by the mantle of the ani- mal which they cover, and, consequently, the most external one must be the oldest; and it is also the smallest, and each new lamina that is added, exceeds the lamina situate above, so that while the shell is augmenting in thickness, it is also increasing in size. In general, the distinctness of the lamina is less marked, and often the new matter is deposited in such a manner, that its molecules exactly correspond to the molecules of the matter already consolidated, and thus gives to the whole a fibrous structure. 10. Shells are adorned with most diversified and most agree- ably arranged colours, which often vary with their age. They are almost always entirely superficial, and seem to depend on a sort of a dyeing process performed by the skin of the animal, which is coloured in a manner corresponding with that of its en- velope. The colouring matter seems to be deposited upon the shell at the time of its formation : and its brightness is in pro- portion to the newness of the latter. It is produced by the edgo of the mantle. When a shell happens to be broken and the ani- 9. How does the shell grow? 1 0. IIoW are the colours of shells produced? 16 COLOURS OF SHELLS. ma! succeeds in repairing the accident, the part newly formed IP always white, if it has not been in contact with the edge of the mantle ; but if it correspond to this edge, it then assumes the colour that the latter presents at the point touched. For exam- ple, when this edge is spotted, we find corresponding spots on the margin of the shell, and, in proportion as the latter is elon- gated, these spots become confounded with those previously formed, and produce lines perpendicular to crossing striae, or they do not join the latter, but remain isolated, according as the mantle remains unmoved, and preserves the same relation to the margins of the shell, or frequently changes its position according to the movements of the animal. Sometimes the secretion of the colouring matter varies with age; and accidental circum- stances may also modify it. Light, for example, exerts a very remarkable influence on this phenomenon, for not only are shells that are most exposed to the action of this physical agent, ordi- narily most brightly coloured, but, when a mollusk lives fixed to a rock, or in some spot hidden beneath a sponge, or other opaque body, the part of the shell thus placed in darkness is always dull, and paler than that which is exposed to the contact of the solar rays. The duration of shells, and the length of time the animals live which inhabit them, are circumstances not yet determined. When exposed to the action of the air and the vicissitudes of tempera- ture and moisture for some time, shells usually change their colours and gradually become white. The animal matter which enters into its composition is destroyed, and disappears little by little ; the laminae separate from each other, particularly under the alternate influence of heat and cold, and become finally re- duced to a calcareous powder, which is washed away by currents of water. 11. All mollusks are provided with an alimentary canal, which is more or less folded on itself and open at its two ends, either at the extreme points of the body, or at points more or less near to each other. There is always a voluminous liver, and we often find them furnished also with salivary glands and organs of mas- tication ; but the intestines are never held in their place by the assistance of a mesentery. 12. The blood of these animals is cold and colourless or slightly bluish, and circulates in a very complicated vascular apparatus, composed of arteries and veins. A heart, formed of a ventricle (t?) 11. What are the general characters of the digestive apparatus of mol- lusks < 12. What is the nature of the blood of mollusks ? How is it circulated ? CIRCULATION SENSES. 17 and one or two auricles (o) is found in the track of the arterial blood, and sends this liquid to all parts of the body, from which it re- turns to the organs of respi- ration. Sometimes we also r find, at the base of the ves- sels which enter this latter apparatus, venous reser- voirs, erroneously called pul- monary hearts ; for, having nothing in their structure re- sembling muscle, they can- not set the blood in motion, and consequently do not me- rit this name. (See Jig. 9, Page 21.) 13. The organs of respira- tion vary so much that they cannot be well described at this place : we will merely mention that they are some- times in the form of lungs, and at others, in that of branchire or gills. 14. Nor can we say any thing generally of the structure of the organs of the senses, which are, however, always less com- plete than in the vertebrate animals. Certain mollusks appear to be endowed only with the sense of touch and with the sense of taste, but in a great many we find eyes which vary in structure, and in some of these animals there even exists an apparatus of hear- ing : but none is known to possess a particular organ of smell. 15. Mollusks are re-produced from eggs; but are sometimes hatched without, and sometimes within the body of the mother, Explanation of Fig. 6. Heart of an acephalous mollusk : 0. the ventri- cle, which in these animals has the rectum (r) passing through it, and gives rise to two arteries (o) ; c. one of the auriculo-ventricular openings ; o. the two auricles receiving the blood from the branchial veins (6). In the above diagram, the ventricle (c) is open, and the rectum, (r, r) has been divided, and the lower part turned downwards : a (at the lower part of the figure) represents the origin of one artery, the other artery having a similar origin above. 13. What is the character of the organs of respiration in mollusks 1 14. What senses are possessed by mollusks ? 15. How are mollusks re-produced ? 2* 2S Fig. 6. HEART OF AN ACEPHALOUS MOLLUSK. CLASSIFICATION. and then the young are born alive. In all cases they possess at birth nearly the form they preserve through life, and do not un- dergo metamorphosis. We have already stated that mollusks differ very much in the general form of their body, and as these external modifications are accompanied by corresponding differences in the degree of complication of their internal organization, they enable us to di- vide these animals into six natural groups. The following table will give an idea of this classification : (CLASSES.) in the form of an open sack in front, from i which the head appears, surrounded by > CEPHALOPODA. tentacula (Fig. 7, Page 19). } "having a ^j having no 8 apparent head having no fleshy foot C provided with two^j and seldom branchiae 1 ciliated arms which 1 p distinct from the | they have in place f* .mantle. ! of them. J unprovided with ) arms and special > TUNICATA. organs of motion. " j Cuvier, and many other zoologists, arrange the cirrhopoda also in the branch of mollusca ; but it is now ascertained that these animals belong to the branch of articulata, the third great divi sion of the animal kingdom. 16 Into how many classes is the branch of mollus'ca divided ? CLASS OF CEPHALOPODS LESSON II. CLASS or CEPHALOPODA. General Form Respiration Cir- culation Organs of Digestion Cephalic Cartilage Organs of Locomotion Organs of the Senses Nervous System Habits Division into two Families. FAMILY OF CEPHALOPODA DIBRANCHIATA. Octopus vulgaris, or Poulpe Argonaut Calmaries Cutlle-jishes. FAMILY OF CEPHALOPODA TETRABRANCHIATA. Nautilus Ammonites Belcmnites Foraminafera. CLASS OF CEPHALOFODS. 1. This class is composed of mollusks which are of fantastical shape, for their head is placed between the trunk and feet, or tentacula, which serve them for locomotion, and when they walk, the body is uppermost, and the head down, dragging on the ground. Their feet are attached, around the mouth, to the head, which circumstance has obtained for them the name of Cephalo- pods* (from the Greek, kephale, head, and pous y foot pro- nounced kef-a-lo-pod). Fig. 7. OCTOPUS* VULGARIS, OR COMMON POULPE. 2. The trunk of these animals is covered by the mantle, which is in the form of a sack, sometimes almost spherical, and sometimes more or less elongated ; it encloses all the * From the Greek, okto, eight, and pous, foot, eight feet. 1. What kind of animals compose the class of Cephalopoda ? Why ar ther called Cephalopods ? 2 What are the general form and characters of the Cephalopods ? 20 STRUCTURE OF CEPHALOPODS. viscera and is open only in front, (fig. 8, o). The -head issues from this opening : it is round and generally provided with two round eyes, very analogous in their structure to those of verte- brate animals. The mouth occupies the centre it is aimed with two jaws ; and around this opening is found a crown of flexible and fleshy appendages, which are termed, indifferently, legs or arms, because they seem to be entitled to either appella- tion ; for they serve both as organs of prehension and lororm? lion (fig. 7). 3. The cephalopods are essentially aquatic animals, and consequently they breathe by means of branchiae. These organs are always perfectly symmetrical, and are found con- cealed beneath the mantle, in a particu- lar cavity (fig. 8), the parietes of which alter- nately contract and di- late, and the interior communicates exter- nally by two openings^ one (o) in form of a slit, serving for the entrance of the water, and the other pro- longed in the shape of a tub* or funnel (/), serving for the escape of water and excre- ment. Each branchia (6), which is in form of an elongated pyra- mid, the summit of which is directed forward, is composed of a great number of membranous lamellse or leaves, placed transversely and fixed on each side of a middle stalk. Each one of these leaves is divided into lamella, which are in turn again subdivided, and it is, in their substance that we find the capillary vessels where >. 8. BODY OF A POULPE. Ex man xplanalion of Fig. 8. The body of a poulpe seen from beneath (the tie is slit up on the middle line, and, on one side, raised up to show the interior of the respiratory cavity) : a. the base of the head ; t. the tube by which the water escapes from the respiratory cavity ; o. one of the two lateral openings through which the water enters this cavity ; ft. one of the branchiae or gills. 3. How do cephalopods breathe ? How many branchiae have cephalopods ? CIRCULATION IN CEPHALOPOUS. 21 the venous is changed into arterial blood. The number of branchiae varies, and this difference is characteristic of the two great natural divisions, of which this class is composed. In some there is but a single pair, while in others two pairs of branchiae are focmd. For this reason the first have been called cephalapoda dibranchiata (from the Greek dis, two, and bragchos, branchia or gills, two-gilled), and the last, cephalo- poda tetrabranchiata (from the Greek, tetras, four, and bragchos, branchia, -four-gilled). 4. The heart is situated between the branchise on the middle line of the body, and consists only of a single ventricle (Jig. 9, c) : the blood reaches it from the branchia? by the vv av a cs rv Fig. 9. ORGANS OF CIRCULATION AND RESPIRATION IN THE CUTTLE-FISH. Explanation of Fig. 9. The organs of circulation and respiration of the cuttle-fish ; c. the aortic heart, the upper extremity of which is continuous with the superior aorta, which distributes the blood to the head, &c. ; b. branches of this vessel ; a. the inferior aorta, which has a bulb at its origin, and soon divides into two branches (u, e) ; vc. the vena cava, the parietes of which are covered by the spongy bodies (cs) ; av. veins of the viscera, going to empty into the two branches of the vena cava ; eft. venous sinus >r branchial heart ; s. swelling at the base of the branchial arteries ; br. oranchia? ; oft. branchial artery ; vb. branchial vein ; bu. bulb of the branchial veins, situate near the termination of these vessels in the heart. 4. What is the character of the heart in cephalopods ? What are the peculiarities of the circulation ? 2S* 22 CIRCULATION IN CEPHALOPODS. branchial veins (vb), the openings of which are furnished with valves, and then penetrates the arteries which arise from this organ. The latter vessels are two or three in number; but one of them is always much larger than the rest, arid one of them also has at its base a swelling or bulb, which is more or less muscular, and analogous to that found at the origin of the aorta in batrachians. The great artery to which we generally give the name of aorta, is carried forward and distributes its branches to a part of the viscera, the head and legs. The other arteries go to the viscera ; and the blood, after having in this way passed through all the organs, returns by the veins, and is emptied by them into a great vena cava, situate near the heart. The bran- chial arteries arise from the inferior extremity of this last vessel, and, in the dibranchial cephalopods, present a very remarkable arrangement ; for, before penetrating the branchiae, each one of them dilates so as to form a great venous sinus (fig. 9, cb), which most authors regard as a branchial heart, but its parietes do not appear to be really muscular. 5. We see, therefore, that the circulation is here carried on in a manner opposite to that of fishes ; for the heart is found in the track followed by the arterial blood, while in fishes the venous blood passes through this organ ; but in other respects, there is a great resemblance in the general disposition of the circulatory apparatus of these two classes of animals ; for, in both, the blood passes but once through the heart, and the whole of it traverses the respiratory apparatus before returning to the differ- ent organs. 6. On the vena cava and its principal branches, we remark a multitude of very singular spongy bodies (fig> 9, cs), which, when squeezed, yield a mucosity, and which are attached to the parietes of these vessels ; these appendages are enclosed in two membranous pouches, which perform the functions of a pericar- dium, and, at the same time, communicate by particular openings with the branchial cavity. In this way the water from without laves them, and their interior, which is hollow, communicates by other holes with the interior of the veins, so that the blood must enter them. We know nothing certain in regard to their uses, but it is probable they are the seat of some secretion, and that hey serve as a reservoir to contain the superabundant blood of the veins, when the circulation is interrupted in the vessels, much in the same manner as the spleen seems to do in the superior animals. n. How does the circulation in cephalopods differ from that of fishes ? 6. What is remarkable about the vena cava ? DIGESTION IN CEPHALOPQDS. 7. The apparatus of digestion is very complicated. The mouth is surrounded by a circular lip, and armed with two ver- tical mandibles, which closely resemble the beak of a parrot ; they are set in motion by powerful muscles. A fleshy tongue, furnished with papillae and many horny pieces, occupies the in- terior of this cavity, and is attached to a particular cartilage. Salivary glands, the number and arrangement of which vary a little, surround the pharynx and oesophagus, and pour into the alimentary canal the product of their secretion. The oesopha- gus contracts in general, and before terminating in the stomach, presents a large dilatation or crop (fg. 10, j)\ but some- times, this first g g s j gs digestive pouch is wanting. Com- monly the stom- ach is in the form - of an elongated /' sack ; its parietes are muscular, and , its structure re- ' minds us of the m gizzard of birds. A third cavity (s) * succeeds this or- as gan, which, in di- branchial cepha- lopods, is in the l form of a coecum spirally folded, while in the tetra- branchial, it as- sumes that of a spherical sack in- ternally lamella- cb Fig. 10. ^VISCERA OF A POULPE. of Fig. 10. Viscera of a poulpe : j. the crop situated be. neath the cephalic cartilage; gs. inferior salivary glands ; f. mass formed by the liver and ink-bag ; e. excretory duct of the ink-bag going to empty in the funnel ; t. this funnel or tube ; m. the open mantle ; s. the caecum spirally folded ; i. a part of the intestine, the rest being removed to show the organs situate beneath ; o. the oviducts ; c. the heart; a. the inferior aorta ; as. the superior aorta ; vb. the branchial veins ; br. the branchiae: cl. the partition by which these organs adhere to the parietes of the re- spiratory cavity ; ab. the branchial arteries ; cb. venous sinus or branchial hearts ; v. venae cavse ;fm. muscular fasciculi. 7. What organs constitute the apparatus of digestion in cephalopoda ? What is remarkable about the mouth ? What is the character of the stomach ? What is the nature of the liver ? 24 ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION. ted : the bile is poured into this cavity by two canals. The liver is very voluminous, sometimes simple, and sometimes di- vided into two or more lobes : its colour is reddish yellow, and its texture very soft. The intestine, which arises very near the cardiac orifice, is simple, and communicates, at a short distance from the pylorus, with a glandular pouch which seems to be ana- logous to the pancreas ; and, after making several curves, this tube empties into the branchial cavity, at tbte base of the funnel through which the water escapes that has served the purposes of respiration. 8. In dibranchial cephalopods, there exists in the neighbour- hood of the liver another very remarkable secretory organ, which produces in abundance a blackish liquid, called ink; the excre- tory duct of this gland (fig. 10, e) empties into the intestine near its extremity, and, when the animal*is in danger, pours out, through the funnel or tube, enough of this liquid to darken the water around, and thus conceal itself from the sight of its ene- mies. The ink of one of these cephalopods the cuttle-fish is employed in painting, under the name of sepia ; and many au- thors suppose that the Indian ink of the Chinese is an analogous substance, though it appears the material commonly used in the manufacture of Indian ink is nothing but very finely powdered charcoal. The tetrabranchial cephalopods do not possess any- thing similar. 9. It has been already stated that mollusks have no solid, ar- ticulated frame within their body, similar to the skeleton of ver- tebrate animals. In the cephalopods, however, we find traces of something analogous ; for there exists in the head a cartilage which not only protects the brain, but enlarges the head in differ- ent directions, to furnish points of insertion to the principal mus- cles of the animal. 10. The disposition of the organs of locomotion and prehen- sion, which are fixed around the mouth, varies in these animals. In the dibranchial cephalopods, there is a crown of eight or ten large fleshy tentacula, the inferior surface of which is furnished with suckers, like cupping-glasses, by aid of which they fix them selves very strongly to bodies that they embrace (see fig. 7, page 10). In the tetrabranchial cephalopods, on the contrary, these appendages, though very numerous, are slender and unprovided with suckers. 11. The organs of the senses are most perfect in the dibran- 8. What is sepia ? How is it formed ? What is Indian ink ? 9. Ha,ve cephalopods anything resembling an internal skeleton ? 10. What is the disposition of the organs of locomotion?* SENSES OF CEPHALOPODS. 25 chial cephalopods. In these mollusks there are two very large eyes of spheroidal form, lodged in the lateral parts of the head. These, organs are composed of a transparent cornea, let into the skin, and sometimes protected by a fold, like an eyelid, a crystal- .ine lens, a vitreous body, a retina, a choroid coat, a sclerotica, &c., nearly the same as in vertebrate animals. In the tetrabran- chial cephalopods the eyes are borne on projecting peduncles, and consist of a cavity only, the black interior of which contains a retina, and receives the luminous rays through a circular open- ing. No auditory apparatus has yet been discovered in the first of these two families. We find in the cephalic cartilage of the latter, two small cavities, closed on all sides, except at the point through which the nerve penetrates ; they lodge a membranous vesicle, and are filled wjjh a peculiar fluid, containing a small stone. This, as we see, is a still more simple arrangement than that of fishes ; for the whole apparatus is reduced to a vestibule and a nerve only. 12. The nervous system of the cephalopods is more compli- cated than that of the other moliusks, and the different ganglia, grouped around the oesophagus, have a greater tendency to be- come confounded in a single mass. The medullary collar, thus formed, is composed of three pairs of ganglia, namely : the cephalic ganglia (fg. 11, c), the tentacular ganglia (J), and the thoracic ganglia (g) ; the two first pairs are placed above the oesophagus, and, by joining the first, form a double collar around this tube; sometimes they are very distinct, but at others, they are almost entirely confounded. The cephalic ganglia give rise laterally to two large nervous cords, which, from their origin, enlarge into ganglia, and then furnish the optic nerves ; from this species of brain, nerves also arise, which go to the mouth, and sometimes form around this opening a new collar, fur- nished with two pairs of small ganglia (Jig. 5, page 13). The tentacular ganglia afford origin to the nerves of the feet or ten- tacula, which, before ramifying on these organs, also present ganglionic swellings. Finally, the thoracic ganglia, sometimes very distinct from the preceding, and at others confounded with them (see Jig . 6, page 17), furnish many nerves, the most import- ant of which are, ls, The two nerves of the viscera (Jig. 11, 0), which in their course present a pair of ganglia and distribute their branches to the branchiae, the heart, stomach, &c. ; 2cZ, The nerves of the mantle, which, in the dibranchial cephalopods, 11. Where are the eyes situated in cephalopods? Are cephalopods ca- pable of hearing ? 12. What is the general character of the nervous system of eephalopodt ' 3 26 NERVES OF CEPHALOPODS. terminate in ganglia, from which arise a great many filaments. In the tetra- branchial cephalopods, the cesophageal collar is simply protected by the cephalic car- tilage; but in the dibranchial cephalopods, in which the nervous system acquires its highest degree of develop- ment, this medullary mass is lodged in a special cavity, hollowed in the cartilage through which the oesopha- gus passes. 13. The cephalopods are never hermaphrodite, as are most others of the mollusca. The ovary is always simple and lodged at the bottom of a sac formed by the body of the animal; sometimes there is but a single oviduct; at others, we find two, which open at the base of the fun- nel ; finally, all these ani- mals are oviparous. 14. All these molluska are marine : they are very voracious, and feed chiefly on Crustacea and fishes, which they seize by the aid of their supple and vigorous arms, and easily devour by means of their sharp mandibles. Their flesh is eaten. 15. This class is divided into two families. Fig. 11. NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE NAUTILUS. Explanation of Fig. 11. Nervous system of the Nautilus : r. the brain; o. the optic nerves ; g. the sub-oesophageal or thoracic ganglia ; t. the tentacular ganglia ; p. nerves of the tentacula ; e. the nerves of the funnel ; a. a ganglion from which arise other tentacular nerves (fe) ; d. a second, and similar ganglion, also giving rise to tentacular nerves (/) ; m. nerves of the mantle, &c. v. the great visceral nerves, each of which gives rise to a ganglion (#), from which the principal nerves of the viscera take their origin. 13. Do cephalopods lay eggs ? J 4. Where are cephalopods found ? Upon what do they feed ? 15. How is the class of cephalopoda divided ? "-, . DIBRANCHIAL CEPHALOPODS. 27 16. The family of CEPHALOPODA, DIBRANCHIATA, or ACE- TABULI'FERA, that is, cupping-glass bearers, is very numerous. In it are placed the poulpes, cuttle-fishes, calmaries, argonauts, &c. Most of these mollusks have no external shell, and their naked skin includes a great number of contractile vesicles, filled with differently coloured fluids, which, by alternately contracting and expanding, produce and cause again to disappear, in turn, often very brilliant spots; but we find in their interior a more or less developed shell, situated on the back. This shell is largest in the cuttle-fishes; it is oval, and composed for the most part of a great number of transverse calcareous laminae; it is very com- mon on the sea-shore, and is generally known under the name of cuttle -Jish bone. In the calmaries it is of a horny consistence, and in its form resembles a feather or lamella ; and in the poul- pes it is merely represented by two horny stylets, lodged in the thickness of the mantle. 17. The tentacula of these cephalopods form a simple crown around the mouth, and bear on their internal face circular cups or suckers, the number of which varies from eight to ten. In the following family we shall find an entirely different arrange- ment. 18. The POULPES Octopus (Fig. 7, Page 19) are easily recognised by their naked body, which is in the form of an oval sack, unprovided with fins, and their eight very large and nearly equal feet. They make use of these last organs to seize their prey as well as to swim and crawl upon the ground, and are even formidable to swimmers on account of the force with which they press those bodies they embrace. These ani- mals are essentially carnivorous. Their size is often very great : there is one species in the Pacific Ocean which attains about six feet in length. These mollusks are objects of terror to the natives of the Polynesian Islands, who dive to the bottom of the sea for shells; but their size and strength are wonder- fully exaggerated. Pliny speaks of a poulpe that had arms thirty feet long; and a modern author gravely relates the history of one of these gigantic mollusks, which, attacking a vessel, nearly upset it ! The Common Poulpe Sepia Octopo- dia is about two feet long; it inhabits the coasts of Europe, and commonly keeps among rocks : it destroys a great many fishes and Crustacea. 16. What are the general characters of the cephalopoda dibranchiata ? What is cuttle-fish bone 7 17. How are the tentacula of cephalopods arranged? 18. What are the general characters of the poulpes ? What is the nature of their food ? Where are they found ? 28 ARGONAUTS. Ftp. 12. \RGONAUT. 19. The ARGONAUTS Argonn.uta (Fig. 12) are cephalopoda very closely allied to the poulpe, but the pair of feet which is nearest the back is dilated at the extremity into a broad mem- brane, and the body is always lodged in a very delicate and ex- tremely beautiful shell, vulgarly called the paper nautilus. It is not certainly known, however, whether this shell really belongs to the animal tnat inhabits it, or whether it is derived from some other rnollusk. Be this as it may, the cephalopod does not ad- nere to it, but uses it as a boat to float on the surface of the water 1 9 What are the general characters of the argonaut ? CALMARIES CALMARETS. 29 when the sea is calm. Six of its tentacula are then folded be- neath and act as oars, and it is pretended that the two others, the extremities of which are enlarged and raised up, are spread for sails, as represented in the figure (12) ; but we should not infer from their structure that these tentacula are adapted to such a purpose. The common species is found in the Mediterranean, the Indian Ocean, &c. ; it was known to the ancients under the name of nautilus, and pompilius. 20. The CALMARIES Loligo differ from the preceding in their elongated sack, and being provided with two terminal fins, by the horny lamina, lodged in the back, which supplies the place of shell, and by their tentacula, which are ten in number, and not of the same configura- tion throughout (fg. 13). ty 13 '- THE COMMON CALMARY. Eight of these feet are of moderate size, and are armed with little cups in their whole length, while the two others are very much elongated and have cups only near their extremities. 21. The CALMARETS Lo- ligopsis are remarkable for the great length of two of their arms (fg. 14), which are fili- form, and widened at the entl only ; in other respects they f differ but little from the Cal- maries : they are found in the Mediterranean. 22. Certain cephalopoas, which resemble the Calmaries very much, but have their long arms furnished with hooks, form the genus of Onychoteuthis (from the Greek onux, in the genitive onuchos, nail, and teuthis, a calmary, that is, a calmary with nails. 23. The CUTTLE-FISHES Fig. 14. THE CALMARET. Sepia have the tentacular 20. How do the Calmaries differ from the Argonauts ? 21. What are Calmarets? 22. What is the ony'choteuthis ? (pronounced o-ni-ko-tu-this.) 23. What are the general characters of the cuttle-fish ? Of what use u euttle-fish bone ? 2T 30 CUTTLE-FISHES. NAUTILUS. appendages arranged like the calmaries; but their body, which is oval and depressed, is furnished with fleshy, lateral fins, occu- pying the whole length of the sack, and the back is sustained by a large internal shell, the structure of which has been already mentioned. The species most commonly found in the seas of Europe Sepia ojficinalis attains a foot in length or more. The cuttle-fish bone or shell, in powder, is used as a dentifrice, and is employed in the arts for several purposes, as for polishing, for forming moulds for silver castings, and as a pounce. 24. The family of CEPHALOPODA TETRABRAIVCHIATA has for its type the NAUTILUS, a very remarkable mollusk, the body of which is enclosed in the last chamber (a) of a large shell, folded spirally, and divided by transverse partitions (b) into several cavities, (Jig. 15). Each one of these par- titions is pierced by a hole, and the canal thus formed, which is called the syphon (s), extends to the pos- terior extremity of the shell ; it is traversed by a contractile mem- branous tube, posterior to the body of the animal. This structure b c seems designed to facilitate the as- Fig. 15. SECTION OF A cent or descent of the animal in the NAUTILUS. water, by increasing or diminishing the specific gravity of the shell ; for the syphon communicates with an external reservoir, an^l can empty or distend itself with the water found in it ; now, the chambers which it passes through are filled with air, and when this tube becomes inflated, it must compress this elastic fluid, arid increase its density, which, at the same time, augments the specific gravity of the whole shell, and must give it a tendency to sink towards the bottom of the water in which it floats. 25. The conformation of the animal differs very much from that of the poulpes, calmaries, and other dibranchial cephalopods. The head of the nautilus is surrounded by a large fleshy disk, which bears some analogy to the foot of the gasteropods, and Explanation of F'g. 15. Vertical section of the nautilus shell: a. the last chamber, in which the animal is lodged ; b. one of the partitions which divides the chambers (c) from each other ; *. the syphon. 24. What are the peculiarities of the nautilus shell ? What seems to be the object of this peculiar structure ? 25. How is the animal 01 me nautilus cnaracterized ? AMMONITES. probably serves the animal in crawling. The tentacula, which are inserted near the mouth, are not furnished with cups as in the preceding family : they are retractile and in considera bie number. The eyes are pedun- culate, that is, supported on a sort of foot-stalk or stem : there is no organ of hearing, nor pouch, nor fins, and the branchice are four in num- i er Fig. 16. NAUTILUS. 26. A great number of shells are found in the fossil stato which are very analogous in structure to the nautilus, and which probably belonged to cephalopods of similar conformation; they are the AMMONITES (fig. 17), vulgarly called Horns of Amman, in consequence of the resemblance of their volutes or whorls to those of a ram's horn. These animals were among the most ancient inhabitants of the earth and lived in every sea. Their remains abound in the secondary for- mations (See GEOLOGY), and are met with in all parts of the world ; but they have long since disappeared from the surface of the earth, and in those lay- ers which rest upon the chalk, no! Fig. 17.-AMMONITE. quently, their destruction must have occurred at a period long Explanation of Fig. 16. The nautilus shell opened : t. the tentacula ; e. the funnel or reservoir ; p. the foot ; m. part of the mantle ; 0. the eye , 8. the syphon. 26. What are ammonites ? Where are they found ? 32 BELEMNITES. NUMMULITES, &c. anterior to the creation of nearly all the mammals ; they vary much in form, and still more in size; some are not larger than a bean, and others are more than four feet in diameter. More than three hundred species of them are known, and they are divided into several genera, according to the manner in which the shell is rolled, the position of the syphon, the form of the partitions, &c. 27. We give the name of BELEMNITES (from the Greek belem- won, a dart) to other fossils, which also seem to have belonged to the cephalopods, but which, in place of being an external shell, must have been lodged in the interior of the animal, like the bone of the cuttle-fish. They are conical in form, and are chiefly composed of a series of little horns, fitting one in the other like boxes in a nest, traversed by a syphon and terminated anteriorly by a horny plate that forms a sort of chamber, in the interior of which we sometimes find the remains of an ink-bag, similar to the sack which fulfils the same purposes in the naked cephalo- pods. The belemnites are not met with in strata as old as the ammonites ; but they abound in the middle and upper layers of the secondary formation, and cease to exist in the upper layers of the chalk. Until lately, a host of microscopic shells of lenticular form and without apparent opening, designated by authors under the names of NUMMULITES (from the Latin numrna, a piece of money), CAMERINES (from the Latin camera, chamber), FORAMINIFERA (from the Latin foramen, a hole, and fero, I bear), &c., were referred to the order of cephalopods ; these little bodies abound to such an extent in certain soils, that they of themselves exclu- sively constitute chains of hills and immense banks of building stone ; but they are also found in European seas, and, on observ- ing them when alive, we are convinced that the animals to which they belong do not resemble either the cephalopods or even the mollusks, in anything : they are beings of a very peculiar struc- ture, and seem more to approximate the polypi. 27 What are belemnites ? What are their characters ? Where are they found ? CLASS OF GASTEROPODA. 33 LESSON III. CLASS or GASTEROPODA. General Conformation Classifi- cation. ORDER OF GASTEROPODA PULMONEA. Organization Division into two families. FAMILY OF TERRESTRIAL PULMONEA. Limax Vaginvlus Helix Bulimus Pupa Chondrus Clausilia Achatina. FAMILY OF AQUATIC PULMONEA. Onchidium Planorbis Limncevs Physa Auricula. ORDER OF GASTEROPODA PECTINIBRANCHIATA. Organization Classification. FAMILY OF TROCHOIDES. Trochus Turbo Dclphinula Turritella Cyclostoma Valvata Paludinn Liftorina Monodon Phasianella Ampullaria Janthina Nerita. CLASS OF GASTEROPODA. 1. Mollusks that are provided with a head, and crawl upon the belly, or swim by means of a fin formed of this part of the body, constitute a very numerous class, the type of which is the slug and snail. The body is elongated, and terminated anteriorly by a more or less developed head, which ordinarily has tentacula inserted above the mouth ; the back is furnished with a mantle, which extends more or less, and the belly is covered by a fleshy mass, generally in form of a broad disk (fig. 18), and serves the animal for crawling on the ground, but which is some- times very much compressed, and then constitutes a vertical fin (fig. 78). Many of these animals are en- tirely naked; others have an in- ternal shell con- cealed in the thick- ness of the mantle; but most of them have an external Fig. 18. LIMN^E FRESH- WATER SNAIL. shell, and this calcareous envelope is almost always sufficiently large to contain them entirely, and afford them protection. 1. What is the general character of the class of ga'steropods ? Have thev any shell? 84 COLUMELLA. UMBILICUS. 2. The arrangement of these shells varies much ; sometimes they are composed of many pieces, at others, of a single piece , sometimes they are symmetrical, at others not symmetrical, and in this last case, in proportion as they are elongated, they are rolled or twisted upon themselves, and constitute a spirally twisted cone. This last form, which is seen in the shell of the snail, is the most common in gasteropods, and presents numerous varieties. Sometimes the part which grows less rapidly and upon which the cone rolls itself, is full (Jig. 19), and sometimes empty ; it is called columella or pillar (c), and, when empty, we give d the name of umbilicus to this opening (fg. 20, ti). If the turns of the shell remain in the same plane, the spire is flat or concave, and the general form of the shell is discoid, resembling a disk, as in the planorbis (Jig. 29) ; sometimes the height of each turn completely envelopes thepreceding involutions, so that the spire is concealed ; but in most cases the turns are inclined towards the edge of the columella, and there results an oblique spire, which is more acute in proportion as the cone is less rapidly widened (Jig. 19). Those shells are called turbinated, in which the first turns are raised up above the succeeding ones (Jig. 19), forming a projecting spire, and it is remarked that the turns or whorls are almost always di- rected from the right side. Sometimes how- ever the spire of these turbinated shells is turned from the left side of the animal (Jig. 25), and in this case they are said to be perverse. Fig. 19. SECTION OF A TURBINATED SHELL. Fig. 20. NATICA. Explanation of Fig. 19. Section of a turbinated shell to show how it is spirally wound upon itself': b. the mouth or aperture of the shell ; c. the columella ; d. l^e part of the columella included in the last turn of the spire s. turn of the spiie next to the last; p. the apex or summit of the shell; i. part of tne columella. 2. Do the shells of ga'sterqpods consist of a single piece ? What is meant by the colume'tla ? What is the umbili'cus ? What is meant by a tu binated hcl! ? What is meant by a perverse shell ? STRUCTURE OF GAfeTREOFODS. ap p 3. The mass of the viscera occupies the upper part of the cone formed by these shells, and always remains enclosed in it , but the head arid foot project externally when the animal extends itself to walk, and return again into the last turn of the spire, when it contracts : and the size of this latter part of the shell and the form of its open- ing are always in relative proportion to / the foot. In most of the aquatic gastero- pod rnollusks, with a . spiral shell, there is a horny or calcare- P"' ous disk or door, called operculum (fg. 32, o), which is fixed to the poste- rior part of the foot, and which closes the entrance of the shell, when the animal retires into it. The operculvm of certain small shells constitutes what is vulgar ly termed an eye-stone. 4. The organs of respiration are formed sometimes for breath- ing the air, and sometimes for aquatic respiration ; but in rnollusks with a spiral shell, they are always lodged in the last turn of the spire, and receive the ambient element beneath its edge, either by a hole pierced through the mantle, or between the body and the free edge of this cutaneous fold, which is also often prolonged into a canal, by means of which the animal can obtain the fluid (whether air or water) necessary for its respiration, without ---- ! e d pi 21. ANATOMY OF A SNAIL. Explanation of Fig. 21. Anatomy of a snail ; pi. the foot; t. the tenta- cles partly contracted ; d. a sort of diaphragm which separates the respira- tory cavity from the other viscera ; e. a portion of the stomach ; -f. the liver ; o. the ovary ; i. the intestines ; r. the rectum ; a. the anus ; e. the heart (the pericardium the sack containing the heart being open ; ap. the pulmonary artery ramifying on the parietes of the pulmonary cavity (p} ; v. the gland which secretes the viscosity ; cv. its excretory canal, going to open near the anus. 3. In what part of spiral shells are the viscera of the animal contained ? What part of the shell contains the head and foot? What is the operculum f What are eye-stones ? 4. In what part of the spiral shells are the organs of respiration placed 7 By what means is the air or water admitted to these organs ? Where is the respiratory tube situated ? 36 STRUCTURE OF GASTEROPOD3. putting its head or foot out of its shell. In this latter case, the shell has on its edge a notch or canal, destined to lodge the re- spiratory tube ; this notch is near the termination of the columella, and on the side opposite to that towards which the spire is di- rected. Consequently this canal is to the left, in the commcn species, and to the right, in perverse shells. 5. The heart (fig. 21, c) is always aortic : it is generally com- posed of an auricle and a ventricle, and its position, as is the case with the respiratory tube, is in relation to the direction of the spire of the shell. This organ is situate on the same side with the tube, that is. on the side opposite to that towards which the shell turns, and the procreative organs (the form of which varies much) are always placed on this latter side, and conse- quently on the side opposite to the heart. 6. The mouth is surrounded by contractile lips, and sometimes armed with horny teeth which occupy the palate. In many other animals of this class, the anterior part of the oesophagus is very fleshy, and possesses the faculty of projecting itself externally, in such a manner as to constitute a trunk. Sometimes the stomach is also furnished with cartilaginous or bony pieces, proper for dividing food; the intestine is folded on itself and lodged between the lobes of the liver and ovary; and the anus (Jig' 21, a) is almost always situate on the right side of the body. 7. In this class, the organs of the senses are less developed than in the cephalopods ; the tentacles, which most gasteropods bear on their front, varying in number from two to six, serve chiefly for tact and perhaps for smell. No organ of hearing has been found, and their eyes, which are sometimes wanting, are very small, and of a very simple structure: they resemble those of the nautilus, and are sometimes adherent to the head, and sometimes borne at the base on the side, or at the end of the lentacula. 8. The class of gasteropods is divided into eight orders, tho principal characteristics of which are derived from the disposition of the branchial (brank-e-al) apparatus, as may be seen in tho following table : 6. What is the character of the heart in ga'steropods ? 6 What are the peculiarities of the digestive organs ? 7. Wnere are the tenta'cula placed ? What is the number of tentacles in ga'steropods ? Where are their eyes situated ? 8. Into how many orders is the class of ga'steropods divided ? Upon what are these divisions founded ? CLASSIFICATION OF GASTEROPODS. 87 having lungs (ORDERS.) PULMONEA. r;"b7na,r j PEC in a dorsal cavity, open Tubiform. J-TUBULIBRANCHIATA. above the < head. Very open ; 1 fejO "1 "3 Shell ordinarily in ' S CUT ,BRANCHIATA. form of a . c o shield. 2 13 o 1 beneath a fold of the mantle, 1 a- < which almost always con- [ m tains a shell, or beneath a ^ECTIBRANCHIATA. CD % .straight edge of the foot. J 3 (5 ("shell not turbi- j 13 1 * beneath | nate; of one or > CYCLOBRANCHIATA. o c the edge < more pieces. \ i CO _ of the 1 HI c , ^ mantle, t Without a shell. ^ INFEROBRANCHIATA. l "is OJ be C L C .upon the back. J^NUDIBRANCHIATA. 2 vertically compressed, and only fit for 1 ORDER OF GASTEROPODA PUX.IKONEA. 9. Gasteropods formed for aerial respiration have no branchiae, but have a cavity on the back, upon the parietes of which the pulmonary vessels form a complicated net-work (See fig. 21, page 35), and the lung receives the external air through a hole in the edge of the mantle above the right side of the nape, which is susceptible of being opened or shut at the will of the animal. All the pulmonic gasteropods are not however terrestrial mol lusks. Many of them live in the water; but then they are obliged to come to the surface from time to time, to obtain air necessary for their respiration. All these animals feed on vege- table substances. 10. The order of pulmonic gasteropods is divided into two families ; the terrestrial pvlmonea, and the aquatic pulmonea. 11. The FAMILY OF PULMONEA TERRESTRIA are general- ly recognised with ease by their four tentacles. These append- ages are retractile, and those forming the upper pair, which 9. What are the general characters of the breathing apparatus of the -jrder of Ga'steropoda Pulmonea? Upon what do they feed ? 10. How is the order of pulmonic ga'steropods divided ? 11. What are the characters of the family of terrestrial pulmwea? 86 SLUGS. are longest, have the eyes at their extremities. The mouth la armed with one palatine tooth, and a small tongue studded with microscopic teeth ; and the body varies in form ; some are naked or only provided with an internal shell, while others have an external shell spirally twisted, with a blunt summit, and the mouth without a notch. The small tribe formed by the first is divided into Limax, Vaginula, dec. The tribe of terrestrial pul- monea with an external shell comprises the genera of helix, vitrina, bvlimus, pupa, chondrus, succinea, clausilia, and achatina. 12. The LIMACES (slugs) form the type of the terrestrial pulmonea without apparent shell. The body, as every one knows, is elongated, and their mantle is a fleshy disk, scarcely separated from the rest of the skin (fig. 22, m,) and which only occupies the fore part of the back, where it covers the pulmo- nary cavity ; it often encloses in its thickness a small, flat shell. On the right side of this species of shield, there is a notch, at the bottom of which we observe a contractile opening (jig. 22, ro), that leads into the pulmonary cavity ; the anus is situate upon the anterior border of this respiratory orifice, and a third opening belonging to the procreative apparatus is situate on the external side of the base of the right superior tentacle. The four tentacula are cylindrical, more or less swelled at the end, and hollow ; they are drawn in and pushed out, on unrolling themselves, like the inverted fingers of a glove, by the aid of muscular fibres lodged in their interior ; the eyes, which are borne on the ends of the superior tentacles (fig. 22, st), are black ; the mouth is armed with a sort of palatine tooth in the form of a crescent', and a smooth tongue. The heart is lodged in a particular cavity beneath the mantle, and is composed of an oval auricle, which receives a large pulmonary vein, and a pear- shaped ventricle, from which the aorta arises. And there exists near the heart a secretory apparatus which pours out a viscid matter upon the external surface, through an excretory canal, opening near the respiratory orifice. 13. These animals are herbivorous: they feed principally upon young plants, fruits, mushrooms, and are most voracious towards evening. During the heat of the day they remain con- cealed in holes under stones, or some heap of half-decayed leaves, or even in the earth, and they seldom go out except in the morning and evening, when the air is humid; they are especially abundant after rain. During the cold season they bury themselves in the ground and remain torpid. 12. What are the general characters of the Lima'ces ? 13. Upon what do the Lima'ces feed ? Where are tb found? What %ecoraes of them in the cold season ? SLUGS. SNAILS. 14. Some, called ARIONS, have the pulmonary orifice situate near the anterior part of the dorsal shield, such as the Limax rnfvs, which is everywhere met with in wet weather; [a de- coction of this species is sometimes used in France for pulmo- nary disorders :] the others, named Limax properly so called, or Fig. 22. LIMAX RUFUS. Lima, have this orifice situate more posteriorly, and frequently have a pretty well formed internal shell ; the Limax cinerevs, which inhabits caves and shady forests, belongs to this division, as well as the Limax agrestis, which abounds in some countries, and is very injurious to agriculture. We give the names of VAGINULA, TESTACELLA, and PAR-MA- CELLA to other naked gasteropods, nearly resembling the limaces but which differ from them in the position of the anus, the extent of the mantle, &c. 15. The SNAILS Helix form the most important tribe of terrestrial pulmonea with a complete and apparent shell. Their organization differs very little from that of the limaces ; the mantle, instead of being in the form of a convex shield, constitutes a large cone twisted r*n itself, containing the viscera, which is covered by the shell (Jig. 21, p. 35). We distinguish them by their shell, the opening of which is ordinarily raised like a pad or collar, forming a thickened lip in the adult ; the shell is a little twisted by the projection of the penultimate whorl of the spire, and in this way takes somewhat of a crescent shape. In snails properly so called, this opening is at least as broad as high, and the shell is sometimes globular and sometimes depressed. The habits of these mollusks are nearly the same as those of the limaces. In summer they are very voracious, but in the autumn they eat very little, and, on the approach of Explanation of Fig. 22. Limax rufus : st, the eyes on the extremity of the superior tentacles ; in. the mantle ; ro. the notch over the pulmona- ry cavity. 14. What are Arions ? 15. What are the general characters of snails ? What are their ha hits 7 Do their wounds heal ? In what respect does the genus Ileiix differ from tne genus Limax ? 40 BULIMES. PUPA. winter, they retire into some hole, draw themselves into theiv shell, shutting up the mouth with a calcareous matter, secreted by the edge of the mantle, and remain torpid until spring. Very curious, and frequently repeated experiments, have proved that not only do wounds inflicted on these animals readily heal, but that considerable portions of the body, after being removed, can be renewed. The eyes, the tentacles, and even the head of snails have been known to be entirely renewed in this way. A very great number of species of snails are known ; they are found in all parts of the world. 16. We give the name of VITRINA to snails the shell of which is very thin, flattened and un- provided with a thickened lip, and too small to enclose the body entirely ; some small species are found in Europe. The BULIMES -Bulinws (Jig. 23) have an elongated shell, the open- ing higher than wide, furnished with a thicken- ed lip, and without notches. A small species which is found in France, is re- markable for the singular habit of successively breaking the whorls of the apex of the shell. There is a large species in Brazil which is eaten as a delicacy. Other mollusks of the same tribe, the genus Pupa, have an ellipsoid, or even almost cylindrical shell, with the opening higher than wide, furnished with a thickened, notched, and generally dentate lip (Jig. 24) : they are of small size, and live in humid places, among moss, &c. Shells of the genus Chondrus also have a notched and dentate lip; but their form is more ovoid. 17. The genus of CLAUSILIA is composed of small mollusks which live in moss, at the roots of trees, and have a shell similar to that of the Pupa, but much more slender and pointed (fig> 25). P 25 18. The AMBRETTES Succinea differ from all CLAUSILIA tne Preceding in the absence of a thickened lip around L.EVIS. the opening of the shell, which is oval, and too small Fig. 23. BULIMUS. Fig. 24. PUPA. 16. What is the Vitrina? What are the characters of the genus Bull- mus ? How is the ge.ius Pupa distinguished ? 17. Of what is the genus Clausi'lia composed ? 18. What are the distinguishing marks of the Ambrettes ? Where are they found '( ACHATINA. ONCHIDIUM. 41 Fig. 26. AMBRETTE. to lodge the entire animal (fig. 26) : the shell is thin and translucent, and obtains its name from a supposed resemblance to amber: they live upon plants that grow along the margins of rivulets and brooks. 19. The genus of ACHATINA (fig. 27) is composed of large snails, which, in warm countries, feed on shrubs ; they have an oblong shell with the opening wider than it is high, without a thickened lip, and truncate at the extremity of the colu- mella, a disposition somewhat analo- gous to that of the shell of most ma- rine gasteropods. 20. The family of PULMONEA AQUATICA have but two tentacles (fig. 18, page 33); their mode of respiration obliges them to come fre- quently to the surface of the water to breathe : they cannot keep at great depths, and they ordinarily live in fresh waters, or near coasts. 21. As in the preceding family, we find here mollusks without a shell, and others that are provided with one : the first form thi genus of Onchidium (fig. 28), which have a very straight anl very extensible elongated body ; they inhabit the fresh waters of Fig. 27. ACHATINA. Fig. 28. ONCHTDIUM 19. What shells form the genus of Achatina? (pronounced a-ka.te.na). 20. What are the characters of the family of Pulmonea Aquatica. 21. What are the characters of the genus Onchidiam ? 4* 2U 42 PLANORBIS. LIMN,EA._PHYSA. AURICULA. Fig. 29. PLANORBIS. the warm parts of both continents : the second are subdivided into the genera of PLANORBIS, LIMN.EA, AURICULA, &c. 22. The mollusks of 'the genus PLANORBIS have a thin shell rolled upon the same plane, which is consequently discoid, and the whorls very gradually increase in size (Jig. 29). Their tentacles are long and filiform, and the eyes are placed at the internal side of their base. These gasteropods feed on vege- table substances, and in- habit stagnant waters ; in winter they bury them- selves in the mud, and lie torpid. 23. The LIMN^A (fig. 18, page 33) have the same habits, and are almost always found 4n the same localities as the planorbis, from which they are readily distinguished by the form of their shell, the spire of which is oblong ; their tenta- cles are thick and triangular. In the laying season, they are often found in great numbers joined together, so as to form a sort of chaplet. They swim on the back with the ventral disk extend- ed on the surface of the water, and in winter they become torpid like the planorbis. 24. We give the name of PHYSA to small mollusks found in foun- tains, the shell of which (fig. 30) is similar to that of the limnsea, but very thin, without a thick lip, and without a fold on the columella. The animal, when it crawls or swims, covers its shell with the two lobes of its mantle. In other respects it closely re- sembles the Iimna3a. 25. The AURICULAE differ from the pre- ceding by having large oblique grooves upon the columella of their shell, which is oval or oblong (fig. 31). The name is derived Fig. 30. PHYSA. Fig. AURICULA. 22. What are the characters of the genus Planorbis ? Upon what do ani- mals of this genus feed? Where are they found ? 23. How is the genus Limnse'a distinguished from the genus Planorbis I What are the habits of this genus ? 24. What are the characters of the genus Physa? 25. How is the genus Auri'cula characterized ? (Auri'cula is formed from the Latin, auris. ear, and means a little ear.) STRUCTURE OF THE TURBO PICA. 43 from the shape of the opening, resembling a human ear. Man* of these gasteropods are of considerable size. One species is found on the shores of the Mediterranean. ORDER OF FECTXNXBRANCHIATA.* 26. This division of the class of Gasteropods is the most numerous in genera and species : it comprises nearly all the mollusca, in which the shell is univalve and spirally twisted, vb b ab ov d Fig. 32. ANATOMY OF A PECTINIBRANCH GASTEROPOD. Turbo Pica (See Jig. 44). Explanation of Fig. 32. Anatomy of a pectinibranch gasteropod (the Turbo pica\ to show the arrangement of the respiratory cavity : p. the foot of the animal ; o. the operculum ; t. the trunk ; ta. the tentacles ; y. the eyes ; m. the mantle, split open longitudinally so as to expose the respi- ratory cavity : /. the anterior edge of the mantle, which in its natural po- sition covers the back of the animal, and leaves there an opening or great slit, through which the water reaches the branchiae ; b. the branchiae : vb. the branchial vein which goes to the heart (c) ; ab. the branchial artery ; a. the anus ; i. the intestine ; e. the stomach and liver ; ov. the oviduct. Above the nucha or nape, we see the cephalic (nervous) ganglion, and the salivary glands ; d. fringed membrane, which below borders the left side of the opening of the respiratory cavity. * Pec'tinibranchia'ta. From the Latin, peclen, a comb, and branchta, gills ; because the branchiae or gills (fg. 32, 6) resemble a comb in form. 26. What are the peculiarities of the pectinibranch ga'steropods ? ta what parts of the shell do we find the respiratory cavity ? 44 RESPIRATORY CAVITY OF PECTINIBRANCHIATA. and many of those in which the shell is simply conical. most remarkable feature of almost all these animals is the ar- rangement of the branchial apparatus; but this character is not constant ; for in two genera (cyclostoma and helicina), which, in other respects, are too nearly allied to the ordinary pectinibran- chiata to be separated from them, there are no branchiae, and their respiration, which is aerial as in pulmonea, is carried on by means of a vascular net-work that lines the bottom of the respiratory cavity. This cavity occupies the last whorl of the shell and opens externally by a great slit, situate betwixt the body and the edge of the mantle; in most instances it lodges branchiae (Jig. 32, fe), which are composed of small leaves or fringes ar ranged parallel and attached to its superior parietes upon one, two, or three lines, according to the genus. All these mollusks have two tentacles (to) and two eyes, sometimes borne on particular pedun- cles ; the mouth is in the form of a tube or trunk (f), and encloses a tongue armed with small hooks ; the males have, on the right side of the neck, .an appendage, sometimes very thick, which cannot, in general, be drawn into the body of the animal, but is folded into the branchial cavity ; the rectum and the oviduct (ov) are also found on the right side of this cavity, and near them we remark a particular organ, enclosing a very viscid humour, de- signed to form a common envelope around the eggs. 27. This order is divided into three families. In the two first (that of the Trochoides and of the Capuloides), there is no syphon by the aid of which the animal can breathe without leaving its shell (Jig. 33), while in the third family (that of the Buccinoides) there is a respiratory tube, formed by a prolonga- tion of the edge of the pulmonary cavity of the left side, which passes through a corresponding canal or notch in the shell (fig. 34). Fig. 33. TURRITELLA. Fig. 34. CASSIS. 27. How is the order of pectinibranch ga'steropods divided? How doss the family of Buccinoides differ from the other two families the Trochu uies ivnd Capuloides ? TROCHUS. 45 28. The family of TROCHOIDES are distinguished from other pectinibranch gasteropods without a syphon, by the form of their shell, which is spiral, with an entire aperture, and by the exist- ence of an operculum, or some organ in the place of it. This family is divided into three tribes, which are distinguished by the form of the opening of the shell ; namely, Trochus, in which this opening, angular at its external edge, is nearly quadrangular, and, as regards the axis of the shell, lies in an oblique plane (Figs. 35 and 36); the tribe Turbo, in which the mouth of the shell is perfectly round (Figs. 43, 45 and 46), and the tribe of Hemicyclostoma, in which this opening is more or less in the form of a crescent, as in the Helices (Figs. 26 and 27). 29. The TROCHUS so called from the general form of the shell, that of a top; its spire is more or less raised, and terminates in a point, and the circumference is trenchant or carinate : ani- mals of this tribe are mollusks with a short foot, the mantle or- dinarily furnished on the edge with two or three pairs of filiform appendages, the two eyes being placed on a swelling at the base of the tentacles, the mouth armed with a sort of spirally rolled tongue, and the anus opens on the right side of the respiratory cavity, which encloses two unequal branchiae. The operculum is horny, and marked by numerous spiral turns. The tribe of Trochus is divided into several little groups, according to the ab- sence or presence of an umbilicus, and some other not very im- portant characters. Figure 35 gives a view of the base of the Trochus niloticus, showing the umbilicus or hole in the base of u MA Fig. 35. TROCHUS NILOTICUS. Fig. 36 the columella (w), while Figure 36 is another view of the same shell. The Solarium is a trochus in which the shell is conical in 28. What are the peculiarities of the family of Trochoides ? (pronounced tro-koi-dfs.} Into how many tribes is this family divided ? 29. What are the characters of the tribe of Trochu ? (pronounced tro-kug.') 2U* 40 TROCHUS. form (fig. 37), with a quadrangular aperture, and an extremely flaring umbilicus (fg. 38, u) ; the anterior edges of all the invo Fig. 39. TROCHUS AGGLUTINANS. u Fig. 37. SOLARIUM PERSPECTIVUM. Fig. 38. lutions or whorls of the spire are marked by a crenulated cord, that is, notched on the edge (fig. 38). 30. Among the TROCHI properly so called, with an umbilicated shell, we will men- tion the Trochus agglutinans, which is found in the West Indies and Pacific. It has the singular faculty of glueing to itself movable bodies found on the ground on which it rests ; sometimes it glues stones and sometimes shells or pieces of shells, according to the place where it. is found. From this habit of building out its habita- tion from materials not its own, it is sometimes called the Ma- son (Fig. 39). There are some without an umbilicus, very conical, and very tall, that are marked by numerous whorls in the spire, with crossing striae ; the ex- tremity of the columella is much twisted, and projects be- yond the origin of the lip^ A specimen of this variety is seen in the annexed figure of the telescope trochus (Fig. 40) Fig. 40. TROCHUS TELESCOPIUM. 30. What are the peculiarities of the Trochus Agglutinans ? TROCHUS TURBO. 47 Fig. 41. TROCHUS CONCAVUS. Fig. 42. TROCHUS IRIS. Another variety is remarka- ble for a deep excavation at the base of the columella, resem- bling an umbilicus, and a pro- jection of the circumference, as is seen in the figure of the con- cave trochvs (fg. 41), which inhabits the Indian Seas, and is considered rare. There are other specijes, without an umbi- licus, conical with a very oblique base; the aperture large, slightly angular: the columella twisted, and forming a kind of tooth at its termination. Such is the rainbow trochua (fg. 42), the nacre of which is a beautiful golden green, with very brilliant reflections of red. 31. The tribe of TURBO comprises all the pecti- nibranch gasteropods which have a completely and regularly turbinated shell, terminated by an entirely round aper- ture In it we range the turbo properly so called, delphinula, turri- rella, scalaria, cyclostoma, valvata, &c. (fg. 43). 32. The TURBOS properly so called are recognised by their round or oval thick shell, in which the ap- erture is completed within by the whorl of the spire next to the last. Tbese mollusks have two long ten- tacles, which, at their base, externally, support the pedunculated eyes; on the sides of the foot we remark membranous wings, sometimes simple, sometimes fringed or furnished with one or two filaments ; and their operculum is sometimes horny, at others calcareous, or extremely thick. Among the varieties of this genus is the Turbo Pica (fg. 44), which inhabits the 31. What are the characters of the tribe of Turbo ? (Turbo is n Latin word, meaning a whirling or twisting.) 32 What are the characters of the Turbo properly so called? Fig. 43. TURBO. Fig. 44. TURBO PICA. 48 SCALARIA. CYCLOSTOMA. VALVATA. equatorial regions of the Atlantic Ocean. It is a common, heavy shell ; it has a horny operculum, and is remarkable for a tooth situate at the orifice of the umbilicus. 33. The DELPHINULA has a thick shell like the last, but rolled almost in the same plane, and the aperture is entirely formed by the last whorl of the spire (fig. 45): the most common species is remarkable for its twisted and branching spines. 34. The TURRITELLA and Scalaria have a very elongated spire : in the first (fig. 33, page 44), the mouth or aper- ture of the shell is formed as in the Turbo, properly so called, and in the last, it is similar to that of the Delphinula. Precious Scalaria (fig. 46) has the volu- tions connected by longitudinal ribs. 35. The CYCLOSTOMA, which are dis- tinguished by the absence of branchiae, and by their aerial respiration, also have a shell with a round mouth, closed by a thin circu- lar operculum (fig. 47, o) ; it is in form of an oval spire, and finely Fig. 45. DELPHINULA The Wentletrap or Fig. 46. SCALARIA. striated transversely. These animals live in woods, under moss and stones. Fig. 47. CYCLOSTOMA. 36. Finally, the fresh- water mollusks, named VALVATA, in which the shell somewhat resembles that of the Planorbis, but has a circular aperture, furnished with an operculum, also take their place here. One species, which inhabits stagnant waters in France, has been called the feather bearer, from the manner in which the branchia, which is in form of a feather, is protruded and floats Fig 48 on lne sur ^ ace f tne water when the animal VALVATA. wishes to breathe. 33. What are the characters of the Delphinu'la ? 34. What are the characters of the Turrite'lla and Scala'ria ? 35. What are the characters of the Cyclo'stomae ? (Cyclostoma : from the Greek, kuklos, round, and stoma, "mouth, round-mouth.} 36. What animals belong to the genus Valva'ta? (Valvata, Latin, formed from valv(B r folding doors). PALUDINA. LITTORINA.MONODON. 49 37. The tribe of HEMI'CYCLO'STOMA is composed of pectini- branch gasteropods, which resemble snails in the form of their shell, of which the whorl next to the last presents a sunken arch, which gives its aperture more or less resemblance to a crescent. They form many genera, among which we will mention the Palvdina, Littorina, Monodonta, Janthina, and Nerita. 38. The PALUDINJE were, for a long time, confounded with the cyclostomse, but the aperture of their shell is without the rolled lip, and they are provided with branchiae for breathing in water ; they show the first vestiges of the syphon which always exists in the follow- ing family ; we observe on each side of the body a sort of membranous wing, and on the right side this prolongation curves into a small canal, through which water is introduced into the branchial cavity. Many species are found in fresh waters in the United States. A common species, the Palvdina vivi'para, so called because its young are born alive, is marked by purplish longitudinal bands, and the shell is greenish ; it abounds in the standing waters of France. 39. The LITTORINJE do not differ much from the Paludinae, except that they have a thicker shell, and inhabit the sea. The Vigneau, or Turbo littoreus, the shell of which is .round, of a brown colour, streaked with black, belongs to this genus ; it abounds on the coast of France, where it is eaten by the natives. 40. The MONODONS are distinguished from the littorinse by the presence of a blunt, slightly projecting tooth at the base of the columella. The animal generally bears on each side three or four filaments, as long as the tentacles, and has the eyes supported on peculiar pedicles. A small species, the Trochus tesselatvs, with a brown shell, spotted whitish, abounds on the coasts of France. Fig. 49. PALUDINA. Fig. 50. LITTORINA VIGNEAU. 37. What is the characteristic of the Hemi'cyclo'stoma ? 38. What are the characters of the genus Paludi'na ? (Paludina, formed from the Latin palus, a marsh.) 39. What are the characters of the genus Littorina ? 40. What are the characters of the genus Monodon ? 5 5G PHASIANELLA. AMPULLARIA. MELANIA. Fig. 51. PHASIANELLA PICTA 41. The PHASIANELLA (Jig. 51) have an oblong or pointed shell ; the aperture is higher than it is wide, and furnished with a strong operculurn ; the base of the columella is flatten- ed, but there is no umbilicus. These animals inhabit the Indian Ocean, and their shells are much sought after by collectors, on account of the beauty of their colours. 42. The shell of the AMPULLARIA (Jig. 52) is round, ventri- cose, with a short spire, as in most of the Helices; the aperture is higher than it is wide, and provided with an operculum ; the columella is umbilicated. The Ampullariae inhabit the fresh or brackish waters of hot countries. Many species are found in the United p^ 53.. States. 43. The shell of the MELANIA (fig. 53) has the aperture higher than wide, and it enlarges opposite to the spire ; the colu- mella has neither plica? (folds) nor umbili- cus ; the length of the spire is very various. The animal has long tentacles, the eyes be- ing at about one-third of their length, on the external side. The MelaniaB inhabit fresh-water rivers ; a number of species is met with in the United States. 44. The JANTHIN^: (fig' 54) resemble Fig. 53.-11ELANIA. gnails j n the general f()rm of their shellj but differ considerably from the different mollusks we have described -AMPULLARIA. 41. How is the genus Phasiane'lla characterized ? (Phasianella, from (he Greek, Phasianos, a pheasant, because this shell bears some resem- blance to the pheasant in its colours.) 4*2. How is the genus Ampulla'ria recognised ? 43. What are the characters of the genus Mela'nia? (Melania, from the Greek, mdas, black.) 44. What are the characters of the genus Janthi'na? (Janthina, fromtho 1f>f k ianthon, violet colour.) JANTHINA. NERITA. - 54. -JANTHINA. in the form of the animal. It has no oper- culum, but carries on its foot a substantial vesicular organ, which resembles froth bub- bles, which hinders it from crawling, but en- ables it to float on the surface of the water. Its head is in the form of a trunk, and has a forked tentacle on each side. The common species Janthinafragilis with a very thin violet-coloured shell, is very common in the Mediterranean, and the seas of all warm regions. Great numbers of them are frequently met with in per- fectly calm weather floating on the surface of the ocean. When the animal is touched, it ejects a deep violet-coloured liquor, which dyes the water all round it. The vesicular or froth-like buoy ia about three times the size of the animal ; it is in the form of a cone, projecting from one side. 45. The NERITA are distinguished by the columella being a straight line, which makes the aperture of the shell either semi-circular or semi-elliptical. They are divided into Natica, in which the shell is umbilicate (fig. 20, page 34) and the operculum horny ; into Nerita, properly so called, in which the shell is not umbili- cate, thick (Jig. 55), and the operculum stony, and into Neritina, in which the shell is also without an umbilicus, very Fig. 55. NERITA PELORONTA. Bleeding Tooth. thin t and the operculum is horny. The last live in fresh waters. 45. \s *h* % enus Neri'ta distinguished ? 52 FAMILY OF BUCCINOIDES. LESSON IV. FAMILY OF BUCCINOIDES. Buccinum Buccinum properly so called Harpa Purpvra Cassis Cerithium Murex Strombus Valuta Ovitla Cyprcea Convs. FAMILY OF PECTINIBRANCHIATA CAPULOIDA. Pileopsis Hypponyx Crepidula rCalyptraa Siphonaria Siga- retus. ORDER OF GASTEROPODA TUBULIBRANCHIATA. ORDER OF GASTEROPODA SCUTIBRANCHIATA. Haliotis Fis- surella Emarginula . ORDER OF GASTEROPODA CYCLOBRANCHIATA. Patella Chiton. ORDER OF GASTEROPODA INFEROBRANCHIATA. ORDER OF GASTEROPODA TECTIBRANCHIATA. Pleurobran- chus Aplysia Dolabella Bullea Bvlla. ORDER OF GASTEROPODA NUDIBRANCHIATA. Eolidia Glaucus. ORDER OF GASTEROPODA HETEROPODA. Carinaria. CLASS OF MOLLUSCA PTEROPODA. Clio borealis. 1. In the FAMILY OF BUCCINOIDES, the shell is spiral, and in its aperture, near the extremity of the columella, there is a canal or notch, serving for the passage of the syphon or respiratory tube (fg. 56), which is formed by a fold of the mantle, ana destined to afford the animal the power of breathing, without going out of its shell. This family is divided into three tribes, namely : Buccinum, Murex, and Angiostoma. 2. The TRIBE OF BUCCINUM comprises all the Buccinoides in which the shell is with- out a plica (fold) in its columella, but is fur- nished with a notch or short canal inflected towards the left, and its aperture is very large. The foot of these mol- lusks is generally of Fig. 56.-VOLUTA. moderate length, and rounded in front (jigs. 33 and 34.) The mantle is unprovided with fringe, and is prolonged anteriorly into a long canal, which 1. What are the characters of the shell in the family of Buccinoides J Into how many tribes is this family divided ? 2. How is the tribe of Buc'cinum characterized ? (Buccinum, Latin, a t-umpet.) BUCCINUM. NASSA. HARPA, 53 is always uncovered. The mouth is armed with a trunk, and there is generally a small horny operculum. 3. The BUCCINUM PROPERLY so CALLED (Jig. 57), has an oval, elongated shell, the aperture of which is oval, notched, and with- out a canal. The operculum is complete, and these animals have no veil on the head like the Cerita. A great many species are known. Lamarck describes fifty-eight species. 4. We give the name of NASSA to mollusks that differ very little from the preceding, but in which the columella of the shell, in place of being Fig. 57. convex and naked, is covered by BUCCINUM UNDATUM. a plate of greater or less thickness (Jig. 58). Dolium also belongs to this tribe, and is remarkable for the length of its trunk and the size of its foot. It is without operculum, and the shell is recognised by being almost globose, very ventricose and fur- nished with projecting ribs, which follow the direction of the whorls of the spire, and make the margin of the aperture un- dulated (Jig. 59). A very large species is found in the Mediterranean. Fig. 59. DOLIUM d a GALEA. 5. The HARPS Harpa have a more oval shell, furnished with projecting ribs parallel with the margin of the aperture, and differ from the preceding in the form of their foot (Jig. 60). 6. The PURPURA is fur- nished with an operculum, Fig. 60. HARPA. like the Buccinum properly so Fig. 58. NASSA. Explanation of Fig. 60. Harp : a. the shell ; b. the foot of the animal ; c. the tentacles ; d. the syphon. 3. What are the characters of the Buccinum properly so called ? 4. What are the characters of the genus Nassa? (Nassa, Latin, a net*. What are the characters of Do'lium ? (Dolium, Latin, tub, a tun). 5. How is the Harp characterized ? 6. What are the characters of the genus Pur'pura? (Purpura, Latin purple.) fi* 2V C A SSIS. TEREBRA. CERITHIUM. called, which it very much resembles. The shell is ovate, thick, most frequently tuberculated, and characterized by its flattened columella, which is trenchant towards the end opposite to the spire, and forming, at that point with the external margin of the aperture, an unprojecting canal. Fig. 61. CASSIS. Fig. 62. 7. The HELMET CASSIS (fgs. 34, 61, 62) also very much resembles the ordinary Buccinum ; but their shell, which is ovate, with a short, slightfy projecting spire, is furnished with a transversely wrinkled plate, covering the columella, like the Nassa. The aperture, sometimes oblong, sometimes straight, is also wrinkled externally, and its notch termi- nates in a little short canal which is curved backwards. 6. The TEREBRA differs still less from the Buccinum properly so called : it is distin- guished from it t>nly by the elongation of its spire. 9. The CERITHIUM (fg. 63), the shell of which is turreted, like that of the Terebra, but furnished with a short canal curved to the left or backwards, also differs from other Buccina by having a veil above the head : this animal has but a single branchia. Some of the mol- lusks of this genus inhabit the sea, and others Fie 63. f resn water< A g reat man y living species are ALUCO. known ; but they were formerly more abun- 7. What are the characters of the genus Cassis? (Cassis, Latin, a helmet.) 8. How is Terebra distinguished from Buc'cinum ? (Buccinum, Latin, & trumpet, a shell-fish.) 9. What are the characters of Cerithium ? MUREX. FUSUS. STROMBUS. 55 dant than in our day ; for, in certain formations, such as the calcareous* tertiary of the environs of Paris, an immense number is found in the fossil state. 10. In the TRIBE OF MUREX, the aperture of the shell is always prolonged into a canal, either straight or inflected (fits' 64). The animals themselves very closely resemble those of the tribe of Buccinum ; they have a trunk, no veiJ on the head, the right edge of the mantle furnished with lobes or filaments, and a horny operculum. They are all carnivorous and inhabit the sea. They are subdivided, ac- cording to the form of the shell, into Murex properly so called, Fusus, Strombus, &c. 11. The Mu rices properly so called are distinguished by their shell, the canal of which is projecting and straight, and the whorls are furnish- ed with transverse elevations, in form of varices or ridges, which often present spines, or ramified and slashed plates, or lamella?. 12. The Fusus has a canal formed like the common Murex ; but the shell is without varices, that is, longitudinal ribs. Fig. 64. MUREX. 13. The STROMBUS has a shell in which the canal is straight or curved to the right, and its external edge expands with age, and this canal presents a sinus (hollow) behind, in which the head lodges, when the animal extends itself. In the STROMBUS PROPERLY so CALLED, the sort of wing formed by this prolon- gation of the margin of the shell is entire ( jfor. 65), while, in the PTEROCERA, it is divided, in the adult, into long and slender digitations. Fig. 65. STROMBUS. 10. How is the tribe of Mu'rex characterised ? (Murex, Latin, a shellfish.) 11. How are Mu'rices properly so called distinguished ? 12. What are the characters of Fusus ? (Fusus, Latin, a spindle.) 13. What are the distinguishing characters of Strom'bus? (Strombui Latin, name of a shellfish.) VOLUTA. OLIVA. OVULA. All have the aperture of the shell very narrow (fg. 60), a disposition approaching to the characteristic of the following tribe. 14. In the TRIBE OF ANGIOSTOMA, the aperture is generally so narrow that, to enter it, the foot of the animal is obliged to be doubled. In some, designated under the com- mon name of VOLUTES Valuta the aperture, which is of various forms, is terminated by a notch without a canal, and the columella is marked by oblique, projecting plicae (folds), (fg. 67) : they are sub- divided into VOLUTES PROPER (fg- 56, page 52), in which the aperture is wide, and the columella is marked by some large plicae, and the last whorl of the spire is sometimes ventricose, some- times conical ; in the MITRA the spire is in general pointed and elongated, and in OLIVA, so called from the oblong or ellipsoid form of the shell, the aperture is long, narrow, and notched opposite to the spire, and the columella is marked by numerous plicae (fg> 67). 16. In others the shell is oval, the spire is concealed, and the aperture, which is long and narrow, has no plicae on the side of the columella, a notch or canal at its two extremities ; these are Fig. 67. OLIVA. but presents the OVUL^ (fg. 68). Fig. 68. OVULA VOLVA. 17. In others again, the CYPR^^E (PORCELANA), the shell, which is protuberant in the middle, and almost as much con- 14. What is the peculiarity of the tribe of Angio'stoma ? (Angiosloma, Greek, a^geion, a vessel, and stoma, mouth.) 15. What a/e the characters of Volu'ta ? (Voluta, Latin, a wreath.) What is the character of Oli'va ? (Oliva, Latin, an olive.) It,. What are the characters of the genus O'vula ? (Ovula, from the Latin, ouum, an egg.) 17. What are the characters of the genus Cyprae'a ? (Cyprsea, Latin, a cowry. CYPRJEA. CONUS. 57 tracted at the two extremities, has a very narrow aperture, trans- versely wrinkled on both sides; when the animal expands it- self, the mantle extends over the shell and envelopes it entirely (jig. 69), which, in the progress of time, pro- duces considerable mo- dification in the colours of the latter ; for, at a certain period, it depo- sits new layers of calca- reous matter, not only Fig. -69. CYPR^EA. around the aperture, but also upon the whole external surface of this solid envelope. 18. Also to this tribe of mollusks belongs the genus CONUS (jig. 70), which differs from all the preceding in the conical form of the shell, which gives the genus its name; a slightly, or not at all projecting spire, forms the base of this cone, and the aperture, which is nearly straight, extends from one end of the shell to the other. 19. A great number of the shells, the principal characters of which we have briefly noted, are re- markable for the elegance of their form and the beauty of their colours ; the Cones, the porcelain shells (Cypraea), the Volutes, and the Olives especial- ly, are much admired for the brilliance of their mark- CONUS. ings. Many other mollusks of the family of Buccinoides are also worthy of attention on account of the viscid liquid, secreted by the gland placed, as we have already seen in the snails, betwixt the heart and rectum. And in a considerable number of these animals, this humour has the property of changing colour when exposed to the action of air and light, and thus passes from greenish yellow to purple; spread upon stuffs, it imparts to them this rich shade, and appears to be the material employed by the ancients for producing their beautiful purple dyes. Pliny relates that on the shores of Tyre, and many other points along the coasts of the Mediterranean, there are found two genera of shells, called Buccinum and Pvrpura^ both of which furnished d}e for the colours termed purple and conchilian. The first of these mollusks appears to be the Buccinum lapillus, and the second (he Murex brandaris (fig. 64) ; but the quantity of colouring Fig. 70. 1 8. What are the characters of the genus Co'nu? ? (Conus, Latin, a 19. What animals are supposed to yield the purple dye which was cel- brated among the ancients ? 2V# CAPULUS. HIPPONYX. CREPIDULA. matter these animals yield is so small, it is difficult to explain how they could furnish so active a trade; and it must have been that the ancients used for the same purposes the purple liquid secreted by larger and more common mollusks, such as the aplysia, which we have yet to mention. 20. The FAMILY OF PECTINIBRANCH CAPULOIDES is recog- nised by the shell being widely open, slightly turbinated, and without either notch, syphon, or operculum. The conformation of the animal differs but little from that of other mollusks of the same order ; there is only a single branchia, often with very long filaments, attached transversely to the arch of the respiratory cavity. In this division are arranged the genera of Pileopsis, Hippo- nyx, Crepidula, Calyptraa, Sigaretus, fyc. 21. Animals of the genus Pileopsis^ or Capulus (fig. 71), have their branchiae on the anterior edge of the respiratory cavity ; the shell is conical, and presents at its summit the commencement of a spire; their neck is covered by a membranous plaited veil, and they have two conical tentacles, and a tolerably long trunk or proboscis. They inhabit the sea- shores of warm countries. 22. The genus of Hipponyx (fig. 72) con- sists of fossil shells, which closely resemble the preceding, but are very remarkable for a support formed by calcareous layers, upon which they rest, and which seem to have been secreted by the foot of the 72 ._ H ippoNvx. animal. 23. The CrepidulcB have an oval shell, the whole base of which is half closed by a horizontal plate, which supports the abdominal sac above it, and is covered beneath by the foot (fig. 73). Fig. 73. CREPIDULA. 20. How is the family of Pectinibranoh Capuloi'des distinguished t (Capuloides, from the Latin, capulus, a hilt or handle, and the Greek, eidos, resemblance.) 21. What are the characters of the genus Ca'pulus? (Capulus. Latin, a hilt.) 22. What are the characters of the genus Hippony'x? (Hipponyx, from thr- Greek, ippos, a horse, and onux, nail ; horse nail, or hoof.) 23. What are the characters of the genus Crepi'dula ? (Crepidula. Latin, a slipper.) CALYPTILE. SIPHONARIA. SIGARETUS. 59 Fig. 74. CALVPTR.EA. 21. The Calyptrcetz have in the interior of the shell, in form of a hollow cone, a small plate pro- jecting downwards, which seems to be the com- mencement of a columella, and is embraced in a fold of the abdominal sac ; their branchiae are composed of long slender filaments like hairs. In some of them the plate or lamina adheres to the bottom of the cone, being itself bent into a portion of a cone or of a tube, and descending vertically. 25. The Siphonaria deserve notice, because they show how much the organization of mollusks may vary with- out any very striking difference in the form of their shell. Until "recently these animals have been ranged with the patellae, to be described in the sequel, which they resemble in their shell, but differ from them very much in the structure of their most im- portant organs ; their branchia is composed of a few leaflets transversely attached to the bottom of a respiratory cavity, which is on the back, and communicat- ing externally by a lateral hole in the mantle; they do not appear to possess tentacles, but have a narrow veil on the head. 26. The genus Sigaretits (fg. 75) has a flattened shell, with a slight spire, and a very large aperture, which is Fig. 75. SIGARETUS. concealed in the mantle. ORDER OF GASTEROPODA TTJBULIBHANCHIATA. 27. Tubulibranch gasteropods are very analogous to the peclinibranch gasteropods, but are distinguished from them by very important differences in the organization of some of their organs, and in the structure of their shell, which is fixed to sub- marine bodies, and is in the form of a more or less irregular tube, the commencement of which only is spiral. It is divided into the genera Vermetus, Magilus, and Siliquaria. 24. What are the characters of the genus Calyptrae'a? (Calyptrse'a, from the Greek, kaluptra, a hood.) 25. What are the characters of the genus Siphona'ria ? 26. What are the characters of the genus Sigare'tus ? 27. How are the tubu'libranch distinguished from the pecti'nibranch gasteropods? (Tubu'libranch, from the Latin, tubulu a litlle tube, and oranchia, gills). 60 HALIOTIS. FISSURELLA. ORDER OF GASTEROPODA SCTJTIBHANCHIATA. 28. In the general form of their body and the position of their branchiae, the scutibranch resemble the pectinibranch gasteropods ; but they differ from the latter in their anatomical and physiological characters. Their shell is very open, slightly or not at all turbinated, and, like a shield, it covers the branchiee or even the whole body. A peculiarity of their internal organi- zation approximates them to the acephalous mollusks; their heart is traversed by the rectum and receives the blood by two auricles. They are not numerous, and are divided into Haliotis, Fis- surella, c^c. 29. The Haliotides (fg. 76) have a slightly turbinated shell, with a spire so small that it is only seen from the inside: it is flattened and the aperture is very large. In the Haliotides properly so called, there is along the columella a series of holes, through which the water reaches a slit on the right side of the mantle, and penetrates to the branchial cavity ; the filiform ap- pendages of the edgeof the mantle can be protruded through these holes, and all around the foot there Fig. 76.-HALIOTIS. fringes and furnished with long filaments. On the outside of the tentacles we find two cylindrical pedicles, bearing the eyes; and the mouth is armed with a trunk or proboscis. The external surface of the shells of these mollusks are not remarkable ; but internally they are covered by a layer of nacre, of the richest and most beautifully iridescent colours. They are found in great num- bers on the rocky shores of California. o 30. The Fissurella, (fS- 77) are recog- nised by their conical shell placed upon the m middle of the back, and p pierced at its summit by a small opening, which serves to gve Fig. 77. FISSURELLA. Explanation of Fig. 77. p. the foot of the animal ; m. the mantle ; o. the opening at the apex of the shell, and the anus. 28. What are the characters of the scuti'branch ga'steropods ? (Scuti. branch, from the Latin, scutum, a shield, and bronchia, gills.) 29. What are the characters of the Halio'tides ? (Haliotides, from the Greek, tilf, the sea, and ous, ear ; sea-ear, or haliotis, and eidos, resemblauca.) 30. How is the genus Fissure'lla recognised ? (Fissurella, Latii, JV*. ft/ra, a slit.) EMARGINULA. PATELLA. Cl passage to the air necessary for respiration, and also for the ex- pulsion of the excrements. 31. We give the name of Emarginula to mollusks very much like the Fissurellae, but their shell, in place of being open at the top, presents a slit or notch in front, communicating with the branchial cavity. ORDER OF GASTEROPODA CYCLOBRANCKIATA. 32. The cyclobranch gasteropods closely approximate the pre- ceding, either in their general form, or in the disposition of their internal organs ; but they are distinguished by their branchias being fixed around the edges of the mantle (Jig- 78). 38. Some, the Patella (fg. 78), for example, are provided with a broad-based, conical shell, which covers the whole body ; they very much resemble the Fissurel- lae and Emarginulse, but the ^ shell is not perforated at the b- t apex, nor is there a notch in front as in the latter. The head is furnished with two pointed tentacles, having the eyes at their base, and a stout trunk ; the anus is situate to the right, and a little above the head, and the branchiae are composed of Fig. 78. PATELLA. leaflets or fringes, arranged in a row around the body, under the edges of the mantle. Patellae are found in almost all parts of the world ; they are found on rocks to which they adhere, and lie completely concealed beneath their shell, even after they are left by the ebbing sea. Explanation of Fi?. 78. The animal of the patella seen from below; e the edge of the shell ; p. the foot ; m. the mantle ; 6. the branchiae ; t. the head. 31. How does the genus Emargi'nula differ from Fissure'lla? (Emargi. nula, from the Latin, e, from, and margo, marginis, the margin from the margin notched.) 32. How are cy'clobranch ga'steropods distinguished ? (Cyclobranch, from the Greek, kiiklos, a wheel, and bragchia, gills.) 33. What are the characters of the genus Patella? (Patella, Latin, knee-pan 6 CHITON. 34. Other cyclobranch gastero- pods, called Chiton (fig. 79), differ from all mollusks, in the nature of their shell, which, instead of a tur- binated or shield-like piece, is com- posed of a row of testaceous and symmetrical scales, generally eight in number, let into the mantle, and occupying the middle line of the back. The edges of this mantle, thus protected, are also very leathery, and often furnished with little scales, spines, or hairs. A membranous veil placed over the mouth, takes the place of tentacles ; the branchiae are composed of Fig. 79. CHITON. lamellar pyramids, arranged on each side, beneath the edge of the mantle ; the anus is at the posterior extremity of the body. Chitons most abound on the shores of tropical seas. ORDER OF GASTEROPODA XNFEROBRANCHIATA. 35. The order of Inferobranch gasteropods is composed of a very small number of naked moliusks, characterized by their branchiae, consisting of a long series of leaflets, placed on each side of the body, between the foot, and the advanced edge of the mantle. Like the preceding, they are marine, and differ from them, not only in the absence of every vestige of shell, but also in some points of their internal anatomy, which approximate them to the gasteropods. They are divided into PHYLLIDIA (from the Greek, phullon, a leaf), in which the anus is posterior to the mantle, and the head is furnished with four tentacles ; and into DIPHYLLIDIA (from the Greek, dis, two, and phullon, leaf), in which the anus is on the right side, and the head has a pointed tentacle, and small tubercle on each side. In all of them, the body is oval, or more or less tuberculous. ORDER OF GASTEROPODA TECTIBRAZTCHIATA. 36. The Tectibranch gasteropods are, like the preceding, ma- rine mollusks, but their branchiae are not symmetrical ; they 34. What are the characters of the genus Chi'ton ? (pronounced Ary-fon.) (Chiton; Greek, a garment;) . 35. How are the In'ferobranch ga'steropods characterized ? (Infero- liranch ; from the Latin, inferus, below, and bronchia, ^ills.) 36. What are the characters of the tecHibranch gasteropods ? 'Tecti- branch ; from the Latin tfgo, I cover, and branchiae, gills.) PLEUROBRANCHUS. APLYSIA. 80. PLEUROBRANCHUS. are composed of leaflets, more or less divided, at- tached along the right side (fig. 80, br), or on the back (fig. 81), and more or less covered by the mantle, which almost al- ways encloses a small shell in its thickness. Their form is very variable. They are divided into Pleurobran- chus, Pleurobranchides, Aplysia, Dolabella, Akera^ &c. 37. The PLEUROBRANCHI are mol- lusks of an oval form ; in which the branchice are fixed on the right side, between the mantle and foot (fig. 80). V The mouth is in the form of a proboscis or trunk, and is surmounted by a small triangular veil, and two tentacles; they have four stomachs, the second one of which is sometimes armed with bony pieces, and the anus opens behind the branchioe. One species, of a lemon yellow colour, is found on the coasts of m France. j, 38. The APLYSIJE, which the ancients called sea-hares, have a very singular form ; the body resembles that of a sort of Limax ; but the edges of the foot, erected in flexible crests, surround the back and may be even reflected over it. Their head is supported by a neck of greater or less length, and furnished with four tentacles (fig. 81, ?)> the two upper ones being hollowed like the ears of a quadruped, and placed above the eyes (y). The branchia?, in the form of very complicated Fig. 81. APLYSIA Explanation of Pis. 8'\ m. the mantle, raised up to show the branchiae, &r / a. the anus ; 6. the mouth and trunk ; . the veil ; t. the tentacles ; p. the foot Explanation of Fig. 81. /, t. the tentacles ; y. the eyes ; m. the mantle ; 6. the hranchire. 37. What are tb-3 characters of the genns Pleu'robranchus ? (Pleuro- branchus, from the Greek, pleura, side, and brfigchia, gills.) 38. What are the characters of the genus Ap.y'sii? (Aplysia, Iron* the Greek, nplvsia, uncleanness.) DOLABELLA. AKERA. b. leaflets, are fixed upon the back, by means of a broad membranous pedicle, and covered by a small mantle (m), in the thickness of which we find a small horny shell. And the anus is situate behind the bran- chiae. These mollusks live on fucus, and are provided with an enormous crop, and three other stomachs (fig. 82, d) t the second and third of which are arm- ed internally with sharp hooks, arid cartilaginous plates. A particular gland secretes an acrid liquor, and pours it out through an opening situate on the right side. A purple coloured liquid exudes sweats from the edge of the mantle, when the animal contracts, and is sufficient in quantity to dye the water to a considerable distance around it. Several species of Aplysiae, which vary in colour, are found on the coasts of France. 39. The DolabellcR do not differ much from the Aplysiae, except in the position of their branchiae, and their mantle at the posterior extremity of the body. They are found in the Medi- terranean as well as in the Indian seas. 40. The AkertB (fg. 83) also resemble the Aplysise in the complication and armature of the stomach, as well as in the posi- tion of their branchiae, and several other important points of their organization ; but they are distinguished by their tentacles, which are short, very thick, and so arranged as to form together a Fig. 82. AFLYSTA. Explanation of Fig. 82. Anatomy of the Aplysia : a. the head ; b. the pharynx ; e. oesophagus ; d. the three stomachs ; c. the intestines ; /. the nervous collar surrounding the oesophagus; g. the heart; h. the >ranchiae ; t. the liver ; j. the anus ; k. the bladder : I. the ovary. 39. What is Dolabe'lla ? (Dolabella, Latin, a little axe or hatchet.) 40. How are Ake'rse distinguished from the Aplysise ? (Akera, from thf Greek, o, without, and keras, horn.) NUDIBRANCH GASTEROPODS. 65 large fleshy shield above the eyes (fig. 83, v). Many of these ani- P mats effuse a purple liquid. Some are entirely unprovided with shell, or have only the vestige of a shell : these are the Akera properly so called ; others have a shell some- what rolled upon itself, and with- out a projecting spire or notch, which is concealed in the thick- Fi g- 83. BULLA HYDATIS. ness of the mantle ; these form the genus Bullcea ; and there are still others in which the shell, only covered by a slight epi- dermis, is more convoluted and sufficiently large to afford a retreat for the animal : these constitute the division of Bulla. ORDER OF GASTEROPODA. NUDIBHANCHIATA. 41. The mollusks composing this group are without a shell and carry their branchiae on some part of the back (fig. 84). The structure of some of their internal organs approximates them to the Pulmonea, the Inferobranchiata, and the Tectibran- chiata ; they all inhabit the sea. Fig. 84. - EOLIDIA. 42. Among the genera possessing this kind of organization, we will cite the Doris, the general form of which is nearly the same as that of ihe Pleurobranchus (fg> 83), and in which the branchiae are inserted in a circle around the anus, at the pos- terior part of the back ; ihe TRITONIA, in which the branchia?, in form of miniature trees, are attached along the two sides of Explanation of Fig. 83. Animal of the Bulla hydatis : c. the shell; p, p. the two lobes of the foot ; d. posterior part of the foot : . the sort of veil formed by the union of the tentacles ; a. the anus. 41. What are the characters of the Nudi'branch gasteropods? branch ; from the Latin, nudus, naked, and bronchia, gills.) 42. What are the characters of the genus Glau'cus? (Glaucus; from the Greek, glaukos, blue.) What are the characters of the Eolidia ? 6* 2W GLAUCUS. CARHXARIA. the back, and in which the mouth is armed with lateral horny jaws, similar to shears; *,he GLAUCUS, remarkable for its blue colour (Jig. 85), in which ;."- the branchiae, three pairs in number, are situated in the same manner, but each one is composed of several long fringes, spread like a fan ; and the EOLIDIJE (Jig- 84), which resemble small Limaces in form, in which the branchiae are composed of laminae, or leaflets, arranged like scales, more or less crowded together on each side of the back. They are found in every sea. Fig. 85. GLAUCUS. ORDER OF GASTEROPODA HETEROFODA. 43. These gasteropods are not organized, like all the pre- ceding, for crawling on the belly, but for swimming only. In fact, their foot, in place of forming a horizontal fleshy disk, is compressed into a vertical membranous plate, which is used as a fin. Their body is formed of a transparent, gelatinous sub- stance, and their branchiaa are placed on the posterior part of the back. The principal genera of this group are the CAB^NARIA and FlOROLA. ye br c p v Fig. 86. CARINARIA MEDITERKANKA. Explanation of Fig. 8G. 1>. the mouth ; t. the tentacles ; y. the eyes ; . 94. PERNA. sertion of these organs, we will mention Etheria, Avicula, Pinna, Area, and Trigonia. 14. The EtheritE are very analogous to oysters : their shell is , inequivalve, very irregular, without teeth at the hinge and provided with a ligament, which is partly internal and partly- external. They are very rare shells, and have been overlooked by travellers from being attached to rocks at considerable depths.. They inhabit the East Indian seas. 15. The AVICUL.E are recognised by their inequivalve shell, with a rectilinear hinge furnished with a narrow ligament, and frequently elongated into wings at its iwo extremities (fg- 95). The body of these mollusks is very small and prolonged into a vermiform and coni- cal foot, and furnished with a byssus, for the passage of which Fig. 95. AVICULA. there js a notch in the side of the shell. The anterior adductor muscle is extremely small and the labial appendages very large. These mollusks have 13. What is the genus Per'na? (Perna, Latin, a gammon of bacon, a 14. What are the characters of the genus Ethe'ria ? (Etheria, from the Greek, aithb, 1 shine.) 15. How is the Avi'cula recognised ? (Avicula, from the Latin, avis, a trd ; because, when the shell is widely open, it bears a remote resemblance to a bird with spread wings) How does the genus Meleagri'na differ trom Avicula? (Meleagri'na; from the Greek, meleng'ris, a guinca-hen.) 76 MELEAGRINA. PEARLS. Fig. 96. MELEAGRINA MARGAR1TIFERA. been divided, perhaps without sufficient reason, into two genera, AVICULA and MELEAGRINA, according as the shell is with or without the wing-like prolon- gations, and the hinge is armed with a tooth or unprovided with a similar protuberance: the shell of the latter is nearly equivalve, and the passage of the byssus produces in each valve a notch. The Meleagrince are more scaly ex- ternally than the AviculaB. Their nacre is sometimes very thick and very brilliant ; and the extravasa- tion of the liquid destined for the periodical augmentation of the in- terior of the shell, frequently gives rise to isolated deposits of this beautiful nacre, forming pearls. The shell of the Pearl Oyster is nearly semicircular, scaly and g.-eenish brown externally ; it grows to considerable size, and is to be found on the coast of Ceylon, in the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Mexico, and in many other localities, where it occurs in extensive beds, attached by its byssus to submarine rocks : it is the object of an active fishery. 16. Pearls, as stated above, are bodies of the same nature as the brilliant nacre lining the shell: they are composed of concentric layers of nacre very closely applied one over the other, like the coats of an onion, and are produced whenever this matter, instead of being spread out in thin layers over those already deposited, constitutes small isolated masses like little drops, or adhering to the shell by a mere pedicle. Their for- mation depends upon a kind of disease, or, at least, upon an anomalous activity of the secretory process which gives rise to nacre : hence every circumstance that stimulates this secretion, such as the presence of a grain of sand or other foreign body betwixt the shell and the mantle of the animal, tends to bring about this formation. Pearl Oysters are not the only mollusks that produce pearls. All shells that are internally nacreous may contain them. Patellae, Haliotides, and our common mus- sels sometimes contain them, and it is not uncommon to find them in a sort of large mussel (Unio) which inhabits the great rivers of northern Europe and the United States ; but the 16. What are pearls? PEARL FISHING. 77 Meleagrinse furnish the greatest quantity and yield the mosf beautiful pearls. 17. The chief pearl fisheries are in the Gulf of Manaar on the coast of Ceylon, in the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Panama, and on the coast of California ; but there are banks of Meleiigrinae (pearl oysters) in many other localities, such as the coasts of Japan, Cumana, &c. To obtain these precious mollusks, men accustomed to the exercise dive to the bottom of the sea and collect them at depths of from twenty to fifty feet. To accel- erate his descent the diver seizes a stone (weighing from 15 to 25 pounds) with his toes, and on reaching the bottom he aban- dons the diving stone (which is drawn up by attendants in the boat, to be prepared to take him down again), clings to the ground, and begins to fill a net which he carries down with him for the purpose. When, from the necessity of breathing or fear of sharks, he wishes to ascend, he checks the cord of the net, which is instantly felt by the attendants, who commence pulling up as fast as they are able ; the diver remains with the net until it is so far clear of the bottom as to be in no danger of upsetting, and then commences hauling himself up by the cord (hand over hand), which his attendants are likewise pulling; when by these measures his body has acquired an impetus upwards, he forsakes the cord and rapidly ascends to the surface, swims to his diving stone, and by the time the contents of his net have been emptied into the boat, he is ready to go down again. One diver will take up in a day from one to four thousand oysters. The diver seldom exceeds a minute under water; the more common time is from 53 to 57 seconds. In order that the banks may not be devastated, they are under regulation, and it is sup- posed that seven years are required for the oyster to attain its full size. At Ceylon the fishing season lasts from the middle of February to the end of March. " During this period, the shores of Arippo are enlivened by crowds of people from all parts of the country ; divers, boat-owners, speculators, and the curious, assemble to behold ' Pale glistening pearls, and rainbow-colour'd shells,' while the lapidary attends with his wooden stand and bow, to drill the pearls and fit them to be strung-, so soon as they are got out of the oyster, which, according 1 to all accounts, is a tedious and rather disgusting operation. The oysters are put into pens, and there left until the animal matter becomes softened by putrefaction, when it is subjected to frequent washings, and the pearls shine forth, emblems of purity in the loathsome mass. Some are of a bluish, some of a yellowish, and some of a whitish lustre; each class finds a ready market among its admirers; in the East, the bluish and yellowish varieties are most prized, but in the eyes of the Christian fair the pure white shines brightest." Ruschenberger''s Voyage round the World. 17. How are pearls obtained ? 7* 2X 78 PINNA. ARCA. -PECTUNCULUS. The annual revenue from the pearl fishery of Ceylon is esti- mated at about $80,000. 18. The PINNAE have two equal valves in form of a half-open fan, gaping and united by a ligament along one of their sides. A very large species is found in the Mediterranean, which lives half-buried in the sand, and anchored by its byssus, the fila- ments of which, being very strong, fine, and brilliant as silk, are employed by the inhabitants of some parts of Calabria and Sicily in the manufacture of precious stuffs. 19. The ARC.E are dis- tinguished from all the preceding by their equi- valve shell. The hinge which extends along the side of the valves is studded with a great many little teeth, which fit into the intervals of those of the opposite side recipro- cally ; in some, the ARCA PROPERLY so CALLED (fig' 97), the hinge is rectilinear, and the shell is longer in a direction parallel to this junction ; in others, named PECTUNCULUS (fig. 98), the hinge is curved, and the shell is lenticu- lar in form. The first are met with near the shore in rocky situations, and are ordinarily covered by a hairy epidermis; the latter live in the mud. 20. Finally, the TRIGOTTLE, most of the species of which are fossil,' are remarkable for their peculiar hinge ; the right valve is furnished with two projecting plates, crenulate fig. 98. PECTUNCULUS. Fig. 97. ARCA. 18. What are the characters of the genus Pi'nna? (Pinna, Latin, i fin.) 19. What are the characters of the genus Area ? What are the charac. ters of the genus Pectu'nculus ? (Pectunculus, Latin, the diminutive of pecten, a comb.) 20. What is Trigo'nia ? (From the Greek, trigonos, having three cor- ners.) TRIGONIA. MUSSELS. 71) on each face (Jig. 99), and entering between four plates of the left (opposite) valve, like- wise crenulated upon their internal face only. There is but one living species known, Trigonia pectinata, which in- habits the seas of Figt 99._ TR1GON iA PECTINATA. New Holland ; exter- nally, it has the aspect of Pecten without ears. 21. In the Family of MYTILACEA, the mantle is widely open in front, as in the Ostracea, but there is a particular opening for the escape of excrement ; this orifice, however, is not prolonged into a tube, as in the families that follow, and there is no special aperture for the passage of water for the purpose of respiration. There is always a distinct foot, and the valves are approxi- mated by the action of two adductor muscles. The Mytilacece resemble each other sufficiently to be commonly known under the single name of Mussels, but they require, never- theless, to be separated into several genera, the most important of which are, Mussels properly so called, Mytilus, Anodonta, and Unio. 22. MUSSELS PROPERLY so CALLED Mytilus abound on the rocks of the coast of France and of other countries, where they live fixed by the byssus, and generally closely united to each other. Their shell is shut, and its valves, triangular in form, are equal, arched and united by a narrow ligament on the side of their acute angle. The mouth of the animal is situate near the summit of the shell, the opposite extremity of which gives passage to the byssus; the anus also is placed near the hinge; and opposite to this orifice there is a particular opening or small tube formed by the mantle; towards the round angle of the shell, where the water necessary for respiration passes, the edge of the mantle is fringed ; and the foot is slender, cylindrical, and furnished behind with a silky byssus. Mussels are generally eaten as food, but they sometimes occasion a kind of poisoning, accompanied by very violent symptoms, occasionally followed by death. 21. What are the characters of the family of Mytila'cea ? 22. What are the characters of the genus My'tilus ? (F'om the Gree\ tnutilos, a mussel.) 80 ANODONTA. UNTO. '23. We distinguish those Mussels which have the hinge placed lower, under the name of MODIOLUS, and another is called LITHODOMUS, which hns the shell almost equally rounded at both ends, and excavates holes in stones, to which it was at first only suspended. Fig. 100. ANODONTA. 24. The ANODONTJE live in fresh waters, and are recog- nised by their thin shell, moderately inflated, oval, close, and without teeth in the hinge (Jig. 100); they want the byssus, and are provided with a very large foot, compressed and almost quadrangular in form, by means of which they crawl on the sand or mud. A great many species are found in the great rivers of the United States. 25. The UNIONES closely resemble the Anodonta), but have a more complicated hinge, the right valve having a pit (fossette) into which a tooth of the left valve penetrates, presenting behind a long lamina, which, in its turn, is received between two laminae of the opposite side. These mollusks also inhabit fresh waters, but prefer those which are running. A very great num- ber of species are found in our Western waters, for the descrip uon of most of which we are indebted to the labours of Mr. I. Lea, of Philadelphia. 23. What is the genus Litho'domus ? (From the Greek, lithos, a stone, and the Latin, dornus, a house.) 24. How is the genus Anodo'nta recognised? (Anodonta, from the f Jreek, . 102. A Chama divested of its shell to show the dis- position of its mantle : p. the foot ; r. opening for respiration ; c the opening for the passage of excrement. 26. What are the characters of the family of Charaa'cea? ax* :HAMA, WITHOUT ITS SHELL. 82 TRIDACNA. CHAMA. ISOCARLIA. This family is divided into Tridacna, Chama, Isocardia, &c. 27. The TEIDACN^E have an equivalve shell, which is elon- gate and gaping in front, or its edges are dentate (Jig. 103). Their internal orga- nization is remarka- ble in several particu- lars. The valves have only a single adductor muscle. The mantle is widely open in front, to give passage to the byssus, and a little beneath the an- terior angle presents Fig. 103. TRIDACNA. another opening, by which water is conveyed to the branchiee; and the third open- ing, which corresponds to the anus, is situate near the middle of the inferior border. To this genus belongs an enormous shell of the Indian Ocean, known under the vulgar name of the Holy-water Pot ; it adheres to the rocks by its byssus, which is so large sometimes that an axe is required to cut it, and the shell itself occasionally weighs over three hundred pouuds. 28. The CHAMA have an ir- regular, equivalve shell, which is usually lamellar and rough; they live attached to rocks, coral, &c., like oysters, and they have a small foot bent like that of man (fg. 102). 29. The ISOCARDIA (fig. 104), on the contrary, have a free, regular, convex shell with spirally curved summits, divided anterior. ly. A large, smooth, red species, the Chama cor, inhabits the Mediterranean. 27. What are the characters of the genus Trida'cna ? 28. How is the genus Chama distinguished ? (Chama, pronounced ka'ma, from the Greek, chad, I gape.) 29. What are the characters of the genus Isoca'rdia ? (Isocardia, from ne Greek, isos, like, and kardia, a heart, heart-shape.) FAMILY OF CARDIACEA. LESSON VI. FAMILY OF CARDIACEA. Cardium Donax Cyclas Corbis Tellina Venus Petricola Venerupis Mactra. FAMILY OF INCLUSA. Lutraria My a. Byssomia Hiatella Solen Sanguinolaria Pholas Teredo Fistulana Gastrochana Clavagella Aspergillum. CLASS OF MOLLUSCA BRACHIOPODA. General Characters-^- Lingulo Terebratula Orbicvla. CLASS OF MOLLUSCA TUNICATA, or ACEPHALA NUDA. Biphora ^4 scidia Botryllus Pyrosoma. CLASS OF ACEPHALA, CONTINUED. 1. The FAMILY OF CARDIACEA is characterized by having the mantle open in front, and prolonged posteriorly into two tubes, which are sometimes distinct, and at others united in a single mass ; one of them a (jig- 105, r) serves for respi- ration, and the other (e) for the passage of excrement. This mode of conformation is p recognised in the shell by the impression made by the at- iachment of the edge of the mantle, called the pallial line (fig. 106, Z), which before joining the posterior muscular impression or cicalrix (mi), curves more or less deeply in- I wards. In all these mollusks, there is a transverse muscle and a foot (fig. 105, p), which generally enables the animal to crawl. The species of Cardia- cese that have long tubes, ordi- narily live buried in the sand or mud. Fig. 105. TELLINA. mi ai Fig. 106. VENERUPIS. Explanation of Fig. 105. Tellina : a. the shell ; 6. the hinge ; r. tube for respiration ; e. tube for excrement ; p. the foot. Explanation of Fig. 106. Veneru'pis : /. pallial line; at. anterior muscular impression ; mi. posterior muscular impression or cicatrix. 1. How is the family of Cardia'cea characterized ? (Cardiacea, from the Latin, cardium, heart.) 84 t.IAKDIUM. DON AX. CYCLAS. CORBIS. TELLINA. 2. In this family we place Cardium, Donax, Cyclas, Corbis, Tellina, Lucina, Venus, Petricoia, Mactra, &c., genera which, for the most part, are very numerous in species. 3. The CARDIA Cardium are chiefly characterized by the hinge, which consists of two small teeth in each valve, situate in the centre, and a projecting plate or tooth placed at some distance in front and behind. The shell is equivalve, convex, and furnished with ribs radiating from the summit towards the circumference. And when looked at from one side, its general form reminds us of that of a heart, from the manner in which the summits (beaks) of the valves rise up, and curve in- wards towards each other. 4. The DONACES Donax have a hinge formed nearly like that of the Cardia; but their shell is flattened, nearly triangular, inequilateral, and the summits are nearly vertical. Several small species are found on the coasts of France, the shells of which are very pretty. 5. The CYCLADES Cyclas have the same hinge and are distinguished from the preceding by the rounded form of the shell, which is equilateral (that is, the two halves of the valve, situate on each side of a vertical line drawn through its summit, are alike), and striated transversely. One species, Tellina cornea, is common on the coast of France. The genera Cyrena and Cyprina belong to this group. 6. The Corbis are transversely oblong marine shells, which resemble the preceding in the hinge; their external surface is very regularly marked by transverse ribs, crossed by diverging rays. 7. The TELLING (f.g. 105) Tellina closely resemble the Doriaces; but they have the middle of the hinge armed with one tooth to the left, and two to the right. The shell is slightly gaping. Like the Donaces, they have two long lubes (fig. 105), which" can be entirely concealed within the shell when the animal contracts. Both live buried in the sand and are found on the coast of France. 2. Wh** are the principal genera belonging to the family of Cardiacea ? 3. What are the characters of the genus Cardium ? 4. What are the characters of the genus Donax ? 5. How is the genus Cy'clas characterized ? (Cyclas, from the Greek, tuklos, a circle.) 6. What are the characters of the genus Corbis? ?. How is the genus Telli'na characterized ? VENUS. MACTRA. 85 ' /EXCAVATION 'OFTHEPALLIAL IMPRESSION Fig. 107. VENUS. 8. The VENUS (Jig. 107) is re- cognised by the hinge, the ante- rior and poste- \ _. rior plates of which, instead of being sepa- rated from the middle tooth, as in the Cardia, &c.,are approxi- mated in a sin- gle group be- neath the sum- mit. The shell is generally thick, moderately convex, and a little elongated The species of this genus are very numerous. 9. The genera Petricola and Venerupis (Jig- 106) resemble the Venus very much, and have obtained their names from living in the interior of stones which they perforate. 10. The MACTRA differ from other cardiacece in having an internal ligament, lodged in two pits in the hinije, corresponding with each other (Jig. 108). There are some large species on our own coast. 11. The fifth and last family of testaceous acephalse or INCLUSA, is composed of mollusks in which the mantle is only open at its an- terior extremity, or near the mid- dle, for the passage of the foot, and is prolonged posteriorly in a double tube; in other parts it is completely closed (fig> 109). The shell is always gaping at the Fig. 108. MACTRA. Explanation of Fig. 107. Cytherca, or Venus ; s. the summit or beak ; /. the lunule; p. pit; A. anterior, and P. posterior extremity of the shell. 8. What are the characters of the genus Venus? 9. From what circumstance do the genera Petrico'la and Venerupis ob tain their names? (Petricola, from the Latin, petra, a stone, and co/o, I inhabit. Venerupis, Latin, Venu*,and rupes, a rock.) 10. How is the genus Mac'tra characterized ? (Mactra, Latin, a trough.") 11. What are the general characters of the family of Inclusa ? (Inclusa,, Latin, enclosed.) 8 86 LUTRARIA. MYA. BYSSOMIA. HYATELLA SOLEN. extremities, and most of these animals live buried in the sand or mud ; sometimes they excavate holes in stones or wood. They are divided into Mya, Lutraria, Anatina, Glycymera, Solemya, Byssomia, Hyatella, Solen, Psammobia, Pholas, Tere- do, Fistulana, &c. 12. The LUTRARIA closely resemble the Mactrse; but their hinge is unprovided with lateral laminaB, and their valves are very gaping, particularly behind, through which passes the thick fleshy cylinder formed by their double tube. A large species is found in the sand, at the mouths of several rivers in France. 13. In the Myae there is a projecting plate in one of the valves and a pit in the other, joined by a ligament ; the ANATINA have a small plate in each valve, giving attachment to a ligament ; and the SOLEMY^E and GLYCYMERJE differ from the MY. in their external ligament. 14. The BYSSOMIA, in place of living in the sand like the preceding, penetrate stones and corals, and attach themselves to them by the aid of a byssus. Their shell is oblong, without a distinct tooth, and gaping about the middle of the inferior edge, for the passage of the foot. 15. The HYATELL.E have nearly the same general form; but the tooth of the hine is more marked. t p Fig. 109. SOLEN. 16. The SOLENS, commonly called razor shells, knife handles (fig. 109), from the cylindrical and elongated form of their Explanation of Fig. 109. c. the shell ;- mantle ; p. the foot ; t. the tentacles. the anterior extremity of the 12. How is the genus Lutra'ria characterized ? 13. What are the characters of the genus Mya ? 14. What are the characters of the genus Bysso'mia t 15. How is the genus Hyate'lla characterized ? 16. What are the characters of the genus Solen ? PHOLAS. TEREDO. 87 shell, have the hinge furnished with an external ligament, and ormed on each side with two or three projecting and very de- cided teeth. Their foot is conical and is pushed out at the anterior extremity of the shell. They live in the sand, and bury them- selves with great rapidity hy the motions of their foot. 17. The PHOLADES are distinguishable from all the preceding by one or more calcareous pieces, situate between the two valves of the shell, near the hinge. The valves, which are broad and convex anteriorly, are elongated on the opposite side, and leave betwixt them, a great oblique opening at each end ; their hinge resembles that of the Mycs ; their double tube is not retractile and may be very much elongated. These animals inhabit tubes or long cells, which they excavate, either in the mud, or stones or wood. There are large species on the coast of France, in the West Indies, and on the coast of Peru. 18. The TEREDINES, or ship worms, are celebrated for the ravages they commit by boring into ships' bottoms, piles of .dikes, bridges, &c. These are mollusks with a very elongated and almost vermiform body, which is enveloped in a tubular mantle, open at the anterior and inferior part for the passage of the foot ; it is provided posteriorly with two very short, distinct tubes, and its base is furnished on each side with a movable stony plate ; the shell is composed of two rhomboidal valves, but is very small, and covers only a very small portion of the mantle. It seems that the animal, by moving the extremity of its shell like an auger, excavates, in submerged wood, the hole which serves as its abode, and, as it advances or buries itself deeper, it lines the exca- vation with a calcareous mutter, so that in a short time it finds itself lodged in a stony tube, which at first might be mistaken for a second shell. It begins its attack upon wood when very young; hence the external opening of its gallery is very small, but it digs on until the termination of its growth, and progressively augments the size of its . dwelling; the two tubes which occupy the posterior TJ*IIOL extremity of the mantle always remain near the opening of the gallery, and through one of them it causes the water necessary for respiration and nutrition to enter, for it 1 7 How is the genus Pholas characterized ? (Pholas, from the Greek, pholfoi, a lurking-place.) 18. What are the characters of the genus Teredj? (Teredo, Latin, a hip-worm.) 88 FISTULANA. GASTROCH^ENA. ASPERGILLUM. always remains in its hole, with the mouth down and the anus above. The common Teredo^ which is about six inches long, it is said was brought from the torrid zone, but it is widely spread in the seas of France, and infests the dikes of Holland to such an extent that its unperceived ravages have, more than once, been near producing terrible inundations. Vessels have been sunk by the holes bored through their bottoms by these animals. To guard against such accidents, is one among the reasons why ships' bottoms are covered under water by thin sheets of copper. 19. The FISTULAN^E also live buried in submerged wood or other analogous substances, and also line the interior of their hole with a calcareous mortar which constitutes a tube, com- pletely closed at the large end, having more or less resemblance to a bottle. Like the Teredines, they have externally a small bivalve shell and two plates, which may be regarded as analo- gous to the operculum pieces of the gastcropods. They inhabit the Indian Seas. 20. The GASTROCH^N^ differ very little from the preceding; their shell, which is unprovided with teeth, is very gaping in front, and their double tube, which can be retracted entirely with- in the shell, is susceptible *of great elongation; they excavate holes in stones or masses of madrepore, and often line these holes with calcareous matter which, on becoming hard, constitutes a tube similar to that formed by the Teredo and Fistulana. 21. We also place in this division the CLAVIGELLA and ASPERGILLUM, which also construct a calcareous tube; in the first, one of the valves is clasped by the tube, while the other remains free in its interior; and in the last, the tube has, at its closed extremity, a disk perforated by a great many little tube- like holes, an arrangement which has obtained for it the name of " watering-pot shell." CLASS OF BRACHZOPOD MOLLUSKS. 22. These mollusks are very analogous to the common acephalce ; they are also provided with a two-lobed mantle, 19. What are the characters of the genus Fistulana? (Fistulana, from ihe Latin, fistula, a pipe.) 20- What are the characters of the genus Gastrocheena ? (Gastrochoma, from the Greek, gaster, helly, and chaind, I gape.) 21. What are the characters of Clavigella? (Clavigella, from the Latin, clavis, a nail or spike.) How is the genus Aspergillum distinguished ? 'vAspergillum, Latin, a watering-pot.) 2k What are the characters of Brachiopod mollusks ? (Brachiopod, pronounced brak-e-opod, from the Greek, brachion, an arm, and pnus, foot.) LINGULA TEREBRATULA. 69 Fig. 111. TERKDRATULA. and a bivalve shell ; they have no foot, but in place of it, two fleshy arms furnished with filaments, and susceptible of being un- folded externally, or drawn within the shell by folding spirally (fg. Ill, a); their branchiae are not distinct from the mantle, and the mass formed by their viscera is very small. They are unprovided with organs of locomotion, and live attached to submarine bodies. The principal genera composing this group, are the Lingula, Terebratula, and Orbicula. 23. The LINGTJL.E are provided with a long fleshy peduncle, one extremity of which is generally attached to the rocks these animals ordinarily inhabit, and the other is furnished with two oblong, flattened valves. Their arms, which are inserted in the sides of the mouth, are very long ; and the branchial vessels are distributed on the internal face of the mantle, and there form on each side a series of small parallel folds. They are found in the Asiatic Seas. 24. The TEREBRATUL^E have two unequal valves joined by a hinge, and one of them (fig, 112) has a hole through its summit for the pas- sage of a fleshy peduncle, by means of which the animal attaches itself. Their branchiae are less distinct than in the LinguIcC, and consist simply of a vascular net-work spread over the internal face of the mantle; but their muscular system is more de- veloped, and there is found in the interior of the shell a small solid frame (fg. 113), the structure of which is sometimes very compli- cated ; its chief uses are to afford attachment to muscles, and to as- sist in separating the valves. Some living Terebratulse are found in the South Seas ; but-' they abound most in the fossil state; and are Fig. 113. TEREBRATULA. 23. What are the characters of the genus Lin'gula ? (Lingula, Latin, a latchet, or tongue of a shoe.) 24. What are the characters of the Terebra'tulu ? (TerebratuJa. from th Latin terebro, J bore.) 8* 2Y Fig. 1 12. TEREBRATULA. BIPHORA. found in the most ancient fossiliferous strata or layers of the earth's crust. 25. The ORBICUL^E have one round, conical valve, like the shell of the Patellae (fg. 78, p), while the other is flat and perforated for the passage of a very small peduncle ; the confor- mation of their arms, and the arrangement of their branchial vessels, very closely resemble those of the Terebratulsc. CLASS OF MOLLUSC A TUNICATA, OB ACSPHALA WITHOUT SIISLLS. 26. The acephalous mollusks without shells, which have also been called Tunicata, differ much from all the preceding in their general form, as well as in many important particulars of their organization. Their mantle consists sometimes of a simple tube open at both ends, and sometimes of a sack ; their branchiae present different forms, but always very little developed, and an never divided into four leaflets or laminae, as in the ordinary acephalse, or lamellibranch testacea, among which they are placed by many authors ; they have neither foot nor arm ; and they evidently form the connecting link between the mollusks we have just described and inferior animals which are ranged among the Polypi in the branch of Zoophytes. 27. The BIPHOR.E of all the Tunicata possess the most com- plicated organization. Their mantle is tubular, furnished with transverse muscular bands, and enclosed in a transparent, car- f an P br Fig. 114. BIPHORA. Cilaginous envelope ; both extremities are open, and the posterior orifice (p) is supplied with a little valve, so arranged as to admit the water, but not to allow its escape ; the mouth Explanation of Fig. 114. a. the anterior opening of the mantle; 6. the mouth ; /. the liver, &c. ; an. the anus ; br. the branchiae ; p. posterior opening of the mantle. 25. What are the characters of the genus Orbicula ? 26. What are the general characters of the class of Tunicata? 27. What are the characters of the genus Biphora ? ASCIDIA AGGREGATA. is placed in the tube formed by the mantle towards its anterior extremity ; and the heart, liver, and other viscera, are united into a small mass near this opening ; the anus is situate far be- hind, and the only branchia, which is formed of a membrane transversely plaited, extends obliquely from the superior to the inferior parietes of the pallial cavity ; the water which traverses this tube, consequently laves the respiratory apparatus, and the animal moves by forcibly expelling it from the side of the mouth : hence, we see it must necessarily swim backwards. When full grown, these mollusks are free ; but at birth they are fre- quently united to each other, forming a long chain, and swim in this manner for a long time; it seems that the individuals thus united, after becoming free or separated, produce young, which are not joined together in a chain as just described, and differ from them in form, and that the young arising from the last are united and similar to the first ; so that in these singu- lar animals there is the most remarkable alternation, the same form and the same mode of existence not being transmitted from one generation to the other, but constantly returning to the second generation. The Biphorae are found in the Mediterranean, and in the warmer regions of the ocean ; they frequently emit a phosphoric light. 28. The simple ASCIDI^E cannot move like the Biphorse, bet live attached to rocks ; their mantle is in the form of a sack, with two orifices, and the interior of this cavity is lined with a net- work composed of the branchial vessels; the mouth and the little bag or sack containing the viscera, are attached to the bot- tom of the great branchial cavity, and the anus is found near one of its openings. 29. Other Tunicata, closely resembling the preceding in their organization, live united in a common mass, and for this reason they are designated under the name of ASCIDIA COMPOSITA or AGGREGATA. A gelatinous or cartilaginous tissue encloses a great number of these little beings, the surface of which presents a multitude of six-pointed stars formed by their openings ; their propagation seems to be effected in two ways ; sometimes the mass grows by the development of reproductive buds in this common tissue, sometimes the young formed in an ovary are expelled externally, and swim about free or separately for some time, until they become attached to some submarine body, where they establish a new colony. 28. What are the characters of the genus Ascidia ? (Ascidia, from the Greek, oskos, a bottle or pouch.) 29. What is meai.t by the Aggregata ? (Aggregata; Latin, gathered together.) BOTRYLLUS.PYROSOMA. 30. We give the name of BOTRYLLUS to small aggregated Tunicata of an oval form, which differ little from the preceding, except their branchial sack is open at both extremities, and the anal orifice terminates in a central cavity, around which ten or twelve of these mollusks are grouped like the rays of a star. Fig. 115. PYROSOMA. 31. The PYROSOM^E unite in great numbers, forming a large hollow cylinder, open at one end and closed at the other, which swims in the ocean by the alternate contraction and dilatation of the animals that compose it. In their individual organization they are similar to the preceding. OF THE PARTS OF SHELLS. We have now brought our history of the Mollusca to a close ; but with the view of imparting clearer notions on the subject of Gonchology, or History of Shells, we shall add here a few words in relation to the parts of shells. It is absolutely neces- sary to understand these parts, before we can comprehend the descriptions given by conchologists, or be able to describe sheila in such a way as conchologists can recognise them. The most simple farm of a shell is the cone (fig. 70, page 57). The apex of the cone is oblique and excentric. In the Limpets (Patella), Argonaut, and Nautilus, the apex is directed towards the head, but in most other mollusks, towards the oppo- site extremity of the body. A shell may consist of one piece, as in the inopercular univalves that is, univalves without an operculum or door. A shell may consist of two pieces, as in the opercular univalves (univalves with an operculum), and in most bivalves. A shell may consist of three pieces, as in the Terebratula (figs. 112 and 113, page 89). A shell may consist of four or more pieces, as in some of the Pholades. A shell may consist of many pieces, in which case it consti- tutes a multivalve, as the Chiton (fig. 79). 30. What are the characters of the Botryllus. (Botryllus, from tha Greek, bntrus, a bunch of grapes.) 31. What are the characters of the genus Pyrosoma ? (Pyrosoma, from the Greek, pur, fire, and soma t body fire-bodies ; so called from possessing 4ie faculty of emitting light.) PARTS CV UNIVALVE SHELLS. 93 The univalve shells are much more numerous than any others, both in genera and species ; and it requires a considerable de- gree of attention to discriminate many of the species, as they run into each other so much. In the examination of univalve shells, the general outline or contour of the whole shell is the first particular to be attended to, as this leads to those distinctions necessary in the definition of simple, spiral, or turbinated shells, or more strictly, accord- ing to the Linnean method of discrimination, univalves with a regular spire, and those without a regular spire. Univalve shells are classified principally from the shape of the aperture, taken in conjunction with the general shape of the shell ; from the spire being lengthened or depressed, being with or without a canal, the length of the beak and its direction, together with the particular form of the outer or external lip : the colour of shells only serves as a specific distinction, and, even in this respect, cannot in all cases be depended upon, although, in others, it is an unvarying test. The particular manner in which the spots are disposed, frequently characterizes species. A pex, is the summit, tip, or highest part of a shell (Jig. 116). Base, is the opposite extremity from the apex (Jig. 116). In shells with a beak or rostrum (as the Murex,^-. 64), it implies the tip of such beak; in shells without a beak it is understood to be the lower part, as before mentioned, opposite the apex. In the Patella, and some others, the base of the shell is that part on which it rests when it is laid on its mouth ; in the Teredo, and similar shells, it is the wider end. Body of the shell, is the first or lower whorl of the spire, in which the aperture is situated ; this whorl is generally longer than the others (fig. 18). Front, of the shell, is that side where the aperture is situated. Back of the shell, is the opposite side to that in which the aper ture is placed. The venter or belly, is the most prominent part of the lower whorl or body, generally situated in the vicinity of the lip over the aperture, and formed by the convexity of the aperture. In general this term is only made use of in describing shells whose body is large in proportion to the size of the spire (Jigs. 52 and 59). Sides of a shell, are the extreme edges of the shell, when viewed either in front or from the back. The right side is the one next the observer's left hand, when the shell is viewed in front ; and the side with the aperture in it, is the left side. The conical univalve shell is generally spirally convoluted : sometimes, as in the nautilus (jigs. 15 and 16), in the same 2Y# !J4 PARTS OF UNIVALVE SHELLS. plane, but more usually in an oblique direction. As a general rule, the spiral univalve, if viewed in the position in which its inhabitant would carry it, if moving forwards from the observer, is twisted, from the apex downwards, from left to right, the spire being directed obliquely to- wards the right. The annexed figure (fig. 116) shows the involutions or whorls of the spire of the Pleurotoma. In some genera, for example, Clausilia (from the Latin, clavsus, shut, fig. 25, page 40) and Physa (from the Greek, phusa, a bubble, fig. 30, page 42), the shell is twisted in an opposite direc- tion : such shells are called " per- verse," or " sinistral." The aperture or mouth, is that part of the lower whorl or body through which the animal protrudes itself. This is one of the principal means of distinguishing the genera of univalve shells, and it varies much in its form; some apertures are rounded (figs. 43 and 46); others semilunar (fig. 55); others angular (fig. 37), &c. Some apertures have a canal at their base (figs. 63 and 116), and others are with- out it (fig. 51). In various genera, the aperture extends the whole length of the shell, as in Ovula (fig. 68), Cyprsea, and some of the Cones with depressed spires (fig. 70). In several individuals, the aperture is either entirely open, or closed by an operculum or door, which is usually affixed to the foot of the animal. When without a notch or canal, the aperture is said to be entire (fig. 51). The aperture has two lips or borders; the internal lip, or border, is on the side of the aperture, formed by the columella, and the external, or outer lip, or border, is oppo- site, as in the Pleurotoma (fig. 116); the letter b. indicates the pallial notch; n. notch of the syphon. Canal, or gutter (fig. 116), is the space or hollow, formed by the prolongation of the two lips of the aperture. Some shells have two canals, one situated at the point where the outer lip and body join. Apex. Fig. 116. PLEUROTOMA. PARTS OF UNIVALVE SHELLS. 95 Beak or rostrum, is that lengthened process in which the canal is situate. This process is not so conspicuous in some of the species of Voluta, but is more marked :'.n the genera Murex, Fusus, &c. The columella or pillar, is that process which runs through the centre of the shell in the inside, from the base to the apex, and around which the whorls or wreaths of the spire are wound (Jig. 19, page 34). When the columella is marked by ridges or folds, as in Auricula (fg. 31) and Oliva (fg. 67), it is said to be plicated or plaited, but when it is smooth, as in Jig. 116, it is simple. Pillar lip, is a continuation of the glassy process with which the aperture is lined, and expanded on the columella (Jigs. 58 and 66). It is also called the inner or internal lip (Jig. 116). The ovter lip, or external border, is the expansion or con- tinuation of the body of the shell, on the left margin of the aperture, and is also lined with the glossy process of the aperture (fg. 116). Spire consists of all the whorls of the shell except the lower one, which, as before observed, is termed the body of the shell. This spire is a prominent feature of the univalve; and upon its being elevated, depressed, &c., depends much of the generic and specific definition of these shells. It is a remarkable circumstance, that many of the young shells have not the same number of wreaths as the adults ; from which it would appear, that the part of the animal nearest the apex never increases in size. The number of wreaths cannot, at all times, be depended upon. A full-grown shell may, however, be known from the outer lip, which has generally an unfinished appearance in young shells. Indeed, in all the land and fresh-water shells, it is a distinct criterion, as they are never complete in the form of the outer lip, till full-grown. Whorl is one of the wreaths or volutions of the shell (Jig. 116). Depressed spire is when the spire is very flat, as in the shells of the genus Planorbis (Jig. 29, page 42). Involuted spire, is where the spire is concealed in the inside of the first whorl or body, as in some of the Nautili, Cypraeoe, Ovulie, &c. (Jiff. 68). Svtvre of the spire, or whorls, is a fine spiral line or seam, formed by the joining together of the whorls ; it is sometimes crenulated, undulated (waved), pr sulcated (grooved), and not unfrequently elevated or projecting (fg. 116). Reversed, or heterostrophe spire, is when the volutions of the spire revolve in the same manner as the common corkscrew, or Of) PARTS OF BIVALVE SHELLS. when the aperture is pjaced downwards, the nature of the spire rnns upwards from the right hand to the left (fg. 25). Chambers are the cavities, divided by partitions at regular or irregular intervals, as in the Naulilus (f-g. 15, page 30). Umbilicus is a circular perforation in the base of the lower whorl or body. (See page 38). Sub-umbilicated shells, are those which have the umbilicus covered, in a greater or less degree, by a thin process ; which, in some, almost entirely closes the aperture or mouth. This character is most commonly to be met with among species of Buccinum and Murex. Umbilical jissvre, is a groove extending from the umbilicus (fig. 116). Shells which have no umbilicus are termed imperforate. Siphvnculns (little syphon) is that small round perforation which forms a communication between the chambers in the Nautilus, and penetrates through the whole spire of the shell (/*. 15 and 16). Varices are transverse ribs which cross the whorls of shells in some species of Buccinum, Murex, &c. Varices are formed by the periodical growth of the shells, these being the margin of the outer lip, to which the animal has attached its periodical enlargements (fg> 46). In some species they have more the form of sutures than ribs ; this is owing to the marg'a of the outer lip being but slightly developed. Ribs are those longitudinal and transverse protuberances which are in many of the univalve shells (Jig. 46). Teeth of univalves, according to Colonel Montagu, are not properly tooth-shaped protuberances, but are fine white laminae or ridges, running spirally backwards, in a direction parallel to each other ; those on the exterior lip may, in most instances, be traced through the outside of the shell, and are nearly alike in length (gs.2, 25 and 42). Epidermis is a skin, or cuticle, covering the exterior surface of many shells, destined by nature to protect their surface from being injured. True bivalve shells are peculiar to the acephalous mollusca; and their presence is constant, although they are in a few instances too small to cover the whole body, and in the ship- borers (Teredo) exist only as small instiuments, limited to the function of excavating the burrows inhabited by these mollusks. But all the species, in which the bivalve shell is inadequate to the protection of the whole body, derive extrinsic defence by burrowing in sand, or stone, or wood ; and they also commonly line their burrows with a layer of smooth and compact oal- PARTS OF BIVALVE SHELLS. 97 careous matter, forming a tube. This calcareous tube, m somo cases, is of considerable size and thickness. In the Clavigella one valve, and in the Aspergillum both valves, are soldered to this tube, which, in ihe latter, presents a peculiar modification of its exposed extremity, which resembles the end of the spout of a watering-pot. No two shells can present a greater con- trast than do those of the Placuna and Aspergillum ; yet the organization of their respective constructors is essentially the same. In a classification of shells, the calcareous tubes of ttle Dentalium, Serpula, Aspergillum, Vermetus, &c., would be associated in the same general group: but it needs only to observe how these products of animals, belonging not only to different classes, but to distinct primary divisions of the animal kingdom, are arranged in the cabinets of collectors, to be con- vinced that Conchology as a classificatory science, apart from Malacology (the science of mollusks), no longer exists. With regard to the structure and physiological relations of bivalve shells, it may be observed, first, that in all acephalous mollusks which breathe by distinct lamellated gills (branchias), Lamellib?'anchiata, one valve corresponds to the left, the other to the right side of the animal ; but in the brachiopodous bivalves, one valve is applied to the ventral, and the other to the dorsal aspect of the animal. In all the lamellibranch bivalves which are free, the two valves are symmetrical, and the shell is termed equivalve ; in nil those which adhere by one of their valves to foreign bodies, this valve is deeper and larger than the unattached valve ; such shells are termed inequivalve. Of those acephalans which are attached to foreign bodies by means of a byssus, some, as the Tridacna (fig. 103), are equivalve, and both valves are notched, to form the hole for the passage of the byssus ; while others, as the Pecten (fig. 91), and Avicula (Jig. 95), are inequivalve, the byssus passing through a groove in the right valve. If the shell of the common cockle be examined, each valve will be seen to be produced into a conical prominence bent towards, and nearly meeting at, that part by which the valves are joined together. These prominences are termed the umbones^ or sometimes beaks. The apex of the urnbo corresponds to the apex of the univalve shell, and is the point at which the development of the bivalve commences. When the apex is directed in the transverse plane of the shell, and so placed, that a division of the shell in that plane through the apices shall divide the valve into two equal parts, the shell is termed equilateral; of this form the Pecten (fig. 91) is an example, 9 98 PARTS OF BIVALVE SHELLS. When upon a similar division, a slight difference is observed in the two valves, the shell is termed subequi lateral ; but where the difference is well marked, it is an inequilateral bivalve (Jig. 117). When the apex is bent, as is commonly the case, out of the transverse plane, it is always directed more or less towards the anterior part of the shell ; if such a bivalve shell as the Cytherea, or Isocardia, be held before the observer, with the umbones directed forward, and the hinge above, in the p<^ition, in fact, in which the living animal would place itself if it were creeping forwards from the observer, the right valve will of course correspond with the right hand of the observer, and the left with the left. Superior or dorsal border. Fig. 1 1 7. LEFT VALVE OF A CYTHEREA. The annexed figure (117) represents the left valve of &. Cytherea, the common clam belongs to this group, and would answer our purpose as well. You see that the superior or dorsal margin is on the side where the hinge is placed, and the ventral or inferior border opposite to it; JL, is the anterior margin or slope; P, the posterior margin or slope; the vmbo is marked " BEAK," and *, points to the summit or apex of the beak ; /, shows the situation of the Ivnule. Now, if a bivalve in which the apices have a spiral twist, as in the Isocardia (fig. 104), be placed in the above position, and compared with the univalve shell of the Purpvra, it will be seen that the left valve corresponds with the ordinary or dextral spiral univalve, and the right valve to the perverse or sinistral univalve. When the circumference or margin of one valve fits exactly, at every part, that of its fellow, it is said to be " regular" or " entire ;" but if it be notched at any part, so as not to come PARTS OF BIVALVE SHELLS. 90 in contact with the corresponding part of the opposite valve, it is " irregular," or emarginate. Besides the parts mentioned, A we shall find in most cases, an- i terior to the apices of the beaks, a depression of variable extent and depth. This is the lunule (fg. 118, /) : it may be cordi- form, or crescentic, lanceolate (oblong, and gradually tapering towards each extremity), oval, deep, superficial, &c. Behind the beaks is another depression, longer and narrower than the lunule, and which is called the fissure (/), and its margins are named lips of the fissure ( If). Behind the fissure there is sometimes a small depression called the suture (s). The general more or less convex surface of each valve is called the "venter," or belly, which terminates in the Zimfr, circum- ference or margin. In the figure (118), the letters designate parts, as follows: A, anterior slope; P, posterior slope; Z/, left valve ; 72, right valve ; 7, lunule ; f. fissure ; //", lips of the {Js- sure; , suture ; lig, ligament ; m/, the nymphae. Fig. 118. CVTHEREA. ?UBCARUVk .--'OFTHEPALLIAL IMPKESSION Fig. 119. RIGHT VALVE )F A CYTHERKA. The most important part of tho margin is that which it 100 PARTS OF BIVALVE SHELLS. modified to form the joint or hinge upon which the two valves open and shut. This part is called the "cardinal edge" (jig. 1 1 ( J), and generally presents certain prominences and depressions ; the projections of one valve interlocking with the depressions of the other. The projections, or " teeth," together wiih the cavi- ties, or " cardinal pits" (p), are very regular in their formation in each genus and species of bivalve, but what is of more impor- tance is, that every modification in the structure of the hinge is generally found to coincide with some recognisable and more or less important difference in the organization of the soft parts ; so that conchologists have justly attached great value to the charac- ters derivable from the hinge, especially for the purpose of gene- ric distinctions. When the teeth are situate beneath the apex (*) or centre of the hinge, they are called cardinal, or primary , when they are removed from the centre of the hinge, they are named lateral teeth ; when two only are present, one is called anterior, the other posterior ; when there are three, they are dis- tinguished respectively as anterior, median or middle, and pos terior teeth ; but when the hinge is composed of a great numbei of teeth, it is said to be "serial," as in Area (fg. 97); some hinges have no visible teeth, and are termed inarticulate. The direct medium of union of the two valves is a dense fasci culus (bundle) of elastic fibres, generally of a brown colour, calleo ligament, or elastic ligament. The fibres of this part are at- tached by their extremities to the two valves, which, in most cases, present a particular depression for their reception. The ligameni is always so long as to prevent the actual closing of the valves, except when its elasticity is overcome by a certain force, as by that of the contraction of the adductor muscle or muscles: thus, the inorganic power of elasticity is made the direct antagonist of a vital and muscular contraction ; and as the open or expanded condition of the bivalve shell is that which the exigences of the animal most constantly require, it is assigned to a force which can act without ever causing fatigue, while the occasional or protective action of forcibly closing the valves, is due to an ac- tion under the immediate control of the wHl or instinctive sensa- tion. The modifications of the internal surface of a bivalve shell are caused by the structure of the animal inhabiting it : hence, they afford the characters by which the habits of an ex- tinct genus may be to a great extent determined. These modifications are marked on the last figure. The pallial impression shows the development of the muscn ar margin of the mantle. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY This is the date on which this book was charged out. DUE AUU 3 #* MAR27 1968 INTER-LIBRARY LOAN FEB281968 RLC^) LD MAR 19 1968 f e :*, [30m-6,'ll] \ / U. C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES WL _* *: & mr