HISTORY
M'BIA AND ABY IA..
BY REV
EL R
i
nia
i
R, 8 2 CLIFF- ST RE
"eotype Edit:
1833
HARPER'S FAMILY LIBRARY.
DESIGNED FOR ADULT PERSONS.
" Books that yon may carry to the fire, and hold readily in your hand,
are the moat useful after all. A man will often look at than, and be
tempted to go on, when he would hare been frightened at books of a larger
size, and of a more erudite appearance." — Dr. Johnson.
The proprietors of the Family Library feel themselves stimulated to
increased exertions by the distinguished favour with which it has already
been received.
The volumes now before the public may be confidently appealed to
as proofs of zeal on the part of the publishers to present to their readers
a series of productions, which, as they are connected, not with ephemeral,
but with permanent subjects, may, years hence as well as now, be con-
sulted for lively amusement as well as solid instruction.
To render this Library still more worthy of patronage, the proprie
tors propose incorporating in it such works of interest and value ass
may appear in the various Libraries and Miscellanies now preparing iH
Europe, particularly " Constable's Miscellany," the " Edinburgh Cabinet"
Library, Arc. All these productions, as they emanate from the press,
Will be submitted to literary gentlemeu for inspection^ and none will be
reprinted but such as shall be found calculated to sustain the exalted
character which this Library has already acquired.
Several well-known authors have been engaged to prepare for it original
works of an American character, on History, Biography, Travels, &c. &c.
Every distinct subject will in general be comprehended in one volume,
or at most in three volumes, which may form either a portion of the
series or a complete work by itself; and each volume will be embellished
with appropriate engravings.
The entire scries will be the production of authors of eminence, who
have acquired celebrity by their literary labours, and whose names, as
they appear in succession, will afford the surest guarantee to the public
for the satisfactory manner in which the subjects will be treated.
Such is the plan by which it is intended to form an American Family
Library, comprising all that is valuable in those branches of knowledge
which most happily unite entertainment with instruction. The utmost
care will be taken, not only to exclude whatever can have an injurious
nfluence on the mind, but to embrace every thing calculated to strengthen
•e best and most salutary impressions.
Vith these arrangements and facilities, the publishers flatter them-
selves that they shall be able to present to their fellow-citizens a work
of unparalleled merit and cheapness, embracing subjects adapted to all
classes of readers, and forming a body of literature deserving the praise
of having ins acted many, and amused all ; and above every other spe-
cies of eulogy, of being fit to be introduced, without reserve or exception,
by the father of a family to the domestic circle. Meanwhile, the very low
price at which it is charged renders more extensive patronage necessary
for its support and prosecution. The immediate encouragement, there-
fore, of those who approve its plan and execution is respectfully solicited.
The work may be obtained in complete sets, or in separate numbers,
from the principal booksellers throughout the United States
■
J
gouty* \\ M'-Srfijn
E G$? T
W'OSIA
;^ ST" \ ... ABTSSIB'IA
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA,
NEW- YORK:
J. <fc J. HARPER, 82 CLIFF-STREET.
1833.
Harper's Stereotype Edition.
NUBIA
AND
ABYSSINIA:
COMPREHKNDISG THEIR
CIVIL HISTORY, ANTIQUITIES, ARTS, RELIGION, LITERA-
TURE, AND NATURAL HISTORY.
BY THE REV. MICHAEL RUSSELL, LL.D.
Author of " View of Ancient and Modern Egypt,"
" Palestine, or the Holy Land," &c.
ILLUSTRATED BY A MAP, AND SEVERAL ENGRAVINGS.
NEW-YORK:
PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY J. & J. HARPER,
NO. 82 CLIFF-STREET,
AND SOLD BY THE PRINCIPAL BOOKSELLERS THROUGHOUT THE
UNITED STATES.
1833.
PREFACE.
There is no country in the world more interest-
ing to the antiquary and scholar than that which was
known to the ancients as " Ethiopia above Egypt,"
the Nubia and Abyssinia of the present day. It
was universally regarded by the poets and philoso-
phers of Greece as the cradle of those arts which
at a later period covered the kingdom of the Pha-
raohs with so many wonderful monuments, as also
of those religious rites which, after being slightly
modified by the priests of Thebes, were adopted by
the ancestors of Homer and Virgil as the basis of
their mythology. A description of this remarkable
nation, therefore, became a necessary supplement
to the "View of Ancient and Modem Egypt,"
which has been some time before the public*
In tracing the connexion of the primitive people
who dwelt on the Upper Nile, with the inhabitants of
Arabia and of the remoter east, I have availed my-
self of the latest information that could be derived
from Continental authors, as well as from the vol-
umes of such of our own travellers as have ascended
above the Second Cataract. The work of Heeren
* [No. XXIII. of the Family Library.]
8 PREFACE.
on the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the Car-
thaginians, Ethiopians, and Egyptians, possesses
considerable value, not less on account of the in-
genious views which it unfolds, than for the happy
application of ancient literature to the illustration
and embellishment of the main hypothesis.
The reader will be surprised at the extent and
magnificence of the architectural remains of Nubia,
which, in some instances, have been found to rival,
and, in others, even to surpass the more celebrated
buildings of Egypt. It will no longer be denied by
any one who has seen the splendid work of Gau,
that the pattern or type of those stupendous erec-
tions, which continue to excite the admiration of the
tourist at Karnac, Luxor, and Ghizeh, may be de-
tected in the numerous monuments still visible be-
tween the site of the famed Meroe and the falls of
Es Souan. The more learned among professional
artists are now nearly unanimous in the opinion that
the principles of architecture, as well as of religious
belief, have descended from Ethiopia to Egypt ; re-
ceiving improvement in their progress downward,
till at length their triumph was completed at Dios-
polis, in the palace of Osymandias and the temple
of Jupiter Amnion.
The late expedition of Ishmael Pasha into Sen-
naar and the other countries bounded by the two
great branches of the Nile has added materially to
our topographical knowledge of that^portion of Af-
rica, — one of the least frequented by Europeans.
Cailliaud, English, and Linant have supplied to the
geographer some important notices relative to the
PREFACE. 9
position of certain towns and mountains, of which
only the names had formerly been conveyed to our
ears. The Publishers have taken the utmost pains
to imbody in the map prefixed to this volume the
results of the latest discoveries accomplished by
British, French, and American travellers, under the
protection of the Turkish army.
But no consideration associated with the history
of Ethiopia is more interesting than the fact that the
Christian religion, received about fifteen hundred
years ago, continues to be professed by the great
majority of the people. In regard to the mixture
of Jewish rites with the institutions of the gospel,
still observable among the Abyssinians, I have sug-
gested some reflections which seem calculated to
throw a new light on that obscure subject. Of the
literature of the same nation, so far as the relics
could be collected from their chronicles and books
of devotion, a suitable account has been given :
connected in some degree with the brighter pros-
pects which may yet be entertained by the friends
of theological learning as arising from the well-
directed efforts of certain benevolent associations in
this country.
For some valuable information, not hitherto pub-
lished, I am indebted to William Erskine, Esq., of
Blackburn, late of Bombay, who kindly placed in
my hands two large manuscript volumes, containing
Travels and Letters written in the East. Among
these is a number of communications from Mr. Na-
thaniel Pearce, during his residence in Abyssinia,
addressed to several British residents at Mocha and
10 PREFACE.
Bombay, and embracing the more prominent events
of his history between the years 1810 and 1818.
In like manner, I have to express my obligations
to Captain Armstrong of the Royal Artillery, who,
in the course of his travels in Nubia, made draw-
ings and measurements Of the principal temples as
far south as Wady Haifa. By means of these I
have been enabled to ascertain the exact dimensions
of several of those structures, the views of which
have been given by some recent tourists with more
attention to elegance than to professional accuracy
in the details.
In order to render this little volume as complete
as possible, the Publishers obtained the assistance
of two eminent naturalists, Mr. Wilson and Dr.
Greville ; to the former of whom the reader owes
the instinctive chapter on Zoology, while to the
latter he is under a similar obligation for the Botan-
ical outline, in which are ably described the vegeta-
ble productions of the Abyssinian provinces.
To complete the plan entertained with respect to
Africa, there remains yet one volume, which will
appear in due time, on the History, Antiquities, and
Present Condition of the Barbara States.
Edinburgh, March, 1833.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION.
Difficulties to be encountered by the Historian of Ethiopia — Record of
Monuments; their Uncertainty — Obstacles which opposed the Know-
ledge of the Ancients— Supposition that Civilization descended the Nile
— Progress of Oriental Emigration — Resemblance of Nubian Temples
to those of India— Fame of Ancient Ethiopians— Ambiguity of the
Term — Two great Classes of Africans— Mixture of Arabians — Opinion
of Heeren as to Language— Discoveries of Hornemann and Lyon —
Tuaricks and Tibboos — Nubians— Abyssinians — Hypothesis of Heeren
— Connexion of Commerce and Religion— Chain of Temples— Similar
Connexion among Jews and Christians— Early Improvement of Ethio-
pians mentioned in Scripture— Defence of tlie Opinion that Egypt
derived Learning and Science from the Upper Nile Page 15
CHAPTER II.
GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES OF NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA.
Plan to be followed in this Chapter— Nubian Valley— Sterility— Former
Cultivation — Doudour — Derr— Ibrim— Wady Haifa— Second Cataract
— Beauty of Country in Dongola — Benefits of the Nile — Temple of
Soleb — Elegance of the Building — Kingdom of Merawe — Gebel el
Berkal — El Belial — Hypothesis in regard to Me roe— Opinions of.
Ptolemy; Herodotus, Strtfbo— Sheygyans — Ishmael Pasha — Third
Cataract — Berber — Shendy el Garb—Shendy— Junction of the White
and Blue Rivers — Sennaar — Climate — Inhabitants — Manufactures —
Expeditions by the Troops under the Pasha— Bravery of the Natives
— Description of the City of Sennaar — Advance of Egyptian Army into
Fazoslo — El Quenbyn— Kilgou— Singueh— Conflicts with the Natives
at Taby and Gassi— Reception at Fazoglo— Return to Sennaar —
Aquaro— River Toumat — Quamarnyl— Ishmael disappointed as to Gold
and Slaves — Poncet's Account of Sennaar — Abyssinia— Its Extent
—Political Geography— Kingdoms and Provinces — Amhara— Tigre —
Shoa, and the Eastern Coast 31
Xll CONTENTS.
CHAPTER III.
CIVIL HISTORY OF NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA.
Variety of Opinion in regard to Ethiopians— Aboriginal and mixed with
Arabians— Queen of Sheba— Book of Axuin — Abyssinians converted
to Christianity— Extent of their Dominions— Wars in Arabia— Arrival
of Portuguese— History of Nubia — Cambyses— Macrobians — Table of
the Sun — Explanation by Heeren — Ptolemy Euergetes — War with
Candace— Success of Petronius — Period of Darkness respecting Ethio-
pia — Prester John— Mission of Covilbam — Of Matthew — Alvarez —
Camp of the Abyssinian Monarch -Interview with David III. — Ordi-
nation of Clergy— Stephen de Gama— Bermudez the Abulia— Oviedo —
Peter Paez — Jerome Lobo— Hatred towards Catholics- I'oncet— Bruce
— State of Abyssinia— Pas Michael— Ozoro Esther— Manuscripts col-
lected by Bruce— History of Abyssinia — Revolt of Judith— Restoration
of the Line of Solomon — List of Kings— Galla — War among Chiefs-
Bruce goes to the Sources of the Nile— Fasil — The Juniper — The
Lamb— Ketla Yasous — Mr. Salt — Outline of History— Pearce — His
Vlventiires under Welled Selasse— Death of Ras— Demise of the
King— Rise of Subegadis— Invasion of Nubia by Ishmael Pasha— Bat-
tles with Sheygyaus— Act of Generosity— Cruelty of Egyptian Arrnv
—Character of Stieygyans— Expedition of Ibrahim— Death of Ishmael
— Spirit of Insurrection in conquered Provinces SO
CHAPTER IV.
ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS OF NUBIA AND" ABYSSINIA.
Rule for determining the Antiquity and Filiation of ancient States— Con-
nexion between Egypt, Ethiopia, and India— Excavated Temples—
Girshe, Seboua, and Derr — Different Orders of Architecture— Temple
of Osiris at Ebsarnboul — Labours of Bel/.oni. Irby, and Mangles— Mag-
nificence of Interior, and Description of the various Halls — Dis-
coveries of Mr. Bankes— Visit of Delturdar Bey— Sir F. Henniker—
Temple of Isis— Cave of Elephanta— Temples of Salsette and Ellora—
Comparison with those of Ethiopia — Temples of Soleb, of Kalabshe,
and Dondour— Opinion of Gau— Mixed Greek and Egyptian Forms—
Gebel el Berkal — Principal Temple there— Pyramids— El Belial —
Progress in the Arts— Succession of Buildings— 5leroe— Bruce, Strabo,
Cailliaud — Assour— Pyramids— M. Rftppel— Naga and Messoura —
Large Temple— Opinion of M. Heeren— Of Cailliaud— Ruins at
Mandeyr and Kely— Constitution of Government at Meroe - — Its Ter-
mination — Remains at Axum— Obelisk — Errors of Bruce— Corrections
by Salt— Axum Inscription— Adulis— Inscription — Cosmas— Reference
to Dr. VineeiU — Luxor and Karnac — Sacred Ship— Bond of Religion
—Lineage of the Gods— Hebrew Tribes^Decline of Learning in
Ethiopia 138
CHAPTER Y.
RELIGION AND LITERATURE OF ETHIOPIA.
Abyssinia received Christianity at an early Period— Influence of Re-
ligion on its Political State and Civil History— Story of Frumentius—
CONTENTS. XU1
Jewish Ceremonies mixed with the Gospel— Ariaii Heresy — Constats
tius — Invasion of Arabia— Heresy of Eutyches — Conversion of Nu-
bians—Justinian and Theodora— Zara Jacob— His Letter to the Monks
of Jerusalem— Council of Florence — Pagans of Samen — Arrival of
Paez— Dispute with Clergy — The King Za Denghel becomes Roman
Catholic— His Letter to the Pope — Accession of Susneus— His Adher-
ence to the Roman Form — Rebellion — Formal Declaration in favour
of Popery— Death of Pa«z — Arrival of Mendez— His Proceedings as
Patriarch— Encroachments and Tyranny— The King, alarmed, insists
on Moderation — Rebellion— Basilides, or Facilidas, the Prince — Hopes
of the People— Letter from the Pope — Additional Concessions— Popery
abolished — Jesuits banished — Capuchins — Franciscan Friars — At-
tempt by Louis XIV.— Poncet and Brevedent — Massacre of Catholic
Priests— Arrival of Abuna — His Proceedings — The Psalter— Doctrines
of Abyssinians — Zaga Zaba, Ludolf, and Lobo — Mode of Worship —
Form of Churches — Circumcision, Baptism, and Communion — Prayers
for the Dead — Fixedness of Manners and Habits — Sabbath — Chro-
nology — Last Attempt of Catholics — Literature — Resemblance to Jew-
— Books — Philosophy — Law — Medicine— Modern Translations. . . 195
CHAPTER VI.
MANNERS AND CtJSTOMS OF ETHIOPIA.
Present State of Abyssinia— Weakness of the Monarch— Nature of Suc-
cession— Court of Justice— Modes of Punishment — Similarity to the
Persians— Humane Maxims— Aversion to eat with Strangers— Com-
plexion and Features— Marriage Ceremonies — Manner of Christening
— Whimsical Practice to preserve the Life of Children— Superstitions —
Buda— Singular Anecdotes — The Zaekary — Strange Delusion of Tigre-
fer— Mode of Cure— Example witnessed by Mr. Pearce — Case of his
own Wife— Trembling Picture— The Crying Cross — Delusion by a
Dofter— Opinion of Welled Selasse — Chastisement of the Dofter —
Astonishing Mimic — Diseases and Death ascribed to Demons — Fevers
—Small-pox— Inoculation— Practice of Galla— Scrofula— Tape-worm —
Customs at Funerals— Criers— Lawyers— Practice in regard to Pun-
ishment of Murderers — Agriculture— Cookery — Usages at the Table —
Cutting of the Shulada — Narrative of Bruce — Disbelieved in Europe —
Questioned by Mr. Salt— Description of a Feast — Mode of Feeding at
Table— Attempt to reconcile Bruce and Salt — Change of Manners in
the Interval — Character of the Nobility and Higher Classes — Rigid
Fasts— Disorderly Conduct of the Clergy— Extract from Purchas's Pil-
grims—Conclusion 242
CHAPTER VII,
EXHIBITING THE MORE REMARKABLE FEATURES IN THE
GEOLOGY OF NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA.
Want of attention to this subject on the part of Travellers— Primitive
Rocks — Granite, Gneiss, Porphyry, Quartz, and Serpentine — Similar
Structure towards the Eastern Frontier— Mountains of Cosseir— Mar-
ble — Emerald Mountains — Batn-el-Hadjar — Dar Mahass— Primary
Rocks— Secondary Formation at Berber — Primitive Strata reappear —
El Queribyn— Fazoglo— Singueh— Mountains of Abyssinia— Taranta
B
XIV CONTENTS.
— Lamalmon— Canza— Singular Shapes— Occasioned by Periodical
Rains— Theory of the Earth— Reflections 277
CHAPTER VIII.
NOTICES REGARDING SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL FEATURES IN
THE ZOOLOGY OF THE COUNTRIES DESCRI3ED IN THE PRE-
CEDING CHAPTERS.
Peculiarity in the Physical Structure of the Inhabitants of Upper Egypt-
Animals numerous in Abyssinia — Monkeys — Bats— Canine Animals —
' Fennec— Hyenas— Lynxes— Feline Animals— Supposed Origin of our
Domestic Cat— Jerboa— Different Kinds of Wild Hog— Hippopotamus
— Rhinoceros — Equine Animals — fiiraffe — Antelopes — Birds of Prey —
Lammergeyer— Vulture — Owls — Pigeons— Hornbills — Parrots — Bus-
tard—Storks—Water Fowl— Reptiles— Crocodile —Cerastes— Fishes
—Shells— Pearl Muscles— Insects— Tsaltsalya Fly— Locusts 284
CHAPTER IX.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE VEGETATION AS FAR AS IT IS
KNOWN — BRIEF ACCOUNT OF THE MOST REMARKABLE AND
USEFUL PLANTS.
Vegetation of the Country— The Baobab— Acacia vera — Tamarind — Kan-
tuffa — Kuara — True Sycamore — KolquaH — Cusso— Balsam of Mecca
— Wooginoos — Coffee-tree — Wansey — Ensete — Doum-tree — Dhourra
— Teff— Papyrus 318
ENGRAVINGS.
Map of Nubia and Abyssinia To fact the Vignette.
Vignktte— Great Pyramid at El Belial.
View of the Temple of Soleb from the North-east Page 41
View of El Queribyn 62
Ozoro Esther 109
Kefla Yasous 120
View of the Temple of Samne 158
Ethiopian Hog— Addax— Fennec 291
Saddle-billed Stork 309
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA.
CHAPTER T.
Introduction.
Difficulties to be encountered by the Historian of Ethiopia— Record of
Monuments ; their Uncertainly — Obstacles which opposed the Know-
ledge of the Ancients— Supposition that Civilization descended the Nile
— Progress of Oriental Emisration — Resemblance of Nubian Temples
to those of India — Fame of Ancient Ethiopians— Ambiguity of the
Term — Two great Classes of Africans — Mixture of Arabians — Opinion
of Heeren as to Language— Discoveries of Hornemann and Lyon —
Tuaricks and Tibboos — Nubians — Abyssinians — Hypothesis of Heeren
— Connexion of Commerce and Religion— Chain of" Temples— Similar
Connexion among Jews and Christians— Early Improvement of Ethi-
opians mentioned in Scripture— Defence of the Opinion that Egypt
derived Learning an1 Science from the Upper Nile.
In attempting to trace the history of the countries known
to the ancients by the name of Ethiopia, we have to en-
counter the numerous obstacles which arise from the absence
of a national literature, as well as from a succession of
conquests made by a variety of barbarous tribes. Here
indeed, as in Egypt, we possess the record of monuments
which indicate the genius and religion of the people by
whom the land was occupied at a very distant period ; but
it is manifest that, in reading the language supplied by the
arts, it must be extremely difficult to avoid the ambiguity in-
separable from their expression in regard to the precise date
at which they flourished. The ruins of cities, of temples,
and of obelisks may no doubtbear evidence to the wisdom
of former ages, to the power of conquerors, and to the spirit
of magnificence which threw a transient splendour even
over the path of destructive armies ; still, we cannot dis-
cover in them the genealogy of the nations to whom they
16 INTRODUCTION.
were indebted for their origin, nor the earliest rudiments oi
that mechanical skill of which they illustrate so strikingly
the progress and the perfection. A cloud hangs over the
horizon of that remote antiquity with which we are desirous
to become acquainted ; and as the current of time carries
us still farther away from the point whither our researches
are directed, we can hardly be said to enjoy the encourage-
ment which arises from the hope of a successful result.
Egypt, from its vicinity to the Mediterranean, as also to
the great thoroughfare which connects Asia with Europe,
was comparatively well known to the historians of Greece.
An intercourse was long maintained between the philoso-
phers of that country and the priesthood of the Nile, which
has proved the medium of much valuable information re-
specting the early kingdoms of Thebes and Memphis. But
the difficulty of penetrating into Western Ethiopia checked
at once the ardour of ambition and the enterprise of science.
Neither the arms of Cambyses nor the curiosity of P)'thag-
oras could find a path into the regions of the Bahr el Abiad,
so as to lay open the wonders of Meroe, or reveal to Europe
the mysteries of its learning, its science, and its religious faith.
There is little doubt, however, that the treasures of
knowledge, like the fertilizing current of the Nile, have de-
scended the valley which, beginning at Sennaar, terminates
at Alexandria ; and, moreover, that the progress of civiliza-
tion must originally have taken the same direction, moving
from the south towards the north. The ancient historians
are unanimous in the opinion, that the City of a Hundred
Gates owed its foundation to a people who dwelt above the
Cataracts ; and that at a more recent period, when Lower
Egypt began to possess a rich soil fitted for all the purposes
of agriculture, and prove itself equal to the maintenance
of a large population, the principal seat of government was
removed to Memphis. A similar cause perhaps, at a still
later date, gave rise to the removal of the capital to its pres-
ent position, as well as to the erection of the several towns
which from time to time have occupied the productive plains
of the Delta.
To account for the facts just stated, we must suppose that
the stream of emigration which, issuing from the mouths of
the Euphrates, pursued its course both eastward and west-
ward along the coast of Asia, had at an early age reached
INTRODUCTION*. 17
the Straits of Bab el Mandeb. The adventurers, instead
of proceeding up the Red Sea, which is remarkable for its
dangerous navigation, appear to have made their way into
Abyssinia by some of those mountain-passes that still con-
nect the Arabian Gulf with the higher valleys of the Nile.
There is indeed the best reason to believe that those lateral
defiles which form the line of communication between the
sea and the great rivers of Ethiopia witnessed the earliest
expeditions from the East ; consisting of those daring spirits
who, in the pursuits of commerce, or in search of more
fertile lands, or of hills enriched with gold, pushed their
discoveries into Habesh, Nubia, and Sennaar.
The most obvious confirmation of the opinion now stated
may be drawn from the striking resemblance which is known
to subsist between the usages, the superstitions, the arts,
and the mythology of the ancient inhabitants of Western
India and those of the first settlers on the Upper Nile. The
sanctuaries of Nubia, for example, exhibit the same features,
whether as to the style of architecture or the forms of
worship which must have been practised in them, with the
similar temples that have been recently examined in the
neighbourhood of Bombay. In both cases they consist of
vast excavations hewn out in the solid body of a hill or
mountain, and are decorated with huge figures, which
shadow forth the same powers of nature, or serve as em-
blems to denote the same qualities in the subordinate divini-
ties which were imagined to preside over the material
universe.
We have elsewhere mentioned, as a proof of this h} T poth-
esis, the very remarkable fact, that the sepoys who joined
the British army in Egypt imagined that they found their
own temples in the ruins of Dendera, and were greatly in-
censed at the natives for neglecting the ancient deities whose
statues are still preserved. So strongly, indeed, were they
themselves impressed with this identity, that they proceeded
to perform their devotions with all the ceremonies practised
in their native land. There is a resemblance too in the
minor instruments of their superstition — the lotus, the lin-
gam, and the serpent, — which can hardly be regarded as
accidental. But it is, no doubt, in the immense extent, the
gigantic plan, the vast conception, which appear in all their
sacred buildings, that we most readilv discover the influence
B 2
18 INTRODUCTION.
of the same lofty genius, and the endeavour to accomplish
the same mighty object. The excavated temple of Guerfeh
Hassan, for example, reminds every traveller of the cave of
Elephanta. The resemblance, indeed, is singularly striking,
as are in fact all the leading principles of Nubian architec-
ture, to that of the Hindoos. They differ only in those
details of the decorative parts which trifling points of
variation in their religious creeds seem to have suggested ;
but many even of the rites and emblems are precisely the
same, especially those of the temples dedicated to Iswara,
the Indian Bacchus. In either country, the hardest granite
mountains have been cut down into the resemblance of
splendid buildings, the fronts of which are adorned with
sculpture. In both, also, large masses of rock have been
excavated into hollow chambers, whose sides are decorated
with columns and statues carved out of the same stone, or
lifted up into the air in the form of obelisks and pillars. By
whom and by what means these wonderful efforts have been
accomplished is a mystery sunk too deep in the abyss of
time ever to be clearly revealed. But we need only compare
the monolithic temples of Nubia with those of Mahabali-
poor, the excavations of Guerfeh Hassan with those of
Elephanta, and the grottoes of Hadjur Silsili with the caverns
of Ellora, to be convinced that these sacred monuments of
ancient days derived their origin from the same source.*
It is universally admitted that, if we except the ancient
inhabitants of Egypt, there is no aboriginal people of Africa
who have so many claims to our attention as the Ethio-
pians, a nation which, from the remotest times to the
present, has been regarded as one of the most celebrated
and the most mysterious. In the earliest traditions of
nearly all the civilized tribes of the East, the name of this
remarkable section of mankind is to be found ; and when
the faint glimmering of fable gives way to the clearer light
of history, the lustre of their character is still undiminished.
They continue the object of curiosity and admiration ; and
we discover that the most cautious and intelligent writers of
Greece hesitated not to place them in the first ranks of
knowledge and refinement. The praise bestowed upon
them by Homer is familiar to the youngest reader. He
* View of Ancient and Modern Egypt, (Family Library), p. 23.
INTRODUCTION*. 19
describes them, not only as the most distant of the human
race, but also as the most righteous and best beloved by
the gods. The inhabitants of Olympus condescended to
journey into their happy land, and partake of their feasts ;
while their sacrifices were declared to be the most agreeable
that could be offered to them by the hands of mortals. In
the Iliad, Thetis informs her son that
" The sire of gods and all th' ethereal train,
On the warm limits of the farthest main,
Now mix with mortals, nor disdain to grace
The feasts of Ethiopia's blameless race.
Twelve days the powers indulge the genial rite,
Returning with the twelfth revolving light."* — Pope,
To what, it has been asked, shall we attribute this early
renown of one of the most sequestered nations of the earth 1
How did its fame penetrate the formidable desert with
which it is surrounded, and which even now presents an
almost insuperable bar to every one who attempts to reach
its ancient capital 1 To suppose the allusions contained in
the foregoing passage to be the mere offspring of the poet's
fancy, will not be allowed by any reader who is at all ac-
quainted with the nature of early tradition. But if they are
more than fiction, — if the reports concerning this wonderful
people are founded in truth, — then they become of the
greatest importance to ancient history, and possess the
strongest claims to our notice. T
But it must not be concealed that considerable ambiguity
attaches to the term Ethiopian ; because it was applied by
all classes of writers among the Greeks, not so much to
denote a country bounded by certain geographical limits, as
to describe the complexion of the inhabitants, whatever
might be their position with respect to other nations. It
will not seem strange, therefore, that we find Ethiopians
scattered over a considerable part of the ancient world.
Africa, no doubt, contained the greater portion of them ;
but it is equally true that a large tract of Asia was occupied
by a race who bore the same designation ; and as India
was often made to comprise the southern division of the
former continent, so, in like manner, Ethiopia was frequently
* Zeus yap t-' u>K£avov fi£r' anvnovag AldioTrrjag.- — Lib. i. v. 123.
t Heeren's Historical Researches, vol. i. p. 294.
20 INTRODUCTION.
described as including Southern India. Homer, who seems
to have collected all the fragments of historical and geogra-
phical knowledge which were scattered among the learned
of his age, recognises the distinction now explained, and
speaks of the Ethiopians as extending from the rising to
the setting of the sun.
" But now the god, remote a heavenly guest.
In Ethiopia, graced the genial feast
(A race divided, whom, with sloping rays,
The rising and descending sun surveys) ;
There on the world's extremest verge revered i
With hecatombs and prayer, in pomp preferr'd,
Distant he lay." *
The ancient historians were wont to divide the Africans
into two great classes, the Libyans and the Ethiopians ; to
whom Herodotus adds the Greeks and Phenicians, who as
settlers occupied the northern coasts. This division was
generally followed by succeeding writers, although with
little accuracy in the use of names ; and while we admit
that there might be no real difference in the lineage of the
two principal families now pointed out, it is at least
manifest that they presented to the eye of the Grecian
geographers such peculiarities, especially in the colour of
the skin, as seemed to justify the discrimination which we
find established in their works. But it is obvious, at the same
time, that there was a greater affinity between the Ethio-
pians on the eastern shores of the Arabian Gulf and those
on the African side, than between these last and the other
swarthy tribes in the interior of Libya. Herodotus, indeed,
observes that the Asiatics have straight hair, while such as
dwell above Egypt have it very much curled. It is certain,
however, that all the black inhabitants of Africa do not dis-
play this quality ; for many of the natives of the Upper
Nile, though their skins are of a very dark hue, have hair
resembling that of Europeans, being neither curled nor
woolly.
The father of history mentions a circumstance which is
not less true at the present time than it was at the remote
period in which he lived. He relates that, in the extensive
district which stretches from the first cataract to Sennaar,
* Atdioirac, rot 6i%da SeScuarat, eaxaToi avbp&v
'Oi fitv dvoonivov vtrcpiovos, li 6' aviovroi;. — Odysx,, lib. v. 23-
INTRODUCTION. 21
there were two different classes of inhabitants, very easily
distinguished from each other. The one, described by him
as aboriginal, be includes under the general appellation of
Ethiopians ; while the other, which appeared to have sprung
from an Arabian race, must have removed into the country
at an early epoch, where they continued, even in his day, to
follow a wandering mode of life. That such was the case
under the Persian government is evident from what we are
told respecting the army of Xerxes, whom they must
have attended in his expedition into Greece. The Arabians
and Ethiopians are associated by the historian under one
leader. " Arsanes, son of Darius by Artystone a daughter
of Cyrus, commanded the Arabians and the Ethiopians
who came from beyond Egypt."* In later times the Arabs
seem to have possessed a still larger portion of Nubia, and
to have occupied the banks of the Nile from Philae to the
neighbourhood of Meroe ; a fact which is confirmed by Pliny,
on the authority of Juba, the Numidian king, who wrote a
work on the geography of Africa, f
It would now be extremely difficult to draw a precise line
of distinction between the original tribes and those whose
lineage might perhaps be traced to the Arabian immigrants.
The latter have not only dwelt in the land more than two
thousand years, and mingled freely with the older stock,
but their language also has been so generally adopted by
the natives, that it can no longer be employed as a decisive
characteristic. Heeren is, however, of opinion that all who
do not speak Arabic must be aboriginal, as he considers it
very improbable that the Asiatic settlers would exchange
their more improved tongue for the rude dialect of barbarous
hordes, to whom, in all respects, they would naturally con-
sider themselves superior. But no one, who views all the
difficulties of the case, will maintain that, after the lapse of
twenty-three centuries, tbe line of descent can be otherwise
marked than by those physiological qualities in feature and
form which neither length of time nor the most intimate
mixture can altogether obliterate.
From the discoveries made by recent travellers in the
western parts of Africa, it is no longer doubtful that there
* Herodotus, book \ii. c. 69. t Heeren, vol, i. p. 306.
22 INTRODUCTION.
has existed in it, from very ancient times, a numerous
people who arc neither Moors nor negroes. Hornemann
and Lyon have made us acquainted with two nations in
that quarter, who appear to have possessed all the vast
range of country which stretches from the shores of the
Mediterranean to the banks of the Joliba. They are indeed
divided into many tribes ; but all speak the same language
which is entirely different from the Arabic, and is found, in
fact, to be no other than that which is used by the Berbers
in the Atlas Mountains. With regard to their colour,
though it certainly is not uniform, the difference seems to
depend in a great measure on the place of abode and the
manner of living; and, properly speaking, it amounts to
nothing more than a mere variation of tint, which is lighter or
darker according to circumstances. The western portion of
this race are white, as far as the climate and their habits will
allow it. Others are of a yellow cast, like the Arabs ;
some are swarthy ; and in the neighbourhood of Soudan
there is a tribe which is said to be completely black. Their
lineaments, however, do not at all resemble those of the
negro. They are slimly made, and rather tall. Commerce
is their principal occupation, which they carry on between
the interior and the countries bordering on the northern
coast. Their moral character has been favourably estimated ;
and it is thought that, if their talents were duly cultivated,
they would probably become one of the first nations in
the world.*
The account of Hornemann is confirmed by Captain Lyon,
who asserts that the Tuaricks, one of the tribes here al-
luded to, are the finest race of men he ever saw ; tall,
straight, and handsome, with a certain air of independence
which is very imposing. They are generally white ; the
dark-brown of their complexion being only occasioned by
the heat of the climate. Their weapons are a long sword
and a dagger, without which no one is ever seen abroad, and
an elegant spear highly ornamented and sometimes made
entirely of iron. Their language has been already described
as the Berber, which they maintain to be very ancient, and
i« still spoken extensively in Western Africa.
The Tibboos are a different people from that now
* Hornemann, p. 129.
INTRODUCTION. 23
described, in appearance, manner of living, and even in
language. Their colour is a bright black ; but their features
partake not in the smallest degree of the negro character.
They have aquiline noses, fine teeth, and lips formed like
those of Europeans. In the language of Herodotus, how-
ever, they would be included among Ethiops; having the
dark skin, which, in his estimation, formed tbe distinguish-
ing mark of all the nations to whom he applied that term.
It is probable that the Nubians, those at least who do not
boast an oriental extraction, are of the same race with the
ancient Berbers, the progenitors of the Tuaricks, and per-
haps of the Tibboos. They were not known by their pres-
ent name till the era of the Grecian kings of Egypt. It
is first mentioned by Eratosthenes ; and soon afterward
came into common use, both as a general denomination for
all the tribes dwelling on the banks of the Nile from Es
Souan to Meroe, and also in a more limited sense for the
inhabitants of the modern Dongola. Their language, of
which Burckhardt has given us some specimens, is quite
different from the Arabic ; and in this, as well as in their
external appearance, they present an affinity to the natives
of the Arabian peninsula. They are of a dark-brown
colour, with hair somewhat curled, either by nature or art,
but not at all woolly. Their visage has no resemblance to
the negro physiognomy. The men are well formed, strong
and muscular, with fine countenances. They are very
thinly clad ; but are all armed with a spear five feet long, a
dagger, and a large shield made of the skin of the hippopot-
amus.*
In ascending the Nile we meet with several other tribes,
who, it is very probable, either belong to the Nubian race,
or derive their descent from a common origin. They
possess good forms and features, manifest a warlike dispo-
sition, and carry into the field of battle the same kind of
weapons which were used by their remote ancestors.
They commonly fight on horseback, and are armed with a
double-pointed spear, a sword, and a large buckler. Hence
the fine passage in the book of Jeremiah : " Come up, ye
horses ; and rage, ye chariots ; and let the mighty men
* Burckhardt's Travels in Nubia, p. 144. Wadding ton and Hanbury,
Travels in Ethiopia, p. 5'J.
24 INTRODUCTION.
come forth : the Ethiopians and the Libyans, that handle
the shield."*
When the traveller who has reached the junction of the
two great branches of the Jsile turns his face eastward in
the direction of the Arabian Gulf, he finds his notice
attracted to a variety of tribes whose genealogy it is
extremely difficult to determine. The Abyssinians, properly
so called, are, we may presume, the descendants of a
people who at various times have migrated from the oppo-
site shores of the Red Sea, and who, in pursuit of commerce,
or of a safe retreat from powerful enemies, disputed with
the natives the possession of their singular country. But
we refrain from entering into details on this subject, as we
shall have a better opportunity in the next chapter for
considering the geographical relations of the several states
which extend from Masuah to the borders of Sennaar.
We shall therefore at present only bestow a few remarks on
an hypothesis, illustrated with not less ingenuity than
learning by Heeren, in regard to the early civilization and
commerce of the African nations, especially the inhabitants
of Meroe, Thebes, and their dependent colonies at Ammo-
nium, Adule, Azab, and Axum.
It is established by the clearest testimony of ancient
history, that at a very remote period the Ethiopians carried
on a considerable trade, in which the Arabians, long known
as navigators and voyagers to India, bore a prominent part,
as might indeed be inferred from the relative position of the
several countries. Of this international traffic in the
southern regions the strongest evidence still remains ; and
there is no doubt that the gold of Africa, the spices of India,
and precious productions of Arabia, occupied the laborious
carriers of the desert long before the date of our histo-
rical records. The prophet Isaiah notices the commerce of
the Egyptians and Ethiopians, in a manner which renders
it perfectly clear that these celebrated nations had already
enriched themselves by their exertions in this branch of
indnstry. " The labour of Egypt, and merchandise of
Ethiopia, and of the Sabeans, men of stature, shall come
over unto thee, and they shall be thine."t
* Chap. xlvi. 9. t Chap. xlv. 14.
INTRODUCTION. 25
Commerce and religion, we are reminded by the author,
were always indissolubly connected in the East. The
long journeys in the desert, and the marauding habits of
the roving barbarians by whom the wilderness was infested,
rendered some spiritual influence necessary for its protec-
tion ; and hence it is presumed that mercantile transac-
tions were usually conducted in the vicinity of temples, and
sometimes within their walls. " Mecca remains still,
through its holy sanctuary, the chief mart for the com-
merce of Arabia." The situation of Nubia has always
made it the grand route for caravans between Ethiopia and
the countries on this side of the desert. At the present
day a communication of that kind is maintained across the
waste from Upper Egypt to Sennaar and Atbar, the ancient
Meroe. This was indeed the natural emporium for the
produce of Inner Africa ; being the extreme point of the
gold-countries towards the land of the Pharaohs, while, from
its proximity to Arabia Felix, it constituted the most appro-
priate mart for goods conveyed from the remoter East.
Of the vast trade still carried on there modern travellers
have given us ample accounts ; observing at the same time
that the great salt-works, whence the surrounding country
is supplied, are but at a short distance from Shendy. The
commerce with Egypt being established, it is manifest that
Meroe must have extended its traffic far into the south of
Africa ; and M. Heeren is even inclined to doubt whether
the extensive ruins at Axum, Azab, Meroe, and Adule,
really belonged to cities, supposing them rather to have been
extensive places of trade, adorned with temples, and appro-
priated to caravans, — an hypothesis to which he is led by
the nature of the country, and the wandering life pursued
by its inhabitants. In a word, the conclusions which he
draws from a minute examination of all the notices which
history has preserved relative to those ancient states are,
that a commercial intercourse existed between Southern
Asia and Africa, between India and Arabia, and thence
between these countries and Ethiopia, Libya, and Egypt, —
that its principal seat for Africa was Meroe, the chief route
of which, he thinks, is still pointed out by a chain of ruins
extending from the shores of the Indian sea to the Mediter-
ranean, — that Adule, Axum, and Azab were links of it
between Arabia and Meroe ; and that Thebes and Ammo-
C
2(3 INTRODUCTION.
mum united the Nile, Egypt, and Carthage, — and, finally,
that its chief stations were sacerdotal establishments, the
head of which was Meroe, whence all the colonies were
sent out. Hence he draws an inference, which will not be
hastily questioned by any competent judge, that the first
seats of commerce were also the first seats of civilization.
Exchange of goods led to exchange of ideas ; and by this
collision of mind was first struck out the sacred flame of
humanity.*
The connexion between merchandise and the usages of
religion was not confined to the wandering tribes of Africa,
but may be traced throughout the ancient world wherever
men collected in great numbers to celebrate the rites of a
national faith. As the adoration presented to the gods was
not thought complete without the addition of more expen-
sive offerings, the worshipper repaired not to the stated
festival unless accompanied with beasts for sacrifice, or with
frankincense and other spices to perfume the air. The
vicinity of a temple was thus naturally converted into a
market, more especially at the holy seasons of the year.
In the sacred Scriptures the reader will discover numerous
facts which establish the view now given of the relation
between commerce and piety. Even the consecrated fane
at Jerusalem was contaminated by the presence of dealers,
who sought their own advantage rather than the honour of
the Great Being whom they professed to venerate. A
similar abuse was long tolerated in the Christian church ;
and hence most of the periodical transactions of a commer-
cial nature became associated with the names of the more
popular saints. Every one knows that the fericz, or holy-
days of the Roman communion, supplied the term for our
fairs in all the counties of Great Britain.
There is accordingly no small appearance of truth in the
observations of Heeren relative to the mutual influence of
religion and traffic among barbarous tribes. The sight of
a magnificent temple in the wilderness secured at once a
demand and a protection for the commodities which the wan-
dering merchantmen brought from afar. It may still remain
a question, whether the sanctuary was erected for the
assurance of the caravan ; or whether the Arab and Ethio-
* Historical Researches, vol. i. p. 475.
INTRODUCTION. 27
pian bent their course through the desert in a line indicated
by those religious establishments. But there can he no
reasonable ground for doubt that the dwellers on both
shores of the Red Sea respected the worship of Jupiter
Amnion, as the means whereby they at once added to their
wealth and secured their acquisitions.
We must not neglect to mention that the nomadic tribes,
who continue to carry on the trade between Egypt and
Abyssinia, appear in the same character in one of those
triumphant pageants which Ptolemy Philadelphus exhibited
on his accession to the throne. When the procession of
the Nubian caravan appeared, " there came," says an
ancient writer, " a train of camels, carrying three hundred
pounds of frankincense, crocus, cassia, and cinnamon,
together with two hundred pounds of other costly spices and
drugs. These were followed by a host of Ethiopians armed
with lances ; one band of these bore six hundred elephants'
teeth, another two thousand pieces of ebony, and another
sixty vessels of gold, silver, and gold-dust."
But the appearance of Indian produce in the western
world was familiar to all classes of men long before the
days of the Grecian kings of Egypt. The spices of the
East, especially cinnamon, come as early before us as the
Mosaical records ; and in such quantities, too, as plainly
show that they must already have formed an important
article of commerce. The holy oil of the sanctuary required
the following ingredients : " Moreover the Lord spake unto
Moses, saying, Take thou also unto thee principal spices,
of pure myrrh five hundred shekels, and of sweet cinnamon
half so much, even two hundred and fifty shekels, and of
sweet calamus two hundred and fifty shekels, and of cassia
five hundred shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary, and
of oil-olive an hin. And thou shalt make it an oil of holy
ointment, an ointment compound after the art of the apoth-
ecary : it shall be an holy anointing oil."*
The reader will observe that most of the ingredients
specified in this sacred order were derived from the shores
of Hindostan, and must have been objects of commerce
among the traders of Arabia, who repaired thither in ships,
year after year, to exchange for them the commodities of
* Exodus xxx. 22, 23, 24, 25.
28 INTRODUCTION.
their own land, as well as of Ethiopia and the more
southern parts of the African continent. In the history of
the patriarch Joseph, mention is incidentally made of the
same traffic carried on by the inhabitants of the desert, the
progeny of Ishmael. The earlier annals of this intercourse,
which connected in the bonds of mutual benefit and intel-
ligence the most cultivated nations of the ancient world,
are irrecoverably lost ; and it is in vain that we attempt by
conjecture or investigation to supply their absence. The
facts of which we are in possession justify a retrospect of
not less than four thousand years, if we follow the light of
that scriptural chronology which has obtained the sanction
of nearly all the learned ; and our researches are thereby
removed to a period when the nations of Europe had not
even begun to assume a settled form, or to dispute with one
another the territory on which the foundations of their
power were afterward to be laid.
In tracing the progress of civilization in Egypt, we
arrived at results which argued a very high antiquity. We
found reason to ascribe to the Pharaohs of the eighteenth
dynasty the gigantic labours of Thebes, and the magnificent
palaces which adorned either side of the Nile in that stu-
pendous capital. What an astonishing era of art, fully two
thousand years before the Augustan age at Rome !
But the vast works at Karnac, Luxor, and Medinet Abou
are much less ancient than the buildings which have been
discovered above the Cataracts. The eye of science has
recently been invited to countries which stretch southward
along the Upper Nile, and to examine the memorials of
kingdoms whose names have not yet been enrolled in the
eternal tablets of history. In Nubia and Ethiopia, says a
foreign writer, numerous and primeval monuments proclaim
so loudly a cultivation contemporary, ay earlier than that of
Egypt, that it may be conjectured with the greatest confi-
dence that the arts, sciences, and religion proceeded from
Nubia to the lower country of Mizraim ; that civilization
descended the Nile, built Memphis, and, finally, somewhat
later, wrested by colonization the Delta from the sea. From
Meroe and Axum downwards to the Mediterranean, there
arose, as is testified by Diodorus, improved and powerful
states, which, though independent of each other, were con-
INTRODUCTION. 29
nected by the same language, the same writing, and the
same religion.*
Thus we find, that in proportion as we ascend into the
early ages of human history the closer becomes the con-
nexion between Egypt and Ethiopia. The Hebrew writers
seldom mention the one without the other ; and the inhab-
itants of both are usually described as a commercial people.
When Isaiah celebrates the victories of Cyrus, their sub-
mission is spoken of as his most magnificent reward.
When Jeremiah extols the great victory of Nebuchad
nezzar over Pharaoh-Necho at Carchemish, the Ethiopians
are allied to the Egyptians ; and when Ezekiel threatens
the downfall of Egypt, he unites it with the most distant
Ethiopia. W T hence this general and early spread of a name
which glimmers in the oral history of so many nations, and
which is renowned as well by Jewish poets as by Grecian
bards ] Whence this fame of the Ethiopians, while the
deserts which surrounded their land seemed to form an
eternal barrier between them and the inhabitants of the
north 1 These questions cannot be satisfactorily answered,
except by allowing the early civilization which history and
tradition unite in ascribing to the sacerdotal states that
sprang from Meroe.
We are not ignorant that, in maintaining the obligations
of Egypt to the more ancient Ethiopia for her learning,
civilization, and knowledge of the arts, we have to encounter
the opposition of several learned writers, whose opinions on
this subject have been determined by an inspection of the
Nubian valley. It is obvious, no doubt, that the narrow
limits of the latter country, hemmed in between a double
range of barren mountains, which occasionally protrude
their rocks to the very margin of the river, could not have
supplied the means of luxurious refinement to a great nation.
But it is equally certain, on the other hand, that beyond
the confines of Nubia there are extensive and most fertile
regions, which, aided by the periodical overflow of the Nils
and the influence of a tropical sun, were capable of sup-
porting in the utmost comfort a very large population.
Besides, Ethiopia, from her natural position, surrounded by
deserts which no stranger could penetrate, and by mountains
* Lcttres <le Turin.
C2
30 INTRODUCTION.
almost inaccessible, enjoyed a degree of security highly
favourable to her progress in the liberal arts ; while the
adventurous inhabitants of the contiguous wildernesses, who
carried on her trade, connected her with Arabia and India
on the one hand, and with the shores of the Mediterranean
on the other. It was not perhaps till the days of Solomon
that the Red Sea was uesd as the channel of trade for Syria
and Palestine, when the mariners of Arabia had acquired
sufficient confidence to navigate all the gulf, and to visit the
shores of the ocean beyond the straits. Prior to that
period the rich produce of the East was conveyed by the
erratic hordes of the desert, who, preferring the short pas-
sage at Azab or Masuah, pushed forward with their loads
to the upper regions of the Nile.
The possession of wealth lays the best foundation for
learning and the arts ; and the perusal of ancient history
will convince every reader, that in the early stages of
society these are devoted to the decoration and advancement
of religion. The stately temple is seen to rise long before
any attention is paid to the comforts of private life ; and
the precious metals, as well as the richest spices and
perfumes, are lavished on the instruments of worship, while
as yet the blessings of civilization are very sparingly enjoyed
by the mass of the people. On this subject, instead of en-
tering into details unsuited to the nature of our undertaking,
we refer to the Essay by Heeren on the Trade of the African
Nations.
GEOGRAPHICAL OTTTT.INFS, FTC 31
CHAPTER II.
Geographical Outlines of Nubia and Abyssinia.
Plan to be followed in this Chapter— Nubian Valley— Sterility— Former
Cultivation — Dondour — Derr— Ibrim— Wady Haifa— Second Cataract
—Beauty of Country' in Dongola— Benefits of the Nile — Temple of
Soleb — Elegance of the Building— Kingdom of Merawe — Gebel el
Berkal— El Belial — Hypothesis in regard to Meroe — Opinions of
Ptolemy, Herodotus, Strabo— Sheygyans — Ishmael Pasha— Third
Cataract — Berber — Shendy el Garb — Shendy — Junction of the White
and Blue Rivers— Sennaar— Climate — Inhabitants — Manufactures —
Expeditions by the Troops under the Pasha— Bravery of the Natives
— Description of the City of Sennaar — Advance of Egyptian Army into
Fazoglo— El Queribyn— Kilgou— Singueh— Conflicts "with the Natives
at Taby and Gassi — Reception at Fazoglo — Return to Sennaar—
Aquaro — River Toumat — Quamamyl — Ishmael disappointed as to Gold
and Slaves — Poncet's Account of Sennaar — Abyssinia — Its Extent
— Political Geography — Kingdoms and Provinces — Amhara— Tigre—
Shoa, and the Eastern Coast.
It is our intention to consider as one country the exten-
sive space which is bounded by the Nile on the west, and
the Red Sea on the east ; and which, when measured from
south to north, has for its limits the tenth and twenty-fourth
degrees of latitude. In this compass we necessarily include
Nubia, Dongola, Sennaar, and Abyssinia, the states of the
Shangalla, as well as the wild districts inhabited by the
ancient Troglodytes and Fish-eaters. There is, it must be
acknowledged, a considerable diversity in the lineage of the
people, their history, speech, and religious usages ; but at
the same time they possess so many things in common, that
it appears much more convenient to place them under one
point of view than to interrupt the narrative by a detail of
minute distinctions. We shall therefore, in delineating the
geographical distributions of this large portion of Eastern
Africa, ascend the Nile in the footsteps of the best-informed
travellers, until we reach the boundaries of recent discovery
in the southern provinces of the kingdom of Sennaar ; and,
after turning to the bank of the Blue River, make our pro-
32 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES OF
gress eastward through Abyssinia to the shores of the ocean
and the Arabian Gulf.
No sooner does the traveller pass the cataract of Es Souan
than he finds himself in Nubia, a country of which it is
now impossible to fix the precise extent. Indeed, we cannot
otherwise define it than by saying, that it occupies the
valley of the Nile from Phila? to Dongola, and is bounded on
either side by formidable deserts, which can only be crossed
by large bodies of men assisted by that useful animal the
camel. The first section, which terminates at Ibrim, has
been so long subject to Egypt that it is usually known as
Turkish Nubia ; but we are told that the natives of the
upper country, who roam in comparative independence as
far as the second cataract, restrict the proud name to their
own land, which, till lately, spurned the dominion of every
foreign sword.
For a considerable distance above Syene, the mountains
press so closely on the banks of the river, that there is very
little ground on either side for the purposes of agriculture ;
and the small portion that is suitable for raising a crop is
continually threatened by the approach of the sand which
the winds of the desert carry towards the stream. From
the structure of the valley, through which the Nile here
forces a passage, it is obvious that there could not at any
time have been an extensive population. The labour of
man would have exerted its powers in vain against the
sterility of nature, which amid rocks and shingle, occupies,
by an everlasting tenure, a wide domain in the Lower
Nubia. But beyond the parallel of Wady Haifa, as we
have already remarked, there is ample space for the great
nations which are said to have flourished in Ethiopia. At
the southern termination of the second cataract immense
plains stretch out from the margin of the river, manifesting
even in their present neglected state the most unequivocal
symptoms of a prolific soil.
Nor can there be any doubt that, in former ages, the
annual inundation carried its riches much beyond the limits
of modern cultivation. The rock}' barriers, which now
scarcely oppose an obstacle to navigation, must at one
period have checked the current so materially as to throw
back the water on all the level land on both sides of the
contiguous valley. The voice of tradition in this case is not
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 33
to be altogether despised. On the contrary, we must believe
that there was some ground for the descriptions of the
ancient historians, who represent the falls of the Nile as
accompanied with a great rush and a deafening noise ;
indicating that the rocky shelves, which have been broken
and washed down by the weight of the yearly flood, extended
from bank to bank at a considerable elevation. Even in the
northern district of Nubia, where the dominion of the
desert is now indisputably established, the sources of fertility
would be much greater than in our days ; and indeed, with-
out assuming the means of supporting an affluent people, we
shall find no small difficulty in accounting for the costly
temples and other edifices, the remains of which may be
traced from Elephantine to Sennaar.
The first five miles after leaving Philse, the course of the
navigator is south-by-east, then it turns towards the west,
and finally resumes the former direction. The first object
that attracts his attention is Debode, a village situated on the
left bank of the river, where are the ruins of a small temple.
Here the Nile flows in a regular deep stream, for the most
part washing the base of the eastern and western moun-
tains ; but wherever the inundation has covered the rocks
with soil, or has even thrown up mounds of sand and mud,
such spots are cultivated and planted with date-trees. A
succession of hamlets meet the eye on both sides as the
traveller proceeds into the Nubian valley ; but few of them
are of so much consequence as to deserve our notice. Don-
dour is remarkable for a small temple, still in considerable
preservation, of which a distinct idea may be formed by
examining the drawing inserted in Mr. Legh's amusing
narrative. The greater part of the enclosure is quite
perfect and the propylon also is very little injured ; but the
inside, it would appear, has never been completed. There
are two columns, which must have formed the entrance into
the building, and which are ornamented with serpents. The
inner shrine, or sekos, consists as usual of three apart-
ments ; the first measures eighteen feet in length and
twenty in breadth ; the columns are three feet in diameter,
and the height, ascending to the top of the cornice is nearly
seventeen feet. The winged globes on the architraves of
the temple and propylon are supported in the wonted man-
ner by two serpents. The hieroglyphics are relieved and
34 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES OF
sculptured in a good style, showing the common objects —
priests with jugs offering to Isis, and Osiris, who is repre-
sented with the hawk's head, and carrying a crosier in his
hand. Behind the structure is a small grotto, which has
the appearance of a later date, and is most probably to be
attributed to the early Christians ; there being an inscrip-
tion with the characters A-\-R among the fragments which
are found in the area.*
These ruins, however, are surpassed in magnificence and
interest by those of Guerfeh Hassan and Sibhoi, of which
the relics are yet sufficiently entire to enable a scientific eye
to delineate their plan and determine their object. It is
justly observed, that the period when these edifices were
constructed is a matter of pure conjecture ; but it has been
remarked, at the same time, that the most striking difference
between the temples above and below the Cataracts is the
high state of preservation of the stones and outward walls
of the former, which have scarcely suffered from the effects
of age. From this circumstance, it might at first sight be
supposed that these remains of antiquity were more recent
than the temples in Egypt ; but that opinion is not war-
ranted by any other evidence. It would be difficult, indeed,
by any reasonable allowance in dates, to account for the fact
now stated ; and the real cause, it is probable, must be
sought in the mild unchanging climate which prevails
between the tropics. The corroding hand of time works
very slowly in the absence of frost and rain, and of those
extreme variations of the atmosphere which, in the zones
called temperate, wage an incessant war with all the works
of human art.t
Derr, which is at present considered the capital of Lower
Nubia, is the residence of a chief who, while he acknow-
ledges a nominal subjection to the Pasha of Egypt, seizes
every opportunity of setting his authority at naught. The
name just used, however, seems to apply to a district rather
than a town or any particular collection of houses ; and the
abode of the governor himself can only be distinguished by
having in its vicinity a few mud cottages, and a somewhat
* Legh's Narrative of a Journey in Egypt and the Countries beyond
the Cataracts, p. 142.
\Jb<d. p. 150.
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 35
denser population. But his power, in the absence of law,
and supported by three thousand barbarian troops, is ex-
tremely formidable. Plundered himself from time to time
by the agents of the supreme government, he extorts a
revenue from his miserable subjects at the point of the
spear. He is constantly surrounded by more than three
hundred armed slaves, ready to execute any order of capri-
cious cruelty which he may be pleased to issue ; for as his
soldiers are his own property, purchased from the dealers
of Dongola or Sennaar, they are in his hands the most
passive instruments whether for good or for evil. Jealous
of interference or inspection, he dreads the approach of
strangers. When Mr. Legh and his friend Mr. Smelt made
their journey into his district, it was with the utmost reluc-
tance that he allowed them to proceed beyond Derr. He
began by asking in a very boisterous manner what they
wanted, and why they had come. It was in vain they
replied, that they were desirous to pay their respects to him,
and to see the remains of antiquity with which his country
abounded. He answered that there was nothing curious to
see; but " I suppose," he added, " you are come to visit the
tombs of your ancestors ?" They then solicited permission
to go to Ibrim, which he flatly refused ; alleging first there
was no object there worthy of their attention, and next that
he had no horses to convey them. In short, it was not until
his obstinacy had been subdued by the present of a hand-
some sword that he yielded his consent to their farther
progress.
The town which the travellers were so desirous to visit
is situated on the right bank of the Nile, at the southern ex-
tremity of a ridge of mountains, rising in some parts per-
pendicularly from the river, so as scarcely to leave room for
a road. It stands on the eastern slope of the hill, having a
citadel, which, being built on the summit, must formerly have
been a strong position. Its height has been estimated at
about two hundred feet above the current, which washes the
foot of the rock whereon it is placed, and is at this point
about a quarter of a mile broad. The walls that enclosed
the fortress and the governor's house can still be traced with
ease. But no inhabitant now remains ; not a vestige of life
is to be seen within its boundaries. The destruction of
Ibrim by the Mamlouks, when they passed into Dongola,
36 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES OF
had been so complete that not even one solitary native was
to be found wandering among its ruins, nor so much as a
date-tree to indicate that it was once the abode of human
beings. Burckhardt informs us that those savage horsemen
carried away about twelve hundred cows, all the sheep and
goats, and imprisoned the most respectable people, for whose
ransoms they received upwards of a hundred thousand Span-
ish dollars. On their departure they put the aga to death,
after having devoured or destroyed all the provisions they
could find. This scene of pillage, as might have been ex-
pected, was followed by a dreadful famine. ,
Ibrim is said to be the ancient Primmis, and the account of
it given by Strabo, as fortified by nature, is confirmed by the
actual appearance of the place. But when this geographer
states that the Romans, in marching from Pselcha or Ka-
labshe, passed over the mounds of sand under which the
army of Cambyses was buried, he is imagined to be at
variance with Herodotus, who relates that the host of the
Persian monarch, when surprised by the clouds of moving
dust, was proceeding to chastise the Ammonians. Hence
it is inferred that their route must have lain in a direction
quite contrary to that of the Romans under Petronius, who
was sent to punish the Ethiopians for an irruption into the
Thebaid. These remarks, however, are founded on the as-
sumption that the Ammonians must necessarily be the in-
habitants of the particular district of Libya where the cele-
brated temple of Jupiter was erected ; whereas there is
reason to believe that a sanctuary, dedicated to the same
god under the character of Amnion, stood in the peninsula
of Meroe near Shendy, the principal seat of the Ethiopians.
It is therefore not at all improbable that the troops of Persia
and of Rome followed the same line of march. Near the
town of Moscho there is still a position known by the name
of Cambysis jErariam — the treasury of Cambyses, — while
it is admitted that the legions advanced as far as JVapata, a
station considerably farther to the south.
The space between Ibrirn and the second cataract presents
no interest but such as may be attached to its ancient build-
ings, more especially the temple of Ebsamboul, which we
shall hereafter describe with some degree of minuteness.
The obstruction in the river, occasioned by numerous rocks
and small islands, which begins at Wady Haifa, continues
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 37
about a hundred miles, and in the low 6tate of the flood put?
a stop to all such vessels as cannot be partly carried overland
on men's shoulders. The falls vary according to the period
of the inundation ; a fact which may to a certain extent ex-
plain the discrepancy between the several authors whose
works have been recently given to the world, and who re-
ceived very different impressions in the vicinity of the prin-
cipal cataract. One tells us that the declivity was so
trifling that the descent of the stream, so far from creating
a rushing noise, could hardly be perceived by the eye ;
while another assures us that it was heard in the night at
the distance of about half an hour, or nearly two miles.
Burckhardt, whose statement we have just copied, adds, that
the valley is very romantic ; that when the inundation sub-
sides many small lakes are left among the rocks ; and that
the banks of these, overgrown with large tamarisks, have a
picturesque appearance among the black and green stones.
The tract is called the Dar el Hadjar or Batn el Hadjar,
the district of cliffs or bed of shelves.
An American who engaged in the service of Ishmael
Pasha during the expedition to Dongola and Sennaar, and
who has published an interesting narrative of his voyage up
the Nile, begs his readers to remember that what is called
the second cataract is properly a succession of swift rapids,
which, as we have already observed, extend fully a hundred
miles from Wady Haifa to Sukkot. He counted nine of
these ; some of which, particularly the second, fifth, seventh,
and ninth, were very dangerous to pass, although the river
had subsided but a few feet. Before his party arrived at
the fifth, called the Shellal of Ambigool, two boats were
wrecked against the rocks which crowd the channel ; and
before they could pass the ninth, the Shellal of Dal, several
accidents of the same kind took place. To clear these two falls,
it was necessary to employ about a hundred men to drag the
boats one after another against the current. At the former
the stream is interrupted by a ledge of rocks reaching nearly
across, over which it precipitates itself. Between this
shelve, indeed, and the western shore, there is a practicable
passage, wide enough to allow a boat to be hauled up the
current, which here runs very furiously.*
* Narrative of Expedition, p. 5.
D
38 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES OF
Near the upper part of the second cataract the country
becomes extremely beautiful and fertile ; verifying all the
reports respecting the excellence of the soil in the provinces
beyond Nubia. In some places the river is not less than
five or six miles broad, enclosing numerous islands on which
agricultural produce might be increased to almost any
amount. The scenes of verdure on the left bank far surpass
the finest views of rural magnificence in the Said, while the
mode of culture is not inferior to that pursued in the most
improved districts of the Lower Nile. The author of the
Narrative asserts that some of the grounds watered by the
stream might, by the hands of enlightened industry, be
made capable of producing every thing which the art of man,
operating upon a fine soil under a soft climate, could pos-
sibly effect. Many parts of Dongola exhibit the same rich
qualities, and present the same hopes to the farmer ; and, in
short, it is manifest that nothing besides a good government
is required to render those extensive districts the abode of
plenty, contentment, and civilization.
The Nile has with justice been represented as one of the
wonders of the globe. Its course has been compared to the
path of a good man amid a wicked generation. It passes
through a desert, dry, barren, and hideous ; on the portions
of which, contiguous to its banks, it deposites the richest
soil, which it continually waters and nourishes. This gift
has been the source of subsistence to several powerful nations,
who have established and overthrown mighty kingdoms, and
have originated the arts, the learning, and the refinement of
the greater part of the ancient world. Those nations — in-
structed and pupils — have perished ; but the remains of
their stupendous labours, the pyramids and the temples of
Egypt, Nubia, Dongola, and Meroe, are more than sufficient
to excite respect for the great people who founded them.
Under this impression a voyage up the Nile may be con-
sidered as presenting an epitome of the life of man. We meet
at almost every stage with the monuments of his tyranny, his
superstition, or his luxury, but with few memorials of his
talents directed to the improvement and protection of his fel-
low-creatures. We also everywhere perceive the traces of Al-
mighty justice on his crimes. On the banks of this ancient
river we behold cities, once famous for power and wealth, re-
duced to a heap of sand like the wilderness ; and temples, once
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 39
renowned, and colossal idols, at one time feared, now pros-
trate, and confounded with the dust of the worshippers.
The flocks lie down in the midst thereof; the cormorant and
bittern lodge in the towers and palaces : their voice sings
in the windows, and desolation is in the thresholds. The
Nile, meantime, which has seen so many generations rise
and disappear, still moves onward to distribute its fertilizing
fluid to the countries on its borders ; like the good Provi-
dence, which seems unwearied in trying to overcome the
ingratitude of man by the many favours it bestows upon him.
At a considerable distance above the second cataract the
traveller encounters the rapids of Doolga, where the river
again becomes embarrassed with rocks and small islands.
Navigation is so much impeded by these obstructions that
hardly any attempt is made to render it the medium of com-
merce on the confines of Shendy, or in that extensive reach
which terminates at the borders of Sennaar. But between
these two cataracts there are many objects that demand
attention ; among which, in order to diversify our nar-
rative, we shall submit to the reader a brief account of the
temple of Soleb, as also of the remarkable peninsula in-
closed by a bend of the Nile, and known as the modern
Merawe.
Near the parallel of the twenty-first degree of latitude,
and about four hundred paces from the western bank, stand
the ruins of the magnificent fane just mentioned. In ad-
vancing towards it the eye is first attracted by an elevated
stone foundation thirty feet in thickness, extending in front
of the temple, and of equal length with the portal.
The remains of two sphinxes are seen at either side of
the approach, where there was a staircase which led to the
main building, now in a state of complete dilapidation.
The front of the portal, of which only a part is left, is about
a hundred and seventy-five feet long ; and the width of the
steps is not less than fifty-seven feet. The wall, which is
twenty-four feet thick, is not solid, but contains a variety of
cells, set apart, it may be presumed, for a variety of uses,
no longer obvious to the uninitiated.
The first chamber is more than a hundred feet in breadth,
and eighty-nine in depth ; round three sides of which runs
a single row of pillars, while on the fourth there are indi-
cations of a double row ; making in the whole thirty
40 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES OF
columns, of which seven are still standing and perfert.
They seem all to have been executed from the same model ;
the diameter of the base being sixty-seven inches, and the
height about forty feet. They are inscribed with hierogly-
phics only, and exhibit no figures which can properly be
referred to the hand of the sculptor.
There is a second chamber, in which it is still possible to
trace a row of twenty-four pillars resembling those in the
first ; but their fragments are scattered about in every di-
rection. The very bases of some of them are rooted up,
and the mud-foundation on which they stood is completely
exposed. So entire yet so partial a ruin, it is remarked,
can only be attributed to the sudden yielding of the ground ;
for an earthquake would not have spared the columns which
remain in other parts of the edifice.
It is difficult to ascertain the dimensions of the adytum,
as no trace of the side-walls can be detected, and only a few
feet of the one which had formed the remote end of that
splendid sanctuary. It is manifest, however, that it must
have contained twelve pillars, and not more, and of these
there are three still entire. The rest have fallen chiefly
towards the Nile, under the assault of their powerful enemy
the desert ; and even one of those which stand is already
bo much inclined in the same direction that it must shortly
take a place beside the others. The lower parts of all the
columns bear representations of figures about three feet
high, of which the inferior half is concealed by a tablet in-
scribed with hieroglyphics. They are executed in the very
best style, as are all the sculptures remaining in the temple,
though in some places they have not been finished. Among
these Jupiter Amnion appears twice ; and to' him it is more
than probable, that the whole structure was originally dedi-
cated.
Mr. Waddington observes, that the temple of Soleb
affords the lightest specimen he had anywhere seen of
Egyptian or Ethiopian architecture. The sandstone, of
which most of the columns are composed, is beautifully
etrsaked with red, giving them from a distance a rich and
glowing tint. As the walls have almost entirely disappeared,
and the roof fallen in, there remains no ponderous heap of
masonry to destroy the effect of these beautiful pillars, backed
by the mountains of the desert or the clear blue horizon.
D 2
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 43
Here the man of taste does not contemplate a gloomy edifice,
where heaviness is substituted for dignity, height for sub-
limity, and size for grandeur, nor measures a pyramidal mass
of stone-work, climbing up to heaven in defiance of nature and
propriety. " We seemed," says the traveller just named,
" to be at Segesta, at Phigalea, or at Sunium, where lightness,
and colour, and elegance of proportion, contrasted with the
gigantic scenery about them, make the beauty of the build-
ings more lovely, and their durability more wonderful.
There is no attempt to imitate or rival the sublimity that
surrounds them ; they are content to be the masterpieces of
art, and therefore they and nature live on good terms
together, and set off each other's beauty. Those works
that aim at more than this, after exhausting treasuries, and
costing the life and happiness of millions, must be satisfied
at last to be called hillocks."*
Upon inspecting the map of Nubia it will be observed, that
at a point near Old Dongola the river turns towards the
north-east, and gives an insular form to a large extent of
land distinguished as the province or kingdom of Merawe.
In this tract (here are some magnificent monuments near the
spot which is supposed to have contained the ancient capital.
For example, there are the remains of seven temples, of
which the largest is 450 feet long (almost equal to St. Paul's)
by 159 broad. The principal apartment is 147 feet by 111,
and the next is 123 by 102. This edifice is, generally
speaking, in a very ruined state ; and some of the materials
are in so confused and shattered a position as to indicate
that they had been broken down and unskilfully replaced.
The other temples are of much smaller dimensions, but
several of them more perfectly preserved ; and in two, most
of the chambers are excavated in the solid rock. This is
part of a lofty eminence, called Gebel el Berkal, or the Holy
Mountain, along the foot of which all the monuments are
erected. Here are also seventeen pyramids, while at El
Belial, seven miles farther up the river, there is a more nu-
merous and lofty range of these structures, none of which,
however, rival those of Memphis. A general character of
ruin pervades the whole, and some, indeed, are reduced to
masses of mere rubbish ; a state which seems at least partly
* Journal of a Visit to some Parts of Ethiopia, p. 290,
44 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES OF
owing to the friable nature of the sandstone used by their
architects. The sculptures and ornaments which can still
be traced bear marks of very different periods of art ; some
being extremely rude and others nearly as perfect as any in
the palaces of Egypt.
The examination of these monuments, whether temples
or pyramids, has led to an ingenious hypothesis relative to
the site of the ancient Meroe, which is maintained with a
considerable show of argument and learning in a popular
journal. It is well known, that all the ancient authorities
describe the geographical position of the Ethiopian capital
as an island formed by the junction of the Nile with the
Astapus or river of Abyssinia, and with the Astaboras, which
is undoubtedly the modern Tacazze, still called Atbara.
The city of Meroe, then, if it stood in the country bounded
by the two latter rivers, must necessarily have been above
the point at which they unite ; a conclusion fully confirmed
by the direct statement of Eratosthenes. Near Shendy
accordingly, forty miles above that junction, there has been
discovered a range of buildings and pyramids of very con-
siderable extent and magnificence. Bruce in his journey
observed some of them, and threw out a conjecture that
they marked the site of Meroe, and thereby led to the natural
inference, that the kingdom recorded in history under the
same name must have had its territory between the Tacazze
and the Blue river. The judgment of the Greek geographer
and of the Scottish traveller have hitherto provailed against
every other supposition. It is insinuated, indeed, that M.
Cailliaud and Mr. Waddington were not perfectly satisfied
with the arguments of their predecessors ; but further con-
sideration, or an unwillingness to oppose an impression
almost universal, has induced them to acquiesce in the more
common conclusion.
But, says the author to whom we have alluded, " notwith-
standing so great a concurrence of authorities, we cannot
but think it pretty clear that the city of Meroe was not at
Shendy but at Merawe, and that the kingdoms of the same
name coincide ; though Meroe in its glory probably extended
to Dongola on the one side and Shendy on the other."*
The first coincidence, it is remarked, is that of name,
* Edinburgh Review, vol. xli. p. 190.
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 45
which is complete ; for both Burckhardt and W aldington
observe, that the modern term, though written Merawe, has
the precise sound of Meroe. Resemblance of name, it is
admitted, is often accidental, though strict identity is very
seldom so ; and amid the general change, it is still common,
especially in those unfrequented tracts of Africa, that great
capitals, as Axum, Augila, and Es Souan, for example,
should continue to enjoy their old appellations. At all
events, the author concludes, resemblance, and, still more,
sameness, becomes almost decisive when there is a coinci-
dence also of circumstance and situation. Now here we
have, bearing the name of Meroe, a capital presenting in its
vicinity monuments that correspond exactly in character,
magnitude, and antiquity to those which ought to mark the
site of that celebrated metropolis of Ethiopia. There are no
other ruins in that country which can be compared to these ;
for, according to the measurements of Cailliaud, those of
Shendy are decidedly inferior. The length of the greatest
temple there is not quite 280 feet ; of that at Merawe it is
450. The elevation of the highest pyramid at the former
place is 81 feet ; of that at the latter it is 103. Now all
the ancient accounts unite in representing Meroe as without
a rival among the cities of Ethiopia ; but if Shendy be Me-
roe, says the reviewer, there must have been a much more
splendid capital nearer to Egypt, and yet unknown in Egypt.
We have then, he concludes, a combination of circumstances
in favour of the position of Merawe, which only the most
decided proof would be sufficient to negative.
Such proof, it is conceded, is with some apparent reason
supposed to exist in those ancient writings which appear
absolutely to require that Meroe must be above the junction
of the Nile and the Tacazze. But it is imagined that a
closer examination will probably alter our views as to the
decisive nature of these statements. It has never been ob-
served, says the reviewer, that by far the highest ancient
authority is in direct contradiction to them. To this pre-
eminence Ptolemy seems fully entitled, from the advanced
era at which he lived, the great extension of communication
in his time, and, in fact, the more accurate and detailed man-
ner in which he lays down his positions. His residence,
too, at Alexandria, then the centre of the commerce carried
on between Africa and the East, gives peculiar weight to
46 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES OF
his opinions respecting Egypt and the surrounding coun-
tries. His observations respecting Meroe are as follows :
11 Meroe is rendered an island by the river Nile coming
from the west, and by the river Astapus flowing from the
east. It contains these towns :
Ixing. Lat.
Meroe • 01.30* 16.26
Sacolche 61.40 15.15
Eser 61.40 13.30
Village of the Dari 62 12.30
Then the junction of the Nile and the Astapus 61 12
Then the junction of the Astaboras and Astapus 62.30 11.30'
In this table it is clear that Ptolemy places Meroe far
below the junction of the Nile with the Astapus, the As-
taboras, or any great stream whatsoever. He makes the dif-
ference of latitude indeed much too great ; but into this
error he appears to have been betrayed by extending his
itineraries nearly in a direct line up the river, without
allowing for the circuitous course which it pursues above
Dongola. Beyond Meroe the knowledge of Ptolemy, it is
granted, becomes obscure ; though from Egypt to that point
he gives a continued chain of geographical positions, at a
time when there is every reason to believe that the inter-
course between the two countries was frequent. It seems
then scarcely possible that he should have made a mistake
as to this particular ; or that so grand a feature should have
escaped his notice, as that the Nile, which for more than
three hundred leagues had not been augmented even by a
rivulet, receives below Meroe so mighty a tributary as
the Tacazze.
The author of the hypothesis whose arguments we are
endeavouring to abridge maintains also that the narrative
of Herodotus, though less detailed than the other, appears
to point to the same spot. According to that ancient writer,
travellers ascending the Nile above Elephantine" journeyed
first forty days to avoid the cataracts, then embarked, and
were conveyed in twelve days to Meroe. The place where
they took shipping was, he thinks, probably on the borders
of Dongola, where the long line of rapids is found to ter-
* Longitude from Ferro island, where the first meridian used to b*
placed.
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 47
minate. From thence to Merawe twelve days would corres-
pond with the same rate of advancing ; whereas, to Shendy,
the supposed site of the proper Meroe, that space of time
would be much too small. Again, Meroe is stated by this
historian to be midway between Egypt and the Land of
the Exiles, described by other writers as an island formed
by the Nile, and which the reviewer thinks can be no other
than Sennaar, where the Blue and White rivers give to the
intervening country something of an insular aspect. Now,
Merawe, he remarks, is exactly at an equal distance between
Egypt and the kingdom just named, whereas Shendy would
violate altogether the relation of equality between the two
divisions.
Further, Strabo, following the authority of Eratosthenes,
supplies a statement which seems to have a reference to
Shendy, and is, says the reviewer, the only one that can
cause a doubt. But elsewhere he describes Meroe as
" bounded upwards on the south by the junction of the
rivers Astapus, Astaboras, and Astasobus." This, he adds,
agrees very closely with our idea on the subject, and is quite
contrary to that which would represent the Astaboras as
the northern limit of Meroe. His statement, also, that this
is the last kingdom of the Ethiopians, after which the
Nouba? commence and occupy the Nile downwards to
Egypt, is still true only in regard to Merawe.
But, returning to the main objection, the author is aware,
it will be asked, How was the idea so prevalent among an-
cient geographers, that Meroe was formed by the junction
of the great rivers, — and why does Ptolemy himself, in the
title of his chapter, admit the same notion, though his state-
ment is rather in contradiction to it ? The following re-
marks, he thinks, will afford a sufficient explanation of the
manner in which the mistake originated.
All who are conversant with the early history of geography
must be aware of the many errors with which it abounds.
Among these none are more frequent than such as respect
the continuous course of great rivers, and the distinction
between islands and large peninsulas. The latter terms,
indeed, are often used as synonymous, though perhaps only
through the influence of this original blunder. Now, the
reader need only look at the map of the country here con-
sidered as Meroe, under its modern name of Merawe, inter-
48 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES OF
sccted by what might almost be called three parallel branches
of the Nile, in order to perceive how probable it is that the
first imperfect account should represent it as an island en-
closed by three separate rivers. The original opinion, indeed,
which is still to be found in Mela and Pliny, was, that the
Astapus and Astaboras were branches of the Nile itself,
first separating and forming Meroe into a species of delta,
and then reuniting ; an idea' which seems to have a peculiar
reference to the parallel streams of the modern Merawe.
Then, after it was found that the Nile in this neighbourhood
received some large tributaries, it was very natural to con-
sider them as the river-branches employed in the formation
of Meroe. The original idea of it, as of an island enclosed
by these streams, appears to have become rooted in the
minds of geographers, even after they had obtained a know-
ledge of the facts by which their opinion was directly con-
futed.*
" Such are the considerations," say the reviewers, " which,
tii our apprehension, establish the identity of the ancient
with the modern Meroe. If the discussion has been tedious,
it should be remembered that it involves not merely a
curious problem in geography, but the site of monuments
calculated to throw light on the arts and history of one of
the most celebrated nations of antiquity. "t
In describing the local peculiarities of Nubia, we could
not omit all notice of so able an attempt to oppose the settled
opinions on this interesting point, although we do not con-
cur in the conclusions to which the author has permitted
himself to be carried. We can hardly imagine it possible
that any geographer who had examined the country could
be so far deceived by the winding course of the Nile as to
regard the several sections of the stream which run north-
by-west, south-west, and north, as three separate and dis-
tinct rivers bearing different names. Besides, the ancient
writers uniformly mention a junction of the currents ; for
even Pliny and Pomponius Mela, to whose statement some
importance is attached by the reviewer, while they coun-
tenance the supposition that the Astapus and Astaboras
might be branches of the Nile, relate most unambiguously,
that they reunited with their parent waters, — a view of the
* Pom. Mela. lib. ix e. 10 ; Plin. Hist. Nat. lib. ix.
f Edinburgh Review, vet xh. p 193.
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 49
case which necessarily implies a point of meeting. It is
obvious, in the next place, that no one who had observed
the direction of the current in the two portions of the Nile
which wash the eastern and western shores of Merawe,
could ever hold the opinion that they anywhere unite and
become one river ; for while on the left-hand it flows towards
the south-west, on the right-hand it runs nearly due north.
We may also remark, that the Land of the Exiles is not
usually restricted to Sennaar, but is rather imagined to have
been situated near the sources of the Abyssinian river,
where the curvature of the channel produces the appear-
ance of an island. On this supposition, the estimate of
Herodotus, who places Meroe at an equal distance between
Egypt and the province occupied by the military refugees,
will apply with sufficient accuracy to Shendy, the region
enclosed by the Tacazze and the Bahr el Azrek.
Between Dongola and Merawe, the country, many parts
of which are rich and beautiful, is occupied by a race of
men called Sheygyans, remarkable for valour in the field as
well as for a roaming manner of life, and in some respects
more allied to the freebooter than to the agriculturist or sol-
dier. After being forced from their lands by Ishmael they
took refuge near Shendy, from which position, as they
found him still advancing southwards, they sent messengers
demanding terms of peace. The pasha replied, that the
only conditions on which they could obtain their request
were, the surrender of their horses and arms, and a return
to their own territory, where they were to bind themselves
to live tranquilly, and without disturbing their neighbours.
The ambassadors answered that they would not give up
their hcgrses and arms. The Egyptian commander rejoined,
that he would go to Shendy and take them ; thev said,
"Come!"
It is reported, that previous to the advance of the Turkish
force from Wady Haifa, deputies from the chiefs of Sheygya
arrived at the camp, to ask for what reason the pasha me-
naced them with war. He replied, " Because you are rob-
bers, who live by disturbing and pillaging the countries
around your own." They observed, that they had no
other means to live. Ishmael said, " Cultivate your land,
and live honestly." They answered with great simplicity,
"We have been bred up to live and prosper by what you
E
50 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES OF
call robbery ; we will not work, and cannot change our
manner of living." The invader thundered in their ears,
" I will make you change it !" We shall hereafter have
occasion to revert to the history of these undaunted bar-
barians ; meantime we trace the progress of discovery up-
wards along the course of the Nile, which from Dongola to
Sennaar is yet almost entirely unknown to the European
reader.
In passing Merawe the river flows from the north-east,
and accordingly, although the traveller is ascending the
stream, he has, in fact, turned his back upon the country to
which his inquiries are directed. As this remarkable curve
in the Nile was not fully ascertained till the period when the
son of the Egyptian pasha made his famous expedition into
Sennaar, we have endeavoured to assist the comprehension
of the reader by adjusting our map.
Ishmael attempted to force his boats through the obstruc-
tions of the cataract ; but every effort failed, except in re-
gard to those which did not draw more than three feet of
water. By the assistance of all the male population on the
banks, nine of the class now described were dragged as far
as Berber, after an incessant toil of fifty-seven days. Mr.
English, who accompanied the Turkish armament, observes
that the river is spotted with an infinity of islands and
rocks. In some of the passages where it was deep, the cur-
rent was as swift as a mill-sluice, which made it necessary
to employ the crews of perhaps twenty boats to drag up
one at a time. In other places where the water was shal-
low, they were sometimes compelled to pull them by main
force over the stones at the bottom. He is decidedly of
opinion, that when the river is full and the flood strong, this
cataract must be almost impassable upwards ; as, on ac-
count of the strange direction of its course, little or no aid
can be derived from the wind. Besides, the rush in some
parts, from the straitness of the passages between the rocks
and islands, must in the time of the inundation be very
furious ; while, from the natural obstacles which cover the
shore, the cordel used for dragging could hardly overcome
the difficulties which would be incessantly presented.
The canja belonging to Ishmael, — probably the first boat
that ever passed the third cataract of the Nile, — accomplished
the voyage to Berber, after having been lifted three times
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 51
over impracticable shallows. The natives had never before
seen a vessel impelled by sails. They called it a " water-
mare :" comparing it by this appellation to the swiftest
animal with which they are acquainted. They ran in crowds
to the bank of the river to see it mount the current without
the aid of oars.
The Melek of Berber, whose name is Nousreddin, ap-
pears to occupy a moveable capital, or rather to select for
that purpose any one of the numerous villages which skirt
the eastern side of the Nile. The houses are built of clay,
and roofed with unhewn timber ; that of the king is like
the rest, only somewhat larger. The country is fertile and
well cultivated ; abounding in dhoura, cotton, barley, fine
horses, camels, dromedaries, kine, sheep, goats, and fowls.
The natives, though resembling the Fellahs of Upper
Egypt, are not, generally speaking, either so handsome or
so well formed; and many of them have defective teeth,
occasioned, it is thought, by the habit of chewing tobaceo,
which is c( a very inferior quality in that district. In their
deportment they are extremely mild and polite. Every man
you meet gives the greeting of peace, and shows a disposi-
tion to accommodate the stranger in all things reasonable ;
an effect which is ascribed to the circumstance, that they
are in a great degree a commercial people, as Berber is
every year visited by numerous caravans from Abyssinia,
Sennaar, Darfur, and Kordofan.*
The territory of Berber does not appear to be very exten-
sive, only stretching along the banks of the river from the
third cataract for about eight days' journey upwards. On
the eastern side it is separated from Shendy by the Bahr
el Uswood or Black River. The cultivable land reaches
generally to the distance of one or two miles from the mar-
gin of the stream, by which it is regularly overflowed at the
season of the inundation, and rendered very fruitful. The
country contains abundance of salt, which the natives find
in the hilly ground along the borders of the desert. It is
* Narrative of Expedition, p. 112. We are told by Mr. English, that
the ordinary price of a virgin wife in Berber is a horse, which (he bride-
groom is obliged to present to the father of the girl he demands in mar-
riage. " I remember asking a young peasant of whom I bought pro-
vision one day, why he did not marry ] He pointed to a colt in the yard,
and told me that when the colt became big enough, he should take a
wife."— Narrative, p. 122.
52 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES OF
mixed with calcareous earth which is separated by washing,
and the usual process of evaporization. The metropolis
which Nousreddin honours with his court appears to have
houses sufficient for a population of five or six thousand ;
but the actual inhabitants, it is probable, seldom amount to
that number. The language is Arabic, perfectly intelligible
to the natives of Egypt, but containing some words at pres-
ent disused in that kingdom. There is a mixture of He-
brew terms in the ordinary speech of the people, common,
we may presume, to both those ancient dialects ; and it is a
remarkable circumstance, that the chiefs of Dongola, Shey-
gya, Berber, Shendy, and Halfaia should bear the same
title which is employed in the Jewish Scriptures to designate
the petty sovereigns of Canaan.
On the western side of the Nile, opposite to the island or
peninsula of Meroe, there is a large village called Shendy
el Garb, — that is, Shendy on the west bank. The road to
it from Berber leads through a country consisting of im-
mense plains of fertile soil, extending many milefe from the
river, and for the most part covered with herbage. There
are numerous hamlets, situated at a considerable distance
from the stream, in order to be secure from the inundation.
The houses are generally built with straw roofs neatly
thatched, and having a decided slope ; a proof that this
country is within the reach of the annual rains. When
visited by the Egyptian army, the current at El Garb was
much contracted, although its bed was frequently found to
extend more than a mile and a half in breadth. The town,
which is respectable in its appearance, contains about six
thousand inhabitants, and has three market-places, where
the people of the country exchange their dollars and dhoura
for a variety of useful commodities.
Shendy, on the east bank, is also the capital of the coun-
try which surrounds it, and can boast of a population not
less numerous than its rival on the other shore. Large
areas, walled round for the reception of the merchandise
brought by the caravans, are to be seen in various parts of
the town ; the streets are wide and airy ; and regular mar-
kets are established, where, besides meat, butter, grain, and
vegetables, are also to be purchased spices imported from
Jidda, gum-arabic, beads, and other ornaments for the
women. It stands about half a mile from the river, sur-
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 53
rounded by land rather indifferent in its qualities ; so that
the place derives its sole importance from being the staple
of the traffic, including slaves, which continues to be carried
on between Sennaar, Mecca, and Egypt.
This portion of ancient Ethiopia possesses a great interest,
as connected with the junction of the two principal branches
of the Nile, the White, and the Blue rivers, — a distinction,
as will soon appear, that arises from the very different
colour of their waters. The latter, or Abyssinian stream, is
not half as broad as the other at the point where they meet;
the Bahr el Abiad being about a mile and a quarter from
bank to bank. It is also troubled and whitish, and has a
peculiar taste bordering on positive sweetness. The Turkish
soldiers said that " the water of the Abiad does not quench
thirst ;" a notion probably originating in the circumstance
that they w T ere never tired of drinking it, so Iio-ht and
pleasant was it to the palate. The Bahr el Azrek, or Nile
of Mr. Bruce, was perfectly pure and transparent, but by no
means so agreeable as a beverage ; a fact which the author of
the Narrative ascertained by drinking first of the one, and
then walking about two hundred yards across the point and
drinking of the other.
The Abyssinian branch enters the Bahr el Abiad nearly
at right angles ; bat such is the mass of the latter that the
former cannot mingle its waters with it for many miles below
their junction ; and as the one is light-coloured and the
other dark, the eastern part of the united river is black and
the western side white for more than a league after their
meeting. The latter colour is occasioned by a very fine clay
held in a state of suspension, and to which the singular fla-
vour that distinguishes the Abiad is undoubtedly to be as-
cribed. Below the point of union the Nile presents a truly
magnificent spectacle. Between Halfaia and Shendy it
traverses a deep gloomy defile formed by rocky hills, and runs
with considerable force about twelve or fifteen miles. On
emerging from this strait it again spreads itself out majest-
ically amid immense plains bounded only by the horizon ; and
after receiving the Bahr el Uswood, it displays a current not
less than two miles broad even before the inundation.
During his stay in Sennaar, the American officer endeav-
oured to obtain information from the people of the country,
as well as from the caravan-merchants whom he happened
E2
54 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES OF
to meet, in regard to the two great rivers which compose
the Egyptian Nile. He was told that the source of the
eastern or Abyssinian branch is in the Gebel el Gumara, or
Mountains of the Moon, about sixty days' march of a camel,
in a direction nearly south. It receives, at various dis-
tances above their city, several streams which come from the
south and east, taking their rise in an alpine range that
stretches into the dominions of the Galla. The course of
the Bahr el Abiad, they assured him, is nearly parallel to
that of the Azrek, but that its source is much more remote,
although, like the other, among the eminences of the Gebel
el Gumara. It is also augmented by the accession of a
number of tributaries, which issue from mountains southward
of Sennaar. On his asking whether the White River were
open and free from shellals or rapids, they answered, that
at a place called Sulluk, about fifteen days' march above
Shendy, there was one which they believed boats could not
pass. When he inquired whether, by following the banks
of the said river, or of the one which empties itself into it
from the west, it were possible to re^ch a city called Tombat
or Timbuctoo, they replied that they knew nothing of
such a place, having never been farther west than Kordofan
or Darfur.
This was all he could learn ; but he himself is disposed
to believe that the main stream of the Abiad cannot have its
source in the same latitude with the Azrek : because "it com-
mences its rise twenty days sooner than the other ; while
the colour of its water proves that it flows through a tract
of country differing in quality of soil from the regions per-
vaded by the eastern current. He is further inclined to think,
that the Nile of Bruce has not its principal fountain in Abys-
sinia, but rather in the lofty range assigned for its origin
by the people of Sennaar.. On viewing the mass of water
that passed downward while he w r as in the kingdom now
mentioned, even before the flood had attained two-thirds of
the usual magnitude it acquires during the rainy season, he
thought it very improbable that the main source of such a
river was not distant more than three hundred miles.
The territory included between the Abiad and the Azrek
is usually called El Gezira, or the Island ; because, in the
season of the rains, the numerous rivers which run into
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 55
them from the mountains in the south encompass the dis-
trict with their spreading waters.
Mr. English is satisfied that the representations made of
the climate of Sennaar are much exaggerated. Except
during the rainy part of the year, the country presents an
elevated plain, not only dry, but well ventilated by the breezes
from the south and east, which are generally cool, because
they come either from, the mountains of Abyssinia or from
the huge ridges that compose the Gebel el Gumara. He
was there at midsummer, and at no time did he find the
heat very uncomfortable, provided he was in the open air
and under a shade. Within doors, he allows, the temper-
ature was much raised ; and, in the absence of the proper
means to secure comfort, its effects were extremely dis-
agreeable. The houses, he adds, were full of lizards, which,
if you lie on the floor, you may feel crawling over you all
night. He saw a singular species of snake or serpent. It
was about two feet long, and not thicker than a man's thumb,
striped on the back, with a copper-coloured belly and a flat
head. It had four legs, which did not appear to be of any
use, as they were short, and seemed to hang from the lower
part of his sides. All its motions, which were quick and
rapid, were made on the belly, after the usual manner of
serpents.*
As to domestic customs and habits, there is a general re-
semblance among all the nations who occupy the borders of
the Nile from Es Souan to Sennaar, though the inhabitants
differ somewhat in complexion and character. Those in
the province of Sukkot, for example, are not so black as the
Nubians and the Dongolese. They are also frank and prepos-
sessing in their deportment. The last-mentioned class are
dirty, idle, and ferocious ; a description which might likewise
be applied to the Sheygyan, were it not that, so far from
beino- indolent, he is either an industrious peasant or a
daring freebooter. The natives who dwell near the third
cataract have the reputation of being honest and obliging ;
although it must be admitted, that in point of civilization
they are much inferior to the people of Berber, the most im-
proved of all the tribes on the Upper Nile. The inhabitants
of those extensive tracts, of which Shendy and Halfaia are
* Narrative of Expedition, p- 15-5.
56 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES OF
the capitals, are a sullen, crafty, and rather bloodthirsty race ;
while the peasants of Sennaar, those especially who were
found at a distance from the principal town, were compara-
tively mild and virtuous. Throughout the whole of these
countries there is one general characteristic in which they
resemble the Indians of America, — courage and self-respect.
The chiefs, we are told, after coming to salute Ishmael Pasha,
made no scruple of sitting down opposite to him, and entering
into conversation without the slightest embarrassment, in
the same manner as they are accustomed to do with their
own meleks, with whom they are very familiar. With the
greatest apparent simplicity, they were wont to propose very
troublesome questions to the invader; such as, " O great
sheik, what have we done to you or your country that you
should come so far to make war upon us 1 Is it for want
of food in your own land that you come to seek it in ours ?"
The manufactures of the several clans beyond Wady
Haifa are limited to the following articles : Earthen-ware
for domestic use, and bowls for pipes : Gotton cloth for gar-
ments ; knives, mattocks, hoes, ploughs, and water-wheels
for agriculture ; horse-furniture, including most excellent
saddles, very neatly fabricated ; stirrups in the European
form, and not like those of the Turks, such as are made for
the chiefs being usually of silver ; large iron spurs ; bits
with small chains for bridles, to prevent them from being
severed by the stroke of an enemy's sabre ; long and double-
edged broadswords, with the guard frequently made of a
precious metal ; iron heads for lances, and shields made of
elephants' skin ; to which may be added, very beautiful
straw-mats worked by the women.
When the Sultan of Sennaar surrendered his country to
the disposal of the grand seignior, the pasha sent notices
to all the chiefs of the kingdom, making known to them this
act of submission, and demanding their allegiance and
homage. But the leader of the mountaineers in the south-
western district, not only refused to acknowledge Ishmael
as his lord-paramount — he even scorned to look on his
letter. Similar replies were made by the governors on the
eastern side of the Nile, who, while they declined to recog-
nise the act of their sovereign, called him a coward and a
traitor for giving up his dominions to a stranger. This
resolute conduct on their part led to two expeditions, from
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 57
which some valuable information has been gained in respect
to the distant provinces that they were sent to subdue.
The divan eifendi at the head of three hundred men
crossed the Nile, and soon crushed every attempt made by
the spirited barbarians to oppose the new government.
" We marched," says he, " without resistance for eight
days in the direction of the rising sun, through a country,
fine, fertile, and crowded with villages, till we came to
some larger ones near a mountain called Catla, where we
found four or five hundred men posted in front of them to
resist our march. They were armed with lances, and pre-
sented themselves to the combat with great resolution.
But on experiencing the effect of our firearms they took to
Qight towards the mountain ; two hundred of them were
hemmed in and cut to pieces, and three of their chiefs were
taken prisoners, as well as all the inhabitants we. could find ;
after which we returned."
On being asked with regard to water at a distance from
the river, the effendi replied, that " there were wells in
abundance in all the numerous villages with which the
country abounds, and also many rivulets and streams, which
at this season descend from the mountains." The troops,
he added, had forded two small rivers, probably the Rahad
and the Dender, the scenery all around being very fine, and
presenting many beautiful birds and insects. He brought
one of these last with him, which proved to be a scarabaeus,
covered with a close crimson down, exactly resembling
scarlet velvet. The people of the country he described as
very harmless, and exceedingly anxious to know what had
brought the Egyptian army to Sennaar to trouble them.*
But the other expedition under Hagi Achmet was at-
tended with still more important results. This officer, one
of the roughest under the command of Ishmael, was
intrusted with four hundred cavalry and three able lawyers,
a force which was deemed sufficient either to persuade or
compel the reluctant mountaineers to submission. He
marched rapidly during ten days in a direction almost
south-west of Sennaar, through a well-peopled country,
without encountering any resistance till he came to the lofty
ridge of Bokki inhabited by pagans, the followers of
* Narrative of Expedition, p. 176.
58 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES OF
the chief who had rejected the pasha's letter. They were
drawn up on high ground not easy to be approached ; but
their position was soon stormed, and after a desperate
struggle they found that spears and swords, though wielded
by vigorous hands, were not a match for firearms. They
fled to another mountain in the rear of that in which they
had first taken post ; and being again attacked with cannon
and musketry, they were obliged to retreat to a third strong-
hold, still deeper in the recesses of their hills, and inacces-
sible to cavalry. On this occasion, however, part of them
were surrounded by the horsemen of Achmet, and fifteen
hundred put to the sword. Believing that he had given
them ample proof that resistance on their part was un-
availing, and finding that his troops were suffering much
from the continual rains, Hagi, after sweeping the villages
of all the people who remained, resumed his march to
the camp of his master. In the course of their journey
his men had to ford several deep rivers, already rushing
in full stream from the mountains ; and before they
reached Sennaar both they and their horses were much
exhausted.*
The natives of Bokki are described as a hardy race, tall,
stout, and handsome. They are said to be pagans, worship-
pers of the sun, which, however, they consider it profane
to look at. The prisoners resembled in their dress the
savages of America ; being nearly covered with beads,
bracelets, and trinkets, made of pebbles, bones, and ivory.
Their complexion is almost black. Their manners and
deportment are prepossessing, bearing the stamp of simpli-
city and confidence, together with that air of self-esteem
which is never offensive in the mere child of nature. The
arms of these people excited great surprise ; they consisted
of well-formed and rather elegant iron helmets, coats-of-
mail made of leather and overlaid with plates of iron, long
lances, extremely well fabricated, and a hand weapon ex-
actly resembling the bills anciently used in England by the
yeomanry. With such instruments of assault they were
very formidable in personal combat. They had never seen
firearms, but, nevertheless, withstood them with great
intrepidity. They said that a fusee was a coward's weapon,
* Narrative, p. 193.
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA.. 59
who stands at a safe distance from his enemy and kills him
with an invisible stroke.
We have been more minute than usual in our details
respecting the state of society among the people above the
junction of the rivers, because till the famous expedition of
Ishmael Pasha, no European in modern times had visited
that remote country. Of the city of Sennaar itself, which
in the days of Poncet was remarkable for its population,
little now remains besides a heap of ruins. There are
indeed in some of its quarters several hundred habitable but
almost deserted houses ; and at every step the traveller
treads upon portions of burnt bricks, among which are often
found fragments of porcelain and even of marble. The
most conspicuous buildings now are a mosque and a large
palace adjoining to it. The former is in good preservation ;
its windows are covered with bronze gratings skilfully
manufactured, and the doors are handsomely and curiously
carved. The interior, when viewed by the American officer,
was desecrated by uncouth figures of animals portrayed
upon the walls with charcoal. This profanation had been
perpetrated by the infidels who dwell in the mountains, a
march of thirteen days southward of the capital ; and who
at some period not very long past had taken the town, and
left upon the walls these tokens of their disrespect for the
religion of the Prophet.
The palace is large, but in ruins, except a single pile of
building in the centre, which is six stories high, and has
five rows of windows. When stationed on the roof, the
visiter obtains the best view that is anywhere to be had of
this barbarian metropolis ; which appears to be about three
miles in circumference, of an oblong form, and stretched
along the western bank of the Abyssinian Nile. In exam-
ining the structure of the older description of houses, the
most remarkable thing in the eye of a European is the
workmanship of the doors. These are composed of planks
carefully planed and jointed, frequently adorned with carv-
ing, andf strengthened or studded with very broad-headed
nails ; the whole inimitable by the present population of Sen-
naar, The houses themselves are rarely of more than one
story in height, having roofs terraced with fine clay spread
over mats laid upon rafters. Such is the present appearance
of a town that has evidently been once rich and flourishing,
60 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES OF
but which, during eighteen years prior to the date of the
Egyptian expedition, had been the victim of repeated wars
and rebellion.
The country in the neighbourhood of Sennaar consists of
wide plains, in which are numerous and spacious villages.
A long rugged mountain, the only one in sight, stands about
fifteen miles to the westward of the town. Below it is a
small but pretty island, whose inhabitants earn a livelihood
by raising vegetables for the market ; and the opposite
bank of the river presents several verdant patches devoted
to the same object. At a greater distance the ground ap-
peared to be chiefly covered with trees and brushwood,
among which were seen a number of elephants in search of
food.
We have hitherto followed the progress of the invading
army under the command of Tshmael, the son of Mohammed
Ali, guided by the narrative of the American officer in the
service of that prince. Cailliaud and his friend M. Letorzec
were likewise attached to the camp, and enjoyed the counte-
nance of the military chief, who appears to have shaped his
conduct towards them under the impression that the know-
ledge of his exploits in Upper Nubia would be commu-
nicated to Europe through the medium of their writings.
From Sennaar to the remote Singueh we accompanied the
French author, whose work is not only the most recent, but
also the most satisfactory on this branch of our geographical
survey. In truth, there is no other publication in the lan-
guages of the West to which we can have recourse ; and
we may add, that no Frank traveller in the memory of man
has ever penetrated into those distant provinces on the Blue
River, which about ten years ago were "traversed by the
Egyptian troops in their celebrated expedition against the
meleks of the south. It may be noticed, that before the
army commenced their march, the Pasha Ibrahim, after-
ward so well known in Greece, had joined his brother with
a reinforcement, and, was prepared to share with him the
perils of a new campaign.
It was on the 5th of December, 1821, that these chiefs
left Sennaar at the head of their respective divisions, and
proceeded along the western bank of the Abyssinian Nile.
After a few days they separated ; Ishmael keeping near
that stream, and the other holding more to the westward, in
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 63
the direction of the Bahr el Abiad. Ibrahim had twelve
hundred men under his command ; his colleague had fifteen
hundred ; while an equal number was left to guard the
camp and secure the new conquests.
The march through a country impeded with wood was
necessarily tedious, and seldom relieved by the occurrence
of any interesting events. The invaders, who were sup-
plied with a few pieces of cannon, required the aid of
camels and other beasts of burden, which on some occa-
sions increased the difficulties of their passage. It was not,
therefore, till the 17th day of the month that, after having
seen a number of inferior villages, they arrived at El Que-
ribyn, a small town built on the declivity of a hill, and
flanked on either side by a rocky eminence.
After a number of observations, M. Cailliaud ascertained
the position of this place to be in 12 degrees and about 7
minutes of north latitude, and in 31 degrees 30 minutes of
east longitude, reckoning from Paris, or 33° 50' east from
London. El Queribyn is dependent on Sennaar ; and the
inhabitants, being assured that no injury would be inflicted
on them, remained in their huts, of which the annexed
drawing, says the author, exhibits a correct representation.
Proceeding still towards the south, though verging occa-
sionally in an eastern direction, the troops under Ishmael
pursued their march into Fazoglo. Envoys had previously
arrived from the melek of that country, expressing his
readiness to submit to the Pasha of Egypt ; suggesting
at the same time that his arms might be successfully em-
ployed against the unbelieving pagans who inhabit the
neighbouring mountains. This hint coincided but too closely
with the main object of the general, which was to capture
the natives and send them to the lower provinces as slaves,
or to find employment for them in the gold mines said to
abound in their rocky frontier. An attack on the defence-
less Caffres soon followed, attended with very revolting
circumstances. About seventy prisoners, chiefly women,
crowned the first attempt of the Turks against that simple
race, who were entirely ignorant of the use of firearms.
Advancing to Kilgou, a village situated on a hill, Ishmael
gave orders to attack it with such impetuosity as would
preclude either escape or defence. His instructions were
executed with the utmost promptitude ; the rocks were
64 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES OF
scaled, and a great number of the inhabitants found them-
selves in the grasp of an enemy whom they had not only
not provoked, but whose approach they had not anticipated.
The resistance, however, did honour to their courage and
ingenuity. They retreated to their fastnesses on the higher
grounds ; and the soldiers, when they attempted to follow
them, saw their ranks thinned by huge masses of stone
rolled down the sides of the mountains, or by spears which
were handled with great dexterity. The pasha himself,
who advanced at the head of a party of Mamlouks, made a
very narrow escape from the darts of the mountaineers.
A colonel of Albanians was pierced with many wounds, and
left on the field. Still the issue of the combat was unfa-
vourable to the bold barbarians. Their missile weapons
were exhausted, and the bravest of their number slain ; in
which circumstances they were compelled to place their
whole confidence in flight towards precipices, where their
assailants could not pursue them except by musket-shot.
Ishmael sustained a loss of forty wounded and twelve killed ;
but he considered himself amply indemnified by the capture
of five hundred and seventy-two prisoners, as also by the
intelligence that a hundred and eighty of his opponents had
fallen.
The inhabitants of this district, whom M. Cailliaud de-
scribes as negroes, have curled hair, thick lips, and project-
ing cheek-bones ; but few of them showed flat noses, while
many had even fine features. Among all who were brought
into the camp he did not discover one that could speak Ara-
bic. We may add that Kilgou is in lat. 11° 33' 35" north,
and long. 33° 56' east.
The two great objects of gold and slaves, which had
animated the zeal of Ishmael throughout the whole of this
expedition, induced him to extend his march from the vil-
lage just named towards the mountains of Taby and Gassi,
where he expected to make a large addition to his human
booty. His disappointment may therefore be conceived,
when he found that the inhabitants of the numerous hamlets
which were scattered along its declivities were prepared, not
only to meet his soldiers among the ravines and precipices,
but also to attack his camp in the night. Unwilling to
protract a war where his loss would probably have exceeded
any advantage he might gain, he gave orders to strike his
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 65
camp, and march upon Fazoglo, the ruler of which had
already proffered his friendship and allegiance.
The Egyptian prince, on approaching this capital, was
met by Hassan at the distance of five leagues, accompanied
by his ministers riding on beautiful Abyssinian horses, and
surrounded by a hundred guards armed with lances. When
Ishmael came in sight, the melek and his attendants dis-
mounted, and advancing on foot prostrated themselves before
him. The king made him a present of two valuable steeds.
Meanwhile the guards stepped forward, and after raising
the wonted shout, formed into line, dropped down on one
knee, and turned the point of their spears to the ground in
token of submission. In return for this kind reception, the
pasha gave orders that his troops should not pass through
the villages, lest the inhabitants should receive any injury
from the soldiers, whose license, he acknowledged, he could
not always check.
For the reason just stated M. Cailliaud did not enter
Fazoglo on that occasion ; though he was soon afterward
permitted by the general to pay it a visit. He found it a
small place, and altogether unworthy of the extensive prov-
ince to w T hich it gives a name. It stands about a quarter
of a mile from the western bank of the Blue River, which is
here about three hundred paces broad, and at the distance
of a four hours' march northwards from Yara. The posi-
tion of the latter, as determined by sundry astronomical
observations, was found to be lat. 11° 14' 47" north.
Before proceeding towards Sennaar, the pasha, who had
not obtained the number of slaves which he thought neces-
sary to complete his triumph, renewed the scenes of Kilgou
and Taby at a hill named Aquaro. The natives, full of
courage, and confident in their numbers and position, had
sent notice to Ishmael when at Fazoglo, that if he came to
their mountains they would break his legs. After a fruit-
less treaty, meant to deceive the simple Ethiopians, an
attack was made on their villages, which were situated on
the highest ground. The use of cannon and other firearms
enabled the Turks to succeed so far as to carry off, at the
expense of thirty-five killed and wounded, about a hundred
women and children.
Aquaro does not exceed a thousand feet in height, and is
not more than a quarter of a league from east to west. It
F2
66 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES OF
belongs to a district called Dar el Keyl, under the govern-
ment of a chief, Abou Zinguir. The son of Mohammed
Ali was very desirous to make an impression here, satisfied
that the result of any decided success would soon realize
itself in the submission of the neighbouring tribes. But,
happily for these poor people, his first attempt was far from
answering to his expectation.
The army next directed its march towards the south-west,
with the view of reaching the Toumat, a river which in our
English maps is denominated the Maleg. It flows from the
remoter parts of Abyssinia, and after following some time a
north-western direction turns to the east, and falls into the
Bahr el Azrek about the eleventh degree of latitude. At
the point where it was reached by the pasha its breadth was
fully six hundred feet ; the banks were covered with herba-
ceous plants and beautiful shrubs, and it meanders through
a vast plain finely studded with trees of various kinds. To
the north-west were seen in the distance the mountains of
Guincho and Soudeh, while in the south-east arose those of
Khackenkaro, inhabited in part by pagan negroes. M.
Cailliaud was able to ascertain that the camp on the Toumat
was situated in lat. 11° 2' 30" north, and in long. 34° 33'
east from Greenwich.
On the 16th of January, 1822, the pasha led his troops
across the river, and kept his face still towards the south and
west. After a march of three days he arrived at a small
town called Abqoulgui, in the province of Quamamyl,
whither he was drawn by the report of productive gold
mines. The village now mentioned is in lat. 10° 38' 45"
north, and in long. 34° 53' 10" east from London. On the
south is seen blending with the horizon the mountain of
Mafis, and in the west the long chain which bears the name
of Obeh. The territory is washed by the Toumat, running
here nearly from south to north, and by a number of torrents
more or less deep which fall into it. This district is re-
puted the richest of any in auriferous substances, and that in
which the natives have devoted themselves with the greatest
activity and success to the acquisition of the precious
metals.
But the hopes of Ishmael were completely blasted in re-
gard to the immense treasures which he expected to find in
the mountains of Quamamyl. After spending seventeen
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 67
days in gathering sand, washing it, and collecting the
minute particles of gold which it appeared to contain, he
resolved to push his researches still farther into the south, and
examine the mines reported to have been worked in the
lofty range of Singueh or Quebeych, under the tenth decree
of latitude. After a toilsome march of two days he was
doomed to experience a renewal of his disappointment.
The natives, more vigilant and politic than those at Kilgou,
attacked his lines day and night, stole his horses, inter-
rupted his supplies, and exhausted the remaining strength
of his weary troops. At length he found it necessary to
yield to circumstances, and on the 11th of February he
struck his tent and began his retreat to Fazoglo.
M. Cailliaud, who had approached nearer to the equator
than any other European on the course of the IVile, endea-
voured to collect, from the guides attached to the army,
some information respecting the White River and the coun-
tries contiguous to their own. Of the Bahr el Abiad they
could tell nothing more than that it comes from the distant
west, where a savage people dwell, who use poisoned arrows
and eat the bodies of their enemies. He learned that the
territory of Singueh is dependent on Dar F6q, and consti-
tutes the most southern province of Bertat. It extends a
march of two days southward as far as Fadassy, a place
which comprehends several villages, and borders on the
lands of the Galla. They gave him the names of many
torrents and streams which at various points fall into the
Nile ; but the account is so extremely vague, and the
nomenclature so inaccurately expressed, that we despair of
being able to communicate to our readers any portion of the
knowledge which the laborious Frenchman took so much
pains to acquire.
At Fazoglo the two travellers, Cailliaud and Letorzec,
left the pasha with the view of returning to Egypt, and on
the 18th of February they embarked on the IVile to proceed
by water to Sennaar. They passed through a very deso-
late tract of country, seeing hardly a single human habita-
tion on either side of the river. The stream was very
much encumbered with rocks and small islands, which
were not passed without considerable danger ; and at the
cataract of El Querr, where the water rushes downward
68 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES OF
with considerable force, they had nearly experienced the
fate of Mungo Park in his attempt to explore the Niger.
It was not till the 26th of the same month that they found
themselves in safety under the walls of Sennaar, and in
front of the house which they had formerly occupied.
Most readers are aware that this town, the capital of an
extensive kingdom, which, according to our maps, occupies
so large a portion of Eastern Africa between the White
River and the Red Sea, was visited by Doctor Poncet in the
year 1699, and by the celebrated Bruce in 1772. The de-
scriptions given in their several works are extremely in-
teresting, more especially when compared with those of
Calliaud, the last traveller who has ascended above the
junction of the two great branches of the Nile. The pious
author of the " Voyage to Ethiopia" tells us that " this city,
which contains near a league and a half in compass, is very
populous, but has nothing of neatness, and besides is ill
goveined. They number in it near a hundred thousand
souls. The houses are only one story high, and are ill
built ; but the flat roof which covers them is very convenient.
As to the suburbs, they are only wretched cottages covered
with reeds. The king's palace is surrounded with high
walls of brick baked in the sun, but has nothing regular in
it : you see nothing but a confused heap of buildings with-
out symmetry or beauty. The apartments are furnished
richly enough with large carpets after the manner of the
Levant.
" We were presented to the king the day after our arrival.
The first thing was to make us put off our shoes ; this is a
point of ceremony which all strangers must observe ; for as
to the native subjects of that prince, they never appear before
him but barefooted. We entered immediately after into a
large court paved with little square tiles of different colours,
after the manner of Fayence. Round it stood the guards
armed with lances. When we had almost passed over the
court they obliged us to stop short before a stone, which is
near to an open hall where the king usually gives audience
to ambassadors. There we saluted the king according to
the custom of the country, falling upon our knees and thrice
kissing the ground. That prince is nineteen years of age,
black, but well shaped and of a majestic presence, not having
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 69
thick lips nor flat nose, like the most of the people. He was
seated upon a rich bed under a canopy, with his legs across,
after the oriental fashion ; and round him twenty old men
seated after the same manner, but somewhat lower. He was
clothed in a long vest embroidered with gold, and girt with
a kind of scarf made of fine calico. He had a white turban
on his head ; and the old men were clad much after the same
manner. At the entrance of the hall, the prime minister
standing complimented the king in our names, and delivered
back his answer to us. Then we saluted the prince a second
time, as we had done in the court, and we presented him
with some crystals and other curiosities of Europe, which he
graciously accepted. He ordered his guards to attend us to
our lodgings, and afterward sent us great vessels filled with
butter, honey, and other refreshments : and moreover two
oxen and sheep.
" This prince dines twice a week at one of his country-
houses, which is at a leagueVdistance from the town. The
order he observes in his march is this : Between three and
four hundred horsemen, mounted on fine horses, make the
first appearance. After these comes the king, attended by a
great number of footmen and armed soldiers, who with a
loud voice sing forth his praises, and play upon the tabor,
which makes no unpleasant harmony. Seven or eight hun-
dred young maids and women march together with these
soldiers, and carry upon their heads great round baskets of
straw, of different colours and finely made. These baskets,
which represent all sorts of flowers, and the covers whereof
are pyramid-wise, are filled with copper dishes tinned over,
and full of fruits and several meats ready dressed. These
dishes are served first before the king, and are afterward
distributed among those who have the honour to attend
upon him. Two or three hundred horsemen follow in the
same order as those that went foremost, and close the whole
march. The king, who never appears in public but with
his face covered with a silk gauze of various colours, sits
down to table as soon as he is arrived. His usual diversion
is to propose prizes to the lords of his court, and to shoot
with them at a mark with a gun, at which they are not yet
very expert. After they have spent the best part of the
day in this exercise, they return in the evening to the town,
observing the same order as at their setting out in tho
70 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES OF
morning. This entertainment is regularly taken on Wed-
nesday and Saturday every week."*
In regard to the character of the people, their mode of
living, dress, commerce, diseases, superstitions, and general
habits, the details supplied by Poncet are not at variance
with those given by Bruce more than seventy years after-
ward. The merchants still retained a considerable share
of the trade with Arabia, and even the western parts of
India.
The latter does not mention the number of inhabitants
in Sennaar at the time he paid his visit ; simply remarking
that it was very populous, and contained many good houses
after the fashion of the country.t He adds that the dwell-
ings of the great officers consisted of two stories ; an im-
provement since the period of the French traveller, who
found them generally restricted to one floor. But its pres-
ent condition, — a mass of ruins interspersed with a few
paltry huts, — indicates the melancholy events which have
recently filled up its history, and deprived it at once of its
wealth and power. It is not consistent, however, with our
plan to enter more minutely into the annals of that declin-
ing state ; we therefore proceed to the eastern bank of the
Nile, with the view of exhibiting a brief outline of the
provinces which constitute Abyssinia, the proper Ethiopia
of early authors.
The kingdom which bears this name was, in the estima-
tion of the writers who flourished in the middle ages, the
region now called Abyssinia ; a country concerning which,
even at the present day, we have not much certain or
authentic information. The accounts given by the Arabian
geographers, Bakoi, Edrisi, and more particularly by Mac-
rizi, show nothing so clearly as that the Mohammedans
have had little intercourse with this Christian empire. The
only knowledge which till lately was possessed by the
learned of Europe was almost entirely derived from the
Portuguese travellers Alvarez, Bermudez, Paez, Almeida,
and Lobo, whose works were abridged by Tellez, and illus-
trated with some ability by Ludolf, the Strabo of Eastern
Africa. To these we may add the few notices furnished by
Thevenot and Poncet. An important narrative by Petit-la-
* Voyage to Ethiopia by M. Poncet, M.D. p. 20, &c'
t Travels, vol. vi. p. 382.
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 71
Croix, dated in 1700, partly drawn up from information
furnished by Abyssinians whom the author had known in
Egypt, exists in manuscript in the library at Leyden. The
volumes of Bruce and Salt are well known to every reader;
to which a species of supplement has very recently been
provided by the publication of the Life and Adventures of
Nathaniel Pearce.
Confined to such materials, the geographical outlines of
that ancient kingdom have not been exhibited with unim-
peachable precision. The limits which separate the Abys-
sinians from the Nubians, from the Galla on the south-west
and south, and from the territory of Adel on the south-east,
have hitherto depended on the uncertain issue of frequent
appeals to arms. But if we include the coasts of the Red
Sea, and the provinces occupied by the savages just named,
we may assign to this empire a length of 560 miles, and a
breadth of 640 ; measuring from the 15th to the 7th degree
of latitude, and from the 34th to the 44th degree of east
longitude.
Although we are certain that the term Ethiopian is of
Greek origin, and was applied to every people of a deep
complexion, the Abj-ssinians nevertheless still call them-
selves Itiopawian, and their country Itiopia. But they un-
doubtedly prefer the denomination of Agazi or Ghez for the
kingdom, and Agazian for the inhabitants. The name of
Habesh, given to them by the Mohammedans, and from
which is derived the European appellation, is an Arabic
word, signifying a " mixed race," on which account the
natives scornfully disclaim it.*
Regarded in a general point of view, Abyssinia forms an
extensive table-land gently inclining to the north-west, and
having two great steeps on the east and south ; the first
looking towards the Arabian Gulf, the second to the interior
of Africa. It is doubtful whether these vast declivities con-
sist of regular chains, or are only crowned with isolated
mountains like Lamalmon and Amba Gedion, the configura-
tion of which appears to be very extraordinary. They
shoot up almost everywhere in sharp peaks, which are as-
cended by means of ropes and ladders, bearing no slight
resemblance to the ramparts and turrets of deserted towns.
* Ludolf, Hist, ^thiop. lib. i. c. i.
72 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES OF
Father Tellez imagines that the loftiest of these summits
are higher than the Alps ; but we find none of them capped
with snow, except perhaps those of Samen in the province
of Tigre, and of Namera in the district of Gojam.*
As to the political geography of Abyssinia, there prevails
a great degree of doubt even among the writers of best
reputation. Ludolf speaks of nine kingdoms and five
provinces. Thevenot, from the information of an Ethiopian
ambassador, says there are seven kingdoms and twenty-four
provinces. Bruce mentions nineteen provinces ; and, lastly,
Petit-la-Croix enumerates thirty-five kingdoms and ten
provinces once belonging to the Abyssinian monarch, of
which he retains only six kingdoms and a half, with the ten
provinces. We cannot enter into such details as might seem
necessary to explain these topographical distributions, or to
trace the line which divides one section of the country from
another. An inspection of the map, and a due attention to
the itineraries which we shall have occasion to introduce,
will afford much more valuable assistance to the compre-
hension of the reader, than the most laboured delineations
of obscure and ever-changing boundaries.
When we cross the Blue River, about the twelfth degiee
of latitude, we find ourselves in the province or kingdom of
Dembea, consisting of fertile plains surrounding the Lake
Tzana, and containing Gondar, the modern capital. This
city, according to the report of a native communicated to
Sir William Jones, almost equals Cairo in extent and popu-
lation. Bruce, however, reduces the number of inhabitants
to about fifty thousand, if we may proceed on the usual prin-
ciple of assigning five individuals to a family ; a statement
which we shall afterward find does not fall short of the
truth. The same province contains the town of Emfras,
comprehending about three hundred houses.
To the south of Dembea the Nile winds round the king-
dom of Gojam, which it thereby reduces to the form of a
peninsula. This part of the river has a most magnificent
cascade, the whole body of its water falling down from a
height of forty feet, with tremendous force and noise, into a
basin, where it wheels round in numerous eddies. This
* Lobo, Hist B. i. p. 141; Ludolf, lib. vi: Make Brun, vol. iv
P 135.
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 73
province, although abounding in all sorts of productions, de-
rives its principal riches from numerous herds of cattle.
Eastward of Gojam are seen the countries of Beaemder
and of the Edjow Galla. The former is remarkable for its
fine flocks of sheep. Its inhabitants are very warlike, and
send into the field a formidable contingent of horsemen.
Amhara, a little farther to the south, has always been
esteemed one of the principal provinces of Abyssinia, and
contains a numerous as well as brave race of men. Here
is the famous state-prison of Amba Geshen, which is now
succeeded by another in the district of Begemder. It
seems to be composed of steep mountains, having a cavern,
either natural or excavated by the hands of man, into which
the prisoners are made to descend by means of a rope.
Here the monarch causes to be kept under his own eye all
those princes of his family from whom he thinks that he has
any thing to apprehend ; and it is often to this tomb of liv-
ing beings that the grandees of the kingdom repair to select
the ruler whom they are about to call to the throne.
Lasta is a mountainous country, inhabited by tribes who
are pleased to pronounce themselves independent, and who
possess a considerable source of wealth in their mines of
iron. Shoa consists of a large valley very difficult of ac-
cess, and which has given occasion to one of the most beau-
tiful fictions in the English language, the romance of Ras-
selas. The province of Damot, situated beyond the Lake
of Tzana, is celebrated for gold mines and cattle with
monstrous horns. Lobo, who dwelt some time there, extols
it as the most delightful country he had ever seen. The air
is temperate and healthy, the mountains beautifully shaded
with trees, without having the appearance of wild or
irregular forests. Vegetation never falls asleep in that rich
soil and happy climate. The operations of sowing and
reaping are common to all the seasons of the year ; and the
whole scene has the aspect of a pleasure-garden, which
never fails to reward with a most plentiful return the labour
bestowed upon it.
We may remark in passing, that all the provinces now
described, if we except Shoa, are usually at the present day
comprehended under the grand division of the empire which
takes the name of Amhara. This is the region, as we are
told, which gives customs and manners to the modern
74 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES OF
Abyssinians ; while the Amharic, being the dialect used at
court, has obtained the distinction of the royal language,
and is spoken through at least one-half of the kingdom.
It appears to be compounded of the Ethiopic and a variety
of terms derived from the tongues of Africa, influenced
deeply by those modifications which are sooner or later ex-
tended to all unwritten forms of speech.
In recent times the most important section of the empire
is that which embraces the province of Tigre, bounded, as
Mr. Salt informs us, on the north by the Bekla, Boja,
TakuC", and several wild tribes of Shangalla ; on the west
by the mountains of Samen ; and by the Denakil, Doba, and
Galla territories, on the east and south ; including not less
than four degrees of latitude, and nearly an equal extent in
a longitudinal direction. The high range of the Samen
hills, stretching from Waldubba to the south of Lasta, to-
gether with the line of the Tacazze, which flows in a north-
easterly course along its base, sufficiently point out the
natural boundary between Tigre and Amhara.
This large and very populous district contains a number
of cities which make a considerable figure in the history of
Ethiopia, more especially Axum, Dixan, Chelicut, and An-
talo. The first of these was the ancient residence of the
Abyssinian monarchs, who still go thither for the purpose of
being crowned. It is true that the learned are not agreed
respecting the antiquity of this place, which appears not to
have been known either to Herodotus or Strabo, and is first
mentioned by Arrian in the Periplus of the Erythraean sea.
We shall have occasion in a future chapter to describe some
of its architectural remains ; meantime it will be sufficient
to observe, that the modern town reckons about six hundred
houses, but displays no remarkable buildings. On the east-
ern frontier stands Antalo, which during the visit of Mr.
Salt was the seat of government, being the residence of the
viceroy Ras Welled Selasse. It consists of about a thou-
sand hovels constructed of mud and straw, in the midst of
which rises the palace, distinguished for magnitude rather
than by the elegance of its plan or workmanship. In this
province is the monastery of Fremona, which has always
been the chief establishment of the Jesuits. It is about a
mile in circumference, surrounded by walls flanked with
towers and pierced for small arms. In Mr. Bruce's eyes it
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 75
had more the air of a castle than of a convent, and ap-
peared to him to be the most defensible place that he had
seen in Abyssinia. Generally speaking, Tigre is fertile and
well peopled ; but the inhabitants are described as a very
ferocious, bloodthirsty, corrupt, and perfidious race.
On the western side of the provinces now described are
Sire, Samen, Wogara, which is sometimes called Wojjerat,
Walkayt, and Waldubba. This last is occasionally ex-
tolled as one of the granaries of Abyssinia. The humid
vales of Sire produce numerous palms and a variety of fruit-
trees ; enjoying, besides, all the beauty which arises from
the vicinity of Tacazze, whose banks are covered with the
most luxuriant verdure. Nor is Samen, which when
viewed from a distance appears only as a series of moun-
tain-chains, in any degree destitute of agricultural wealth.
On the contrary, the table-land of Amba Gedion, which has
so steep an ascent as to render it almost inaccessible, is said
to be sufficient both in extent and fertility to support many
thousands. It was the fortress of the Abyssinian Jews,
who were once masters of the province.
The more remote districts in the south are chiefly under
the yoke of the ferocious Galla and other savage tribes hos-
tile to the government of Gondar. To the eastward are the
countries of Angote and Bali ; and we are told of those of
Gooderoo, Fatgar, of Efat, of Cambat, and particularly of
the kingdom of Enarea, which, from Brace's account,
seems to be an elevated plain, watered by several rivers
which have no visible outlet, and deriving from its lofty
position the comfort of a temperate climate. The natives
are said to trade with the people of Melinda on the Indian
Ocean, and with the inhabitants of Angola on the Ethiopic.
The hilly district of Kaffa, it is presumed, must be conter-
minous with Enarea on the south. But we have already
alluded to the obscurity which still prevails respecting the
interior of the empire, and more especially those regions on
its distant boundaries towards the south and south-east.
The high grounds which divide Abyssinia from the coast
of the Red Sea are known among geographers as consti-
tuting the country of the Troglodytes or cave-dwellers.
The nature of the soil and climate has in all ages kept the
inhabitants in a uniform state of savage wretchedness.
76 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES OF
Separated into tribes, and subject to hereditary chiefs, they
lived formerly, and in many parts still continue to live, on
the produce of their flocks, consisting principally of goats,
aided by a little skill in the art of fishing. The hollows of
the rocks are their ordinary dwellings ; a kind of lodging
which was anciently adopted in many other countries of the
world. We find traces of such a usage at the foot of Cau-
casus and of Mount Atlas, in Mcssia, in Italy, also in
France and Spain, and even in some parts of our native
land. In Sicily there is an example of a whole town
formed by excavation in the body of a hill. But of all the
races who have dwelt in caverns, the Troglodytes of the
Arabian Gulf have longest preserved the habits and the
name.*
Mr. Belzoni, who in his excursion to the Red Sea came
near the countries now under consideration, met with a
fisherman who was probably a fair specimen of that class
of the inhabitants. He lived in a tent only five feet broad,
with his wife, daughter, and son-in-law. He had no boat,
but went forth on his vocation seated on the trunk of a
doomt-tree, and accompanied by the youth who made part
of his family. This very simple raft was ten or twelve feet
long, at each end of which was a piece of wood attached in
a horizontal direction, so as to prevent the log from turning
round. At one of the points a small pole was stuck upright
to serve as a mast, on the top of which there was a slight
spar secured horizontally like that below. A woollen shawl
thrown over it, and fastened at each end as well as to the
slip of wood, formed a kind of sail ; while the two fisher-
men, mounted on the trunk as if on horseback, by means of
a cord attached to their substitute for canvass, took more or
less wind as was required. But, as the traveller remarks, " it
is only when the wind blows either from north or south that
such a contrivance can serve ; for if it blows from the east
they cannot set off their boat from the shore; or if it blows
from the west it will carry them too far out to sea. When the
fishermen are thus at some distance from the shore, I know
not by what means the rest of the operation is executed ;
but from what I could see, they darted their long thin spear
* Make Brun, vol. iv. p. 145; Narrative of Discovery and Adventure
in Africa.
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 77
at the fish when they happened to see any, and by these
means they procured their subsistence."*
Beginning at the confines of Egypt, and proceeding
southward, the reader will observe that the coast makes a
great concave sweep, forming what is called both by ancient
and modern geographers Foul Bay. At the bottom of this
gulf is the port of the Abyssinians, and behind is the coun-
try known by the name of Baza or Bedja. According to
the Arabian authors, it is a kingdom separated from Nubia
by a chain of mountains, rich in gold, silver, and emeralds.
The accounts supplied from antiquity, respecting the name
and boundaries of this province, are very discordant. The
term Baza, it is thought, may be found in that of the prom-
ontory called Bazium by the ancients, and now Ras el
Comol. The inhabitants, who are denominated Bugeha by
Leo Africanus, Boguites in the inscription at Axum, and
Bedjah by the greater number of Arabian historians, lead a
nomadic and savage life. They derive an abundant sub-
sistence from the milk and flesh of their camels, cattle, and
sheep. As every father exercises a patriarchal rule in his
own family, they have no other government. Full of loyalty
to one another, and hospitable to strangers, they at the
same time continually rob the neighbouring agriculturists
and the trading caravans. Bruce asserts that they speak a
dialect of the Abyssinian language ; but Abdallah maintains
that they belong to the race of Berbers or Barabras. M.
Quatremere has endeavoured to demonstrate the identity of
the Bedjahs with the Blemmyes of the ancients ; though
the descriptions of these writers apply perhaps with greater
precision to the Ababdehs, the inhabitants of the desert
which expands between the Nile and the Arabian Gulf.f
Suakin is chiefly entitled to notice as being one of the
principal ports which now connect Abyssinia with the oppo-
site coast ; having in this respect superseded the more an-
cient harbour of Aedod, the Gidid of Portuguese authors.
It is in fact a Turkish town, and is garrisoned by troops
under the command of the governor of Mecca. Passing
the promontory of Ras-Ahehas the traveller comes to a
desert shore lined with islets and rocks. It was in this
* Narrative of Operations. &c. vol. ii. p. 69.
t Quatremere, Hist. Geog. sur l'Egypte, vol. ii. p. 135-139 ; Strab. Geo-
graph, lib. xvii. c. 1.
G2
78 GEOGRAPHICAL OUTLINES OF
wild region that the Ptolemys procured the elephants which
they required for the use of their armies ; and here Lord
Valentia found a large harbour, to which he gave the name
of Port Mornington. About the sixteenth degree of lati-
tude is the island of Dhalac, the largest in the Red Sea,
being more than sixty miles in circumference. It produces
goats with long silky hair, and furnishes a sort of gum-lac,
which exudes from a particular shrub. The celebrity it
once enjoyed for pearls has long since passed away ; the
specimens which are now procured being of a yellow colour
and little esteemed.
In a gulf formed on the coast stands Masuah, which,
though situated on an arid rock, possesses a safe harbour,
and may now be regarded as the main approach to Abys-
sinia from the east. Near it is Arkeeko, which has also the
advantage of a good anchorage, rendered however of small
value by its exposure to the prevailing winds. This low,
sandy, and burning coast is occupied by some nomadic
tribes, the Shiho, who are very black, and the Hazorto, who
have a copper-coloured complexion. These people, like the
ancient Troglodytes, inhabit holes in the rocks, or hovels
made of rushes and seaweed. Leading a pastoral life, they
change their dwelling as soon as the rains have produced
a little verdure on their parched soil ; for, as is well known,
when the wet season ends on the coast it begins among the
mountains. They are said to have abjured their allegiance
to the sultan, and acknowledged the supremacy of the native
monarch.
The portion of the shore now delineated used to be called
the Midre Baharnagash, or the Land of the Sea-king, whose
government formerly extended from Suakin to the Straits
of Babel Mandeb. Baroa, its ancient capital, situated on
the Mareb, was in Bruce's time in the hands of the naib of
Masuah ; and it is still considered as the key of Abyssinia
towards the gulf. Farther to the south the coast takes the
name of Dancali, or, according to Niebuhr, Denakil, con-
sisting of a desert plain, and supplying no valuable pro-
duction except salt. Beyond the straits, terminating the
Arabian Gulf, succeeds the kingdom or province of Adel, a
country concerning which our information is so imperfect,
that we presume not to tantalize the reader with an appear-
ance of facts having no better foundation than ingenious
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA.
79
conjecture. On the shores of the ocean are the Somaulies,
a people who are supposed to possess the lands which in
ancient times belonged to the Macrobian Ethiopians men-
tioned by Herodotus, and celebrated for an unusual length of
life. Of these we shall have occasion to take some notice
in the sequel ; meantime we proceed to, give a tabular view
of the Abyssinian provinces, which will serve much better
than the most minute description to illustrate the distribu-
tion, the extent, and the relative position of the several
parts of that great empire.
I. ASIHARA.
1. Amhara Proper.
5> Begemder.
2. Dembea.
6. Angote.
3. Damot.
7. Walaka.
4. Gojam.
8. Marrabet.
II. TIGRE.
1. Tigre Proper.
7. Avergale.
2. Agame.
8. Samen.
3. Enderta.
9. Temben.
4. Wojjerat, or Wogara.
10. Sire, or Shire"
5. Wofila.
11. Walkayt.
6. Lasta.
12. Waldubba.
RE BAHARNAGASH, OR DISTRICT OF THE PRINCE
1. Masuah.
6. Amphila.
2. Arkeeko.
7. Madir.
3. Weah.
8. Arena.
4. Zullo.
9. Duroro.
5. Tubbo.
10. Jarvela.
IV. INDEPENDENT STATES IN THE SOUTH.
1. Shoa.
7. Cambat.
2. Efat.
8. Hurrur.
3. Gooderoo.
9. Gidm.
4. Enarea.
10. Adel.
5. Gurague.
11. Bali.
6. Kaffa.
12. Dawaro.
We do not think it expedient to encumber our pages
with the more minute geographical distinctions, which are
not only expressed in language extremely uncouth, but are
moreover applied to districts whose limits are still undeter-
mined. The curious reader will find numerous details in
the works of Bruce, Salt, Lord Valentia, Niebuhr, and Malte
Brun, darkened however by an unnecessary variation in the
nomenclature, and sometimes, we are sorry to add, by the
cloud of ignorance and of controversy.
80 CIVIL HISTORY OP
CHAPTER III.
Civil History of Nubia and Abyssinia.
Variety of Opinion in regard to Ethiop ; ans — Aboriginal and mixed with
Arabians— Queen of Sheba— Book of Axum— Abyssinians converted
to Christianity — Extent of their Dominions — Wars hi Arabia — Arrival
of Portuguese— History of Nubia— Cambyses — Macrobians— Table of
the Sun— Explanation by Heeren — Ptolemy Euergetes— War with
Candace — Success of Petronius— Period of Darkness respecting Ethio-
pia — Prester John — Mission of Covilham — Of Matthew — Alvarez —
Camp of the Abyssinian Monarch— Interview with David III. — Ordi-
nation of Clergy — Stephen de Gama — Bermudez the Abuna— Oviedo —
Peter Paez— Jerome Lobo— Hatred towards Catholics — Poncet— Bruce
—State of Abyssinia— Ras Michael— Ozoro Esther — Manuscripts col-
lected by Bruce— History of Abyssinia— Revolt of Judith— Restoration
of the line of Solomon— List of Kings— Galla— War among Chiefs —
Bruce goes to the sources of the Nire— Fasil— The Jumper — The
Lamb— Kefla Yasous— Mr. Salt— Outline of History— Pearce— His
Adventures under Welled Selasse — Death of Ras— Demise of the
King — Rise of Subegadis— Invasion of Nubia by Ishmael Pasha— Bat-
tles with Sheygyans— Act of Generosity — Cruelty of Egyptian Army
—Character of Sheygyans— Expedition of Ibrahim— Death of Ishmael
— Spirit of Insurrection in conquered Provinces.
In regard to all ancient nations which had no immediate
intercourse with the Hebrews, the Greeks, or the Romans,
the historical notices are extremely obscure or altogether
fabulous. On this account we remain in comparative
ignorance of every thing which respects the origin of
the two interesting countries whose annals we are now
about to trace. Ethiopia, it is true, is repeatedly men-
tioned in the Sacred Volume ; but all the allusions to
it are conveyed in language so general, that we are
not supplied with a satisfactory light relative to the lin-
eage of the people, their first form of government, their
religion, or their laws. Hence there prevails among
modern writers a great variety of opinion on all the heads
now specified ; and more particularly in reference to the ex-
traction and language of the early colonists who occupied
the country which stretches from the Red Sea to the Nile,
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 81
and from Sennaar to the borders of Egypt. The remarks
of Herodotus, the first European historian whose attention
was drawn to Nubia, apply to a period which will be
deemed comparatively recent, if the date be measured by
the antiquity claimed for the surrounding nations ; being
confined to the enterprise of Cambyses, who, stimulated by
the fame of certain golden mines, wished to carry his arms
beyond the sources of the Bahr el Azrek.
It is not our intention to exhaust the patience of the
reader on merely hypothetical views respecting the origin
of the various tribes which now dwell on the banks of the
Upper Nile and the western side of the Red Sea. The
more probable opinion, as we have already suggested, is
that they are descended from a race of aboriginal Africans,
who in the course of time mixed with the primitive inhab-
itants, and among the Sabaeans and Hamyrites, with whom
they established an early connexion. This opinion is fur-
ther confirmed by the fact that, in the history of Arabia
Felix, collected from several indigenous authors by Schul-
tens, the Abyssinians are described as a different people
from the natives of the eastern shore of the gulf. It is ad-
mitted, that in the intercourse carried on with the opposite
coast vast numbers of Arabians must have mingled with
the Axumites ; but still it appears that in feature, colour,
habit, and manners they form a distinct order of men.*
The Abyssinians themselves, although perfectly ignorant
of the time and circumstances which marked the settlement
of their ancestors on the western shores of the Arabian
Gulf, have insisted upon connecting their original faith,
*The learned editor of Brace's Travels founded, on the radical dis-
tinction between the languages of Esypt and Arabia, an argument that
the former country could not have been peopled from the latter ; and, by
the same process of reasoning, arrived at the conclusion that the Egyp"-
tians and Ethiopians were of the same lineage, and probably descended
from a Libyan tribe quite unconnected with the oriental Cushites. In
the Appendix to the seventh volume, however, of the last edition of that
work, Dr. Murray inserted a " Chronological Table of the Kings of Abys-
sinia," in which he remarks, " that the Abyssinians, being undoubtedly a
colony of Arabs from Hamyar or Yemen, can have no just pretensions
to any affinity with the Jews." In maintaining the Arabic origin of the
Abyssinians, Dr. Murray contradicts the general current of tradition,
and is hardly consistent with himself.— See Appendix to volume ii. No.
2, entitled, "Additional Proofs that Egypt was peopled from the South
and the Confines of Ethiopia.
82
CIVIL HISTORY OF
their civil polity, as well as the pedigree of their royal house,
with the visit of the Queen of Sheba to King Solomon at
Jerusalem. The events now alluded to are incorporated in
a treatise called the Chronicle of the Kings of Abyssinia ;
the author of which says, " We write the law and custom
of the government of Ibn Hakim (or Menilec), the son of
Solomon. With him came the twelve doctors of the law
that form the right-hand bench in judgment." He next
mentions the other officers of eminence who came along
with this prince ; such as " the master of the horse, high
chamberlain, and he who carried the Ten Commandments
and holy water." This work, of which the authority does
not stand high, is sometimes entitled Kebir Zaneguste, or
Glory of the Kings. It is regarded indeed by the natives
as a faithful repository of their ancient history ; though the
slightest attention to it will convince the reader that it is the
production of an ignorant monk, who used the Septuagint
translation of the Bible as the groundwork of a ridiculous
fable, with the sole view of ministering to the vanity of his
countrymen.*
The chronicle begins with a list of the emperors, from
Arwe, or the Serpent, to Menilec, some of whom are said
to have reigned several centuries. From this son of Solomon
downwards the succession has an aspect somewhat more
probable, though no dependence can be placed upon its
accuracy.
T. M.
Haduna reigned 9
Za Wasih 1
Zah-Dir 2
Za Awezena 1
Za Berwas 29
Za Mataazi 1
Zabaesi Bazen 16
And in the 8th year of his reign
Christ was born.
T. M.
Menilec reigned 9
Za Hendadyn 1
Awda 11
ZaAwsyn 3
ZaTsawe 3 10
Zagesyn half a day
Za Maute 8 4
ZaBahse 9
Kawude 2
Kanazi 10
In a subsequent part of this catalogue is found Zahekale ;
which is without doubt the name of the sovereign who
reigned in Abyssinia at the time when the Periplus of the Ery-
thraean Sea was written. The author of that work, adopting
* Bruce's Travels, vol. iii. p.
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 83
the slight modification required by the Greek language,
calls him Zoskales ; and, according to the native document
just quoted, he is represented as having ruled between the
years 76 and 99 of the Christian era. It is, as Mr. Salt
remarks, an extraordinary circumstance that this date should
agree very nearly with the period to which Dr. Vincent has
attributed the appearance of the celebrated treatise by
Arrian, namely, to the tenth year of Nero, or A. D. 64, making
a difference of not more than twelve years, — a singular co-
incidence, which necessarily adds a very important confir-
mation to both accounts.*
In the same list, extracted from the Chronicle, are the
names of the princes who swayed the sceptre when the
Axumites were converted to the Christian religion. From
the narrative of Rufinus and other ecclesiastical writers, it
is manifest that the person named Frumentius was the Abba
Salama or Fremonatos, as he is elsewhere denominated,
who, after having resided some time in Abyssinia, was
raised to the rank of a bishop by Athanasius, the patriarch
of Alexandria. It subsequently appears, that during the
following reign, when the Arians gained the ascendency,
the Emperor Constantius sent an embassy through Theo-
philus an Indian, with a letter addressed to the ruling sov-
ereigns Aizana and Saizana, for the purpose of persuading
Frumentius to relinquish the doctrines of his patron, and to
adopt those of his successor Georgius. That such mon-
archs governed Abyssinia is clearly proved by the inscription
which Mr. Salt discovered at Axum ; and though there may
be some slight chronological difficulties to overcome, there is
little doubt that the names of the two princes who swayed
the joint sceptre in the year 356, — the date of the imperial
mandate, — have been satisfactorily ascertained. 1
At this period, the middle of the fourth century, the power
of the Abyssinian kings seems to have been fully estab-
lished, and their conquests to have extended over part of
Arabia, and from Zeyla up to the junction of the Tacazze
with the Nile. Such at least are the limits of the jurisdic-
tion implied in one of the Adulitic inscriptions, published
by the author whose name we have just recited, and which
is understood to commemorate the transactions of a native
* Salt's Abyssinia, p. 463. t Ibid. y 464.
84 CIVIL HISTORY OF
sovereign, and in all probability the same prince who erected
the monument at Axum.
About two hundred years elapse before the Abyssinians,
or Axumites, as they were then denominated, assume again
a prominent place in the page of history. But at the ter-
mination of this interval, owing to the complete command
which they had already gained in the Red Sea, they began
to take the lead in the politics of Eastern Africa. Hence
they are frequently mentioned both in the Greek and Arabian
authors ; whose accounts in general are extremely con-
sistent ; though, from the variation in names and other
sources of obscurity, no small trouble has been experienced
in reconciling them to each other.
In the sixth century the arms of Abyssinia appear to
have been attended with considerable success against the
Persians in Arabia, who about this period laid claim to a
large portion of that peninsula. But it is admitted that the
conquest of Yemen was not attended with advantages
equivalent to the hazard and glory of the war by which it
had been gained ; for the troops sent over became so enam-
oured of the country that they permanently settled there,
and soon lost every tie, except a nominal allegiance, which
had bound them to the parent state. In the year 592, as
nearly as can be calculated' from the dates given by the
native writers, the Persians, whose power seems to have
kept pace with the decline of the Roman empire, sent a
great force against the Abyssinians, possessed themselves
once more of Arabia, acquired a naval superiority in the
Gulf, and secured the principal ports on either side of it.
It is uncertain how long those conquerors retained their
acquisition ; but, in all probability, their ascendency again
gave way to the rising greatness of the Mohammedan
power ; which soon afterward overwhelmed all the nations
contiguous to Arabia, spread to the remotest parts of the
East, and even penetrated the African deserts from Egypt
to the Congo. Meanwhile Abyssinia, though within two
hundred miles of the walls of Mecca, remained unconquered
and true to the Christian faith; presenting a mortifying
and galling object to the more zealous followers of the
Prophet. On this account, implacable and incessant wars
ravaged her territories ; as the native princes on the eastern
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 85
borders were supplied with money and arms by the sher-
iffes, whose attention never ceased to be directed to the
conquest of that country. She lost her commerce, saw
her consequence annihilated, her capital threatened, and
the richest of her provinces laid waste ; but her con-
stancy to the true religion remained unshaken, and her
belief afforded throughout the protracted struggle the most
vigorous motives to her patriotism. Yet. there is reason
to apprehend that she must shortly have sunk under the
pressure of repeated invasions, had not the Portuguese
arrived at a seasonable moment to aid her endeavours
against the Moslem chiefs.
The event now mentioned took place about the middle of
the sixteenth century, when Claudius sat on the throne, who,
as well as his father David, to whom he had just succeeded,
had been for some years engaged in a defensive war
against Mohammed Gragne, king of A del, one of the most
bloodthirsty barbarians whose names history has recorded.
The appearance of European troops, as might be expected,
soon changed the aspect of affairs ; and after many despe-
rate battles in which the Portuguese were chiefly engaged
under their brave commander Diego de Gama, the Moors
were driven back, their leader killed, and their armies nearly
destroyed. The fleet, meantime, riding triumphant in the
Red Sea, cut off from the invaders all hope of succour, and
prevented the approach of those reinforcements which would
have been sent by the Arabian governors.
But, before we enter into any details relative to the inter-
course of Abyssinia with the nations of the West, we must
return for a short space to the consideration of certain notices
contained in the works of Greek and Roman writers, re-
specting the more ancient condition of the country on the
Upper JVile.
We have already alluded to the expedition undertaken by
Cambyses, the Persian monarch and conqueror of Egypt,
against the M aerobian Ethiopians, whose country was said
to possess vast quantities of gold. With this view he se-
lected an embassy from among the Ichthyophagi, or fish-
eaters of Elephantine, who understood their language, and
sent them to the sovereign of the distant nation with pres-
ents, consisting of a purple robe, a golden necklace, brace-
lets, perfumes, and a cask of palm-wine. The Macrobian
H
86 CIVIL HISTORY OF
monarch soon discovered that these ambassadors were spies.
He looked at the gifts of which they were bearers, and im-
mediately returned the robe, the perfumes, the bracelets,
and the necklace, taking these last for a species of fetter.
The wine, which he found very agreeable, he was pleased
to retain. He asked how long the Persians lived, and what
their king was accustomed to eat. They informed him that
he subsisted chiefly on bread, describing at the same time
the nature of corn ; and added, that the greatest age to
which his subjects attained was eighty years. He answered,
that he was not surprised at their living no longer, consid-
ering the rubbish on which they fed ; and that probably
they would not live even so long were it not for their good
drink, in which he allowed they certainly excelled the Ma-
crobians. Upon being asked in his turn to what age his
people arrived, and upon what they subsisted, he replied a
hundred years and sometimes longer, and that their food
was boiled flesh and milk. He sent to Cambyses, as an
acknowledgment of his gift, a great bow, and told the am-
bassadors to inform their master, that when he could bend
it as easily as one of his own countrymen, he might under-
take an expedition against the Macrobians.
When the spies expressed astonishment at the length of
life in Ethiopia, they were conducted, says Herodotus, to a
certain fountain, in which having bathed they became shi-
ning as if anointed with oil, and emitted from their bodies
the perfume of violets. But they asserted that the water
was of so unsubstantial a nature, that neither wood nor any
thing still lighter than wood would float on its surface, but
every thing instantly sank to the bottom. If their represen-
tation in this respect was true, the constant use of it, con-
cludes the historian, may probably explain the extreme
length of life which the Ethiopians attain.*
There was shown to the envoys, as one of the most re-
markable things in that strange land, what was called the
* Thalia, chap. 23. " Cada Mosto, who made a voyage to Senegal in
the year 1455. affirms that the natives made use of a certain oil in the pre-
paration of their food, which possessed a threefold property ; that of smell-
ing like violets, tasting like oil of olives, and of tinging the victuals
with a colour more beautiful than saffron." — Beloe's Herodotus.
It is not improbable that the fountain of the Macrebians was supplied
with an essence similar to the one now described, extracted from the
imlp or kernels of certain fruits
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 87
Table of the Sun. This was a meadow in the skirts of the
city, in which much boiled flesh was laid ; placed there by
the magistrates every night, and free to all who might
choose to eat it during the following day. The inhabitants,
whose inquiries were not allowed to be very profound, were
taught to say that the earth brought it forth. The ambas-
sadors were next led to the prison, where the captives
were bound in golden fetters ; brass among the Ethi-
opians being one of the greatest rarities. Finally, they
were conducted to see the sepulchres or tombs, which are
represented as being made of glass in the following manner :
The corpse, after being prepared as in Egypt, is covered
over with plaster, upon which is painted the portrait of the
deceased as like as possible. It is then placed in a case of
glass or native crystal, which they dig up in great abun-
dance. The dead body remains in this frame, without any
disgusting appearance or smell, a whole year ; the nearest
relation keeping it in his house and offering it sacrifices ;
after which it is taken into the city and deposited with the
others.
After executing their commission the envoys returned ;
and Cambyses, we are told by the Greek historian, was so
incensed at their recital, that he determined to proceed in-
stantly against the Ethiopians, without even providing for
the necessary sustenance of his army, or reflecting that he
was about to visit the utmost boundaries of the earth.
The moment that he heard the report of the Icthyophagi, like
one deprived of all the powers of reason, he commenced his
march with the whole body of his infantry, leaving no forces
behind but such Greeks as had accompanied him to Egypt.
On his arrival at Thebes he selected from his host about
fifty thousand men, whom he ordered to make an incursion
against the Ammonians, and to burn the place from which
the oracles of Jupiter were delivered ; he himself with the
remainder of his troops marched against the Macrobians.
Before he had performed a fifth part of his intended expedi-
tion, the provisions Which he had carried with him were totally
consumed. The soldiers proceeded to eat the beasts which
carried the baggage ; but these also soon failed. If, observes
Herodotus, after these incidents Cambyses had permitted his
passions to cool, and had led his army back again, he might.
88 civil history ofr
notwithstanding his indiscretion, still have deserved praise.
But instead of this, his infatuation continued, and he per-
severed in his march. His men, as long as the earth af-
forded them any sustenance, were content to feed on roots
and plants ; but no sooner had they arrived among the sands
of the desert, than some of them were prompted by famine
to proceed to the most horrid extremities. They drew lots,
and every tenth man was destined to satisfy the hunger of
the rest. When the king received intelligence of this fact,
he became alarmed at the idea of his troops devouring
one another, and resolved to abandon his design. After
losing a great part of his army, he arrived in due time at
Thebes, from whence he proceeded to Memphis, where he
permitted the Greeks to embark for their own country.*
It is generally agreed that the Macrobians, or long-lived
Ethiopians, occupy the country which stretches eastward from
the straits of Bab el Mandeb along the African coast. The
following extract from Cosmas, usually called Indicopleustes,
relates, it is probable, to the same people, and perhaps affords
an explanation of the least credible part of the narrative
given by the spies of Cambyses, — their notice in regard to
the Altar or Table of the Sun. " The land of frankincense,"
says he, "lies at the farthest end of Ethiopia, fifty days'
journey from Axum, at no great distance from the ocean,
though it does not touch it. The inhabitants of the neigh-
bouring Barbaria, or the country of Sasu, fetch from thence
frankincense and other costly spices, which they transport
by water to Arabia Felix and India. This country of Sasu
is very rich in gold mines. Every year the king of Axum
sends some of his people to this place for gold. These are
joined by many other merchants, so that altogether they
form a caravan of about five hundred persons. They carry
with them oxen, salt, and iron. When they arrive upon
the frontiers of the country they take up their quarters, and
make a large barrier of thorns. In the mean time, having
slain and cut up their oxen, they lay the pieces of flesh, as
well as the iron and salt, upon the thorns. Then come the
inhabitants and place one or more parcels of gold upon the
wares, and wait outside the enclosure. The owners of the
* Herodotus, Thalia, chap. 25.
*
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 89
flesh and other goods then examine whether this be equal
to the price or not. If so, they take the gold, and the others
take the wares ; if not, the latter still add more gold, or
take back what they had already put. down. The trade is
carried on in this manner because the languages are different,
and they have no interpreter : it takes about five days to
dispose of the goods they bring with them."*
From this statement, M. Heeren concludes, with much
show of reason, that the Altar of the Sun is the market-
place in which the trade with the strangers is transacted.
When we consider that even now almost all the commerce
of Africa is carried on under the protection of sanctuaries
and temples, we can scarcely wonder that religious notions
should be connected with this mercantile establishment,
upon which, perhaps, the subsistence of the inhabitants
depended.
This kind of dumb trade will not appear strange to those
Who are acquainted with the usages of barbarous nations in
other parts of Africa, where the practice is still continued.
When it is said that the chiefs of the people laid the flesh
down at night, and that in the .day any one who chose might
eat of it, while the inhabitants at large reported that it
sprang from the earth, we are only to infer, that this impor-
tant trade was conducted under the inspection of the public
magistrates ; that every one took what he thought proper on
leaving an equivalent ; and that, as the merchants who sup-
plied it came from a distant land, and were not themselves
seen in the transaction, a vulgar error, like the one men-
tioned, might very naturally arise. By the boiled flesh no-
ticed by Herodotus must probably be understood dried flesh,
as this is the usual way it is preserved in those regions,
where, as Mr. Bruce informs us, it is still considered a great
dainty.*
The views now stated derive a strong confirmation from
the fact, that a trade in similar commodities continues to be
carried on at the present day. Lord Valentia, who crossed
over from Mocha, has given us some interesting information
on this head, upon which we may rely, and which, besides,
has the merit of being as new and accurate as it is authentic
* Cosmas, p. 138, 139. This author wrote about the year 535.
f Heeren's Historical Researches, vol. i. p. 333
H2
90 CIVIL HISTORY OF
" The coast from Bab el Mandeb to Guardafui is inhabited
by the Somaulies, a very dark race with woolly hair, neither
completely negroes nor Arabians. They are not savages,
as Bruce has depicted them, but a friendly, well-disposed
people. Their country is the natural staple for the com-
merce between Africa and Arabia, and in it the greatest
marts are found. Gums, myrrh and frankincense, cattle and
slaves are the commodities exported ; in exchange for which,
as well as for gold and ivory, they receive the productions
of the East, including those from the remoter parts -of
India."*
After the attempt of Cambyses on the upper Nile, some
centuries elapsed before the ambition or covetousness of
Europeans again carried their arms beyond the first cataract.
There remains, indeed, some evidence that Ptolemy Euer-
getes, one of the successors of Alexander, made an attempt
to add Ethiopia to his Egyptian dominions ; but as he
appears to have advanced by the way of the Red Sea, and. to
have aided his troops by means of a naval armament, his in-
vasion was not attended with any such results as to secure
a place among the monuments of history. It was not till
the reign of Augustus, about twenty years before the be-
ginning of the Christian era, that the Romans, who had al-
ready rendered themselves masters of the kingdom of the Pha-
raohs, came into collision with the independent states which
still flourished near the ancient Meroe.
Strabo and the historian Dio agree in tracing the origin
of the war with Candace, queen of the Ethiopians, to the
effort made by iElius Gallus, who appears to have com-
manded in Upper Egypt, to subdue Arabia. This expe-
dition is at the same time remarkable for being the only one
which that warlike people ever attempted against the inhab-
itants of the Desert. The burning sands and pestilential
winds of the Arabian plains taught the subjects of Caisar,
that, courage, even when seconded by the most perfect dis-
cipline, cannot overcome the obstacles opposed by the laws
of nature.f
As the neighbouring provinces of the Thebaid were left
* Valentia's Travels, vol. ii. p. 370.
f The conquest of Arabia, indeed, seems to have been viewed as one of
those events, which, if realized, would celebrate the good fortune rather
than the wisdom of him who accomplished it. Horace, in allusion to the
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 91
destitute of troops, the soldiers of Candace, after forcing the
garrisons of Philse, Syene, and Elephantine, committed
great ravages on the low country, demolished the emperor's
statues wherever they appeared, and finally collected a
very considerable booty. Petronius, who was at that time
prefect of Egypt, feeling that it was inconsistent with the
dignity of the Roman name to allow this insult to remain
unpunished, hastily assembled about ten thousand men,
and proceeded against the Ethiopians.
The invaders were not qualified to resist in the open field
an attack by the legions ; for their armour consisted chiefly
of a huge buckler of raw hide, hatchets, and spears headed
with iron. Only a few could boast of swords, a weapon to
which they were not accustomed. The issue of a battle in
such circumstances could not remain long doubtful, how-
ever unequal the numbers opposed. The warriors of Can-
dace accordingly, after a brief conflict, fled, and were
pursued by Petronius into the farthest recesses of their
difficult country. The queen, unable to defend her capital,
had retired to a strong-hold, whence she sent messengers to
make proposals for peace ; but the Roman general would
not listen to conditions until he had reduced and plundered
the royal city Napata, the true position of which it is now
not easy to determine.
His success, however, did not secure to him the advan-
tages of a permanent conquest. Finding himself about 900
miles above Syene, and being assured that if he advanced
he should have to encounter all the horrors of a sandy
desert, without provisions or water, he resolved to return ;
leaving in Primmis, a town situated on the Nile below the
great cataract, a garrison of four hundred men, with sup-
plies for two years. Candace made an attempt to surprise
fotal enterprise of Gallus, indulges in pleasantry at the expense of hi*
friend Iceius, who appears to have been seized with a military rage.
" Icci, beatis nunc Arabum invides
Gazas, et acrem militiam paras
Non antedevictis Sabeeae
Regibus."— Ode xxxx.. lib.i.
lcciu-, the blest Arabia's gold
Can you with envious eye behold :
Or will you boldy take the field,
And teach Sabaea's king* to yield 1
92 CIVIL HISTORY OF
this fort and expel the Roman soldiers ; but the vigilance
of Petronius was not to be deceived in a matter of such inv
portance. Still he could not fail to perceive that no object
worthy of the expense and exertions which must be in«
curred would be obtained by the prosecution of the war.
He was therefore the more easily induced to enter into a
negotiation with the queen, who, finding that she was un*
equal to her enemies in the field, had renewed her solicita-
tions for peace. It is related, that when she was told she
must send ambassadors to Ccesar, she asked who he was,
and where he lived. Guides were supplied to conduct hef
envoys to Augustus, who happened to be at Samos. He
received them favourably ; and not only acceded to the re*
quest of their mistress, but relieved her from the tribute
which Petronius had thought proper to impose.
We have already remarked that the situation of Napata
cannot be satisfactorily determined ; and we may now add,
that the obscurity which prevails in regard to this point
arises from the indistinct statements left by the ancient
geographers. Pliny, with a view to describe the expedition
of Petronius, mentions a variety of towns which he reduced
on his march, and adds, that the greatest distance to
which he attained was eight hundred and seventy miles
southward from Syene. But he likewise gives the sub-
stance of a report made by certain spies, or exphratores,
6ent by Nero to ascertain the distance from the borders of
Egypt to Meroe ; and agreeably to this authority he places
Napata five hundred and twenty-four miles above Es Souan.
If, indeed, we suppose that the longer measurement refers
to the course of the river or the route pursued by the army,
and that the shorter denotes the distance in a straight line,
the result will nearly coincide with the estimated space be-
tween Phila? and Merawe, or even the position of the
modern Shendy. Hence Napata may be placed either in
the kingdom of Dongola near the Gebel el Berkal, where
there are the remains of magnificent buildings, or beyond
the Tacazze, on the site of the renowned Meroe.
As the historians have simply recorded that the Primmis
or Premnis, where the Roman prefect established his gar-
rison, was below the great cataract, geographers, misled by
this ambiguous description, have given the name in question
both to the town of Old Dongola and to Ibrim. The allu-
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 93
sion, it is obvious, will apply to either ; for while the one is
only a little removed from the Falls of Wady Haifa, the
other is at no great distance from similar rapids, usually
designated the third cataract. Perhaps, in the modern
Ibrim, we may allow ourselves to discover a contraction of
the more ancient appellation Primmis ; for if the Latin ter-
mination be removed, and one labial consonant substituted
for another, we obtain a very similar sound. It is therefore
probable, that the fortress which Petronius selected for the
soldiers whom he deemed it expedient to leave in Nubia as
a check on the Ethiopian queen, was that situated on the
strong rock which overhangs the Nile in the province of
Wady Seboua.
The name of the female sovereign to whom reference has
just been made, will naturally associate itself in the mind
with the narrative contained in the eighth chapter of the
Acts, where we read of " a man of Ethiopia, an eunuch of
great authority under Candace queen of the Ethiopians,
who had the charge of all her treasure, and had come to
Jerusalem for to worship." As more than fifty years elapsed
between the expedition of Petronius and the mission of
Philip the deacon into the desert of Gaza, it is not probable
that the ruler mentioned in the sacred narrative is the same
individual who had to solicit peace from Augustus Caesar.
It is more likely that the appellation was hereditary in the
royal house, and was conferred on the reigning monarch in
the manner observed by the Pharaohs, the Greek princes in
Egypt, and the Roman emperors. There is, indeed a tra-
dition, that the people of the Upper Nile were long governed
by queens ; and the practice, still followed in some parts of
Dongola, of placing a young woman at the head of their
armies, may have originated in that usage.
From the facts brought to light by the invasion of Pe-
tronius it is manifest, that about the commencement of the
Christian era there was in Ethiopia an independent kingdom
apparently unconnected with Abyssinia. The dominions
of Candace appear to have extended over the valleys watered
by the river, and perhaps over part of the neighbouring
deserts with which these fertile plains are encompassed.
There is no allusion made by Strabo or Dio to the territories
which stretch towards the Red Sea ; and it is remarkable
that, among the various catalogues of sovereigns obtained
\
91 CIVIL HISTORY OF
by Bruce and Mr. Salt during their residence in the former
country, the name of this celebrated queen has not been
found.
The subsequent history of this particular section of
Ethiopia is shrouded in utter darkness. We know not
when the successors of Candace ceased to enjoy power, or
by what series of events their throne was cast down ;
whether by the regular assault of Abyssinian armies led by
an ambitious prince, or by the inroads of the savage tribes
who occupied the mountains of the south and the wilds of
the Libyan Desert. More than a thousand years passed
away, during which no European acquired any knowledge
of Nubia, or set a foot within its borders : on which account
we can only conjecture that the zeal of the Moslem, soon
after the triumph of their califs over Egypt, might induce
them to carry their conquests along the banks of the Nile ;
or that the Galla and those other barbarous hordes, who
have so often alarmed the emperor at Gondar, may have
extinguished the lights of civilization which once illumined
the remote regions of Meroe.
A similar obscurity prevails for seven or eight centuries
in regard to Abyssinia, which is only occasionally bright-
ened by the uncertain information afforded by the ecclesi-
astical writers, who laboured to connect its affairs with those
of the patriarchate of Alexandria. It is not till the epoch
when the Portuguese, attracted at once by their zeal for reli-
gion and their love of gold, penetrated into Eastern Africa,
that our inquiries respecting its history and condition begin
to be rewarded with any degree of success. In relating the
progress of discovery made by this people along the western
coast, we had occasion to observe,* that, among the splendid
objects by which their exertions were animated, by far the
most prominent was that of reaching the territory of the
prince whom they denominated Prester John.f Vain were
* Narrative of Discovery and Adventure in Africa,
t " Rex Habessinorumvix alio quam Presbyteri Johannis titulo notus
hucusque fuit Europaeis, quem illi Lusitani imposuere. Occasio fuit
talis. Petrus Petri filius Lusitanias princeps, M. Pauli Veneti librum
(qui de Indorum rebus mulia), speciatirh vero de Presbytero Johanne
aliqua magnifice scripsit), Veneiiis secum in patriam detulerat ; qui
(Chronologicis Lusitanorum testantibus), praecipuam Johanni Regi
ansam dedit Indicae navigationis, quam Henricus Johannis I. filius,
patruus ejus, tentaverat, prosequenda?.
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 95
all the inquiries made on that shore for this mysterious
monarch ; but intelligence was received of a Christian prince
ruling over Abyssinia, whom at length they thought they
might conclude to be the royal priest. As soon, too, as the
Portuguese sovereign had conceived the idea of penetrating,
by a voyage round the Cape, into the Indian Seas, a know-
ledge of the neighbouring kingdoms became very important.
To meet this double object, Covilham and De Payva were,
in 1487, despatched, the one to enter Abyssinia, the other
to penetrate to the shores of India. The former died in the
vicinity of the Red Sea ; but the latter was fortunate enough
to reach Calicut and Goa on the coast of Malabar ; whence
he crossed to Sofala in Eastern Africa, and even obtained
some information respecting the southern boundary of that
continent. Having made the circuit of the Indian Ocean,
he was enabled, on his return to the Arabian Gulf, to trans-
mit the most flattering accounts as to the practicability and
advantage of the projected voyage. Both in going out and
returning, he collected many particulars as to the empire of
Abyssinia, and determined to crown his discoveries by visit-
ing the court of that interesting monarchy. Iscander or
Alexander, then the reigning king, received him in the most
cordial manner, and conducted him to the royal residence
at Shoa. Treated with the highest honours, he was either
persuaded or compelled to take up his residence in the
country, whence he never returned to Europe.
.. About 1510, Helena, then queen of Abyssinia, anxious
to obtain the alliance of Portugal against the Turks, sent
Matthew, an Armenian merchant, ambassador to Lisbon.
He went by the circuitous route of India, where his dignity
not being at first recognised, he was somewhat roughly
treated, and detained several years. When at last, in 1513,
" Caeterum inter praestantissimos historieorum constat, regem quen-
dam Christianum olim in extrema Asia, haud procul regno Ttnduc,
Catayam versus, regnasse, magna potentia et fama, qui a Persis vicini-
oribus, ad significanda illius sacra, Prester Chan, h. e. Chanus seu
Princeps adoratorum, i. e. Christianorum, ut quidam putant ; vel, ut
Scaliger vult. Fristegeani, i. e. Apostohcus, dictus fuit. Utcunque
deinum id nominis pronunciaveris, ab Iialis, tunc temporis commercia
Orientis tractantibus, auditum, et per Europam vulgatum, imperitum
vulgus pro Italico Preste vel Prcte Gianni sive Giovanni accepit; et sic
Presbyteri Johannis nomen apud omnes Europae populos inolevit." —
Ludolphi Hist. ^Ethiop. lib. ii. c. 1.
96 CIVIL HISTORY OF
he reached Lisbon, the court received him with all that
delight which might be expected on seeing realized the flat-
tering vision of Prester John, which had so long glittered
before their eyes. After the most favourable reception, he
was sent back with a fleet, which, in 1515, proceeded to
India under Lope Soarez, who was appointed to succeed
Albuquerque. There went out also as ambassador to
Prester John, Duarte Galvam, a statesman of capacity and
experience, but already arrived at the advanced age of
eighty-six. The governor, soon after his arrival in India,
sailed for the Red Sea ; but the other, whose years indeed
rendered him very unfit for such an expedition, sunk under
the climate, and died at the island of Camaran. The ships,
meanwhile, met with so many disasters, that they never
reached the port of Masuah. Soarez quitted the gulf, and
the enterprise was not resumed till he was succeeded by a
more able commander, named Lope Sequeira. This officer
sailed from Goa on the 13th February, 1520, and arrived at
Masuah on the 24th April. At the neighbouring port of
Arkeekoo he had an interview with the Baharnagash, who,
as vassal to the monarch of Abyssinia, held sway over a
wide extent of maritime territory. He gave the Portuguese
a cordial welcome, and undertook to convey to court both
Matthew and a European embassy. At the head of this
mission Sequeira placed Rodrigo de Lima, with eight or ten
subordinate members, among whom was a friar, Francisco
Alvarez, who afterward wrote a narrative of the expedition.
The embassy left Arkeeko on the 30th April, and on the
4th May arrived at the monastery of St. Michael, which
was dependent on a more extensive establishment called
Bisan, or that of the Vision. Here they were attacked by
an epidemic malady, which proved fatal to the merchant and
to one of his countrymen. To escape its malignant influ-
ence they hastened forward, first to Bisan and then to
Dobarwa, the residence of the Baharnagash, to w T hich he
had now returned. On this occasion he received them rather
coldly, and not without reluctance afforded them the means
of proceeding. The passage, too, of the high and rugged
mountains of Tigre was found rather formidable. Violent
storms of wind and rain often compelled them to seek
shelter under the rocks ; while the fury of the torrents and
the roaring of the gale through the immense woods could
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 97
not be heard without alarm. Numerous wild animals stalked
around, showing no fear at the presence of man ; apes were
tometimes seen in bands of several hundreds. On de-
scending into the plain, they found it desolated by the more
dreadful scourge of locusts. When the inhabitants saw the
air darkened by those destructive insects, they became, it is
said, " as dead men," crying out, " We are undone, for the
locusts come !" Great numbers of both sexes were ob-
served flying to other districts in search of food, their own
lands having been entirely consumed by this dreadful visit-
ation.
Amid these difficulties and annoyances, the mission slowly
reached the southern province of Angote, which they found
a delightful region, watered by numerous streams, and having
seedtime and harvest continued throughout the year. The
viceroy invited them to a feast, where they found neither
chair, tablecloth, nor towel. Mats were spread on the floor,
and a wooden board was covered with round cakes ; over
which was placed the delicate dish, which Alvarez scarcely
dares to mention, — " pieces of raw flesh, with warm blood,"
— which the governor and his ladies devoured with delight.
But the Portuguese could not allow these dainties to enter
their lips. The wine also, or rather hydromel, " walked
about with great fury ;" the mistress of the house, though
concealed behind a curtain, taking an ample share.
In proceeding to the court or camp of the Abyssinian
monarch, Alvarez saw the lofty hill on which, by a singular
and jealous policy, the princes of the blood-royal are con-
stantly confined. It was of g-reat extent, begirt by a circuit
of lofty and perpendicular cliffs appearing to reach almost
to the sky. On its summit was a large plain, whence other
hills 'arose interspersed with valleys, of which the most
beautiful was chosen as the retreat of the august prisoners.
The strangers having approached too near it, were advertised
of their error by a sudden shower of stones.
After passing through theprovinces of Amhara and Shoa,
the embassy, on the 16th October, came in view of an almost
endless range of tents and pavilions overspreading an im-
mense plain. This was the grand array or regal camp of
the King of Abyssinia, who, engaged in continual war, had
at this time no other capital. They forthwith advanced be-
tween two rows of about 40,000 persons, among whom a
98 CIVIL HISTORY OF
hundred were constantly employed with whips in their hands
to maintain order. On this occasion they saw only the
cabeata, or chief priest and minister, who conveyed several
courteous messages between them and the monarch, whom,
however, they neither saw nor heard. But on the 20th
they were again sent for, when they observed an elevated
seat, which they call a bed, with rich curtains of silk and
gold concealing the king from their view, but not preventing
their holding some conversation with him. His first address
was not altogether cordial ; he even showed some jealousy
of their motives in coming to Abyssinia ; but he listened to
their explanations, and at length showed on the whole a
more friendly disposition.
Finally, on the 1st November, they were admitted to a
more formal audience, when a series of curtains were
raised, each richer than the other, till at last one, the richest
of all, was lifted, behind which appeared Prester John seated,
in a splendid dress of silk and gold, and holding in his hand
a silver cross. This prince, who was David III., is described
as a young man of about twenty-three, of low stature, and
" of the colour of ruddy apples." The discourse soon turned
upon the authority of the pope and the communion of Rome,
which the ambassador represented to be the only true
church, and to which Abyssinia was bound to submit. The
emperor resisted this claim, and seems to have maintained
the theological argument with considerable acuteness. Re-
specting the marriage of priests, he quoted the decrees of
councils, of which the envoy was obliged to confess his own
ignorance. He asked also whether, supposing the pope
were to order any thing contrary to Scripture, it would be
obeyed ; and the Portuguese not venturing an absolute
negative, the king declared that his people had no idea of
such a servile submission.
The ambassador afterward accompanied the king, with
the abuna or ecclesiastical primate, to the great monastery
of Machan Celacen, where he witnessed the high cere-
monies of baptism and the ordination of priests and clerks ;
but the practical details connected with these offices afforded
much room for animadversion. The number of priests or-
dained was 2356 ; and the examination — a very short and
superficial one, — had no other object than to ascertain
whether they were able to read. The qualifications of the
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 99
clerks were necessarily still lower, as they were admitted
of all classes and ages, a great proportion being mere in-
fants. Among these ecclesiastical functionaries there was
a continued crying, " as of so many young kids," on account
of being kept so long from suck ; and Alvarez was seriously
alarmed at the administration of the host, lest these tender
throats should have choked on the coarse dough of which
it was formed. He assures his readers, that he remonstrated
strongly with the abuna on this premature elevation to the
dignities of the church, as well as other practices, the ir-
regularity of which was candidly admitted by that prelate.
The embassy, after remaining five years in Abyssinia,
sailed from Masuah on the 28th April, 1526, with presents
and a letter for the king of Portugal. Thus the communi-
cation between the two courts was continued, and the
reluctance which the emperor at first showed to embrace
the Catholic religion was overcome in a surprising degree.
In 1535, the place of abuna, or head of the church, was
conferred upon Bermudez, a Romish priest then resident in
the country. This nomination was accompanied with a
request which throws some light upon its motive. The
country being hard pressed by the Moors of Adel, the gov-
ernment of Lisbon was urged to send a body of troops to
defend it against those enemies of the faith. Bermudez
himself repaired to Goa to hasten the sailing of the desired
expedition. The ardour of the Portuguese youth for this
species of crusade drew forth a much greater number of
volunteers than were desired by the viceroy, who despatched
only 450 under Don Stephen de Gama ; and though that
officer fell early, his followers, by their superior arms and
discipline, rendered essential services. The Moors were
defeated, and obliged to sue for peace ; after which the
Catholic zeal of the monarch remarkably cooled, to the in-
finite rage of the abuna, who made remonstrances so vio-
lent, that open hostilities ensued between the two nations.
The Portuguese, notwithstanding their small numbers,
were able to maintain a defensive position, till at length
the king, by a stratagem, got the chief priest into his power,
and sent him into an honourable exile, as governor of Efat,
an extensive province. It is described by him as consisting
of a valley so deep, and enclosed by such high and craggy
mountains, that the entrance appeared to resemble the descent
100 CIVIL HISTORY OF
into hell. After taking possession, however, he found it an
agreeable and fertile district ; the inhabitants even made
cotton cloths, and practised other arts, better than the rest
of the Abyssinians ; yet they were pagans, " barbarous and
evil." It contained gold, which abounded still more in the
neighbouring countries ; one of which paid in tribute two
full-grown lions, three whelps, and several hens and chick-
ens, all framed of this precious metal. Bermudez seems
to have exercised his sway in a very tyrannical manner.
He and his people amused themselves by firing muskets
over the heads of the natives, enjoying their terror at the
effect of these unknown weapons ; and this, on some occa-
sions, was done so recklessly, that several persons were
killed. The king, incensed at these pastimes of the gover-
nor, confined him on the top of a high mountain ; but, being
rescued by the valour of his countrymen, a compromise was
at length effected, in virtue of which he received lands,
ample possessions, and a new title ; however, he soon after-
ward left the country. .
The king of Portugal and the pope were for some time
discouraged by the unfavourable result of this mission. But
a convert who came to Rome assured them, that the failure
was entirely owing to the brutal conduct of Bermudez, and
that a judicious agent might yet add Abyssinia to the domain
of the Catholic church. Nugnez Barretto was accordingly
invested with this office; but when, upon reaching the Red
Sea, he learned that it was infested by Turkish ships, his
courage failed. Oviedo, however, the second in rank, with
some priests of an inferior order, boldly pushed forward,
and arrived in safety. On reaching the royal camp, he was
received in the most friendly manner, and immediately ad-
mitted to an audience. But instead of tempering his zeal
with any measure of discretion, he seems to have studiously
overacted the part of Bermudez. Representing to the king
the enormous errors into which he had fallen, the mission-
ary called upon him immediately to bring his subjects into
a state of spiritual allegiance to the. Roman see. His
majesty replied, that he was exceedingly well inclined to
the Portuguese, and would grant them ample possessions,
with liberty to convert the whole nation if they could ; but
that to compel the people to change their religion would
create great discontent, particularly as they were at present
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 101
quite satisfied with their abuna. He promised, however, to
consult his friends on the subject. Oviedo, though most
Indignant that a third party should be addressed on such an
occasion, agreed to pause, and meantime challenged the
Abyssinian doctors to a conference. This was readily ac-
cepted. Being supernaturally aided, as he conceived, he
gained the most complete victory over his opponents ; but
unhappily they considered their own triumph as equally deci-
sive, and hence affairs stood exactly as they were before.
The Catholic, indignant at such blindness, and seeing no
hope of effecting any thing by persuasion, determined to have
recourse to the most violent measures. Assuming the full
papal authority, he issued a rescript, devoting the whole na-
tion to the judgment of the church, and even to be spoiled by
the faithful in every possible manner, " in person and goods,
in public and private." Such a decree, without any means of
enforcing it, occasioned, of course, a violent persecution
against the mission. Oviedo was banished to a remote and
desolate mountain, where he nearly perished with famine.
He transmitted the most earnest entreaties to the king of
Portugal to despatch fifteen hundred men, with which he
undertook to conquer all Abyssinia ; but this proposal,
though seriously pondered, was never reduced to practice.
The next missionary was Peter Paez, sent out in 1589,
— a man of superior talents and address, who, instead of
attempting to carry his objects by threats and violence,
successfully applied himself to conciliate at once the sov-
ereign and the nation. It is to be regretted that his narra-
tive, which is supposed still to exist, and would probably
supply the fullest account of the country yet written, has
never been given to the public ; only some detached ex-
tracts from it being found in the General History of Ethio-
pia, by Tellez. He derides the pompous descriptions which
former travellers had given of this empire, the palace of
whi.h, instead of containing, as had been pretended, spa-
cious halls and superb domes, resembled more the humble
cottao-e in which JEneas was received by Evander. The
imperial table presented none of those conveniences which
in Europe are by the humblest citizen considered indispen-
sable ; neither plate, nor knife, nor fork, nor spoon, nor
chair to sit upon. Women entered bearing baskets of
junk, resembling broad-brimmed hats, whence they drew
12
102 CIVIL HISTORY OF
numerous cakes, with which they entirely covered the board
Above these they placed the chief delicacy, pieces of raw
and warm flesh, which were wrapped in the cakes, in por-
tions so enormous that it appeared quite impossible for any
mouth to admit them. The attendants, however, forced
these pellets between the jaws of their masters, and con-
tinued to stuff the guests, one after another, " as if they
were stuffing a goose for a feast." All this while deep
silence reigned, and eating engrossed the universal atten-
tion ; but as soon as the table was cleared, the cups were
introduced, and began to circulate with the utmost freedom.
As there was nothing in Abyssinia which could be called
a house, Paez undertook to erect one for the monarch, such
as in Europe might be considered a handsome villa. It
was exceedingly difficult to instruct the native architects in
the use of the hammer and chisel, in the operation of cut-
ting, rounding, and hewing the stones, as well as in the
various processes of carpentry ; but when this had been in
some degree effected, and the people saw high walls of hewn
stone ascending, and one story rising above another, they
considered it little less than a miracle. By these and other
personal services, the priest so ingratiated himself at court,
that he prevailed upon the king, not only to embrace the
Catholic faith himself, but to make it the established religion
of his dominions. This missionary, moreover, is generally
supposed to have visited the sources of the Nile ; his de-
scription of them, indeed, quoted by Kircher, closely corres-
ponds with that afterward given by Bruce.
The Romish religion continued to maintain its ground,
and about the year 1620 was professed with ardour by the
king, Socinios or Segued, who applied for a fresh supply of
clergymen. In compliance with this request, Jerome Lobo
set sail from GOa in January, 1624. The approach to Abys-
sinia was then very difficult, as the Turks were masters of
the Red Sea ; and an attempt to reach it from the mouth
of the Arabian Gulf, by the southern country of Cambat,
had been frustrated by the ruggedness of the territory and
the barbarous character of the people. Lobo, much at a
loss, sought to open up a new path by Melinda, which,
however, could only have been suggested by deep ignorance
of African geography. On landing at Pate, or Patta, he
was warned of the dangers attending this route, which
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 103
would soon bring him among the Galla, one of the most
savage races in existence. His zeal however still urged
him onwards, till he reached the kingdom of Jubo, the natives
of which were barbarians indeed ; eating raw flesh, adornincr
themselves with the entrails of cows, and killing such of
their children as happened to be born on plundering ex-
cursions. He found the king in a tolerably large straw-hut,
surrounded by courtiers, bearing each a long staff, which,
whenever the stranger entered, they employed in driving him
back to the door. Lobo, who had attended by permission/
having inquired the cause of such an ungracious salutation,
was assured that it was the regular mode of reception at
this court ; and they swore on the head of a sheep, be-
smeared with butter, that they would do him no injury. It
was rather annoying to be attended by men whose kindness
was thus expressed ; and when the traveller heard that nine
nations, equally savage, and engaged in continual war,
intervened between Jubo and Abyssinia, he thought it high
time to seek an entrance by another channel. He therefore
returned to Patta, whence he sailed, and, having passed the
Straits of Bab el Mandeb, landed at Baylur in Dancali ; the
sovereign of which country, being dependent on Abyssinia,
had been instructed to provide for his safety and comfort.
Having waited on the monarch, at his capital, which con-
sisted of twenty mud-cabins and six tents, he was ushered
into the palace, where one apartment sufficed for the prince
and his horse. The good priest had no reason to complain
of his reception, though extraordinary efforts were made to
extort presents from him ; but by using the name of the
King of Abyssinia, he escaped all violent exaction. To
reach his destination, however, it was necessary to pass ex-
tensive deserts, including the great plain whence salt is
supplied to the whole empire ; and here hunger, thirst, the
bites of serpents, and the attacks of plunderers, created
much suffering and alarm. At length he arrived at Fremona,
the missionary head-quarters, and began to enter upon his
functions ; but he soon found that, though supported by
royal authority, his doctrine was viewed by the great body
of the people with the utmost aversion. On entering a
village, he'was surprised to hear all the inhabitants joining
in one chorus of shrieks and lamentations ; and on in-
104 CIVIL HISTORY OF
quiring what dreadful calamity had befallen them, was
informed that it was nothing but his own arrival, and that
they were deploring the fate of such of their countrymen
as they feared would be entrapped by his fatal tenets.
Wherever he went he found a similar impression prevail ;
and on attempting to address them, and especially on pre-
senting the Host, which they believed to be strained from the
juices of the animals held most odious in Abyssinia, they
uniformly fled at full speed. It had also been imagined that
the landing of missionaries coincided with the appearance
of locusts ; and iti this instance that absurd prejudice was
unfortunately strengthened. Lobo had the pain of wit-
nessing the distress occasioned by that plague, and saw the
monastery besieged by crowds of starving creatures, who
unjustly imputed to him their miseries.
He afterward visited the southern province of Damot,
which, as we have already stated, appeared in his eyes the
most delightful country he ever beheld, shaded with noble
trees, having seed-time and harvest at all seasons. He
describes also the sources of the Nile, as if he had visited
them ; but whether he actually did so, or merely wrote from
information communicated by others, has never been clearly
ascertained.
For some years the Catholics, generally odious to the
nation, were supported and protected by the ruling power.
The king, however, having sunk into a state of dotage, the
administration fell into the hands of his son, who himself
had long entertained a secret antipathy to this body, and
under whose sanction the great men found themselves at
liberty to give vent to their long-cherished animosity. They
proceeded to the most violent extremities ; and the mission-
aries learned that a plan was actually matured for delivering
them all into the hands of the Turks. In their distress they
sought refuge with a chief in Tigre, who had raised the
standard of rebellion ; but by this step they exposed them-
selves to the very calamity which they had hoped to escape.
He sold them to the Pasha of Suakin, a furious Mussulman,
who had repeatedly expressed the delight with which he
would kill every one of them with his own hand. From
this dreadful situation, however, they were rescued by a high
ransom, and conveyed to Goa. The persecution continued
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 105
till 1638, when all the monks remaining in the country were
barbarously put to death, and the Roman religion finally
rooted out of Abyssinia.
About twenty years after, Signor Baratti, an Italian gen-
tleman, made his way into that country, where he found the
enmity against the Catholic church still unabated. The
native clergy had even drawn up a special creed to guard
against its errors. They declared that the Virgin, the
apostles, and martyrs ought indeed to be reverenced, but
not to be worshipped, or to have prayers addressed to them ;
that the Bishop of Rome has no authority over the church
in general ; that the cross is a mere badge of the Christian
profession, having no virtue in itself; and that the marriage
of priests to one wife is lawful. It would thus appear that
they were much more rational in their doctrines than those
who had made such efforts for their conversion.
In 1698 Poncet, whose name we have already mentioned,
and who had practised as a physician at Cairo, received an
invitation from the King of Abyssinia, who stood in need
of his medical skill. He followed a different route from
any former traveller, taking his departure from Upper Egypt
with the Sennaar caravan. During four days they passed
through a desert of moving sand, where the gentlest breeze
raised a cloud that darkened the air. They then reached
the great oasis of Elwah, which they found a delightful spot,
filled with palm-trees and gardens, and the fields covered
with senna. They next proceeded across a branch of the
Great African Desert, and he was the first who gave to
Europeans an idea of its excessive dreariness. He describes
it as destitute of every species of shrub or plant, and pre-
senting only the dead bodies and scattered bones of men and
camels. Even when he reached the Nile at Moscho, culti-
vation, which extended only a league in breath, was sustained
by artificial means, water being raised from the river in
machines worked by oxen. Dongola appeared a poorly-built
town, almost choked by the sand which blew in from the
surrounding wastes. From Korti he crossed the desert of
Bahiouda, les- desolate than the former.; whence passing
by Derri and Gerri, he arrived at Sennaar. Having spent
three months in that city, as we have elsewhere observed, he
proceeded on his journey eastward, crossing several ranges
of mountains, amid vast forests of trees unknown in Europe.
106 CIVIL HISTORY OF
Abyssinia now possessed a capital called Gondar, instead of
the moveable camp in which the kings formerly travelled from
place to place. It was an extensive town, with 1 00 churches,
yet consisting in fact of a vast cluster of cottages ; and
there being no shops, the goods were exposed in mats in a
large open space. Poncet, having succeeded in curing the
emperor, was sent home by way of Tigre and Masuah,
without meeting any of those perils which are usually
encountered by unprotected adventurers.
A long period now elapsed, during which Abyssinia was
almost forgotten, when it was brought again into notice, and
more fully described than ever, by one of the most enter-
prising of modern travellers. This was James Bruce, a
writer who has been much accused of exaggeration and even
of inaccuracy in his statements ; yet it seems now generally
admitted that, with the exception of a few incidents some-
what highly coloured, his narrative is substantially correct.
Fortified with a firman from the Porte, and with a letter
from the SherifTe of Mecca, he landed on the 19th Sep-
tember, 17G9, at Masuah, where, notwithstanding all these
securities, he narrowly escaped being robbed and murdered
by the Naib of Arkeeko, a brutal and unprincipled chief.
He sailed to Arkeeko, which he left on the 15th November,
and proceeded over Taranta, a high mountain-range which
separates the coast from the interior. This eminence was
covered to the top with noble trees, often so close together
as to resemble arbours ; the chief species being the cedar
and the kol-quall, the latter peculiar to that country. There
were many beautiful birds without song, while others, des-
titute of beauty, had pleasing notes, but quite different from
those of England. In the caves of these mountains, or in
little conical wooden cabins, dwell the Hazorta and the Shiho,
pastoral tribes, who possess numerous herds, especially of
goats, which, according to the season, they drive to the top
of the mountains or to the lower valleys. They hold at
defiance the powers of the plain, but have themselves so
little reputation for hospitality that their treatment of trav-
ellers gave rise to the Abyssinian proverb, " Beware of the
men who drink two waters."
At the foot of Taranta, Bruce passed through Dixan,
lately belonging to the Baharnagash, or Lord of the Sea,
who, we have already observed, had been one of the most
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 107
powerful princes in this part of Africa. His territory was
now very much narrowed, and he was reduced to a complete
dependence upon the governor of Tigre. Bruce found him
in a village near Dixan, a good-humoured simple person,
with a very beggarly train. A general poverty indeed per-
vaded this district, which the inhabitants sought to relieve
Dy stealing.
The traveller came next to Adowa, which ranked as
capital of Tigre, though it is only a large village. Near it
was Fremona, the great convent at which the Portuguese
missionaries had fixed their head-quarters. After passing
through the province of Sire, a wide and fertile plain,
bounded by the broad and luxuriantly-wooded course of the
Tacazze, Mr. Bruce entered Sarnen, a country containing
the loftiest mountains in Abyssinia, which the companions
of Alvarez represented as even far surpassing in height the
Alps and the Pyrenees. He and Salt, however, have ascer-
tained them to be much inferior, though the occasional ap-
pearance of snow on their summits indicates in this climate
a very high elevation. Their forms are often peculiarly
rugged and precipitous, being compared by Bruce, though
with some exaggeration, to pyramids pitched on their apex.
He was obliged to pass Lamalmon, a lofty ridge, which lay
on his way to Gondar. He had a difficult and rather dan-
gerous clamber along a narrow rugged path on the edge of
a precipice, but found on the top a broad plain well culti-
vated, where the cool air restored- his vigour, which had
suffered under the suffocating atmosphere of the lower
valleys. He then descended, and at length descried, in the
midst of a thick grove, Gondar, the capital of Abyssinia.
The most dreadful commotions agitated at that moment
the interior of the country. He relates that Ras Michael,
the governor of Tigre, had murdered Joas, the king, and
set up in his room Tecla Haimanout, a youth of fifteen, in
whose name he exercised the real sovereignty. Michael had
married Ozoro Esther, daughter to the queen-dowager, whose
beauty and rank made her the most distinguished female in
Abyssinia. Another political interest distracted the king-
dom. On its southern border were numerous tribes of the
Galla, a race regarded even by the Abyssinians, who them-
selves have to "boast of so little refinement, as uncouth,
savage, and horrible. They have numerous cattle, which
108 CIVIL HISTORY OF
supply them with food, and whose entrails, worn round the
waist or plaited in the hair, though often in a putrid state,
are used as the favourite ornaments of their persons. They
were wont in former times to ride upon cows ; hut recently
they have obtained a breed of small active horses, and the
irregular cavalry thus mounted constitutes their chief mili-
tary force. They can endure severe privations, perform the
most rapid marches, and cross broad rivers holding by the
horses' tails. In battle they make a sudden and rapid onset
with shrill and barbarous howls, which few troops can with-
stand. By their numbers and ferocity they had overrun
many of the finest provinces of Abyssinia, and had even
formed an alliance with the royal family, which, however,
was held in horror by the people in general. Their chiefs,
Gusho, Povvussen, and Fasil, temporized with Ras Michael,
in the hope of speedily destroying him.
Mr. Bruce found himself for some time an object of con-
siderable neglect. The violent passions which agitated the
contending parties left little room for curiosity ; and his
character of Frank, combined in their eyes with that of
Catholic, excited a mingled feeling of aversion and contempt.
He was first drawn into notice by his medical skill. Ay to
Confu, son to Ozoro Esther, had been seized with the small-
pox, and as he was treated in the usual manner of the
country, by being wrapped in enormous loads of clothes, and
having the external air wholly excluded, the disease seemed
approaching to a fatal termination. A great Abyssinian
saint, who had not eaten or drunk for twenty years, having
failed in his attempts to cure the prince, the stranger was
called in as a last resource, and by improved treatment soon
produced a most favourable change. His attentions on this
occasion, with the general attractions of his person and
manner, rendered him a decided favourite with the princess,
through whom he was introduced to the first circles at the
imperial court.
One principal cause of the importance attached to the
travels of Bruce is the acquisition of many valuable manu-
scripts made by him while resident in Abyssinia. His work
contains a history of that country, translated chiefly from
records supplied to him in the native language ; and though
there may be some slight discrepancy, as to dates and the
order of events, the narrative is amply confirmed by all the
Ozoro Esther.
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. Ill
information which it has been possible to procure from other
sources. The Chronicle of Axura, already mentioned,
proved the depository of a great variety of facts in regard
to the regal successions ; its object being " to show forth the
glory of Rome and Ethiopia," two nations which were
imagined to divide between them the sovereignty of the
world, in direct inheritance from Adam. Of this treatise
Mr. Bruce brought two copies from Gondar; the one
written in an older hand, divided into chapters, containing
an appendix on Abyssinian history and customs ; the other
beautifully but more incorrectly written, without sections,
and supposed to have been a transcript made for him while
living in that city. He arranged the several manuscripts on
the modern annals of Abyssinia into five volumes, the first
of which is the newest copy of the Book of Axum. The
second volume, however, is esteemed far more authentic. It
is, says Dr. Murray, written in a very neat but small hand
on thin parchment, and appears to be about a hundred years
old. It contains ninety-three leaves, of which eleven are on
the Adeline war of Amda Sion, seven on the history of Zera
Jacob, eight on that of Beda Mariam, interspersed with
some chapters relating to his father.*
In this volume, we are assured, there are many curious
particulars relating to the monarchy, both in its prosperous
and declining state ; though the monkish annalists often
give abundance of minute facts without assigning any
cause. Many pages are filled with wild declamatory
speeches full of Scripture quotations ; in which the reader,
expecting to find historical notices, is miserably disappointed.
But there are not wanting passages replete with natural
feeling, bold enough to surprise, and sufficiently tender to
melt the heart. The construction of an oriental language,
it is true, gives a somewhat turgid air to these performances ;
which, however, with all their defects, are fully entitled to a
place among the chronicles of cur own Gothic ages.f
The third volume of the collection begins with the history
of Susneus, in seventy-five- leaves and ninety-nine chapters.
It is the best written of the whole, and being at the same
time minute, accurate, and interesting, supplied Mr. Bruce
with nearly all the incidents mentioned in that reign. The
* Brace's Travels, vol. iii. p. 409. t Ibid.
112 CIVIL HISTORY OF
character is small and neat ; great attention has been be-
stowed in correcting the errors of the transcriber, and in
removing statements of facts which were either doubtful or
offensive. The Roman faith is reprobated wherever it ia
mentioned ; but the edifices with which the Franks orna-
mented the kingdom are described with much admiration,
though with little art. It contains an epitome of the history
of Facilidas, together with some diffuse observations on the
reign of Hannes the First.
The fourth volume is occupied with the annals of Yasous
Tallak, of Tecla Haimanout the First, of Tiflis, and of
David the Fourth. The fifth presents an account of the
government under Bacuffa, his son Yasous the Second, and
Joas his grandson, who was murdered in the year Mr. Bruce
entered Abyssinia. The history of Ras Michael forms an
interesting episode in the latter portion of the narrative, and
fully authenticates the character given of him by that cele-
brated traveller.*
* Bruce, vol. iii. p. 413. The following is a list of the Ethiopic MSS.
brought from Gondar by Mr. Bruce :—
I. The Old Testament, in five large quarto volumes, each about a foot
in length and breadth. These contain all the books in our canon, except
the Psalms and several of the Apocrypha.
II. Two copies of the Gospels, in four volumes, two of which are in
small quarto, answering in size to the two volumes which contain the
writings of the apostles and the rest of the New Testament, mentioned
in No. IV.
III. The Synodos, or Constitution of the Apostles, beautifully written,
and containing about 300 folia. An analysis of this large volume is given
by Ludolf in his Commentarius ad Historiam Abyssinia?. It forms what
is called a kanoun, or positive law of the church, beyond the letter of
which the clergy have no judicial powers.
IV. The Acts of the Apostles and all the Epistles in our canon, with
the Revelation of St. John, in two small quarto volumes, uniform with
the Gospels before mentioned.
V. A Chronicle of the Kings of Abyssinia, from Arwe to Bacuffa, with
a very curious preface on the law and customs brought from Jerusalem
by Ibn Hakim, the son of Solomon. From this preface is extracted the
information respecting the great officers of the Negus, given in the intro-
duction to the history of Abyssinia. As the MS. contains a perpetual
chronicle of all the princes, from Icon Amlac to Bacuffa inclusively, it
has been of great use in preserving entire the chain of history, which is
broken in the larger annals. It consists of about 120 folia of the quarto
size.
VI. The Kebir Zaneguste, or Glory of the Kings, the celebrated Book
of Axum, described at length in the text.
VII. The Annals of Abyssinia in five volumes quarto; the principal
source of the history given in the third volume of Bruce's work. Of
these we have already specified the contents.
KUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 113
The annals of Abyssinia may be divided into three great
portions. The first comprehends the period which elapsed
before the interruption of the ancient royal race by the suc-
cessful rebellion of Judith, or Goudit as she is sometimes
called ; the second embraces the interval during which the
usurping dynasty exercised the supreme power ; and the
last extends from the restoration of the line of Solomon in
the person of Icon Amlac down to the present day.
In regard to the most ancient division, the light of history
does not direct our researches much further than to ascertain
the names and order of the several monarchs who mounted
the throne. We have already given the list from Menilec
to Bazen, who swayed the sceptre at the beginning of the
Christian era. From him to Dalnaad, under whom the
government was overthrown, there were about sixty sove-
reigns, whose united reigns amount to nearly nine hundred
and fifty years. For their titles, which could not in any
respect prove interesting to the general reader, we willingly
refer to the volumes of Bruce and Salt, where they are given
at full length, and with as much precision as could be
derived from records not everywhere free from obscurity.
Judith is said to have been of a Hebrew family, the de-
scendant of one of those men of rank in the Jewish tribes
who, upon the conversion of the Abyssinians to the Chris-
tian faith, withdrew into the strong mountains of Samen,
where they exercised during several generations a separate
and independent authority. She is described as a woman
of great beauty and talents, who, inflamed with zeal for the
religion of her fathers, resolved with the aid of her country-
men to subvert the doctrine of Christ and destroy the apos-
tate race of Solomon. To accomplish these views, she
began by attacking the young princes, confined according to
national usage on the high hill of Darao, and massacred
them all, with the exception of an infant, who was conveyed
VTTI. The Synaxar (Zwalapia), or Lives of the Ethiopic Saints,
arranged according to their order in the national calendar, in four volumes
quarto. Most of the idle legends contained in this book are translations
from the Greek and Coptic. The saints are nothing inferior to their
western brethren in strength and faith. They perform greater miracles,
live more ascetic lives, and suffer more dreadful martyrdoms, than these
holy men; all which is nothing surprising in the native country ot
eredulity, superstition, and religious zeal.
K %
114 CIVIL HISTORY OF
into the loyal province of Shoa. The conqueror imme-
diately took possession of the throne, and removed the seat
of government to Lasta ; where, after enjoying supreme
power in her own person not less than forty years, she
transmitted it to her descendants, who continued to rule
over the greater part of Abyssinia about the space of three
centuries.
During all this period, and indeed down to the year f 255,
very little is known respecting the affairs of the country.
The Arabian authors mention from time to time that the
clergy sent to Egypt to have an abuna consecrated, — 'that
the sceptre had again fallen into the hands of a Christian
king, though not of the race of Solomon, — and occasionally
indicate the name and title of the actual monarch.
About the middle of the thirteenth century the kingdom
was restored to the representative of the ancient house,
whose family continued to flourish in Shoa, where indeed
their hereditary right had never been called in question.
This event was accomplished by the interposition of Tecla
Haimanout, a native monk of Abyssinia, who had been raised
to the episcopate, and is known as the founder of the
famous monastery of Devra Libanos. He prevailed upon
the reigning sovereign to abdicate the throne in favour of
Icon Amlac, in virtue of a treaty by which it was provided
that a portion of land should be given to the retiring prince,
— that one-third of the kingdom should be ceded for the
maintenance of the church, — and that no Abyssinian should
thereafter be elected abuna, but that the head of the eccle-
siastical body should always be named by the patriarch of
Egypt. The following catalogue is collected from various
chronicles, and presents at least an approximation to the
truth of history.
Icon Amlae 1255
Woodem Arad 1269
Kudma Asgud )
Asfa Asgud V 1284
Theodorus 1401
Isaac 1402
Andreas 1417
Hesbinaan 1424
Senfa Asgud N j Amda Yasous )
Bed elNain V 1429
Isba Nain )
Zara Jacob 1434
Beda Mariam 1468
Bar Asgud 1287
Egba Sion 1292
Amda Sion 1301
Sef Arad 1331
Grim'asfare 1359 Secunder, his son i . .„-
David 1369 Amda Sion { H '*
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA.
115
1558
1562
Socinios 1607
Facilidas 1632
Yohannis , '. .1665
Yasous Tallak .1680
Tecla Haimanout 1699
Theophiius 1706
Oustas 1709
David 1714
Bacuffa 1719
Yasous 1729
Ayto Yoas 1753
The fate of the last of these kings has been already men-
tioned. From Mr. Salt's volume we have derived this sup-
plementary list :
N*od 1491
Levana Denghel ) ,—.,
David \ lo0/
Claudius 1539
Men as Adamas >
Segued \ '
Sertza Denghel, or
Malac Segued, and
his son Yacob,
Za Denghel
Yacob restored 1604
Tecla Haimanout reigned 8 years
Solomon 2 —
Tecla Georgis 5 —
Yasous 4 —
Haimanout 1 —
Iskias 6 —
I'.eda Mariam 2 —
Yunus. two months
Adimo 2 year*
Ayto Gualoo, or Eg- "i
wala Sion, who ac-
cording jo the latest !
accounts was sue- (
ceeded by Itsa Yoas |
hi 1818. J
H
The modern history of Abyssinia is confined to a narra-
tive of insurrections and petty wars, either against the gen-
eral government or among the subordinate chiefs them-
selves. When Mr. Bruce resided there, the main power
was in the hands of Ras Michael the governor of Tigre,
who, while he acknowledged a nominal subjection to the
king, directed all the weighty affairs of state. The most
formidable enemies of the crown were the princes of the
Galla, who. not only claimed a right to be heard in all public
matters, but occasionally asserted a degree of independence
quite inconsistent with monarchical rule. The Ras at-
tempted to gain Powussen, the chieftain of Begemder, by
giving to him his granddaughter in marriage. Festivities
of the most unrestrained description followed this event,
which it was expected would secure peace to .the kingdom,
and gratify the more powerful of the Galla tribes.
But the gay scenes at Gondar were soon succeeded by a
furious intestine war among the persons by whom they
were celebrated. Several of the Galla leaders, among
whom was Michael's new relative, united in a conspiracy to
destroy him. He escaped only by a precipitate retreat into
the province of Tigre, across the swollen stream of the
Tacazze. The triumphant confederates entered Gondar,
and set up as king a worthless youth called Socinios, in
116 CIVIL HISTORY OF
whose name they administered all the affairs of state. Mr.
Bruce, the adherent of Michael, lost all his honours, but was
allowed to live unmolested with Ozoro Esther and her
mother, in their palace of Koscam. This uneasy situation
he sought to vary by an attempt to fulfil the grand object of
his ambition ; namely, to reach the sources of the Nile,
which he was assured were situated in a high pastoral
region eastward of the Lake of Dembea.
The country now to be visited was under the sway of
Fasil, a rude but powerful Galla chieftain, who had promised
to protect the traveller, and from whom accordingly a
favourable reception was expected. He was found in a little
tent, wrapped in a lion's skin, and sitting upon a handful of
straw spread on the floor. After the first salutation had
passed, he seemed disposed to take no further notice of him ;
when Bruce, receiving from his guide a hint to speak, re-
minded the governor of his promises, and solicited his per-
mission and aid to visit the source of the Abay, the name
here given to the Abyssinian Kile. Fasil, without any cere-
mony, started various objections, in the course of which he
allowed it to transpire that he considered Franks, as he
reproachfully termed them, as little better than boys and
women, and unfit to travel in a land of warriors. The
visiter then burst into a furious passion, loaded him with
reproaches, boasting that with a handful of Europeans he
would trample all his bands of naked savages in the dust.
In the midst of this tirade the blood burst from his nose, and
his attendants hurried him out of the tent. No sooner had
he cooled, than he bitterly repented of the unseasonable in-
temperance which had apparently cut him off for ever from
the fondest object of his heart, and On which he mpant to
establish his fame with future ages. It soon appeared, how-
ever, that this high and fierce bearing had been suited to
the personage to whom it was addressed ; for he learned that
Fasil was giving directions for his proceeding early next
morning. By daybreak horses were ready ; but the servants
mounted him on a steed so unruly that, but for his eques-
trian skill, his life would have been in danger. The Galla
leader declared himself wholly ignorant of this trick, and
gave Mr. Bruce full liberty to cut the groom in pieces. He
sent forward with him Woldo, a huge half-naked savage,
holding a stick, which he continually brandished ; also a
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 1 17
horse, intended not to be ridden but led before him, and
which, serving as the credentials of his coming from Fasil,
would secure him against all violence. The animal accord-
ingly met everywhere the profoundest homage, and was
only pitied for being employed in so mean a service as that
of escorting a Frank. After passing through Dingleber,
which commanded a fine view of the LakeDembea, he saw
a band on the opposite side of the river, which, Woldo
stated, belonged to the Jumper, under whose auspices they
must now place themselves ; whispering, that he was the
greatest thief and murderer in all the country ; and on
Bruce's remonstrating as to this choice of a protector, he
added, " So much the better." With two whistles and a
yell he brought fifty men to assist in conveying over the
baggage, and they found the Jumper busy at his toilet, rub-
bing his naked body with melted tallow, and embellishing
his locks with the entrails of a cow. He was tall, lean,
sharp-faced, with small eyes, and resembling somewhat a
lank greyhound. He showed no signs of curiosity or judg-
ment, but prodigious bodily activity, and was accounted the
greatest spoiler of all the Galla. He recommended them to
his brother the Lamb, whom they found encamped in the dry
bed of a river, watching the proceedings of a neighbouring
market, whence, however, all had absented themselves on
his account. He appeared equally stupid and indifferent,
though he bestowed much courtesy on Fasil's horse. The
gentleness of his character, which had procured him this ap-
pellative, was shown by his murdering men and children
only, and usually sparing the female sex. When the party,
after taking leave, had proceeded a considerable distance,
they were alarmed by a confusion of wild and barbarous
cries, and on looking round saw a band of savage horsemen
brandishing their lances in the air. They put themselves
in the best possible attitude of defence, till they heard the
cry " Fasilali !" This company was under the direction
of their friend the Lamb, who, having heard of their being
in danger from a party of Agow horse, had galloped up to
defend them. Mr. Bruce was so much pleased with this
attention, that he presented the barbarian with a huge piece
of raw beef, in the course of eating which, he expressed
severe disappointment at not having met the Agows, and
being thereby supplied with an opportunity of showing how
dexterously he would have cut them all in pieces.
1 18 CIVIL HISTORY OF
The traveller lost no time in following out his main ob-
ject, and was conducted to the village of Geesh, where the
Nile, as it was termed, was only a scanty rivulet ; and he
stepped across it fifty or sixty times in triumph. He then
viewed, with still higher rapture, the two fountains which
unite in forming this celebrated stream. In fact, however,
he laboured under an error ; the main source of the Egyp-
tian river, as we have already stated, not being here, but in
a remote part of Africa, south of Darfur, and called in its
upper course the Bahr el Abiad. But that the Abyssinian
Dranch is the Nile had been the belief of most geographers
in latter times, and nothing could ever induce him to relin-
quish it. He stoutly denies also, though seemingly on
elender grounds, the claim of Paez to be considered the first
discoverer even Gf these interesting springs.
Mr. Bruce now returned to Gondar ; on his way to which
he was hospitably entertained by Shalaka Welled Amlac,
a friendly chief, in his palace, which consisted of one large
apartment sufficient to accommodate his wives, family,
horses, and mules, - and was hung round with trunks of
elephants killed by his own hand. In the capital our coun-
tryman was at first ill received ; but the fortune of war soon
enabled Ras Michael to enter that city and expel from it
the Galla chiefs. A time of agreeable relaxation was then
expected ; but that leader, now triumphant, and enraged at
the treachery of many of the citizens, gave full scope to the
vindictive propensity which stains his memory. The streets
streamed with blood, and Mr. Bruce could not stir out
without seeing dead bodies lying even in the court of the
palace. Shuddering with horror, he began anxiously to
negotiate for permission to return to Europe; but he was,
in the mean time, obliged to accompany the army to the
battle of Serbraxos, where he distinguished himself, and
was rewarded with a gold chain and a splendid suit of
apparel. In that action the Ras's forces kept possession of
the field ; but his loss was so great, while the Galla con-
stantly received new reinforcements, that he was compelled
to fall back upon Gondar, where he was soon enclosed,
and reduced almost to the state of a prisoner.
Amid these agitations, the traveller gladly embraced the
permission which he at last obtained to return home. He
passed first through the woods and marshes of Ras-el-Foel,
•
Kena Yasous.
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 121
of which he had been made the nominal governor. At
Tcherkin he was vastly surprised to meet his great friend
Ozoro Esther, who had with her Tecla Mariam, the greatest
beauty in Abyssinia ; and they were soon joined by her son
Ayto Confu. This party, like himself, had retired from the
disturbed vicinity of the court, and he spent a fortnight
with them in festivity, as well as in hunting the elephant
and rhinoceros, which abound in those vast forests.
Among the principal characters who figured at court, in
the camp, and in the field, none was entitled to higher
respect than Kefla Yasous. His conduct at the battle of
Limjour, where the royal troops were thrown into conster-
nation by the arrival of Fasil, saved the kin a, and prevented
the disastrous effects of a hasty retreat. The portrait here
given is understood to be a faithful likeness of that brave
warrior, while it represents the headdress of an Abyssinian
chief after a successful contest either with a personal or a
public enemy. The horn displayed on the forehead will
illustrate the allusions made in Sacred Scripture to the horn
of the righteous, and to the lifting up of the horn on high
while the proud man speaketh with a stiff neck.
It was in the year 1771 that Mr. Bruce left Abyssinia,
uncertain as to the effect of recent events on the fortunes of
his most intimate acquaintances. There could be no doubt
that the Galla had obtained the ascendency in the capital,
and were now in a condition to dictate to the monarch, who
held his throne at their pleasure. Nor was it till 1805
that Mr. Salt, who accompanied Lord Valentia in his voy-
age from India, made an excursion into that country, and
thereby found the means of adding somewhat to our know-
ledge of its actual situation.
Five years afterward he was intrusted with a mission
to the court of Gondar ; but it deserves to be noticed, that
on neither occasion was he able to penetrate farther than
to the northern division of the "Tigre. He found, however,
that all Bruce's great friends and enemies, Ras Michael,
Ozoro Esther, Ayto Confu, and Guebra Mascal, were dead.
Welled Selasse, whom that traveller had known as a prom-
ising young man of twenty-four, had, on the death of the
Old Lion, as Michael was called, raised himself to the dig-
nity of Ras, and to the government of all the provinces
which the other had ruled. Meantime Gusho, the Galla
L
122 CIVIL HISTORY OF
chief, was master of Gondar, and contended with Selasse;
for the supreme sway, with the right of nominating a person
who should bear the empty title of king.
The enmity between these two potentates was so great
as to render it impossible to proceed from the one to the other,
and thus baffled all Mr. Salt's attempts to reach the capital.
There remained, indeed, a third division of Abyssinia, con-
sisting of the southern provinces of Shoa and Efat, which
appeared still to be governed by a prince descended from
the ancient royal family. But these districts have not been
visited by any recent traveller, though they unquestionably
form one of the finest parts of the kingdom, and contain a
greater proportion, perhaps, than any other of the ancient
Ethiopian learning. It is enough to mention, however,
that they cannot be approached without passing through the
lands of those barbarous tribes who at present enjoy the
supreme power in the neighbouring regions.
During Mr. Salt's first visit he was supplied by Ligantur
Metcha, a priest of some rank, with a sketch of the political
changes which had taken place subsequently to the departure
of Bruce. The character of Joas, the events of his reign,
and his assassination by Ras Michael, as related by that
author, were all fully confirmed. He w 7 as succeeded by
Hannes, who, after holding the sceptre only five months,
died of disease, and not by poison, as it is recorded in the
Travels. Tecla Haimanout, the son of that prince, a re-
markably fair and handsome man, next mounted the throne.
He was greatly attached to the Ras, who, during his reign,
was often in a state of open hostility with Fasil of Gojam,
whom he beat at the battle of Fagitta, a short time, as Met-
cha remembered, before Bruce came into the country. A
powerful party was afterward formed against Michael, and
Gusho was made Ras ; upon which the old warrior retired
to his province of Tigre. After governing eight years,
Tecla Haimanout was driven from his throne by Wordo
Wussun (Powussen), and soon after died in retirement at
Waldubba, leaving one son. Welled Solomon.
Upon this vacancy Ayto Solomon, though in no respect
related to his predecessor, succeeded to the throne, sup-
ported by the forces of Begemder and Gojam. The reign
of this prince continued only two years, and at his death,
Tecla Georgis, brother of Tecla Haimanout, was raised to
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 123
the sovereign authority by Confu Adam and Ras Ayto, who
then commanded the provinces of Gojam, the Agows, and
Damot. Soon after his accession (1801) died Ras Michael,
in the eighty-eighth year of his age, and was succeeded in
the government of Tigre by Welled Gabriel, his son. Tecla
Georgis, having reigned only five years, was dethroned,
and after wandering long through various parts of the coun-
try, finally retired to the mountains of Waldubba. To him
succeeded Yasous the Third, who was raised to the supreme
power by Ras Ayto. The new king died of the small-pox,
after reigning four years, and through the united interest
of Ayto and Welled Gabriel was replaced by Beda Mariam:
the latter of these chiefs, a short time afterward, was slain
in battle by Ras Ally of Begemder.
After sitting two years on the throne, Mariam was deposed
by the Ras just named, assisted by the Edjow Galla ; upon
which he went to Samen, where he lived under the protec-
tion of Ras Gabriel. His successor was Ayto Ischias, son
of the late Sultan Yasous, who, after having enjoyed the
sovereignty six years, was dethroned by Ras Merrid, son of
Ayto of Gojam, and obliged to flee from his capital. In
conjunction with this commander, Ras Welled Selasse
raised Ayto Solomon, son of Tecla Haimanout, to the head
of affairs ; but he was not able to maintain himself in his
royal estate, though supported by the powerful interest of
Tigre, for after two years he was obliged to seek protection
in the house of his friend the governor of that province.
It was now the turn of Begemder to assume the supe-
riority, and Ras Iserat accordingly thought himself entitled
to place Ayto Yunus on the throne. This sovereign, how-
ever, had not ruled more than three months, when Guxo,
chief of the Edjow Galla, removed him, and elevated Ayto
Edimo, brother of Tecla Georgis, who, having lived but two
years, was succeeded by Ayto Gualoo, the monarch whom
Mr. Salt found in possession of power.
This narrative, communicated to the traveller, is, as he
himself remarks, very probably true, because it agrees with
the circumstances of the country ; and the period of the
several reigns taken together exactly coincides with the
time which had elapsed since the days of Joas the First.
It is worthy of remark that the royal family were no
longer confined to the mountains of Wechn6, this custom
124 CIVIL HISTORY OF
having been some years abolished. They now lived in a
state of dependence on the chiefs of the several provinces.
Welled Gabriel, the son of Michael, commanded in Tigre
eight years, after which Guebra Mascal was appointed by
Tecla Georgis ; but the latter had scarcely taken possession
of his province when he was attacked by Welled Selasse,
then at the head of an army in Enderta, who seized his
person, and after keeping him some time in confinement,
gave him a village, where he spent the remainder of his
life. Selasse" was master of Tigre at the period under our
consideration, and, as we shall afterward find, he continued
to enjoy it many years.
At the departure of Mr. Salt from Abyssinia in 1805, he
left behind him a sailor belonging to the Antelope, whose
name was Pearce, and who, having deserted from one of
his majesty's ships, and wounded a soldier on duty at Bom-
bay, preferred the choice of a new country to the hazard of
punishment and disgrace at home. He had spent five years
among the half-civilized natives of Tigre, sometimes under
the protection of the Ras, who had promised to befriend
him, and occasionally trusting to his own resources, when
his patron, in the character of British envoy to the Abyssinian
emperor, appeared again in the Red Sea. The adventurous
mariner, who had not neglected to acquire a competent
knowledge of the language and manners of the people,
proved extremely useful to Mr. Salt in his attempt to pene-
trate through the rebellious provinces, in order to deliver to
his imperial highness the letter and presents with which he
was charged. He communicated at the same time a short
account of the occurrences which had taken place during
his residence in that strange land. He does not conceal
that his turbulent and restless disposition frequently made
him forfeit the countenance of his superiors, and even re-
duced him to great distress ; but his zeal, courage, and
ability, whenever an opportunity occurred for their exercise,
never failed to restore him to the approbation of the prince
as well as to the full enjoyment of all his privileges.
An occasion of this nature presented itself in March,
1807, when a powerful league was formed by several of the
most formidable chiefs in the interest of Ras Michael's
family, for the destruction of Welled Selasse. The latter,
indeed, raising a powerful army, quickly reduced the insur-
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 125
gents to unqualified submission ; but while the negotiations
for peace were going on a plot was formed by some of the
confederates to burn the Ras in his quarters at Adowa,
where, in the full confidence of victory, he lay at some dis-
tance from his troops, and very slenderly attended. The
scheme had nearly succeeded, and part of the building was
already in a blaze, when Pearce, who was encamped with
the army outside of the town, being awakened by the glare
of light, seized his musket, and hastening to the spot, rushed
undauntedly through the flames to the assistance of the
old man. The fire was soon extinguished and the con-
spirators punished. The Englishman was immediately
replaced in the good graces of the governor, who increased
his pay, gave him a white mule as a mark of distinction,
and appointed him to a situation of trust and honour.
But the jealousy of his enemies and his own impetuous
temper, quickly occasioned an absolute rupture between him
and the Ras ; upon which he threatened to go over to his
great rival Gojee ; a menace which so incensed the aged
ruler that he told Pearce, though he would prevent his
putting that plan in execution, he might go anywhere else
he thought proper provided he never appeared in his pres-
ence again. In consequence of this dispute he left Antalo,
and for some time led a wandering life in different districts
of Abyssinia, till he heard that Welled was on the point of
being once more attacked by the Galla, under the furious
leader whose name has just been specified. This intelli-
gence made him forget his quarrel ; and, accordingly, col-
lecting what forces he was able to muster, he directed his
march towards the capital of Tigre.
On his arrival, we are told, many of the chiefs expressed
their astonishment at seeing him, and strongly urged him
not to venture into the presence of Selasse ; but Pearce,
proudly conscious of the motives that had prompted him to
return, felt no apprehension, and requested an audience, to
which he was instantly admitted. As he approached the
old Ras, he thought he saw, as he himself expresses it,
something pleasant in his countenance, as he turned to one
of his officers and said, pointing to the English sailor,
" Look at that man ! he came to me a stranger about five
years ago, and not being satisfied with my treatment left
me in great anger ; but now that I am deserted by some of
L2
126 CIVIL HISTORY OF
my friends, and pressed upon by my enemies, he is come to
fight by my side." He then with tears in his eyes desired
Pearce to sit down, ordered a cloth of the best quality to be
thrown over his shoulders, and gave him a mule and a
handsome allowance for his support.
Nor did this enthusiastic volunteer belie the expectations
that were entertained of him. Soon afterward, the Ras,
having assembled his army, marched against the barbarian
foes who had attempted to take him at disadvantage. After
some skirmishing, mixed with a show of negotiation, Gojee
shifted his ground to the plains of Marzella, which he had
determined should be the scene of battle, while the other
took his station near the sources of the Tacazze. A last
effort was tried by the Ras for an accommodation, which
was haughtily rejected by the Galla chieftain, and both par-
ties prepared for a decisive engagement. In the action
w r hich ensued Selasse appears to have arranged his forces
with considerable skill ; but an impetuous charge on his
centre made by the savage followers of Gojee compelled it
to give way. Enraged at the sight, Welled called for his
favourite horse ; which being held back by his officers, who
felt anxious for his personal safety, he urged his mule for-
ward and galloped into the front ; where, by his conspicuous
appearance and gallant demeanour, he quickly infused fresh
energy into his troops, and retrieved the fortune of the field.
On this critical occasion Pearce was among the first to ad-
vance ; and the Ras, seeing him in the thick of the fight,
cried out, " Stop, stop that madman !" But he called in
vain ; for the other dashed on, killed at one blow a Galla
chief who was pressing forward at the head of his men, and
by his courage throughout the day gained the admiration of
all around him. Gojee himself escaped with difficulty, and
his whole army was totally routed. In the course of many
desperate enterprises in which the Ras was engaged subse-
quently to this celebrated victory, Pearce, who always ac-
companied him, had several opportunities of distinguishing
himself, and of establishing a high character for intrepidity
and conduct.
The facts now stated are the substance of the communi-
cation made by this singular man to Mr. Salt, during his
residence in Abyssinia as envoy from the British crown.
Mr. Pearce, who had resolved still to remain in the country,
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 127
was joined by Mr. Coffin, supercargo of the ship in which
the ambassador went out. The former was earnestly re-
quested by his learned friend to keep a regular journal of
passing occurrences, and more especially of the adventures
in which he himself might be engaged, — a request with
which he complied to the utmost of his power. That diary
is now in the hands of the public, and affords to the Euro-
pean reader the only means of knowing what took place in
Abyssinia subsequently to the year 1810.
The political incidents which diversify the narrative of
the seaman are not of sufficient interest to engage the at-
tention of the general reader. Welled Selasse found it
necessary to be almost constantly in the field, to check the
ravages or defeat the pretensions of some ambitious chief.
It would seem, indeed, that at one period the Abyssinian
monarchy was on the very point of dissolution, and about to
be parcelled out among a number of princes or local gov-
ernors, according to the amount of the forces which they
could muster under their respective banners. The Galla in
particular, to whom war is pastime, and plunder one of the
legitimate means of subsistence, never ceased their incur-
sions into the territory of the more civilized inhabitants ; for
although they were frequently beaten by the troops of Tigre,
their ranks were never permanently thinned nor their spirits
broken. Pearce relates, that the kings living at one time
during his stay in the country were as follows : — Tecla
Georgis, in Waldubba ; Itsa Ischias, in Gondar ; Ayto
Gualoo, then on the throne in that city ; Itsa Yoas, like-
wise in the capital ; Itsa Yonas, in Gojam ; and Beda Ma-
riana, in Samen. They are all, he adds, related to each
.other, and, as they boast, descended from the true race of
'Menilec ; "but the kings of Abyssinia have so many wives
from far and near that it makes it difficult to determine to
whom the crown should descend, and this point is generally
decided more by might than by right."*
In the month of May, 1816, Ras Welled Selassd breathed
his last, leaving the province in a very distracted condition.
His death was kept secret from the people, every one being
sensible of the calamities which would follow. " Welleta
Tisral began to scream and lament, which would have given
■ Life and Adventures of Nathaniel Pearce, vol. i. p. Ill, 112.
128 CIVIL HISTORY OF
the alarm, had not one of the slaves knocked her down
senseless, and threatened her life if she even sobbed. Every
thing was carried away by stealth to the giddam of Temben ;
and on the second night a fter his death his body was wrapped
up in a clean cloth, and, as if stolen, was taken by the slaves,
Mr. Coffin, and Buggerunde Tusfu, over the wall of his
garden to the church, where they had already opened the
grave of his brother Manasse. Allicar Barhe and the abuna
were informed of the event ; but before they arrived the
others had taken up the bones of Manasse, which were in
a great coffin made out of the door of his house when he
■died in December, 1809. The Ras's body was put beneath,
and Manasse^ s bones then laid on the top."*
The two following years were spent in sanguinary strug-
gles for the government of Tigre, which appears to have
been more highly valued than the jurisdiction of the king.
This great object was at length obtained by Subegadis, a
brave intelligent young man, whose elevation had been pre-
dicted by Mr. Salt, to whom he was intimately known. He
is in stature about five feet ten inches, broad shouldered,
and his whole frame partaking of that iron-like and sinewy
character which denotes the true child of the hills, and en-
ables him to endure without inconvenience the most arduous
exertions and the severest, privations. His countenance is
handsome, a little inclining to the Roman ; his teeth are
white and regular ; his hair is jet black and in profusion,
and, which is very remarkable in that country, his large ex-
pressive penetrating eye is of a dark-gray. His complexion,
as well as that of his family, is fair for an Abyssinian, and
indeed he sometimes makes it his boast that he is descended
from white people, — a circumstance which the great anti-
quity of his race renders by no means improbable.
From the nature of his pursuits, it was not to be expected
that his habits should have been distinguished by a very
rigid morality. But the Ras, a little time before Mr. Coffin
left the country, when he had become settled in his govern-
ment, began to devote his thoughts seriously to religious
subjects. He dismissed all his wives with a handsome pro-
vision, except the daughter of Hilier Mariam whom he had
recently married, and to confirm his promise of remaining
* Pearce, vol. ii. p. 84.
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 129
faithful to her received the sacrament at the church of Axurn.
The last accounts obtained from Abyssinia left Subegadis
preparing for a march to Gondar, to establish his power in
that quarter of the country ; and, as nearly all the principal
chiefs in that neighbourhood were dead, and their armies
dispersed, it is more than probable that he accomplished his
purpose, and perhaps placed himself on the imperial throne.*
Ayto Gualoo, the nominal sovereign of the empire, died
in May, 1818, a short time before Pearce sailed for Egypt.
He was succeeded by his brother Itsa Yoas, who was
anointed and crowned on the 14th of June, under th"e pro-
tection of the Ras Guxo, who thought fit to prefer him to
all his nephews, the sons of the late monarch, who, says
Pearce, " are a wild and wretched set." But as Subegadis
rose to power through a different interest, it is very prob-
able, as we have already suggested, that he may have de-
posed King Yoas, and seized the sceptre either for his own
hand or for that of some dependent prince whom he has
been pleased to honour.
Leaving the history of Abyssinia we return to the Valley
of the Upper Nile, the annals of which acquire a peculiar
interest at the very moment when all channels of informa-
tion respecting the other are obstructed. We have else-
where mentioned the expedition into Nubia and Sennaar
under the command of Ishmael Pasha, whose steps we
followed with the view of extending our geographical know-
ledge of those remote countries. It was, we are told, the
ambition of Mohammed Ali to possess all the banks and
islands of the Egyptian river, and to be master of all who
drink of its waters from its sources to the Mediterranean.
His plans of conquest are said to have even comprehended
Abyssinia ; but it is understood he relinquished his designs
against that kingdom in consequence of a formal assurance
that an attack on a Christian state so situated would prob-
ably involve him with the British government. He there-
fore determined to limit his conquests to Dongola, Dar-
Sheygya, Berber, Shendy, Kordofan, Darfur, and Sennaar.
The army, which amounted to about ten thousand men,
included the natives of various countries, — Turks, both
European and Asiatic, Arabs, Bedouins, and Moggrebins.
* Pearce, vol. ii. p. 291. Note by Editor.
130 CIVIL HISTORY OF
Departing from Cairo in the summer of 1820, Ishmael pur-
sued his march without opposition to New Dongola, which
he found evacuated by the Mamlouks, who had some months
before retired to Shendy. He next advanced into the ter-
ritory of the Sheygyans, a people famed for their love of
liberty, and celebrated among the surrounding tribes as
most vigilant and successful warriors. They acknowledged
the authority of two chiefs or meleks, whose names were
Shoous and Zibarra ; the former of whom ruled the king-
dom of Merawe, while the latter exercised the sovereignty
of the lower district, the capital of which is Hannech.
After a vain attempt at negotiation the pasha resolved on
an appeal to arms. The first skirmish appears to have
taken place near Old Dongola, where Ishmael, some of his
officers, and a few soldiers were suddenly attacked by those
brave horsemen of the desert. The assailants were soon
repulsed ; but a more serious action followed in the course
of a few days in the vicinity of Korti, whither the Sheygyans
had retreated. On this occasion the Egyptian commander
had with him only six hundred cavalry, some mounted Be-
douins, but no cannon. The enemy advanced to the charge
with great fury, and uttering loud screams. The Arabs,
who rode on dromedaries, and were indifferently armed,
could not withstand the impetuosity of the onset. They
were driven back on the main body in great disorder ; but
at this critical moment the son of Mohammed Ali ordered
his more regular troops to check the conquerors by a volley
of carbines and pistols. The conflict was no longer doubt-
ful. The barbarians fled in dismay, while such of them as
fought on foot fell on their faces, holding their shields over
their heads, and imploring mercy.
Mr. Waddington relates, that the Sheygyans are singu-
larly fearless in attack, and ride up to the very faces of their
enemy with levity and gayety of heart as to a festival, or
with joy as if to meet friends from whom they had been long
separated. They then give the salami " peace be with you,"
— the peace of death which is to attend the lance that in-
stantly follows the salutation : mortal thrusts are given and
received with the words of love upon the lips. This con-
tempt of life, this mockery of what is most fearful, is pecu-
liar to themselves, — the only people to whom arms are play-
things, and war a sport, — who among their enemies seek
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 131
nothing but amusement, and in death fear nothing but
repose.*
But the result of the affair at Korti appeared in the sub-
mission of several of the inferior chiefs, and in the surrender
of their strong-holds. The pasha continued his march
into the province of Sheygya, where Melek Shoous had col-
lected the whole force of the republic with the determina-
tion of risking another battle. The position selected by the
barbarian was extremely advantageous, and which, had
there been no difference in the arms used by the contending
hosts, would probably have secured to him a decisive victory.
But the mass of peasantry whom he had dragged or induced
into the field had no other weapons than lances, shields, and
two-edged swords ; and they were placed in the front, rather
to receive and exhaust the shot of the Egyptians, than to
maintain any effectual resistance in the moment of attack.
The pasha posted his troops parallel to the enemy, placing
the greater part of his horsemen opposite to the open ground
between the mountain and the river, and pushing the artil-
lery a little in advance. The natives, uttering loud cries
and brandishing their lances, rushed forward ; and many
of the infantry, with no other arms than those already de-
scribed, threw themselves upon the cannon, and were blown
to atoms.
The desperate courage of these wretched peasants, says
the American officer, was astonishing ; they advanced more
than once to the muzzles of the pieces, and wounded some
of the artillerymen in the very act of loading them. But
after feeling the effects of a few rounds, which dashed horse
and man to pieces, they fled in dismay, leaving their foot-
soldiers " to be rode over and shot down by our cavalry, who
destroyed many hundreds of them in the pursuit. I say
1 shot down,' for the sabre was found an unavailing weapon,
as these people are so adroit in the management of their
shields that they parried every stroke. I have seen upon the
field where this battle was fought several shields that had
not less than ten or fifteen sabre-cuts, each lying upon the
dead body of the man who carried it, and who had evidently
died by two or three balls shot into him. The soldiers have
told me that they had frequently to empty their carbine and
pistols upon one man before he would fall." t
* Travels, p. 98. t Narrative of Expedition, p. 84.
132 CIVIL HISTORY OF
This unusual valour or military fanaticism has been as-
cribed to an assurance given by the magicians, that the
armies of Sheygya should prove invulnerable in the pres-
ence of the invaders. These wizards supplied the men
with heaps of consecrated dust, the sprinkling of which on
their persons was to produce the desired effect ; and hence
they advanced against the Egyptian line rather in the atti-
tude of dancing than of fighting, with countenances express-
ive of the utmost confidence and derision.* But being so
miserably deceived by the charms in which they had been
taught to put their trust, they inflicted a dreadful vengeance
on the authors of them ; for their first act after the battle
was to put to death the whole race of necromancers, and
even to destroy the village where they dwelt.
It is a singular fact that the pasha had not one man killed
in this action, and only one officer and sixteen men wounded;
and these, with scarcely any exception, in the back,
the natural consequence of their manner of fighting. They
discharge all their firearms, and then retire into the rear to
reload, while the second and succeeding ranks are firing ;
when loaded they advance again, and therefore, after the
first round the whole is a scene of confusion. The Sheygya
left six hundred men on the field of battle, and they were
allowed to remain unburied w T here they fell. Nor did Melek
Shoous and his cavalry discontinue their flight till they
reached the territory of Shendy, leaving their numerous cas-
tles, dependent villages, and a rich beautiful country, in the
hands of the conqueror.
Ishmael, it is said, exerted himself to save the flying
enemy, and succeeded in preserving some of the infantry,
chiefly Nubians ; being inhabitants of that part of Dongola
which was tributary to the Sheygyans, and attached to their
army perhaps more by force than from inclination. What-
ever truth there may be in this statement, it is admitted by
every historian of his campaign that he conducted himself
with great genei-osity towards the daughter of the Melek
Zibarra, who fell into his hands either in the field or while
attempting to escape from her father's residence after the
defeat. At all events his treatment of this barbarian prin-
cess was very noble ; for when presented to him, though
said to be young and beautiful, instead of availing himself
* Life and Adventures of Giovanni Finati vol. ii. p. 374.
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 133
of the rights of conquest, he ordered her to be richly
dressed, and a camel provided for her, and that she should
be conducted back immediately to her parent. The latter,
upon the first sight of her Egyptian ornaments, turned away
his face and asked if she had submitted to be dishonoured ;
but when she told him the truth, he embraced her, and
seemed disposed to make no further resistance to the young
victor, who had so wisely respected the domestic virtues.*"
Resistance was soon subdued by the superior arms and
discipline of the Turkish army. The cannon-shot, and more
especially the destructive effects of the shells, taught the
brave Sheygyans that courage alone could net save them
from the bondage with which they were threatened. Yet
even in this case, as Mr. Waddington remarks, their
terrors were derived from their superstition. A shell
was thrown into one of the castles, where it rolled and
bounded from side to side, as if endowed with the fac-
ulty of self-motion ; and the natives collecting around it,
were much amused with its appearance until it burst and
wounded several of them. Then they fled, exclaiming
that the " spirits of hell were come against them, and were
too strong for them." To the last they had no fear of man
or his inventions ; but, astounded by the power and novelty
of the means employed to destroy them, they came to the
hopeless conclusion, that a supernatural agency of the most
malignant kind had conspired with their mortal foes to
complete their subjection.
Cailliaud, in describing the conflict to which we now
allude, maintains that the barbarians were drunk. Some
of them, says he, threw themselves on the weapons of the
enemy, holding in their hand a vessel full of an intoxicating
liquor, and appeared as joyful as if employed at a feast.
Others cast dust at the heads of the Turks, as a mark of
their contempt ; while a third party saluted them as breth-
ren and friends. t Perhaps the dust mentioned by the
French traveller might be the charmed earth which the wiz-
ards had prepared, as the means of securing to their coun-
trymen a cheap and certain victory over their invaders.
* " When our troops approached the casUe of Melek Zibarra, his
daughter, a girl of about fifteen, fled in such haste that she dropped one
of her sandals, which I have seen. It was a piece of workmanship
as well wrought as any thing of the kind could be even in Europe." —
Narrative, p; 85. 1 Voyage a Merue, tome U p: 58.
M
134 CIVIL HISTORY OF
The fury and avarice of the conquerors occasioned many
atrocities which, it is maintained, their commander could
not altogether prevent ; though the great number of ears
and even of heads sent to Cairo indicate that his consent
had accompanied some of the worst scenes which disgraced
his triumph. Usage alone, says Cailliaud, could excuse
the pasha for having encouraged so many frightful mutila-
tions. Those shameful trophies were despatched by him to
his father as a testimony of his brilliant success.
Giovanni Finati, who, with the artist Linant employed
by Mr. Bankes, followed the path of the Egyptian army,
confirms beyond all question the remarks of Cailliaud. The
exasperation of the soldiers at having been so gallantly op-
posed, and their greediness of plunder or reward, drove them
to horrible excesses and outrages ; so that it was no wonder
that a single victory did not suffice, and that a high-spirited
people continued to do all they could against their oppress-
ors. The signs of this, he adds, were but two visible ;
" for half the natives whom we met, many even of the
women, were deprived of one or both of their ears, others
mutilated in their limbs ; while bones and carcasses, and
hovels that had been burnt, were everywhere to be seen by the
way." The persecution seemed, in fact, to have been car-
ried almost to extermination. The whole district was laid
waste, and thereby reduced, at least for the time, to a sullen
obedience.
Before we leave the people of Sheygya we may repeat
the tribute which has usually been bestowed on their hos-
pitality and literature ; qualities hardly to be expected
among tribes whose doom it was to live by their swords.
Burckhardt assures us that they are renowned for their kind-
ness to strangers, and that the person of their guest or com-
panion is held sacred. If a traveller possesses a friend
among them, and has been plundered on the road, his prop-
erty will be recovered, even if it has been taken by the king
himself. They all speak Arabic exclusively, and many of
them write and read it. Their learned men are held in great
respect by them ; they have schools, wherein all the sciences
are taught which form the course of Mohammedan study,
mathematics and astronomy excepted. " I have," says he,
" seen books copied at Merawe, written in as fine a hand
as that of the scribes of Cairo," They are also famous for
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 135
various kinds of manufactures especially for a superior de-
scription of mat, in which they surpass all the natives of
Mahass and Dongola.*
We have elsewhere delineated the march of the pasha
from Shendy to-the tenth degree of latitude ; describing his
reception at Sennaar, and the various success which at-
tended his exertions against the natives of the hill-country
beyond El Querebyn and Fazoglo. After passing Dar-
Sheygya he met no enemy who could oppose him in regular
combat, although his progress *was occasionally checked by
the mountaineers in the east and south, whose rocks he in-
vaded in search of gold.
In regard to Ibrahim, his brother, who commanded the
army whose object it was to explore the unknown regions
on the banks of the Bahr el Abiad, we are not in possession
of any more minute details than were communicated to
Cailliaud by M. Asphar, a Coptic surgeon who had accom-
panied the expedition. We learn generally, that after a
march of fourteen days from the Bahr el Azrek, or Nile of
Abyssinia, the troops under Toussoun Bey arrived at Dinka,
a town situated on the White River, about the eleventh de-
gree of latitude, or nearly in the parallel of Fazoglo. As to
the manners and usages of the inhabitants, we find not that
they differ materially from those of the tribes farther to the
north. The stream is described as being very broad at that
point ; but its precise dimensions are not stated by the phy-
sician, whose curiosity did not extend to such matters.
Upon inquiry, the natives assured the Turks that the ne-
groes who possess the countries beyond them are cannibals,
and employ poisoned arrows in battle ; and that on the
western side of the river there are other negroes, called
Shillooks, not less barbarous. Having spent eight days at
the town already mentioned, the troops returned by the way
of EI Querebyn to Sennaar, which they reached some time
before the division under Ishmael had concluded their cam-
paign in the neighbourhood of Singueh.
The long absence of the army, added to a succession of
unfavourable rumours that were circulated by the disaf-
fected, had disposed some of the chiefs near the junction of
the rivers to make an attempt to throw off the yoke which
*Burckhardt's, Travels, p. 65,
136 CIVIL HISTORY OF
had been so violently imposed. Certain examples of se-
verity, deemed necessary by the pasha, contributed also not a
little to inflame their minds. But the following occurrence
accelerated the rupture, and paved the way for the melan-
choly fate which terminated the career of Ishmael. With
the view of raising a supply of provisions or money, he in-
sisted on Nimir, the tributary melek of Shendy, to meet his
cousin, who ruled on the opposite bank, with whom he had
been some time at variance, and into whose company he had
made a vow never to enter. This excuse, however, was
treated with disdain, and he .was commanded to attend.
The melek reluctantly complied ; but when a large demand
was made on his territory, he boldly observed that the whole
country was ruined, and could not possibly meet such a
claim. The pasha checked him with great haughtiness,
and even struck him across the face with his pipe. A com-
mon interest and offended pride now reconciled the cousins,
and made them act in concert with equal promptitude and
secrecy. Ishmael's quarters were at Shendy, though this
fatal conference had taken place on the opposite bank, where
his retinue and guard were very small, occupying merely a
few huts and tents. There was indeed a detachment of
troops at no great distance ; but it was agreed between the
confederates that, while Nimir should attack the pasha and
his personal attendants, the other should fall upon the sol-
diers, or at least keep them in check. That very night,
accordingly, each of them contrived to collect a considerable
force ; and no sooner did the melek hear the firing begin at
Mettamat, where the advanced guard was stationed, than
he slew the sentinels who surrounded the cottage where
their commander slept, and immediately heaped up a pile
of straw and brush-wood, which he set on fire. Alarmed by
the dreadful situation in which he found himself placed, Ish-
mael sprang to his feet, and seizing a sabre endeavoured to
force his way through the flames ; but Nimir, who longed
for the opportunity of wiping away the stain which had
been inflicted on his honour, was ready to strike the blow,
and slew him with his own hand. Surprise on the one part,
and ferocity on the other, afforded little time for resistance ;
and in a brief space, accordingly, not a single Egyptian
soldier was left alive in Shendy or the neighbouring districts.
Cailliaud, who had already left the country, was supplied
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 137
■with some details relative to this tragical event. He tells
us that the Pasha's medical officer, a native of Greece, was
spared at the first, but only that he might afterward be
subjected to a more cruel death. The barbarians began by-
extracting all his teeth, which they divided among the
several chiefs of the province, who sewed them carefully in
little leather bags to wear on their persons as a species of
amulet ; for, in the opinion of these superstitious people,
the possessor of a physician's tooth has no malady to fear.
Having completed this cruel operation, they deprived their
victim of life.
The ruler of Egypt, informed of the unhappy destiny which
had befallen his favourite Ishmael, gave orders to Mohammed
Bey, his daughter's husband, who was then serving in
Kordofan, to inflict on the people of Shendy a suitable
punishment for their treachery. Nimir and his accom-
plices had indeed taken flight, and sought refuge in Darfur ;
but the great body of his subjects, who were necessarily
ignorant of the plot, could not remove themselves from the
fury of the avenger. Nor did the son-in-law of Ali, who
was noted for cruelty of disposition, fail to discharge with
the utmost punctuality the office which was intrusted to him.
Passing the White River, he marched by Sennaar into
Shendy, where he found innumerable, victims to sacrifice to
the manes of the murdered general. His excessive rigour,
however, produced the effect which always arises from a
similar policy. An insurrection took place in all the con-
quered districts, from Singueh to the Lower Nubia, which
not only weakened the influence of Eg} 7 pt among the native
rulers, but has created additional obstacles either to a suc-
cessful negotiation or to a permanent conquest.*
Mohammed Ali has not since made any further attempt
on the countries beyond the Cataracts. His expectations
as to gold and precious stones were entirely disappointed ;
while in regard to slaves, whether for domestic purposes or
for recruits to his black regiments, he finds that there is
greater economy in dealing with the traders from Kordofan
and Darfur, than in sending an expedition of ten thousand
soldiers into their perilous deserts. The affairs of Greece
and of Syria have now more importance in his eyes ; and
* Cailliaud, tome iii. p. 337 ; Giovanni Finati, vol. ii. p. 418.
M2
138 ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS OF
Ibrahim, whose health gave way under the parching sun and
pestilential exhalations of Sennaar, has since distinguished
his military talents in the fields of the Morea, under the
walls of the celebrated Ptolemais, and on the plains of
Damascus.
CHAPTER IV.
Architectural Monuments of Nubia and Abyssinia.
Rule for determining the Antiquity and Filiation of ancient States— Con-
nexion between Egypt, Ethiopia, and India — Excavated Temples —
Girshe, Seboua, and Derr— Different Orders of Architecture— Temple
of Osiris at Ebsamboul — Labours of Belzoni, Irby, and Mangles— Mag-
nificence of Interior, and Description of the various Halls— Dis
coveries of Mr. Bankes — Visit of Delturdar Bey — Sir F. Henniker —
Temple of Isis— Cave of Elephanta— Temples of Salsette and Ellora—
Comparison with those of Ethiopia — Temples of Soleb, of Kalatshe,
and Dondour— Opinion of Gau— Mixed Greek and Egyptian Forms —
Gebel el Berkal —Principal Temple there — Pyramids —El Belial-
Progress in the Arts— Succession of Buildings — Meroe" - Bruce, Strabo,
Cailliaud — Assour — Pyramids — M. Riippel — Naga and Messoura —
Large Temple — Opinion of M. Heereu — Of Cailliaud — Ruins at
Mandeyr and Kely-^-Conslitufion of Government at Meroe— Its Ter-
mination—Remains at Ax um -Obelisk — Errors of Bruce — Corrections
by Salt— Axum Inscription— Adulis — Inscription— Cosmas— Reference
to Dr. Vincent— Luxor and Kamac — Sacred Ship— Bond of Religion
— Lineage of the Gods— Hebrew Tribes— Decline of Learning in
Ethiopia.
In the absence of written records, there can be no doubt
that the arts, more especially those which are connected with
religion, are our best guide in tracing the affiliation and
relative antiquity of early nations. Various circumstances,
it is acknowledged, constantly interfere to diminish the ac-
curacy of all such calculations as have no other basis, and
to weaken our confidence in the most cautious inferences to
which we are led by the researches of the mere archaeologist.
This ambiguity applies in a particular manner to the de-
ductions of authors respecting the period during which any
class of monuments may be supposed to have been erected.
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 139
But it will not be denied, at the same time, that wherever
we find a striking similarity in the works, the habits, the
opinions, and the taste of ancient communities, we may
safely admit the conclusion that there must have been some
intercourse between them.
Proceeding on this broad principle, every one who has
examined the remains of Eastern kingdoms has been struck
with the conviction that the people of Egypt, of Nubia, and
of India have derived their notions of religious architecture
from the same source. In all the three countries are beheld
similar excavations in the living rock, carried to an immense
extent, and decorated with colossal figures ; huge masses of
building raised above ground, and displaying a profusion of
statuary and carving ; and also those monolithic shrines, or
chambers cut out in a single stone, which seem to defy all
the mechanical powers that modern invention has supplied
to the arts. That the land of the Pharaohs was indebted to
Ethiopia for the rudiments, and perhaps even for the finished
patterns, of architectural skill, is no longer questioned by
any writer whose studies have qualified him to form a
judgment. Gau, whose splendid work on Nubia has ac-
complished every thing which the antiquary could desire,
hesitates not to maintain as one of his first principles, that
the country just named was the cradle of Egyptian archi-
tecture, and that its monuments embrace the whole period
during which this art flourished in the latter. In other
words, he states that all the architecture of Egypt has its
types in the buildings of Nubia, from the first rude effort
to cut a temple in the rock to the construction of those de-
tached edifices which were afterward erected under the
government of the Greeks and Romans.*
When we consider the troglodyte habits of the natives in
all hot climates, the eagerness with which, by retiring into
caverns, they shun the alternate plagues of the solar beams
and the drenching rain, we shall not be surprised to learn
that they prepared, in similars recesses, a dwelling for their
gods, and a convenient asylum for the rites of their religion.
At a later period, when they began to enjoy the blessings
of security and wealth, and had opened their minds to the
sentiments of taste, they appear to have added to their ex-
* Gau's Nubia, Preface. British Museum, p. 130.
140 ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS OF
cavated temples the ornament of a portico, a propylon, and
sometimes even to have hewn down the face of the moun-
tain itself into the form of a splendid building. The progress
of a corresponding refinement has been traced both in India
and Nubia. We may distinguish, says Gau, in the archi-
tectural history of this period three great epochs ; the first
comprehends the temples cut in the sides of hills ; the second
those which are detached from the rock-cut chambers, but
retain the colossal masses of the primitive type ; and the third
embraces the small edifices of Maharraga, Gartaas, Dondour,
and several structures in Egypt.
In laying before our readers some account of the monu-
ments, which continue to perpetuate the genius and power
of the ancient inhabitants of the Upper Nile, we shall follow
the line of research suggested by the distinguished author to
whom we have just referred, and describe them according to
the simplicity of their formation, which, under the light they
are now contemplated, is equivalent to their comparative age.
We may however remark in the outset, that although
Gau, as a professional writer, has the merit of reducing to
scientific principles the distinguishing features of the several
orders of building, the notion of measuring their relative
antiquity by a reference to the simplicity of their structure
had suggested itself to other authors on more general grounds.
Waddington, for example, discovered at Gebel el Berkal two
temples, which, from being excavated in the solid rock and
having only their exterior chambers formed of masonry,
resemble those of Girshe, Seboua, and Derr. The smaller
of the two has six halls or apartments, five of which are
cut in the body of the mountain ; while the other, which
constitutes the entrance, and is thirty-six feet square, stands
on an artificial stone foundation, by means of which it is
elevated to the height of the rock wherein the former are
hollowed out. For the dimensions of the temple and of its
subordinate parts we refer to the original work, where they
appear to be given with much accuracy. It is necessary
however to observe, that near the adytum, or sacred shrine,
there are figures of Jupiter Ammon and of Horus. There
are vestiges of hieroglyphics, too, in all the chambers. On
the whole, the learned author concludes, from the plainness
of the masonry, from the rudeness and decay of the re-
maining sculptures, and from the raggedness and decompo-
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 141
sition of the walls, though they had been sheltered probably
for ages by the solid rock from the sun and wind, that this
is older than any' of the temples of Egypt or even of Xubia.*
Burckhardt visited the ruined structure at Seboua ; be-
fore which, he tells us, is a propylon similar to that of Gorne
at Thebes. The pronaos has five columns without capitals
on each of its longest sides : in front of each, and joined to
it, is a colossal figure (like those at Gorne) sixteen feet in
height, having the arms crossed upon the breast, with the
flail in one hand and the crosier in the other. Opposite to
the entrance there lies on the ground a huge statue, the head
and bust of which are buried in the sand : it probably stood
on the side of the gate, like the colossi at Luxor ; it is a
male figure, and in the same attitude as those on the facade
of the temple of Isis at Ebsamboul. In front of the propylon,
and about thirty yards distant from it, are two statues ten
feet in height, and seven paces from each other ; their faces
are towardsthe river, and they are attached by the back to a
stone pillar of equal elevation ; they are rudely executed,
proportion being so little observed that the ears are half the
length of the head ; they both wear the high bonnet, and
represent unbearded males. An avenue of sphinxes leads
from the bank to the temple ; but the greater part of them
are now buried. Four remain by the side of the two last-
mentioned statues, differing from each other in shape and
size, but all having the bodies of lions with the heads of
young men, and the usual narrow beard under the chin.
" The whole fabric appears to be of the remotest antiquity,
and to have been imitated by the more modern architects
of Egypt ; for the propylon and the pronaos, with its colossal
figures, are found at Gorne on a larger scale ; the two
statues in advance of the propylon are the miniatures of
those in front of the Memnonium ; and the sphinxes are
seen at Karnac."t
The sculptures, as well from the friable nature of the
stone as from their great age, are much obliterated ; but a
Briareus with two bodies may still be distinguished on the
outside wall of the propylon. A similar remark applies to
the rock-cut temple of Derr, on which the same repre-
sentation is seen ; the pattern, as it would appear, for those
* Journal of a Visit to some Parts of Ethiopia, p. 169. t Travels, p. 90.
142 ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS OF
more magnificent labours of the statuary which adorn the
ruins at Luxor and Edfou. It is deserving of notice, how-
ever, that the excavated fane at Derr has no construction in
front like that of Gebel el Berkal ; no outer chambers, or
pronaos, or propylon, formed of stone and mortar. It shows,
says Gau, in its marks of age, and in the imperfection of its
execution, traces of the highest antiquity, and of the infancy
of the art. This infant state is easily recognised in all parts
of the architecture, and in the remnants of the primitive
sculpture ; as, for example, the statues with their barks to
the pillars of the pronaos, and that in the niche of the sanc-
tuary, which is a portion of the solid rock. The bas-reliefs
of the interior walls show, on the contrary, the progress
which the arts made in the interval between the commence-
ment and the completion of this excavation. In fact, it
appears that this, which is certainly one of the oldest monu-
ments in Lower Nubia, contains in itself a -history of the
gradual improvement of architecture and sculpture as ap-
plied to sacred places. Here, as elsewhere, the procession
of the ship is exhibited on the walls of the adytum ; an
emblem to which we shall hereafter call the attention of the
reader, as being connected at once with the ancient current
of population, andwith the origin of many of the religious
opinions that were common to Egypt and Ethiopia.
The temple of Girshe evidently belongs to the more
simple order of structures, and indicates a very imperfect
condition of all the arts connected with architecture. There
is a portico, consisting of five square columns on each side,
cut out of the rock, with a row of circular ones in front con-
structed of - several blocks, and which originally supported
an entablature. Of these only two remain. Before each
of the square-sided columns stands a colossal statue of
sandstone about eighteen feet high, holding a flail in one
hand, the other hanging down. They all represent male
figures, with the narrow beard under the chin, and the high
sphinx-cap on the head ; the shoulders being covered with
hieroglyphical inscriptions. On both sides of the portico is
an open alley hewn in the rock, from whence, perhaps, the
materials of the first colonnade were taken. The pronaos,
which is entered from the portico by a large gate, is eighteen
paces square, and contains two rows, three in each, of im-
mense columns or rather props, for they are without capi-
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 143
tals, measuring five feet by seven in the plan. In front of
each of these is a colossal figure more than twenty feet in
height, representing the usual juvenile character, with the
corn measure or bonnet on his head, the hands crossed upon
the breast, and holding the flail and crosier. All those
statues are rudely executed ; the outlines of their bodies
being very incorrect, and their legs mere round blocks ; yet
they had a striking effect in this comparatively small apart-
ment. " Indeed," says Burckhardt, " accustomed as I had
been to the grandeur of Egyptian temples, of which I had
examined so many incomparable specimens, I was neverthe-
less struck with admiration on entering this gloomy pronaos,
and beholding these immense figures standing in silence
before me. They immediately recalled to my memory the
drawings I had seen of the caves near Surat and other
Indian excavated temples, which in many respects bear a
strong resemblance to those of Nubia. On the side-walls
of the pronaos are four recesses or niches, in each of which
are three statues of the natural size, representing the dif-
ferent symbolical male and female figures which are seen
on the walls of the temples of Egypt. The centre figures
are generally clothed in a long dress, while the others are
naked. All these, as well as the colossi, are covered with a
thick coat of stucco, and had once been painted ; they must
then have had a splendid appearance. A door leads from
the pronaos into the cella, in the middle of which are two
massy pillars, and on either side a small apartment, which
was probably a place of sepulture ; in the floor of each are
high stone benches which may have served for supporting
mummies, or perhaps as tables for embalming the bodies
deposited in the temple. Of the sculpture and hieroglyphics
with which the walls of this temple were covered very little
is now discernible, the sandstone being of a very friable
nature and soon falling to decay. Added to this, the walls
are quite black with smoke from the fires kindled by the
neighbouring shepherds, who often pass the night in the
temple with their cattle ; enough, however, still remains to
show that the sculptures are rudely executed. The colossal
figures are in good preservation, particularly those of the
pronaos."*
* Burckhardt's Travels, p. 99, 100.
144 ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS OF
We need hardly observe that this is the same place which
by other travellers is called Guerfeh Hassan, or Gwersh
Hassan, and is described with much minuteness in several
of their works. Sir F. Henniker says of it, — "Here is an
excavation in the mountain, on entering into which the
astonishment and delight that seizes your mind is equal to
that which would be felt on entering a room twice as high
as rooms generally are, and in which stand six giants three
times as tall as a tall man. They are drawn up in line, three
on either side, but do not improve upon examination ;. for
they are so ill-proportioned, that they appear to have been
made by a stonecutter's journeyman rather than by a sculp-
tor ; the ankle is thirty-three inches in circumference, but
the foot is only a yard long, and from the sole to the knee it
is scarcely more."*
But of all the temples belonging to the class of excava-
tions that of Ebsamboul is by far the most striking. The
desert in the course of centuries had so completely over-
whelmed it with sand, that nothing more appeared to the
eye of the traveller through Nubia than the bust of one of the
colossal figures which were placed in front of the entrance.
The dimensions of this statue were, however, so great as to
excite a deep feeling of curiosity among all who examined
it. Finati, who was in the service of Mr. Bankes, relates,
that when he stood upon a level with the necklace he could
hardly reach the beard, while one of the sailors climbed and
sat across upon the ear ; yet the countenance, he adds, seen
at its proper distance, appeared very beautiful.
At a later date a party, consisting of Mr. Belzoni, Captains
Irby and Mangles, Giovanni himself, who attended in
character of janizary, and two. servants, undertook to re-
move the sand, so far at least as to ascertain whether there
were a door or any other access to the interior. They at
first relied upon the assistance of the natives, who willingly
entered into terms ; but the increasing fatigue, the hopeless
nature of the undertaking, and perhaps other motives which
were never very distinctly understood, induced them to
break their engagement. If our travellers neglected the
means of attracting and conciliating the people, they proved
at least that they knew admirably well how to make shift
* Notes during a Visit, p. 154.
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 145
without them ; for no sooner was ail external aid withdrawn,
than with a zeal and spirit, and a perseverance not to be ex-
ceeded, the}' undertook at a very hot season of the year, and
with a scanty supply of necessaries, to complete the labour
in their own persons. They continued working day after
day in the sand, from sunrise till after dark, relieving each
other in turn every four hours, and stripping to the skin for
the exertion. Some of the number, says Finati, and espe-
cially the two captains, did each with -his own hands the
work often Nubians.*
Alluding to the scanty supply of food amid their unremit-
ting toil, he remarks, that " one of the expedients resorted
to for driving us to desist or forcing us to terms was to
starve us out of the place, and in consequence little or
nothing was brought thither for sale ; it was very rare that
we had any meat during all our slay, and no milk or butter
latterly, so that we were frequently reduced to a meal or
two of dhoura corn boiled in water, with occasionally a glass
of date-brandy after it."
After a continuance of these exertions and privations up-
wards of three weeks, a corner of the doorway at length
became visible. At that very moment, when fresh clamours
and new disputes were going on with the natives, Finati,
being the slenderest of the party, crept through into the in-
terior, and was thus perhaps, as he himself remarks, the first
that entered it for a thousand years. Unlike all the other
grottoes in Egypt and Nubia, its atmosphere, instead of pre-
senting'a refreshing coolness, was a hot and damp vapour,
resembling that of a Turkish bath, and so penetrating, that
paper soon became as much saturated with moisture as if it
had been dropped into the river. It was, however, a con-
soling as well as an unexpected circumstance, that the run
of sand extended but a very little inside the door, while the
remainder of the chambers were all clear and unencumbered.
The first impression convinced them that it was evidently
a very large place ; but their astonishment increased when
they found it to be one of the most magnificent of temples,
enriched with beautiful intaglios, paintings, and colossal
figures. The pronaos is fifty-seven feet long and fifty-two
wide, supported by two rows of square pillars in a straight
* Life and Adventures, vol, il. p. 201.
N
146 ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS OF
line from the front to the door of the sekos. Each pillar has
a figure not unlike those of Medinet Abou, finely executed,
and very little injured by time. The tops of their turbans
reach the ceiling, which is about thirty feet high ; the pillars
are five feet and a half square. Both these and the walls
are covered with splendid carvings, the style of which is
somewhat superior, or at least bolder, than that of any in
Egypt, not only in the workmanship, but also in the sub-
jects. They exhibit battles, storming of castles, triumphs
over enemies, and numerous sacrifices. Some of the
colours are much injured by the close and heated atmo-
sphere, the temperature of which was so great that the ther-
mometer must have risen to a hundred and thirty degrees.
The second hall is about twenty-two feet high, thirty-
seven wide, and twenty-five and a half long. It contains
four pillars more than three feet square ; and the walls are
also covered with fine hieroglyphics in pretty good preserva-
tion. Beyond this is a shorter chamber, but of the same
width, in which is the entrance into the sanctuary. At each
end of it is a door leading into smaller apartments in the
same direction with the adytum, each eight feel by seven.
The sanctuary itself is twenty-three feet long and twelve
feet broad. It presents a pedestal in the centre, and at the
end four colossal figures in a sitting posture ; all in good
order, not having been mutilated by any violent means.
On the right side of the great hall, entering into the
temple, are two doors at a short distance from each other,
which lead into two separate rooms ; the first thirty-nine
feet in length and eleven and a half wide ; the other forty-
eight feet and a half by thirteen feet three inches. At the
end of the former are several unfinished hieroglyphics, of
which some, though merely sketched, give fine ideas of their
manner of drawing. At the lateral corners of the entrance
from the first into the second chamber are doors, each of
which conducts into an apartment twenty-two feet and a
half long and ten feet broad. These rooms open into others,
forty-three feet in length and eleven feet wide.
But the most remarkable subjects in this temple are a
group of captive Ethiopians in the western corner ; the
hero killing a man with his spear, another lying slain
under his feet ; and the storming of a castle in the vicinity.
The outside or external front is truly magnificent. It is a
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 147
hundred and seventeen feet wide and eighty-six feet high ;
the space from the top of the cornice to the top of the door
being sixty-six feet six inches, and the dimensions of the
door itself twenty feet. There are four enormous colossal
figures in the attitude of sitting ; the largest indeed in
Nubia or Egypt, except the great sphinx at the Pyramids,
to which they approach in the proportion of nearly two-
thirds. From the shoulder to the elbow they measure fif-
teen feet six inches ; the ears three feet six inches ; the
face seven feet ; the beard five feet six inches : across the
shoulders twenty-five feet four inches : their height is about
fifty-one feet, not including the caps, which are about four-
teen. On the top of the door is a statue of Osiris twenty
feet in length, with two colossal hieroglyphic figures, one
on each side, looking towards the god. The temple has,
besides a cornice with hieroglyphics, a torus and a frieze
under it ; the first is six feet broad, the last four feet.
Above the cornice is a row of sitting monkeys, (wenty-one
in number, which are eight feet high and six across the
shoulders. Belzoni remarks that it must have had a fine
landing-place, now buried under the sand ; adding, that it is
the best and largest temple excavated in the solid rock in
Nubia between the first and second cataracts, or even in
Egypt.*
Finati states that the floors of all the apartments were
covered over with a very black and fine dust, which, ob-
serving its resemblance to the remains of decayed lintels in
most of the doorways, he conjectured to be pulverized
wood. He observes also, that in the great hall there were
eight colossal statues standing, four on a side, which seemed
to bear the ceiling on their heads. There were found in it
two detached figures of lions with faces of birds, which
were dragged out for the purpose of being transmitted to
Mr. Salt, with some other loose pieces of statuary collected
in the several chambers ; some of these to the right and
left being less finely painted than the principal one, and
appearing to have been devoted to sepulchral uses. The
labour of taking plans and measurements, and some views
as well as sketches from historical subjects delineated on
the walls, occupied Mr. Beechey a few days ; after which
* Belzoni's Narrative, vol. i. p. 330.
148 ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS OF
the party, who still found the utmost difficulty in obtaining
provisions, descended the Nile.*
At a subsequent period Mr. Bankes visited Ebsamboul ;
on which occasion, says his faithful janizary, was achieved
a still greater labour, being no less than the uncovering of
one of the four colossal sitting figures down to the very
feet ; for in the excavation which took place under the
auspices of Belzoni, the disinterring of the statues was not
accomplished lower than the waist, the doorway in the
centre being then the sole aim and object. For this new
purpose, therefore, the number of men employed was very
great, and almost three weeks were devoted to it. When
the work was finished the effect was unusually striking,
from the complete preservation in which every part of this
enormous statue was found ; and attendant figures, also
larger than life, were brought into view, one between the
ieet, and one at each extremity of the chair, A few letters
scratched on the surface of the legs had, from the antiquity
which he was disposed to ascribe to their form, excited Mr.
Bankes's curiosity so much, that, judging it likely that the
limbs of the_ colossus which was nearest to the door would
furnish the best examples, he undertook to pursue the
inquiry farther.
But to accomplish this object it was necessary so far to
undo what had been done, that the sand was rolled down
again on much of that statue which had been uncovered, in
order to lay bare what was wanting of the adjoining figure ;
the distance from the river being too great to get rid of the
dust altogether without a greater expenditure of time and
labour than he could afford. Within three or four days, not-
withstanding, a large and long inscription began to make
its appearance, and to show itself above the surface by de-
grees ; yet it lay so deep, and the position was so awkward
for opening it, that it was a work of difficulty and contri-
vance to obtain the last line, which was only at length
brought about by consolidating the sand with immense quan-
tities of water poured upon it. The discovery, however,
which delighted all who were concerned in making it, was
considered an ample recompense for the toil.f
" Life and Adventures, vol. ii. p. 208.
t The inscription, Mr. Bankes informs us, relates to the king Psam-
meticus. and is certainly among the very earliest extant in the Greek
language.
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 149
But as soon as the writing was copied, the inferior part
of the statue was again covered by the sand, which became
dry and ran down. The next task was to clear the fourth
colossal head, — which had never before emerged above the
surface, — for the sake of making a general drawing of the
whole ; and the exterior was thus left greatly disencumbered
for travellers who might come after, as the level of the drift
was lowered many feet throughout its whole extent, espe-
cially where it encroaches with the greatest weight upon
the front. The inside of the temple, meanwhile, was lighted
up every day, and almost all day long, with from twenty to
fifty small wax candles fixed upon clusters of palm-branches,
which, being attached to upright poles, spread like the arms
of a chandelien more than half-way to the ceiling. This
enabled Mr. Bankes and the other draughtsmen to copy all
the paintings in detail as they stood, almost naked, upon
their ladders.*
While the party were so busied within and without, it
happened that the Defturdar Bey, son-in-law of Mohammed
Ali, and governor of the upper country, came to investigate
on the spot how far the second cataract was practicable for
boats, preparatory to the expedition against Dongola and
Sennaar, then secretly in contemplation. He stopped, in
passing, to pay his compliments to Mr. Bankes, when he
was induced to creep into the temple. He was much as-
tonished to find so many lights burning, and so many hands
employed in such an atmosphere, for purposes which he
could not comprehend, and which it was in vain to endeavour
to explain to him, for he always returned to the question,
" What treasures have they found ]"t
It is rather unpleasant to reflect, that the labour bestowed
at Ebsamboul was not attended with any permanent effects ;
for the winds of the desert, and the natural lubricity of
sand, soon rendered the approach to the temple nearly as
difficult as before. When Sir F. Henniker visited that
country, about two years afterward, the doorway was cov-
ered up, and the natives informed him that it would require
the services of thirty men for twelve days to effect an en-
trance. " To prove that they are not to be believed," says
* Life and Adventures of Giovanni Finati, vcl. ii. p. 314.
t Ibid O 317
N2
150 ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS OF
he, " I forced in a pole ; round this I wound a sheet, and
having spread another on the surface of the sand to prevent
it from flowing down upon us, we succeeded after seven
hours' exertion in constructing a kind of wind-sail or chim-
ney. By means of this I entered, and immediately beheld
eight majestic statues, whose size when compared with that
of man, and still more magnified by the dimness that sur-
rounds them, calls upon me to corroborate the reports in
favour of this temple above all others. Ebsamboul is the ne
plus ultra of Egyptian labour, and is in itself an ample
recompense for my journey. There is no temple of either
Dendera, Thebes, or Philse that can be put in competition
with it ; and I am well contented to finish my travels in
this part with having seen the noblest monument of anti-
quity that is to be found on the banks of the Nile."*
The fane now described is distinguished as the temple of
Osiris ; for it is well known that there are two at a very
short distance from each other, the smaller of which is
dedicated to Isis, whose name it usually bears. This, as
well as the other, is entirely excavated in the sandstone
rock, the front of which has been hewn down, and three
statues cut out of it ornament either side of the door.
These six gigantic figures are sculptured in relief, standing
erect, with their arms hanging stiffly down. Beneath each
hand is also an upright statue seven feet in height, which
does not however reach above the knees of its principal.
The part of the rock which has been smoothed for the face
of the temple is a hundred and eleven feet long. The de-
vices begin on the north side, with a human figure extending
his right hand, armed with an instrument like a sickle, to-
wards Osiris, who is seated. Before him is a table of hiero-
glyphics well executed, probably expressing the object of
his application to the divinity. The next ornament is a
colossal statue of about thirty feet, wrought in a deep niche
of the precipice ; it is standing, and two tall feathers rise
up from the middle of the headdress, with the globe or
moon on each side. In a projection of the rock, shaped
like a buttress and covered with hieroglyphics, is a colossal
statue of Isis carved in high relief. The dress of the head
is lofty, and enclosed, as usual, between two horns : the hair
* Notes during a Visit to Egypt, &c. p. 160.
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. „ 151
falls on each shoulder in a round mass ; the left hand is
brought across the breast, and holds something like a mace.
Then comes a similar projection in the cliff, covered also
with hieroglyphics, followed by another niche, in which is a
statue more massy than either of the other two, and of
large dimensions. The sides of the door are in like manner
crowded with hieroglyphics, over which are seated Oiiris
and the hawk-headed deity. On each side of the passage
in entering offerings are presented to Isis, who holds in her
hand the lotus-headed sceptre, surrounded with numerous
inscriptions and emblems. Near to a prie6t of Amnion sits
a most miserable palsied figure, the very victim of terror ;
he holds a feeble scourge in his hand, and is paiuted red ;
the other figures are yellow. Close to him there.is a table
loaded with sacred gifts, which are offered to a hero or a
god, who has his hand extended towards the other in a
most threatening attitude. The six columns in the middle
of the chamber are also covered with hieroglyphics, and
representations of the ram-headed, the hawk-headed, the
ibis-headed deity, together with the lion-headed goddess or
Isis, all with the globe or moon over them. The capitals
of the columns are human heads, and are adorned with nu-
merous hieroglyphics.
In the second chamber similar figures, inscriptions, and
devices present themselves. Much interesting sculpture
also is lavished upon this as well as upon the third apartment,
a great part of which is well executed ; and in a niche at
the upper end of the latter is seated a small statue of Nephthe
the wife of Typhon.*
This temple, which is only a few yards from the brink of
the river, and about twenty feet above the present level of
is water, has been much more completely examined than
the larger one, because its approach is at all times free from
sand. The front is ninety-one feet long; the depth of the
excavation, measured from the door to the extremity of the
adytum, is seventy-six feet. A number of ovals, or car-
touches, as they are called by Champollion, containing the
name and prsenomen of Harnesses the Great, are cut in sev-
eral places of the square border that encloses the front of
* Travels along the Mediterranean and Parts Adjacent. By Rob
Richardson, M.D., vol. i. p. 426.
152 ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS OF
the temple like a frame, and on the buttresses between the
colossal figures. Gau remarks, " that this facade, though
cut in the mountain, displays very distinctly the general
character of the great propyla, of which it presents the ori-
ginal form in bas-relief. We easily recognise the outline
of each of the two parts of the propylon with the, doorway
between them, and the appendage of the statues, which are
so cut out of the rock as to differ in no respect from the
colossi, which at a later period were placed in front of the
propyla. The interior is in good preservation, with the ex-
ception of the statue in the recess of the sanctuary, and it
is richly adorned with painted bas-reliefs. The principal
colour of the figures is yellow ; the ceiling is blue, a fa-
vourite tint for that purpose among the Egyptians ; and a
border of three colours runs all round."*
Every reader is aware that, between the order of religious
houses now delineated and a similar class in India, the re-
semblance is so great as to have suggested to many eastern
antiquaries the notion of a common origin, as well in regard
to the mythology as the principles of architecture. Of all
the excavated temples in Hindostan, that in the island of
Elephanta is the best known in this part of the world,
having been frequently described by European travellers.
" The entrance into it," says Mr. Erskine, " is by a spacious
front, supported by two massy pillars and two pilasters,
forming three openings under a thick and steep rock over-
hung by brushwood and wild shrubs. The long ranges of
columns that appear closing in perspective on every side ;
the flat roof of solid rock that seems to be prevented from
falling only by the massy pillars, whose capitals are pressed
down and flattened, as if by the superincumbent weight ;
the darkness that obscures the interior of the temple, which
is dimly lighted only by the entrances ; and the gloomy ap-
pearance of the gigantic stone figures ranged along the
wall, and hewn, like the whole temple, out of the living
rock, joined to the strange uncertainty that hangs over the
history of the place, — carry back the mind to distant pe-
riods, and impress it with thaf kind of religious awe with
which the grander works of ages of darkness are generally
contemplated."
* Gau's Nubia, p. 8.
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 153
" The whole excavation consists of three principal parts ;
the great temple itself, which is in the centre, and two
smaller chapels, one on each side of the great temple.
These two chapels do not come forward into a straight line
with the front of the chief temple, are not perceived on ap-
proaching the temple, and are considerably in recess, being
approached by two narrow passes in the hill, one on each
side of the grand entrance, but at some distance from it.
After advancing to some distance up these confined passes,
we find each of them conduct to another front of the grand
excavation, exactly like the principal front, which is first
seen ; all the three fronts being hollowed out of the solid
rock, and each consisting of two huge pillars with two
pilasters. The two side fronts are precisely opposite to
each other on the east and west, the grand entrance facing
the north. The two wings of the temple are at the upper
end of these passages, and are close by the grand excava-
tion, but have no covered passage to connect them with it.
" The great temple is about one hundred and thirty feet
and a half long, measuring from the chief entrance to the
farthest end of the cave, and one hundred and thirty-three
feet broad from the eastern to the western entrance. It
rests on twenty-six pillars (eight of them now broken) and
sixteen pilasters ; and, neither the floor nor the roof being
in one plane, it varies in height from seventeen and a half
to fifteen feet. The plan is regular, there being eight pillars
and pilasters in a line from the northern entrance to the
southern entrance of the temple, and the same number from
the eastern to the western entrances. The pillars, which
all appear to run in straight lines parallel to each other and
at equal distances, are crossed by other ranges running at
right angles in the opposite direction ; they are strong and
massy, of an order remarkably well adapted to their situa-
tion and the purpose which they are to serve, and have an
appearance of very considerable elegance. They are not
all of the same form, but differ both in their size and orna-
ments, though this difference also does not at first strike
the eye.
" The figure that faces the principal entrance is the most
remarkable in this excavation, and has given rise to num-
berless conjectures and theories. It is a gigantic bust rep-
resenting some three-headed being, or three of the heads
154 ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS OF
of some being to whom the temple may be supposed to be
dedicated. One head faces the spectator, another looks to
the right, the third to the left ; a fourth maybe imagined to
be concealed behind. It may give some idea of its bulk to
mention, that from the top of the cap of the middle figure
to the bottom of the image is seventeen feet ten inches,
while the horizontal curved line embracing the three heads
at the height of the eyes is twenty-two feet nine inches in
length.
"Travellers have entertained very different ideas of the
degree of genius and art displayed in this temple, and the
figures around it ; some are disposed to rate them very
high, and speak in rapturous terms of the execution and
design of several of the compartments. To me it appears,
that while the whole conception and plan of the temple is
extremely grand and magnificent, and while the outline and
disposition of the several figures indicate great talent and
ingenuity, the execution and finishing of the figures in
general (though some of them prove the sculptor to have
great merit) fall below the original idea, and are often very
defective. The figures have somewhat of rudeness and
want of finish ; the proportions are sometimes lost, the at-
titudes forced, and every thing indicates the infancy of the
art, though a vigorous infancy.
" Nothing presents itself in these excavations which can
lead to a satisfactory solution of the important and curious
question, In what age or by what dynasty was this vast
temple completed 1 One fact is worthy of notice, that a
greater number of magnificent cave temples present them-
selves in a small space on this coast than are to be met with
in any other part of India. The caves of Elephanta, those
of Kenneri, Amboli, and some others on the island of Sal-
sette, the fine cave of Carli, on the road by the Bor Ghaut
to Poonah, the still more extensive and magnificent ranges
at Ellora, not to mention some smaller cave-temples in the
Concan and near the Adjanta pass, are all on Mahratta
ground, and seem to show the existence of some great and
powerful dynasty, which must have reigned many years
to complete works of such labour and extent."*"
* Account of the Cave-temple of Elephanta, by W. Erskine, Esq.
in Transactions of the Literary Society of Bombay, vol. i. p. 210, 249.
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 155
We have indulged in this copious extract from an article
which is in itself extremely interesting, to enable the reader
to compare the excavated temple of Elephanta with those
of Ebsamboul. The general plan is the same in both, —
massy pillars, huge figures, emblematical devices, and mys-
terious ornaments. The serpent and the lotus tend still
further to identify the ancient superstitions to the uses of
which those stupendous works were undertaken. But no
tradition on which we can rely connects the spacious tem-
ples of the Upper I\"ile with those of Western India, al-
though there can be little doubt that, in remote ages, there
was an intercourse more or less regular between their inhab-
itants. Gau holds the opinion that the monuments of Hin-
dostan are later in their origin than those of Nubia ; and
we may remark, as in some degree confirmative of this no-
tion, that one of the figures in the cave of Elephanta is
described by Mr. Erskine as having thick lips, and bearing
in other respects a resemblance to an African countenance.
Conjecture on this subject, however, cannot possibly lead
to any satisfactory result, because we do not yet possess
such knowledge relative tp the architecture, the sculpture,
and mythology of the East as would justify a decided con-
clusion in regard to their precise objects.
But the works now mentioned, as well as those which
have been found in the neighbouring island of Salsette, are
greatly surpassed by the excavations of Ellora in the province
of Hydrabad. Here we have a granite mountain in the
form of an amphitheatre, completely chiselled out from top
to bottom, and filled with innumerable temples. To describe
the galleries and columns which support various chambers
lying one above another, the stairs, porticoes, and bridges
over canals, also hewn out of the solid rock, would be im-
possible. Suffice it to state, that the chief temple, called
Kailasa, is entered under a balcony, after which we come to
an antechamber 138 feet wide and 88 long, with many rows
of pillars, and adjoining rooms which may have been
apartments for pilgrims or the dwellings of the priests.
From this chamber we pass through a great portico and
over a bridge into an immense hall, 247 feet long and 150
broad, in the middle of which is the shrine, consisting of one
mass of rock. This monolith itself measures 103 feet long
and 56 wide, while it rises to the most surprising height of
] 56 ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS OF
100 feet in a pyramidal form. It is hollowed out to the
height of 17 feet, and supported by four rows of pillars, with
colossal elephants which seem to bear the enormous mass
and give life and animation to the whole. From the roof
of this stupendous sanctuary, which has a gallery of rock
round it, bridges lead to other side arches which have not
yet been explored. The whole mass besides is covered with
sculptures.*
A more minute comparison of the cave-temples of India
with those excavated by the ancient Ethiopians would lead us
away from our proper subject. We may venture to remark,
however, that there are many points of resemblance between
the pagodas of the former country and the regular structures
of Egypt, all the parts of which are above ground. For
example, the pyramidal entrance to the one is analogous to
the propylon of the other, while the large-pillared rooms
which support a roof of stone are found frequently in the
edifices of both regions. Among the numerous divisions of
the cave at Ellora, there is an upper story of the Dasavatara,
or the temple of Vishnu's incarnations, the roof of which is
supported by sixty-four square-based pillars, eight in each
row. This chamber is about a hundred feet wide, and
somewhat deeper ; and as to general design may be com-
pared with the excavated chambers of Egypt, which are
supported by square columns. The massy materials, the
dark rooms, and the walls covered with highly-wrought
sculptures ; and the tanks near the temple, with their en-
closures of stone, and the steps for the pilgrims, are also
equally characteristic of a pagoda and an Egyptian temple.
To this we may add the high thick wall, of a rectangular
form, carried all round the sacred spot. There is a further
resemblance worth noticing between some of the Hindoo
temples and that of Phtha at Memphis. The latter had four
chief entrances, or propyla, turned to the cardinal points of
the compass ; and this is also the case with the pagoda of
Chillumbrum, and with another at Seringham. The first
of these, according to Indian tradition, is one of the oldest
in their country ; which opinion is confirmed by the ap-
pearance of the principal temple contained within the walls ;
but other parts, such as the pyramidal gateways, the highly-
* British Museum, p. 182.
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 159
finished sculptures, and the chain festoons, must be the work
of a later date. It seems probable, then, that this vast re-
ligious edifice was the produce of many ages ; each adding
something to enlarge and perfect the magnificent under-
taking of former times. *
It is rather hazardous, says the author on whose state-
ments we now rely, to point out minor resemblances between
Ethiopian and Hindoo buildings, when the latter are so im-
perfectly represented. But one of Daniel's views exhibits
an example of the latter in the background, which has a
very Egyptian appearance. It is near Mahabalipoor.
There are four pillars in front, the two extreme ones occu-
pying the angles, and having behind them, in a right angle
with the first row, three others, of which one indeed may be
a pilaster. Thus the front row. and the side rows form a
portico, which is covered over with flat stones, exactly in the
fashion of the Nile. In the. centre of the wall, at the back
part of the gateway, there appears to be ft door.t
Leaving the rock-temples both in India and Nubia, over
the history and design of which so dark a cloud is still sus-
pended, we return to an examination of the more perfect class
of structures ; the intermediate stage, it is probable, between
the excavations just mentioned and the magnificent buildings
of Karnac and Luxor. We have already described the ruins
of Soleb, which present to the eye of the artist so many
things worthy of his admiration, and belong, it has been
justly concluded, to an advanced era in the architectural
history of the Ethiopian tribes, f We therefore select the
temple of Samne,"as an additional specimen of the style
now alluded to, which we have also taken the further pains
to illustrate by means of the annexed view from the west,
supplied by a recent traveller.
It is built, we are told, of sandstone, and differs in its
shape from other Egyptian edifices, though it somewhat
resembles in its plan the small chapel at Elephantine. It
consists of a principal building about thirty-six feet in length
and nine in width. On each side stood originally four small
pillars, of which two remain on the one hand and three on
the other;, one of the former has a polygonal shaft, tha
x * British Museum, p..lS6. . t Ibid. p. 187.
TSee page 30 of this volume.
160 ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS OF
remainder being square ; they are fill covered with sculp
tures, and the pillars are joined to the main building by
blocks of stone, which serve as a roof to the vestibule. The
inner walls of the apartment are adorned with hieroglyphics
and mystic representation's of the divine worship. On both
sides a long ship is delineated, with Osiris in it ; and the
group of two figures resting their hands upon each other's
shoulders is everywhere repeated. The roof is painted
blue, and there are some remains of colour on several of the
carvings.
« Near the back-wall, opposite the main entrance, a statue
about five feet in length lies on the floor, the head of which
has been-cut off; the arms are crossed" upon the breast,
while in one hand is the flail, and in the other the instrument
usually called a crosier. On the outer wall Burckhardt dis-
tinguished some figures of Mendes, the -Jupiter Amnion of
the Greeks and later Egyptians. All the sculptures are
rather coarsely executed ; and the lines dividing the com-
partments wherein the hieroglyphics are cut are not straight,
the effect either of intention or of great ignorance in the
first principles of art. But it deserves notice, that the same
remark applies to the architectural labours' of the Hindoos,
in which there are .constant deviations from rectilinear
position, -even in the arrangement of the finest columns.
Some of the hieroglyphics on the pillars have evidently teen
left unfinished, and those which, are - completed do not
appear to have proceeded from the hand of a master. A
part of the wall, too, seems to be of a date different from the
rest, as it is constructed of stones, at once much larger and
better hewn. There must, in fact, have been another similar
building near this temple, for the capitals of many columns
are scattered about on the ground, and there is a large block
of granite covered with hieroglyphics, surrounded with heaps
of rubbish. The structure itself is enclosed with ruined
edifices, formed of brick, unquestionably of great antiquity,
and covering the hill which overhangs the shore. It is
concluded that they were places of strength, and connected
with certain fortifications, the remains of which can still be
detected.* . . r
\n the volumes of Burckhardt, Captain Light, Legh,
* Burckhardt, Travis in Nubia, p. 75
NUDIA AND ABYSSINIA. 161
Richardson, Heriniker, Cailliaud, and Waddington, there is
to be found an ample description of the ruinous temples on
either side of the Nile, from Sosan to Meroe, occasionally
accompanied with excellent drawings and plans. But there
is so much sameness in the details, especially as to the
measurements, the number of chambers, the statues,
columns, inscriptions, and hieroglyphics, that we refrain even
from an abridgment of their researches, which, in certain
cases, could not be easily understood without the aid of en-
gravings and other architectural delineations. We cannot
however omit the temple of Kalabshe, which is distinguished
for a beautiful propylon, represented in the work of Captain
Light in the finest style of art. The remains of the building
are an abutment of masonry, that rises, above the bank of
the river, at about a hundred and eighty feet from the front,
to which there is a paved approach. On each side of this
pavement there appears to have been a low of sphinxes, one
of which is seen without the head. At the end of it there
seems to have been steps leading to a terrace thirty-six feet
in breadth, from -Which rises two pyramidal moles eighteen
or twenty feet thick, with a gateway between them, forming
a facade of not less than a hundred and ten feet. Inside
there is a court of about forty feet, which appears to have
had a colonnade joining the propylon with the- portico.
This last .consists of four columns,' attached for half their
height to a wall, raised in the centre to form an entrance.
The front of it is plain, with the exception of a winged
globe over the gateway. A lateral wall divides it from a
suit of four innet apartments, within the first of which there
appears to have been a colonnade, as some fragments of
shafts and capitals still remain. The three others are
covered with the usual hieroglyphics and symbolical figures,
the colouring in general being still fresh and bright.*
The temple of Dondour is likewise worthy of attention,
owing to the peculiarities of its style. The greater part of
the enclosure, according to Mr. Legh, is quite perfect, and
the propylon also has been but little injured. It is obvious,
at the same time, that the interior has never been completed.
There are two columns which form the entrance into the
body of the building, and are ornamented with serpents.
Light, p. 64.
2
m
1G2 ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS OF
The sekos consists, as usual, of three apartments; the first
measures eighteen feet in length and twenty in breadth ;
the eolumns are three feet in diameter, and about seventeen
in height to the. top of the cornice ; the winged globes on
the architraves of the temple itself, as well as of the propylon,
are supported in the wonted manner by two snakes. The
hieroglyphics .are sculptured in a good style, showing the
common subjects, — priests, with vessels in their hands,
making offerings to Lsi.s and Osiris. . Behind the ruin is a
small grotto, which may perhaps be attributed to the early
Christians, as there Was found among the fragments' an
inscription with the characters A -[- SI.
This temple has been classed by Gap among those
Nubian structures .that belong to the last of the three epochs
of art, which he thinks he has discovered in the ancient
buildings on this part of the river. It is a parallelogram, the
front of which is 21 J feet, and the length 43| ; a proportion
which may.be observed in some 6f the Grecian structures.
Part of the wall that surrounded the whole is still standing,
and an alley appears 'to have led from the gateway to the
river, where there was probahjy a flight of steps, of which
the traces may be distinctly seen, in the remains of some
temples. The sacred houses were of necessit}' placed near
the bank in Nubia, for the purposes of ablution and those
other religious ceremonies in which* the Tjse of water was
essential ; for there was no room for tanks or reservoirs at
a distance from the str-eam. In Egypt, on the"contrary, we
often find them considerably removed from the Nile ; but,
in this case a tank was necessary, and the traces of these
artificial basins are still so numerous as to leave no ground
for doubt that every holy edifice was provided with them.
In India, where we see in institutions still existing so many
curious points of resemblance to the ancient ritual of Egypt,
there are often great flights of steps leading down to the
rivers, forming a safe and convenient approachto-the Ganges,
where the pious Brarnin, wl>ile he makes his ablutions, at
once discharges a religious duty and enjoys a healthful
recreation.* • _
It is said, that it is impossible not tp recognise in the pil-
lars of Pondour the mixed .Greek and Egyptian form ' r and
* British Museum, p. K9
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 163
(he study of it is the more important, as it will afford exact
ideas of the kind of buildings erected in the valley of the
Nile at .different epochs in the history of the country.
"Instead of taking every thing for genuine Egyptian be-
cause it is in Egypt or Nubia, we are now enabled, by a
more accurate classification of the monuments and the aid
of the inscriptions, to rectify former incorrect notions on the
subject, and in fact'ta make a real and valuable addition to
the history of civilized Egypt. Between the rock-cut tem-
ples, such as- those of Derr and Ebsamboul, and the build-
ings of a later date, there was an intermediate step that
ought to be noticed. The first architectural attempt in Nu-
bia would probably be the improvement of some hole in the
rock; or, even if the country possessed no natural caves for
imitation, the mountains themselves would afford facilities
for constructing a durable habitation. A farther step would
be, after having got possession'of a hole, to extend the ex-
cavation, to form several chambers separated by the native
rock, and when a room of larger dimensions was designed,
to have square pillars for the support of the roof. In the
course of time the outer, front, with the inner walls and
pillars, would receive decorations, derived both from the
imitations of the natural form of the country and the his-
torical remembrances of the nation. But what a prodigious
period must have elapsed between the rudest rock-excava ion,
such as Derr was in its primitive state, aiul the highly-
finished sculptures, of the great temple of Ebsamboul !"*•
We have already conducted the reader to Gebel el Berkal,
where in ancient times ^there must have been an establish-
ment of priests, and not improbably an extensive town.
The name of Merawe, now bestowed on the district, has
very naturally suggested the notion that this was the site of
the celebrated Meroe ; an opinion which, after considering
it at some length, we haye not hesitated to pronounce un-
tenable. But there can be no doubt that it was a place of
great importance in a religious point of view, as is fully
manifested by the numerous remains of sacred architecture
which still meet the eye of the traveller.
The principal temple is about four hundred and fifty feet
kmg, and one hundred and fifty-nine in width ; but it is, as
* British Museum, p. 141.
164 ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS OF
we are assured by Mr. Waddington, so much ruined as to
retain nothing of its ancient grandeur and beauty, and even
to have rendered the ground-plan, in some places, extremely
indistinct. The dimensions of the first chamber are 147
feet by 112. On the right hand are the fragments of four
pillars, forming part of a row, to which, no doubt, there was
one corresponding on the opposite side. There are a few
hieroglyphics still visible on the wall, but those on the
columns are entirely obliterated.
The second chamber, which is not so regular as the one
just described, seems to have measured 123 feet by 103.
Parts of nine pillars composing a colonnade may be ob->
served, though there is only one, 24 feet in height, remain-
ing entire. The third apartment is much less, being only
about 46 feet square. It contains a row of five pillars on
each side, and between every two of those on the right is a
sculptured pedestal where statues have formerly stood. The
reader may remember, that there are pedestals similarly
situated in the second chamber of the temple of Osiris at
Ebsamboul, and confined to the same side.
The dimensions of the fourth chamber are 59£ feet by 14
feet five inches. It contains a black granite pedestal, five
feet square, beautifully sculptured ; and -here, no doubt, was
raised the statue of the god to whom it was dedicated, or the
king whose memory it was meant to perpetuate. On the
left of this hall, and separated from it by two or three little
cells, is a fifth chamber, measuring forty-eight feet three
inches by twenty-four feet eight inches, and presenting a
larger though similar pedestal, destined, of course, to the
same purpose with the other. The holes by which the figure
has been joined to it are still observable.
The sixth chamber is separated from the fourth by two
walls, with a narrow passage between them. It is twenty-
five feet eight inches in length and nine feet broad, com-
municating by means of a door with two little rooms on the
right. A single apartment, 36 feet by 10, occupies the space
between the former chamber and the exterior wall on its left.
In regard to the structure at large, Mr. Waddington states,
that of two facts he is positively certain ; namely, that its
present remains are the work of very different and probably
distant periods ; and that even in the composition of those
parts which belonged indisputably to the original building,
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 105
many stones were employed which had been taken from
some more ancient edifice. The discovery of a sculptured
stone among the mortar in the middle of the thick outer wall
proves this point, while the extreme irregularity of the found-
ations, and the positions of some of the columns, leave no
doubt, he thinks, as to the other. Whether these anoma-
lous parts have been additions, or whether they were portions
of some older temple left to stand, as chambers in the larger
one erected on its site, must now remain uncertain. The
propyla are much ruined, and even such sections of them as
continue entire are rough and extremely decomposed, re-
sembling more nearly the front of the temple of Seboua than
any other in Nubia or Egypt.
Some lineaments of sculptured figures may still- be traced
on the inside of the second portal, though in most inexpli-
cable confusion. The head of one appears in the place
which ought necessarily to be occupied by the feet of the
one above it ; while legs and arms are everywhere distrib-
uted with an equal disregard to nature ; but all are so
extremely defaced that, says. Mr. "Waddington, " I had
rather believe my senses to have been deceived than that
such absurdities have* been allowed to disgrace one of the
noblest buildings ever erected."*
The peculiar form of Gebel el Berkal, as Riippel remarks,
must have fixed attention in. all ages. From the wide plain
there rises up, perpendicularly on all sides, a mass of sand-
stone nearly four hundred feet high, and about twenty-five
minutes' walk in circuit. The unusual shape of this emi-
nence must have become still further an object of curiosity
from the phenomena with which it is connected. The-
clouds, attracted from every pointrto this isolated mass, de-
scend in fruitful showers ; and hence we need hardly won-
der if, in ancient times, it was believed that the gods paid
visits to man, and held communion with him on this sacred
mount. Temple arose after temple, and who can say how
far many a devotee journeyed to ask advice of the oracle li
The appearance of those architectural remains suggests
the notion of a very remote antiquity. It has been re-
marked, in regard to the principal temple, that the traveller
* Journal of a Visit to some parts of Ethiopia, p. 164.
t Ruppel. p 66. quoted in British Museum, p 160
166 ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS OF
nowhere observes any sculptures which had been intention-
ally erased or disfigured ; proving, it is imagined, that the
ruins were in their present state when Christianity was
introduced into the country. The idols were already broken,
and the ravages of time or of war had been so effectual that
they needed not the hand of fanaticism to complete them.
But even in the walls of that ancient fane, which had sunk
under the pressure. of age so many centuries ago, there are
found fragments of a building still older ;' which had decayed
before the other was founded, and supplied by its fall ma-
terials for the more modern structure.
The vicinity of Gebel el Berkal is remarkable also for
pyramids, which, though much inferior to those of Egypt,
had probably the same object, and originated in the same
views of vanity or superstition. They are seventeen in
number, the largest of which has a base of about eighty feet
square, but has suffered too much from years to enable the
most practised eye to determine its other dimensions.
Several of them have had spacious vestibules, or porticoes,
adorned with elegant sculptures and statues.
At El Belial too, a village situated six or seven miles
higher up the Nile and on the opposite bank, are many
structures of the same description. There are the remains
of nearly forty, eleven of which are larger than any of the
perfect ones of Gebel el Berkal. That which possesses the
greatest importance has a base of a hundred arid fifty feet
square, while its height is a hundred and four feet. It hag
been built in stories ;" but is most curious from its containing
within itself another pyramid of a different age, stone, and
architecture. This interior building, which the other has
enclosed like a case, seems to form about two-thirds of the
whole mass ; it is of neat workmanship, and composed of a
hard light-coloured sandstone, more durable than that which,
after sheltering it for ages, has at last decayed and fallen off,
and left it once more exposed to the eyes of men.*
We have in an earlier section of this chapter described
the remains of the two temples at Gebel el Berkal, which
are partly excavated in the rock and partly constructed, like
those of Girshe and Seboua. The existence of such sacred
* Waddington, p. 17P. A drawing of the pyramid of El Belial forms
the vignette to the present volume. .
M'BIA AiND ABVSSIMA* 167
buildings, it ha6 been remarked, can only be explained on
the supposition that they are still older than those in Nubia ;
lor, when we take all the facts together, we can hardly
imagine that the Egyptian style of architecture originated in
the country just named, and spread upward towards Abys-
sinia and downward to Thebes and Memphis. In the valley
of the Nile, below Syene, a small temple to Typfron the evil
deity is often. found near a larger one consecrated to a more
beneficent object ,of adoration. For example, there is a
tvphonium near the fane of Is-is at Dendera, and one also
close to the greater temple at Edfou. At Berkal, in like man-
ner, we have the remains of *a similar shrine in one of the
two excavated mansions already specified, or rather, per-
haps, of a chapel jointly belonging to Isis and Typhon.
Eight /of the pillars in the court of this temple, according to
Cailliaud, have square capitals with the Isis head on two
sides, resembling in this respect those at Dendera; but the
upper member of the capital differs somewhat from that in
the latter place, while it is exactly the same as the one on
the square pillars at Ebsamboul. The sculptures in the
adytum are executed m high relief, and painted yellow and
blue. On one of the walls, among five figures of- deities,
Isis and Ammon are distinctly recognised. *
Proceeding upward we arrive once more at that mys-
terious land which is enclosed at its lower extremity by the
Tacazze and the Bahr el Azrek, and where, it is supposed,
are still to be found the relics of the primitive faith of Ethi-
opia, as well as the tokens of her earliest civilization. There
can be no doubt that the most ancient traditions which have
reached us through the medium of the Greek historians and
philosophers, point with equal steadiness and uniformity to
a remote country on the Nile, where the parents of learning
and religion had their abode, and whence issued, at different
epochs, those benevolent missionaries who carried the rudi-
ments of knowledge to Egypt, Gree.ce, the northern shores
of Africa, and, finally, to the barbarous coast of Europe.
So far are we able to trace the vestiges of refinement and
the progress of the arts ; which, attracting our attention in
the kingdom of the Pharaohs, carry us gradually towards
the south, till we reach a people whose origin is lost in the
British Museum, p. 161 ; Cailliaud, plate 67 ; Riippel, p. 87.
168 ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS OF
obscurity of distant tune, and the names of whose teachers
have utterly perished. We indeed find marks of their re-
semblance and affinity to nations beyond the Arabian Gulf,
and even on the borders of Hindostan ; but all our attempts
to identify these fiiil to attain success, because we have
neither historical records nor the aid of such other monu-
ments as, on such a subject, are necessary to command
belief.
In ascending from the boundaries of Egypt to those of
Abyssinia and Sennaar, the traveller may remark 6uch a
difference in the style, as web 1 as in the plan of the buildings,
as indicates not only a certain progress in the arts, but also
a peculiarity in the object contemplated by them. As we
formerly observed, the valley of the Nile above the first
cataract was once covered on both sides with towns or vil-
lages, of which -Pliny has left us the names, amounting in
all to about forty. In his time, it is -true, they no longer
existed ; and lie informs ifs that they were not destroyed by
the Romans,' but' by the earlier- contentions between the
Ethiopians themselves and their neighbours the. Egyptians.
As Heeren justly remarks, we have no right to suppose that
these were flourishing cities, The g^eat works of architecture
here as well asVbelow Syene were confined to public edifices ;
for the Nubian during the day lived almost entirely in the
open air, and his cabin was -litlle more than a resting-place
for the night. Hence,' it is not surprising that towns, con-
sisting of a mere assemblage of huts, should have so entirely
disappeared as to leave behind no trace of their existence.
But though the dwellings of man have vanished, those
of the gods remain. The ruins of a scries of temples on
both sides of the river may be distinctly marked, .from Ele-
phantine to the junction of the two great branches which
compose its stream. The first is the fane of Debode, twelve
miles above Philse ; which is followed at nearly the same
distance by that of Kardassy, which again is succeeded by
that of Teefa or Tafa, five miles farther south. Soon after-
ward appear the two temples of Kalabshe" ; one built from
the ground, the other hewn in the rocks. At about ten
miles above this point are seen the relics of Dondour, and
then at a like' interval those of Girshe ; both of which we
have described at some length. Ten miles upward is the
temple of Dakke ; after a similar space is that of Maher-
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 169
raga ; and sixteen, miles thence rise to the view the ruins
of Seboua, half above ground and half subterranean.
Thirty miles farther on stands the temple of Derr ; and
after proceeding about sixty miles the traveller beholds the
magnificent excavations of Ebsamboul, with their sacred
carvings and colossal sentinels. This is followed by Samne ;
but at the cataract of Wady Haifa the chain is broken, for
it is not until after a journey of a hundred and fifty miles
that, not far from the island of Sai, a large temple is seen ;
and then, thirty miles farther in the same direction, is dis-
covered the edifice of Soleb, which Mr. Burckhardt considers
as the most southern of the Egyptian temples. The first
series certainly ends here, but a new one begins on the fron-
tiers of Meroe ; for about two hundred miles farther along
the bank, near the Gebel el Berkal, temples again appear,
accompanied with groups of pyramids. Two hundred and
forty miles beyond these remarkable ruins we reach the
point where the Tacazze or Astaboras falls into the Nile ;
forming the celebrated island, as the Greeks were pleased
to describe it, to which our attention is now more immedi-
ately to be directed.*
The famous city of Meroe, according to the report of the
most intelligent travellers, must have stood a little below
the present Shendy, in lat. 17° N., and long. 34° 30' E.
Bruce saw its ruins at a distance, concerning which he
speaks in the following terms : — " On the 20th of October,
in the evening, we left Shendy, and rested two miles from
the town and about a mile from the river ; and next day,
the 21st, we continued our journey. At nine we alighted
to feed our camels under some trees, having gone about ten
miles. At this place begins a large island in the Nile, seve-
ral miles long, full of villages, trees, and corn : it is called
Kurgos. Opposite to this is the mountain Gibbainy, where
is the first scene of ruins I have met with since that of
Axum in Abyssinia. We saw here heaps of broken pedes-
tals, like those of Axum, plainly designed for the statues
of the dog ; and some pieces of obelisks, likewise with
hieroglyphics, almost totally obliterated. The Arabs told
us that these ruins were very extensive, and that many
* Heeren's Historical Researches, vol. i. p. 349 ; Hiii. Hist. Nat. lib.
Ti. c. 35.
P
170 ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS OF
pieces of statues, both of men and animals, had been dug
up there. The statues of the men were mostly of black
stone. It is impossible to avoid risking a guess that this is
the ancient city of Meroe."
The conjecture of our countryman has been established
by the investigations of later travellers ; and we find that
those remains of antiquity, of which he obtained a hasty
glance, are not confined to one place, but are scattered over
a^onsiderable extent of surface. The whole strip of land
from Shendy to Gerri teems with them, and must therefore
be regarded as a portion of the classic ground of Ethiopia.
So far as our information extends at present, these ruins
may be included in three principal groups, and associated
with the names of Assour, Naga, and Messoura, or Meca-
oura as it is written by Cailliaud. The first of these lies
to the north of Shendy, about two miles from the river ; the
others are at the distance of several leagues from the Nile
in a southerly direction, proceeding from the same point.
The monuments found here consist both of temples and
pyramids ; all private dwellings having been long ago de-
stroyed. According to Strabo these last were built of only
split palm-trees and tiles: the sand, however, is in many
places so covered with bricks that a town must formerly
have stood there. In short, it is concluded that the site of
the ancient Meroe can be no longer regarded as doubtful.
It stood near the present Assour, or between that village
and Tenetbey, where are still discovered the remains of a
few temples, and of many other edifices constructed of
sandstone ; the whole extending, according to the meas-
urement of Cailliaud, to a circumference of four thousand
feet.
Eastward of Assour is what has been called the great
churchyard of pyramids, the existence of which likewise
tends to prove that there was at one period a considerable
city in the neighbourhood. It is impossible to behold the
number of these monuments without astonishment : eighty
are mentioned in the plan of Cailliaud ; but the precise
amount cannot be ascertained, as the ruins of many are
indistinct. They are divided into three sections, one of
which is due east from the assumed situation of Meroe,
while the two others are a league from the river, one north
and the other south. The northern group is at once the
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 171
most extensive and best preserved. They certainly appear
small compared with the structures of a similar kind in
Middle Egypt, the height of the largest not being more than
eighty feet; but viewed in reference to number they are
much more wonderful.
Like those at Sakhara, these pyramids are formed of
gTanite ; and hence the decay into which they have fallen
must suggest a very remote period as the time when the
people, to whom they owe their foundation, enjoyed the
power and wealth which such monuments imply. The
larger class of them have usually attached a small building
in the shape of a temple, finished in the Egyptian style,
with a propylon and door which lead first to the portico and
thence to the sanctuary. It is therefore manifest, if the
real entrance is where it is thus indicated, that it was not
the intention of the Ethiopian architects to conceal the
approach to the repositories of mortality, — an object which
w r as accomplished with so much labour by their successors
on the Lower Nile. But as none of them have been exam-
ined, it is not known whether there be any mummies or
sarcophagi in the interior ; and, until such an investigation
be completed, we must necessarily remain ignorant, as well
of the. object contemplated by such piles of masonry, as of
the many arts which might be employed in doing honour to
the great. Indeed, according to Strabo, the Ethiopians did
not embalm their dead, but buried them in earthen vessels
near the sanctuary. The corners of the pyramids are
partly ornamented, and the walls of the pylones are deco-
rated with sculpture, in some of which the figures appear
to be employed in making offerings for the departed ;
a representation which renders it extremely probable
that they are the tombs of kings and other distinguished
persons.* .
M. Heeren is of opinion that pyramid architecture was
native in Ethiopia from the earliest ages ; and also that,
if we compare this style of building with the similar one
adopted in Egypt, we shall have another proof of what
we have elsewhere attempted to establish, that what had
its rise in the former country was perfected in the latter, t
* Heeren's Historical Researches, vol. i. p. 394 ; Cailliaud, Voyage
a Meroe, vol. iii. p. 104, &c.
t Historical Researches as above.
172 ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS OF
The statement of Cailliaud has been confirmed by the
narrative of M. Riippel of Frankfort, published in a Conti-
nental journal, who also mentions the existence of similar
groups of pyramids in Kurgos. On the other side of the
Nile, as he relates, his way lay for fifty-seven minutes across
a plain of slime or mud. Traces were visible of an ancient
canal running parallel to the bed of the river, a proof that
this territory was once highly cultivated. Ten minutes
after, — for in such circumstances distance is measured by
time, — he came to a great mass of hewn and burnt stones.
But age had destroyed every thing. With difficulty were
some shafts of columns discovered, whose capitals were
ornamented with the heads of animals ; v/hence it may be
inferred that they once belonged to a temple. Having
walked twelve minutes farther on, he observed a number of
pyramidical mausolea. There were thirteen, all of hewn
stone, forty feet in height, but without an entrance. Near
them was a lion's head in black granite, evidently a sitting
sphinx.
After thirty minutes more, towards the east, a group of
twenty-one tombs appeared ; some of which were pyramids
with indented borders, while others had pointed angles with
edges of plainer workmanship. One of these monuments,
the most southerly, differs from all the rest, being a pris-
matic steeple, standing upon a socle twenty feet square. It
has an eastern entrance leading to the hall or gallery, as in
the sepulchres at Assour. The walls are ornamented with
beautiful sculpture ; the reliefs being like those of Meroe,
but in greater perfection, and representing in all cases the
apotheosis of the dead. Here is also one of those pyra-
mids which has a peculiarity in its approach. On both
sides of it are two female figures holding lances in fheir
hands, and in the act of piercing with them a band of pris-
oners. The drapery, grouping, and keeping of this piece
of sculpture surpass every thing of the kind that M. Riippel
had seen in Nubia or Egypt, not excepting the magnificent
temple of Dendera.
A little farther to the south-east a third group was de-
scried, consisting of nine pyramids, the inner walls of
which are diversified with carving. The reliefs in this
instance represent female figures only, while in all others
they bear a reference to the divinity of heroes' to whom
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 173
offerings or sacrifices are made. There are none of these,
however, so lofty as in the second assemblage ; for some of
the latter were at least ninety feet in height, whereas not
one of the nine exceeded forty feet in elevation. They
were all built of hewn stone without mortar.*
The antiquities of Naga and Me^soura are of another
kind, consisting chiefly of temples. Those of the former
place lie about six leagues south-east of Shendy, and nearly
the same distance from the Nile ; presenting a larger one
in the centre, and various smaller ones scattered about in
every direction. The remains of the principal edifice clearly
prove to what god it was dedicated. An avenue of statues,
being rams couching on pedestals, leads into an open portico
of ten columns, out of which, after passing through a
similar gallery, we arrive at the pylone. Adjoining this is
a colonnade consisting of eight pillars, beyond which there
is a hall leading into the sanctuary. The doors, the col-
umns, and the walls, are of hewn stone ; the remainder of
the structure is composed of bricks, with a coating upon
which traces of painting are still visible. The gateways
and pillars are sculptured in a style of great beauty, ex-
hibiting gods, kings, and queens, with attendants, sacri-
fices, and oblations. The building is of vast size, extending
in length from the first pylone to the opposite extremity not
less than eighty feet. There is also something peculiar in
the portico. The duplicate gallery of rams, before entering
and after passing it, is not common elsewhere ; and the
plan of the whole seems indeed to show that architecture
had not yet attained to that perfection which it exhibits in
the great works of Egypt. t
The western temple is smaller, but still more richly em-
bellished. On the pylones or gateways the same scenes
are represented as in the pyramids of Assour ; a male war-
rior on the one side, and a female warrior on the other, de-
stroying a number of captives whom they have bound toge-
ther by the hair. They are king and queen, as they have
both the emblem of dominion on the head-dress ; over each,
is a spread eagle with a globe ; and both are magnificently
dressed. It is evident, then, as M. Heeren maintains, that
* See Writings by Edward Ruppel from the Camp near Kurgos, 29th
Feb., 1824, in Europasiscbe Blaster, Oct. 24, 1634; quoted by Heeren.
t Historical Researches, vol. i. p. 399.
P2
174 ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS OF
these representations possess many peculiarities, and are
not purely Egyptian. This remark does not indeed apply
to religious rites ; for there appears nothing here in the
worship of Amnion and his kindred gods which is essen-
tially different from the usages followed in the Thebaid.
The real point of distinction applies to the human person-
ages who are performing the duties of piety. The queens
appear with the kings, and not merely as presenting offer-
ings, but themselves as heroines and conquerors, — a circum-
stance which has not yet been discovered in any of the
sculptures of Egypt or Nubia. They must therefore, it is
presumed, relate to the rulers, male and female, of Meroe,
and have been intended to commemorate their deeds.
Speaking of this very kingdom, Strabo remarks that, among
the Ethiopians, " the women are also armed ;" and we
know from other sources, that ladies mounted the throne
with the same authority as the other sex. Herodotus men-
tions Nitocris among the ancient queens of Ethiopia who
governed Egypt ; and in a carving already mentioned, repre-
senting the conquest of the former country by Sesostris,
there is a female monarch with her sons who appears before
him as a captive. A long succession of queens under the
title of Candace must have reigned here ; and even when at
length the seat of the empire was removed from Meroe to
Napata, near Gebel el Berkal, a sovereign of the same name
exercised the supreme power. It is therefore quite agree-
able to the usage of the Ethiopians to see a queen in a war-
like habit near her consort, though it must be admitted to
be peculiar to that celebrated people.
The perfection to which sculpture had been brought at
Naga is very striking, there being nothing in the Egyptian
statues superior to it, while in boldness of outline it seems
even to surpass the finest specimens of the latter. These
colossal figures, says Cailliaud, which are ten in number,
are remarkable for the richness of their drapery and the
character of the drawing ; their feet and arms are stouter
than those of Egypt, yet they are in the same style. A
similar excellence in the reliefs at Kurgos is extolled by
Ruppel.- Are we to suppose, asks M. Heeren, that Ethio-
pian artists became thus accomplished ? Or do these monu-
ments rather belong to that brilliant period of the empire of
Meroe, — the eighth century before our era, — when the
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 175
dynasty of Tirhako and Sabaco ruled over Upper Egypt,
and to whom it would be easy to send artists from below
the Cataracts, to adorn their metropolis and perpetuate their
fame]
The third station, called Messoura, is~ equally interesting.
Cailliaud, to whom we are indebted both for a description
and a drawing, relates, that in an extensive valley in the
desert, eight hours' journey from Shendy towards the south-
east, and six leagues from the Xile, are very considerable
ruins. They consist of eight small temples, all connected
by corridors and terraces. It is an immense edifice, formed
by the junction of a number of chambers, courts, and tem-
ples, and is" surrounded by a double enclosure. From the
main structure in the centre the passage to the others is
through galleries, or along terraces, varying from three
hundred to one hundred and eighty-five feet in length.
Each temple has its particular chambers ; and all the build-
ings are placed in an exact order, consisting, as has been
noticed, of eight temples or sanctuaries, forty-one chambers,
twenty-four courts, three galleries, and fourteen staircases
or flights of steps. These remains cover a plat of ground
two thousand five hundred feet, or about half an English
mile in circumference.
But in this immensity of ruins every thing is on a smaller
scale, — the monuments as well as the materials employed.
" The largest temple is only fifty-one feet long ; upon the
pillars are figures in the Egyptian style ; others in the same
portico are fluted like the Grecian ; on the basis of one I
thought I discovered the traces of a zodiac. Time and the
elements, which have destroyed the ancient Saba, seem to
have been willing to spare to us the observatory of Meroe ;
but until the rubbish be cleared away a complete plan of it
cannot be expected. It excites our wonder to find so few
hieroglyphics in all these ruins ; the six pillars which form
the portico of the central temple alone present a few exam-
ples, for all the other walls are without sculpture. Six
hundred paces from the ruins are the remains of two other
small temples, as also the outlines of a considerable tank
surrounded by little hills, which must have protected it from
the sand. But here there are not any traces of a city, no
heaps of rubbish, no tombs. If Meroe had stood in this
place, the pyramids would not have been built at the distance
176 ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS OF
of two days' journey from it. I believe that a seminary of
learning was established on this spot ; the form of the build-
ing and the architecture seem to prove it ; but the city itself
was in the neighbourhood of the sepulchres where the pyra-
mids are still found.*
The same author informs us, that at the distance of a
hundred yards in a south-easterly direction from the great
enclosure are some other ruins ; among which are the relics
of a small temple, resting on six columns, with a regular
gateway. The interior is rather more than thirty-six feet
in length. The pillars are covered with sculptured figures,
including some of mounted elephants led by their guides, —
a species of picture which is never seen in Egypt. The
nature of these representations, the form of the materials,
and the very decayed condition of the whole building, in-
duced the traveller to conclude that this little monument is
much more ancient than the larger edifices to which our.
attention has just been drawn.
The details now given derive some interest from the con-
clusion which Heeren has founded upon them in regard to
one point in the ancient religious establishment of Ethiopia.
He thinks that the constructions at Messoura were the
"Oracle of Jupiter Amnion." "A mere glance at the
ground plan," says he, " leads to this idea. It is only thus
that the singularity of the foundation can be accounted for;
that labyrinth of passages and courts which must be wan-
dered through before arriving at the entirely secret temple
in the midst. Scarcely could there be a better introduction
contrived for reaching the sanctuary."!
For the support of this opinion he relies chiefly on the
authority of Diodorus, who relates that the temple of Jupiter
did not stand in the city of'Meroe' but at some distance from
it in the wilderness. When, again, the ruler of that king-
dom resolved to free himself from the dominion of the priests,
he went, says the same historian, with a company of soldiers
to the retired or sequestered spot where the sanctuary with
* Li, etudiant mieux la distribution des differens corps de batimens
en mine que j"avais sous les yeux, je demeurai eonvaincu que ce lieu fat
jadis consacre a l'enseignement, — on college enfin. — Cailliaud, vol. iii.
p. 142. The translation given in Heeren's work is extremely faulty and
erroneous. See vol. i. p. 400-404.
t Historical Researches, vol. i. p. 403
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 177
the golden temple stood, and taking the inmates by surprise,
he put them all to death. Nor is the smallness of the edi-
fice any objection to this view of the subject ; for the same
remark might be applied to the Ammonium in the Libyan
desert. This was probably intended merely for the preser-
vation of the sacred ship, which is understood to have been
placed between the pillars of the holy shrine. Its situation,
too, in the waste, also follows the example now adduced,
and will appear still less extraordinary, when we reflect that
it was constructed on one of the great trading routes be-
tween the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. " Thus we
stand," says he, " on that remarkable spot which antiquity
regarded as the cradle of the arts and sciences ; where
hieroglyphic writing was discovered ; where temples and
pyramids had already sprung up, while as yet Egypt re-
mained entirely ignorant of their existence."*
It does not belong to us to weigh the probability which
attaches to the opinion now stated. No one will question
its ingenuity, or deny that the authorities quoted from
ancient writers are suitably applied. But, at the same time,
we must not forget the remarks made in regard to the insti-
tution at Messoura by M. Cailliaud, who informs his readers
that the tradition of the country is, that the name of the
place is derived from the old fakirs who once inhabited
those vast edifices. The figure of the elephants, too,
caparisoned and mounted, rather strengthens the belief that
the school of the desert, if it really was a place of education,
was connected in its origin or tenets with the learning of
the remoter East. There, is, however, no irreconcilable
discrepancy between the two conclusions now examined ;
for nothing was more common than to have a seminary of
priests established near the temples of the gods, and to
combine thereby in the mind of the student the practical
parts of divine worship with the abstract tenets of the faith
into which he was initiated.
Cailliaud was assured by certain Arabs, as well as by his
own guides, that on the road from Naga, or Gibel-Ardan as
it is sometimes called, there are several places distinguished
for magnificent ruins covered with sculptures. The first
stationfthey added, was at the distance of two days' journey,
• Historical Researches, vol. i. p. 406.
178 ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS OF
which corresponds perfectly to Mandeyr, the ancient capital
of the Arabian shepherds. A day and a half farther on, at
a village called Kely, according to the same authorities,
there are other remains which occupy a great extent of sur-
face. From thence, they add, there is a road that in the
same space of time leads to Abou-Ahraz ; and that near it
are wells hewn out in the rock, which tradition carries back
to a. very remote antiquity. Agreeably to these statements,
there can be no doubt that the line of march hereby indicated
is the one which passed from the Nile, in the latitude of
Naga, to Axum and the port of Adulis. But the ruins at
Mandeyr and Kely have not yet been inspected by any
modern traveller.
We now possess all the certainty which can be attained
from the annals of ancient times, that the city of Meroe was
situated a little northward of the present Shendy ; and also
that a number of dependent establishments, founded on the
basis of religion, were scattered over the adjoining desert.
Before we pass into Abyssinia, we shall quote from
Diodorus an account of its constitution and government.
The form of this celebrated state, then, was that which we
often find in southern regions, more especially at remote
periods : it was a hierarchy, where the power was in the
hands of a race or caste of priests, who chose a king from
among their own order. The laws of the Ethiopians, says
the author now named, differ in many respects from those
of other nations ; but in none so much as in the nomination
of their kings, — which is thus managed : the priests select
some of the most distinguished of their brethren, and upon
whomsoever of these the god fixes, he is carried in proces-
sion, and forthwith acknowledged sovereign by the people ;
who falling down adore him as a divinity, because he is
placed over the government by the choice of Jupiter Ammon.
The person thus appointed immediately enjoys all the pre-
rogatives which are conceded to him by the laws, and is
supplied with rules for the direction of his conduct ; but he
can neither reward nor punish any one beyond what the
usages of ancestry and the royal statutes allow. It is a
custom among them to inflict upon no subject the sentence
of death, even though he should be legally found deserving
of that punishment ; but they send to the malefactor one of
the servants of justice, who bears the symbol of mortality.
NUBIA AiSD ABYSSINIA. 179
When the criminal sees this he goes immediately to his
house and deprives himself of life. The Greek custom of
escaping punishment by fleeing into another country is not
there permitted. It is said that the mother of one who
would have attempted flight strangled him with her own
girdle, in order to save her family from the greater disgrace
of having one of its members denounced as a fugitive. But
the most remarkable of all their institutions is that which
relates to the death of their king. The priests at Meroe,
who attend to the service of the gods and hold the highest
rank, send a messenger to him with an order to die. They
make known to his majesty, that Heaven requires this sacri-
fice at his hands, and that mortals should not oppose its
decrees ; and perhaps add such reasons as could not be con-
troverted by weak understandings prejudiced by an ancient
custom.*
We have already alluded to the catastrophe by which
this mode of administration was brought to a close. In the
reign of the second Grecian king who sat on the throne of
Egypt, when the light of philosophy had already penetrated
into Ethiopia, the sovereign of Meroe, whose name was
Ergamenes, resolved to shake off the domination of the
sacerdotal caste. At the head of an armed band" he pro-
ceeded to their principal temple, and subjected the whole
body to a general massacre ; by which bold measure, sub-
joins the historian, he rendered himself a monarch in reality
as well as in title. t
Heeren very judiciously observes, that in a state whose
government so widely differed from any thing to which we
have been accustomed, it is reasonable to suppose that a
similar peculiarity would apply to the people, who could
hardly bear any similitude to the civilized nations of modern
Europe. Meroe, he thinks, rather resembled in appearance
the larger states of interior Africa at the present day ; a
number of small nations of the most opposite habits and
manners, some with and some without settled abodes, con-
stituting what is called an empire, although the general
political band which holds them together is loose, and often
scarcely perceptible. In Ethiopia this band was of a two-
fold nature ; first, religion or a certain worship resting upon
* Diod. Bibliothec. Histor. lib. iii. c. 6, t Ibid,
180 ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS OF
oracles, and secondly, commerce, — unquestionably the
strongest chains by which barbarians could be bound ; for
the one gratified the superstitious, and the other the covet-
ous and sensual. Eratosthenes relates, that in his time the
island comprised a variety of people ; of whom some fol-
lowed agriculture, others a nomadic or pastoral life, and a
third class the more active pursuits of hunting. All chose
what seemed best adapted to the particular district in which
they lived.*
As the line of road through the desert which connects
Atbara with Abyssinia has not been trodden in modern
times by any native of Europe, we cannot trace the archi-
tectural features of the two countries to any distinct point
of resemblance. The habits, too, of the people between
the Nile and the Red Sea, who, living almost constantly
in the field, either as soldiers or as herdsmen, shunned
the accommodation of large towns, afforded little encour-
agement to the arts of sculpture and design. It is not, ac-
cordingly, until we approach the shores of the Arabian Gulf
that we find the traces of a civilized condition, and begin
to discover the tokens of that refinement and command of
the mechanical powers, which excite our surprise in Nubia
and Egypt.
At Axum have been examined the remains of ancient
works, which, though different from those at Dendera,
Thebes, and Meroe, are sufficiently great to have called
forth the admiration of the most competent judges ; in-
creasing, at the same time, the curiosity of the philosopher
and the engineer in regard to the resources of artificers who
could remove from the rock and raise to an upright position
* Historical Researches, vol. i. p. 419. Strabo, p. 1177-1194. The
account given by Pliny of the peninsular tract of Meroe* corresponds re-
markably with the indications which still remain of its ancient greatness.
" Ipsum oppidum Meroen ab introitu insula? (i. e. a loco ubi confluunt
Nilus et Astaboras) abesse LXX millia passuum. Juxtaque aliam insu-
lam Tadu dextro subeuntibus alveo qua? porturn laceret. jEdiricia oppidi
pauca. Regnare fcerninam Candacen, quod nomen multis jam annis ad
reginas transiit. Delubrum Harnmonis et ibi sacrum. Et toto tractu
sacella." Lib. vi.
For some able remarks on the latitude of Meroe", as given by Pliny and
Eratosthenes in Strabo. we refer to Dr. Vincent's work on the Commerce
and Navigation of the Ancients, vol. ii. p. 91, <fec. This learned writer
availed himself of the assistance of Bishop Horsley and Mr. Wales,
whose scientific deductions confirmed the statements of the Greek and
Roman geographers.
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 181
obelisks exceeding a hundred feet in length. That there
was a large city on the ground which still displays so many
interesting ruins, there is reason to conclude both from
history and tradition, though it has now dwindled down
to a few insignificant cottages. The native chroniclers
carry back its origin to the days of the patriarch Abraham,
while others are disposed to claim for it a still higher anti-
quity ; but, as we have already remarked, it was unknown
to Homer and Herodotus, and is not commemorated by
any Grecian author before the time of Strabo. Nor is
there the slightest cause to doubt that, whatever may have
been the date of its foundation, it was greatly embellished
by the successors of Alexander, who appear to have carried
their arms southward along either shore of the Red Sea, and
even to have established a temporary throne at Axum.
When Poncet was in Abyssinia this metropolis was
known by the name Heleni. " It has," says he, " a fair
monastery and a magnificent church. It is the fairest and
largest I have seen in Ethiopia. It is dedicated to St.
Helena, and from that church in all likelihood the town
has taken its name. In the middle of the spacious place
before the church, are to be seen three pyramidical and
triangular spires all filled with hieroglyphics. Among
the figures of these pyramids I observed upon each face a
lock, which is very singular, for the Ethiopians have no locks,
and are even unacquainted with the use of them. Al-
though you see no pedestals, yet these spires are no less
high than the obelisk of the palace before St. Peter's at
Rome, placed upon its pedestal. It is believed that this
was the country of the Queen of Saba ; several villages
depending upon this principality bear to this day the name
of Sabaim. They get marble in the mountains which no
way yields to that of Europe ; but what is more considerable
is, that they also find a great deal of gold even in tilling
their ground. They brought me privately some pieces
which I found to be very fine. The religious, or monks,
of that church are habited in yellow skins, and wear a
little cap of the same material and colour."*
Before Bruce paid his celebrated visit to these curiosi-
ties, two of the three great obelisks which the French
* A Voyage to Ethiopia, made in the years 1698, 1699, and 1700, p. 106.
Q
182 ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS OF
physician found standing had fallen. In the square, which
is imagined to have been the centre of the town, there were
not fewer than forty in a prostrate condition, none of which,
however, had any hieroglyphics upon them. Each consists
of one piece of granite ; and on the top of that which is
still erect, there appeared to be a patera exceedingly well
carved in the Grecian style. Below there is the door-bolt
and lock which Poncet speaks of carved on the pillar, as if
to represent an entrance through it to some building be-
hind. The lock and bolt are precisely those which are
used at this day in Egypt and Palestine, but were never
seen in Ethiopia. This traveller holds the opinion that
the monument now described, and the two larger ones
which are fallen, are the work of Ptolemy Euergetes, the
second of the Macedonian dynasty. There is, he assures
his readers, a great deal of carving upon the face of the
obelisk, in a Gothic taste, something like metopes, trig-
lyphs, and guttae, rudely disposed, and without order, but,
he adds, there are no characters or figures.
After passing the convent of Abba Pantaleon, and the
small obelisk situated on the rock above, " we proceed
south by a road cut in a mountain of red marble, having on
the left a parapet wall above five feet high, solid, and of
the same materials. At equal distances there are hewn in
this wall solid pedestals, upon the tops of which we see
the marks where stood the colossal statues of Sirius, the
Latrator Anubis or dog-star. One hundred and thirty-
three of these pedestals, with the marks of the statues I
have just mentioned, are still in their places ; but only
two figures of the dog remained when I was there, much
mutilated, but of a taste easily distinguished to be Egyp-
tian. These are composed of granite ; but some of them
appear to have been of metal. Axum being the capital of
Siris or Sire, from this we easily see what connexion this
capital of the province had with the dog-star, and conse-
quently the absurdity of supposing that the river derived
its name from a Hebrew word, shihor, signifying black.
There are likewise pedestals whereon the figures of the
sphinx have been placed. Two magnificent flights of steps
several hundred feet long, all of granite, exceedingly well
fashioned and still in their places, are the only remains of
a magnificent temple. In the angle of this platform, where
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 183
that temple stood, is the present small church of Axum, in
the place of a former one destroyed by Mohammed Gragne\
in the reign of King David III. ; and which was probably
the remains of a temple built by Ptolemy Euergetes, if not
the work of times more remote."*
In reference to some of the points now stated, the accu-
racy of Bruce has been justly called in question, though in
a spirit which does little honour to the critic and traveller to
whom we owe the correction. During Mr. Salt's first visit
to Abyssinia, he was pleased to cast doubt on many parts
of his predecessor's narrative, and even to charge him with
downright fabrication, in matters of which a more minute
inquiry afterward completely established the truth. Of
these hasty strictures we shall have occasion to produce
some examples, when we come, to review the manners and
customs of the inhabitants ; meantime we shall proceed to
examine the details in which the former writer has mani-
festly failed in exactness of description.
He tells us, that " within the outer gate of the church,
below the steps, are three small square enclosures all of
granite, w T ith small octagon pillars in the angles apparently
Egyptian ; on the top of which formerly were small images
of the dog-star, probably of metal. Upon a stone in the
middle of one of these the king sits and is crowned, and
always has been since the days of paganism ; and below
it, where he naturally places his feet, is a large oblong slab
like a hearth, which is not of granite but of freestone. The
inscription, though much defaced, may safely be restored.
nTOAEMAIOT EYEPrETOY
BASIAEiZS
" Poncet has mistaken this last word for Basilius ; but
he did not pretend to be a scholar, and was ignorant of the
history of this country. "t
Now it is proved beyond all reasonable skepticism, that
there is no inscription whatever on the king's seat, and that
the letters which Mr. Bruce has given as Greek are in fact
Ethiopic characters, and are found on a slab at the distance
of thirty yards from the royal chair. Besides, Poncet makes
* Travels to discover the Source of the Nile, vol. iv. p. 321.
t Travels, vol. iv. p. 323. Second edition.
184 ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS OF
not the slightest allusion to any such carving on the stones
which compose that relic of antiquity ; and it is now fully
ascertained, lhat the reference to a tablet with the word
"Basilius" on it, is in the work of another author who
wrote at an earlier period. In a word, it must be acknow-
ledged that the distinguished traveller whose statements we
are now examining, could only have written his account of
the ruins at Axum from an indistinct reminiscence, aided
by the publications of the Jesuit missionaries ; and that he
has accordingly, in more than a single instance, confounded
one monument with another.
Still, it may be suggested, that the errors committed by
him are not of so atrocious a nature as to justify the severe
remarks of Mr. Salt, who, alluding to his description of
the standing obelisk, not only undervalues his acquirements
as an artist, but also impeaches his truth and honour as a
man. " I am now pefectly satisfied," says he, " that all
Bruce's pretended knowledge of drawing is not to be de-
pended upon ; the present instance affording a striking
example both of his want of veracity and of his uncommon
assurance, in giving, with a view to correct others, as a geo-
metrical elevation, so very false a sketch of this monu-
ment." This intense vituperation, too, is the more mis-
applied, inasmuch as, in regard to the very same obelisk,
Mr. Salt found it necessary, when he examined it five years
afterward, to make two very material alterations ; and
hence there is an essential discrepancy between his report
of it in Lord Valentia's Travels, and that contained in his
own volume, the Travels in Abyssinia. In the former he
assigns to it a height of eighty feet, whereas in the latter it
is reduced to sixty ; and while, in the beautiful plate with
which he adorned his lordship's book, he represents the
patera on the top as terminating in rather a sharp point, he
admits in his own pages that " it ought to have been
round." Two such blunders by so complete a master of
the pencil were hardly to be expected, and more especially
in one who was so ready to condemn the " pretended
knowledge of drawing" in others ! To Bruce, on the
other hand, he will not allow the benefit of that very modi-
fied candour which regards a mistake in numbers and posi-
tion as involuntary, or the mere effect of an imperfect
recollection. He asserts, on the contrary, " It appears to
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 185
me, that nothing but the fallacious presumption that no
one, after the difficulties he had described with so much
exaggeration, would dare to follow his steps, could have
induced him to venture on such unsupported assertions,
which the very next European who should travel that way-
would so certainly refute."*
But it must not be concealed that Bruce was more un-
fortunate in his omissions than his misstatements ; for he
left Axum without seeing a monument to which former
travellers had in fact alluded, and which is now regarded
as the most valuable relic in that ancient capital. About
half a mile from the church, though somewhat concealed by
rising ground, is an upright slab eight feet in length, three
and a half broad, and one foot in thickness, which contains
an inscription in the Greek language illustrative of the an-
cient history of the country. The characters, which are
fairly and deeply cut, are nearly two inches long. For the
preservation of the engraving in so perfect a state it is
greatly indebted to a fortunate inclination towards the
north, which the nature of the ground has given to the
stone, by which that side of it is entirely sheltered from the
rain. The translation in Mr. Salt's work is as follows : —
" (We) Aeizanas. King of the Axomites and
of the Homerites, and of Raeidan, and of the Ethi-
opians, and of the Sabeans, and of Zeyla,
and of Tiamo, and the Boja, and of the Ta-
quie, King of Kings, son of god,
the invincible Mars — having rebelled
on an occasion the nation of the Boja,
We sent our brothers
Saiazanaand Adephos
to make war upon them ; and upon
their surrender (our brothers) after subduing them,
brought them to us with their families,
of their oxen 112. and of their sheep
7424, and their beasts bearing burthens ;
nourishing them with the flesh of oxen, and giving them a
supply of bread, and affording them to drink
beer (sowa) and wine (maize), and water in abundance.
Who (the prisoners) were in number six chiefs,
with their multitude in number ***
making them bread every day of wheat-
en cakes *2* and giving them wine for a month
until the time that they brought the whole body to us;
* Valentia's Travels, vol. iii. p. 98.
Q2
186 ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS OF
whom therefore supplying with all things
fit, and clothing, we compelled them to change their
abode, and sent them to a certain place of our
country called M a, and we ordered them
again to be supplied with bread, furnishing
to these six chiefs oxen 4*.
In grateful acknowledgment to him who begat me,
the invincible Mars,
I have dedicated to him a soMnn statue, and one
of silver, and three of brass, for good."
This inscription, taken by itself, is of no great value, for
it merely records the result of a successful attack upon a
barbarous tribe ; but it possesses no small importance when
applied to the illustration of a dark period in Ethiopian his-
tory, as well as to determine the precise date at which the
monument itself was erected. Aizana, as was formerly ob-
served, was king of Abyssinia, or rather of the Axumites,
in the reign of the Roman emperor Constantius ; and there is
still extant, in the works of Athanasius, a letter from that
popular ruler to the African prince, at the time he was
reigning conjointly with his brother Saizana, whose name is
also mentioned on the slab. From comparing the date of
the imperial communication with the circumstances to which
it is known to have had a reference — the disgrace of Fru-
mentius and the orthodox clergy — it is concluded that the
inscription must have been engraved about the year 330
of the Christian epoch.*
* Valentia's Travels, vol. iii. p. 186. Considering that monument has
stood one thousand five hundred years, the circumstance of its being
found in so very perfect a state is somewhat remarkable ; and it strongly
proves the want of research among the fathers who visited this country
in the fifteenth century, as the following account given of it by Tellez
will sufficiently prove. "Non procnl abhinc erectum est saxum, tribus
cubitis latum, iuseulptum literis partim Graecis partim Latinis, sed tem-
poris injuria fere exesis. Hoc indicium est, omnes istas structuras esse
artificum Europasorum a temporibus Justini et aliorum Imperatorum
Orientalium, qui (teste Procopio) magnam cum regibus Ethiopia? amici-
tiam coluerunt. Quamvio tunc temporis mixtura fuerit linguarum
Graeeae et Latins quia milites unius et alterius idiomatis in iisdem cas-
tris militabant — Verum imaginari mihi non possum mixtam scripturam
in illis saxis reperiri, multo minus rationem istius rei valere puto. Ocu-
latiores inspectores (aut nimium fallor) aliquando reperient scripturam
mere Graecam, atque in ea literas A. B. E. T. I. K. M. N. O. P. T. X.
quas Latini cum Gratis communes habent, quamvis non in omnibus
ssqualis sint pronuntiationis."
Hence it is manifest that, when this learned father travelled in Abys-
sinia, not only were the contents of the Axum inscription unknown, but
it was still doubtful in what language it was expressed.
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 187
Mr. Salt remarks that all the information which could be
procured concerning the singular remains at Axum was
obtained from the priests ; who, on the authority of their
sacred books, related that their ancient monuments and
obelisks, originally fifty-five in number, of which four were
as large as the one now standing, were erected by Ethiopus,
the father of Abyssinia, about one thousand five hundred
and forty years ago. They add that the great reservoir,
from which every house in the town was formerly supplied
with water, was constructed during the reign of King Isaac
by the Abuna Samuel, who died at Axum three hundred
and ninety-two years ago, and was buried under the daroo-
tree, which still remains near the church. They moreover
subjoin the interesting fact, that in the year 1070 a female
named Jadit (or Judith), who had great authority, came
from Amhara, and, excited by a superstitious motive, de-
stroyed as far as she was able these remains of ancient art ;
threw down the obelisks, broke the altars, and laid the
whole place in ruins, — an account by no means improbable,
as it is admitted that there is every appearance of many
of the largest altars having been shattered by great force,
and removed from their place.*
The great obelisk has been universally admired even from
the days of the Portuguese mission, when the knowledge
of it was first conveyed to modern Europe. The more
minutely it was examined by Mr. Salt, who could compare
t,it with others of Egyptian, Grecian, and Roman origin, the
more deeply was he struck with the consummate skill and
ingenuity displayed in its formation ; and he thought him-
self justified in pronouncing it the most perfect monument
of its kind.f
Most of our readers are aware that there was a similar
inscription at Adulis, an ancient town near the Bay of
Masuah, which was copied by Cosmas Indicopleustes, who,
as has been already mentioned, visited that coast in the
sixth century. The work into which this record has been
transcribed is entitled " Topographia Christiana," and was
intended by its author to prove that the earth is a plane, in
opposition to the philosophical notion of its being a sphere,
which he conceived to be an heretical opinion, and contrary
* Valentia's Travels, vol. iii. p. 98. t Travels in Abyssinia, p. 405
188 ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS OF
to divine revelation. He had himself travelled much, and
in the parts he visited he still found they were all on the
same level or flat surface with Greece, his native land.
His deductions from this hypothesis are rather extraordi-
nary ; but the facts he relates, and the countries he de-
scribes, are given with all the characters of truth that sim-
plicity can afford.
" Adulis," says he, " is a city of Ethiopia, and the port
of communication with Axiomis and the whole nation,
of which that city is the capital. In this port we carry on
our trade from Alexandria and the Elanitic Gulf: the town
itself is about two miles from the shore, and as you enter
it on the western side by the road that leads from Axiomis,
there is still remaining a chair or throne which appertained
to one of the Ptolemys, who had subjected this country to
his authority. This chair is of beautiful white marble ; not
so white indeed as the Proconnesian, but such as we em-
ploy for marble tables : it stands on a quadrangular base,
and rests at the four corners on four slender and elegant
pillars, with a fifth in the centre, which is channeled in a
spiral form. On these pillars the seat is supported, as well
as the back of the throne, and the two sides on the right
and left. The whole chair, with its base, the five pillars,
the seat, the back, and the two sides, is of one entire piece,
carved into this form ; in height about two cubits and a
half, and in shape like a patriarch's chair."
At the back of it is a tablet of basanite, or Egyptian
granite, three cubits in height : it is now, indeed, fallen
down, and the lower part of it broken and destroyed ; but
the whole slab, as well as the chair itself, is filled with
Greek characters. " Now it so happened, when I was in
this part of the country, about five-and-twenty years ago,
in the beginning of the reign of Justin the Roman emperor,
that Elesban, the king of the Axiomites, when he was pre-
paring for an expedition against the Homerites on the
other side of the Red Sea, wrote to the governor of Adulis,
directing him to take a copy of the inscription which was
both on the chair of Ptolemy and on the tablet, and to send
it to him. The governor, whose name was Asbas, applied
to me, and to a merchant of the name of Menas, to copy the
inscription. Menas was a Greek of my acquaintance, who
afterward became a monk at Raithu, and died there not long
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 189
ago. We undertook the business together ; and, having
completed it, delivered one copy to the governor and kept
another for ourselves. It is from this copy that I now state
the particulars of the inscription, and I ought to add, that in
putting them together, and drawing my own conclusions
from them, I have found them very useful for forming a
judgment of the country, the inhabitants, and the distances
of the respective places. I ought to mention that we found
the figures of Hercules and Mercury among the carvings at
the back of the seat."
Cosmas supplies his readers with a drawing, which was
copied from his manuscript by Montfaucon, and is given by
Dr. Vincent in the second volume of his work on the Com-
merce and Navigation of the Ancients. The inscription
on the tablet, or slab, found lying behind the chair, is as
follows : —
" Ptolemy the Great, king, son of Ptolemy, king, and
Arsinoe, queen, gods, brother and sister ; grandson of the
two sovereigns, Ptolemy, king, and Berenice, queen, gods-
preservers ; descended on the father's side from Hercules
son of Jupiter, receiving from his father the kingdom of
Egypt, Africa, Syria, Phenicia, Cyprus, Lycia, Caria, and
the Cyclades, invaded Asia with his land and sea forces,
and with elephants from the country of the Troglodytes and
Ethiopians. This body of elephants was first collected out
of these countries by his father and himself, and brought
into Egypt and tamed for the service of war. With these
forces Ptolemy, advancing into Asia, reduced all the country
on this side the Euphrates, as well as Cilicia, the Helles-
pont, Thrace, and all the armies in those provinces. In
this expedition, having captured also many Indian ele-
phants, and subjected all the princes to his obedience, he
crossed the Euphrates, entered Mesopotamia, Babylonia,
Susiana, Persis, Media, and the whole country as far as
Bactria, and brought it all under his dominion. In Persis
and Susiana he collected all the spoils of the temples which
had been carried out of Egypt by Cambyses and the Per-
sians, and carried them back again to that country, with all
the treasures he had accumulated in his conquests, and all
the forces which had attended him on the expedition : all
these he embarked upon the canals."
"This," .«ays Cosmas, "was the inscription on the
190 ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS OF
tablet, so far as we could read it ; and it was nearly the
whole, for only a small part was broken off. After that we
copied what was written on the chair, which was con-
nected with the inscription already given, and ran thus :"
Our limits will not permit us to insert this commemoration
of a series of conquests over the barbarian tribes of Eastern
Africa and Arabia, from the borders of Egypt to the shores
of the Indian Ocean. There is no doubt, however, that the
monarch carried his arms into the hilly parts of Abyssinia,
and perhaps into Sennaar and Kordofan. " I reduced,"
says he, " Ava, and Tiamo, or Tziamo, Gambela, and the
country around it ; Zingabene, Tiama, and the Agathai ;
Kalaa, and Sememe, among mountains difficult of access
and covered with snow. In all this region there is hail and
frost, and snow so deep that the troops sunk up to their
knees. I passed the Nile to attack these nations, and sub-
dued them." In conclusion his majesty says, " Thus,
having reduced the whole world to peace under my own
authority, I came down to Adulis, and sacrificed to Jupiter,
to Mars, and to Neptune, imploring his protection for all
that navigate these seas. Here, also, I reunited all my
forces (which had been employed on both sides of the Red
Sea), and sitting on this throne, in this place, I consecrated
it to Mars in the twenty-seventh year of my reign."*
In the learned work of Dr. Vincent the reader will find
much amusing commentary on these inscriptions, and an
account of all the places in Asia and Africa mentioned by
the boastful conqueror. Mr. Salt thinks that the two
records, on the chair and on the tablet, apply to different
sovereigns at an earlier and a later period ; considering the
first as a record of the victories of Ptolemy in Asia, and the
second as a memorial of the exploits of an Abyssinian king.
For the reasons on which these several opinions are sup-
ported we refer to his learned dissertation inserted in the
third volume of Lord Valentia's Travels. f
We refrain from any farther details respecting the archi-
tectural monuments of ancient Ethiopia ; but we cannot
* See Vincent's Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, in his second volume,
p. 530-542. Montfaucon's Nova Collectio Patrurn, 2 vols. fol. Paris,
1706. Lord Valentia's Travels, vol. iii. p. 192.
t See p. 195.
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 191
conclude this chapter without adding a few reflections on
that magnificence and power of which they are now the
only remaining tokens. While we find all our efforts fruit-
less in attempting to trace the rise of those political in-
stitutions which conferred upon Egypt a glory at once so
early and so permanent, we are rewarded with an unex-
pected success in marking the vestiges of religious archi-
tecture as we follow its progress more than four hundred
leagues along the valley of the Nile. We detect the work-
ings of the same mighty spirit, from the rock-cut temples
of Nubia to those masterpieces of human skill and perse-
verance, the temples of Thebes and the pyramids of Djizeh.
The structures of Luxor and Karnac excite an astonish-
ment that increases in proportion to the care with which
they are examined. The hypostyle hall at the latter place,
for example, is represented as the most stupendous and
sublime of all the remains of Egyptian palaces or temples.
Every thing connected with it is colossal ; its area is nearly
58,000 square feet, and its roof is supported by a hundred
and thirty-four pillars, some of which are little short
of eleven feet in diameter. Each column of the two cen-
tral rows, which are somewhat taller than the others,
measures sixty-five feet in height and thirty-three feet in cir-
cumference. The whole from top to bottom is ornamented
with sculpture relating to religious affairs. The procession
of the boat, or holy ark, is often repeated on the walls. So
great, however, is the number of these carvings that no
one has been able to count them, much less to copy them.
"No description," says an eyewitness, "can adequately
express the sensations inspired by this astonishing sight,
in which the magnificence and might of the ancient rulers
of Egypt are made perceptible to the eye." Of what deeds,
of what events, now lost to the history of the world, — of
what scenes have these columns been the witnesses ! Can
it be doubted that this was the spot where those rulers of
the world, of the nations in the East and in the West, ex-
hibited themselves in their glory and power, and in which
they concentrated the fruits of their victories, the spoil
or tribute of many vanquished kingdoms ? Well might
Champollion exclaim that the imagination, which in
Europe rises far above our porticoes, sinks abashed at the
192 ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS OF
foot of the one hundred and forty columns of the hypostyl©
hall of Karnac !*
The great temple of Karnac too, which is one of the best
preserved monuments in this part of Egypt, combines mag-
nitude with splendour in a very high degree ; being sur-
rounded with colonnades, gigantic figures, and stately por-
ticoes. It is without doubt one of the most ancient structures
in the country, and yet it offers a confirmation of the
opinion to which, in the mind of certain travellers, the ex-
amination of the palace gave rise ; namely, that both were
partly built of the materials of more ancient edifices, orna-
mented with the same hieroglyphics^ the same colours, and
the same highly-finished sculptures. To what profound
contemplations on the antiquity of the arts, and on the pro-
gress of civilization so closely connected with their culture,
do these observations lead !f
In describing the ruins which still remain on various
points of the Nile, we have had frequent occasion to mention
the sacred ship or boat sculptured on the walls. Sesostris
is said to have dedicated one of cedar-wood to Ammon, the
god of Thebes ; it was 420 feet long, gilded all over on the
outside and covered with silver within. The use of this
emblem was supposed to denote the foreign extraction of
their priesthood and religious rites, and to draw the atten-
tion of the worshippers to some distant land whence their
ceremonies were originally derived. " Once a year," as we
are informed by Diodorus Siculus, " the sanctuary or shrine
of Zeus is taken across the river to the Libyan side, and
after a few days it is brought back, as if the deity were
returning from Ethiopia." This procession, too, is repre-
sented in one of the reliefs on the temple of Karnac ; the
sacred ship of Ammon being on the Nile with its whole
equipment, and towed along by another boat. This must
therefore, says Heeren, have been one of the most celebrated
* Heeren, vol. i. p. 248. M But we shall form a more exact idea of this
enormous work by comparing it with some standard of which we can
judge. The church of St. Martin's in the Fields, one of the finest and
largest of modern religious edifices in London, is 1378 feet long and 81
wide, measured along the outside basement, not including the steps and
portico. This will give an area of nearly 11,150 square feet; which is
not so much as one-fifth part of the great hall of Karnac.'— British
Museum, p. 89.
t Heeren, vol. i. p. 252.
NUBIA AND ABYSSINIA. 193
festivals, since, according to the interpretation of antiquity,
Homer alludes to it when he speaks of Jupiter's visit to the
Ethiopians and his twelve days' absence. That such
attendance, paid by the gods of a colony to those of the pa-
rent state, were common, and considered as proofs of national
relationship, is well known from numerous instances in the
ancient world. The forms only were different ; in one case
this affinity might be commemorated by such a procession
as we have described, in another by sending a sacred em-
bassy. When Alexander took Tyre, he found there a
religious mission from Carthage, the most important of its
colonies.*
The same principle applies to all the nations of the
Eastern World ; for a common religion was one of the
strongest ties among men in ancient times, and tended more,
perhaps, than any thing else to perpetuate among them those
friendly feelings which had their origin in a kindred blood.
The primitive seat of their faith was still held as the me-
tropolis of all the tribes and people who sprang from the
same root. Thus we find, that at the stated season devout
men of Jewish extraction went from every nation under
heaven to worship at Jerusalem, the holy city of their
fathers ; a practice well illustrated by the journey of the
Ethiopian treasurer, who, in order to fulfil a pious duty,
passed the frightful deserts which intervened between the
country of Candace and the capital of Palestine.
Aided by this principle we can more easily trace the line-
age of the divinities acknowledged by Greece and Rome.
The Jupiter of Olympus was only a cadet, so to speak, of
that ancient family of gods, who, through the medium of the
branches established in Egypt, extended their authority and
worship from the shores of the Indian Ocean to those of the
Baltic. The homage, therefore, which was paid by the
junior deities to the parent gods at the ancient seat of their
power, was not only a mark of respect to antiquity but an
acknowledgment of inferiority and dependence in the more
recent people. It implied, besides, all the duties of a vassal
state ; for he who carried a gift to the shrine of a national
* Diod. Sic. lib. i. c. 97. Kc/t' eviamSv yapirapd tots Aiyv~liois tov
v£u)v tov &tbs xspaiovG^-at tov irorauov lis Tr,v Av;3vi)v, Kai utO' fmepag
Tivas 7raAii' i-Ki,arprj6£ii\ w? f£ Aidtoxtas tov Stov irapov'Jo;. Heeren,
vol. i. p. 301. British Museum, 96.
R
194 ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS, ETC.
divinity confessed thereby that his allegiance was pledged,
and his services bound to the land in which he presented his
offering.
We have elsewhere mentioned the alarm which was ex-
cited among the Hebrew tribes, who under the command
of Joshua had settled on the western side of the Jordan,
when it was reported to them that their brethren of Gad and
Reuben had erected an altar on the opposite bank in the
pastoral district of Gilead. This act was considered as
equivalent to a political schism, or a permanent separation
of interests. And when they heard of it, " the whole chil-
dren of Israel gathered themselves together at Shiloh, to go
up to war against them." An appeal to arms was prevented,
by an assurance on the part of the suspected herdsmen, that
they had no intention to offer sacrifices, but were ready to
repair for all religious usages to the place where the ark of
the covenant should be deposited.
In surveying the wonders which crowd the banks of the
Nile from Meroe to Memphis, we are struck with the re-
flection that the wealth, power, and genius, whence they
derived their origin, have entirely passed away. In some,
portions of that extensive tract a race little superior to sav-
ages pass a rude and precarious life, ignorant of the arts,
and insensible equally to the beauty and the magnificence
of the ruins which they tread under foot. They have ceased
even to claim connexion with the people who raised the
splendid monuments of Ebsarnboul, Karnac, and Dendera ;
and, accordingly, they ascribe the anxiety which our coun-
trymen display, in regard to those remains of antiquity, to
the desire of visiting the tombs of a European nation, who
are supposed by them to have built the temples and sculp-
tured the obelisks.
The Nubians, especially, have relapsed into that low
condition where even curiosity has become dormant, and in
which the eye can be every day fixed on the noblest
works of human ingenuity without suggesting any specula-
tion as to their authors, their epoch, or their design.
Throughout the whole world, in short, there is no greater
contrast to be witnessed than between what now is, and
what must once have been, in Ethiopia and Egypt. There
is even great difficulty in passing, by an effort of thought,
from the one condition to the other, through the various
LITERATURE OF ETHIOPIA. 195
scenes of conquest and desolation which seem necessary to
have produced the effects we contemplate. We might
question history, but we should receive no answer, as to
events and characters which the lapse of three thousand
years has thrown into an impenetrable obscurity. Sur-
rounded with darkness we grope our way amid superb
structures, dedicated to gods and heroes whose names make
but a faint impression on our ears ; and we satisfy ourselves
with the conclusion, that a great people had existed there
before the era of recorded time, whose literature and phi-
losophy have been outlived by their architectural monuments.
CHAPTER V.
Religion and Literature of Ethiopia.
Abyssinia received Christianity at an early Period— Influence of Re-
ligion on its Political State and Civil History— Story of Frumentius —
Jewish Ceremonies mixed with the Gospel— Arian Heresy — Constan-
ts — Invasion of Arabia — Heresy of Eutyches — Conversion of Nu-
bians—Justinian and Theodore— Zara Jacob— His Letter to the Monks
of Jerusalem— Council of Florence — Pagans of Samon — Arrival of
Pae^— Dispute with Clergy — The King Za Denghel becomes Roman
Catholic — His Letter to the Pope— Accession of Susneus— His Adher-
ence to the Roman Form — Rebellion — Formal Declaration in favour
of Popery— Death of Paez— Arrival of Mendez— His Proceedings as
Patriarch— Encroachments and Tyranny— The King alarmed insists
on Moderation— Rebellion — Basilides, or Facilidas. the Prince — Hopes
of the People— Letter from the Pope— Additional Concessions— Popery
abolish -d — Jesuits banished — Capuchins— Franciscan Friars — At-
tempt by Louis XIV. — Poncet and Brevedent— Massacre of Catholic
Priests— Arrival of Abuna — His Proceedings — The Psalter— Doctrines
of Abyssinians — Zaga Zaba, Ludoif, and Lobo — Mode of Worship —
Form of Churches— Circumcision, Baptism, and Communion — Prayers
for the Dead — Fixedness of Manners and Habits — Sabbath — Chro-
nology — Last Attempt of Catholics — Literature — Resemblance to Jews
— Books — Philosophy — Law — Medicine— Modern Translation.
We have alluded to the singular fact, that Abyssinia,
which received the Christian faith at an early period, has
retained it, amid a great variety of fortune, down to the
present day. The arms and the policy of the Moslem,
which prevailed in Egypt, Asia Minor, the northern shores
196 RELIGION AND
of Africa, and even over a large portion of Greece, could not
make any permanent impression among the Ethiopians.
A furious war, it is true, raged between the Mohammedan
chief, who took possession of the country near Adel, and
the king of the Axumites ; but it does not appear that, either
by conquest or negotiation, the tenets of the Koran were
ever admitted into any of the Abyssinian provinces.
This distinction will be found the more remarkable,
when we consider the imperfect means which were used for
establishing the gospel in that remote kingdom, and we
may add, the rather defective form in which it was received
by the new converts. The principles of Christianity were
not expounded there by the apostles nor by their personal
missionaries, as at Corinth, Ephesus, Galatia, and Thessa-
lonica ; and yet, while the seven churches of Asia have left
nothing but a name in the page of ecclesiastical history,
the believers in Ethiopia, who fifteen hundred years ago
" stretched out their hands unto God," still glory in their
ancient creed.
There is another peculiarity in regard to this people, so
far at least as their connexion with this part of the world is
considered, which is, that it is chiefly through the medium
of their religious attachments their civil affairs have been
made known among European nations. So soon as it was
rumoured that a Christian state existed on the eastern coast
of Africa, surrounded by bigoted Mussulmans and infidel
pagans, a deep interest was excited among all classes of
men. Kings, warriors, merchants, and navigators, were
seized with a pious curiosity to know the actual condition
of a people whose history, they concluded, must be strange,
and who, if they should require it, were entitled as brethren
in the faith to their aid and protection. The legend, too,
respecting Prester John, had its full influence in animating
their zeal in the search of a monarch whose name was asso-
ciated in their minds with every sentiment of veneration and
wonder.
We have already had more than one occasion to allude to
the story of Frumentius, \«ho is usually supposed to have
conveyed to Abyssinia the knowledge of the Christian faith.
In company with a fellow-student he was under the care of
Meropius, a philosopher, v/hen the ship in which they sailed
happened to be wrecked on the Ethiopian coast. The pre-
LITERATURE OF ETHIOPIA. 197
ceptor was murdered by the barbarians, but the lives of the
two pupils were spared ; after which occurrence the young
men were conducted to Axum, where their accomplishments
soon procured for them an honourable employment at court.
It is even said that, through the influence of the queen,
Frumentius was appointed tutor to the prince her son, dur-
ing whose minority the seeds of the gospel were sown by
the zealous stranger.
On his return to Egypt he communicated to Athanasius,
who at that time filled the patriarch's chair, the success
which had attended his first endeavours to disseminate the
principles of the true religion. To enable him to complete
the good work which he had so auspiciously begun, he was
forthwith clothed with the episcopal character, and sent back
as Bishop of Axum. But his progress was soon afterward
interrupted by the prevalence of the Arian heresy, which,
being patronised by Constantius, was so extensively propa-
gated throughout the empire, that at length it signalized
its triumph by the degradation of the distinguished divine,
who, as we have just noticed, occupied the patriarchal
throne of Alexandria. We have repeatedly mentioned the
•letter which the emperor wrote to the brothers Aizana and
Saizana, who exercised a joint power at Axum, denouncing
their bishop, and requesting that he might be sent to the
Egyptian capital, where, " by conversing familiarly with
Venerable George and other learned men, he would reap
great benefits, and return to his see well instructed in all
ecclesiastical discipline." This invitation or command re-
ceived no attention either from the prelate or his sovereigns ;
and hence the church of Ethiopia continued orthodox, while
the majority of the oriental Christians were beguiled into
error by the reasoning of Arius, or by the authority of the
father of Constantine.*
It cannot be concealed, that with the doctrines of Chris-
tianity they either incorporated many ceremonies which they
had borrowed from the Jews, or, it may be, they received the
gospel mixed with many of their rites, which had not, in
the early period of the Egyptian church, been entirely sepa-
rated from it. It is equally certain, however, that the faith
* Ludolfi Hist. Ethiop. lib. iii. c. 2. The names of the royal brothers
in the language of the country were Abreha and Atz.beha.
R2
198 RELIGION AND
which they adopted with enthusiasm they maintained with
great firmness ; for they not only withstood the importunity
employed by the imperial envoys to draw them aside from
the truth, but even employed their arms to defend the be-
lievers in Arabia against the enemies of the cross. So
highly esteemed, indeed, were their zeal and influence, that
the head of the Roman empire did not regard it as unsuit-
able to his dignity to solicit their co-operation in opposing
the Persians, aided by the infidel Hebrews, who threatened
the eastern shore of the Red Sea.
The interval between the reign of Constantius and the
government of Justinian presents to the historian little more
than an absolute blank. We read, it is true, that from time
to time mariy holy men went from Egypt, who were inva-
riably received with reverence by the inhabitants ; particu-
larly nine of great sanctity, about the year 480, whose mem-
ory is still respected in the province of Tigre, where a cor-
responding number of churches were built and called after
their names.*
But at length the disputes which tore asunder the great
body of the Greek church reached the remote provinces of
Abyssinia. The theological error, which is associated with
the name of Eutyches, respecting the nature of Christ,
found a favourable reception in Egypt, and was communi-
cated by the patriarch to the subordinate prelate of Axum.
The opinion that the Redeemer consisted of only one na-
ture, as the Divine Word, and partook not in any degree of
the qualities of flesh and blood, is known among ecclesias-
tical writers as the monophysite heresy ; and which, though
it was variously modified by subsequent authors, at no time
ceased to respect the essential point of faith now described.
As it seems to be characteristic of the Abyssinians never to
relinquish what they have once been taught on sufficient au
thority, they resisted every attempt made by the orthodox
party to induce them to an abjuration of their heretical
notions.
Nubia, more recently converted to our holy religion, was
infected with the same errors and subjected to the same con-
troversies. It unfortunately happened that Justinian and
* Geddes's Church History of Ethiopia, p. 14.; Ludolphi Hist. Ethiop.
lib. iii. c. 3. '
LITERATURE OF ETHIOPIA. 199
his consort had adopted opposite conclusions on the great
subject, the discussion of which so greatly divided the Chris-
tian world ; and as the zeal of the latter was not less active
than that of the emperor himself, she propagated her fa-
vourite views from the Danube to the borders of Sennaar.
It was recommended to her to bring within the pale of the
church all the black nations who dwell beyond the tropic of
Cancer ; a pious undertaking, in which she soon found her-
self emulated by her husband. Rival missionaries were ac-
cordingly despatched at the same time ; but the empress,
from a motive of love or of fea*r, was more effectually
obeyed ; and the orthodox priest was detained by the gov-
ernor of the Thebaid, while, the King of Nubia and his
court were hastily baptized into the faith of Eutyches. The
tardy envoy of Justinian was received and dismissed with
honour ; but when he denounced the heresy and treason
which had been perpetrated in defiance of his master, the
negro prince was taught to reply, that he would never aban-
don his brethren, the true believers, to the persecuting agents
of the Synod of Chalcedon. During several ages the
bishops were named and consecrated by the Patriarch of
Alexandria : as late as the twelfth century the profession
of the gospel was preserved ; and at the present day we can
still trace, along the banks of the Upper Nile, the ruins of
Christian churches, or of temples which had occasionally
been employed for that purpose, and even a lingering respect
for ceremonies of which the real import has ceased to be
understood. The Nubians, assailed by the Moslem and
deriving no aid from their parents in the faith, gradually re-
lapsed into the state of paganism ; and at length some tribes
of them, who maintained an intercourse with Egypt, ex-
changed the New Testament, which they had not been able
to read, for the Koran, whose success they were taught to
identify with the proof of a Divine commission.
There is reason to believe that the same emulation which
distinguished the imperial couple in behalf of the Nubians
was not less efficient in regard to Abyssinia. The industry
of the lady was again successful ; and the pious Theodora
had the satisfaction of establishing in that kingdom the
tenets and discipline of the Jacobites, a sect who held the
doctrine of the one nature. But we find from the history
of John Malala, that the zeal of the emperor, so far from
200 RELIGION AND
being deemed intrusive, was invited by the ruler of Ethi-
opia. This annalist informs us that the king of the Axum-
ites, when he had obtained the victory over the Arabians,
despatched two of his relations with two hundred followers
to Alexandria, for the purpose of soliciting from Justinian
that a bishop and some holy men might be sent to instruct
his subjects in the mysteries of the Christian faith. The
emperor being informed of those things by Licinius, his
viceroy at Alexandria, gave an order that the ambassadors
should be allowed to make choice of whomsoever they
pleased ; and they accordingly chose John, the almsgiver of
St. John in Alexandria, a good and pious man about sixty-
two years of age, and took him, then a bishop, together with
several holy men, to their country to Anda, or Ameda, their
king.*
But the army of Elesbaan, the same who is called Anda
by the chronographer just quoted, could not support the
cause of the believers on the opposite side of the gulf, and
hence a path was left open for the introduction of a new
religion. If a Christian power, says a great writer, had
been maintained in Arabia, Mohammed must have been
crushed in his cradle, and Abyssinia would have prevented
a revolution which has changed the civil and religious state
of the world, t
In following the current of events, as they respect the
ecclesiastical affairs of Ethiopia, we have to lament the
total absence of historical facts from the sixth to the middle
of the fifteenth century. Coming down to the reign of
Zara Jacob, who ascended the throne about 1434, we find
that a convent for Abyssinians had already been founded at
Jerusalem, of which this pious monarch greatly increased
the endowments. A similar privilege was also obtained at
Rome ; a fact which of itself gives some probability to the
assertion of certain Dominican authors, who record that an
intercourse had been occasionally maintained between the
pope and the sovereign of Axum. We present to our
readers a single specimen of the correspondence which the
negash negashi, or king of kings, thought proper to carry
on with the monks in the holy city : —
* Joan. Malal. Chronographia, p. 168, quoted by Mr. Salt in his Tra-
vels in Abyssinia, p. 467.
t Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. be. p. 309, &c.
LITERATURE OF ETHIOPIA. 201
" I, Zara Jacob, whose name, since God was pleased to
place me on the throne of the empire, is Constantine, in the
eighth year of my reign, do bequeath unto you the land of
Zebla, and half of all tributes arising from it for two years,
which amounts to a hundred ounces of gold, towards your
food and raiment ; and do give it to the monastery of Jeru-
salem, that it may be a memorial of myself and of our
Lady Mary, and for the celebration of her feasts ; to wit,
that of her nativity on the 1st May, that of her death on
the 22d January, and that of her translation on the 15th Au-
gust ; as also of the feasts of her Son, our Lord Jesus, on
the 29th December, when he was born, to be celebrated by
you at Bethlehem, together with the festivities of his passion
and lively resurrection from death. You shall likewise cele-
brate all the festivities of our Lady Mary, which in the book
of her miracles are thirty-two in number. And you shall
furthermore keep a lamp burning for me in the sepulchre of
our Lord, and another in the entry thereof ; and so on the
right side one, and on the left another ; also at the place
of his burial three ; three at the monument of our Lady
Mary in Gethsemane ; and at the place where Mary Mag-
dalene saw him one ; and in our chapel, three ; one also at
Bethlehem, where our Lord was born ; and another at the
place on the Mount of Olives where our Lord ascended.
Let them all be maintained at my charge, and take care not
to suffer them to go out at any time, nor to give way to any
person contributing towards them. And since I do rely on
the bond of your love, so let your prayers and benedictions
be with me through all ages. Amen."
His majesty adds the following postcript, which seems to
import more than meets the eye : —
" My beloved, do not you offer to say, Light descendeth
only upon us, that your glorying in yourselves be not in
vain ; since you know that evil attends glorying, and bless-
ing humility."
The reign of Zara Jacob is further remarkable for the
part which his clerical representatives acted in the Council
of Florence. At his desire a number of priests were sent
by the Abba Nicodemus, not only to protect the interests of
the church of Abyssinia, but also to make known to the
sovereign pontiff the sound views on religion which were
still entertained in the country celebrated for the pious
202 RELIGION AND
docility of the Ethiopian treasurer. These missionaries,
however, adhered to the opinion of the Greeks on the long-
disputed topic of the procession of the Holy Ghost, which,
as every one has heard, created a schism between the Chris-
tians of the East and of the West. This embassy was
thought of sufficient consequence to be made the subject of
a painting in the Vatican ; to which work of art we are
principally indebted for our knowledge of the fact, that such
a deputation had been sent from Eastern Africa to the
centre of Italy. We may add, that from this time forward
the Roman communion possessed a certain influence in
Abyssinia, and disputes on doctrinal points occasionally ex-
ercised the ingenuity of the court as well as of the profes-
sional orders.
Although the established religion was that of the church
of Alexandria, a variety of superstitions prevailed in different
parts of the country. On the coast of the Red Sea, and in
the low provinces adjoining to the kingdom of Adel, the
greatest part of the inhabitants were Mohammedans ; and
the convenience of trade had induced these enemies of the
Christian creed to settle in many villages throughout the
high country, especially in Wogara and the neighbourhood
of Gondar. In Dembea, in the rugged district of Samen,
and near the sources of the Nile, a species of sabaism still
gave exercise to the devotional feelings of the people ; while
some, who had either failed to keep pace with the progress
of their countrymen or had anticipated a more advanced
stage of improvement, offered up their adoration to the cow
and the serpent. The king, offended at a debasement so
gross and irrational, ordered these rude worshippers to be
seized and brought before him. Sitting in judgment, with
the heads of his clergy and the principal officers of state
around him, he had the satisfaction to hear all the culprits
capitally convicted and ordered for execution. A proclama-
tion from his majesty immediately followed, declaring that
all persons who did not carry upon their right hands an
amulet with these words, " I renounce the devil for Christ
our Lord," should forfeit their personal estates and be liable
to corporal punishment.*
This expedient of Zara Jacob — the adoption of a heathen-
ish practice to effect a Christian object — might have been
* Bruce, vol.iii. p. 260.
LITERATURE OF ETHIOPIA. 203
justified by the principle stated by St. Paul, that the whole
Jewish system of rites and ordinances was added to the
patriarchal religion, " because of transgressions ;" that is,
it was imposed upon an idolatrous people to prevent them
from rushing into the more flagrant usages of gentile wor-
ship. But it is probable that the zealous monarch knew
not the full bearing of the precedent to which we have now
alluded.
The close of the fifteenth century was disturbed by the
revival of opinions similar to those which had been approved
by the Council of Chalcedon. An assembly of the clergy
was called, and those who denied the true faith were either
put to instant death, or exposed without food or clothing to
perish on the tops of the highest mountains.
The intercourse with Europe which marked the beginning
of the following age led to a new series of events in the
Abyssinian church. The Portuguese, who by their valour
and superior arms defeated the designs of the Mohammedan
states, claimed the right of giving counsel to their allies in
the important article of religion. No progress, however,
was made towards this object till the arrival of Paez at the
close of the sixteenth century. This able Jesuit, repairing
to the monastery at Fremona, made himself master of the
Geez language in the first instance, after which he began
to teach others ; and so great was his success in this under-
taking, that the fame of his acquirements reached the ears
of the king, whose name was Za Denghel.
In the year 1 604, accordingly, Peter, attended by only
two of his young disciples, presented himself at court,
which was then held at Dancaz. He was received by his
majesty with great honours, to the deep mortification of the
native monks, who could not fail to anticipate on his side a
still more important triumph. In a dispute held next day
before the sovereign, Paez thought it enough to produce the
two boys as his only advocates for the Catholic faith, and
as fully qualified to silence all the theologians in Abyssinia.
The result corresponded to his expectation, and did not fail
to establish his influence to a greater extent than ever in
the eyes of the royal family. Mass was then said agreeably
to the usage of the church of Rome, which was followed by
a sermon, — among the first preached in that country, — so far
surpassing in elegance and purity of diction any thing yet
204 RELIGION AND
pronounced in the learned language, that all the hearers
began to look upon this as the first miracle on the part of
the missionary. Za Denghel was so delighted with it, that
he not only determined to embrace the Roman Catholic
religion, but instantly made known this resolution to Pacz
himself, under an oath of secrecy that he should conceal it
for some time. Proceeding to realize his views, he prohibited
the observance of Saturday, which, as the Jewish sabbath,
had till that period been kept holy, and directed letters to be
addressed to the pope and the kings of Spain and Portugal,
announcing his conversion and soliciting their friendship.*
But the Abyssinian monarch soon discovered that his
subjects were not yet prepared to accompany him in such
sweeping innovations. The abuna, stimulated by Za Se-
lasse" a brave commander, absolved the people from their
allegiance, and sanctioned an open rebellion. The issue of
the w r ar was favourable to the insurgents ; the emperor was
slain, his troops were dispersed, and the most devoted of his
friends shared his fate on the field of battle.
As the letter addressed by Za Denghel to Clement VIII.
is not unworthy of notice, we lay before the reader the fol-
lowing extract : — " After we had ascended the throne, a
certain friar whose name is Peter Paez, of the society of
Jesus, and who hath the yoke of the law of Christ upon his
neck, did visit us ; and has given us a very particular
account how your holiness labours even to the shedding of
your blood to destroy sin. May the eternal God who hath
begun this work bring it to a happy issue ! He hath like-
wise told us that you are always ready to assist Christians
who are in necessity, and to afford them strength and com-
fort ; having learned the lesson of St. Paul, who, in his
Epistle to the Galatians, saith, While we have time let us
do good to all men, but chiefly to those who r.ve of the house-
hold of faith ; for which reason your holiness assists Chris-
tian kings chiefly. Wherefore, since God hath been pleased
to bestow upon us the empire of our fathers, we are desirous
of entering into a strict friendship with you and with our
brother Philip king of Spain ; and, in order to make it the
closer and more lasting, we do wish that he would send
his daughter hither to be married to our son, and with her
* Bruce, vol. iii. p. 264.
LITERATURE OF ETHIOPIA. 205
some soldiers to help us : For we have infidel enemies called
Galla, who when we go against them flee before us ; but, so
soon as our back is turned are making inroads upon us again.
For the destruction of this enemy it is that we desire to have
some troops from you, with artificers of all trades, and fathers
to instruct us, that we may be of one heart and one body ;
and that the faith of Christ which is destroyed by the hands
of infidels may be established, and that there may be peace
and love among us."*
After the short reign of Jacob the throne was occupied
by Socinios or Susneus, or, as he is more frequently de-
nominated, the Sultan Segued. Induced by reasons similar
to those which led Za Denghel to relinquish the communion
of Alexandria, he also declared his adherence to the Ro-
man Catholic form. He determined at all events to attach
the Portuguese to his interests, whose leaders, he was
aware, could not be influenced by any other consideration
so readily as by that of religion. For this reason he made
advances to their priests, and sent for Paez to court ; where,
after the usual disputes about the pope's supremacy and the
two natures in Christ, mass was said and a sermon preached,
— the common method of acknowledging submission to
Rome. To crown their triumph, the Jesuits procured from
the king a grant of land near the lake Dembea, on which
they erected a stately convent.
But this important point was not carried without much
opposition. The abuna complained to the king that un-
usual and irregular things had been permitted without his
knowledge ; and that conferences upon articles of faith had
been held without asking him to be present, or even allow-
ing him to afford to his clergy the advantage of his assistance
in the controversies which ensued. Socinios, who did not
believe that the eloquence or learning of the bishop would
materially affect the issue of the question, ordered that the
disputations should be renewed. The king, after a patient
hearing, declared that the Abyssinian orators were van-
quished, and signified it as his sovereign pleasure, that for
the future no one should deny that there are two natures in
Christ, distinct in themselves, but divinely united in one
person ; declaring, at the same time, that should any person
* Geddes, p. 251.
S
206 RELIGION AND
thereafter deny or call in doubt this solemn doctrine, he
would chastise him for seven years. On the other hand the
abuna, supported by Emana Christos the half-brother of his
majesty, published a sentence of excommunication, and
affixed it to the door of one of the churches belonging to the
palace, in which they denounced all persons as accursed who
should maintain two natures in Christ, or vindicate any of
the errors of the Roman See.
A conspiracy was immediately formed under the auspices
of the abuna, Emana Christos, Kefia Wahad the master of
the household, and Julius the governor of Tigre. Their
intention was to murder the king in his own house ; but this
plan being defeated they had recourse to arms, and led their
troops into the field. Julius and the primate were killed in
the first battle, and the insurrection was for the time sup-
pressed. Emana, whom the royal party attempted to assail
with the weapons of argument, replied, that he stood forward
in defence of" the ancient faith of his country, which was
now without reason trodden under foot in favour of a creed
which he described as a false one, if they understood it, and
a useless one if they did not. He admitted that he was
aware of his danger ; but neither his connexion with the
king, nor his being related to Sela Christos, could weigh
with him against his duty to God and his native land. The
emperor and his brother, he added, might be right in em-
bracing the Romish belief, because they were convinced of
its truth ; he had used however the same means, had heard
the same arguments urged by the same fathers, which, un-
luckily for him, had only more fully satisfied his mind that
their tenets were erroneous.*
Socinios, a conqueror both in the field and in the theo-
logical chair, became more decided in his adherence to the
new faith. To his proclamation, establishing the creed of
Chalcedon as to the two natures of the Redeemer, he added
an injunction that " all out-door work, such as ploughing and
sowing, should be publicly followed by the husbandman on
Saturday, under penalty of paying a web of cotton cloth for
the first omission ; and the second offence was to be pun-
ished by a confiscation of moveables, and the crime not to be
pardoned for seven years," — the greatest punishment for
* Bruce, vol. iii. p. 346.
LITERATURE OF ETHIOPIA. 207
misdemeanors in Abyssinia. In order to show that he was
in earnest, he ordered the tongue of a monk to be cut out
for supporting the monophysite doctrine ; and Buco Damo,
one of his principal generals, was beaten with rods and
degraded for observing the rest of the Jewish Sabbath.
Nay, it is said he was urged by the Jesuits to pronounce a
curse on the soul of Zara Jacob his great-grandfather, for
not having, at the early period when he possessed the throne,
strictly conformed to the ritual recommended by the Por-
tuguese.*
It was not, however, until he had triumphed over several
rebellious chiefs in the different provinces that the sultan, as
he was pleased to be addressed, formally avowed himself a
member of the Roman church. Having come to this reso-
lution he sent for Paez, who had already acted as his con-
fessor, and communicated it to him ; stating also as a proof
of his sincerity, that he had put away all his wives except
the first, the mother of his eldest son, who was destined to
succeed him in the empire. The Jesuit having accomplished
this great object, the main purpose of his mission, returned
to his convent with the words of pious exultation in his
mouth, " Lord, now lettest thou thy servant depart in peace !"
No sooner did he arrive at the establishment on which he
had bestowed so much labour, than he was seized with a
putrid fever, the effect of fatigue at an unfavourable season,
which put an end to his life on the 3d of May, 1623. He
had been seven years a captive in Arabia, and nineteen a
missionary in Abyssinia during the worst of times, and had
always extricated himself from the most perilous situations
with honour to his fraternity and advantage to his religion, t
The open renunciation of the Alexandrian faith on the
part of Socinios, accompanied as it was with a furious
attack on the clergy of the whole kingdom, was followed by
another war, in which some brave officers and a great num-
ber of soldiers were sacrificed to the demon of bigotry.
The royal arms were once more victorious ; and the joy
which arose from such continued success was soon after-
ward greatly increased by the arrival of Alphonso Mendez,
* Bruce, vol. iii. p. 350 ; Geddes, p. 24.
t Bruce, iii p. 355. "In person he was very tall and strong, but lean
from continual labour and abstinence. He was red-faced, which Tellez
says proceeded from the religious warmth of his heart."
208 RELIGION AND
who had been consecrated at Lisbon as head of the Ethiopian
church. On his appearance at Gongora, the monastery
founded by Paez, he was graciously received by the king,
who placed him on his right-hand on a throne equal in
height to his own, and fixed the day for taking the oath of
submission to the See of Rome.
On the 11th of February, 1626, this ceremony was com-
pleted with great ostentation and parade. The new patri-
arch, as a mark of his superiority to the abuna, preached a
sermon in the Portuguese language on the supremacy of the
chair of St. Peter over all Christian communities. He took
pains, at the same time, to adorn his harangue with many
Latin quotations ; a display of scholarship which is said to
have had a wonderful effect on the minds of the king and
his courtiers, not one of whom understood a word either of
Latin or Portuguese. After a suitable declaration of his
faith and adherence to the religion of the West, Socinios,
with the New Testament spread open before him, proceeded
to take the following oath : — " We, Sultan Segued, emperor
of Ethiopia, do believe and confess that St. Peter, prince of
the Apostles, was constituted by Christ our Lord head of the
whole Christian church ; and that he gave him the princi-
pality and dominion over the whole world by saying to him,
Thou art Peter, and upon this rock will I build my church ,
and I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven :
and again, when he said, Keep my sheep. Also we believe
and confess that the pope of Rome, lawfully elected, is the
true successor of St. .Peter, the apostle, in government ;
that he holdeth the same power, dignity, and primacy, in the
whole Christian church : And to the holy father Urban, the
eighth of that name, by the mercy of God, pope, and our
lord, and to his successors in the government of the church,
we do promise, offer, and swear true obedience, and with
humility subject at his feet our person and empire. So help
us God, and these holy gospels before us !"*
* Geddes's Church History of Ethiopia, p. 342; Ludolfi Hist. Ethiop.
lib. iii. c. 12. The patriarch in his sermon introduced the following
statement : — " There are four principal chairs iu the world, which are as
the four rivers that flow out of Paradise, or as the four universal
winds, or as the four elements ; but above all the chair of St, Peter has
the dignity and primacy; and in the second place that of St. Mark at
Alexandria ; in the third place that of St. John ; in the fourth that of
Antioch, which was also St. Peter's, from which four all the other
LITERATURE OF ETHIOPIA. 209
This act of submission on the part of the king was fol-
lowed by a similar ceremony, as applied to the princes,
governors, officers, ministers, and monks, who did " promise,
offer, and swear the same obedience." The duties of the
day were concluded with an excommunication pronounced
by Mendez against those who should at any time violate
their oaths. He likewise issued two proclamations, the one
prohibiting all Abyssinian priests from performing any
ecclesiastical office before they had presented themselves
officially to him ; and the other commanding all the subjects
of the empire, upon pain of death, to embrace popery, and
to discover all such as adhered to their ancient religion ;
enjoining also the observance of Lent and Easter according
to the Roman manner and time.
Having the royal power transferred to his hands for all
ecclesiastical purposes, the patriarch did not fail to employ
it for the accomplishment of his own views. He directed
that all the clergy should be reordained, and their churches
consecrated anew ; that all persons, children and adults,
should be rebaptized ; that the moveable feasts and fasts
should be reduced to the calendar of Rome ; and finally, that
circumcision, polygamy, and divorce, should be abrogated
for ever. It was moreover announced that all questions
arising from the discussion of such matters, and which were
formerly understood to belong to the jurisdiction of civil
courts, should thereafter be decided at his tribunal ex-
clusively.
Imboldened by success, the patriarch attempted to secure
a permanent revenue for the Catholic priesthood, arising
from a territorial domain. It is however a fundamental law
of the Abyssinian monarchy that all the land belongs to the
king, and that no property of this nature shall be permanently
vested in the church ; such portions as are set apart for the
maintenance of the national religion being resumable at
pleasure, and always under the management of lay com-
missioners appointed by the crown. It happened that a
nobleman at court, much respected for his rank and services,
had been put in possession of some fields which were
formerly occupied by a Romish monk, who, instead of ap-
pealing to the civil authority, carried his cause before the
bishops are derived." This he described as a canon of the Council of
Nice.
S2
210 RELIGION AND
ecclesiastical tribunal of Mendez. This prelate summoned
the grandee to appear at his judgment-seat, and to answer
to the charge brought against him by the complainer ; and
upon the other refusing to comply, he condemned him in his
absence, and gave sentence that he should forthwith restore
the disputed grounds.
Failing in obedience to this unwonted decision, the chief
heard himself excommunicated in church one day while
attending the king, and without ceremony or reserve given
over, soul and body, to" the devil. The nobleman, though
otherwise brave, was so much affected with the terms in
which his doom was pronounced, that he instantly fell into
a swoon ; and it was not until tbe patriarch, at the inter-
cession of his majesty, consented to withdraw or modify
the curse, that he completely recovered. The fierce zeal of
the bishop, and his systematic encroachment on the royal
prerogative and common rights of the subject, contributed
not a little to alienate the affections of the people, the great
mass of whom were still attached to the ancient form of
worship. But their indignation was still more excited by
another instance of intemperate bigotry, as applied to the
body of a deceased monk, the superior of the convent at
Devra Libanos. One of the priests of the new order, finding
that the corpse of the abbot now mentioned was interred
under the altar at which he officiated, represented the
case to Mendez ; who distantly declared that the church
was defiled by the burial of that heretical schismatic,
and suspended the celebration of divine worship till the
remains were actually dug up and thrown out of the sacred
edifice in a most indecent manner. A profound discontent
spread throughout the whole country ; and from that moment
the friends of the old religion began to recover strength,
while the Catholics were very generally regarded with hatred
as well as with terror.
The king, though a sincere convert, could no longer refuse
to sympathize with the just fears and resentment of his
people. He desired the patriarch to permit the use of the
ancient liturgies of Ethiopia, which had been altered by
Mendez himself in every thing where they did not agree
with the Roman ritual. With this requisition he was
obliged to comply, because it seemed reasonable that men
should pray to God in a language which they understood,
LITERATURE OF ETHIOPIA. 211
rather than in a foreign tongue, the precise import of which
they could not comprehend. But this concession to the
wishes of the natives weakened the power of the European
priests ; for no sooner were the former allowed to use their
own books of devotion than they rejected the emendations
of the stranger, and adhered exclusively to their wonted
method.
This cause, however, which at first engaged the attention
only of churchmen, and a few of the more zealous members
of the court, was finally decided in the field of battle. The
governors of provinces, whose allegiance was bound to the
throne by very weak ties, seized the occasion for breaking
out into rebellion against Socinios ; regarding, perhaps, the
breach that had been made on their ancient faith and con-
stitution by a privileged body of foreigners as an attack on
their national independence. Tecla Georgis, a son-in-law
of the king, raised tbe standard of rebellion in Tigre, de-
claring his determination no longer to endure the Roman
religion, but to defend the church of Alexandria to the utmost
of his power. With the view at once of convincing his
countrymen of his sincerity, and of precluding all possi-
bility of reconciliation with his sovereign, he tore down the
crucifixes from the walls of churches, defaced all the orna-
ments which had a reference to the late innovations, and
removed the figures of popish saints. He then called before
him Abba Jacob, his Catholic chaplain, and having stripped
him of his sacerdotal vestments slew him with his own hand.
This act of violence was soon afterward severely pun-
ished by the death of Tecla Georgis, who was taken
prisoner in battle, and who with his sister fell under the
hand of the executioner. But the suppression of one re-
bellion only led to another more determined, until the finest
parts of the empire were soaked with blood. At length the
hopes of the people were directed to Basilides or Facilidas,
the king's eldest son, who to great military talent added
much prudence and moderation. He was thought unfriendly
to the Catholic party, because he did not espouse their
cause ; yet he lived with the Jesuits on such a footing that
they themselves knew not whether to calculate on his sup-
port or his enmity. He kept one of them, Father Angelis,
constantly in his household, and treated him not only with
respect, but also with confidence. He was besides sub-
missive to his parent in all things, and never opposed any
212 RELIGION AND
of his measures for the ecclesiastical government of the
state. But it was observed, that, when he received a flat-
tering message from Urban VIII., he did not think proper
to return any answer ; while those who attempted to pene-
trate his motives saw reason to conclude that he would not
submit to the restraint imposed on the sovereign by the
Portuguese missionaries, under the semblance of iilial rev-
erence for the head of the universal church.
' The expectation that Facilidas would put an end to the
foreign influence which enthralled his father, induced some
of the subordinate officers to practise an undue severity
towards the Romanists. When, for example, Serca Christos
was appointed to the government of Gojam, a priest whose
name was Za Selasse was heard to say, " There is an end
of the Catholic faith in this province." Being called before
the military ruler, he was forbidden to perform mass ac-
cording to the form employed in Europe. To this order he
dutifully submitted ; but when he was desired to renounce
the doctrine of the two natures in our Saviour, he declared
that this was a point of faith which he could not surrender,
being convinced that Chrisf was perfect God and perfect
man. Upon this the governor commanded that he should
be put to death, and he was accordingly thrust through the
body with numerous lances ; exclaiming, as long as he had
strength to utter a word, " God and man ! God and man !"
As we have mentioned the letter addressed by the pope
to the Prince Facilidas, we shall, as it is not very long,
submit it to the consideration of the reader, who will observe
that it recommends the use of strong measures for the
support of orthodoxy.
"Our most beloved son in Christ, health and
apostolical benediction.
" The wealth of Nile floweth to the glory of your name ;
and you, the son of the Ethiopic empire, do grow up in the
hopes of a most powerful principality. You do nevertheless
understand, God having taught you, how miserable you had
been had you not drunk of the streams of the gospel out of
the fountain of the Catholic church, and if you had not, by
adoring St. Peter in the Roman pontificate, been made the
son of God, whose possession and workmanship, the whole
frame of heaven and earth, is in the Roman church. The
whole choir of reigning priests and of obedient natives do
LITERATURE OF ETHIOPIA. 213
applaud the heir that is to rule in Ethiopia with Christian
virtue ; rejoicing that a kingdom is prepared for you, out of
which your triumphant father, the sceptre of whose empire
is the rod of direction, does through the divine assistance
extirpate the synagogue of Satan. You having been edu-
cated in the domestic imitation of such splendid virtues, and
being in a part that draws the eyes of heaven and earth upon
you, such counsels are expected from )our wisdom as are to
be like the lights of the holy spirit and the thunderbolts of
the divine vengeance. And since it is thus, beloved son, you
must not think of living at ease in 3 T our father's palace,
before you have made all Ethiopia throw itself at the feet
of St. Peter, that so they may find heaven in the Vatican :
For the doctrines of the pope will not be only the hope of
salvation to you, but they will be also the author of quietness
and the safety of your dominions. We do embrace you,
most dear son, with the arms of apostolical charity, and do
wish you an obedient people, and favourable angels amid
the trophies of your arms .and the joys of your prosperity ;
and we do from the bottom of our heart impart our fatherly
benediction to you.
" Dated at Rome at St. Peter's, under the ri.*.g of the
Fisherman, the twenty-eighth of December, 1630, in the
seventh year of our pontificate."*
Socinios, alarmed by the growing disaffection in his army,
issued a proclamation, the object of which was to relax some
part of the severity imposed by the patriarch, and granting
among other indulgences permission to fast on Wednesday
instead of Saturday, the latter being one of the ancient fes-
tivals of the native church. Mendez, in a letter, the tone
of which was neither mild nor prudent, remonstrated with
his majesty on this exercise of power, — warned him that
God would call him to the strictest account for this pre-
sumption, — and reminded him of the words of Azarias, the
chief priest, to King Uzziah, and of the punishment of lep-
rosy which followed the ro} r al encroachment on the eccle-
siastical function. The emperor found it necessary to
modify the terms of his edict, and to limit it to three articles :
first, that no liturgy unless amended or revised by the patri-
♦Geddes's Church History of Ethiopia, p. 367; Ludolfi Hist. Ethiop.
lib. iii. c. 10, 11, 12 ; Bruce, vol.iii. p. 400.
214 RELIGION AND
arch should be used in divine service ; secondly, that all
feasts, excepting Easter and those which depend upon it,
should be kept according to the ancient computation ; and
thirdly, that whosoever chose might fast on Wednesday in-
stead of the last day of the week. But while making this
concession he did not conceal from the prelate his displeasure
at the application to him of the historical fact respecting
Azarias and Uzziah ; and suggested to his reverence, that
as the Roman religion was introduced into Abyssinia by the
king, it might be altered from time to time by the same
authority which at first established it.
After this compromise Socinios engaged in war with the
Agows of Lasta, a fierce people who occupied the strongest
country in Abyssinia; and who, from the steep mountains
on which they encamped, were wont to hurl stones on
their invaders when attempting to make their way through
the passes.
At first the emperor sustained severe losses, and his men,
finding their arms constantly employed against their fellow-
citizens, became disheartened, and did not conceal their
aversion to such hostilities. Victory, indeed, at length de-
clared in their favour, and thousands of the warlike Agows
were left dead on the field ; the sight of which suggested
to the prince the following remarks, addressed by him to his
father. " These men whom you see slaughtered on the
ground were neither pagans nor Mohammedans, at whose
death we should rejoice : they were Christians, lately your
subjects and your countrymen, some of them your relations.
This is not victory which is gained over ourselves. In killing
these you drive the sword into your own entrails. How many
have you put to an untimely death, and how many have you
yet to destroy ! We are become a proverb even among the
infidels and Moors for carrying on this war, and for aposta-
tizing, as they assert, from the faith of our ancestors."
His majesty made no reply, but went back disconsolate
to Dancaz, where the victory appeared to be turned into
mourning. The patriarch, who was displeased with his
late proceedings, upbraided him with his indifference to the
true faith, alleging that he had ceased to support it at the
very moment Providence had put all his enemies under his
feet. In his own defence the king recapitulated the bloody
wars in which he had engaged for the Catholics, the myriads
LITERATURE OF ETHIOPIA. 215
who had been slain, and the chiefs who had been sacrificed,
and ended by making known his resolution to permit his
people to choose their own religion. Mendez now saw it
expedient to relinquish his pretensions so far as to concede
to the inhabitants of Lasta the privilege which they de-
mended, because they had never professed themselves mem-
bers of the Roman church ; but in regard to such as had
acknowledged the supremacy of the pope, and received
the communion from the hands of the Jesuits, he would
not consent to grant the freedom of renouncing their
engagements.
It was no longer time to deliberate on minute points with
a functionary who, it was manifest, would have been con-
tent with nothing short of absolute power in all matters
spiritual and ecclesiastical. Socinios did not conceal from
him, that the authority of government had greatly dimin-
ished in his hands, and that he must now act a decided
part, or consent to be deprived even of the semblance of
royalty. He therefore issued the following proclamation,
which at once threw down the fabric of the Roman ritual
and hierarchy in Abyssinia, and removed the hope of ever
again establishing it in that kingdom.
" Hear us ! hear us ! hear us ! First of all we gave
you the Roman Catholic faith, as thinking it a good one;
but many people have died fighting against it, as Julius,
Gabriel, Tecla Georgis, Serca Christos, and finally these
rude peasants of Lasta. Now therefore we restore to you
the faith of your ancestors : let your own priests say their
mass in their own churches ; let the people have their own
altars for the sacrament and their own liturgy, and let
them be happy. As for myself, I am now old and worn
out with war and infirmities, and no longer capable of
governing : I name my son Facilidas to reign in my
place."
This document was published on the fourteenth of June,
1632, and in the month of September the king died. He
was buried with great pomp in the church of Ganeta Jesus,
which he himself had built ; professing to the last his pre-
ference of the Roman creed, and his attachment to the
forms of that communion. But the Jesuits, considering
only the catastrophe, and unmindful of the strenuous efforts
made by him during his whole reign to establish their reli-
216 RELIGION AND
gion, have denounced him as an apostate, for giving way to
the demand of his subjects to have their ancient ritual re-
stored. This judgment on their part is equally unjust and
ungrateful. It ought to have been remembered that, in the
last years of his life, when left without a soldier to fight for
their cause, he resigned his crown but retained his belief;
and it was not until he had quenched the fire of numerous
insurrections in the best blood of his land, that he resolved
to sheath his sword and confer liberty of conscience.
The young monarch, who had acted with so much dis-
cretion during his father's reign, lost no time in giving
notice to the patriarch that he and his followers must forth-
with quit Abyssinia. To accelerate this movement he at
the same time informed Men<]ez that an abuna, consecrated
at Alexandria, was already on his way to assume the eccle-
siastical government of the kingdom ; and commanded that
the Jesuits should immediately repair from their convents
in Gojam and Dembea to the establishment at Fremona,
whence they might more conveniently embark for India or
Europe. The Catholics endeavoured to postpone their fate
by offering new concessions and indulgences ; but Facilidas
informed them that it was now too late for negotiation, and
recommended a speedy departure, lest they should be visited
with evils which he might not have it in his pow r er to avert.
Finding all his arts unavailing, the patriarch began his
march towards the coast, accompanied by a large body of
sacerdotal dependants, and guarded by a detachment of the
royal troops. Still, hoping that some accident might turn
the tide of affairs to their advantage, or that a reinforcement
of Portuguese might arrive from the Eastern colonies to
their relief, the monks made various attempts to retain a
footing in the country, though in direct opposition to the
orders of the king. As a last resource they threw them-
selves on the protection of the Baharnagash, who at that
period was in a state of rebellion, and therefore not in any
degree disinclined to thwart the views of his sovereign. But
they did not long enjoy the asylum provided for them by the
barbarian governor of the coast. Facilidas opened a cor-
respondence with him, giving assurance not only of pardon
but of favour, if he would deliver into his hands the refrac-
tory priests who had so far abused his indulgence. The
latter, however, having pledged his word to his guests,
LITERATURE OF ETHIOPIA. 217
would not consent to give them up to the angry prince ;
but, by a special refinement in the politics of humanity, he
agreed to sell them all as slaves to the Turks. In return,
accordingly, for a certain sum paid by the pasha of the
neighbouring ports, Mendez, his priests, and his monks of
all degrees, were consigned to captivity as the property of
infidels. Two individuals only were left behind, who
longed to terminate a weary life by the honours of martyr-
dom ; an expectation which was very soon realized. To
prevent the recurrence of an evil from which so many suffer-
ings and so much disquietude had arisen, the young em-
peror concluded a treaty with the Moslem commanders at
Suakin and Masuah, the object of which was to prevent any
Portuguese from passing into Abyssinia. In short, both
parties, the Mohammedans and Christians, for their mutual
safety, peace, and advantage, had resolved to exclude the
missionaries from both shores of the Red Sea.*
After a considerable detention at Suakin, and the pay-
ment of a heavy ransom, the patriarch found his way to
Goa, where he died ; having in vain attempted to rouse the
military officers in that settlement, the pope, and the powers
of Europe, to make a great effort for the recovery of Ethio-
pia. The letters and memorials which passed between him
and Facilidas, in relation to the interests of the church, and
the reasons for restoring the ancient forms in Abyssinia, are
very entertaining, and, at the same time, throw a valuable
light on the views of both parties in reference to that most
interesting of all subjects, the maintenance of a national
faith. In one of his epistles, the emperor, after complaining
that the Jesuits denied the cup in the hoty communion, re-
baptized the people, treated the priests and deacons as if
they were not in sacred orders, and even tore down their
altars to be replaced by others of their own consecration,
proceeds as follows : —
" Your lordship, in being acquainted with this, will know
the reason why you are turned out of your place which God
and the emperor had bestowed on you ; and that the very
same emperor who sent for your lordship, and gave you
your authority, was the person that deprived you of it.
* SeeGeddes's Cburch History, p. 380-434 ; Ludolfi Hist. Ethiop. lib.
iii. c. 12, etc. ; Bruce, iii. p. 434.
T
218 RELIGION AND
Wherefore since an Alexandrian abuna is on his way
hither, and has sent us word that he cannot be in the same
country with a Roman patriarch and fathers, we have
ordered you to repair to Fremona, and there to remain.
As to what your lordship now offers, which is, that if the
people of Ethiopia will but continue in the obedience of the
Roman church, you will dispense with them as to all mat-
ters which are not contrary to the faith : that comes too
late now ; for how is it possible for them to return to that
which they have not only forsaken but do abominate, now
that they have a taste of their old religion again ] Your
lordship further desires that we would assemble our learned
men to dispute with you, before you depart, about matters
of faith. This also ought to have been done in the begin-
ning. Besides, is that cause likely to be supported by ar-
guments which has been maintained hitherto only by force
and violence, by taking estates from some, and throwing
others into prison, and punishing a third class still more
severely, and that for no other reason than because they
would not embrace your faith 1 And as if that had not been
sufficient, you have dragged great multitudes out of the
deserts, who would have been contented to live there upon
herbs, and confined them to prisons ; nay, the poor people
that would have been glad to bury themselves in caves did
not escape your persecution. Now what a barbarity would
it be to go and tease poor people with arguments who have
suffered so much already ! It would surely be a very un-
just thing both in the sight of God and man."
This revolution in the church of Abyssinia occasioned
great regret at Rome, although there were many who con-
soled themselves with the reflection that the disappointment
had arisen, not from any aversion to the doctrine and rules
of the West, but solely from the pride, violence, and obsti-
nacy of the Jesuit missionaries. It was therefore imagined,
that if men more conciliatory in their manners and less
bigoted to external rites were sent out under proper auspices,
there would be no doubt of ultimate success. With this
view six Capuchins, all natives of France and members of
the reformed order of their founder, were despatched from
Italy by the college de Propaganda Fide, armed with pro-
tections from the grand seignior. Of these, two attempted
to enter Ethiopia by landing at Magadoxo, on the shore of
LITERATURE OF ETHIOPIA. 219
the Indian Ocean, who, after advancing a very short way
into the country, were slain by the Galla. Two penetrated
directly into Abyssinia, and were stoned to death ; but the
remaining couple, informed at Masuah of the fate of their
companions, instead of exposing themselves to similar de-
struction, returned home with an account of their bad suc-
cess. Even after this, three other Capuchins were sent
from Europe, who, on their arrival at Suakin, forwarded
notice to Facilidas of their intention to visit his kingdom as
ministers of the Roman church. He recommended to the
pasha to treat them according to their deserts ; who instantly
ordered their heads to be struck off, and stripped of the
skin, which was sent to the capital for inspection, — the
colour denoting that they were Franks, and the tonsure
affording the certainty of their being priests. No further
attempt was made during many years to introduce Euro-
pean missionaries into the Abyssinian monarchy.*
But the seeds of discord, which were sown in that country
by the foreigners now expelled, soon grew up and greatly
annoyed the government. In the days of Yasous, the
See Ludolf, Geddes, and Bruce, at the places already indicated ; the
narratives of all the three being drawn from the same source, the works
of the missionaries. The reader will peruse with pleasure the following
abridgment of the occurrences mentioned in the text :— " The Jesuits
themselves deplore the fatal indiscretion of their chief, who forgot the
mildness of the gospel and the policy of his order, to introduce with
hasty violence the liturgy of Rome and the Inquisition of Portugal. A
new baptism, a new ordination was inflicted on the natives ; and they
trembled with horror when the most holy of the dead were torn from
their graves, when the most illustrious of the living were excommuni-
cated by a foreign priest. In the defence of their religion and liberty the
Abyssinians rose in arms with desperate but unsuccessful zeal. Five
rebellions were extinguished in the blood of the insurgents, two ahunas
were slain in battle, whole legions were slaughtered in the field or suffo-
cated in their caverns ; and neither merit, nor rank, nor sex, could save
from an ignominious death the enemies of Rome. But the victorious
monarch was finally subdued by the constancy of the nation, of his
mother, of his son, and of his most faithful friends. Segued listened
to the voice of pity, of reason, perhaps of fear ; and his edict of liberty
of conscience instantly revealed the tyranny and weakness of the Jesuits.
On the death of his father, Basilides expelled the Latin patriarch, and
restored to the wishes of the nation the faith and the discipline of
Egypt. The monophysite churches resounded with a song of triumph,
that the sheep of Ethiopia were now delivered from the hyenas of the
West ; and the gates of that solitary realm were for ever shut against
the arts, the science, and the fanaticism of Europe." — Decline and Fall,
vol, viii. p. 373,
220 RELIGION AND
grandson of Facilidas, some turbulent monks, for example,
attempted to embroil the kingdom by theological disputes ;
but a little wholesome restraint, accompanied with an un-
bending firmness on the part of the sovereign, prevented
the rise of many evils which there was just ground to appre-
hend from that quarter.
At the time Bruce travelled in Abyssinia there was a
convent of Franciscan friars in Upper Egypt, established
about the end of the seventeenth century, for the protection
of such Catholic Christians as were supposed to have fled
into Nubia and Sennaar when the patriarch was driven out
by the heir of Socinios. Every one interested himself in
behalf of these fugitives, who were imagined to preserve the
relics of a pure faith among the savage tribes on the banks
of the Nile, far beyond the Cataracts. Pope Innocent XII.
was so convinced of the truth of this story as to raise a con-
siderable fund to support the expense of an Ethiopic mis-
sion ; a convent was erected at Achmin, the ancient Pan-
opolis, where the monks were to afford refreshment to those
of their brethren who should return weary and exhausted
from preaching among the barbarians. They were en-
trusted, besides, should an opportunity present itself, with
the care of penetrating into Abyssinia, in order to keep alive
the embers of orthodox belief and discipline, until a proper
season should come for converting the whole realm. But,
on inquiry, it was discovered that no Christians had taken
refuge in any part of the country between Syene and Don-
gola, nor even on the higher parts of the river nearest the
scene of persecution ; and it is admitted that all endeavours
to convert the natives in the contiguous districts proved
fruitless and unavailing.
In the reign of Louis XIV. an effort was made by the
Jesuits to repair the mischief which Alphonso Mendez had
done, and to introduce once more into Ethiopia the prin-
ciples of their institution. Father Fleurian was authorized
by the celebrated De la Chaise, the king's confessor, to
instruct the consul-general at Cairo, to send into Abyssinia
a proper person to negotiate with the emperor, and to pave
the way for an embassy to Paris. The grand monarque at
the same time took upon himself the protection of the
intended mission, and solicited, through Cardinal Jansen,
the concurrence and advice of the pope. Verseau, who was
LITERATURE OF ETHIOPIA. 221
employed as his envoy on this occasion, informed his holi-
ness that his majesty, who took a great interest in the suc-
cess of this pious undertaking, had fixed his eyes on the
Jesuits as the best qualified for discharging a duty at once so
delicate and arduous. Innocent dissembled : he extolled in
the most magnificent terms the king's great zeal for the ad-
vancement of religion, approved the choice he had made,
and praised the resolution of the preachers. But it soon
appeared that, notwithstanding this flattering language, he
had no intention either to gratify the disciples of Loyola, or
to comply with the wishes of the French sovereign ; for
without communicating his views to the one or the other,
he appointed the superior of the Franciscans to be his legate
a latere to the emperor of Abyssinia, providing him with
presents to that prince and the chief noblemen of his court.
At this period Maillet was in Egypt, the representative
of the French government, and eagerly employed in endeav-
ouring to accomplish the purposes of his royal master.
Various intrigues ensued which we shall not take time to
describe ; it being sufficient to mention that the dark and
laboured policy of the two rival orders terminated at length
in the selection of Poncet, a medical practitioner, and of
Brevedent, a Jesuit friar, who consented to attend him as
his servant. Yasous, at the epoch in question, was threat-
ened with a mortal disease, and had sent a special messen-
ger to Cairo to obtain the aid of a European physician ; and
hence an opportunity was created for introducing a disguised
priest into the very centre of the Abyssinian provinces. But
Brevedent died before the journey was completed ; while
Poncet, after having administered successfully to the dis-
tempered ruler, returned in due time, without attempting
any thing in favour of the Catholic creed or the monachism
of Spain.
It would appear from several instances of persecution,
which are recorded in the more recent annals of Ethiopia,
that certain individuals, animated with zeal for the interests
of religion, had from time to time made their way into the
country, and were even favourably received at court. In
the reign of Oustas, for instance, who mounted the throne
in the year 1709, three priests were concealed in the prov-
ince of Walkayt, to whom his majesty frequently repaired
to hear mass and receive the communion. Under the gov-
222 RELIGION AND
ernment, however, of his successor, David IV., who was an
ardent supporter of the Alexandrian rites of worship, in-
formation was lodged against the heretical friars, and they
were immediately brought to trial. The interrogation pro-
ceeded as follows : Do you or do you not receive the deci-
sions of the Council of Chalcedon as a rule of faith ? And
do you believe that Leo the pope lawfully presided at it and
regularly conducted if? To this the prisoners answered
without reserve, that they looked upon the Council of Chal-
cedon as the fourth general council, received it as such, and
held its decisions as a rule of faith ; and were moreover
satisfied that Leo lawfully and regularly presided at it, as
being head of the Catholic church, successor to Saint Peter,
and Christ's vicar upon earth. Upon this a general shout
was heard from the whole assembly, mixed with cries to
stone them, — "Whoever throws not three stones is accursed,
and an enemy to Mary 1" Ropes were instantly fastened
round the necks of the monks, and they were dragged to a
place behind the church of Abbo, where they were, according
to their sentence, stoned to death, suffering with meekness
and resignation after the example of the first martyrs.*
When Pearce was in Abyssinia, about twelve years ago,
a certain latitudinarianism seems to have prevailed ; for,
besides an open schism among the members of the Greek
church themselves, there was a Roman party, whose voice
commanded some respect in the public deliberations. It is
true that the English seaman is not the best authority in
matters of religion, so far as we regard nice distinctions in
points of faith ; but from his narrative of facts, which ap-
pears honest and unbiased, it becomes perfectly manifest
that the theological school of Alexandria no longer enjoyed
an undisputed pre-eminence.
Fifteen years had passed amid insurrections and civil
broils, during which no abuna or metropolitan was conse-
crated for Ethiopia : and at length, when Mohammed Ali
did listen to the entreaties of his Christian neighbours to
supply them with a spiritual head, he and the patriarch
seem to have consulted their own views rather than the
cause of the gospel in the selection of a priest to fill that
high office. Nor was this favour obtained altogether gratui-
* Bruce, vol. iv. p. 60.
LITERATURE OF ETHIOPIA. 223
tously ; on the contraiy, the Ras proclaimed by beat of
drum that every governor of a village throughout his domin-
ions should collect from his tenants two dollars each, in
hard money, cloth, or salt, and the larger towns from ten to
twenty each, as a subscription to pay the expenses of bring-
ing his reverence from Egypt. In this manner ten thousand
dollars were soon collected, and a party of priests despatched
with some Mohammedans, bearing a present of fourteen
slaves and several pieces of the finest Abyssinian cloth to
Ali Pasha. We give an account of the holy man's recep-
tion in the words of Mr. Pearce :
On the 23d January, 1816, " the Ras with his army and
all the priests of the country went to meet the abuna at
Dola ; in the afternoon, as they again entered Chelii <ut,
every thing appeared in an uproar. I never before beheld
such a multitude of people assembled. The mountains
around Chelicut were covered with them. Gangs of priests
and monks, some in white and some in yellow dresses, were
seen in the different quarters, while thousands of other
orders, dressed in their sheep-skins, kept moving along the
sides of the mountains, apparently like large flocks of sheep.
Numerous chiefs with their armies held different situations
on the heights, all moving in confusion, their lances glit-
tering in the air ; and the manner in which they strove by
shoving against each other to advance as near as they could
to the patriarch, appeared like a close battle ; numbers were
trodden to death. The Ras rode on a mule with his horse-
men in the rear of the abuna. The multitude of priests,
with all the ornaments of their respective churches, were
at some distance in front ; and in their rear before the
abuna, a number of people with large ploughmen's whips
were continually whipping to keep the road clear."*
If the character given of this prelate has not been darkly
coloured by malice or fear, we must conclude that he
was very little qualified either for the arduous duties of his
station, or to extend the reign of meekness and charity
among the turbulent people whose spiritual interests were
committed to his superintendence. His insolence on some
occasions proceeded beyond all bounds, not exempting even
the head of the government from his wrath and contume-
* Pearce's Life and Adventures, vol. ii. p. 61.
224 RELIGION AND
lies. He kept the Ras at his door more than a quarter of
an hour waiting for an audience ; and when at length he
was admitted, the communication made by him was so disa-
greeable that the old priest struck the interpreter on the
mouth, and commanded him never to exercise his office
again. The warlike chief was grieved and incensed to a
high degree. "The tongue of that abuna," said he, "has
speared me to the heart ; I cannot resent ; I am bount 1 by
my religion to bear it ; still I think we are rather a weak-
minded people."*
As a long interval had elapsed without the ministrations
of a metropolitan, a multitude of clergy and of all other
classes assembled at the dwelling of the bishop ; but, before
he would consecrate new altars, ordain priests and deacons,
or admit any one to the privileges of the Christian church,
he commanded a proclamation to be issued, declaring that,
according to the practice established by former abunas,
every man who wished to be retained in his office must pay
four pieces of salt. A similar return was expected for ad-
mission to the lowest order of clerical functionaries ; and
all the people, with their young children who had not been
confirmed by the late patriarch, were* required to pay one
piece. More than a thousand priests and deacons were or-
dained the first day ; many of whom entered upon a profes-
sion for which they were very ill prepared, with the sole
view of securing an exemption from military service.
The abuna next proclaimed throughout all Abyssinia,
that no man should be considered a priest who did not bind
himself by a formal oath to receive all the articles of the
Coptic creed, and to submit to the discipline of the Alex-
andrian communion ; and, further, that none of the sacra-
ments should be administered in any of their churches until
the clergy had renounced, in a manner equally solemn, all
the errors of the Greek and Roman faith. This measure
threw the whole country into commotion. The adherents
of the Egyptian ritual had already united to enforce the
commands of their superior ; the members of the Greek
church likewise arrayed themselves in a formidable body to
oppose the injunction ; while those of the Roman Catholic
persuasion, whose number was small, were content to act
* Pearce, vol. ii, p. 64.
LITERATURE OF ETHIOPIA. 225
on the defensive. After a vain attempt at an accommoda-
tion, rage burst out on all sides ; and every priest held up
his cross, about to lead his people to protect their own altars,
or to overthrow those of their opponents. Before the actual
effusion of blood, however, it was agreed among the leaders,
that such as held the established belief should be permitted
to follow their own mode of worship ; but that they should
not be entitled to share in the blessing or protection of the
abuna, and should be considered as an inferior caste. To
this humiliating arrangement the multitude, as might have
been expected, showed the utmost aversion, and became
more furious than ever against their ecclesiastical ruler. In
the end he found himself obliged to grant a general tolera-
tion, without any infringement of the rank and privileges
which were secured to the people by their civil constitution.
Pearce. obtained through the exertions of Mr. Salt some
Ethiopic psalters, to be distributed among the Abyssinians,
and if possible to get in exchange for them some copies of
their scriptures. The superstitious people, he tells us, not
only found fault with the print being too small, and with the
sacred names because they were not done in red ink ; but
the perfect similarity of the books made them suppose that
they had been completed by some supernatural agent.
Those, however, who possessed any decree of knowledge,
readily admitted that they far excelled their own manu-
scripts. The Englishman does not conceal that, although
many were disposed to accept his volumes as a present, he
could not obtain any thing in exchange. Having procured
a mule, he went, somewhat in the character of a pedler, to
the different monasteries, hoping to dispose of his psalters
to some advantage ; but the monks, who were not inclined
to become merchants, found many faults with the workman-
ship, and it was not until they discovered the sheets might
be had for nothing, that their eyes opened to their merits and
to the expediency of receiving them as a gift. He acknow-
ledges that he was occasionally remunerated by the presenta-
tion of a sheep, a goat, or a little honey ; but adds that
such things are customary even on a common visit.*
There is no small difficulty in ascertaining the dogmas
of the Abyssinian church, in regard to those point3 of the-
* Pearce, vol. ii, p. 128
226 RELIGION AND
ology which occupy the first station in the articles of all
other Christian communions. In the works on ecclesias-
tical history to which we have occasionally made reference,
there are several symbols or compends of faith, whence the
curious reader may derive the requisite information. The
volume of Dr. Geddes, in particular, contains an " Account
of the Habassin Religion and Customs, composed by Zaga
Zaba the King of Ethiopia's ambassador, and written with
his own hand at Lisbon."* Perhaps the envoy's notions
were in some degree influenced by the position which he
occupied in Europe ; it being manifest that there is a striking
coincidence between his tenets and those of the court to
which his master had sent him. But the document, not-
withstanding, possesses great value as a memorial of the
progress made by the Jesuit missionaries in the arduous task
of inducing a semi-barbarous people to relinquish, even for
a time, the doctrines which they had received from their
fathers.
In LudolPs Commentary there is a confession of faith
attributed to the Emperor Claudius, who reigned about the
middle of the sixteenth century, and which he describes as the
belief of his ancestors, and of the flock within the precincts
of his kingdom. "We believe in one God, and in his only
Son, Jesus Christ, who is his Word and his Power, his
Counsel and his Wisdom ; who was with him before the
world was created. But in the last days he came to us, —
not, however, that he might leave the throne of his divinity,
— and was made man of the Holy Ghost and of the holy
Virgin Mary, and was baptized in Jordan in his thirtieth
year ; and was perfect man ; and was hanged on the wood
of the cross in the days of Pontius Pilate ; suffered, died,
and was buried, and rose again the third day ; and after-
ward on the fortieth day he ascended with glory into heaven,
and sitteth on the right hand of his Father. And he shall
come again with glory to judge the quick and the dead, and
of his kingdom there shall be no end. And we believe in
the Holy Ghost, the Lord and Giver of life, who proceedeth
from the Father. And we believe in one baptism for the
remission of sins. And we look for the resurrection of the
dead, for eternal life to come."t
* Page 81.
t Ludolfi Com. d. 237 ; Jowett's Christian Researches, p. 176.
LITERATURE OF ETHIOPIA. 227
We must content ourselves with referring to a modern
work, for a view of the latest creed or confession issued for
the use of the Ethiopian Christians. This document is
entitled, " Instructions of Mark, Patriarch of Alexandria,
addressed to the Abyssinian churches, on points of religion
at present controverted in Abyssinia." It was written in
Arabic, but immediately translated into the ecclesiastical
language of the country by command of the Ras. The
manuscript was obtained by Mr. Salt from Welled Selasse
the governor of Tigrd, and was rendered into English by
the late Professor Murray, for the British and Foreign Bible
Society, the committee of which granted to Mr. Jowett per-
mission to insert it in his Christian Researches.*
These " Instructions" of the patriarch are much too
replete with controversy, and subtile distinctions in the
mere use of words, to prove of any value as a guide to faith.
They are occupied almost entirely with those unprofitable
discussions respecting the nature of Christ, on which the
Abyssinians have long wasted their boundless zeal and their
small portion of learning ; and which, when conveyed
through the medium of a version, are equally unintelligible
and incapable of abridgment.
In the work of Father Lobo, who made a voyage to
Abyssinia in the year 1622, and sSrved in that country
under the celebrated Mendez, we have a brief account of
the pious usages of the people. Incensed by their bigoted
attachment to the customs of their ancestors, he denounces
their religion as a mixture of Christianity with Jewish and
Mohammedan superstitions. He admits, however, that they
retain the belief of the principal mysteries of our faith ; that
they celebrate with a great deal of piety the sufferings and
death of our Lord ; reverence the cross ; pay a profound
devotion to the blessed Virgin, the angels, and the saints ;
observe the festivals, and pay a strict regard to Sunday.
Every month they commemorate the Assumption of the
Virgin Mary ; and are of opinion that no Christians beside
themselves have a true sense of the greatness of the mother
of God, or render the honours which are due to her name.
There are some tribes among them by whom the crime of
swearing by her is punished with the forfeiture of goods,
* Page 180.
228 RELIGION AND
and even with the loss of life. Every week they keep a
feast in honour of the apostles and angels ; they come to
mass with great devotion, and love to hear the Word of God ;
they receive the sacrament often, but do not always prepare
themselves for it by confession. The severity of their fasts
is equal to that of the primitive church ; in Lent they never
eat till after sunset ; and their abstinence is the more rigid,
because milk and butter are forbidden to them. No reason
or plea of necessity can procure for them permission to eat
flesh ; and, as their country produces hardly any fish, they
are compelled to exist on roots and pulse only.
There is no nation, he adds, where excommunication
carries greater terrors than among the Abyssinians ; a cir-
cumstance which gives the priests great power over them,
as they frequently exert their spiritual authority for personal
purposes not quite consistent with the utmost purity of mo-
tive. They have certain opinions peculiar to themselves
about purgatory, the creation of souls, and some other mys-
teries. They repeat baptism, or the semblance of it, every
year ; retain the practice of circumcision ; observe the
Jewish Sabbath ; abstain from eating ail those animals
which are forbidden by the Mosaical law ; and brothers
espouse the widows of their brothers, according to the pre-
cept of the same ancient institute.
The churches, at the period under consideration, were
extremely numerous in the larger towns and even in vil-
lages. So close to each other were the religious houses,
that the monks chanting the service in one could hear their
brethren similarly employed in some adjoining edifice. They
sing the Psalms of David, of which, as well as the other
parts of Holy Scripture, they have an exact translation in
their own language ; rejecting none which Roman Catholics
esteem canonical except the Books of the Maccabees.
There is something fantastic in their mode of conducting
Divine service. Their musical instruments are little drums,
which they hang about.their necks and beat with both their
hands ; and this exercise is performed even by the chief men
as well as by the gravest of their ecclesiastics. They have
sticks likewise with which they strike the ground, accompany-
ing the blow with a motion of their whole bodies. They
begin their devotions by stamping with their feet on the floor,
and playing gently on the drums ; but when they become
LITERATURE OF ETHIOPIA. 229
warm and animated they leave off beating, and proceed to
leap, dance, and clap their hands, straining their voices at
the same time to the highest pitch, till at length they have
a greater resemblance to an infuriated crowd than to a reli-
gious assembly. For this manner of worshipping they
quote the psalm of David, " clap your hands, all ye
nations."
The statement of Lobo, as to the great number of
churches in Abyssinia, is fully confirmed by the narrative
of Bruce, who remarks that in the most confined landscape
the traveller may see at one view five or six of those struc-
tures. Every great man who dies thinks that he atones for
all his wickedness if he leaves a fund for the erection of a
place of worship. The king builds many ; it being customary
to commemorate any success in the field of battle by rearing
a temple to the service of God. The situation is always
chosen near a running water, for the convenience of the
priests, who, in respect to the periodical purifications and
ablutions, strictly observe the Levitical law. It is usual
also to surround these buildings with beautiful trees and
flowering shrubs ; so that the country owes much of its
picturesque appearance to the taste displayed by the ecclesi-
astical architects.
All the churches, we are told, are of a round form with
thatched roofs ; their summits are perfect cones ; the out-
side is encircled by a number of wooden pillars, being trunks
of the cedar-tree, placed so as to support the edifice ; and as
the roof projects about eight feet beyond the walls, an agree-
able walk or colonnade is thereby formed, which proves of
great use in hot or rainy weather. The inside is divided
into several apartments, nearly according to the directions
which are given in the Law of Moses. The first is a circle
somewhat wider than the inner one : here the congregation
say their prayers. Within this is a square which is divided
by a vail or curtain, corresponding to the Holy Place and
the Holy of Holies in the Jewish Tabernacle. The latter
is so narrow that none but the priests are admitted into it.
It has been already observed that the Abyssinians prac-
tise circumcision ; a rite which they maintain was not
borrowed from the Jews, but derived from their own neigh-
bours the descendants of Ishmael. Much controversy has
existed as to the reason and authority of this usage, for the
l
230 RELIGION AND
details of which we refer to the volumes of Bruce and the
dissertations of Le Grand.*
In regard to the precise object of the annual ceremony of
bathing in remembrance of our Saviour's baptism, much
doubt continues to prevail. The Jesuits insist that it is a
regular and formal repetition of the sacrament ; and if the
description given of it by Alvarez were to be literally re-
ceived, we should find it necessary to admit their conclusion.
But the Roman missionaries laboured under a deep preju-
dice against the native clergy, and are suspected to have
failed in their wonted accuracy in their notices of the Abys-
sinian ritual. The account supplied by Bruce is not liable
to the same objection. It is as follows : " The small river
running between the town of Adowa and the church had
been dammed up for several days ; the stream was scanty,
so that it scarcely overflowed. It was in some places three
feet deep, in some perhaps four, or a little more. Three
large tents were pitched the morning before the Feast of
the Epiphany ; one on the north for the priests to repose
in during the intervals of the service, and, besides this, one
to communicate in : on the south there was a third tent, for
the monks and priests of another church to rest themselves
in their turn. About twelve o'clock at night the monks and
priests met together, and began their prayers and psalms at
the waterside, one party relieving the other. At dawn of
day the governor, Welled Michael, came hither with some
soldiers to raise men for Ras Michael, then on his march
against Waragna Fasil, and sat down on a small hill near
the river ; the troops all skirmishing on foot and on horse-
back around them. As soon as the sun began to appear,
three large crosses of wood were carried by three priests
dressed in their sacerdotal vestments, and who coming
to the side of the river dipped the cross into the water ;
and all this time the firing, skirmishing, and praying went
on together. The priests with the crosses returned, one of
their number carrying before them something less than an
English quart of water in a silver cup or chalice. When
they were about fifty yards from Welled Michael, that
general stood up, and the priest took as much water as he
could hold in his hand and sprinkled it upon his head, hold-
* Lobo's Voyage to Abyssinia, with Le Grand's Dissertations.
LITERATURE OF ETHIOPIA. 231
ing the cup at the same time to his mouth to taste ; after
which the priest received it back again, saying, * May God
bless you !' Each of the three crosses were then brought
forward to Welled Michael, and he kissed them. The cere-
mony of sprinkling the water was then renewed to all the
great men in the tent, all cleanly dressed. Some of them,
not contented with aspersion, received the water in the
palms of their joined hands and drank it ; more water was
brought for those who had not partaken of the first ; and
after the whole of the governor's company was sprinkled,
the crosses returned to the river, their bearers singing hal-
lelujahs, and the skirmishing and firing continuing."*
The same ceremony was performed on the traveller him-
self, who, however, declined to drink from the sacred cup.
The people meanwhile crowded to the bank of the stream,
where two or three hundred boys, of the order of deacons,
threw water upon them. Afterward horses, mules, asses,
armour, pots, and platters, were brought for purification,
and the scene ended in a mixture of holy joy and unbridled
"riot. Bruce positively denies that the baptismal form of
words was used in any instance on the occasion now
described.
The Abyssinians receive the holy sacrament in both kinds.
The loaf is unleavened, and instead of wine they use dried
grapes bruised, with the husk and stones as they grow, and
so thick as to resemble marmalade. It is put into the mouth
with a spoon. The pieces of bread given to the communi-
cants are large in proportion to their rank, and are literally
stuffed into the mouths of the recipients by the priest, some-
times at the risk of suffocation. After receiving, a pitcher
of water is brought forward, of which the worshippers in
their turn take a large draught ; then engage some time in
silent prayer with their faces turned to the wall.
Le Grand labours assiduously to prove that the clergy of
Abyssinia believe in transubstantiation, although he con-
siders their form of words, and perhaps even their official
authority, as radically defective. Ludolf, on the contrary,
maintains that in their notions of the Eucharist they coin-
cide with the Protestants . admitting, however, that their
language is extremely ambiguous.
* Travels, vol. v. p. 12.
232 RELIGION AND
There is no unanimity among the Abyssinians on the
subject of a middle state, or the condition of the soul between
death and the resurrection. Owing to the ignorance in
theological matters of those persons to whom we are
indebted for the most recent information respecting that
country, it is extremely difficult to determine the opinions
which are actually held by the clergy. But if we form a
judgment on this point from the liturgies used in public
worship, we shall find all doubt removed as to their com-
plete coincidence with the doctrines of Christian antiquity,
relative to paradise or the place of safe-keeping, where the
spirits of men await their final doom at the last day. When
any person dies, alms are given and prayers are offered for
the souls of the departed ; a practice which would have no
meaning did they believe that the individuals for whom they
make entreaty are already in the presence of God, and in
the full possession of eternal happiness. In their daily ser-
vice they say, "Remember, O Lord, the souls of thy ser-
vants, our father Abba Matthias, and the rest of our saints,
Abba Salama, and Abba Jacob." In another place they use
these words, " Remember, O Lord, the kings of Ethiopia,
Abreha and Atzbcha, Caleb, and Guebra Mascal." And
again, " Release, O Lord, our father Antonius and Abba
Macarius."*
The following prayer is more general, and contributes to
place the question in a clearer point of view : — " Remember
likewise, O Lord, the priests and laymen ; grant, Lord, that
their souls may repose in the bosom of the saints Abraham,
Isaac, and Jacob ; send them into that happy place where
refreshing waters may be found ; into that paradise of de-
lights from whence are banished all sighs, sadness, and sor-
row of heart, and where they may rejoice in the light of thy
saints. Remember, Lord, our fathers and our brethren
who have died in the true faith ; give them rest with thy
saints, and with those whom we have now commemorated ;
give rest to sinners, and remember those who have made these
offerings, and those for whom they are made. Remember,
O Lord, those who have died in the true faith of our fathers
and our brethren ; grant that their souls may rest with the
saints and the just ; conduct them and assemble them in a
* Bruce, vol. v. p. 25.
LITERATURE OF ETHIOPIA. 233
pleasant place near cool and living water, in a paradise of
delight, and with those whose names we have now re-
peated."*
We shall not enter into the topics controverted by Le
Grand, who maintains that the Abyssinians practise auric-
ular confession, invocation of saints, and extreme unction.
Their usages perhaps justify the inferences of the French-
man, while the abstract opinions collected by Ludolf would
unquestionably lead to an opposite conclusion. But in our
eyes the facts with which we are supplied, through the me-
dium of their several works, possess their principal value
from the circumstance that they show the state of Chris-
tianity at the time it was first introduced into Ethiopia ;
such being the unchangeable nature of habits, manners, and
customs in the East, that the lapse of a thousand years pro-
duces hardly any alteration. For example, the traveller in
Arabia at the present day witnesses, in the employments and
mode of living which characterize the people, a scene little
different from that which mijjht have been seen in the age
of the patriarchs Abraham and Isaac. There are the same
pastoral pursuits, the same hospitality, the same dwelling in
tents, and the same predatory alarms which oftener than
once called the father of the faithful into the field of battle,
and rendered the quiver and the bow necessary implements
in the house of every shepherd. Even the powerful influ-
ence of European commerce and enterprise has not reached
the bosom of their deserts, nor produced any material inno-
vation on their wonted manners. The camel, loaded with
the spices and balm of the " far country," still makes his
periodical journey over the sandy waste, and thereby con-
nects, in the links of a commercial intercourse, the begin-
ning of which cannot now be traced, the banks of the Indus
with the shores of the Red Sea.
The same perpetuity exists in their opinions and belief,
wherever they have been exempted from the direct operation
of conquest. Their tenets and worship are those which
they received from their fathers ; and in this respect the
Abyssinians appear to manifest the same tenacity of estab-
lished usages, whether of thought or of action, and the same
reluctance to change, which distinguish their neighbours on
* Le Grand's Dissertation in Lobo.
U2
234 RELIGION AND
the eastern side of the Gulf. From the date at which Fru-
mentius carried to them the seeds of the gospel down to the
arrival of the Portuguese, there is an interval of nearly
twelve hundred years ; but during that period they were not
exposed to any such disturbance from the arrival of strangers
as would unsettle their creed, or interfere with the forms of
their religious service. Hence, we repeat, there is good
ground for believing that the Christianity which the Euro-
pean missionaries found in Abyssinia, in the sixteenth cen-
tury, preserved the general features of the doctrine and prac-
tice which they received from the disciple of Athanasius.
In confirmation of the opinion now stated we shall men-
tion a few particulars which, the more minutely they are
considered, will contract a greater degree, of interest in the
view of a theological antiquary. The first is the use of cir-
cumcision, which, it is well known, was continued among
Jewish converts long after the complete establishment of the
gospel in the various cities of the Roman empire. The ex-
ample of the apostles did not discountenance this usage as
applied to the descendants of Abraham ; on the contrary,
these holy men confined their reprehension to an undue
confidence in its efficacy, and to the attempt made by some
of their followers to extend its obligation beyond the limits
of the ancient covenant. It is extremely probable, therefore,
that in the days of Frumentius the ritual of Moses retained
its authority so far as to justify certain practices which were
afterward laid aside in the churches of the East and West.
The case of Timothy, recorded by St. Paul himself, might,
in the estimation of a rude people disposed to outward cere-
monies, seem to warrant more than a simple connivance.
The purifications of their priests, as we have already
stated, may perhaps be traced to the same source, and be
found also to rest on the usage of apostolical times. The
laws, too, imposed upon women after childbirth, which bear
so close a resemblance to the Mosaical institution, were, it
is probable, derived from the habits of the early Christians ;
who, we may presume, could not be induced to regard such
salutary practices as holding a place among the things which
were to be abolished.
But we discover a still more remarkable circumstance in
the observance of the Sabbath as well as of the Lord's Day,
which no reader of ecclesiastical history requires to be
LITERATURE OF ETHIOPIA. 235
informed was continued many generations among the fol-
lowers of Christ. The intimate mixture of the "primitive
disciples with the Jews, who were, generally speaking, of
the same extraction, almost necessarily led to this union of
sacred rites, in things of which both equally admitted the
divine origin. It is not easy to determine when this rever-
ential regard for the seventh day of the week was entirely
laid aside by the Christians ; but from the conduct of the
Abyssinians we may venture to conclude that, at the period
they received our holy faith, the Sabbath was still sanctified
as the rest of Jehovah, and held as preparatory to the more
solemn duties of the succeeding day. The partial remission
from toil and study, which is still enjoyed on Saturday in
our public offices and schools, is the only relic of the ancient
usage which so long combined the institutions of the law
and the gospel, and taught the worshipper to venerate the
same great Being through the only two channels of revela-
tion vouchsafed by Him to the human race.
It has usually been supposed that, admitting the accuracy
of the Abyssinian legend which derives their religion and
royal house from the visit paid to Solomon by the Queen of
Sheba, the customs now described may be traced to a direct
and positive intercourse with the Jewish people. But the
story on which so weighty a structure is reared appears
too slight to bear it ; and, after a due consideration of the
question, we think it more probable that, when the gospel
was carried into Ethiopia, it continued to retain some of the
external forms and practices with which it is known to have
been invested during the first and second centuries. This
conclusion derives no small support from the fact, that the
principles of chronology which the Abyssinians retain are
those which were held, by the whole Christian church in
those primitive ages ; reckoning five thousand five hundred
years from the creation to the birth of Christ, instead of
four thousand and four, according to the calculation of the
modern Jews. This peculiarity is mentioned by Bruce,
who remarks that, " in the quantity of this period they do
not agree with the Greeks, nor with other eastern nations,
who reckon 5508. The Abyssinians adopt the even num-
ber 5500, casting away the odd eight years ; but whether
this was done for ease of calculation or for some better rea-
son, there is now neither book nor tradition that can teach
U2
236 RELIGION AND
us."* This system of dates it is manifest could not have
been obtained from Menilec, the fabled son of Solomon by
the queen of the South ; it could not have been introduced
by the Jews during their short ascendency in a part of
Ethiopia, because, being disappointed as to the coming of
the Messiah, they had already relinquished it and adopted a
more limited scheme of chronology ; hence, we are neces-
sarily brought to the conclusion, that together with the
principles of the gospel they received the calculations as to
the age of the world which were then held and taught by all
Christian divines. Their remote situation protected them,
afterward from the innovations, as well as excluded them
from the improvements, which marked the progress of a thou-
sand years in Europe and Western Asia,
Before we conclude this brief sketch of the religious his-
tory and opinions of the Abyssinians, we shall mention the
last attempt that has come to our knowledge to revive
among them the authority of the Roman church. In the
year 1751, a mission was sent into their country consisting
of three Franciscan friars, named Remedio and Martino of
Bohemia, and Antonio of Aleppo, who succeeded in pene-
trating as far as Gondar, where they rose into great favour
with Yasous the Second, as well as with the queen-mother
and many of the principal nobility about court. An account
of this enterprise is contained in a manuscript journal
written in Italian, and now in the possession of Lord Va-
lentia, who permitted Mr. Salt to publish a translation of it
at the end of his Travels in Abyssinia.
On first meeting with this narrative the latter was in-
clined to doubt its authenticity, from not having seen any
notice of such a mission in Mr. Bruce's volumes ; but he sub-
sequently ascertained several circumstances which seemed
to place its credit beyond dispute, especially the correct
mention of the names which the two emperors, Bacuffa and
Yasous, assumed on their accession to the throne. There
is besides, in Bruce's original memoranda, an observation
which proves that his great friend Ayto Aylo had actually
* In another work I have attempted to explain the intricacies of orien-
tal chronology, with a reference to the opinions of the Jews and early
Christians ; both of whom held the epoch mentioned in the text, and
counted about 5500 from the Creation to the birth of the Redeemer.— See
Connexion of Sacred and Profane History, vol. i. p. 49-168.
LITERATURE OF ETHIOPIA. 237
been won over to the Roman faith by one of these very-
monks. It is incidentally noticed, "that he had been con-
verted by Father Antonio, a Franciscan, in 1755."*
The memoir of Remedio is extremely interesting. After
detailing the perils of their journey from Girgeh in Upper
Egypt, and their correspondence with the Abyssinian gov-
ernment, he relates, that on the 19th March, 1752, they
arrived at Gondar, where they were received with great
joy, and pleasantly lodged in the royal palace. On the fol-
lowing day the emperor, who at that time resided at Kahha,
sent for them to an audience ; and after they had made a
profound reverence he addressed them in the following
words : — " I embrace you with all my heart, — I welcome you
with gladness, and congratulate you on your happy arrival.
While yet a child I wished ardently to have men like you in
my kingdom ; on this account I exceedingly rejoice at your
coming, and I promise you, as long as I live, my favour, pro-
tection, and assistance."
He then began to interrogate them with respect to the
following points: 1st, Where are the tables of Moses?
2d, Concerning the Queen of Sheba? 3d, In what lan-
guage Christ will judge the world? 4th, In what language
did he speak when conversing with men ; and what was the
first spoken language 1 He asked many other questions
respecting Europeans, their customs, and manner of living ;
which they answered to the content and satisfaction of the
emperor ; " who, gratified by our discourse, rose from his
throne, which was fashioned like a bed, and spoke thus, —
4 This house shall be your habitation.' "
The favour shown to the Italian monks produced as
usual a furious rebellion, and rendered their departure from
the kingdom a matter of necessity. But the friars did not
yield a willing submission ; on the contrary, they addressed
the sovereign and his mother with evangelical license on the
Catholic faith, and threatened them with eternal damnation
if they did not show obedience to the truths of the gospel.
At length, however, they were driven out of the palace by
main force ; " in leaving which we shook the dust oft' from
our feet, and publicly upbraided the emperor and his people
with their infidelity, exclaiming with a loud voice, ' We are
* Appendix to vol. vii. p. 05, third edition ; and Salt's Travels, p. 484
238 RELIGION AND
driven away by false Christians ; let us fly then and seek
refuge among the Gentiles.' "*
The literature of the Ethiopians, like that of the ancient
Jews, appears to have been confined to their religious service
and the chronicles of their nation. Their history, which
Mr. Bruce had the merit of making known to Europe, bears
a striking resemblance to the narratives of the Hebrew
priests, whose duty it was, under Divine superintendence,
to record the acts of their kings as well as to transmit their
characters to succeeding generations. The poetry of Abys-
sinia, too, like the pious effusions of the Israelites, is con-
fined to sacred subjects, — the praises of God, or the celebra-
tion of the triumphs and deliverances achieved by the fathers
of their people guided by the hand of Providence. For
lighter compositions, such as amused the leisure or gratified
the taste of the Greeks and Romans, they entertain the most
sovereign contempt ; regarding it as rather an unholy ex-
ercise to employ the fascinating powers of music and poeti-
cal numbers for any purpose less exalted than religion.
Their only pastime which partakes at all of a literary nature
are riddles and enigmas ; reminding the traveller of the en-
tertainments which enlivened the marriage of Samson, and
of the simple state of society in which that champion
flourished.
The Abyssinians have the entire Scriptures as we have,
and reckon the same number of books ; but these are very
seldom found in the habitation of any one individual ; as
few of them, from extreme poverty, are able to purchase the
whole, either of the historical or prophetical portion of the
Old Testament. The same remark applies to the New
Testament, complete copies of which are extremely scarce.
Nowhere indeed except in churches is there to be seen more
than the Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles ; and the pos-
session of even these implies no ordinary degree of wealth.
The Revelation of St. John is a piece of favourite reading
among the priests, and so is the Song of Solomon, although
the latter is forbidden to deacons, laymen, and women.
They make no distinction between canonical and apocryphal
books. Bel and the Dragon is perused with equal rever-
ence as the Acts, and it is suspected with equal edification ;
* Salt, Appendix, p. xxxi. &c.
LITERATURE OF ETHIOPIAN 239
a spirit of impartiality which extends even to the history of
St. George and other legends having no better foundation
in ecclesiastical history.
Next to the New Testament they place the Constitutions
of the Apostles, which, as far as a certain class of questions
is considered, may be called the written law of the country.
They have also a general Liturgy, or Book of Common
Prayer, besides a variety of manuals appropriated to par-
ticular festivals. Selections from the volumes of the Greek
Fathers occasionally occur, as also versions of the more
practical and devotional tracts of Athanasius, Basil, Chry-
sostom, and Cyril. But the most popular work is the
Flower of the Saints, in which are recorded the lives and
miracles of their holy men, mixed with fables of the most
incredible and even ridiculous nature. The book of Enoch,
which, though quoted by St. Jude, has been universally held
as apocryphal, likewise finds a place in their sacred library.
It deserves the same reception as has been bestowed on the
Organon Denghel or Musical Instrument of the Virgin
Mary ; a treatise which is said to compensate by the beauty
of its style for the manifold absurdities it everywhere
contains.
Among the works mentioned by Ludolf, there is one en-
titled the Book of Philosophy, which he acknowledges it
was not his good fortune to see. The notions on general
physics entertained by the Abyssinians are extremely lim-
ited, and carry us back to the first efforts made by the hu-
man mind to connect effects with causes. They maintain
that man was formed out of the four elements, the moist,
the dry, the cold, and the warm ; that the soul proceeds
from the inspiration of the Almighty and never dies ; but
that the spirit of life, which consists in the blood, is mortal
and perishes with the body. They hold that the corpse of
a Christian is not unclean ; because, though it has ceased
to retain either the intellectual or the sensitive soul, it has
not been deprived of the grace conferred on it by baptism.
In regard to the system of the world and the structure of
our globe, they hold that the latter is a plain, and that the
sun and stars find their way, from the west where they set
to the east where they rise, by a secret path under the earth.
Among such a people we must not expect that law should
be found elevated to the rank of a science. Custom and a
240 RELIGION AND
certain analogy grafted upon it constitute the only guide to
the magistrate and judge, who decide most cases on a gene-
ral principle of equity applied according to circumstances.
The art of healing is likewise in a very low state ; for
the use of the burning iron continues to supersede all otb?r
surgical instruments. A few herbs, recommended by ex-
perience, are found beneficial in attacks of the viscera.
The tertian fever is cured by means of the torpedo or elec-
trical eel, which is said to cause indescribable torture.
When the plague or any contagious epidemic appears, the
people flee from their villages with their cattle and goods,
seeking in the mountains an escape from so formidable
an evil.
The attempts which have been lately made by the Prot-
estant societies in this country will, it is hoped, soon render
the literature of Abyssinia more familiar to the European
scholar. The Scriptures, or at least a portion of them, have
been translated into the principal dialects of the Ethiopic
tongue, especially those of Amhara and Tigre\ The Jesuits
in former days distinguished themselves by their zealous
application to the study of the native languages, and even
brought home some trophies of their success in conquering
difficulties, though placed in circumstances so unfavourable
to literary pursuits. To them we are indebted for the New
Testament in the Ethiopic, which is inserted in Walton's
Polyglott. In the Christian Researches of Mr. Jowett will
be found an account of certain efforts, made by him during
his residence in the East, to procure for the Bible Society
versions of the Sacred Writings in the forms of speech most
commonly used in the several provinces of Abyssinia. His
labours, though not altogether fruitless, were not attended
with such results as might inspire universal confidence ; but
the acquisitions already attained will assist materially in
facilitating the progress of more accomplished workmen
than he had it in his power to employ.*
It cannot be denied that the condition of Abyssinia at the
present moment presents strong claims to the aid and sym-
pathy of the Christian world. Nearly thirty years ago,
Lord Valentia pointed out the importance of opening a direct
communication between that country and Britain ; stating
* Page 196, &c.
LITERATURE OF ETHIOPIA. 241
his conviction that our holy religion in its better forms, if
offered to their acceptance with caution and moderation,
would meet with a favourable reception. At any rate, the
improvements in art and science, which always follow com-
merce, would meliorate the national character, and assist in
bringing back their belief and worship to a purity which
they have long lost. The restoration of tranquillity to the
provinces, and a legal trade to the empire, would also have
the very important effect of putting an end to the exporta-
tion of slaves ; which here is not only liable to the same
objections as on the western coast of Africa, but to the still
greater one that the individuals thus sold and expatriated
are Christians, and are moreover carried into Arabia, where
they inevitably lose at once their liberty and their religion.
Mr. Salt announced that the nation with its religion was
fast verging to ruin. The Galla and Mussulman tribes
around are daily 1 ecoming more powerful; and " there is
reason to fear that the very name of Christ may be lost
among them."*
Lord Valenria's Travels, vol. iii. pp. 247, 256.
X
242 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
CHAPTER VI.
Manners and Customs of Ethiopia.
Present state of Abyssinia— Weakness of the Monarch— Nature of Suc-
cession— Court of Justice— Modes of Punishment— Similarity to the
Persians — Humane Maxims — Aversion to eat with Strangers— Com-
plexion and Features— Marriage Ceremonies — Manner of Christening
— Whimsical Practice to preserve the Life of Children— Superstitions —
Buda— Singular Anecdotes — The Zackary — Strange Delusion of Tigre-
ter— Mode of Cure— Example witnessed by Mr. Pearee — Case of his
own Wife— Trembling Picture— The Crying Cross — Delusion by a
Dofter— Opinion of Welled Salasse — Chastisement of the Dofter —
Astonishing Mimic — Diseases and Death ascribed to Demons — Fevers
— Small-pox— Inoculation— Practice of Galla— Scrofula— Tapeworm —
Customs at Funerals— Criers— Lawyers— Practice in regard to Pun-
ishment of Murderers— Agriculture— Cookery — Usages at the Table —
Cutting of the Shulada — Narrative of Bruce— Disbelieved in Europe-
Questioned by Mr. Salt— Description of a Feast — Mode of Feeding at
Table— Attempt to reconcile Bruce and Salt — Change of Manners in
the Interval— Character of the Nobility and Higher Classes — Rigid
Feasts — Disorderly Conduct of the Clergy— Extract from Purchas's Pil-
grims—Conclusion.
Abyssinia in our days presents the singular spectacle of
an absolute monarchy divested of all regal power, and
stripped of the advantages which arise from hereditary suc-
cession. By the principles of the ancient constitution, the
sovereign was clothed with a degree of authority and an ex-
tent of prerogative, which if exercised, must have soon
proved incompatible with all personal rights and individual
property. Not only was the whole land in the empire held
as fiefs from the crown revocable at pleasure, but the life
and liberty of every subject could be taken away at the will
of the prince without remonstrance or appeal.
To guard against these manifest evils, the nobility, and
more especially the governors of provinces, have contrived
to disarm the prerogative by retaining in their hands the
power of the sword. The Ras appointed to each large sec-
tion of the kingdom became in fact the ruler of it ; limiting
his obedience according to circumstances, and marching his
OF ETHIOPIA. 243
troops against his master more frequently than against the
public enemy. Hence the emperor of Abyssinia during the
last hundred years has possessed nothing of sovereignty but
the name ; and as the succession to the throne is not deter-
mined by fixed laws, it is usually filled by the most active par-
tisan or the most daring rebel. In short, as the crown is hered-
itary in one family but elective in the person, the presump-
tive heirs, under a system of polygamy, must have multi-
plied so much as to create constant disputes ; so that it was
found necessary to provide a remedy for the anarchy as
well as the effusion of royal blood which was likely to follow,
by confining the junior members of the king's house to a
high mountain, where they were maintained with at least
some regard to their rank and prospects.*
When Bruce was in Abyssinia, it was perfectly under-
stood that the choice of a sovereign rested with the principal
officers in the army and the strongest party at court. There
was no preference given to birthright or legitimacy. It was
only necessary that the candidate should have sprung from
royal lineage and be unmutilated in his person. When a
king dies and the succession is not disputed, he is usually
put into his coffin before the proclamation of the next.
The body is then brought into a large hall of the palace ;
the queen and royal family, with the chief courtiers, make
the most frantic exclamations and show of grief ; the whole
city is in mourning ; the people cut their hair and cover
themselves with mean apparel. The young king is then
brought into the banqueting room ; the priests, judges, and
nobles who happen to be near the capital, attend ; they
spread carpets on the floor and place him on the throne ;
the Kees Hatze, or royal ahnoner, who represents the priest
* A similar custom appears to have prevailed among the ancient He-
brews, for in the threatening denounced by God against Jeroboam and
Ahab, namely, the extinction of their male progeny, it is said, " I will
cut off him that is shut up and left in Israel." In Palestine as well as
in Abyssinia the practice seems to have undergone a change, for we are
told that the seventy sons of Ahab, who were in Samaria, lived with the
great men of the city who brought them up. This is now the usage in
the latter country also; the establishment at Wechne having been dis-
continued, and the inmates intrusted to the charge of the nobility through-
out the empire. — Commentators neglecting the habits of oriental nations,
have not been successful in explaining the portions of Scripture now
alluded to ; 1 Kings xiv. 10, xxi. 21.
244 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
that officiated at the Jewish coronation, pours olive oil from
a horn on his head ; and the Search Maseri, or chamberlain,
crowns him with these words : " David, king of kings, is
dead ; Yasous our king liveth : his we were who is dead ; his
we are who is alive. Mourn ye for the dead and rejoice for
the living." At this the female mourners, appointed for
the special service, raise a shriek of lamentation ; while the
nobles shout for joy, exclaiming, Long live King Yasous !
and, prostrating themselves at his feet, kiss his hand.*
When this burst of joy is ended, the funeral obsequies of
the deceased monarch are performed. The body being
embalmed in a particular manner, by persons who follow
this profession, is conveyed with great ceremony to the
vault of some favourite church. When they approach the
sacred edifice, the priests read a burial service from the
Psalms of David ; after which the coffin is placed in the
sepulchre of the kings in presence of the imperial family
and nobles.
It is well known that the royal standard of Abyssinia dis-
plays the lion of the tribe of Judah, to indicate the descent of
its kings from Solomon ; a fiction, it may be presumed, by
which the clergy flattered the vanity of the monarch and
preserved the relic of a custom older than Christianity. In
the fair season of the year his majesty was always in the
field. The form of the camp was so established by ancient
usage, that in every place it assumed the same appearance
and regular order. It is said that even their palaces and
towns were modelled according to the plan which was fol-
lowed in the distribution of the tents. The household was
very numerous, and the members of it were distinguished by
badges which indicated their respective stations.
A little removed from the royal pavilion or station was a
large square tent, with six seats on either side, and one at
the end higher than the others, which indicated the presence
of the king. This was the hall of justice where causes
were heard, and whence the opinion of the judges was con-
veyed to his majesty, who from a concealed recess or al-
cove expressed his concurrence or dissent. Before pro-
ceeding to business in that court, or Saccala as it was
* We have inserted names at discretion,
OF ETHIOPIA. 245
termed, the official persons pronounced a prayer, and then
chanted the following sentences : —
"From the day of vengeance ; from the day of doom,
How shall the soul escape 1
When the mother cannot 3ave her child, and the earth
shall surrender her prisoners,
How shall the soul escape 1
When the assembly shall accuse us with terrors ; when our
deeds shall be opened and spread out, and all that we have done
shall be read,
How shall the soul escape T
When our Lord shall sit on the Mount of Olives, on the day
of the Sabbath, and all his disciples beside him,
How shall the soul escape f
With such holy exercise the assessors of the Abyssinian
monarch were wont to prepare themselves for the solemn
duty of awarding justice between man and man ; and in all
cases where the immediate interests of the crown were not
concerned, the path of equity is said to have been followed
with no small degree of self-denial and steadiness.
The troubles, indeed, which followed the successes of the
Galla rendered property extremely insecure, and in fact sus-
pended the authority of law. While Pearce was in the
country the only protection to which the lower classes had
recourse was the appearance of extreme indigence. The
people of Tigre, he informs us, were treated by their gov-
ernors better than the natives of Amhara ; a poor man
among the former could get some justice done to him when
wronged, whereas in the latter province he dared not even
wear a good cloth on his back, for fear of being stripped by
the soldiers of Guxo, the victorious leader of the barbarians.
An old man, who had been three years a faithful servant to
Mr. Coffin, requested leave to repair to Gondar, where he
had two sons and a daughter whom he had not seen for
nine years. His master gave him permission to go, but
wished him to buy a new dress previously, that he might
appear respectable when he should arrive at his native place.
The other replied that the rags would suit him best ; for, says
he, " If I have a new cloth on, some of Guxo's Galla will
strip me, but if I have a ragged one they will leave it to me,
and that will be at least more decent than to go naked.".
When on the subject of justice we may remark, that in
X2
246 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
Abyssinia when a prisoner is condemned to death, lie is not
remitted to prison, which is thought cruel, but is immedi-
ately carried forth to execution. The capital punishments
are various, and among others the cross. Socinios, we
find in the annals quoted by Bruce, commanded that Arzo,
his competitor, who had fled for assistance and refuge to
Phineas, king of the Falasha, should be crucified without
the camp. Nor is it uncommon for great malefactors to be
flayed alive ; an instance of which occurred when Woosheka
was made prisoner in the campaign of 1769. He had taken
away the life of Ozoro, Esther's husband ; and she, kind
and humane in all other respects, declared that she would
not be satisfied with a less severe atonement. Lapidation,
or stoning to death, is likewise practised in the same country.
This is chiefly inflicted upon strangers for religious causes,
and more especially on the Catholic priests who have been
detected there since the days of Facilidas. In the streets
of Gondar are still seen heaps of stones, which cover the
bodies of those unfortunate missionaries whose labours in
the cause of the gospel w:ere thus requited. The plucking
out of the eyes is a torture commonly reserved for such as
are taken in actual rebellion. After the battle of Fagitta,
according to the narrative of the British traveller, twelve
chiefs of the Pagan Galla underwent this fate, and were
afterward turned out to starve in the valleys below the town.
Several prisoners of another rank were subjected to the
same operation ; and, what is wonderful, not one of them
died in consequence, though it was performed in the coarsest
manner with an iron forceps or pincers. It is added that
the dead bodies of criminals executed for high treason, mur-
der, or violence on the highway, are seldom buried, but are
left to be devoured by the dogs, hyenas, and other wild beasts.
In all these respects there is a similarity so striking be-
tween the usages of the Abyssinians and those of the Per-
sians, that some writers have attempted to establish on this
ground alone the proof of one origin for the two nations.
Such a resemblance, however, may be easily explained on
the basis of the historical fact that the latter people were
long in possession of Arabia, between which and the oppo-
site coast of the Red Sea there was a very ancient inter-
course. In truth, the customs mentioned in several authors
as peculiar to Persia were at a certain period common to all
OF ETHIOPIA. 247
the East, and were only lost in other countries when they
were overrun and subdued by more barbarous tribes. As
the laws, manners, and habits of Susa and Ecbatana were
committed to writing, and stamped with the character
of perpetuity, they survived for a time the conquests which
changed the face of society in a large portion of Western
Asia, and thereby acquired for their authors the reputation
of universal legislators. The accident of having been many
ages excluded from the ingress of foreigners has secured
for Abyssinia a corresponding originality ; or, in other
words, has enabled her to preserve, in a state more entire
than they are now found anywhere else, a set of usages
both national and domestic," which we may presume for-
merly prevailed from the Nile to the remotest shores of the
Asiatic continent.
The Abyssinian monarchs, like those of Persia, were
seldom seen by their subjects, — a seclusion which was in-
tended to increase the reverence of the multitude for the
person and office of a sovereign. This expedient, however
wise in some respects, was found to give rise to serious
abuses. In the court of Persepolis it produced two officers,
one of whom was called the king's eye, and the other the
king's ear, and their employment was to see and hear for
his majesty. In Abyssinia it led to a similar appointment,
the chief who held it being denominated the king's mouth
or voice ; for the latter, being seen by nobody, his deputy
spoke of course in the third person. The usual form of
royal mandates is, "Hear what the king says to you ;" and
what follows has always the validity and obligation of law.
The Assyrians, the Medes, the Persians, and even the
Hebrews, adopted the same method and style in their com-
munications to the people.
It is not unworthy of notice, that no man is condemned
by the emperor in person to die for the first fault, unless
the crime be of a very atrocious nature, such as parricide
or sacrilege. In general, too, the earlier life and merits
of the prisoner are weighed against' his immediate guilt ;
and if his former good conduct is thought to have conferred
on the state a benefit greater than the injury for which he
is now called to account, he is usually absolved by the
monarch.
248 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
The Abyssinians retain the ancient aversion to eat and
drink with strangers, although they seem not to understand
the reason upon which the prohibition was originally
founded. They break or purify every vessel that has been
used by one who is not of their own blood. The history
of religion can alone explain such usages, which, in fact,
had a reference to the sacred nature of certain animals,
worshipped by one tribe and killed for food by another, and
therefore viewed alternately as gods and as abominations.
In attempting to delineate the physical character of the
inhabitants of this part of Ethiopia, Bruce informs us that
their complexion resembles the colour of pale ink. He has
selected, as specimens of the features which distinguish the
higher class, the portraits of two ladies who figured at
court, — the wife of Ras Michael, and Tecla Mariam, the
daughter of an able statesman. The latter of these females
was esteemed very beautiful by the natives, and is pro-
nounced by the traveller just named as deserving of all the
praise which was bestowed upon her fine appearance.
Pearce assures us that the Abyssinians vary much in
their colour ; some being very black, with hair nearly
straight, others copper-coloured, some much fairer, with
the hair almost woolly, and a fourth description having the
same complexion with long hair. This mixture arises
from the unsettled nature of family relations, which partake
of the constant changes in local government and property.
A woman may be the mother of six or seven children, whose
fathers have migrated from as many different provinces :
for, as soon as one chief expels another, the followers
of the vanquished leader accompany him into some new dis-
trict, leaving wives and children to the protection of their
more fortunate successors.
Nothing in truth appears to be more insecure than the
marriage tie in Abyssinia. Perhaps it might be asserted,
that there are no other obligations than such as are con-
tracted by mutual consent, and which subsist only as long
as both parties are inclined to respect them. After sep-
aration these engagements may be again renewed, again
violated, and a third time repeated. Bruce met at Koscam,
in the presence of the queen-mother, a lady of great rank
with seven men who had all been her husbands, and no one
OF ETHIOPIA. 249
of whom could claim her for wife at that particular juncture.
When married individuals agree to part they divide the
children according to certain rules. The eldest son falls to
the mother, and the eldest daughter to the father. If there
is but one girl, and all the rest boys, she is assigned to the
male parent ; and if there is but one son, and all the others
girls, he is the right of the mother. If -the numbers are
unequal after the first selection, the remainder are distributed
by lot. From the king to the beggar there is no distinction
between legitimate and illegitimate offspring ; there being
in fact no principle on which the preference could be made
to rest, except in the case of the royal family, where the
mother of the heir is previously selected and usually
crowned.
In his ordinary marriages the king uses no other ceremony
than the following : He sends an officer to the house where
the lady lives, who announces to her that it is the king's
pleasure that she should remove instantly to the palace.
She then dresses herself in her best manner and immediately
obeys. Thenceforward he assigns her an apartment in the
royal dwelling, and gives her a house elsewhere in any place
she may choose. There is an approach to a regular marriage
when he makes one of his wives Iteghe ; for on that occasion
he orders a judge to pronounce in his presence that " the
king has chosen his handmaid for his queen." The crown
is then applied to her brows, but she is not anointed. The
beautiful story of Ahasuerus and Esther will occur to the
recollection of every reader ; for it was when she " had
found grace in his sight more than the other virgins, that he
placed a golden crown upon her head." This coronation in
Abyssinia conveys a great political privilege, constituting her
majesty regent during the nonage of her son ; a point of
correspondence which history does not enable us to trace in
any of the mighty kingdoms that covered the banks of the
Euphrates.
The ordinary method of contracting trie matrimonial union
among people of condition and " such as fear God" is the
following : A man, when he resolves to marry a girl, sends
some person to her father to ask his consent. When this is
granted the future husband is invited to the house, and an
oath is mutually taken by the parties that they will maintain
due fidelity to each other. Then the parent of the bride
250 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
presents to the young suitor the fortune that he intends to
give ; consisting usually of a particular sum of gold, some
oxen, sheep, or horses, according to their circumstances in
society. The bridegroom, however, is obliged to find surety
to the amount of the goods, in case he should dismiss his
wife, and prove unable to restore all that he has got. He
is also obliged to*secure an additional sum of money, or its
equivalent in effects, to the lady, lest he should choose to
separate from her without any valid reason.
A certain period, twenty or thirty days, is also determined
by a reciprocal oath, before the expiry of which they vow to
go to church together and receive the sacrament. When
the time appointed for the marriage arrives, the intended
spouse appears again at the bride's residence, examines in
her company the moveables and clothes which she is to carry
with her, and swears again that he will respect her property,
use her well, never leave her without food and raiment, keep
her in a good house, and discharge faithfully all the duties
incumbent upon him as the head of a domestic establishment.
His surety or sponsor likewise binds himself to see all these
obligations punctually fulfilled. Matters being suitably ad-
justed, the bridegroom takes his wife on his shoulders, and
carries her to his own house if in the neighborhood ; but if
not, he limits the procession to a complete circuit of her
father's dwelling ; after which he sets her down, and con-
ducts her into it. No sooner is this ceremony performed
than a solemn banquet takes place, consisting of raw beef
and bread, honey-wine, and another beverage called bouza,
extracted from fermented grain. The feast being ended,
the parties mount on mules and ride to the gentleman's
abode, where are concluded all the rites necessary to marriage
before they live together. When they have completed the
specified term, they appear in church, and declare before the
priest that they are husband and wife, and that they are
come to receive the sacrament. The clergyman, satisfied
with these assurances, performs mass ; the young couple
communicate and return home.
This, we are told, is the established form of those
marriages which are celebrated canonically, or according to
ecclesiastical rules. But it is clear that the peasants and
soldiers do not encumber themselves with so much ceremony.
No settlement, surety, or oath, being necessary, they kill an
OF ETHIOPIA. 251
ox or some sheep, which they eat raw, drink a great deal
of bouza, dance, shout, and practise various kinds of foole-
ries ; and if a priest be at hand he sprinkles them with holy
water, and repeats a hallelujah. The company join in the
benediction ; and, as we might suppose in such circum-
stances, this slight formality is distinguished by a greater
degree of mirth than delicacy of manners.
The usage at the marriage of a prince or princess is de-
scribed in these terms : The match having been previously
settled according to the views of the court, preparations are
made for the festival, which is generally held during the
rainy season, while the country is secure and abandoned to
pleasure. The king being seated on his throne in the large
hall of audience, the parties are introduced into his presence
with their respective attendants. After kissing his hand
they are all magnificently clothed in dresses of brocade or
other rich stuffs. The crown is sometimes set on their
heads ; they receive the benediction of the Kees Hatze, or
royal almoner ; after which they retire clothed with the
caftan. Having mounted horses given them by his majesty,
they ride in great state, in the midst of loud acclamations,
to the house of the husband. A dinner is prepared, in the
course of which many oxen are slaughtered at the door in
order to furnish band, which is served up reeking and
quivering from the body of the animal." Deep drinking then
commences, in which the ladies and gentlemen indulge to a
degree which to a European appears altogether incredible.
These marriages, it is added, are by no means permanent ;
many of the Ozoros entering into new engagements as often
as they please, and dissolving the preceding contract at the
suggestion of convenience or fancy.*
The manner of christening, too, is somewhat singular.
A man does not stand godfather for a girl, nor does a woman
stand godmother for a boy ; the parents usually look out for
persons who are able to make a present to the child. During
the whole ceremony the priest swings to and fro a brass vase
suspended by four chains of the same metal, with small
bells attached to it, in which there is frankincense burning,
the fumes of which fill the chamber with an agreeable odour.
Before he places the child in the new cloth held by the god-
* Balugani, in Bruce, vol. vii. p. 69.
252 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
father, he dips it in a large basin of water, and then takes a
small wooden cross, and beginning on the forehead says,
" I baptize thee in the name of the Father, the Son, and the
Holy Ghost." After repeating this he makes the sign of
the cross upon every joint of the body behind and before ;
he then takes a feather dipped in a certain oil, which is ob-
tained from Egypt, and is called meiron, repeating this
formula, " In the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy
Ghost, I anoint thee with the holy oil,-as a token that thou
hast entered into Christ's flock." All this having been per-
formed in the churchyard near the entrance gate, the mother
takes the infant into the church, and there waits till the
sacrament is administered to the people and also to her child.
Pearce mentions a singular practice, which he remarks
might appear fabulous to any one who had not witnessed it.
When a woman has lost two or three children by death, she
is induced, in the hope of saving the life of another just
born, to cut a piece from the tip of the left ear, roll it up in
a piece of bread and swallow it. " For some time," says he,
" I was at a loss to conjecture the reason why a number of
grown people of my acquaintance had one ear cut ; and
when told the truth I could scarcely believe it, -till I went
into the house of a neighbour, though contrary to custom,
purposely to see the operation. An old woman cut off the
tip of the ear, and put it into a bit of cold cooked victuals,
called sherro, when the mother of the infant opened her
mouth to receive it, and swallowed it, pronouncing the words,
4 In the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost !' " They
have recourse to many other superstitious and whimsical
practices to prevent children from dying.*
The superstitions of such a people indeed occupy a promi-
nent place in their statistics ; and of these none is more
remarkable than the prejudice which expels from society,
and even from the holy sacrament, all men who work in iron
or pottery. One reason for this strange aversion is, that
such artisans are considered even by their nearest neighbours
as possessing the supernatural power of changing themselves
into hyenas and other ravenous beasts. -All convulsions or
hysterical disorders, which are as common in Abyssinia as
in other parts of the world, are attributed to the evil eye of
* Life and Adventures, vol. i. p. 307.
OF ETHIOPIA. 253
these unfortunate workmen. They are known by the name
of Buda ; and many marvellous exploits are attributed to
them, not only by the vulgar, but even by individuals of su-
perior intelligence. Though excluded from the more sacred
rites of Christianity, they still profess great respect for
religion, and are not surpassed by any of their countrymen
in the strictness with which they keep Lent and the other
stated fasts.
Pearce readily acknowledges his inability to trace this
whimsical notion to any plausible source. Mr. Coffin, who
was in the country at the same time, and who appears to
have enjoyed the gift of deeper reflection than his comrade,
is equally puzzled, and regards some of the facts which
came immediately under his own knowledge as almost in-
explicable. The Budas are distinguished, it seems, from
other classes, by a peculiarly-formed gold ring, worn by the
whole race, and which kind of ring he declares he has fre-
quently seen in the ears of hyenas that have been shot,
caught in traps, or speared by himself; but in what way
these ornaments came to be so strangely applied, he declares
that, after taking considerable pains to investigate the
subject, he had been utterly unable to discover. Besides
the power that these persons are supposed to have of trans-
forming themselves into wild animals, they are imagined, as
we have already stated, to possess the still more dangerous
attribute of inflicting disease by directing a malign look
towards their victim. So fully convinced, too, are the
Abyssinians that these unhappy blacksmiths are in the habit
of rifling the graves in their character of hyenas, that no
one will venture to eat what is called quanter, or dried meat,
in their houses, though they have not the smallest re-
pugnance to sit down with them to a repast of raw flesh,
where the killing of the cow or sheep before their eyes dis-
sipates at once the horrible illusion.
Mr. Coffin relates a story respecting one of these Budas,
the circumstances of which fell under his own observation.
It happened that among his servants he had hired an indi-
vidual of this gifted class, who, one evening when it was
still perfectly light, came to request leave of absence till the
next morning. His petition was immediately granted, and
the young man withdrew ; but scarcely had the master
turned round to his other servants', when some of them
Y
254 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
called out, pointing in the direction the Bucla had taken,
" Look ! look ! he is turning himself into a hyena !" Mr.
Coffin instantly looked round, and though he certainly did
not witness the transformation, the youth had vanished, and
he saw a large hyena running off at the distance of about a
hundred paces. This happened in an open plain, where
there was not a bush or tree to intercept the view. The
absentee returned ih the morning, and was attacked by his
companions on the subject of his metamorphosis, which,
according to the usual practice of his brethren, he rather
affected to countenance than to deny.*
From the latter circumstance it has been inferred that the
belief in this most extravagant superstition is, owing to some
motive or other, encouraged by the Budas themselves. The
trades they follow are the most lucrative in the country ;
and as these are exclusively in the hands of particular fami-
lies, in whom the right of exercising them descends from
father to son, it is not improbable that, in order to prevent
all competition, they may choose to envelop their persons
and their craft in a certain degree of mystery. With this
view, it may be presumed, they place the ornaments de-
scribed above in the ears either of such young hyenas as
they may happen to catch, or of old ones, which are fre-
* Perhaps few readers are aware that a very similar superstition ex-
isted among the Greeks as well as the Romans, with respect to men
turning themselves into wolves. Pliny calls the persons possessing
this power of transformation, versipelles ; remarking that " it is a fabu-
lous opinion not worthy of credit." He afterward explains more par-
ticularly the popular helief on this head, and makes mention, from a
Greek author, " of a man who lived nine years in the form of a wolf;"
adding, " but it is astonishing how far the Greeks carried their credu-
lity, for there is no falsehood, however impudent, that wants its testi-
mony among them." — Hist. Nat. lib. viii. c. 2-2.
The following extracts from Petronius give a complete view of this
singular imagination :— " Deinde ut respexi comitem, ille exuit se ;
omnia vestimenta secundum viam posuit. Stabam tanquam mortuus —
at ille circumminxit vestimenta sua, et subito lupus factus est. Po6t-
quam lupus factus est ululare ccepit et in sylvas fugit. Ego primitus
nesciebam ubi essem — deinde accessi ut vestimenta ejus tollerem; ilia
autem lapidea facta sunt. Lupus villain intravit et omnia pecora tan-
quam lanius sanguinem illis misir, nee tamen destitit, etiamsi fugit,
servus enim noster lancea collum ejus trajecit — postquam veni in ilium
locum in quo lapidea vestimenta erant facta, nihil in veni nisi sanguinem.
Utverum domum veni, jacebat comes meus in lecto, et collum illius
medicus curabat. Intellexi ilium versipellern esse, nee postea cura ilLa
panem gustare potui, non si me occidisses."
OF ETHIOPIA. 255
quently entrapped, and then dismiss them to the wilderness
with their newly-acquired embellishments. This idea was
stated to Mr. Coffin, who thought the conjecture more than
probable, and promised on his return to the country to do all
in his power to ascertain the fact. He remarked at the
same time, that he had never seen a very young hyena with
the gold ring in its ear.*
The Zackary, we are told, are another extraordinary set
of beings ; who, though esteemed good Christians, go
roaring about the towns, making a dreadful noise, torturing
themselves with whips, and even cutting their flesh with
knives. They are most numerous in the province of Tigre,
where they have a church, which is frequented by no other
class of men. They style themselves the descendants of
St. George. In their place of worship there is a light,
which they assert burns continually without the aid of any
human means. To put their miracle to the test of experi-
ment, Pearce confesses that he oftener than once watched
for an opportunity to blow it out ; but those who had the
charge of it were too attentive to their duty to allow him to
succeed.
One of the most annoying of their superstitions is the
belief or affectation of being possessed with a certain kind
of evil spirit, which cannot be expelled in any other way
than by music and dancing. This complaint is called
tigrt-ter, and is more common among women than among
men. It seizes the body as if with a violent fever, then
turns to a lingering sickness, which, unless the proper rem-
edy can be procured, often reduces the, patient to the greatest
extremity. During the paroxysm the speech is changed to
a kind of stammering, which no one can understand but
those who have been afflicted with the same disorder.
When the relatives find the malady established, they join
together to defray the expenses of curing it ; the first step
towards which is to procure the assistance of a learned
dofter or priest, who reads the gospel of St. John, and
drenches the sufferer with cold water for the space of seven
days — an application that very often proves fatal. A more
effectual remedy is found to consist in a band of trumpeters,
* See a note by the Editor of Pearce's Life and Adventures, vol. i. p,
256 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
drummers, and fifers, a full supply of liquor, and an assem-
blage of juvenile personages to enjoy these means of
hilarity.
Pearce once saw a young woman who had the misfor-
tune to be afflicted with this disorder, and as she was the
wife of an intimate friend he visited her very frequently.
Her voice was so much affected, that she could not be un-
derstood by her nearest relations ; and it was observed that
the sight of a book or a priest threw her into great agony,
during which a torrent of tears, like blood mingled with
water, flowed from her eyes. After allowing her to linger
three months in this miserable condition, the husband re-
solved to employ the wonted remedy, however expensive
and inconvenient to him. For this purpose he collected a
band of music, and likewise borrowed from all his neigh-
bours their silver ornaments, with which to load her arms,
legs, and neck.
The evening this singular experiment was tried, our
countryman attended to give his assistance. About two
minutes after the trumpets commenced, he observed her
shoulders begin to move, and soon afterward her head and
breast, and in less than a quarter of an hour she sat up on
the couch. The wild look she had, though she occasion-
ally smiled, made him withdraw to a greater distance, being
alarmed to see a person reduced almost to a skeleton exert
such strength ; her head, neck, shoulders, hands, and feet,
all moved to the sound of the instruments, and in this man-
ner she proceeded for some time, till at length she started
up and stood on the floor. Afterward she began to dance
and to jump about, and at last as the music and noise of the
singers increased she often sprang three feet from the
ground. When the band slackened she appeared quite out
of temper, but when it became louder she smiled and was
delighted. During this violent exercise she never showed
the least symptom of being tired, though the musicians
were thoroughly exhausted ; and whenever they stopped to
take a little rest she manifested signs of the utmost discon-
tent and impatience.
Next day, according to the prescribed method in the cure
of this disorder, she was taken to the market-place, where
several jars of maize were provided for the respective per-
formers. When the crowd had assembled and the music
OF ETHIOPIA. 257
Was ready, she advanced into the centre, where she began
to dance and throw herself into the maddest postures ima-
ginable, and continued to exert herself in the same manner
throughout the whole day. Towards evening she was seen
to drop the silver ornaments from her neck, arms, and legs,
one at a time, so that in the course of three hours she had
stripped herself of every article. As the sun went down
she made a start with such swiftness that the fastest
runner could not keep pace with her ; and when at the
. distance of about two hundred yards, she fell to the ground
on a sudden as if she had been shot. Soon afterward a
young man fired a matchlock over her body, struck her on
the back with the side of his large knife, and asked her
name, to which she answered as when in possession of her
senses ; a sure proof that the cure was accomplished, for
during this malady those afflicted with it never answer to
their Christian name. She was now taken up in a very
weak condition and carried home ; and a priest came and
baptized her again, as if she had just come into the world
or assumed a new nature.
Mr. Pearce had soon afterward a less agreeable opportu-
nity of becoming acquainted with the characteristics of
this strange disease. His own wife was seized with some
of the most alarming symptoms ; but having a strong sus-
picion that this ailment sprang from the weak minds of
women, who were gratified with the display, the rich dresses,
and music which accompany the cure, he determined not
to yield to her fancy. He thought the application of a whip
might be attended with a good effect, and actually had re-
course to a few strokes when there was no one present to
witness the proceeding. But what was his surprise when,
instead of profiting by his skill, she appeared like a corpse,
her joints stiffened, and life seemed to become extinct.
Alarmed and grieved at the want of success, he immedi-
ately consented to pay for the band, the drink, and the other
apparatus used in similar cases ; and the result proved a
complete reward for his connubial affection. " One day,"
says he, " I went privately with a companion to see my
wife dance, and kept at a short distance, as I was ashamed
to go near the crowd. On looking steadfastly upon her,
while dancing and jumping, more like a deer than a human
Y2
258 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
being, I said that it was certainly not ray wife ; at which
my companion burst into a fit of laughter, from which he
could scarcely refrain all the way home."*
There is little doubt that on some occasions there was
fraud mixed up with Abyssinian superstition. Pearce,
whose mind was possessed with all the incredulity of a
Protestant, was constantly endeavouring to obtain a peep
behind the scenes ; and, in one instance at least, he was
completely successful. - At an excavated church near Adowa
there is a picture of the Virgin suckling her Child, painted
probably in the time of the Portuguese, as the workmanship
differs materially from that of the native artists. It is placed
in a window, adjoining which is a dark recess ; and the
priests told the Ras and the chiefs who were with him, that
when any sinful person looked at it the figures trembled
violently. As Pearce himself witnessed the agitation of
the picture when some individual, not remarkable for purity,
happened to fix his eyes on it, he looked about to discover
whether there were any secret entrance by which one might
get to the back of it, and soon observed a monk crawling
out of a very small opening in an obscure place. Accord-
ingly, when the attention of the bystanders was otherwise
employed, the skeptical sailor crept in, and after turning
round a dark corner he saw a priest behind the canvass
shaking it every now and then with a piece of string. He
did not presume to interrupt him, but being satisfied with
his discovery retired from the scene of imposture. He did
not forget, however, to tell Welled Selasse at a convenient
season, who said he believed it ; but added, " It will not do
to quarrel with these rascals, for if I were to set them
against me I should not long be Ras."t
At another place there is an exhibition of a miraculous
nature, which bears some resemblance to the annual prodigy
achieved at Naples, when the blood of St. Januarius be-
comes liquid in the hands of a holy man. It is, we believe,
on one of the festivals of the blessed Virgin that the wonder
now alluded to is performed, known by the designation of
the crying cross of Axum. On a day appointed, the king,
the Ras, and a number of chiefs met at the church-gate,
where a large body of priests were ready to receive them.
* Life and Adventures, vol. i. p 291. I Ibid. p. 176.
OF ETHIOPIA. 259
The latter were all arrayed in their most splendid vestments,
and about ten o'clock, as the sun was coming to his strength,
they formed in a line in front of the sacred edifice ; upon
which the cross was brroght out and uncovered. The
king first ascended the steps and kissed it ; the Ras followed
his example, which again was imitated by the noblemen and
others who were entitled to take part in the ceremony. It
was the ratification of a solemn treaty between persons of
great power, and intended to secure the peace of an exten-
sive province. The people believe that the cross, when used
on such momentous occasions, ne^ier fails to shed tears, or
or least to exude a liquid matter, which, at a little distance,
appears very similar. Many individuals, we are assured,
come from remote districts, and pay large sums to be al-
lowed to kiss it ; imagining that their sins are thereby
washed away. Indeed there is so much anxiety to behold
this sacred relic, that those at a distance call out to the
priests, " For God's sake hold it higher, that our eyes may
see it !" Pearce had no doubt that the crafty wretches
anointed it with some thick oily substance, which, when
held in the sun, melted and shone like drops of water ; but
no one being allowed to touch it except a priest or a monk,
it was impossible that the cheat could be discovered.
We learn also that there was a great dofter, who used to
travel about the country, and had become rich by deluding
the poor and ignorant. He was wont to attend the sick, and
was also employed to purify places supposed to have been
haunted by the devil or evil spirits. It was remarked of
him that he always commenced his operations in the heat
of the sun, when he ordered all fires to be removed ; and
having taken his seat on a sheltered place near the door, he
desired the people to withdraw to a little distance while he
prayed. Taking advantage of this opportunity, he con-
trived, by using the bottom of a broken bottle, to set fire to
some dry horse-dung with the rays of the sun ; he then
threw on some frankincense, which caused a great smoke ;
and rising up with his face towards heaven, he called upon
his illiterate audience, telling them in a solemn tone of voice
that God had heard him, and sent down fire from above to
destroy all their enemies visible and invisible. Pearce re-
peated the experiment in the presence of the Ras, who had
no difficulty in penetrating the deception ; but, notwith-
280 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
standing, it was deemed imprudent to enlighten the multi-
tude and expose the learned dofter.
The few of the Abyssinians who can write usually devote
their acquirement to the manufacture of charms, by means
of which they undertake to prevent hail from destroying the
corn, and the locusts from approaching the cultivated dis-
tricts, as well as to cure all manner of diseases. Welled
Selasse, in conversations with his English visiters, had fre-
quently alluded to the influence of these persons, and hinted
how dangerous they were to those who had given them any
offence. Nor did he seem at all displeased when he was
assured that it was all owing to the foolish superstitions of
the lower classes ; that they had no more power than other
men ; and that, instead of being encouraged or protected,
they ought to be punished as impostors. A dofter from
Gojam came one day to ask the Ras to put him at the head
of the clergy in some rural district, assuring him that he
could prevent the ravages of the small-pox, of the locusts,
and of the hail. Selasse, smiling, recommended him to
Pearce and Mr. Coffin, who were sitting with him at dinner ;
upon which the applicant with much respect and earnestness
addressed himself to them. On their return home he fol-
lowed them, and they desired their gatekeeper to allow him
to enter the yard, that he might be more within the reach
of the discipline with which they meant to try his constancy.
The two gentlemen soon issued from their mansion, each
with an English cart-whip in his hand, a part of the equip-
ment sent by Mr. Salt when he forwarded the artillery, har-
ness, and carriages. The dofter asked what might be the
use of such long weapons 1 " We are going to show you,"
said Mr. Coffin ; " and if you can save others from the wrath
of God, save yourself from the whipping you are about to
receive." Upon this they commenced a furious flagella-
tion, which they continued till the pious enchanter fell at
their feet, imploring their mercy, and declaring that he pos-
sessed no supernatural gifts, nor was in any respect wiser
than his brethren. After this acknowledgment they gave
him abundance of raw meat and maize, on which he gorged
himself without restraint ; but, not satisfied with a good
dinner, he demanded money, and at length became very
troublesome and abusive. Mr. Coffin was so much pro-
voked that he charged his blunderbuss, and putting the
OF ETHIOPIA. 261
blood of a fowl which he had just killed on the top of the
powder, went to the gate and discharged it at him. No
sooner did the priest see his person covered with gore, than,
imagining himself to be seriously wounded, he ran to the
top of a neighbouring hill, where he remained till the eve-
ning ; and then descending to the gate of the palace, he de-
manded justice against the white men, who, he declared,
had shot him. Upon learning the particulars the Ras was
much amused, while the Gojam graduate was so greatly an-
noyed at the jest, that he was never again seen in the same
part of the country.*
The Abyssinians have not yet passed that low stage of
mental improvement at which the licenses of a professional
buffoon are tolerated or enjoyed. At the court of Welled
Selasse there was a remarkable person of this description,
who supplied to the chiefs in attendance upon the Ras the
want of a circus, an opera, and a theatre. Mr. Salt assures
us that he was one of the cleverest mimics he had ever seen,
the command which he possessed over his features almost
equalling that which was displayed in London by Suet, an
actor, to whom in other respects he bore a considerable re-
semblance. One of his main acquirements consisted in the
singular art of making other people, — particularly strangers
who had not been apprized of his intention, — imitate the
contortions of his features ; a power which Mr. Salt re-
peatedly saw him exercise with success, and which, on one
occasion, drew himself into the same kind of ridiculous
situation without his being conscious of the changes in his
countenance, till he was roused by a friendly hint from the
Ras.
At the desire of his master, he afterward performed some
finished pieces of acting, which evinced very extraordinary
native talent. One of these was the imitation of a chief in
the field of battle, who had not been remarkable for his
courage. At first he came in very pompously ; calling out
in an overbearing manner to his soldiers, and vaunting what
he would do when the enemy approached. He then mim-
icked the sound of horns heard from a distance, and the
low beating of a drum. At hearing this he represented his
hero as beginning to be a little cautious, and to ask ques-
* Life and Adventures, vol. i. p. 332.
262 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
tions of those around him whether they thought the enemy
strong. This alarm he continued to heighten in proportion
as the adverse party advanced, until at length he depicted
the unfortunate leader as nearly overcome by his fears ; the
musket trembling in his hand, his heart panting, and his
eyes completely fixed, while, without being sensible of the
movement, his legs began to make a very prudent retreat.
This part of his acting excited among the spectators the
share of contempt due to the original character ; when,
dexterously laying hold of the circumstance, he affected to
be ashamed of his cowardice, mustered up his whole stock
of courage, and advancing-, firing his matchlock at the same
moment in a direction exactly contrary to that in which the
enemy was supposed to stand, when, apparently frightened
at the noise of his own gun, he sank down on his knees
and begged for mercy. During this time the expression of
his countenance was inimitable ; and at the conclusion the
whole of the spectators burst into a shout of admiration.*
Totte Maze, for this was the name of the performer, had
one day so much offended the Ras by certain liberties, that
he commanded him never again to set foot on his carpet,
which it may be remarked extends in Abyssinia only half-
way down the room. On the morrow, however, to the great
surprise of the company, the jester made his appearance
mounted on the shoulders of one of his attendants, in which
ludicrous position he advanced close up to his master, and
with a very whimsical expression of features cried out,
" You cannot say that I am on your carpet now !" Welled
Selasse", who like most of his countrymen delighted in
humour, could not refrain from smiling, which ensured the
forgiveness of the mirth-maker and his return to office.
The diseases of such a people are so closely connected
with their superstitions, that the treatment of the one always
indicates the character and extent of the other. The notion
that most of the disorders which afflict mankind are produced
by the agency of evil spirits, leads to some very absurd prac-
tices considered under the head of remedies or palliatives.
For instance, when Mr. Pearce on one occasion returned
from a journey, he had the misfortune to find that his gate-
keeper and gardener had been dead four days ; and the neigh-
* Salt's Travels in Abyssinia, p, 372.
OF ETHIOPIA. 263
bours insisted that they had been killed by devils, as they
were both found corpses in the morning, having gone to
bed in perfect health, and their bodies being free from ex-
ternal wounds. The priests, who interposed their services
and advice, obliged him to discharge all his firearms before
any one should venture into the house, and then to sprinkle
the blood of a newly-killed sheep on the ground-floor. A
jar or two of maize were likewise to be expended on the oc-
casion, which, with the flesh of the victim, were meant to
console the survivors, as well as to render effectual all the
other means that were employed against their invisible
enemies.
In all parts of Abyssinia it is customary, when a building
has been left uninhabited for some time, to kill a cow or a
sheep, and distribute the carcass within the walls ; an
offering which it is presumed satisfies the ghost of the
place, who immediately leaves it in peace. But when such
houses are abandoned or neglected, the offended demon
haunts the mouldering remains, and kills those whom it
finds taking up even a temporary residence among them,
without appeasing its wrath by the customary oblations.
To the same prejudice in regard to the influence of evil
spirits in creating distempers, especially such as affect the
nervous system, may be ascribed the practice, already men-
tioned, of beating drums, sounding trumpets, and in short
of using the most noisy instruments, in order to dislodge
the malignant agent whose delight it is to occasion torture
and alarm. When a man is seized with the species of fever
called tigre-ler, which leads to such fooleries among the
women, his relations show him all the gold and silver orna-
ments they can collect, making at the same time a deafening
noise with drums, to drive the devil out ; " For," says the
historian, " they believe that all diseases come from the
devil."*
The common distempers, with the exception of the small-
pox and measles, are not usually dangerous. Fevers, too,
are very rare, except in the low country at the commence-
ment of the rains ; which, occasioning an unhealthy vapour,
give rise to the opinion that this class of ailments are pro-
duced by the blow of a bad spirit. The only remedy em-
* Pearce, vol.i. p. 282.
264 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
ployed is the juice of some cooling leaves rubbed over the
temples of the patient. They also fasten different- roots and
herbs about the head and body, as well as a variety of written
charms ; which last, however, are not employed for the cure
of this disorder in particular, but worn by every person in
sickness and in health. Colds and sore eyes are general,
and are usually caught through personal neglect ; for the
Abyssinians sleep much in the sun by day, and expose their
persons to the heavy dews of night with scarcely a rag to
cover them. The leprosy prevails greatly among the lower
class, especially in the southern provinces, where thousands
may be seen who have lost their fingers and toes, and have
their bodies covered all over with large white spots.
But the small-pox, as has just been intimated, is the most
destructive complaint known in Abyssinia. As soon as its
approach towards any district is ascertained, the inhabitants
collect their children and others who have not had the
disease, for the purpose of inoculation. Every one carries
a piece of salt or a measure of corn, with which they pro-
ceed together to the nearest town in search of an operator.
Having selected a person covered with healthy tubercles,
they procure a dofter well skilled in his art, who takes a
quantity of matter from him into an egg-shell, and then cut-
ting a small cross with a razor in the arm of his patients,
he introduces a little of the virus, and finishes by binding it
with a piece of rag. After this process they all return home,
singing and shouting praises to God in a joyful manner,
and beseeching him to preserve them from death during the
approaching disease. So far all is very well, but the sub-
sequent treatment is most injudicious. From the moment
the fever begins they are put into a close hut, where not a
breath of air, and if possible not a beam of light, can enter.
Here they are laid naked upon river-sand or wood-ashes,
the latter being generally preferred when the eruption is
copious. No male animal, dog, cat, or cock, is allowed to
remain near the house ; there being certain superstitions
which connect the presence of that sex with the anger of
wicked spirits who seek the life of the sufferers.
In all the Galla districts, except those converted to the
Mohammedan or Christian religion, the inhabitants on the
appearance of the small-pox burn their villages and retire
to a distance. As the diseased are consumed along with
OF ETHIOPIA. 265
the houses in which they dwell, fathers, mothers, and the
nearest relations, if unable to remove, fall indiscriminately
a sacrifice to this barbarous practice. Horrid as it may
appear, the natives esteem it a prudent, as well as a humane
method of stopping the progress of a frightful malady, and
reproach the Christians for not following their example,
and, by devoting a few, preserve the lives of the community.
A species of scrofula, which they call mcshero, is of fre-
quent occurrence in Ethiopia. The more common remedies
are attempted through the medium of purgatives and sudo-
rifics, although some practitioners have recourse to the
hazardous method of excision. With a razor they make
two deep cuts in the shape of a cross on the swelling, and
then putting in the little finger, they bring to the surface a
kernel about the size of a common nut. Having disengaged
this from the flesh with the sharp instrument, they bind up
the wound with some pounded herbs prepared for the pur-
pose, and boast of a permanent cure.
No disease is more painful and disgusting, both to natives
and foreigners, than the tape-worm, which appears to be
universal throughout Abyssinia. It was at one time at-
tributed by Europeans to the practice so common Ln that
country, of eating raw flesh ; but as Pearce and Coffin,
who did not in this respect comply with the custom of the
inhabitants, were afflicted with it to a great extent, it is
more probable that it arises from the climate and the quali-
ties of the water. There is a plant called cusho, which
proves a certain cure for this dreadful disorder ; and the
application of it every two months is so absolutely necessary
to the enjoyment of the most ordinary health, that without
this active medicine the principle of population would be
materially impaired.
In regard to the mode of conducting the burial of the dead,
some particulars fell under the notice of Pearce on the loss
of his son, which are too interesting to be omitted. The
funeral follows the demise of the sick person without any
delay. The moment the breath departs, the cries and
shouts, which have been kept up for hours before, are re-
commenced with fury ; the priests read prayers of forgive-
ness while the body is washed, the hands fastened across
the Lower part of the trunk, and the two great toes tied
together. The corpse is then wrapped in a clean cloth and
22
266 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
sewed up ; after which the skin called neet, the only bed
that an Abyssinian has to lie upon, is bound over all, and
the procession forthwith commences towards the church.
According to the distance the whole route is divided into
seven equal parts, at every one of which the bier is laid
down and prayers for the welfare of the deceased are ad-
dressed to heaven. Every neighbour assists in digging the
grave, and they all carry implements for the purpose, trying
to outwork one another.
It is customary, too, on sUch occasions to bring gifts to
the relatives of the departed, or what are called dcvves in
the language of the country. Pearce relates that in his
case before the cry was over, the people stood in crowds
about his house, striving who should get in first, till the
door was completely blockaded. Some brought twenty or
thirty cakes of bread, some a jar of maize, some cooked
victuals, fowls, and even sheep ; and in this manner his
dwelling was so fully stuffed that he was obliged to remove
into the yard. The head priest came with a jar of maize
and a cow. But whatever is collected in this way is under-
stood to be common property, and every individual who
contributes expects to be invited to the feast. Then " they
talk and tell stories to divert your thoughts from the sor-
rowful subject ; they force you to drink a great deal : but
I have remarked that at these cries, when the relations be-
came a little tranquil in their minds, some old woman will
make a sudden dismal cry, saying, ' Oh ! what a fine child ;
and is he already forgotten V This puts the company into
confusion, and all join in the cry, which will perhaps last
half an hour ; during which the servants and common people
drink out all the maize, and, when well drunk, form them-
selves into a gang at the door and begin their cry."*
There are numbers of men and women who get a living
by making rhymes and attending at cries. They are often
called to a great distance to grace the funerals of persons
of distinction ; and if they are also celebrated as poets they
receive a high pay in corn, cattle, or cloth. Mr. Pearce
knew a very handsome middle-aged female who, though she
* Suck practices appear to have introduced themselves among the'
Hebrews in their latter days; for the Gospel mentions at the deatti of
the ruler's daughter, " the minstrels and the people making a noise."—'
Man. ix. 23.
OF ETHIOPIA. 267
had a large estate, had studied poetry from her youth, and
attended gratuitously at all cries of a public nature, for no
other purpose than to display her benevolence and her un-
common powers. She was esteemed the best maker of
verses either in Amhara or Tigre. Many great men had
offered to marry her, but she could never be prevailed on to
listen to their proposals ; not that she had any predilection
for a single life, — a very rare choice indeed among the sex
in Ethiopia.
In courts of law, whether held by the governor of a
province or by a subordinate magistrate, the plaintiff and
the defendant stand up with their dress tied round their
middle, leaving the upper part of the body naked ; a custom
which is observed even in the severest weather. The
tuvverkas, or lawyers, stand on either side of them pleading
in a loud tone of voice their several causes ; during which
process wagers of mules, cows, sheep, and gold, are con-
tinually laid by these orators that they will prove such and
such charges contained in the libel ; and in all cases the
forfeit becomes the perquisite of the presiding judge. They
also bind themselves in a similar way not to speak until
their antagonist shall have finished his address ; but, as
often happens, the falsehoods related by the one incense the
other to such a degree that, although he holds his mouth
with his hand, he forgets himself, and exclaims, "A lie!"
He is instantly addressed by the governor's servant, whose
office it is to watch for such slips, and is obliged either to
give bond for the payment of his bet or to submit to personal
restraint.
In cases of murder the law in Abyssinia is administered
as follows : after the fact has been proved to the satisfaction
of the chief, he passes sentence of death, when the nearest
relation to the person slain proceeds to put it in execution.
Should the deceased party have no other relative but a female,
though she may have a husband, friend, or other connexions,
yet she being next of kin must, either with a spear or knife,
strike the first blow, upon which her acquaintances despatch
him immediately. Unless this ceremony were observed,
the family of the criminal would have reason to complain
that his blood had been shed unjustly. The principal
prosecutor is in all cases bound to execute the sentence ;
his hand must be the first raised against the offender to put
268 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
him to death, even should he happen to be his own brother,
the son of his mother.*
Though a capital sentence is pronounced against a homi-
cide, the family of the defunct may, if they see proper, take
cattle in place of the murderer's life ; one hundred of these
animals being the customary price of redemption. But when
the assassin is put ,to death, the relations are permitted to
bury him in the church, a privilege formally granted by the
laws ; though in case of self-destruction, no one can be in-
terred even within the walls of the churchyard. We may
remark, in conclusion, that the Ras, or other provincial
chief, has the power of compelling the aggrieved party, even
in the case of murder, to accept the wonted equivalent for
the life which has been taken away.
Agriculture, as might be expected in a state of society
where there are so few rewards for industry, is still in a very
rude condition ; the occupiers of land trusting much more
to the natural fertility of the soil than to any system of
management. The ploughs are so extremely inartificial
that they sometimes consist of nothing more than the crooked
branch of a tree, pointed with a small piece of iron. Two
varieties of wheat are cultivated, of which bread is made for
the tables of the great. Teff, which is the more usual food,
graduates in its colour from white to black. The same
remark applies to barley, of which also two kinds are raised.
They first sow this grain about the end of April or beginning
of May ; that is, a little before the commencement of the'
rains. It comes to maturity in June, and is immediately
carried off the fields, that it may not be destroyed by the
excessive moisture. Then they sow vetches, which likewise
ripen during the rainy season. In September they sow
wheat or teff, either of which is ready to be cut down in
December ; and if they have water they repeat barley or
tares in January. In Wogara, where there are constant
means of irrigation, seedtime and harvest follow each other
every month of the year. The rent paid to the king is one-
tenth of the crop ; but as the produce is small the peasants
never become affluent. Their five harvests combined are
not equal to one in Egypt, while the labour is still greater
even in proportion. t
At the beginning of the rains, the fields at a distance from
* See Deuteronomy, xiii. v. 6-9. | Bruce, vol. vii. p. 63.
OF ETHIOPIA. 269
the villages are very much Injured by hogs and monkeys,
which last sometimes drive the keepers from the grounds.
The soil is much overrun with weeds, which, if not plucked
up before the ear is formed, are exceedingly destructive.
The Abyssinians usually assist one another in this important
labour, which is done with a due regard to ceremony. A
chief, for example, musters every soldier in his service, and
marches at their head to a corn-field, where they lay down
their arms, fall into line, join in a song suitable to the oc-
casion, and, placing themselves under the command of a
female, advance in regular order along the ridges. When
the work is done, the military labourers receive an enter-
tainment from their leader, consisting generally of the blood-
warm steaks of a cow, and a hornful of maize.*
In their cooking, with some slight exceptions, the people
of Abyssinia are entitled to the praise of cleanliness. Fowls,
after being cut into pieces, are washed in a dozen waters at
least, and the same is practised in regard to fish. Both dishes
are prepared with curry, a mixture of hot pepper, onions,
and salt, with the addition of some butter and spices, which
altogether form a compound too hot for most European
throats to swallow. Partridges, guinea-fowl, and other game
are always dressed in the manner now described, while the
Sesh of the sheep and goat is only a little broiled. A fa-
vourite dish is the paunch and liver of these quadrupeds
minced, to which are added a little of the substance from
the entrails that has not been digested, and a few drops from
the gall, mixed all together with a second compound of red
pepper and salt, called horzy. Another sauce consists of the
thin substance from a cow's entrails, boiled with mustard,
and the mixture termed horzy and butter, which they gen-
erally eat with the raw beef. A third dish, which is seldom
seen except at the tables of the higher ranks, is made from
a part of the cow called chickkiner. This portion of the
animal, which is thought very tender, is cut down raw into
small mince-meat, then mixed with black pepper, and a great
quantity of the oil that runs from the joints of the knees
and other limbs during the process of dissection. Pearce
observes that the man may consider himself a great favourite
who gets his mouth crammed full of this rare dainty !
* Pearce, vol. i. p. 345.
Z2
270 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
Every one knows, that it is the custom in Abyssinia for
those who entertain friends at a meal to feed them by ac-
tually stuffing the meat into their mouths. When a man
invites a neighbour to dine with him, it is thought ex*
tremely uncivil if the lady does not cram the guest with her
own hands ; and the more voraciously the visiter eats, the
more is his good-breeding esteemed. In fact, the picture
exhibited by Bruce, of the grossness and sensuality of even
the highest class in this respect, was one of the main causes
of the incredulity with which his work was received in
Europe ; and as this is a subject which is not yet divested
of all importance, we may be excused for entering into a few
details, relative to the several statements now before the
public.
The traveller relates, that in the neighbourhood of Axum
he overtook three persons, apparently soldiers, who were
driving a cow before them. When arrived at a certain point
they threw the animal down ; and one of them sat across
her neck, holding down her head by the horns, While another
who had a knife in his hand made a very deep wound on the
upper part of her body. Upon Bruce proposing to his
servants to bargain for part of the carcass, he learned that
it was not the intention of the men to kill the beast ; that
in fact she did not belong wholly to them, and that they
could not sell her. "This," says he, "awakened my curi-
osity ; I let my people go forward, and staid myself, till I
saw with the utmost astonishment two pieces, thicker and
longer than our ordinary beef-steaks, cut out of the higher
part of the buttock. How it was done I cannot positively
say ; because, judging the cow was to be killed, from the
moment I saw the knife drawn, I was not anxious to view
that catastrophe, which was by no means an object of curi-
osity ; but whatever way it was done, it surely was adroitly,
and the two pieces were spread on the outside of one of their
shields. One of them still continued to hold the head while
the two others were busied in curing the wound. This, too,
was done not in an ordinary manner : the skin that had
covered the flesh was left entire, and flapped over the wound,
and was fastened to the corresponding part by two or more
small skewers or pins. Whether they had put any thing
under the skin between that and the wounded flesh I know
not ; but at the river-side where they were, they had pre-
OF ETHIOPIA. 271
pared a cataplasm of clay, with which they covered the
wound. They then forced the animal to rise, and drove it
on before them, to furnish them with a fuller meal when
they should meet their companions in the evening."
It is observed by the latest biographer of Bruce, that it
was upon the recital of this fact that his : ' reputation split,
and sunk -like a vessel which had suddenly struck upon a
rock." He was attacked on all hands with satire, ridicule,
and even with grave argument ; and because he would
neither suppress nor modify the description, he was de-
nounced to the world as a fabulist, or a dreamer of dreams.
Even so late as 1805, when Lord Valentia touched on the
coast, Mr. Salt was pleased to state that he repeatedly in-
quired as to the truth of cutting flesh out of live animals,
and " all to whom we spoke denied its ever being done."
But Pearce and Coffin, who remained in Abyssinia, and be-
came intimately acquainted with the manners of the people,
afterward fully confirmed in the most literal acceptation of
his words the whole narrative of Bruce on this disputed
point. The former, in the journal published by Salt himself,
relates that, when on a march, a soldier attached to the party
proposed to cut out the shulada from one of the cows they
were driving, to satisfy the cravings of their hunger. This
term Mr. Pearce did not at first understand, but he was not
long left in doubt upon the subject. ; for the others having
assented, they laid hold of the animal by the horns, threw it
down, and proceeded without further ceremony to the op-
eration. This consisted in cutting out two pieces of flesh
from the buttock near the tail, which together he supposed
might weigh about a pound. As soon as they had taken
these away, they sewed up the wounds, plastered them over
with cow-dung, and drove the animal forward, while they
divided among their party the still reeking steaks. Mr.
Coffin also declared to Major Head, that he had not only
seen the excision performed, but that he himself has repeated
it, and that he did so at Cairo in presence of an English
nobleman of high character, to whose name he publicly
referred.*
A similar degree of skepticism has been entertained in
* Bruce, vol. iv. p. 332 ; Salt's Travels, p, 295 ; Head's Life of Bruce
p. 253.
272 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
regard to the mode of supplying brindc, or raw meat, to the
guests in the fashionable parties at Gondar, the capital of
Abyssinia. When the company have taken their seats at
table, a cow or bull is brought to the door, and its feet
strongly tied ; after which the cooks proceed to select the
most delicate morsels, nearly in the manner described by the
travellers. Before killing the animal, all the flesh on the
buttocks is cut off in solid square pieces, without bones or
much effusion of blood. Two or three servants are then
employed, who, as fast as they can procure the brinde, lay it
upon cakes of teff placed like dishes down the table, without
cloth or any thing else beneath them. By this time all the
guests have knives in their hands, and the men prefer the
large crooked ones, which in the time of war they put to all
sorts of uses. The company are so ranged that one gen-
tleman sits between two ladies ; and the former with his
long knife begins by cutting a thin piece, which would be
thought a good steak in England, while the motion of the
fibres is yet perfectly distinct.
In Abyssinia no man of any fashion feeds himself or
touches his own meat. The women take the flesh and cut
it lengthwise like strings, about the thickness of one's little
finger, then crosswise into square pieces somewhat smaller
than dice. This they lay upon a portion of the teff bread,
strongly powdered with black pepper, or cayenne, and fossil
salt, and then wrap it up like a cartridge. In the mean time
the gentleman, having put up his knife, with each hand
resting upon his neighbour's knee, his body stooping, his
head low and forward, and mouth open, very like an idiot,
turns to the one whose cartridge is first ready, who stuffs the
whole of it between his jaws, at the imminent risk of choking
him. This is a mark of grandeur. The greater the man
would seem to be, the larger is the piece which he takes into
his mouth ; and the more noise he makes in chewing it, the
more polite does he prove himself. None but beggars and
thieves, say they, eat small pieces and in silence. Having
despatched this morsel, which he does very expeditiously,
his neighbour on the other hand holds forth a second pellet,
which he devours in the same way, and so on till he is sat-
isfied. He never drinks till he has finished eating ; and
before he begins, in gratitude to the fair ones who have fed
him, he makes up two small rolls of the same kind and form.
OF ETHIOPIA. 273
Each of the ladies opens her mouth at once, while with his
own hand he supplies a portion to both at the same moment.
Then commence the potations, which, we are assured, are
not regulated with much regard to sobriety or decorum.
All this time the unfortunate victim at the door is bleeding,
but bleeding little ; for so skilful are the butchers, that while
they strip the bones of the flesh, they avoid the parts which
are traversed by the great arteries. At last they fall upon
the thighs likewise ; and soon after the animal, perishing
from loss of blood, becomes so tough that the unfeeling
wretches who feed on the remainder can scarcely separate
the muscles with their teeth.*
In the description now given, we have purposely omitted
some features which, it is not improbable, have been a little
too highly coloured, if not even somewhat inaccurately
drawn. But there is no reason to doubt the general cor-
rectness of the delineation, not excepting the grossest and
most repulsive particulars. It is true that the statement has
been called in question by Abyssinian travellers, especially
by Mr. Salt, who seems to have derived peculiar gratification
from exposing the slips of his predecessor ; but it is no less
true that the cutting of the shulada was denied on a similar
authority, and yet no fact has been more fully established
by the most unimpeachable evidence.
Besides, neither Salt nor Pearce ever penetrated to Gon-
dar, the metropolis of the empire, and the scene of its
greatest luxury, sensuality, and pleasure. The latter of
these gentlemen, too, in describing the marriage feast of the
more respectable class of people, informs us that cattle are
brought to the door to be slaughtered, and that the raw meat
is handed about while it still reeks and shivers under the
large two-edged knife with which every man is furnished.
Nor does he conceal that, at a certain stage of the enter-
tainment, it is customary for all the party to become quite
intoxicated ; a concession which might perhaps be regarded
as implying all that Mr. Bruce has alleged against the
morals of the Abyssinians. Mr. Salt himself confirms the
account given of the irregular conduct of the ladies, but not
those open indecencies described by the older traveller. It
deserves notice, however, that Ras Welled Selasse enter-
* Bruce, iv. 486.
274 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
tained views on this subject quite uncommon in his country,
and exacted a degree of outward decorum to which the court
had never before been accustomed. Bruce, on the contrary,
saw it in a state of peculiar license ; .so that an actual varia-
tion in the manners at these different periods is extremely
probable.*
The nobility and all those of a certain rank, it is admitted,
live in a state of great licentiousness and debauchery even
when married. They are seldom jealous of each other,
says Pearce, at least never show their suspicions, knowing
well each other's character. Eut notwithstanding the free-
dom of their conduct they strictly keep all the fasts, which
are very numerous ; and on those occasions they never eat
or drink till about three o'clock in the afternoon, contriving
to calculate the hour by measuring the shadow of their
bodies on the ground. The days of abstinence amount to
no fewer than a hundred and sixty-five in the year. It is
to be lamented that the clergy fail to check by their example
the immoral practices of the people ; being themselves
" more like drunken beasts than civilized beings," while the
quantity of raw meat they consume, and " the ravenous
manner in which they devour it, exceed all belief." Pearce,
however, knew one at Chelicut who always conducted him-
self like a true -father of the faith, and strove earnestly to
bring all classes to a right sense of their duty. He even
delivered a discourse in the church against the abomination
and disgrace of eating raw meat ; but before he could finish
his address he was interrupted by the clerical portion of his
hearers, who threatened him with deposition should he per-
severe in his heretical notions. The pious reformer forth-
with relinquished his situation ; but the Ras, hearing of the
occurrence, entreated him to resume his office, and permit
the people to do as their fathers had done before them.
We are unwilling to conclude this chapter without adding
an extract from " Purchas his Pilgrimes" on the condition
of the Abyssinians nearly three hundred years ago. " An-
tonius Fernandez," says he, " thus writeth of their apparel.
The richer sort buy garments of the Saracens, and clothe
themselves in their fashions. The rest, both men and
* See Leyden's Discoveries and Travels in Africa, by Hugh Murray,
Esq. vol. ii. p. 92.
OF ETHIOPIA. 275
women, cover their bodies either with a skinne or pelt, or
with a coarse hempen cloth without other arte than the
weaver's. When they doe reverence to any, they put off
this cloth from the shoulders to the middle, remayning half-
naked. They let their haire grow, and that serves them for
a hat and head-tyre. For finer braverie they curie and
anoint their haire with butter, which shewes in the sun
like grasse in the morning dew. Lest their locks and
curies should be disordered when they goe to bed, each one
pitcheth a forke or crutch a foot high in the ground, betwixt
the homes whereof hee reposeth his necke, and sleepeth
with his head hanging. They use to brande markes on
their bodies, especially in the face. And on the little fingers
they suffer the nailes to grow as long as they will, like
cocke's spurres, which also they sometimes cut from cockes
and fit to their fingers. They colour their hands and feet
(which are bare) with the juice of a reddish barke. They
usually are artlesse and lazie, neglecting hunting and fish-
ing ; and whereas wooll, hempe, and cotton, might easily
be had, yet the vulgar are clothed with undressed pelts,
each wearing a ramme's skinne tyed to his hands and feet.
They lie on oxe-hides without quilts or mattresses ; for
tables they use great bowles of wood rudely hollowed, with-
out any naperie. Vessels they have of blacke chalke. Few
but Saracens use merchandise, and in few places ; most ex-
ercise husbandrie ; the gentry follow armes and the court.
They have no great cities, but villages unwalled and unfor-
tified. Their greatest towne hath scarcely one thousand six
hundred houses. Their houses are small, without elegance,
without storie, almost without arte, rounde, and covered with
earth and straw. They write no letters, nor use records in
judgments or other writings, but in their holy things and
offices of accompts for the king. They use no dirges or
devotions for the dead. They use pictures, but not carved
nor graven images. They paint Christ, the Blessed Virgin,
and other saints in blacke forme, as devils and wicked men
in white. So they paint Christ and his apostles at the
Maundie blacke, and Judas white; Christ in his Passion
blacke, and Annas, Caiaphas, Pilate, Herod, and the Jewes
white ; Michael blacke, and the devil white."*
* Vol. ii. p. 1163, 1184.
276 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
We shall not fatigue the attention of the reader with
minute details on the music, the dancing, and other pas-
times of the Abyssinians, which differ not much from those
of mere barbarians. The same reason has induced us to
abstain from a recital of the amusements and domestic man-
ners of the Nubians, who live in a state still more artless
than their eastern neighbours, and retain a larger share of
that simplicity which characterizes the pursuits of the
savage, or at least of the human being in the very lowest
condition of civilized existence.
GEOLOGY.
CHAPTER VII.
Exhibiting the more remarkable Features in Nubia and Abyssinia.
Want of attention to this subject on the part of Travellers— Primitive
Rocks— Granite. Gneiss, Porphyry, Quartz, and Serpentine— Similar
Structure towards the Eastern Frontier — Mountains of Cosseir— Mar-
ble — Emerald Mountains — Batn-el-Hadjar — Dar Mahass — Primary
Rocks— Secondary Formation at Berber — Primitive Strata reappear —
El Querebyn— Fazoglo— Singueh— Mountains of Abyssinia— Taranta
— Lamalmon— Ganza — Singular Shapes — Occasioned by Periodical
Rains— Theory of the Earth— Reflections.
No one has written on the geological structure of Ethiopia
without expressing regret, that the enterprising travellers to
whom we are indebted for so much valuable information in other
respects, should not have found it convenient to devote more
attention to the character and distribution of mineral substances.
Above the first cataract the banks of the river, or rather the chan-
nel of the stream itself, may be considered as constituting the
great highway which connects Egypt with Sennaar and Abys-
sinia — a line from which tourists have hitherto deviated so little,
that whatever is situated a few hundred yards on either side of it
may be pronounced utterly unknown to Europeans. . The rocks
that project into the current, or form the partial obstacles over
which it precipitates its waters, may have been hastily inspected
by the passing stranger, who describes them as sandstone or
granite, according to the extent of his knowledge, and gives
them a place in a system agreeably to the principles of the
school in which he has happened to be initiated. Hence
nothing is less satisfactorily determined than the nature and
succession of those stony bodies which compose the basin of
the Upper Nile, except perhaps the magnificent ranges of moun-
tains which stretch from the Nubian frontier to the shores of
the Arabian Gulf.
We have elsewhere observed that the hills of secondary for-
mation, which bound Egypt on the east and west, graduate into
primitive masses as they approach the neighbourhood of Syene.
At this point, where the calcareous strata of the north give place
to the granitic ridge which has been traced far into the south,
the rocks, from a certain intermixture of hornblende, assume a
A a
278 GEOLOGY.
peculiar aspect, and are described by a specific term. Thd
granite itself appears to be occasionally diversified by alterna-
tions of gneiss, porphyry, clay-slate, quartz, and serpentine,
which contain as imbedded minerals a great variety of carnelians
and jaspers. There has also been discovered in the vicinity a
true marble, or gfanular foliated limestone, exhibiting the
various hues of white, gray, yellow, blue, and red ; and which,
when combined with the green tint of the serpentine, forms the
well-known verde antico.
In an eastern direction we can trace indications of a similar
structure across the whole extent of the desert ; the specimens
presenting in some places a splintery or conchoidal fracture, a
gray or. variegated colour, and numerous petrifactions of shells,
corals, and fishes. The mountainous country near Cosseir con-
tains many calcareous eminences in which gypsum predomi-
nates ; while, in the valleys which intersect the elevated ground,
the sand is partly calcareous and partly siliceous, denoting the
quality of the strata from the waste of which it is formed. It is
even said that the ridge in question consists of three kinds of
rock ; the first of which is a small-grained granite ; the second
is a breccia or puddingstone of a particular sort, known by the
name of breccia de verde ; and to this succeeds, for the space of
thirty miles, a schistose deposite, which seems to be of a con-
temporaneous formation with the breccias, since they are con-
nected by gradual transitions, and contain rounded masses of the
same substance.
The mountains observed by Bruce on his way to Cosseir are
described by him as being composed of green and red marble ;
and after a journey of two hours he found hills of porphyry, out
of which the Egyptian monuments appear to have been hewed.
The stone in this case was perfectly purple, though rather soft
and brittle when newly separated from the quarry. This for-
mation was succeeded by a lofty ridge, the greatest part of
which was marble, verde antico, and by far the most beautiful that
he had ever seen. Proceeding still towards the south, he ex-
amined a range of mountains, the prevailing rock in which was
a kind of granite, with reddish veins throughout, and black
spots of a square or triangular form. Nearer the shore of the
gulf the green marble once more appeared, which was succeeded
by a very high mountain composed of serpentine ; and " through
about one-third of the thickness ran a large vein of jasper, green,
spotted with red. Its exceeding hardness was such as not to
yield to the blows of a hammer."*
The descriptions of the traveller, while they leave no doubt
that the country through which he made his journey consists
of primary rocks, afford but a faint light as to- their order and
* Travels, vol. ii. p. 89.
GEOLOGY. 279
distribution ; and our regret on this head is not diminished by
the reflection that subsequent writers have not removed the
darkness in winch he left one of the most important branches
of .natural history.
Near the coast, on the eastern boundaries of Nubia, there
occurs a singular chain of slaty hills, presenting in their compo-
sition rock-crystal and steatite ; though, at a little distance, they
suddenly change their character, the greater part of them appear-
ing in the form of limestone or alabaster, in strata lying nearly
north and south. Here are the remains of the astrea diluviana ;
and among the rocks considered by geologists as of later forma-
tion are observed specimens of a schistose structure, together
with porphyries not distinctly characterized. Here also the
bottoms of the valleys are covered with immense fragments ;
among winch are clay-slate, gneiss, porphyry, granite, and cer-
tain other compound rocks, exhibiting in their structure ac-
tynolite, steatite, and nodules of a species of lamellated spar.
In the same neighbourhood are situated the famous Emerald
Mountains, of which mention is made by several ancient writers.
The highest of the group, which is called Zubara, was visited
both by Bruce and Belzoni, whose descriptions of it verify the
details of the Greek and Roman authors, although the treasures
of which the latter were wont to boast have entirely disappeared.
The old excavations were found to consist of low galleries
much obstructed with rubbish, and rendered dangerous by the
looseness of the roof. The passages went very far into the body
of the hill, along beds of mica and marble ; and the emeralds
appear to have been procured at a great distance from the sur-
face, and chiefly at the place where two calcareous strata, en-
closing the mica between them, met one another.
In tracing the progress of Cailliaud, Waddington, and Han-
bury, Richardson, English, and other travellers up the Nile, we
are supplied with such incidental notices as remove all doubt
in regard to the prevailing character of the rocks which con-
stitute its banks. In the neighbourhood of the second cataract,
and indeed throughout the Batn-el-Hadjar, the formation is ob-
viously primitive ; for we find granite, slate, and a very compact
sandstone, about which last, however, there is some variety of
opinion. At the beginning of the falls the felspar is of a dark
colour, and lends to the cliffs a very sombre appearance ; but
at Wad y Ambigo it assumes a red tint, and becomes much more
lively and agreeable to the eye.
A similar formation, it would appear, extends into Dar Ma-
hass, where rocks of the oldest class appear on every hand, and
which is distinguished by a large mountain called Fogo, con-
taining " a great deal of agate and fine quartz, and every variety
of granite." Cailliaud discovered, besides those just mentioned,
a number of fragments composed almost entirely of a beautiful
280 GEOLOGY.
green felspar ; but these relics rather served to indicate the
nature of the mountains which had once covered the edge of
the desert, than to afford any key to the actual condition of the
mineral kingdom in circumstances so materially changed.
When the Egyptian army under Ishmael approached the island
of Kandy, they observed some granitic rocks, composed in gene-
ral of white felspar, and a considerable proportion of mica of the
same colour, and remarkable for its pearly aspect. The prince
sent a portion of it. to the Frenchman to ascertain whether or
not it was silver. The miners attached to the suite of the pasha
did not hesitate to affirm that the resemblance of this substance
to one of the metals which exercise so much power over the
minds of men, could not fail to conduct them to the discovery
of veins immensely rich. The mica, according to these learned
mineralogists, was nothing else than silver which had not yet
attained to maturity.
According to the author just quoted, the primitive rocks cease
to appear when the traveller approaches the country of Berber.
The granite, gneiss, and slate give way to sandstone, which,
says he, forms the basis of the whole plain. But we cannot
refrain from remarking, that as his description of the latter
strata is veiy brief and imperfect, there is room for doubt whether
there is any actual change of formation, and whether the sand-
stone may not, in the character of quartz rock, also belong to the
same order as the gneiss and granite. Our suspicions on this
head are confirmed by the fact, that the primary rocks soon
afterward appear on the banks of the river, and continue as far
as the tenth degree of latitude, the remotest point to which
the researches of the moderns have extended under that me-
ridian.*
The appearance of the mountains nearGerri denotes that they
are primitive ; but it must be admitted that they were not ex-
amined. There is no doubt, however, in regard to the range in
the neighbourhood of El Querebyn, the principal ingredient of
which is a foliated syenite, having the felspar of a pale rose-col-
our, and being much charged with hornblende. The round
blocks into which it is divided exhibit in their superposition
the same appearance as the rocks of Es Souan and Philae ; an
arrangement so closely resembling a work of art that the natives
imagine they must have been piled up by the hands of man.
The high hill in the vicinity of Fazoglo is composed chiefly
of granite. There are found in it, at the same time, rocks of
horneblende and felspar, with veins of the latter nearly as white
and as much crystallized as loaf-sugar. On the banks of the
Toumat, also, the mountains exhibited the same composition, —
* "Ici finit lesol primitif et commence le gres, qui constitue celui de
la plaine."— Vol. ii. p. 92.
-GEOLOGY. 281
granite and felspar ; a geological aspect, says M. Cailliaud,
which satisfied them that they were approaching the district
celebrated for its treasures of gold.*
At Singueh, in like manner, granite rocks with white felspar
were observed on all hands, affording a clear proof that the
travellers had not yet left a primitive country. • Darfur and Kor-
dofan present similar formations ; whence we may conclude
that the greater part of Eastern Africa, between the parallels
of 10° and 24°, belongs to the oldest class of deposites with
which geologists are acquainted.
In a region where so little examination has taken place on the
great scale, we must not expect that mineralogy, or the know-
ledge of simple bodies, has been accurately studied. But from
the prevailing features of the landscape, viewed in relation to
geology, we may infer that the precious stones, which are
found elsewhere in similar circumstances, are not denied to the
Nubians.
Abyssinia is remarkable for the lofty ranges of mountains by
which it is traversed. One of these, named Taranta, is on the
east of the kingdom, and extends in a direction nearly parallel
to the. Red Sea. Another occupies the centre; and, besides a
third situated towards the southern border, there are numerous
detached groups in the intermediate plains. The second of
these is known by the name of its highest summit, Lamalmon ;
the last is usually denominated the chain of Ganza. The former
contains the mountains of Amhara and Samen, which are re-
puted to be the most elevated in the kingdom ; the other, from
the circumstance of its exhibiting a semicircular form, was
imagined by Mr. Bruce to constitute part of the range celebrated
as the Mountains of the Moon — an absurd appellation given to
an immense chain, supposed, on very inadequate grounds, to
stretch across the African continent. The geology of Abyssinia
is indeed very imperfectly known ; but from the magnitude of
the hills, the mode of arrangement, and the sharp peaks which
rise into the sky, there is every reason to conclude that they
belong to the primitive formation.
The province of Tigre is all mountainous, and some of the
groups are of great height. Indeed, the older travellers main-
tained that the Alps and Pyrenees were not to be compared to
them in respect to elevation — an assertion which has been found
inconsistent with a more exact measurement. It is not, how-
ever, the extreme altitude of the Abyssinian mountains that
occasions surprise, but their number, and the uncommon forms
which they present to the eye. " Some of them are flat, thin,
and square, in shape of a hearth-stone or slab, that scarce would
seem to have base sufficient to resist the winds. Some are like
* Vol. ii. p. 415.
Aa3
282 - GEOLOGY.
pyramids, others like obelisks or prisms, and some, the most ex-
traordinary of all, pyramids pitched upon their points with their
base uppermost, which, if it was possible, as it is not, they
could have been so formed in the beginning, would be strong
objections to our received ideas of gravity."*
In this delineation there are no doubt some traces of that, vivid
fancy which was so apt to carry the .author beyond the precise
boundaries of fact, and occasionally disposed him to touch his
canvass with the most striking colours. But making the proper
allowance for this constitutional exaggeration, it must still be
granted that the mountains of Tigre and Adowa are distinguished
by features of a very peculiar character, and at the same time most
interesting as connected with the principles of geology. Even
Mr. Salt, whose more sober judgment and chastened eye were
constantly employed in noting any little deviations from the
exact line of reality, acknowledges that " a thousand different-
shaped hills were presented to the view, which bore the appear-
ance of having been dropped on an irregular plain."
The singular forms now mentioned are the result of those peri-
odical rains which carry the soil of Ethiopia to the shores of the
Mediterranean, and which, after fertilizing Egypt, are continually
adding to its extent at the various mouths of the Nile. The
mountains, composed of various strata and rocky deposites, yield
unequally to the torrents which rush upon them from the clouds ;
the softer parts melting down and disappearing, while the gran-
ite with its kindred masses resists, during a longer period at least,
the operation of a cause which in the end will certainly prove
irresistible. The seacoast occasionally presents similar phe-
nomena on a small scale. The waves, acting on the barrier of
rocks, perforate some, undermine others, and give rise to those an-
gular forms and projections which at a distance assume the most
grotesque appearances. It is not easy to calculate the power
of a principle which, though constantly in action, proceeds with
great irregularity within any given space of time; but the effects
of the rain on the hilly surface is known to be very great, while
the skeleton aspect of the highest mountains confirms in this
point of view the evidence of experience. When, for example,
Bruce was ascending Taranta, a sudden noise was heard on the
heights louder than the loudest thunder ; and almost imme-
diately a river, the channel of which had been dry, came down
in a stream about the height of a man, and the breadth of the
whole bed it used to occupy. " The water was thick, tinged
with red earth. Hence, it is not surprising that the sides of the
hills should in many parts be washed away, and that the rocks
should project on high like steeples and obelisks, and be broken
into a thousand different forms."!
* Bruce, vol. iv. p. 317. t Ibid. p. 261, 307.
GEOLOGY. 283
There is a celebrated theory of the earth, which rests on the
assumption that all the land now above water will in the course
of ges be swept into the sea, to be re-formed into new con-
tinents, and in due time raised above the surface, as the abode
of future generations, both of men and of the inferior species.
Whatever degree of truth there may be in the geological specu-
lations connected with this hypothesis, it will be admitted that
no part of the world supplies a better illustration of its leading
principles than Abyssinia, or diminishes to a greater extent the
feeling of improbability which appears inseparable from its
first announcement. The actual condition of the mountains,
resembling in some places an animal body stripped of the flesh,
affords an ample proof that no element but time is wanting to
complete the disintegration of the whole surface of Eastern
Africa, and thereby to reduce it to the level of the ocean.
These facts would lead to reflections quite unsuitable to the
limits of this chapter. Following such a train of thought, the
geologist would see himself in the midst of a vast ruin, where the
precipices which rise on all sides, the sharp peaks of the granite
mountains, and the huge fragments that surround their bases
seem to mark so many epochs in the progress of decay, and to
point out the energy of those destructive causes which even the
magnitude and solidity of such great bodies have been unable to
resist. Perhaps he would see reason to infer that the northern
deserts of Africa occupy the place of extensive hills which have
been crumbled down by the hand of time ; while the dry chan-
nels of ancient rivers might be held as indications of the line in
which the waters rushing from them were conveyed to the
Mediterranean.*
* Flayfair, vol. i. p. 122.
ZOOLOGY.
CHAPTER VIII.
Notices regarding some of the principal Features m the Zoology of
the Countries described, in the preceding Chapters.
Peculiarity in the Physical Structure of the Inhabitants of Upper Egypt —
Animals numerous in Abyssinia — Monkeys — Bats— Canine Animals —
Fennec — Hyenas— Lynxes— Feline Animals — Supposed Origin of our
Domestic Cat— Jerboa — Different Kinds of Wild Hog— Hippopotamus
— Rhinoceros — Equine Animals — Giraffe — Antelopes — Birds of Prey —
Lamrrrergeyer— Vulture — Owls — Pigeons — Hornbills — Parrots — Bus-
tard — Storks — Water Fowl — Reptiles— Crocodile —Cerastes — Fishes
—Shells— Pearl Muscles— Insects— Tsaltsalya Fly— Locusts.
It has been the practice of several natural historians to com-
mence their systematic expositions with a " Nosce teipsum,"
followed by a brief description of the human race ; thus, with
more modesty than truth, affecting to classify themselves with
the beasts that perish. That many of us are very " brutish per-
sons" is a fact which cannot be gainsaid ; but still there is some-
thing sufficiently preposterous in the grave and formal enuncia-
tion of those characters by which mankind in general are allied
to, or distinguished from, the brute creation. The human race
possesses indeed the attributes of animal life in common with
the inferior orders ; but we should never cease to retain a firm
conviction that these are " the accidents, not the essentials, of
our nature ;"* and that however proper it may be to mention
them as the technical statements of physiology, they are yet totally
inadequate to the description of a being who bears within him
the germ of an immortal life, and knows that he was created
if but a little lower than the angels." — " Those persons," says
Buffon, " who see, hear, or smell imperfectly are of no less in-
tellectual capacity than others ; an evident proof that in man
there is something more than an internal sense. This is the
soul of man, which is an independent and superior sense — a lofty
and spiritual existence — entirely different in its essence and
action from the nature of the external senses."!
In conformity with these impressions we have hitherto, in
the zoological disquisitions which occur in this Library, as»
* Grinfield's Letters to Laurence.
t Encyclopaedia Britannica, 7th edition, vol. iii, p. 159.
QUADRUPEDS. 285
signed the most prominent place to the quadrumanous order
which we regard as the most highly organized of the brute crea-
tion, and have altogether avoided what we consider as the
degradation of the human race. We shall not here depart from
the observance of an accustomed rule, further than to notice
very briefly a peculiarity in the physical structure of some of
those tribes, with the general history of which the reader has
already been made acquainted.
It is long since Winkelman observed that the ear was invaria-
bly placed much higher in the Egyptian statues than in the
Greek ; but he attributed this peculiarity to a systematic prac-
tice in Egyptian art, of elevating the ears of their kings in like
manner as the Greek artists are known to have exaggerated the
perpendicularity of the facial angle in the heads of their gods and
heroes. M. Dureau de la Malle, in his recent visit to the museum
at Turin, so rich in Egyptian monuments, was particularly
struck with this feature in all the statues of Phta, Mceris, Osy-
mandias, Ramesses, and Sesostris. Six mummies recently
arrived from Upper Egypt were at that time under examinatien,
and afforded him the means of ascertaining whether this special
character of the higher situation of the orifice of the ear really
existed in the sculls of the natives of the country. He was
surprised to find in them, as well as in many other sculls from
the same place, of which the facial angle did not differ from that
of the European race, that the orifice of the ear, instead of being,
as with us, on a fine with the lower part of the nose, was placed
on a line with the centre part of the eye. The head in the region
of the temple was also much depressed, and the top of the scull
elevated, as compared with those of Europe, from one and a half
to two inches. It is somewhat singular that this character should
have hitherto eluded the observation of so many professional
anatomists, and of all the travellers who have traversed Egypt.
As a striking corroboration of so singular a structure, which
may not inaptly be regarded as the Egyptian type, and a newly-
observed variety of the Caucasian race, M\ Dureau cites as an
example M. Elias Boctor, a Copt, native of Upper Egypt, who
has been twenty years in Paris as a professor of Arabic. He
was well known to M. Dureau, who had constantly remarked
the great elevation of his ears, which indeed had rather the ap-
pearance of two httle horns than of the ordinary human append-
ages. The Hebrew race are moreover said to resemble the
Egyptians in several particulars. The same author examined
and found that the ears of M. Carmeli, a Jew, professor of He-
brew, although not placed so high as in the mummies or Copts
of Upper Egypt, were still very remarkable as compared with
those of the natives of Europe.*
* Bevue Encyclop&iique, and Literary Gazette, June 23, 1832.
286 ZOOLOGY.
Before proceeding to notice a few of the more remarkable
of the wild species, we may observe that the domesticated ani-
mals of Abyssinia consist, as is usual in most countries, of oxen,
sheep (chiefly a small black variety), goats, horses, mules, asses,
and a few camels. Two kinds of dogs are frequent, one of
which, like the Pariah dog of India, owns no master, but lives
in packs attached to the different villages ; while the other is a
fleet and powerful animal, of general use for the purposes of the
chase. From its earliest days the latter is taught to run down
game, especially Guinea fowls, and Mr. Salt informs us that
its expertness in catching them is astonishing. It never loses
sight of the birds for an instant after it has once started them
from their haunts. Tame cats are to be seen in every house in
Abyssinia.*
According to Brace, no country in the world produces a
greater number and variety of animals, whether wild or tame.
The mountains, where free from wood, are covered to their
summits with a rich and luxuriant verdure. The long and
refreshing rains of summer are not too suddenly absorbed by the
solar rays, and the warmth is sufficient to promote vegetation
without producing those withering effects which usually result
from heat without moisture. The horned cattle, some of which
are furnished with humps, are of various kinds and colours.
Certain breeds are without horns, while others are remarkable
for the gigantic size of these organs. " But the reader may
with confidence assure himself that there are no such animals
as carnivorous bulls in Africa, and that this story has been in-
vented for no other purpose but a desire to exhibit an animal
worthy of wearing these prodigious horns. I have always
wished that this article and some others of early date were
blotted out of our Philosophical Transactions ; they are absurdi-
ties to be forgiven to infant physic and to early travels, but they
are unworthy of standing among the cautious well-supported
narrations of our present philosophers. Though we may say
of the buffalo that it is of this kind, yet we cannot call it a tame
animal here ; so far from that, it is the most ferocious in the
country where it resides ; this, however, is not in the high tem-
perate part of Abyssinia, but in the sultry kolla, or valleys below,
where, without hiding himself, as wild beasts generally do, as
if conscious of superiority of strength, he lies at his ease among
large spreading shady trees near the clearest and deepest rivers,
or the largest stagnant pools of the purest water. Notwith-
standing this, he is in his person as dirty and slovenly as he is
fierce, brutal, and indocile ; he seems to maintain among his
own kind the same character for manners that the wolf does
among the carnivorous tribe."f
* Salt's Voyage, Appendix, p. 38. t Bruce's Travels, vol. v. p. 63,
QUADRUPEDS. 287
We possess a very imperfect knowledge of the quadrumanous
tribes of this portion of Africa, although we know that several
species of monkeys abound throughout the wilder districts, the
largest of which Mr. Salt says is called Gingero, and is nearly
allied to those found in Arabia. Another smaller species, with
a black face, is named Alestoo in the Tigre, and Tota in the
Amharic, language. The fields of millet in Abyssinia are fre-
quently destroyed by flocks of them, aided by baboons.
The family called Cheiroptera includes those remarkable flying
quadrupeds generally known by the name of bats. The genus
Molossus of Geoffroy is distinguished by the fierceness of its
aspect, and by a large head and blunted muzzle, from which
have no doubt been derived the generic name, which signifies
mastiff. Their limbs are strong and muscular, their bodies
heavy, and their organs of flight rather disproportioned to their
general size. They dwell in caverns and other subterranean
excavations, and it is probable that they live chiefly by escalad-
ing precipices and trunks of trees, as in some species, such, for
example, as M. alecto and abrasus, the wings are narrow, and so
cut up by the arching of the posterior margin of the flying mem-
brane as to serve rather the purpose of a parachute than for
regular or sustained flight. It was long thought that all the
species of the genus were peculiar to the New World ; but this
idea is now discovered to be erroneous. The travels of M.
Riippel in Arabia, Egypt, and Nubia have made us acquainted
with many new species which are truly referable to the genus
in question; It will also no doubt prove interesting to the
student of the- classics, as well as to the natural historian, to learn
that many of the animals indicated by Aristotle and Pliny have
been discovered by that enterprising traveller. His investiga-
tions prove that these classical species differ in many important
points from those with which they have hitherto been vaguely
regarded as identical, and that modern naturalists have erred
in asserting their existence in the countries of Southern
Africa.
The species described by M. Temminck, and named Dysopes
Riippelii, in honour of the traveller, is nearly related to that men-
tioned by Geoffroy under the name of Nyctinomus Egyptiacus.
Its size is the same as that of the Vespertilio murinus of Europe.
The ears are excessively large, shell-shaped, overshadowing the
face ; their internal margin is not reunited, but projects in front
from a common base ; a large internal fold covers the eyes.
The tail is thick and depressed, and does not exceed the length
of the body, while rather less than the half is enveloped in the
interfemoral membrane. The great toe of the posterior limbs
is somewhat more free than the others. The fur is fine, close
set, and abundant, and there is a border of it on both sides of the
288 ZOOLOGY.
membranous wings, along the flanks, close to the body. The
muzzle is thinly covered with black divergent hairs. The lips
are large, plaited, and somewhat pendulous. The upper sur-
face is throughout of a uniform mouse-colour ; the inferior parts
are very similar in colour, but of a paler hue. The hair upon
the toes is long, rather arched, and whitish. The wings are
very narrow, but of considerable extent. The male measures
from tip to tip about 15 inches, the female not much above 13.
The total length of the body and tail is about six inches. This
species inhabits the vaults of the ancient Egyptian buildings, and
other subterranean places in the north of Africa. Specimens
exist in the museums of Leyden and Frankfort.
Among the canine animals we shall specify the Abottkossein
of Nubia, described by Riippel (pi. xi.) under the name of Canis
pallidas. This species is suspected by Baron Cavier (Regne
Animal, vol. i. p. 152) to be identical with the Adive or Canis
corsac of Gmelin, so common over the vast deserts of Central
Asia, from the Volga to India. It is said never to drink, and its
general habits are those of a fox.
The jackal {Canis anthiis) is well known in these parts of
Africa. It stands higher on its legs, has a sharper muzzle, and
shorter tail than those of India, being identical with such as
occur in Senegal.
As a sub-genus of the dogs we may rank the painted hyena
of Temminck, described by Mr. Burchel under the name of
Hyaena venatica. Mr. B. kept a living specimen of this animal
chained up in a stable-yard' for thirteen months, during which
time it retained its natural ferocity of disposition. It hunts in
packs both during the night and day. The fur is irregularly
blotched or mottled with white and fawn colour, gray and black.
Its ears are large, with black tips. Its size is that of a wolf.
This species, though classed with the hyenas, which in some
respects it greatly resembles, possesses, however, the dental
system of a dog. We notice it in ihis place in consequence of
its having been recently ascertained by M. Riippel to inhabit
Kordofan. *
Great contrariety of opinion has existed among naturalists as
to the nature and relationship of the animal described by Bruce
under the name of fennec, and in addition to merely scientific
discussion, some not very amiable inferences have been deduced
by that spirit of rivalry which, though useful in as far as emula-
tion is inconsistent with lethargy, is sometimes apt, especially
in acrimonious minds, to overflow its bounds. The discovery
of the animal in question, though usually assigned to our Abys-
sinian traveller, is likewise claimed by a Swedish gentleman,
* Atlas zu der Reise im Nordlichen Airika, Taf. xii.
QUAL'RIT^US. 289
Mr. Shioldebrand, who is asserted by the former to have got
the start of him in this matter by some petty artifice. Neither
the one nor the other, however, has described the species with
such a degree of scientific accuracy as to be of any avaii in de-
termining its place in the system ; and the consequence of this
has been that each compiler has referred it to a different genus.
Some have classed it with the most carnivorous species, others
have looked upon it as a canine animal. linger made it the
type of a new genus, under the name of Megalotis, while it has
also been placed with the squirrels in the order Glires, and has
even been regarded as a quad ruinatious species belonging to the
genus Galago. Although known by various appellations, such
as zerdo, zerda, fennec, &c, it is, nevertheless, more commonly
called the "anonymous animal," as. if it had no name at all.
One writer describes -it as inhabiting the desert wastes of the
Sahara, where it digs itself a subterranean dwelling, and he
adds that there is no auditory passage in its ears, lest it should
be incommoded by the loose and -arid sand; while another
assures us that it dwells habitually amid the summits of the
loftiest palm-trees, and, in fact, owes its name" to that circum-
stance, the term fennec being- asserted to signify a palm. In
consequence of these contradictory accounts, some recent
authors deny its existence as a species altogether, while others
allege that the so called anonymous animal constitutes in fact a
distinct genus, consisting of two easily distinguished species,
Buffon published a figure of the fennec from a drawing trans-
mitted to him by Bruce. As his views of systematic arrange-
ment were extremely fanciful, we need not be surprised that he
should have placed it between the squirrel and the hare. Blu-
menbach, from Bruce^s description, refers- it to the civets, and
Sparrman "maintains its identity with a South African species
called Zerda, — in consequence of which it continues to bear
that name in many systematic works. Ilfiger, as we have
already mentioned, makes it the type of a genus, under the title
of Megalotis ; and M. Desmarest also elevates it to the rank of a
genus, under the appellation of Fcnnecus. A feeble fight was
thrown upon its. actual station by these transpositions.
At a more recent period, however, the museum of Frankfort
was visited by two intelligent: zoologists, almost at the same
time, — we mean M. Temminck and Dr. Sigismond Leuckart,
of Heidelberg, both of whom recognised the fennee in an ani-
mal sent from Dongola by the traveller Riippel. It appears, in
fact, to be a canine animal, nearly allied to the subdivision
which contains the foxes, and approaching particularly to the
Canis<orsac. The teeth, the feet; the number of toes, and the
form of the tail are precisely those of a fox ; but the limbs are
higher, and more slender in proportion. The head is rendered
of a pecuhar "aspect by the prodigious size of the ears, The
Bb
290 ZOOLOGY.
upper parts of the body are of a straw-yellow, the under of a
veUowish-white. The latter colour also characterizes the fore-
legs, and the greater portion of the hinder ones. The woolly
portions of the coat are long, soft, and white ; the silky are also
very soft, and are annulated with white and straw-colour, with
here and there a few black points. The general colour of the
tail, especially of its superior portion, is brownish-yellow, but
blackish towards the point and root. Our information is still
defective regarding the manners of this species ; but it appears
to be the opinion of those who have studied its characters and
history that the fact reported by Bruce of its living on trees is
erroneous, and that it is more probably a ground, or even sub-
terranean animal, supporting itself, in the state of nature, on
small quadrupeds, birds, and insects.
" Though his favourite food," says Mr. Bruce, speaking of this
annual, " seemed to be dates, or any sweet fruit, yet I observed
he was very fond of eggs, and small birds' eggs were first
brought him, which he devoured with great avidity ; but he did
not seem to know how to manage that of a hen, but when broke
for him he ate it with the same avidity as the others. When
he was hungry he would eat bread, especially with honey or
sugar. It was very observable that a bird, whether confined in
a cage near him, or ftying across the room, engrossed his whole
attention. He followed it with his eyes wherever it went, nor
was he, at this time, to be diverted by placing biscuit before
him ; and it was obvious, by the great interest he seemed to
take in its motions, that he was accustomed to watch for vic-
tories over it, either for his pleasure or hisfood. Pie seemed
very much alarmed at the approach of a cat, and endeavoured
to hide himself, but showed no symptom of preparing for any
defence. I never heard he had any voice : he suffered himself,
not without some difficulty, to be handled in the day, when he
seemed rather inclined to sleep, but was exceedingly unquiet
and restless so soon as night came, and always endeavouring his
escape, and though he did not attempt the wire, yet with his
sharp teeth he very soon mastered the wood of any common
bird-cage. From the snout to the tail he was about ten inches
long, his tail five and a quarter ; near an inch on the tip of it
was black." The ears are described as being above three
inches long, covered on the borders with soft white hair, but
bare in the middle, and of a rose-colour. They were about an
inch and a half broad, and the cavities within were very large.
It was very difficult however to measure them, for he was ex-
tremely impatient of having his ears touched, and always kept
them erect except when terrified by a cat. The pupil of the eye
was large and black, and surrounded by a deep blue iris. He
had a sly and wily appearance ; but as his habits are not gre-
garious, and for other reasons, Bruce doubts the propriety
Q-PADRUPEDS. 293
0! this animal being regarded as the Sapkan of the Scriptures—
an opinion advocated both by Jewish and Arabian writers. The
right-hand figure of the annexed wood-cut represents the fennec.
In Brace's figure the ears are too large.
The hyena tribe in general are characterized by possessing
three false molars above and four below, all conical, blunt, and
singularly large ; their superior carnivorous tooth has a small
tubercle witlun and in front, but the inferior has none, and pre-
sents only a couple of strong cutting points : with these power-
ful weapons they can crush the bones of the largest and most
obdurate prey. The tongue is rough, each foot has four toes,
and there is a glandular pouch beneath the tail. The muscles
of the neck and jaws are so powerful that it is impossible to
wrest any thing from between their teeth when once they have
firmly seized it ; on which account, among the Arabians, the
name is the symbol of obstinacy.
The common hyena, that is to say, the striped species ( H.
vulgaris), is an animal fully better known and more abundant in
Abyssinia than elsewhere. "I do not think," says Mr. Bruce,
** there is any one that hath hitherto written of this animal who
ever saw the thousandth part of them, that I have. They were
a plague in Abyssinia in every situation, both in the city and in
the field, and I think surpassed the sheep in number. Gondar
was full of them from the time it turned dark till the dawn of
day, seeking the different pieces of slaughtered carcasses which
this cruel and unclean people expose in the streets without
burial, and who firmly believe that these animals are Falasha
from the neighbouring mountains, transformed by magic, and
come down to eat human flesh in the dark in safety. Many a
time in the night, when the king had kept me late in the palace,
and it was not my duty to lie there, in going across the square
from the king's house, not many hundred yards distant, I have
been apprehensive they would bite me in the leg. They grunted
in great numbers around me, though I was surrounded with
several armed men, who seldom passed a night without wound-
ing or slaughtering some of them. One night in Maitsha, being
very intent on observation, I heard something pass behind me
towards the bed, but upon looking round could perceive nothing.
Having finished what I was then about, I went out of my tent,
resolving directly to return, which I immediately did, when I
perceived large blue eyes glaring at me in the dark. I called
upon my servant with a light, and there was the hyena stand-
ing nigh the head of the bed, with two or three large bunches
of candles in his mouth. To have fired at him I was in danger
of breaking my quadrant or other furniture, and he seemed, by
keeping the candles steadily in his mouth, to wish for no other
prov at that time. As his mouth was full, and he had no claws
Bb2
294 ZOOLOGY.
to tear with, I was not afraid of him, bat with a pike struck him
as near the heart as I could judge. It was not till then he
showed any sign of fierceness ; but, upon feeling his wound,"he
let drop the candles, and endeavoured to run up the shaft of the
spear to arrive at me ; so that, in self-defence, I was obliged to
draw a pistol from my girdle and shoot him ; and nearly at the
same time my servant cleft his scull with a battle-axe. In a
word, the hyena was the plague of our lives, the terror of our
night-walks, the destruction of our mules and asses, which
above all others are his favourite food."
Hyenas generally inhabit caverns and other rocky places, from
whence they issue under cover of the night to prowl for food.
They are gregarious, not so much from any social principle as
from a greediness of disposition and a gluttonous instinct, which
induce many to assemble even over a scanty and insufficient
prey. They are said to devour the bodies which they find m
cemeteries, and to disinter such as are hastily or imperfectly in-
humed. There seems, indeed, to be a peculiar gloominess and
malignity of disposition in the aspect of the hyena, and its man-
ners in a state of captivity are savage and untractable. Like
every other animal, however, it is perfectly capable of being
tamed. A contradictory feature has been observed in its natu<
ral instincts. About Mount Libanus, Syria, the north of Asia,
and the vicinity of Algiers, the hyenas, according to Bruce, live
mostly upon large succulent bulbous roots, especially those of
the fntillaria, &c. ; and he informs us that he has known large
patches of the fields^ turned up by them in their search for'
onions and other plants. He adds that these were chosen with
such care, that after having been peeled, if any small decayed
spot became perceptible, they w T ere left upon the ground. In
Abyssinia, however, and 'many other countries, their habits are
certainly decidedly carnivorous ;• yet the same courage, or at
"least fierceness, which an animal diet usually produces does not
so obviously manifest itself in this species. In Barbary, accord-
ing to Bruce, the Moors in the 'daytime seize the hyena by the
ears and drag him along, without his resenting that igno-
minious treatment otherwise than by attempting to draw him-
self back ; and the hunters, when his cave is, large enough to
give them entrance, take a torch in their hands, and advance
straight towards him, pretending at the same time to fascinate
him by a senseless jargon. The creature is astounded by the
noise and glare, and allowing a blanket to be thrown over him,
is thus dragged out. Bruce locked up a goat, a kid, and a lamb
all day with a Barbary hyena which had -fasted, and he found the
intended victims in the evening alive and uninjured. He repeated
the experiment, however, on another occasion, during the night,
with a young ass, a goat, and a fox, and next morning he
was astonished to find the whole of them, not only killed,
QUADRUPEDS. 295
but actually devoured, with the exception of some of the ass's
bones !
The general size of the striped hyetla is that of a large dog.
Bruce regarded the Abyssinian species as distinct from those
described as natives of other parts of AJrica ; but recent observa-
tion has failed to confirm that impression of the Scottish travel-
ler. This species was known to the ancients - , and-^vvas exhib-
ited at Rome for the first time in the reign of Gordian. One
which died a few years ago in Paris was of an irritable and dis-
satisfied disposition, and' had eaten away in its impatience all
the toes of its hind-legs.
Of species more nearly allied to the feline tribes our present
portion of Africa presents us with several beautiful examples.
We shall speak, in the first place, of the lynx tribe. These
animals are chiefly distinguished from the cats by the length
of their fur, the comparative shortness of their tads, and by
the possession of a pencil or tuft of hair at the tips of their
ears.
The caracal (Felis egracal), commonlyealled the Barbary lynx,
is about the height of a fox, but much stronger and more fero-
cious. It has been known to attack a hound, and instantly tear
it to pieces. Though naturally a wild and savage animal, it has
been trained when young to the chase of various small quadru-
peds, and the larger kinds of birds. The colour of its body is
of a uniform wine-red, without spots; the ears are black ex-
ternally,* and white within ; a spot above and below the eye,
the circumference of the mouth, a stripe all along the lower
part of the body, and the inside of the thighs, are white ; a black
line passes from the eye to the nostril, and there is a black spot
at the origin of the whiskers. This species occupies a con-
siderable extent of country throughout the warmer latitudes of
the Old World. It is found in almost all the regions inhabited
by the lion, and has been said to follow that noble creature for
the purpose of feeding on the remains of its prey. It varies con-
siderably in its appearance, like most animals which range over
a wide territory. It is to the caracal that the ancients proba-
bly .applied the name of lynx, as the species now r distinguished
by that name has never been found in those countries of which
the lynx of the ancients was said to be a native. Pliny assigns
Ethiopia as the native country of the lynx, and according to Ovid
(Metam. lib. xv.),
" Victa racemifero lyncas dedit India Baccho."
* The name of caracal is said to be derived from the Turkish kara,
black, and kalach, ear. The Tersian name of sriagoiish is believed to
have the same signification,
296 ZOOLOGY.
The caracal is evidently the animal described by Dr. Parsons
from a live specimen in the Tower in 1762 (Phd. Trans.). It
was sent from India by General Clive to the Duke of Cumber-
land.
The species described by Bruce under the name of booted
lynx, and which was for some time regarded as a mere variety
of the preceding, is now considered as a distinct species,
under the name of Felis caligata (Temminck).* It is inter-
mediate in size between the lynx and the wild cat, and is
said to prey much on guinea-fowl. Its tail is long and slender ;
its ears long, pointed, and externally of a lively red colour, with
short brown tufts. It is to this species that M. Geoffroy has
erroneously applied the title of Felis chaus, as if it were identical
with the species so named by Guldenstaedt. f It inhabits both
the north and south of Africa, and occurs likewise in the south-
ern parts of India. It is abundant both in Barbary and at the Cape
of Good Hope. The specimen killed by Bruce in Abyssinia ap-
pears to have been a young one. M. Geoffroy procured it in the
adult state from an island in the Nile. In its general manners
it rather resembles the wild cat of Europe than a lynx. It
climbs trees, and conceals itself among crags and thickets.
Another species of lynx, which inhabits the banks of the Nile
as far- as Nubia, is the chaus ( Felis chaus of Guldenstaedt and
Temminck), called Kir-myschak by the Tartar nations. It is
about the size of the European lynx. The legs are long, the
muzzle veiy blunt, the tail one-third of the length of the head
and body, the ears terminated by very short pencils, and a black
band runs from the anterior margin of the eye towards the
muzzle. The prevailing colour is a yellowish gray. The name
of chaus was originally applied by Pliny to the common lynx,
and was used by Guldenstaedt in reference to the species just
noted. M. Geoffroy, however, transposed the title by mistake
to the booted lynx (F. caligata, Temm.), which has occasioned
some confusion in the synonymy of the species. The true
chaus, in addition to the localities above named, inhabits
swampy and wooded districts along the shores of the Caspian
Sea, and the banks of the streams which flow into that great
receptacle. It does not, however, occur on the Volga, although
common in many parts of the Persian dominions. It hunts
during the night, preys on birds and small quadrupeds, some-
times also on fish, and is extremely impatient of captivity, and
consequently difficult to tame. This species rarely climbs trees.
Its skin, even in a mutilated condition, is extremely rare in
collections of peltry ; and the only perfect specimen which has
come to our knowledge is that in the museum of Frankfort.
* Monographies de Mammalogie; p. 123.
t Nov. Comm. Petrop. vol. xx.
QUADRUPEDS. 297
Oi' the larger feline animals, the hunting-leopard, or chittah
{Felis- jubata), a species of great beauty- of aspect, and well
known in many eastern countries as a useful accessary in the
chase, has been recently ascertained to inhabit Nubia. Its head
is smaller, and its general proportions more slender and length-
ened, than those of most feline species ; and its claws, though
strong, are less powerful, h\ consequence of their not being re-
tractile, as in the rest of the cat tribe. But the most remarkable
fact in the history of this animal is the vast extent of its geo-
graphical ^distribution. According to Thunberg, it is common
in the south of Africa — a fact confirmed by Lichtenstein, who
saw the chief- of a Horde of Caffres clothed in its beautiful and
sumptuous skins ; and Temminckhas ascertained its existence
along the western shores of that division of the world. It is
widely spread over India and other continental countries of the
Eafit, and the forests of Sumatra abound with hunting-tigers.
Lastly — which is our reason for its introduction here — several
specimens have been lately transmitted from Nubia by Riippel
to the Frankfort museum. The species, is remarkable for its
mildness and docility in the domestic state.
Another feline animal lately ascertained to "inhabit Nubia is
the Felis maniculata of Temminck, which that naturalist regards
as the originbf our domestic species. Its proportions agree with
those of the wild cat of Britain and the continent of Europe,
but it is smaller by about one-third. Its tail, also, is in com-
parison rather longer and more slender. The soles of the feet
and the posterior portion of the metatarsus and metacarpus are
quite black. . The nature of its coat and the distribution of its
colours resemble those of the female wild cat ; but the general
hue is still that yellowish ash-colour which prevails in the natu-
ral tinting of so many of the quadrupeds of Northern Africa.
We may here record a curious observation, that almost all the
animals of Egypt, without excepting even the birds> and rep-
tiles, are characterized by what may be called a local tint. ,The
dogs, so abundant in that country, the antelopes, the jerboas, the
meriones, and many more of the glires or gnawers are remark-
able for their -general uniformity of colourmg. If this does not
arise from (which it can scarcely do), it is at least in keeping
with, the vast deserts so characteristic of African countries.*
The opinion generally received, and" adopted even by the
greater number of naturalists, in regard to tire origin of the do-
mestic species, which we find a half-reclaimed captive wherever
man is in any measure civilized and gregarious, is that it is de-
rived from the wild cat (Felis cattis). Yet we know by the
experience of many other cases that the" effect of domestication,
and of the superabundant nourishment which usually accom-
* See Temmir.c-k's <; tonographies." p 199, noter
298 ZOOLOGY.
panies that state of bondage, is to increase the dimensions of
whatever animals have been for an almost immemorial period
subjected to such influences. All our other domestic creatures
are larger than their original races ; but the domestic cat, sup-
posing it to have sprufng from the indigenous woodland species,
appears to have reversed the rule ; for never, even in its most
pampered and overgrown condition, does it in any way equal
the powerful dimensions of its supposed original. The tail of
the domestic variety (or species) is also longer, and terminates
in a sharpened point ; while that of the wild eat, besides being
comparatively shorter, is nearly of equal thickness through-
out its entire length, and appears as if truncated at the ex-
tremity.
When we seek to ascertain the origin of any anciently domesti-
cated species, the mind naturally reverts to periods of antiquity,
and to the history of such nations as are characterized by. remote
records. It was from within the sacred precincts of the tem-
ples of Isis, and under the reign of the Pharaohs or Egyptian
kings, that the earliest rays of science dawned upon the nations ;
and there the heroic Greeks " drew golden light," and from
thence were distributed, by more or less direct gradations, the
knowledge and civilization which, long waning with a feeble
and uncertain gleam from their parent source, have burned with
a steady and unconsuming fire in those " barbarian lands" to
which they were conveyed. Egypt, so remarkable in the early
civilization of the human race, might be reasonably supposed,
even a priori, to have furnished the primitive families of mankind
with one or more of its domesticated animals ; and, in relation
more particularly to the present subject, we know that of all
the ancient nations of whom we possess records, the Egyptians
were the most noted for their appreciation of the useful quali-
ties of the cat. We also know that it was even embalmed in
their temples, in common with the mystical body of the ibis,
and we doubt not it must have become familiar to them from its
beneficial qualities as a domestic species. That they derived it
from an indigenous source is more than probable, especially as
a wild Egyptian species, of all others, bears the closest resem-
blance to the domestic breeds. At all events, it could scarcely
be drawn from the European wild cat ; for although that species
is most extensively disseminated over all the wooded countries
of Europe, and spreads through Russia into Siberia, and over a
great range of Asiatic territory, it is unknown on the banks of
the Nile, and seems to hold its centre of dominion rather in the
temperate than the warmer regions of the earth. Another argu-
ment against the derivation of our domestic cats from the indi-
genous woodland species may be drawn from the extreme
scarcity of the former in the early ages of our history. It is
known that in the time of Hoel the Good, King of Wales, who
QUADRUPEDS. 2\)9
died in the year 948, laws were enacted to preserve and estab-
lish the price of cats and other animals remarkable for being
alike rare and useful. The price of a kitten before it could see
was fixed at one penny ; till proof could be given of its having
caught a mouse, twopence ; after which it was rated at four-
pence — a great sum in those days, when the value of specie was
extremely high. It was further declared, that if any one stole
or slew the cat that guarded the prince's granary, he was either
to forfeit a milk ewe, her fleece and lamb, or as much wheat as
when poured on the cat suspended by the -tail (its head touch-
ing the floor) would form a heap high enough to cover it to the
tip. Now all these precautionary regulations would seem to
indicate that our domestic cat severe not originally natives of
our island, but were introducecfllom some of the warmer coun-
tries of the East, and required for a time considerable care and
attention to preserve the breed. This would scarcely have been
necessary had the original stock been found prowling in every
thicket and corrie of the country, which the wild cat undoubtedly
was in those distant days.
M. Temminckis decidedly in favour of the claims of a species
already mentioned, called the gloved cat (Felis maniculata), which
iuhabits Northern Africa, and was first found in Nubia by the
traveller Riippel, in the neighbourhood of Ambakol. Skins of a
species which seems identical are sometimes observed in sup-
plies of these articles from the Levant, and the same animal
occurs in Egypt. It would be highly interesting to compare
the osteology of a recent example with the structure of- the
skeleton of an embalmed specimen from the catacombs of
Memphis.
Several other feline animals inhabit Abyssinia, of. which we
shall merely mention the lion, as an occasional dweller in the
sandy districts bordering on the Tacazze. The killing of one
of these animals, according to Mr.' Salt, confers high honour
upon a chief, and gives him the privilege of wearing its paw
upon his shield. Some analogous custom no doubt gave rise
among the European nations to the idea of quartering heraldic
arms. Its skin is afterward formed into a dress resembling that
worn by the Caffre chiefs in the vicinity of the Cape, but more
richly ornamented. ^
The ancients represented in their sculptures a lion without a
mane, which some modern writers regard as an extinct, while
others view it as a fictitious, species. We have mentioned on
a former occasion its occurrence on the hieroglyphical monu-
ments of Upper Egypt ; and a singular confirmation of its exist-
ence has been received of late years from Nubia, where it is
alleged a very large and maneless lion has been recently dis-
covered.
3(J0 ZOOLOGY'.
Among the- Rodentia, the foremost place in our systematic
arrangements is usually assigned to the squirrels, of which
genus we may notice, as an Abyssinian representative, the
Sciurus rut il us of RiippeL( Atlas, Taf. 24). Including the tail, it
measures above a ootin length. The colour of the upper parts
is of a shining red, of the under, white. The tail is distichous-,
the ears are short and rounded.
Several murine species occur both in Nubia and Abyssinia,
We shall pass over these diminutive creatures, for the sake of
the beautiful jerboa, which occurs in a considerable portion of
the African continent. The genus Jerboa (Dipus, or two-legged,
so-called from the erroneous notion that these animals, in Walk-
ing, make use of their iiinder^axtremities only) is composed of
several species, one of winch jjjjpbundant in Barbary, in Upper
and Lower Egypt, and Syria, and likewise makes its appearance
again in more northern countries .situated between the Tanais
and the Volga.- The tail of the jerboa "usually exceeds inlength
that of the body. It is covered' with smooth short. hair, except
at the extremity, where there is a long silky tuft. Though this
organ appeal's-, from the experiments of M? Lepechin, to be of
great use in locomotion, it is not by any means thick and mus-
cular, as among the kangaroos. The jerboa usually walks on
all fours ; but when alarmed, it seeks its safety by prodigious
bounds, which it executes with great force and rapidity. When
about to leap, it raises its body by means of the hinder extremi-
ties, .and supports itself at the same time upon its taiL Mean-
while the fore feet are so closely pressed to the breast, as to be
scarcely visible. Hence probably 4ts ancient name of two-
footed mouse.- It then springs- into the air, and alights upon its
four feet ; but erecting itseif again almost . instantaneously, it
makes another spring, and so on in succession, and with such
rapidity as to appear constantly either in an erect or a flying
position. - Thexruel experiments above alluded to consisted in
maiming or cutting off the tails of these poor creatures. In pro-
portion as that organ yvas reduced in length, their power of leap-
ing diminished ; and when it was entirely lopped off, they not
only could not run at ad, but fell backwards whenever they
attempted to raise themselves with a view to their accustomed
spring.
"The jerboa," says Bruce, " is a small lrarmless animal of the
desert, nearly the size of a common rat — the. skin very smooth,
and the ends of the hairs tipped with black. It lives in the
smoothest plains or- places of the desert, especially where the
soil is fixed gravel, for in that chiefly it burrows, dividing its
hole below into many mansions. It seems to be apprehensive
of the falling in of the ground ; it therefore generally digs its
hole under the root of some spurge, thyme, or absinthium, upon
QUADRUPEDS. 301
whose root it seems to depend for its roof not falling in and bury-
ing it in the ruins of its subterraneous habitation. It seems to
delight most in those places that are haunted by the cerastes, or
horned viper. Nature has certainly imposed this dangerous
neighbourhood upon the one, for the good and advantage of the
other, and that of mankind in general. Of the many trials I
made, I never found a jerboa in the body of a viper, excepting
once, in that of a female big with young, and the jerboa itself
was then nearly consumed."* This animal may be used as
food. In taste it is scarcely distinguishable from a young
rabbit. The ancients described it at an early period, and it is
represented in some of the first medals of the Cyrenaicum,
Bitting under an umbellated plant, supposed to be the silphium,
the figure of which is likewise preserved oTUhe silver medals
of Cyrene. Bruce informs us that he never saw a rabbit in Abys-
sinia, but that there is an abundance of hares.
Abyssinia produces several remarkable animals of the pachy*
dennHtous. order, among which we rank the Ethiopian hog
{Phascocharus of F. Cuvier). This extraordinary genus con-
tains at least two species, frequently confounded together, under
the names of Stis Af'ricanus and Sus JEthiopicus, specific titles
by no means happily chosen, in as far as both are natives of the
African continent, 'and that called Ethiopian, par excellence, in-
habits more particularly the Cape of Good Hope. The imper-
fection of this nomenclature, it has been remarked, is certainly
the chief cause of the confusion which has long reigned in the
history of these animals. The most remarkable distinction
between the two species just named consists in the former being
provided with incisive teeth, which are wanting in the latter.-
For this reason the one is named Ph. incgsitms, the other Ph.
ah:, i tat us, by M. F. Cuvier. f These animals, though gentle,
livery, and easily tamed when taken young, are of a peculiarly
ferocious disposition after attaining to the adult condition in the
?>tate of nature. Yet their mode of dentition shows that they
are naturally much less omnivorous than the wild boar, and we
know, in fact, that their food consists entirely of roots and other
vegetable produce. Their sight is said to be defective, owing
to the peculiar position of their eyes,.but their hearing is good,
and their sense t)f smell exquisitely delicate.
The wild boar in these parts of Africa is smaller and smoother
than that of Europe or of Barbary. It inhabits swamps and the
wooded banks of rivers. This animal is accounted unclean in
* Travels, vol. v. p. 101.
t The hindmost or lett-hand* figure of the wood-cut at p. 391 of this
volume represents the head and fore-quarters of the species figured by
Ruppel, under the name o(Ph. JBiamL— Atlas, Taf. 06. It was observed
in Kordofdn.
Cc
302 ZOOLOGY.
Abyssinia, both by Mohammedans and Christians ; and that it
ha/* not multiplied greatly, in consequence of being neglected by
the hunters, is probably owing to its young being devoured by
hyenas.
That huge animal the hippopotamus is well known in Abys-
sinia. Mr. Salt had no sooner reached the banks of the Ta-
cazze, a tributary to the Nile, than his attention was excited by
the cry of his attendants, of" Gomari ! gomari !" the Abyssinian
title for the hippopotamus. At that time, however, he only
obtained a momentary glance, during which he could merely
observe that its action resembled the rolling of a grampus in
the sea. Between the different fords of the river, which, at the
place alluded to, might be about fifty yards across, there are
pools of almost immeasurable depth, resembling the mountain
tarns of the north of England ; and it is in these pools that the
amphibious giant loves to dwell. Being desirous to attack it,
Mr. Salt and his party stationed themselves on a high overhang-
ing rock which commanded one of the favourite pools, and they
had not remained long before a hippopotamus rose to the sur-
face, at a distance of not more than twenty yards. He came up
at first very confidently, raising his enormous head out of the
water, and snorting violently. At the same instant their guns
were discharged, the contents of which appeared to strike
directly on its forehead ; on which it turned round its head with
an angry scowl, and making a sudden plunge, sank to the
bottom, with a peculiar noise, between a grunt and a roar.
They for some minutes entertained a sanguine hope that he
was killed, and momentarily expected to see his body ascend
to the surface. But it soon appeared that a hippopotamus is not
so easily slain ; for he rose again, ere long, close to the same
spot, and apparently not much concerned at what had happened,
though somewhat more cautious than before. They again dis-
charged their pieces, but with as little effect as formerly ; and
although some of the party continued firing at every one that
made his appearance, they were by no means certain that they
produced the slightest impression upon any of them. This they
attributed to their having used leaden balls, which are too soft
to enter his almost impenetrable scull.
It appears from what they witnessed that the hippopotamus
cannot remain more than five or six minutes at a time under
water. One of the most interesting parts of the amusement
was to witness the perfect ease with which these animals quietly
dropped down to the bottom ; for the water, being exceedingly
clear, they could distinctly see them so low as twenty feet be-
neath the surface.*
The elephant, rhinoceros, and giraffe, or camelopard, all dis-
* Salt's Voyage to Abyssinia, p. 354.
QUADRUPEDS. 303
tinguished for their great dimensions and imposing aspect, like-
wise inhabit the low hot countries of'Abyssinia. It has fceen
noted as remarkable, that such common animals as the former
two should have escaped the description of the sacred writers.
Moses and the children of Israel, when sojourning either in
Egypt or Arabia, were long in the vicinity of countries which
produced them ; and when we take into consideration the close
connexion maintained by Solomon with the south-east coast
of the Red Sea, it seems almost impossible that he should not
have been acquainted with them, especially as both his father
David and himself used abundance of ivory. Some, however,
take the behemoth of the Scriptures to be the elephant, while the
reem is regarded as identical with the species now designated
under the name of rhinoceros.
The Abyssinian hunters of the last-named animal are called
agageer, from agaro, to kill, by cutting the hams, or the tendon
of Achilles, with a sword. The eyes of the rhinoceros are ex-
tremely small ; and as his neck is stiff, and his head cumbrous,
he seldom turns round so as to see any thing that is not directly
before him. To this, according to Bruce, he owes his death, as
he never escapes if there is as much plain ground as to enable
a horse to get in advance. His pride and fury then induce him
to lay aside all thoughts of escaping but by victory. He stands
for a moment at bay, then starting forward, he suddenly charges
the horse, after the manner of the wild boar, which animal he
greatly resembles in his mode of action. But the horse easily
avoids his ponderous onset, by turning short aside, and this is
the fatal instant ; for a naked man armed with a sharp sword
drops from behind the principal hunter, and, unperceived by the
rhinoceros, who is seeking to wreak his vengeance on his
enemy, he inflicts a tremendous blow across the tendon of the
heel, which renders him incapable of either flight or resistance.
In speaking of the large allowance of vegetable matter neces-
sary to support this enormous living mass, we should likewise
take into consideration the vast quantity of water which it con-
sumes. No country, according to Bruce, but such as that of
the Shangalla, deluged with six months' rain, full of large and
deep basins hewn by nature in the living rock, which are shaded
by dark woods from evaporation, or one watered by extensive
rivers which never fall low or to a state of dryness, can supply
the vast draughts of its enormous maw. As an article of food,
he is himself much esteemed by the Shangalla ; and the soles
of his feet, which are soft like those of a camel, and of a gristly
substance, are peculiarly delicate. The rest of the body resem-
bles that of the hog, but is coarser, and is pervaded by a smell of
musk.*
* Mr, Salt is of opinion that the figure of the African rhinoeeros given
304 ZOOLOGY,
Of equine animals, the zebra rx zecora occurs chiefly in the
southern provinces of Abyssinia. Its mane is much used for
making a particular kind of collar, which on state-days is fixed
as an ornament round the necks of the war-horses belonging to
the chiefs. This privilege, however, seems to be confined to
a few of the principal men. The wild ass (probably the quaggy)
is said to occur in the same districts as the zebra. In regard to
the giraffe of Nubia and Abyssinia, we shall mention, in the first
place, that from some difference in the spots and in the curva-
ture of the cranium of the few individuals hitherto brought, to
Europe, M. Geoffroy St. Hilaire is of opinion that jt is not of
the same species as that from the southern portions of the
African continent. It is an- animal of a shy nature, and rarely
to be met with, in consequence of its frequenting chiefly the in-
terior districts uninhabited by the human race. Its skin forms
an article of barter in some of the provinces ; and an ornament
made of the hair plucked from the tail is commonly fastened
to the butt-end of the whips used by the inhabitants for the pur
pose of brushing away flies, which are exceedingly troublesome
during the hot season. These whips, Mr. Salt informs us, are
themselves formed from the skin of the hippopotamus, and are
called "hallinga."
Of the antelope tribe, which is numerously represented m
these parts of Africa, the only example we shall here name is
the Nubian species called Addax byM. Lichtenstein (.4c/. Acad,
Berlin, 1824, pi. xi.) Its horns are' long and slender, and form
three curves. It is represented on several of the ancient monu-
ments of Egypt.*
We shall terminate these brief notices of mammalia by giv-
ing in a note below a list of the species described and figured
by M. Riippel in the atlas to his Reise im Nordlicheh Afrika.-\
by Bruce must have been copied from the one-horned species of BufTbn,
with the addition of the second horn, as the two-horned rhinoceros
wants the folds in the skin, which are nevertheless given by the Abys-
sinian traveller.
See the central figure of the wood-cut at page 291.
t Felis maniculata
Canis zerda
Antilope montana
Felis chaus
Canis famelicus
Vespertilio Ternminclsii
Antilope Addax
Camelopardalis girafia
Canis variegai us
C. pallidus
O. pictus
Mas dimidiatus
M. Cahirinus
Antilope dama
Canis Niloticus
C. anthus
Rhinolophus divosus
Antilope Ssmtuerliinjri
Lepus Isabellinus
Antilope Saltiana
Psammomys obesns
Sciurus rutilans
P.hascochaerus iEliani
Dysopes pumilns
Taphozous nudiventris
Nyctecejus ltHcngaster
BIRDS. 305
The feathered race, especially birds of prey, are very numer-
ous in Abyssinia. In the gigantic carcasses of slaughtered ele-
phants and other large quadrupeds, of which only small portions
are consumed by the hunters, they find a frequent supply of food.
Vast quantities of field-r? is and mice make their appearance
after harvest, and swarm in every crack and fissure, and are
greedily devoured by hawks and kites. These and other causes,
combined with " the number of men that perish by disease and
by the sword, whose carcasses are never buried by this bar-
barous and unclean people, compose such a quantity and variety
of carrion that it brings together at one time a multitude of birds
of prey ; it would seem there was not such a number in the
whole earth."*
The Abyssinians entertain a singular superstition regarding
a species of hawk, designated by Mr. Salt under the name of
white-breasted lanner. When they set out on a journey and
meet with one of these birds, they watch it very carefully, for
the purpose of drawing good or bad omens from its motions.
If it sit still with its breast towards them until they have passed,
this is regarde'd as a peculiarly good sign, and every thing is
expected to go on well during the course of the journey. If its
back be turned towards them, it is considered an unpropitious
sign, but not sufficiently so to create any very great or imme-
diate alarm ; but if it should fly hastily away on their approach,
some of the most superstitious among them immediately return
back to their homes, and wait till a more favourable opportunity
for commencing their expedition occurs. From this circum-
stance, as well as from the resemblance of its form to the sculp-
tured hieroglyphics of Egypt, Mr. Salt was led to the belief that
this species was probably the sacred hawk once held in such
veneration by the ancient inhabitants of that country.
The bird described by Bruce under the name of Abou Duck'n,
or Father Long Beard, appears to be identical with the Vultur bar-
batus, or lammergeyer of the Swiss Alps. On the highest sum-
mit of the mountain Lamalmon, while the traveller's servants
Vespertilio leucomelas Mus Orientals
V. marginatus Meriones Gerbillus,
Meriones robustus
It is briefly reported in the foreign journals that M. Riippel has dis-
covered, during the second journey in which he is still engaged, a speciea
of Dugong, which is found in the Red Sea, and differs in a remarkable
degree from the only species hitherto known, which is an inhabitant
of the Indian Ocean. It was with the skin of this species that the Jews
of old were by the Mosaic law compelled to veil the tabernacle. On this
account M. Riippel has bestowed upon it the name of Halicoret abernacu-
lus.—Athenaum, No. 261, p. TOO.
• Bruce, vol. v. p. 150.
Cc2
306 ZOOLOGY,
were refreshing themselves after the fatigue of a toilsome ascent,
and enjoying the pleasures of a delightful climate and a good
dinner of boiled goat's flesh, a lammergeyer suddenly made his
appearance among them. A great shout, or rather cry of dis-
tress, attracted Bruce's attention, who, while walking towards
the bird, saw it deliberately put its foot into the pan, which
contained a huge piece of meat prepared for boiling. Finding
the temperature somewhat higher than it was accustomed to
among the pure gushing springs of that romantic region, it sud-
denly withdrew its foot, but immediately afterward settled upon
two large pieces which lay upon a wooden platter, into which
it trussed its claws and carried them oft'. It disappeared over
the edge of a " steep Tarpeian rock," down which criminals
were thrown, and whose mangled remains had probably first
induced the bird to select that spot as a place of soiourn. The
traveller, in expectation of another visit, immediately loaded his
rifle, and it was not long before the gigantic bird reappeared.
As when a vulture on Imaus bred,
Whose snowy ridge the roving Tartar bounds,
Dislodging from a region scarce of pre}-,
To gorge the flesh of lambs or yeanling kids
On hills where flocks are fed, flies towards the springe
Of Ganges or Ilydaspes, Indian streams-;
But in his way lights on the barren plains
Of Sericana, where Chineses drive
With sails and wind their cany wagons light ;
so landed the lammergeyer within ten yards' of the savoury
mess, but also within an equal distance of Bruce's practised
rifle. He instantly sent his ball through its body, and the pon-
derous bird sank down upon the grass with scarcely a flutter
of its outspread wings. We have elsewhere noticed the great
geographical range of this species.*
The species described by Bruce under the name of rachamak
is the Vultur percnoplerus of I Jnnaeus, known in Egypt by the
title of Pharaoh's bird. It is well known as a scavenger in most
Eastern countries, and is found sculptured on the monuments
of Egyptian art. Even at the present day it is exempted from
injury, and pious Mussulmans sometimes bequeath sums of
money for its maintenance in a state of comfortable captivity.
It is believed that the Vultur Kolbii of Riippel is the yearling
male of this species.
There are few owls in Abyssinia ; but one or two of the spe-
cies are of large size and great beauty. Bruce never saw either
sparrow or magpie in the country, although we know that the
natural distribution of both these species is elsewhere widely
* Family Library, No XLIX . (India, vol. ih.)
BIRDS. 307
extended. Pigeons are numerous and of various kinds, all ex-
cellent as articles of food. They are chiefly birds of passage,
except one which dwells in the eaves of houses and in the holes
of walls. This species is not eaten, from an absurd notion that
because its claws are large, it partakes of the nature of a hawk,
and is therefore unclean. This is a parallel to the Turkish
idea, that because a turkey has a bunch of bristles on its breast
it is allied to the hog.
The African hornbill (Buceros Africamis) is entirely black ;
and nearly as large as a turkey. The Abyssinian species (B,
Abyssinicus) appears to have been first distinctly described by
Bruce, who informs us that in the eastern parts of the country it
is known under the name of abba gumba. In Sennaar it is called
Teir el JVaciba, or the bird of destiny. Its prevailing colour is a
sooty black, but the ten larger feathers of the wings are of a
milk-white colour, both without and within. The tip of the
wings reach nearly to the tail.. The beak and head meas-
ure together eleven inches and a half. <The male has pro-
tuberances on his neck like those of a turkey ; they are gene-
rally of a light -blue colour, but turn red when' the bird is chafed,
or when his hen is laying. He has very large eyelashes, espe-
cially the upper. From the point of the bill to the extremity
of the tail this species measures three feet ten inches ; and the
wings, when stretched, extend six~feet. Bruce observed it, fol-
lowed by eighteen young ones. It runs along the ground more
willingly than it flies ; but. when once raised, it flies both strong
and far. It has a rank smell, and is asserted in Abyssinia to
live on dead carcasses. -This, however,, has been doubted. " I
never," says Mr. Bruce, "saw it approach any of these; and
what convinces me this is untrue is, that I never saw one of
them follow the army, where there was always a general assem-
bly of all the birds of prey in Abyssinia. It was very easy to
see what was it's food by its place of rendezvous, which was in
the fields of teff, upon the tops of which are always a number
of green beetles : these he strips off by drawing the stalk through
his beak, so that it appears to be serrated; and often as I had
occasion to open this bird, I never found any thing in him but
the green scarabaeus or beetle. He has a putrid or stinking
smell, which, I suppose, is the reason he has been imagined to
feed on carrion: He builds in large thick trees, always, if he
can, near churches— has a covered nest, like that of a magpie,
but four times as large as an eagle's : it places its nest firm
upon the trunk, without endeavouring to make it high from the
ground ; the entry is always from the east side."
Although parrots are by no means numerous, they are not
altogether uuknown in Abyssinia. A small species is described
308 ZOOLOGY.
in the Appendix to Lord Valentia's Travels, under the name
of Psittacus Taranta. It was found to be not uncommon near
the pass from which it derives its specific name. Another
species is figured in Ruppel's Atlas, with the title-of Psittacus
Meyeri. It is found in Kordofan.
The ostrich is known in the low districts north of Abyssinia,
but we believe its occurrence is very rare within the actual
limits of the country.
Of gallinaceous birds we shall name only the Guinea-fowl,
now well known in Britain as a domesticated species. It
occurs in the wild state in these parts of Africa, and so expert
are the natives in the use of the matchlock that they constantly
kill it with a single ball. Quails and red-legged partridges also
occur in Abyssinia.
Many fine species of the order Grallatores inhabit these coun-
tries. The Arabian bustard (Otis Arabs) is nearly as large as
the common bustard of Europe. It is found both in Asia and
Africa. Its flesh is excellent ; its manners are but slightly
known. Rtippel found it in Kordofan.
The tribe of storks were regarded by Linnaeus as congeners
with the herons and cranes. They are birds of lofty stature and
great power of wing, and are met with in most countries where
reptile food abounds. As the creatures on which they prey are
impatient of cold, and disappear beneath the- waters or in the
holes of the earth on the approach of winter, so the storks
themselves migrate from one country to another to avoid a low
temperature and the consequent deficiency .of their favourite
food. In addition to their frequent destruction of noxious or
unseemly creatures, the habits of certain -species "are familiar
and domestic, and they have for many ages been regarded with
respect, or even veneration; by nations in no way habitually in-
fluenced by enthusiastic or romantic feeling.' Though the
affection of these birds for their parents may be regarded as a
doubtful characteristic, their extreme attachment to their young
must be considered as certain, since, at the burning of Delft, a
stork was observed to perish in the flames rather than desert its
newly -hatched offspring. A notable species, which the accuracy
of our wood-cut saves us the trouble of describing in detail, is
the saddle-billed stork ( Cicnnia ephippiorhyncha). We shall only
mention that it measures between four and five feet in height.
Water birds are by no means numerous. There are few
geese, either wild or tame, except the species called the golden
goose, or goose of the Nile, and a duck allied to the Anas Lybica.
A species of gull with a black head, white eyelids, and cinereous
back, takes its flight occasionally into Abyssinia from the shores
of the Red Sea. The same bird occurs in the Caspian and
Saddle-billed Stork.
BIRDS,
311
the rivers of the East Indies.
Pallas.*
It is the' Larus ichthymtus of
* As the limits to which we are necessarily restricted in this article
prevent our entering into-a detailed history of the species, we shall here
present two lists which will put the reader in possession of at least the
names of the principal birds of Abyssinia, and those other portions of the
north of Africa to which the present volume is devoted. '
Our first list is extracted from that furnished by Dr. Latham, and
originally published in the Appendix to Salt's Travels.
Lanius poliocephalus
L. Cubla
L. ferrugineus
L. humeralis
Psittacus Taranta
( 'oracias afra ?
Bucco Saltii
Cueulus, var. of Edolius, Le Vail
C. Senegalensis ,
Picus Abyssinicus
Alcedo Chelicuti
Merops erytbropterus
M. furcatus
Upupa erythrorhynchos
Certhia Tacazze
Tanagra erythrorhyncha
Fringilla Senegala
F. Benghalus
Muscicapa Paradisi
M . mutata
Alauda African a
Sylvia pammelaina
Hirundo Capensis
Turd us phcenicurus
T/ musicus
T. Capensis
T. nitens
Colius strialus
Loxia lencotis
Emberiza Capeusis
Columba Guinea
C. Abyssinica
Numida mitrata
Scolopax calidris
Tringa Senegalla
Erodia amphilensis
Alauda desertorum
Cursorius Europaeus
Ralius Capensis
Parra African a.
Our second list is from the Atlas , to Ruppel's Reise im Nordhchen
Afrika, and contains the names of the species (many of which are new)
figured in that work, in the order of publication.
Otis nuba
Malurus damans .
M. gracilis
Ciconia ephippiorhyncha
Turdoides leucocephala
Alauda bifasciata
Caprimulgus infureatus
Nectarinia metallica
Ciconia abdimii
Perdix Clapertonii
Emberiza striolata
E. coesia
Psittacus Meyeri
Malurus squamiceps
Sterna velox
S. affinis
Ploceus supersiliosus
Otis Arabs
Larus ichthycetus
Malurus acaciae
Sylvia Riippelii
Bucco margaritatus.
Pelecanus rufescens
Vultur occipitalis
Trox plebejus'
Rhynchops Orientalis
Emberiza flavigaster
Ardea Goliath
Falco rufinus
Pogonias melanocephala
Dacelo pygmaea
Lanius erythrogaster
Perdix rubricollis
Charadrius melanopterus
Vultur Kolbli
Sylvia crassirostris
Motacilla melanocephala
Saxkola pallida '
S. lsabellina
Malurus pulchellus
Sylvia brevicaudata
Malurus ruficeps
M. iiKiuietus.
312 ZOOLOGY.
The reptile tribe are the next in succession in our systematic
arrangements. We shall mention in the lirst place the lizard,
called El addh, one of .the few which the Arabians in all ages
have admitted to be free from poisonous qualities ; for however
singular it may now appear to those better informed upon the
subject, the writers of that nation have described almost the
whole of the lizard tribe as venomous. The species just named
measures six and a half inches in length. Though its legs are
long it does not make use of them in standing up, but creeps
with its belly almost close to the. ground, and is capable of
running with great'agility. It burrows in the sand, and per-
forms the operation so rapidly as to get out of sight in a few
seconds, appealing not so much to be making a hole as to have
found one. It is a native of Atbara, beyond the rujns where
Bruce supposes' the island and city of Meroe to have anciently
stood.
There are not maliy serpents in Upper Abyssinia, and few
remarkable animal sbf that class even in the lower countries,
•if we except a species of boa, commonly so-called, which' at-
tains to the length of twenty feet. It feeds upon antelopes
and the dee;: kind, which it swallows entire. Its favourite places
of resort are by the sides, of grassy -pools of stagnant rivers,
where it lies .in ambuscade, ready to encircle in its horrid folds
whatever quadruped approaches.
A remarkable and noted serpent of these parts is the cerastes
or horned viper. It lades itself all day in holes in the sand,
where it lives in little chambers similar and contiguous to those
of the jerboa. Bruce kept a pair of them in a glass jar for two
years Without any food ; they did not appear to sleep even m
winter, and cast their skins'during the last days of April. The
cerastes moves with great rapidity. This poisonous reptile is
very fond of heat ; for, however warm the weather might be dur-
ing the day, whenever Bruce made a fire. at night rt seldom hap-
pened that fewer than half a dozen .were found burnt to death
by .approaching too closely to the embers.
While Mr. Salt's party were engaged in shooting at hippo-
potami, as already noticed, they occasionally observed several
crocodiles, called by thje natives agoos, rising at a distance to
the surface of the river : they appeared to be of an enormous
size and of a greenish colpur. The Abyssinians entertain a
great dread of these animals ; and when any one goes to the
Tacazze, even to wash "his hands, he takes a companion with
him to throw stones into the water for the purpose of keeping
off the crocodiles ; and in crossing a ford it is usual with the
natives to carry their spears, and to make as much noise as. pos-
sible, though these animals are seldom known to Trequent the
REPTILES.
313
shallower parts of the stream ; while the very thought of bathing
in the river seemed to strike them with horror. Yet the ther-
mometer at this time in the neighbourhood of the Tacazze stood
at 95° in the shade, so that a bath could not have been other-
wise than refreshing. Mr. Legh, while ascending the Nile, first
observed crocodiles between Cafre Saide and Diospolis Parva,
the modern How. He thinks Girgeh the limit below which
they do not ascend. They were numerous between that place
and the Cataracts.*
Although, as Bruce has well observed, the fish of Eastern
countries are generally more distinguished for their beauty and
variety of colour, and the singularity of their forms, than for
their excellence as articles of diet, yet a species of binny found
in Nubia is noted for the goodness of its taste. It is a large spe-
cies, varying in weight from thirty to seventy pounds. The
largest are caught about Rosetta and the mouth of the river, but
they are also very numerous higher up as far as Syene and the
first cataract. Many rare and remarkable fishes will be found
represented and described in the Atlas to the Reise im Nordlichen
Afrika, already so frequently referred to. We give their names
in the subjoined note. f
* Some singular and beautiful reptiles from Nubia and Abyssinia have
been of late years figured and described by Ruppel. The following is
the catalogue of those engraved in the Atlas of that author : —
Uromastyx ornatus
Stellio vulgaris
Agama sinaita
Ptyodactylus scaber
t Ostracion argus
O. cyanurus
Scolopsis lineatus
S. bimaculatus
S. kurite
Sillago sihama
Smaris oyena
Tirrhites maculosus
Pharopterix nigricans
),utodeira chanos
Percis cylindrica
Cbeilinus iunulatus
Julis purpureus
J. aggula
Balystis aculeatus
B. coerulescens
<Jlyphisodon sordidus
Pomacentrus trirnaculatus
P. marginatus
Chatodon flavus
C. dorsal is
C. triangularis
Dd
Stenodactylus scaber
Hemidaet-yJus granosus
Bufo Arabicus
Varanus oceilatus.
Anampses cceruleopunctatus
Xyrichthys_bmaculatus
Amphacanthus siganu.s
A. punctatus
Apogon lineolatus
Haliophis guttatus
(antharus filamentosus
Trvgon Lvrnna
T." Forskali
Rhin'abatus Djiddensis
R. halavi
Acanthurus rokal
Aspisurus elegans
Acanthurus rubopunctatus
A. velifer
Tetraodon calamara
T. honkenji
T. diadematus
Lebias dispar
Platax orbicularis
P. albipunctatus
Diacope argentimaculata
314
ZOOLOGY.
In regard to testaceous productions, there are three kinds of
shell-fish in the Red Sea, which are zealously sought for on
account of the pearls which they contain. The first is a muscle
of unfrequent occurrence, found chiefly towards the north end
of the gulf, and on the Egyptian side. Bruce saw them at
Cosseir, where there was an ancient port called Myos Hormos,
erroneously called the Port of the Mouse; whereas it signifies
Muscle Harbour. The pearls found in this shell are of great
beauty as to form and lustre, but they are seldom of a clear
colour. The second sort of pearl-shell is called pinna. It is
rough, and figured on the outside, of a beautiful red colour, ex-
tremely fragile, and sometimes measures three feet long. It is
clothed in the inside with a beautiful and sumptuous lining of
nacre or mother-of-pearl, of a white colour tinged with a delicate
blush of red. The third kind of pearl-bearing shell is not unlike
our oyster. Its produce is characterized by its extreme white-
ness. The most excellent are those which resemble a solution
of alum, — limpid, milky-like, yet with a certain almost imper-
ceptible cast of a fiery colour, but not transparent, as supposed
by Theophrastus. In the Red Sea, where it holds the highest
rank among pearls, it is called lulu single, or lulu el Berber, that
is, the pearl of Berber, Barabra, or Beja, the country of the
Shepherds.*
Ancient writers appear to have endowed testaceous animals
with a higher capacity than corresponds to the station assigned
them in these degenerate days. Pliny and Solinus inform
us, that the pearl-muscles have leaders, and go in flocks, and
that the captain of the band is gifted with peculiar cunning to
Diacope fulviriamma
I), lineolata
Scarus psittacus
S. gibbus
Scaris hand
S. niastax
S. bicolor
Holocentrus ruber
H. diadema
H. samara
If. spinifer
Mirypristis murdjan
CaesLomnrus quadripimctatus -
Noineus riigrofaseiatus
Cybium Commersonii
Caranxpetaurista
C. djeddaba
C. macrophthalma
C. bajad
* Bruce, vol. v. p. 22L
Caranx ferdau
C. fulvoguttatus
Citula ciliaria
Serranus rogaa
S. louti
S. miniatus
S. miryaster
S. fuscoguttatus
S. hemistiktos
Petroscirtes niitratus
Salaris quadripennis
S. cyclops
OpistognaUius nigromarginatus
Conger cinereus
Muraena ophis
M. geometrica
M. (jgriua
M. flavamarginata.
INSECTS. 315
protect himself and his flock from the rapacious fishermen. It
is added, that when the leader is taken, the others, hesitating
and inexperienced, fall an easy prey. It has been observed that
pearls are always the most beautiful in those places where a
quantity of fresh water falls into the sea. Bruce, however, ob-
served none of .the pearl-shells on either side southward of the
parallel of Mocha, in Arabia Felbc. In that part of the travel-
ler's narrative where he relates his return through the Desert of
Nubia, he alludes to the muscles which occur in the salt-springs
of these arid regions. They are said to travel far from home,
and are sometimes surprised by the ceasing of the rains at a
greater distance from their beds than they have strength or
moisture to travel over. In many of these shells coarse excres-
cences occur which may be called pearls, but they are ill-formed
and of a bad colour. The value of these articles, it may be ob-
served, depends upon their size, colour, smoothness, lustre, and
regularity of form. In proportion to their size, they may be
considered as the most valuable of all animal product?, or next
to the diamond of all the productions of nature. It is known
that Csesar gave to Serviha, the mother of Marcus Brutus, a
pearl which was worth 50,000/. of our money ; and the famous
vaunt of Cleopatra to her lover, that she would provide him
with a supper which should cost two hundred and fifty thousand
pounds, was accomplished by dissolving in a draught one of the
precious pearls from her earrings. Its counterpart was after-
ward carried to Rome by Augustus Csesar, and, being cut in
two, was affixed to the ears of the statue of Venus Genetrix.
We shall conclude our notice of this subject by observing,
that an elegant and ingenious method of veneering or inlaying
with nacre or mother-of-pearl is brought to great perfection,
especially at Jerusalem. The substance used is chiefly taken
from the lulu el Berber, commonly called the Abyssinian oyster.
Great quantities are brought from the Red Sea to Jerusalem,
and are formed into boxes, beads, and crucifixes, much sought
after by Spaniards both in the Old World and the New.*
A sketch of the history of two of the most remarkable insects
of these countries must bring our zoological chapter to a close.
The fly called Tsaltsalya presents a singular example of the
pervading influence of a creature which, were we to judge from
its apparent or external characteristics, w-e should deem alike
insignificant and powerless. In size it is little larger than a bee, and
has pure gauzy wings without spot or colour. The head is large,
and the mouth is furnished with three strong projecting hairs or
bristles. Providence appears to have fixed the habitation of this
insect to a soil composed of a black fattish earth of extraordi-
* Bruce, vol. v. p. 230.
31G ZOOLOGY.
nary fruitfulness ; and there it reigns for a season as lord and
master. According to Brace, it absolutely prohibited the former
inhabitants of the land, called Mazaga, and who were domiciled
in caves and mountains, from deriving any advantage from
beasts of burden. It deprived them of flesh and milk, and gave
origin to another nation, whose manners were exactly the re-
verse of the first. These were shepherds, who lead a wander-
ing life, and preserve immense herds of cattle by conducting
them into sandy regions beyond the limits of the black earth,
and bring them back again when all danger from the fly has
ceased. " We cannot read the history of the plagues which
God brought upon Pharaoh by the hands of Mcses without
stopping a moment to consider a singularity, a very principal
one, which attended this plague of the fly. It was not till this
time, and by means of this insect, that God saii he would sepa-
rate his people from the Egyptians. And it would seem that
then a law was given to them that fixed the limits of their hab-
itation. It is well known, as I have repeatedly said, that the
land of Goshen or Geshen, the possession of the Israelites, was
a land of pasture, which was not overflowed by the Nile. But
the land overflowed by the Nile was the black earth of the val-
ley of Egypt, and it was here that God confined the flies ; for
he says, it shall be a sign of this separation of the people, which
he had then made, that not one fly should be seen in the sand or
pasture-ground, the land of Goshen ; and this kind of soil has
ever since been the refuge of all cattle ^emigrating from the
black earth to the'lower part of Atbara. Isaiah, indeed, says
that the fly shall be in all the desert places, and consequently
the sands ; yet this was a particular dispensation of Providence
to answer a special end, the desolation of Egypt, and was not a
repeal of the general law, but a confirmation of it ; it was an ex-
ception for a particular purpose and a limited time."*
In the Chaldee version this insect is called simply zebub,
which signifies the fly in general, as it is expressed in English.
By the Arabs it is translated zimb, which has the same signifi-
cation. Tsaltsalya is the word used in the Ethiopic translation,
and that, term is the true name of the fly in Geez. As soon as
this plague appears, and- its dreaded buzzing is heard, the cattle
forsake their food, and run wildly about the plain till they die,
worn out. with fear, fatigue, and famine ; and no remedy remains
for the inhabitants but to leave the region of the black earth and
hasten down to the sands of Atbara. Even the sunburnt
camel, emphatically called the ship of the desert, is soon de-
stroyed by this destructive creature. The gigantic elephant
and case-hardened rhinoceros, both of which are prevented by
their enormous bulk, and the vast quantity of food and water
* Bruce, vol. v. p. 190.
INSECTS. 317
which they consume daily, from removing to dry and desert
places, are obliged to roll themselves in the mud, which soon
dries and hardens on their obdurate coats, and enables them in
some measure to withstand the attack of their winged and
almost viewless assassin. The whole inhabitants of the seacoast
of Melinda, down to Cape Guardafui, to Saba, and the south of
the Red Sea, are obliged to remove to the next sands on the
commencement of the rainy season, for the salvation of their
flocks. " This," says Bruce, " is not a partial emigration ; the
inhabitants of all the countries from the mountains of Abyssinia,
northward to the confluence of the Nile and Astaboras, are once
a year obliged to change their abode, and seek protection in the
sands of Beja; nor is there any alternative, or means of avoid-
ing this, though a hostile band was in their way, capable of spoil-
ing them of half their substance." Hear the words of the in-
spired prophet : — " And it shall come to pass in that day, that
the Lord shall hiss for the fly that is in the uttermost part
of the rivers of Egypt." — " And they shall come, and shall rest
all of them in the desolate valleys, and in the holes of the rocks,
and upon all thorns, and upon all bushes."*
The only other insect which we shall notice is the Abyssinian
locust, which Mr. Salt informs us commits dreadful ravages in
that country. During his stay in the Bay of Amphila a large
flight of these insects came over to one of the islands, and in a
few days destroyed nearly half the vegetation upon it, not sparing
even the bitter leaves of the rack-tree. These locusts are
named Terid in Yemen, and Anne in Dancali, and are frequently
used as food by the wandering tribes of both these nations, who,
after broiling them, separate the heads from the bodies, and de-
-vour the latter in the same manner as Europeans eat shrimps
and prawns. f
* Isaiah, chap. vii. 18, 19. t Vovage to Abyssinia, p. 172.
Dd2
BOTANY.
CHAPTER IX.
General Description of the Vegetation as far as it is knoum — Brief
Account of the most Remarkable and Useful Plants.
Vegetation of the Country— The Baobab— Acacia vera— Tamarind-
Kan tuffa— Kuara— True Sycamore— Kolquail— Cusso— Balsam of
Mecca— Wooginoos — Coffee-tree — Wansey — Ensete — Doum-tree —
Dhourra— Teff— Papyrus.
Few materials have been contributed by travellers towards a
flora of Nubia and Abyssinia. Since the time of Bruce we
know of two individuals only, Mr. Salt and M. CailHaud, who
have made any considerable additions to our knowledge of the
plants of those countries. Mr. Salt has published a catalogue
of the species collected by him ; but it is, after all, merely a list
of names.* M. Cailliaud preserved a smaller number ; but the
hundred species he obtained have been carefully described by
M. Raffeneau Delile,t and thirty-five of them are new. With-
out entering into minute observations on the respective collec-
tions of these travellers, we may remark, that on comparing them,
together, twenty species, or one-fifth of the whole of M. Cail-
liaud's collection, are Ugieminosa ; while of Mr. Salt's collection,
which amounts to one hundred and forty species, only eleven
are leg-uminosoe. And that it is equally remarkable that there
should be eleven labiates in Mr. Salt's list, and only a solitary
representative of the order in that of M. Cailliaud.
A .great sameness prevails in the vegetation of the deserts;
the trees are mostly acacias, tamarix, date, and doum palms.
Plants, however, abound in the more cultivated regions, the
banks of rivers, and the elevated mountain-ranges ; but of the
peculiar features presented by the vegetation in different parts
of the country we have few and very meager descriptions. The
most instructive one is contained in the notes of Bruce's Jour-
* Sail's Voyage to Abyssinia, A pp. p. 62.
t Voyage a Meroe, <fcc, par M. Frederic Cailliaud, 1S27, vol. iv. p.
ASCENT OF TARANTA, 319
ney from Arkeeko to Dixan, over the mountain Taranta. The
high range of which this mountain forms a part is described by
him as constituting the boundary between the opposite seasons;
the rains on the eastern side, or that looking towards the Red
Sea, prevailing from October to April, and on the western side
from May to October. At the same time a sensible difference
is perceived in the character of the vegetation. Soon after
leaving Laberhey the grass which covered the plain disappeared,
and as. the traveller and his party imperceptibly ascended, gave
place to woods of acacias. The bed of a torrent soon became
their only road, the banks of which were adorned with rack-
trees (Racka ovata), capers, and tamarinds ( Tamarindiis Indica).
The second grow to the size of an " English elm." These trees
then became intermixed with abundance of the sycamore
(Fictis Sycomorus), often measuiing twenty feet or more in the
circumference of their trunks. The forest, which here became
so dense and luxuriant as to form natural arbours, and cast a
gloomy shade, grew more open as the party ascended the emi-
nences, which constituted the actual base of the mountain,
through the midst of sycamore and jujeb trees of great beauty.
This side of the mountain was thickly set with kolquall (Eu-
phorbia antiquorum), a plant that Bruce afterward saw in differ-
ent parts of Abyssinia, but never in the same degree of perfec-
tion. The middle region of the ascent produced fewer plants,
and was characterized by the prevalence of wild olives desti-
tute of fruit. Towards the upper part, and on the summit
itself, thick groves occurred .of the arze, or berry -bearing cedar
(Junipems Oxycednis ?), the trees of which were, according to
Bruce, tall and beautiful ; while on the western side they be-
came small shrubs and scraggy bushes. Mr. Salt ascended the
same mountain, and speaks of the kolquall being nearly forty feet
in height. He observed the sweet-brier (probably the Rosa
Abyssinica), as well as several highly aromatic shrubs, and a
number of flowers, some of which had bulbous roots. In the
above description we have distinct traces of several zones of
vegetation ; but the absence of barometrical measurements, or
even any estimate of elevation, deprives the account of much
interest and usefulness. .
Of the vegetation of the interior we canxollect only scattered
notices. The bases of the mountains are described as some-
times covered with brushwood, " aloes," thorny acacias, inter-
mixed with canes and bamboos (probably Bambusa arundinacea).
Some portions of the province of Sirt are very beautiful.
" Poncet," observes Bruce, "was right when he compared it to
the most beauteous part of Provence. We crossea the plain
(Selechlecka) through hedge-rows of flowering shrubs, among
which the honeysuckle now made a principal figure, which
is of one species only, the same known in England; but
320 BOTANY.
the flower is larger and perfectly white. * Fine trees of all
sizes were everywhere interspersed ; and the vine, with small
black grapes of very good flavour, hung in many places in fes-
toons, joining tree to tree as if they had been artificially twined
and intended for arbours." Coffee-trees are scattered in many
places; but in Narea, the southernmost province of the Abyssin-
ian empire, they grow in great profusion. Acacias of several
species are common, especially in some districts. For example,
the whole territory of Aroose is shaded with the Acacia vera,
the tree which in" the sultry parts of Africa produces the gum-
arabic. " These trees," says Bruce, " grow seldom above fifteen
or sixteen feet high, then flatten and spread wide at the top, and
touch each other, while the trunks are far asunder, and under
a vertical sun leave you many miles together a free space to
walk in a cool delicious shade. There is scarcely any tree but
this in Maitsha ; all Guanguera and Wainadega are full of
them." Bruce adds, that throughout Aroose the ground beneath
these trees is covered with lupines, almost to the exclusion of
every other flower.
Near Addergey, the same traveller encamped by the side of a
rivulet called Mai-Lumi, — the river of limes or lemons, — the
woods on its banks being full of " lemons and wild citrons."
He also describes a species of Pplymnia, which he calls frondosa,
but which is P. Abyssinica of botanists, that yields an oil em-
ployed for domestic purposes throughout the country. The
castor-oil plant (Ricinus communis) is frequent in Nubia, ac-
cording to Burckhardt, the product of which is called oil of
Kheroa by the natives.
We shall now proceed to notice in a more particular manner
some of the vegetable productions of these countries.
The baobab, or monkey-bread (Adansonia digitata),f is the
most gigantic tree hitherto discovered. The trunk, though fre-
quently eighty feet in circumference, rarely exceeds twelve or
fifteen feet in height ; but on the summit of this huge pillar is
placed a majestic head of .innumerable branches fifty or sixty
feet long, each resembling an enormous tree, densely clothed
with beautifully green leaves. While the central branches are
erect the lowest series extend in a horizontal direction, often
touching the ground at their extremity ; so that the whole forms
a splendid arch of foliage, more like the fragment of a forest
than a single tree. The grateful shade of this superb canopy
is a favourite retreat of birds and monkeys ; the natives resort
to it for repose, and the weary traveller in a burning climate gladly
flies to it for shelter. The roots of the baobab are admirably
* This honeysuckle is probably quite distinct from the two common
British species,
t Bet. Mag. vol. lv. pi. 2791 and 2792.
MONKEY-BREAD TREE. 321
adapted for affording stability to the truck, and for enabling the
prodigious head to resist the force of t:;e tempest, being of sin-
gular strength, and upwards of a hundred feet in length. The
bark of the trunk is thick, and very smooth. The leaves are
quinate, smooth, resembling in general form those of the horse-
chestnut. The flowers are white and very beautiful, eighteen
inches in circumference. The fruit, which hangs in a pendant
manner, is a woody gourd-like capsule with s downy surface,
about nine inches in length and liurin thickness, containing
numerous cells in which brown kiliey-shaped seeds are im-
bedded in a pulpy acid substance. The timber is soft and spongy,
and we are not aware that it is used for any economical pur-
pose. Jt is very easily perforated, so that, according to Bruce,
the bees in Abyssinia construct their, nests within it, and the
honey thus obtained, being supposed to have acruired a supe-
rior flavour, is esteemed in preference to any other. A more
remarkable excavation is however made by the natives ; dis-
eased portions of the trunk are hollowed out and converted into
tombs for the reception of the bodies of such individuals as, bv
the laws or customs of the country, are denied the usual rites of
interment. The bodies thus suspended within the cavity, and
without any preparation or embalmment, dry into well-pre-
served mummies. The juicy acid pulp of the fruit is eaten by
the natives, and is considered beneficial in fevers and other dis-
eases on account of its cooling properties. It was analyzed by
Vauquelin, and found to consist chiefly of a gum, a saccharine
matter, an amylaceous fecula, and malic acid. A kind of con-
diment is prepared from the bark and leaves, which being dried
and reduced to a fine powder, is used in cookery as we do pepper
and salt. The negroes call this powder Ullo or krfo, and believe
that it tends to restrain inordinate perspiration. An excellent
soap is obtained by boiling the leys of the ashes of the bark and
injured fruit with rancid palm-oil. The duration of the baobab
is not the least extraordinary part of its history, and has given
rise to much speculation. In it we unquestionably see the most
ancient living specimens of vegetation. " It is, v says the illus-
trious Humboldt, " the oldest organic monument of our planet ;"
and Adanson calculates that trees now alive have weathered
the storms of five thousand years. If this be true, the surface
of the African continent can have undergone but trifling geo-
logical changes during that space of time. The leaves of this
great tree are deciduous, a fact mentioned by Bruce, who ob-
serves that the dry fruit hangs long after the leaves have disap-
peared, and confirmed by Bowdich, who says they fail before
the rainy season.*
In the family of Leguminosa, several plants occur of coiisider-
* Bowdich's Account of Banjole.
322 BOTANY.
able interest. We have alluded to the abundance of acacia-
trees : of these there are various species besides the Acacia
vera. One is mentioned by Burckhardt under the name of
Sellam-trees, the wood of which is valued for its great hard-
ness. The Arabs " use it for the shafts of their lances, and cut
the thin branches into sticks of about the thickness of the thumb,
and three feet in length, the top of which they bend in the fire
while the wood is yet green, and, rubbing it frequently with
grease, it acquires greater weight and strength. Every man
carries in his hand such a stick, which is called Sellame. From
the Acacia vera (A. Nilotica of Delile) is obtained the well known
gum-arabic of commerce, and ite pods, as well as those of Casr
sia Sabak, are employed in Nubia in the process of tanning. It
is related by Burckhardt, that he found stunted trees of a kind
of acacia growing on a saline plain, in his route from Taka to
Suakin, all of which bore a* parasitic species of cactus, that
completely covered some of them like a net. Here we also
find the tamarind ( Tamarindus Indica), the name of which is
derived from the Arab Tamar-hendi, signifying fruit of India.
The tamarind is a large tree, with an erect cylindrical trunk,
widely-spreading branches, and pinnated, bright, nearly ever-
green foliage. The fruit is a pendulous pod like a bean, three
to five inches in length, the coat of which is double ; the outer
one dry and brittle, the inner one membranous. Between these
coats is the thick acid pulp which, after being boiled with
sugar, is imported from the East and West Indies. The very
leaves and flowers are reported by Delile to be acid. Mr. Salt
and his party found this fruit a great refreshment while in Abys-
sinia. M. Delile informs us, that large quantities of tamarind-
fruit are brought by caravans of negroes from Darfiir to Cairo,
in the form of small round cakes, pierced with a hole through
their centre, and weighing from one to four pounds. This
preparation is hard, black, and very acid ; it is composed of the
pulp of the fruit, with portions of the pod itself, and occasion-
ally some of the seeds. A finer kind is also brought to Cairo
from the East Indies, more esteemed as a preserve, but sup-
posed to possess inferior medicinal properties.* About forty
tons of tamarind fruit are said to be annually imported into
Great Britain. Another beautiful leguminose plant is thus in-
troduced to our notice by Bruce : — " This thorn, like many
men we meet daily in society, has got itself into a degree of
reputation and respect from the noxious qualities and power of
doing ill which it possesses, and the constant exertion of these
powers." Such is the character of the kantuffa (Pterolobium
lacerans, Br.). It is a bushy shrub, six or eight feet high, well
furnished with thorns, and clothed with elegantly twice-pin-
* Delile, in Cailliaud, Voy. k Meroe, <Src. vol. iv.p. 323.
SYCAMORE-TREK. 323
nated leaves. In some parts of Abyssinia it is very abundant,
and where it grows thickly is a sufficient impediment to the
march of a royal army. The common soldier, who is protected
by the skins of animals, is alone indifferent to the thorns of this
plant. The ordinary cotton cloths of the country, though some
of them are as thick as a blanket, are no defence ; for the thorns
bury themselves in its substance, and are with the greatest diffi-
culty disengaged. When the king, therefore, commences any
warlike expedition, the clearing of the ground from this shrub
becomes of primary importance ; and one of the first procla-
mations runs according to the traveller above mentioned, in
the following pithy style : — " Cut down the kantuffa in the four
quarters of The world, for I do not know where I am going."
A very handsome tree in the southern and south-western parts
of Abyssinia, called Kuara (Erythrina Indica), is highly inter-
esting from a circumstance connected with it, recorded by
Bruce. He observes, that it is abundant in the province of
Kuara, of which it bears the name, in all Fazoglo, Nuba, and
Guba, and the countries where there is gold. The flower is of
the colour of fine red coral. The fruit is a pod, and the seeds
small red beans, marked with a black spot. These beans are
affirmed by Bruce ro have been used in the earliest ages by the
Shangalla as a weight for gold ; and as the native name for the
bean is Carat, he concludes that the modern expression in
regard to gold and precious stones, of so many carats fine, or
weight, originated in the gold-country of Africa.* A remark-
able coincidence occurs in another derivation of the word carat.
Some have supposed it to come from keootiov, in Latin siliqua,
the carob-bean, because the carat used in weighing diamonds
and other gems is four grains, and the carob-bean, or seed of the
carob-tree (Ceratonia siliqua), is about the weight of four grains
of wheat.
In the family Artocarpea we observe the sycamore-tree (Ficvs
Sycomorus). This is the true sycamore, a large evergreen tree,
with a trunk several feet in diameter, producing a fruit which
resembles the common fig. It grows, according to Norden, to
the size of the beech. In some parts of the mountains, espe-
cially on Taranta, the Hazorta feed their flocks on the foliage,
the succulent nature of the wood enabling them to cut down
the branches with great ease. By this custom both Mr. Bruce
and Mr. Salt found the forest deprived of much of their shade
and beauty. The figs are produced in clusters on the main
stem and branches ; they are smaller than the common kind,
sweet and delicate according to some authors, but too insipidly
luscious in the opinion of others. In Egypt, " the people for
the greater part live upon its fruit ; and think themselves well
* Bniee's Travels, A pp. p. 80, 8vo. ed.
324 BOTANY.
regaled whenjhey have a piece of bread, a couple of sycamore-
figs, and a pitcher filled with water from the Nile."* Bruce
mentions the singular fact, that, according to tradition, all the
mummy-chests which have been found from former ages were
made of sycamore, and that all those now found are constructed
of the same material. The name of this tree has been applied
very erroneously to the greater British maple (Acer pseudo-Pla-
tanus).
The kolquall belongs to the family of the Euphorbiacea ; it is
also manifestly a species of Euphorbia, and is referred by bot-
anists to E. antiquorwn. When young the whole plant con-
sists of a succulent green column resembling a cactus, five or six
inches in diameter, and of the same thickness from the bottom to
the top, fluted and angled, the angles beautifully scalloped.
From the summit of this column, which is at first like an aloe
in substance, but afterward hard and woody, the branches arise,
succulent and angular like the young plant, and, like it, never
producing leaves. In tnis manner an extraordinary tree is
formed, which attains the height of nearly forty feet. Flowers
of a golden colour are put forth at the ends of the branches,
and are succeeded by a deep crimson triangular fruit. In such
prodigious abundance was this tree observed on Taranta, when
that mountain was visited by Bruce, and so thickly did the
individuals stand together, that the coloured fruit made them
appear to be covered with a veil of the most vivid crimson. Like
other Euphorbias, the kolquall, possesses very acrid properties,
and exudes a copious milky fluid when wounded. Two of the
finest branches of a flourishing tree, divided by Bruce, poured
out a quantity that he estimated at the least to be four English
gallons, and which was so caustic as to excoriate the fingers as
if scalded with boiling water, and to leave an indelible sr.ain on
the sabre with which they were cut. In decay, the branches
wither and become filled with a pungent powder. Bruce again
met with this plant at the source of the Nile, but much degen-
erated in size and appearance. The Abyssinians prepare hides
for tanning by means of its acrid juice, winch is effectual in
removing the hair.f
A -very beautiful tree of Abyssinia, called cusso (Hagenia
Abyssinica), and belonging to the family Meliaceae ? is consid-
ered a specific in cases of worms, — a malady to which, it seems,
the natives of that country are peculiarly subject. The tree
is about twenty feet high, with a crooked trunk, and clothed
with pinnated leaves of a pleasant opaque green colour. "It
is planted always near churches, among the cedars which sur-
round them, for the use of the town or village.''^ It is indi-
* Norden's Travels, vol. i. p. 50, pi. 3S.
t Bruce's Travels, App. 8vo ed. p. 51. } Ibid. App. p. 90.
BALSAM OF MECCA. 325
genous to the high country ; and Bruce, in remarking- that he
never saw it in the Kolla, nor in Arabia, nor in any other part
of Asia or Africa, considers it "an instance of the wisdom of
Providence, that it does not extend beyond the limits of the
disease of which it was intended to be the medicine or cure !"*
The same author, in the fourth page from the quotation we
have given, has favoured us with a most, amusing specimen of
logical deduction ; he-is speaking of the representation of the
cusso in his work, — "As the figure of this plant is true and
exact beyond all manner of exception, I cannot but think it may
be found in latitudes 11° or 12° north, in the West Indies or
America;" thus not only making the .existence of the plant
in those countries depend upon the fidelity of his drawing, but
demolishing in anticipation his example of the wisdom of Prov-
idence as exhibited in confining the plant to Abyssinia.
The next vegetable production which falls under particular
notice is the balessa'm, balm, or balsam of Mecca {Balsamoden-
dron Opobalsamum), belonging to-the family BurseracecB. It is a
native of the eastern coast of Abyssinia; especially at Azab, and
as far as the Strait of Bab el Mandeb. Bruce says, it is a small
tree "above fourteen feet high, with, scraggy branches and flat-
tened top, like those which are exposed to the seaside blasts ;
the appearance is consequently stunted, and the leaves are
besides small and few. He supposes that it was transplanted to
Arabia, and there cultivated at~a very early period. This was
the Balsamum Judaicum, or Balm of Gilead of antiquity and of
the sacred writings, it being supposed at one time to be pro-
duced only in Judea. It seems, however, to have disappeared
from that country, and -the supply to have proceeded from Ara-
bia. Many fables are connected with it. Tacitus says that
the tree was so averse from iron that it trembled when a knife
was laid near it, and it was thought the incision should be made
with an instrument of ivory, glass, or stone. f Bruce was told
by Sidi Ali Taraboloussi that " the plant was no part of the
creation of God in the six days, but that in the last of three very
bloody battles Which Mahomet fought with the noble Arabs of
Harb, and his kinsmen the Beni Koreish, then pagans, at Beder
Hunein, Mahomet prayed to God, and a grove of balsam-trees
grew up from the blood of the slain upon the field of battle ;
and that with the balsam which flowed from them he touched
the wounds even of those that were dead, and all those predesti-
nated to be good Mussulmans afterward immediately came to
life." An equally marvellous legend is the Arabic fable respect-
ing El Wah, a shrub or tree nol^ unlike our hawthorn in form
and flower. From the- wood of this tree they believe that
Moses's rod was made when he sweetened the waters of Marah;
* Bruce's Travels, App. p. 89. t Ibid. App. p. 26.
E e
326 BOTANY.
and they say also, that by means of a rod of the same wood,
Kaleb Ibn el Waalid, the great destroyer of Christians, sweet-
ened the waters at El Wah, — the Oasis Parva of the ancients,
which were once bitter, and that he bestowed upon the place
the name borne by the wonder-working plant. To return to the
balsam-tree : the mode of obtaining it remains to be described.
This, according to Bruce, is done by making incisions in the
trunk at a particular season of the year, and receiving the fluid
that issues from the wounds into small earthen bottles, the pro-
duce of every day being collected and poured into a larger bottle,
which is kept closely corked. When first obtained, it is, gays
Bruce, " of a light yellow colour, apparently turbid, in which
there is a whitish cast, which I apprehend arises from the
globules of air that pervade the whole of it in its first state of
fermentation ; it then appears very light upon shaking. As it
settles and cools it turns clear, and loses that milkiness which
it first had. It has then the colour of honey, and appears more
fixed and heavy. The smell at first is violent and strongly pun-
gent, giving a sensation to the brain like to that of volatile salts
when rashly drawn up by an incautious person. . This lasts in
proportion to its freshness ; for being neglected, and the bottle
uncorked, it quickly loses this quality, as it probably will at
last by age, whatever care is taken of it."* The natives.of the
East use it medicinally in complaints of - the- stomach and
bowels, as well as a preservative .against the plague ; but its
chief value in the eyes of oriental ladies lies in its virtue as a
cosmetic, — although, as in the case of most other cosmetics, its
effects are purely imaginary. Lady Mary Wortley Montague
ascertained that it was in request by the ladies of the seraglio
at Constantinorrle ; but having tried it on her own person found
it exceedingly irritating to the skin. Much of the virtue attrib-
uted to it depends on. the costliness of the material.
Among the Xanthoxylea we observe ■ an Abyssinian shrub
dedicated to the traveller we have so often referred to. It is the
Brucea cmtidysmterica of botanists, the Wooginoos of the abo-
rigines. Bruce describes^ ifc as growing in the greater part of
Abyssinia, especially in the valleys of the low country. In Ras
el Feel it is found abundantly, and is regarded as a specific in
cases of dysentery, a disease which prevails there continually.
The root is the part employed, and Bruce himself was restored
to health by its use. The plant has recently been found to con-
tain a poisonous principle, less powerful, but similar in its effects
to strychnia, which has received the name of Brucia.f
The coffee-tree ( Coffea Arabim), belonging to the family called
Cmchonacea, is one of the indigenous plants of Abyssinia, as
Avell as of Arabia. It is an evergreen tree, or rather shrub,
* Brucea Travels, App. p. 29. t Turner's Chymistry, ed. 4, p. 776.
INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE. 327
fifteen or twenty feet in height, with an erect slender trunk and
long flexible branches. The white flower resembles that of the
common jasmine, and the fruit is like a small red cherry, en-
closing within a soft pulp the two oval seeds familiar to every
one as the coffee of commerce. At what period the use of cof-
fee was adopted as an article of diet we have no informa-
tion. On the authority of an Arabian manuscript, formerly
in the library of the King of France, and now deposited in the
Bibliotheque Nationale, Megaleddin, mufti of Aden in Arabia,
had met with it in Persia, and on his return having continued
to use the infusion, induced many others to fallow his example.
The beverage soon became popular in Aden, and rapidly ex-
tended to Mecca, Medina, and the other cities of Arabia Felix.*
Coffee was introduced at Grand Cairo by dervises from Yemen
resident in that city ;f when it was however opposed on reli-
gious grounds, -from the persuasion that it had an inebriating
quality ; and in 1523, Abdallah Ibrahim having denounced it in
a sermon, a violent commotion was produced, and the parties
came to blows. Upon this, says a writer in Rees's Cyclopaedia,
the Sheik Elbelet, commander of the city, assembled the doc-
tors, and after giving a patient hearing to their tedious ha-
rangues, treated them all with coffee, first setting the example by
drinking it himself, and then dismissed the assembly without
uttering another word\ By this prudent conduct the public
peace was restored ; and coffee continued to be drunk at Grand
Cairo without further molestation. At Constantinople it had
also to encounter religious opposition. The dervises had the
sagacity to discover that coffee, w T hen roasted, becomes a kind
of coal ; they therefore declaimed against it with fury, coal
being one of the substances which' their prophet declared not
intended by God for human food. The mufti was of their party,
and the coffee-houses were soon shut up. A more sensible
mufti succeeded, who assured the faithful that roasted coffee
is not coal, and they were again opened.^ Coffee experienced
political persecution likewise in Constantinople, from the jeal-
ousy of the government, which looked upon the coffee-houses
as little better than nurseries of sedition. It soon however tri-
umphed over every obstacle, and being taxed, produced a con-
siderable revenue. Public officers are appointed to inspect it
and prepare it ; and it is said that a refusal to supply a wife
with coffee is one of the legal grounds of divorce in Turkey.
Coffee was brought into notice in the west of Europe in the
seventeenth century. The first coffee-house in London was
opened m George Yard, Lombard-street, in 1652, by Pasqua, a
Greek servant ot Daniel Edwards, a Turkish merchant, and the
* Rees's Cyclopaedia, article Coffee. t D'Herbelot, p. 234.
J Rees's Cyclopaedia, article Coffee.
328 BOTANY.
number soon increased. In 1675 Charles II. attempted to sup-
press them, as places of resort dangerous to government, but
without effect ; and in 1G88 it was supposed that there wero as
many of these houses of entertainment in London as in Grand
Cairo, besides those to be met with in the principal towns
throughout the country. The coffee-tree begins to produce
fruit in its second year, and yields according to its age and size,
from one to four or five pounds. It is cultivated in the East and
West Indies, and has become of vast importance in the com-
mercial world. The quantity annually . consumed in Europe
alone is now probably not far short of two hundred millions of
pounds. In Abyssinia its value is said to have been known
from time immemorial. The Galla, who have frequently td cross
uncultivated deserts, carry with them small balls, made up of
pounded coffee and butter, and upon this food, in preference to
bread or flesh, they perform long journeys.
The next plant we have selected for a brief notice in this
place is the wansey {Cordia Abyssinica), belonging to the Cor-
diacecB. The wansey is an ornamental tree about twenty feet in
height, and for some unknown reason has divine honours paid
to it by the seven nations of the Galla. It is common in Abys-
sinia, and planted in all the towns. The flowering season -is
immediately after the periodical rains, when the pretty white
blossoms expand so .suddenly as to change the aspect of the
country. Bruce indeed says that it blossoms the first, day the
rains cease ; and that exactly on the 1st of September, for |
three years together, in a night's time it was covered with
such a multitude of flowers that Gondar and the neighbouring
towns appeared as if overspread with new-fallen snow. "When
called upon to choose a king, the representatives of the Galla
nations meet under the shade of this tree, and the individual on
whom the choice falls is crowned with a chaplet of wansey,
and has a sceptre of the wood put into his hand, which is called
Buco ; this sceptre is carried before him like a mace wherever
he goes l and is inseparable from royalty in the general meet-
ings of the nations.
A very remarkable plant is both described and figured by
Bruce under the name of ensete, but in such a vague and un-
satisfactory manner that it is impossible to make out its
botanical relations. It has been conjectured to be a kind of
banana (Musa) ; but this* is exceedingly doubtful, and we are
rather inclined to think that it will prove to be a new genus,
and the type of a new natural family of plants. The ensete is
of frequent occurrence in Abyssinia, especially in the moist and
warm parts of the country, but abounds " in that part of Mait-
sha and Goutto west of the Nile, where there are large planta-
tions of it, and it there, almost exclusive of any thing else,
forms the food of the Galla inhabiting that province," Bruce
ENSETE DOTJM-TREE. 329
in his description gives us no data for judging of the 6ize of
the ensete ; but he speaks of the stem being esculent for sev-
eral feet in height. The whole plant is herbaceous ; the leaves
are sessile, numerous, somewhat resembling those of the banana,
or some large species of Arum, and commencing at the very base,
where they are the largest, become smaller by degrees till they
reach the inflorescence. The fruit is bome on the upper part
of the stem, of a conical form, an inch and a half in length,
and about an inch in diameter, " in colour and consistence re-
sembling a rotten apricot," containing a " stone half an inch
long, of the shape of a bean." Above the part that produces
the fructification, the stalk begins to be curved downwards, and
is thickly set with small leaves (bracteee ?) " in the midst of
which it terminates the flower in the form of the artichoke." No
one can have a correct idea of the plant from such a description.
The fruit is not eatable, but the body of the plant, according to
Bruce, is to be preferred to all vegetables, and when boiled has
the taste of the best new wheat-bread not perfectly baked.
The individual plant represented in the Appendix to his Travels
was ten years old. " When you make use of the ensete for
eating, you cut it," says Bruce, " immediately above the small
detached roots, and perhaps a foot or two higher, as the plant is
of age. You strip the green from the upper part till it becomes
white ; when soft, like a turnip well boiled, if eaten with milk
or butter, it is the best of all food, wholesome, nourishing, and
easily digested."*
The doum-tree (Cucifera Thebaica), one of the Palmce,is a re-
markable tree, between thirty and forty feet in height, the trunk
of which exhibits a deviation rarely met with among palms, in
being repeatedly branched in a dichotomous manner. A tuft of
numerous leaves crowns the summit of each division of the
trunk, six feet long and three feet broad, supported on footstalks,
plaited, spreading like a fan, and split into radiating segments.
The flowers are produced on a branched receptacle, called in
botanical language a spadix, the whole being enclosed in a
sheath or spatha, through the side of which it bursts when the
flowers are about to expand. The fruit is oval, and suspended
in grape-like clusters. The doum-tree is of great value to the-
inhabitants of the countries where it grows, as it often takes
the place of the date-palm, and supplies them with food and
various useful articles ; besides, wherever it establishes itself
in the desert, various shrubs, and plants gradually rear their
heads under its shade, and in process of time render the burn-
ing sand fit for cultivation. The fruit is about the size of a
large walnut, and contains a pulp, the flavour of which is com-
pared both by Poiret and Captain Lyon to gingerbread. A sherbet
* Bruce, App. p. 49.
£e2
330 BOTANY.
is prepared from it resembling that made with the pods of the
carob-tree. Of the hard kernels beads are turned susceptible
of a beautiful polish. The natives manufacture baskets from
the leaves, of surprising neatness and beauty, as well as vessels
for containing water. Burckhardt also mentions that he saw
an encampment at Atbara, consisting of tents formed of mats
made of the leaves of the doum-tree.
Several Graminea, natives of Nubia and -Abyssinia, are culti-
vated for food. One of these is the dhourra (Sorghum vulgare),
the stalks of which, according to Burckhardt. often rise to the
height of sixteen or even twenty feet. In Upper Egypt .it is
much inferior in size. The grain is much esteemed. That
grown in Taka is of so fine a quality as to be nearly equal to
wheat. It is difficult to say whether dhourra is a name con-
fined to a particular kind of grain in Africa. It is certainly ap-
plied to the Sorghum vulgare, which is the Holcus Durra of For-
skahl, the H. Sorghum, L. and H. rhbens, Willd. The maize is
calied dhourra-kyzan. Another grain in common use through-
out Abyssinia is the teff (Poa Abyssinica), a kind of gr^s pos-
sessing little beauty, the seeds of which produce excellent flour.
"Wheaten-fiour is used by individuals of rank, but the common
bread of the country is made from the teff. From this bread,
when fermented with water till the mixture acquires an acid
taste, is prepared a kind of beer in general request by the Abys-
sinians. In addition to the above, Bruce mentions a gigantic
wild oat, of frequent occurrence, having stalks at least eight
feet long. It is sometimes so tall as to conceal both a horse
and his rider. In cases of emergency, the people make huts of
them like bee-hives. . The soldiers, who carry no tents, make
them very speedily for themselves of these Oats, the straw of
which is as thick as the little finger. The grain is not valued,
but the taste is good, and Bruce often made the meal into cakes
in remembrance of Scotland. He is of opinion that this is the
common oat in its original state, and that it has degenerated in
a European climate.
' The plant to which we mean to devote the remainder of our
limited space is not the least interesting one in the Egyptian and
Abyssinian floras, — the papyrus of the ancients. This cele-
brated vegetable, the Cyperus Papyrus of botanists, is a graceful
marsh plant twelve or fifteen feet in height. The roots creep
extensively, and throw up numerous stems, sheathed at the base
by a few sword-shaped leaves, and terminated with large and
elegant umbels of flowers. Bruce obtained specimens from the
lakes Tzana and Gooderoo in Abyssinia. The paper of anti-
quity was prepared from the inner portion of the stem ; and, on'
the authority of Pliny, the best and. most beautiful paper was
made out of the very heart of the substance of the stem, and was
composed of three layers, arranged in parallel and transverse
PAPYRUS. 331
rows, and submitted to heavy pressure. A kind of size seems
also to have been used, which glued the parts together and ren-
dered the spongy texture fitter for the reception of writing. To
be of g©od quality this paper was required to be fine, compact,
white, and smooth. Several coarser kinds were made. It
would appear from the same author that the Egyptians formerly
applied the plant to many purposes. " The inhabitants of Egypt
do use the root instead of wood, not for fuel only, but also to
make thereof sundry vessels and utensils in an house. The
very bodie and pole of the papyr itselfe servethvery well to twist
and weave therewith little boats, and the rinds thereof be good
to make saile-clothes, curtains, mats, and coverlets, clothes also
for hangings, and ropes. Nay, they used to chew and eat it
both raw and sodden ; but they swallow the juice only down
the throat, and spit out the grosse substance."* As for the flower,
it served no other purpose than for " chaplets to adorn the im-
ages of the gods." At one time the papyrus was in general re-
quest, not only in Egypt, but in other countries. Under the
Ptolemies the books of the great Alexandrian library were
copied on this paper ; but when Eumenes, king of Pergamus,
began to establish a rival library, a mean jealousy controlled the
dissemination of knowledge, and forbade the exportation of pa-
pyrus. Parchment came into more general use soon afterward,
and is said to have derived its Latin name pergamcnea from the
city of Pergamus, where it was substituted for the papyrus,
which was no longer to be obtained.!
* Pliny, book xiii., ch. 11. Holland's Translation.
t Vid. Vossii Etymologicon in voce Pergamenea.
THE END.
MISCELLANEOUS WORKS,
PUBLISHED BY J. & J. HARPER, NEW-YORK.
Life of Governor John Jay, 2 v. Svo
Life of Gov. Wm. Livingston, 8vo.
Sketches of Turkey 8vo.
Taylor's Records of his Life. .Svo.
Gibbon's Rome (fine) 4 v. 6vo.
Robertson's Works 3 v. Bvo.
History of Modern Europe, 3 v. Svo.
Life of Byron, by Moore. -2 v. svo.
Cooper's Surg. Dictionary, 2 v. Svo.
Hooper's Med. Dictionary, 2 v. Svo.
Wesley's Miscel. Works, 3 ▼. 8m
Rev. R'obt. Hall's Works, 3 v. Svo.
Good's Book of Nature Svo.
Crabb's English Synonymes. .Svo.
Brown's Bible Dictionary — Svo.
Gibson's Surveying Svo.
Davies' Surveying 8vo.
Davies' Descriptive Geometry. 8vo.
Davies' Shades and Shadows, Bvo.
Duchess D'Abrantes Svo.
Poems of Brooks and Willis, Svo.
Annals of Try on County 8vo»
Perc v Anecdotes Svo.
Morrell's Four Voyages Svo.
Hist, of the American Theatre. 8vo.
Letters from the jEgean Bn ■■
Dibdin's Reminiscences Svo.
Life of Dr. E. D. Clarke Svo.
Neele's Life and Remains Svo.
Bulwer's N -els 11 v. 12mo.
Miss Edf north's Works. .12mo.
The W" gs of Scotland, 2 v. 12mo.
Counr , Curate 2 v. 12mo.
Heiress of Bruges 2 v. 12mo.
Dreams and Reveries. . 2 v. 12mo.
Roxobel.... 3v. ISmo.
Diary' of a Physician. . .2 v. l?:no.
The Denounced 2 v. 12mo.
Private Life 2 v. 12mo.
LastofthePlantagenets,2v. 12mo.
Southennan 2 v. 12mo.
Heiress of Bruges 2 v. 12mo.
Stories of a Brfde 2 v. 12mo.
Tales by a Chaperon . . 2 v. 12rao.
Tales o'f the West- •• . 2 v. 12irto.
Refugee in America ... 2 v. 12mo.
Service Afloat 2 v. 12mo.
Seaward's Narrative 3 v. I2rno.
Jacqueline of Holland . .2 v. 12mo.
Walter Colvton 2 v. 12mo.
The Lost Heir 2 v. 12mo.
The Abbess 2 v. 12mo.
Tales of my Landlord . . 2 v. 12mo.
Chronicles of Canongate 2 v. 12mo.
Posthumous Papers — 2 v. 12mo.
Lawrie Todd 2 v. 12mo.
Yaks of Early Ages . . 2 v. 12mo.
Polynesian Researches, 4 v. 12mo,
Bush on the Millennium. . . .12ma
Keith on Prophecy 12mo.
British Spv, by Wirt 12mo.
The Comforter 12mo.
Stuart on N. America. .2 v. 12mow
Mrs. Morrell's Voyages 12mot
Verplanck's Discourses 12mo.
Wild Sports of the West. 2 v. 12m8.
Moore'sLife of Fitzgerald 2 v. 12mo.
French Revolution, 1S30 . . . 12mo.
France, by Lady Morgan. 2 v. 12m«.
Housekeeper's Manual 12mo.
Domestic Duties 12mo.
Mathematical Tables 12raa
Lives of Signers of Dec. Ind. 12ma
Schoberl's Christianity 12mo.
Modern American Cookery, 16mc
Art of Invigorating Life 18mo.
Plays ofMassinger and Ford, ISma
The Family Library ISmo.
The Theological Library 18mo.
Boy's and Girl's Library.... ISmo.
Library of Select Novels 12mo.
Classical Library ISmo.
&5~ These Libraries embrace
upwards of one hundred volumes.
— For the titles of which see tha
Publishers' general Catalogue.
12 mo.
12mo,
12mo.
12mo
12ma
12mo.
12mo.
12mo
12mo
12ma
12mo.
12mo
12 mo.
12mo.
12mo.
12mo.
12mo.
12mo.
12mo,
12mo.
12 mo.
12mo.
12rao.
12mo.
12mo.
The English at Home . .2 v.
Traits of Travel 2 v.
The Younger Son 2 v.
The New Forest 2 v.
Rom. of History, Spain. 29.
Rom. of History, France 2v.
Rom. of History Italy, 2 x.
Hungarian Tales 2 v.
Romarfce and Reality. . .2v.
The False Step, &c,.2v.
Waldegrave" 2 v.
Adventures of a Page . 2 v.
Rvbrent De Cruce 2 v.
The School of Fashion, 2 v.
Stratton Hill 2 v.
Almack's Revisited 2 v.
lignsof a Cornet, 2 v.
Tales of Military Life . .2 v.
Falkland
Sketches of Irish Character. .
Leggetfs Tales. &e
ions Student
The Talba— Beatrice . .2 v.
Incognito — Haverhill . . 2 v.
Zohrab— Oxonians ... 2 v.
Waverley— Cloudesley, 2 v.
Foscarim— Maxwell . . .2 v.
Arlington — Separation, 2 v.
12roo
FAMILY CLASSICAL LIBRARY.
The Publishers have much pleasure in recording
the following testimonials in recommendation of the
Family Classical Library.
"Mr. Valpy has projected a Family Classical Library. The idea is
excellent, and the work cannot fail to be acceptable to youth of both sexes,
as well as to a large portion of the reading community, who have not had
ihe benefit of a learned education." — Gentleman's Magazine, Dec. 1829.
" We have here the commencement of another undertaking for the more
general distribution of knowledge, and one which, if as well conducted
as we may expect, bids fair to occupy an enlarged station in our imme-
diate literature. The volume before us is a specimen well calculated to
recommend what are to follow. Leland's Demosthenes is an excellent
work." — Lit. Gazette.
" This work will be received with great gratification by every man who
knows the value of classical knowledge. All that we call purity of taste,
vigour of style, and force of thought, has either been taught to the modern
world by the study of the classics, or has been guided and restrained by
those illustrious models. To extend the knowledge of such works is to
do a public service." — Court Journal.
" The Family Classical Library is another of those cheap, useful, and
elegant works, which we lately spoke of as forming an era in our pub-
lishing history." — Spectator.
"The present era seems destined to be honourably distinguished in
literary history by the high character of the works to which it is succes-
sively giving birth. Proudly independent of the fleeting taste of the day,
they boast substantial worth which can never be disregarded; they pat
forth a claim to permanent estimation. The Family Classical Library is
a noble undertaking, which the nameof the editor assures us will be exe-
cuted in a style worthy of the great originals." — Morning Post.
" This is a very promising speculation ; and as the taste of the day runs
Just now very strongly in favour of such Miscellanies, we doubt not it
will meet with proportionate success. It needs no adventitious aid, how
ever influential ; it has quite sufficient merit to enable it to stand on
its own foundation, and will doubtless assume a lofty grade in public
favour." — Sun.
" This work, published at a low price, is beautifully got up. Though
to profess to be content with translations of the Classics has been tie
nounoed as ' the thin disguise of indolence,' there are thousands who
have no leisure for studying the dead languages, who would yet like to
know what was thought and said by the sages and poets of antiquity
To them this work will be a treasure." — Sunday Times.
" This design, which is to communicate a knowledge of the most
esteemed authors of Greece and Rome, by the most approved translations,
to those from whom their treasures, without such assistance, would be
hidden, must surely be approved by every friend of literature, by every
lover of mankind. We shall only say of the first volume, that as ,the
execution well accords with the design, it must command general appro-
bation." — The Observer.
" We see no reason why this work should not find its way into the
boudoir of the lady, as well as into the library of the learned. It is cheap,
portable, and altogether a work which may safely be plsced in the li&ada
Of persons of both sexes."— Weekly Free Frets.
FAMILY CLASSICAL LIBRARY.
"A greater desideratum to the English reader cannot well be brought
to pabhc notice."— Bell's Weekly Messenger.
" The Family Classical Library may be reckoned as one of the most
Instructive series of works nowiu the course of publication."— Cambridge
Chronicle.
"A series of works under the title of the Family Classical Library
is now in the course of publication, which will, no doubt, arrest the atten-
tion of all the admirers of elegant and polite literature— of that literature
which forms the solid and indispensable basis of a sound and gentlemanly
education." — Bath Herald.
" We are inclined to augur the most beneficial results to the rising
generation from the plan and nature of this publication ; and we doubt not
that under the able superintendence of Mr. Valpy, the value of the present
work will not exceed its success as a mere literary speculation. It ought
to find a place in every school and private family in the kingdom." — Bris-
tol Journal.
" The design of this publication is highly laudable : if it be patronised
according to its deserts, we have no hesitation in saying that its success
will be very considerable." — Edinburgh Advertiser.
" If we had been called on to state what in our opinion was wanted to
complete the several periodicals now in course of publication, we should
have recommended a translation of the most approved ancient writers, in
a corresponding style. This undertaking, therefore, of Mr. Valpy's, most
completely meets the view we had entertained on the subject We
strongly recommend the production to the notice of schools, as its perusal
must tend to implant on the minds of the pupils a love for ancient lore.
In Ladies' Seminaries the series will, indeed, be invaluable — the stores of
antiquity being thus thrown open to them." — Plymouth and Devonport
Herald.
" Economy is the order of the day in books. The Family Classical Li-
brary will greatly assist the classical labours of -tutors as well as pupils.
We suspect that a period is arriving when the Greek and Latin authors
will be more generally read through the medium of translations." — Chel-
tenham Journal.
"We avail ourselves of the earliest opportunity of introducing to the
notice of our readers a work which appears to promise the utmost advan-
tage to the rising generation in particular. There is no class of people to
whom it is not calculated to be useful— to the scholar, it will be an agree-
able guide and companion; while those to whom a classical education
has been denied will find in it a pleasant and a valuable avenue towards
those ancient models of literary greatness, which, even in this age of
boasted refinement, we are proud to imitate." — Aberdeen Chronicle.
"The Family Classical Library will contain the most correct and ele-
gant translations of the immortal works of all'the great authors of Greece
and Rome ; an acquaintance with whose writings is indispensable to every
man who is desirous of acquiring even modern classical attainments." —
Liverpool Albion,
" This volume promises to be an invaluable acquisition to those but
partially acquainted with the Greek and Latin languages: such of the
fair sex more especially as direct their laudable curiosity in the channel
of classic literature must find in translation the very key to the knowledge
they seek. The mere trifle for which the lover of literature may now
furnish his library with an elegant and uniform edition of the best trans-
lations from the classics, will, it cannot be doubted, ensure the Family
Classical Library a welcome reception."— Woolmer's Exeter Gazette.
"This work will supply a desideratum in literature; and we hope it
will meet -with encouragement. The translations of many of the ancient
authors, who may be looked on as the great storehouse of modern litera-
ture, are out of the reach of the English reader ; and this publication will
reader them accessible loaU'*— Yorkshire Gazette.
LIBRARY OF SELECT NOVELS.
Fictitious composition Is now admitted to form an extensive and ita
port ant portion of literature. Well-wrought novels take their rank by tile
side of real narratives, and are appealed to as evidence in all question*
concerning man. In them the customs of countries, the transitions and
shades of character, and even the very peculiarities of costume and dia-
lect, are curiously preserved ; and the imperishable spirit that surrounds
and keeps them for the use of successive generations renders the rarities
fbr ever fresh and green. In them human life is laid down as on a map.
The strong and virid exhibitions of passion and of character which they
furnish, acquire and maintain the strongest hold upon the curiosity, and,
it may be added, the affections of every class of readers ; for not-only ta
entertainment in all the various moods of tragedy and comedy provided in
their pages, but he who reads them attentively may often obtain, without
the bitterness and danger of experience, that knowledge of his fellow-
creatures which but for such aid could, in the majority of cases, ba only
acquired at a period of life too late to turn It to account.
This " Library of Select Novels" will embrace none but such as have
received the impress of general approbation, or have been written by
authors of established character; and the publishers hope to receive sucn
encouragement from the public patronage as will enable them in the
oourse of time to produce a series of works of uniform appearance, and
including most of the really valuable novels and romances that have been
*r shall be issued from the modern English and American press.
There is scarcely any question connected with the interests of literature
which has been more thoroughly discussed and investigated than that of
the utility or evil of novel reading. In its favour much may be and has
been said, and it must be admitted that the reasonings o> hose who be-
lieve novels to be injurious, or at least useless, are not witu. "t force and
plausibility. Yet, if the arguments against novels are clossv examined,
it will be found that they are more applicable in general to ex.. ssive in-
dulgence in the pleasures afforded by the perusal of fictitious adventure*
than to the works themselves ; and that the evils which can be justly
ascribed to them arise almostuxclusively, not from any peculiar noxious
qualities that can be fairly attributed to novels as a species, but from thoa*
Individual works which in their class must bo pronounced to be indif-
ferent.
But even were It otherwise — were novels of every kind, the good as
well as the bad, the striking and animated not less than the puerile, in-
deed liable to the charge of enfeebling or perverting the mind ; and were
there no qualities in any which might render them instructive as well as
amusing — the universal acceptation which they have ever received, and
still continue to receive, from all ages and classes of men, would prove
an irresistible incentive to their production. The remonstrances of moral-
ists and the reasonings of philosophy have ever beea, and will still be
found, unavailing against the desire to partake of an ioyment ao attrac-
tive. Men will read novels ; and therefore the utmost that wisdom and
Ebilanthropy can do is to cater prudently for the public appetite, and, as it
i hopeless to attempt the exclusion of fictitious writings from the shelves
of the library, to see that they are encumbered with the least possible
number of such as have no othar merit than that of novelty.
JEJ* Sixteen works, by eminent aiUhors, have already been pi&>
Uehed m the" Library of Select Novels" which are sold separately
•r m complete set*.— For thttitles sir the Publishers' catalogue.
BOY'S AND GIRL'S LIBRARY.
PROSPECTUS.
The publishers of the " Boy's and Girl's Li-
brary" propose, under this title, to issue a series
of cheap but attractive volumes, designed espe-
cially for the young. The undertaking originates
not in the impression that there does not already
exist in the treasures of the reading world a large
provision for this class of the community. They are
fully aware of the deep interest excited at the present
day on the subject of the mental and moral training
of the young, and of the amount of talent and labour
bestowed upon the production of works aiming
both at the solid culture and the innocent entertain-
ment of the inquisitive minds of children. They
would not therefore have their projected enterprise
construed into an implication of the slightest dis-
paragement of the merits of their predecessors in th*
same department. Indeed it is to the fact of the
growing abundance rather than to the scarcity oi
useful productions of this description that the de~
sign of the present work is to be traced ; as they
are desirous of creating a channel through which
the products of the many able pens enlisted in tha
yt
service of the young may be advantageously con-
veyed to the public.
The contemplated course of publications will
more especially embrace such works as are adapt*
ed, not to the extremes of early childhood or of
advanced youth, but to that intermediate spp"-
wliich lies between childhood and the opening
maturity, when the trifles of the nursery and me
simple lessons of the school-room have ceased to
exercise their beneficial influence, but before the
taste for a higher order of mental pleasure has es-
tablished a fixed ascendency in their stead. In the
selection of works intended for the rising gccera-
tion in this plastic period of their existence, when
the elements of future, character are receiving their
moulding impress, the publishers pledge themselves
that the utmost care and scrupulosity shall be exer-
cised. They are fixed in their determination that
nothing of a questionable tendency on the score of
sentiment shall find admission into pages conse-
crated to the holy purpose of instructing the thoughts,
regulating the passions, and settling the principles
of the young. *
In fine, the publishers of the " Boy's and Girl's
Library" would assure the public that an adequate
patronage alone is wanting to induce and enable
them to secure the services of the most gifted pens
in our country in the proposed publication, and thus
to render it altogether worthy of the age and the
object which call it forth, and of the countenance
which they solicit for it
University of California
SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY
405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90024-1388
Return this material to the library
from which it was borrowed.
HARPER'S FAMILY LIBRARY.
os. 1, 2, 3. Miiman's History
of the Jew With plates 3 v.
1,5. Lockhar? v LifeofNapo-
maparte. Plate.*.. 2v.
• *s Life of Nelson 1 v.
. \Y 'liams's Life of Alexan-
der the Great, Plates — lv.
History of Insects 1 v.
. Gait's Life of Lord Byron 1 t.
. Btish's Life of Mohammed 1 v<
. Scott on Demonology and
-aft:. Plate 1 v.
13 Gleig's Bible History. . 2 v.
Discovery and Adventure
in t be Polar Seas, &c I v.
ifi. of Ge >rge IV. 1 v.
Discovery and Adventure
in Africa*. Engravings .. lv.
13.19. Cunningham's Lives
of Painters. Sculptors, &c. 3 v.
James's Ki -;tory of Chiv-
alry and tae C : • usaces .... 1 v.
22. Bell's Lite of Mary
Queen of Scots. Portrait 2 v.
Euseelri Mod-
ern Eg}"' es.. lv.
Fletcher and lv.
Smith's Festivals, Games,
and Amusements lv.
Brewster's Life of Sir Isaac
Newton, With plates... lv.
. Palestine, or toe
Holy Lan • With Plates I v.
Memes's Memciri of Em-
press Josephine Plates., lv.
The Court and Camp of
Bonapwe, With platen lv,
L.ves of Early Navigators lv.
-.on of Pitcairti'a.
&.e. Engravings.. 1 v.
Turner's Sacred History., lv.
33,34. Memoirs of celebrated
Female Sovereign
35,36. Landers' Africa
37. . Abercronnie on the Intel-
lectual Powers, &c- . ...
38, 39, 40. Lives of Celebrated
Travellers ...
41, 42. Life of Frederic IL King
of Prussia Portrait.. . . .
43, 44. Sketches fora Venetian
History. With plates...
45, 46. Thatcher's Indian Lives
47,48.49. History of India...
50: Brewster's Lts'.<c?s on Nat-
ural Magic
51,52. History
53, Discoveries on the North-
ern C
54. Hut
ural philoeo]
FT, Mud,.
serv;
53. After
59. Dick
ofSo'
60. Jame
61. Nubia and _*
62. 63. Li
Several
CLASSICAL SERIES.
1,2. Xenophor.
Cyropaedia.) Port-
3,4. Leland's Demos i
5. Rose's Sallti-
6,7. Casals C
DRAM AT!
1,2,3. Massrngei
4 5; Ford's Pla> •
: lip
Revel &
3So»'8 ana €cirl»»5.
c... i
it
?male Bi
16. <„iiroUne W
StanUattt histories
Rome Maps
sovfa Works = Platen.
i History of Modem
RusHeU and J*
Unive