■:p^ MODERN SCHOOL BUILDINGS FELIX CLAY MWV. OF CALIF. LIBRARY. L9$ ANQ6ki& MODERN SCHOOL BUILDINGS ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY MODERN SCHOOL BUILDINGS ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY A TREATISE ON THE PLANNING, ARRANGEMENT, AND FITTING OF DAY AND BOARDING SCHOOLS HAVING SPECIAL REGARD TO SCHOOL DISCIPLINE, ORGANISATION, AND EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENTS WITH SPECIAL CHAPTERS ON THE TREATMENT OF CLASS ROOMS, LIGHTING, WARMING, VENTILATION, AND SANITATION BY FELIX CLAY, B.A. Architect WITH NEARLY FOUR HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS, COMPRISING THE PLANS OF EIGHTY-FIVE SCHOOLS, AND NUMEROUS FIGURES OF DETAILS AND FITTINGS LONDON B. T. BATSFORD, 94 HIGH HOLBORN NEW YORK CHAS. SCRIBNER'S SONS, 153-7 FIFTH AVENUE 1903 ANNEX 320^ /9o3 PREFACE. The published information on the subject of school buildings in this country, especially with regard to those for the purpose of secondary education, is curiously deficient. The writer of this work, when joining, some years ago, a body concerned with the building and management of a considerable number of Secondary Schools, felt very strongly the want of a book dealing with the ordinary questions arising in connection with their buildings. A careful search, however, elicited the fact that no such thing e.xisted. There was of course Mr Robson's well-known " School Architecture,'' but this, brought out in 1874, a period when drastic changes in tuition and in the arrangement of school buildings were in progress, has become for the most part inapplicable to the modern style of school. It is also practically confined to the Board Schools of London, and a short chapter in it, with another in Mr Robins' " Technical School and College Building," represent the literature dealing with the subject of buildings for Secondary Schools. The present volume is intended to supply this deficiency, and while both Elementary and Secondary Schools are included, the latter have been made its principal aim. They are dealt with before the Elementary Schools, on the ground that it is more desirable that the methods of Secondary School buildings should find their way into the Elementary Schools, than that those of the Elementary School should be adopted in the Higher Schools, as has hitherto been too much the case ; probably owing to the fact that the books published on school buildings treat nearly all questions from the point of view of the Board School. vi PREFACE. The book is itself a compilation of facts and informatic.i drawn from as many sources as possible, and illustrated by actually existing buildlnos, for the purpose of affording the necessary data from which a healthy and convenient building may be evolved. It does not attempt to suggest the lines upon which the perfect school of the future will be planned. In its arrangement the object has been, first, to give a general survey of the conditions under which education is carried on,* with a sufficient account of the organisation and daily routine of the various kinds of schools, in order to convey an idea of the uses of the different rooms, their general requirements, and their relations to one another ; and secondly, by giving the plans of a number of recent buildings, to show the different methods that have been tried to meet those requirements. Questions which affect the health of the scholars, such as liohting- warmingr. and ventilation, are considered at considerable length. For much of the matter the writer is indebted to the many Head Masters and Mistresses who have been kind enough to go round their schools with him, and who made valuable suggestions as to the plan of the building from the point of view of the Principal of the school. The writer would like to take this opportunity of expressing his most sincere thanks to them, and to others who have helped with advice and suggestions, among whom the Dean of Manchester, Sir J. Fitch, Mr William Bousfield, Mr Basil Champneys, and Miss Mary Gurney should be mentioned as havingf sfiven valuable aid. The plans are in all cases, except those of schools from foreign countries, given with the permission of the architects who designed the buildings, whose courteous and ready assistance in offering" every facility, both by the loan of drawings and in giving information, has alone made the production of the book possible. FELIX CLAY. Septetnber 1902. * The Education Bill introduced in 1902 proposes many and far-reaching changes. A short note of the suggested alterations has been added at the end of the First Chapter. CONTENTS. PART I.-SECONDARY EDUCATION. PAGE INTRODUCTION ....... i CHAPTER I. ADMINISTRATIVE AND GENERAL - - - ir Meaning of the Term — Grammar Schools — Public Schools — The Board of Education. II. THE ORGANISATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS - 22 III. GIRLS' SCHOOLS ------ 30 Origin, Growth, Organisation, &c. IV. SCHOOL SYSTEMS IN GERMANY AND AMERICA- 41 V. SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS - - 53 Sites — Aspect — Accommodation — List of Rooms Required, &c. VI. SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS ifontmued)- 68 The Hall or Assembly Room — Staircases — Corri- dors — Entrances. VII. SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS {coiithmed) - 77 The Class-Room, Size and Shape— Desks — Sliding Partitions — Lighting — Position and Size of Windows — Artificial Lighting. VIII. SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS {continued)- 126 Rooms for the Te.a.ching of Natural Science and Art — Chemical and Physical Laboratories — Examples — Lecture Rooms — Studios. viii CONTENTS. CHAPTER PAGE IX. SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS {continued)- 151 Cloak-rooms — The Principal's Room — Dining- rooms — Kitchens — Libraries — Sixth Form Room — Museums — Emergency Rooms — Music-rooms — Kinder- garten Schools and Rooms. X. SECONDARY DAY SCHOOLS - - - - 167 Examples of Buildings in England, Germany, and America. XI. TRAINING COLLEGES ----- 207 Pupil Teachers' Schools— Practising Schools, &c. — Examples. XII. BOARDING SCHOOLS ----- 217 Schools with Separate Boarding Houses — Ex- amples. XIII. BOARDING HOUSES ----- 238 Dormitories and Cubicles— Day Room.s — Changing Rooms, &c. — Examples. XIV. BOARDING SCHOOLS IN ONE BLOCK - - 254 Preparatory School.s — Examples. XV. BOARDING SCHOOLS {continued) - - - - 268 Sanatoria — Infirmaries — Provision for Games AND Area Required — Fives Courts— Gv.mnasia. XVI. ALTERATIONS AND ADDITIONS - - - 280 The Conversion of Dwelling-Houses to Schools — The Cost of Schools — The Care of Buildings. PART II.-ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. XVII. ADMINISTRATIVE AND GENERAL - - - 293 General Description, and Account of the dif- ferent kinds of Schools and the Authorities con- cerned. XVIII. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN TYPE OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL - - - - 304 CONTENTS. ix CHAPTER PACE XIX. LARGE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS - - - 312 Area Required — Playgrounds — Class-rooms — Cloak-rooms — Infant Schools — Examples of Schools IN England, Ger>la.nv, and America — Comtarative Survey. XX. ICLEMENTARY SCHOOLS {continued) - - - 3SS Higher Grade Sciiool.s — Examples. XXI. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS {continued) - - - 364 Small Country and Village Schools— Schools for Defective Children — Poor Law Schools — Bar- rack Schools — Cottage Homes — Example.s. PART III.-THE HYGIENE OF SCHOOLS. XXII. \'ENTILATI0N and HEATING - - - - 383 XXIII. SANITATION ------- 414 L.\vatorie.s — SwiM.\nxG B.\ths — Shower and Spray Baths— Sanitary Conveniences, &c. APPENDICES. A. Rules of the Board of Education to be observed in Planning and Fitting up Elementary Schools - 433 B. Schools for Blind or Deaf Children - - - 444 INDEX --------- 431 LIST OF SCHOOLS ILLUSTRATED. SCHOOL. A Kindergarten School, Germany - A Kindergarten School, Ziirich Blackheath High School, The Assembl)- Hall A German School - - - . Colet House Preparatory School - The Boarding-house The Bedford Grammar School The Streatham Hill High School - The Blackburn High School The Dewsbury Grammar School - The Sheffield High School Aske's School for Girls, Hatcham - Aske's School for Girls, Acton The Coborn School for Girls, Bow Road - The Hulme Grammar School Hymer's College, Hull The Wimbledon High School The Stamford Hill High School - The City of London School St Paul's School, West Kensington The School for Boys, Barnard's Inn The Newcastle High School The Birmingham High School The Manchester High School The Judd Commercial School, Tunbridge Wells - - - - A German Realschule The Xn. Realschule, Berlin Die Augustinerschule, Friedburg - The Kaiser Wilhelm's Gymnasium, Aachen A Combined Secondary and Elementary School, Ziirich The Brighton High School, Boston, U.S.A. The Groton School, U.S.A. The Maria Grey Training College - The Froebel Training Institution - ARrHITFXT. Reinold Faber A. Geiser - E. R. Robson W. H. SpauU E. C. Robins J. O. Smith Stones & Gradwell - T. Lane Fox J. O. Smith & Tanner Stock, Page, & Stock Stock, Page, & Stock G. Elkington J. W. Fri'th Botterill, Son, & Bilson J. O. Smith W. Campbell Jones Davis & Emanuel - A. Waterhouse, R.A. T. C. Clarke & Son Oliver, Leeson, & Woods J. A. Chatvvin Mills & Murgatroyd W. Campbell Jones Reinold Faber A. Geiser - E. U. Wheelwright J. O. Smith J. S. Quilter I'AGE - 164 - 165 - 170 - 173 175' 176 25-- 253 - 177 178 180 180 - iSi - 182 184 iSs, 186 IS7 1 88, 189 - 190 191 - 192 - 193 193. 194 195. 196 - 197 - 198 . 198 - 198 - 199 - 200 - 201 - 202 - 203 204, 205 - 209 - 210 Xll LIST OF SCHOOLS ILLUSTRATED. ARCHITECT. The Offord Road Pupil Teachers' Centre - Practising School, Saffron Walden - Training College at Pyritz - State Normal School, Salem, U.S.A. Christ's Hospital, The New Buildings at Horsham . - - - Bird's-eye View Block Plan - - - - Hall and Class-rooms Kitchens and Offices One of the Boarding-houses Christ's Hospital, Competition Design for. General Plan - - - - Christ's Hospital, Competition Design for Hall and Class-rooms A Boarding-house - The Royal Masonic Institution for Boys, Bushey . . . _ General Plan Block Plan of Site - Bird's-eye View A Boarding-house - The Royal Masonic Institution, Bushey, Competition Design - Block Plan - Bird's-eye View Hall and Class-rooms Kitchen and Offices A Boarding-house - The Roedean School, Brighton Block Plan - - - . Interior Views Bird's-eye View Central Block A Boarding-house - Competition Design for Bedford Grammar School, Hall and Class-rooms Bedales School, Petersfield St Margaret's School for Girls, Bushey View of a Dormitory Boarding School for C;irls, Ashby-de-la- Zouche - - - - New College, Hull The Knaresborough Grammar School The Bridlington Grammar School - A School Sanatorium A School Infirmary A Lancasterian School T. J. Bailey J. O. Smith J. P. Rinn - Aston Webb & Ingress Bell. Carpenter & Ingelow Paley & Austin Gordon & Gunton. Basil Champneys. J. \\'. Simpson. Basil Champneys - E. Prioleau Warren A. Waterhouse & Son Barrowcliffe & Alcock Hall, Cooper, & Davis Barrowcliffe & Alcock Botterill, Son, & Bilson Basil Champneys - Basil Champneys - PAGE 210 211 2 12, 213 216 222 223 232 224 223 231 246 225 225 226 248 - 225 226 172 - 236 - 249 226 227, 228 - 228 229, 230 ■ -51 - 233 257, 258 259, 260 - 239 261 262, 263 - 265 266, 267 270 272 - 3°S LIST OF SCHOOLS ILLUSTRATED. xiu SCHOOL. A School on Stow's System A School on the Pupil Teacher System A Village School in 1S40 ■ The Ben Jonson School Diagrams of ten London Board Schools showing Development of Plan The Cobbold Road School Plan of Site The Campsbourne Schools, Hornsey Plan of Site The Varna Street School, Manchester Plan of Site Infant School The Conway Road School, Birmingham - The Great Horton School, Bradford The Brunt.sfield School, Edinburgh Plan of Site The Broughton Road School, Edinburgh - The Ale.xandra Parade School, Glasgow Elementary School in the Christburger- strasse, Berlin Plan of Site Elementary School, Mannheim A German Town School - Large Elementary School, Germany Public School, Longshore Street, Philadelphia The Auburndale School, Toledo, Ohio The Fowler School-house, Cleveland, Ohio The Bridgeport School, U.S.A. Public School, Pine Street, Philadelphia - The Central Higher Grade School, Manchester Higher Grade School, Scarborough The Stanley Road Higher Grade School, Nottingham - - - - The Falkirk High School - The Cressing Schools, Chelmsford Combined School and Parish Room, St James-the-Less, Bethnal Green A Small German School - The Oakbank School, Scotland Girls' and Infant School, Armadale A "Special" School The Chase Farm Poor Law Schools The Hornchurch Cottage Homes - Detail of one Cottage AUCUITKCT. T. Roger Smith T. J. Bailey H. C. Clarke Potts, Son, &: Hennings Martin & Martin - \\'. J. Morley Robert Wilson Robert Wilson M'Whannell & Rogerson Reinold Faber Reinold Faber Palliser & Palliser - ^\'arren Briggs Potts, Son, & Hennings Hall, Cooper, & Davis A. N. Bromley A. & W. Black Clare & Ross E. Hoole - J. Graham Fairley - J. Graham Fairley - T. J. Bailey T. E. Knightley - Francis Smith 1>AGE - 306 - 307 - 307 308 310. 311 326 - 316 327-329 - 315 330-332 - 314 - 334 335 337 ,33s - 338 - 315 - 339 340 341 316 344 - 345 - 347 - 349 349 - 350 - 352 - 352 357 359 360 ,361 362 ,363 365 366 367 - 367 - 367 - 369 37. 4-377 37S > 379 - 379 A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORKS ON SCHOOLS AND THEIR ARCHITECTURE. The subjoined list contains, it is hoped, all the books in English dealing with school architecture. With 7-egard to foreign hooks, and those upon such subjects as school hygiene, organisation, Gfc, which touch incidentally upon the question of school buildings, there is no attempt at an exhaustive list ; only those zuhich have been consulted or referred to are here described. It should be noted that the date given is that of the latest edition. Abel, W. Jenkinson. School Hygiene. London, 1890. Allsop, F. C. Practical Electric Light Fitting. London, 1900. Badley, J. H. Bedales School : Outline of its Aims and System. Cambridge, 1900. Baginsky, Adolf von. Schulhygiene, vol. i. Stuttgart, 1898. Baldwin, Joseph. School Management and School Methods. New York, 1899. Balfour, Graham. The Educational Systems of England. London, 1899. Barnard. School Architecture. New York, 1 848. Barnett, p. A. Teaching and Organisation. London, 1897. Billings, J. J. Heating and Ventilation. New York, 1898. Briggs, W. R. Modern American School Buildings. New York, 1899. Bryant, Sophie. An Account of the North London Collegiate School for Cirls. London. Brvce, Right Hon. James. Studies in Secondary Education. BucHAN, William Paton. Ventilation and Air Testing. London, 1891. BuDGETT, J. B. The Hygiene of Schools. London, 1874. Burn, R. S. On the Arrangements, Construction, and Fittings of School Houses. 1856. Burnard, Dr FL Practical Illustrations of School Architecture. New York, 1854. School Architecture. New York, 1850. School Architecture : Graded Schools. 1868. BuRSTALL, Sarah. The Education of Girls in the United States. London, 1894. Cacheux, E. Construction et Organisation des Creches, &c. Paris, 1S84. Carnelly, Dr T. Report on the Cost and Efficiency of the Heating and Ventilation of Schools. 1889. Carpenter, Alfred. The Principles and Practice of School Hygiene. London, 1887. Carpenter, R. C. Heating and Ventilating Buildings. New York, 1901. Chadwick, E. Sanitary Principles of School Construction. London, 1871. Chester, H. Hints on the Building and Management of Schools. London, 1859. xvi BIBLIOGRAPHY. CoHN, Hermann. Tageslicht-messungen in Schulen. Wiesbaden, 1S85. Lehrbuch der Hygiene des Auges. Wien, 1892. Ueber den Ein'fluss hygienischer Massregeln auf die Schulmyopie. Hamburg, 1890. Combes, E. Report on the Ligliting, Heating, and Ventilation of School Buildings in Great Britain and the Continent. Sydney, 1880. CowHAM, Joseph H. School Organisation, Hygiene, and Discipline. London, 1899. Df.lv.\ille et Breucq. La Sante de I'Ecolier. Paris, 1902. Drummond, W. B. The Child. London, 1900. Dukes, Dr Clement. Health at School. London, 1S94. Educational Codes of Foreign Countries. London, 18S9. Erismann. Die kiinstliche Beleuchtung der Schule. 1897. Farquharson, Dr R. School Hygiene. London, 1885. Fitch, Sir Joshua G. Lectures on Teaching. Cambridge, 1898. Educational Aims and Methods. Cambridge, 1900. Notes on American Schools and Training Colleges. London, 1890. Fleming, J. A. Electric Lamps and Electric Lighting. London, 1899. Fletcher, B. F. and H. P. Architectural Hygiene. London, 1902. Gardner, E. C. Town and Country School Buildings. New York, 1SS8. Geiser, a. Neuere Stadtische Schulhiiuser in Ziirich. Ziirich, 1901. Georgens. Kindergartenbuch. Gladman, J. School Work and Organisation. London, 189S. Grafton, Walter. A Handbook of Practical Gasfitting. London, 1901. Handbuch der Architektur (various writers). Vol. VI., Gebaude fiir Erziehung, Wissenschaft und Kunst. Part vi., Niedere und hohere Schulen. Darmstadt, 1889. Health Exhibition Literature. Vol. xiii.. Conditions of Healthy Education. Hellyer, S. S. The Plumber and Sanitary Houses. 1900. Hintr.ager, Carl. Das moderne Schulhaus, 1896. Bau und Einrichtung von Erziehungsanstalten fiir die Jugend des Vorschulpflichtigen Alters. Hittenkofer. Der Schulhausbau. Leipsic, 18S7. Hodgins, J. G. Hints and Suggestions on School Architecture. Toronto, 1886. The School House: its Architecture, External and Internal Arrangements. Toronto, 1857. Holman, Henry. English National Education. Victorian Era Series. London, 1897. Home and Colonial School Society. Hints on School Building, 1874. Hope AND Brown. School Hygiene. The Cambridge Series. London, 1901. Jacob, Prof. E. H. Ventilation and Warming. London, 1894. Johonnot, J. Country School Houses. New York, 1S59. Kendall, H. E. Designs for Schools and School Houses. 1847. Kerr, G. School Hygiene. Koch, Adolf. Die Bauart und die Einrichtung der Stadtischen Schulen in Frankfurt am Main. Frankfurt, 1900. BIBLIOGRArilY. xvii Labit et Polin. L'Hygiene Scolaire. 1896. Lancastkk, Joseph. Hints and Directions for Building, Fitting Uj), and Arranging Schoolrooms on the British System of Education. London, 181 1. Leclerc, Max. L'Education en .^ngleterre. Paris, 1894. LiEBRKiCH, Richard. School Life in its Influence on Sight and Figure. London, 1878. Local Government Board. Report on the Ventilation and AVarming in certain of the Metropolitan Poor Law Schools. W. N. Shaw, 189S. Marrle, Albert P. Sanitary Condition of School Houses. Washington, 1891. Marks, Percy. The Principles of Planning. London, 1901. Morrison, Gilbert B. The A'entilation and \\'arming of School Buildings. New York, 1 90 1. Narjoux, Felix. Les Ecoles Publiques en France et en Angleterre, &c. Paris, 1876. Ecoles Primaires et Salles d'Asile : Construction et Installation. Paris, 1S88. Les Ecoles Normales Primaires. Paris, 1880. ■ Reglement pour la Construction et I'Ameublement des Maisons d'Ecoles. Paris, 1880. Newsholme, Arthur. School Hygiene. London, 1887. NoNUS, S. A. Les Batiments Scolaires. Paris, 1884. MusSBAUM, Christian. Die Vorlage der Schulgebiiude. Karlsruhe, 1897. Page, Marv H. Graded Schools in the United States. London, 1894. Palliser. American School Architecture. New York, 1889. Parkes, E. a. A Manual of Practical Hygiene. London, 1891. Perrv, C. C. Report on German Elementary Schools and Training Colleges. London, 1887. Pickard, J. S. School Supervision. New York, 1901. Public Schools Year Book, The. London, 1902. Reed, R. Harvey. Original Investigations into the Heating and Ventilation of School Buildings. Chicago, igoi. Reid, George. Practical Sanitation. London, 1S94. Report of Commissioners, United St.^tes. Portable School Buildings, 1898-99. Riant, A. L'Hygiene Scolaire. Paris, 1882. Rietschel, H. Liiftung und Heizung von Schulen. Berlin, 1S86. Roberts, R. D. Education in the Nineteenth Century (various writers). Cambridge, 1901. Robins, E. C. Technical School and College Building. 1884. Robson, E. R. School Architecture. London, 1878. Roscoe, Sir Henry. On the Ventilation of Schools. i88g. Russell, James E. German Higher Schools. New York, 1899. Sharpless, Isaac. English Education in the Elementary and Secondary Schools. New York, 1894. Shaw, E. School Hygiene. New York and London, 1901. S.MITH, P. Gordon. Suggestions as to the Planning of Poor Law Buildings. London, 1901. Spalding, T. A. The AVork of the London School Board. London, 1900. Special Reports issued by the Educational Depart.ments. Vols. i. to vi., 1896- 1901. b xviii BIBLIOGRAPHY. Staats, Dr F. Die Luft im Schulzimmer. Breslau, 1900. Stanley, Lyulph. Our National Education. London, 1899. Stevenson and Murphy. A Treatise on Hygiene and Public Health, 3 vols. London, 1892. SuTCLiFFE, G. L. Sanitary Fittings and Plumbing. London, 1901. Wallis-Tayler, a. J. The Sanitary Arrangement of Dwelling-houses. London, 1894. Weigl. Grundziige der Modernen Schulhygiene. Munich, 1899. Wheelwright, E. M. School Architecture. Boston, 1901. ZiMMERN, Alice. The Renaissance of Girls' Education. London, 1898. Methods of Education in the United States. London, 1S94. ZwEZ, W. Das Schulhaus und dessen innere Einrichtung. Weimar, 1870. List of Articles or Papers referred to or consulted. Chemical Laboratories: The Design of Technical Schools, by Prof. Garnett. Paper read to the Architectural Association, 15th January 1892. Cost of School Buildings, The, 1879. T/te Builder, vol. 37, p. 362. Desks and Seats for Schools, by Arthur Newsholme. The Practical Teacher, October 1900. Eouc.'iTiONAL Progress, 1895-1900. The Times, 6th September 1900. English and French Schools Contrasted, 1882. Tlie .Building News, vol. 43, P- 503- Evolution of the Board Schools, 1894. The Building Neic's, vol. 67, p. 347. Gas Lighting, Articles in The Builder, June — December 1901. Growth of Children. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, September 1897. Kerr. Healthy Scholar, The. Paper read to the Sanitary Institute, June 1900. Arthur Newsholme. Hygiene of the School and Scholar, by J. O. Bevan. The Educational Times, November 190T. Laboratories, The Fitting up of, by J. B. Coleman. T/ie School World, February 1901. Light in the Schoolroom, 1879. T/ie Builder, vol. 37, p. 1069. Planning, The, of Public Elementary Schools. Paper read to the Cardiff Architects' Society by A. G. Legard, 1902. Planning of Secondary Day Schools for Boys, by a Headmaster, 1S90. The Builder, vol. 58, p. 2. Planning and Design of Schools, 1893. The Building Ncivs, vol. 65, p. S48. Planning and Construction of Board Schools. Paper read to the Royal Li- stitute of British Architects, May 1899, by T. J. Bailey. Public Elementary Schools, 1887. The Building News, vol. 53, p. 889. Record of Technical and Secondary Education, January 1900. Report of the Royal Commission of 1894 (Introduction). LIST OF PAPERS CONSULTED. xix Sanitary Inspection of Schools, The, 189S. Tlie Builder, vol. 75, p. 119. Sanitation of School Buildings, The. Paper read by W. P. Buchan, 1891. See The Builder, vol. 60, p. 172. Scholars, The Health of, by A. Newsholmc. Journal of the Sanitary Institutr, vol. x.\i.. Part II., July 1900. School Boards on their Trial, 1879. The Builder, vol. 37, p. 1146. School Buildings, 1884. The Building Ne-MS, vol. 46, p. 672. School Building and School Lighting, 1879. The Builder, vol. 37, p. 929. School Construction in Germany, 1882. The Builder, vol. 43, p. 618. School Hygiene, by Rev. C. Kyscrs. Conference of Catholic Colleges upon Secondary Education, 1898. School Hygiene. A Series of Six Articles by E. C Shelley, M.D. The School World, July — December 1899. School Hygiene and Planning. Paper road at School Clerks' Conference at Nottingham, 1891. School Planning, 1883. Tiie Builder, vol. 44, pp. 38, 69. School Planning (.Middle Class Schools), 1879. The Builder, vol. 37, p. 1251. School Sanit.\tion and Hygiene, Report on, in some Foreign Schools, by A Tidy Stuart. The Lancet, 1 8th January 1902. School Ventil.ation, 18S6. The Building Ne7vs, vol. 50, p. 696. School Ventilation, 1S89. 7%!,' Building News, vol. 56, pp. 366, 426, 531. Schools, Architecture and Hygiene of. Paper read at the Public Health Congress in London by T. J. Bailey, August 1894. Schools from an Architect's Point of View, 1S87. The Building Neivs, vol. 53, P- 93°- Schools, The Nor.mal Architecture of, 1879. The Builder, vol. 37, p. 958. Schools, The Planning of, 1888. The Builder, vol. 54, p. 106. Science Teaching, The Requirements for, by A. E. Munby. The School World, January 1900. Secondary D.ay Schools for (Iirls, The Planning of. Paper read to the Architectural Association by J. O. Smith, July 1896. Secondary Educational Purposes, Buildings for, iSSo. The Builder, vol. 38, P- 437- Teaching of Hygiene in the U.S.A., by Alice Ravenhill. Journal of the Sanitary Institution, vol. xxiii., Part I., April 1902. Technical Institutes. Paper read to the .\rchitectural Association by J. H. Wells, February 1896. Ventilation: Natural Ventilation in Schools (illustrated), 1899. The Building Ne7i.. Secondary • 93 >. >. Higher „ lo INTRODUCTION. most cases private institutions, so that tliere is a lack of the tabulated information, particulars, and opportunities of inspection so easily avail- able in the case of buildings erected by School Boards. Buildings for Girls' Schools have been considered in detail and largely illustrated. Such schools in their present form are a compara- tively new development, and so, being more open to innovation and experiment, serve well to show some of the newer methods of school planning. In the arrangement ot the matter the plan has been followed of giving first a general sketch of the existing systems and organisation in schools of different types and the conditions under which education is carried on ; then to consider the extent of accommodation necessary, entering with some detail into the requirements of the component parts of the building, comparing as far as possible the methods adopted in this country with those of Germany' and America, and finally to show the arrangement of the buildings as a whole. Complete plans have as far as possible been given, on the ground that it is more interesting and instructive to see the plans of all the floors of a smaller number of buildings than that of one floor only of a larger number. Constructional details that are common to all types of building have been as far as possible avoided. In selecting the schools of which plans have been given, great care has been taken to try and show the different types of building. Those illustrated are for the most part recent, and embody the latest develop- ments of school planning. It is not suggested that they show in all cases an ideal arrangement, or that they are merely models to be copied. They show how things have been clone, not necessarily how they should be done. The aim of the book is to try and show to some extent the dependence of the plan upon the organisation of the school. As that changes so must the arrangement of the building. There cannot be, by the nature of the case, a model plan which will meet all requirements and suit all kinds of schools. PART I. SECONDARY EDUCATION, Chapter I. ADMINISTRATIVE AND GENERAL. Secondary Education — Meaning of the term and what it includes — Difficulty of giving a Comprehensive Survey — Origin of our Older Schools — Grammar Schools — Origin of Private Schools — Rearrangement of Endowments by the Charity Commissioners, and Growth of Middle Class Schools — Difference between " Public " and " Gram- mar" Schools — Definition of "Public School" — Want of a definite nomenclature — Technical Schools and Institutions — Authorities who have Control over Secondary Schools, and their Duties and Powers — Public Financial Resources available for Secondary Education — The Royal Commission and its Recommendations — The Duke of Devonshire's Bill of 1899 — The New Board of Education and its Officials — Con- sultative Committee — Comments on the Bill by different writers — Education Bill of 1901 — Various Types or Grades of Secondary Schools, and the adequacy of the supply in different Districts. The term Secondary Education is usually held to cover all the schools which come between the Elementary Schools, and the Universities and great Technical Institutions — that is to say, between the schools whose course of instruction is arranged for those who do not intend to pursue their studies beyond the age of thirteen or fourteen, and the institutions receiving their scholars at ages from seventeen to twenty, who have finished their general education, and who wish for some form of specialised instruction in immediate preparation lor the trade or profession they intend to follow. The field covered is a very wide one, the term secondary in- cluding at one end the great Public Schools, such as Eton, Harrow, Winchester, &c., and at the other the little country Grammar Schools and small Private Adventure Schools, in some of which it may happen that the standard of education does not come up to that of a good Public Elementary School. These small, inefficient schools are rapidly disappearing. 12 ADMINISTRATIVE AND GENERAL. The reason for including the Higher Grade Primary Schools in the section dealing with Elementary, and not with Secondary Schools, has been gone into in the Introduction, and need not be repeated here. It is not easy to give a brief and comprehensive survey of the conditions of secondary education in this country. There has grown up a vast network of schools of an extraordinarily diverse character, but which vary from each other by such slight gradations in fees charged, subjects taught, and in the class of boys in attendance, that it is not possible to separate them, except in the roughest manner, into classes. There is, as a matter of fact, no uniform provision for the education of the middle classes in this country, and not only is the system of Secondary Schools incomplete in itself, but there is no regular connection with other forms of education above and below ; overlapping at some parts, there are many others where there is no passage of communication. The want of a definite system of nomen- clature undoubtedly adds to the confusion. It is rarely possible to give a name to any school which will at once convey a definite idea ot its kind, or of its scope and curriculum. Some institutions are dignified by the name of College, though this is not generally intended to convey anything more than is meant by school, the terms being apparently interchangeable ; the name College was most likely intended originally to convey some idea of superiority, probably in the social more than the educational sense. Even the name of " Public " con- veys an almost exactly opposite meaning when applied to a Secondary School to that which it bears in reference to an Elementary School. The term secondary itself still conveys to some people a notion of inferiority, and is confused apparently with second grade. A Master of a Preparatory School, to whom the forms drawn up by the Royal Com- mission on Secondary Education had been sent, was quite indignant at the idea that any secondary education was given at his school. It is not proposed to trace the rise of our Secondary Schools at length, but it may make their present position more intelligible if the method of their origin and development be briefly considered. "The Ancient Grammar Schools" of Enoland owe their oriein mainly to the Tudor period. Before the accession of Henry VIII. there were but thirty-five such institutions in England, including Eton, Carlisle, and Winchester, and a few others which had been founded as charities, or were otherwise connected with ecclesiastical establish- ments. It was the dissolution of the monasteries which at once sfave the impetus to the establishment of such schools, and furnished the means of sustaining them. During successive generations, down to GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 13 the period of the Civil War. nearly eii^ht huiulrccl "Grammar School" foLindation.s were created.* A number of these schools were also founded and endowed by various wealthy persons, to whom it seemed a very admirable form of charity to provide the means whereby poor but clever boys could acquire a good education, and when sufficiently able scholars, go on to the Universities and places of the highest education. It was for this purpose that in most of the older foundations there are carefully framed rules to ensure that at any rate a certain nunil)cr of the places should be free, and that poor but deserving boys should lie nominated for them by the Governors. These Grammar Schools, started on much the same lines, had curiously diverse careers. Education at first was of a most simple character, the Classics, Latin and Greek, being considered not onlv the basis of education, but sufficient in themselves. At Eton, in the early days, even Mathematics was an extra subject.t Gradualh", how- ever, the curriculum was extended as the difference between the classes for which the schools had to provide became wider ; and as the expenses, owing to the larger teaching staff required, &c., began to increase, the schools became more dependent on the fees which they received. Some of the schools, unable to meet the increased demand, fell out by the way, or dwindled into the small second-rate establish- ments of which the Secondary Education Commission drew such a deplorable picture ; others, generally those who either had a larger endowment or one which happened to be of a kind that increased very much in value, were equal to the needs of the time, and gradually became the recognised educational centres. Parents wishing to take advantage of these institutions began to send their children from a distance, thus necessitating the provision of boarding-houses ; the advantages arising from the boarding system itself added to the attractions of these schools, and so grew up the great non-local schools, of whose boys perhaps not more than 2 or 3 per cent, are, at the present day, drawn from the immediate locality. New and expensive accompaniments to education were being continually added, and a more or less distinct course became established as the ordinary education of a boy in the upper classes, leading as a rule to the Uni\ersity ; but the expense inxohed, and the length of time during which the education went on, practically * Educational Aims and Methods, Sir J. Fitch, 1900. t Teaching and Organisation, edited by P. A. Barnett. 14 ADMINISTRATIVE AND GENERAL. confined it to the upper and wealthier classes. Increased facilities of locomotion naturally helped the Boarding School, and distance becoming of less importance, there was a natural tendency to the great pre- dominance of schools that seemed to offer exceptional advantages. Meanwhile the rapid growth of population and the discontinuance of the custom of founding: and endowing- Grammar Schools orave gfreat impetus to the starting of Private Adventure Schools, a large number being what are known as " Preparatory " Schools, sending on their boys at the age of thirteen or fourteen to the various large Public Schools. These Preparatory Schools are a comparatively modern innovation, Mr Cotterill, in his Introduction to Vol. VI. of the Special Reports,* saying that he can find no traces of any true Preparatory School prior to the accession of Queen Victoria. In recent years the pressing demand for good education for the middle classes at a reasonable cost has led to a great increase in the size and efficiency of a number of the older schools that had sunk to a very low pitch. The Endowed Schools Acts of 1869-74 enabled the Charity Commissioners to take in hand the old foundations, to reconstitute and rearrange their financial bases, and to alter, where it seemed advisable, the terms of the bequest to suit the needs of the times. In this way, and by appointing new governing bodies, they were able to set in good working order a large number of schools that had dwindled to a state of complete uselessness. In the great provincial towns a large number of schools have been started under the ausjDices of the local authorities of the type known as High Schools or "Grammar" Schools, in a different sense rather to the name as used in reference to the old schools. These schools aim at giving a first-class education, not so much directed at all-round culture or preparation for the Universities, as at a curriculum adapted to prepare their pupils for certain definite purposes with immediate reference to the trade or profession for which the boy is intended. The distinction between "Public Schools" and "Grammar Schools" is not easy to maintain ; there are so many which contain the qualities of both, that it is a difficult task to say in which category any particular school should be placed. Generally speaking, the Public Schools are the usual road to the Universities, and used by a class socially higher and more wealthy than that attending the Grammar Schools. This is shown, too, by their organisation, for while both are as a rule divided into Classical and Modern Sides, in the Public Schools, where the larger * Issued by the Board of Education, 1900. DICFIXITION OF "PUBLIC SCHOOLS.' 15 proportion of the boys is composed of pupils intending to proceed to the Universities, the Classical Side greatly preponderates over the Modern — a few even, as Eton, Winchester, and Charterhouse, having rather special classes than a regular Modern Side. In the Grammar Schools, however, the Classical Side consists of a few boys, most of whom are probably going in for scholarships, the main bulk of the school is on the Modern Side, with special departments arranged for teaching commercial and mercantile subjects, great attention being paid to foreign languages, correspondence, and shorthand. In the Public Schools Year Book for 1902 there are more than a hundred schools included, among which may be found schools of almost every degree. In the Preface, the Editors explain the principles by which they were guided in making their selection, and which is worth quoting, as showing how difficult it is to define what is meant exactly by a " Public School." " When the Public Schools Year Book was first projected, it was the intention of the Editors to include only the great historical Public Schools along with the more important Victorian Schools, which have so ably maintained the traditions of the earlier foundations. It was from the first recognised that the onlv line which could be drawn must be an arbitrary one. The term ' Public School ' is in itself nothing more than a popular misnomer, and it was clear that guidance must be sought, not so much from what the term denotes as from what it connotes. Hence, in determining the inclusion of any particular school, the Editors asked themselves such questions as the following : — Does the school possess the ' Public School ' spirit .'' Are its pupils entitled to be called ' Public School ' men ? Is it of more than local interest ? What are its members, standard of teaching, and governing body ? Although opinions were drawn from various sources, and every effort was made to apply these tests in a conscientious and impartial manner, it must be acknowledged that the attempt was, from its nature, incapable of complete success. The Editors accordingly declined to continue to undertake the responsibility of selection, and they decided to insert in future only such Public Schools as were connected with the Headmasters' Conference." * It would, no doubt, be a considerable ad\'antage to ha\e some system of naming schools, by which it would be possible to convey a more or less accurate idea of the class of school. That adopted by * Preface to Public Schools Year Book, 1902. i6 ADMINISTRATIVE AND GENERAL. the Secondary Education Commission of First, Second, and Third Grade, according to the leaving age. seems liable to be too easily misunderstood to be generally adopted. It is again very difficult to draw a distinction between technical and secondary education, as every branch of teaching, except Latin and Greek, can be brought in under the head of technical, i.e., a course of teaching designed to fit the person leaving it directly for their profession or trade. Attention was turned to the subject of technical education after the Exhibition of 185 1, and especially during the last twenty years there has been a very great increase of interest in this branch of education, leading to the foundation of a great number of technical institutions ; and since a good all-round secondary education is an almost necessary foundation tor effective technical teaching, and as, at the same time, a certain amount of technical training can be very advantageously given to pupils at Secondary Schools during their last year or two, in preparation for certain professions or examinations, it has naturally happened that many Secondary Schools have widened their curriculum and added facilities for teaching "special" subjects. The technical institutions have, in many cases, iound it necessary, or at least advisable, to open a department in which a general education of an ordinary character could be given, as it was found that so many scholars came to them too ignorant of elementary subjects to profit by the advanced technical instruction.* Early in the year 1894 a Royal Commission t was appointed to inquire into the whole question in order to consider the best methods of establishing a well-organised system of secondary education in England. At the time of the appointment of this Commission there was no one central authority dealing with secondary education. There were, however, certain bodies which had considerable powers, such as the Charity Commission, t and the Science and Art Department. § * Any one interested in the growth and development of technical education in recent years will find a very complete and interesting account in the Record of Technical and Secondary Education for January 1900. t Known usually from the Chairman as the Bryce Commission. X Tlie Charily Commission. — By means of the Charitable Trusts Acts, 1853 to 1S91, this body exercises a general administrative and legal jurisdiction over the great mass of charitable endowments, and under the Endowed Schools Act it has the power of making schemes for the regulation of certain endowments. g The Science and Art Department. — This Department had a Secretary and permanent head of its own, and was controlled by the Lord President and Vice-President of the Committee of the Privy Council on Education, but was otherwise independent of the CONTROLLING AUTHORITIES. 17 There was also the Education Department. This was a Committee of the Privy Council, and though its main work lay in the Elementary Schools, it still touched secondary education at a good many points. It had to consider and approve the schemes of the Charity Commissioners, and in addition had jurisdiction over certain schools not coming uiitlcr the Endowed Schools Act. It also controlled some Evening Schools where advanced instruction was given. The Board of Agriculture has the power of inspecting and giving grants to schools other than elementary, where instruction in agricultural subjects is given. The amount of grants so given amounts to about ^8,000 annually. In addition to these, there are the local authorities which were left un- touched by the Bill of 1899. The local authorities* may be classed under three heads : ( i ) County Councils; (2) London; (3) County Borough Councils. These hold their powers under the Technical Instruction i\cts of 18S9 and 1891, and the Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act of 1890. The former Act gives power to County and Borough Councils and Urban Sanitary Authorities to levy a rate up to id. in the £ for the purpose of technical and manual instruction ; while the latter provides a sum from the residue of the beer and spirit duties which may be applied to such educational purposes as come within the scope of the former Acts. The other educational authorities dealing with secondary education are — Governing bodies of Endowed Schools ; Managing Committees of Proprietary Schools and Institutes ; Local Committees under the Science and Art Department ; School Boards and Managers of Voluntary Schools so far as the schools under their charge give secondary instruction. The Royal Commission, after having sat for se\-enteen months, issued its Report towards the end of 1895. The main recommendations made by it were, first, that an Education Office should be established under a responsible Minister, with a Permanent Secretary, and an advisory Educational Council of twelve members ; secondly, that local authorities of definite and uniform constitution should be established in each county and county borough, in whose hands should be all local Education Department. Grants were given towards the establishment and maintenance of Science and Art Schools and Classes, and there were also medals and prizes for examinations, scholarships, exhibitions, and free studentships ; aid to teachers in training at the Royal College of Science, the National Art Training School, and other approved centres ; also building grants, and grants in aid of fittings and apparatus. * These are the bodies under whose control the Act of 1902 proposes to put both Secondary, Technical, and Elementary Education. See Appendix. B i8 ADMINISTRATIVE AND GENERAL. secondary education, and who should be bound to see that sufficient means of secondary education were supplied in their district. It was further proposed that these local authorities should have the power of levying a local rate up to 2d. in the £. The non-local schools were to be exempt from the local authority. For some years after the issue of this Report nothing was done, but in 1899 the Duke of Devonshire brought in his Education Bill, which adopted some but by no means all of the recommendations of the Royal Commission. This Bill, which came into force on ist April 1900, created a Board of Education which will ultimately absorb the functions of all the three central authorities, and have the sole control of primary, secondary, and technical education. The Board is placed under a responsible Minister. There will be a Permanent Secretary to the Board, assisted by two principal Assistant Secretaries for Elementary and Secondary (including Technical) Education respectively ; the Secondary Department is divided again into two branches with an Assistant Secretary for each — the Literary Branch and the Techno- logical Branch. There is to be attached to the Board of Education a Consultative Committee, at least two-thirds of which shall be persons qualified to represent the views of Universities and other bodies interested in education. Further, the Act arranges for the inspection of all such Secondary Schools as shall apply to be inspected, drawing no line between administrative and educational inspection ; but the Board is required to regard inspection by the Universities as equivalent to the official inspection. This Bill, though very far from being an attempt to grapple with the whole task of organising secondary education, yet provides machinery by which it is possible that much may be done. As Dr Scott* calls it, it is a Bill of "great potentialities " rather than of things actually accomplished ; pointing out that many vexed questions are left for future decision. The educational functions of the Charity Commissioners are to be taken over when it seems fit. No actual duties are assigned to the Consultative Committee beyond settling the conditions of the registration of teachers ; inspection is left optional, and so on. The newly-appointed Board of Education does not seem to be much more than a rearrangement of the Science and Art and the Education Department. Instead of the three equal departments that * Education in the Ninettenth Century. PUBLIC FINANCIAL RESOURCES. 19 hail been jiromised, under three Secretaries of equal rank, dealing with primary, secondary, and technical education respectively, there has been merely an altering of official posts, with the late Science and Art Department placed in control of secondary education generally, with a subordinate official entrusted with the charge of its literary and general side. " To sum u]:), though no serious attempt has been made to deal with the problem of organisation upon the lines suggested by the Royal Commission, the reorganisation of the Education Department and the Science and Art Department with the Board of Education being merely a rearrangement of officials, who appear to be carrying on their work on much the same lines, there is now legislative recog- nition of a central authority for education, and the prospect of similar recognition of local authorities for counties and county boroughs, where there is a large amount of individual and local effort, which only needs official recognition." * The public financial resources which are available tor the purposes of secondary education are as follows : — Endoivnients. — A sum of about ^650,000 a year gross is available under the Endowed Schools Acts, with about ^100,000 not subject to those Acts. In addition there are of course a number of endowments mounting up to a large sum, but which it is impossible to estimate. Grants. — (i.) Given by the .Science and Art Department. In I goo there were in connection with this Department 2,330 schools, and over ^300,000 was given in grants to Science and Art Schools and Classes.f (2.) Grants given by the Board of Agriculture, as mentioned above. (3.) Parliamentary grant for Evening Continuation Schools. Fundi. — (i.) Available under the Local Taxation Act from the residue of the beer and spirit duties. (2.) Those that can be raised under the Technical Instruction Acts. In addition to this there has been for some years a certain proportion of the elementary education rate in so far as it has applied to the maintenance of Higher Grade Schools oivino- advanced instruction. This use of the money was, however, in 1899, disallowed bv the Government auditor, whose action was ultimately confirmed by the House of Lords. A short Bill was brought in to a\-oid the necessitv * The Times, 6th September 1900, Educational Progress, 1S95-1900. t Report of Board of Education. 20 ADMINISTRATIVE AND GENERAL. of closing- such schools. This Act made it possible for the County or Borough Councils to make the necessary grants of money to enable such schools to be carried on temporarily, pending" the introduction of a measure dealing fully with the whole question. In order to get some clear idea as to how far the supply of Secondary Schools was adequate to the needs of the population, the Royal Commission divided the existing schools into three grades for the purpose of tabulation. The results showed that there was a considerable want of certain kinds of schools. The grades were as follows : — First Grade Schools. — The schools at which the pupils remain until the age of eighteen or nineteen comprise Endowed Schools, including the seven great Public Schools ; Proprietary Schools sending pupils to the Universities ; and Private Schools of the more advanced type. Second Grade Schools. — With a lea\"ing" age of si.xteen or seventeen. Endowed Schools ; Proprietary or Private Schools, which send in pupils for the higher classes of the College of Preceptors Examinations, or for the Oxford and Cambridge Local Examinations ; some Day Schools attached to Technical Institutes ; the highest departments of some Higher Grade Elementary Schools. Third Grade Schools. — Leaving age fourteen or fifteen. Endowed Schools ; Private Schools, in which the ordinary standard is that of the third class certificate in the College of Preceptors Examinations ; Higher Grade Elementary Schools. The deficiency in the supply of Secondary Schools is shown by figures taken from the returns for the seven counties selected for the purpose of the Report. The total number of scholars in the Endowed Schools in these counties amounts only to 2.5 per 1,000 of the population, and these small numbers are distributed with a curious inequality, for while in Lancashire the number is i.i per 1,000, it rises in Bedford as high as 13.5, and in Warwickshire it remains at 5.2 per 1,000, although that is a county particularly well supplied with Endowed Schools. The Conmiissioners came to the conclusion that the supply of "First Grade" Schools for boys is on the whole sufficient, though for the children of the less wealthy classes the difficulty of access to such schools is still great. For this reason it is suggested that there might in large centres be a better supply of such schools ; but as a rule a Second Grade School which prepares for the local University is more INADEQUATE SUPPLY OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 21 suitable than a First Grade School linked to Oxford and Cambridge. It is in the second and third qrades that the real deficiencies of supply are found. Though the Higher Grade Board Schools are doing much to sup[)]\ third grade secondary education, there are still many places where e\-en this is wanting ; while in many towns, esjaecially the smaller ones, there is a oreat want of Second Grade Schools. There is, no doubt, need for larger provision of means for trans- ferring pupils from the Elementary to the Higher School. The system of doing this by means of scholarships has apparently worked well, but the plan requires considerable extension in order to make any adequate arrangements possible ; the great difficulty lies in the question of the age at which such transference should take place. Educationally, it is necessary that a pupil passing from an Elementary to a Secondary School should do so not later than the age of eleven or twelve years. It is this retention in a lower school of a scholar who ought to be going on to a higher one that leads to a great deal of what is called overlapping ; and which, it is pointed out in the Report, is due more to a deficiency in the supply of schools, the lower school trying to give education of a type really belonging to a school of a higher grade, owing' to the want of such a school in the neighbourhood. There is, on the other hand, a considerable waste of power in trying to teach boys that are attracted to a higher grade of school before they are intellectually able to profit by the instruction. Xote. — The Education Bill, 1902. — The conditions under which education is at present carried on as stated in the above account will of course be much modified when the proposed Education Bill, 1902, becomes law. This Bill proposes to appoint local education authorities, to whom will be entrusted the entire control of the education, elementary and secondary, within their district, subject only to approval by the Board of Education. These bodies are to be the councils of every county and county borough. Their business will be to co-ordinate the different branches of education ; in regard to higher education to consider the needs of their district, supplying schools when necessary, or assisting existing agencies ; in the case of the Elementary Schools they are to take over the duties and powers of the School Boards established by the Elementary Education Acts, 1870-1900. They are further to have the power of applying money from the rates to the maintenance and current e.xpense of Voluntary or Denominational Schools, pro- vided that money is otherwise subscribed for the purpose of keeping the buildings of such schools in an efficient condition. In such cases one-third of the managers are to be appointed by the education authority, leaving the denominational managers in a two- thirds majority. This clause places the Voluntary Schools upon an equal footing with the Board Schools, as far as money for salaries and current expenses are concerned. The alterations made in the Bill in Committee, as far as it had gone at the moment of writing (viz., clause 7), render it likely that the Act itself will differ considerably from the Bill as proposed. Chapter II. THE ORGANISATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS. The Connection between Organisation, Curriculum, and Planning — Old Types of Organisation — Classical and Modern Sides — Great Differences in the Secondary Schools of this Country — An Account of the Organisation of Wellington College, also of the City of London Schools — Comparison with various other Schools — St Paul's, West Kensington, Special Features — Difificulties in the case of Small Schools — Second Grade Schools — The Parmiters' Foundation School — Central Foundation School, Cowper Street — Abbotsholme and Bedales, Account of the latter — Question of Co-Educational Schools — Battersea Polytechnic. The organisation of a school is so closely connected with that of the curriculum, that it is hardly possible to consider them apart ; and though the question of subjects taught and the time given to them may seem to have but a remote bearing on the plan of the building, yet as it is the subjects and method of teaching which settle the amount of reclassification and division, &c., they determine the extent of accommo- dation that will be required ; and consequently the arrangements of the whole school building come ultimately to depend to a large extent upon the curriculum. In old days organisation cannot be said to have existed. The whole school learnt the same limited number ot subjects in one large school- room, so that the question of planning was settled when the size of the room to be built had been determined. The Headmaster devoted his entire attention to the sixth form, or to a few promising pupils, leaving his assistants complete control of the others. The boys usually worked their way straight up the schooi, and if the school routine did not suit them they left. The first alteration took the form of additional classes, with an extra fee, taught out of school hours ; later, such classes were arranged in school hours to suit those boys who did not intend to go in for high classical or mathematical work, or who were going into the army. The large school-room, which originally represented the whole of the teach- ORGANISATION AND DIVISION. 23 ing- accommodation, has been retained, though the [)lan ol ha\ing a separate class-room for each form has long- been customar)' ; it being a oreat advantage to have a room of sufficient size for those occasions when it is desirable to collect the whole school together. As a rule, the form master took his form in all subjects, with the e.\ception of French and German, to teach which a foreign master was commonly employed. The arrangement and organisation of the work is now greatly complicated by having, in schools ot sufficient size, special masters for each subject, thus necessitating a considerable amount of changing about from room to room, di\ision of forms, and reclassification of the school for different subjects. The plan of dividing the school into two or more sides or divisions is now almost universally followed. Either the whole school is so divided, and the boy chooses on entering the school into which side he will go, or else the lower part of the school is common to l)Oth sides, and it not until he has passed a certain form that the boy can determine which side he will take. This latter plan is the one more usually followed, and has certain advantages. It puts off the necessity of settling the course of teaching till a later date, and so gives the boy and his parents or teachers more chance of finding out which he is best fitted for. It further tends to obviate one of the drawbacks of a completely divided school, which is the tendency of the two sides to become, as it were, two distinct schools. Sometimes the unity of the school is encouraged by the system of teaching the special subjects for which the division of the school is arranged in the regular classes, but reclassifying the whole school together for certain subjects which are common to both sides, and so to aret an intermingrlino- of the two divisions.* A considerable number of schools ha\e preparatory departments or schools in connection with them. In such cases it is easier to arrange a complete division of the school. The Secondary Schools in this country differ so much in detail, and vary by such slight differences from the great Public Schools, such as Eton, Winchester, and Harrow, down to the small, badly-organised, ill-equipped Private Adventure Schools, whose educational standard would hardly come up to that of an Elementary School, that it is im- possible to draw any line between them, or to give an account of any one school that would really serve as an accurate model ; but as the main lines are more or less the same, a description in detail of onejor * Teaching and Organisation, p. 15, edited by P. A. Barnett. 24 ORGANISATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS. two schools will serve to illustrate the principles on which they are arrano-ed. The followino- account of Wellington is taken from the Public Schools Year Book for 1901 : — The school, which consists of about 470 boys, is divided into two sides: — (i.) The Classical Side, in wliich the boys receive a general education, com- prising Greek, Latin, Mathematics, Natural Science, French, and Geography, with Di\-inity and English subjects. This side is suitable for those who will go on to the Universities, or who wish to enter the medical or legal professions. (2.) The Mathematical School, in which Divinity, Mathematics, German, French, Latin, Natural Science, History, Geography, and Drawing are taught in different combinations in the various forms. Boys wishing to go into the Army join the Mathematical Side, eventually joining a special Arm\- Class. The number of forms in the school is twenty-four, which gives an average of rather under twenty for each form. A certain number of forms are divided into A and B parallel divisions, in which boys in the A forms learn German, in the B Science. As an example of a large Day School, an account is given of the City of London School, taken for the most part from an account of it contributed by its present Headmaster, Mr A. T. Pollard, to "Teaching and Organisation," edited by P. A. Barnett. The school has been practically reorganised since 1889 under Mr Pollard, and may be taken as a type of a large London First Grade Day School. The school, consisting of 700 boys, is divided into — (i.) An Upper School, divided into Classical and ^Modern Sides, with a Science Side parallel to the four highest forms of the other two sides. (2.) A Junior School, which prepares for the two departments above it. In the Junior School are taught Scripture, English subjects, French, Latin, and Arithmetic, but pro\'ision is made so that if a boy desires exemption from Latin, he may be taught alternative subjects during the times set apart for that subject. This meets the case of a boy entering high up in the Junior School, with the intention of going on to the Modern Side, and who does not wish to take Latin. The times for teaching Arithmetic and French are synchronised so as to allow of boj-s being reclassified for those subjects, though Mr Pollard states that he finds this necessary onl}- in special cases. Classical Side. — The form work comprises Scripture, Latin, Greek, French, History, Geography, English, Writing, and in the higher forms except the sixth, a weekly lesson in Chemistrj- German is not taught in school hours on this side, but classical boys can learn it in e.xtra classes out of school hours. Boys are reclassified for Mathematics when possible, the principle being that the lower forms on the side constitute one " block " for the purposes of such redistribution, and the upper forms another " block." SPECIAL FEATURES. 25 Modern Side. — The form work comprises the same subjects, with the exception of Latin and Greek, which are replaced by more French and by German. Latin is taught as an alternative to Natural Science, which is taught in every form on this side. In the higher forms of the Modern Side great freedom in studies is possible, and the times at which different subjects are studied can be synchronised for the purpose of reclassification. Science Side. — Bo3-s are not admitted to this side till the}- have attained a certain literary and mathematical standard. The objects in view on this side are to prepare boys for (l) Science Scholarships at Oxford and Cambridge; (2) for the Preliminary and Intermediate Science Examination of the University of London ; (3) for the engineering profession. Generally speaking, most large First Grade Day Schools are organised somewhat on the above plan. Some schools supplement their Modern Side by special Army Classes, and boys are also prepared .for the Navy Examinations. Other schools have a large number of special classes to prepare boys for certain e.xaminations and for mercantile lite. Dulwich College has an Engineering Side, with a course extending over three \-ears, in which is included Mathematics, Mechanics and Physics, Drawing, Chemistr)', French and German, and practical work in the workshop. At St Paul's School, West Kensington, with some 600 pupils, there is a Science Side of 220, with about sixty boys in the Army Department ; there are a considerable number of special classes, but no boy is allowed to specialise until he is considered to have a competent knowledge of Classics. There is an admir- able arrangement in force in this school, which virtually amounts to private coaching. If a boy is particularly backward in an}' subject, or requires special coaching, he is put into a sort of large class, which for the sake of convenience is taken in the hall, so as to allow of easy movement and plent}- of room. This class usually consists of some fort}- bo\-s. These each do their special work, and the masters, probably six or seven in number, move about and sit down b}' the side of the particular boy they wish to speak to. An\- master who finds himself with nothing to do in school hours comes to this room and helps in the coaching. In case there is a boy who is rather above the work of the form he is in, and who ought to be promoted, he is first of all put in here and coached up till he is on a level with and knows the work required in the form into which it is desirable to put him. In this way it is possible, when required, to promote a boy without waiting till the end of the term, and keeping him on at work below his powers. The proportion of masters to bo}'s in this school is high, the forms only averaging eighteen. The time table is arranged to allow of reclassification in almost all subjects. University College School is arranged somewhat differently, the principle being that boys may be classified for every single subject, so that it is possible, though of course improbable, that every boy in the school should have a different time table. This takes away the sort of general control exercised over the bo}-s 26 ORGANISATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS. by the form master ; and in order to make up for this, each bo_\- is assigned to one of the masters as a consulting master, under whose care he remains while he is at the school. The consulting master is expected to watch the progress of the boys assigned to him, to encourage them to come to him in cases of difficulty, and when occasion arises to advise the Headmaster or parents in reference to the boys on his list. There is in this school a special department for higher commercial instruc- tion, with a two \-ears' course, the subjects being Modern Languages, Higher Mathematics, Commercial History and Geography, Commercial Science and Descriptive Economics, Principles of Banking and Finance. The age limits of the school are from nine to nineteen.* It is of course in the small schools that the great difficulties in the way ot organisation are found. A permanent staff cannot be kept of sufficient size to have specialists for the different subjects, nor are there a sufficient number of classes to occupy their time. Classes have either to be very small, which means a waste of teaching power, or else there is too great an inequality of age and attainments to make level progress possible. Naturally the difficulties are more felt in a Day School where it is necessary to provide for the different needs of the people who live in the neighbourhood, than in the case of a Boarding School which can take up a particular line, and limit themselves to those pupils who wish to take up that line. In the Second Grade Schools, where pupils do not, except in the case of a few special scholars, go on to the Universities or prepare for the Oxford and Cambridge Scholarship Examinations, the question of organisation becomes very much simplified, and the plan usually adopted is that of making certain subjects alternative in the higher forms. For instance, at the Parmiters' Foundation School, which has eight forms, in the three higher forms, Latin, German, and Shorthand are alternative subjects. Each boy may take one only, whichever will best accord with his future career, but he is required to learn one thoroughly.! At the Central Foundation School, Cowper Street, the plan adopted is that of one school, but with a sixth form of four divisions, viz. : — (i.) London Matriculation. (3.) Technical. (2.) Modern. (4.) Civil Service. French is taught throughout the school, as is also German, except in the lowest forms. * Public Schools Year Book. t Teaching; and Ori;anisation. BEDALES SCHOOL. 27 There remain a few schools which do not properly come under any of tlie abo\e heads, but which ought to be mentioned. There is the school at Abbotsholme,* started b)- Mr C. Reddie, who has published an account of the aims and ideas of his school ; and another school of a somewhat similar sort, though diftering considerably in detail, under Mr J. H. Badley, at Petersfield, known as Bedales School. Having recently, by the kindness of Mr Badley, had an opportunit)' of seeing his school, I am g-ivino' a short account of the system followed there. Plans and a description of the building are given later (Fig. 221, p. 257). Bedales is a Secondary School, keeping its bo\^s through their whole school life ; that is to say, they go there at the time they would usually go to a Pre- paratory School, and stay till the age of eighteen or nineteen, going straight on to College or to professional life. I cannot do better than quote Mr Badley's own words, which give shortly the aims and objects of the school, which is a co-educational school, t.e., taking girls as well as boys : — " Shortly, then, Bedales represents an attempt to readjust the methods and enlarge the possibilities of education to meet the needs of a new time ; and to give a real training, of body, mind, and character, that is not confined to one class or sex or portion of school life. To this end we attach much importance to certain rules of health ; to good, plentiful, and varied food, not supplemented from home or the 'tuck shop'; to clothing that gi\-es warmth and freedom, and to daily change for outdoor exercise, wet or fine ; to fresh air freely admitted into every room that is being used ; to regularity of daily habits ; and to shorter hours of brain-work, varied with abundant muscular activit)-. The curriculum therefore includes, besides head-work, a large amount of training for hand, eye, and ear; and the head-work itself covers from the first a wider range than is usual, in order to serve as a broad foundation for specialisation in any required direction during the later stages. And in the school-life itself we ha\-e a great freedom of intercourse, treating the boys as responsible beings, neither doing everything for them nor leaving them entirely to themselves ; and b\- this, and by the intermixture of the sexes, both on the staff and in the school, and by a wide range of age, we try to keep something of the life of a famil}- with that of a school where there is a considerable amount of self-government." The day is divided into three parts. The morning is devoted to head- work ; there is an hour's work of a lighter kind in the evening, and for the older boys some preparation ; but all the head-work is done between breakfast and dinner. The afternoon is taken up with various forms of hand-work and e.xercise, whether in the form of outdoor work in the garden or on the farm, or to games or expeditions. The remainder of the evening after class is divided between fixed times of singing and reading for all, and various optional occupa- tions, such as carving or bookbinding, or to social gatherings for music, dancing, * Abbotsholme, C. Reddie. 28 ORGANISATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS. lectures, debates, recitations, and so forth, in wliich all, in some form or other, have to take part.* Work begins in the morning at 8. 30. Two periods of varying length, according to the age of the class, from thirty to fifty minutes, followed by a break with a light lunch of biscuits and milk, followed by two more periods, make up the morning's work. The school is divided into three blocks — the upper, middle, and lower schools ; these are all subdivided and reclassified, as may be necessary, and as the range of age in the school is large (from nine to eighteen or nineteen), there is naturally a great deal of classification necessary — meaning small classes and a large teaching staff. After dinner every boy in the school has to change into flannels for games or outdoor work, and as they have to change again on coming in, they can go out whatever the weather. This necessitates a considerable supply of changing- room accommodation, conveniently arranged. The school, as mentioned above, receives girls as well as boys. The girls have a separate boarding-house, but otherwise there is practically no difference made between them. They share in the classes and most of the games, and as far as can be judged, the effect is entirely satisfactory. Co-education of the sexes is so commonly a feature of American schools, and apparently succeeds well, as all authorities agree in speaking highly of it. The advantages of putting the boys and girls together, in the case of a small town of a size insufficient to maintain two schools, are of course very great, making a great saving in teaching power, buildings, equipment, &c. But this is of course another side of the question. At Bedales and certain other co-educational institutions it is done deliberately, for the sake of the moral and educational training gained by bringing up the two sexes together. In Vol. I. of the Special Reports there is an account of the Secondary Day School attached to the Battersea Polytechnic, where boys and girls are not only taught together, but have a common membership of the various clubs and societies, and even take part in the inter-form hockey matches and games. The whole question is there discussed at some length. + The school just mentioned, the Battersea Polytechnic, is what is known as an organised Science Day School, and is primarily intended for boys and girls who have passed through an Elementary School, and desire to continue their general education, or to receive training or preparation for the workshops and manufactory, the scientific branches, and other occupations in which a knowledge is required of Science, Technology, or Domestic Economy. The course of teaching extends over three years, and aims at imparting a thoroughly sound secondary * Bedales School : Outline of its Aims and System, J. H. Badley. + See also Vol. VI. — The Co-education of the Sexes. BATTERSEA POLYTECHNIC. 29 education, with special provision for the study of Pure and Applied Science, Manual Training, Workshops Practice, and Domestic Eco- nomy ; but it is not intended that the training of the school shall replace the ordinary apprenticeship. Admission to the school is limited to boys and girls who have obtained entrance scholarships from a Public Elementary School, or who have passed the sixth standard ot the Educational Code or its equivalent, or provided that they can show the governing body that they are fit to profit by the advanced instruction. All applicants, except those holding scholarships, will be required to pass an entrance e.xamination. The fees are, at the Battersea Polytechnic, .j^i a term, but books and materials are supplied. The above accounts of various types of schools will, it is hoped, help to make intelligible the different questions with regard to ac- commodation and arrangement of rooms that arise in the consideration of school planning. Chapter III. GIRLS' SCHOOLS, Girls' Schools — Causes that have led to their institution in large numbers — Schools in existence at the time of the issuing of Report — North London Collegiate School, description of — Description of Cheltenham Ladies' College — Origin of the Girls' Public Day School Company and the Church Schools Company — Work done by Charity Commissioners — Meaning of the name " High School " — Girls' Boarding Schools— Organisation of Girls' Schools — Routine of a High School — Kinder- gartens — Arrangement of Forms — Methods of Promotion, &c. — Curriculum — High Schools at Manchester, Examinations and Inspection — Boarding Schools — Girls' Schools at Ashbyde-la-Zouche — Fees, &c. — Physical Culture and Health — Games, Drill, and Gymnastics — Boarding Schools of the New Type — St Leonard's School — High Wycombe — The Roedean School. The Report of the Schools Inquiry Commission, published in 1867, showed very strongly the want of efficient schools to provide for the g-reat bulk of middle-class boys and girls. This want was felt far more strongly in the case of girls. For the boys there were, at any rate, a certain number of splendid institutions in the great Public .Schools, in addition to a large number of schools which, if not altogether efficiently managed, had endowments of considerable value, and needed only a good scheme of organisation and an energetic use ot their resources to become really first-class schools. On the other hand, the opportunities of education open to girls were not only insufficient in amount, but e.xtremely poor in quality, there being practically no schools sufficiently provided with endow- ments to be able to offer good teaching for a moderate fee. There were, indeed, all over the country small Private Schools, but owing to the smallness of numbers, the lowness of their fees, and the difficulty of finding capable teachers, it was quite impo.ssible for them to provide anything like an adequate or an efficient teaching- staff. The Commission brings a heavy indictment against them : " It cannot be denied that our picture of middle-class education is on the whole unfavourable. The general deficiency in girls' education oro-amsation. xXORTH LONDON COLLEGIATE SCHOOL. 31 is stated with the utmost confidence, and with entire agreement with whatever difference of statement or authority. Want of thoroughness and foundation ; want of system ; slovenliness and showy superficiality ; inattention to inclinements ; undue time given to accomplishments and those not taught intelligently or in any scientific manner ; want of So were described the schools in existence at the time of the issue of the Report. Obviously, what was wanted was some system of schools which should be large enough to allow of the pupils being properly graded, and having also sufficient numbers to keep the fees down to a reasonable amount. For many reasons it seemed likely that Day Schools would best meet the want. There were, however, in existence at the time of the issue of the Report a few schools which could well serve as examples, the most important of these being the North London Collegiate School and the Cheltenham Ladies' College. The former, opened in 1S50 by Miss Buss as a Private School, but later organised much on the lines of a Public School, was by its transfer in 1872 into the hands of trustees made into a permanent public institution. This school may well be considered the type and forerunner of the Higher School of the present day. The Cheltenham Ladies' College, opened at almost the same time, was intended to provide for the girls in the town the same advantages and privileges as those enjoyed by the boys at Cheltenham College. The curriculum was, however, restricted as compared with a modern Hioh School, Mathematics, Science, Classics, and Phvsical Training being apparently not included in its early days. These two schools stood practically alone, showing not only what might be, but by the force of contrast serving to make the inefficiency and shortcomings of the other schools more conspicuous. There are, however, now all over the country, schools, principally Day" Schools, which, organised on much the same lines and teaching the same subjects as the first-class schools for boys, offer to girls the same opportunities of a first-class education at a small cost. Their origin and rise can be told in a few words. One of the first results of the revelations made by the Commission mentioned above was the inaugu- ration of the " National Union for Improving the Education of Women of all Classes." The main objects of this association were to promote the establishment of good and cheap Day Schools for all classes above * Report of the Royal Commission on Secondary Education, 1S96, Introduction. 32 GIRLS' SCHOOLS. those attending the Public Elementary Schools, and in places where it seemed advisable, to establish boarding-houses in connection with them, though not necessarily under the direct control of the school authorities ; and, in addition, to encourage women to take to teaching as a profession, to raise the status of women teachers socially, and to try and secure properly trained and efficient teachers certified by examinations of recognised authority. It was in order to carry out these ideas that the "Girls' Public Day School Company " was founded. This Company, inaugurated at a public meeting at the Albert Hall in 1872, was formed for the purpose of raising money to build or acquire and equip schools in which a thorough and sound education should be provided for girls. Their first school was opened in 1873 in Chelsea with sixteen girls. There are now belonging to the Company in 1902 thirty-four schools with over 7,000 pupils. These schools, though all managed by the Council of the Company, are by no means exactly of a pattern, considerable latitude being allowed to the Headmistresses to organise and adapt their schools in such a way as best to meet the needs of their particular neighbourhood. This example was soon followed by the foundation of the Church Schools Company, which originated in the idea that there would be a considerable demand for schools in which there was definite religious teaching according to the Church of England, all such teaching being, in the schools of the Girls' Public Day School Company, undenomi- national. As a matter of fact, this is not found to be the case to any large extent, and the schools of the former Company are usually estab- lished in different localities, and are, as a rule, much smaller in size than those of the older Company. Day Schools for girls were soon started all over the country, either by the formation of small local com- panies to provide for their particular district, or by means of funds contributed by the generosity of various persons or bodies — the great City Companies in particular having given large sums for this purpose ; in many cases the Charity Commissioners, in rearranging old-estab- lished educational charities and bequests, have been able to make provision for the establishment of girls' schools in addition to those for boys. These " High Schools," as they are called, the outcome of the last twenty-five years, may be regarded as the typical girls' school of this country, i.e., large Day Schools with moderate fees and no distinction of class. The name High School requires a word or two of explanation. To THE ENGLISH HIGH SCHOOL. 33 begin with, the word " High " is not meant to convey social superiority, but refers to the educational standard, though naturally, as the course of instruction goes on to eighteen or nineteen with fees that are high enough in many cases to make the schools self-supporting, the main bulk of the girls are drawn from the middle and upper classes ; nor does the name at all correspond with the meaning attached to the word in the High Schools of the United States, where a pupil wishing to enter a High School must have previously passed through the Primary and Grammar Schools — in that country it forms a link between the Elementary Schools and the Universities, so that a jDupil entering a Hisjh School must at least have reached the a^e of fourteen or fifteen. The following description fairly describes the position and scope of the English Hig-h School : — "Our English High Schools provide both elementary and secondary instruction, and the ages of the jDupils range from seven to nineteen. Hence, although there is a natural division between the Lower and Upper School, the work is closely connected ; the same mistresses teach in both, and subjects such as Latin and French are usually carried down into the lower classes. The lower jaart of a High School is not e.xactly parallel to an Elementary School ; the pupils have begun more subjects, they have been taught in smaller classes, and by different, less rigid methods. The High School cannot, there- fore, at present be regarded as the middle rung of the educational ladder. In England there is a gap between it and the Elementary School, which is sometimes successfully bridged by special means, but the existence of which cannot be disrerarded in anv sreneral scheme ot English education. As the need of secondary education is more generally felt, a system of schools leading upward in direct line from the Elementary School is being naturally evolved, and connection between the two lines is being provided by scholarships and other means. But if we disregarei a few exceptional cases, it seems best to look on the High School as an organic whole, taking the child from the nursery to the University, and sometimes even helping out the nursery, by means of the Kindergarten."* Of course the High Schools do not by any means exhaust the field of girls' education ; they are for the most part Day Schools, and though there are often boarding-houses in connection with them, they cannot be properly called Boarding Schools, as these houses are, in most cases, not under the control of the school authorities. * The Renaissance of Girls' Education, Alice Zimmern, 1S9S. C 34 GIRLS' SCHOOLS. When the Girls' PubHc Day School Company, for example, grants licenses to boarding-houses, it is only to certify that the houses are in good sanitary condition, and large enough to take so many boarders ; but beyond that their responsibility does not go, though of course the Headmistresses naturally take care to know how they are carried on. A considerable demand has arisen in recent years for Boarding Schools, but of a very different type to those so strongly condemned by the Report of the Commission ; for while any town of sufficient size to maintain a good Day School could provide an excellent education of the ordinary type, there often were a small number of girls who, wishing to try for scholarships, or working for difficult examinations, required special attention of an advanced kind, making additional teachers necessary ; and while this could be managed in a large school, the expense involved made it difficult in a moderate-sized, and impossible in a small school. The Boarding Schools were able to meet the difficulty of providing adequate teaching for these girls ; as they could, by drawing from a large area, get a sufficient number requiring the same class of teaching to make it worth while providing the teachers. They also enabled those girls, of whom of course there were considerable numbers, who lived in the country at too great a distance from a Day .School, to obtain the advantages of a good school. ORGANISATION. Although there is far more uniformity of scheme and organisation in the case of girls' schools than in boys', yet there is no regular code or system that will apply to all schools alike, each school varying as a rule in detail to suit the needs of the neighbourhood in which it is placed. There are, however, certain broad lines which are common to nearly all High Schools. The first point to be noticed is that it is an almost universal plan that all regular class teaching should be given in the morning only, the hours as a rule being from 9 to i. The afternoon is reserved either for individual lessons, such as Music, Piano, and Solo Singing, Advanced Drawing and Painting, con- versation classes in French and German, sometimes Greek and Advanced Chemistry. Preparation also is done in the afternoon. Girls who prefer to do so or who have no facilities for working at home stay or return to the school for the purpose. The object of this arrangement is to give ORGANISATION. 35 the best working hours ot the day to the important subjects, leaving for the afternoon special work, preparation, and accomplishments. For the regulation of the work done at home there are carefully prepared tables, assigning to each girl individually the amount of work that is considered right according to her capabilities, health, age, &c. These forms have to be filled up by the parents, to show how long the girl has taken over her preparation. In some schools forms are provided on which the girls have to enter how many hours have been spent in e.xercise out of doors. These precautions are found necessary in order to prevent the danger of overwork, for it is an objection often brought against High Schools that they are apt to overwork their pupils ; but as Miss F. Gadesden, Headmistress of the Blackheath High School, points out — "The girl who comes to school vouno-, and learns from the besfinninsf to work with method, is rarely overworked. It is the girl whose early years have been wasted by incompetent teachers, who comes to school at fourteen or fifteen or older, and finds herself handicapped by want of knowledge and method, who becomes over-an.\ious and then overworked."* In all Public Day Schools Saturday is a whole holiday, and this, with the custom of having regular work in the morning only, cuts the available hours in the week rather short, making it very difficult to give adequate time for the great number of different subjects that have to find a place in the modern curriculum of a girls' school. A large number of schools have a Kindergarten attached to them from which the children pass through a form, which is usually called the "transition form," into the school proper. The transition form is grouped for some purposes with the Kindergarten, sometimes with the first form ; so that it is of considerable importance that their class- rooms should be close together, or arranged with sliding partitions, so that frequent changes can be made without too much waste of time and trouble. The top form in the school is the si.\th. It is not uncommon to have a special room for the pupils in this form known as the "sixth- torm room," differing from an ordinary class-room by its furniture being fitted with a large table and chairs, and made to look more like a sitting-room. The intervening forms, between the sixth at the top down to the lowest or first form, are arranged according to the size ot the school Education in the Nineteenth Century. 36 GIRLS' SCHOOLS. and the number of forms required, being divided into upper and lower, or in two parallel divisions, as may be most desirable. The school is sometimes arranged with parallel divisions all the way up, the girls who take Latin going to one side, those learning- German to the other. In the arrangement of the classes it is usual to take certain subjects, such as Arithmetic and English, to determine promotion and position in the school, and to reclassify for other subjects by arranging that the teaching of those subjects shall synchronise in two or three forms, which are then treated as a block for the . purpose of this subdivision. In a large school where the forms can be properly graded, it is usual that the whole form should move up at the end of the )"ear too'ether, as in the German schools, anv yirl who is too far behind having to spend another year in the form. Of course in a small school there is too wide a difference in attainments to make this possible. Large numbers are almost essential to the proper and efficient working of a school. When the numbers tall below about 200, it becomes very difficult to grade the classes at all evenly, and either the backward are neglected or the clever ones kept back.* The reclassification for so many different subjects entails of course a considerable amount of moving about from one class-room to another. There are usually four or five lessons in a morning, and it may easily happen that a girl is in as many different rooms in the course of one morning. Provided that the building is convenient and well planned, this, so far from being a disadvantage, provides a useful and pleasant change. But it is essential that there should not be long narrow corridors, awkward staircases, and dark corners, for unless the class- rooms are easily accessible, there is not only a great waste of time, but a considerable likelihood of disorder, as where supervision is difficult, discipline is not unlikely to suffer. The school opens usually at 9. The girls, after having taken oft' their outdoor boots, for it is an invariable rule that only indoor shoes shall be worn in the building, assemble in the hall for calling over and prayers, after which they go off to their class-rooms. The morning of four hours is usually divided into five sessions, with an interval of about twenty minutes in the middle, during which the pupils have a glass of milk and a bun, to make up for the necessarily earl\- breakfast, followed by a * This would not, of course, be the case where tlie school is highly staffed, so that there can be a number of small forms of twelve to fifteen. SUBJECTS OF INSTRUCTION. 37 few minutes' fresh air in the playground. The main work of the day- is over by i o'clock, but a very large proportion of the girls either stay and have dinner at the school, or if living near, go home and return in the afternoon for some of the special classes, or for games, which play a large part in the life of the schools. The curriculum includes a large number of subjects. In the schools of the Girls' Public Day School Company, for example, the following find a place : — Religious Instruction, Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Mathematics, Bookkeeping, English Grammar, Composition and Literature, History, Geography, French, German, Latin, the Elements of Physical and Natural Science, Social Economy, Drawing, Class- Singing and Harmony, Gymnastic Exercises, and Needlework, and in all the schools that prepare for College, Greek. This of course does not imply that every girl learns all of these. The Headmistress has considerable powers of selection among all these, and hence, as the best form of curriculum for Girls' Schools seems by no means as yet decided, there is considerable difference between the schools. In the prospectus of the Manchester High .School the subjects of instruction are given as — Reading, Writing, including Shorthand, English Grammar, Language, and Literature, History and Geography, Arithmetic and Mathematics ; French, German, Latin, and Greek ; Botany, Chemistry, Physics and Geology, Political Economy; Harmony, Class-Singing, Drawing, Cookery and Housewifery, Plain Sewing and Dressmaking, and Calisthenics. Progressive courses of instruction are laid down in these subjects, but the authorities of the school will determine the particular course of instruction for each pupil, having regard to her health, ability, and attainments. The curriculum of a school naturally comes in the end to depend on the examinations for which it prepares, for although it is only in the upper forms that actual preparation for the examination is done, yet the work of the school is naturally arranged to lead more or less ujj to them. The examinations of the Joint Board of Oxford and Cambridge are taken bv a lar^e number of schools. This has the oreat advantaoe of giving a standard of comparison, so that the work of one school can be tested by that of other schools of a similar kind. Girls also take the Cambridge Higher Local Examinations. The North London Collegiate School is organised in two parallel courses, of which one leads to the London Degree Examinations, and the other to the Cambridge Senior and Higher Locals. The work in Boarding Schools is on much the same lines ; indeed. 38 GIRLS' SCHOOLS. except that the girls go home at night, there is not any very great difference at the present day between a High School and a Boarding School. The original idea of a Day School as a combination of school teaching and home influence seems merging more and more into a Boarding School, the home being used only as a kind of boarding- house ; for what with clubs, matches, charities, old girls' meetino-s, &c., Sunday becomes the only day belonging to home. First come the morning lessons, usually fi\^e in number, with a short break for pla)- or drill ; then the school dinner, to which over fifty girls sometimes sit down. Arain a short interval before the afternoon classes, music lessons and preparation, which usually go on till 4, though girls who have no special duties at the time may be found at play in the playground.* In the Girls' Grammar School at Ashby-de-la-Zouche, which is a combination of Boarding and Day School, the ordinary subjects are taught, but e.xtra fees have to be paid by those desiring to learn Greek, Latin, German, or Higher Mathematics. The fees, however, for the ordinary course are low, being £2 a term for those under four- teen, and £2. 6s. Sd. for those over. In this school the hours are from 9.15 to 12.30 in the mornings, Saturdays included, and from 2.15 to 4 o'clock in the afternoon, excejat on Wednesdays and Saturdays, when there is no afternoon school. The actual hours available amount to about twenty, from which must be deducted the time occupied by prayers and calling over in the morning. This is of course exclusive of preparation and special subjects, such as music, &c. Through all the question of curriculum, hours ot work, &c., runs the question of health. Boys are generally presumed to be capable of protecting themselves from any danger of overwork, while in the case of girls stringent precautions are taken both to guard against this and to ensure that they shall get a proper amount of e.xercise and fresh air. At some schools extraordinary care is taken to look after the physical well-being of each individual pupil. At Sheffield (Girls' Public Day School Company), every girl has, on entering the school, to bring a certifi- cate of health, upon which must be entered the more important details of physical development. In addition to particulars of weight, measure- ment, &c., there is a lady M.D. appointed to the school, who carries out these e.xaminations, the results of which are entered in a book. In any cases where it seems advisable, special forms of drill or remedial * The Renaissance of Girls' Education, A. Zinimern. NEW TYPE OF BOARDING SCHOOL. 39 exercises are recommended, and carried out under the direction of the Gymnastic Mistress, who is a permanent member of the staff. Upon these records, too, the amount of home work and preparation is based, permission to play certain games, to join in the gymnastic classes, &c. This system is being gradually extended, and is carried out in a considerable number of schools, and the beneficial results to the gfeneral health of the school are very marked.* At the Manchester High School the girls are measured and weig-hed at the beolnnino- and end of each term, and their evesi'dit carefully tested by means of cards. This is done by the Head- mistress and the Science Mistress, not by a doctor ; but in case of any pupil found to be going back in weight, or in any way not up to a normal standard of sight, the parents are at once communicated with, and a doctor called in. There has arisen in recent years a considerable demand lor a new sort of Boarding School for Girls, one which should be much more on the lines of a Bovs' Public School, areat attention beino- o-iven to crames and out-of-door pursuits, while giving an education of a high character, aiming perhaps chiefly at general culture, in which Classics should take an important place ; and at the same time, by giving the girls in the upper part ot the school a considerable share of responsibility in the management and discipline of the school, to train them in habits of independence and self-reliance. The first school of this sort was founded in 1877 at St Andrews, and has been known as the St Leonard's School, since it acquired the buildings and grounds of the old St Leonard's College. The school consists of the school-house and seven boarding-houses, each under the control of one of the senior assistant mistresses. The numbers are limited to 200, and the entrance age is from thirteen or fourteen to seventeen, no airl beino- admitted without first havino- passed an entrance examination graduated according to age. Each house has a separate dining-room and study, where each of the elder gfirls has a small writino--table and bookshelf. The school hours are from 9 to 12.30, with special subjects in the afternoon. No work is allowed before breakfast or after 8.30 p.m. There Is a special games mistress, and one and a halt hours are daily * Those interested in the subject will find an excellent account of the system in force at the Sheffield High School by Mrs Woodhouse, the Headmistress, under whose auspices it was introduced, in the second volume of the Special Reports of the Education Department, 1S9S. 40 GIRLS' SCHOOLS. given to games, after dinner. A playing field of i6 acres adjoins the school, providing a cricket field, golf course, lawn and gravel tennis courts, hockev eround, fives courts, &c. Great attention is o-iven to games, and a healthy spirit of rivalry is kept up between the different houses by matches, each house having its own colours, and a keen interest is taken in these games. The many advantages and attractions of this school, which began to draw girls from England in spite of the long journey, resulted in the foundation of The Education Company, by whose efforts another school has been established in the South of England at Wycombe Abbey, which has now accommodation for 200 girls. This school, the Headmistress of which is Miss Dove, who had organised and set on a firm footing the St Leonard's School in the North, and had been induced to come and start a similar one in the South, is worked on very similar lines. The work is as far as possible broken up by frequent change and intervals, though there is no hard-and-fast division of class-work in the morning and preparation in the afternoon. Considerable time is given every day to physical and manual training, under which head come Drawing and Painting, Part Sing-ino-, Practisino-, Dancing, Carpentry, Gardening, and Needlework, all of which are regarded as part of the school work, and taught by teachers on the permanent staff. The success of these schools shows that there is a real demand for "Public Schools" in the sense of the best class of Boarding Schools for girls. Of a more advanced type is the school founded in 1885 at Brighton by the Misses Lawrence. The success of the school made it necessary to move into more convenient and larger premises. A site was secured between Brighton and Rottino-dean, and the memorial stone of the new building, known as the Roedean School,* was laid by Mrs Sidgwick in 1S97. The curriculum is like that of a High School, with more scope for special and individual tuition. The objects in view of the school are — To give a due importance to physical education and outdoor games in every girl's life, to regulate the school discipline in such a way as to develop trustworthiness and a sense of responsibility in the pupils, and give a sound and careful intellectual trainine. * Illustrated, Figs. 185-192. Chapter IV. GERMAN SCHOOL SYSTEMS AND AMERICAN EDUCATION. German School Systems — Different States in Germany — Prussia selected for Description — Aims of German Secondary Schools — Exemption from One Year's Service in Army — Administrative Control of Education in Germany — Different Types of Schools — Their Organisation and Curriculum — Time Tables, &c. — Girls' Schools in Germany — State of Curriculum, &c. American Education — Enthu- siasm for Educational Matters — Private or Denominational Schools — The Ladder from the Elementary Schools to the University — Uniformity of Different States due to Constant Communication — Administrative Control — Methods for raising Money for Educational Purposes — No Public Inspection by State Officers — The DifTerent Grades of Schools and Description — Difference between English Idea of Secondary and Elementary Education and the American View — The Superintendent, his Posi- tion and Duties — ]\Ieaning of the Word " Class " — Use of the Hall — Private Schools. In considering the German system of education it must of course be remembered that there is, properly speaking, no German system, in the sense of one method common to all the different States. For the different States, differing as they do racially, politically, and on questions ot religion, naturally have no absolute uniformity in their educational aims. But as Prussia assumes the lead, and is of greater importance in political questions, so when speaking generally of German education, it is the system in force in Prussia that is usually meant. Accordingly, as it would be obviously impossible to go into the methods of all the different States, and as they all follow more or less the same lines though differing in detail, the Prussian organisation is here described, sufficiently, it is hoped, to give such an idea of its general scope and aims as to make the plans of schools that are given intelligible. The principal aim of the German Secondary School system is to produce in their pupils a high standard of all-round culture, but to a certain extent with reference to the particular line in life which lies before them. Their schools are most carefully and clearly differentiated into certain well-defined types with distinct names, which clearly denote the scope and objects of the school. Each school is limited to one particular type, not combining two sorts of schools in one, as for instance is usually the case with our Secondary Schools with their Classical and Modern Sides. 42 GERMAN SYSTEMS AND AMERICAN EDUCATION. By means of a highly elaborate, but at the same time a smooth and easy working system of central and local administration, it is easy to compare the results of corresponding schools in different localities. This comparison, combined with the system of Inspectors, who are always men of high standing, usually, if not invariably, past Principals of schools, and so of experience in the work, makes it possible to test the value and efficiency of each school and so to ensure that all should be kept up to the same high level of excellence. One point which has great influence upon secondary education in Germany lies in its close connection with the other parts of the national organisation. Successful completion of a six years' course in a recognised Secondary School gives not only exemption from one of the two years' compulsory military service, but at the same time a higher status during the one year. These leaving certificates have also a commercial value, as to hold one is a necessary qualification in ob- taining a situation with any large firm. This naturally induces a very large number of boys to stay the full six years at school. Again the professions — Law, Medicine, &c. — -and the Universities require the successful completion of a certain course- which is settled by the Government. It is by this power of conferring on or withholding from schools the right to grant these privileges to their pupils that the Government can force them to conform to their regulations. In Prussia the administrative control of educational affairs is vested in the Minister for Religious, Educational, and Medicinal Affairs. He is a Cabinet Officer and responsible to the Crown only, but practi- cally he is bound by public opinion and precedent to carry on the educational work along certain definite lines. He acts as a kind of ultimate Court of Appeal from the decisions of lower departmental officers ; his department covers a wide field ; it controls examinations and the privileges to be gained by them ; has the final voice in the questions of choice of studies ; regulates fees ; fixes the salaries and pensions of teachers. Properly speaking, there is no Minister of Education, education being but one of three departments as mentioned above. This particular department is presided over by an Under-Secretary with two chief assistants. These, with the assistance of an Advisory Council of nine- teen, administer the whole school system. Internally the department is arranged in two main divisions, to one belonging the Common Schools (Elementary), Normal Schools, High Schools for Girls, and the schools or institutions for defective children ; the other taking charge of higher education in the Secondary Schools and Universities. The immediate PRUSSIAN SYSTEM OF ADMINISTRATION. 43 administration of the Secondary Schools is in the hands of the Provincial School Boards, of which there are thirteen, the President of the District being, when present, chairman ex officio. The place is, how^ever, usually taken by the Governor of the District. The Board is as a rule composed of from three to five trained Inspectors, always selected from men who have been Principals of Secondary Schools. These divide among themselves the difterent classes of schools, the senior member taking the highest class of the school. The duties of these Provincial Boards include the supervision of all matters relating to the educational institutions that come under their jurisdiction. They are required to inspect and report upon the Higher Schools, on the appointment and dismissal of teachers other than Directors (Headmasters). Their reports must be sufficiently full and exhaustive to keep the Central Department of Education fully abreast of the state of affairs in every school. They do not examine or grant certificates to teachers, this being done by a Special Examinations Commission.* The curriculum of any Higher School must go somewhat beyond the subjects which may be considered to be absolutely necessary, it beinor the essence of a Hieh School that it should give, to some extent at least, a liberal education. The Higher Schools of Prussia may be divided as follows: — Classical Schools - - - Latin and Greek. Gymnasien - . - - Nine years' course. Pro-gymnasien - - - Six years' course. Modern Schools - - - - But keeping Latin. Realgymnasien - - - Nine years' course. Real Pro-gymnasien - - - Six years' course. Modern Schools - - - -No Latin. Oberrealschulen - - - Nine years' course. Realschulen - - - - Six years' course. Hohere Burgerschulen - - Six years' course. The Gymnasium is the highest class of school in Germany. It is the natural road to the Universities and the learned professions. Its aim is a high standard of all-round culture. It is divided into nine classes, one to correspond with each }-ear of the course. Arranged in three divisions, the names of the classes, which it is convenient to know, as they convey at once a definite idea of the age and attainments, and are always found in the same numbers and arrangement in all schools, are * German Higher Schools, J. E. Russell, 1899. 44 GERMAN SYSTEMS AND AMERICAN EDUCATION. Ober Prima, Unter Prima, and Ober Secunda in the first division; Unter Secunda, Ober Tertia, and Unter Tertia the second ; while the third division takes the classes Ouarta, Ouinta, Sexta.* As a rule, a year is spent in each class, never less, but it may happen that a boy is not sufficiently advanced to be moved up, in which case he has to remain a second year in the same form. To obtain admission to a Gymnasium the pupil must be at least nine years old, and must have had three years' training in Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, and Religion. This may be had either in the Elementary Schools or Private Schools, or better in the special Preparatory Schools which are attached to many Gymnasien, known as Vorschule. The following table, showing the hours of work for all classes, including the \'orschule, is taken from the Annual Report of the Breslau Gymnasium : — Subject. Number of Hours' Teaching A Week. A. Gymnasium. B. Vorschule. la. u. I la. lU. Ilia. III*. IV. V. VI. I. 2. 3- Reliction - 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Motiier Tongue and -i Narration of National l 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 4 8 8 12 Events - - - J Latin 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 Greek 6 6 6 6 6 6 French 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 Hebrew * - 2* 2* English * - 2* 2* History and Geography 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 2 2 Mathematics 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 8 Physics and Natural ) 2 Science - - j Natural History 2 2 2 2 Writing 2 2 4 4 4 ' Drawing t Singing! - ^ T 2 2 2 2 2 2 I I 5 Gymnastics 3 3 3 3 1 J J 3 3 3 * Optional subjects. t Optional in I. and II. ; In the five hours for singing, IV.-I. are divided into four classes, according to voices and ability. * These names of the classes are often found marked on the plans of schools, as the size of the class is limited by its position. HIGHER SCHOOLS OF PRUSSIA. 45 There is very little difierence as far as the Gymnasien are concerned between the different States. In the Southern States there is a tendency to give a rather larger proportion of time to Classics. The Pro-gymnasien are the same as the abo\-e, but ha\ing the lower and middle divisions only, so making a si.x years' course. They are found, as a rule, in the smaller towns, where there are not enough boys who would stay to complete nine years' course. Such pupils are sent on to finish the last three years to some neighbouring town. The aims of the Rcalgynmiasicn are the same as those of the Gymnasien : — To give the pupil a liberal education, but founded more on instruction in Modern Languages, Mathematics, and Natural Science ; so that while the class divisions and arrangements are the same, the curriculum Is a good deal altered, English taking the place of Greek, while a great deal more time relatively is devoted to French and Natural Science. Curriculum of an Oberrealschule (from \o\. I. of the Special Reports). Subject. Number of the Class. Total 1 Number of Hours Weekly in the Schoo!, exclusive of Home Lessons. VI. \. IV. \\\b. Ilia. lU. Ila. lb. la. Religion Mother Tongue, in- -i eluding Narration - of National Events - J French English History and Geography Arithmetic and Mathe- ] matics - - - | Natural History - Physics Chemistry & Mineralogy Writing Freehand Drawing Total of hours in ) each Class - j 3 6 5 2 2 6 2 5 2 2 2 2 4 6 [: 6 2 2 2 2 3 6 5 2 2 6 2 2 2 3 6 4 2 2 5 2 2 2 2 3 5 4 21 1/ 5 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 4 3 S 3 3 2 2 4 4 4 3 5 3 3 2 2 4 4 4 3 5 3 3 2 19 34 47 25 28 47 12 13 II 6 16 25 25 28 30 1 30 30 3° 30 30 258 The Realschulen are Higher Schools in which the Classical Languages are not taught, with si.x classes in the normal course. In 46 GERMAN SYSTEMS AND AMERICAN EDUCATION. many cases, however, three extra classes are added, making the nine years' course complete. They are then known as Oberrealsclmlen. The object in view of these schools is to fit their pupils for effective and intelligent participation in the actual affairs of life. Particular stress is therefore placed on Modern Languages and Natural Science. The Prussian Ministry look with a very favourable eye on these schools, and try in every way to increase their number, even at the expense of the Realgymnasien, as it is to the pupils of these schools that the nation looks for its industrial leaders. The Hbhcre Bih'gerschule properly implies a High Grade Elementary School. The term, however, is rapidly falling into disuse, its place being taken by the Realschule. GIRLS' SCHOOLS IN GERMANY. Girls' Schools occupy in Germany a position very inferior both in position and in respect to State aid to that of the boys. As shown by Dr Wychgram,* there were in 1897, 586 Higher Schools for Boys, nearly half of which are supported by State aid, while there are but 128 Schools for Girls, of which four only receive any Government assistance, all the rest being supported by private means, or worked for profit, or managed by the city in which they are located. The reason of their relatively small importance pro- bably is due to the lack of openings which would offer a career to educated women. Till recently the teachers in the Girls' Schools were men, so that there were no posts to be gained by a thorough course of study ; there were no privileges attached to the Girls' Higher Schools, so that there was no object in uniformity of curri- culum or methods ; they do not want women at the University, so that here again there was no object in going through the course of studies of the Gymnasium. However, in the last few years things have improved very much. The permission to teach in the Higher Girls' Schools was gained, and as candidates for teachers must pass a State examination, previous training of an adequate character became necessary. In 1894 a Ministerial Rescript was promulgated fixing the curriculum for the * Handbuch des Hoheren Madchenschulwesens, Wychgram, Leipzig, 1897. EDUCATION IN AMERICA. 47 Higher Schools for Girls {Holiere Miidchenschulen), also providing for the appointment of women to any position in the upper grades. Pupils enter at si.K years, there being no Vorschule as for boys. EDUCATION IN AMERICA. There is in America the same widespread enthusiasm for educational subjects and the general public interest in it that is such a marked feature in Germany. The reasons for this are traced by Miss Burstall, in her book on American Girls' Schools,* partly to the democratic constitu- tion of the country, which makes it so very necessary that those in whose hands so much power rests should be as far as may be fitted to make a good use of it ; partly to the enormous foreign immigration, where the Public School, taking children of all classes, creeds, and nationalities, offers the best if not the only solution of the problem of how best to weld all this very mixed material into one homogeneous whole, to make a nation that shall to some extent have the same ideas and the same aims. Everywhere in books or papers on American education this feeling may be traced. English is enforced as the lanouaoe in all schools, even in those where it is a foreign laneuaee to nearly all the children in the school, language being considered the great unifier. Private and Denominational Schools are not looked upon favourably, because they tend to strongly increase racial and class differences. There is a singular degree of unity in American education, making it difficult to treat secondary and elementary education separately. Not onlv are thev under the same authoritv, but thev are verv carefullv arranged to lead from one to another — in fact, in America there is a complete ladder from the Elementary School to the University. Although the different States each manage their own educational affairs, there is not nearly so great a difference in their systems as one would exjject to find — owing, perhaps, to the quickness with which new- ideas are seized upon, and the completeness of intercommunications, due to the "-reat number of teachers' societies and meetings, anv scheme of education that seems successful in one State is very quickly adopted by others, anxious not to be behindhand in any improvements. "Not only is there a unity, there is an astonishing uniformity over the whole of the United States in organisation, methods, courses of study — * The Education of Cxirls in the United States, S. Burstall, 1S94. 4S GERMAN SYSTEMS AND AMERICAN EDUCATION. everything. Some districts and schools are of course better than others ; some are permeated by a different spirit. But in outward form the uniformity o\'er so large an area, with such absolute local freedom of variation, is extraordinary. The Educational Exhibit at Chicago showed this uniformitv in a remarkable deo-ree ; the educational literature, reports, school laws, &c., show it also. It is perhaps not too much to say that there is less difference in form between the schools of Boston, Chicago, San Francisco, and Seattle, in the State of Washington, than there is between the different Girls' High Schools in London." * The National Go\-ernment in America has nothing to do with educational affairs, such matters being entirely under local control. Each State has its own school law derived from the State Constitution, which gives general direction. This is supplemented by Acts of State Legislation, in which are more detailed instructions, providing for the organisation of Local Boards, fixing the school age, particulars of com- pulsory education, &c. The School Boards manage the schools, levying the local rates, and erecting new buildings as required ; arrange the curriculum, appoint teachers, and generally superintend the work of the schools. There is in addition a State Superintendent of Public Instruction, whose business it is to give advice, make reports, license teachers, &c. Schools are supported almost entirely by local taxation in the form of a property tax. There is, however, In addition a State fund, distributed by the authorities to equalise the burdens of taxation in providing for the poorer districts. There is in America no system of inspections corresponding in the smallest degree to the organised inspection of Elementary Schools in this country, nor are there any great public examinations which can be taken by Secondary Schools, such as the Oxford and Cambridge Local Examinations, &c. The whole spirit of their education is, indeed, generally opposed to e.xaminations, attempts having even been made to do away with the entrance examination to Universities, replacing them by a certificate to say that the pupil has been through such-and-such a course of study. This plan has not been adopted by such Colleges as Harvard and Yale. The qualifications of teachers in the Public Schools are not governed by any general regulation. There is usually a preponderance of female teachers, due probably rather to the fact that they command a lower salary than to any theories on the subject. * The Education of Girls in the United States, S. Burstall. EDUCATION IN AMERICA. 49 The "Public," that is to say, the "Free" Schools, "Public" having that sense when applied to American Schools, are arranged in three grades bv age. A Kindergarten is in some cases included in the first. 1. The Primary School — children of from si.K to nine years, learning Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, and the Elements of Language. 2. The Grammar School takes up the children as thev leave the Primary School, keeping" them it possible till the age of fourteen or fifteen, though of course manx" leave as soon as they are legally exempt in order to go to work. In the Grammar School, Grammar, Arithmetic, Geography, Literature, and United States History are tauofht. In the larger towns and cities there is a regular course of Manual Training included, and in some centres Natural Science. The higher classes of the Grammar School correspond to some extent to the English Higher Grade Elementary Schools or Third Grade Secondary Schools. 3. The High School takes its pupils at fourteen, fifteen, or sixteen years of age, to prepare them either for the University, or to finish their education by giving a broader knowledge and a more thorough training. This naturally tends to the establishment of two different sorts of schools. In Boston they are known as the English and the Latin, the latter being those which prepare pupils for the Universities. Attempts are beine made to establish a third kind called Manual Trainino- Hiyh Schools. The point that at once catches the attention on looking at the organisation of schools in America is the fundamental difference between their idea of the connection between elementary and secondary education, and that prevalent in this countr\-. The plan of classing schools according to the leaving age is thus quite impossible in America. All kinds of schools begin in the same way with the same subjects ; the elements of knowledge are taught to all children alike, the only differ- ence between lower and higher education being the point reached, the custom of beginning early certain subjects, such as Modern Languages and Latin, in the case of pupils who intend continuing their education till seventeen or eio-hteen, or are y-oing to the Universities, being unusual in America, where the subjects are the same for all, whether they intend to go on or stop at fourteen. Of course this plan makes any scheme of progression from one school to another very much easier to arrange. Having completed the course at a Grammar School, a boy can either go on to a High School where he will find himself ready to go straight on with the work there, or he simply leaves school and goes to work, D 50 GERMAN SYSTEMS AND AMERICAN EDUCATION. and is supposed to have been equally prepared for either course. The difficulty found in the English Secondary Schools of classifying and grading the pupils coming with a scholarship from an Elementary School is thus done away with — that is to say, the American idea is that all children, whatever their future, should begin with the same education, adding something each year, but always putting what may be called the necessary subjects first, so that Modern Languages and the Classics are put off until the H igh School is reached. This scheme makes the educational unity so complete, and the educational ladder so easy, that it is still carefully adhered to, although it is of doubtful advantage from a purely educational point of view ; languages, to be acquired in any degree of perfection, should probably be commenced at an early age. This common use of the Public Schools by all grades of society pre- supposes for its successful working" an absence of social lines or demar- cation of class such as is perhaps only to be found in America. The most important personage in connection with education in America is undoubtedly the Superintendent. " Within his own domain, whether a State, a county, or a city, he combines in himself the characters of a Minister of Public Instruction, an Inspector of Schools, a Licenser of Teachers, and a Professor of Pedagogy."* His influence extends to every detail of school life. Serious breaches of discipline, cases of expulsion, &c., come through his hands ; he acts as adviser to teachers on methods of teaching ; gives hints to young and inex- perienced students ; and is the technical expert by whose opinion the Local School Board is to a great extent guided on very many points. Before admission to a High School it is necessary to have a certificate from a Grammar School or to pass an equivalent examination. This of course simplifies to a great extent the curriculum, as certain subjects having been sufficiently studied, they are able to devote their energies to higher work. Tiie organisation of a High School is simple. The pupils are arranged in years, admission being only allowed once a year in September, unless the applicant can produce satisfactory evidence of being able to take up the work at the jaroper point. At the end of the year they all go regularly on to the next year's work. Any who are too backward to do so either go over the year's work again, or perhaps more usually leave the school. At the end of the course of three or four years a diploma is given, but not as the result of any examination. There are, as a rule, in the High Schools several courses * Notes on American Schools and Training Colleges, p. 6i, Sir J. Fitch. EDUCATION I\ AMERICA. 51 of stutly, one of which is chosen by the pupil on entering. There is the college course of four years ; the English course mentioned above ; then there is a commercial course of two years. In some cities there is a three years' course of engineering. The word "class" does not convey the idea of a form in the English sense, but means all the students of one year, which may in a large school amount to 200 or more. These classes are divided up according to the different subjects taken by the pupils. In many cases, of course, these divisions are too large to be taken at once. They are then divided into sections, the teacher repeating the lesson. There is no system of grades or classification according to attainments, the whole "year" or "class" being kept parallel, although taught in sections. Thus there is never found at the top of the school a small form, such as the English " sixth," doing advanced work in different subjects. The daily work in an American Public High School is confined to the morning, as a rule from 9 till 1.30. There is a " recess " or period of rest in the middle of the morning of about half an hour, when the pupils have a light lunch, either bringing it themselves or buving what they want at the school, a few who live close by returning to their homes. There is a great variation as regards the custom of a general assembly in the morning before work. Any daily religious ceremony is unusual, but in some schools it takes place two or three times a week, or else the school is called tosrether for some form of literarv exercise. The morning is divided into five periods, one of which is given to private study — that is to say, w-hile the lessons are going on, the pupils who attend the subjects of them are in attendance, while the others, sitting at their own desks in special study-halls, go on doing- work by themselves. It is necessary to bear this in mind when looking at the plans of American schools, as it explains the large schoolrooms, the size of which is apt to strike any one who sees the drawings for the first time. The actual teaching is done, for the most part, in smaller rooms, which are called "recitation rooms," and which correspond more to our class-rooms. At the close of each lesson period electric bells sound all over the building, and a few minutes, three to five, are allowed for the change of class-rooms. During this period conver- sation is allowed. Since the foregoing remarks apply as well to girls as to boys, there is no need to go into the subject of girls' education separately, as most of the schools are co-educational, educating the boys and girls together, and even where there are separated schools, 52 GERMAN SYSTEMS AMD AMERICAN EDUCATION. the subjects taught and the organisation of the school are so nearly identical as to make a separate account unnecessary. There are in America, though to nothing like the extent in England, Private Secondary Schools, and under the term jDrivate are included schools governed bv a Board, though not conducted for private profit — in fact, all schools that are not free. These schools are not numerous. They are conducted \'ery much on the lines of the Public Schools, but are not subject to any inspections or regulations. Chapter \'. SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. Method of dealing with the Buildings in the following chapter — Esthetic Considerations in the Treatment of the Interior of Secondary School Buildings — Sites and the questions which govern Position — Aspect — Advantage of plenty of Sun — Relative Merits of the different Points of the Compass — North and Xorth-west, West and South-west, East and South-east, North-east — Accommodation, Extent required — Questions which determine the number of Class-rooms required— Necessity for Division Rooms — Sliding Partitions — I-ist of the Accommodation required for a Large School for Boys — Similar List for a German School of the same kind — Dif- ferences — Girls' Day Schools : List of Rooms required — Consideration of which Rooms can be dispensed with, and how Retrenchment can be most conveniently made — List of the Minimum Accommodation. In dealing with the subject of school buildings, the following arrange- ment has been adopted : — First of all, to give some consideration to questions affecting school planning generally ; and then, before proceed- ing to describe and illustrate e.xamples of different schools in detail, to enter as carefully as possible into the questions of the,e.\tent of the accommodation required, the uses and purposes of the different rooms, and the form, dimensions, and position that have been found best adapted to serve those purposes. The object of this is to make the plans given later more intelligible, since the plan of the whole school can scarcely be understood, or at all events appreciated, without a clear idea of the purposes which the various parts of it are intended to serve. There is, as a rule, in regard to the interior fitting and arrangement of Secondary Schools, too little attention paid to their aesthetic qualities. Schools are apt to have, to a quite unnecessary degree, the bare unattrac- tive appearance usually associated with institutions. Although much can of course be done by means of pictures, engravings, &c., it is impossible in many cases to do much to relieve the monotony. The effect is often in- creased by having all the paint-work in the building a dull and dreary brown, while each class-room is an e.xact counterpart of every other. In recent years a great deal more attention has been paid to these questions. 54 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. a notable example being the new school for girls at Roedean,* which is not only spacious and healthy, but attractively and artistically treated. There is still, however, a good deal that might be done in this direction. It often looks as thouo-h much of this lack of the amenities of a building- were due to the habit of freely adopting in Secondary Schools, fittings, methods, and styles of building which have been found successful in the Elementary Schools, but which, though well enough adapted for them, are unnecessarily institutional and formal for a Secondary School. The modern Board School, with its clean and excellent, if somewhat bare, building, offers a quite sufficient contrast to the homes from which most of the children come, and is therefore perhaps quite as well adapted to give them a start on the road to a higher standard of livino- as would a building more elaborately treated. But to children, and especially to girls accustomed to the refinements of a cultivated home, the buildings of such a school are more likely to present a forlorn and forbidding appear- ance than to have any elevating tendency. Although it may and indeed does cost more to make a handsome interior, there should surely be set against this the fact that refined and artistic surroundings have a high educational value. So much is spent at the present time on teaching art directly, that some allowance might be made for influences of this kind, which are none the less strong because imbibed unconsciously. A careful scheme of colour decoration alone will do much to add to the appearance of a school without increasing the cost materially, while treating each class-room separately not only affords a welcome change to the eyes of the pupils when mo\ing from one room to another, but gives a pleasant individuality to each room. There is the incidental advantage that it makes it easy to do up one or two rooms without doing up the whole building. SITES. The best site for a school is naturally that of the best site for any kind of house — that is to say, the most healthy position would be the top of a hill facing south, with a gravel, sand, or chalk soil, sheltered to the north and east by trees, preferably pines ; while the worst situations are those close to the bed of a river, or on low-lying clay soil. It should be remembered too that some situations, though apparently healthy, with a good soil, such as sand or gravel, yet owing to a subsoil of clay under the gravel, are nearly as unhealthy, owing to the impervious layer * Described and illustrated below (see Fig. 190). SITES. 55 below, as though standing water showed actually on the surface. While books on school building generally give very careful and elaborate directions as to soil, site, aspect, &c., on which the building should be placed, it usually happens that the final position of the school is governed by very different considerations, especially in the case of Day Schools, which, to fulfil their purpose adequately, must be placed in easily accessible situations, close to large centres of population, and where the necessary space can be secured. In the case of non-local Boarding Schools, since they have not to study the convenience of day pupils, it is of course generally possible to pay due consideration to these sanitary questions. Naturally, too, they assume greater importance in the case of Boarding Schools. The most important desiderata for the school building are good air, plenty of light, and freedom from the disturbance of noise, caused by traffic, factories, &c. To secure the first, the building should stand on high ground, and as far as possible from neighbouring houses. In this respect regard should be had to the likelihood of future building- operations in the neighbourhood. Low-lying ground, or places ever liable to flood, are particularly to be avoided, for though by careful precautions the building itself may be kept dry, the playground will in wet weather have water frequently standing upon it, and be a cause of continual nuisance, and a source of ill-health. Trees and shrubs, especially evergreens, planted so as to act as a protection against the cold winds, are an advantage, especially in the playground ; but of course care must be taken that they do not in any- way interfere with the lighting of the school. In a town the school should be placed in as quiet and wide a street as possible. The noise from the street is very much less when the houses on the opposite side are low, while the light also is of course much better. It is worth remembering that if there is a narrow passage down the side of the school building, formed by a high house or a wall, the noise from the street will be caught and re-echoed very strongly into the class-rooms looking into any such passage. Any precautions taken, such as double windows, to exclude the noise to the front of the building, should also be taken for these windows, as it often happens that the noise thus arising from this confined area is actually more disturbing than that coming through the windows looking directly on to the main street. The school should of course be put back as far as possible from the street to avoid the dust as well as the noise. When, as is sometimes the case, the school is brought up to the street level to make an imposing appearance, or to draw attention, the class-rooms S6 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. 3 looking out over the street should have double windows, though this precaution is of little use in hot weather, unless some complete scheme of mechanical ventilation has been installed. As far as possible the building should be planned so that the corridors and rooms where noise is of not quite so much consequence, as for instance, studios and labora- tories, or the school hall, should come on the street side. The strain upon the voice of a teacher in a class-room looking" over a street is very great, and is likely to result in injury to the throat. In the position of a school it is well that the approach to it should be carefully considered, i.e., with regard to shops, mews, public-houses, or factories that the pupils will have to pass. This naturally is of great importance in the case of Girls' Schools. The neighbourhood of big factories is also to be specially avoided, owing to the dust and possible fumes. With houses opposite there should be a sufficient distance to make sure that the light will not in any way be interfered with.* Rooms that are darkened and shut in bv neio-hbourino" buildino-s have a most -' o o o depressing influence on those who have to occupy them, and are particularly to be avoided in school buildings. If the school is on hig-h o-round, care should be taken that the approach should not be too steep, as in winter, during frosty weather, there are likely to be accidents, especially among the smaller children. ASPECT. The point towards which the school should face should of course be determined by the positions of the class-rooms, whether placed in the front or the back of the building, in order to obtain the most suitable aspect for their windows. During school-time it is essential that every class-room should have an abundant supply of light, so that the class-room window should face towards the quarter whence is derived the best supply of light during the hours which they are in use. Further, it is essential, for the sake of the health of the scholars, that sunlight should have direct access to every room, at least during some part of the day, though it is some- times argued, especially by German authorities, that it is adv^antageous if this can happen while the class-room is not actually in use ; and while this may be important in countries where the sun has during the * For this see on lighting of class-rooms, where the question of opposite houses is treated at length. ASPECT. 57 Slimmer much more power than in this country, it is seldom that much discomfort is felt here, except in the case of class-rooms facing due west, in the afternoon in summer. The old Italian proverb, " Dove non va il sole, va il medico," is nowhere of greater truth than when applied to school-rooms, and the reasonableness of the old saying, that no room is healthy where the sun does not come, has been well proved by the recent researches and investigations made by bacteriologists on the effect of direct sun rays on bacteria and disease germs of all kinds, for when subjected to strong sunlight it is found that the bacteria of nearly all diseases rapidly weaken and die, so that the disinfecting power of the sun is one of which the fullest use should be made in the arrangement of the school buildinof. o The sun in the earlv morning and late afternoon, beinsf then lower in the sky, will naturally shine much farther into the rooms than during the middle of the day. It is of course hardly possible to arrange that every class-room in a large building should have an equally good aspect ; but as far as can be managed, it should be arranged that none of the regular class-rooms should face the north only, except in the case of the studio, for which, as it requires a steady light, a northern aspect is best. The days when there is likely to be too much heat are in this country not very many, and a proper arrangement of blinds will make the management of the light easy. The hottest time of the year too falls usuallv in the summer holidavs. The advantages of the sun are - y o so great from the point of view of health, that they should outweigh a small amount of possible discomfort on a few days of the year. The relative advantages of the different jaoints of the compass may be shortly considered. The A^or/h and North-icest. — These aspects should never be used for class-rooms, as they get practically no sun until late in the day. It it is necessarv that any rooms should have this aspect, these should be those which are occupied seldom, or for a short time only, and this side of the building may be taken up by the windows of the hall, studio, chemical laboratories, waiting-rooms, committee-rooms, stair- cases, or corridors. West and Sonth-ii'esL — These aspects have an advantage in cases where it is preferred to have the direct sunlight into the class-rooms at a time when the rooms are not being used, since it is not till the afternoon that the sun will come into such rooms, and so in High Schools and others in which class-room work is as a rule confined to 58 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. the morning-, the sun will only come into the rooms after the hours of regular work. These rooms, however, in schools where work is done in the afternoon, will get hot in summer, while missing the early sun in winter. East and South-cast. — Rooms looking to these points get the best light all the morning hours. The sun shines into the room in the morning, making the rooms cheerful and comfortable in the cold weather, while in summer the sun is off before the hot part of the day. The early sun, too, has not the same power in the morning as later in the dav when evervthino- has been heated. In the rooms lookin^" due east the level rays of the early sun, except in midsummer, shine right into all the farthest corners of the room. For small children, kindergartens especially, this aspect is very valuable. On the whole, perhaps the best aspect a school can have is that from east to south-east. North-cast and East. — For schools where teaching is carried on both morning and afternoon, Dr Baginsky,* writing of German Schools, recommends north-east to east. In such rooms the sun is off soon in the morning, and in the late hours will only shine a very short way into the room. It is always as well, especially in arranging the exits and entrances of a school building, to take careful note of the prevailing wind in the locality, so that the door should be screened from it. ACCOMMODATION. It is now proposed to consider the amount and the nature of the accommodation that should be provided in a Secondary Day School ; the size and the number of the different rooms, and the purposes they are intended to serve. The question of the extent of the class-room accommodation that ought to be provided for a school, the number of whose pupils has been already settled, is one to which as a rule too little attention is given. A Building Committee is apt to consider the question well disjaosed of when sufficient class- rooms have been provided to allow a seat for every scholar in the school, say ten class-rooms capable of holding 30 for a school of 300 ; and would be not unlikely to consider a Head Master or Mistress unreasonable, if with perhaps 250 pupils, they began to complain of want of room, and to ask for more class-rooms. This is a point * Schulhygiene, p. 51. Acco:\nroDATiox. 59 upon which misunderstandings often arise between governing bodies and heads of schools. The number which the building will accommo- date is given b\- the architect on the assumption of each class-room being filled, whilst the Headmaster with a considerably less number often finds himself much pressed for room. It mav be worth while to consider brietiy the cause of this difference, for the reason, though obvious enough, is very often overlooked. The class-rooms are as a rule built of one or two sizes, to take forms of say 30 or 40, with perhaps one or two capable of taking a larger number. It then happens that one or two small forms, such as the sixth, which even in a large school may perhaps not consist of more than 12 or 16 members, has to occupy a room capable of accommodating say ^o. But it is in the middle of the school, where the largest forms are found, that the difficulties chiefly occur. It frequently becomes necessary to di\'ide some form that is becoming of an unwieldy size, owing to promotion from the forms below being more rapid than usual, or slower into the upper forms, into two parallel divisions. This necessitates the use of an extra class-room, so that while the total number of the school remains practically unchanged, an extra class has been added by the depletion of forms below, which, though not up to their full strength, still require their own separate class-rooms. Unless there are sufficient rooms to allow for this, there arises a tendency to grade the pupils by the size of the class-rooms instead of by their attainments. It may easily happen in a school of the size mentioned above, viz., ten class-rooms capable of holding 30, that there are ten forms, each requiring their class- rooms, varying from 16 or iS to 25 ; better of course from an educational point of view, but it is not always easy to satisfy a School Management Committee that a building nominally capable of holding 300 can hardly be worked comfortably when there are not many more than 200 pupils in the school. Again, the system of splitting up a form into two or more divisions for certain subjects that require more individual teaching necessitates the provision of a certain number of division rooms. These are in addition to the regular class-room accommodation, and should not be counted in reckoning the capacity of the school. Difficulties of this kind are naturally tar more marked in the case of a building that is not of recent erection, for it was formerly customary to provide rooms for much larger classes than would be considered right at the present day, the tendency now being very strongly in the direction of small classes. For instance, at St Paul's, 6o SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. West Kensington, built some eiohteen years ao'o, the class-rooms are all capable of accommodating" 40 boys. This school is, however, very highly staffed, and the average number in a class at the present time does not reach 20. That is to say, since the rooms themselves cannot be divided, the actual accommodation of the school is at least halved. The question of the number of class-rooms to be allowed is usually approached simply from the point of view of the number of pupils to be provided for, instead of the number of classes it is intended to have. In Germany, where the number of classes in schools of similar kinds is always the same, the only question to be settled is that of how many it will be necessary to divide into parallel lorms. There are no questions of such division or reclassification to consider ; nor is there a small form at the top of the school, as our sixth form, standing on any different footing to the rest of the school, to be provided for. There is, however, almost invariably one spare class-room provided for each department of the school, to allow of any form which grows too large being divided into two parallel forms. In this country, where the Secondary Schools present so many and such great differences in their organisation, it would be hardly possible to consider the question in this way, except perhaps in the case of the rebuilding of an existing school where the Headmaster can say what rooms will be required. It is hardly possible to overrate the advantage to the architect of having the Head Master or Mistress to give his or her advice as to what rooms will be required while the plan of the building is under consideration. In the case of a new school too, when possible, the plan of appointing the Headmaster before the school is built will generally result in a building better adapted to the needs of the school. In addition to the regular class-rooms for the form work, as mentioned above, the number of division rooms usually required will be one or two, according to the size of the school, for each of the three ordinary departments, viz., upper, lower, and middle; but a few extra small rooms for the upper school will generally be found a great convenience to provide for small classes preparing for special examinations. The plan of having two adjacent class-rooms separated by a sliding partition that enables them to be thrown together easily, though never found in German Schools, is often found to be of great use, so much so that it is usually recommended that there should be two so arranged on each floor, to meet the case of the temporary illness or absence of a master, or when it may be necessary ACCOMMODATION. 6i to throw two forms together for the purposes of examinations, or for the purpose of a collective lesson or lecture. In the case of a new and inexperienced master or mistress it is sometimes expedient to [)ut an older and stronger teacher next door, to give assistance if necessary. Below is given a list of the accommodation that it is suggested should be provided in a large Secondary Day School for Boys organised on the usual plan of an upper, lower, and middle department. The sizes and use of the different rooms are discussed later. 1. Large assembly hall. 2. Class-rooms for every form in the school — or saj', to allow of variation in size, four class- rooms to hold 30 for every 100 bo)-s. 3. One reserve class-room in each department. 4. Two or more division rooms to hold 15 to 20 in each de- partment. 5. Sixth form room (where this is provided one class-room can be omitted). 6. Headmaster's class-room. 7. Chemical laborator\- and store- room. 8. Physical laboratorj- and store- room. 9. Balance-room. 10. Dark room for optical experi- ments. 11. Room for Botan\-, Biolog}-, and microscope work. iiA.Natural Science Master's room. 12. Museum. 13. Studio, small room for models, drawing-boards, &c. 14. Drawing-school for mechanical drawing. 15. Library for pupils. 16. Librarv for masters. 21 i6a. Quiet room for cases of illness. 17. Assistant masters' common room, with separate la\-atories and cloak-rooms. iS. Headmaster's room, with lavator}-. 19. Secretar)''s office. 20. Clerk's offices, including stationery and book store. Porter's office. Waiting-room for visitors. 23. Committee or Board room, often combined with and serving for Secretary's room. 24. Dining-room, with kitchen, larder, scullery, serving-room, &c. 25. Cloak-rooms, lockers, &c. 26. Service-rooms on each floor for cleaning purposes. 27. Lavator\- basins, sa\' 7 per 100. 28. Closets, saj' 3 per 100. 29. Urinals, say 6 per 100. 30. G\"mnasium and dressing-room. 31. Covered pla}-ground or pla_\-room. 32. Pla\-ground. 33. Fives courts, tennis courts, and pla\'ing fields. 34. Storage room for games, &c. 35. Heating chamber and coal storage. T,6. Drying-room for wet clothes. 37. Bicycle shed. 38. Porter's or caretaker's living rooms. Such things as swimming baths, carpenters' shops, and various rooms for manual instruction and recreation, are added according to the objects in view and resources of the school. 62 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. It is not suggested that all these rooms are absolutely necessary, but in a large modern school nearly all of them will be found. It may be of interest to compare with the above list the rooms that would be con- sidered necessary in a German School of a corresponding type — that is to say, a Gymnasium and a " Real" Gymnasium combined. It is necessary to put the two together for comparison, in order to make it equal to the Classical and Modern Sides of our Secondary Schools. First as to the class-rooms required, it is here that the main difference is to be found. There are no division rooms required. The classes are as a rule, especially in the middle forms, rather larger. By the Government regulations, the maximum size ot classes in German Schools vary according to the department of the school — that is, in the upper depart- ment 30 is usually the maximum size, 40 in the middle, and 50 in the lower. As an example, in the St Maria Magdalene Gymnasium * at Breslau there are about 450 boys. Of the nine regular classes, seven, that is to say, all except the two highest, are split into two parallel divisions, making sixteen classes in all, varying in number from 20 to 25 in the top forms to over 40 in the middle of the school. A Gymnasium of the ordinary type, having a nine years' course, must have nine classes, whatever the size of the school, but may have more, as it becomes necessary, owing to an increase in numbers, to split any form up Into parallel divisions. The following list is taken from the " Handbuch der Architektur," vol. iv. : — 1. A hall. 2. 9 class-rooms,! 3 for 30, 3 for 40, 3 for 50, with one reserve room in each department at least. 3. Room for the Natural History collection (Museum). 4. A class-room for Natural Science teaching and store-room. 5. Preparation room for Natural Science teacher. 6. Drawing-school. 7. Singing-school. 8. Headmaster's or Director's office and clerk's office. 9. Waiting-room for visitors. 10. Assistant teachers' room, with lavatory. 12. 13- 14. II. Consultation or conference room, sometimes serving the purpose of the assistant teachers' room. Service room, for cleaning, &c. Cloak-rooms. Lavatories. Closets. 16. Urinals. 17. Gymnasium and store-room. 18. Playground. 19. Servants' living rooms. 20. Sometimes Headmaster's living rooms. 2 1. ^Lecture-room for Chemistry, with preparation room. 22.*Chemical laboratory and store- room. 23.;): Room for mechanical drawing, store-room for models, boards, &c. * Taken from the Annual Report. t As many more as may be required by the numbers in the school necessitating division into parallel forms. | E.xtra in a Realgymnasium. ROOMS IN GIRLS' SCHOOLS. 63 There is not a great deal of difference in the rooms required in the schools of the two countries. No provision is made for dinner in the middle of the day in German Schools, and such rooms as carpenters' shops and manual traininjj rooms are found in the Technical Schools. They have as a rule a large room devoted to instruction in singing, which is not often found in an English School. German Schools of all grades in\ariably ha\e a large and well-equipped gymnasium. Girls' Schools. — As regards the e.xtent of the accommodation that should be provided for a Girls' School, while it is on the whole much the same as that for boys, it has been thought that it would be convenient to give a complete list. It often happens, unfortunately, that the resources available for building schools for girls are, for various reasons, not as large as in the case of a Bovs' School. For instance, in the rearrangement of an endowment or a charity, provision is often made for the estab- lishment ot a Girls' School ; but as the trust was not intended primarily for girls, their school is apt to come off second best as regards money. The result of this is that the question of accommodation turns rather on which of the rooms are to be considered indispensable than on those that might be considered desirable. For this purpose, in the following list, the rooms that are not absolutely indispensable are marked with an asterisk, and the considerations on which they can be omitted are treated afterwards. These remarks are of course to a large extent equally applicable to Boys' Schools. There are no very great differences observable between Girls' and Boys' Schools. There is perhaps in the latter more attempt to make the rooms cheerful and homelike with pictures, flowers, china, &c. Girls' Schools have very commonly a Kindergarten or Preparatory Department attached, which of course involves a certain number of extra rooms. It is also possible to keep the school cleaner, and to have polished floors with all their advantages, owino- to the custom in Girls' Schools of not wearing out- door boots inside the buildin©-. 1. Assembly hall. 2. Class-rooms, 4 to ever\- 100. 3. A reserve class-room or two. 4. Twodivision-roomstoevery lOO. 5. Chemical laboratoryand *store- room. 6. Phj-sical laboratory and * store- room. 7. Balance-room. 8.*Dark room for optical experi- ments. 9.*Room for Botany, Biology, and microscope work. * Asterisks are placed against the rooms that cannot be considered absolutely indispensable. 64 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. 9A.*Room for Head Science Mis- tress. iO.*Sixth form room or class-room. 11. Studio, room for models and boards. 12. Cookery instruction room, if re- quired by curriculum. i3.*Library for pupils' use as well as mistresses'. l4.*Lecture - room for Natural Science, \\ith preparation room. i5.*Museum. 1 6. Kindergarten room, with sepa- rate cloak-rooms and lava- tories. 17. Transition form room, next the Kindergarten. 18. Two rooms for teaching piano for every lOO girls. i9.*Room for teaching singing. 20. Assistant mistresses' room, with cloak-rooms and lavatory ad- joining. 21. Headmistress's room and la\a- tory. *Waiting-room for visitors. Secretary's office. 22. Book and stationery store. 23. Cloak-rooms for school above the Kindergarten. 24- 25- 26. 27. 28, 29. 30. 3i. 32. 33. 34 35. 36. 3S. 39. 40. 41' 42 Lavatories, 7 per 100. Closets, 5 per 100. Dining-hall — kitchen, larder, scul- lery, &c. *Gymnasium and dressing-room. *Covered plaj-ground or play- room. Playground — tennis and fives courts, if possible. Bicycle shed. Servants' accommodation. Heating-room and coal store. *Drying-room for wet clothes. Storage room for chairs, games, &c. *Provision for examiners and in- spectors. A student-teachers' room, if re- quired. *Board or Committee room, with lavatory. *A quiet room for cases of illness. *A bath-room. Service-rooms for cleaning pur- poses, with hot and cold water, on each floor. Lift for coals if open fires are used. Some convenient arrangement for the mid-morning lunch. This accommodation can of course be considerably curtailed without seriously impairing the efficiency of the school, and as men- tioned above, the question which most usually arises is rather what rooms it is impossible to do without rather than what rooms it would be an advantage to have. It is proposed to consider how far it is possible to reduce the list. And while on the subject of cutting down, a painful and distressing business, but one which from financial reasons plays usually so large a part in the preliminaries of a building scheme, it may perhaps be permissible to lay stress on the fact that cheapness and economy are bv no means synonymous terms, an obvious truism * Asterisks are placed against the rooms that cannot be considered absolutely- indispensable. ROOiMS IN GIRLS' SCHOOLS. 65 enough, hui one vcrv ;ii)t lo be ionored in the cfiorl to reduce the cost of the scheme down to some particular fio^ure. I n no class of building perhaps does cheap or scamped work make itself sooner or more annoyingly felt than in a school, owing to the great wear and tear to which it is subjected. The last few hundred pounds is very often squeezed off at the cost of a considerably greater outla\- afterwards on small repairs and additions. It is now proposed to suggest how the rooms in the above list marked with an asterisk can be dispensed with. First of all, the accommodation given for Natural Science is on rather a large scale, and would be only founil in a school which made rather a specialty of the subject, preparing candidates for Natural Science scholarships, &c. But two rooms, one for physical and one for chemical w-ork, must be provided. The attempt to use one laboratory for the two subjects results at once in the destruction of the physical apparatus, from the fumes given off in the chemical experiments. Although it is a great advantage in a school of any size to have a room for the Science Mistress, as she is the head of a department of the school, it cannot of course be considered an absolute necessity. The library and lecture- room, useful and advantageous as they are, will probably be omitted when there is great pressure on space. The library is used by the elder pupils to work in at certain times by themselves, in order to learn how to use books of reference, &c., and is becoming- more and more considered a necessary part of a properly equipped educational in- stitution. It is hardly ever absent from a German School. The lecture-room cannot be considered indispensable, but should if possible always find a place. It is often possible to combine the lecture-room and library in one, and also make the same room serve for the student-teachers' room, should there be any attached to the school. The museum may well be considered a luxury which can be cut off without much loss. Cases can be stood in the corridors or any- where where there is room to accommodate any collections that the school may happen to possess. It is sometimes suggested that a studio can be dispensed with, on the ground that two large class-rooms capable of being thrown into one will serve for the purpose. In the conditions of a recent competition for a Girls' School, a double class-room was allowed in the accommoda- tion as an alternative to a studio. It is only as a last resort, I think, that this should be permitted. To begin with, the use of class-rooms which presumably have their proper forms must lead to considerable E 66 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. disorganisation in the school arrangements. It does not at all follow that a well-lit class-room will make a well-lit studio — in fact, just the reverse of this is more likely to be correct. The difficulty, too, of dis- posing of all the stands, easels, models, and drawing boards, with the consequent loss of time, make a compromise of this sort very un- desirable. As long as drawing was more or less an extra subject, taken perhaps in the afternoon, these objections were less felt. Now that it is a regular class subject, a studio may fairly be considered necessary. Another plan of making one room serve two purposes, for the sake of saving space, is managed by so placing the Kindergarten-room that it can also be made to answer the purpose of a dining-room. As the Kindergarten goes on in the morning only, and is over by half-past twelve, it is possible to manage to have the room ready for lunch by one o'clock. The room must of course be near the kitchen, and have the tables arranged with trestles, so that they may be easily removable, some handy place of storage for them being provided. The arrange- ment, though by no means an ideal one, is a considerable saving of space, and if well arranged can just be made to work.* The need of a gymnasium can be met by placing the g\mnastic apparatus in the assembly hall. It is necessary in this case to guard against the pro- duction of too much dust, but provided that there is a polished floor, and that no exercises requiring the use of mats or mattresses are indulged in, little objection will be found. Complaints, however, are sometimes made on aesthetic grounds, j^erhaps not unjustifiably, that it spoils the appearance of the hall. The class-room accommodation is the last thing that should be touched. The inconveniences arising from the lack of room here are serious, \"erv prejudicial to the work of the school, and e\'en to health. Small subdivisions have to be taken in any corner where they can find a resting-place, at one end of the hall, or the end of a corridor. 1 have even seen cases ot a division eventually finding a haven of refuo-e in one of the cloak-rooms. Under these circum- stances the class-rooms are never vacant ; there is no time ciuring which they can be ventilated ; classes and divisions have to be continually driven about, with no regular place for work, and the strain becomes too much for the most long-suffering Headmistress and staff. * It should be remembered that if there are students in training in the Kindergarten, the room will be again wanted in the afternoon ; in this case such an arrangement is very undesirable. ROOMS L\ GIRLS' SCHOOLS. 67 The followiiiQ- list of accommodation is given as what may be considered an irreducible minimum : — Assembly hail, fitted with gym- nastic apparatus. One class-room for every 25 girls. One division-room for every 100 girls. Chemical laboratory. Phjsical laborator)-. Studio. One music-room for e\'er}' 100 girls. Assistant mistresses' room and lavator\'. Headmistress's room and lava- tor\'. Secretary's room, serving also for waiting-room and book store. Cloak-rooms, lavatories, &c. Kindergarten-room, serving also for dining-room, and placed close to necessary kitchens, sculleries, &c. Heating - room, coal cellars, &c. Service-rooms. Lift. Bic\-cle shed. It is no doubt possible to work a school with even less accommo- dation, but the above list mav be taken as o-ivino' the rooms which any school pretending to carry on its work efficiently ought to ha\-e. The standard of requirements for school buildings has risen so much during the last {• 27J in. 14 m. 22 in. 26 in. 12 to 18 4 14- in. 25I in. 14 m. 22 in. 24 in. 10 to IS 5 i3i '"• 23 in. 12 in. 20 in. 22 in. 8 to 12 6 12 m. 21 in. 12 in. 20 in. 21 in. 5 to 8 Taking into account the different shapes and sizes of desks, and the different measurements demanded by different authorities, it will be * These dimensions are appro.ximate, being turned from metres and centimetres to feet and inches to facilitate comparison. t Taken from the Catalogue of the North of England School Furnishing Company. SCHOOL DESKS. 85 found that for a full-sized desk in a Secondary School — that is to say, one capable of accommodating pupils up to the age of seventeen or eighteen — measurements of 2 ft. in breadth by 3 ft. in depth will be a sufficient allowance, while for the younger pupils about i ft. 7 in. by 2 ft. 3 in. This is the size usually allowed in the Elementary Schools when the double desks are 3 ft. 4 in. wide, 2 ft. 3 in. deep.* Arrangement of Desks. — In arranging the desks in a class- room they should not be put close to the windows. It is a common thing to see the line of desks next the outer wall put right up against the windows, a bad plan for two reasons : firstly, the light will be caught by the window-sills unless bevelled off, and the desk will not be properly lit ; and secondly, there is always a cold draught of air from the surface of the glass which would descend directly on the heads of those sitting too near the window. There should be a space of at least 18 in. The gangways where the desks are arranged singly need not be more than 18 to 20 in. wide. If double desks are used, or single desks in pairs, not less than 2 ft. should be allowed. In case the door into the room cannot be arranged to open into the free space in front of the desks, it will be necessary to have a gangway of at least 3 ft. wide down the side leading to the door. It must not be forgotten that a door so placed takes away from the seating accommodation of the room ; otherwise this need not be more than 18 in., and 12 in. should be allowed behind the last row of seats at least. In looking at the plans of a German School it will be sometimes noticed that the gangway next the inner wall is of a considerable width. This is owing to the custom of using that wall for hanging coats and hats upon. In the newer schools, however, cloak-rooms are supplied. In Germany, desks are not usually in the back row put nearer than 2 ft. 6 in. to the wall, and great care is always taken that no desks should be put right against any wall. The form of desk usually employed is some form of double desk. Dimensions of Class-rooms and Floor Area Required. — Before considering in detail the measurements of class-rooms in this country, it has been thought worth while to give the dimensions and method of arrangement of desks usually adopted in Germany, showing two sizes. The smaller would correspond nearly to the Elementary Schools in England, the larger to the Secondary. * See Appendix A, Day School Code. 86 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. The following figures are taken from Dr Baginsky's work on School Hygiene, to which frequent reference has been made. The calculations are intended for a class-room to hold 48 scholars, and the dimensions are turned from metres into feet and inches. Measurements of a German Class-room. LENGTH. Depth of desk - - - - Depth of seat, including back For Younger Children. Ft. In. I If Ilf For Older Children. Ft. In. I 51 I 3f Making depth of whole desk T li 2 22 6 2 9* Eight rows, one behind the other For teacher's desk and blackboard, &c. - Distance of back row from wall - 17 6 2 6i si 4 6i si Making length of room - - - 26 31 I 4 BREADTH. Breadth of one place I 9 I 4 2 7f 10 If 7 iih 11^ Three lots of double desks Space next window - - - Two middle gangways of 2 ft. ^h in. Gangway next wall II I 4 2 9h If 7 lU Making breadth - - - - 18 6] 20 5^ The room would be arranged as in Fig. 5, making the floor space in the case of the room for the younger children amount to almost exactly 10 sq. ft. per head — that is to say, the same amount that is required by the regulations of the Board of Education for Elementary Schools in this country. In the case of the room fitted with the full- sized desks, arranged in the same way, there would be an allowance of rather over 13 ft. superficial area per head. This would hardly be considered sufficient here, and is, as a matter of fact, usually e.xceeded in the newer German Schools. If, however, the desks are arranged in single rows, the additional space will bring up the floor area per head to what may be considered a sufficient allowance — that is to say, in the case of the room with full-sized desks, to about 15 sq. ft. per head. This will make the room come to just about the standard generally adopted in this country, viz., that not less than 15 sq. ft. of floor space should DIMENSIONS OF CLASS-ROOMS AND FLOOR AREA. 87 be allowed per head. The same conclusion has been come to in America. Mr Shaw* say.s, speaking of class-rooms : "Certain conclusions with reference to their size have at last been reached, and these con- clusions have been so thoroughly tested and sanctioned by the most careful schoolmen, as to warrant their being regarded as standards. These standards are the results of investigations and repeated experi- ments, in which lighting, heating, ventilating, the needs of the child as to eye and ear, and other physical requirements, have been considered. They are the outcome of the special knowledge and recommendations of physicians, architects, and engineers, and of the practical judgment of schoolmen, after repeated test and modifi- cation. These standards demand in the first place 1 5 sq. ft. of tloor space and 200 cub. ft. of air space for each pupil as the least amount of floor space and air space permissible for a schoolroom when all the needs of health are fairly considered." So that whether the question be ap- proached by the arrangement of space necessary for the pupils' desks, teachers' ap- paratus, &c., or from the point of view of ventilation and cubic air space required for each pupil, the results are nearly the same. The amount of floor space provided in some typical schools in Germany, England, and America is shown in the table given below. The measurements of those of the German schools have been turned from metres into feet and inches for the sake of comparison. 1 ^' " ( - ifs'- 6- Germ.^n Cl.\ss-room. No. in Class. Hohere Biirgerschule - XII. Realschule, Berlin New Building, Lessing's Gym- nasium, Berlin(Lower Forms) New Building, Lessing's G}-m- nasium, Berlin (Upper Forms) Realschule, Karlsruhe - Sekundarschulhaus, Zurich Tochterschule, I^asle Madchenschulhaus, Zurich 36 40 Length. Ft. In. 24 I^ 29 6\ 48 29 61 Breadth. Ft. In. 18 19 4i Si Sq. ft. per Head. 13 42 29 6i 21 4 15 36 31 3^ 19 8i 17 42 36 22 iii 20 36 27 lOf 21 4 16 48 37 22 iii 17 * School Hygiene, New York, tgoi. 1 Class. Length. Breadth. Sq. ft. per Ft. In. Ft. In. Head. 42 32 28 21 81 40 38 I8| 49 32 1 '> 0- 21 32 22 6 21 IS 30 21 19 6 i3i 30 24 3 23 18^ 24 20 20 i6i 40 29 24 i7i 40 24 ■->■-> i3i 88 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. No. Boston High School Do. do. Professional High School, Pan- tuchet (Working Room) - Professional High School, Pan- tuchet (Recitation Room) - Schools of the Girls' Public Day School Company - School for Boys, Barnard's Inn Judd Commercial School St Paul's, West Kensington City of London Schools Dr Clement Dukes maintains that a class-room to hold 30 boys should be at least 40 ft. long, 25 ft. wide, and 16 ft. high. This would give over 2,2> ^^- of floor space for each boy, a surely unnecessarily large allowance, if any means of ventilation are provided at all. The cost of building, were such space to be provided, would become almost pro- hibitive. Such a room would be certified by a Government School Inspector as capable of accommodating under the regulations 100 children in a Board School, and for a class of 30 would throw a great strain on the teacher. Though, of course, it would be pleasant to work in, the height of 16 ft. seems most unnecessary. Any air space above 12 ft. is of no use as regards ventilation, as it remains unaffected by movements of the lower air in the room, nor is it required for light. A room 25 ft. wide, where the desks are not actually against the inner wall, can be perfectly lit with a height of 13 ft. But these dimensions are far surpassed by another writer on School Hygiene. Dr C. E. Shelley, Medical Officer at Haileybury College, in an article on the subject, gives the following recommenda- tion : "The size of the room (class-room) can be calculated by allowing at least 800 cub. ft. for each inmate, reckoning not more than 12 ft. of wall height in doing so, and thus allowing 70 sq. ft. of floor space to each pupil." * While allowing that this may seem an extravagant allowance, Dr Shelley advances a nuniber of arguments in its favour. But althouoh interestinof as showing to what lengths medical writers will go in the demand for cubic air space, it is difficult to regard it as a practical recommendation. On this scale a class-room for 30 pupils would measure 60 ft. by 35 ft. Such a room would be * Articles on School Hygiene, T/ie Scliool IVorld, August 1S99. DIMENSIONS OF CLASS-ROOMS AND FLOOR AREA. 89 impossible to light, as the height was limited to 12 ft.,* unless win- dows were placed on three sides at least, and only a few of the pupils, unless gifted with abnormally long sight, could read anything on the blackboard ; the master could not make himself heard without a serious strain on his voice. The health of the master .seems often overlooked in the anxiety for a very large allowance of space for the pupils. The additional cost of heating rooms of so great a size, and the additional expense, not only in the building, but the maintenance of such a school, would hardly be compen.sated for by the rather doubtful advantages of a building designed on this scale. If not less than 15 .sq. ft. be allowed for the maximum number for which the class-room is designed, the room may be considered to fairly fulfil the conditions demanded by sanitary science. If more can be provided, the results are no doubt better, but probably 20 sq. ft. should be regarded as a limit (see Fig. 6). Above that amount the extra heating required, and the additional strain on the teacher's voice, make the increase of room a doubtful advantage. In settling the sizes of the classes and the dimensions of the class- rooms in a building, there are several points to consider in order to avoid waste of space, which become of considerable importance in the case of a building where it is necessary on financial grounds to take full advantage of every square foot of space. The total area of class- room is usually governed by the amount of superficial floor area to be allowed per pupil. Unless this amount is so large as to make the arrangement of desks immaterial, the exact dimensions of the length in proportion to the breadth should depend upon the form of desks that are to be used. For example, if 15 sq. ft. be determined upon as the floor space to be allowed, a class-room for 48 pupils will re- quire 720 sq. ft. This will be provided by a room measuring 32 ft. by 22 ft. 6 in. Now if single desks are used, it will be found that according to the measurements given below, there is exactly room for 6 rows of desks 8 deep, allowing for gangways, master's desk, &c. *= "^ -^ m « '•1 t -» 1 1 1 ® 1 ^ 1 L ± 1 i u 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 1 !'- 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -^ 1 1 1 1 \ 1 1 1 1 1 ^ 1 ~ *•" ~ --3O-0"-- -|- 3 SC til 6. C LASS-ROOM PER GIVING 2( Head. . KT. * It is suggested that the lowness of the rooms will enable a considerable saving in the cost of building, additional height being of no use for ventilation. 90 SFXONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. If, on the other hand, the room had been made say 29 by 25 ft., the necessary area or rather more is still provided ; but when the desks come to be put in, it will be found that there is not quite enough space to allow of an extra row of desks in the width of the room, thus necessitating another line in depth, so that while there is a waste of space down the side of the room, there is not sufficient room for the master and his desk. On the other hand, by keeping these dimensions, and substituting double desks, there will be just room for 4 double desks in the width, and as this gives 8 places in the width, there will only be 6 rows in depth, so that plenty of room will be left for the master. A room measuring" say 30 by 24 it. will suit neither single nor double desks without putting them too close together, or not leaving room for the master's platform. This will be made clear by looking at Figs. 7 and 8. Of course, if widths for the gangways, &c., different to those given above are determined upon, the same questions arise, but naturally with different figures. In any case, a more satisfactory plan can be produced if the t)-pe of desk be settled beforehand. A somewhat similar question arises in determin- ing the different sizes of the classes that are to serve as the units for the class-rooms. These numbers should be arranged to suit the type of desk that is to be used. For e.xample. If single desks are used, a class of 20 conveniently splits up into 4 rows of desks 5 deep. On the other hand, with double desks it would be necessary to make the number 18 or 24 In order to get a complete number of rows — that is, 3 double desks in a row 3 deep or 4 deep. If single desks are used, it will be found economical to make the units for the class-rooms 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 48 ; while double desks can be more conveniently arranged with classes of 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, 48. Again, since the plan of a school generally involves a long row of class-rooms of the same width but of different lengths to suit the varying numbers of the different classes, the question as to the most convenient dimension for their width becomes of some importance. To give instructions to the architect to provide so many class-rooms of such and such sizes without reference to anything but floor space will not improbably result in forcing him to waste a certain amount of space, whereas, if, as mentioned above, the form of desk be first settled, and then the width that will take a convenient number of the desks, all the class-rooms can be settled to take a multiple of that number. For example. If single desks are used, and a row of 5 desks be considered a convenient width, the classes would run in multiples of 5 — 15, 20, 25, 30, &c., making 3, 4, 5, and 6 rows in depth ; if double DIMi:XSIONS OF CLASS-ROOMS AND FLOOR AREA. 91 desks are used, 3 pairs of desks make a convenient widlli, until it is necessary to provide for larger numbers, so that in this case the class-rooms should be built for multiples of 6. The fact that classes are seldom found of the exact number which the room is intended to take does not affect the question, as it is the initial waste of space involved in providing for inconvenient numbers that is to be avoided. All this mav seem verv obvious, and the differences insionificant, but in the first place, it is so common to see in the instructions for a new building merely the numbers that the different class-rooms are to hold given with no reference to anything but floor space, that it has been considered worth while to draw attention to these points. In the second, while it is true that in buildings put up without much regard to expense, with large class-rooms giving a generous allowance of floor space, and leaving the matter of desks to chance, on the ground that there is plenty of room, such details are naturally of small conse- quence ; but in a school building when every foot of space and every penny in the cost has to be carefully considered, such a question should assume great importance, since a waste of only 18 in. down the length of the class-rooms of a school having say 20 class-rooms of an average length of 20 ft. would mean an area of 600 sq. ft. — that is to say, a sufficient space to provide a class-room capable of containing about 40 pupils. For the master's desk and platform at least 7 ft. must be provided. In the case of a wide class-room, more will be necessary. A class-room will then work out as follows : — Ft. In. Width of desk (full size) - - - -20 „ of gangway for single desks - - -16 „ of gangway for double desks - -20 „ of gangways next wall - - -16 If there is a door in the wall and passage room to be provided, the inner gangway next wall - - - - - -30 Length over desk and seat together, allowing for space between - - - - - 3 o Space behind back row - - - -10 Space for master's platform at desk - -70 If these measurements are taken, it will be found that for small numbers considerably more, and in large classes at least 15 sq. It. 92 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. per head, will be provided. For example, a class of 48, arranged in 6 rows of 8 (see Fig. 7, c) : — Width. 6 rows, 2 ft. wide - 7 gangways, i ft. 6 in. Length. Ft. In. 12 10 6 22 6 7 24 I 32 Master's desk and open space 8 rows, 3 ft. deep - Space behind last row giving a room 22 ft. 6 in. by 32 ft., making 720 sq. ft. or 15 sq. ft. per head. Taking these dimensions for gangways, desks, &c., the following three tables have been worked out: — (i.) Showing the arrangement of seats and dimensions for class-rooms to take different numbers with the seats arranged in single rows, but with no particular regard to floor space — that is to say, allowing plenty of room for moving about, &c., and leaving the actual floor space per pupil to work out as it happens to come. (2.) A table showing class-rooms .so arranged as in every case to allow exactly the standard of 15 sq. ft. per pupil, but keeping the necessary width for gangways, &c. (3.) Class-rooms arranged with double desks keeping the necessary intervals between desks, &c., but allowing no superfluous room, in order to gain floor space, thus reducing it below the amount of 15 ft. The height of the rooms throughout is reckoned at the constant figure of i 3 ft. The sizes given for the windows are arranged to correspond with the figures given in the latter part of this chapter (see page 108), and give in each case a proportion of window opening of i to 4 with regard to the floor area. The positions of the windows, fireplace, and door are also based upon the conclusions come to in this chapter. These posi- tions are, for all window openings, the left-hand side of the pupils as they sit, for fireplaces in the angle to the right of the teacher, and therefore on the window side of the room, and for doors, at the teacher's end of the room on his left. It should be noted that these tables are not intended as a limit to the size of class-rooms. DIMENSIONS OF CLASS-ROOMS AND FLOOR AREA. 93 MH ; 1 1 1 1 ^ t 1 L I- 1 r s Z9-0 i ETH^i 7. Single Desks. 8. Double Desks. To illustrate Tables on page 94. 94 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. DIMENSIONS OF CLASS-ROOMS. I. Single Desks. No. in Class. 20 25 *3o 35 40 *48 ti6 t24 42 148 16 24 3° 36 42 48 Arrangement. Wide. Deep, 4 rows of 5 Length. Breadth. Height. Area. Ft. Ft. Ft. Sq. ft. 23 16 13 368 23 19 13 437 27 19 13 513 30 19 13 57° 33 19 13 637 32 22i 13 720 Approximate Floor Space per Head. Sq. ft. I8| 17 17 i6i i5i IS Windows. No. Size. Ft. In. 3 9 4 o 5 o 4 3 4 6 5 o Ft. In. c S 6 6 6 6 6 6 II. Double Desks (to provide 15 sq. ft). 2 rows of 4 19 13 13 247 IS 3 3 » 4 20 19 13 380 15 3 3 » 5 24 19 13 456 15 t J 3 » 6 28.L 19 13 5415 IS 4 3 » 7 33 19 13 627 IS 4 4 „ 6 3ii -0 13 724 15 4 III. Double Desks. Minimum dimensions to allow of sufficient room for gangways, &c. 2 rows of 4 4 19 13 13 247 IS 20 19 13 380 15 3 23 19 13 437 I4i 3 26 19 13 494 i3i 3 29 19 13 551 13 4 26 23 13 598 12J 4 Note. — For class-rooms in Elementary Schools see pages loi et seq. * See Fig. 7. t See Fig. 8. It will be noticed, on looking at the above tables, that until the class reaches the number of 40, the single arrangement of desks, if the chstances sueeested above are adhered to, is not an economical arrangement as regards spaces in those cases where 15 sq. tt. is regarded as a sufficient allowance. As regards the third table, it will generally be found that when any satisfactory method of ventilation is provided and properly used, rooms supplying 13 sq. it. or even less can, if the classes are not very large, be kept in quite a .satisfactory condition as regards ventilation, especially when they are DIMENSIONS OF CLASS-ROOMS AND FLOOR AREA. 95 9. Interior View of an American Class-room. 10. An American Ci.ass-roo.m for Forty-eight Pupils. II. Shallow Class-roo.m for Forty. 96 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. not in continual use ; and no doubt it would be possible, in all the class- rooms given above, to diminish the width for the gangways without interfering very much with the work of the form, but where possible it is inadvisable to narrow them, as it makes it difficult for the master or mistress to move easily about the room. In Fig. lo is shown the plan of an American class-room, but it is not easy to compare an American School class-room with either an English or a German room. In the newer High Schools in America it is customary to provide a very large amount of floor space per head — for example, in the Boston High School there is given over 21 sq. ft. ; but it must be remembered that these rooms are used by the pupils for private work, the actual teaching being usually carried on in smaller rooms called recitation rooms, so that the objections to class-rooms of too large an area do not strictly apply to such rooms. In the case of a shallow class-room it is necessary to supply additional light at the back. In this case the window should be placed at the end of the room as in Fig. 11, in order that it should not be opposite the teacher (see also Fig. 19). It is sometimes an advantage in arranging the desks in a room intended for young children to provide for a semicircle of seats in front of the master's desk in addition to the regular desks for writing work. This enables the class to be called out for oral work, making a pleasant change of position, and enabling the master, if he wishes, to stimulate the work by place-taking, &c. The arrangement of a class-room for "criticism" lessons, required for student teachers, is given when dealing with Training and Practising Schools. Height of Class-rooms. — The height of the class-room depends (i) on the distance which it is necessary for the light from the side windows to go ; {2) on the cubical space to be provided for each pupil. From the point of view of ventilation, 13 ft. may be considered ample. A common rule is that the breadth of the room should not e.xceed twice the clear height. In the regulations issued by the Board of Education, it is laid down that in a room 14 ft. high any space beyond 24 ft. from the window wall is insufficiently lighted. But it is usually held that a room 13 ft. high can safely be made 25 ft. wide, and if the seats are arranged with a gangwa)' next the inner wall 2 ft. 6 in. or 3 ft. wide, a le.ss height than 1 3 ft. will be sufficient for the purpose of effective lighting, since the farthest desk from the window will be under 23 ft. The height allowed in German Schools varies HEIGHT 01' CLASS-ROOMS. 97 from 13 ft. to 13 ft. 6 in.; as, for instance, in Berlin, the Falk Gymnasium, 13 ft. 6 in. ; the Lessint;^ Gymnasium, 13 ft. ; the last- built Realschule and the Hcihere Madchenschule are both 13 ft. i in. Much the same measurements jirevail in the more recent Elementary Schools. In some Elementary .Schools, however, in Berlin, it is as low as I 2 ft. In this country there is a tendency to allow rather more height, but it may tairly be assumed that 13 ft. is sufficient, the height of a room being governed really by the question of light. Where the rooms are not more than 20 ft. wide, a rather less height may be allowed ; over a width of 25 ft. the height must be increased above 13 ft. to effectually light the side opposite the window. Doors. — The doors to a class-room .should be wide enough to allow of the necessary furniture being taken in and out, say from 3 ft. to 3 ft. 3 in. Their number and position naturally depend on the rest of the plan of the school. The best, and, as far as space is concerned, most economical position, is close to the teacher's end of the room, so avoiding the necessity of a wide gangway. The upper panels of the class-room doors are often glazed with clear glass, to allow of the Principal inspecting the classes without disturbing the class. This is not always approved of and it is as well that the question should be settled when building. A fanlight or hopper ventilator should always be placed over the door for ventilation purposes, the full width of the door. Raised Seats. — The plan of raising the three rows at the back of the room by means of steps, though apparently ha\-ing advantages in enabling the pupils in the back rows to see better, and usually adopted in Elementary Schools where the numbers in the classes are of course \'ery much larger, is not found to be satisfactory in Secondary Schools, for many reasons. The desks must be fixed to prevent their being pushed or slipping over the edge ; this makes efficient cleaning impossible : the top of the desk and some 9 or 10 in. below are invisible to the teacher unless a person of unusual height, so that effectual supervision cannot be kept. The steps ha\ing to be of considerable length, 2 ft. 6 in. to 3 ft., make it difficult to move up and down, and as there is usually a hollow space underneath the raised part, the noise is very great. Finally, it is urged that there is so much taken away from the cubic capacity of the room, though this is probably not of great importance.* * If the seats are much raised it becomes easy for the pupils to see and copy the work of those in front. G 98 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. In lecture-rooms, where it is necessary for every one to see the top of the demonstration table during lessons, it is of course necessary to have raised seats. The better plan in ordinary class-rooms is to have the teacher's desk and seat on a platform raised a little above the floor, but not more than 6 or 8 in. The only rooms in which galleries are now used are as a rule those for very small children, and known usually as babies' rooms (see Fig. 277). An infant school has, as a rule, one room arranged with a semicircular raised gallery. The Fireplace. — The position of the fireplace, where this iorm of heating is in use, is of considerable importance. The centre of the wall behind the teacher is a very inconvenient place for the fire, as it interferes both with the position of the teacher and ot the blackboard. The position shown in the figures (Figs. 7 and S), where the fireplace is on the right of the teacher and the door on the left near the end of the room, has many advantages. The fireplace is then well out of the way — it is on the cold, i.e., the window side of the room, and so is in an advantageous position for warmino- ; and should it be a ventilating grate, it can draw its necessary supply of fresh air with the smallest length of duct. It is objected against this position that it puts the teacher in an unpleasant draught, since he is then in a direct line between the door and fireplace, and if there is no provision for the entrance of air beyond the cracks under the door, &c., this is no doubt the case, but provided there is other provision for air, or if a ventilating grate be used, little objections will be found on this score, more especially if the corridors or hall from which the class-rooms open are kept up to a moderate temperature. This arrangement has been e.xtensively adopted in the schools of the Girls' Public Day School Company, and has been found to work well. Probably the ne.xt best position, and one that is often preferred, is on the left of the teacher (see Fig. 30). If the entrance door is close to the fire, the danger of dresses catching fire, in the cases of Girls' Schools, should not be overlooked. The Blackboard. — This very important piece of furniture should be fi.xed, and as large as possible. Movable blackboards are most in- convenient and troublesome things. In lecture-rooms it is convenient to have a large blackboard that will run up and clown in grooves. A method of hanging a board that allows the best use to be made of the light is shown in Fig. 12 ; this can also be reversed. In this country it is usual to supply a blackboard for the teacher only, while in America work is done upon the blackboard, which is carried right round the room, by all the pupils ; the usual height being 3 to 4 ft. according to grades. THK BLACKBOARD. 99 This suppl}- of iilmost unlimited hlackboard is s]K)ken of vcr)- hig-hly from the educational advantages gained by being able to send children to work at it. Apart from this it is a great boon to the teacher, as it is then possible to leave up what has been written, not only for the lesson, but even for days if wished, while a small blackboard necessitates erasure of what has been written before anything new can be put on. The best material for a blackboard is probably roughened glass coloured black or dark green at the back, though the objection to this is that it wears away the chalk so quickly that it is difficult to keep a point for writing. Next to this dark green or black slate. It should be of some material that can be easily washed. Where e.xpense prohibits a sufficiently large provision, a fairly effective substitute can be made by the use of strong Manila paper blackened. Attempts are often made to treat the wall with various arranoe- ments of cement blacked. The makers usually promise that this will keep its colour, but so far the results have not been successful. Ot the many different kinds that I have come across, none — even some that had been recently done — had kept anything like a black sur- face. A grey surface is injurious to the eyes. Various makers of school appa- ratus have substitutes for the ordinarv wooden blackboards, some of which are ''■ ^Iov.able Blackboard. satisfactory. A material called the Darlington slateboard is one of the most successful, as it improves with use, and does not reflect the light unpleasanth". There should be under the board a chalk trough about 2^ in. wide ; it will save a good deal of dust if this is covered by an open woven wire cover, which can be taken off for cleaning. It will be found a orreat convenience, when there is not a blackboard running all round the room, to provide two flat wooden rails let into the walls, about 2 in. deep and about 2 ft. apart, the lower at the height of the dado. These may be carried round all the available wall space in the class-room to serve to pin up on all kinds of things, notices, good work done by some pupils, time-tables, &c. ; it they are let in flush with the wall, black paper pinned upon them will serve for e.xtra blackboard. There should also be a picture rail fixed round the walls. A rail fastened on the floor at a distance of 6 in. from the wall is a useful precaution. In the first place, it prevents the desks being put actually touching the walls — a common habit ; and secondlv, when the desks are moved about for lOO SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. 13. The Climax Partition (half open). cleaning or rearrangement, it prevents holes being knocked in the wall. The plan of rounding the angles between the walls and floor and ceiling as in a hospital, to make effective cleaning easier, is sometimes found and recommended by medical authorities. A thermometer should be found in every class- room, and the tempera- ture entered upon a chart at the opening" and closing of school. This will be found of great assistance in case of complaints as to cold and heat, &c. It should not be placed on a wall, as that is usually colder than the air in the room, especially if the room is heated by hot air. A common plan is to hang it to the gas pendants. In the newer Berlin schools it is so arranged with a glass panel in the wall that the school keeper or porter can see how the temperature in the class-rooms stands without disturbing the class. Sliding Partitions. — Sliding partitions for the purpose of divid- ing the class-rooms so that they can be thrown together when desired, are made in many forms, almost every maker of school furniture having a pattern of their own. The two methods illus- trated here have been ex- tensively tried with suc- cess. The principle upon which they are both based enables them to be shut up flat against the wall, and so to occupy a very small space when closed. In Figs. 13 and 14 is shown the form of partition made by the North of England School Furnishing Company. A noticeable feature of this partition lies in the arrangement 14. The Climax Partition (shut). SLIDING I'ARTITIOXS. lOI s::p of the runners. The weight of the partition is carried by the floor (see Fig. 15) and moves upon ball bearings ; the advantage claimed for this is freedom from any liability to sticking, such as might be caused by the sagging of a beam if used to support the parti- tion — the sill in the floor only requires a depth of two inches. Another widely used partition is that made by Messrs Peace & Norquoy (see Fig. 16). The method of working this partition also enables it to be shut up against the wall. In cither case it is possible to put in a door whenever it may be desirable. The method of separating class-rooms by sliding partitions is rather on the decrease now, as the custom of having a responsible teacher in charge of each form is becoming more common ; but their use to cut the class-rooms off from a hall, so that the size can be easily enlarged by throwing the class-rooms into it, is perhaps on the increase. In some American Schools the rooms are so arranged that it is possible to clear a whole floor in this wav. Where the oro-anisation of the school does not require the daily use of a hall, this method is, no doubt, an advantage, as a large room can be made at any time for the purpose of any social function or assembly of the school, while avoiding the expense of building a large room for the purpose. It is, however, unlikely that such a plan would be regarded with favour in this country. The Climax Partition. 16. Sliding Partition — Messrs Peace & Norquov. ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CLASS-ROOMS. [t has been considered best to consider the class-rooms for Elementary Schools in this place, although this part of the book is I02 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. devoted to Secondary Schools, since so many of the questions, such as Hehtinof, &c., requirino- to be dealt with are the same for both kinds of o o ' '1 o schools, whilst the dimensions of desks and other measurements given for class-rooms in Secondary Schools are equally adapted for Higher Grade Schools, in which the Government regulations now require a floor space of 15 sq. ft. per pupil, and where the pupils stay until the age of sixteen or older. The chiet difterence between an Elementary School class-room and that of the Secondary lies in the relatively larger classes in the former, and the smaller amount of floor space that is generally provided. The size of desks provided is also of course smaller, as the children leave at the age ot fourteen ; though, as there are Evening Continuation Schools carried on at most of the Board Schools, there is a good deal of discomfort caused by the smallness of the desks to the older scholars attending these classes. Size of Classes. — This is to some extent dependent on the arrangement of teachers, i.e., how far pupil teachers are made use of, &c. The tendency is now strongly in the direction of a properly certified teacher to every class, with a separate class-room. In order to provide against the great loss of .space necessarily caused by having all the class-rooms of one size, the London Board in 1900 adopted a definite grading of the accommodation of class-rooms, as far as new schools were concerned, on the basis that class-rooms for Standard VI. and over shall not accommodate more than 40 children; Standards IV. and V. not more than 50; and for .Standards I., II., III., not more than 60. This has followed naturallv from the reoulations previously laid down by the Board in regard to the number of teachers required for the efficient staffing of schools, it being obviously more economical to have the class-rooms to suit the size of the class. The large Provincial School Boards usually take 60 as the standard size of a class, and this number may fairly be taken as a limit. It is unusual to find in our Elementary Schools much larger cla,sses than this, though of course a class of 70 or even So may be occasion- ally necessary. In Germany there are somewhat similar-sized classes, though, as a rule, w'hat difference there is, is in the direction of rather larger numbers. Dr Adolf Baginsky, after discussing the question at some length from the various points of view, the powers of supervision of the master, and the difficulties of ventilation, &c., in dealing with larger numbers, comes to the conclusion that the maximum number that should be allowed in one class is 60, also remarking that the maximum number allowed bv the Government reL>ulations in the different States is too hi^'h. SIZE OF CLASSES. 103 In the Frankfort regulations it is laid down that in a Public Elementary School one teacher can take 80 children. In Berlin the numbers are fixed at 69 for the lower classes, 60 for the middle, and 50 for the upper forms. In 1896 the average number in a class in the Public Elementary Schools in Berlin was 52.45. In Austria, by the Ministerial Decree of 1873, the ma.ximum number is fi.xed at 80. The amoimt of superficial area to be allowed per head is laid down by the regulations of the Board of Education as 10 ft. in the schools for older scholars and 9 ft. for infant schools. This amount of floor space is universally adopted as a minimum in this country, as no school can get any of the Government grant which fails to comply with this requirement. In the Elementary Schools of Germany, as a rule, the amount of floor space per head is smaller than this. In four Elementary Schools of Berlin the amount allowed is between 8 and 9 ft. The following table shows some amounts actually provided in Elementary Schools : * — Prussia . . - 6.^5 ft. (approximately). Hesse - - - 8.60 „ Baden - - - 8.60 „ Wurtemberg - - 6.50 „ Saxony - - - 6.50 to 7.50 ft. These figures are rather below that demanded by German writers and authorities. According to the Acrztliches Gutachten, Elsass-Loth- ringcn, 1882, the amount allowed should be i sq. metre, about lof sq. ft. Hintrager gives from that to 14 It. Mr Edward Shaw, in his book on School Hygiene, speaking of America, protests very strongly against the plan of allowing less space per head in Primary Schools than in the Higher Grade Schools, pointing out that the additional space gained by the smaller desks which are required is especially needed to allow of opportunity to carry on the different exercises and activities which are so essential a part in primary teaching. The additional floor space allows, he urges, provi- sion for the e.xtra motor activities of primar\' pupils, who should not spend more than one-third of their time at school actually in their seats. For this purpose he suggests keeping the size of the room which would be required for 48 older pupils, limiting the number to 40, and arranging the desks rather to one side of the room. This plan of allow- * Schulhygiene, Baginsky, 189S. 104 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. iny, as it were, space for play or drill in each class-room makes a threat demand on space. It would seem, that given a well-planned school, with the class-rooms arranged round a large school-room or hall, the ad\'antaa'es of movement and exercise could be rained without so yreat a sacrifice of space. The arrangement of desks usually adopted in this country is that of the double desk. These are always found in the schools of the London School Board and most of the Provincial Boards. They are almost universal in Germany, and are no doubt the most satisfactory form of seat where sufficient space cannot be allowed for the single desk. These desks are made in considerable \'ariety, with \-arious arrangements, more or less successful, for altering the slope of the desk, or raising a flap to act either as a reading-desk or to facilitate standing up (see Fig. 17). 17. Du.-M. Desk wrrH Hinged Top. 18. Long Desk with Separate Seats. There is a form of desk which has some advantage in economising space, and that is a long desk to take nine or ten or more scholars, but with a separate seat to each scholar instead of a bench. This ensures that there should be no crowding, and that no more pupils than the room is designed for should be put in, while at the same time providing for the easy ingress and egress of any particular one, the teachers being able to walk along the back (see Fig. 18). For this purpose not le.ss than 18 in. per pupil should be allowed in breadth. The dimensions of the double desk for Elementary Schools above the Infant Department, according to the regulations of the Board of Education, should not be less than 3 ft. 4 in. to give sufficient room for writing. The depth will be from 2 ft. 3 in. to 2 ft. 6 in. It is customary in Elementary Schools to raise the back rows slightly, the last three or four rows being placed on steps 4 or 5 in. SIZI-: OI" CLASSES. lOi In Fig. 19 are given a number of class-rooms taken from recently erected Board Schools in London and the large provincial towns, which will show the various plans of arranging the seats for different numbers. Desks are still used in a number of schools which are capable of taking four or five pupils. They are as a rule made with a flap to turn up for the purpose of allowing easy ingress and egress, p = — ='i a ^H ^Bf =■ I ■ ^^rt 26-6' 1. ^o-o L 1 ■ @ _ f ^ ^ ^ iH tkt I a o D □ 000 □ □ □ cz; o c; CI! n r [11000000 ooooooo ooooooo aoao a □ a UINOOU LOOKimmro HULL ILX 'naooDoa □□onaan =1 H ! Z5-0 ^3 - 6 iSb) ^^1 I ■ 2-0 B _ — ^■■^ ^^^ ^■v 1 5 1 ll 1 — 1 n! r i 1-' Jj 1 ; 1 ^ 1 ' 1 -11 B —^ ZZ'O -^ _ -^T"^ p>^=s^^^ 19. Six Class-rooms from Elementary .Schools. and also to make a reading desk. In a desk of this length, the flap being of considerable length, is very heavy, and it is as well for the teacher to be prepared to deal promptly with crushed fingers or bruises, since a boy at one end may turn down the desk unperceived by those at the other. THE LIGHTING OF CLASSROOMS. As mentioned above, too much care cannot be exercised in the proper size and position of windows. Provided that there is no actual glare in the eyes of the pupils or teacher, it is hardly possible that a room can be too well lit. The question as to whether a room is sufficienth' lit or not is one very difficult to decide, for a class-room may on entering io6 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. appear bright and well lit, and as far as the general illumination is considered, may be so ; but when a more careful examination is made in difterent parts of the room, it will often be found that the light on a certain number of the desks is below what should be considered the minimum allowance. Another point which cannot be too strongly borne in mind is that the amount of glass space to be allowed should be calculated for the dark and overcast days. Many class-rooms admirably lit in fine bright weather do not provide nearly enough window space for the dull days of winter. As Javal * savs, "The class-room should be Hooded with light, so that on dark days the corner of the room farthest from the windows shall have sufficient light." There is little danger of having too much light ; adjustable blinds will meet the rare occasions when the light is too strong and dazzl- ing. From an experimentt made in America, it appears that the light in a room into which the sun is not shining directly will be three times as strong when the sun is out as when the sun is obscured by a passing cloud. The question of the best aspect for class-rooms has been already discussed when dealing with the position of school build- ings. As most of the work in a school is done in the morning, the conclusion come to was that the best light will be obtained from the south-east and south. Even on dull cloudy days the light from that direction is considerably stronger than that from the north. Wien found that on a dull cloudy day test type which could not be read at a distance of 4 or 5 ft. in a class-room facing north was clearly legible in one facing south, the windows in both cases being the same size, and the school building standing clear of houses and trees. The most important factor in regard to lighting after that of aspect is that of the surroundings of the school building. This of course refers chiefly to schools built in towns, and at any place where there are houses sufficiently near to intercept some of the light on one or more sides. Where there are high buildings opposite the school, some portion of 20. Showing Effect of opposite Houses ON Light. Hygiene des Auges, 1S80. t School Hygiene, Shaw, 1901. THE LIGHTING OF CLASS-ROOMS. 107 the class-rooms, i.e., the part farthest from the windows facinfr that way, will be insufficiently lit, this proportion of badly lit space decreasing of course in each story upwards (see Fig. 20). In the case of a street, it is sometimes reckoned that the minimum distance to be allowed is, that the breadth of the street, i.e., the clear space between the two opposite houses, should at least be equal to the height of the houses ; but even with this allowance it is only the seats close to the windows that get sufficient light, and on the ground floor at least half the room is too dark (see Fig. 20), being lit chiefly by reflected light from the walls opposite,* and as the school should be at least a sufficient distance from the opposite houses to enable every pupil to be able to see at least some part of the sky, the distance between the school and the house opposite should not be less than twice the height of that building. In the regulations for school buildings in Berlin it is laid down that there should be no building nearer to the school than 60 ft. The usual custom with regard to questions of interference with light by buildings opposite is to draw a line at an angle of 45° from the window of one building. If this clears the other building it is considered that the light is not interfered with. In "School Hveiene," Mr Shaw states that an angle of not more than 60" is required to fully satisfy the requirements of light and air. In cases of e.xisting schools where the 21- Prismatic Glass. rooms are insufficiently lit owing to houses or buildings standing too near, the illumination of the room can be very greatly increased by the use of ribbed or prismatic glass — that is, glass made in the form of a series of prisms (see Fig. 2 1 ), by means of which the rays of light are caught and thrown hori- zontally into the room, instead of merely falling on the floor close to the window. It is of course necessary that the glass prisms .should be so adjusted that the angle at which the light is deflected inwards by the prism should be arranged to give the best results with the angle at which the light falls upon it from the outside, the angle naturally varvine with each floor. The glass is made so that it can be used with ordinary sash windows, that known as the Luxfer prism being perhaps the most successful. In some tests made in 1900 at the Massachusetts Institute ot * Houses with plain brick fronts are reckoned to absorb from 70 to 90 per cent, of the light in reflecting. io8 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. Technology * it was found that the best results were given by factory ribbed glass, plain on one side and having twenty-one ribs to the inch in true curves, concave and convex. This, with a sky angle of 60° or less, increased the effective lighting by 50 per cent. The glass is of course set with the ribs running horizontally, unless it is fixed in a position where it is required to catch the light from an opening between two hi^h buildings, when it is set verticallv. Where a school has to be placed or is already in position in a street too narrow for the effective lighting of the rooms on the lower floors, it should if possible be arranged that only the upper floors shouki be used for class-rooms, reserving the lower for any purposes for which light is not so important. Cohn t speaks very strongly against the evils attending a school built in a narrow street, saying finally that the short sight in a school increases so exactly in proportion to the narrowness of the street, that if he were given the number of scholars in the school suffering from myopia he would undertake to deduce the width of the street in which the school lay. Size and Position of Windows. — The size of the windows is usually settled by the proportion of clear glass space that should be supplied in proportion to the floor space, and this is estimateci at various amounts by different authorities, but all will be found to lie between the proportion of one-fourth to one-sixth of glass space to floor space. The following list will show the different amounts demanded by various writers on the subject : — Robson, School Architecture - - - i to 5. Briggs, Modern American School Buildings - i ,, 6. Shaw, School H}'giene - - 1 to 4 or 6 (according to aspect). A. Dukes, Health at School - - - i to 4. Erismann - - - - - - i „ 5. Cohn - - - - - - I „ 5. In a list of schools given by Baginskyj the proportion varies from I to 4 to I to 6, but the average would come to about i to 5. So that while perhaps in an open situation on the south side the proportion of I to 6 would be sufficient, in a place where the light had not perfectly free access, or for rooms looking north, the proportion of i to 4 would not be too much to ensure proper lighting during dull weather. The amount of window surface to be supplied is sometimes given * School Hygiene, E. Shaw, 1901. t Lehrl)uch der Hygiene des Auges, 1S92. I Schulhygiene, 1898. SIZE AND POSITION OF WINDOWS. 109 in so many square inches per head tor the pupils the room is to accommodate. Cohn gives 2,052 q.c.m. (about 2 sq. ft.) as a sufficient allowance, while Erismann raises this to 2,670 q.c.m. (2^ sq. ft.), but this does not seem an altogether satisfactory method of reckoninL,^^ as in the case of a larger amount of Hoor .space than usual being allowed, the window space provided would not be increased in proportion. According to Mr .Shaw, the illumination in the darkest part of the room should not fall below 50 candle metres, a candle metre being the amount of light given by a standard candle at i metre's distance. This, the writer observes, is rather more than that given by Cohn. In order to ensure this amount on dull sorts of days and weather, rooms having a southern exposure should have not less than one-fourth of the floor space transparent glass. In rooms with a northern aspect it should be somewhat greater. In this country a proportion of i to 4 is not too much, when the number of dull and cloudy clays are considered. But to ensure the efficient lighting of the desks it is by no means enough to merely supply the requisite amount of glass space. The positions of the windows themselves have a great influence upon complete lighting of the rooms. As to the direction from which light should enter, all authorities are unanimouslv agreed that class-rooms should be lit from the left side, in order that the scholars should not be writing in the shadow of their hand. Light coming from the wall behind the master's desk should under no circumstances be allowed, for not only does the glare of the light directly in the face of the pupils cause great discomfort and injury, but they are also unable to see the master's face or the blackboard clearly. As to the admission of light from the back of the room, there is some diversity of opinion, but provided that the light admitted by such windows is neither so much nor so strong as that admitted from the side windows, i.e., so that it is not strong enough to cast shadows, then as far as the pupils are concerned such light may be allowed without harm, and will add to the general illumination of the room, without causing" any inconvenience. However, the teacher who has to face these windows will probably find a certain amount of discomfort, and be apt to find his eyes weakened or injured. Of course windows placed at the back onl\- would be e.xtremely injurious both to pupils and teacher. In France windows opposite the teacher are not allowed, and are seldom found in Germany. Additional lighting may be obtained, if necessary, from the right- hand side, but care must again be taken to ensure that light lirought in from that side is not strong enough to overpower that from the left, and so cause shadows. The windows should be high up and not too no SECONDxARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. large. On the whole there is little question that the best way to light a class-room is to have all the windows on the left side of the room, with a small supplementary window fairly high up on the right side, or at the back of the room, and more for the purpose ot \'entilation to obtain a through draught than for that of light, except in the case of an unusualh" wide room, when it is usualh' necessary to get some light from the back (see Fig. 1 1 ). In his book on School Hygiene, Mr Shaw mentions a suggestiori made by J aval, and supported by Cohn, that the school-room should be lighted from above, saying that it is to be approved theoretically, but that it would not be feasible from the practical point of view. It is difficult to reconcile this with his objections made further on to the use of high sills, that by pre- ventino- the children from look- o ing out, they invest the school- room with an irksome air of confinement. A school-room lit from the top only would be a gloomy place indeed, though in the one-story school buildings, of which there are now a certain number, it would not be diffi- cult to carry out, but the down draught of cold air would seri- ously add to the difficulty of warming and heating. In placing the windows it is of great importance, firstly, that there should not be a large space of wall between the back of the room and the first window ; and secondly, that there should not be wide piers between the windows. It is not at all uncommon to find class-rooms with only two windows ; this necessitates, except in very small rooms, a considerable width of wall between them, and howe\'er well the room may be lit as a whole, there will be a heavy shadow cast across the room where the pier comes. It is hardly possible to construct brick piers of sufficient strength in a building of any height that will not interfere considerably with the light. In order to meet this objection, Mr R. Briasfs, an American architect, has tried with success a plan of using iron mullions cast with heavy flanges or webs, with the window frames bolted directly to them (.see Fig. 22). In this way it is possible to jjut the windows sufficiently close, and at the same time provide 22. Iron Mullion. SIZE AND POSITION 01- WINDOWS. in sufficient strength. Where brick piens are used, a considerable gain in light is obtained by bevelling- off the piers. The height of the windows naturally depends on the height of the room, but they should always be carried up as near the ceiling of the room as constructional necessities will ailmit of, both for the sake of ventilation as well as that of light. Dr Baginskv calculates that, in order to allow of the row of desks farthest from the window being properK' lit, the depth of the room should be two and a half times the height of the window above the level of the top of the desks. That is to .say, in a room 23 ft. wide the height of the window shoultl be 8 ft. 10 in. high, supposing there to be a gangwa)' of about 3 ft., which must be sub- tracted from the width. In Saxony it is required that the height of the window space above the level of the desk should be two-fifths of the depth of the room. Height of Sills. — The height of the window sill jjlays an im- portant part in the question of lighting, in the first place, it should not be below the level of the top of the desks, or there are likeh' to be un- pleasant reflections from the floor ; nor, on the other hand, should it be so high that the children are unable to see out. There is a dreary appearance given to a room where the window sills are too high. There is also an unnecessary loss of lighting" area. Mr Robson* recommended that the sills should be at least 5 ft. from the floor and more with advan- tage. His object in making this suggestion is to enable the heads of the window to be brought as near the ceiling as possible, but it does not seem necessary for this purpose to raise the sills to such a height, for, unless the room is unduly high, they can be carried to the ceiling in any case. In looking at a class-room where the sills are high it will be noticed that the row of desks ne.\t the windows are completeh' in the shadow cast by the window sill. This can to a certain extent be obviated by sloping the sill downwards. In Germany the window sills are as a rule between 3 and 4 ft. from the floor. In some recently erected schools in Berlin the window sills are just under 4 tt. In his book on School Hygiene, Dr Baginsky comes to the conclusion that 3 tt. 3^ in. should be regarded as a minimum height. The building regulations of the Board of Education in this country give 4 ft. as the height of the sills. In America the usual height is from 3 ft. 6 in. to 4 ft. Mr Shaw- gives 3 ft. 6 in. as the best height. * School Architecture, 187.4. 112 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. In some recently erected Secondary Schools in this country the height lies between 3 ft. 6 in. and 3 ft, 9 in. It may, I think, be con- cluded that 3 ft. 4 in. to 3 ft. 6 in. is a good height. It is some- times recommended that where the windows are low enough to allow the pupils to look out, some precautions should be taken, such as fluted class for the lower panes, or whiting, to prevent their attention being- distracted from their work. This is unpleasant in appearance, and should surely be unnecessary. The lesson must be badly given if it cannot supply a sufficient counter-attraction. Erismann gives the measurements taken from those of his model class-room as 3 ft. to the window-sill, 10 ft. 6 in. for the window opening, and i ft. "f in. above the top of the window. This last measurement is too large, as by means ot care in construction and the use of girders, the head of the window can be brought \'ery much closer to the ceiling. In the Sekundarschule recently erected at Zurich, the o-lass is carried right up to the ceiling. The foregoing remarks on lighting may be shortly stated as follows : — 1. The main light to be from the left, other windows being only supplementary, or for the purpose of ventilation. 2. That the transparent glass surface in a class-room should be if possible ^ in. of the floor space, and .should never, even on the south side, be less than one-sixth. 3. That the sills of the windows should be not more than 3 ft. 6 in. from the floor, and if higher should be bevelled off. 4. That the glass should be carried as near the ceiling as may be constructionally possible. 5. That the piers between the windows should be narrow, and splayed or bevelled off". 6. That the window at the end of the room opposite the master's desk be as near the back wall as possible, and in any case the distance between the back wall and the window being at least as small as the gangway behind the last row of seats. The windows themselves shoLild be constructed so as to allow the fullest amount of transparent glass surface. No transoms or heavy mullions should be allowed, because these are apt to cast shadows or make the lighting uneven, even though there may be a sufficient surface of glass after deducting these. It is hardly necessary to add that in calculating the glass surface it is not the window openings that are meant but actual glass surface. The form of window that is best adapted to school use is a well- made, easv-working .sash window. It Is an e.Kcellent plan to make the COLOUR OI- WALLS. 1 1 top ])art of the window open in the form of hoppers for the purpose of \entilation (see Fiy. 23). For a window on this principle, which has been trird in a lari^e number ot schools and is found to work well, it should be remembered that in order to avoid down draut^hts it is essential to have cheeks to these hoppers. Any class-room lookinc,^ to the south or west should be provided with blinds. It is an e.xcellent plan to make these rolling;" upwards fr(jm the bottom, so that the window can be obscured easily u]) to any desired height. The glass should be as near the outside wall as any building regulations there may be will allow, both to gain light, and also to keep the glass farther from the pupils sitting near the windows. The colour of the walls has of course a great influence on the lighting of a room, for while it is obviously necessary not to ])ut a colour which absorbs too much light, on the other hand too white a wall produces unpleasant glaring effects and is painful to the eyes, so that in selecting a colour it is neces.sary to select one that, while being restful to the eyes, it shall not absorb too much light. Light yellow and buff are colours often used and otten recommended, but investigations point to the fact that yellows produce fatigue and nervousness to a marked degree as com- pared with other colours. Some shade of green seems on the whole the most satisfactory colour to use. It is restful to the eye, does not absorb light to anything like the extent of the reds and browns, and there is more resemblance in light reflected from a green surface to actual light out of doors, where at the time of year that light is strongest there is most green to be found. German writers recommend a green or greyish green as most suitable. A light greenish grey which can be made with Antwerp blue, raw sienna, and white, .,, . , I 1-1 11 1 1 1 -I- A Class-room will give a most pleasant result. 1 he walls should \\- t „ - always be painted so as to allow of washing, but the paint should be flatted in order that there should be no gloss or shine. The ceiling should of course be left white in order that as much light as possible may be reflected from it. It should be kept flat. Any raised beam or girder has a powerful action in stopping the movement of the air, and so hindering \-entiIation. It is customary in Elementary Schools to paint the points of the compass upon it. H 114 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING OF CLASSROOMS. In schools where work is carried on in the afternoon or evening, or in schools situated in large towns liable to fog, the question of artificial lighting assumes considerable importance. The requirements necessary to produce satisfactory results are obvious enough — sufficient illumination, steadiness of light, and as little vitiation of the air as possible. Any colour in the light, such for example as a strong yellow, tends to lessen the contrast between the black and white of printing or w-riting, and so is apt to lead to visual fatigue. 24. A Petroleum Regenerative Lamp. Petroleum Lamps. — For schools in country places where there is no supply of gas obtainable, which are of insufficient size for the generation of their own gas or electric light, some form of petroleum lamp must be used. The recent improvement in the methods of making and using acetylene gas, which can be installed at a comparatively small cost, offer an alternative, and the methods and apparatus are described below when dealing- with gras. The usual form of hanging lamps for petroleuin found in country schools are an unsatisfactory means of lighting, but as such schools are as a rule only used during the hours of daylight, it is usually when the room has to serve for parish meetings, &c., that the light is wanted. One of the strongest objections to hanging lamps lies in the shadow cast by the body of the lamp itself There is a method of using petroleum tor illumination in which not only is this tiifficulty got over, but by which a very brilliant light can be obtained. A lamp of this kind is illustrated in Fig. 24. They are known as "regenerative" petroleum lamps, and are much on the same lines as the regenerative gas burners described later. The heat of the lamp is used to raise the temperature of the incoming air, and to volatilise the oil. By this means a very intense light " lami- with is produced, which has the further advantage that the Incandescent Strongest light is thrown downwards. Lately a petroleum by the Weisbach lamp, which also burns the volatilised oil, has been invented, Company. which is fitted with an incandescent mantle (see Fig. 25). It has hardly had sufficient trial yet to warrant its adoption in schools, though good results are claimed for it. 25. Petroleum ARTIFICIAL LIGIITIXG OF CLASS-ROOMS. 115 Gas. — Gas is ofcour.se by far the most extensive method of lighting at present in use, but as ordinarily installed, with flaring jets, is by no means a satisfactory form of illuminant. The light is yellow and unsteady, and when the pressure is high and the combustion imperfect, produces a very high percentage of no.xious fumes. In order to pro\-ide against the constantly fluctuating pressure, there are various kinds of governors in use placed on the house side of the consumer's metre, or some kind of governor actually in the burner itself, or both are supplied. In cases where regularity of pressure is essential, such as the Welsbach incandescent lamps, it is better to have the governors at each light only. The principle upon which they are visually arranged is somewhat as follows : — There is a small chamber through which the gas flows, the inlet being partially closed by a small cone, which rises automatically and reduces the size of the inlet or fissure as the pressure increases, sinking again as the pressure grows less. Sometimes the governor is arranged with a flexible leather diaphragm, which, ex- panding upwards under pressure, draws up a spindle which regulates the size of the opening. Fig. 26 shows an example of a governor burner, in which the float in the centre is kept in position by means of a thin metal needle running up through it. Of course there are many varieties of governors, and as long as they are fairly free from dust and dirt, work fairly well, but all require an occasional 26. a governor inspection. When the float has merely stuck, tapping the burner smartly will often remedy matters, or if necessary, unscrewing the base of the burner and setting it free. The Argand burners, though formerly in considerable demand, do not meet with much approval at the present day, the necessity of having a chimney to each light and the heat evolved militating seriously against their use. The principle upon which the Argand burner is based is as follows : — The burner consi-sts of a hollow steatite ring- pierced all round with a number of small holes through which the gas passes, being brought to the chamber under these holes by three small metal tubes. Air is allowed to come in through the centre of the circular flame as well as upon its outer surface. These lamps are very sensitive to variations in the pressure of gas, and should always be fitted with a governor. The light given is rather better for the amount of gas used than that of the ordinary flat flame burner. By increasing the temperature of the illuminating flame, the intensity of the light emitted is raised proportionately. L^pon this principle is based the idea of what are called regenerati\e burners. ii6 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. The heat of the lamp itself is utilised to raise the temperature of the air before it is allowed to come in contact with the flame. " It is found that the lig^ht emitted from hifj;h-class burners of this description, such as those of Wenham or Siemens, is about three times greater per unit of gas consumed than that emitted from ordinary Argand or flat flames." * The .Siemens lamp (Fig. 27) is a very powerful form of illumi- nant, and it can be placed high up, as it throws most of its light downwards. Further, not only can it easily be made to carry off its fumes, but can materially assist in carrying off the vitiated air from the top of the room. It is a very e.xcellent and satisfactory method of lighting large rooms or halls, and is used in Germany to a considerable extent in class- rooms. Albo-Carbon Lamps. — Albo-carbon or recrystallised naphthaline is used for intensifying the light obtainable by ordinary gas. The albo-carbon is placed in a reservoir through which the gas passes to the burner or burners, the heat of which is used, by means usually of a copper con- ducting rod, to melt the albo-carbon. At a temperature considerably below that of boiling water, the naphthaline vapour is given off, and mixing with the gas, greatly in- creases its illuminating power. It is, however, rather apt to smoke, and requires a certain amount of attention in refilling the reservoir periodically, and while giving a strong- light with an economical use of gas, it does not compare favourably with the incandescent gaslight, which has to Gas Lamp. ^ large extent superseded it. Incandescent Gaslight. — Though of course all light is obtained by incandescence of small particles, the word, where used in reference to gas, is generally held to mean the heating by a non-luminous flame certain substances to a state of brilliant incandescence. The practical use of this principle is due to Dr Auer von Welsbach, who in 1885 succeeded in making a commercially successful adaptation of this principle in the form of the well-known Welsbach burner. This form of lamp has been brought to a considerable pitch of perfection now, and while giving a very powerful light, is very economical in the amount of gas used, it havine been found that somewhere between five and six times the amount of gas is required to obtain the same amount of light in an ordinary flat o 27. Siemens Regenerative The Builder, 14th September 1901. LXCAXDKSCKNT GASLIGHT. 117 flame burner that is necessary for an incandescent yas lami). A further advantage lies in the fact that, owing to the high temperature in the hmip, the combustion is more complete, and so less vitiation of the air is caused. But in spite of the nian\- undoulHed advantages of this light, it is not altogether ada[)ted for school purposes as far as lighting class-rooms is concerned. Trouble is caused by the somewhat fragile nature of the mantles, which are peculiarly liable to damage in a school, owing to the vibration of the floor caused by the movements of large numbers, or to the strong draughts when windows are opened to get through ventilation. There is an arrangement to pro\^ide against damage by jar or shocks known as the "anti-vibration" holder (see Fig. 28), which claims to obviate any danger of breaking the mantles by jar ; but while it may effect this, it unfortunately increases another drawback, which lies in the shadow thrown by these lamps on any desk immediately underneath. Where these lamps are in use, it should be remembered that the dimness which at times comes over these lamps is usually due to dust falling on the wire gauze through which the gas comes. This can be easily cured by lifting off the burner and blowing through it, care being taken not to injure the mantle. The lamps supplied with small by-pass burners save a lot of trouble, and generally ensure a longer life to the mantle. They are, however, sometimes disapproved, on the ground of their tendency to blacken the mantle, and their liability to e.xtin- guishment by draught. Acetylene. — A method of illumination that has come into considerable use in the last few years is that of acetylene, and in country places and small villages, where there is no public supply of gas or electric light, is sometimes found of great use. Pure acetylene gas is a colourless and nearly odourless gas, but the ordinary commercial form has a strong and rather unpleasant smell, which has the advantage of ensuring a fairly [trompt detection of leakage. The gas, which is produced for the purpose of lighting by the addition of water to calcium carbide in a solid condition, is in a pure state not a particularly dangerous gas, but when mixed with ordinary atmospheric air makes a highly explosive compound. But given reasonable care and a properly arranged generating apparatus, there is little more risk in its use than in that of ordinary coal gas. In illumi- nating power the superiority of this gas is very marked. It gives a brilliant white light of great intensity and of high actinic power, the iiS SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. flame required in order to g'ive the same amount of light being relatively much smaller than that of an ordinary flat gas flame. The illumina- tion given by burning i cub. ft. of acetylene per hour is given as 32 candles, gas giving in an ordinary flat flame only 2^ candles. In resrard to vitiatine effects on the air in the room, this lio-ht com- pares very favourably with other forms of illuminants, as the following table, drawn up by Professor Lewes, shows : — Comparative Hygienic Effect of Illuminants per Unit of Light. Carbonic Acid Evolved. Moisture Evolved. Oxygen Removed from Air. Heat Produced. Acetylene ... - Coal gas, flat flame - Coal gas, mantle Petroleum, large lamp 100 480 45 995 100 1,470 230 700 100 100 520 795 62 87 498 246 1 The calcium carbide from which the gas is generated is produced by the combination of lime and carbon under the influence of great heat generally in some form of electric arc furnace. There are many different forms of generators for the purpose of decomposing the carbide by means of water ; either by dropping the solid into water, by allowing the water to rise to it, or by allowing water to drop upon the carbide. The important point to be guarded against is the rise in tem- perature that occurs during the generation of the gas. For this reason the forms of generator which allow water to drip or be sprayed over the carbide are to be avoided. Where the carbide is dropped into a considerable quantity of water cool generation can be ensured, but owing to the solubility of acetylene in water there is a certain amount of gas lost. The carbide is usually soaked in petroleum before use in order to retard the action of the water and prevent too rapid a formation of gas. In any case the best results are only to be ensured by having a careful and intelligent man to take charge of the apparatus. The additional cost incurred by having an apparatus for cooling and purify- ing the gas, as well as a small gasometer so that the gas can be always ready, is repaid by the improvement in the working of the light. It is generally reckoned that the cost of the installation and supply of acetylene is about equal to that of gas when the price of that is about elp:ctric light. 119 3s. 6d. per i.ooo ft., but probably this is too low, and in an article in The Builder the writer maintains that it is not advisable to put in an installation of acetylene, at any rate for domestic lighting-, where gas is procurable at a cost of under 5s. per 1,000 ft.* The initial cost of installation is not great including all the generating apparatus, pro- bably about 15s. to 20s. per light for an installation of not less than 100 lights. I have not been able to see or even hear of any school where this method of lighting is actually in use, but owiny; to its high illuminating power and slight effects in the deterioration of the air, and the com- paratively low cost of installation, it would seem that it might be tried with o-reat advantaire in schools. Electric Light. — The incandescent electric light has so many advantages in its immunity from danger of fire, absence of heating, or vitiating effects, and in steadiness of light, ease of control and freedom from dirt, that it is being almost universally adopted wherever possible for every sort of building. In spite, however, of its many advantages, it is exceedingly difficult to arrange it so that there will be a really efficient light for working, and in lightino- a class-room considerable care is necessary in the arrangement if a satisfactory result is to be ob- tained. It is sometimes objected against it that the light is rather inclined to be yellow, and that the glowing filament throws a kind of line on the book immediately under it. The flattened globular lamps with the upper parts silvered are particularly bad, as they throw^ a shadow of the filament in a peculiarly unpleasant way. The use of ground glass globes takes off about 50 per cent, of the light. Speaking generally, most of the complaints and dissatisfaction arising from the use of electric light are due to an insufficient supply of lamps, or to the use of lamps of too low a candle-power. Incandescent lamps have the peculiar property of making a room seem thoroughly- bright and well lit, until it becomes necessary to read or write. The discomfort then felt is usually attributed to the quality or kind ot light when really due merely to the want of more powerful lamps. This is to a large extent due to the fact that an electric lamp, while appearing bright, does not seem to have a great power of diffusion. In arranging the lights for a class-room it cannot be too strongly borne in mind that there should be a most liberal supply of lamps, and those of fair candle- power, and not hung too high up. * The Builder, December 1901. I20 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. Shades and Globes. — Shades are used either for the sake of pro- ducing' a greater diffusion of the light, or to prevent the irritation caused by a naked flame if of any great degree of intensity. Of course any shade must obstruct some proportion of the Hght. but as they may be arranged to direct rays downwards which would otherwise be wasteci or to cause ereater diffusion, the actual result mav be a better illumination where required than is given by the open flame. With ordinary gas burners, a ground glass globe stops from iS to 23 per cent, of the light in a horizontal direction, the proportion of light obstructed growing- less as the intensity of the light is increased. In the case of class-rooms, the lighting is of course always from overhead. In the case of open flames, the direction of the strongest light is horizontal, and with ordinary flat flame burners the light in a downward direction is at a certain elevation, and within a certain radius increased by a globe shade, clear glass 29. Diagram showing the Direction of Strongest Light with a Plain Lamp and a Holophane Globe. increasing it 6 per cent., ground glass about 9 per cent., while albatrine and opal globes will increase it as much as 20 per cent, by reflecting light downwards. The globes should always have a wide opening at the bottom. The narrow-necked globes induce a draught which causes a good deal of flickering. Another form of globe which has recently come into use is the Holophane globe. Great powers are claimed for this invention in the direction of improved diffusion of the light, Mr Edward Shaw, in his work on School Hygiene, speaking very highly of it. The globe is made usually of clear glass. On the outside are horizontal prismatic lines, while on the inside the prisms run vertically. The outside horizontal prisms direct the light downwards, while the vertical prisms inside spread the light evenly over the shade. In this way the effective- ness ol the light is very largely increased in the direction where it is most valuable, i.e., below the horizontal. The diagram (Fig. 29) shows AMOUNT OF LIGHT AND POSITION OF LAMPS. 121 the relative proportions of light in different directions between an ordinary tlat burner with naked (lame, and one with a Holophane globe. These globes can be used with any kind of light, and give excellent results with a Welsbach burner. The light on the desks in a room can of course be ver\- largeh" increased by the use of reflectors. They should preferably be made of thin porcelain or o])al, which will increase the ciownward light by as much as 60 per cent., and should be made with as flat an angle as possible. Metal or mirror reflectors, of course, are far more effective, but could hardly be used in a room owing to the glare. Amount of Light required and Position of Lamps.— It is not very easy to say what constitutes efficient illumination, and there is perhaps nothing more difficult to judge of by mere in- spection. There are, however, various instruments for the purpose ot measuring light known as photometers, the amount measured being usually expressed in terms of so many candle-power for the convenience of comparison, the various forms of illumination being reduced to this standard.* The proper diffusion of the light, again, has an important bearing upon the amount necessary. Where the light is derived from one point, or where there are bright points that catch the eye, the value of the light for the purposes of work will seem actually less than in a room where the light, though not so strong, is well diffused. This is due to the involuntary contraction of the pupils, caused by looking at a bright point, which reduces the amount of light entering the eye. For this reason a frosted electric lamp will, under certain conditions, seem to give a better light than one of the same candle-power with clear glass.t As far as possible unprotected lights should not be tolerated in a class-room. Where the lighting is well dift'used and well placed, there will be an absence of strong shadows.^ It should not be forgotten in estimating the amount of candle- power required, that the strongest light is usually found in a horizontal direction from its source, so that while a sufficient candle-power is supplied to make the room thoroughly light, the illumination in parts * The standard for this purpose is the light emitted by a spermaceti candle of known composition, burning at the rate of 120 grains an hour. t Frosted glass is usually reckoned to stop from 30 to 50 per cent, of the light. X Mr Fleming in "Electric Lamps and Electric Lighting," suggests a rough test of the distribution of the lights — take a white card or sheet of writing paper, hold it hori- zontally about the level of the eye, then hold a pencil or other small rod vertically on the card, it can then be easily seen if there is a strong shadow in any direction. I 22 SFXOXDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. where the light is actually required, may be far below the requisite amount. The amount of lighting necessary is again, to a large extent, de- pendent upon the colour and the surface of the walls. The following table, giving some of the results of investigations made by Dr Sumpner, will show the ereat variation in different colours : — reflects 40 per cent, of the light falling on it. n -5 )> 3» )» » Yellow wall paper Blue Dark brown wall paper ,, 13 ,, „ „ „ Deep chocolate „ ,, 4 „ „ „ „ Plain deal (clean) „ 40 to 50 ,, „ „ „ Plain deal (dirty) „ 20 Yellowpainted wall (clean) ,, 40 ,, „ ,, „ Yellow painted wall (dirty) „ 20 „ „ „ „ In arranging the position of the lights, whether electric licjht or gras, the arrangement of the desks should be first determined. When, as is commonly clone, the fitter is in- structed to fi.\ a certain number of points, he is apt to dispose them symmetrically over the ceiling, with the result in many cases that much of the light is wasted. For example in Fig. 30, taken from an actual building, there would be a large amount of light wasted in lighting the unoccupied space in front of the desks. In Germany great care is usually taken to concentrate the light over the desks, and to make it come from the left to corre- spond with the light during the day. A special light arranged to light the blackboard will be found an advantage. Number of Points and Amount of Candle-Power required for Gas. — As class-rooms do not vary to any great extent in height, it is a convenient method of reckoning to consider how much candle- power is required for a certain area of floor space. In some figures published for various classes of buildings by Messrs Stott, 300 candle- power for 1,000 square feet of floor space is suggested for schools. This is almost the same amount as that demanded by Mr Grafton,* who remarks that for class-rooms not much over 12 ft. high, a useful Showing the Disposition OF Seats in a Ci.ass-room. From an actual Building. A Handbook of Practical Gasfitting, 1901. AMOUNT OF CANDLE-POWER REQUIR]-:D FOR GAS. 123 rule is to provide one candle-power to every 3 sq. ft. of tloor space, the lights being placed about 8 ft. from the Boor. This, provided that the walls are not dark, will provide an excellent illumination, somewhat in e.xcess of that usually found. This means that in a class-room, measur- ing say 30 by 20 ft., that twelve of the ordinary fish-tail burners would be required, or four Welsbach incandescent lamps. A form of double incandescent lamp that has been found very satisfactory for school work is shown in Fig. 31. It should have an opaque white guard as well as the reflector, to shield the light from the eyes of the pupils. The following table, quoted in a series of interesting articles on gas lighting that appeared in The Builder i\v\rm'y 1 901, gives the results of some experiments made by Major Scott-Moncrieff on the lighting of barracks. The room in which the experiments were made was 40 ft. long and 20 ft. wide. The lights were placed at 8 ft. from the floor, and the illumination was judged by means of photometers, at a height of 2 ft. from the floor, so that the results would give a fair suggestion for a class-room of a similar size. The top of a desk would be of course a little higher. Illumixatigx of a Barrack-room, 40 ft. by 20 ft., at a Height of 2 ft. above the Floor. [. a Double Wei.sbach Lamp. Total Gas Description of Burner. Consumption per Hour. Illumination. Cub. ft. Two Bray burners 16 Whole room insufficiently lighted, nowhere possible to read small print 6 ft. below gas lamp. Two flat-flame burners fitted with caps - - - - 1 1.4 About one-quarter the working space illuminated. Two Stott-Thorpe reflex lights 18 Eight-tenths of working level efficiently lighted. Two Sugg's workshop Ughts - 16 About one-quarter the working space efficiently lighted. Siemens regenerative - I I Whole room well illuminated. Diemel regenerative 9 Two-thirds working space effi- ciently lighted. Two Schulke lamps 10 Practically whole workmg space illuminated. AVelsbach incandescent, with glazed conical reflector 4-3 Whole room brilliantly lighted. 124 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. The results of this are strongly in favour of the incandescent gas lamps and the Siemens regenerative lamps. The former light has been discussed in this connection before, and the disadvantages jsointed out, but [irox'ided proper care is taken with shades and reflectors, these can be sufficiently overcome for practical purposes. The Siemens regenera- tive lamp is admirably adapted for lighting large rooms, gymnasia, and halls. It can combine with the light considerable ventilating power, as has been already pointed out. The initial cost is, however, rather high, and it requires cleaning occasionally. In Germany it is used to a considerable extent for class-room lighting, great care being taken in the exact position of the lamps, so that the light shall approximate 1 L -l_ _L. J ^e-- ---, 1- _ "'^[" T 1 1 :... - _' L - ' 1 "1 r~ .1 ' ' - - Vi,-i t- - --T-I 1- - 1 1 ;!»; r - _ -, I — --in 1- - 1 1 li- - -1 1- - ' 1 ' 1- .- _J L _ - -1 ;-- • I — J L _ 1 o ' ■ ' ■ ■ I 20 I 32. Dl.\GRAM SHOWING POSITIONS FOR FoUR Siemens Gas Lamps.* HI^^HI 1 ^^ ' 1 1 1 r--| 1 1 '— ; r-i ■ xi 1 r-1 p, " L^ l.J IJ ,-1 r-1 r-i 1X1 1 • - h--' >---l ^--< ■ X , ! 'X' 1^1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r--' r--i r--l X 1 1 IXI ' m ,..-■ L.J 1 — ^1 1 — 1 1 1x1 1 1 1 1 1 ■■■1 Diagram showing Positions OF Electric Lamps. as closely as possible to that of daylight, and come from the left of the pupils. The diagram (Fig. 32!) given above shows a suggested method of lighting a class-room with this form of lamp. The room measures 29 ft. 6 in., and is intended to accommodate 48 scholars. The distance trom the teacher's desk to the front row of seats is about 6 ft. 6 in. The lighting would be provided by means of four of these lamps at the positions a, b, c, d, hung at a distance of 9 ft. from the floor — which would be about 6 ft. 6 in. above the level of the tops of the desks. * From Schulhygiene, Eaginsky, 1S9S. t From !/'/ ' udrk. H H W0RKIN6 e>ENCH FOR. ^ Z PUPILS FORKING BENCH FOP fl PUPILS ■C7UP ZP- S HOPHINC BENCH rOR * PUP/LJ BCNCH FOR A PUP/LS f\mSLD LECTURE SFflTS \ 39. The Chemical Laboratory, New School for Girls, Clapham. The Girls' Public Day School Company. Size of Room. — The size of the room required depends of course upon whether the school is large enough to have more than one science teacher. It is generally considered that one science teacher can look after twenty pupils doing experimental work. The regulations of the Science and Art Department give twenty-five as a maximum for one teacher. In order to take twenty pupils comfortably, allowing plenty of room for cupboard space, demonstration table, &c. , the room should be not less than 20 by 30 ft. It is found that laboratories can be most economically built when they provide accom- modation for multij^Ies of twenty.* * Technical Institutes, Paper read to Architectural Association, S. H. Wells, TJie Builder, 15th Febiuary 1S96. WORKING BENCHES. 137 Working Benches. ^The benches when placed acro.ss the room are arranged so that pupils can work on opposite sides facing each other. The advantages of this arrangement are economy in fittings and gain in space. The shelf for reagents can also be put where two students can use the same set. It is open to the objection that it makes an explosion or accident more dangerous. A partition which would obviate this is very inconvenient, as it hides the work of the pupils from the teacher. The plan of having a partition of strong plate glass has been successfully tried in a number of laboratories, and is highly spoken of. Unless of fairly thick glass there would be con- siderable liabilitv to breakages. Before the best method of fitting up the benches can be determined upon, it is necessary to settle to what degree the chemical teaching is to be carried. For instance a very simple form of bench will suffice for a school where few of the pupils will proceed to analysis, this branch of work not occupying so prominent a position in a beginner's course as was formerly the case. For example, at the South-Western Polytechnic, Chelsea, they have benches arranged for four students, with a plain top, and while a gas-jet is supplied to each pupil, there is one tap for water, and a sink placed at each end, which serves for two pupils. There is no partition in the centre but a row of white glazed tiles on which to stand bottles. This arrangement, while answering for very elementary work, would hardly be sufficient for a school where there were any number of rather more advanced pupils. The arrange- ment of sinks at each end is not altogether a good one, as it does not allow of spilt liquids being swept in, in case of an upset. In school- work where different sets of boys have to use the laboratory at different times, the sets of reagents must of course be common to the boys who use the stands in turn, so that it is impossible for each boy to have a set of his own, for the purity of which he is responsible. This obviates the need of supplying any arrangements of locking bars, &c., for the reagent shelves. Width. — In calculating the size of the bench, it is usual to allow a distance of 3 ft. 6 in.* for each student for a school laboratory ; this would be increased to 4 ft. 6 in. for older and advanced scholars. A sink with a water tap is placed midway between two students for their common use, a gas-jet being necessary for each place. In the double benches with pupils working each side a sink placed in the middle will serve the purposes of four pupils. * This is the distance suggested by the Science and Art regulations. 138 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. Depth. — The bench should not be of too great a depth for an ordinary pupil to reach easily from back to front, say 2 ft. 3 in. or 4 ft. 6 in. for a double desk. Height. — The bench should be sufficiently low to allow the student carrying on ordinary operations, such as filtering, &c., without having to raise his elbow much above its natural position. This would be for school laboratories 2 ft. 9 in. to 2 ft. 10 in., 3 ft. being usually reckoned for adults. The benches should not be less than 4 ft. 6 in. apart, so as to allow of a person passing easily between the backs of students working back to back at neighbouring benches. The shelves to hold the reagents in common use are of course most conveniently placed over each stand at the working benches, and should be about 6 in. wide and 9 in. apart. They are, however, sometimes placed at the end of each bench so that one set, or one at each end, will suffice for all the students working at that bench. In the cases of benches for elementary work, one shelf raised a foot or 15 in. above the desk on brackets will be quite sufficient, and will allow of easy inspection across the benches. The shelf should have a raised bead each side to prevent the bottles being pushed off. It is a convenience to have either in the laboratory or in the store-room a shelf that will take a good number of large bottles for the purpose of holding- solutions of known strength sufficient to last a year or eighteen months, as these are often troublesome to make up. Fig. 40 shows an arrangement for a working bench for four students arranged with a fume closet in the middle. In Fig. 41 are shown details of the benches in the laboratory illustrated above. Fig. 34. These benches are very fully fitted. A small fume hood a is provided for each pair of students. The shelves for reagents are arranged alternately each side. The wastes discharge into an open channel (see section. Fig. 41, a), while an exhaust tlue is taken through all the benches (Fig. 41) to provide for the draught hoods. There should be in every laboratory a plentiful supply of cupboards 40. A \\ ukKiNu Bench for Four Students, WITH Fume Closet in the Centre. WORKING BENCHES. 139 and shelves of considerable size, and the shelves should be a sufficient distance apart vertically to allow of lar^e apparatus being placed upon them. The cupboards should not come right down to the floor, but leave a small space under for the jun-pose of cleaning. When, as is usual, the lower part of the benches are filled in with cupboards, it Is as well that a space should be left under each bench for a rubbish basket, as the less distance it is necessary to carry broken glass, &c., the better. Wicker baskets with strong handles and lined with tin serve the purpose well, and are light to lift. A strip of glass arranged to fit the shelves on which the reagents stand will add much to the clean appearance of the laboratory. The material used in making the benches is either deal or pitch pine, but there is considerable difference as to the most suitable material for the top of the working bench. Whatever is used, it need hardly be said, should be as durable and impervious as possible, as far as 41. Details of Working Bench from the Chemical Laboratory in Fig. 34. a, S.mall Fume Hoods. possible non-absorbent, and not liable to shrink or crack when exposed to the heat resulting from the use of burners employed in heating flasks, &c. Teak is probably far the best material, but is really a needless expense, as deal or American basswood properly treated will answer the purpose well. The top must be thoroughly waxed. Paraffin wax should be used for this purpose, as ordinary oil and wax are soon affected by alkalies, and also, but more slowly, by acids. Tops treated with paraffin are, however, open to the objection that the wax is liable to melt when exposed to heat. The use of asbestos mats is suggested to meet this difficulty. Wooden tops covered with 7 lb. lead are some- times found. They are in use at Finsbury College and Bristol University College. Such tops are very satisfactory, but it is not necessary to go to the expense of such a provision for school work. It is probably not more apt to break glass apparatus than hardwood. A small bead along the edge of the benches is a useful addition, to prevent things rolling or slipping off. 140 SFXOXDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. Fume Closets. — Fume closets are provided in laboratories so that experiments involving the production of noxious gases can be carried out without vitiating the air in the laboratory. They consist usually of a small cupboard with glass front and sides measuring from 2 to 3 ft. in height, 2 ft. wide and i ft. 9 in. in depth. The size is of course open to considerable variation. They are placed usually against the wall of the room, so that the ventilation i\ue can be more easily managed, and in a position easy of access to the benches. The size of the fume closets should be limited to that of the largest apparatus that is likely to be used in them, since the object being to get rid of the gases formed as quickly as possible, the smaller space there is the better. The Number Required. — It is usually found that one fume closet to every five students will meet the ordinary requirements of a school laboratory. Where small draught hoods * are supplied on the working H =J 42. Fume Closet. 43. A Row OF Four Fume Closets. benches, one large closet, or at the most two, will be all that is required. The front of the closet has to be made so that it will run easily up and down ; this is usually done by means of sashes and pulleys. The pulleys should be large and run easily. The annoyance caused by breakage of the lines and the liability of disarrangement has led to the adoption of a light sash running in a groove, with small spring attach- ments that hold the sash in any position in which it is put. It is necessary of course to provide some means for the admission of air when the closets are in use. Leaving the front sash raised causes considerable disturbance to the flame of the gas used for heating inside. This difficulty is commonly met either by having some sort of sub- sidiary sash openings at the sides or small holes pierced in the bottom of the closet. In order to prevent the escape of noxious fumes, when For description of these see page 142. FUME CLOSETS. 141 the sash is raised, through the opening between the inner side of the glass and the upper edge of the closet, some sort of automatic closing arrangement is required. The use of a thick piece of felt on a lath, so arranged as to press against the glass as the sash moves up and down, will answer the purpose. The construction of a fume closet is shown in Fig. 42, which illus- trates one at present in use at the laboratories at the Central Foundation School, Cowper Street. In Fig. 43 is shown a range of four fume closets, as built in the laboratory at the Birmingham High School. A gas jet is placed in the flue to provide for the e.xhaust. An ine.xpensive fume closet made by the North of England School Furnishing Company is given in Fig. 44. This is placed against a wall of glazed bricks. The chief difficulty to be met is the destructive effect of the combina- tion of acid fumes, moisture, and heat, upon any material that is used for the top of the closet. Slate and glass are commonly used, but do not stand heat well, being- liable to crack, while the condensation upon these materials, as well as upon stone, is an additional inconvenience. Wood coated with tar or pitch stands fairly well, but if much heat is used is apt to warp and crack. ]\Ir Robins suggests that probably the best and cheapest roof would be one made of enamelled iron, cast in the size and shape required, and coated with some enamel that would resist the action of acids.* The bottom is formed usually of lead or slate, with a groove and small drain to carry off liquids. A fume closet at the Imperial Institute, arranged by Professor Dunstan, has been covered with white glazed tiles, with very satisfactory results ; the gain in light also being of considerable advantage. The extract flue should of course not be carried vertically out of the centre of the closet, as condensed liquids and dust are likely to fall from it, and considerably interfere with any experiment being carried on be- neath. The usual plan is to place it high up at the back of the closet. Replacing the ordinary round or square hole by a long slit the width of 44. A Fume Closet. * Technical School and College Building, p. 122. 142 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. the closet has the advantage of reducing the corners where stagnant air can lurk. The draught is commonly obtained by the use of a gas-jet in the chimney, or in large institutions by the use of a fan. The gas-jet is very unsatisfactory owing to the impossibility of preserving the iron from corrosion by the fumes. A small fan driven by electricity where the current is available, and which can be obtained for £2 or £2,, is usually much more satisfactory. The furnace for heating is sometimes utilised for the purpose of producing the necessary draught. Special closets for sulphuretted hydrogen, &c., hardly lie within the question of school laboratories. Small Fume Hoods. — In addition to the large fume closets, it is now common to find in laboratories small fume hoods placed on the working benches, one to each pair of students. These are usually formed of wood with a sloping movable glass top (see Fig. 41). They are all connected with an exhaust pipe, taken to a flue with a strong upcast draught, gained either by the utilisation of the heat of the furnace for warming the building, by an electric fan, or otherwise. These serve for the purpose of experiments involving the production of a certain amount of bad gas, but not a sufficient quantity to make the use of the big draught closet necessary. This plan has been adopted in many schools, and is found a great convenience. The gas-jets are in some cases so arranged that no heating can be done except under these hoods. The only objection I have heard to the use of these small draught closets is that their small size concentrates the fumes, and so is likely to cause rapid corrosion. Lockers. — There is considerable difference of opinion on the question as to the desirability of supplying a locker for each student. It is perhaps hardly possible to do so in a large school where the number of pupils learning chemistry is very large. With an ordinary- laboratory it is usually possible to get in about three times as many lockers as there are working places. It is usual to have a drawer with a cupboard underneath it. In the case of older pupils doing more advanced work it is a great convenience that some place should be provided where they can keep their own apparatus or safely put away an unfinished experiment. There is an ingenious arrangement at Felstead School by which much time and confusion is saved ; there are under each working place three sets of drawers and cupboards ; the cupboard shuts with a spring lock, and when shut also locks the drawer. The boys learning chemistry are in three sets. The cupboards are so WASTE AND DRAIXAGK. 143 arrant;cd that each set or class of bo\s has one cupboard in each set of three, so that in each case the owner of the cupboard has his place at the bench immediately above it, while the owners of the other two cupboards belong- to another set working- at a different time. By having- different coloured labels for the names for each set of boys it is easy for the laboratory attendant to go round and open all the cupboards of the class that are coming in. If there is not sufficient space to allow a cupboard to each pupil who uses the laboratory, room nia\" be found to supply a fair-sized drawer. WASTE AND DRAINAGE. Sinks. — The sinks are made square, usually with tlat bottoms, in order that when required they can be used for pneumatic troughs, though this use is not very often feasible. They should be fixed level or rather below the surface of the bench in order that spilt liquids may be swept freely in without obstruction. This makes their removal in case of breakage somewhat difficult, but if made of thick glazed stone- ware, this is an unlikely contingency. A movable and close-fitting top is sometimes useful, as it enables apparatus to be placed upon the top when necessary. The important point in connection with the waste from the labora- tory benches is to provide easy access to every part of it, so that the obstructions which are sure to occur can be readily got at and removed. This is sometimes done by merely running the waste along open gullies in the floor. There should always be an arrangement which will allow the waste to deposit most of the solid matter it carries with it. Professor Garnett * suggests that it should be arranged in the following way — that there should be a sufficient space left in the centre of the benches to allow of a man passing through. This space serves to carry the gas and water pipes, and the drainage trough. The latter may be made of I or i:j: in. red deal boards, jointed so as to form a V trough about 6 in. deep. The trough is thoroughly caulked with a mi.xture of pitch and tar, put on hot, and this trough serves to collect the drainage from the sinks, and deliver it to a sludge box or small settling tank through an overflow on one side. The overflow from the sludge box is delivered into a similar trough laid in a chase in the floor, which conveys it to the downcomer outside the wall. In place of V troughs, semicircular troughs cut from the solid in red deal may be eniployed. These semi- * The Design of Technical Schools. Paper read to the A.A. by Professor Garnett, 15th January 1892. 144 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. circular troughs are largely used in chemical works, and avoid the joint of the V trough. For the downcomer, best stoneware pipes, salt glazed, may be employed, but cast-iron paper coated with preservative compound will last a very long time, and some experiments will probably be made shortly upon the suitability of enamelled cast-iron pipes for this purpose. Rectangular troughs have no advantage over V troughs, and only offer a much larger surface for the acid liquids to act upon. The chases in the Hoor which may carry gas-pipes, water-pipes, pipes for distilled water, compressed air for the blow-pipe, and vacuum for filtration purposes, in addition to the drainage troughs, should admit of being opened throughout their whole length for the purpose of inspection. Sectio-N ok Lonc, Table. u Wrh V»S73 nm -^Hr D] a ■»«• */^* ^^ ^ rn* ^ Side Elevation of Long Table. Cross Section of Long Table. 45. Detail of Working Bench from Fig. 35, showing the use of a Wooden Trough in place of Sinks. The necessity of supplying a number of sinks with their plumbing, a costly item in laboratory fitting, can be obviated by the use of properly-treated wooden troughs or boxes. A method of doing this is shown in Fig. 45. The ordinary stoneware sinks are replaced by a long wooden trough which runs the full length of the benches, covered by short lengths of board easily removable, so that it can be opened and made to form a sink at any convenient spot. The trough is coated thickly with a preparation of tar. and laid to a rapid fall, discharging into a collecting sink, where any solid matter is deposited. At the end of the trough is a grating to catch any large solids. This illustration shows the arrangement as working at the Birmingham High School for Girls. A plan of the laboratory is shown. Fig. 35. This use of rHVSlCAL LABORATORIES. 145 tarred wood provides an effective and economical method by which the cost of fitting up a laboratory may be much reduced. It can be equally well adapted to form large sinks of the ordinary type. There should be a collectinor vessel underneath where the solid matter that is washed through may be deposited. This is arranged so that it can be easily taken out for cleaning. For arrangements of benches and fittings of a more advanced character, a large amount of information will be found in Mr Robins' book mentioned above. Physical Laboratories. — The main desideratum in a physical laboratorv is a larg^e workini'- table steady and free from vibration — a somewhat difficult matter to secure. Various methods are in use — stone brackets and stone or slate tables built into the walls, with and without stone brackets ; sometimes, where possible, stone or brick pieces are brought up from the basement to about 3 ft. above the floor with a heavy stone or slate top. In these cases care has to be taken that the floor boards or joists should not be in actual con- tact with these piers, or the vibration caused by persons moving about the room would of 1 course be communicated to the piers. There is even more difficulty about settling as to the e.xact requirements of physical than in ■+^- Table for Physical the case of chemical laboratories, as there is such a larsfe variety in work done there. However, as lonof as the tables are steady and there is plenty of room, it will probably answer most purposes. It is usual to supply gas to each place on the working benches or tables, but not water or sinks ; one or two large sinks with water-taps in convenient places being generally considered sufficient. Shutters arranged so that windows can be easily darkened quickly are desirable for optical work. There should be arranged above the benches (see Fig. 46) a high framework, with hooks, to which can be attached apparatus such as pulleys, &c., for mechanical experiments. Long cupboards should be provided which can be constructed rio-ht down the centre of the workino- benches, while leavinsf room for cupboards on each side. This will enable apparatus that is too long for the ordinary cupboards to be stored. Where the physical laboratory is not used for very advanced work, tables of the ordinary type, but made unusually heavy and solid, with teak tops, will answer most purposes. It should be remembered K 146 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. that a teak top measuring some 6 by 3 ft. and i-^ to 2 in. deep is of great weight, and unless precautions are taken to strengthen the frame- work, the latter is likely to give way when the tables are moved. These tables should have a groove near the edge in which mercury can be collected. In the physical laboratory at Felstead (see Fig. 36) tables of this sort are in use, and are not fixed ; the gas being supplied by pendants from a main running along the roof. These pendants are Ik i 5TUSCNTS \ '# 4 4- TliBLC \ ss SnOENTS "■^>" '^- .^■- Tf)BL£ TEijite mcm£ mcHminL nms ^- 47. The Physical Laboratory, Cowper Street Foundation School. //. Chatjicld Clarke, Archilccl. jointed, and can be doubled up to a height of 7 ft. from the ground when the proximity of iron is undesirable. Fig. 47 shows the physical laboratory of the Cowper Street School, the chemical room of which was illustrated above. The benches are here fixed, a gas-jet being supplied to each place, but not sinks ; one large sink being considered sufficient for the room. Over each bench is a framework for the suspension of a[)paratus (see Fig. 48), while PHYSICAL LABORATORIES. 147 at the eiul of the room are arranged mechanical arms for larger experi- ments involving the use of considerable weight. A mercury table is placed in one corner. A specially arranged shelf secured against vibration by being built into the wall, is provided for the purpose of experiments involving the use of the galvanometer. A demonstration platform with table and blackboard completes the equipment. Biological Room. — The room for the study of biology need not be of any great size, as the number of students taking this subject is not likely to be large. It should be well lit and well ventilated. Benches, steady enough not to be moved by the pressing of the hand, in the windows, either low or provided with high stools for the purpose of microscope work, are required. A large sink, and a supply of water sue Tm SCKU I : ^ ^ t f f ^ ! ? J OF rccr 48. Benches ix Phvsic.vl Labor.\torv illustrated in Fig. 47. and gas, with shelves, cupboards, &c., are of course necessary. A room of this kind will of course answer equally well for the purpose of teaching botany or natural history. Lecture Room. — The lecture room, as mentioned above, should be readily accessible from both the physical and chemical laboratory. If it can only be placed in connection with one, it is probably better to put it near the physical laboratory, as the apparatus that will be required in the lecture room for physics teaching is often very heavy or very delicate. xAgain, if electrical experiments are being shown it is often necessary to keep the apparatus outside till the moment it is required, in order to ensure of its being of the necessary dryness, &c. In large institutions it is of course necessary that the lecturer's table should be absolutely free from vibration, and so this room is usually placed on the ground floor. But the elaborate arrangements necessary 148 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. to ensure this and the other devices and contrivances found in such rooms are hardly necessary in an ordinary school lecture room. The table should be of considerable length, but it is of little ^ use making it of much depth ; 3 ft. will probably be sufficient, as apparatus can only be exhibited in one row. It should be fitted with two or three gas-jets, a sink with a movable top, and a down draught fume closet. In the table shown in Fig. 49 there is a large sink with a movable cover to turn over, shown by dotted lines ; the back of the table is fitted with cupboards, &c., and the position of the black- board is shown. Fig. 50 shows a simpler form of lecturer's table for physical lectures. There should be some space left between the lecturer's table and the wall behind ; this is necessary both to allow plenty of room for the master and his assistant, and for certain experiments, such as for instance where a beam of light is thrown from a galvanometer on to a scale upon the wall. Eight feet is not perhaps too much. The light should of course be Jl ^__^ J — 1 ^ y — v\ 49. Demonstration Table (Inside Elevation and Section). 50. Demonstration Table. arranged with the view of lighting the demonstration table and the blackboard behind it. If the lecture room is on the top floor, a lantern in the roof will often provide a good light. The windows should be arranged with screens that can be easily drawn when it is required to darken the room. LECTURE ROOM. 149 A piece of the wall behind the demonstration table should be pre- pared for the purpose of magic lantern exhibition. A square of 12 ft. is large enough for most purposes, while 16 ft. may be regarded as a maximum. An excellent surface can be obtained by finishing the wall with Parian cement, and giving it two coats of plain lime whiting. Across this the blackboard may be placed. In this case it must be movable, and may be fitted with the Kelvin principle of counterbalanc- ing weights, so that it will run easily up and down. A platform or shelf for the lantern itself must be provided at the back of the room. If this is required to show any delicate experiments, it will be necessary to bring a brick pier up to carry it, which must be kept quite independ- ent of the seats. A few hooks fixed in the ceiling, or better still an opening into the room above, exactly ov^er the demonstration table, for the purpose of suspending apparatus, is often of great convenience. The seats have to be arranged in rising tiers in order that every one may have a free view of the lecture table. This should be arranged so that each pupil may see the whole table, even if the person in front is two or three inches taller. In cases where the room is small and the seats have to be brought close up to the demonstration table, the gallery will have to be inconveniently steep if every one is to see the table well, but by increasing the distance the steepness of the slope is rapidly reduced. The table should be not less than 5 ft. from the first row of seats. The rows of seats may rise from 6 to 12 in., increasing in height towards the back. It is usual to provide 20 in. for each place. A small workshop in connection with the science rooms is a great advantage ; this need not be more than about 8 or 10 ft. square. It should be fitted with a small bench, a vice, and tools for working in tin and zinc, soldiering materials, &c. Studios. — The main requirements of a studio are a steady light, which should be ample and under easy control, and plenty of space. The steadiness of light is usually obtained by making the studio window face to the north. Probably the best aspect is rather to the east of north. Opinions differ as to the relative advantages of top light and side light, but whichever form be adopted it should be carefully arranged so that it comes from one direction, in order to avoid any danger of cross lighting. When the light is brought in by a vertical window on one side it is necessary to make it of a much larger area than in the case of a top light. The sill should be at least 6 ft. from the floor. I50 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. A long narrow room with a window running down one side often forms a convenient shape for a studio for school purposes, as it is easy then to cut it up by means of curtains or otherwise to suit divisions doing different work. The window should be fitted with blinds, which should be arranged to draw up from the bottom, or curtains, arranoed so that it may be easy to adjust the light to suit the various purposes. The studio is usually placed upon the top floor in order to secure a good light. Area Required.— This should be ample. At least twice as much floor space per head as is 51. The Englefield j-equired for a class-room should be allowed. Drawing is now one of the regular school subjects, so that the studio should be at least capable of accommodating the largest form in the school at once. Any additional space that can be provided will add much to its convenience. Wliere no storage room is provided, a con- siderable provision must be made for shelves and cupboards, racks for draw- ing boards, &c. A piece of wood 2 or 3 in. wide let in flush with the plaster and carried round the room about 2 ft. above the dado, as sue- gested for class-rooms, should be provided, upon which to pin up drawings. A useful form of easel for school work is shown in Fig. 51- A method of fitting up a studio for a large class doing elementary work is shown in Fig. 52.* This provides a slightly different view of the model for every pupil in the class. 52. A Stuiiio for a Large Elementary Class. * From the catalogue of the North of England School Furnishing Company. Chapter IX. SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS {Continued). Cloak-rooms — Question of one large Cloak-room or separate Rooms for each Class — Pilfering in Cloak-rooms — Suggestions of a Headmaster — The American System, Examples of — The Manchester High School — The Blackheath High School — Space required for Cloak-rooms, Lockers, Stands, and Racks — jSIeasurements of Stands — Material for Floor — Kindergarten Cloak-room — The Principal's Room — Position of, in reference to Secretary, Porter, &c., to Entrances and to Hall — Accommodation for Inspectors and Examiners — Dining-rooms, Position in Basement or Top Floor — Sizes necessary for Tables — Distance apart, &c. — The Kitchen and its Position — Mid-morning Lunch in Girls' Schools — Libraries for Masters and for Pupils — Use of the Library in German Schools — Sixth Form Rooms, Arrangement of — Differ- ences from an ordinary Class-room — Museums, their Position — Opinions on their Use — Emergency Rooms and Sick-rooms — Bath-rooms — Cleaning Rooms — Music-rooms, Size and Position — Methods of Sound Prevention — Practising and Teaching Rooms — Use of Class-rooms for Music Lessons — Play and Recreation Rooms, Size required for — Kindergarten Schools and their Arrangements — Desks, Tables, Chairs, &c. CLOAKROOMS. Cloak-room accommodation raises a number of debatable points, the most important of which is that of the relative advantage of having one large cloak-room with accommodation for the entire school, or whether it is better to have it in two or more separate places, or finally to have, as is commonly done in America, a separate cloak-room attached to each class-room. The first plan is undoubtedly the p'.easantest. All the wet clothes, &c., can be kept right out of the main part of the building ; the place can be properly warmed and \entilated ; a drying-room can probably be placed close by ; and if the room is well planned, and stands well arranged, one mistress, for it is in Girls' Schools that the question of cloak-rooms is naturally of so much importance, can supervise the whole room. On the other hand, it is urged that when most of the school are dismissed together, there is a great deal ot crowding and contusion ; 152 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. that it is not always possible to keep a proper watch upon it ; and that in this way it offers too many chances for one of the most annoying offences of school life, that of petty larceny. This is an offence in which detection is difficult, and one which, from the mutual suspicion and distrust aroused, and the unpleasantness and evils arising from the attempts made to discover the offenders, causes great trouble to Head Masters and Mistresses of schools, so much so that they are generally willing to put up with a great deal of discomfort and unpleasantness, and the unsightly appearance generally attached to the arrangement of a cloak-room attached to each' class-room, in order to make sure of an effectual supervision, which would render pilfering impossible. In large Day Schools where the pupils are drawn from very different classes of society, however good the tone of the school, there will be from time to time children who will be only too quick to avail themselves of any opportunities of the sort that may occur. A Headmaster,* writing on Secondary School planning, suggests that — " The remedy is to abolish the central cloak-room altogether, and instead of it, to attach a separate cloak-room, and put it in charge of the master who teaches in that room. It should be about 6 ft. wide, and should run the whole length of the class-room. It may be 9 ft. high, or it may be carried up the full height of the class-room. It should be sepa- rated from the class-room by a wooden screen, pierced with a continuous window, and the master should be so placed that he can command every part of it. It should be thoroughly well lighted by an external window, and be heated by hot-water pipes, so that wet coats may be dried. There should be two doors, both leading back into the class-room and not into a corridor or the hall." This arrangement is carrying the system often adopted in America a step or two further (see below, Fig. 54), and while perhaps possible in an Elementary School, would hardly be tolerated in the Secondary Schools of this country. Even if the assistant teachers did not object, there would be a considerable number of in- conveniences attached. The unsightly appearance in the class-room ; the smell of clothes, especially in wet weather, which would inevitably come into the class-room ; the loss of space, which, as it is to be 6 ft. wide with an e.xternal window, must be taken oft the aspect chosen for the class-rooms ; and finally, the almost hopeless confusion that would, under certain circumstances, ensue at the end of lesson time, especially if the school were at all full. In case of a cla.ss which spent the last * The Builder, 4th January 1S90. CLOAK-ROOMS. 153 53. Showing Cloak-rooms as Passages to Class-rooms. hour in the studio or chemical IalK)ratorie.s, either the form ma.ster would ha\-e to be back in the empty class-room to see his class take their coats and hats, for the only entrances were to be from the class-room, or else it mio'ht happen that some division was being' taken in the room, in which case the disturbance would be considerable. In a German Schopl, where the classes are not reclassified or divided, it would no doubt be easy to manage some such plan, or in America, where this system is com- nionlv found, where each pupil has his regular seat in one of the large school- rooms, but it would surely be difficult in a school orga- nised on the lines of our Secondary Schools. The proposal, however, shows to what lengths the heads of schools are willing to go to obtain really effectual cloak- room supervision. The American system of providing cloak-rooms in the form of passage- rooms to the class-rooms has not, as far as I am aware, been yet tried in this country. In that country the usual plan (see Fig. 53) is to have an entrance both to the cloak-room and the class-room, so that access can be rained to either one without necessarily going- through the other. But in many cases the only access, as mentioned above, to the cloak-room is through the class-room itself (see Fig. 54). Sometimes, as in Fig. 324, there is a sort of cupboard each side of the door of the hall itself, or rather the wide corridor is cut up into small cloak-rooms (see Fig. 154), practically turning the hall into a cloak-room ; but whatever plan is followed, there is a separate cloak-room to each class. Mr Briggs, in " Modern American School Buildings," stronglv advocates the use of partitioned hat and cloak rooms placed in the main hall of the building, suggesting further that the upper parts might 54. Showing Cloak-rooms with the only Access through the Class-rooms. From an American School. 154 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. be wire netted in order to make supervision more easy. It will often be noticed, on looking at plans of American Schools, that the greater part of the main hall is taken up with the cloak-room arrangements. There would be strong objection to any similar plan being adopted in this country, where every effort is made to keep the floor space of the assembly rooms or halls as free as possible. At the Manchester High School for Girls there is an arrangement adopted after careful inspection of American plans, and after visits to a number of their schools (see Fig. 55), by which there is a double cloak- room arranged to every class-room, placed on the opposite side of a wide (18 ft.) corridor, each cloak-room also containing a water-closet disconnected from the building by a lobby. The accommodation allowed for cloak-rooms is on a lavish scale, and few schools would be now able to afford the expense of such a scheme. The doors leading into these rooms are cut off at a height of 3 ft. 6 in. to allow of super\'ision. The Headmistress, Miss Burstall, speaks very highly of the comfort and success of this arrangement. But the expense involved has probably prohibited its general adoption, and also perhaps the rather unsightly appearance in looking down the corridor ; for though this school has been built some twenty I |c jrjo'pi kIrJ^m s years, it has not, to my knowledge, been tried in M "ij^~~ilff STb ciiiy other Girls' Schools, and certainly has not been adopted to any considerable extent. At the Blackheath High School for Girls, the plan has been tried of a long cloak-room running along a corridor in the basement, divided into a number of small rooms corresponding to classes. This obviates some of the disadvantages in the way of crowdino-. o However, the plan most usually adopted now is to have one or two large rooms fitted up as cloak-rooms, as near the pupils' entrance as can be conveniently arranged, and provided that sufficient outside window space can be given, there seems little objection to their being placed in the basement, while there are many advantages arising from such a position, they occupy space that cannot well be used for any other purpose, and are kept well away from all the [)arts of the building used for school purposes. As regards the space required, there is very much less given or required as a rule in Boys' Schools than in Girls'. In a great many Boys' Schools no regular cloak-room is to be found. At the Mercers' School in Holborn, rebuilt in 1S94, boys are expected to use the CLOAK-ROOMS. ISS lockers, of which every boy has one, arranged in the corridors. These are of sufficient height to allow of pegs upon which coats can be hung, and umbrellas put inside, while providing a shelf above for books, &c. They are raised 3 in. from the fioor. The bottom of the locker is per- forated to allow wet umbrellas to drain into a channel arranged under- neath, while a hot-water pipe runs through all the lockers. The .same plan is in use at St Paul's, West Kensington. At Bedford Grammar School there are pegs for hats and caps in the small passages which lie between the class-rooms and the hall (see Fig. 72). Of course this is partly a Boarding School, and when the boys come from boarding- houses close to the main block of the school building, they have pro- bably only a cap, and not alwa\"s that to dispose of This can usually find a refuge in the boy's pocket. In the case of Girls' Schools much more elaborate arrangements are necessary. The cloak-room must not only provide room for the dis- posal of hats, coats, &c., but pigeon holes or shelves must be provided for every girl attending the school, for the purpose of holding a pair of boots or shoes. Facilities must also be provided for the purpose of changing their boots, and it must be so arranged they can do so in considerable numbers without confusion. Dimensions for Cloak-rooms. — In fitting up a room for a cloak-room it is usual to have the fittings placed against the wall space as far as that is available, and to ^et the additional accommodation required by placing stands across the room. These would be arranged with a seat each side, separated by a screen with the necessary pegs on each side. The hooks or pegs should be at least 1 2 in. apart. The width of a stand with seats and pegs each side may be calculated at i8 in. These should not stand closer together than from 6 to 7 ft. to avoid disorder in moving about. At the ends of the stands which come opposite the wall there should be a clear space of from 4 ft. to 4 ft. 6 in. Taking these dimensions it will be found that it is necessary to allow l)etween 4 and 5 sq. ft. of cloak-room per pupil, the exact amount depending on the amount of wall space that can be devoted to fittings after allowing for windows, doors, &c. Of course where there is plenty of room it is a great advantage to allow a larger space. This will make supervision easier, and prove a great boon when a large number require to use the room at once. At the Birmino-ham High School, where the cloak-rooms and lavatories are particularly spacious and well arranged, there is one large cloak-room measuring 68 by 30 ft., the number of the school IS6 SECOxN'DARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. being" 300 (see Fig. 123). The additional cloak-room accommoda- tion required becomes often a serious problem in the case of additions to a school, a contingency which should not be lost sight of in the original scheme. In planning a cloak-room, great care should be taken to have no awkward corners, i.e., it should be possible to see the whole room from one point. It should of course be well lit, and have means of thoroughly efficient ventilation. Hot- water pipes carried round the room and through the centre of each stand are usually provided to keep the clothes dry and well aired, though it is not well to rely upon this for drying things really wet, for which purpose there should be a regular drying-room arranged in connection with the heating apparatus. The boxes or pigeon-holes for boots should be raised from the Hoor, so that the whole fioor can be easily washed. Arrangements of wire racks on which the boots are to be balanced do not work as a rule satisfactorily, the shoes and boots usually finding a resting-place on the floor. In order that washing should be easy and quick, the floor should be of some non-absorbent materials of which tiles are undoubtedly the best, both from the point of view of appearance and health. Unfortu- nately they are rather expensive. Cement, although making in many ways a good floor, is not suitable for schools, as it is easily kicked or rubbed off, making an unpleasant and deleterious dust. Wood blocks, though not drying so rapidly, are preferable. Asphalte seems inclined to wear rough and unevenly. In speaking of cloak-rooms with reference to American Schools, Mr Shaw strongly advocates a special cloak-room to each class-room, and suggests that in fitting up a cloak-room the best plan is to have a shelf 15 in. wide supported on strong brackets right round the room 5 ft. from the floor, on the under side of which, about 15 in. apart, and about the middle of the shelf, double coat hooks are screwed, thus ensuring a complete circulation of air about the clothing. They are blocked out from the wall to allow circulation of air, and curved in at the bottom, so that the room may be easily swept.* The stands shown in Fig. 275, provide for a thorough circulation of air, while preventing the clothes from contact. In schools where there is a Kindergarten there should be a separate cloak-room for that department in close connection with it, and also * Cloak-rooms for Elementary Schools are further considered when dealing with the plans of such schools. PRINCIPAL'S ROOM. 157 separate lavatory and necessary W.C.'s attached. When plaiininsr the Kinderoarten cloak-room, it should be remembered that it is usual to send a nurse or maid to fetch the children, so that some convenient place may be arran^'etl in which they can wait instead of a draughty corridor. Lavatories and sanitary con\eniences are treated together in the chapter dealing with sanitation. PRINCIPALS ROOM. The position of the Head Master or Mistress's room is a matter requiring some consideration. It is usually found close to the main entrance, which is generally an excellent position for the purpose of visitors to the Headmaster. It should also be as near as can con- veniently be managed to the platform end of the hall ; firstly, so that the Head Master can gain his place on the platform with the least possible waste of time and trouble, and further, because in cases of functions of any kind, it is usual for persons who are to occupy positions on the platform to collect in the Head Master's or Mistress's room. At the Mercers' School in Holborn the Headmaster has a door leading directly on to the platform from his room, and mentioned it as a par- ticularly convenient arrangement (see Fig. 1 1 7). There should be in close connection with this room a Secretary's room and a small waiting- room, and also a lavatory and closet. In larger schools there will be also a Clerk's office connected with the Secretary's room. The Head- master's room and Secretary's room should be in close connection, there beino- continual need for communication, either leadino- from one to the other, or, as is sometimes the case, having communication by a hatch or window. In small schools where space is an object, the Secretary's room has to serve for a waiting-room. The room for the Head Master or Mistress should not be too small, a mistake not infrequently made. It often happens that the Head Master or Mistress may wish to take a small class or division there. Where a Committee-room is provided, it is often conveniently put next the Secretary's room, or it may serve for the Secretary's room, being only required for Committee or Board meetings at considerable intervals. There should of course be lavatories attached. In the plan of the City of London School (Fig. 108) a con- venient arrangement is shown. It will be noticed that there is a small turret staircase leading from the Committee-room directly to the plat- form in the great hall. It is difficult to find any common plan for the arrangement of these rooms ; but usually, close to the main entrance of 158 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. the school, are found accommodation for the Headmaster, Secretary, Secretary's office, and the porter, and the more easy the communication the better. There is an additional consideration in the case of Girls' Schools which should not be lost sight of, and that is the accommodation for Examiners and Inspectors when visiting the school. In very large establishments there will no doubt be found separate accommodation provided, but in schools where in planning every square foot has to be zealously looked after, it would not be joossible to make provision for such an occasional need. Of course the waiting-room can well serve for this purpose, but as the Examiners probably spend the day in the school, some provision should be made for their comfort. In case no sjjace can be spared to provide a lavatory for the waiting-room, the most economical plan is probably to arrange that the Headmistress's room and the waiting-room should both open into the same lavatory, in which case, by locking one door or the other, it can be attached to either room as required. The telephone-board, with an attachment to every jDart in the building, placed in the Headmaster's room, though occasionally useful, is probably rather more a theoretical than a practical advantage, as far as the class-rooms are concerned ; but a speaking-tube to the kitchen or schoolkeeper and the .Secretary's room, it the latter is not close by, is undoubtedly useful. When there is a complete system of tubes, the Head Master or Mistress is usually obliged, in self-defence, and to avoid continual disturbance, to have a rule that all calling up should originate at their end. The Principal's room should, if possible, command the entrances to the school. DININGROOMS. A dining-room has as a rule to be pro\-ided in Da)* Schools. The number of pupils staying to dinner in the middle of the day will of course varv considerablv according to the localitv and other reasons. In some schools very elaborate dining arrangements ha\-e to be made, the greater part of the school staying to dinner. There are two ways of arranging the dining-rooms and kitchens. One, and perhaps the commonest, is to ha\-e the dining-room and kitchen in the basement ; the other, to devote the top floor of the building to this purpose. There are many advantages in the latter plan, the chief of which is the absence of any chance of the smell getting into the school part of the building, since effectual ventilation is easy. And when expenditure in the building is of importance, it is possible to DINING-ROOMS. 159 provide a liLiht and cheerful dinini^-room in the roof, where the slope of the ceiling would prevent its use for any other purpose. The Newcastle High School for Girls, recently erected by the Girls' Public Day School Company, has an arrangement ol this sort with .satisfactory results (see Fig". 119). At St Paul's School, West Kensington, where over 200 boys dine every day, there are most complete and excellent arrangements (see Fig. 112), also placed on the top floor. In order to calculate the amount of space that is required per head for the dining-room, the important point is the .space taken by the table, and the distance between the tables necessary to allow of sufficient space for waiting. The amount of cubic space is of less importance, provided that the room can be thoroughly aired, as it is occupied for so short a time. The Size of Tables, &C. — The following short table gives the dimensions which mav be taken to give sufficient room : — Width of table ------ Width of one place - - . . . Depth of one place - - - . - Distance between backs of seats of two adjacent tables Distance from wall to back of seat Distance between the ends of two adjacent tables 't. In 2 8 I 9 I 4 6 3 2 In Fig. 56 is shown a plan illustrating different ways of arranging the tables and seats. Where a seat has been placed at the end of the table, a space of I ft. 6 in. has been left. In the case of a table wider than 2 ft. 8 in. this could be dispensed with and the side seats brought up to the end. This should be considered the minimum allowance of space to ensure a comfortable room. The kitchen and dining-room are on the tt)p floor in the Birmingham High School for Girls, and as the demonstration room is close bv, thev can thus be made use of in the cookery instruction 56. \'aRI0US ARR.ANGEMENTS for DlNMNGROOM Tables. i6o SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. if required (see Fig. 129). A Headmaster, writing in The Builder,^ describes the dininsf-hall at the Ecole Monge in Paris. The bovs ate at little marble tables. As soon as they had finished, a relay of servants carried off plates and dishes ; the windows were thrown wide open ; a mighty hydrant was opened, and a deluge was sent flying over tables, floor, and walls ; and in a moment, crusts, crumbs, smells, and foul air disappeared in one gush. The windows were closed, heat turned on, and soon the hall was ready for another batch of diners. It is hardly necessary to lay stress on the point that the kitchen should be in close connection with the dinins"-room, with a hatch making perhaps the best arrangement. Whatever scheme be adopted for the kitchen and offices, it is of the greatest importance that they should be thoroughly cut off from the rest of the school building. Mid-morning Lunch. — In Girls' Schools it is usual for the girls to have some slight refreshment in the middle of the morning, taking as a rule the form of a glass of milk and a bun. A hatch with a fair amount of space round will serve the purpose well, and obviate any tendency to crushing and confusion. The large kitchens required in Boardino- Schools are more fullv dealt with when considerinof the subject of those sort of schools. THE LIBRARY. It is becoming more and more recognised that a library is a very necessary adjunct to a school, not so much in its older form which con- sisted of a collection of books, often very valuable, put in a room, to which no one, except perhaps one or two of the masters, ever went ; but a library to be used continually by the upper parts of the school, containing all the books of reference that are likely to be wanted, and the books so selected that it can be thrown open to the school, or rather to such part of it as may be considered advisable ; tor there is little use in the younger part of the school having access to a room intended for quiet study, and containing books for reference, not for light reading. This want should be otherwise and fully provided for. The chief use of the school library is to enable those in the higher forms of the school to learn to use books for themselves, without beinof told e.xactly where to look for anything. This of course applies with equal force to Girls' Schools, where it is becoming more and more the custom to allow the sixth form to use the library as a room for working * The Builder, 4th January iSgo. THE LIBRARY. i6r in when doing individual and private work. Tliere should be also a teachers' library. In German Schools it is almost invariable to find the two libraries, one for the school, the other for the teachers. Of course when two rooms cannot be provided, there may be certain cases reserved in the general library ; but the great point is that the library should be regarded as a room to be used. W'here it is not possible to provide a separate room for the library it may be possible to fit up a room otliervvise used with the necessary shelves. The si.xth form room at a pinch will serve for the library, as these are the pupils who will chiefly use it. The Headmistress's room some- times serves for the purpose, but this is open to the objection that it is apt to interfere with the pupils having the free use of it. As regards the other sort of library, that of fiction and books for recreation and pleasure, while it is perhaps of little less importance that there should be a good supply of the best books of this sort, and that the boys and girls of every age should be induced to read them, the position of their accommodation in the school premises is not of much importance, wherever bookcases or shelves can be conveniently ])ut up. The dining-room will often pro\'ide a good deal of wall space. Sixth Form Room. — It is usual in Girls' Schools as well as in Boys' Schools to have what is known as a si.xth form room. In order to keep up the idea of the difference in status acquired by those who have reached the dignity of the sixth form, and as it were to mark them off a little from the rest of the school, and perhaps to add to their feeling of responsibility, and to a certain extent to their authority,- this room is fitted up differently to a class-room. Work is probabh" done at a large table with chairs instead of the usual desks ; it is more carefully looked after, and begins to take on more the air of a sitting- room than a class-room, with jealously regarded privileges. However badly warmed, lit, or ventilated, it is a delicate matter to touch this room, or suggest changing to another, however much better the new one may be in every way ; more especially if the school is an old one, there are associations and memories attached to the old room with which it is an invidious task to interfere. In building a new school the sixth form room should if possible be arranged to be a pleasant and com- fortable room, and need not necessarily be on the pattern of the other class-rooms. Museum. — A special room to be used as a museum is found as a rule only in large schools, and is of course a most valuable adjunct to the school ; but it is probably only in the great Boarding Schools where L i62 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. museums of any size are found. But it may often be worth while when planning a school, if a museum cannot be provided, yet to allow space in some corner or corridor where cases for specimens or cabinets can be conveniently placed. There is some diversity of opinion as to the value of museums in schools. Some Headmasters, who think that their real value lies in the collecting, even go so far as to recommend that all the contents should be thrown away at the end of the year. This of course can only refer to collections of flowers, stones, &c., which are made by the school in its immediate neighbourhood. But unless there is some master or mistress who will take an energetic and continual interest in it, a museum is apt to degenerate into a rather forlorn and miserable place, and the room given to it could, e.xcept in large buildings, be probably better utilised for other purposes. There is an interesting account, illustrated with plans, of a school museum, in the second volume of the Special Reports issued by the Board of Education. Emergency Rooms. — There should be in every Day School at least one emergency room, or a room in which any boy or girl who is unwell can lie down in quiet, or where any pupil who comes to school and being unwell is suspected of having some contagious disease, such as measles and scarlatina, &c., can be isolated. It should be placed as far as possible out of the way, both for isolation, and in order that it may be quiet and undisturbed. A lavatory attached is of course an advantage. &^ Bath-rooms. — A bath-room is sometimes provided. For example, in the Birmingham High School there is one, and the Headmistress, Miss Creak, mentioned it as being very useful on certain occasions. I gathered it was used chiefly for remedial purposes, in such cases as girls being overcome by the heat, and sometimes also when they had driven long distances to school in very cold weather. On the whole it seemed that it was not very often that it was wanted, but that on occasion it had been of o-reat service. & Service-rooms. — Cleaning-rooms for brushes, &c., with hot and cold water laid on, should be always placed on each floor in some con- venient position. The lack of this precaution is the cause of a good deal of the trouble that sometimes arises with school keepers and cleaners of school buildinofs. &" Music-rooms. — Music-rooms have to be placed as far as possible where the sound will cause least disturbance. The usual plan in Girls' MUSIC-ROOMS. 163 Schools — they are not always supplied in Day Schools for Boys — is to have a line of them placed together (see F"ig. 88), allowing as a rule two to every 100 girls. The size should not be less than 8 by 10 ft., nor is there much to be gained by their being larger, provided there is sufficient room for the piano, pupil, and teacher. They should of course be warmed. For teaching" singing a room twice the size at least is necessary. The usual plan to prevent the interference of the sound between the adjoining" rooms is to make the walls hollow and packed with some material adapted to stop the passage of sound as far as possible, asbestos, &c., and to provide double doors. It is worth remembering that neither the joists, and more especially the floor boards, should continue from one room to another. I have more than once seen a row of two or more music-rooms where the most elaborate precautions to stop the sound had been taken with the walls and doors, but which were entirely nullified by the floor boards, which were con- tinuous. It is not unusual in Girls' Schools, where the expenses are to be cut down, to provide no music-rooms, on the ground that the pianos can be put in the class-rooms, since these rooms are not as a rule used in the afternoon in such schools. This plan will be found to cause a great deal of inconvenience, and to be objected to strongly by both the Headmistress and by the music teacher, owing to the constant in- terruptions caused by pupils coming in for books and things left behind, &c., or their having to be turned out because the room is required for some purpose. In Boarding Schools* a rather larger number of music- rooms are required for the purpose of practising. Playroom. — Though this can hardly be considered an absolute necessity in a school, it is of the greatest advantage to have some such room where it is lawful to make a noise during the recess between les- sons in wet weather. A room of this sort is almost invariably found in America, even in the Elementary Schools. It is not uncommon to find in Secondary Schools in this country a covered playground in the base- ment, of the same size and immediately, under the hall. Of course where there is a gymnasium in the school it will perfectly well do for this purpose. At the Birmingham High School (see Fig. 129) there is a playroom provided on the top floor. This is the more necessary as the building is not only a \ery high one, but there is. no playground, owing to the restricted nature of the site. A space of 5 or 6 sq. ft. per pupil should be provided if possible. "*■ See below, page 220. 164 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. Kindergarten Rooms, — Where the Kindergarten is merely an adjunct to a school, as is so often the case in Girls' Schools, there is little else required for the purpose than a large, well-lighted, cheerful room, with its separate cloak-room and offices. In jjroviding the lava- tory accommodation, it should be remembered that there are usually boys as well as girls to be provided for. The room itself should be of ample size, and face south or south-east in order to ensure plenty of sun in the mornings. The sills to the windows should also be kept low. This room is not as a rule used in the afternoon, except when there are student-teachers attached to the Kindergarten for the purpose of training. The ground floor should always be the position for this room in order 5CAI-EL 57. A Kindergarten School. Rcinold Faher, Arihiteit. to avoid stairs, and it should be placed next the class-room, which is devoted to the transition form, or first form, if the former be taken in the Kindergarten room. This class-room mav verv convenientlv^ be made rather large and divisible by a movable partition, as the transition form is classified with first one and then the other. Where the numbers in the Kindergarten are considerable, or where the Kinderrarten is a school by itself, it is necessary to have a certain number of class-rooms. These need not be large, as the classes are not likely to consist of more than 10 or 12, but there must be either a hall or a room large enough to allow plenty of space for the marching and games which play so large a part in a Kindergarten training. In Germany it is usual to supply living rooms for the Kindergarten KINDERGARTEN ROOMS. 165 teacher in the buildiiiQ-. Hintraofer* yives the following- list of rooms for a Kindergarten : — (i) Employment room ; (2) playroom ; (3) cloak- room ; (4) office ; (5) living rooms ; (6) sanitary conveniences ; (7) play- ground and gardens. ci.-^. ^^> •». Ae&. ft ^ix m 58. Kindergarten School, Zurich. A. Gciscr, Architect. The gardens are considered an important part of the school. They should be shaded by trees, and provide not less than 3 sq. metres (30 sq. ft.) per head, and the whole in no case less than 1,500 sq. ft.+ According to one writer, the garden should be of large size, and contain arbours for working in, aviaries, a labyrinth, a maze, heaps of sand, little gardens for the children, ponds and fountains. ;J: 59. Kindergarten School, Zurich. Fig. 57 shows the plan of a small Kindergarten School. This is intended to take in children as boarders. The verandah makes an excellent place for marching and playing in warm weather. * Bau und Einrichtung von Pflege- und Erziehungsanstalten fiir die Jugend des Vorschulpflichtigen Alters, Hintrager. t Schulhygiene, Baginsky. J Mutter- und Kindergartenbuch, Georgens. 1 66 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOL BUILDINGS. Figs. 58 and 59 show the exterior view and ground plan of a Kindergarten School at Zurich. The furniture of a Kindergarten room should be light and easily movable. For the older of the children desks of the ordinary type are made, but usually with flat tops marked in squares. The smaller chil- dren usually sit on small chairs at low tables, also marked in squares (see Fig. 60). Those with rounded backs are found the most satis- factory and most comfortable for the children. The teacher is supplied 60. T.\BLES AND Chairs in a Kindergarten. 61. Teacher's Table. with a table marked similarly with small squares, and arranged with a top that can be raised (see Fig. 61) in order to make the surface visible to the class in front. There is so much apparatus used in Kindergarten teaching, that plenty of cupboard room must be supplied, as well as shelves for the pots of flowers, aquariums, &c., that have to find a place. It is as well to provide wooden rails round the room on which drawings can be pinned up.* See page 99. Chapter X. SECONDARY DAY SCHOOLS. PLANS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF SCHOOLS. Questions as to what constitute a Good Plan — Test of a well-planned School — Plans from the point of view of the Headmaster — Remarks of a Headmaster on School Planning — Girls' Schools and Boys' Schools — Types of Plans — The Central Hall System, Advantages and Disadvantages summed up — Opinions of a Headmaster and a Headmistress — Modifications of the Central Hall System — Examples of Schools — Colet House School — The Bedford Grammar School — Streatham Hill High School — The Sheffield High School — Aske's School for Girls, Hatcham, and at Acton — Coborn School for Girls — The Hulme Grammar School — Hymer's College, Hull — The Wimbledon High School — Stamford Hill High School — The City of London School — St Paul's School, West Kensington — The Mercers' Company School for Boys, Barnard's Inn — The High School for Girls, Birmingham — The High School for Girls, Manchester — The Judd Commercial School — A Realschule — The XII. Real- schule, Berlin — Die Augustinerschule, Hesse — Gymnasium at Aachen — Secondary School, Ziirich — The Brighton High School, U.S.A. — The Groton School. The different rooms and various component parts that go to make up a school having- been considered in detail in regard to their numbers, requirements, &c., it is now proposed to consider the arrangement of the buildings, and the various methods adopted in combining them to form a school ; but before proceeding to describe and illustrate the various types of school buildings, it will be as well to consider shortly what are the essential points that go to make up a good plan. Matters directly affecting the health of the scholars, such as questions of light, air. &c., are not here referred to. A school mav be admirablv lighted and fitted with every means that science or experience can suggest for its perfect heating and ventilation, and yet be badly planned. The point now referred to is that of the adaptation of the plan to the organisation of the school, and how far it assists to make the working of it efficient, easy, and economical ; how much the wear and tear is reduced for the Head Master or Mistress; how much time is saved or wasted, in classes changing their rooms, for the Principal i68 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOLS. in yoino- his rounds ; to what extent or with how httle trouble can he know or find out what is going on in any particular place, or supervise the school during general movements ; how many extra masters or mistresses are required on duty during recreation, or in the cloak-rooms during the assembling or dismissal of the school ; whether elaborate sets of staircase or corridor rules are necessary to avoid disturbance or crushing, fruitful opportunities for which are provided by ill-designed corners, awkwardly situated doors, or narrow and dark places. The ideal plan arranges matters in such a way that all parts are so well lit and so easily supervised that there is no excuse for disorder, and no need for rules. The cost of maintenance too will be materially increased or decreased according to the compactness and suitability of the plan or the reverse, but the chief importance of careful arrangement in this connection is rather to help the Head Master or Mistress in providing for the effectual discipline of the school. If the school is small, or if the Headmaster spends all his time at work in his own class-room teaching, or coaching a few brilliant boys in the top form, regardless of what is eoinof on in the rest of the school, it is not of much use to take careful precautions to provide for easy supervision, or facilities for inspection, &c. This state of things, however, is becoming exceptional, and according to the custom prevailing now, it is usual for the Head Master or Mistress to do little or no regular teaching themselves, but to devote all their time to directing and supervising the work of the whole school ; though perhaps taking every form some time or other to make sure that the work is going on properly. In the Continental Schools it is and has for a long- time been quite exceptional to find the Headmaster teaching at all. It is significant of this that his title is not Headmaster but " Director." Not only has the Head Master or Mistress to keep an eye on and be responsible for the general discipline of the school during out-of-school hours, but it is very necessary that there should be some means whereby information can be easily obtained as to how matters are going on during school hours in the different class-rooms, either that an eye may be kept upon a new and untried assistant, or to see generally what is being done. This should be possible without causing disturbance to the class by entering the room. A common practice is to have the upper panels of the doors of clear glass, and while this is still strongly objected to in many schools, it is now frequently found, and undoubtedly has many advantages. But even without this, in the cases of PLANS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF SCHOOLS. 169 schools i)laiiiutl with a central hall, a Headmaster standing in the hall can as o o X u C/3 3 O X H O o 176 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOLS. a corridor or passage in the building, and the Headmaster when in the central hall has command of the door to every room in the building except his own. The school is heated by open fires, supplemented in the hall by hot-water apparatus. A Boyle outlet ventilator is fixed in each class- room. The ofiices stand away from the building in the playground. It will be noticed that there is no provision for cloak- room accommodation, or of hand basins for the boys. A certain number who live in the boarding- house * in connection with the school, and situated close by, do not of course require anything of the kind ; but as these do not number more than 60, it would seem as though some accommodation should be pro\-ided for the larger proportion of the school. The Bedford Graui- inai' School. — This build- ing is arranged on a some- what similar plan to the foregoing example, but on a much larger scale. It will be seen on referring to the plans (Fig. 72) that the building consists of thirty class-rooms, every one of which has direct access into the hall, round which they are arranged. The class-rooms are of two sizes, the larger ones capable of accommodating" 40 jDupils, the smaller about 30, allowing 16 sq. ft. per pupil. SECOND FLOOR PLAN 5 1 Ul U4 Li ui u SCALEofFEET 68. CoLET House School. * Described and illustrated /^j-/, see page 253. o o X u < Q ci O t. a w eq w S •<^ '^ ■^ i^ l-:XAMrLES OF SECONDARY DAY SCHOOLS. 177 /O S O &mum fiooH pifi/f it 90 ftf so *w • 7w ro ?• The 70-72. The Bedford Grammar School. Harpiir Trust. E. C. Robins, Architect. M 178 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOLS. In addition to the studio, there are sixteen of the larger class- rooms for 40, and thirteen of the smaller for 20, the actual seating- accommodation being 1,030; but of course it would be quite impossible to work the school with anything like this number.* There are in the school at the present time about 800 boys, which is probably quite as many as could be conveniently managed in the building. It will be seen on reference to the plan that though all the class-rooms have a direct access into the hall, it is at the same time possible for the entire school to get out if the doors of the hall were locked and without passing through other class-rooms, except in the case of the rooms at the north-west and north-east corners of the building. This gives great power of quickly emptying the building in case of necessity. The three floors are as far as possible arranged to correspond with the three departments of the school, the older boys being on the bottom and the Junior Department on the top floor. The three tiers of class-rooms correspond exactly, having the same numbers on each floor, while the particular floor is denoted by a letter. Thus any boy can at once tell where his class-room is or find any particular one without hesitation. The large galleries on each floor are used when the school assembles in the hall, as far as their capacity will allow, to accommodate the boys from the floor to which they belong. This saves a great deal of unnecessary movement, and as the entire school assembles twice a day in the great hall for prayers, every gain in speed of movement and economy of time becomes of great importance. The staircases are well placed at each end of the l^uilding, and doubled as far as the first floor, discharging, as has been mentioned already.t into a corridor 8 ft. 'wide, increased opposite the stairs by a large bay window, which provides a convenient backwater or waiting place when two lots of boys meet. The boys' entrance is at the east end of the building, the door of which, however, faces north. It was found in cold weather with a north-east or north wind, that very strong and unpleasant draughts were caused while the doors were open, in the hall and up the stairs. In order to obviate this, Dr Philpotts, by doing away with a small extra la\-atory for the use of the assistant masters — — there being besides sufficient accommodation for them near their connnon room — was able to make an extra entrance on the south side, so that in certain winds the doors on the north are closed, and those * See page 59. t See page 72. ZECOND noDR Pl/fr/. OROVm FLOOR PLfl/Y The Girls' Public Day School Company. 73-77- HIGH SCHOOL FO THIRD FLOOR Pim Interior of Hall. l;irls, streatham hill. y. Osborne SniU/i, A r (hi tec t. Between pp. \J?, and ijt). EXAMPLES OF SECONDARY DAY SCHOOLS. 179 on the south used instead.* This alternative arrangement might well be borne in mind when planning a new building. Every class-room has a ventilating grate in addition to the warming apparatus — Boyd's Hygiastic stoves being in use in the class-rooms — hopper ventilators over the doors and a fresh air inlet to every class- room, the air for all of which is taken from the south side of the building. The Headmaster spoke warmly in favour of the general scheme and arrangement of the building. Standing on the platform at the end of the great hall, practically the entire school is under his eye, the building is extraordinarily compact, and any point in it can be reached in a few minutes. The other rooms necessary to a school, such as physical and chemical laboratories, &c., are in a separate building ; and as it is to a g-reat extent a Boarding School — those who are not boarders live close by in the town or are attached to a boarding house — there is no need for any provision for cloak-rooms, lockers, dining- rooms, &c. Streatham Hill High School. — This school for girls, the property of the Girls' Public Day School Company, is in its general scheme similar to the two foregoing buildings, but the difference in detail is considerable. In the first place will be noticed the large space devoted to cloak-room accommodation, due to the fact that it is a Girls' School. For the same reason it is necessary to have all the offices inside the building. While the class-rooms are grouped round the hall, there is only one on each floor that actually opens into it. The object of this is to keep the hall as quiet as possible. The class-rooms are all arranged on the south-west side of the hall, while the studio is provided with a north light. In order to increase the accommoda- tion in the hall for prize-givings and other functions, the studio is so arranged with a sliding partition (see Fig. ']'^ that a number of people can be seated there with a view into the hall. Additional class- room accommodation has recently been added at the south-east corner, where the pro\'ision made for the purpose is shown on the plan, and the school now takes nearly 300 pupils. An interior view of the hall is shown in Fig. ']']. The High School Blackburn. — Figs. 78, 79, 80 show the original design for this school ; the building itself was not carried out at once in this form. These plans provide very complete accommodation for a school of about 400 girls. A covered playground and gymnasium are placed in the basement, on this floor is also placed the Kindergarten, * This is not shown on the plan, but the position of the lavatory can be seen. i8o SECONDARY DAY SCHOOLS. OC o d K I § o a •J. u < o o K u CO a o o CO V I to i 5; H^^ "Si ;x3j T-^^ — Ba se. WENT Puan. - 0-,./ g„J IQ -yp .7f) ^ ^n fifl Si-84. THE DEWSBUI "F'f^^T Trloop^^ *'pLnt^ Scale GRAMMAR SCHOOL. 1 5 20 30 10 50 SO 9 lOp T. Lane Fox. Arthiicct, Ucticcen pp. iSo and iSi. ^ h N o •J u b m X in 6 o o a o 1^ I" c3 a/iss Mo/1 8S-90. Aske's School for (}irls, Hatcham. Stock, Paoe, ^ Stock, Architects. EXAMPLES OF SECONDARY DAY SCHOOLS. 183 opening tlirectly into the garden witli separate cloak-rooms, &c. The hall is placed in the centre of the building with rooms on four sides lit by windows over the class-rooms upon either side. The Deiuslniry Grammar School. — In Figs. 81-84 are shown the plans and perspective of a conveniently planned and well-arranged school to take some 250 pupils, girls and boys. In the basement are found dr\ing and cloak rooms for both girls and boys, with a separate staircase for each, as well as a large dining-room, gym- nasium, and workshops. The large central hall, repeated on two floors, gives direct access into all the class-rooms on three sides, being lit itself from the fourth. A staircase is provided at each end of the building. The High School for (7ii-ls, Sheffield. — This school, also the pro- perty of the same Company, again shows a somewhat similar example to the last. By means of corridor down the side of the hall there are no class-rooms opening directly out of it, though they are all easily accessible. In this building there is a covered plavground in the basement, in addition to the cloak-rooms, dining-room, kitchen, and offices. The sanitary arrangements are placed on two floors, and while easily accessible, are shut off from the building b)- an intercepting lobby. The rest of the arrangement of the building can be easily seen from the plan. This school has been opened some time, and has been found extremely convenient and well adapted for its purpose. The chief feature is the corridor which serves to cut the hall off from the class-rooms so that it can be used for the purpose of drilling, singing lessons, &c., without interfering with the work going on in the class-rooms. There are about 350 pupils in the school. Ashe's School for Girls, Hatcham. — In Figs. 88-90 and 95 is shown a school for girls built by the Haberdashers' Company at Hatcham. While keeping the arrangement of the class-rooms opening off three sides of the hall, the whole of the building is planned on a consider- ably larger scale as regards space than the foregoing examples. The dining-hall is the same size as the hall above, while the large covered playground is found a great boon. The music gallery with the nine practising rooms is worthv of notice. The school is well lit, Miss Conolly, the Headmistress, who had a considerable share in the arrangement and planning of the school, not only insisting on an ample supply of windows, but that the sills should be kept low, down to about 2 ft. 6 in., which, although it gives the rooms an attractive and cheerful appearance, should, I think, be regarded as 1 84 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOLS. rifiiT /-Loon nm N£iT t/m i£ie,w riooK. imum nm nm 91-94. Aske'.s School for Girls, Acton. Stock, Page, 6^ Slock, Archilccts. k ^ 3o ^ X u H o o o X u in f5 ^4)tr>-0^lS^. ■.-^^'ii._... exa:\ii'lks of secondary day schools. I8: rather too low to be quite satisfactory in a school building,* but at all events they are a most pleasant and excellent change from the old fashion of having the sills 5 ft. from the floor. Askes School/or (i/r/s, Ac/on (Figs. 91-94). — This plan shows a development of the preceding arrangement, making a commodious and well-arranged school. The class-rooms are arranged on the three sides of the central hall, opening directly into the hall, but with doors so arranged that it is possible to pass from one to the other without going 96. The Coborn School for Girls, Bow Roah, E. G. Elkingfo?!, Architect. into the hall. On the ground tloor are placed the cloak-rooms, dining- hall, and kitchen ; the Kindergarten, with separate cloak-room and offices ; form class-rooms, and the Headmistress's room, staff-room, &c. On the first fioor the remaining six class-rooms, laboratory, studio, and lecture-room. There is a covered playground [)rovided as well as a gymnasium. The Coborn School for Girls (Figs. 96-98). — In this school, recently See page iii. 5c^u.,'L. Ground Tloor Plan 10 JO JO « ^ r„t 97, 98. The Coborn School for Girls, Bow Road, E. Stepney and B010 Foundation Schools. G. Elkington, Architect. EXAMPLES OF SECONDARY DAY SCHOOLS. 187 erected in the Bow Road, E., the basement is occupied by a large cloak-room, the dining-room, and kitchens ; two class-rooms being placed at the south-east end. The entrance to the school for the pupils a^w- iftii v.- vf V .J ^^^i *. -*=- -' N. 4:; ^=r^»-S53- ■ 99. The Hulme Gram.mar School. /. ir. Frith, Architect. leads directly to the cloak-room, a different staircase oiving access to the school. On the sfround floor, the class-rooms on one side are so arranged that they can, if necessary, be thrown into the hall. On the first floor the access to the class-rooms is arranged bv means of a. ^fl*-6nr,&nce &o*»U t>f Yt^ 100. The Hulme Gramm.vr School. Plan. gallery running round all four sides of the hall ; this is of considerable depth at the end opposite the platform, so that considerable seating accommodation is gained. It will be noticed that in one or two class- i88 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOLS. rooms there are windows placed behind the teacher, which cannot be considered a desirable arrangement. Hjiliue Grammar School. — Figs. 99 and 100 show the ground plan of a large Grammar School for boys and girls. By means of an arcaded corridor running round three sides of the hall there are thirteen class-rooms so arranged that the entrances to all of them are com- manded from the assembly hall. It will be noticed what a large proportion the window space has to the wall space, the latter being reduced to merely narrow piers between the windows. 1 01. HViMER's College, Hull. Bottcrill, Sou, &= Bilson, Archilccis. Hymer's College, Hull. — The plans of this building are shown in Figs. 102 and 103, with a photograph of the exterior (Fig. loi). The class-rooms are arranged on three sides of the hall, an arcaded passage being provided for communication. The Headmaster's room, offices, and assistant masters' room are arranged on the entrance front. This part ot the building is only carried up one floor, so that the windows for lighting the hall can be placed over it. Lockers are placed in the corridors at each end of the hall. Eiyht class-rooms are arranged on each Boor, EXAMPLES OF SECONDARY DAY SCHOOLS. 189 TTroT 77<^^r PA7/7 Grrapd P/c/^ 102, 103. Hymkk's College, Hull. Bo/ierill, Sou, &^ Bilsoit, Architects. 190 SKCOXDARV DAY SCHOOLS. 20 JO *0 SO 60 £ff fo ^00 scHLE , or rein. 104-106. Wimbledon High School for Girls. Tlic Girls' Public Day School Company. J. Osbonie Smitli, Arcliitcct. but only one staircase is pro\'idecl, which seems hardly sufficient for a school of this size. It will be noticed that all the class-rooms are well lit, and of considerable size. The Wimbledon High 5r//£7o/(Figs. 104-106). — All the previous examples are schools in which the class-rooms are placed on three sides of the central hall. The next example shows the arrangement of a building with rooms on the four sides of a hall, lit from the top. This school is an interesting example of economical planning, there being no corridors and no wasted space, while room has been found ior a covered playground and ample cloak-room accommoda- tion in the basement. On the ground floor the studio can be thrown into the hall when additional space is required, access to the class-rooms on the first floor being provided for by means of a gallery. Though a certain amount of disturbance is caused in the class-rooms by a plan of this kind when- ever anything of a noisy nature is going on in the hall, the ease of super- vision and compactness EXAMPLES OF SECONDARY DAY SCHOOLS. 191 of the building- are highly spoken of, and from an economical point of view the superiority is marked. Stamford Hill (Fig. 107). — This shows another example of a hall CRWHO Pirn 20 30 ' I - 107. The Stamford Hill High School, showing Additions. IV. Campbell Jones, Architeet. with rooms opening off it on all sides. As originally built there were class-rooms on one side only, but a recent addition carried them all round, a gymnasium being also arranged at one end. 192 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOLS. The City of London School (Figs. loS-iii). — All the previous examples are various types of the central hall system. It is now pro- posed to give some examples of schools in which the hall is treated as a separate room, with no connection with the class-rooms. The best known if not the best example of this type of jalan is that of the City of London .School. The architects were selected by a competition in which fifty-three took part. The essential feature of the plan consists of a long corridor with class-rooms opening off it on two sides, the hall being situated at one end. The administrative rooms, library, Headmaster's room, &c., are arranged on the ground floor, above them beino- the great hall running through two stories. Underneath on the basement level is placed a covered playground on a le\-el with the playground, in which are placed the offices, fives court, and gymnasium. The basement floor is taken up with the dining-room and e.xtensive cloak-rooms, through which the pupils gain admittance into the build- ine. The class-rooms, of which there are twentv, are all of one size, viz., 24 ft. by 22 ft., and are intended to take 40 boys as a maximum number. Their height is 14 ft. 6 in. These rooms are heated by ventilating grates (Boyd's) in addition to two Tobin's tubes, while the extract ventilation is provided for by means of a horizontal air passage 3 ft. deep, formed along the top of the corridors, the ceilings of which are thus lower than those of the class-rooms by that amount. These are connected with a tall upcast shaft from the furnace in the base- ment. Each class-room has two openings into the duct. On the top floor ample facilities for science teaching" are supplied, including a large lecture-room. The kitchen is also placed on this floor with a lift down to the dining-room, which is placed in the basement. There are two staircases in addition to the principal stair which leads to the great hall. A useful feature and one worthy of notice is the provision of two turret staircases leading to the dais at the end of the hall, one leading from the committee-room and one from the sixth form library, a most convenient arrangement when any function is taking place in the hall. The hall itself measures 100 by 45 ft. St Paul' s. West Kensington. — As another example of a large Day School for boys there is illustrated in Figs. 112-114, St Paul's School, West Kensington. This building is also arranged on the principle of a long corridor with the rooms opening off it. In this, on the ground and first floor are arranged the bo)'s' lockers, each boy in the school having one fitted with lock and key. The great hall, measuring a little over So ft. in length by 43 ft. in breadth, is situated on the ground floor. This hall has been found to be hardly large enough for the size of the school. ;.i L •4 UPPER PART OF LECTURE MALL -^ Vj-^^—'Ti i i: ■ ■ . ■ 108 III. THE CITY 01' LONDON SCHOOL. BtlU'cen pp. 193 aitit 193. Vitvii ^r" Emaituil, Afihihiits. flWhi ]-:XAMPLi;S OF SECONDARY DAY SCHOOLS. 193 The class-rooms, of which there are twenty-two, were originally designed to hold 40 boys, but as has been alreatly mentioned, the school is very highly staffed, and few forms reach as large a size as 20 pupils. The lop lli)or is de\ot('d to science teaching, and to the dining-room, kitchens, &c. The chemical laboratory is a very fine room, and can accommodate, if necessary, about 50 pupils at work on practical chemistry at the same time, while near to it is a very large lecture- room. The dining-room ami kitchen are particularly worth notice for the convenience of their arrangement. The plan of this school is rather suggestive of the arrangement of a German Gymnasium, and would probably serve better for a school 4. 4^ ,m. 53 : vsa^ p m n %i?%V ^t ^ 1 1 r .1 1 ■ f 1 I V M ^M -:m~^^:^'^3^^M{m^m' II 33 li ■NKWSniOULiDi'. r.lA-' I'. •"ML. n 115. Thk Mercers' School for Eovs, Holborn. T//e Meirers' Company. T. Chatfii:ld Clarke ^ Son, Architects. ■organised on Continental lines than for an English School, where it is ■customary to collect the school once or twice every day in the central hall. The class-rooms are placed on one side only of the corridor, so that it is a long w^ay from the farther rooms to the great hall, the ■entrance to which is also rather cramped for the rapid movement of large numbers. The class-rooms are large and excellently lit. The Mercers School for Boys, Holborn (Figs. 11 5- 11 8). — This school, formerly situated at College Hill, was in 1892 removed to its present site in Barnard's Inn. It is an interesting example of a school ])lanned on an awkward site. The old Inn Hall has been retained to -serve the purpose of a school dining-hall, the kitchens having been 194 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOLS. GROUND FLOOR PLAN SCAU ? . -^f ^° eo so mr, 1 1 6- 1 1 8. School for Boys, Barnard's Inn. The Mercers' Company. T. Chatfield Clarke £- Son, Architects. EXAMPLES OF SECOXUARY DAY SCHOOLS. '95 arranged in connection with it. The school itself lies behind this, a room for the Headmaster having been arranged close to the end of the hall, with a door on to the back of the stage. There is a large and handsomely decorateil hall measuring some 70 ft. in length. By utilising a narrow- piece of waste ground down the side of the hall, upon which no building of any height could be placed owing to some old rights of light, the archi- tect was able to provide an arcaded corridor to serve as a passage to the rooms beyond. A locker for each boy is provided, these lockers being placed along the corridors, as in the case of St Paul's School mentioned above. Over the hall are placed three class-rooms on both the first and 119. The High School for Giuls, Nlwcvstle. T/if G/r/s' Public Day School Company. Oliver, Leeson, &^ Woods, Architects. second floor, the remaining rooms being in a block at the end, under which is a covered playground for use in wet weather. The school has accommodation for 300 boys. The block of buildings have been care- fully placed in order to interfere as little as possible with the playground. In the corner is placed a building of three floors. The room on the ground floor could serve as a class-room if required, but is used now for a lunch-room for those boys who bring their own lunch with them, and where they can be supplied with tea and coffee by the caretaker, who has a room ne.xt door. Above this is a well-fitted chemical labora- tory for practical work, the physical laboratory being in the main 196 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOLS. SECOND riOOR PL/IN EROUND PLm 10 Scale ^ 30 CO — 1= iO 70 —I — 100 ^ of Feet 120-122. The High School for Girls, Newcastle. T/ie Girls' Public Day School Company. Oliver, Lccson, £-= Woods, Architects. I I I I N fjoocmcnf Floor IP s io 20 30 *o SO io 70 eo ^0 ^oo hiiil I ' I I I I I I 1 H 5CflLC or '^ rzcT. -for DciL' street ^d Floor JDczzan/nc F/oor.' lAM HIGH SCHOOL. J. A. Chat'cL'in, A re hi led. Between pp. i<)6 tirii/ ig^. t? ■^ t; S O o X u in O I— I I— I pq EXAMPLES OF SECONDARY DAY SCHOOLS. 197 building. On tin.- lop Hoor i.s placed a studio. The class-rooms measure 24 1j\- 23 ft., and as they are not intended to take more than 30 boys, they provide ample room ; they are lit by electric light. High School for Girls, Ah'tvcastle. — -This school (Figs. 1 19-122), recently erected by the Girls' Public Day School Company, shows a school arranged with the dining-room and kitchen upon the top floor. The main bulk of the class-rooms are placed upon either side of a wide corridor on the first Hoor. This is lit from the ends as well as by borrowed light from the class-rooms, and as the doors of the class- rooms are glazed, the Headmistress can easily supervise the work of the school. The cloak-rooms are placed in two divisions for the senior and junior department of the school. This has been found a convenient school in practice, and is very economically arranged. The High School for Girls at Birmingham (Figs. 123-129). — Another example of a school on a restricted site is that of the High School for Girls (Edward W. Foundation) at Birmingham. This is a very completely equipped school, a very liberal allowance in the way of rooms and space having been given. In order to provide enough area, it has been necessary to carry the building to a considerable height. It consists of six floors, one of which, a mezzanine floor, is not used for educational purposes, and is consequently of less height. Owing to the somewhat awkward and very restricted nature of the site, it was not possible to provide any playground. The girls are, however, able to use the large gymnasium belonging to the Boys' School next door at certain times. In the basement, be- sides the living quarters for the caretaker, are the cloak-rooms, la\atories, and offices. The arrangement of these is particularly worthy of notice. There is a staircase down by which the pupils enter the building. When they have taken off their boots and cloaks, they enter the school part of the building by another staircase, so that no dirt is brought into the building. Both the lavatories and the cloak-rooms are spacious, making supervision easy, and avoiding all chance of crushing and confusion. Owing to the shape of the site there has to be a corridor to the entrance. This is carried right through the building, with the rooms opening off it on either side. One staircase is used for ascent and one for descent. Above the ground floor is a mezzanine, in which are placed all the rooms for the accommodation of the staff, as well as the library. Above this on two floors are found the remainder of the class-rooms. There are very complete facilities for science work, the teaching of which is made a considerable feature in the school. On the top floor, in addition to the chemical labora- 198 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOLS. tory, is the dinino--room and kitchen, and the cookery instruction room, which is fitted with an ingeniously arranged demonstration table having a gas stove in the centre. On the top floor is also a large room which is used as a playroom during the intervals, &c. This room, always useful, is in this school almost a necessity, since there is no playground. A feature worthy of notice is the service-room for cleaning purposes on each fioor, with both hot and cold water laid on. Lavatory accommo- dation is also provided on each floor. This again is rendered necessary by the great height of the building. The High School for Girls, Manchester (Figs. 130-133). — This is an interesting example of a school planned on the corridor system. The most noticeable feature in this building is the arrangement of the cloak-rooms. This has already been described, and need not be dis- cussed again here, but it should be pointed out what a ver\' large amount of space is required for this scheme of cloak-rooms. In this particular case these cloak-rooms would, if all thrown into one, make a room measuring 100 by 36 ft. There are large playrooms placed in the basement. These are used for drilling, gymnastics, &c. The equipment for science teaching is on a liberal scale and well arranged. The Jiidd Commercial School {¥\gs. 134, 135). — This school, with class-room accommodation for about 150 boys combined with a house for the Headmaster, is planned so that the hall acts as a disconnection between the masters' rooms and the school, the six class-rooms being grouped at the end of the hall. A changing room is provided. - FIRST FLOOR - , is iO IS 10 5 o GROUND FLOOR - 136, 137. A German School. Realschule. Rcinold Faber, Architect. German Schools. — Figs. 136, 137, show a small and compactly arranged buildinor for a Realschule with seven class-rooms of various i r. o u. « ^ « ° n Uffov iH^uJii /STiT''H!>i XoiouUpyoTiTj z\ ^ V ti o '> 3 O cr o " » " < ^'^ O hi UJ z o < u & M H LJ X -J > < (0 o Q u t*- — £5 i ■72 a! W W a M X o f5 D 2iom-o BbK IClSTCRft I "im^ m'SJ nOOR PLrl/Y 'o JO io to Je (SSHLRLD PimRpUNQ 1 * ■ a Jill ■ I — I J OimC HAL * Bl(, 5CH0BI ROm GRwm nm pun c JO *o '34, 135- THE JUDI) COMMERCIAL SCHOOL, TUNBRUiOE WELLS. /('. Cainphelt Jones, Architect, To fiui- p. jg GERMAN SCHOOLS. 199 capacities from 36 to 50. The ground floor contains the servants' living-rooms, masters' rooms, library, and a laroe gymnasium which also serves for the purjoose of a hall. The first floor is taken up with five class-rooms and a large studio. One of the class-rooms, having a preparation room for e.\pcriinents attached, is used for a lecture-room for natural science. This leaves for school purposes si.\ class-rooms, which is the minimum number for a Realschule, the course of instruction in which extends over six years. A larger school of the same kind is shown in Figs. 1 38- 14 1, which gives the plans of the twelfth, the last and most recently erected of the Berlin Realschulen. The school is very simph" planned, the necessary rooms opening" off a long- corridor. In this example there are sufficient class- rooms to enable any of the forms to be split up into parallel classes. In the Gymnasia there are found a larger number of class-rooms due to the longer course. Fig. 142 gives the plan of a re- cently erected Gymnasium arranged on the principle of two corridors in the form of an L. The accom- modation in this school. Die August iiierschicle, Ft-iedburg, Hesse* is as follows: — Four class-rooms to hold 25 for the preparatory department, nine class-rooms for 25 for the gymna- sial course, six rooms to hold 45 for the Realschule, and three reserve class-rooms. The other rooms comprise a large lecture-room, studio, singing school, museum, and library, conference and common rooms, 138-141. The XII. Realschule, Berlin. * From Die Deutsche Bauzeitiiiig, 31st August 1901. 200 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOLS. &c. The floor space allowed gives lo sq. ft. for the younger pupils, and up to 15 for the older. The school has accommodation for 730 scholars. The Kaiser Willielm's Gymnasium at Aachen (Figs. 143-145) shows another method of arrangement. The ground floor is taken up by three class-rooms for the preparatory school, conference and Head- master's rooms, school servants' living-rooms, and the gymnasium, the 142. Die Augustinerschule (GviMN.asium), Friedbueg, Hesse. rooms for the gymnasial course being placed upon the first and second floor. The school is intended to take 600 pupils. Figs. 146-148 show a combined scheme for an Elementary and Secondary School at Zurich * arranged in two blocks connected by two gymnasiums, between which are placed manual training rooms. A large playground planted with trees separates the two [blocks of * From Neuere Stadtische .SchulhaustT in Zurich, A. Gtiser, 1901. GERMAN SCHOOLS. 201 RESERve CLASS Roon 1=1 1 ' 1 1 1 1 HflLL 1 1 1 r 1 j NflTURRL SCIENCl 1 ROOfI STUD 1 CLASS ROOMS 1 CLRSS ROOM CLASS ROO/1 SECOtiD FLOOR FIRST FLOOR IS. 20 IS. 10 5 P 2.5 50. L-l U U I I /oo I ■ I F££r GROUND FLOOR. 143-145. Kaiskk Wh.hel.m's Gvmn.-\sium .\t .-Xachen. / mwsi 7A/1//I//H nson ^SiiMO /-lOOK rms 7 nfnx n/iN '3 tj5 Q @ -3? vl Q -^ / CLO/fK ^ Af>F/lfi/iTVS At9/f ^ ft/liTEfts tiOOfi . ■© 9 © @ o @ (^^ 146-148. Combined Elementary and Secondary Schools at Zurich. A. Gciser; Architect. AMERICAN SCHOOLS. 203 buildings. A south-east aspect has been obtained for nearly all the class-rooms. American Schools. — Fi^s. 149-152 show the arrangement of the Brighton High School, Boston. The basement is entirely occupied secoftD riooR pi.an T-HIRC FLOOR PLUh MSSniHT Pi AN riRiT FLOo/i PL /in 149-152. The Kkighton High School, Boston, U.S. .A. E. M. Wheelwright, Architect. by the locker rooms and offices for the boys and girls, and a gymnasium for each. The first * and second floors show well the American system * Note the first floor is that which would in this country be called the ground floor. 204 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOLS. of large school-rooms, with smaller rooms for the actual teaching, called recitation rooms. The top floor is devoted to science and art work. The Gr-oton School (Figs. 153-155) shows an American Private School, giving a very full equipment of rooms planned on a lavish scale as regards room. The large school-room, measuring some 80 by 42 ft., has desk accommodation for 152 students. A small number of cloak- rooms are supplied in recesses taken off a wide corridor. FIRST FLOOn pLftN 153. The Groton School, U.S.A. The organisation of American Schools is practically the same for the different grades, the Primary, Grammar, and High Schools all forming part of one course. This approximates more to our modern system of Board Schools than to that of the continually reclassified Secondary School of the present day, so that the comparison between American school buildings and those of this country has been dis- cussed at greater length when dealing with the Elementary Schools of the two countries (see pages 348 et seq.). A:\n-:KiCAN schools. 205 BflSBriEMT PLAN 154. 155- The Gkoton School, U.S.A. 2o6 SECONDARY DAY SCHOOLS. For further examples of Day Schools, see — The figures in large type refer to volumes, the others to pages. The Builder.— ?>?^, 600; 39, 262: 40, 340, 402; 41, 296; 43, 789, 283, 554; 45, 684; 49, 621 ; 50, 370, 672; 53, 345 ; 54,433 ; 56, 318; 57, 64,428; 58, 12 ; 59, 250 : 61, 331 ; 64, 215, 448 : 66, 464, 482 ; 67, 42 ; 68, 185, 331 ; 70, 471 ; 74, 319, 320, 419 ; 75, 316; 77, 40; 78, 266, 634. The Building News. — 38, 10, 190, 340, 598; 40, 202, 264, 328, 360; 43, 683; 44, 750 ; 48, 970 ; 50, 327, 782 ; 51, 1020 ; 52, 44, 474 ; 57, 658 ; 58, 306, 758 ; 61, 106, 511 ; 62,369; 64, 799; 65,69, S39; 66, 325; 69, 11, 557; 71, 663 ; 72, 129, 4S5, 559; 73, 149, 329, 718, 756 : 75, 355, 375, 571 ; 80, 798. The British Architect.— f)'!, 6 ; 54, 273. Girls' Schools. The Builder.— 'i^, 417, 451 ; 40, 773; 41, 388; 42, 578; 44, 810; 46, 606; 71, 140; 7.3, 328; 76, 92; 80, 491. The Building Ne-ws. — 42, 760; 44, 788; 57, 178, 179, 484; 59, 356; 61, 462; 63, 753. 769 ; 64, 685 ; 71, 223 ; 74, 60 ; 79, 323 ; 81, 10. Chapter XI. TRAINING COLLEGES. Training Colleges, Description of — -Model Schools — Accommodation required — Class- rooms for Criticism Lessons — The Maria Grey Training College — Pupil Teachers' Schools — Oftbrd Road School — The Froebel Training Institute, Kensington — German Training Colleges, Features of — List of Accommodation provided — The Training College at Pyritz — American Training Colleges, and Description — Example — School at Salem, INIassachusetts. While Training Colleges might seem to be outside the scope of a book purporting to deal with schools, yet in many ways they partake so much of the character of a school, and in most cases have schools attached, that it has been thought as well to give a brief account of their plan and organisation. The main feature of a Training College is the combination, as it were, of two schools ; there is the accommodation necessary to the students to be provided, and in addition that for the children of the Model or Practising School. The student teachers are themselves undergoing instruction in subjects of the nature of general culture, in addition to the actual study and practice of education, so that well-equipped laboratories for chemistry, physics, and botany must find a place besides the studio, manual training rooms, class-rooms, and lecture rooms of the ordinary type found in Secondary Schools. As a rule Training Colleges are entirely or to a large extent residential, so that very often boarding arrangements must be included. In some cases no provision is made for a Model School, the actual practice in teaching being gained from, schools in the neighbourhood. In other cases accommodation for students is added to an alreadv e.xistine school, and so to form a Training Department. The accommodation, in addition to the residential part of the building, includes separate cloak-rooms, lavatories, &c., for the students and for the pupils of the Model School ; a large class-room for criticism lessons ; and there will be of course as many class-rooms as may be necessarv for the Model School. If there are women teachers in training- 208 TRAINING COLLEGES. 156. A "'Criticism" Class-room. From a School by J. Oshoiiii Smith. a Kindergarten room, &c., will be necessary. The rest of the building, containine the rooms for the instruction and use of the students, will be much like that of a good Secondary School, with perhaps rather more attention paid to the rooms for natural science teaching, and the library. Class-rooms for Criticism Lessons. — In schools or colleges for training teachers it is neces- sary to have at least one room arranged for the purpose of criti- cism lessons. This is arranged with two blocks of desks, at one of which sit the students, i.e., teachers in training, at the other the model class which is to receive the lesson. One of the student teachers, already selec- ted, has to give a lesson to this class, which lesson has of course been previously prepared. At the end of the lesson the model class is dismissed and various students are called upon to criticise the lesson just given. The master then sums up, criticising both the lesson given and the criticisms made. What is required for this purpose is, firstly, that every one, both the class taught and the students looking on, should be able to see the blackboard clearlv. The students should all be able to have a good view of the class taught, to be able to see how tar they are following the lesson, and naturally the master must be able to see everything well. A class- room arranged for the purpose of a criticism lesson is shown in Fig. 156. It is quite admissible in such a room to admit light from the ,.^ _^ Class-room from a German back of the students, as the fact of Training School. their sitting in their own light is not of any importance. They have not to read nor to write, except perhaps for the purpose of making a few notes, and the light coming from behind them lights the class and blackboard well. It is some- times thought desirable that the students watching the lesson should a o u o Z I— « < 3i a s o s ^ C5 ■yoy-j jej i^'Ce/y- CLASS-ROOMS FOR CRITICISM LESSONS. 209 not be placed too much in view of the class; this can be manajred when the number of students is small. Fi^'. 157 shows a class-room from a German Trainino' School. In Figs. 1 58-161 is shown as an e.xample The Mai-ia Grey Trainino College. This is for the instruction of women teachers. There is accommodation in this building for about fifty students and the Model School. It is a Day School, but a hostel for residence in connection with it has recently been opened. The work in the school is divided into three departments — higher, lower, and Kindergarten. 161. The Maria (Ikkv Training College. J. Osborne Smith, Architect. The plan provides separate entrances for pupils of the Model School and tor the students, with separate cloak-room accommodation, which, with the dining-room, library, and kitchen, takes up the basement. On the first floor and other floors are found the class-rooms and the assembly hall. At the top are placed the chemical laboratory, studio, and music-room. The Frocbcl Training Institute, West Kensington (Fig. 162). This consists of a college for the students connected with the school and Kindergarten by means of a covered garden, each part being com- o 2IO TRAINING COLLEGES. plete in itself. The school is arranged with a hall and eight class- rooms, one of which, of considerable size, is divisible by a partition. This serves for the Kindergarten room, and being just opposite the hall, the children can easily go there for their marching games and e.vercises. Pupil Teachers' Schools. — The London School Board have established in various parts certain centres, at which the pupil teachers* practising in the various Elementary Schools attend, in order to receive instruction themselves. Formerly the pupil teachers were taught at certain hours by the head teachers of the school in which they were. It has been found, however, more .satisfactory to have special schools 163, 164. Pupil Te.vchers' Centre, Offord Road, Finseurv. The London School Board. T. J. Bail€_\\ Architect. in which they can be efficiently taught. These schools do not offer any unusual features in their plans or general arrangement, since there is no practice in the art of teaching at the centres, the students being engaged for part of their time every day in school. The form in which these pupil teachers' centres are arranged is practically that of a Secondary Day School on the central hall system. Figs. 1 63 and 1 64 show The Pupil Teachers Centre at O fjord Road, Finsbitry. On the ground and first floor are each four class-rooms, mak- ing together a total accommodation of 320. On the second floor are a For pupil teachers see page 299. n^."^ ■4 ll -^ — 11 II !■ ■■ llll -il — -K^rader Ccirte^ig ond School 162. THE FROEBEL INST Ill ■■ 11 III II II ■■■ MO — Tra\a:\ri & (!h\\e -de. - =1 ITE, WEST KENSINGTON. /. S. Quilter, Aixhilat. Behceen pp. 210 and 211. rUl'IL TEACHERS' SCHOOLS. !II large chemical laboratory, drawing class room and modelling room, a physical laboratory and lecture room. Each sex has a separate stair- [65. Pr.^ctising School, S.\ffron Wai.den. The B>iti':h and Forcii^n School Society . J. Osborne Siin'th, Architect. case arranged at either end of the building. The sanitary conveniences are placed on the roof. Praclisiiig School, Saffron Waldcu. — Figs. 166 and 167 show the 1 1 '■ 1 M 1 - 1 ; -i: ' 1 1 ulnA "ifl* ! 1 ib-4\i«)| HMtXiO n.OOR_ FUW J_ 20 S1 ^,.„_ riRST nCOR PUIH 166, 167. Practising Schooi,, Safi-ron AValden. arrangement of a Practising School attached to a Training College at Saffron Walden. On the "round floor is accommodation for 220 212 TRAINING COLLEGES. infants, arranged in four class-rooms separated from a central hall by movable glass partitions ; these rooms are so arranged that when these partitions are in their places, the mistress in the centre can see what is o-oine on in each room ; when they are folded back, the whole floor becomes practically a large floor. A similar arrangement on the first 165. floor takes 228 girls A view of the e.xterior is shown in Fig. German Training Colleges. — Training Colleges in Germany- occupy a far more important part in the educational system, especially 16S. Traixing College at Pvritz. with regard to teachers for Secondary Schools, than in this country, so that it may be of value to give a brief account of their arrangement. In most respects they are organised in much the same way as those in this country, combininQ- a Colleoe where the students receive instruction in the theory and practice of teaching with a Practising School in which they can put into actual practice what they have learnt, and also themselves continue to work at subjects of general culture. Although most of these institutions are similar in their general organisation and studies pursued, there is a wide difference in the time given to the course, which varies from a two to a si.\ years' course in different ger:\ia.\ training colleges. 213 169, 170. Training Collegk at Pvritz. 214 TRAINING COLLEGES. institutions, and aeain in tlie actual arranoement of studv. As the office of teacher is often closely connected with the Church, so music teaching, especially the use of the organ, plays an important part. In recent times a good deal of time has been given to gymnastic training. The Training Colleges are either residential, or Day Schools, the students living in the neighbourhood, or more often a combination of the two. In Wlirtcmberg, Baden, &c., residential Training Colleges are the more usual. In Prussia, Saxony, and other States it is common to find the combination of day and boarding establishments. The Training" Schools (Seminarschulen), in which the pupils learn both the theory and practice of education, have in most states, Saxony, Wurtemberg, Prussia, &c., a three years' course, in Bavaria only two. The number of students in training is on an average from 75 to 100, so that the classes to have a three years' course would \'ary from 25 to 30, or for collective purposes 50 to 60. Where the numbers are greater, the classes would be split into parallel forms. The Practising or Model Department generally consists of a school of four classes. In addition to this there is attached to many of these institutes a Preparatory School or Proseminar which prepares younger scholars for entry into the Training College. This may be either a separate institute, or be included in the same building as the Seminar. These Preparatory Schools have as a rule three, sometimes four classes. If required by the condition of the neighbourhood in which it is placed, more classes would be added. The following list gives the rooms that are usually provided'": — For the school part of the buildint;: — For the students' trauTing, the class- rooms necessary according to the number of students and of the course. length Studio. Chemical and physical laboratories. Librar}'. One or more rooms for special collective purposes. Rooms for music-teaching. Hall (containing the organ if there is one). For men students, a manual train- ing room. Women students, a room for do- mestic economy training. Director's room. Teachers' common room. Cloak-rooms, lavatories, &c., and recreation room for the students. .Sometimes a guest room for visitors and inspectors is added. For the Practising School, the ne- cessary number of class-rooms (usuall}' four), cloak-rooms, lava- tories, &r. And common to the Training School and Practising School, rooms for the teaching and prac- tice of gymnastics. * Handbuch der .Arcliitektur AMERICAN TRAINING COLLEGES. 215 Gardens and playgrounds. In the case of residential colleges : — Living or work room. Sleeping rooms, lavatories, bath- rooms, and clothes room. Sick rooms, reception rooms, rooms for linen. Dining-rooms, kitchens, &c. Stores, &c., for the boxes and property of the students. Director's private living room, and the necessary accommodation for servants, yards and gardens. This part does not materially differ from the requirements of an ordinar)^ Boarding School. A good e.\ample is the Training College at Pyritz,* given in Figs. 168-170. This building is intended to accommodate 60 residential and 30 day students. The centre block of the building is arranged for school purposes, the living rooms of the Director and the assistant teachers being the two wings, while in the projecting wing at the back is arranged the kitchen, with the dining-room immediately over. The Practising School consists of the usual four class-rooms on the ground floor, where are also the students' class-rooms and the physical laboratory. The first floor, except for the studio, is taken up by the students' day- rooms or work-rooms, while on the top floor are the dormitories and music-rooms. American Training Colleges. — In the Lhiited .States the Training Colleges are called " Normal Schools," and are as a rule State institutions. The fully developed Normal School has class-rooms for Kindergarten, primary and grammar grades, with entrance and toilet rooms distinct from those for the students. For the latter there is an " assembly " or " study room " with single desks and chairs for a maxi- mum of 250 students, and special rooms for instruction in geography, mineralogy, zoology, history, literature, pedagogy, and languages. There are also physical, botanical, and chemical laboratories, and rooms for instruction in drawingf, music, and manual training. In addition a o-ood-sized librarv and g-vmnasium are considered essential features. In Figs. 1 71-174 is shown the State Normal School at Salem, Mass., taken from Mr Wheelwright's ".School Architecture." In the basement, besides the heating and ventilating apparatus, are the toilet and play rooms for the pupils of the Model or Practising School, a large gymnasium and dining-room, a lunch-room and store-room. On the ground floor are toilet and cloak rooms provided with individual lockers for the students of the Normal School, for whom there are two outside entrances. In each wing are the entrances to the Model School, for which nine class-rooms are provided entirely * Handbuch der Architektur, Band I\'. 2l6 TRAINING COLLEGES. distinct from the Normal School. On the first floor is the assembly hall, 60 by 85 ft., with the principal office, reception room, teachers' meeting room, with toilet room, library, supply, recitation, and work rooms. The second floor is chiefly given up to science instruction, and besides the special rooms devoted to the various subjects, there is a lecture-room with the seats arranged in tiers. There are also two rooms for drawing on the north side. The school, as is almost always the case in American Schools, is a Day School. The Model School is some- times found in a separate building. Sometimes a neighbouring school is utilised for the purpose of practice. The American Normal Schools and Training Colleges are built usually on a very liberal scale, and are very fully-equipped and well-arranged buildings. liDOLOCfl puma I"'" I tfCTUOf ffoon 50 difbt'-o CH£nibTR1 3» JJtJJ 9 1 71-174. State Norm.al School, Salem, U.S.A. /. r. Riiiit, Architect. Chapter XII. BOARDING SCHOOLS. Two Classes of Boarding Schools — Preparatory Schools — Questions arising in Boarding Schools — List of the Accommodation of a Large Boarding School — Schools with separate Boarding Houses — Different Ways of dealing with the General Scheme — Quadrangles or Separate Blocks of Building — Objection to the Quadrangular System — The New Buildings for Christ's Hospital, Horsham — Comparative Survey of three of the Designs in the Competition — The Royal Masonic Institution for Boys, Bushey, illustrated and described — School Blocks in a Large School — Kitchens and Offices. Boarding Schools fall practically into two classes. In the first are the schools arranged with a central block, containing" what are generally called the school buildings, with a number of boarding houses grouped round, in which the pupils live. In this form are found most of the old Public Schools. In the second are found the schools which are complete in themselves, containing in one block not only the living-rooms for the pupils, but the necessary rooms for educational purposes as well. They are of course smaller schools. Boarding Schools for girls have, with one or two exceptions, been up to the present arranged on this plan, and usually the Preparatory Schools, of which there are such a large number, and which play so large a part in secondary education in this country. These Preparatory Schools are in most cases separate from and entirely independent of the larger schools for which their pupils are being prepared, and to which they will ultimately go. They are usually Private Schools, owned and managed by the Headmaster, and do not keep their boys beyond the age of fourteen or fifteen. These schools are not only peculiar to this country, but of comparatively recent growth. In the introduc- tion to the sixth volume * of the Special Reports issued by the Board * Preparatory Schools, vol. vi. 2i8 BOARDING SCHOOLS. of Education, it is stated that the first true Preparatory School was probably that founded by Lieutenant Maiden in 1837. The large increase in the number of these schools in recent years and the keen competition has resulted in the building" of very fully and efficiently equipped schools, and since their success is usually judged by the number of pupils who win scholarships at the Public Schools, the teaching has to be kept up to a high standard, but with a strong tendency to cramming and specialisation. Some of the large Secondary Schools have Preparatory Schools attached to them, the boys of the two schools being kept separate. In these cases the boys at the Preparatory Schools get the advantage of the use at certain times of the school gymnasium, swimming baths, &c., which cannot always be supplied by the ordinary Private School, though it is remarkable how very completely some Private .Schools are provided with expensive additions of this kind. The central block of a large Boarding School offers naturally much the same problems in regard to planning as that of a large Day School — that is as far as the educational requirements are considered. It often happens, of course, that a school begins as a Day School, and eventually, by the growth of residential accommodation in con- nection with it, becomes a Boarding School. In other cases a small Boarding School becomes the nucleus of a large one and remaining as the central block of the school, is still distinguished by some particular name, such as the School House. In the case of the rebuilding of a large school on a new site, as for example the recent moving of Christ's Hospital School from London to Horsham, it becomes possible to treat the whole scheme systematically instead of the somewhat haphazard way in which our older schools have grown up. Various arrangements providing for the more economical working of the school then become possible, such as the provision of a central dining-hall and kitchen for the whole school, the supply of heating for all the buildings from one centre, &c. The arrangements of the large Boarding Schools in this country and the accommodation they provide show so great a variety in so many different forms that it is an almost impossible task to find any points where they can in any way be divided into classe.s. There are schools to suit every rank of social life, with fees varying from an inclusive charge of ^30 or ^40 a year up to ^^150 or /200. SCHOOLS WITH SEPARATl'. BOARDING HOUSES. 219 SCHOOLS WITH SEPARATE BOARDING HOUSES. Accommodation. — The question of the e.\tent of the accom- modation that has to he ])ro\ided is not an easy one to deal with, owing to the variety of the different il> £-^ /fii;n-ss Bell, Arc/iitccis. Bctuiecn pp. 222 and 22 SCHOOLS WITH SEPARATl- BOARDING HOUSES. 223 176. Competition Design for Christ's Hospital. Palcy Ssr' Austin, Architcds. nf nTTl 177. Competition Design for Chrisi's Hospital. Carpenter £^ Ingclcnu, ArcJiitecls. /r /^ b ^i\S£^ imfiM^ r^rSAi Mt-!£s. f^ni> antxi — *Hf4W.A.HHH* Aiv^vj r-<'-'^'£f 'w „S^ n>msLD ntsrsfl :'0 top iOO 300 f££T 178. Block Plan of Christ's Hospital, New Buildings at Horsham. Aston Webb lt' Ingress Bell, Architects. 224 BOARDING SCHOOLS. man walking upright. In this are carried all the hot-water and other pipes, wires, &c., so that inspection and repairs can be made easily. The heatine is all done from a station situated at some distance from the school buildings, calorifiers being placed where required. The whole building has been very carefully arranged with everything that can be devised to ensure healthy and sanitary conditions. The second plan shows the design submitted by Messrs Carpenter & Ingelow, which is a remarkable example of the adaptation of quad- rangular system of planning to the needs of a large school. The scheme will be better understood by reference to the larger plan in F'g- 179- The general idea of the arrangement places the boys' boarding" houses on the south and west sides ; on the east, the great hall with its class-rooms, the museum and chapel ; to the north, the dining-halls, kitchens, and offices, behind these being placed the Preparatory School. All the buildings are connected by the main cloister, so that it is possible to get from any one part of the buildings to any other under cover, while the houses being joined to this covered way by a short passage, it is possible to completely cut off any one of the houses if necessary. The boarding houses are arranged in blocks of two, each block accommodating 50 boys. The third design illustrated, that of Messrs Paley & Austin, is not arranged on any exactly symmetrical plan. There is a large court facing- south enclosed on three sides by a cloister, bounded on the east by the chapel, scien'ce schools, and museum ; on the west by the music school and one of the boarding houses. Entering the school through the clock tower, the educational part, i.e., the school hall, class-rooms, and library, lies on the left or east, while to the right is the residential portion, the Preparatory School being placed on the same side, but farther west. The covered cloister, 15 ft. wide round the great court, enables access to be gained to and from all parts of the school buildings under cover. From each of the boarding houses, one of which is illustrated below,* leads a corridor of two fioors to the main buildings, for school servants below, and for the boys above. The question of aspect has been treated rather curiously in this design, for of the six boarding houses three face south, the other three being arranged to face due north, an aspect which, although defended on some grounds for class-rooms, cannot be considered satisfactory for residential houses. The Royal Masonic Institution for Boys, Bushcy. — As a further example of the general scheme of a large plan there is illustrated the * See page 246. 1. Steward's Store. J. Tinware and Turnery. J. Store. 4- Weighing Konm. 5. Servants' H;iU (Men). ". Servants" Hall (Women). 7. W.Cs. ■:'. Kitchen Servants* Hall. 'I. Matron's Dining-room. 1". Mending Room. 11. Knives.. 1 2. Hoots. 13. Uutlcr's Pantry. 14. Still Kuuin. 15. Washing-up Room. rj, Uutlery and Servcry. 17. liread. 18. Larder and Panlrj-. 19. Cold Meat. «o. Raw Meat. 21. Flour. 22. Coals. 23. Hakcry. 24. Scullery. 25. Cook's Silting Room. 26. OfTice. 27. Store. '-■8. Visitors" Room. TT-Tl MOVil KXPLAN.VIION OK FIGURES. 1^ [Tiijiiiij i .'^i QIC "^-kcifej "■""■' nnf; ■ 3 a Explanation of Letters in BOARDINCJ HOUSIiS. L. Workroom. M. Sitidv N. i'antry. O. Dining-room /'. Kitchen. Q. Scnilcry. A'. Larder. .V. Coals. A. D.Ty Rooms. A', ralhrooms. C. Changing Rooms. />. Lavatory. E. Prefect's Study. (,". Offices. n. Store. /. Lift. K. Matrnn's Silting Room. '^ iR Fi ID k rit El B H R D I N C HO U 6 £ S '0 20 *o CO eo ic!} i:o t*o ico lej :jo 179. COMPETITION DESIGN FOR CHRIST'S HOSPITAL. Carpenter &" Ingeloiv, Architects. To face p. 224. 6MD£AI * .^--p^i^^^i-?"^- -Ir [ — •—• f— iJ,, 1 80. THE ROYAL MASONIC IxNSTITU ,4_ "D"'-" N FOR BOYS, BUSHEY. General Plan. Gordon &^ Gun/on, ArchiUcis. Between pp. 224 and zz^. /' SCHOOLS WITH SKPAKATK BOARDING HOUSES. 225 t- Kisciaii met ^Ciifii /!cc/ts L-MT iO/OU. r-m/iii /fix/r e -Juc/KS jiffOie tc^ ^ ? /.V JJ» J^ f!T J/V , iSi. Competition Design for the Roval Masonic School, Bushey. B. C/taiiipiicys, Architect. 1S2. Block Plan of the Royal Masonic School, Bushey. Gordon o-^ Gun ton, Architects. V 226 BOARDING SCHOOLS. plans of this school now in course of erection at Bushey. It offers a somewhat similar problem to the last on a rather smaller scale. The design illustrated in Fig. i8o was selected in a limited competition, and Messrs Gordon & Gunton were instructed to carry out the work. The winning design in this case is based on the system of quadrangles, of which there are two. Round the larger are ranged on the south- west the administrative block ; the dining-hall, kitchen, and offices on the north-east ; while at each corner is placed a double block of resi- dential buildings. The science block is placed on the north-west side. Opposite to this a space has been left where another boarding-house can be erected should it be required at a future time. The smaller (juadrangle leads to the assembly hall and class-rooms. The arrancre- ment of the buildings can be clearly seen in the bird's-eye view shown in Fig. 183. The whole scheme is a gooci ex- ample of compact and ingenious planning, but it may be perhaps per- missible to point out that trom the point of view of health it suffers from dis- advantages mentioned above, inseparable from a building planned sym- 185. The Roedean School, Brighton. Block Plan, metrically round a quad- /. ir. Sill Ipso >!, A nil! tec/. rangle. The placing of the boarding-houses at each angle of the square, as pointed out above, necessarily involves a wrong aspect for a certain number of them, while the compactness of the plan involves the use of a considerable number ot small courts and confined areas. For the purpose of comparison again there is illustrated in Fig. 181, the block plan of a competition design for the same school by Mr Champneys immediately above that of the school as carried out (Fig. i 82). The idea of Mr Champneys' plan is well shown in the bird's-eye view in Fig. 184. In this case the school buildings form a block arranged round an oblong-shaped quadrangle, while the residential portion of the school is detached and arranged in five separate boarding houses, some- what on the lines of the buildings for Christ's Hospital at Horsham. >«^-i5 u X s o o o Pi a a: 1/ v/? \ ^ ... ,„ iH^ V -, '■'■■■ i':^,'' ----^vc i^S)%'^v '■'^\- u X D J" o c u o o a o 2: o w Q o H P W o. S o U ,.'(;'V .,v .•■■:. 'Mm^ 1m t. ■f^'^s*-; '¥m^ "<. SCHOOLS WITH SKl'ARATE BOARDING HOUSES. 227 1S6. The Roedean School. Inner Hall. 1S7. The Roede.\n School. Main Entrance. 228 BOARDING SCHOOLS. These two schools, one just completed, the other in course of erection, will give a good idea of the requirements and arrangements of a large Boarding School for boys. In one case the selected design is based on the quadrangular system ; in the other, the larger, the open or divided plan. The latter plan, for reasons stated above, seems on iSS. The Rokdean School. End of the Hall. the whole the more satisfactory method for a school of any size, and will, if a prophecy be admissible, be probably the form upon which schools of the future will be planned. Tlie Roedean School, Brighton. — This shows an e.xample of a Girls' Boarding School to take 200 girls, arranged in four separate blocks of 189. THE ROEDEAl ®%^!§^5?i^;--i¥ :' -jiiiSf^''^."^ >^^ii:r=^' ■■■- ■:^%r-,^. .ii>-N , ' .4 -*■■-"— ^^■- ^'^itf ^^S ^^— -ra »,#»1» :H00L, BRIGHTON. y. /J'. Simpson, Architect. Between pp. 2 28 and 22Cj. SCHOOLS WITH SEPARATE BOARDING HOUSES. 229 houses. Fig. 185, all connected by one long corridor. The buildings (see bird's-eye view, Fig. 189) form an imposing front looking right over the sea to the south. The site itself is by no means an easy one on which to arrange a large block of buildings, as it slopes rather sharply. The block of .school buildings, hall, class-rooms, &c., form the back of a quadrangle formed by the boarding houses, but which is CORRIDOR '10 ul J »'!■ ^'¥ mOND FLOOR PUN UK Ju t: a» jt? «o >o 190. The Roede.an School, Brighton. Central Block. left open on the south side. This quadrangle, some 480 ft. wide, has a depth of 225 ft. The class-rooms, all measuring 22 ft. by 16 ft. 6 in., are placed on the ground and first floor, looking, with one e.xception, due south. Over them, on the second floor, are the rooms for the staft. These rooms look south and are made, by means of an alcove, to serve as bed and sitting room (see Fig. 190). The main entrance in the centre of the building leads into a handsome vestibule, with a wide flight of FIRST FLOm pim. OROUm mo E>fl5F/1ENT flDOHS 191, 192. The Roedean School, Brighton. Central Block. J. W. Simpson, Architect. SCHOOLS WITH SEl'ARATl'. liOARDIXG IIOL'SES. 231 stairs (see Fig. 187) leadinq- to the corridor which runs from one end of the school to the other, with which the different houses are connected. A second short thi^dit of stairs leads to the hall (see Fig. 186). The hall, panelled with wood, ami with open linilicr ceiling, has a rich and pleasing effect. At the farther end of this is arranged the Music School, so that all noise is effectively cut off from the rest of the school. There are sixteen practising-rooms and four for teaching, a retiring-room being provided for the music professor. One of the boarding houses is illustrated and described below. The building throughout has been treated artisticallv and decorated with great taste, the differences in levels offering opportunities tor architectural effect, of which full advantage has been taken. As mentioned above, the educational require- ments of a Boarding School do not materially differ from those of a Day School, except that the problem of arrangement is rather sim- plified by the lack of cloak- room requirements, and by the method usually adopted of putting the science-rooms and music-rooms in separate blocks. The following examples may, how- ever, be of interest, as showing some methods of combining the school hall with the class- rooms, differing from those in the Day Schools , „ figured above. In Fig. 194 are shown the Christ's Hospital. '=' , , n i 1 Hall and Class-rooms. class-rooms and hall as they are arranged at Paiey ^-^ Austin, Archiiccts. the new buildings for Christ's Hospital at Horsham. They are here arranged in two L-shaped buildings, the shorter arm being connected to the hall. The class-rooms themselves do not actually form part of the building, which of course prevents any possibility of supervision from the hall itself. The Headmaster's room is placed at the end of the corridor in one block, while the prefect's room occupies a similar position in the other. This arrangement will probably prevent any tendency to disorder in 193. Competition Design for 232 BOARDING SCHOOLS. SCHOOLS WITH Si:P.\RATK BOARDIXG HOUSES. 233 the corridor. This separation of the class-rooms from the m;iin block will enable very free ventilation to be obtained. The hall runs north and south, so that the class-rooms face east and west. Fig. 193 shows from Messrs Paley & Austin's competition design for the same building, the hall and class-rooms. They are here grouped in pairs presumably to allow of light being obtained in each case on two sides, while at the same time making it possible to get windows into the hall. It is difficult to altogether 20 SO I I to so 60 10 195. Competition Design for Bedford Grammar School. Hall and Class-rooms. B. Cliaiitpncys, ArcltiUcl. approve of this ingenious plan, as the windows in the end wall will have to be either in the eyes of the teachers or pupils, while the class-rooms are not of a sufficient size to require light from more than one side. Fig. 195 shows another design, by Mr Basil Champneys, taken from a competition design for the Grammar School at Bedford. This is an attempt to place the class-rooms so that they shall open off the central hall, and yet still make it possible to have large windows into the hall. 234 BOARDING SCHOOLS. KITCHENS AND OFFICES. In large schools where the whole school take all their meals in the central hall, the kitchens have naturally to be on a large scale, and are differently arranged to those in a house where not more than 40 or 50 have to be catered for. The connection between the kitchen and the dining-hall is naturally of great importance in order to save waste of time. It is not easy to say exactly what rooms it is essential to supply, but it is hoped that the following list will mention at least those that are necessary. Kitchen. — The main kitchen should of course be of considerable size, well lit and ventilated. As it is usually fitted with steam cooking and roasting ovens round the greater part of the wall space, allowance for the loss of some 3 ft. all round .should be made. For this reason top lighting is an ad\-antage owing to the increase of wall space. The main kitchen at Christ's Hospital, where there are between 800 and 1,000 to be fed daily, measures 50 by 30 ft. That at the Ma.sonic Institute, where about half that number have to be provided for, measures 34 by 22 ft. Sculleries. — The scullery is often divided into two parts, a con- venient plan, as the vegetable cooking as well as washing" is done there. Larders. — Separate larders are usually pro\'ided for cooked and uncooked meat, milk, bread, pastry, and \-egetables, though of course these are sometimes combined ; a cook's store-room and grocery store, china and glass store, coal and wood and knives ; an office for the .steward conveniently placed near the entrance, so that incoming stores can be checked easily ; a weighing bridge so arranged that heavy goods can be easily wheeled upon it for weighing" ; a j^rivate sitting- room for the cook ; a matron's room in connection with the stores for clean and soiled table linen ; a separate dining-room for men servants and women servants, necessary conveniences, &c. ; buttery and pantry ; a large serving-room fitted with apparatus for keeping" plates hot in close connection with the dining-hall. In the kitchen arrangements for the new buildings at Horsham (see Fig. 196) simplicity and directness of access have been held chiefly in view. There is a large servino-room with a door at each end into the kitchen, and also two doors immediately opposite the down landing into the long corridor outside the dining hall. It will be noticed that the doors from the corridor to the servery are arranged each side KITCHENS AND OFFICES. 235 to allow of two streams passing in opposite directions. This arrange- nuMit is necessitated by the custom at the school of detailing a certain number of boys who come from the hall and fetch the dinner. This of course means large numbers continually passing each other. The I 196. Kitchen Block, New Buildings j'or Chrlst's Hospital, Horsh.vm. As/on IVebb &' Ingress Bell, Architects. plan (see Fig. 196) has been well arranged to provide for an easy circulation. A wide corridor is arranged outside the hall from which there are four double doors into the hall. To correspond with these there are four doors into the servery department. Two straight corridors run down each side of the kitchen and sculleries, off which 236 BOARDING SCHOOLS. all the rooms open. By means of this a line of boys can come out of the hall, file through either the hall servery, kitchen, or scullery, and into the hall again by the opposite door, or vice versa. MriDssffas sz/fftmr wnmTRfimM DSF' i^Aim/'/'i ooa -7a SO 9." 197. Kitchen Block. />'. C/iaiiipiitys, Anki/cct. hall Fig. 197 shows a convenient and compact arrangement ot dining- and kitchen, which provides a larger number of rooms but of KITCHENS AND OFFICES. 237 smaller size. It is intended to provide for about 500. This shows the administrative block as well. A large number of the offices are in this exam])le situated in an anne.xe but connected by a covered way. The kitchens and dining-hall of the Royal Masonic Institution can be seen in Fig. iSo. This again is intended to provide for some 500. The kitchen is jjlaced in the centre, and the other rooms and offices grouped round it. In the plans of St Paul's, West Kensington (see Fig. 112), is shown a neat and compact form of kitchens, &c., arranged on the top floor, and intended to supply one meal daily for about 200. Chapter XIII. BOARDING HOUSES. Dormitories or Cubicles, Arguments in favour of each — Cubicles, Size required and .\rrangtnient of — Various Modifications between Cubicles and Open Dormitories — Area of Floor Space required for Sleeping Rooms — Examples of some recent Build- ings — Distance between Beds — Washing Arrangements — Day-rooms, Size, Position, and Aspect — Furniture for — Monitors — Day-rooms in Cierman Schools, Examples — Changing Rooms, Size and Arrangement — Other Rooms required in Boarding Houses — Illustrations and Descriptions of School Boarding houses — New Buildings for Christ's Hospital, Horsham — Messrs Paley & Austin's Competition Plans — Royal Masonic Institution, Bushey. a Competition Design — Boarding House for Cheltenham Ladies' College — Rocdean School, Brighton — Colet House School. The most important question in relation to boarding arrangements is that referring to the dormitories and sleeping arrangements. Dormitories and Cubicles. — It does not come within the province of a book of this sort to discuss the merits of the cubicle system as opposed to that of the open dormitory or that of large rooms with eight or ten beds ; the question is very fully discussed by Dr Clement Dukes in his book " Health at School," and it will be sufficient to .say here that the opinion both of Headmasters and of school doctors is very strongly in favour of the open room or small dormitory on all grounds. In vol. vi. ot the Special Reports of the Board of Education are given the answers of the Headmasters of a number of Private Schools to certain questions on school management, and of 1 08 who replied in reference to cubicles and dormitories, 93 were in favour of the open rooms. It is not improbable that cubicles have come into use chiefly in deference to the wishes of parents, to whom the pri\'acy thereby obtainable for the boys seems to offer many attractions. The system of ha\ing a small room for each boy, or one for two boys, which serves as sleeping, feeding, living, and working rooms, and which measures about 8 or 9 ft. square, though in use in some of our older schools, is one very unlikely to be repeated in a new building. The DORMITORIES AND CUBICLES. 239 necessity of shutting the bed up in a kind uf box arrangement as s(jon as the occupant is up prevents any proper airing of the clothes, and is in every way objectional)le. A common arrangement is to put the younger boys in dormitories, providing cubicles for some of the older pupils. M a J a 1 °fv s°li 1 i 1 98. Cubicles with Double Corridor. 199. Cubicles with Central Corridor. Cubicles. — In providing cubicles, the usual [)lan is to have a long narrow room with windows down both sides, arranged with a passage down the centre, formed by the partitions of the cubicles, and into which they all open. These partitions are usually of wood, and are not as a rule carried up to the ceiling, but arranged to lea\-e an 200. Interior View of a Dormitory, .St Margaret's School, Bushev, showing Recesses at Head of Beds. open space of 4 or 5 ft. abo\-e for the purpose of \-entilation, the upper part of the partition being often provided with some sort of apparatus 01 wire or woodwork, to prevent anv too adventurous spirits climbing about on the top. The size of a single cubicle varies fiom 6 ft. 6 in. 240 BOARDING HOUSES. by 9 ft. to 9 or lo ft. square. In German Boarding Schools when the cubicle system* is found, much the same measurements prevail. Figs. 198 and 199 show two methods of arranging the lines of cubicles and the corridors, the central corridor (Fig. 199) being obviously the more economical in space. There is practically no difference in the amount of actual floor area required for dormitories, whether cubicles are used or not, the same number of square feet of floor space per head having to be provided in either case. As regards the window, the plan usually adopted is to divide a window between two cubicles, as in Fig. 199. Various combinations have been tried in order to combine a certain amount of privacy with the advantages of an open dormitory. For example, as shown in Fig. 200, taken from the Clergy Orphan School at Bushey, a small partitioned-off place for washing, &c., is provided at the head of the bed. This is not an uncommon plan, and one w'hich has been found satisfactory (see for plan of such rooms, Figs. 226 and 234). Two beds placed side by side with a partition between of sufficient height and length to make a complete division enable a considerable gain in distance between the beds to be gained. Area required. — Whether open dormitories or dormitories partitioned oft into cubicles be used, there should be an allowance of not less than 60 sq. ft. of floor space per head. It may be of interest to give the figures of a few dormitories in recently erected buildings : — Leys School, Cambridge . - . - Royal Masonic Institution for Boys, Bushey Clergy Orphan School, Bushey ... New Buildings, Christ's Hospital ... Messrs Austin & Paley's design for New Buildings, Christ's Hospital .... Dr Clement Dukes' model dormitor_\' The distance between the beds is usually from 2 ft. 3 in. to 2 ft. 6 in., the bed itself being 6 by 3 ft., and if possible not less than 5 ft. should be provided between the foot of one bed and that of the bed opposite ; but of course the more space that can be provided the better. Dr Clement Dukes t gives what he considers a model dormitory. The beds are 3 ft. 6 in. apart, with a passage down the centre of the room 11 ft. 6 in. wide in which are placed the basins. The room takes twelve beds, and measuring 46 by 23 ft., * This is usually only in Training Colleges, and even then chiefly for women students, t " Health at School." 62 sq. . ft. 56f )) 66 ,, 7- )i 6S n 88 AREA REQUIRED. 241 allows 88 sq. ft. per head, an amount considerably in excess of that generally found. In large dormitories it is usual to find at one or both ends a fair-sized cubicle, which is occupied by a monitor or prefect, who is placed there to keep order in the room. This room should have a window or opening giving a good view of the dormitory (see Fig. 205). In close connection with each dormitory or room, but cut off b\- a cross-ventilated lobby, should be placed one or two water- closets, ior night use only. The most convenient plan probably is to have a small spur building in which they can be arranged one over the other for each floor (see Fig. 205). The closet for soiled linen can be well placed in this as well, and it should also be provided with two or three wash-hand basins. The ordinary washing arrangements are placed either in the dormitory itself or in each cubicle, or else, as is without doubt the most satisfactory plan, in a special lav'atory close by. There should of course 201. Cubicles, Lavatories, and Locker Room, from a German School. be a basin for every boy, and a separate peg or shelf for towels, sponges, &c. Fig. 201* shows an example of a German School with cubicles in which all the basins are placed in a central position, the boys' lockers being arranged immediately opposite. For details of lavatory fittings, &c., see chapter on sanitation. Day-rooms. — The day or living room should be a large well-lit room. Its shape is usually long and narrow, due to the fact that it is commonly placed under, and follows the same lines as the dormitory above. This room being the place where the boarders spend nearlv all their out-of-school time, should be comfortable and roomv, placed so as to get plenty of sun. In calculating the area, not less than 20 to 25 sq. ft. per head should be allowed, but of course the larger and * Handbuch der Architektur. Q 242 BOARDING HOUSES. brighter the room the better,* and it is not unusual to find as much as 60 sq. ft. The furniture may consist of tables and benches, or of bo.x desks of which each pupil has one. In the former case a locker has to be supplied for each boy. These are sometimes arranged round the walls of the day-room, but the more satisfactory arrangement is to have a special locker-room. Where there is no dining-room, and the living- room has to serve for meals as well, it is naturally fitted with tables and benches. The plan of fixing them firmly to the floor will save a good many accidents, but it is essential that plenty of space for moving about be provided. In many cases a separate and smaller living-room is provided for the monitors or older boys in the house. In addition to these rooms there are often provided a number of little rooms, generally called studies, measuring about 6 or 8 ft. square. In some schools there is one provided for every boy, but perhaps more usually there are a certain number for the older boys. In German Boarding Schools there are, as a rule, day-rooms or living-rooms e.xactly corre- _JDDDDDDD DDDnDDDf 202. Sleeping and Ijving Room. ■ ■ ^ — ^! ; — ;=r 1 — iLtr-^ 'u. 'u 1 ] •"*■ r u 1 1 1 1 ' "^ r lE^' 203. Two Dormitories .\nd Day-Rooms, with Masters' Room in the Centre, FROM THE JoACHIMSTHAL'sCHEN GymNASIUM, BeRLIN. spending to the sleeping-rooms, and generally arranged close together (see Fig. 202). These living-rooms are mapped out with an almost military precision. Not only is the position of each boy marked out and shown on the plans according to the form he is in, but the e.xact place of everything is shown, down to the waste-paper basket. In the new buildings at Christ's Hospital about 40 sq. ft. is given. CHANGING ROOMS. 243 Fio-. 203, taken from the Handbuch do- Architektur, shows two slccpino-rooms to take 10 or 11 boys, and their corresponding living- rooms. Fig. 204 shows one of the living-rooms in more detail. Each boy, as mcntionetl above, has his allotted seat, and that marked " A " is a special desk for the head boy of the room, who is supposed to be responsible for the discipline. A special desk is often pro\'ided near the window for any boy who is short-sighted. Com- fortable chairs are sometimes provided. But Boarding Schools in Germany are not found to any large extent, and cannot be in any way compared to the position held by Boarding Schools in this country.* Changing Rooms. — In order to obviate the necessity of boys going into the dormitories or bedrooms during' the daytime, dirtying the floors, &c., with their out-of-door boots, it is necessary to supply a room or rooms for the purpose of changing into flannels. These rooms are preferably placed on the ground floor, and in close connection with the lavatories and latrines. Foot-baths in the proportion of one, say, to 1 5 or 20 boys are a useful addition, as are also shower-baths. Plenty of room is necessary, as it usually happens that all the boys are changing at the same time. Every boy of course has to have his place with a double peg for clothes, and a pigeon- hole underneath for football boots, tennis shoes, &c. 204. Living-room from Fig. 199' r-r^, . . r J ^- Head Boy's Place, a', a", a'.". First, 1 niS room requires CarelUl second, and XhW TaWe. n. Desk ntar window 1 ^* J .M .* T .. • .„ ,,.^11 for short-sighted boy. c i-ii. Lockers for each heatmg and ventilation. It is as well boy. d. Basket for Paper, e. waste Basket. that there should be in addition a drying- room for wet clothes. It should not be forgotten in dealing with this room that the money and other valuables which are often left in the clothes while the owners are out playing offer strong temptations with easy opportunities, and that however high the standard of the school, there are sure to be from time to time boys who will avail themselves of them. Making the room visible from several points either by glass partitions or otherwise will generally prevent anything of the kind.f * For an interesting account of German Boarding Schools see " German Higher Schools," by J. E. Russell, pp. 196-212. t See pages 152, 153. 244 EXAMPLES OF As reo-ards size, there should, as mentioned above, be allowed as much as can conveniently be given, but if possible not less than 5 or 6 sq. ft. per head. Other Rooms. — There are of course a certain number of other rooms found in a boardinQ- house, accordino" to the general arrangement of the school, such as the matron's room and linen store-rooms ; a sick room or quiet room for boys with minor ailments not requiring treat- ment at the school infirmary or sanatorium ; rooms for the house master — these sometimes take the form of a complete house of the ordinary kind attached to the boarding house ; sometimes a bedroom and sitting-room is supplied for an assistant master as well. The offices, kitchens, &c., naturally depend on the question of whether the boys get their meals in their boarding houses, or whether they have them together in the central block. The various plans given will give an idea of the different arrangements and modifications of rooms supplied, &c. Examples of Boarding Houses. — Figs. 205 and 206 show the plans of one of the boarding houses for the new buildings for Christ's Hospital at Honsham. These houses are arranged in two halves, the same in all respects, accommodating 50 boys each side in two dormi- tories. In the centre of the building are placed the house master's and matron's rooms ; these are common to the two halves of the house, with ready access to either, but effectually separating the boys' part of the building". Each dormitory takes 24 boys, with a small room at the end for the prefect who has control of the room. At either end of the dormitory, cut off by an intercepting lobby, are the lavatories, each with accommodation for 12 boys, provided with twelve basins, two baths, four urinals, and a W.C. for night use. This arrangement is exactly repeated on two floors. The rooms are warmed and carefully ventilated, and have two staircases. On the ground floor there is the day or living- room, a large cheerful room measuring" 45 by 21 ft., and divided into two parts by an open arch. The boys' lockers are arranged round the walls, two studies being provided at one end for the prefects or monitors. To the north of the passage, but with windows facing east or west according to the half of the house, are placed the changing room, day lavatory, boot-room, bo.x-room, and a room for the caretaker. All the rooms are decorated with a light green paint, and have a most cheerful and attractive appearance. In order to provide against any chance of stagnation in the air enclosed by the projecting wings of the BOARDING HOUSES. 245 fIfliT FLOOR PL/IK. — o u ' u n n a □ — n tj— ilJGG€iT£D UKfflDOR TO OINING HULL I ^ ri D a D □ □ n HI h GKOUND FLOOR PLflU : '3 .-0 3C ^r .^0 205, 206. One of the Boarding Houses, New Buildings, Christ's Hospital, Horsham. Aston IVcbb £-» Ingress Bell, Architects. 246 EXAMPLES OF (GROUND PLAN 207, 208. A Boarding House. Competition Design for Christ's Hospital. Paley £-= Austin, Architects. BOARDING HOUSES. 247 buildings, two large openings ha\e been made right through the centre of the houses, the necessary space being gained by taking off from the height of the passage inside. These boarding houses should be in- spected carefully, as an e-xcellent example of compact and economical planning, in which every inch of space has been taken full advantage of. The convenience and safety of the sanitary arrangements, and the degree of comfort attained, while keeping the building to the simplest possible plan, are especially worthy of notice. I n Figs. 207 and 208 are given the plans for a boarding house as sug- gested by Messrs Paley & Austin in their competition design for the Christ's Hospital building. In this arrangement the dormitories are divided, each taking from ten to fourteen beds, giving 68 sq. ft. per bed, there being a prefect's cubicle provided in the two larger rooms. Each bed has a partition 4 ft. high, running from the head of the bed rather more than half-way down. The lavatories, &c., are arranged in two blocks, each accessible from two dormitories, with a basin to every boy. The day-room is again divided to correspond to the dormitories, and pro- vides more room for each boy than in the preceding example, the chang- ing room again being of considerable size, the plan on the whole being- much less concentrated and less compact than that illustrated above, and also providing" a larger area per head in all the rooms except the dormitories, where it is slightly less. These houses would no doubt be rather more expensive to build than the preceding, but would make comfortable and convenient residences. Royal Masonic Instiiuiion, Bnshey. — Figs. 209 and 2 10 show one of the corner blocks of this school. For the general arrangement see Fig. 180. Each of these blocks contains accommodation for 100 boys, arranged in two divisions of 50. Rooms for two masters are placed in each division. On the ground floor is placed the day-room with two prefects' studies opening into it. A changing room, boot-room, and man's room are also provided. The necessary lockers are arranged on the end walls of the day-rooms. Over this are placed the dormitories, with linen, clothes, and blanket store. Three baths and small lavatory are placed in an annexe close to each dormitory. In Figs. 21 1-2 1 3 is shown a suggested design for a boarding house forming part of a design by Mr Champneys.* This shows a very compactly arranged house. On the ground floor the day-room is divided into two equal halves, with a prefect's study opening off each. The lavatory is placed on the ground floor in connection with the * Competition design for the Bushey School. 248 EXAMPLES OF BOARUIXG HOUSES. 249 chanoino- room. Each dormitory has an annexe for .sanitary arranore- ments, cut off by an intercepting' lobby, providing" three baths for each 25 boys. pnoposro cikh^d m " fcMiil " JO 3 UUUUU \ jfo ^0 so 60 yn ffo ^o -JOO SQe\tc Of TieC 2 1 1-2 1 3. A Bo.\Ri)iNG House from a Competition Design. B. Cltampmys, Architect. Boarding Houses for Girls. — In boarding- houses for girls there is generally a much higher degree of comfort provided. The boarding houses attached to Cheltenham Ladies' College are 2SO BOARDING HOUSES. practically large dwelling-houses, arranged, as it were, with accom- modation for an unusually large family. A large well-furnished drawinsf-room is used as the general sitting-room after the work of the day is over. In the most recent of these houses, erected at the end of last year (1901), there is accommodation for 40 girls. On the ground floor is the dining-room and a large work or preparation room, in connection with which are two smaller rooms which can, if required, be thrown into the larger. On this floor is also a large drawing-room, well furnished as in an ordinary house, where all the inmates collect during the evening. In the basement is arranged a playroom ; next to this is the boot-room, with an ingenious arrangement for boots. The man's boot-cleaning room is placed next door, the dividing" wall being formed of pigeon holes enclosed on either side by cupboard doors, so that by opening one side or the other the pigeon holes are accessible from either room. The girls put their boots into their pigeon holes, the doors are shut, and the boots are then cleaned and put back from the other side. The sleeping arrangements take the form of large rooms, each divided into four cubicles by wooden partitions or in some cases by curtains. These cubicles are of considerable size, measuring some 10 or 1 2 ft. square, and are arranged so that each one has a window. Baths are placed in convenient positions, in the proportion of one to every five girls. On the top floor is placed a sick ward, which can by means of an intercepting lobby be completely isolated from the house. I n Figs. 2 1 4-2 1 6 is shown one of the boarding houses of the Roedean School for Girls, Brighton.* The houses are connected with the main corridor by a passage, on either side of which are placed, close to the entrance, the lavatories, cloak-rooms, and offices. Along this passage are also arranged four studies for elder girls and their sitting-room, and on the side opposite to this the work or preparation room. The dining-room acts as a division between the girls' half of the building and the mistresses' and administrative blocks. On the second and third floors are the bedrooms, each o;irl havino- a small room to herself. The direction of the building" being north and south, it has been possible to arrange that all these rooms face east and west, so that in every case they get the sun during some part of the day. There is a liberal pro- vision of baths, five being placed at the end of a row of fifteen rooms. The plans are somewhat difficult to follow owing to the difference of levels, necessitated by the rapid slope of the ground. * For plans and description of rest of school, see page 228. BOARDING HOUSES FOR GIRLS. o o o X .•*! <^ ^ 252 BOARDING HOUSES. n»3T ■ rLooR. f^M GeoUH 3 r^AN DAbE-MCHT PMh 10 J fO iC JO *Cl JO scfiLC or r£€T 217-219. CoLET House Preparatory School. The Boarding House. IV. H. Spaull, Architect. BOARDING IIOUSKS. 253 As it is more usual in the case of Girls' Schools to have the residential and educational buildings in one block, there will be found more examples of sleeping arrangements for Girls' Schools in the next chapter when dealing with schools in one block. Colet House Preparatory School. — This building (Figs. 217-220) serves as a boarding house for the school illustrated and described above (Figs. 66-68). The house is arranged with dormitories and cubicles, with a certain number of ordinary rooms in addition. A noticeable feature of the building is the large provision for exit in case of emergency, there being four staircases provided to the first floor. "Secgind FlGOQ f^M ■ 220. Colet House School. \V. H. Spaull, Architect. and three to the second and third. The staircases, after consultation with the best authorities, were constructed entirely of oak, as being the best fire-resisting material, since it is not only refractory in catching fire, but does not give way until almost burnt through. In the base- ment is placed the dining-hall, next the kitchen, and approached directly from the boys' entrance through the lavatory. A long room measuring- some 56 by 24 ft., warmed by two fireplaces, and repeated on the four floors, forms the day-room on the ground floor, and dormitories above. A sick wing approached by a separate stair is arranged on the second floor. Chapter XIV. BOARDING SCHOOLS IN ONE BLOCK. Preparatory School, Special Points in reference to — Playgrounds — Class-rooms — Special Rooms — Dormitories — Bedales School — St Margaret's School, Bushey — The Girls' Grammar School, Ashby-de-la-Zouche — New College, Hull — The Knaresborough Grammar School — The Bridlington Grammar School. PREPARATORY SCHOOLS. Where the school is not of sufficient size to entail the provision of separate blocks for residential purposes in addition to the school buildings, the arrangement, while of course involving much the same rooms, is necessarily somewhat modified. As a general rule Private and Preparatory Schools, being of smaller size, are arranged in one block. Although there is not much difference between the general arrangements of the buildings for a Preparatory School and for those which keep their pupils for a complete course of secondary education, it will be well to consider some of the points particularly applicable to Preparatory Schools before passing to the examples and illustrations of smaller Boarding Schools. Private Preparatory Schools. — Private Preparatory Schools are in nearly all cases Boarding Schools, and although in some cases they admit a certain number of day pupils, such an arrangement is usually objected to, owing to the increased chances of infection and for other reasons. The boys usually enter the school soon after passing their ninth year, leaving generally before the age of fourteen, when they go on to the Public School for which they have been preparing. The number of pupils in these schools varies from about 20 to 60 or 70, though there are of course a certain number of a larger size. The keen competition among these schools in this country, and the high fees that they are able to charge if they can show successful results, has resulted in great completeness in equipment and general efficiency, upon which indeed their very existence depends. PREPARATORY SCHOOLS. 255 The playgrounds and playing fields are as a rule very extensive, and comprise in almost every case a football ground and cricket ground, besides a good deal of space for various games, such as rounders, &c. A fairly liberal average in the case of Preparatory Schools would show about an acre to every 10 boys* — that is to say, the ordinary Private School of 50 or 60 boys would have about 5 or 6 acres. Fives courts and lawn tennis courts are usually provided.f A carpenter's shop is a common adjunct, as is not uncommonly a swimming bath. Gardens are sometimes found, but there seems considerable difficulty in arousing much enthusiasm for gardening among boys at school. A sanatorium standing some little way from the school is generally provided. In Preparatory Schools the classes are small, and would as a rule average about 10. While in some small schools one or perhaps two classes will be held in the school-room or common living-room, it is usual now to find a class-room for every form. A convenient size for a class-room in a Preparatory School is found to be iS ft. 6 in. by 16 ft. 6 in., which will allow plenty of room for movement, as it is customary at times to have the class arranged round the master in a semicircle for the purpose of place-taking — a fact which should not be lost sight of in considering the arrangement of the desks ; but it is as well to avoid what are known as "reversible desks," i.e., which can be used either as a writing desk or as a seat with a back. In a room of the size mentioned, where the class does not exceed 10 or 12 pupils, there is plenty of room to provide single or double desks of the best type for writing, and to have a semicircle of forms with backs arranged for the purpose of forming the class round the master. With this addition the remarks on class-rooms for Secondary Schools will apply equally to those in Preparatory Schools.;}; Lockers. — It is necessary to supply a locker or cupboard for every boy, but not necessarily provided with a key. Sometimes these are placed in the school-room, or box desks are provided, or it may be only open shelves. The latter have the merit of making a certain amount of tidiness necessary, nor is it possible for things of a perish- able nature to escape detection, and further it prevents the keeping of live stock in inconvenient places. At the same time it is a great hardship to a boy to have no private place where he can keep his * Special Reports, vol. vi. t For plan of fives and tennis courts, see page 274. X See Chapter VIT. 2S6 BOARDING SCHOOLS IN ONE BLOCK. possessions in a convenient and tolerably secure position. If possible these lockers should be put in the corridors where they can be easily got at without disturbing the school-rooms, unless a special room can be provided for the purpose.* The provision of special rooms, such as a music-room, library, or museum, can hardly be considered necessary, though there should always be if possible a room where quiet reading can be carried on. If a room can be given up for this purpose, it may of course be well to combine with it the library, and also the museum if there is one. Playroom. — In contrast to the room for quiet reading it is as well that there should be a room where at certain times unlimited noise is allowed. There seems a sort of craving in boys, especially young ones, for periods of unrestrained noise. Books on school hygiene tell us that it is necessary, natural, and most beneficial to the lungs. If there is a covered gymnasium, it may well serve for a playroom ; but otherwise some outlet should be provided that will be available in wet weather and times when the playground cannot be used. Dormitories. — -The remarks and examples of dormitories given above (page 238) will apply equally to the case of Preparatory Schools. Cubicles are generally condemned for young boys. The usual plan is to have rooms or small dormitories taking from four to ten beds. Three beds should be regarded as a minimum. f In the sixth volume of the Special Reports issued by the Board of Education, which is devoted to the consideration of Preparatory Schools, are given the answers from 120 Private Preparatory Schools to certain questions asked them. It may be of interest to shortly summarise some of the results. The average numbers in the schools (120 answers) are given as just over 36 ; there is one resident master to every 8 or 9 boys, the classes usually being of that size. Nearly jo per cent, supply a gymnasium, either open or covered ; 27 per cent, show a museum ; 56 per cent, a sana- torium, in a few cases not detached from the school ; 18 per cent, supply a swimming bath, but not always warmed ; 76 per cent, have a carpenter's shop ; ;^J per cent, have fives courts and tennis courts. * In Boarding Schools for older boys lockers or cupboards with a key are always provided. t Special Reports, vol. vi. HiaJALKS SCHOOL. 257 EXAMPLES OF BOARDING SCHOOLS COMPLETE IN ONE BUILDING. Bcc/a/t's School. — This (see 1" i,i4S. 221-224) is a laive Private School lor boys and yirls recently erected near Petersfield in Hampshire. The QRovr/o Floor Plan" O 10 30 30 40 JO ^JcaLa of f^^t 221. Bedales School, Petersfield. E. Prioleau Warren, Architect. school is organised on somewhat novel lines, of which a description has been already given.* Though a Private School, it is not a preparatory one in the sense of sending boys on to the Public Schools, the pupils See page 27. R 258 BOARDING SCHOOLS IN ONE BLOCK. Viasr rLoofz PcMr^ O lO 30 zo *o JO Ji<,u tff-'t 22 2, 223. Beuales School remaining;" in the school until they are ready to go on to College or begin their professional life. The building is the out- come of the co-opera- tion of the Head- master, Mr Badley, with the architect, Mr Prioleau Warren. It has been very care- fully thought out, and shows several features of interest. The main object in its arrange- ment is to ensure that there should be thorough ventilation and a plentiful supply of fresh air and light. With this object the corridor off which the rooms open on the ground and first fioor is open on one side. The school is for boys and girls. They are educated in the same class-rooms, and are mixed together both for meals and re- creation. They sleep in separate buildings, spending the whole day in the main school block. The only in- fluence which this has on the plan is the provision of the girls' cloak-room near the _^ <. fc; EXAMPLES OF BOARDING SCHOOLS IX OXI^: BLOCK. 259 main entrance. The actual school buildings l(irni the- three sides of a quadrangle (see Fit;". 221), round two sides of which runs a cloister formed of red brick vaulting. This has an e.vtremely pleasant and effective appearance. The central quadranq;le is covered for about two-thirds of its length by a glass roof, thus forming a covered playground in wet weather. On the opposite side are two fives courts. The main entrance opens directly into this cloister, leading on the right to the great hall which serves as the living-room of the school as well as for meals. This is a large and lofty room measuring 50 by 27 ft., and is in constant use. The Headmaster's study opens off it. On this side of the quadrangle are found the kitchen and offices, and the Headmaster's private room ; on the other, the room for the assistant masters and the dressing-rooms. There is an unusually liberal allowance of these required, as the whole school use them at the same time, it being one of the rules of the school that every boy changes into flannels after lunch and goes out, wet or fine. In order to provide for the great number of damp clothes that result from this system in wet weather, there is in the corner of each dressing-room a clothes shoot in which each boy places his wet things. The shoots end in the drying-room in the basement, placed immediately below. On the first floor a corridor is carried round above the cloister below, and is open to the air on one side. Off this the class-rooms open. On the floor above are found the dormitories for the boys, arranged to accommodate various numbers from 4 or 5 up to 8 or 10. On each floor the school part is kept separate from the servants' quarters and private part of the house. There is a large carpenter's shop, and over it a room for bookbinding and the studio. Two chemical laboratories, one for chemistry and one for physics, are also provided. A view of the school is shown in Fig. 224. S/ Margarcfs SchooL Bushey (Figs. 225-228). — This is an example of a fair-sized Boarding School for girls. This school has boarding accommodation for about 120 girls and 8 teachers, besides the Head- mistress's rooms, administrative rooms, (S;c. The accommodation pro- vides eight class-rooms, all of which, e.xcept two which are small and more in the nature of division rooms, are on the ground floor, where are found also the necessary reception-rooms, dining-hall, kitchen, and offices, also a recreation room 39 ft. by 24 ft. 9 in. The sleeping-rooms are arranged partly as open dormitories * and partly as cubicles, the largest number of beds in any room being twenty. There are two * See page 239. 26o BOARDING SCHOOLS IN ONE BLOCK. cubicles provided in each of the open dormitories. The amount of super- ficial floor space provided is 66 sq. ft. The cubicles, of which there are forty-four, measure 9 by 7 ft. On each floor and in easy reach of each lot of dormitories are arranged the baths, in the proportion of about one to every seven girls. Beyond these, cut off from the main part of the build- ing by an intercepting lobby, the water-closets are arranged in blocks of four, in the proportion of one to every eight boarders. There is a house- maid's closet in each block. The washing arrangements are placed in the dormitories and cubicles, while for clay use there is a lavatory downstairs giving one basin to every five girls. Ten practising-rooms 225. St Margaret's School for Girls, Bushey. Part of Entrance Front. ^. IVatcrhouse c?' Son, Architects. with pianos are placed on the mezzanine floor over the recreation room, three rooms being supplied for piano teaching, a room of larger size being provided in addition for singing lessons. The top floor, with the exception of the studio and chemical laboratory, is given up to the dormitories. These rooms are so arranged in e\-ery case that windows can be placed both sides, and thorough ventilation assured. The sleeping accommodation for the servants is arranged by a large room di\-ided into small cubicles opening off a special staircase, with the housekeeper's room close to the entrance. 'I he use of the mezzanine floor is worthv of notice. Bv this means. V ^, "C ;^ l!- |J 5 ^ ^ iS,*i ^B - C s ' — , b; > n s 1 ^icIiononlmCC JkiT/mrr > W CO p 2 o o O o D CO V ^ '>2 i ^ ^ f; o EXAMPLES OF BOARIMXG SCHOOLS IN ONE I5L0CK. 261 1 - TirSt floor Tlgn T^tpicslabora ^ . __^<3 rQ e iMal ^:^ , -^^ Binin^Mcitl rl H*^ Ground TloorTlan ■ CO »d 229-231. Dav and Boarding School for Girls, Ashbv-de-la-Zouche. Barrozi'cliffe C^ AU'ock, Architects. 262 EXAMPLES OF while making it possible to give plenty of height to those rooms on the ground floor where it is necessary, such as the dining-hall, recreation rooms, and the class-rooms, lull advantage is taken of the space which is obtained by grouping on this floor all the rooms in which it is not essential that there should be much heioht. E^^S^Iks -J^T-.i^^i^'fi^iSi&^M^M^E 232. New College, Hull. ■ //(?//, Coopc?; Ky-' Davis, Anhilects. The Girls Granintar SchooL As/il>y-dc-ia-Zoiic/ie (¥igs. 229-231). — The next example shows a similar kind of school on a somewhat smaller scale, the residential accommodation only taking 30 to 40 girls, but there are in addition to these a number of day scholars. In this plan the somewhat unusual plan of placing the chemical and physical laboratories 233. New College, Hull. with the lecture-room on the ground floor has been adopted, the cla.ss- rooms being placed on the first floor. The dormitories are fitted with cubicles. New College, Hull. — This building (Figs. 232-235) combines in one BOARDING SCHOOLS L\ ONE BLOCK. 263 234, 235. Nkw College, Hull. Hall, Cooper, c-' Davis, Architects. 264 BOARDING SCHOOLS IX ONE BLOCK. block a master's house and boarding arrangements for some 60 boys in addition to the educational accommodation. The builchng is planned so that the master's part of the house is separated from that of the boys, the kitchen being common to both parts. On the east sicie of the main entrance are placed the assistant masters' room and the boarders' common room, these rooms having a southern aspect. The latter room measures 29 by 17 ft., and is fitted with bookshelves, &c., so arranged that in addition to ser\'ing as a recreation room it can be used for working in during the evening instead of the large schoolroom. To the north of the entrance is the large dining-room. This is intended to pro\-ide room for 100 bo)-s, and has two bay windows overlooking the sea. The large schoolroom measures 52 by 24 ft. It has a fireplace at each end, in addition to which are supplied hot-water radiators. There is a locker-room with a locker for each bo)' with a separate entrance from the pla)'ground. On the first fioor are two dormitories containing seventeen beds, so arranged that one master can overlook both. Two smaller rooms containing nine beds are also so arranged that supervision can be maintained. It will be noticed that the plan of having a small part screened off at the head of each bed described above* has been adopted. Ten cubicles measuring 9 by 10 ft. are also provided. On the top fioor, in addition to the servants' room and a large bo.x-room, there is arranged a completely isolated sick ward, consisting' of a nurse's room, a clay ward and a nieht ward, bath- room and ser\-ice room. The box-room has a lift comino- directly from the entrance hall. A view of the exterior of the building is shown in Fig. 232, the materials being local red brick with stone dressings. The Kuarcsboroiigh Gi-avimar School (Figs. 236, 237). — This plan shows a somewhat curiously shaped building. The sleeping accommoda- tion is entirely arranged in cubicles 7 ft. 6 in. by 6 ft.; two assistant masters' rooms being arranged to command the view of the corridors between the cubicles. On the ground fioor are arranged the class- rooms, chemical laboratories, and a large manual instruction room. The residential house for the master is placed at one end, and is cut oft from the school part of the buildings. Bridliiioto)i Grammar School. — Figs. 238-240 show this school, a compact and well-arranged building, having" accommodation for some 60 to 70 day boys and 25 boarders, as shown on the plan. The building" has, however, been recently added to, so as to complete the original scheme, which makes the hall the central feature of the buildinos. * See page 239. 266 EXAMPLES OF Croanc/ F/oor P/an O 10 20 JO to 30 «» ^o '^ ^ lii n ii Mi l M i h i n I I iMihiillllllllll Illlll llllj 23S, 239. The Briiii.in(;ton ('iRa:iimar School. Bottcrill, Son, &• Ih'lson, Architects. BOARDING SCHOOLS IN ONE BLOCK. 267 This is shown in the exterior {F\ii. 240). The additional buildings comprise further class-room accommodation, with science laboratories and lecture-room. The class-rooms measure 22 by 20 ft., and as it is not intended to have classes of more than 24 at the most, ample floor space is provided. The dormitories are placed over the class- rooms on the first fioor. The basins for washing are not placed in mf Ilk ■' " JT I 1^1? ^.KS 240. The Eridlingion Grammar School. Botterill, Son, •^ Bihon, Architects. the dormitories, but in special lavatories. The grounds of the school comprise some 30 acres. For further examples of Boarding Schools and Preparatory Schools, see — The Builder. — 42, 23, 100, 293, 325 : 67, 25, 59, 100 : 08, 376 ; G9, 314 : 70, 472 ; 74,'2So ; SI, 214. The Building News.— n, 296; 53, 320; .59, 320; G2, 203; 64, 767; 06, 849, SSS : (57, S, 40, 72, 749 ; 7.3, 221, 581 : 70, 672. The British Architect— i'd, 166 ; 50, 200 : 51, 348. Chapter XV. BOARDING SCHOOLS [Continued). Infirmaries and Sanatoria — Amount of Accommodation necessary for Infectious and non-Infectious Illnesses — Sanatoria — Rooms required for, and their Arrangement — Example of — Infirmaries— Arrangement and Example — Provision for Games — Amount of Space to be provided — Cricket Grounds — Table showing Area required for different Games — Fives Courts, Description and Illustration of — Gymnasia — Requirements of, and Size required for Schools of diflerent numbers — Material for Floor — Apparatus required. INFIRMARIES AND SANATORIA. In Boarding Schools, especially those in which the numbers are large, the suitable provision to be made for illness becomes a question of great importance. The cases arising fall generally under three heads — Infectious diseases, accidents and severe illnesses of a non-infectious nature, and slight ailments. All that is required for the last class can be managed by ha\ing in the boarding-houses one or two quiet rooms away from the dormitories and general rooms of the house.* For the other classes it is generally demanded that every school should have two separate buildings — an infirmary for accidents and non-infectious cases, and a sanatorium where cases of infectious diseases can be effectually isolated. This of course entails a double staff, and the maintenance of two establishments, and except in the case of large schools is often found too costly. Dr Clement Dukes t maintains that, provided proper care be taken in the planning, and sufficient precau- tions maintained in its use, that one building can be made to serve the two purposes. But there is no question as to the advantages of having a separate building for infectious cases only. * In the new buildings for Christ's Hospital, Horsham, there is no provision for any sickness in the boarding houses. Any boy who is ailing in any way is sent at once to the infumary close to the school. t " Health at School." 1894. AMOUNT OF ACCOMMODATION NI'.CESSARY. 269 Amount of Accommodation necessary. — This varies slightly accordiny- to the- a^cs of the pupils. The Council of the Medical Officers of Schools Association * gi\'e the following suggestions as to the numbers of beds to be provided. In schools where the average age is over fifteen years, for non-infectious cases 6 to 7 per cent., for in- fectious diseases 20 per cent. This is on the supposition that cases of measles are treated in the sanatorium. If not, 10 per cent, should be deducted. These figures, which make a total of 25 to 27 per cent, of beds to be provided, would mean in the case of a large school a very large outlay and heavy expense in maintenance. In the case of a bad outbreak of infectious disease in a school it is probable that even 20 per cent, would be unequal to the strain, and that some emergency arrangements would have to be made, while for ordinary school life the provision would be far in e.xcess of the requirements. Dr Dukes in his book on School Hygiene, when discussing .sanatoria, reckons that when children are congregated in large numbers there should be provided 20 per cent, where the average age is under thirteen, and 15 per cent, where over thirteen ;t but a less number will be required where the school is split up into separate boarding houses. This number Would include both classes of cases, infectious and ordinary complaints. On the whole it will generally be found that a provision of ten beds for every hundred boarders will, where the school is divided into separate boarding houses, be a sufficient provision. This is the number that has been adopted in some recently erected schools. For the infirmary, where there is no arrangement of sick rooms in the boarding houses, there should be a provision of 5 per cent. It is, however, more usual to have one or two rooms arranged in the houses where trifling ailments can be treated, or isolated if an infectious complaint is suspected. In this case less provision is required in the infirmary. Sanatorium. — The accommodation necessary will comprise, in the Administration Department, medical officer's room, matron's room, kitchen, offices, linen store, servants' rooms and store-rooms, and extra * Treatise on Hygiene and Public Health, Stevenson and Murphy, vol. i., p. 756. 1S92. t Owing to the great increase of sanitary knowledge and methods of protection against infection, a very large proportion of children come to school without having had the usual diseases incident to childhood, so that when an epidemic does break out, it is more likely to spread now than in the old days, where a large proportion of the school would already have had the disease. 270 BOARDING SCHOOLS. 1 Mm f/R$r fioofl /'//f/Y *CB Olhn CllTHti Z3 ^ lU f:n }0-OXZ2-(! 1 1 1 ^ r-^ =^ \ 1 '? f ? '.' 3p 3f t^ sy> 60 rfi <0 ^9 "f > ^^rr 241, 242. A School Sanatorium. B. Champneys, Architect. SANATORIUM. 271 bedrooms in case of additional nurses beiny required. At least two general wards, in case of there being two infectious diseases in the school at the same time ; a certain number of single-bedded isolation rooms ; a convalescent room, and necessary accommodation for the nurses on the staff Bath-rooms and huatories must be arranged in connection with the different wards and rooms — of course effectually isolated. It should be remembered that some arrangement should be made so that a boy leaving the sanatorium to return to the school may be able, after his final disinfecting bath, to get out without entering any part of the building again. Casement windows coming down to the ground in the bath-room can be made to answer this purpose. A disinfecting apparatus should be found in every school sanatorium. A plan of a school sanatorium is shown in Figs. 241 and 242 from a design by Mr Basil Champneys. This is intended for a school of 500. It will accommodate 50 boys In three wards, and five single isolation rooms. Two of the wards contain eighteen beds. This is rather a larger number than Is considered advisable by many authorities. They measure 90 by 22 ft., giving a floor space of 1 10 sq. ft. Each ward is arranged so that It can be Isolated from the rest of the building. Infirmaries. — The school Infirmary need not be placed at any great distance from the rest of the school buildings, provided that it is well out of the noise and bustle. A number of small rooms are required here rather than large wards, in order that there may be ample means of classifying diseases, and keeping separate any boys suffering from contagious diseases such as ringworm. A consulting room must be supplied for the medical officer, so that the boys can come here, when suffering from slight ailments, for advice. A dispensary is usually pro- vided as well. Figs. 243 and 244, of which Mr Champneys is likewise the architect, show a method of arranging a school Infirmary. It has accommodation for 24 patients, arranged in si.\ different wards, taking from two to six beds. It has not been possible to go Into detail as to the construction and fittings of sanatoriums and infirmaries, as this would involve questions which lie far outside a book of this sort, and which properly come under the head of hospital construction. At the same time, as such buildings form so necessary a part of a school, and as school architects are usually called upon to design them, it was considered as well to include plans of each, with a few general remarks. BOARDING SCHOOLS. mRi£i I ^ r TTl /7/?jr riDoA pim 243, 244. A School Infirmary. /). Cliampncys, Architect. BOARDING SCHOOLS. 273 PROVISION FOR GAMES. In estimating' ihu area reciuired tor the site of a school, the extent of the provision that is to be made for games has to be settled. In Boarding- Schools, where the whole of the recreation time of the pupils has to be provided for, a large e.\tent of ground is necessary. In Day Schools it is not possible to put the same pressure upon boys and girls not naturally fond of games, and who prefer to be at home rather than to come back to the school and play. In many schools games are either comj)ulsory by the rules of the school, or practically made so by the boys themselves. In any case there should be ample provision made in the way of space. In a large school there will be the regular playing fields for cricket, football, &c. ; in addition to this there is required a considerable area of playground in and round the school buildings. The amount of space devoted to this should be larger if, as is sometimes the case, the playing fields are some little way off It is hardly possible that any general rule could be made as to the area necessary, it comes practically to as much as can be got, the resources of the school settling the limit, as the cost of keeping a large area in order is considerable. From 15 to 20 acres for every hundred boys will probably supply sufficient room for playing fields for all games, since a large part of the cricket ground is used for football or other games in the winter. There is appended a table giving the measure- ments required for different games. For cricket of course there are no e.xact limits, but for a single ground from 4 to 8 acres will give the limits of a small and a laro-e o-round, but at school the cricket grounds are not divided as a rule into separate grounds. Generally speaking, there are one or more large playing fields, and while one piece, pro- bably in the centre, may be kept sacred for matches and the play of the senior boys, the other games are played all over the ground, the pitches being placed at sufficient distances apart to a\oid, if possible, any chance of danger. T.ABI.E SHOWING Sl'ACE REQUIRED FOR DIFFERENT GAMES. Cricket - - Sclv 8 acres for each 100 bo}-s. Football (Rugb}-)* - 1 10 b\- 75 yds. Football (Association) Ma.xiinum, 200 by 100 yds.; minimum, 100 by 50 yds. Hockey - - 100 by 50 yds. * 'this is the limit size. S 274 BOARDING SCHOOLS. J N-frWfflfflii K 243-247. A Fives Court. From the " Badminton Library. PROVISION' FOR GAMES. 275 Lacrosse Rounders Lawn tennis Croquet Basket ball Badminton Length between goal posts — maximum, 150 yds. ; minimum, lOO yds. Boundaries as arranged. Diameter of circle posts, 25 to 30 \ds. ; ground required, I to 2 acres. With sufficient margin (see Fig. 248), 108 by 56 ft. 30 by 40 yds. 100 by 50 ft. 40 b\- 20 ft. :r -J _ _ _ _ J . o_ Fives Courts. — As fives courts are so common and so e.xcellent an addition to school buildings, and as the form of the court, at least that form of it known as the Eton Court, is a rather complicated building, it has been thought as well to give details of its construction. Figs. 245- 247, reproduced by permission from the " Badminton Library," show the different parts of an Eton Court. ,_ If this form of court is adopted, ' it is essential that it should be , accurately built to conform to ' this, the usual standard. As re- t gards the number of courts that | should be supplied, it will be ' found that if the game is at all l popular, two or three for every hundred boys will be required. The Rugby Fives Court is similar, but with all projections, buttresses, steps, &c., omitted. In many cases a back wall is added. In this case the court will serve equally well for the game known as squash racquets. Fives courts now form a fairly common feature in Girls' Schools, the Rugby form being usually adopted. Fives courts have been added to several schools belonging to the Girls' Public Day School Company, and have proved very popular. It is necessary now to supply hardly less room for play in Girls' Schools than in the case of those for boys, for though football is not played, hockey, which is a popular and widespread game, requires as much space. Cricket, too, is being successfully tried in many schools for girls.* 24S. A L.\wN Tennis Court. * See Special Reports, vol. ii. 276 BOARDING SCHOOLS. GYMNASIA. A gymnasium is usually found in Secondary Boarding Schools, and in most cases in Day Schools ; but it is hardly regarded with the same importance in this country as in Germany, where in every school of whatever grade there is invariably a well-equipped gymnasium. It is undoubtedly of more importance in that country than here, where games, at all events in the Higher Schools, play so important a part. A gymnasium is sometimes placed in the basement in Elementary Schools (see for example Fig. 296, p. 2>37)< ^'^'^ '^^e position is not a very satisfactory one, and is forbidden by the Prussian regulations as to school buildings. German writers strongly recommend a separate one-storied building connected with the school by a covered way. Size required. — There should be plenty of room provided to allow of a considerable amount of movement. An allowance of 20 to 25 sq. ft. per head of the largest number that are likely to be using it at once is not too large an allowance. The following dimensions are given by Hittenkofer* for pupils above the Elementary School age. These measurements are the same as those laid clown by the Prussian regulations in 1870. For 50 - - - - 31 by 51 ft. 6 in. For 75 - - - - 36 by 67 ft. For 100 - - - - 41 ft- 3 in. by 72 ft. These are of course fairly liberal measurements, and in the large town schools in Germany the gymnasia measure from 65 to So ft. in length, and from 30 to 40 ft. in breadth, giving an allowance of 25 to 30 sq. ft. per head. In Wiirtemberg only 20 sq. ft. is required.t It is usual to build gymnasia of one storey only with an open roof, to the timbers of which the appliances can be hung. The Munich building instructions suggest a building with two floors, the lower room being fitted with all usual fixed apparatus, while the upper room of the same size would be kept clear for marching and other exercises. In the large German Schools it is very common to supply a double gymnasium (see Fig. 146) for the two sexes, in order to get the requisite amount of physical training into the ordinary school hours. In such cases it is recommended that the dividing wall should be movable. The fixed apparatus is placed near the walls or grouped in order * I-)er Schulhausbau. t Schulhygiene, Baginsky. gy:\ixasia. 277 to allow as large a space in the middle as possible. In Germany it is sometimes customary to allow a free space 7 or 8 ft. wide all round the room to allow of marching". Some convenience should be arranged either in a small vestibule or otherwise, so that pupils can change into their gymnastic shoes without bringing dust into the building. Changing rooms, lavatories, &.C., ought to be supplied with access from the gymnasium so that those using the building have not to go outside when heated from e.xercise. A common and con- venient plan in large schools is to combine the gymnasium and swimming baths in a separate building (see Fig. 249). A room is required for the gymnastic instructor. The building should of course be warmed, but great care taken to see that the tem- perature does not rise too high. The ventilation should be as free as possible. The material for the floor is of importance. It should be some- thing that will neither wear slippery, or from which dust can be easily kicked off It should not be too hard and solid, but should be to some extent elastic, and should have sufficient resonance to respond to a sharp tap of the foot. If of wood, it must be secure aofainst anv tendency to buth BffDu/ro nooR fim A GVMX.^SIUM AND Swi.M.MING B.VTH. B. Champneys, Architect. 249. come off in splinters. Cement and asphalte ha\e most of the above objections. \\'here expense has not to be considered, an excellent floor can be made of narrow oak boards tongued together, with the joints caulked. Well-laid oak parquet is good, but lacks the resilience of the boards. Where boards are used care should be exercised to see that all the nailing is properly hidden. 278 BOARDING SCHOOLS. One of the most difficult things to provide against is the dust. Of course the better the ventilation, the less it will be felt. In order to prevent the dust accumulating too much, it is recommended that the floor and apparatus should be wiped with a damp cloth daily. The mattresses used for jumping are of course a fruitful source of dust. These ought to be covered with leather on both sides, and frequently beaten in the open air. They should not be dragged about the floor. Cocoa-nut matting especially holds the dust. There are various methods used for quickly laying the dust that has been stirred up, by means of hand instruments that throw a fine spray of liquid. 250. A Gymnasium. Apparatus. — The appliances for which provision has to be made are : — Parallel Bars. — Usually about 9 ft. long and 20 in. apart. They are often made adjustable as to height for school use. For adults they are generally about 4 ft. from the ground. Horizontal Bars. — These are adjustable to heights varying from 3 to 7 ft. from the ground. It is often convenient to have them made so as to be easily movable, small plates being fixed in the floor to which the stays can be fastened. Vaulting Horse with a Spring Board and Mattresses. — Bridge or horizontal ladders suspended 6 or 7 ft. from the floor. Hand rings having a diameter of 5 to 9 in., hung in pairs about 18 in. apart, at a height of 3 ft. 6 in. from the floor. These rings are also used hung singly at a distance of some 5 or 6 ft. down one side of the gymnasium. Swinging trapezes, the height and distance from the floor depending upon the age and attainments of the pupils. There are of course the various appliances for climbing, inclined ladders and ladder planks, ropes both with and without knots. A piece of apparatus generally found in gymnasiums attached to Girls' Schools is the beam. This is a stout piece of wood fixed horizontally between the supports placed some 8 or 10 ft. apart. The horizontal part is made adjustable to height. It is not uncommon to find one of the upright posts for this fixed to the A. Gymnasium. B. Cloak-room. C. Apparatus. Z>. In. structor's Room. £. Offices, G. Entrance, a, a. Running Course. /', (5. Fixed Horizontal Bars. c. Trapeze, t^. Rings, c. Horizontal Ladder. _/. Sloping Ladder. ^. Climbing Poles. GYMNASIA. 2/9 wall while the other is arran^'ed so that it can be easily moved and taken away when not required. In Fig. 250 is shown the plan of a Berlin* gymnasium u])on which the position of the apparatus is marked. An interior view of a gymnasium in a large Girls' School is given in Fig. 251. Schulhygiene, Baginsky. 1S9S. 251. The Gymnasium, Kensington High School. T/ie Gir/s' Public Day School Company. Chapter XVI. ALTERATIONS AND ADDITIONS, ETC. Alterations and Additions to existing Buildings — Conversion of Dwelling-liouses for School Purposes — Questions of Accommodation — Warming and Lighting — Some Notes upon the Cost of Schools — The Care of School Buildings. The question of adding accommodation to an already existing building, or the alteration of some antiquated arrangement in order to conform with modern requirements, is one which is of course continually arising in connection with school work. But while it is one full of interest, and one which offers full scope to all the skill and ingenuity the archi- tect may possess, it is hardly one upon which it is possible to find any definite rules. The additional accommodation required has generally been fully determined by experience. The question to be decided is the most economical and convenient method of getting what is wanted. This is of course so completely dependent upon the buildings already existing, that it seems doubtful whether there would be any real utility in giving examples of such alterations. It need, however, be scarcely pointed out that it is in this sort of work that a knowledge of school routine and work is of great value, since it is often by changing the purposes of some rooms, and by altering the sizes and positions of others, that the additional accommodation is partly gained. The practical effect of such changes can hardly be gauged without a knowledge of the working of the school. The architect has, again, to steer a delicate course between the idea of what is wanted as seen by the principal of the school, and what is regarded as absolutely necessary by the governing body of the school, who have to keep an eye on the financial side of the question, and who may not take quite so optimistic a view of probabilities of increase in numbers. The disadvantages arising from the use as a school of a building originally intended for a dwelling-house are many and obvious. The rooms seldom correspond to the required sizes for the classes, and so involve classification of the forms rather by the capacity of the rooms than bv the attainments of the scholars. The staircases and ALTERATION'S AND AUDITIONS, ETC. 281 passages are as a rule awkward and impossible to su])ervise, and the rooms difficult to ventilate. The use of houses for this purpose is, however, at times a necessary expedient, either as a temporary measure durin;.;' the rebuilding' of a school, or in order to test the advisability of building a school in a particular neighbourhood, if not as a ])ermancnt arranoement. The first (]uestion that arises, after the preliminary j)oint as to whether there are any objections on the part of the landlord or other- wise to carrying on a school in the building- has been settled, is with regard to the number of pupils that can be put into the house. This is by no means an easy matter to calculate. To take the dimensions of the different rooms, and after reckoning the amount of floor area to divide by the number of square feet to be allowed to each pupil, will not give an accurate idea of the number that can be properly placed in each room. First of all, it is unlikely that the lighting will be sufficiently distributed to make it possible to place desks all over the room. The position of the fireplace again makes a considerable difference. If placed, as is usual, in the middle of one wall, a certain amount of space is wasted, unless the position of the windows will allow of the desks being placed to face the fire. Unless the door into the room happens to come near the teacher's end of the room, a wide gangway has to be left for entrance and exit. The possibility of providing sufficient cloak-room and lavatory accommodation is one of the important points in forming an opinion as to the suita- bility of a house for the purpose of a school. This is of especial importance in the case of Girls' Schools, where a large provision of cloak-rooms is necessary.* If the house has a large and fairly high basement, it is usually convenient ti_) provide the cloak-rooms there. Otherwise the difficulty may be got over by scattering the cloak-rooms about the building, utilising dressing or other small rooms unsuitable for any other purpose. The floors of course require careful looking to, as they may not be strong enough to stand the movements of large numbers. The stairs too may have to be strengthened, and care taken to see that the banisters are capable of withstanding the sudden strain of a number leaning on them at once. It is unusual to find any provision for the ventilation or the admission of air in a private house, so that it becomes necessary to put in a number of inlet ventilators such as the Sherringham. Especially is this the case when the open fires are used, for unless * See page 155. 282 ALTERATIONS AND ADDITIONS, ETC. some precautions are taken, there are sure to be complaints of the draught from the door to the fire, from those sitting in a Hne between them. In the case of sash windows the ventilation can of course often be obtained by the use of Hincke Bird's arrangement for obtaining an inlet of air between the sashes (see Fig. 379). In case of rooms with windows coming down to the fioor, such as French casement windows, it will add much to the comfort of the pupils to board up the lower part to a height of 3 ft. or 3 ft. 6 in., not only to prevent the reflections from the floor if that happens to be polished, but to guard against the strong and unpleasant draughts that are sure to arise in cold weather. It will generally be necessary to supply additional warming. The fireplaces, which are quite sufficient for a dwelling-house in which the few people who occupy the room can group themselves round it, are not usually capable of properly warming the farther corners of the room. The larger rooms and those on the north side of the house will in every case have to be provided with some form of additional heating. It will usually be found that this can be most conveniently done by the use of the small pipe medium pressure apparatus. The pipes are small and can be taken almost anywhere, and can be arranged with less damage to the building, an important consideration if reinstatement has to be ultimately undertaken. The installation of the hot-water apparatus, the expense of which is not very great, will enable the cloak-rooms to be kept warm and the clothes dried. Also the hall and passages can be kept up to a fair degree of warmth, and so add very materially to the comfort and pleasantness of the school. The want of good lighting in the rooms is one of the strongest objections to the use of an ordinary dwelling-house as a school, for although the rooms may appear bright and well lit, it will probably be found that when the desks come to be put in, there are certain places in the room where the light is by no means sufficient. If the numbers can be limited so that the desks can all be grouped in the part of the room where the light is good, the objection will not of course be felt. This is not often possible in practice, it being usually found necessary to squeeze desks into every available corner. Unluckily the light can seldom be improved without large and expensive alterations. Verandahs and other obstructions to the light, such as Ijoxes to hold Venetian or sun blinds, should, if not absolutely necessary, be cleared away. The few inches so gained at the top of a window make a great difference in the light. Overhanging branches of trees should if possible be removed. Glass panels in the upper part of doors may assist in lighting corners and passages inside the building, which, ALTERATIONS AND ADDITIONS, ETC. 283 thniinh light enough for an ordinary house, are often too dark for school purposes. It is unusual to find a house with any room of sufficient size to serve as an assembly hall, though it may happen, if the house is a large one, there may be a music-room or ball-room which will answer the purpose. In cases where the house is taken to be used perma- nently as a school, it will probably be found best to build on an assembly hall, in which case it is generally possible to combine with it a few class-rooms, cloak-rooms, and lavatories. Great care has to be exercised in providing a convenient access. This often takes the form of a corridor, since the erection of such a building close to the original house may block too many windows. Such corridors should be well and carefully heated, so that they may, if of sufficient width, say 9 or 10 ft., be made of considerable use, benches for wood- carving, museum cases, &c., being placed in them. In cases where the additional buildings can be added directly to the existing house, it is of considerable importance that there should be a way through made on the upper floor, if the additions consist of more than one floor. Neglect of this precaution involves a long journey when it is necessary to get from the top of one building to the upper floors of the adjoining house. Where structural alterations are undertaken it is worth bearing in mind the possibility of taking away a floor ; for instance, on a bedroom floor, which, having nothing but attics over, is itself too low to be used for school work, by taking out the attic floor and putting a skylight in the roof, an excellent room can sometimes be obtained for a. studio or science room. The removal of the joists cannot, however, always be done with impunity in an old house. It sometimes happens that a house may be found that offers exceptional facilities for conver- sion into a school, and that by fairly extensive and well-planned addi- tions, a commodious and satisfactory school building can be obtained. In one case of this kind in which a Girls' School had been very success- fully adapted from a large private house, the Headmistress maintained that such a building was actually preferable to a specially-built school, on the grounds of its home-like appearance, and the absence of the bareness and monotony so often found in school buildings. This suggestion would, however, be better met by a more careful and artistic treatment of the design of new buildings, a point to which attention has already been drawn,* than by taking and adapting an old house. While there are still many schools carried on in ordinary * See page 53. 284 ALTERATIONS AND ADDITIONS, ETC. dwelling-houses converted to the purpose, it is not a method that is likely to find much favour in the future. The high standards demanded now on questions affecting the health of scholars, will render it necessary that all schools of any size should be carried on in buildings specially constructed and properly fitted for educational work. SOME NOTES UPON THE COST OF SCHOOLS. The regulations ot the Board of Education in reference to school buildings state that no loan can be obtained from the Public Works Loan Commissioners for the purpose of erecting a school unless the total cost of the building scheme, exclusive of site, legal expenses, (S:c., is kept within the sum of ^lo per head of the number to be accommodated. An allowance, however, will be made at the rate of £i per superficial foot for a central hall if not reckoned in the accommodation, and also a further amount of 15s. to 20s. for rooms for special instruction as far as such rooms are authorised by the Code.* It is, however, not easy to keep the cost of a building as low as this. Mr Bailey, f when discussing the cost of the buildings of the London School Board, to which he is architect, points out that every effort is made to keep the cost as low as possible, and that the difference between a building devoid of all architectural features and built of nothing but stock brick with slate roofs, and one in which care had been taken to treat the arrangement with some attention to style and material, was less than 5 per cent. | The example quoted by Mr Bailey was that of the Princess May School, in which case the accepted tender showed a cost of ^13. i8s. 4d. per head. This sum is within the amount allowed by the Board of Education when the various allowances have been added. It does not, however, include the cost of paving the playground, enclosing the site with a wall, &c. Some of the provincial School Boards, however, manage to get their buildings done for very much less. For Instance, a school, illustrated and described page 331, l)uilt by the Manchester School Board, which has two halls of an unusually large size, with the * A further allowance is made for the use of glazed brick for the internal walls, as it saves money in maintenance. t Paper on the Planning and Construction of Board Schools, May 1899. X " The percentage of excess of cost between a school designed with regard to architectural effect and one of purely utilitarian construction is not great. Under ordinary conditions, satisfactory architectural results may be obtained at an increase of not more than 5 per cent, above that of the most 'practical' construction'' ("School Archi- tecture," E. M. Wheelwright, New York, 1901). SOME NOTES UPON Till': COST OF SCHOOLS. 285 Infants' Department in a separate building-, was completed ready for occupation, including all drainage to site, making playground, care- taker's house, and all fittings, for a sum barely over £g a head. A laroe Board School recently built at Norwich with a large hall, and consisting of one storey only, for some 1,800 children, was finished at a cost of ^10. 4s. 2d. per head, exclusive of the cost of the site. The following table shows some recently erected Public Elemen- tary Schools and their cost. The figures given are in all cases e.xclusive of sites, but include all other expenses : — No. Accepted Estimate* Pe. Head. London School Board — *Church Manor, Greenwich 1,548 ;^22,28l £u 8 *\Vickhani Lane, Greenwich 1,548 20,440 13 4 *Stanstead Road - - . - 1,548 21,787 14 I 5 tBurslem School Board, Staffordshire 660 8,200 12 10 tHornsey School Board — The Camps- bourne Schools ----- 1,410 20,467 14 10 3 J Gloucester Board Schools 992 11,548 II 13 § Board School, Chesterfield - 1,236 15,000 12 2 8 Birmingham — Conwav Road School 1,040 18,000 17 6 2 II Wales Board Schools — Glyn, Neath — Central hall, five class-rooms 320 3,479 10 17 6 Church Schools, Wolverhampton - 850 6,000 7 I 2 * Tlie Architecl and Contyact Reporter, 3rd January 1902. t In two blocks — (i) Hall 51 by 36 ft., and si.x class-rooms ; (2) hall 45 by 2S ft., and four class- rooms. The Builder, 19th January 1900. X The Builder, 2Sth September 1901. § There is included a pupil teachers' centre for 36, a swimming bath 75 ft. long, a laundry and cookery centre, two halls 90 by 30 ft., and sixteen class-rooms. The Builder, 15th January 1901. II The Builder, 20th July 1901. In a report recently presented to the Sanitary Institute by Miss A. Ravenhill there are some interesting figures given as to the cost of schools in America, from which it appears that a large City School of five storeys in New York can be built for g^d. per cubic foot. This is not a great difference from those of the London School, which come out from S^d. to 9^d. a cubic foot. In Germany the cost of the large schools in Berlin, with twenty to thirty-six class-rooms, lies between i i and i 2 marks a cubic metre.* In the case of Elementary Schools there is of course far more similarity than in the case of other schools, since all over the * Handbuch der Architektur, vol. vi., part iv., p. 23. 286 ALTERATIONS AND ADDITIONS, ETC. country it is usual to allow the same amount of floor space and much the same number of rooms, so that some comparison can be made. In the case of Higher Schools the differences are naturally very great. A Secondary Day School can, by the exercise of the strictest economy, and by limiting the accommodation to the barest essentials, be built for between ^25 and ^30 a head, while a quite satisfactory building can be secured by spending" from ^45 to ^50. A pupil teachers' centre now in process of erection in the Marylebone division, very much on the lines of that illustrated on page 210, but with the addition of a playroom in the basement, is being carried out by the London School Board at an estimated cost of ;^20,993.* This building consists of eight class- rooms, with an accommodation for 320, which means a cost of about ;^65 a head. This building would make an excellent plan for a Secondary Day School, and it is interesting to compare it with the plan of the Newcastle High School illustrated on page 196, which has about the same accommodation and cost under ;/!^g,ooo. This last was built by a private company, and provides ample accommodation for the number in a handsome building. The High Schools in America, which are large and very elaborate buildings, very fully equipped, and often allowing over 20 sq. ft. per head, cost from ^90 to ^130 per head.+ The cost of Boarding Schools may rise to a very large figure ; anything from ^200 to ^600 a head may be required if many additional buildings are to be supplied, such as swimming baths, gymnasium, &c., and large playing fields, &c. The buildings for Poor Law Schools vary from ^100 to\^20o a head. The Cottage Homes, illustrated and described page 379, were certified by the Local Government Board for 2>37 children, and an outlay of ;/^5 1,000 authorised, or a little over ^150 a head. The London School Board have recently worked out a scheme for dealing with deaf children by building a special residential building. The one projjosed is at Anerley, and will accommodate 60 children in two blocks of semi-detached cottages. The accepted estimate for this is ^19, 000. J This seems rather a large outlay, coming to over ^300 a head, though of course the price must be greater when dealing with small numbers and those of a special class. There is of course considerable economy both in the initial cost and in the working of a school in which the numbers are large. For * The Architect, 3rd January 1902. t The Teaching of Hygiene, U.S.A., Miss Ravenhill. \ The Architect, 3rd January 1902. ox THE CARE OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS. 287 this reason mixed schools are usually more efficient in small centres of population. The question of the best way in which the expense of building; can be kept down has already been considered when discussing the accommodation required.* ON THE CARE OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS. The actual care of the buildint;" and its supervision lie of course more immediately in the hands of the school-keeper, so that a few remarks upon his duties may not be out of place. The smooth working of the apparatus of the school and the comfort or the reverse of the inmates are to a large extent at the mercy of the school-keeper, who by ignorance or carelessness can completely upset the most carefully devised ventilating or warming apparatus. In the case of very large schools it is usual and indeed necessary to have a properly trained man in charge of the apparatus. In smaller schools this is not possible, but given a man of ordinary intelligence, the mysteries of the heating apparatus can be soon mastered. It is worth noting that unless a competent man be employed, it will probably be found that the extra expense caused by waste of fuel, injury to apparatus, and continual small repairs would make it cheaper in the long run to give a higher salary to obtain a better man. The school- keeper should be able to remedy small accidents himself, such as broken window panes, &c., and have sufficient knowledge of gas and electric light fittings to be able to keep them in good order. All the class-rooms, cloak-rooms, halls, &c., should be thoroughly swept daily, the woodwork and furniture being carefully dusted after such sweeping. All dusting and sweeping should be finished thirty minutes before the time fixed for the opening of the school. The floors of all corridors, class-rooms, halls, and other rooms should be thoroughly scrubbed when necessary. This is generally, in the case of Elementary Schools, considered to be about once in three weeks, i.e., one department every week. In Secondary Schools it is not necessary that it should be done so often, and in Girls' Schools, where, as only indoor shoes are worn, the amount of dirt carried into the building is small, it is required seldom. As little water as possible should be used, sluicing the floors with water not only may cause damage to the ceilings below, but destroys the floor, and the dragging about of heavy desks upon it while wet tears the boards * See page 65. 288 ALTERATIONS AND ADDITIONS, ETC. to pieces. Wood block floors should be washed as seldom as possible. Wet sand sprinkled about and brushed off with a stiff broom is best for ordinary use. In Saxony the regulations require that the buildings should be scrubbed out at least four times a year, with a daily sweeping and dusting. Painted work, such as dadoes, &c., should be washed with soap and water during holidays. Polished floors require con- siderable attention for the first year, but after that need wonderfully little care to keep in good order. To maintain them in good condition the followine treatment should be carried out about four times a year ; for the first twelve months it should be done about once every four weeks. The floors should be swept and then rubbed over with methy- lated spirit and raw linseed oil (mi.xed in equal quantities) with a clean flannel ; after this the polish is to be rubbed over the floor, which should be then brushed and finished with felt. The polish * should be thoroughly well rubbed into the wood until a smooth but not sticky surface is obtained. Window Cleaning. — Windows should be cleaned on the outside at least three times annually ; in towns where there is much smoke and foo-, four or even five times will be necessarv. On the inside the windows that are easily accessible may be cleaned whenever they seem to require it. W^hen the sashes are taken out, care should be taken to see that the fastenings have been made quite secure when they are put back, as accidents sometimes occur from their slipping. Drains, Traps, Gutters, &c. — All eaves and other gutters or lead tlats should be cleaned before the commencement of each term, and care taken to see that the wire gratings over outlets or heads of pipes are in order, especially in the autumn, if there are trees near the building. The gullies should be thoroughly cleaned, all solid matter, sand, &c., that may have collected, being cleared out. In dry weather care should be taken to see that these traps are kept well charged * A good wax polish is as follows : — Yellow wax - - - - - 20 parts. Yellow ozocerite - - - - 20 parts. Linseed oil (boiled) . - . - i part. Turpentine - - - - - 25 parts. Raw sienna ----- 5 parts. Mix the two waxes over a slow fire, add the colouring previously mixed with the oil, when cold adil the turpentine. ON THE CARE OF SCHOOL RUILDIXGS. 289 with water to prevent any escape of gas. The disconnecting chamber should be occasionally examined and cleaned out. The cisterns should be emptied and thoroughly cleaned during the vacations. The lavatories and all sanitary arrangements should of course be kept scrupulously clean. Where the basins are enclosed, the underneath parts should be cleared out once a week. Care should be taken to see that trees and shrubs are not planted near buildings or walls, or tennis courts and paths paved with hard material. Creepers should as far as possible be kept to the plain surfaces of brick, and not trained round rain-water or other pipes, or over gratings, or upon roofs or gutters. Heating. — Where open fires are used, they should be lit, if the weather is cold, at least two hours before the room is wanted for use. The openings of ventilating grates should be kept shut until the fire has been burning some time. Gas should under no circumstances be allowed for warming. In schools warmed by heating apparatus the school-keeper should of course attend strictly to the instructions given with the furnace. In frosty weather the fires should be kept alight night and day. It is a good plan to keep a small fire up during the winter vacation. The inlet valves for cold air should be shut at night during cold weather. Anything wrong should be attended to at once, as a large subsequent expenditure is often saved by prompt attention. PART II. BUILDINGS FOR ELEMENTARY EDUCATION PART II.-ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. Chapter XVII. General Description — Board Schools and \'oluntary Schools — The Authorities dealing with Elementary Education — Different kinds of Schools under the Board of Educa- tion — Their Management, and Conditions under which Grants can be earned^ Industrial Schools — Truant Schools — Reformatory and Prison Schools — Day In- dustrial Schools — Naval and Regimental Schools — Public Elementary Schools after 1870 — Short Description of the different Acts — Management and Maintenance of Elementary Schools — Curriculum — Teachers — Different kinds recognised by the Board — School Staff and number of Teachers required — Laws of Attendance and means of enforcing Regularity — " Notice B " Committees and their Duties — Sources of Income — The "Code." It is a much easier task to give a short and fairly comprehensive state- ment of the conditions of the elementary than of the higher education in this country. In marked contrast to the chaotic state of affairs jire- vailing in the field of secondary education, the Elementary Schools are well organised, well distributed, and by a complete system of Government inspection kept up to a high standard of efficiency. The field of elementary education does, however, present one curious anomaly. There are two classes of .schools, both doing the .same work on almost identical lines, teaching a similar class of children, both under- going the .same inspection and receiving grants from the Government, yet one of which has a continual struggle to make both ends meet,* the other, depending on the rates, has practically all the money it re- quires — the Denominational or Voluntary Schools and the Board Schools. This is of course chiefly due to the religious difficulty, which is always cropping up in questions of elementary education. The Denominational * Under the new Education Bill (1902) it is proposed to remedy this by making the Voluntary Schools also dependent upon the rates for their expenses in regard to staff salaries, &c., provided that they keep the buildings in a proper state of repair and efficiency (see Appendix B). 294 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. or Voluntary Schools, which did such excellent work, and in whose hands lay nearly all the elementary education in the early days of the Education Department, ha\'e not been able to keep up with the require- ments of the time. The standard of education has risen so much in regard to buildings, equipment, teaching staff, &c., that schools which depend for support on voluntary subscriptions in districts perhaps already heavily rated are unable to meet the additional expense involved, and so it happens in many cases that their work has to be carried on in buildings badly lit and ill ventilated, often with an inadequate teaching staff. It is not always due to religious feeling alone that Voluntary Schools are preserved. "It is a real misfortune that the policy of keeping out School Boards arises not only within the Church from a sincere and honourable desire to secure definite religious instruction, but outside it also from a penurious anxiety to reduce rates to the lowest possible minimum " * — that is to say, it is often much cheaper to the district to keep a Voluntary School, which may or may not be doing its work properly, than it is to have a School Board and an efficient system of schools. As Sir J. Gorstt points out, it is in the towns and large urban districts that the superiority of the Board to the Voluntary School is so much more marked than is the case in country districts, where the country clergyman is probably a far better school manager than the local tradesmen and farmers. It is worth noting that Scotland, where religious ciifferences are perhaps more strongly felt and more eagerly debated than in almost any country, has never had any religious diffi- culty in school questions. The authorities who deal with elementary education are : — The Board of Education. — This has the control of some 30,000 schools, which consist of the Public Elementary and Higher Grade Schools ; buildings for special instruction, such as cookery, laundry work, domestic economy, and manual training ; schools for defective children, as feeble-minded and epileptic, deaf and dumb children ; and schools for the training of teachers. All these schools are conducted either by managers directly re- sponsible to the Board of Education or to School Boards themselves responsible to the Board. These School Boards have to provide for the proper supply of schools and the due attendance at them of the children in their district, with the power of deputing any part of their * The Educational System of Great Britain and Ireland, Balfour. (Introduction.) t The Times, 20th April 1898. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. 295 powers to local committees or bodies of managers. i\ll Elementary Schools, in order to earn orants from the Government, have to be con- ducted in accordance with the "Code of Regulations" issued by the Board of Education, and to submit to such inspections by Government Inspectors as may be thought ht. The Home (9/^^^.— Under the jurisdiction of the Home Secretary come Industrial Schools and Day Industrial Schools, Truant Schools, Prison Schools, and Reformatory Schools. By the Act of 1870, School Boards received powers of contributing to the establishment and main- tenance of Industrial Schools, and since 1876, with the consent ot the Home Secretary, of establishing such schools themselves. Day Indus- trial Schools were a further development of the Act of 1876. These are schools to which can be sent children of parents who habitually, and without reasonable excuse, neglect to provide for their proper education, or those children who will not go to school even when sent by their parents. At these schools the children are compelled to attend dail\-, receiving elementary instruction and industrial training, and if necessary food. In case of non-attendance the absentee is at once sent for. There is at present only one of these schools in London, but owing to the success of this more are about to be established. There were in 1898, 24 Day Industrial Schools in the country, containing 2,161 boys and 740 girls. Of Industrial Schools there were at the same date in operation 142, with 12,943 boys and 4,415 girls. Reformatories are schools to which are sent children up to the age of sixteen who have been convicted of an offence punishable with penal servitude or imprisonment, and such children must not by the Act of 1899 serve a previous time in prison. Industrial or Truant Scliools are for children up to the age of fourteen who may not have actually committed an offence, but who, if left in their surroundings and circumstances, are likely to become criminal ; that is to say, the Reformatory Schools are for actual, the Industrial for potential delinquents, the children in the former being on an average three years older than the latter. To these schools also may be sent children who are incorrigible truants, or those who are beyond the control of their parents. The Inspector who is appointed by the Home Secretary is the same for Industrial and Reformatory Schools. Under the Local Government Board come the Poor Law Schools to which pauper children are sent by the Guardians. Of course large numbers of these children, either from the workhouse or when boarded 296 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. out, or of parents in receipt of outdoor relief, attend the Public Elementary Schools. A certain number of Poor Law Unions have established large Boarding Schools for pauper children known as "District" or "Poor Law Schools," situated as a rule in the country outside and at a distance from the area covered by the Union. In these schools the children are carefully trained for different trades, perhaps the most successful branches for boys being sailors and bandsmen, while eirls are trained for domestic service.* The Regimental Schools come under the control of the Com- mander-in-Chief and in them are taught the children of the soldiers, and also any particularly backward men. Similarly there are the Naval Schools under the Lords of the Admiralty, and about seven home training ships with some 2,500 boys, the education on which comes up to about Standard VI. of the Board of Education require- ments. There is, however, an advanced class for algebra, trigonometry, and navigation. There are also three sea-going training ships, on board of which boys recruited at a later age are trained.! The foregoing list includes practically all the different kinds of educational institutions that come under the head of elementary. The Public Elementary Schools under the Board of Education. — In order to understand the rise of the present system of elementary education, it is not necessary to go further back than 1870, except that it is perhaps worth noting that it was after the presentation of the Duke of Newcastle's Report in 1861 that the "Revised Code" was introduced, which combined all the grants and payments to each school into a capitation grant given on the attendance and results of the individual examination of the scholar. This system of payment by results continued for many years as the principle on which the Government g-rants were o-iven to schools. The Act of 1870 was the beginning in England and Wales of any general scheme of statutory provision for elementary education. It called into existence School Boards, as the local authorities who were bound to establish and maintain efficient Elementary Schools in every case where voluntary effort was unequal to the task either of providing such schools or of keeping those in existence up to the required standard of efficiency. Under this Act the .School Boards could apply to the rating authorities for funds. They had the power of making bye-laws to enforce the attendance of children at * Children under the Poor Law, p. 86, Chance. t Educational Systems of Great Britain, p. 77, Balfour. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. 297 school. It further separated secular and relit,nous traininf,^ making the teaching- of religion in schools managed by School l^oards and dependent on the rates undenominational. In 1S76 a measure was brought in which gave local authorities further power of securing attendance at school of all children between the ages of five and fourteen, at the same time limiting the conditions of the employment of children under fourteen. In iSSo it became obligatory on all School Boards and School Attendance Committees to make effectual bye-laws to secure the compulsory attendance of children at school, the age under which complete attendance was necessary being ten years. This age was raised to eleven in 1893, in which year was passed the Act providing special schools for deaf and dumb children, and in 1896 it became also necessary to make suitable arrangements for the education ot mentally defecti\'e children. In 1897 an Act was passed for the assistance of the poorer Voluntary Schools, supplemented by another for the relief of necessi- tous Board Schools, i.e., schools which happened to be situated in particularly poor districts. In this year the system of payment by results finally disappeared. The whole tendency of elementary education in recent years has been in the direction of relaxing the bonds of red tape, and in attempts to suit the education to the needs of the children, the "Code" of 1900 giving very large powers to managers and teachers to adapt their curriculum to the locality in which their school is situated. The year 1899 saw the passing of the Act establishing the Board of Education, which as far as elementary education is con- cerned carries on the duties of the old Education Department. The constitution and functions of this body have been stated at some length when dealing with secondary education, and need not be rane into acrain here. The conditions under which elementary education is carried on at present (1902) under the Ijoard of Education are as follows : — A sum of money is annually granted by Parliament for public education in England and Wales, the object of which grant is to aid in maintaining — (a.) Public Elementary Schools. {p.) Training Colleges for Teachers. An Elementary School for this purpose means a school or depart- ment of a school at which elementary education is the principal part of the education given, and one at which the ordinary payments by the 298 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. scholars for instruction do not exceed the sum of ninepence a week. The name PubHc Elementary School implies (i) that the children shall be perfectly free in regard to religious instruction, being at liberty to be away from school if there is any day specially set apart for religious observance by the body to which their parents belong ; the religious instruction in the school being arranged at the beginning or end of the day's work, so that any children whose parents so desire it can be withdrawn from such instruction without prejudice to their other work. (2) That the school shall be open at all times to the inspection of any Government Inspector. The schools are managed (i) by School Boards who have the management of all schools provided by them, but who can delegate the whole or part of their duties to properly qualified managers ; (2) by managers directly responsible to the Board of Education. These managers have to appoint a correspondent to deal with the Board of Education, and to keep proper minutes of their proceedings. The age at which attendance is reckoned for the purpose of the grant is above three years and below fourteen. Attendance is not, however, compulsory below the age of five. The curriculum consists of — ((?.) Infant School, suitable instruction in elementary subjects — Simple lessons on common things ; appropriate and varied occupations ; Singing and Physical Exercises. (3.) The school for older scholars, i.e., above the Infant School. (i.) English, including Reading, Recitation, Writing, Composition, and Grammar, in so far as it bears on the correct use of language ; Arithmetic ; Drawing for boys ; Needlework for girls ; Lessons, including Object Lessons on Geograph}', History, and common things ; Singing, which should as a rule be by note ; Physical Exercises. The above subjects are to be taken as a rule in all schools, although it is not necessary that the}- should all be taught in every class. Some may be omitted in an}- school which can satisfy the Inspector and the Department that there is good reason for doing so. (2.) One or more of the following subjects is to be tal-:en when the circum- stances of the school, in the opinion of the Inspector, make it desirable : — Algebra, Euclid, Mensuration, Mechanics, Chemistry, Physics, Elementary Physics and Chemistry, Animal Physiology, H}-giene, Botany, Principles of Agriculture, Horticulture, Navigation, Latin, French, Welsh (for scholars in Wales), German, Bookkeeping, Shorthand (according to some system recognised b}' the Department), Domestic Economj- or Domestic Science. (3.) Girls— Cookery, Laundr\- Work, Dairj- Work, Household Management. I-'or Boys — Cottage Gardening, Manual Instruction. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. 299 This long and imposing list is arranged lor the purpose of giving a large amount of freedom and responsibility to teachers and managers so to frame the curriculum of their school as best to meet the require- ments of the neighbourhood and class of children attending the school. Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic have to be retained as obligatory subjects for the purpose of Section I. of the Technical Instruction Act of 1SS9. Under this new "Code" of 1900 great freedom of choice is left to individual schools to develop on the best lines, for besides this long list any subject may be included in the course of instruction, if sanctioned by the Department. The subject of teachers in the Elementary Schools is rather a complicated one, owing to the various plans by which older pupils and teachers in training known as pupil teachers assist in the regular teaching work of the school while themselves still undergoing instruc- tion. There have been a large number of forms of organisations tried in the Elementary Schools of this country, from the system of Bell and Lancaster, in which one duly qualified teacher was considered able to manage a school of i ,000, assisted only by monitors and elder pupils, but little removed either in age or attainments from the children they were supposed to be teaching, up to the complete class-room system where each form not only has a class-room to itself, but a duly certified teacher in charge, as in the German Schools. These different schemes of organisation are treated in more detail when considering the best form of building adapted to them.* But the general tendency now is very strongh- in the direction of the last-mentioned system, it being usual to provide a separate class-room for every class, with a properly trained teacher in charge, assisted perhaps by a pupil teacher in the case of very large forms. It is common to find pupil teachers in the Infant School. The teachers recognised at present by the Department are seven, viz. : — (i.) Probationers are bo_\-s or girls over thirteen and under si.xtcen, who must be approved b\" the Inspector, and who intend to become subsequently pupil teachers, and take to teaching as a profession. The}' must not be employed more than half their time the school is open, and must be receiving suitable instruction. (2.) Pupil Teachers — Boys or girls can at the age of fifteen, or by special leave from the Inspector at fourteen, become pupil teachers. They have to teach in the school during school hours, being under the superintendence of the head teacher and receiving themselves suitable instruction. They have in each year * See pages 304-311. 300 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. of their time as pupil teachers, which lasts three years, or if admitted at fourteen four years, to pass the prescribed examination, their final examination being that for the Queen's Scholarship, the successful passing of which enables them to become (' ' fi n Hfl -L 5 263. CuLLODEN Street School. A Modern Board School. 1900. appears, whatever type of plan is used, provided of course that the site will allow room for it. The series Figs. 264-266 .show another form of plan, a corridor with class-rooms opening off it, also commonly found in German Schools. This again naturally widens into a hall. The form in Fig. 266 is that which was adopted ten years later for the Hugh DEVELOPMENT OF AIODERX ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 311 Myddleton School (Fig. 267). It is interesting to compare Fig. 265 with a recently erected school in Manchester, which is merely the same idea on a larger .scale. Fig. 268 shows another way in which a hall with cla.ss-rooms opening off it on all four sides would arise, for in the n — ' — I IIP mi 264. CoMPTON Street. iSSi. 265. B.\TH Street. 18S1. (c 60 to i>o i^ •«J h'^L L ^ M 60 be to bl = i 266. St John's Road. 1S83. case of a school (as Fig. 268) built round an area, it merely requires coverino- in to form a central hall, as in Fig. 266. The form of school arrived at in 18S2, and practically adopted for the London Schools during the ne.xt few years, has remained in vogue since that time with practically no alteration except in the direction of better lighting, small 6 60 60 6c ) a s; ■\ b 60 f>n i ho ho HALl- , ? — 1; m /\«fA- ■ / Irl^T, -My— S i3H 70 so 60 bo so 70 ■ 4o 1 bo . 60 1 60 1 L J 267. The Hugh Myddleton. 268. H.^ggerston Ro.\d. 1S93. 1S79. improvements in detail, and more careful graduation in the size of classes ; and for .schools organised as the London Elementary Schools are, it is not easy to see in which direction improvements are to be looked for, as far as the general scheme of the building is concerned. The above diagram plans are taken from the report of the School Management Committee of the London School Board. Chapter XIX. LARGE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. Area required for Playgrounds — Area of Sites in German Schools — Position of Building on Site — Block Plans of Manchester, Edinburgh, Hornsey, and London Board Schools — Block Plans of German Schools — Covered Playsheds — Drinking Fountains — Paper Baskets — Caretaker's House — The Size of Classes — Need for graduations in the Size of Class-rooms — iMaximum Size of a School — " Mixed " and "Separate" Schools — Proportion of Infants to older Scholars — Height of the Building — The number of Class-rooms required — The Hall — The Accommo- dation given in a [Modern Elementary School — Cloak-rooms — Rooms for Special Instruction — Infant Schools — Examples of Schools, with Plans — The Cobbold Road School, Chelsea — Campsbourne Schools, Hornsey — Varna Street School, Manchester — Conway Road School, Birmingham — The Great Horton Board School, Bradford — The Bruntsfield and Broughton Road Schools, Edinburgh — Alexandra Parade School, (rlasgow — Examples of German Schools : Berlin, Mannheim, &c. — American Elementary Schools, with Examples — Comparative Survey of American, German, and English Elementary Schools. The questions of site and aspect considered in Chapter V., in regard to Secondary Schools, are of course equally applicable to Elementary Schools, and need not be repeated here. Area necessary for Sites and Playground. — The area provided for the pla)"ground is natural!)" goxerned to a large extent by the position of the school and the financial resources available. The minimum amount of superficial area is laid down by the regulations of the Board of Education as 30 sq. ft. per head. It is by no means always easy in the case of a school built in or near the busy part of a town to secure as much as this, but no effort should be spared to provide as large playground as possible. As Mr Ikiiley, the architect to the London School Board, speaking of restricted sites, says : — "As, whatever the difficulty, sufficient space to ensure light and air vi7ist be obtained, the playground question is usually best solved by providing on the ground level for the boys and infants, and putting a llat over the whole top of the building to form a playground for the AREA NECESSARY FOR SITES AND PLAYGROUND. 313 j^irls, wliich should not be enclosed entirely 1)\- a wall, hut should have either panels filled with iron grills or some lengths of railing, as otherwise the natural curiosity of the child to see what is beyond might lead to unpleasant, not to say dangerous consequences. Such playgrounds do not give more than 10 or 12 .sq. ft. to each child, however." * The whole area of the site for an Elementar)- School, including buildings and playgrounds, should probably not fall much short of 2 acres in the case of a school of any size, say 1,500 or over, or ot a school which is so placed that other buildings may in the future be brought close up to the boundar\-, in which case the resulting increase of population will require additional school accommodation, while the land required for adding to the school and playground will become unobtainable. Mr Bailey gives 2 acres as the size that he considers advisable for a new school. In a large Board School recently erected at Manchester (see Fig. 269), the site, including buildings, contains 8,525 sq. yds., or rather under 2 acres. In Germany the sites are, as a rule, smaller than those in this countr\-. Much space is also taken up by various buildings — a g\mnasium, caretaker's and Headmaster's houses, a garden with care- fully laid out beds and grass plots — so that the sjaace left for actual playground is in the end very much smaller than the amount which would be considered sufficient in this country. For instance, in a number of the large Elementary Schools in Berlin, taking those of much the same size, viz., schools containing about thirty-si.K class-rooms, which would mean not less than 2,000 children, the sites, including all buildings, vary from 4,500 to 6,500 sq. metres, i.e.. from just under an acre to about i^ acre. The area of the buildings varies from 1,500 to 2,000 q.m. A further 500 q.m. must be deducted lor the usual gardens in front, lea\ing the space available for playground between 2,500 and 4,000 q.m. This means about i^ to 2 q.m. per head, or say 15 to 20 sq. ft. In .some places considerably less is found. In Leipsic, for instance, in the case of a school tor 2,070 children, while the area of the whole site comes to 6,200 q.m., or about i^ acre, of this, when the space occupied by buildings, gardens, &c., has been deducted, there is only left 2,214 q-m-, or scarcely more than I q.m. (10 sq. ft.) per head for playground. These gardens have, however, the advantage of keeping the buildings back from the street, * The Planning and Construction of Board Schools. Paper read to the R.I.B.A., May 1899. 314 LARGE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. and so stopping the noise, besides adding considerably to the appearance of the school. In the case of small country schools the amount of playground is naturally of less importance, but there should be ample room for all the children during a recess. The minimum allowance of 30 sq. ft. can generally be managed without difficulty. In settino- out the buildings on the site, care has to be taken, in the case of town schools, that the school building should be well back from the street. The buildings should be carefully placed so that they do not interfere with the playground more than can be helped. Separate playgrounds have to be provided for each department of the school, i.e., boys, girls, and infants. These are divided from one another either by a wall or an iron railing, as may be preferred. Sometimes they are separated only by marks on the ground. The girls' and infants' playground are often combined, the same around servinaf for both departments. Fig. 269 shows the block plan of a school recently erected in Manchester. The school lies well in the middle of the ground, and would even, if built up to all round, still have enough room to obtain sufficient light and air; the Infant School, which lies near the boundary on one side, being lit, as far as the class-rooms are concerned, from the playground side. The offices, not shown, are arranged in the playground well away from the building. Fig. 270 shows the site plan and arrangement of the school build- ings in a school in Edinburgh. In Fig. 271 is shown the site plan of a large Elementary School recently erected at Hornsey. This plan shows well the division of the playground. There are entrances for the boys and girls each into their own playground from different streets, while that for the infants IS close to the girls. In the ground for each department is a covered playshed and offices, there being a manual instruction building in the boys', and one for cookery instruction in the girls' playground. The caretaker's house is placed at one of the entrances, and well out of the way. Fig. 272 shows the site plan of a London Board School. 269. Varna Street School, Maxchrster. Potts, Son, cr Henniiii;s, Architects. AREA NECESSARY FOR SITES AND PLAYGROUND. 315 flo^aKcJ ^ 'Vl'V^ Ja^io'VbuM. 1 FbLOCK R.AN ■ W rrrrf^rrrrrrrr ri"rr'rr r '"'^ 270. The Bruntsfield School, Edinburgh. Robert IVilson, Architect. fr SCALE OF FtCT Id IO2O3O«5OBC708e30HlO 170 !4C ISO ISO 200 220 240 760 200 3C0320 3*0 271. The Campsbourne School, Hornsey. H. Cliatfield Clarke, Architect. 3i6 LARGE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. Attempts are being made to take somewhat from the rather dreary and forbidding aspect of a large Elementary School and its playground, by planting in places where it can be done without too 1 1 CIRL5 gr INFMTJ Pim/LftOSi,KF£P£Mt ■' /r^fj/fy lHFf)f*Ti n't" i 1*^ ■'^ ■ ■ Pif^yo/iouN-o 272. The Cobkold Road School, Chelsea. T. J. Bailey, Architect. much chance of injury. Of course it can only be thought of where there is a considerable amount of room, and where it is not imperative to use every inch of available ground for playing room. In Germany ®-5-^ -\ 6 « SCHOOl m STREET. 273. Elementary School, Christburgerstrasse, 274. German Elementary Berlin. School. an allowance for planting, &c., always forms part of the estimate in a building scheme. In Fig. 273 "■'■ is given a plan showing the arrangement of a large From Schulhygiene, A. Baginsky. PLAYGROUNDS. 317 newly built Elementary School at Berlin ha\inL;- a fair-sized area of ground, but with a very small frontage to the street. This narrow piece is taken up by the Director's or Headmaster's house in the street and the gymnasium, leaving a way through to the school playground, on tti wliich all the class-rooms face, thus securing freedom from noise and i)lenty of air. This scheme would proliably meet with objection in this country, since the boys and girls must use the same entrance to the school grounds. The plans of this school with an exterior view are .shown below (Figs. 307-31 1). The plan of separating the two sexes is .sometimes found in Germany. Fig. 274 shows a block plan of such an arrangement, the gymnasium being placed in the centre, and common to both. Covered Playsheds. — A covered playshed should always be provided if possible, which should be say 60 by 20 ft. at least, and placed in the sunniest corner of the playground. Unless this is pro- vided, children have in wet weather nowhere to play during the intervals except in their class-rooms, which cannot then be properly aired, or in the hall, where the noise would create considerable dis- turbance. Such a shed has also other uses ; in summer drilling classes can be taken there ; children who bring their dinner to school can, if there is a seat provided at the back, eat it there, and so avoid using a class-room for this purpose. The easiest and cheapest plan to accomplish this is to put up a corrugated iron covering in a corner of the playground, making use of the boundary walls to form the back and one side. A drinking fountain should be always supplied in the playground, the water to which is best laid on direct from the service main. Where many children bring their dinner, it is as well to i)rovide some boxes in convenient situations in the hope that the children may be thereby led to put the paper in which their dinners were wrapped. Mr Bailey also suggests building projecting slabs of stone (millstone grit) into the wall at intervals for the purpose of sharpening slate pencils on, but with a warning that their position should not offer facilities for climbing on to any adjacent roofs, &c. This is to .save the brick wall from defacement. The practice of using slates is being strongly discouraged now in favour of pencils and paper, so that this precaution is perhaps less needed now. A Caretaker's House has also to be provided, which should be situated close to the entrance, or one of the entrances. This should 3i8 LARGE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. consist of three bedrooms, a good-sized living- room and scullery, and offices, with a small yard at the back.* New Buildings. — When a new school building is projected, the first question that naturally arises is the number for which it is necessary to provide. This is of course settled by the locality in which the school is to be placed. The question of increase, t and the extent to which this is likely, has of course to be taken into account, the building being so arranged as to allow of additional accommodation being added as economically as possible. It may probably be assumed now that a school of any size will be organised on the principle of ha\ing a separate class-room for every class — that is to say, providing" class-room accommodation for the entire school without reckoning the hall. In the case of small schools and village schools the case is somewhat different.^ Size of the School. — Opinions differ considerably on the question as to what should be the maximum number of children in one school. The London School Board have come to the conclusion that no school should contain more than 1,548 children in one building — that is, three departments of 516. There are in some of the large pro- vincial towns numbers of schools which contain a greater number than this. For instance, the school at Manchester shown in Figs. 286-291 has accommodation for 2,000 pupils. In this case, however, the Infant School of 500 is in a separate building. In Germany it is common to find schools of 2,000 or more. Except on the ground of increased risk of contao'ion in case of infectious illnesses, there seems little harm in these large schools, provided the building is well planned. The Board of Education, however, have recently (March 1902) communicated to the London School Board their opinion that no school should exceed 1,000, arranged in three departments, 300 boys, 300 girls, and 400 infants, and that in future a school of 1,200 would only be sanctioned in exceptional circumstances. It is difficult to see any good reason for this limitation in size ; the large schools with depart- ments of from five to six hundred in nearly all cases show the best results, since with these numbers it is possible to have every class taught separately, even in the upper standards, while making it possible * For details of this see Building Regulations, Appendix A. + It occasionally happens that in a place like London, where the population is continually shifting, that there is a great decrease of pupils. + See below for village and small schools, pages 364 et seq. SIZE OF SCHOOL. 319 to graduate the pupils more effectually according to their proficiency. On the score of expense the advantage is so strongly in favour of the large school, that unless a great superiority could be proved to result educationally from this division of three larger into five smaller schools, it would seem to be putting an unfair tax upon the ratepayers, already heavily burdened by the cost of the schools. The increase in sites, building, and cost of maintenance caused by such limitation would pro- bably be from 10 to 15 per cent. The plan of the school will depend of course to a large extent on whether the school is to be a " mixed," i.e., both sexes taught towether. or a "separate" school, with separate departments for boys and girls. In either case the Infant School is a separate department, and always "mixed." In the case of ver)- large schools, where there are sufficient numbers to secure proper grading, there is not so much importance in the question of "mixed" or "separate" as far as the organisation is concerned, but in the case of small schools and country schools, to combine the two departments of the upper school certainly adds verv greatly to the efficiency in ease of organisation, economy of building, and in the staff required. The educational aspects of the question hardly concern us here. Head teachers of mixed schools generally speak highly of the plan, which is universal in America. In Germany the sexes are taught as a rule separately. While in London "separate" schools are more usually met with, in the country and large towns " mixed" schools are perhaps more common. Proportion of Infants to Older Scholars. — The relative proportion between the Infant Department and the Senior School is variouslv laid down bv different writers. Mr Robson * suoraests that ot 1,040 children there would be 400 in the Infant Department, and 320 in the Boys' and Girls' respectively. The present system of the London School Board is to make the three departments equal, for while the Infant School combines both girls and boys, and so apparently should be much larger, yet as the time spent in the Infant School is just about half that spent in the older school, the numbers should be equalised. But it should be remembered that if the school is situated in a poor quarter, a large number of parents will send their children to school at three, the earliest age allowed, in order to be relieved of them, while they themselves go out to work. In fact, in many schools there is a special room t called the babies' room, which is practically a creche for * School Architecture, p. 164. + See below, Infant Schools, p. 324. 320 LARGE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. the conv^enience of the parents, which, while doubtless of considerable advantage to them, is at least open to argument as a function of an educational body dependent upon the rates and State aid. In the conditions given for a competition for an Elementary School recently built at Manchester, the numbers being 2,000, the proportion of infants was estimated at one quarter. A school at Birmingham recently erected for 1,000 has accommodation for 470 infants, but in this case (see Fig. 292) there are two class-rooms dividing the upper school from the Infant Department which are used in a way as a transition form, and can serve either for the older school or the Infant Department as may be desirable. On the whole the plan of estimating the number of the Infant School at half the other two combined seems the most reasonable. Number of Storeys. — There is no doubt that the less the number of storeys in a school building the better ; but exigencies of site and the effort to supply good playgrounds make it essential that schools erected in London and other large towns should take ujd as little room as possible. Hence the usual type of building of the London School Board, which consists of three storeys corresponding to the three departments. In the country towns, where School Boards have been able to secure large sites, it is not uncommon to find buildings with all the accommodation on the ground ; and there is little doubt that where this can be done, the result is very satisfactory. Where there is no pressure on the available space, it is usual to find the Infant School in a separate one-storied building, either standing adjacent to the school for older scholars or connected with it. The Size and Number of Class-rooms required. — The size of class-room that is to form the standard is of importance. It is not uncommon to find schools with all the rooms of one size, say to accommodate 60. This generally results in a waste of space, as the upper classes are sure to be smaller than those lower down the school. While it is still not uncommon to find class-rooms capable of holding 70 or So scholars, it is becoming recognised now that one teacher cannot deal effectively with more than 60.* The London School Board in their newer schools provide class-rooms of varying sizes to suit the different forms in the school, taking .say 40, 50, and 60 pupils respectively. The area of floor space that has to be provided is laid down by * See on this, page 102. SIZE AND XUMHI'.R OK CLASS-ROOMS. 321 the regulations L^oxxTiiiiiL;" hiiiKlin^' issued by the lioartl ol I'.ducation* at 10 s(|. tt. ]jer head, and whether sutticieiu or not, practically all the Elementary Schools are calculated on this basis. For the question of lii^hting-, desks, &c., see Chapter VII. A certain number of adjacent class-rooms, separated b\- slidin^^ partitions,"'' are generally considered useful, though it is now common to hnd schools with no provision of this kind. In Germany this arrangement is not made use of The London .School Board no longer put them in their new schools, as they consider every class complete with their own teacher. This is also the case with the Board School mentioned above at Birmingham, where every class is completely separate (see Fig. 292). At Manchester, however, this {)lan has not been adopted, and sliding partitions are found (see Fig. 287). In the plan shown in Fig. 295 of the Great Horton Board School at Bradford there is a large double class which can be thrown into one, as also at the Campsbourne Schools, Hornsey (.see Fig. 2- Co. Willink is' Thicknesse, Architects. round the stand, and depositing their hats and cloaks on the pegs as the)- go, emerge by the other door. In case only one door is pro- vided, the two streams pass in the doorway. The discipline of an Elementary School generally involves a number of these kind of marching evolutions, which should not be lost sight of in the planning. The subject of cloak-rooms has already been treated* with regard to Secondary Schools. The fittings in an Elementary School are simpler. * See page 151. 324 LARGE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. They should if possible be so arranged as to prevent the clothes touching. A useful and sanitary torm of stand is shown in Fig. ly^. This has been recently adopted in several large schools in the North of England. The pegs are arranged that they hold the coats and hats in such a way as to allow a free circulation of air round them. These stands are made of great strength and are practically unbreakable. A further development of this sort of stand is shown in Fig. 276, which illustrates part of the cloak-rooms in the Birchfield Road School, Liverpool, recently finished. In this case the stands are filled in with wire netting, which, while allowing of free ventilation prevents caps being thrown about, or entrance by unauthorised persons. The class-rooms, halls, cloak-rooms, and teachers' rooms may be considered the minimum accommodation necessary for an Elementary School. Further rooms are occasionally found, such as a properly lit studio in which to teach drawing instead of the class-room, a room for manual instruction, and in London some schools have accommodation for teaching cooking or laundry work, or carpentering" for boys. Schools having this additional accommodation are often used as centres, and classes come to them from neighbouring schools for instruction in such subjects, for which they have not the necessary facilities. Chemistry and Natural Science are also taught in the Elementary Board Schools by a system of peripatetic teachers, who take their apparatus round with them in order to show the necessary experiments ; each such teacher visiting a number of schools at regular intervals, the class teacher as a rule going over the work again, without of course doing the experiments. This rather makeshift method of teaching science is perhaps the onh" way in which it can be managed under existing circumstances, as science rooms are not yet, as is usually the case in Germany, found in our Elementary Schools. The Higher Elementary Schools, or as they are called. Higher Grade Schools, are provided with excellent and well-equipped laboratories, which are described when dealing with that class of school. Infant Schools. — The plan of having Infant Schools forming a department of an Elementary School, and regularly found in connection with them, is peculiar to this country. In Germany the Elementary .Schools take their children at six, and do not consider them until they have re^ichecl that age. There are, howe\'er, institutions which more or less correspond to our Infant .School, founded usually by the benevolence of pri\-ate persons, under the somewhat tremendous name of Kinderbewahranstalten, though they perhaps correspond more to the LARGE KLKML.MARV SCHOOLS. !■" reach creches. In this country the children are admitted to school at the age of three, having to attend coni])ulsorily at five, so that special accommodation has to be provided for them. In the case of a school in which all the departments are contained in one building it is usual to fmd the ground floor gi\-en up altogether to the Infant Department. Where the site will allow of such an arrangement, the tendency now is to place the Infant School in a separate one- storied block. In coLintry or village schools, where the buildings are as a rule of one storey only, it is usual to find for the infants a separate building, which takes the form of one large room, with a gallery to hold perhaps 60 infants, usually placed in a projecting ])art of the building, partly to keep as much clear floor space as possible, but more particularh' to get a good light from the sides.* In addition to the large school-room it is necessary ti) ha\-e a class-room tor the youngest children, known usually as the babies' room. This room is fitted with a gallery which sometimes conveniently takes a semicircular form (see Fig. 277). Where the Infant School is of any size, say 150, another class-room will be necessary for V the older class. H^ This sort of arrangement for an In- fant School, i.e., the big school-room with the gallery at one end, has been in recent years, at all events in the larger schools, given up, and the modern Inf.uit School has little to distinguish it from that of the school for older pupils, consisting also of a hall with class-rooms opening off it ; prac- tically the only difference being the babies' room with its gallery, the smaller seats, and the special form of desks. .See Figs. 283, 291, 294, which show the Infant .Schools in separate Ijuildings. 277. A Babies' Roo.m. EXAMPLES OF LARGE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 'f/ic Cobbold Road School, Chelsea. — The plan given in Figs. 278- 2S0 will show how the rooms may be arranged. This example may be considered a typical plan of the modern Elementary School as built bv the London School Board. It will be noticed on looking at the plan For examples of Infant Schools see Robson, School Architecture, pp. 181-184. FIRST FLOOR PL An JEICOno FLOOR SiniL^p. FOR BOr's DEP^ & HOUND P/./9N 278-280. Cor.r.OLD Road School. The London School Board. T. J. Bailey, Anhitect. LARGE ELKMKXTARV SCHOOLS. 327 that none of the class-rooms are [jrovlded with sliding partitions so that two rooms can be thrown into one for any purpose. The cloak-rooms are convenicntK' arranged immediately at the top of the stairs, and are divided into two halves, each 4 ft. 6 in. wide, w ith a stand down the middle. At the end are placed the la\ator\' basins, allowing' two basins to every hundred children. The class-rooms in this school are fitted, as in all the schools oi the London School Board, with dual desks, the last three rows beini>- 281. The Campseourne Schools, Hornsev. Boys' and Girls' Department. H. Chaifieid Clarke, Architect. raised. The rooms are all excellently lit, the lig'ht beiny broui^ht in from one side only. Under the Girls' Department, and arranged on much the .same plan, is placed the Infant Department (Fig. 27S), on the ground floor, so that there should be no steps. The Caiupsboiirne Schools, Hornsey. — As an example of a two- storied building with the Girls' Departnient on the ground, and the boys' on the first floor, with the infants housed in a separate build- ing, the schools recentlv erected bv the Hornsev School Board will 328 LARGE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. serve as an excellent example. These schools are known as the Campsbourne Schools. The site available for the school contained an area of slightly over 2 acres, and the number of children to be provided for 1,400. The Board, on the advice of the architect, Mr Chatfield Clarke, after going carefully into the question, decided that the school should be built in two blocks, one for the girls and boys, and the other for the infants, it being somewhat cheaper to build on this plan, in addition to the advantages gained by limiting the building to two storeys. The accommodation was settled as follows ; — Boys, 450; girls, 450; and an Infant .School of 510. The class- rooms are of different sizes, viz., one tor 40, two for 50, four for 60, and one larger room capable of taking 70. These are exactly 282. Campsbourne Schools, Hornsey. Infants' Department. repeated on the floor above. On referring to the plan (Figs. 284, 285), it will be seen that these rooms are in each Hoor arranged on the two sides of two .spacious halls, one above the other, measuring nearly 86 by 28 ft. That on the ground floor is lit from the ends, and also by borrowed light from the class-rooms. The girls' cloak-room is placed close to their entrance, with three openings into the hall, while the boys, whose entrance is at the opposite end of the building, find their cloak-room immediately at the top of the stairs, in which are placed also the lavatory basins. The boys' entrance is in a different street to that of the girls, an excellent plan if the site happens to abut upon two streets. On one mezzanine floor are provided two rooms for the assistant teachers, as well as one for the Headmaster. A second mezzanine floor between the LARGE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 329 :^ 330 LARGE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. ground and first Hoor gives a caretaker's and a store room. The hall on the first floor has been constructed with an open timber roof which adds much to the handsome appearance of the school. The class-rooms are fitted with dual desks having the last three rows raised, and are most carefully and excellently lit, every room being lit from one side only, with an ample provision of glass area. They also receive a diffused light from the hall, there being glass partitions carried right along. It will be seen that the two class-rooms at the south-west corner can be thrown into one large room. The Infants' Department (Figs. 282, 283) has a hall of 50 by 25 ft., which is in addition to the class-room accommodation for 510, the number to be pro\'ided for. One class-room at the end of the hall can be thrown into it if additional space is required for any purpose, such as marching exercises, &'c. There is the usual cloak-room ac- commodation, and two staff-rooms — one for the Headmistress, and one for her assistants. A feature that should be noticed is the provision of a babies' room, with circular raised seats, for the purpose of teaching \'ery young children. The class-rooms throughout are heated with "Boyd's" patent hot- air sto\'es, and the halls and -Rn.',^.mcnf P/.yr: corridors by a low-pressure hot-water apparatus, each class- room having a fresh air inlet and an extract flue. The walls internally are built to the height of the dado of brown salt-glazed bricks, the upper parts being finished with buff-coloured bricks. The outside walls, built of stock bricks with red brick dressings, make a pleasing and effective exterior (see Fig. 281). The Varna Street School, Manchester. — This is another good example of a school with a separate building for the Infant Department, and a block for the upper school, with the girls on the ground floor and the boys above, but with the addition of an extra floor containing rooms for drawing and manual instruction. This is a school recently erected by the Manchester School Board, and presents several points of interest. 286. The Varna Street School. LARGE ELKMRXTARV SCHOOLS. 331 iio^/1/?>7 /7. 287, 288. The Varna Street School, Manchester. The Manchester School Board. Potts, Sofi, or-" lienriiiigs, Architects. 33: LARGE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. Lonpi luciinal -jcction — . , I d s 10 so 30 w so eo to 30 m , 2S9, 290. The Varna Street School, Manchester. LARGE KLKMKXTARY SCHOOLS. 333 The school was built from designs by Messrs Potts & Hennings, as the result of a competition in which some five or six architects took part. The conditions were very fully and carefully drawn up by the Clerk of the Manchester .School Board, Mr Wyatt, who was s^ood enough to take the writer over the building". The result is an interest- ing and very successful school, one of the most remarkable features being the very low cost of the building. The accommodation to be pro\ided was as follows : — School to be for 2,000, viz., 1,500 in the upper school, and 500 infants in a separate building. The rooms supplied in the larger building are — Fifteen class-rooms to hold 60 children. Eight class-rooms to hold 84 children. These are capable of di\-ision by partitions. Two halls, 140 by 30 ft. Three cloak-rooms. Four teachers' rooms for heads and assistants. Large drawing school. Room for machine drawing. Manual instruction room. Cookery instruction room. Caretaker's room and coal-rooms. It will be noticed that there are here given several rooms not found in the other two Elementary Schools of which plans have been given, but which ought if possible to find a place in every school in this country, as they usually do in a German School, for while in London it may be possible to give instruction in certain e.xtra subjects by sending the children to various centres, it is very often, and especially in country places and towns, a matter of great difficulty, and in any case it is a great advantage to have facilities for doing so in the school itself. The way in which the building is arranged can be seen on reference to Figs. 286-290, where the full plans are given. The first point that draws attention on looking at the plan is the entire absence of Internal walls in the main building. All the class- rooms on the two sides of the hall are merely shut off by glass and wood partitions, the glass running from 3 tt. 6 in. right up to the ceiling (see section, Fig. 289). The hall is of great length, viz., 140 ft., and the entire width of each end is taken up with the window. The side walls of the class-rooms, except for the constructionally necessary pier, are plain glass. The result ot this, looking down the long hall, is very striking. The whole building is warmed entirely by open fire- 1 -> * jj4 LARGE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. places, formed with " Leaminj^ton bars," there being no form of heating apparatus in the building. As the school stands in a high open position, with an unusually large area of glass, it is difficult to believe that they do not suffer from cold in the winter. However, the Headmaster stoutly maintained that the rooms were most satis- factorily warm in any weather, and that as a rule he had only one of the three fireplaces in the central hall lit, because fires near the exits were only apt to make the boys stand about by them, and moreover were not usually wanted for heating purposes. As I was at the school in the early summer, 1 had no opportunity of judging personally, but could not help thinking that the children of Manchester must be un- usually warm-blooded. Infant ■ Jchool Scale i 100 ^ of Feet 291. Infants' Department, Varna .Sireet School, Manchester. The class-rooms are so arranged that of those in the central block any two can be thrown together in a moment if it is desirable for one teacher to keep an eye on two forms. When the partitions are pushed back, about two-thirds of the dividing partition is clear. Dual desks are employed, and the area of floor space allowed is 10 sq. ft. The Infant School, placed in a separate block, is shown in Fig. 291, arranged with rooms on three sides of a hall. There is in every class-room a ventilating e.xtract flue, as there is also to the cloak-rooms. There are, however, no inlets, but the open fires no doubt assist the ventilation. The upper parts of the windows also are made to open easily. The rest of the arrangement of the rooms can be easily seen from the drawings. The idea of the building LARGE ELKMENTARY SCHOOLS. 335 yymuiM. iwmnj X o z PQ O o X u en Q < O O 'w> ^ .K 336 LARGE ELEMExNTARY SCHOOLS. is the same as that of a factory, being a skeleton of iron-work and brick piers filled in with glass and wood-work, the result being an effective and thoroughly useful school building, excellently lit, and produced at an extraordinarily low cost. The limit laici down by the conditions for the competition, as mentioned above, was ^9 a head, and this sum had to include, in addition to the actual building, draining and concreting of playgrounds, erection of boundary walls, draining of I)uikling, offices, cloak-room fittings of wrought iron to special pattern ; all school furniture, including three pianos, clocks, fittings for cookery and manual instruction rooms, notice boards, &c. ; all necessary waste pipes, meters, gasfittings, &c. ; a caretaker's house of si.x rooms ; and ^30 for memorial stone. That is to say, the entire cost of the school, ready for occupation, including pla\grounds, and as a matter of fact the whole of the main block lor the upper school and the infants' building, was completed for little over the sum named. Externally the school presents somewhat the appearance of a factory, but it is a plain and unpretentious building, and if not exactly beautiful, is simple and straio-htforward. The next type of school is that in which all the rooms required are arranged in one storey only, and there is no doubt that this arrangement is a ver\- satisfactory one, but requires of course a great deal of space. The Conway Road School, Birmingham. — This is a good ex- ample of this class of school recently completed from the designs of Messrs Martin & Martin (see Fig. 292). The school is designed to accommodate 1,050 children, in the proportions 290 boys, 290 girls, and 470 infants. The whole of the school buildings are in one block, including the caretaker's house. The boys and girls have a common assembly hall of 75 by 30 sq. ft., giving an allowance of 4 sq. ft. per head. On looking at the plan, it appears that the Infant School is very large in proportion to the other part of the school ; but as a matter of fact the two class-rooms adjoining the older school are used for which- ever department it may be found most convenient. The cloak-rooms are particularly worthy of notice. The girls' and infants' cloak-rooms are provided with windows enabling supervision to be kept upon them by any one in the central hall ; the sides next the corridor are formed of wire netting, which, while allowing free ventilation, prevents access by the children at unauthorised times. There is a room provided for the Headmaster, but beyond that there is no accommodation for the teaching staff There are no less than seven entrances to the building, so that in cases of necessity it could be emptied very rapid!)'. The lavatory basins are arranged in these entrance porches. The warming LARGE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 337 and heating' ot the building;' is provided for by the method known as the Plenum system, which is referred to and described when discussino' that - O form of ventilation.* The school cost about ^18,000. ^?■ 293. The Great Horton School, Bradford. jr. /. Moiicy, Architect. The Great Horlon Board School. Bradford. — This is another example of a large one-storied building, with the Infant School arranged in a separate building (see Figs. 294, 295). The upper school is a "mixed" school, and provides accommodation for 704 children. The class-rooms, of two sizes, viz., 56 and 64, are ar- ranged round a central hall, separated by glass partitions from the latter, which is of large size, measuring 88 by 45 ft. This allows rather over 5^ sq. ft. per head. Fig. 294 shows the building for the Infants' Department. Brimtsfield School. Edinburgh. — Figs. 296- 299 show an example of a Scotch Board School. This building, recently erected in Edinburgh, has a no\rl feature, in a swimming bath situated in the basement of the building, with a * See page 408. Y 94. Infants' Department, Great Horton School, Bradford. 338 LARGE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 295. The Great Horton School, Bradford. The Bradford School Board. W- J- Morky, Architect. The Eduibufirh School Boat'd. 296-299. THE BRUNTSFII i T . M l tn i r 1^ ^ f=^ -(= — 1 «^tf SCHOOL, EDINBURGH. Robert Wilson, Architect. Between pp. 33S and ^^<). " " '" ? 'f .rr rm XCTitl t"t ItAI rra ruvii iL« 300.303. THE BROUGHTON ROAD SCHOOL, EDINBURGH. The Edittliirgh School Board. Robert Wilson, Arihiteet. To face p. 339. ^ ELKMF.XTARV SCHOOLS IX SCOTT. AXIX 339 i^xinnasium to corresjjond with it on the opposite side. Tliis ])lan tor the .swimming' Ijath was warmly spoken of by the teachers, hut it appears not to ha\e been adopted as a re<^ular plan b\- the Edinburgh Board, thoiigh found again in the school illustrated below, probably owing to the e.Kpensc involved. The ground lloor is devoted to the Infant Department, for whom the hall on that lloor is reserved. The rest of the school is mixed, and known as the "Juvenile" Department. They occupy the first floor, while the second floor is reserved for more advanced scholars, being practically a Higher Grade School to which pupils come from all over the neighbouring district. It will be noticed, on looking at the plan of the second floor, that the class-rooms on the front are separated by partitions in order to allow of the neces.sary tlivision, while facilities are provided for the teaching of .science, cookery, &c. The plan of the school is on the whole not unlike that of a London Board School, and provides good and ample accommodation both for the pupils and the staff. Unfortunately the lighting in .some of the class-rooms cannot be considered good. This was especially notice- able in the class-room at the south-east corner ot the building next to the boys' entrance. This room, both on the ground and first floor, had been divided by a partition (see Fig. 298) into two long narrow rooms with the onlv light at the back, and the school being very full, the seats were necessarily brought a considerable distance forward, with the consequence that about half the children were in a quite inadequate light. The difficulty had been partially met by introducing a side window high up in the case of the room on the first floor. It should be added that were the seats arranged as shown by the architect, the light would be strong enough, but owing to the increase in numbers in the school, it has been necessary to bring the seats much farther forward. The lio-htine aeain of the divided class-rooms on the top floor can hardly be considered to come up to modern requirements. B rough foil Road School, Edinburgh.— The school shown in Figs. 300-303, also an Edinburgh School, has swimming bath and gymnasium in the basement ; but in this case it is not provided with a hall, the class- rooms beino- orouped all round a central staircase, a science class-room and cookery instruction room being provided on the top floor. Alexandra Parade School, Glasgoio (Figs. 304-306). — The plans of this school were sent by the Glasgow School Board to the Paris E.xhibition of 1900, as being a typical example of their Elementary Schools. As is u.sually the case in Scotch Schools, there is not a hall (,n each floor, access to the rooms on the upper floors being gained b\- means of a gallerv. The cloak-rooms and lavatories are conveniently placed on 340 LARGE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. PLAN or UPPER FLOORS PLAN or GROUND rLOOR SCALEorFCCT 5 10 10 JO *0 50 60 10 80 90 100 304-306. The Ai,exandr.\ Par.^de School, CiI..asgo\v. The Glasgoju School Board. AP U'/iaiuicll &-■ Rogerson, Aniiihi/s. LARGE ELKMKXTARV SCHOOLS. 341 the landings close to the stairs, accommodation for the teachers being arranged off the half-way landing. All these schools of which plans and descriptions have here been given are typical of a very large number of schools tliat have been 307. Elementary School in the Christi!URc;erstr.-\sse, Berlin. recently built all over the country. They are organised on what is called the "class-room" or " Prussian" system, and as the idea of this arrangement was probably in the early daxs borrowed to a large extent from the Continent, it will be interesting to compare with them one or THIRD fLOO/l flAX fMHTH flMX K.m. • ct.irr/imr noorr ci/jrs. FiRiT nocR /"im 308-311. Elementary School in ihe Christburgerstrasse, Berlin. two of the more recent German Elementary Schools before passing to different types of buildings. In comparing the plans of the schools in the two countries, it .should first of all be borne in mind that the hall in a German Elementary School corresponds in no degree to that found in our 342 LARGE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. schools. It is there, if found at all, which is by no means always the case, placed on the top floor well out of the way. It is used for examination purposes and social functions, and is often handsomely decorated. But while they have in Germany no assembly halls corresponding to ours, there is always attached to the school a spacious and well-equipped gymnasium, standing as a rule in the playground. The school very often assembles in this for prayers, singing, or work of a collective character. The\ usually include in their Elementary Schools special rooms for science teaching, if not completely equipped laboratories. They also have in the newer schools elaborate and complete washing and dressing rooms, fitted with spray and shower baths, generally placed in the basement. These will be found fully described on pages 419-422. In Germany, Infant Departments are not found as part of the school. The school age begins at six. Below that the State School does not concern itself with children, though a number of private persons and societies are organising Kindergartens for children under six years of age. Class-rooms with sliding and movable partitions are not found in German Schools. It will be noticed that the German Schools are divided into two corresponding halves for the different sexes verti- cally, while in this country they are always divided horizontally so as to give a floor to each. As an example of a large Public Elementary School are given the plans of a large school recendy erected in the Christburgerstrasse, Berlin (Eigs. 307-311). This is intended to take about 2,000 children. The building has four floors (on each of which the rooms exactly corre- spond, except in the centre of the building), besides a basement, and contains the following accommodation, arranged on the different floors as follows : — The class-rooms, of which there are thirty-eight, are all the same size, viz., about 2S ft. by 19 ft. 9 in. On the ground floor next the main entrance, which divides the school into the boys' side and the girls' side, the two halves corresponding in every particular, are placed two offices. To the left of the office, on the left side of the entrance, is the head teacher's room, and corresponding to it on the other a map room. Beyond this on each side are four class-rooms, and in the projecting wings on each side there are two rooms in which the youngest children are put during recreation hours, where they can ])lay under supervision. These rooms are a recent innovation, and are called " Kinderhorte." On the first floor the room over the offices to the left of the entrance is a Natural Science class-room, while the space over the entrance is used as an apparatus room, the remaining nine rooms along the front ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IX GERMANY. 343 being" class-rooms. In the two projectino" wings are two conference rooms which serve as common rooms for the masters and mistresses res[)ectively. On the second floor the room to the right of the entrance is taken for Natural .Science teaching, with the same arrangement for apparatus, the remaining eleven rooms serving as class-rooms. On the third floor there are found ten class-rooms, while the three rooms in the centre are combined to form the hall. In the basement there is a large provision for the storage of coal and the heating apparatus. Here is found also the spray bath arrange- ments, consisting of two rooms, one serving as a dressing-room, with twenty compartments ; in the other are arranged shower baths. Next to it are two drying-rooms, and the heating apparatus for the shower baths. In the two projecting wings are two rooms where all the cleaning apparatus, &c., is kept, and under the stairs in the small projections are found two closets for the masters and mistresses respectively. This list of accommodation omits the large gymnasium, which stands in the grounds at some little distance from the school. See Fig. 273, where a site plan of the school is given. In considering" the accommodation provided, it will be noticed that there is no cloak-room provision. Secondh", that though the teachers' rooms are on the first floor, there is no provision of closets nearer than the basement, and no lavatories at all, either for teachers or scholars. E.xcept for these points, the building is planned on a lavish scale as regards room. The corridor alone, running as it does the entire length of the building on four floors, with width of 9 ft., makes an area of 2,970 sq. ft., which would be equal to a hall of say J^ by 40 It., or fi\"e more class-rooms. The plan of the building is simple in the extreme, consisting of merely one very long corridor with all the required rooms opening" off it. On looking" at the block plan (Fig. 273) it will be seen that all the class-rooms, with the exception of two on the third floor, look o\'er the playground. This system of a long corridor with class-rooms opening oft' it on one or both sides is one very commonly met with in German Schools. The next example, taken from the " Hantlbuch der .Architektur," shows another arrangement of the corridor system of planning, the building" forming a square, so arranged as to include the gymnasium, which serves for both Boys' and Girls' Departments, as is very commonly the case, though in many of the large schools two are supplied, one 344 LARGE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. for each department. This school (Fig. 312) is a large Elementary School at Mannheim, and contains seating accommodation for 2,100 scholars, for whom there are forty-two class-rooms, each capable of taking 50 scholars. The gymnasium is of considerable size, measuring 72 ft. by 39 ft. 3 in., having an entrance on each side of it with cloak-rooms. This building was erected in 1887, the architect being Ritter. The school has four carcera or punishment cells, two for each department. These are not apparently used much, and are generally omitted in the more recent schools. The next e.xample (Figs. 313-315), drawn from a work by H. Reinold 10 10 io 70 yo I— I I I \ ^±=: ISO 312. Large Element.ary School, Mannheim. Faber, shows a different type of school. In this case the gymnasium is included in the building, instead of standing away from the main block in the playground — in fact, German School plans may be roughly divided into those in which the gymnasium is separate and those in which it is included in the main building. The inclusion of the gymnasium does not prevent the aula or e.xamination hall being also provided in the accommodation. It is not usual to carry the gymnasium above the first floor. This example presents consider- able difference to the foregoing building, and in general plan and arrangement bears more resemblance to an English Secondary School. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IX GERMANY. 345 313-315. A Ger.m.^n Town School. Reinold Faber, Architect. 346 LARGE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. The accommodation is ample and conveniently arranged. This school has, in addition to the rooms given in the building above, a library, serving when required for a conference room, placed next to the masters' and mistresses' common rooms. There are lavatories for both masters and mistresses on each floor off the landings and the stairs. There is also ample cloak-room accommodation. There is no ex- amination hall to this school, the gymnasium answering here both purposes. On the top floor there is a large drawing-school and a singing-room. The latrines are placed at the end of the gymnasium, away from the school building, with which they are connected by two covered ways, one on each side, corresponding to the division of the building into the Girls' and Boys' Department. There is seating room in the class-rooms for 936 children, each class-room being capable of taking 72 pupils. The main entrance of the building leads straight through the handsome vestibule down some steps to the gymnasium. On either side of this are found the Headmaster's room and the office. The pupils' entrances lead directly to the cloak-rooms, which have two entrances on to the corridor down the centre of the building. This corridor obtains its light through the cloak-rooms and from the windows on the stairs. The cloak-rooms are of considerable size, each of them measuring about 27 by 15 ft., and are repeated on the first floor, and on rather a smaller scale on the second floor. At the end of the gymnasium is provided a room for the teacher and another for the apparatus. In the basement are found the caretaker's living rooms, heating apparatus, and coal cellars, also storage room for chairs. On the first floor the space over the entrance in each department is utilised to form a small store-room for keeping the apparatus used in teaching Natural Science. On the whole it is a carefully thought-out and well-arranged school, and except that there are no washing arrangements for the pupils, it is difficult to find anything that has not been provided for. The next example (Figs. 316-319) shows a somewhat similar arrangement of school, but on a much larger scale. There is accom- modation for over 2,000 scholars, the class-rooms being of two sizes, for 72 and 54. The gymnasium in this case is not included in the main block of the building, but lies a little way off, and is connected with it by two co\'ered ways. There is again in this school ample cloak-room accommodation, and the assistant masters and mistresses are well provided for. The accommodation is on a large scale. There is a room for teaching Natural Science with its store-rooms, a large rnmo noon PLAn. 5[C0nD noon PLA^N. riff ST noon plaj^. CnOUnO PLAN, 316- \ 1 H H 1 1 1 1 1 1 H- •iwa- fccT. 319. A Large Elementary School, GER^L\NV. Remold Faber, Architect. 348 LARGE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. hall measuring 63 by 36 ft., drawing-school, singing-room, and a combination room to serve a variety of purposes. We have hardly reached the point in this country where so elaborate and completely equipped a building, designed on such spacious principles, could be supplied for an Elementary School. I have endeavoured in these plates to compare the ordinary types of the more modern development of school planning in the two countries, the schools in all the cases selected being organised on the same principles, viz., that of separate class-room teaching. And while the English Schools are admirable examples of compact and ingenious planning, and fulfil all the requirements which sanitary science can demand in regard to ventilation and light for the pupils taught in them, they are most carefully arranged in every way to be as economical as possible, and every feature that cannot be proved to be actually essential for the educational or sanitary needs of the pupils Is rigorously cut off But although public opinion in this country will not tolerate an expenditure on the school which can in the smallest degree be considered unnecessary. It Is equally determined now that our children shall be taught in buildings that are as hygienlcally good as they can be made. On the other hand, in Germany money Is apparently much more easily forthcoming for school purposes, and the buildings seem planned with what appears to be an almost complete disregard for expenditure. Any feature or room that seems to offer a chance of advancing the efficiency of the school is at once included, regardless of the cost. America. — The American Schools for elementary teaching com- prise Grammar and Primary Schools. These are almost always In the same building, and correspond roughly to the Infant Department and older department of the Elementary Schools of this country, Massa- chusetts being the only State which supplies separate buildings for the Grammar and Primary Grades. No Master's office is found in the Primary Schools. The Head of the Grammar Is also the Headmaster of the Primary Schools of his district. Primary Schools are always mixed, the Grammar usually so. A class-room to hold 56 pupils* measures, as a rule, in the Primary Schools, 32 by 24 ft., and in the Grammar 32 by 28 ft., giving nearly 14 sq. ft. per head In the first case, and 16 sq. ft. in the second, con- siderably more than is considered necessary in England. Each class- * American School Architecture, E. M. Wheelwright. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN AMERICA. 349 room has a separate cloak-room attached to it, with if possible an outside light, and one or both entrances to it from the class-room. Sometimes iHomo nm nm 'O JO to r/HST rioofi Fim LuiJunl I— 320, 321. Public School, Longshore Street, Philadelphl\. the hall is used for the purpose of a cloak-room by means of partitions.* A common method of planning in America is that of a square building with large class-rooms arranged at the corners, and so lighted on two sides, leaving the centre of the building" for the hall and cloak- rooms (see Figs. 320, 321), American architects being sel- dom satisfied with one wall onl)' from which to procure light. This is, however, usually rendered necessary by the great size of their school-rooms. See for example Fig. 322, showing he first floor plan of Auburn- dale School, Ohio, which con- sists of si.x rooms measuring- over 36 ft. 8 in. by 25 ft. 8 in., and all of them arrangred so as to obtain light on more than one side. This plan shows the cloak-rooms with entrance only from the class-room. r/fisT noo/{ PL/in 322. AUBURNDALE ScHOOL, ToLEDO, OhIO. on more * See page 153, Cloak-room. riMT noon plan BfliLHENT PUN 323-325. The Fowler School-house, Cllveland, Ohio. Palliser <^ Palliser, Anhitecls. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN AMERICA. 351 The toilet-rooms, W.C, &c., are not, in American Schools, located in a separate building-, but are placed generally in the basement, where there is also, as a rule, a large playroom for both boys and girls. As an e.\ample of a large Elementary School there are given in Figs. 323-325 the plans of the Fowler School, Cleveland, Ohio. The basement (Fig. 323) is entirely given up, as far as the pupils are concerned, to playrooms and lavatories. The large amount of space devoted to the heating and ventilation, which occupies the re- mainder of the space, should be noticed. The arrangements of the air ducts and smoke flues are indicated on the plans. The .sanitary blocks are so placed that they do not, as is so often the case in American .Schools, come actually under the main block of the building. The boys' half of the playrooms is divided from that of the girls' merely by an open- work railing called a "picket fence," each having their own staircase. On the ground and first floor are placed the class-rooms. It will be noticed that most of the rooms are of large size, some 36 by 25 ft., and are called school-rooms, while three smaller rooms are provided marked class-rooms. It should be remembered that most of the actual oral teaching is done in these smaller rooms, more often known as "recitation" rooms.* In the centre of the building is a wide corridor called the main hall, but the available space left after deducting the cloak-rooms, of which there is one to each school-room, is not large enough to answer the purposes for which a central hall is considered necessary in this country. Another feature that would probably be considered objec- tionable here are the closets placed in some of the cloak-rooms, and so in the centre of the building. They are of course placed against the large ventilating shafts, and are so probably quite safe, as long as the ventilation is working efficiently. The hall is lit by borrowed light from windows placed over the cloak-rooms. The foot-warming gratings should be noticed. The building is spacious and conveniently planned. The school- rooms, though far too large t for our methods of work, are excellently lighted, while lavish provision has been made to ensure their efficient warming and ventilation. Figs. 326, 327, show the floors of the Bridgeport School. The sanitary block is placed in this case outside the building. * See page 52. t The school-rooms would take 90 children on the basis of the Regulations of the Board of Education. 352 LARGE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, m . RQOH I &CH0OL n«on I acHODi. noon S^ '7°"'" [J >1 JOLlfco" I t.J POto - FIRST FLOOf^ PVAN - - B-^SCMCNT PLAN - 326, 327. The Bridgeport School, U.b.A. lVarre?i Br/x.i::'s, Archit-rt, 328, 329. PuHLic School, Pine Street, Philauelphla. ENGLISH AND l-OREIGN SCHOOLS COMl'AREI). 353 Fios. 328, 329, show an American School arranged simply as a corridor, with the class-rooms opening off it. It will be noticed that the sliding partitions are so arranged that all the class-rooms on each floor can be at once thrown into one room runninLT the entire Icmjlh of the building. A hollow place is provided between the cloak-rooms into which the partitions can be run, so that the whole of the partition can be taken away. As there is no other division between the class-rooms except these movable partitions, it is difficult to see how disturbance caused by movement in an adjacent room is to be avoided. An emer- gency stair from the first floor is here provided. It is hoped that the above short description and plans of German and American Schools will serve to illustrate some of the more important differences between Foreign Schools* and those of this country. It may, however, be worth while to draw special attention to some of them. As has been already pointed out, the use made of the hall is perhaps the strongest point of difference. The Continental School Hall being used for social functions, annual examinations, &c., shows eenerallv some attempt at architectural treatment and decoration. In America the hall is often found in the centre of the building as in this country, but usually in the Elementary Schools partakes more of the nature of a corridor than in the English Schools, little objection being made to its use as a cloak-room by means of partitioned-off spaces, while in England every effort is made to keep the clear space as large as possible. In the more modern American Schools there is almost invariably found a separate cloak-room to each class-room as described above. This is not done in this country or in Germany, where till recently the walls of the class-rooms were considered sufficient. The sanitary conveniences, which in the Elementary Schools of this country are always placed in a separate building away from the main block, are in America always in the building itself, either in the basement or in an attached spur block. In Germany, till recent years, they were placed oft the landings of the stairs, but the unsatisfactory nature of this arrangement has led in newer buildings to their being placed away from the school-rooms, generally against the gymnasium, but invariably connected with the main building by a covered way, the plan of making it necessary for the children to go out of doors whatever the weather being peculiar to this country. The floor space allowed in American Elementary Schools is * There is a considerable similarity in the arrangement of the European Schools, so that it has been thought that to illustrate some German Schools would give a sufficient idea of the arrangement generally followed on the Continent. Z 354 LARGE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. very greatly in excess of both that provided in the class-rooms of this country and those on the Continent. To this is due the great size of the class-rooms in the American Schools, which combine the large numbers of an elementary class with a large allowance of floor space and single desks, which are usually only provided here for the relatively small classes of Secondary Schools. A further noticeable point in American Schools is the large pro- vision of ventilating ducts, and arrangements for the provision of fresh air and warming. Some of these systems have been adopted in this covmtry, but not often on so lavish a scale, nor is there anything like the same provision for this made as is the usual custom in the United States. The more rigorous climate of that country, and the much greater range of temperature to be provided for, no doubt accounts for this to a large extent. The school gardens and decorative treatment of the playground, which form features of Continental Schools in Northern Europe, are found neither in England nor America. For further examples of large Elementary Schools subsequent to 1880, see — Note. — Largi sized figures refer to volumes, smaller to pages. The Builder.— "},%, 44; 41, 266, 335,388, 450, 512; 42, 70, 130; 44,412; 45, 146; 46, 247, 572; 49, 54; 50, 506, 845, 849; 51, 124; 52, 282; 53, 615; 54, 27; 55, 396, 452, 470; 56, 298; 57, 174; 59, 386, 407; 61, 87; 62, 324; 66, 100; 70, 449; 72, 80; 73, 279; 74, 178, 317; 76, 28, 176, 316, 499. The Building News.— 'I'd, 210, 270, 470; 44, 98, 190; 45, 208, 368, 528; 48, 89; 51, 344, 568; 53, 54, 320, 860; 54, 180, 458; 56, 66, 720; 57, 817; 58, 202, 203; 61, 286, 644 ; 62, 365, 499 ; 63, 805 ; 64, 334 ; 65, 507 ; 66, 75, 797 ; 67, 857, 891 ; 68, 335, 476, 617 ; 69, 701, 557 ; 70, 43, 168, 301, 489, 745 ; 73, 761, 905 ; 75, 139, 515, 563; 76, 807; 78, 295, 353; 79, 413; 80, 333; 81, 691, 836, 691. The British Architect— \Q, 602 ; 40, 255 ; 46, 361, 364, 382 ; 52, 328 ; 54, 480. For further examples of Higher Grade Schools, see — The Builder. — 49, 356, 697 ; 70, 213 ; 73, 497 ; 74, 322 ; 80, 609. The Building Netvs.—b\, 686; 60, 804; 62, 90, 399; 63, 561 ; 64, 503; 71, 75, 147 ; 74, 707 ; 77, 477, 547 ; 78, 423. Chapter XX. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS (^Continued). HIGHER GRADE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. Origin of the Higher Grade Schools — Differences in the Buildings from the Elementary Schools — Laboratories — The London Higher Grade Schools — The Central Higher Grade School, Manchester — Higher Grade Schools at Scarborough, Nottingham, and Falkirk. As soon as the attendance at the Elementary Schools became some- what more regular, it was found that in some schools there were a number of pupils whom it was possible to take beyond the seventh or highest standard as recognised by the " Code " of the Board of Education ; although many schools still found that six standards were all they could manage. The raising of the leaving age, and the abolition of half-time, with further restrictions and more stringent regulations against exemption, naturally tended to increase the numbers of the pupils in the higher standards. As a rule, however, except in the case of very large schools, there were not a sufficient number of these advanced scholars to form a class, and they were generally taught by the master taking Standard \TI. at the same time, while teachers in small schools, or in those neighbourhoods where the parents took away their children at the earliest opportunity, probably had to take Standards W, VI., and VH. together. The London School Board in 1S87 made an attempt to meet this difficulty by appointing one school in each group, which was to have a special class, and to which any children sufficiently advanced should come from the other schools in the group. In these schools some arrange- ments were made for the better teaching of science, by the provision of laboratories, &c. This was open to many objections. The other schools naturally did not like sending on and so losing all their most promising pupils ; the 356 ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. selected schools became overcrowded in the lower forms owing to parents sending their children there in preference to other schools, in order to make sure of their admission to these high forms. It was in order to provide for this class that the special schools known as Higher Grade Schools were erected. These are now recognised by a Minute of the Board of Education, which provides that they shall be separate schools, with a four years' course beginning with Standard IV. No pupil is admitted to these schools without having attended for at least two years at a Public Elementary School, and having a certificate from a Government inspector that he or she is capable of profiting by the instruction in the Higher Grade School* The buildings for Higher Grade Schools differ from the ordinary Elementary Schools chiefiy in the smaller size of the class-rooms, and in the provision of rooms tor special instruction, such as laboratories, rooms for drawing, manual instruction, needlework, domestic economy, &c. The number of scholars attending one Higher Elementary School is limited by the " Code " to 300, for which number ten class-rooms would be required, and of which four at least should be capable of accommodating 40 scholars. The regulations further require that not less than 15 sq. ft. of floor space should be provided for each scholar in the class-room, which is to be furnished with single desks, the gangways to be 2 ft. wide, the laboratory accommodation to be as follows : — -The laboratory must be sufficiently large to provide at one time for the largest class in the school. A separate laboratory should generally be provided for chemistry and for physics. A laboratory should afford 30 sq. ft. of fioor space for each scholar, the minimum size to be 600 sq. ft., but if possible it should be somewhat larger. When the laboratory accommodates more than 25 pupils, a second teacher is required. Laboratories must be fitted with suitable tables, which must be well lighted. They should be properly supplied with gas and water. For chemical laboratories, sinks, cupboards, and the necessary fume closets must be provided. A small balance-room should be added it required. In addition to the class-rooms and laboratories it is desirable that a Higher Elementary School should include at least one lecture room, which should be fitted with a lecturer's demonstration table and properly arranged seats, t The plans of the Higher Grade Schools vary from a building little * For a further account of these schools see Introduction, page 8. t For science rooms see ante. Chapter VIII. Groancf f/an 10 5 10 £0 30 TO SO 60 70 SO 30 100 . 332-335. THE CENTRAL HIGHER T/ie Manchester School Board. ^ ^ ^ Th/r^y r/oorP/an Si(con r? 341. The Stanlky Road Higher Grade School, NoTTINGHA^r. A. N. Bromley, Architect. Stanley Road Higher Grade Sc/iool, Nottingham (Figs. 340, 341). — This school is well situated upon an open piece of ground. The class- rooms open off the large assembly hall, which measures 70 by 32 ft., and have sloped floors instead of steps to raise the back rows. On the first floor in addition to the class-rooms is a chemical laboratory, 40 by 27 ft., providing bench room for 56 pupils, and a lecture theatre, (^n the 362 ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. third floor is placed the cookery class-room with its scullery, stoves, &c., and the studio. The accommodation for teachers is provided in a mezzanine floor. Separate dining-rooms for boys and girls are provided for those pupils who come from a distance. There is a swimming bath arranged in the basement ; while a separate block of buildings provide a gymnasium, physical laboratory, and laundry. A noticeable feature is a garden in the playground measuring some 88 ft. in length and lo ft. in width, in order to illustrate lessons in botany, physiography, &c. The ventilation is arranged on the Plenum system. The incoming air is 342. The Falkirk. High School. A. &• IV. Blaci, Architects. drawn through a cleaning screen, being then warmed and then driven into the rooms by a fan worked by a gas-engine. T/ie Falkirk High School. — Figs. 342-344 show the arrangements of a Scotch School combining an Elementary and Higher School in one building, the first four standards forming the junior department. The ground floor of the school is occupied by the junior department. The class-rooms, si.x in number, can be converted into nine by glass sliding partitions. In addition there is cloak-room and lavatory accommodation, besides a private room for the Headmaster. On this floor there is also situated the gymnasium, as well as the rector's business room. The school is planned on the central hall system. By means of sliding partitions, the central hall, junior department hall. HIGHER GRADE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 363 and gymnasium, can be thrown into one apart- ment when occasion arises. On the upper floor of the school are situ- ated the class-rooms of the senior department, and chemical and physical laboratories, with large lecture-room. Space has been found for art and music rooms by raising the building to three storeys in height at both back and front. The class- rooms are heated by low- pressure hot-water pipes. The accommodation of the school is: — Junior department, 426 ; senior department, 515 — total, 941. It will be noticed that in some cases the class-rooms are lighted by windows placed at the back of the room. Evening Continua- tion Schools. — The schools hardly concern us here, as all questions arisinsf in connection with them are educational, the building-s being: the ordi- nary Elementary Schools. As mentioned above, some provision in the way of desks might be made to meet the needs of the pupils attending these schools, of whom a con- siderable number are adults. 343, 344. The F.Ai.KiRK High School. Chapter XXI. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS {Conti)iucd). VILLAGE AND POOR LAW SCHOOLS, AND BUILDINGS FOR SPECIAL CLASSES. Small Country or Village Schools, Description of — Use as Parish Room — The Cressing Schools — Mixed and Separate Schools — Examples of School — The Oakbank School — Schools for Mentally Defective, Deaf, and Blind Children — Methods of providing for such Children — Epileptic Children — Example of " Special " School — Crippled Children — Furniture for Cripple School — Boarding Schools for Deaf and Blind — Poor Law Schools, Description of — Boarding-Out vsrsus Large Schools — "Barrack School" and '"Cottage Home" School — Sites, Area required — Grounds — Dormitories — The Chase Farm Schools, Plans and Description — The Hornchurch Cottage Homes, Plans and Description. COUNTRY SCHOOLS. The arranoement of small country schools depends to so large an extent upon the individual requirements of the place and site that it is very hard to la\' down any particular type as generally applicable. In most cases they are Voluntary Schools, and having no rates to fall back upon, there is often considerable difficulty in raising the necessary funds. The plan is, under these circumstances, more likely to be regarded from the point of view of what is the minimum in the way of accommodation and building that can School Arranged on the be Squeezed through the Education Department, Pupil Teacher System. , , , -i-iir i -^r- rather than what is desirable from the point oi view of the school. Owing again to the difficulty of expense, the teaching of the school is usually carried on to a great extent by the employment ot pupil teachers, so that the type of building has to be arranged for this purpose — that is to say, with the long narrow class-rooms (see Fig. 345) COUNTRY SCHOOLS. 365 in which a number of classes can be laui^ht under the sui)er\-isi(jn of the head teacher. In planning- a country or village school it should be borne in mind that the building will probably have to serve for the pur[)Ose of entertainments, meetino-s, &c. The use of slidini^- partitions will often make this feasible, without undulv interfering' with the k-'itimate iCfiLL OF F££r 346. The Cressing Schools, Chelmsford. Clare cr' Ross, Architects. object of the building (see Fig. 346), and which gives the plan of the Cressinz Schools for the Chelmsford School Board. This shows a useful form for a village school. By means of movable partitions it is possible to get a clear space 5 1 ft. long. At each of the separate entrances for boys, girls, and infants is placed a small cloak-room and ;66 ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. lavatory. The school has accommodation for 120 children, and cost about ;^2,ooo. Fii^s. 347-349 show combined school and parish buildings on a ^^[i]!^ cQOuno fLOOP 347-349. Parochial Buildings, St James-the-Less, Bethnal Green. E. Hook, Architect. considerably larger scale. In this case the hall is placed in the best position for school purposes, but so arranged as to be easily available for parish purposes. COUNTRY SCHOOLS. l^^7 In Germany the school keeps its usual arrangement of class-rooms openintj off a corridor, even when the school is quite small. .See for example Fig. 350. Milage .schools are not in- frequently arranged with separate buildings for the different depart- ments, the boys being placed in one, the girls and infants in the other, a separate building being 350. .\ Small Ger.\i.\n School. sometimes provided for the Infant School as well. When the numbers in the school are small, it results in greater efficiency and economy to have the schools "mi.xed." A resi- dence for the master is usually provided in the school grounds. In its smallest and sim- ple.st form the school con- sists of one room, with a porch which serves for cloak- room and lavatory. With rather larger numbers the main school-room tends to become longer, and has a class-room at one or both ends. Where the se.xes are taught together there must be separate entrances for 1 1 II L""I] L"'I]-5o e::i] |l 1 1 t _i] jll I 1 LUC ■?- u I 60 1 1 1 ■ H HftL L ^1 1 1 60 n 1 ^ _j| "11 ^B ll 3 (>o ni ^ 1 1 1 ^H 351. The Oakbank School, Scotland. J. Graham Fairley, Architect. the boys and girls leading to their playgrounds. In Fig. 351 is shown an example of a simply planned Scotch country school with a central hall to take 250 chil- dren. The infants' room is provided with a gallery. Each of the class-rooms is arranged to take two standards. Another small school for _girls and infants is shown in Fie J3 ^s2. diKLs' AND Infant School, Arnl^dale. J. Graham Fairley, Architect. 552, also from Scodand. 368 ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. SCHOOLS FOR "SPECIAL" CHILDREN. Schools for the Mentally Defective, Deaf and Blind. — There are a certain number of children who, not being sufficiently imbecile to be sent to a lunatic asylum, are yet too deficient in mental power to profit by the instruction given in the ordinary Elementary Schools. For these children special classes are formed in the ordinary schools, or where there are a sufficient number, special schools, arranged expressly with a view to provide for their more efficient teaching. A certain number have so far profited by their work in these schools that they have been able to return to the ordinary Elementary Schools. Power is given to .School Boards to deal with this class of children under the Defective and Epileptic Children's Act of August 1899. This Act directs school authorities to take steps to ascertain what children in their schools are so far mentally wanting, not being idiots or imbeciles, as to be incapable of being taught by the ordinary Elementary School system, and to make such provision for their instruction as may be suitable. The Act gives them power to force any parents they deem necessary to allow such children to be medicalh" examined, and at the same time makes it obligatory on the school authorities to have examined any child whose parents so wish it, in order that the child may be sent to a " special " school. School authorities have three methods of dealing with such children, either by instituting special classes for them in ordinary Ele- mentary Schools ; by boarding out the children in some house near to an existing "special" class or school; or by establishing themselves "Special Defective Schools." In the second method they may con- tribute towards the expenses of the children placed in or near a "special school" belonging to another Board. They are further em- powered to provide guides or conveyances for children who would otherwise be physically unable to attend school. These arrangements are to be made also for epileptic children. The parents of such children are liable for contributions towards expenses of guides, conveyances, meals, &c., but of course not towards the education. In the case of defective, epileptic, blind, or deaf children, the age of compulsory attendance at school is lengthened to sixteen years. Buildings for Defective Children. — The regulations as to the buildings for this class of children are given in the Appendix. \'ery much larger floor space is required for these children than in the case BUILDINGS FOR DEKF.CTIVR CHILDREN. 369 of the ordinary Elementary Schools, 20 sc|. ft. being required for each child in averaoe attendance. In the class-rooms for tcachinw'.f.— 38, 540; 39, 384; 43, 354; 48, 88, 970; 51, 800; 52, 554; 53, 244, 860; 54, 617; 56, 719; 57, 252, 286, 318, 386, 4S2, 679; 38, 64; 59, 178, 818; 63, 629; 64, 503; 66, 377; 67, 517, 605; 69, 481, 739; 70, 130, 600; 72, 631; 74, 266; 75, 679; 76, 8, 777, 841; 77, 193; 79, 807, 913; 80, 175, 693, 797. The British Architect. — 16, 392 : 52, 58 ; 54, 93, 165. Wesleyan Schools. The Builder.—Z'd, 322 ; 51, 874; 56, 432 ; 59, 499. The Building News. — 46, 672; 62, 77; 69, 151 ; 73, 113, 825; 81, 655. Infants' Schools. The Building Neics. — 40, 232; 58, 830: 67, 319; 70, 327, 4S9, 858: 75, 409; 78, 190; 81, 417. Industrl\l Schools. The Builder.— ai, 435 ; 71,57; 74, 321. The Building Neii's. — 38, 100. The British Architect. — 43, 39. PART 111. THE HYGIENE OF SCHOOLS. PART 111. THE HYGIENE OF SCHOOLS. Chapter XXII. VENTILATION AND HEATING. Difficulty and importance of subject — Ventilation — Ventilated and Unventilated Schools — Necessity of Knowledge upon the part of the Teachers — Composition of Air — Causes of Vitiation — Dust — Amount of Air necessary — The Size of Rooms in reference to their Ventilation— The Circulation of An in a Room — Different Systems of Ventilation — Downward and Natural Methods — Comparison of the two Inlets and Outlets, their Size and Position — Tobin's Tubes — Figures showing behaviour of Air according to position of Inlets and Outlets — Size of Openings — Heating Temperature for Class-rooms— Different Methods of Heating — Grates — Stoves Radiators — Warming by the admission of Hot Air, Reasons against — Methods for controlling the Heat — Description of the Plenum System — Conclusions as to the Ventilation of Large Buildings and of Small Schools — Ventilation by Windows only. ScHOOL.s are an extremely difficult cla.s.s of building for which to supply ventilation and warming that shall be efficient and reasonably econo- mical. The rooms are usually many in number, differ considerably in character — from class-rooms to laboratories and large halls — and have a continually varying number of occupants. At the same time the importance of proper and effective ventilation cannot be overrated. It is hardly too much to say that the success of a school, educationally as well as physically, will to a considerable e.xtent be dependent upon the efficiency of the ventilation and heating. The lassitude and lack of interest, the inability to concentrate the attention, and the loss of energetic mental application, due to working in a vitiated air, are too well known to require any repetition here. Yet in spite of the denunciation of writers on Ingiene, and the continual discussions of the subject, the state of the air in schools is usually very far from what it should be : expense as well as the difficulty has no doubt a good deal to do with this. But as Dr Newsholme remarks — " Although pure warmed air mechanically propelled into school-rooms 384 VENTILATION AND HP:ATING. costs money, it repays the additional expenditure in improved health and power of work. Dr Wheatly states that at Blackburn a large manufacturer by adequately ventilating his w'eaving sheds increased his output 2| per cent. Dr Carnelly's well-known report mentions the fact that among 9 mechanically ventilated schools the average Government grant earned per head was 21s., among- 95 naturally ventilated* or unventilated schools it was only i8s. jijd. ; and a portion at least of the e.xplanation of the differences in grant-earning power of the contrasted schools lies in the proved excessive impurity of the air in the latter." t If some such difference were conclusively proved to be the direct result of improving the ventilation, it would be an interesting calculation to work out as to whether it would not be actually a good investment, from the money point of view alone, for School Managers to ventilate their schools effectually. Probably one of the great hindrances to a more universal insistence on the proper ventilation of rooms lies to a large extent in the fact that the deterioration in the air is invisible, and for a long time imper- ceptible to the persons using the room ; a room which appears exces- sively stuffy and close to a person coming in from outside may seem quite comfortable to those actually in it ; and also that the bad effects, although directly due to the use of badly ventilated rooms, are usually attributed to other causes, unless the conditions are so bad as to produce immediate headache or discomfort. The colds and coughs common in schools, which are usually attributed to draughts, are probably much more due to the lack of them. A window opened suddenly in a hot and crowded room is of course a source of great danger, but provided that the air is fresh and the custom of keeping the windows open is begun in the summer, it will be found possible to keep the windows open nearly all the year round in this climate. In the open-air cure for consumption the windows are usually removed all together, so that there should not be anything so very dangerous to persons in health in an open window, provided they are warmly clad. It should be remembered, too, that the dangerous form of draught is caused by a small opening into a warm room which causes the air to enter at a great pace, so that a * It is only fair to note in these comparisons that the expression ''naturally" venti- lated schools usually mean buildings in which no precautions have been taken for ventila- tion at all, or at the best those in which a few inlet tubes have been supplied. t Paper read to Sanitary Institute, June igoo, "The Healthy Scholar." VENTILATION AND HEATING. 385 widely opened window is not only safer, but often prevents the feeling of draught. "It seems to be important in the case of class-rooms to maintain a rather high and even temperature, else one would suggest that in the smaller schools, especially in the country, all the windows on one side, or even the whole of one wall, might be removed, and the children keep themselves warm with extra clothing."* Without going quite so far as that, it may be worth while pointing out that the high temperature required in class-rooms is usually due to lack of ventilation. A feeling of chilliness is felt when there is a certain degree of impurity in the air, in a temperature that seems comfortably warm with a proper supply of oxygen. While it is no doubt true that the cold air or draught is the actual inciting cause of colds, &c., it is the loss of the power of resistance due to impaired vitality caused by sitting in ill-ventilated and often over-heated rooms that render the victims such an easy prey. It is curious to reflect on the reliance which is placed on the power of the cracks under the doors and the crevices round the windows. It has been estimated that in an ordinary class-room all the occupants would be dead in about half an hour were all opportunities for ingress of air hermetically sealed up.t A great step will have been gained when it is more fully recognised that although there may be some risk in open, there is undoubtedly more in shut windows, unless some other means for the provision ot fresh air are provided. But until there is a strong public feeling on the subject it is not likely that much will be done. As the late Sir Douglas Galton said, "If the opinion was only equally spread through the community that bad air was detrimental to health, if the fact that a room being close and stuffy was regarded as disgraceful, if people refused to attend dinner parties where the rooms were filled with bad air, the architects, the builders, and the occupiers would soon find means that every room should be pure and of a comfortable temperature.":|; An interesting and instructive incident is mentioned in a small handbook on ventilation, by the late Professor Jacob, ij In some French cavalry stables the mortality of the horses was reduced from 197 to 20 per 1,000 by simple ventilation. Again, to quote from Major Fisher ^ — " A horse seldom takes a 'cold' from exposure to cold. ^ The Edinburgh Reviezv, The Fight against Consumption, October 1901. t Ventilation of School Buildings, p. 12, G. Morrison. i Healthy Dwellings. § Ventilation and Warming. ^ Through the Stable and Saddle-Room. 2 B 386 VENTILATION AND HEATING. but frequently is made ill from being too warm. It is the inside not the outside air that gives them coughs, sore throats, congestion of the lungs, and sundry other ills to which horse flesh is heir." If we substitute human for horse flesh, these remarks will lose none of their force. It has been thought well to discuss somewhat in detail the elementary principles underlying the different systems and methods of ventilation, in the hope that it may be of us6 to some of those teachers who, having had no opportunity of making themselves acquainted with the subject, are so very apt, either from carelessness or in the hope of improving the state of things in their class-rooms, to spoil or render quite useless any provisions that may have been made for the purpose of ventilation.* No scheme will ensure the proper warming and ventilation of a building unless it be intelligently used. Tobin tubes or other venti- lators may be supplied, but they will be found to be usually closed, and commonly used for the purpose of a waste-paper basket. It is, however, only fair to add that a badly arranged inlet may cause such unpleasant draughts that any means to stop it are justifiable. The Composition of Air. — Pure air, before being breathed, consists of about 21 parts of oxygen to 79 of nitrogen in 100, some watery vapour, a trace of ammonia and carbonic acici to the propor- tion of 4 parts in 10,000. Expired air contains about 5 per cent, less oxygen, and carbonic acid in the greatly increased proportion of 470 parts in 10,000, and is also raised in temperature to nearly the heat of the body, viz., 98°, and is saturated with moisture. Carbonic acid is a heavy gas, and will, if allowed sufficient time, mix uniformly with the air. It is, however, quite fallacious to assume on * An incident which happened within the writer's knowledge will illustrate this. In a certain class-room, which was a room in an ordinary dwelling-house converted to school use, having three doors and warmed by an open fireplace, two Sherringham ventilators had been placed for the admission of air. One morning, the weather turning cold, these were shut, and a draught being felt from the doors, two which were not absolutely necessary were fastened up, being finally, as the draughts got worse, pasted completely over. When this was done the draught from the remaining door to the fire was unbearable, and such strong complaints were made that the advice of an expert was obtained. The remedy was as easy as the explanation was obvious. By opening the ventilators wide, and lighting the fire in good time in the morning, the difficulties both of warmth and draughts were settled. The fire being able to draw its necessary supply of air from various points was no longer forced to draw a strong current from the only available source, the door. THE COMPOSITION OF AIR. 387 this ground, as is sometimes done, that the bad air in a room will be found near the Hoor. On the contrary, the expired air, although heavier than air at the same temperature, is raised by breathing to a warmth so much in excess of that of the surrounding air, that it rapidly rises and then begins to diffuse itself evenly through the room. This is indeed a matter of common observation, for instance, when ooing- into a gallery or upper part of a crowded hall ; but it is a fact not infre- quently lost sight of Carbonic acid or carbon dioxide is not itself an actually poisonous gas, and death would ensue if a person were placed in an atmosphere containing this gas in too large a proportion, merely from want of the necessary oxygen. There is among physio- logists no decided agreement as to exactly what impurity in the air should be attributed to the deleterious effects of crowded rooms. Puit whether the effects are to be attributed to the organic impurities in ex- pired air which certainly have a perceptible and disagreeable odour, or to the excess of carbonic acid, or simply the lack of sufficient oxygen, there is no doubt of the evil results arisino- from overcrowded, ill- ventilated rooms, and the term " crowd poison " has been used to denote this. In order to test the purity of the air it is customary to estimate the proportion of carbonic acid, as this will at once show to what extent the air has been breathed, and this may be considered a fair test of other impurities ; as it has often been shown by different investigators that the organic impurity in the air increases in a con- stant proportion with that of carbon dioxide. So that, knowing the amount of carbonic acid present in the air, we shall have a quite suffi- ciently accurate idea of its condition. Authorities differ as to the greatest amount of carbon dioxide that ought to be permitted. It is quite certain that no unpleasant sensation is experienced until the amount is increased to 10 or 12 parts in 10,000, yet authorities are generally agreed that the maximum amount should not exceed 10 parts in 10,000. The standard of good ventilation usually adopted at present would permit about 6 to 8 parts in 10,000 in the air.* The amount found in the air in the open country Is from 3 to 5 parts per 10,000, and it is usually reckoned as 4 for the purpose of a standard measurement.! * Heating and Ventilating Buildings, Carpenter, p. 26. + A simple plan for estimating roughly the proportion of carbon dioxide may be of use : — Six stoppered bottles are taken, containing respectively 450, .^50, 300, 250, 200, 100 cubic centimetres. These are filled with the air of the room which is to be tested by means of a small handball syringe. A pipette, holding exactly 15 cubic centimetres, is then filled 388 VENTILATION AND HEATING. Other Causes of Vitiation. — Besides the rise in temperature caused by a number of persons crowded together, from the expired air and the heat thrown off by the body, there is a constant accumulation of water vapour, and the sense of cUscomfort and oppression felt in a crowd is probably in a great measure due to the latter ; the undue proportion of moisture in the air, by preventing the proper evaporation from the surface of the body, deranges the action of the skin, and when evaporation is retarded to a sufficient e.xtent, a rise of internal tempera- ture succeeds. It is generally observed that cases of sunstroke occur in the o-reatest number where there is combined with crreat heat a high degree of humidity in the air. Dr Billings suo-o-ests that the great difference in the standard of temperature * at which rooms are kept in this country and in those in America may be to a certain extent due to the much greater dryness of the air in the latter country, as well as to custom and habit. In addition to carbonic acid, orranic matter, and moisture from the results of breathing, and the water in organic salts and fatty acids given off by the skin, there are other factors which play a part in vitiating the air, among the most important of which may be considered dust. In school buildings, from the great amount of movement, dust is one of the most serious and difficult problems to deal with successfully. It rises in great quantities from the floors of the class-rooms, it is kicked up in the corridors, and finds resting-places in the joints of the wood- work, floors, and corners till stirred up again. To these particles of dust are attached floating bacteria in considerable quantities, and while not all these bacteria by any means are injurious, there is probably a with clear transparent lime water, emptied into the smallest bottle, and well shaken. If the fluid becomes turbid, the amount of carbonic acid will be at least i6 parts in 10,000. If there is no result with the smallest bottle, the next is tried, the results being shown as follows : — If the too cubic centimetre bottle becomes turbid, 16 parts in 10,000. ,, fc-ww ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, i _ ,, ,, 11 -5*-^ )i '' 1' " )) 'o „ ,, )) 3°c) „ „ „ „ „ „ „ n JjO 11 11 15 11 1, 7 11 1, '1 43 11 11 i» T^ 11 o ,, 5, In order to judge of the turbidity, mark a piece of paper with a lead pencil, and gum it to the bottle with the mark inwards. If there be turbidity the mark will be invisible. This is of course only a rough test, but one which can very easily be tried, and which is sufficiently accurate for ordinary purposes. * See post, page 401. The standard temperature for class-rooms in America is usually gi yen as 70°. STANDARD OF PURITY REQUIRED. 389 certain proportion which consist of the germs of diphtheria, tuberculosis, &c. The difference in the number of germs found in well-ventilated rooms compared with those not so well arranged is very striking. For instance. Professor Carnelly gives the following results of his e.xamina- tion in Aberdeen and Dundee.* In the first town he examined 42 "naturally" ventilated schools, i.e., without special apparatus, and found the number of micro-organisms per litre to be 136, and in 39 similar schools in Dundee the number was 152. On the other hand, in the 12 mechanically ventilated schools in Aberdeen and 25 in Dundee, also e.xamined, the numbers were 20 and 17 per litre respectively. Another cause of the deterioration of the air occurs in the use of various forms of artificial illumination. These have been already treated at lenoth.t There is also durin"' combustions of oil or eas a certain amount of carbon monoxide given off, which, in distinction to carbon dioxide, is an actually poisonous gas, so that considerably more provision for ventilation is necessary for rooms that are to be used for night as well as day work. Gas burners are usually reckoned as equal to five persons in estimating the amount of air required for ventilation. ;J: Standard of Purity required. — The amount of carbonic acid that may be allowed in rooms without any injurious effects or perceptible odours is generally reckoned as 6 parts in 10,000, that is .0002 in excess of that in ordinary country air. On this amount there is a fairly general agreement. A fair average of the CO., given off is for adult males, 0.6 to 0.7 cub. ft. per hour; females, 0.4 to 0.5. Parkes adopts 0.6 cub. ft. per hour as an average for mi.xed assemblies. Dividing the limit of permissible impurity by the amount of carbonic acid exhaled in an hour, we have '- — , eivincr rooo as the amount of cubic feet of 0.0002 * * air required per hour per person, and this is the standard usually adopted. This is, however, rather in excess of what is necessary for school children, and Dr Billings, in his book on " Ventilation and Heating," gives 2,400 per head per hour as the amount that should be allowed. It should be noted that this is on the understanding that the effects of respiration are not carried off directly, but merely mixed with the air, which requires dilution by the addition of so much fresh * Conspectus of the Air in 85 Schools, by Professor Carnelly {Jourind of Pathology, November 1893), quoted by Professor Jacob in "The Ventilation of Buildings." t Page 114, The Artificial Lighting of Class-rooms. + Heating and Ventilating Buildings, Carpenter, p. 2. 390 VENTILATION AND HEATING. air. W' hen the vitiated air is carried straight off, a very much smaller supply of air would be sufficient, having been fixed as low as 1,000. But even when the downward system of ventilation is used, in which the foul air is carried off at the bottom, fair ventilation can be obtained with less than the 2,400 cub. ft. The Massachusetts law requires 1,800 cub. ft. per hour per pupil, and where this standard is maintained there will certainly be no perceptible effects of want of ventilation. Taking then a class-room 25 by 30 ft. and 13 ft. high, and containing 40 pupils, the air would have to be completely changed once in about S minutes, or allowing that the air is changed once an hour by natural ventilation through the wall, crevices, &c., once in 9.6 minutes. Hittenkofer found that a room in which all the windows and crevices had been closely pasted up, when there was a difference of 40' between the inside and outside temperature, that the change of air by diffusion through the walls amounted to 7 cub. ft. per hour for each square yard of wall surface.* This form of ventilation is too uncertain in amount and character to be reckoned in calculating the amount of air required for ventilation. The Size of the Room. — The cubic capacity of the room and its shape have of course a considerable influence on the question of its ventilation, but this influence is often overestimated, and even in a large room, if no fresh air is supplied, the atmosphere will quickly fall below the standard of purity desirable. One of the commonest fallacies in reo-ard to ventilation is that a high room is necessarily better venti- lated, and that if the requisite amount of cubic space be made up in heitrht, all will be well. As a matter of fact this is not in any degree the case. The additional height that is often provided in class-rooms, while considerably increasing the cost of the building and the length of the stairs, is, as far as ventilation is concerned, not only a complete waste of space, but considerably adds to the difficulty of both warming and ventilating the room. As Dr Billings, whose opinion is naturally of great weight, remarks, "In computing space for purpose of venti- lation, heights of rooms above 12 ft. should be disregarded."! In fact, the only advantage of making class-rooms of a greater height is for the purpose of effectively lighting the side farthest from the window, when of sufficient breadth to require it. Large rooms, i.e., in the sense of a large superficial area per head, are of course easier to ventilate, more air can be admitted and at a greater pace without causing any * Carpenter, p. 35. t Heating and Ventilation, p. 135. CIRCULATION 01' AIR I.\ A ROO?*I. 391 inconvenience from draught, as it is generally possible to arrange that the inlets shall be at a sufficient distance from the nearest seats. But it is as well to bear in mind that the size of the room will make very- little difference with regard to the necessity of providing for the admission of fresh air or to the amount to be supplied. The following table, which is often quoted, shows the time it takes to reduce the air in a room to a condition in which it contains 12 parts of carbon dio.xide in 10,000. The figures are of course only appro.ximate, since air is aUvavs entering' more or less through cracks and crevices. ,0 o Class of Building. Cubic : Capacity |)er Heail. Time required to contaminate the Air. Hospital 1,200 ' cub. ft. and above. 70 minutes. Middle-class House 1,000 » )> 59 )) Barracks 600 i> ^) 35 )) Good Secondary- Schools 260 )) 16 I) Elementary Schools 130 n 8 » This is allowing in the case of Secondary Schools 20 sq. ft. per head, pre- suming the rooms to be 13 ft. high ; in the Elementary 10 sq. ft., as laid down b)- the regulation of the Board of Education. It would be well that this should be borne in mind when the question of class-room accommodation is under consideration, for were the extra expenditure so often incurred by giving a lavish allowance of floor space devoted to the provision of more effective means of venti- lation, the result would often prove more satisfactory. The Circulation of Air in a Room. — It is not possible to show with any accuracy the line taken by the air entering a room, and so follow its course through from the inlet to the outlet. Innumerable eddies and cross currents are set up by local sources of heat, or by friction against obstacles, while the diffusion of the incoming air with that in the room rapidly destroys any line of demarcation. In a close room, heated by hot-water pipes, there is a continual circulation of air, but the movement is of course confined to the same air, so that the conditions will soon become very bad. In an ordinary room, heated by an open fire, with fresh air entering either by open windows or through inlet tubes or the crack and crevices left in the closed door and windows, the general circulation will consist of a rapid entering current of cold air at the inlets with an equally rapid movement out up the chimnev, with a cold layer of air from i to 2 ft. thick moving towards the fire, which will be affected by the various objects warmed by radiation from the 392 VENTILATION AND HEATING. fire. In the case of a similar room with a number of gas-jets fixed at the same level, as in a class-room, there are as it were three nearly in- dependent planes of circulation. The heat of the gas-jets set up a strong local circulation which does not extend below the plane of the jets. The movement is shown approximately in Fig. 363. The air above the line of gas-jets would be very bad, while the best air would be that nearest the floor. Where the admitted air is of the same temperature as that in the room, it merely diffuses itself without taking any particular direction. Different Forms of Ventilation. — In order to secure ventila- tion of any kind, provision must be made first for some power to keep the air in motion ; and secondly, for sufficient inlets for the admission of fresh air, with corresponding outlets for the escape of the vitiated air. The movement of the air can be produced either by the expansion due to heating, or mechanically by the use of fans. In the first case the movement is due simply to the difference in weight between hot and cold air. The former, being lighter, rises and flows out of one set of flues, its place being taken by colder air coming in at the bottom. This is known usually as the 363. Showing Circulation of "natural" or " gravitV " System. Air, after Shaw. , ' i. . . . A fact that seems often lost sight of is that the system of ventilation has to provide for the effective change of the air under two almost opposite conditions — in winter, when the outside air is at a lower temperature than that inside the building, and in summer when the conditions are reversed. In some of the more recently erected schools in Switzerland the engineers have pro\-ided a double set of extract openings. The difficulty of summer ventilation can be easily met in this country by having a plentiful supply of windows that open, and means of establishing through currents of air. Mechanical ventilation by means of fans is performed in two ways, by pressure and by suction. In the former, the air, being forced into the rooms under pressure, escapes naturally in the direction of least resist- ance, that is outwards to the atmosphere ; in the latter the fans are used to draw out the inside air, and so induce a current of air from outside to supply its place. These systems are known as the " Plenum " and "vacuum" systems respectively. Sometimes a combination of the two is successfully used. In both cases when mechanical ventilation is used the air is moved without any reference to change of temperature, 7 ~9 ^ ^ \ ■y DIFFERENT FORMS OF VENTILATION. 393 and the force used must be sufficient to overcome any disturbance due to this cause or to wind. There are certain objections broutjht against the "vacuum" or exhaust system. When used alone, it is difticult to control the movements of the vitiated air. The opening of a window, a dt)or, or a badly-fitting window in one room, will upset the ventilation all over the building, since the supply of air to the exhaust fans will naturally come from the place whence it can be drawn most easily. Another grave objection has been occasionally found — the air may be drawn in through the water-closets and lavatories, giving rise to un- pleasantness and to serious danger when there is any defective plumbing work. As Mr Wheelwright, the writer of a recent book in America on School Building, says — " In more recently constructed schools the exhaust fan is now rarely used, and then only for special purposes and conditions." * The two systems then that we have to consider are the " Plenum " f or pressure system, where the pure air is admitted high up and the foul air extracted at the bottom; and the "natural" system, where the vitiated air is taken off through outlets arranged at the highest part of the rooms, the fresh air being introduced at a moderate height or at the floor level. There is a very great difference of opinion as to the relative merits of the two methods. It will be as well to briefly state some of the chief arguments usually advanced in favour of each system. In order to make the comparison in any degree a fair one, it is necessary to assume that in either case the incoming air is warmed, at any rate sufficiently to prevent its causing an unpleasant feeling of draught. To compare, as is so often done, a method which brings in warmed air with a system which only provides for the admission of cold air, in which case the ventilators are certain to be closed in winter, is mani- fesdy unfair ; and it is just as easy to i)ro\-ide that the supply of air shall be warm in the case of the upward or natural system, provided that it is of a lower temperature than the air already in the room, as it is in the case of the downward or pressure system. Probably no small part of the credit which the "Plenum" system has acquired is due to the continually published tables comparing the results obtained by that system with those in what are called naturally ventilated schools, but which should be called schools with no provision for ventilation, even though there may be a few Tobin tubes supplied. It would be in- * School Architecture, p. 264. + For description, actual arrangement, and practical working of this system, see below, page 40S. 394 VENTILATION AND HEATING. teresting to see tables showing the comparative results of a well- arranged system of "natural ventilation" and the Plenum system. For the natural or upward system of ventilation it is contended that as the vitiated respired air is of a considerably higher temperature than that of the surrounding air, it rises at once, and so should be taken off at the top, while in the downward or pressure system the pure air being introduced at the top, the air that has already been breathed is forced down again past the heads of those sitting in the room, thouo-h of course in a much diluted form, and so breathed aoain. Those sitting near the outlets are in a continual stream of bad air, as the downward action cannot be of sufficient strength to prevent the expired air rising at all without causing an intolerable draught. Again, in case of a room illumined by any form of artificial light, other than electric lamps, the heat helps to strongly increase the upward current, and so helps to carry its own noxious fumes away. On the other hand, with the downward system the unpleasant products of combustion have all to be carried downwards past the persons sitting below, unless some special and rather elaborate arrangements are made in the lighting apparatus. It is further argued that with a downward propulsion of air perfect ventilation is impossible, as the vitiated air is not at once removed, but diluted ; much on the same lines, it is suggested, as a water supply in which the water was returned to the reservoir after use, but with one that was of a sufficient size to make the impurity scarcely noticeable in the water when used again, while on the upward system the vitiated air is taken away, the fresh air only coming to the people in the room, and being available for breathing. So that in the case of the down- ward system the amount of air that has to be introduced is very great, since it has to be sufficient in quantity to dilute the air in the room to the degree that is supposed to be harmless. It is usually reckoned that at least three times the amount of air is required for the downward system than is necessary for the proper working of the upward method. In halls arranged with galleries there is great difficulty in so arranging the down currents that the vitiated air from the galleries shall not be breathed again by those in the main body of the hall, or that the fresh incoming air shall not be all drawn away to the galleries. Further advantages claimed for the natural system are great economy in installation and in working, as nothing is required beyond occasionally cleaning the flues and slightly warming the incoming air, the impossibility of its getting out of order where once fixed from ignorant or careless use, and the avoidance of any necessity for a skilled man to look after it. DIFFERENT FORMS OF VFNTIL.ATION. 395 The upholders of the downward or pressure system maintain thai the natural system, even where assisted by heat in the flues, is unable to maintain the necessary movement in the air, unless under exceptionally favourable conditions of the atmosphere, and that under certain con- ditions of wind there will be a complete failure of the ventilation, with sometimes strong' and unpleasant down draughts, but that by placing the inlets for fresh air at the ceiling and the extract flues at the floor level a far better circulation of air through the room is obtained, while the opposite arrangement, i.e., the inlet below and the outlet above will lead generally to a direct current from the inlet to the outlet, leaving large parts of the room unaffected ; and that although in the downward system the air has to be brought down again, it is in so diluted a form that the unpleasantness is not only imperceptible but (juite harmless, and even if this may be considered a slight defect, it should be far outweighed by the very great advantage of a system that will act with certainty under all conditions of weather or temperature. Finally, that the question of cost should not be allowed to have much influence, it being desirable to use the best means for obtaining pure air. While each system has numerous and strenuous supporters, opinion generally seems turning rather in favour of a combination of the two, i.e., that fresh, slightly warmed air should be propelled into the rooms under very slight pressure through inlets placed at a moderate height and well distributed, the vitiated air being taken off by large outlets high up. In this way it is urged that while retaining the many obvious advantages of drawing off the bad air at the top, the slight pressure that the air is under will ensure a sufficient movement under all con- ditions of weather and temperature. Further, that the opening of a window in one room will not interfere with the ventilation all over the building. Two important considerations have to be borne in mind. First, that very great care is necessary in determining the position of the outlets and inlets ; and secondly, that the incoming air should be only warmed sufficiently to avoid any unpleasant sensation of draught, and should not be used for the purpose of warming the room.* In the case of many Secondary Schools where the classes are small and the rooms a fair size, in which it is impossible to go to the expense of the installa- tion of any elaborate scheme of ventilation, it is possible by the judicious use of simple means, such as ventilating fireplaces and hopper windows, to obtain quite reasonably good air in the rooms. f * See below, page 405. + See below, on ventilation of small schools, page 411. 396 VENTILATION AND HEATING. On the whole, it may, I think, be fairly concluded that in large buildings, where there are great numbers brought together, it is essential to have some form of mechanically worked ventilation ; but that in order to ensure that such a system will work properly, it is necessary to have a skilled engineer in charge of it, capable of making the necessary alterations and adjustments to meet the varying condi- tions of the weather ; but that in small establishments, by having a " natural " system installed under the superintendence of a really skilled engineer, and properly arranged, so that once in working order it will require no skilled manipulation, it will be found possible to keep the air in the rooms up to very nearly as good a condition as in the case of a mechanical system, provided that the apparatus is used with intelli- gence by those in charge of the rooms. It must not be forgotten that while no doubt very admirable results may be gained by a properly designed and carefully worked mechanical system, the bad results arising from a badly conceived installation are often worse than none at all ; and as any openings in addition to the regular inlets and outlets will upset the whole scheme, it is not possible to open the windows either during or between lessons, whatever the weather may be. Again, although the apparatus is guaranteed to change the air in the room so many times, and while it can perhaps be shown that it pumps a sufficient quantity of air into the room to do this, it may easily happen, if the inlets and outlets are not properly situated, that the incoming air passes directly from one to the other, while the main bulk of the air in the room remains entirely unaffected. A great deal of the support and writing in favour of the mechanical systems comes from America, where provision has to be made for a much larger range of temperature than is the case in this country. It is not unlikely that the popularity of the Plenum or downward system is to a considerable degree due to the strong support given to it by American writers on ventilation and heating, for owing to the neces- sities of the climate, and partly perhaps to their fondness for and great ingenuity in mechanical apparatus, the Americans have devoted far more attention to questions of mechanical heating and ventilation than this country. There has, however, been great readiness to adopt their methods and inventions, which, although they may be suitable or even necessary in America, are not required here to anything like the same degree. The Plenum system for its proper working entails the necessity of always keeping the windows shut ; but in a climate like that of England, it is only for a short time in the year that it is too cold to LXLKTS AND OUTLETS, SIZE AND POSITION. 397 allow of the outer air bcint;- brought in at its own temperature, and never perhaps to allow of the windows being opened during a recess when the class-room is temporarily unoccupied,* the result being that for large parts of the year when air might be allowed to enter freely by the windows, considerable expense is gone to to drive air through ducts and mains, often dusty and dirty, into the class-rooms, while all the windows in the building are kept rigorously closed. Inlets and Outlets, Size and Position. — The size of an in- let is dependent naturally upon the amount of air to be admitted, and the pace at whicli it enters. In order to avoid a feeling of draught in the room, it is usually considered that this pace must not e.xceed 5 or 6 ft. per second. If it is necessary to introduce it at a greater speed, o-reat care must be taken to so arranoe the position of the inlet that the draught will not be felt by any one in the room. The actual direction taken by the air on entering the room can be guided to a considerable extent by the shape of the inlet opening, i.e., it can be given a turn upwards ; but at the same time it must not be forgotten that it will behave in very different ways according to the difference between the temperature of the incoming air and that of the air in the room. In Figs. 364, 365, is shown from the results of actual experiments by Shawf the behaviour of an incoming current of air through an upright tube of the form usually known as a Tobin's tube. In the first case (Fig. 364), the entering air being at a temperature con- siderably below that in the class-rooms, although entering at a high velocity, almost immediately falls and flows downwards in a cold stream. In the second figure (Fig. 365), the air coming in at a temperature higher than that in the room, rises directly to the ceiling. The first of these two figures is quite sufficient to explain why inlet ventilators of this kind are invariably found shut in cold weather. Showing the Behaviour of Air Enter- ing A Room through a Tobin's Tube AT Different Temteratures. * It should of course be nott-d that this method of airing entails a certain waste of heating power, as it allows the room to completely cool down. + \\'arming and Ventilation, by Shaw, in "Hygiene and Public Health," Stevenson and Murphy. 398 VENTILATION AND HEATING. An outlet flue should if possible be placed against a warm chimney flue or heated shaft of some kind in order to ensure an upward current. An iron pipe in a chimney is often used successfully. Short tubes pro- jecting horizontally through the wall, which are sometimes put in, in the hope of their acting as outlets, are either quite useless for that purpose, except perhaps in the case of a strong wind from the opposite side of the building, or merely act as additional inlets. The effect of corners and sharp bends or alterations in the bore of an air duct or flue is often insufficiently appreciated. The carrying capacity of the flue is in this way very seriously reduced owing to the formation of eddies in the corners, which to a large extent restrict the passage of the air. It is reckoned that a corner at a right angle will diminish by 25 per cent, the theoretical carrying capacity of the flue. Air shafts may not uncommonly be found whose effective carrying capacity has been reduced almost to nothing. 366-37 >■ A plan of ventilation sometimes adopted in halls of carrying the extract tubes into a false roof with openings to the air is not only quite useless, but productive of strong down draughts. In the case of warmed fresh air introduced into the room under pressure, it is argued that the best position for the inlet is near the ceiling, on the grounds that as the incoming air is warmer than that already in the room it will tend to spread itself over the upper part of the room, and descending gradually will fill the room with fresh air without a draught, while the cooler air can be drawn out at the bottom. In support of this it is usual to find in books on ventilation figures showing a series of tests carried out by INIr Warren R. Briggs * when "building the Bridgeport School, U.S.A. (see Figs. 366-371). These Modern American School Buildings. 1899. INLETS AND OUTLETS, SIZE AND POSITION. 399 experiments were carried out in a model one-sixth of the size of the rooms to which the system was ultimately to be applied. The incoming air was mixed with smoke in order that its movement might be visible, and the result shows that under the conditions of the experiment, un- doubtedly the most complete dispersion was obtained where the inlet and outlet are disposed as in Fig. 371. But although these experiments have been adopted as a very strong argument in favour of the downward system as giving the best and most complete diffusion of the incoming air. and appear, as men- tioned above, in most of the recent works on the subject, it is at least open to question as to how far they are of value as a test of the behaviour of air in an actual building. First of all, size itself plays an important part in the behaviour of air movements. Eddies and currents might be set up in a model which would not at all necessarily be found in a full- sized room. The pressure, too, can be controlled when delivering air into a model in a way that would be quite impossible when it has to be supplied to a number of rooms at varying distances and heights. Again, the fact that a number of people expiring air at a considerable tem- perature (about 98') would necessarily have a great influence on the result, seems to be neglected. The further influence of the cold air from the window panes and draughts under the doors, and the interference caused by furniture in the room, the occupants themselves and their movements, all seem to have been left out of account. Nor indeed is there any information given as to the difference of temperature in the model and that of the incoming air. So that on the whole I cannot think that these experiments have much more than an approxi- mate value as a criterion of the behaviour of the air under the actual conditions of school work. If a system of heating and ventilation be adopted, as is usual in America, in which the incoming air is heated to a degree sufficient to warm the rooms without any assistance by direct heating, it is of course necessary that the inlet should be above and the outlet below in order to prevent the fresh air being at once carried off" by the outlets. The hygienic disadvantages involved in the breathing of air heated in this way are referred to below, page 405. The State Board of Health of Indiana, U.S.A., has laid down in their regfulations referrino^ to the building of schools : — " All school-houses shall take air from outside the building, and after heating, introduce it into the school-room from a point not less than 6 nor more than 9 ft. from the floor. . . . There shall be ventilating ducts of ample dimensions to carr\- the foul air from each room, changing the air in each room once in 400 VENTILATION AND HEATING. twenty minutes. Said ducts shall start from a point not to e>iteed 2 ft. ' above the floor of the room, and shall be on the same side of the room as the hot-air opening."* It is as well, if possible, to have more than one inlet. The outlets should also be divided, both for the purpose of avoiding draught, and particularly, in the case of downward ventilation, to avoid having all the vitiated air concentrated at one point, for in that case the person sittino- close to the outlet will be in a constant stream of bad air. The outlets shotild always be at least at large as the inlets, it being probably better to have them larger, even to as great a degree as twice the size. Size of Openings. — By the regulation of the Board of Education the inlets, which are to be arranged in corners or positions as far as possible removed from doors or fireplaces, should provide a minimum allowance of area of 2^ sq. in. per head. This hardly appears sufficient unless there is some means of mechanical propulsion in use. It is usually calculated that a square inch of unobstructed space will at the most allow 125 cub. ft. of air to pass through per hour.t so that for every thousand feet of air required 4 sq. in. of clear opening must be provided. Mr Edward Shaw recommends that for a standard American class-room measuring 30 by 25 ft. there should be an opening of at least^ gg^^ft., which, as the room is intended to take 48 "^ipils, allows 12 sq. in. per head. He goes on to say that 5 or 6 sq. ft. would be probably better, j Whatever system of ventilation be adopted it is of very great importance that the inlets and outlets should be of ample size, especially in the case of natural ventilation where the move- ment is slow. The little ventilators of perhaps 9 in. by 3 or 6 in. are comparatively useless, it is not until they are so large as to appear almost absurd to the unaccustomed eye that they are of real use. When once the fact has been thoroughly grasped that the larger the opening the less the draught, there will be more demand for sufficiently large openings. Probably more failures are due to the want of size in the openings than to any other cause. Heating. — The ventilation of a building is naturally dependent to a large extent upon the heating arrangements, so that before con- sidering further the question of ventilation it will be as well to describe * The Teaching of Hygiene in the U.S.A. Paper by Miss A. Ravenhill. Journal of the Sanitary Institute, April 1902. t Ventilation and Warming, Jacob. 189.1. % School Hygiene, Shaw. 1901. TEMPERATURE OF CLASS-ROOMS. 401 some of the more common methods used in warmincj buildinsfs. There is no difficulty in raising- the temperature inside a building to any required degree, provided that nothing more is necessary. It is when the heating has to be arranged so as not to interfere with the purity of the air or to help in the ventilation that the question becomes more complicated. It is not uncommon to find, where the heating and ventilation have been arranged for separately, that the heating engineer having undertaken to supply an apparatus that will raise the tempera- ture in the rooms to an agreed upon degree of warmth, does so with a boiler of the smallest size that can possibly do the work ; but when it is required to heat rooms that are ventilated, and so has to heat a constant supply of cold air entering, it is quite unequal to the additional strain. As a rule, however, the two are considered together, and naturally the better the ventilation the greater the amount of heating required. Temperature of Class-rooms. — The temperature at which it is desirable to keep class-rooms is variously estimated by difterent authorities. The Board of Education require that rooms should be kept somewhere between 56° and 60° Fahr., and generally speaking a room that is at 59° or 60° at the opening of school will be found comfortable. In America the regulation temperature is given as 70°. There are probably two reasons for this very high allowance — first, the relatively dry air in which, owing- to the rapid evaporation, a higher temperature is required for comfort — it is commonly reckoned that in New York the degree of temperature is required to be about 5" higher than in this country to give the same sensation of warmth; and secondly, to habit, the custom in America being to heat mechanically nearly all private houses, and keep them up to a high temperature. It is not uncommon to find class-rooms there in the afternoon with the tem- perature standing at 76° or even 78°. Mr Shaw, an American writer, recommends 65°* as a comfortable and healthy temperature, where the degree of humidity in the air stands at 55 per cent, of saturation. In this country anything above 65° should be considered too high, and even this should scarcely ever be reached, except perhaps at the close of afternoon school, the degree for conifort and health being about 60° to 62°. Complaints of cold are not usually made until the thermometer falls below 56° Fahr. It should not be forgotten that a greater degree of heat is actually required by persons in a badly ventilated room. * This would correspond to 60° in this country. 2 C 402 VENTILATION AND HEATING. The corridors, cloak-rooms, and lavatories, &c., should be kept up to a temperature of about 55°. The more modern German Schools usually have a glass panel in the wall of the class-room, so that the schoolkeeper can see the temperature without disturbing the class, and so regulate the apparatus as required, the temperature at which the rooms are required to be kept being from 17" to 20° Cent., or 62° to 68° Fahr. Methods of Heating". — The heat used in warming buildings is of two kinds, radiant and convected. Radiant heat is that which comes in a direct line from a heated object in the same way as light ; it can similarly be screened off, and like light decreases in power with the square of the distance, so that such a source of radiant heat as a fire is of little use in warming a large space. In a small room the walls and objects in the room are warmed by the fire, and they in their turn warm the air in the room, and the pleasantness of a room warmed in this way lies in the fact that while the walls and objects in the room are warm, the air is comparatively cool, pleasant to breathe, and does not become dry. In heating with hot-water pipes there is practically no radiant heat ; the air is heated by convection. As the air in immediate connection with the pipes becomes warmed, it rises, giving place to colder air, which is warmed in its turn. Steam pipes being much hotter, give off some heat by radiation, a stove of course much more, but these highly heated surfaces tend to make the air in the room dry to an unpleasant and unwholesome degree ; the organic matter in the air becomes charred, giving rise to the unpleasant and characteristic smell of a stove-heated room. The different methods in use for heatino- a buildino; are : — 1. Ordinary grates. 2. Ventilating grates. 3. Stoves. 4. High and low pressure hot- water pipes. 5. Steam pipes. The last two are either used "directly," i.e., placed themselves in the room to be heated ; or for the purpose of warming air, which is then propelled into the room. This is known as "indirect" heating. The ordinary fireplace, a cheerful and attractive, if uneconomical method, is still one of the most popular means for warming, and as it necessarily ensures a considerable amount of ventilation as well as warmth, it makes, if a good form of grate be used, an excellent though wasteful means of heating small rooms. It is, however, almost METHODS OF HEATING. 403 always necessary in a room used for a class-room to htive some supplementary means of heating as well. If the grate be arranged, as is frequently the case, with a good draught, open underneath, and with the chimney at the back, the fire burns very fiercely, and drawing a strong current of air, makes an unpleasant draught while very little heat is thrown out into the room, the chimney often absorbing over 90 per cent, of the heat produced. In order to warm the room a large fire has to be kept up, with the result that, since the pupils have to be placed all over the room, some are in a strong draught, some nearly roasted, the remainder merely cold. These objections can, however, be obviated to a large e.xtent in grates of the type of the Teale Fireplace Company "Front Hob" or the "Nautilus," which, while restricting the draught, have large surfaces which heat the air by convection, and so warm the room without the heat beingr verv fierce near the fireplace. Ventilating Grates. — For school purposes, where there is no special apparatus to provide for the introduction of warmed air, some form of "ventilating" crrate should be used; that is to say, a grate having an arrangement by which air is brought by a duct from the outside and passed over the hot back of the grate, and so admitted warm through a grating over the fire- place into the room. See Figs. zr- > J/ O' which show a section 372. 373- Boyd's Hygiastic Ventil.^ting Grate. and view of a Boyd's " Hygi- astic " grate. There are a number of e.x- cellent patterns on the market, but great care is necessary to see that the grate is carefully and properly fixed. In many cases where such grates have proved unsuc- cessful, the fault can be traced to ignorant or careless setting. The grate should be of some simple form so as to allow of taking to pieces easily for the periodic cleaning, which should under no circumstances be omitted. The great advantage of these grates is that by their use it is possible to bring a supply of fresh warmed air into a room at a very small cost ; these grates have also great warming power for their size, since advantage is taken of the heat at the back of the fireplace, which under ordinary circumstances is entirely wasted. 404 VENTILATION AND HEATING. Stoves. — It is not too much to say that of all forms of heating for school purposes the stove is absolutely the worst. It provides little ventilation ; it heats the same air over and over again, charring and burning all the organic impurities ; it reduces the air to a most un- wholesome degree of dryness ; and lastly, it is almost impossible to make a stove gas-tight ; during the process of combustion very poisonous gases are formed, and these escape into the room through the cracks, the metal itself becoming to some degree pervious when sufficiently heated. It has one merit, that it is extraordinarily economical, and will heat a room in a very short time with very little expenditure of fuel, over 90 per cent, of the heat generated being made use of Stoves are sometimes used for warming fresh air that is then led into the room requiring to be heated. In this case the stove should stand in a chamber communicatino- with the external air and the buildin^. o o The stove should be very large, so that it can give off sufficient heat without any danger of the surfaces becoming overheated, and suitable outlets from the room to be warmed must be arranged, or a due amount of air cannot gain admittance. Hot-water Pipes. — -Heating by the use of hot-water pipes, used either alone or to supplement that of open fires, is a means very commonly adopted. Although when used alone there is a loss of the cheerful appearance of the open fireplace, and also of a certain amount of ventilation, they possess many advantages. There is less labour in service; they provide a more equal distribution of heat, and they obviate the disturbance caused by making up open fires. While the initial cost of their installation is of course greater, the annual cost of their upkeep is as a rule less than that of open fires. A further advantage lies in their easy adaptability to any scheme of ventilation. Two forms are found — the low-pressure system, in which the pipes are large, 3 to 4 in. in diameter, and the temperature of which does not usually exceed 150° Fahr. ; the high-pressure system, in which small pipes are used, formed to stand a considerable strain. As in this case the temperature of the pipes rises to a much higher point, often above that of boiling water, less area of piping is required. Another form known as the "limited" or "medium" high pressure, in which the pipes also are small, has been found of great use for school purposes. A system which allows the use of small pipes has certain advantages — the amount of liquid used is small, enabling heat to be produced in less time than with larger pipes ; these small pipes are less unsightly, take up less room, and can HOT-WATKR PIPES. 405 be taken into positions, such as under olass toplights, &c., where those of larqe bore could not conveniently be placed. The use of steam for heating was until recent years generally confined to large workshops and similar places where the waste steam from the engine was made use of It is, however, coming now into use for schools and other buildings, owing to the improvements made in the apparatus by American inventors. It has many advantages, being capable of quickly heating a room, and of being put in almost any position. It is apt, however, to overheat a building, and the pipes often become hot enough to cause an unpleasant smell by burning the organic impurities in the air. It requires a skilled engineer in charge of it ; but it is usually found where there is already an engine for working machinery in the building, such as fans for ventilation, electric light, &c. With rerard to all these methods of heating-, where steam or water pipes, or radiators are placed in the room to be heated, the result will be very bad, unless proper means are provided for the admission of fresh air, as the same air is heated again and again. " This system of heating a school-room by steam pipes placed in the room is almost sure to involve a defective air supply, yet it is one that is peculiarly attractive to those who are not qualified to judge of the relative merits of the various methods of heating, since it is compara- tively cheap, and does give the requisite amount of warmth." * The exactly opposite method is that known as the " indirect " method. In this case the incoming fresh air is heated sufficiently to warm the room. This method of warming" is generally found in connection with the Plenum system, it being necessary to discharge air heated to this degree under pressure into the room. But the introduction of air warmed sufficiently to render any other heating unnecessary has been strongly condemned on hygienic grounds. In all cases where warmed air is introduced into rooms, it cannot be too strongly urged that this should not be relied upon for the purpose of heating. Not only is air raised to this temperature enervating and unpleasant to breathe, but w^hile the air in the room is warm the furniture and walls remain cold. As the late Sir Douglas Galton remarks in a paper read at an International Congress of Hygiene at Buda-Pesth — " The method of warming rooms by means of heated air necessarily leaves the walls colder than the air of the room, and the heat of the body is radiated to the colder walls. Hence * Ventilation and Heating, Dr Billings, p. 417. 1898. 406 VENTILATION AND HEATING. if the walls are to be warmed by the air admitted to the room, the temperature of the warmed air must be raised beyond what is either comfortable or healthy for breathing, and thus, if you obtain your heat by warmed air alone admitted direct to the room, discomfort in one form or the other can with difficulty be avoided." The extremely unpleasant and disagreeable effect of sitting close to a grating from which hot air is being discharged must be within the experience of most people. On the whole I think there can be no doubt that the most satis- factory method is that known as the "direct indirect " system, in which fresh air is discharged at a temperature just sufficiently high to prevent the feeling of cold or draught, while the actual heating is provided for by some form of radiant heat, such as open fireplaces supplemented if necessary by hot-water pipes, or by pipes and radiators alone. Care should be taken in the arrangement of the pipes. The practice of arranging hot-water pipes in channels below the floor with open gratings over should be unhesitatingly condemned. It is not only unnecessary but dangerous, owing to the difficulty of keeping them clean ; there is in addition great loss of heating power. Hot-water coils for the same reasons should on no account have ornamental cover- ings. Radiators are now made in so many forms that they can usually be found to suit any position and any person's taste. In regard to both the boiler and the area of heatino- surface it is most important that the allowance should be liberal. A large boiler will not only do its work more economically but last longer, and re- quire stoking and looking to at longer intervals ; and in a sudden snap of unusually cold weather, can supply an extra amount of heating power. When, as too often happens, the boiler is cut down to the lowest size that can possibly be expected to do the work, it is found necessary during the winter months to strain its capacity to the utmost, thus involving constant attention and great waste of fuel ; while in case of an unusual degree of cold it is incapable of keeping the building warm. The heating" engineer will of course determine the amount of piping required to heat the building to the required temperature, making of course the necessary allowances for loss of heat through walls, &c. There are, however, one or two considerations which are sometimes apt to be overlooked. For instance, the additional heating required according to the aspect of the school, whether the building is allowed to cool down during the night, and whether certain rooms are only required for use at intervals. The following figures are taken from a lecture before the HOT-WATER PIPES. 407 Franklin Institute by Mr R. Wolff* on the heating of large buildings. The heating power should be increased 10 per cent, for a northerly exposure; 10 per cent, when the building is heated in the daytime only. If the building is in a particularly exposed position this should be increased to 30 per cent. If the building is used intermittently with intervals of days or weeks of non-heating, the heating power requires raising 50 per cent. Easy and complete control of the heating power is essential to con- venience and comfort. The heating in each room should be separately under the management of the occupants, so that the idiosyncrasies of different masters can be satisfied. Especially in buildings heated by steam the rooms are often intolerably hot. There are many ways in which this can be managed. The radiators or pipes in the rooms may be arranyed in sections so that more or less may be used. There should be some mean between having the heat full on or quite off. In Fig. 376 it will be seen that the radiator for warming the incoming air is arranged in sections. In rooms where the air is admitted into the room over a coil of hot-water pipes fixed either in or against the wall, the inlet can be arranged with a valve or damper, so that more or less air can be allowed to pass over the pipes. This can be done in various ways. In Fig. 374 is shown a method suggested by the late Professor Jacob,t of which he gives the follow- ing description : — " The coil is enclosed in a bo.x with a diaphragm running" vertically throughout. By rotating the valve d at the upper part the stream of air is allowed to pass through the outer channel unheated, or over the coil so as to become warm, or by placing the valve in an intermediate position the air may be admitted of any required temperature. By closing the inlet valve B at the base the coil may be used entirely for heating purposes, the air circulating through the front opening c, ventilation being set up the moment the valve is opened." This should be a useful form of heating apparatus, as the coils can be used to heat the room until it is occupied, when by opening the inlet, ventilation is at once set up. The Plenum System. — This method of combined heating and ventilating under pressure, that has come into great prominence in * Quoted by Carpenter, The Ventilation and Heating of Buildings. + Ventilation and Warming, p. 46. 4o8 VENTILATION AND HEATING. recent years, has been already described from a theoretical standpoint. It is proposed to give here a short description of the method of its practical arrangement and working. Fia. 375 shows a part of a school building heated and ventilated on the " Plenum " or downward system. The air is driven along the passages at the bottom, and then passes over coils of hot pipes, of which a greater or less number can be used by means of governing cocks (see Fig. 376). Each class-room has a separate flue to it. The fresh air pipes, which are shaded in the figure, discharge near the ceilino". The foul air is taken off at the floor level into the upcast shaft. 375 V Si'XiiON OF A Building Heated and ENTILATED ON THE PLENUM SYSTEM. The fresh air pipes are shaded. 376. Part of Fio. 375 ENi.ARGEn, .Showing Division of Coils, IN Order to c.ive Control OF the Heating Surface. its movement being accelerated by a coil of steam pipes placed near the top of the flue. The air is intended to move on the lines of the arrows shown in one room. The Conway Road Board School, Birmingham (illustrated on page 335) is heated and ventilated on this "Plenum" system. The position of the inlets and outlets are shown upon the plan, and a short account of the installation and its working may be of interest. In this buildine the fresh warmed air is introduced into the main THE PLENUM SYSTEM. 409 halls at about 3 ft. 6 in. from the floor, and in the class-rooms at a height of 8 ft. The e.xtract tlues below and in the same wall are carried to the main shaft in the centre of the building-. The air is drawn into the building through a jute screen with water riuming down it by a 4 H.P. gas-engine. There is an ingenious contrivance for the blades of the propeller, the angle of which can be altered by means of a nut, and so alter the volume of air drawn in, but it must be doubtful whether an ordinary school caretaker would be competent to do this. The air after being drawn in by the fan flows into two large parallel main ducts about 6 by 4 ft. running the length of the building, one on each side of the central hall. The air is brought in the middle of the building, the main ducts running each way away from it at right angles to the direction of the entering air. From these mains the flues to each class-room are taken off, the opening of the flue being at the highest part of the duct, and at the mouth of each flue is fixed the heating apparatus. The entrance to the flues is made with a double mouth with a flap, so that by opening one or other the air can be heated or supplied cold as may be desired, by being made to pass o\-er the small radiator, or allowed to enter without contact with it, the amount passing in being in both cases the same. This position of the heating apparatus gives an additional upward impetus to the air. An- other method which is sometimes found in connection with the Plenum system, for governing the heat to be admitted to any single room with- out affecting the others, is that known as the double duct system, in which there is a horizontal division formed in the main ducts, both parts being then connected to each class-room flue. The air in the upper duct only is heated, so that any class-room can draw its air from the heated or the cold duct, or can combine the two in any desired proportion. To return to the description, the flues formed in the brick- work leading to the class-rooms are 4 ft. by 9 in. The fan which draws the air into the building has a diameter of 7 ft., and is arranged to run at 250 revolutions a minute in winter, and 300 in summer. It is calculated that this will change the air in the class-rooms si.x times an hour, which is hardly up to the requirements demanded by modern standards for this system of ventilation. There is no buzz or hum perceptible in the building from the fan. The cost of the installation was ^1,800. As regards the success of this installation, I happened to visit the school on a warm day in the beginning of July, in the afternoon, and it did not seem to me that the state of the air was satisfactory ; there was a quite perceptible variation in difterent 4IO VENTILATION AND HEATING. rooms. In one case the inlet had been nearly doubled in size, and in this room the air was undoubtedly the pleasantest. It is of course necessary for the successful working of the Plenum system that all windows should be kept closed, and there seemed something repugnant as well as unnecessary in keeping all the windows carefully shut, and going to considerable expense to draw air through screens, and then pump it along passages into rooms with every window closed on a fine summer afternoon, especially in the case of a building as this school, standing away from buildings, in a large open playground, well out of the town, when by having all the windows open to ensure a free cross ventilation, the fresh air could have been allowed to sweep through the building, and so keep the air in the class-rooms as fresh as that outside. The conditions of the air in these class-rooms certainly compared very unfavourably with that in those of a school in Norwich, which I happened to have been visiting a few days previously, where, though the day was hot, the air in the building, with every window open, was delightfully fresh. It is quite likely that in winter the comparison would have been more in favour of the Birmingham School. In noisy streets where double windows are necessary, or in the middle of a town near factories, or where the air may be contaminated, it is of very great advantage to have a system which will obviate the necessity of opening the windows. But in the case of schools not placed in these unpleasant circumstances, it would surely be as well to have the windows so arranged that when the cold weather is over they could be freely used. Ventilating engineers seem too apt to regard air, unless properly warmed, washed, and treated, as something dangerous. In the ventilation and heating of large institutions where there are large rooms with considerable numbers of persons in them, it is neces- sary to have an elaborate installation of heating and ventilation. In these circumstances there is usually a skilled man to take control of the furnace and apparatus, and provided that the initial installation is well done, the results are highly satisfactory. Owing to the reasons given earlier in this chapter, it is suggested that the most satisfactory result will be gained by the adoption of a system which takes off the foul air at the top, and one in which the heating, although warm air is supplied, is to a large extent done by means of some system of direct heating. One thing is, I think, certain, and that is, as soon as the general lines of the system have been determined on, the whole arrangement and carrying out should be put in the hands of a really competent engineer, W'ho should be given considerable power of discretion in order to adapt the system to the building in the best way. HKATIXG AND VENTILATION OF SMALL SCHOOLS. 411 Heating and Ventilation of Small Schools. — In the case of .small .Secondary and Pri\ate .Schools it is not usually possible to afford the initial expense of a scheme of mechanical ventilation, nor the cost of maintenance involved in providing a skilled attendant, nor indeed is it really necessary. The rooms are usually of fair size, the classes small ; and they are generally only used for forty minutes or an hour, when all the windows can be o[)ened for a few minutes and be thoroughly aired. If there is a ventilating grate by which a certain amount of warmed fresh air is ensured, two ventilators such as the Sherringham (see Fig. 2>77)> which give an upward direction to the incoming air, two extract flues of a fairly large area high up, and if possible connected to a chimney or some form of shaft with an upward draught ; in addition the upper parts of the windows made to open on the hopper principle with side cheeks ; and if there is no window on the opposite side, a proper ventilator over the door for the purpose of making a through current of air ; it will then be found that quite sufficiently good ventilation can be obtained, provided that the means supplied are intel- ligently used, and that the Principal of the school will occasionally take the trouble to see that they are being so used, and insist on the rooms being thoroughly aired as soon as vacated. 377- Ventilation by Windows Only. — a sherringham ventilator. As it often happens that a school has to be carried on either temporarily or permanently in a building where no provision at all or quite inadequate provision for ventilation is pro- vided, the best method of utilising the windows becomes of con- siderable importance. This is at best only a makeshift, and in cold weather is sure to lead to a certain amount of discomfort, though it is wonderful what a difference there is in the extent to which this discomfort will be tolerated. In the same school on the same day you will find one class-room with nearly all the windows open, while another has every one shut. A master or mistress who is a believer in open windows and fresh air will keep the windows open nearly all the year round, the children becoming apparently used very quickly to the feeling of draught. But windows cannot under any circumstances be considered good ventilators. In spring and summer, when the air is mild, it is pleasant enough to have all the windows open ; but in windy 4i: VENTILATION AND HEATING. 37S. HorpER Inlet for Ai and cold weather the case is very different, or when the air is full of smoke and fog. In the case of wind, when there are two walls to the room with windows in them, it is of course best to open the windows, if circum- stances will admit, to leeward. The slight tendency to vacuum caused by the aspirating power of the wind will draw the air out, and its place will be filled by air working its way in through cracks and crevices on the windward side. As a matter of fact, however, it is more usual to find all the windows on one side of the room. The only thing that can then be done is to open two or three windows slightly at the top. The wind will then come in, and to a certain extent ventilate the room. Some of the openings will serve as inlets and some as outlets, but which will serve which part will depend upon the freaks and currents caused by the wind. There are various devices for checking the draught caused by the force of the wind. Windows can be fitted with hopper openings at the top (see Fig. 378), which have an excellent effect in turning up the current of air, but it should be remembered that the omission of the side cheeks will allow a large amount of cold air to flow down at the corners, and cause an unpleasant draught. Where the windows are not so arranged, a piece of board fastened obliquely to the top sash will do a good deal towards checking the draught. This of course interferes to some extent with the light. Fig. 379 shows the arrangement suggested originally by Hincke Bird for obtaining an upward current by means of raising one sash. The question whether the windows should be opened at the top or the bottom will be governed by the intention as to whether the opened window is intended to act as an inlet or outlet, a matter which requires a careful and intelligent observation of the conditions on the part of the teacher in control of the room. When there is little or no wind, the windows should all be opened both at the top and the bottom, the amount of course depending on the temperature. In cold weather the air will of course enter at a much greater pace. The top will then act according to the season, as an outlet in winter and an inlet in hot weather. In still weather, when the temperature indoors approximates very closely to that outside, the only means of ventilation available is that of diffusion, and all that can be done is to open the windows top 379- VENTILATION BV WINDOWS ONLY. 413 (>: ^B ^■*A L V S' D 1 and bottom as widely as possible. It is when a stroma wind is blowing that the greatest difficulty is found ; still, by a careful arrangement, it is possible to keep a fairly constant current. In F"ig. 380* is shown an arrangement (jf wintlows by which more or less satisfactory results may be obtained. This presupposes windows on two sides of the room, which makes the matter much easier. The size of the different openings should be carefully noted. By having a large opening at a and b there will be a strong current set up from a to b, as shown by the arrows. This tends to create a vacuum by drawing the air from the other corners of the room. By then slightly opening the windows at c and d sufficient air will be drawn in to replace the air drawn out, and so the whole of the room will receive a fair ventilation, although the main bulk of the incoming air enters at the top, and is so warmed a little before descending. It would hardly be possible to keep to this arrangement in very cold weather. Where the windows are on one side of the room only, and there is a wind blowing in the direction of the arrows, Fig. 381, if the jSo. (C^'- \->- 1 ^ t 381. ;8iA. window is opened widely at the top, and only to a small degree at the bottom, a current will be set up in the direction shown ; but unless the wind is of considerable power the current is apt to go in the opposite direction, causing unpleasant draughts, and the amount of ventilation that can be obtained will depend chietly upon the fortitude of the children. Where there are double windows it is possible to arrange a more satisfactory system, as in Fig. 381 a. In this case the air has time to become to some e.xtent warmed before entering the room. * The Ventilation of School Buildings, Morrison, 1901. Chapter XXIII. SANITATION. General Considerations — Batiis — Number required and arrangement of — Lavatories — Number of Basins required — Footbaths — Swimming and Shower Baths for Elementary Schools — School Baths in America — Account with Illustrations of the Baths in the German Elementary Schools — A Bath in an English Poor Law School — Constant Stream Lavatories — Sanitary Conveniences — Number, Position, &c. — Warming and Ventilation of — Details — Trough-closets — Earth-closets — Latrines — Urinals, Details — Description, and Examples. There is no part of the school building for which careful and intelligent supervision is more necessary than the sanitary arrangements. Unless the Principal is prepared occasionally to look himself or herself into such matters, it is pretty nearly certain that an unsatisfactory state of things will soon begin to prevail. In order that inspection may be easy and thorough, it is essential that every part should be so thoroughly lighted that there are no dark corners anywhere where any dirt or rubbish can lurk undetected. Deodorisers or disinfectants should not be allowed, since they take away one certain and easy means by which anything wrong can be discovered. Well-arranged and sanitary closets, properly and regularly cleaned, should not give rise to any unpleasant conditions. BATHS, LAVATORIES, &c. Baths are not as a rule found in Day Schools of any kind, or at any rate not provided with any idea of regular use by the school. In Boarding Schools the number that have to be provided depends of course upon what other facilities there are for bathing in the way of swimming baths, and how often it is considered necessary that each inmate should have a bath. If provision is to be made for a daily bath, it is necessary to supply at least one to every five boarders. In schools where swimming baths are provided, and a bath once a week is required, about one bath for every fifteen to twenty will be probably sufficient. BATHS. 415 Baths are made of a large number of different materials — zinc^ copper, enamelled fireclay, slate, marble, wood lined with lead, and cast iron ; the last named being by far the commonest, and having many advantages, being cheap, durable, and cleanly. Fireclay and porcelain baths have the disadvantage of being very heavy and slow to take the heat of the water, giving an unpleasant chill to the person using it. For school use it is usual to arrange the baths in a row, either with or without partitions. They should not be cased in, and stand free from the wall, to allow of easy cleaning, the best form being undoubtedly some one of the many varieties of the so-called Roman baths, of cast iron with a vitreous enamelled surface. It is as well in a school bathroom, where there are several baths, to make the floor and walls of the room of such material that no damage may be done by the splashing that is sure to take place. The floor of the bathroom may be asphalted, the w^aste of the baths emptying directly into an open channel down one side of the room which discharges through an open- ing in the wall into a rain-water head, so that there is no arrangement of pipes at all, and the whole can be easily washed ; there is, too, no risk of stoppage, should anything be thrown into the baths. The taps, as a rule, are so arranged as to be turned on by an attendant with a key, or the hot- water tap alone may be so arranged. In connection with the question of the provision of baths for Secondary Boarding Schools, it might well be considered whether it would not be more economical both in time and money to adopt some modification of the spray bath as used in German and American Elementary Schools, such as are described below. That shown in F"ig. 393, page 423, would answer the purpose well. An arrangement of this kind would be not only less expensive in the initial cost and take up less room, but would enable a very large number to take a bath in a very short time, as there is no time wasted in emptying or filling the baths. Any possibility of the same water being used twice over is also prevented. Lavatories. — In Secondary Day Schools, and for day use in Boarding Schools,* the number of basins supplied may be reckoned at five for a hundred boys, while in Girls' Schools rather a larger number are generally provided, say one to every fifteen girls. These numbers For arrangements of basins in dormitories in Boarding Schools, see page 241. 4i6 SANITATION. will have to be largely increased in case many pupils stay to dinner in the middle of the day, as there will then be a large number requiring to wash at the same time. For Elementary Schools the numbers are usually reckoned at four per hundred for the boys' department, and five for the girls'. En- amelled fireclay being strong, durable, and easily cleaned, makes an excellent material. The ranges of basins with slate tops do not have a pleasant appear- ance. A form of basin specially designed for school work by Messrs Adams is shown in Fig. 382. These are built into the wall, and dis- charge into an open gulley in the floor, so allowing of easy and thorough cleansing. The arrangement of the waste should be noticed. The lavatories arranged to prevent the same water being used twice over are described below. These are usually arranged so that the water is turned on to the whole ranoe at once, and are not usually found in Secondary Schools. Footbaths are some- times provided, and are a useful adjunct to a chang- ing room or to a swimming bath, so that they can be 382. Lavatory Basins nv Messrs Adams. 583. A Range of Footbaths. used by boys coming to the baths straight from playing football, the best material for the purpose being glazed fireclay. Enamelled iron is also SWIMMING AND SHOWER BATHS. 417 used. The usual plan is to provide a range of these footbaths (see Fig. 383), which shows an arrangement of Messrs Shanks. These baths are made in one piece of glazed fireclay. The water is turned on simultaneously by means of a key, and so arranged that it is impossible to turn on the hot water without first turning on the cold, thus pre- venting any danger of scalding. The dimensions are shown in the section, each bath occupying about 19 in. in length. In ranges of this kind it is unnecessary to trap each single bath, provided that the waste is properly trapped beyond the last fitting. Swimming and Shower Baths for Elementary Schools. — While we have not got yet in this country to the point of systematically washing all the children in the Elementary Schools once a week, as is becoming more and more the custom in Germany and America, where in the more recently built schools very elaborate arrangements are made for this purpose, yet some of the London Board Schools have swimming baths specially built in connection with the school, and in many arrangements are made with some neighbouring baths, by which the school may have the use of the bath at certain times at special rates, though this seems to be done more in order to teach swimming than for the purpose of health and cleansing, attendance at swimming lessons being counted as attendance at school. Two Board Schools in Edinburgh (see Fig. 297 and Fig. 301) have a swimming bath placed in the basement of the school, as have also some of the Glasgow Schools. In the latest school built in Edinburgh the swimming bath has been omitted, owing apparently to objections on the part of the rate- payers. The bathing in the German .Schools is effected by an arrangement of shower baths, and without any idea of instruction in swimming. It is done not only with a view to j^ersonal cleanliness and the consequent advantage to health, but it is considered also to have an e.xcellent moral and educational value from the increased feeling of self-respect due to bodily neatness and cleanliness. The kind of bath that is suited for an Elementary School is thus described by IMr Bailey.* The swimming pool will be 50 by 20 ft., 2 ft. 9 in. deep at one end going down to 5 ft. 6 in. at the other, lined with white glazed bricks, and having steps, diving board, and handrail. The dressing boxes should be 2 ft. 6 in. wide and 3 ft. 6 in. deep, merely formed as partitions with half doors along two sides, with a * Paper read to the Royal Institution of British Architects, "The Planning of Elementary Schools," July 1899. 2 D 4i8 SANITATION. small number of larger boxes for the use of the teachers. There will have to be supplied also urinals and W.C.'s ; also four spray baths, which are considered essential for cleansing purposes before entering the swimming pool ; also, in connection with the heating apparatus, a washing and drying room for towels and bathing dresses (see Figs. 384. 385). While it is at least doubtful whether anything approaching the system of baths recently adopted in Germany and America is ever likely to find a place in this country, it has been thought worth while to o-ive a short account of them, as the arrangements would do admirably for a Poor Law School or simi- lar institutions where a number of children are boarded and require baths in large numbers, the use of baths of the ordinary type being a lengthy and tedious process. This plan of providing baths in the Elementary Day Schools is a comparatively recent innovation in America, and the following remarks of a recent writer on School Hygiene in reference to it „ „ e- Ti T- may be of interest : — 384, 385. SwiMiUNG Bath for an Elementary ■' School. I sn ^ T. J. Baile}\ Architect. " The school baths estab- lished and projected in this country are for the purpose of educating certain portions of the community in bodily cleanliness. That there is such need of such education in certain parts of our cities cannot be denied. In crowded quarters, under the pressure of hard conditions and surroundings, personal cleanliness gradually becomes neglected, habits of uncleanliness are formed, and moral deterioration surely follows. The testimony of those who have instituted school baths is strong with reference to the physical and moral results arising therefrom. A child, it is found, has much more respect for himself when clean, and is much more responsive to law and order, and a positive moral influence is exerted upon the parents and homes of the children. For one thing it shows SWIMMING AND SHOWER BATHS. 419 itself in cleaner clothing for the child. It counteracts the unwholesome personal habits engendered in such homes, for the habit of bathing and cleanliness formed by the child from regular week!)- baths from the age of six to fourteen will continue with him throuujh life." * There are plenty of schools in the poorer districts of London where these remarks would apply with equal force. It should be re- marked that the bathing above referred to is not compulsory, but as a matter of fact the opportunity is taken advantage of by 99 per cent, of the pupils. The plan usually adopted in German Schools is as follows : — There are two rooms, one of which serves as the dressing and undressing room ; in the other are arranged the shower baths, under each spray being a sort of large basin, serving the purpose of foot-washing as a preliminary to the shower bath (see Fig. 386). There should be space in the dressing-room for twice or even three times the number that can use the shower baths, in order to save time. There are many different ways of ar- rano-ino' the shower baths. o o In some cases the basins or tubs under the shower bath are as large as 5 ft., in which case there would be three pupils allowed to each. Sometimes a long trough is used (see Fig. 387 below), or separate little cells with a shower bath in each. The children bathe twice a week in some schools, once a week in others, but in no case are the baths compulsory. The plans and description of the baths for a school recently erected at Frankfort-on-Main are taken from a descriptive pamphlet of the schools of that town by Herr Adolph Koch, State Building Inspector of Frankfort. The bathing arrangements usually found in the Frankfort Schools were capable of accommodating from thirty to thirty-si.x children. But the great advantage of being able to deal with a whole class at a time induced the authorities in the newer schools to make the accommodation 386. A Row OF Shower Baths. School Hygiene, E. Shaw, p. 133. 420 SANITATION. 1 p. 1 1 1 1^ 1 1 7 .X. \ .■■ 1 ' ^, .-'' n i'-" y ■^'■ii^ 1 / :.. ^'■. 1 c... j 1' f I If ^i r- • — 1 ^ 387. The Baths in a School at Frankfort. Section- OTt^AJi 388, 389. Sections of the School Baths at Frankfort. SWIMMING AND SHOWKR RATHS. 421 capable of dealing with sixty at once, the arrangement being as follows (see Figs. 387-389) :— There are in the basement dressing-rooms measuring 33 ft. 3 in. b\- 21 ft. with benches round the wall and in the middle of the room for sixty children. This room is heated by the heating apparatus of the school building in winter. When requiring heating at periods during which the main apparatus is not heating, this is done by means of a gas stove. The cement floor is covered with linoleum. The bath-room next door, a square room of about 23 ft., has sunk in the floor to a depth of about 10 in. four troughs about 13 ft. long and 3 ft. 3 in. wide, made in cement ; over each of these near the ceiling are arranged three pipes running in the same direction as the troughs, the under sides of which are pierced with two rows of small holes, arranged so that the falling water shall all come within the edge of the trough. The water is heated by a gas water-heater, which will give the required tempera- ture in a few minutes, being arranged above the level of the ceiling of the bath-room to have the necessary fall. The lower parts of the wall of this room are lined with white glazed tiles, the upper parts with waterproof paint. The baths are worked as follows: — The whole class, consisting as a rule of si.xt}- children, after undressing in the first room, go altogether into the bath-room, take up their positions in the troughs, and sitting on the edge, wash their feet, three or four minutes being allowed for this; the}- then range themselves under the sprays, which are opened for two to three minutes, then the children return to the dressing-rooms. It is claimed that the whole process for a class of sixty, including dressing and undressing, can be got through in from ten to fifteen minutes, according to the age of the class. This period just corresponds with that of the recess between the two periods of work, so that a class can make use of the bath-room without any waste of time ; it can then during the time of the next lesson be prepared for another batch. The cost of the whole arrangement as just described is reckoned at about 4,900 marks, or say _;^24S. The cost of using is calculated to come to one penny per head. 390- Baths in a School at Zurich. This is a rather more complete arrangement than is usually met with. Sometimes the dressing-rooms and shower baths are in the same room. The water is always turned on by an attendant who regulates 422 SANITATION. the temperature. This is usually about 1 1 3'' Fahr. to start with, being gradually cooled down to 86° Fahr. German authorities recommend that the water should not be allowed to descend vertically upon the head of the bathers. Fig. 390 shows the arrangement suggested to prevent this. The following account of the system in America is drawn from Mr Shaw's book on School Hygiene : — In Boston in the Paul Revere School baths have been in use since 1898. This is a school of 800 boys and girls, and 125 are bathed daily, the whole school having a bath weekly during the school year. There is a period of bathing allotted to each class as for a lesson. There are ten shower baths and thirty dressing closets. Each bath has a flexible rubber tube reaching to the floor with a spray at the end, and the occupant can direct the spray as he pleases and the amount of water. The temperature is regulated by the attendant to about 391. Section. 392. Plan. Sketch Diagram of a Form of Spray Bath. 90°. The bath closets are made of marble with a rubber sliding screen, and measure i ft. 5 in. in height, 2 ft. 11 in. wide, and 3 ft. 8 in. deep. The dressing closets are made of wood and are a little narrower, being only 2 ft. 3 in. wide. Soap and towels are furnished, and the average cost is about 3i cents. In a school just finished at New York there are baths arranged on a still more comfortable plan. There are fourteen baths, each of which combines with it a dressing closet, the whole being a sort of double compartment with a sliding door let in made of rubber, so that the bather steps from the dressing closet into the bath closet. The measurements are 7 ft. in height, 6 ft. 4 in. in depth, the width being 3 ft. 2 in. The frames are made of iron, and the sides of wired glass reaching to within 6 in. of the floor. A somewhat similar method on a smaller scale of dealing with a large number of boys is in use at the Poor Law Schools belonging to the Edmonton Union at Enfield. The Superintendent, Mr Livocke, SWIMMING AND SHOWER BATHS. 423 findiny" that nuich time and trouble was involved in washing a large number, some 200 boys, in the ordinary baths, devised the followina^ scheme (see Figs. 391, 392) : — There is a circular trough formed in the floor of wliitc t^lazcd brick.s, round which runs a seat of similar material, the whole being enclosed with a circular wall about 4 ft. 6 in. high covered with cement, in which there is an opening for entrance. Over the raised centre portion, about 7 ft. in diameter, enclosed by the trough, is arranged a large rose spray fed by water from a special gas water- heater and controlled by the attendant. At the bottom of the trough is a copper tube pierced with small holes. The modus operandi is as follows : — The boys, ten at a time, when undressed, enter through the opening in the centre of the wall, each boy receiving as he enters a small dab of soft soap on the head; the)' then sit on the edge round the trough ; the water comes into this trough through the perforated tube, and they proceed to wash their feet. Upon the completion of this they stand in a group in the centre, the water is turned on, and by means of the con- veniently placed soap, a thorough cleansing is rapidly effected. This is only done in the Bo)-s' Department. Figs. 393. 394. is a form of spray bath made by Messrs Shanks which would well serve the purpose of provid- ing a rapid means of washing a large number or for use before entering a swimming bath. A waterproof curtain could of course be hung in front if desired. This is the form of bath that it is suggested above might well be u.sed for Secondary Boarding Schools, since it not only provides a great economy of time, saving the filling and emptying, but takes up relatively so little space. In both Public Elementary Schools and Poor Law Schools and similar institutions careful precautions have to be taken to ensure that two children cannot use the same water for washing in, as many diseases, especially various forms of eye disease, are thought to be communicated in this way. There are a number of ways of making it impossible for one child to wash in water previously used by the use of what are known as " constant stream " lavatories in which the water 393. 394. Section. A Spr.w B.\th by Messrs Shanks. +24 SANITATION. 395. A Form of Lavatory to avoid the usk of THE SAME Water twice over. By Messrs Tylor. is constantly changing. In its simplest form it consists merely of a pipe with small perforations discharging over an open grating, and so formino- a kind of lono- shower bath. One of the earliest forms was Doulton's trough lavatory, which consisted of a long trough about 12 in. wide, with sprays about 20 in. apart, the discharges being into an open floor channel, to which the floor should slope, as there is bound to be a good deal of splashing in such lavatories. Fig. 395 shows a form of lava- tory made by Messrs Tylor adapted for this purpose, each child washing in a separate spray which is kept running during use. In Fig. 396 is shown a range of Shanks' " In- stanter" lavatories. The water, entering at the back, flows across the basin and over the edg-e down the waste, a small o hole being arranged to empty the basin when the water is turned off. The water is turned on into all the basins at once by one tap, it being usual to have one basin at the end with a separate supply cock, so that if only one child requires to wash it can do so without the necessity of turning on the water to the whole range. This form of lavatory has been fitted in a large number of schools, and seems very satisfactory ; the only objection I have heard to it being that owing to the shallowness of the water children have some little difficulty at first in washing. In the schools of the London School Board basins are provided of some simple pattern. The taps, when a separate water supply is provided to each basin, should be of some strong self-closing pattern. Screw taps are very liable to be left not fully turned off. Lock taps are useful when the water is turned on by an attendant for a range of basins. 396. A Range of "Instanter" Lavatory Basins. Messrs Shanks. WATER-CLOSETS AND URINALS. 425 WATER-CLOSETS AND URINALS. Position. — The position of the sanitary conveniences in a school building requires considerable care. As far as the Elementary Schools are concerned, the question is practically settled by the regulations for school buildings issued by the Board of Education, it being laid down that "water-closets within the building are not desirable, and are only required for women teachers ; all others should be at a short distance, and completely disconnected from the school building." While this precaution may be necessary, and considering the appliances still to be found in many schools is sometimes certainly so, there is a considerable hardship in this arrangement for very young children in cold weather. Provided that proper appliances are used, and sufficient care be taken to cut them oft from the main building by an intercepting lobby, effici- ently ventilated, there should be no risk in having them attached to the main building. In America it is common to find them placed in the basement, but this can only be done in schools where an efficient system of ventilation is in force. They are as a rule cut off from the rest of the building by a lobby with self-closing doors, and are ventilated by a separate ventilating apparatus, kept carefully apart from that for the rest of the building. In Germany, while in the older schools they were often placed on the landings of the stairs, the unpleasant conditions arising from this has led to their being placed usually outside the building, but always con- nected by a covered way of some sort, the separate block of sanitary conveniences approached through the open air being seldom or never found. In Secondary Schools for boys there is usually a sanitary block separated from the other buildings, though it is also common to find them attached to the main building. In Girls' Schools they are of course always in or attached to the main building. A common plan is to make the lavatory serve as an intercepting lobby to the cloak-room, as Fig. 85. This not only answers the purpose well, but is a con- venient position for the lavatory, which may with advantage also be close to the cloak-rooms. It is often found a convenience to place all the sanitary arrangements, lavatories, &c., in a spur building cut off from the main block by a cross \-entilated lobby, and so arranged that access is possible from each floor. Care is required in placing closets for the mistresses that while they are in convenient positions the access should be screened from general observation. In Boarding Schools provision has to be made for a certain 426 SANITATION. number of closets for night use only. These are arranged usually in the proportion of say two to twenty-five beds near the dormitories, with access through a cross ventilated passage, and often combined with the baths, lavatory basins, &c. The closets and the passages or lobby leading to them should be warmed, a temperature of about 55° being sufficient. The ventilation should of course be arranged with great care to prevent any chance of back draughts. Separate sanitary blocks ventilated only by the windows or louvre outlets in the roof must be so placed that they do not come under any of the class-room windows. Number of Fittings required. — As regards the number of closets that are required, the regulations of the Board of Education give the following table for Day Schools :* — For Girls. For Boys. i For Infants. Under 30 children - . 2 I 2 „ 50 .. - - - 3 2 3 ,, 70 „ - - - 4 2 3 I! '00 11 - 5 3 4 ,. 150 - 6 3 5 „ 200 ,, - 8 4 6 .. 300 „ - 12 i 5 8 There should be urinals in the proportion of 8 ft. per 10 boys. This table, from the Rules issued in November 1902, shows a slight increase in the number of fittings required for girls over two hundred. These figures are usually adopted for Day Schools of all kinds. For Boarding Schools it is generally reckoned that there should be not less than fifteen per hundred in the case of girls, and ten per hundred for boys in addition to urinals. Water-closets. — The pattern of closet best adapted for school work is that which is least liable to get out of order from ignorant or careless use ; for this reason the valve closet is probably better avoided, and some good pattern of wash-down closet selected. There are many patterns of this kind on the market, and it would not be possible to mention all the different kinds. Care should be taken to see that there is a large area of water and good depth of seal. A later development of this form is that known as siphonic wash-down closets, in which For the arrangement of these see page 241. WATER-CLOSETS AND URINALS. 427 advantage is taken of the additional power to be gained from the siphonic action set up by a rapid flush of water. These closets have great self-cleansing powers. The closets should of course be of the type known as " pedestal," not covered in with any woodwork, so as to allow of easy cleaning. Closets of the bracket and projecting type, and built into the wall, allow of the whole floor being thoroughly washed. The water supply should be abundant and the supply pipes of large diameter, since it often happens that they are all in use at the same time. The walls should be covered with glazed tiles or some material easily washable, and upon which writing is impossible ; the floor so arranged that the whole can be easily washed. In Secondary Schools it is usual to find the closets separate, each with its own supply cistern, and this is no doubt the most satisfactory 397. A Range of Closets. Messrs Shanks. arrangement. In order to allow of easy and sufficient washing and inspection, some arrangement of the kind shown in Fig. 397, in which neither the doors nor the partitions are carried down to the floor, will prove satisfactory. In Elementary Schools some arrangement of latrines or trough closets are often found which are flushed altogether, the dis- charge being started by hand, or perhaps more usually automatically. In its simplest form it consists simply of a long stoneware or iron trough running beneath a number of separate seats or compart- ments, with an automatic flushing tank fixed at one end, set to flush the tanks at intervals regulated by the tap on the supply pipe. The trough is inclined downwards towards the outlet, where is placed a siphon trap, there being a slightly raised piece or weir at the end to ensure a certain amount of water standing in the trough. To ensure proper flushing a very large amount of water is required, as much as 428 SANITATION. 50 gallons being allowed for a range of 12 ft. These trough closets are by no means satisfactory even with a large water supply, and should not find a place in a school building. In order to keep the advantage of automatically flushing a number of closets together, various arrangements of connected closets are made but trapped from each other by the water standing in the pipe between. These are generally known as "latrines," in order to distinguish them from trough closets. These latrines are usually emptied by a siphonic discharge, and certain disadvantages incident to this form are minimised by placing the discharge pipe in the centre of the range instead of at the end. The ranges are usually made with a distance of 2 ft. 3 in. to 2 ft. 6 in. from centre to centre of closet, but they can be made any distance that may be desirable up to 3 ft. 6 in. The sizes of pipes for this number of closets would be — Inside diameter of horizontal pipe, 4 in.; of trap, 5^ in. ; of feed pipe, 3 in. ; while a tank measuring 36 by 30 by 18 in. is required. In order to obtain more complete isola- tion of each individual closet, latrines are made in which the pipe is behind the basins, each closet havinor an outlet at the back. As latrines of this description are usually placed in outbuildings, often unwarmed, they are very liable to damage by frost. It is therefore advisable to have them made of thick stoneware, and also to have some arrangement by which the basins and connecting pipes can be emptied, the trap at the end being of course left charged. Wash-down closets of the ordinary type are often fitted in ranges, and so form latrines flushed by a single tank. The flush should in this case be two or three times the amount usually allowed for a single closet. & Earth-closets. — In the case of small schools situated in country places, it is sometimes found advantageous or necessary to resort to the system of earth-closets. While these are difficult to manage, and are unsuitable for use on a large scale, they are, provided that proper care is exercised and a good form employed, a sanitary and satisfactory method. The earth supplied should be of a loamy nature, perfectly dry and finely sifted. Sand should not be used. There should be supplied about i cwt. weekly for every six persons using the closet.* The earth, if kept in a dry place for about six weeks, can be used again. Ashes and peat dust are also used. The best form of earth * The Sanitary Arrangement of Dwelling-houses, A. J. W'allis-Tayler, 1894. WATER-CLOSETS AND URINALS. 429 closet is probably that made by the Moulc's Patent Earth-closet Company. Urinals. — Urinals should be provided in the proportion of one to every fifteen boys. These require far more care and attention both in construction and in looking after than they usually receive. It is no uncommon thinq- to find in schools otherwise extremely well provided and well looked after, most unpleasant conditions prevailing here. Unless liberal Hushing arrangements are provided, properly arranged and freely used, inconvenience is sure to arise. Nothing but im- pervious materials should be used, such as glazed fireclay, or polished and oiled slate, or marble. The form of urinal very commonly found in school playgrounds is that of stalls composed of .slate slabs fixed from 18 in. to 2 ft. apart, and projecting 18 in., with a sparge pipe for flushing. The slabs are usually i^ in. thick. Effec- tive cleansing is possible when the divisions are arranged so that they are not carried down to the floor. Holdfasts for supporting" the slabs should be of copper, as iron is soon corroded. This form of urinal has the advantage of being inexpensive, and if fixed in the playground and well looked after, may be prevented from being very offensive ; but owing to the corners and angles it cannot be efficiently cleaned, an objection which applies to all forms of urinals made of slabs of whatever material. A further disadvantage of slate lies in the facilities it offers for writing" and scribbling on. This objection can be overcome by periodically covering the slate with a mixture of coal-tar and naphtha, which has the further advantage of preventing absorption. The slate is also much improved by oiling. Fig. 398 shows an arrangement suggested by Mr Wheelwright,* as used in American Schools, in which the ventilation duct in carried through the middle. Satisfactory results are claimed for this arrangement. The great improvement in recent years in the production of enamelled fireclay has made it possible to produce urinals of im- pervious non-absorptive material to which there are no angles or surfaces that cannot be easily cleaned, and which, if fitted with a good automatic flushing" tank, are extremely satisfactory, and give rise to no offensive conditions. * School Architecture, E. M. Wheelwright, 1901 APPENDICES. RULES FOR PLANNING AND FITTING UP ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. NOTE. Owing to the fact that the regulations for Elementary School Buildings were in process of revision during 1902, they were omitted from the Code in that year, the previous Rules remaining in force for the time. The new Rules given here were issued when the bulk of the book was printed, and were therefore too late for con- sideration or mention in the body of it. To this fact is to be attributed any slight discrepancy which may occur, in one or two instances, between the text and the New Building Rules, all refer- ences being to the Code for 1901. Appendix A. RULES OF THE BOARD OF EDUCATION TO BE ODSERVED IN PLANNING AND FITTING UP PUBLIC ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS AS REVISED AND ISSUED IN NOVEMBER 1902. Prefatory Note. The following Rules are to be regarded as embodying the result of the experience of the Board of Education in school planning. They are intended to show School Managers and their Architects what the Board deem essential in the construction and design of school buildings, but in other respects they are not meant to restrict liberty of treatment. Every part of a school building should be thoroughly adapted to the work of school teaching. Such a building therefore must be provided with an ample plaj'ground, must be of sufficiently solid construction, suitably lighted and warmed, and thoroughly ventilated without draughts. It must have a sufficient number of entrances and adequate cloak-room accommodation; scrupulous care must be devoted to sanitary arrangements. The Rules which deal with these matters express in each case the principles to which the Board will e.xpect all new buildings to conform. The remaining Rules are intended to aid in the production of buildings which shall be compact, properly subdivided for class teaching, conveniently arranged for effective supervision by the principal teacher and for the movement of the children from the entrances to the class-rooms, or from one class-room to another. They also indicate how to obtain the most economical school building. No school should ordinarily be built to accommodate more than 1,000 to 1,200 children, in three departments. No single department should accommodate more than 400 children. A large school in three departments might conveniently be divided in the following proportions : — Boys, 360 ; girls, 360 ; infants, 3S0. For departments of this size the most suitable plan is that of a central hall, with the class-rooms grouped round it ; as a rule such a department would probabl)- require seven class-rooms. Smaller departments ma_\- be planned conveniently with the class-rooms opening from a corridor. For small schools a large room 2 E 434 APPENDIX A. with one or more class-rooms will be sufficient. There should always be at least one class-room, except in special cases. Where the site is sufficiently large, open and fairly level, the most economical plan is that of a school on a single floor. Such an arrangement is also preferable on educational grounds. In any case it is desirable that a school building should not be on more than two floors. A building on three floors is open to many objections, and should only be proposed in special circumstances, or on very costly sites. Before instructing an architect, managers are recommended to have careful regard to the size and circumstances of the school, and to the number and qualifications of the staff to be employed. These considerations will determine approximately the method of grouping the scholars for instruction, and on this will depend the number and the accommodation of the rooms of which the school building should consist. The annual cost of maintenance should be borne in mind, as well as the initial capital expense. Article 85 («) of the Code provides as follows : — All neiv school premises and enlargeincnts initst be approved by the Board before such i/ezv premises and eiilargeiiieiits are passed under this article. REQUIREMENTS. Plans which do not fully comply with the following requirements cannot be considered : — I. A Block Plan of the Site, drawn in ink to a scale of 20 ft. to an inch. This plan must indicate — {a.) The position of the school buildings. (p.) Out-buildings. (c.) Playground. (d.) Drains (collateral and main), with their fall and depth below ground. («.) Entrances. (/ ) Boundary walls or fences, and their nature. (g.) Roads. (Ji.) The points of the compass. (/.) The levels of the ground at the principal points. N.B. — For approval of site alone, the plan should show {g), {li), and (/). II. A Plan of each Floor of the School-rooms (and Teacher's OR Caretaker's Residence, if any) drawn in ink to a scale of 8 ft. to an inch. The internal fittings of the rooms {fireplaces, groups of desks, &c.) must be accurately shown. The plan should also state whether the rooms are intended for boys, girls, or infants. In cases of enlargement, a plan showing the buildings as they exist is needed. RULES I'"OR KLKMi:XT.\RV SCHOOLS. 435 in. Skctioxs and at lea.st four Elevatiox.s, al.so drawn in inl< to a .scale -of 8 ft. to an inch. The ceiling, the position.s of \vind(j\v-head.s in relation thereto, and the mode of ventilation must be shown. N.B. — {a.) Pencil drawings cannot be received, but coloured tracings in ink on tracing cloth may be submitted while plans are in the preliminary stage of pencil, so that suggested alterations can lie adopted without difficulty or expense. (/'.) Diagrams are of no value and cannot be accepted. {c.) In the case of enlargements or alterations, the whole site and the existing building should be as accurately shown in every respect as the proposed changes, and in such a manner that any change of numbers can be ascertained. (d.) All plans should be dated, the scales drawn on, and dimensions figured. IV. A Det.\iled Specification .separated under the .several branches of the Building Trade. V. A Section of the De.sk proposed to be used, drawn to a scale of li in. to a foot. RULES. Riile I. — Planning. Every school must be planned so that the children can be seated in the best manner for being taught. The rooms must be grouped compactly and con- veniently, so as to secure ]5roper organisation and supervision. It is important to remember that the accommodation of every room depends not merely on its area, but also on the lighting, the shape of the room (especially in relation to the kind of desk proposed), and the position of the doors and fireplaces. The doors and fireplaces should be arranged so as to allow the whole of one side of any room to be left free for the groups of desks. Rule 2.— Central Halls. A central hall should have a floor space of about 3^ but not exceeding 4 sq. ft. for each scholar for whom the school is recognised. The hall must be fully lighted, warmed, and ventilated. {a.) A single central hall may be provided for the joint u.se, at separate times, of two departments, provided that it is so placed as to be readily acces- sible from the class-rooms of each department. {b.) Where outdoor space is not available, physical training should be given in the central hall (or corridor). This purpose should be taken into considera- tion at the time when the building is planned. Since fixed gymnastic apparatus is unsuitable for children under fourteen j-ears of age, a separate gymnasium is not required, and cannot be approved (Schedule III. of the Code, i and 4). Rule 3.— CoRKinoK.s. Large schools not built with a central hall must be provided with a wide corridor giving access to the rooms. A corridor should be fully and directly lighted and ventilated, and from 8 to 12 ft. wide, according to the size of the school. Two or three of the rooms ought lo be separated only b\- movable partitions, in order to secure flexible working. 436 APPENDIX A. Rule 4, — School-rooms. A school-room should never be designed for more than 120 children, and a room of even smaller size is desirable. The proper width is from iS to 22 ft., according to the kind and arrangement of the desks (Rule 15) ; but ver\' small school-rooms need not be more than 16 ft. wide. No school-room lighted from one side only can be approved. The gable ends should be fully utilised for windows, and there should be no superfluous windows opposite the teacher. A school-room which has no class-room attached should not contain more than 600 sq. ft. of floor space. Rule 5. — Class-rooms. The number of class-rooms should be sufficient for the size and circum- stances of the school. (rt.) The class-rooms should never be passage-rooms from one part of the building to another, nor from the school-rooms to the plajground or yard. Both school-rooms and class-rooms must have independent entrances. Every room should be easily cleared without disturbance to any other room. (/'.) A class-room should not be planned to accommodate more than from fifty to sixty children ; but in special cases somewhat larger rooms may be approved. The minimum size is 18 ft. by 15 ft., but if the desks are arranged parallel to the longer side of the room, the width should be not less than 16 ft. In the absence of supplementary light the measurement from the window-wall in a room 14 ft. high should not exceed 24 ft. 8 in. Rule 6. — Accommodation. The accommodation of a school for older scholars is based upon the number of children who can be seated at the desks, arranged in accordance with Rule 15^ provided that a minimum of 10 sq. ft. of floor space per child is obtained. A central hall will not be counted in the accommodation, nor will a class- room for cookery, laundr)', manual instruction, drawing, or science. Rule 7.— Walls, Floors, and Roofs. The walls of every room used for teaching, if ceiled at the level of the wall plate, must be at least 1 2 ft. high from the level of the floor to the ceiling ; if the area of the room exceed 360 sq. ft., the height must be not less than 13 ft., and if it exceed 600 sq. ft., then the height must be at least 14 ft. (a.) The walls of every room used for teaching, if ceiled to the rafters and collar beam, must be at least 1 1 ft. high from the floor to the wall plate, and at least 14 ft. to the ceiling across the collar beam. {b.) Great care should be taken to render the roofs impervious to cold and heat. (c.) Roofs open to the apex are very undesirable. They can only be per- mitted where the roofs are specially impervious to heat and cold, and where apex ventilation is provided. Iron tie-rods are least unsightly when placed hori- zontall)-. RULES FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 437 (d.) The whole of tlic external walls of the school and residence must be solid. If of brick, the thickness must be at least one brick and a half; and if of stone, at least 20 in.; where hollow walls are proposed, one portion must have the full thickness required for a solid wall. (<•.) All walls, not excepting; fence walls, should have a damp-proof course just above the ground line. (/.) The vegetable soil within the area of the building should be removed, the whole space covered by a la}'er of concrete not less than G in. thick, and air- bricks inserted in opposite walls to ensure a througli current of air under floors for ventilation to joists. {g.) Timber should be protected from the mortar and cement by asphalt or tar. Rule 8. — E^TRA^•CES. Entrances should be separate for each department and each se.x. In large schools more than one entrance to each department is desirable. {See also Rule 9.) The principal entrances should never be through the cloak-room. Entrance doors should open outwards as well as inwards. A porch should be external to the school-room. An external door, having outside steps, requires a landing between the door and the threshold. Rule 9.— Staircases. There must be separate staircases for each sex and each department. Every staircase must be fireproof, and external to the halls, corridors, or rooms. Triangular steps or "winders" must not be used. Each step must be about 13 in. broad, and not more than 5 A to 6 in. high. The flights must be short, and the landings unbroken by steps. The number of staircases must be sufficient not only for daily use, but also for rapid exit in case of fire or panic. For any upper floor accommodating more than 250 a second staircase is essential. Rule 10. — Cloak-rooms and Lavatories. Cloak-rooms should not be passages, and should be external to the school-rooms and class-rooms, with gangways at least 4 ft. wide between the hanging rails, and amph- lighted from the end. Thej- should not be placed against a gable wall {see Rule 4). The hanging-rail should be arranged so that the children can enter and lea\e the cloak-room without confusion or crowding. Hat pegs should be 12 in. apart, numbered, and of two tiers. The lineal hanging space necessary to provide a separate peg for each child is thus 6 in. Thorough ventilation is essential, so that smells are not carried into the school. Lavatory basins are needed {see Rule 14 (//)). Girls' Schools require a larger number than boys' or infants'. A lock-up slop-sink, water-tap, and cupboard are desirable for the caretaker. Rule II. — Lighting. Every part and corner of a school should be fully lighted. The light should, as far as possible, and especially in class-rooms, be admitted from the left side of the scholars. (This rule will be found greatly to influence the 438 APPENDIX A. planning, sir Rules 4, 11 (i>) and 12 («).) All other windows in class-rooms should be regarded as supplementary or for ventilation. Where left light is impossible, right light is next best. Windows full in the e\-es of teachers or scholars are under no circumstances approved. In rooms 14 ft. high any space beyond 24 ft. from the window-wall is insufficiently lighted. (See Rule 5 (r).) (a.) Windows should never be provided for the sake merely of external effect. All kinds of glazing which diminish the light and are troublesome to keep clean and in repair must be avoided. A large portion of each window should be made to open for ventilation and for cleaning. (/'.) The sills of the main lighting windows should be placed not more than 4 ft. above the floor ; the tops of some windows should reach nearl)- to the ceiling, with a portion made to swing. The ordinary rules respecting hospitals should here be remembered. Large spaces between the window-heads and ceiling are productive of foul rooms. (c.) Skylights are objectionable. They cannot be approved in school-rooms or class-rooms. The\- will only be allowed in central halls having ridge or apex ventilation. (d.) The colouring of the walls and ceilings and of all fittings in the rooms should be carefully considered as affecting the light. This point and the size and position of the windows are especially important in their bearing on the eyesight of the children. Rule 12. — Ventilation. The chief point in all ventilation is to prevent stagnant air ; particular expedients are only subsidiary to this main principle. Apart from open windows and doors, there must be provision for copious inflow of fresh air, and also for the outflow of foul air at the highest point of the room. The best way of providing the latter is to build to each room a separate air chimney carried up in the same stack with smoke flues. An outlet should be by a warm flue or exhaust, otherwise it will frequently act as a cold inlet. Inlets are best placed in corners of rooms furthest from doors and fireplaces, and should be arranged to discharge upwards into the room. Gratings in floors should never be provided. Inlets should pro\ide a minimum of 2i sq. in. per child, and outlets a minimum of 2 in. All inlets and outlets should be in communication with the external air. Besides being continuously ventilated by the means above described, rooms should as often as possible be flushed with fresh air admitted through open windows and doors. Sunshine is of particular importance in its effects on \-entilation, and also on the health of children. (a.) Although lighting from the left hand is considered so important, ventilation demands also the provision of a small swing-window as far from the lighting as possible, and near the ceiling. Rule 13.— WAKMixt;. The heat should be moderate and evenl>- distributed so as to maintain a temperature of from 56° to 60°. When a corridor or lobby is warmed, the rooms are more e\-enl)' dealt with, and are less liable to cold draughts. Where schools RULES FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 439 are wholly warmed by hot water, the ]jrinciple of direct racUation is recommended. In such cases o[)en firc]ilaccs in adcUtion are useful for extra warming on occasions, and their flues for ventilation always. (a.) A common stove, with a pipe through the wall or roof, can under no circumstances be allowed. Stoves are only approved when — (i.) provided with proper chimneys (as in the case of open fires) ; (ii.) of such a pattern that the)- cannot become red-hot, or otherwise con- taminate the air ; (iii.) supplied with fresh air, direct from the outside, by a flue of not le.ss than 72 in. super. ; and (iv.) not of such a size or shape as to interfere with the floor space necessary for teaching purposes. (^i.) A thermometer should always be kept hung up in each room. (c.) Fireplaces and stoves should be protected by fire-guards. Rule 14. — Sanitary Arrancement.s. Water-closets within the main school building are not desirable, and arc only required for women teachers. All others should be at a short distance and completely disconnected from the school. Privies should be fully 20 ft. distant. (a.) The latrines and the approaches to them must be wholly separate for the two sexes. In the case of a Mixed School this rule especially affects the planning. Passages or corridors should not be used by both sexes ; where such an arrangement is unavoidable, there must be complete supervision from the class-rooms by sheets of clear glass. (/'.) Each closet must be not less in the clear than 2 ft. 3 in. wide, nor more than 3 ft., fully lighted and ventilated, and supplied with a door. The doors should be at least 3 in. short at the bottom and at least 6 in. sliort at the top. More than one seat is not allowed in any closet. (r.) The children must not be obliged to pass in front of the teacher's residence in order to reach their latrines. (d.) The following table shows approximate!)- the number of closets needed : — For Girls. For Boys. For Infants. Under 30 children - 2 I 2 5° .. - - 3 2 3 7° >, - 4 2 3 „ 100 - 5 3 4 >, 15° - 6 3 S „ 200 - 8 4 6 >, 300 „ - - 12 5 8 There should be urinals in th e proportion of 8 ft. per 10 boys. (e.) Earth or ash closets of an approved type may be employed in rural districts, but drains for the disposal of slop and surface water are necessary. Cesspits and privies should only be used where unavoidable, and should be at a distance of at least 20 ft. from the school. [Building I'^orm "A," which may be 440 APPENDIX A. obtained on application, gives suggestions as to their construction and arrange- ment.] The proximity of drinking wells should be carefully avoided. if.) Soil-drains must always be laid outside the building (on a hard even bottom of concrete) in straight lines with glazed stoneware pipes, carefully jointed in cement and made absolutely water-tight. A diameter of 4 in. is sufficient unless for drains receiving the discharge of more than ten closets, when the diameter should be 6 in. The fall should never be less than i in 30 for 4 in., and i in 40 for 6 in. drains. An inspection opening or chamber should be provided at each change of direction so as to facilitate cleansing the drain without opening the ground. Every soil-drain must be disconnected from the main sewer by a properly constructed trap placed on the line of drain between the latrines and the public sewer. This trap must be thoroughly ventilated by at least two untrapped openings ; one being the 4 in. soil-pipe carried up full size above the roof, and the other an inlet pipe connected with the side of the trap furthest from the public sewer. Automatic flushing tanks are desirable where trough closets are used. {g.) Urinals must in all cases have a sufficient supply of water for flushing. (//.) Waste pipes from sinks or lavatories should be first trapped inside and then made to discharge direct through an outer wall over a trapped gully. Rule 15. — Desks. Seats and desks should be provided for all the children, graduated according to their ages, and placed at right angles to the window-wall. {See also Rules 4 and 1 1.) The seats should be fitted with backs. An allowance of 18 in. per scholar at each desk and seat will suffice (e.xcept in the case of the dual desk), and the length of each group should therefore be some multiple of 18 in., with gangways of 18 in. between the groups and at the walls. In the case of the dual desk the usual length is 3 ft. 4 in., and the gang- ways I ft. 4 in. {a.) No desks should be more than 12 ft. long. In an ordinary class-room five rows of long desks or six rows of dual desks are best ; but in a school-room or room providing for more than 60 children, there should not be more than four rows of long desks or five rows of dual desks. If a school-room is 18 ft. wide, three rows of long desks or four of dual desks may be used ; if the width is 22 ft., the rows may be four and five respectively. Long desks should be so arranged that the teacher can pass between the rows. Where dual desks are used this is not necessary, as the gangways give sufficient access. (7a) The desks should be very slightly inclined. An angle of 15° is sufficient. The objection to the flat desk is that it has a tendency to make the children stoop. A raised ledge in front of a desk interferes with the arm in writing. The edge of the desk when used for writing should be vertically over the edge of the seat. (c.) Single desks are not necessar)' in an ordinary Public Elementary School, and cannot be approved. Rule 16. — Sites and Playgrounds. Every school must have an open airy playground proportioned to the size and needs of the school, and the site should, if possible, have a building RULES FOR KLKMEXTARY SCHOOLS. 441 frontage in proporticjn to its area. A site open to the sun is especially valuable for the children, and important in its effects on ventilation and health. The minimum size of site is, in the absence of exceptional circumstances, a quarter of an acre for every 250 children, irrespective of the space required for a teacher's or caretaker's house, or for a cookery or other centre. If the school is of more than one storey, this area may be proportionally reduced ; but a minimum unbuilt on or open space of 30 sq. ft. per child should be preserved. {a.) In the case of a Mixed .School of large size, playgrounds should be separate for boys and girls, and should, where practicable, have separate entrances from the road or street. (/'.) All playgrounds should be fairly square, properly levelled, drained, and enclosed. A portion should be covered, having one side against the boundary wall. A covered-way should never connect the offices with the main buikling; buttresses, corners, and recesses should be avoided. (f.) An Infants' School should have its playground on the same level as the school, and a sunny aspect is of special importance. Rule 17. — Infant Schools. Infants should not, except in very small schools, be taught in the same room with older children, as the methods of instruction suitable for infants necessarily disturb the discipline and instruction of the other scholars. Access to the infants' room should not be through the older children's school-room. (a.) The partition between an infants' room and any other school-room should be imperious to sound, and ther? should be no habitual means of direct communication other than an ordinary door. {d.) An Infants' School and playground must always be on the ground floor. (c.) No infants' class-room should accommodate, as a rule, more than si.xty infants. ((/.) A space in which the children can march and exercise should be pro- vided. A corridor intended for this purpose should not be less than 16 ft. wide. (e.) The babies' room should always have an open fire, and should be maintained at a temperature of not less than 60'. (/) In Infants' Schools an allowance of 16 in. per child at long desks will be sufficient. Dual desks should be 3 ft. long. (g.) The accommodation of an Infants' School is based upon the number of children who can be seated at the desks provided that a minimum of 9 sq. ft. of floor-space per child is obtained. Rule 18.— Rooms for Cookery, Manual Instruction, &c. As a rule a single room for cookery, or laundry work, or manual instruction, or science, or drawing, will serve for more than one .school if provided as a centre in a convenient position. Every such centre should have its own lavatorj- and cloak-room. Large schools, or schools of an exceptional t)-pe, ma>- sometimes require special rooms for their exclusive use. {a.) Cookay. — A cookery room should be capable of accommodating 12 to 18 at practice or 36 to 54 at demonstration at any one time. The larger size 442 APPENDIX A. will require 750 superficial ft. and 10,500 cub. ft. Provision for instruction in scullery work is necessar\". The sink should be placed in full \-iew of the teacher and children, and should be fitted with a cold water supply and a waste-pipe. There should also be a gallery or rai.sed platform, with desks to accommo- date 36 to 54 children, according to the size of the room. The floor space for practical work should afford about 20 sq. ft. for each scholar, and should not be encumbered with desks, cupboards, or stoves. In cookery rooms the ventilation needs special arrangements. Where a gas-sto\-e is used it may be necessary to have a pipe fixed to carry off noxious fumes. The temperature should not be allowed to rise above 70°. The apparatus for lessons in cookery should include such stoves and other appliances as are usually found in the homes of the children. (/;.) Laundry Work. — A laundry should be of simple construction, and entirel)' apart from the ordinary school buildings. The proper size for a laundry is about 750 sq. ft. It should ha\c a gallery or raised platform \\ith desks for forty-two children. Laundry tables should be large enough to allow at least 3 ft. of space for each child when ironing. The ventilation of rooms for laundry work needs special arrangements. (f.) Manual Instruction. — In its plan, arrangements, construction, lighting, and ventilation a manual instruction room should be modelled on a workshop rather than on a school. The construction should accordingly be simple. The roof may be either of lean-to or other ordinary form, according to circumstances. Its height at the windows in front of the benches need not be more than 10 ft. The light must be ample. The temperature should not be so high as in an ordinary class-room. A flat ceiling is not, as a rule, necessary. Ample venti- lation should be provided b)- inlets at a height of 5 ft. from the floor, and by outlets at the highest point. {d^ Science Room. — A room suitably fitted for elementary practical work in science may be provided for the use of one large or several contributory schools. Such a science room should not, as a rule, contain more than 600 sq. ft. of floor space. It should be fitted with strong and plain tables, sink.s, cupboards, and shelves, and, where necessar>-, a fume closet. A proper supply of gas is necessary. In addition to a science room, one of the ordinary class-rooms ma)' be fitted with a simple demonstration table and gas and water supply. But a special lecture room cannot be approved in an ordinary Public Elementary School. {c.) Drawing Class-rooms. — A drawing class-room can only be sanctioned where it is likely to be used for a reasonable time every week by the scholars from one large or several contributory schools. A suitable size for such a room is 600 sq. ft. of floor space. Rule 19. — Higher PIlementarv Schools. For a Higher Elementary School accommodating from 300 to 350 .scholars, 10 class-rooms will generally be required, since every class should have its own class-room. No class-room should accommodate more than forty scholars. RL'LKS FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 443 (a.) (i.) The class-rooms may be furnished with single or dual desks as may be desired. Single desks should be 2 ft. long, arranged in pairs with intervals of 2 in. and gangways of 2 ft. (ii.) If single desks are adopted, a class-room should have an area of about 16 sq. ft. per scholar. Class-rooms fitted with dual desks need not be so large, but a minimum of about 13 sq. ft. per scholar will be required. (/'.) E\er}' Higher Elementary School should be provided witli suitable laboratories. (i.) The laboratory accommodation must be sufficient to [sroNide at one time for the largest class in the school, (ii.) There should generall}- be one laboratory for chemistry and one for physics, (iii.) A laborator\- should afford 30 sq. ft. of floor space for each scholar, the minimum size will therefore be 600 sq. ft., but it is as a rule desirable that the laborator\- should be somewhat larger. If, however, the laboratory accommodates more than twenty-five scholars a second teacher would be required, (iv.) Laboratories must be fitted with suitable tables, which must be well lighted ; they should be properly supplied with gas and water. For chemical laboratories, sinks, cupboards, and the necessary fume closets must be provided, (v.) A small balance-room may be provided if desired. (c.) (i.) In addition to the class-rooms and laboratories a Higher Elementary School may include a lecture room, which should be fitted with (i) a demonstration table furnished with a gas and water suppU' and a sink, and (2) a fume closet. A lecture room should have an area of about 750 sq. ft. (ii.) If no separate lecture room is provided, each of the class-rooms used by the third and fourth years should be fitted with a simple demonstration table, (iii.) A small preparation room, fitted with bench, sink, cupboard, and shelves, and proper supply- of gas should be provided in a convenient position. (d.) A drawing class-room for the more advanced drawing is desirable. It should provide 30 sq. ft. of floor space for each scholar ; the best size will be a room with an area of 750 square feet. If suitably lighted, the hall would answer for this purpose. (c.) Other special rooms for cookery, laundr>- work, and manual instruction should be provided in accordance with Rule 1 8. (/) A Higher Elementary School should be planned with a central hall ; but no class, other than drawing, can be recognised in such a hall. Good dimensions for such a hall would be 50 ft. b)' 25 ft. Rule 20.— -Teaciier'.s House, &c. The residence for the Master or Mistress should contain a parlour, a kitchen, a scullery, and three bedrooms : and the smallest dimensions which the Board can approve are — 444 APPENDIX A. ^ ■ I in height to wall-plate. 8 ft. if ceiled at wall-plate; or 7 ft. to wall-plate, and g ft. to ceiling. For the parlour - - 14 ft. by 12 ft.~\ of For the kitchen - - 12 ft. by 12 ft- 1 super- For one of the bedrooms 1 4 ft. by 12 ft. j ficial For two other bedrooms 12 ft. by 8 ft.; area. {a.) The residence must be so planned that no room is a passage room, and that the chimne}-s are not all on the external walls. {b.) There must be no internal commimication between the residence and the school. {c.) Windows should be carried up as nearly to the ceiling as practicable. {d.) There must be a separate and distinct yard, with offices. {e.) No dwelling-house should be built as part of the schoolhouse. Rule 21.— LOAN.S. The Board do not entertain applications for loans in respect of expen- diture incurred without their pre\-ious sanction, which is based on plans, specifications, and actual tenders. Applications for loans should therefore in- clude all the items in the first instance. In order to secure due economy and the avoidance of confusion at com- pletion, a provisional prime-cost amount of not more than 2j per cent, may, if considered desirable, be included in building contracts, in view of unavoidable contingencies ; but the contract should contain a clause that no claim for extras can be even considered unless the work has been ordered in writing by the architect and the order bears the counter-signature of the Clerk of the School Board. Rule 22. — Limits and Allowances. No loan of money can be obtained from the Public Works Loan Commis- sioners unless the whole cost of the school, exclusive of site, legal expenses, extra rooms for instruction authorised b\^ the Code, and residences (if any), is kept within the sum of ^10 per child accommodated. {a.) Additional allowances will be made on the following scale : — For a central hall or corridor - - ^o 15 o per sq. ft. „ cookery or laundry room - - i „ manual instruction room ^o 10 o to o ,, science room, laboratory, or drawing class-room - - - i „ teacher's room - - - o ,, teacher's house .^^^5°° o o to 750 ,, caretaker's house - not more than 400 For glazed bricks and fire-proof floors (when necessary) allowance will be made according to the circumstances of the case. Allowance for mechanical ventilation will only be made in districts where the air ought to be filtered before entering the building. (/;.) No additional allowance will be made in respect of any room which exceeds the maximum size specified in these Rules, in so far as regards such excess. (c.) Whether the necessary loan be borrowed in the open market or not, extravagant plans cannot be approved. 15 IS Appendix B. SCHOOLS FOR BLIND OR DEAF CHILDREN. FROM THE CODE OF 1901. BUILDING RULES. Schools for the blind and the deaf should not be held in the same building. The following- rules should be read in connection with the general rules laid down in Schedule VI T of the Day School Code as to drainage, warming, and ventilation. Recreation Grounds. Where no field or other larger space has been secured, the superficial area of the site should be not less than 30 sq. ft. per child. The recreation grounds for girls and boys should be separate. There should be a covered g}'mnasium, or large shed open on one side, provided with ample tojj light, which, under supervision, may be used b\- boys and girls together. School-rooms. The area should be not less than 20 sq. ft. per child, and the cubic contents not less than 240 cub. ft. The position should be on the ground fiotjr, near the playground. Where boys and girls are taught in one room, the exits should be separate. The light should be such as to suit the mode of teaching emplo)-ed. The children should, as a rule, be arranged in a semicircle around the teacher, and provided with top light in order to enable the teacher to see, in the case of the blind, ever}- cliange of facial expression, and in order that in the ca.se of the deaf the teacher and scholars may observe closelj- the action of the lips. Where the children are not arranged in a semicircle, the light should be ample from both sides of the room. Day Rooms. These should be of at least the same size as the school-rooms. Dining-rooms. These should be of sufficient size to seat each child comfortably, with space for the passage of waiters. There should be a minimum of 6 sq. ft. per child. 446 APPENDIX B. Dormitories. The minimum width should be i8 ft., the minimum area should be 36 sq. ft. per child, and the minimum cubic capacity 360 cub. ft. per child. A separate bed must be provided for each child, with sufficient space between the beds. A dormitory should be supervised by means of a window in the bedroom of the officer in charge. In houses or homes ha\'ing small bedrooms, the officer's bedroom should be closely adjoining on the same floor, and the doors of the bedrooms left wide open at night. No boys over nine years of age should be lodged with girls, unless in a distinct wing approached by a separate staircase. Boys under nine years of age may be lodged with girls, but must have separate sleeping rooms. Each teacher should also have a separate room. Sick Rooms. These should be separate for each sex, and should consist of two rooms in each case, viz., one for the patients and the other for the nurse. A detached building is also necessary for infectious cases, except in the neighbourhood of an hospital to which cases can be readily conveyed. Baths. These should be supplied with hot and cold water, and should be sufficient to enable each child to obtain a bath at least once a week in winter and twice in summer. There must be a separate towel for each child. Lavatory basins should be sufficient to enable each child to wash the hands, face, and upper portion of the body morning and evening. No two children may wash at once at the same basin. Latrines. For Day. — The provision of closets should be 10 per cent, on the number of boys, together with a urinal ; and 15 per cent, on the number of girls. For Night. — One or two closets should be provided adjoining the dormitories, but disconnected therefrom by a lobby having a current of air by windows on two sides. Staircases and Corridors. These must be fireproof Fire Escapes. Where only one staircase exists, or where the dormitories are at some distance from the staircases, fire escapes should be provided. INDEX. Aachen, the Kaiser Wilhelm's Gymnasium at, description and plans of, 200 Abbotsholme, referred to, 27 Accommodation — generally considered, 58 Girls' Day School, list of indispensable rooms, 67 in German Schools, 62 table of, for Boarding Schools, 219 what rooms can be dispensed with, 65 for Secondary Day School for boys, 61 — for girls, 63 Acetylene Gas, compared with other illuminants, 1 18 cost of installation and maintenance, 1 19 lighting by, 117 Acts, short account of, dealing with ele- mentary education, 296 Adams, Messrs, lavatory basins by, 421 Additions to existing school buildings, 2S0 Adjustable Desks, advantages of, 81 difficulties of, 82 ^Esthetic Considerations in the treat- ment of Secondary School buildings, 53 Age, right, for the transference of elementary- pupils to a Secondary School, 8 Agriculture, Board of, grants by, to schools, 1 9 Air, composition of, 306 method of circulation in a room, 391 method of determining the degree of im- purity present, 387 See under Ventilation standard of purity required, 389 time required to contaminate, 391 Air Inlets, size and position of, 397 Air Outlets, 397 Air Sui'I'LY, amount required by the regu- lations of the Board of Education, 400 Albo-Carbon Lamps, 116 Alcock, Barrowclifi'E &, architects of— school at Ashby-de-Ia-Zouche, 261 the Knaresborough Grammar School, 265 Alexandra Parade School, (Jlasgow, the, 340 Alterations to schools, 280 America, Elementary Schools in, examples of, 349-354 Secondary Schools in, plans and ex- amples of, 203-205 Training Colleges in, and example, 215 uniformity of education in the dift'erenl States, 48 Anti-Vibratiox Holder for a Wclsbach lamp, 1 17 Architectural Treatment of school buildings in reference to cost, 284 Area, amount allowed in American Schools, 87 amount allowed in German Schools, 86, 103 floor space required in class-rooms in Elementary Schools, 103 — Secondary Schools, 89 for hall, 69 of playground in Elementary SchooIs,3i2 of playing fields for Secondary Schools, 273 of sites for Elementary Schools, 312 — Secondary Schools, 273 Argand Burners for gas, 115 Armstrong, Prof., on teaching Science, 127 Artificial Lighting, 114 AsHBY-DE-LA-ZoUCHE, curriculum of, 38 Girls' Grammar School at, plans of, 261 448 INDEX. AsKE's School for Girls— Acton, description, 1S5 — plans of, 184 Hatcham, description, 183 — plans, 1S3 — view of, 183 Aspect for school buildings, 56 Assembly Hall or Room — See Hall Attendan'ce, Compulsory, committees for, 302 rules governing-, 301 AUBURNDALE SCHOOL, Ohio, 349 AUGUSTINERSCHULE, DiE, Hesse, plan of, 200 Aula, or assembly hall in German School, uses of, 2 Austin, Paley &, competition design for Christ's Hospital by, 223 " B " Notice, committees, their duties, 302 Babies' Rooms in the Elementary Schools, 325 Badminton Library, illustration of fives court from, 274 Badminton, space required for, 275 Bailey, T. J., architect of the Cobbold Road School, 326 of the Offord Road Pupil-Teachers' Centre, 210 of a " Special " School, 369 on the cost of school building, 284 on the size of playgrounds, 312 on the width of stairs, 73 Barnard's Inn School for Boys, descrip- tion, 193 plans of, 194 view of, 193 Barrack Schools, 371 example of, 375 Barrowcliffe & Alcock, architects of schools at Ashby-de-la-Zouche, 261 — the Knaresborough Grammar School, 265 Basement, use of, for cloak-rooms, 151 — for sanitary conveniences, 353 Basins, Lavatory, number required in Elementary Schools, 416 in Secondary Schools, 415 Basket Ball, space required for, 275 Baths, by Messrs Shanks, 423 for Elementary Schools, 417 in Elementary Schools in Germany, 419 in Secondary Day Schools, 162 Baths, material for, 415 number required in Boarding Schools, 414 School, in America, 422 spray, in use at a Poor Law School, 422 swimming, 418 Battersea Polytechnic, organisation of, 28 Bedales School, organisation of, de- scribed, 27 plans and description, 257 Bedford Grammar School, arrangement of entrances at, 178 description of, 178 plans of, 177 the science-rooms described, 129 Bell, Andrew, school system of, 304 Bell, Ingress, Aston Webb &, archi- tects of the new buildings for Christ's Hospital, Horsham, 220, 222, 223 Ben Jonson's School, the plan of, 308 Benches in chemical laboratory, 137 Berlin, plans of a Realschule, 199 an Elementary School in, 341 Bicycle Sheds, 61, 64 BiLSON, Botterill, Son, &, architects of Hymer's College, Hull, 189 Bridlington Grammar School, 266 Biology, rooms for the study of, 147 Birchfield Road School, Liverpool, part of the cloak-room, 323 Birmingham— Board School at, 335 — heating and ventilation of, described, 409 The High School for Girls, description, 197 — plans, 197 — plan of chemical laboratory, 132 Black, A. & W., architects of the Falkirk High School, 363 Blackboard, the, carried round the room, 98 distance at which writing can be seen on, 79 method of hanging, 98 substitutes for, 99 Blackburn, the. High School — description, 179 plans of, 182 Blackheath High School — assembly hall, 170 cloak-rooms at, 154 Board of Education, creation of 1900, 18 Board Room, 157 Board Schools— See Elementary Schools INDEX. 449 Boarding Houses, 238 et scq. examples of, 245, 246, 248, 249, 251, 252 for girls, 249 German Schools, 242 Boarding Schools, 217 list of the accommodation required, 219 methods of planning, 221 origin of, 13 Boilers for Heating, 406 BOTTERILL, Sox, & BiLsON, architects of Hymer's College, Hull, 1S9 — Bridlington Grammar School, 266 BowDiTCH, Prof., measurements of children, 81 BovD's Ventil.\ting Grate, 403 Bradford, Board School at, 33S Bridgeport School, the, U.S.A., 352 Bridlington Grammar School, 266 Briggs, Warren, architect of the Bridge- port School, 352 experiments in ventilation by, 398 Brighton, the, High School, Boston- description, 203 plans, 203 Bromley, A. N., architect of the Notting- ham Higher Grade School, 361 Broughton Road School, the, Edin- burgh, 339 Bruntsfield School, the, Edinburgh, 33S Block plan of site, 3 1 5 Building Rules of the Board of Educa- tion — See Appendix Bushey, the Royal Masonic Institution for Boys — block plan of, 225 competition design for, bird's-eye view, 226 competition design for, block plan, 225 general plan, 225 Buss, Miss, on the advantage of the central hall, 173 Campsbourne Schools, Hornsey, 327, 329 block plan of site, 315 Canadian Desk, the, 84 Carcer, the, in German Schools, 344 Care, the, of school buildings, 287 Caretaker's House, 317 Carnelly, Dr, on ventilation of schools, 384 Carpenter & Ingelow, competition design for Christ's Hospital by, 223, 224 Ceilings, treatment of class-room, 113 Central Foundation School, Cowper Street, chemical laboratory at, plan, 131 organisation of, 26 physical laboratory at, plan, 146 Central Hall, modifications of, 174 system of planning, 170 Central, the. Higher Grade School, Manchester, 357 Champnevs, B., a boarding house, 249 competitiondesignfor the Royal Masonic Institution, Bushey, 225 competition design for Bedford Grammar School : plan of hall and class-rooms, 233 plan by, 172 a school infirmary, 272 a school sanatorium, 271 Changing Rooms, 243 area required, 244 Charity Commissioners, the, their powers, 16 Ch.ase Farm Schools, Enfield, plans and descriptions, 374, 375 spray bath at, 422 Chatwin, J. A., architect of the High School for Girls, Birmingham, 197 chemical laboratory by, 132 Cheltenham Ladies' College, a boarding house described, 249 founded 1S51, 31 Chemical Laboratory, arrangement of — See under Laboratory, 130 Choice of a School, different reasons in England and Germany, 3, 4 Christburgerstrasse, Berlin, Elemen- tary School, block plan of site, 316 plans and description, 341 Christ's Hospital, arrangement of kitchen block, 235 bird's eye view of, 220 block plan of, 223 comparative plate showing three designs for, 223 conditions of the competition for, 222 description of the new buildings for, at Horsham, 222 one of the boarding houses, 245 plan of hall and class-rooms, 231 Church Schools Company, the, 32 City of London School, organisation of, described, 24 description, 192 plans of, 192 Clapham, the. High School for Girls, plan of chemical laboratory at, 135 2 F 4SO LNDEX. Clare & Ross, architects of the Cressing Schools, 365 Clarke, T. Chatfield, & Son, architects of the school for boys, Barnard's Inn, 194 Clarke, H. Chatfield, architect of the Campsbourne Schools, Hornsey, 329 chemical laboratory by, 131 physical laboratory, 146 Class in Elementary Schools, 102 in Elementary Schools in Germany, 103 meaning of, in American Schools, 51 number of pupils in, in Secondary Schools, 79 Classification and promotion in German and English Schools, 3 Class-room, the, 77 scq. best shape and proportion, 80 difficulty of two classes in one, 80 dimensions of, in American Schools, 87 dimensions of, in German Schools, 86 example of a shallow, 95 examples of Elementary School, 105 examples of Secondary, 93 factors which govern its shape and size, 79 for criticism lessons, 20S height of, 96 importance of its proper treatment, 77 in a German Training School, 208 in Elementary Schools, loi scg. in German Schools, 97 in preparatory schools, 255 interior view of an American, 95 measurements of some typical examples, 87 number required in Secondary Schools, 59 number supplied generally insufficient, 59 raised seats in, objections to, 97 size and number required in Elementary Schools, 321 tables of measurements for, 94 temperature of, 401 the lighting of — See Lighting, 105 seq. Cleaning Rooms, 162 Climax, the. Partition, 100 Cloak-rooms, 151 at the Manchester High School, 154 at the Mercers' School, St Paul's, Ken- sington, 155 attached to class-rooms, 153 best position for, 151 dimensions of, 155 entered from class-room only, 1 53 Cloak-rooms, fittings for, 156 for Kindergarten, 157 for Girls' School, 155 in American Schools, 152 in converted houses, 2S1 in the Elementary Schools, 323 material for floors, 157 placed in the central hall, 154 precautions against stealing in, 152 remarks by a headmaster on, 152 the, at liirchfield Road School, 323 use of corridor for, 154 warming and ventilation of, 156 Closets, Earth, 423 Closets, Water, 425 form of, most suitable, 427 number requited, 426 Coats and Hats— See Cloak-rooms, 151 CoBBOLD Road School, Chelsea, the, 326 block plan of site, 316 COBORN, the. School for Girls, 1S5, 186 Code, the, issued by the Board of Educa- tion, 299 building regulations of, in full, Appen- dix A. Co-Education in Elementary Schools, 301 Secondary Schools, 28 Cohn on the evils of lighting in narrow streets, 108 CoLET House Preparatory School, plans and description of, 174 boarding house for, 252 Committee Rooms, 157 Constant Stream Lavatories, 423 Consultative Committee, composition of, 1 8 Conversion of Dwelling-houses to school purposes, 28 1 Conway Road School, Birmingham, 335 Corridor System of planning, 170 Corridors, various uses of, 75 lockers placed in, 75 materials for floor, 75 width required for, 75 Cost of School Building, 284 and architectural effect, 284 figures of some recently erected schools, 285 in America, 285 in Germany, 285 Cottage Homes, Poor Law Schools, 371 example of, 37S size of cottages, 377 Country Schools, 364 seq. INDEX. 4SI COWPER Street Foundation School, plan of chemical laboratory at, 131 plan of physical laboratory, 146 Covered Playground shown on plans, 182, 183, 184, 190, 192, 199 Covered Plavsheds, 317 Cressing Schools, the, Chelmsford, 365 Cricket Grounds, size required for, 273 Crippled Children, schools for, 369 furniture and desks, 370 Criticism Lessons, class-rooms for, 208 Cubicles, arrangement of, 239 compared with dormitories, 238 dimensions of, 240 plans of schools showing, 239, 241, 253, 260, 261, 263, 265 Darlington Slateeoard, the, 99 Dav-ROOM, the, in a boarding house, 241 area required for, 242 Davis & Emanuel, architects of the City of London School, 192 Deaf and Dumb Chiidren, arrangement of schools for, 369 Defective Children, schools for, 36S Demonstration Table for lecture room, details of, 14S Denominational or Voluntary Schools, position of, 293, 294 Desks, Adjustable, advantages of. Si arrangement of, in class-room, 85 difficulties of, 82 dimensions of. Secondary Schools, 84 — Elementary Schools, 85 in Elementary Schools, 104 in Secondary Schools, 82 methods of measurement of, 83 single, usually found in Secondary Schools, So with sliding tops, 83 Development of the Modern Type of Elementary School, 304 seq. Dewsbury, the, Grammar School, descrip- tion, 183 — plans of, 183 Diffusion, ventilation by, 390 Dimensions of class-rooms, tables of, 94 various factors which influence, 89 DiNiN(;-RO0MS, 158 position of, 158 size of tables, &c., 159 size required, 159 Direct and Indirect Methods of Heating, 405 Discipline, connection of, with plan, 168 Division Rooms, number required, 60 Doors, position and arrangement of, 97 Dormitories, a model by Dr C. Dukes, 240 area required for, 240 statement size allowed in various schools, 240 compared with cubicles, 238 in Poor Law Schools, 373 in Preparatory Schools, 256 Double Desks usually found in Elementary Schools, 85 Double Windows, use of, in noisy streets, 55 Drinking Fountains in playgrounds, 317 Dukes, Dr Clement, on dormitories, 240 on the area of class-rooms, 88 on the provision for sickness in schools, 218 DuLWiCH College, organisation of, 25 Dust, difficulty of dealing with, 3SS Dwelling-houses, their use for school purposes, 28 1 Earth Closets, 428 East and South-East, as aspect for class- rooms, 58 Edinburgh, Board Schools at, 339 Edmonton Poor Law Schools, 374 Education, authorities concerned in Second- ary, 17 Education Bill of 1S99, 18 1902, 21 Education, the Board of, 294 Electric Light, diagram showing position of lamps, 124 arc lamps for indirect lighting, 125 (incandescent), 1 19 number of lights required, 125 Elementary Education, general account of, 293 money for, 302 Elementary School, a large German, 347 Elementary School, Public, class-rooms in, 10 1 seq. cost of, 285 curriculum of, 298 defined, 298 examples of, 325 seq. 452 INDEX. Elementary Schools, Public, examples of, in America, 349-354 in England, America, and Germany compared, 353 in Germany, examples and description of, 341-348 size of, 31S size of classes in, 102 Elkington, G., architect of the Coborn School for Girls, 186 Emanuel, Davis &, architects of the City of London School, 192 Emergency Rooms, 162 Emergency Stairs, 72 Entrances, a method of arranging, 17S to the school building, 76 for pupils should be overlooked, 76 Erismann, model class-room of, 112 the proportion of a class-room, 80 Evening Continuation Schools, 363 Examiners, accommodation for, 158 Eyesight injured by defective lighting, 78 Faber, Reinold, architect of a Realschule, 198 Kindergarten School by, 164 large Elementary School by, 347 Fairlev, J. Graham, architect of schools at Oakbank and Armadale, 367 Falkirk, Higher Grade School at, 361 Felstead School, plan of natural science block, 133 interior view of chemical laboratory at, 134 Financial Resources available for Secon- dary Education, 19 Fireplace, position of, in class-room, 98 Fives Court, plans and description of, 274, 275 Fleming, J. A., on the amount of electric light required, 125 Floors, Polished, to keep in order, 288 wax polish for, 2S8 Football Grounds — size required. Association, 273 — Rugby, 273 Footbaths, 416 Footwarmers, supplied in American Schools, 351 Fowler School-house, the, Ohio, 350 P'OX, T. Lane, architect of the Grammar School, Dewsbury, 1S3 Frankfort, illustration of school baths in school at, 420 Frith, J. W., architect of the Hulme Gram- mar School, 187 Froebel Training Institute, the, de- scription, 209 plans of, 210 Fume Closets, 140 illustrations of, 140, 141 Fume Hoods, small, on the benches, 142 Games, area required for difterent kinds, arrangements for, in Girls' Schools, 275 provision for, in Secondary Schools, 273 Galton, Sir Douglas, on ventilation, 385 on the use of hot air, 405 Garnett, Prof., on laboratories, 130, 143 Gas, acetylene, 1 17 Argand burners for, 115 for lighting schools, 115 governor for, 1 1 5 regenerative gas lamps, 116 number of points required, and amount of candle-power, 122 table of some experiments in illumi- nation, 123 GeisER, a., architect of school, Zurich, 202 Kindergarten School by, 165 Germany, a small school in, 367 an Elementary School in, block plan of site, 316 arrangement of baths in schools in, 419 Elementary Schools in, examples of, 341-348 Higher Schools of, generally con- sidered, 5 Secondary Schools, plans and examples of, 19S-202 Training Colleges in, 212 Girls' Schools, boarding houses for, 249 curriculum of, 37 Girls' and Infant School, Armadale, 367 in Germany, 46 organisation of, 34-40 their origin and development, 30-34 Girls' Public Day School Company, the, foundation of, in 1S72, 32 schools of, illustrated, iSo, 183, 190, 196 Glass Panels to class-room doors, 168 Glass, proportion of, to floor space, 108 Glendinning, Adjustable Desk, The, 82 Globes, their use and effect upon light, 120 INDEX. 453 Gordon & Guxton, architects of the Royal Masonic Institution for I5oys, Bushey, 225 GORST, Sir John, on \'oluntary Schools, 294 Grade, different grades of schools deter- mined by leaving age, 20 Grading of Class-rooms, the, 321 Gradwell, Stone &, architects of the High School, Blackburn, 182 Grayton, \V., on the number of gas lamps to light a class-room, 122 Grammar Schools in America, 49 origin of, 12 Grants from the Board of Education, 297 Grates, 402 ventilating, 403 Great Horton School, Bradford, 33S Infants' School, 337 Groton School, the, U.S.A., plans of, 204, 205 Gyiniiasiiim, the highest class of Secondary School in Germany, 43 arrangement of buildings for, described, 199 at Aachen, plans of, 201 curriculum of, 44 Die Augustinerschule, description of, 199 — plan of, 200 Gymn.asium for physical training, 276 accommodation required, 277 apparatus required, 278 at the Kensington High School, 279 in German Schools, 276 material of floor, 277 plans of, 277, 278 size of, 276 GUNTON, Gordon &, architects of the Royal Masonic Institution, Bushey, 225 H Hall, the, area required for, 69 central, always found in London Board Schools after 1SS3. 310 development of, in Elementary Schools, 310 e.\its and entrances, 70 its use for various functions, 70 lighting of, 70 provision of seats in, 71 raised seats in, 70 use of, in German and English Schools compared, 2 various methods to gain space in, 69 Hall, Cooper, & Davis, architects of New College, Hull, 263 Higher Grade School, Scarborough, 359 Handrails, 74 H EADMASTer, remarks by a, on planning, 169 Headmaster's Room, 157 Heating, connection with ventilation, 400 direct and indirect methods, 405 hot-water pipes, 405 methods of controlling, 407 steam, 406 stoves, 404 temperature of class-rooms, 401 various methods of, 402 ventilating grates, 403 Height of buildings, 320 of room of little use for purposes of venti- lation, y)o u required for class-rooms, 96 "Heuristic," THE, Method, arrangement of room for, 128 High Schools, definition of, 33 \ in America, organisation of, 51 \ Higher Grade Schools, 355 scq. ^ at Manchester, 357 at Nottingham, 361 at Scarborough, 359 buildings, difference from an Elementary School, 356 example of, at Falkirk. 363 origin of, 355 plan of a London Board School adapted for, 357 statistics of results, 7 Hockey, size required for ground, 273 HoLOPHANE Globe, the, 120 Home Office, the. Schools under, 295 Hoole, E., architect of school and parochial buildings, Bethnal Green, 366 Hopper Inlets for air, 412 HORNCHURCH, THE, COTTAGE HOMES, 379 Hot-water Pipes for heating, 404 HULME Grammar School, description, plans of, 187, 188 Hvmer's College, Hull, description and plans of, 188, 189 Illness, provision for, 268 ILLUMINANTS, hygienic elTect, table of, 118 Incandescent Electric Light, 125 Incandescent Gaslight, 116 Incandescent mantles for petroleuin lamps, 114 4S4 INDEX. Indiana, regulations as to ventilating schools in, 399 Industrial Schools, 295 Infant Schools, 324 Infants, proportion of, to older scholars, 319 Infirmaries, School, 269 requirements of, 271 plans of, 272 Ingelow, Carpenter &, competition de- sign for Christ's Hospital by, 223, 224 Inlets, size and position of, 397 See \'entilation Inspectors, accommodation for, 158 Jones, W. Campbell, architect of additions to the Stamford Hill Hish School, 191 — the Judd Commercial School, 19S TUDD Commercial School, the, descrip- tion and plans of, 198 K Kensington High School, Gymnasium at, 279 Kindergarten School, class-rooms in, 164 cloak-room, 157 furniture for, 166 gardens in, 165 plan of a, 164 room, used as dining-room, 66 rooms, 164 Kitchens and offices, plans showing ar- rangement of, 235, 236 in large schools, 234 size required for, 234 Knaresborough Grammar School, 265 Knightley, T. E., architect of the Chase Farm Schools, 375 Laboratorv, Chemical, arrangement of, 130 — arrangement of benches, 130 — plans of, 131, 132, 133, 135, 136 — size of room, 136 — waste and drainage, 143 — working benches, details and illustra- tions of, 138-140 — working benches, dimensions of, 137 Physical, 145 — benches, &c., details of, 147 — tables for, 145 Lacrosse, size required for ground, 275 Lancaster, Joseph, school system of, 304 Lancasterian School, plan of, 305 Larders, 234 Latrines, 427 Lavatory Basins, number required in Ele- mentary Schools, 416 — in Secondary Schools, 415 Lavatories in Secondary Schools, 415 to prevent water being used twice over, 423 Lawn Tennis, plan of court and size of ground, 275 Leaving Certificates, in German Schools, 42 Lecture Rooms for Natural Science, 147 arrangement of seats in, 149 Lecturer's Table, 148 Leeson, Oliver, & Woods, architects of the High School, Newcastle, 196 Libraries, School, 160 in German Schools, 161 Light, evil results of want of, in class-rooms, 7S Lighting, difficult to judge of, 106 effect of aspect upon, 106 effect of large mullions, 1 10 effect of opposite houses upon, 106 in dwelling-houses converted to schools, 281 means for improving, 107 of class-rooms, 105 seg. proportion of glass surface to floor area, 108 size and position of windows, loS standard of illumination, 109 summary of rules for, 112 top lighting for class-rooms objected to, no windows at the back, 109 Lighting, Artificial, 114 amount required, 121 indirect lighting, 125 light for cleaning purposes, 125 measurement of, 121 ])osition of lamps, 122 standard for measurement, 121 table showing effect of different coloured walls on, 122 Local Authorities dealing with educa- tion, 17 Local Government Board, schools under, 295 Lockers in Boarding Houses, 242 in chemical laboratories, 142 in Preparatory Schools, 255 INDEX. 455 Lockers placed in conklors, 75 position of, shown on plan, i^g, 192, 194 London School Board, cost of building by, 2S4 Higher Grade Schools, 337 Pupil Teachers' School, 210 school, a, 326 Louise, the, Desk, S3 Lunch in the morning in Girls' Schools, 160 M M'Whannele & ROGERSON, architects of the Alexandra Parade School, 340 Manchester, Board School at, 331 the High School for Girls, curriculum, 39 — description and plans of, 198 Higher Grade School at, 357 Manila Paper, its use for blackboard, 99 Mannheim, Elementary School at, 344 Manual Training, provision for, 324, 331, 357, 361 Maria Grey, the. Training College, description and plans of, 209 1\L\rtin & ALvRTiN, architects of the Con- way Road School, 335 Medical Arrangements for large schools, 269 Mentally Defectiye Children, special schools for, 36S Mercers', the. Company, school of, illus- trated, 194 Mills & Murgatroyd, architects of the High School, Manchester, 198 Mixed Schools, 301, 319 Model Schools in Training Colleges, 207 MORLEY, W. J., architect of the Great Horton School, 338 Movable Partitions, 100 MULLIONS of iron for class-room windows, no MUNBY, A. E., science block at Felstead arranged by, 133 Museums, 161 cannot be considered indispensable, 65 Music-rooms, 162 plans showing arrangement of, 1S3, Fig. 88, 184, 230 precautions against noise, 163 size required for, 163 Murgatroyd, Mills &, architects of the High School, Manchester, 198 N Narrow Street.s, their effect upon the light, 108 Natural Science, teaching of, 126 rooms — See Laboratories N.vruRAL Vf;ntilation, 393 North and North-West, bad aspect for class-rooms, 57 North-East and East as an aspect for class-rooms, 58 New College, Hull, 262, 263 Newcastle, the High School for Girls, de- scription and plans of, 195, 196 Noise-Proof Walls for music-rooms, 163 Normal Schools in America, 215 example of, 216 North London Collegiate School, the, founded in 1850, 31 Notice " B " Committees, their duties, 302 Nottingham, Higher Grade Schools, 361 Oakbank School, the, Scotland, 367 OberrEALSCHULE, curriculum of, 45 described, 46 Offices, THE,in connection with kitchen, 234 Offord Road, Pupil Teachers' Centre, 210 Oliver, Leeson, & Woods, architects of the High School, Newcastle, 196 Openings for ventilation purposes, size of, 400 Orc;anisation, knowledge of, necessary to a school architect, i plan of building dependent upon, 22 Orientation of school buildings, 56 Overwork, in Girls' Schools, 35, 38 Outlets, size and position of, 397 Pace, Stock, & Stock, architects for Aske's Schools for Girls at— Acton, 184 Hatcham, 1S3 Paley & Austin, competition design for Christ's Hospital by, 223 Parish Room, schools used for, 365 Parmiters' Found.\tion School, organi- sation of, referred to, 26 Parochial Buildings combined with school, ISethnal Green, 366 456 INDEX. Partitions, movable, use of, loo plans showing the use of, 331, 338, 339, 349> 353 Peace & NORQUOY, sliding partition, loi Petroleum Lamps, 114 Petroleum, regenerative, lamps, 114 lamps, with incandescent mantle, 114 Philadelphia, Public Elementary Schools in, 349-353 Physical Laboratories, 145 Physical Training in Girls' Schools, 39 Piano, rooms for teaching, 163 use of class-rooms for teaching, 163 Plan of building dependent upon method of tuition, I points to be considered in, 167 types of, for Secondary Day Schools, 170 Platform for teachers, 98 Playgrounds, covered, shown on plans, 182, 183, 184, 190, 192, 199- in Preparatory Schools, 255 on the roof, 313 planting trees in, 316 in Elementary Schools, size of, 312 Playrooms, and area required, 163 Playsheds, covered, 317 Plenum, the, system of ventilation, 392, 408 Polished Floors, 288 Poor Law Schools, 371 et seq. Barrack Schools and Cottage Homes, 371 cost of, 286 Porch, covered, for early arrivals, 76 Porter, position of porter's room, 158 Potts, Son, & Hennings, architects of the Central Higher Grade School, Man- chester, 357 architects of the Varna Street School, 331 Practising Rooms for music, 163 Practising Schools, 207 example of, 21 1 Preparatory Schools, 217, 218, 254 a modern innovation, 14 class-rooms in, 255 playgrounds in, 255 Primary Schools in America, 49 Principal's Room, 157 Prismatic Glass, to increase light, 107 Probationers defined, 299 Progymnasium described, 45 Promotion in English and in German Schools, 3 Prussia, administrative control of Education in, 42 Prussian School System can stand gener- ally for that of Germany, 41 Puiu.ic Elementary School defined, 298 Public School, definition of, 15 Pupil Teachers defined, 299 schools for, 210 — examples of, 210 system, schools arranged on the, 307 Pyritz, Training College at, 212 Quilter, J. S., architect of the Froebel Institute, 210 R Raised Seats in class-room objected to, 97 RealGYMNASIUM, described, 45 Reai.SCHULE, buildings for, described, 199 described, 45 plans of a German, 198, 199 Reav, Lord, on the true position of Higher Grade Schools, 8 Reformatories, description of, 295 Regenerative Gas Lamps, 116 petroleum lamps, 114 Regulations for school buildings — See Appendix Rinn, J. P., architect of Normal School at Salem, 216 Risers, height required for, 73 Robins, E. C, architect, Bedford Grammar School, 177 ROBSON, E. R., architect of the Blackheath High School, 170 on the height of window sills, 1 1 1 on the use of the central hall, 309 on the width of stairs, 73 Roedean School, the, Brighton, bird's-eye view of, 2 28 block plan, 226 interior views of, 227, 228 opened in 1897, 40 plans of central block, 229, 230 Roth, Dr M., inventor of an adjustable desk, 82 Royal Commission, the, 1S95, 16 recommendations of, 17 Royal Masonic Institution for Boys, Bushe> — See Bushey Rounders, size of ground required for, 275 Saffron Walden, Practising School, 211 St Leonard's School, St Andrews, de- scribed, 39 INDEX. 457 cnp- St Margaret's School, Bushey, des tion of, 260 interior view in a dormitory in, 239 plans of, 260 St Paul's School, West Kensington, or- ganisation of, 25 description and plans of, 192, 193 Sanatorla, School, accommodation for,2C9 plans of, 270 requirements of, 271 SanM'ATION, 415 si-g. Sanitary Conveniences, number required and position, 425 Scarborough, Higher Grade School at, 359 Schedule, the, of Building Instructions, as given in the Code — See Appendix Schola, the. Cloak Stand, 322 School gardens, 255, 316 keeper, and his duties, 2S7 attendance, rules of, 301 Schools, large Elementary, in Germany, 309 Science and Art Department, 16 in Elementary Schools, 324 in Higher Grade Schools, 306 rooms for, 126 seg. — See also under Laboratories teaching of, 127 SCOTT-MONCRIEFF, MAJOR, tables of, in re- ference to gas lighting, quoted, 123 Secondary Education, definition of, 6 no uniform provision for, in this country, 12 reasons for heating at greater length, g schools included in the term, 11 supply of, in England inadequate, 20 where the division with elementary edu- cation comes, 6 Secondary Schools, examples of buildings for, 174-206 class-rooms for. So st-g. types of plan for, 170 Secretary's Rooms, 157 Separate Schools, 319 Service Rooms, 162 Shades and Globes, 120 Shanks, Messrs, 416, 424, 427 Shefiield, the. High School for Girls, de- scription and plans of, 183 Shelley, Dr C. E., on the area of class- rooms, 88 Sherringham Ventilator, 411 Shoreditch Union, the Cottage Homes of, 379 Shower Baths in Elementary Schools, 419 Sickness, provision for, 268 Sick Rooms in Day Schools, 162 Siemen's Regenerative Gas Lamps, 116 position of, in class-room, 124 Sight, average length of sight of pupils, 79 Sills, height of, above floor, 1 1 1 Simpson, J. W., architect of the Roedean School, 229 Singing, rooms for, teaching, 163 school-room found in (Jerman Schools, 63 Site, area of, in German Schools, 313 area required for Poor Law Schools, 372 best, for a school building, 54 factors which govern choice of, 55 for Elementary Schools, and area re- quired, 312 for Secondary Schools, 54 Sixth Form Room, 161 Size of Classes, should suit the shape of room, 90 in Elementary Schools, 318 Sliding Partitions, 100 Small Schools, difficult to organise, 26 ventilation of, 411 village and country schools, 364 Smith, FRANClS,architect of the Hornchurch Cottage Homes, 379 Smith, P. Gordon, on Poor Law Schools, 372 Smith, J. Osborne, architect of— the Maria Grey Training College, 209 Safiron Walden, Practising School, 21 1 Streatham Hill High School, 180 the Wimbledon High School, 190 and Tanner, architects of the High School, Sheffield, 183 Smith, T. Roger, architect of the Ben Jonson School, 308 Spaull, W. H., architect of Colet House School, 175 boarding house, Colet House School, 253 Special Schools, 36S plan of a, 369 Spray Baths in German Schools, 419 Si'AFF, the, of teachers, required for various numbers in the Elementary Schools, 300 rooms for the, in Elementary Schools, 322 Staircases in American buildings, 72 general arrangements of, 71 handrails, 74 height of risers, 73 material for, 74 width of treads, 74 width recjuired, 72 458 INDEX. Stamford Hill, the, High School, descrip- tion and plan of, 191 Stealing in cloak-rooms, 152 Steam Pipes for heatin;,', 405 Stock, Page, & Stock, architects of Aske's School for Girls, Acton, 1S4 — Hatcham, 1S3 Stone & Gradwell, architects of the High School, Blackburn, 182 Stoves for heating class-rooms, 404 Stow, school system of, 305 — plan of a school on, 306 Streatham Hill, plans and description of, 180, 181 Studios, arrangement of, 150 class-rooms should not be used for, 65 for a large elementary class, 150 lighting of, 149 Sun, advantages of, in school buildings, 57 Superintendent in American Schools, 51 Supervision during school hours, 168 Swimming Baths, 417 Tables, in dining-room, size of, 159 in physical laboratories, 145 Tanner, J. O. Smith &, architects of the High School, Sheffield, 183 Tarred Wood, its use in chemical labora- tories, 144 Te.achers, different grades of, in the Ele- mentary Schools, 299 in Elementary Schools, number required, 300 platform, 98 Training Schools for, 207 Technical Education, 16 Telephone in headmaster's room, 15S Temperature in class-rooms, 401 Thermometer should be in every class- room, 100 Tobin'S Tubes, behaviour of air in, 397 Top Lighting for class-rooms, objected to, no Town School, in Germany, 345 Training Colleges, 207 in America, 215 in Germany, 212 at Pyritz, 212 Transference of Pupils from the Ele- mentary to Secondary Schools, diffi- culties of, 7 Troughs of tarred wood in place of sinks, 144 Truant Schools, 295 Turnhalle — See under Gymnasium Tyler, Messrs, lavatory by, 424 u University College School, organisation of, described, 25 Urinals, 429 V Variation in size of children of the same age. Si Varna Street School, Manchester, 331, block plan of site, 314 Infant School, 334 Ventilating Grates, 403 Ventilation, 3S3 st^. by windows only, 411 causes of vitiation of air, 387 diffisrent forms compared, 392 diffusion, 390 effect of cubic capacity in regard to the air, 399 effect of dust, 388 evils of the want of, 383 Hincke Bird's arrangement for sash windows, 412 in converted houses, 282 in large buildings, 396 inlets and outlets, size and position of, 397 knowledge of the principles of, necessary to teachers, 386 method of determining roughly the de- gree of impurity in the air, 387 natural and Plenum systems compared, 39j of small schools, 41 1 size of openings, 400 the Plenum system, 392, 40S time required to contaminate the air in a room, 391 Tobin's tubes, 397 unventilated schools compared, 3S4 Village school, a, in 1840, 307 schools, 364 seg. Voluntary Schools, position of, 293, 294 VORSCHULE, or Preparatory School to a (iymnasium, 44 INDEX. 4S9 W Walls, colour of class-room, 113 rails let into, 99 Warming — See Heating Warren, E. Prioleau, architect of Hedales School, 257 Waterhouse, a., R.A., architect of St Paul's, West Kensington, 193 Waterhouse, A., S: Son, architects of St Margaret's School, Bushey, 260 Webb, Aston, & Ingress Bell, architects of the new buildings for Christ's Hospital, Horsham, 220, 222, 223 Wellington College, organisation of, de- scribed, 24 Welsbach Burner, 116 Wesleyan Schools, arrangement of, 306 West and South-west, as an aspect foi class-rooms, 57 Wheelwright, E. M., architect of the Brighton High School, Boston, 203 Wilson, Robert, architect of the Brunts- field School, 33S of the Broughton Road School, 339 Wimbledon, the. High School, descrip- tion and plans of, 190 Windows, cleaning of, 288 form of window best adapted for class- rooms, 1 13 height of. III sills, height of, 11 1 size and position of, 108 ventilation by, 41 1 See also under Lighting Woods, Oliver, Leeson, &, architects of the High School, Newcastle, 196 Wycombe Abbey, Girls' School at, 40 Zurich, Combined Secondary and Ele- mentary School, description, 200 plans, 202 ZwEZ, experiments on sight by, 80 Piintca ai The Darien Press, Edinburgh. University of California SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90024-1388 Return tills material to the library from whlcti It was borrowed. D oof) oof) /,'-/j 7