1 * 3 LIB R A RY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. GIRT OK Received Shelf No. PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION; OR, AN ILLUSTRATION MOEAL LAWS OF THE IMVEBSE. BT THOMAS DICK, LL.D. CHETSTtAN PHILOSOPHER,' 'PHILOSOPHY OF ' IMPROVEMENT OF SOCIETY BY THE DIFFUSION OF KNOWLEDGE,' ETC. \(JTfO& OP 'THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER,' 'PHILOSOPHY OF A FUTUKE 6TAT,' " Knowledge is Power." LORD BACON M Ix)ve is the fulfilling of the Law." PAOL. >K C7 PUBLISHED BY WILLIAM COLLINS, NORTH MONTROSE STREET, GLASGOW, AND PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON. s~ GLASGOW: WILLIAM COLLINS AND CO., PEINTEES. PBEFACE. TO delineate the Moral bearings of the Christian Revelation, to display the reasonableness and the excellence of its precepts, and the physical and rational grounds on which they rest, and to exhibit a few prominent features in the moral aspect of the world were some of the principal objects which the Author had in view, in the composition of the following work. He is not aware that a similar train of thought has been prosecuted, to the same extent, by any preceding writer; and is therefore disposed to indulge the hope, that it may prove both entertaining and instructive to the general reader, and to the intelligent Christian. It may not be improper to remind the reader, that the Au- thor's object simply is, to illustrate the topics he has selected as the subject of this volume. As he has taken his fundamental principles from the system of Revelation, he was under no ne- cessity, as most Ethical writers are, to enter into any laboured metaphysical discussions on the foundation of Morality, and the motives from which moral actions should proceed. The truth of Revelation is, of course, taken for granted; and all who acknowledge its Divine authority, will readily admit the principles which form the basis of the system here illustrated. But although it formed no particular part of the Author's plan to illustrate the evidences of the Christian Revelation, he trusts that the view which is here given of the benignant tendency of its moral requisitions, will form a powerful presumptive argu- ment in support of its celestial origin. The Christian reader may also be reminded, that it is only the Philosophy of Religion which the Author has attempted tc illustrate. It formed no part of his plan to enter into any par- ticular discussions on the doctrines of Revelation, but only to elucidate an object which appears to be the grand design of IV PREFACE. Revelation to accomplish, and in the promotion of which, every section of the Christian church is equally interested, and to which they would do well " to take heed." In his illustration of this suhject, the Author has kept his eye solely on the two Revelations which the Almighty has given to mankind, THE SYSTEM OF NATURE, and the SACRED RECORDS, just as they stand, without any regard to the theories of philosophers, the opin- ions of commentators, or the systems of theologians. He is disposed, in this volume, to view the Revelations of the Bible, rather as a series of important facts from which moral instruc- tions are to be deduced, than as a system of metaphysical opinions for the exercise of the intellect. In illustrating the moral state of the world, the Author is sorry that he was obliged to compress his details within so narrow limits. Few readers, however, will appreciate the la- bonr and research he was under the necessity of bestowing, in order to select and arrange the facts which he has detailed. He has occasionally had to condense a long history or narrative, and even a whole volume, into the compass of two or three pages; and to search through more than twenty volumes, in order to find materials to fill a couple of pages. With the same degree of research, (excepting the mechanical labour of transcription,) he might have filled several volumes with simi- lar illustrations; and he is convinced that a work of this de- scription, judiciously executed, would prove highly instructive, as well as entertaining, not only to the Christian world, but to readers of every description. T. D. In this Cheap Edition, some passages have been omitted which were considered of minor importance, which, without diminishing to any great extent the value of the work, has assisted the publisher in furnishing it at the present low price. CONTENTS. Page INTRODUCTION', . . . t 11 Objects of human knowledge matter and mind, 11. Gradation of intellectual beings, 12. Moral relations of intelligent agents, 14. Connection of Morality with happiness illustrated by an example, 14. Inutility of systems of Ethics, detached from Revelation. Ancient systems, etc. 17-19. PRELIMINARY DEFINITIONS AND REMARKS. SECT. I On the primary or most general idea, of morality, Physi- cal order illustrated, 20. Moral order illustrated, 21. Leading idea of holiness, 23. I SECT. II. On the fundamental PRINCIPLES of morality, . .23 CHAPTER I. ON THE MORAL RELATIONS OF INTELLIGENT BEINGS TO THEIR CREATOR, First principal of moral action love to God, . . . . 2 SECT. I. On the Omnipotence of God 26 Power, accompanied with benevolent design, illustrated, 27. Power of the Creator, in the production of the universe benevo- lence displayed in the exertions of Omnipotence, 27-30. Reason why the displays of Omnipotence are so little regarded, 30. Power of God calculated to inspire the mind with confidence in the prospect of the future scenes of eternity, 31. Recognised by the inspired writers as a ground of confidence, 33. SECT. II. On the WISDOM and GOODNESS of God, . . .34 Benevolence of the Creator displayed in the objects of sight, 35 ; in the objects of hearing, of smelling, of feeling, of taste, 36-37; in the arrangements of day and night, the atmosphere, etc. 38; in the adjustment of the organs of sense to the scenes of external nature, 40. Structure of the eyes, 40; of the ear, 42; of the sense of feel- ing 43; of the organs of taste, 44; of the organs of smelling, 45. Number of agencies requisite for the gratification of this sense, 46. System of organisation in the human body, 46. Summary of the blessings we enjoy from the wise arrangements of the Creator, 49. Benevolence displayed towards other worlds, 51. Illustrations of this subject from the sacred writers, 02-55. VI CONTENTS. Page SECT. III. On the MERCY and PATIENCE of God, . . .65 Mercy and forbearance defined and illustrated, 56. General cha- racter and conduct of human beings, 57; forbearance of the Deity towards them, 58; this character peculiar to God, 58; calculated to excite admiration, 69. Agents in the system of nature, which could be employed as ministers of vengeance -Light, 61; the atmosphere, 61; stopping the earth's motion or bending its axis, 62; comets, 62; occasional instances of punishments inflicted by the elements of na- ture earthquakes the deluge electrical clouds, etc., 63-66. This attribute calculated to inspire affection, 67. SECT. IV. Of the RECTITUDE of the Divine character, . . .67 The existence of this attribute proved from reason, 68; from Scripture, 68. Reasons why we are incompetent to form a cor- rect judgment of the displays of this attribute, 70. How it is dis- played in the ordinary course of providence, 72. Has a tendency to inspire us with confidence and joy, 72. Relations in which the Deity stands to us, 74. SECT. V. Modes in which Love to God is displayed, ... 75 Complacency in his administration, 76. Admiration of his works, 76. Humility, 78. Resignation, 79. Gratitude, 81-85. Sublimity of the principle of love, 85, Means by which love may be invigorated and expanded, 89. CHAPTER II. SECOND PRINCIPLE OF MORAL ACTION LOVE TO ALL SUBORDINATE INTELLIGENCES. SECT. I The NATUKAL EQUALITY OP MANKIND considered as the basis of Love to our neighbour 90 Their equality in respect of their origin the mechanism of their bodies their mental faculties their moral depravity their plea- sures, wants, and afflictions and the termination of their mortal existence, 90-97. Argument for love founded on these circum- stances, 98. Advantages of a subordination of rank in the present world, 99. SECT. II. Of the CONNECTIONS AND RELATIONS which subsist among Mankind, 101 Men, in every quarter of the globe, are connected together by certain ties and relations. This connection exemplified in the dif- ferent trades and employments in our own country, 102; in China, Persia, Siberia, the West Indies, Norway, Sweden, etc., 103; Argu- ment for universal benevolence founded on these relations, 105-106. Physical arrangements of the globe, which indicate that the Crea- tor intended to promote an extensive and benevolent intercourse among mankind, 107. SECT. III. THE ULTIMATE DESTINATION OP MANKIND, a foundation for Benevolence 108 Importance of every affection connected with an immortal exist- ence, 108. Interesting views and relations which the scenes of CONTENTS. Vll Page eternity present, 110-112. Our duty towards our degraded breth- ren who are unqualified for a happy immortality, 113. SECT. IV. On the Effects which would ensue were the principle of Love reversed, and were rational beings to act accordingly, . 114 Effects which malevolence would produce in families, and in larger societies, 115; in the common intercourse of life, 115; 116; present an idea of the scenes of future punishment, 117. Effects of malevo- lence in relation to the Divine Being, 118. General tendency of malignant passions, 119. SECT. V. Effects which would flow from the full operation of the principle of Love, : ; 119 Evils which would be eradicated, 119-122. Positive blessings which would be enjoyed in families and larger communities, 122; in the intercourse of nations, 123; in the intellectual improvement and general melioration of the condition of mankind, 124; in the diminution of physical evils, 125. Effects of love in relation to God, 129. Present state of the moral world, 132. SECT. VI. Universality of the principle of Love, . . . .134 It pervades the moral code of other worlds, 134. Moral precepts common to all intelligencies. 136. Love qualifies us for associating with superior beings, 137; connects us with the inhabitants of dis- tant worlds, 138. One Religion prevails throughout the universe, 140. Analogy of love to the principle of Attraction, 141; conse- quences of the suspension of this principle, 143. SECT. VII. The preceding Views corroborated by Divine Revela- tion, 145 Historical facts, religious institutions, precepts, etc;, of the Old Testament, 146. Discourses and example of our Saviour, 148. Writings of the Apostles, 152. Book of Revelation, 164. The last Judgment, 155. SECT. VIII. On the practical operation of Love, or the various modes in which it should be displayed towards Mankind, . 156 Activity of this principle, 166. The benevolent agency of God our pattern and exemplar, 157. Operation of love in relation to man, considered as a sensitive being, 160-164; as an intellectual being, 164; as an immortal being, 166. Love the impelling prin- ciple to every virtue, 167. Cardinal virtues, etc., 168. Diffusive nature of benevolence, 170. Benevolence in relation to the infe- rior animals, 175. Concluding extract, 177. CHAPTER III. ON THE MORAL LAW, AND THE RATIONAL GROUNDS ON WHICH ITS PRECEPTS ARE FOUNDED. SOLEMN circumstances which attended the proclamation of this law at Sinai, .... 179 Vlll CONTENTS. Page THE FIRST COMMANDMENT, 181 Tendency of mankind to violate this law, 183. Idolatry of the Romans, Egyptians, etc., 183. Moral effects produced by idolatry, 185; irrationality of idol worship, 187. SECOND COMMANDMENT, 189 Its object, 189. Impossibility of representing the Divine Being by external forms, 190. Debasing tendency of such attempts, 190; consequences to which they lead, 191. The only natural image of God, 192. Causes of Pagan idolatry, 194. THIRD COMMANDMENT, 195 Explained, 195. Manner in which it is violated, 196; conse- quences which would follow its general violation, 197. Effects of religious veneration, 198. FOURTH COMMANDMENT, 199 Importance of the Sabbath to man as a day of rest, 199; and as a season for religious contemplation, 201. Work of Creation, 202; of Redemption, 203. Public worship, 204. Consequences which would follow were the Sabbath abolished, 205. FIFTH COMMANDMENT, . .207 General remarks on the preceding precepts, 207. Relations of mankind, 207; consequences which would follow were the law which respects these relations reversed, 208. Effects of universal obedi- ence to this precept, 210. SIXTH COMMANDMENT, . . . . , . . . .211 References of this law explained, 211; consequences which would flow from its universal violation, 214. Counteraction of the prin- ciple of hatred, etc., 214. SEVENTH COMMANDMENT 216 Explained, 216. Marriage and Divorce, 217. Dreadful effects which would flow from universal licentiousness, 218. Examples Dismal effects of prostitution, 220. This law peculiar to the inhabitants of our globe, 222, EIGHTH COMMANDMENT, 222 General remarks, 222. Various modes in which this law is vio- lated, 223. Consequences of its general violation, 223. Beneficial effects which would flow from obedience to its requirement, 225. NINTH COMMANDMENT, 226 Importance of truth and veracity, 226. Veracity the foundation of knowledge and confidence of our future prospects, and of our views of the character of the Deity, 227. Importance of veracity in rela- tion to our improvement in the eternal world, 230. Various ways in which truth is violated, 232. Effects which would follow on its universal violation, 236. Delightful effects which would flow from a universal regard to truth, 238. CONTENTS. IX Page TBNTH COMMANDMENT, 240 The breach of this law leads to a violation of the other precepts, 240. Avarice its pernicious effects on individuals, 241; on com- munities and nations, etc., 242. Ambition various ways in which it is displayed, 243. Its destructive effects, 243. Contentment, its reasonableness and beneficial effects, 344. General Conclusions founded on the preceding Illustrations . . 246 The Moral Law not the dictates of an arbitrary Sovereign, 246. Reasonableness of obedience, 247. Connection between the precepts of the Divine law its universal violation would lead to the destruc- tion of mankind is obligatory on all worlds divine origin of the Christian Revelation Absurdity of Antinomianism, 248-254. Faith and repentance, 255. Salvation an act of grace, etc., 25*7-259. CHAPTER IV. A CURSORY SURVEY OF THE MORAL STATE OF THE WORLD. Scenes in a world of moral perfection, 260. Moral aspect of our world, 2G2. SECT. I, State of Morals in the ancient world 262 Morals of the Antediluvians as exhibited in sacred history, 412. Morals of the Postdiluvians, 263. WARLIKE DISPOSITIONS OP MAN- KIND, 267. Wars of the Carthaginians, 267. Summary statement of the numbers slain in various battles, 271. Army of Xerxes, 272. Destruction of human beings by the Goths, by Jenghiz-Khan, by the Crusaders, etc., 273. ATROCITIES CONNECTED WITH WAR In ancient times, 275-279 ; in modern times, 279-281. Moral reflec- tions, 282. SECT II. Moral state of SAVAGE Nations in modern times . . 284 PROMINENT DISPOSITIONS OP SAVAGE AND HALF-CIVILISED TRIBES, 284. North American Indians, 285. Africans, Inhabitants of Dahomy of Ashantee, etc., 287. The Algerines, Gallas, etc., 290. Asia- tics, Mingrelians, Tartars, Chinese, Persians, Hindoos, etc., 291. Islands of the Pacific Ocean, New Zealanders, New Caledonians, etc., 294. WARLIKE ATTITUDE OF NATIONS, 297. Armies of Ashantee, of Dahomy, etc., 298. Reflections, 299. INHUMANITY OF UNCIVI- LISED TRIBES TO UNFORTUNATE TRAVELLERS Preliminary remarks, 300. Treatment of the crew of the Grosvener Indiaman by the Caffres, 301. Cruel treatment of M. Brisson and his companions in Barbary, 304 Reflections, 306-307. MALEVOLENT DISPOSITIONS AS DISPLAYED IN DISFIGURING THE HUMAN BODY. Unnatural practices of the Omaguas, New Holandcrs, Chinese, etc., 307. MALEVOLENCE AS IT APPEARS IN THE RELIGION OP SAVAGE TRIBES, 311. General f6- flections, 313. SECT. III. Modern state of CIVILISED Nations 314 Proportion of civilised to savage nations, 314. Dispositions of the young, and modes by which they are trained, 315. Schools, and X CONTENTS. Page school-boys, 316. Diversions of the young, 317. Malignity as dis- played in the various scenes of social life, 319. General disposition to detraction, 320. Public amusements cock-fighting, bull-baiting, horse-racing, dog-fighting, fieldsports, etc., 321. Spanish bull-fights, 324-326. Literary amusements books for the nursery, 528. Futility of works of fiction, 329-331. Literary and scientific cha- racters, distressed authors, etc., 332. Penal codes of civilised na- tions, 333. Prison discipline, 333. Sanguinary character of penal statutes executions in the reign of Henry VIII, 334. Cruelties inflicted on criminals, 335. Russian punishments, 336. Slave trade, wreckers, barbarous Sardinian edict, 338. Moral state of Cuba, 339. Conduct of the crew of the Medusa frigate, 341. Shocking practices in Carolina and Georgia, 343. SECT. IV.- Moral state of the CHRISTIAN world, . . .344 Dispositions of the primitive Christians, 344. Causes which pro- duced the decay of Christian love, 345. Divisions, superstitions, and intolerance under the reign of Christian emperors, 346. Super- stitions of the middle ages, 349. Pillar- saints, religious devotees, and flagellants, 350. Power of the clergy, 351. Feast of the ass, indul- gences, 354. Morals of the clergy, 355. Holy wars, 356. Inqui- sition burning of heretics, 356. Instruments of torture, 357. Number of victims destroyed by the inquisition, 359. Bartholomew massacre, 360, Religious wars and persecutions, 362. Persecutions in Britain, 363. Reflections, 364. Present moral state of Catholic countries, 364. Moral state of the PROTESTANT CHURCH. Tempers displayed by religious controversialists, 365. Jealousies of the different sectaries, 367. Contentions in Christian societies, 367. Spirit of persecution and intolerance exemplified by Churchmen, Presbyterians, and Inde- pendents, 368. Persecution in Barbadoes and Demerara, 369, in Switzerland, 369, in England, 370. General reflections, 371. Prac- ticability of the universal operation of benevolence, exemplified in the case of the Apostles, Howard, Venning, etc., 372. Moravians, Quakers, 375. Means of promoting, Christian morality, 375. General conclusions, subject of preaching, 377. Church cen- sures, 380. Union of Christians, 381 . Future state of misery, 382. Future state of happiness, 383% THE PHILOSOPHY OF KELIGIOK INTRODUCTION. THE objects of human knowledge may be reduced to two classes the relations of matter, and the relations of mind; or, in other words, the material and the intellectual universe. Of these two departments of science, the intellectual universe is, in many respects, the more interesting and important. For, in so far as our knowledge and researches extend, it appears highly probable, if not absolutely certain, that the material universe exists solely for the sake of intelligent beings in order to afford a sensible manifestation of the attributes of the Great First Cause, and to serve as a vehicle of thought, and a me- dium of enjoyment to subordinate intelligences. So intimately related, however, are these two objects of human investigation, that a knowledge of the one cannot be obtained but through the medium of the other. The operations of mind cannot be carried on without the intervention of external objects; for, if the material universe had never existed, we could never have prosecuted a train of thought; 1 and the beauties and sublimi- ties of external nature can be perceived only by thinking be- 1 The whole train of ideas which passes through our minds on any sub- ject, may be considered as the images of external objects variously modi- fied and combined. These images we receive through the medium of our senses, by which we hold a communication with the material world. All our ideas of God, and of the objects of religion, are derived from the same source. The illustrations of the attributes of the Deity, and of his moral administration, contained in Scripture, are derived from the exter- nal scenes of Creation, and from the relations of human society; conse- quently, had the material world never existed, we could have formed no conceptions of the Divine perfections similar to those which we now en- tertain, nor have prosecuted a train of thought on any other subject; for the material universe is the basis of all the knowledge we have hitherto acquired, or can acquire, respecting ourselves, our Creator, or other in- lelligencies. 12 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. ings, without the existence of which, the material universe would remain like a mighty hlank, and might he said to ha\e heen created in vain. Hence it appears, that, previous to our enquiries into the nature and relations of mind, it is necessary, in the first place, to study the phenomena of the material world, and the external actions of all those percipient beings with which it is peopled; for the knowledge of the facts we acquire in relation to these objects must form the groundwork of all our investigations. We are surrounded on every hand with minds of various de- scriptions, which evince the faculties of which they are pos- sessed, by the various senses and active powers with which they are furnished. These minds are of various gradations, in point of intellectual capacity and acumen, from Man downwards through all the animated tribes which traverse the regions of earth, air, and sea. We have the strongest reason to believe, that the distant regions of the material world are also replen- ished with intellectual beings of various orders, in which there may be a gradation upwards, in the scale of intellect above that of man, as diversified as that which we perceive in the de- scending scale, from man downwards to the immaterial prin- ciple which animates a muscle, a snail, or a microscopic ani- malcule. When we consider the variety of organical forms and of intellectual capacities which abounds in our terrestrial system, and that there is an infinite gap in the scale of being between the human mind and the Supreme Intelligence, it appears quite conformable to the magnificent harmony of the universe, and to the wisdom and benevolence of its Almighty Author, to suppose, that there are beings within the range of his dominions as far superior to man in the sublimity and vigour of their mental and corporeal powers, as man is, in these re- spects, superior to the meanest insect; and that these beings, in point of number, may exceed all human calculation and comprehension. This idea is corroborated by several intima- tions contained in the records of Revelation, where we have presented to our view a class of intelligences, endowed with physical energies, powers of rapid motion, and a grasp of intel- lect, incomparably superior to those which are possessed by any of the beings which belong to our sublunary system. INTRODUCTION. 13 To contemplate the various orders of intelligencies which people the material universe, and the relations which suhsist among them the arrangements of the different worlds to which they respectively belong the corporeal vehicles hy which they hold a correspondence with the material system the relation in which they stand to other worlds and heings, from which they are separated by the voids of space and the excursions they occasionally make to different regions of that vast empire of which they form a part; to trace the superior intellectual faculties and the sensitive organs with which they are endowed the profound investigations they have made into the economy of the universe the trains of thought which they pursue, and the magnificent objects on which their faculties are employed the emotions with which they view the scenes and transac- tions of such a world as ours the means by which they have been carried forward in the career of moral and intellectual improvement the history of their transactions since the period at which they were brought into existence the peculiar dis- pensations of the Creator, and the revolutions that may have taken place among them the progressions they have made from one stage of improvement to another the views they have acquired of the perfections and plans of their Almighty Sove- reign the transporting emotions of delight which pervade all their faculties and the sublime adorations they offer up to the Fountain of all their felicity, would constitute a source of the most exquisite gratification to every holy and intelligent mind. But since we are at present confined to a small corner of the universe of God, and surrounded by immeasurable voids of space, which intervene between our habitation and the celestial worlds, through which no human power can enable us to pene- trate, we must remain ignorant of the nature and economy of those intellectual beings, till our souls take their flight from these " tabernacles of clay," to join their kindred spirits in the invisible world. While we remain in our sublunary mansion, our investigations into the world of mind must, of necessity, be confined to the nature and attributes of the Uncreated Spirit, and to the faculties of our own minds, and those of the sensitive beings with which we are surrounded. These facul- ties, as they constitute the instruments by which all our know- 14 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. ledge is acquired, have employed the attention of philosophers in every age, and have heen the theme of many subtile and in- genious speculations; and they, doubtless, form an interesting subject of investigation to the student of intellectual science. But of all the views we can take of the world of mind, the moral relations of intelligent beings, and the laws founded on these relations, are topics by far the most interesting and im- portant. This subject may be treated in a more definite and tangible manner, than the theories which have been formed respecting the nature and operations of the intellectual powers. Illustrations, level to every capacity, and which come home to every one's bosom, may be derived both from reason, and ex- perience, from the annals of history, and the records of Revela- tion. It is not involved in the same difficulties and obscurity which have perplexed the philosophy of the intellect; and there are certain principles which may be traced in relation to this subject, which apply to all the rational intelligencies that God has formed, however diversified in respect of the regions of the universe which they occupy, and in the extent of their intel- lectual powers. Above all, this subject is more intimately con- nected with the present and future happiness of man than any other which comes within the range of human investigation; and therefore forms a prominent and legitimate branch of what may be termed, ' The Philosophy of Religion.' That the moral relations of intelligent minds, and the tem- per and conduct corresponding with these relations, are essen- tially connected with the happiness of every rational agent, might be made to appear from a variety of cases, in which the reversing of certain moral laws or principles would inevitably lead to disorder and misery. I shall content myself with stat- ing the following illustration : We dwell in an obscure corner of God's empire; but the light of modern science has shown us, that worlds, a thousand times larger than ours, and adorned with more refulgent splen- dours, exist within the range of that system of which we form a part. It has also unfolded to our view other systems dis- persed throughout the voids of space, at immeasurable distances, and in such vast profusion, that our minds are unable to gra&p their number and magnitude. Reason and revelation lead ug INTRODUCTION. 15 to conclude, that all these worlds and systems are adorned with displays of divine wisdom, and peopled with myriads of rational inhabitants. The human mind, after it has received notices of such stupendous scenes, naturally longs for a nearer and more intimate inspection of the grandeur and economy of those distant provinces of the Creator's empire; and is apt to imagine, that it could never weary, but would feel unmingled enjoyment, while it winged its flight from one magnificent scene of creation to another. But although an inhabitant of our world were divested of the quality of gravitation, endowed with powers of rapid motion adequate to carry him along " to the suburbs of creation," and permitted by his Creator to survey all the wonders of the universe, if a principle of love and kindly affection towards fellow-intelligencies did not animate his mind; if rage and revenge, pride and ambition, hatred and envy, were incessantly rankling in his breast, he could feel no transporting emotions, nor taste the sweets of true enjoyment. The vast universe through which he roamed would be transformed into a spacious hell; its beauties and sublimities could not prevent jaisery from taking possession of his soul; and, at every stage of his excursion, he could not fail to meet with the indications of his Creator's frown. For there appears from reason and experience, as well as from the dictates of revelation, an abso- lute impossibility of enjoying happiness so long as malevolent affections retain their ascendancy in the heart of a moral intel- ligence, in whatever region of universal nature his residence may be found. Hence we may learn, that the highest attainments in science to which any one can arrive, though they may expand the range of his intellectual views, will not ensure to their posses- sor substantial and unmingled enjoyment, while his heart is devoid of benevolent affections, and while he is subjected to the influence of degrading and immoral passions. If it be possible that any one now exists in the literary world who has devoted his life to the sublimest investigations of science, and has taken the most extensive views of the arrangements of the material world, and yet who remains doubtful as to the exist- ence of a Supreme Intelligence, and of an eternal state of destination; who is elated with pride at the splendour of his 16 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGIOX. scientific acquirements; who treats his equals with a spirit of arrogance; who looks down with a sullen scowl on the inferior ranks of his fellow- men ; who is haughty, overbearing, and revengeful in his general deportment; and who is altogether indifferent as to the moral principles he displays, I would envy neither his happiness nor his intellectual attainments. He can enjoy none of those delightful emotions which flow from the exercise of Christian benevolence, nor any of those consolations which the good man feels amidst the various ills of life; and beyond the short span of mortal existence, he can look forward to no brighter displays of the grandeur of the material and intellectual universe, but to an eternal deprivation of his powers of intelligence in annihilation. It must, therefore, be a matter deeply interesting to every intelligent agent, to acquire correct notions of the fundamental principles of moral action, and to form those habits which will fit him for the enjoyment of true felicity, to whatever region of the universe he may afterwards be transported. In the illus- tration of this subject, I shall pursue a train of thought, which, I am not aware, has been prosecuted by any previous writers on the subject of morality, and shall endeavour to con- firm and illustrate the views which may be exhibited, by an appeal to the discoveries of Revelation. We have an abundance of ponderous volumes on the subject of moral philosophy; but the different theories which have been proposed and discussed, and the metaphysical mode in which the subject has generally been treated, have seldom led to any beneficial practical results. To attempt to treat the subject of morals without a reference to divine Revelation, as many of our celebrated moral writers have done, seems to be little short of egregious trifling. It cannot serve the purpose of an ex- periment, to ascertain how far the unassisted faculties of man can go in acquiring a knowledge of the foundation and the rules of moral action; for the prominent principles of Christian morality are so interwoven into the opinions, intercourses, and practices of modern civilised society, and so familiar to the mind of every man who has been educated in a Christian land, that it is impossible to eradicate the idea of them from the mind, when it attempts to trace the duty of man solely on the INTRODUCTION. 17 principles of reason. When the true principles of morality are once communicated through the medium of Revelation, reason can demonstrate their utility, and their conformity to the character of God, to the order of the universe, and to the relations which subsist among intelligent agents. But we are by no means in a situation to determine whether they could ever have been discovered by the investigations and efforts of the unassisted powers of the human mind. The only persons who could fairly try such an experiment were the Greeks and Romans, and other civilised nations in ancient times, to whom the light of Revelation was not imparted. And what was the result of all their researches on this most important of all subjects? What were the practical effects of all the fine-spun theories and subtile speculations which ori- ginated in the schools of ancient philosophy, under the tuition of Plato and Socrates, of Aristotle and Zeno? The result is recorded in the annals of history, and in the writings of the apostles: "They became vain in their imaginations, and their foolish hearts were darkened. They were filled with all un- righteousness, fornication, wickedness, covetousness, malicious- ness, envy, murder, deceit, malignity; they were backbiters, haters of God, despiteful, proud, inventors of evil things, dis- obedient to parents, without natural affection, implacable and unmerciful." Their general conduct was characterised by pride, lasciviousness, and revenge; they indulged in the com- mission of unnatural crimes; they were actuated by restless ambition, and they gloried in covering the earth with devasta- tion and carnage. It is true, indeed, that some of the sects of philosophers propounded several maxims and moral precepts, the propriety of which cannot be questioned; but none of them could agrea respecting either the foundation of virtue, or the ultimate ob- ject toward which it should be directed, or that in which the chief happiness of man consists; and hence it happened, that the precepts delivered by the teachers of philosophy had little influence on their own conduct, and far less on that of the un- thinking multitude. Where do we find, in any of the philo- sophical schools of Greece and Rome, a recommendation of such precepts as these: "Love your enemies do good to them 14 B 18 PHILOSOPHY OP RELIGION. who hate you, and pray for them who despitefully use you, and persecute you!" In opposition to such divine injunctions, we can trace, in the maxims and conduct of the ancient sages, a principle of pride insinuating itself into the train of their most virtuous actions. It has heen reckoned hy some a wise and a witty answer which one of the philosophers returned to his friend, who had advised him to revenge an injury he had suffered: "What! " says he, "if an ass kicks me, must I needs kick him again? " Some may be disposed to consider such a reply as indicating a manly spirit, and true greatness of soul; hut it carries in it a proud and supercilious contempt of human nature, and a haughtiness of mind, which are altogether inconsistent with the mild and benevolent precepts of Him who, in the midst of his severest sufferings from men, exclaimed, " Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do." It appears somewhat preposterous to waste our time, and the energies of our minds, in laboured metaphysical disquisitions to ascertain the foundations of virtue, and the motives from which it is to be pursued; whether it consists in utility, in the fitness of things, or in the regulations of states and political associations, and whether it is to be prosecuted from a prin- ciple of self-love or of benevolence when every useful question that can be started on this subject may be immediately solved by a direct application to the revelations of Heaven, and an in- fallible rule derived for the direction of our conduct in all the circumstances and relations in which we may be placed. Even although the moral philosopher were to reject the Bible as a revelation from God, it would form no reason why its annunciations should be altogether overlooked or rejected. As an impartial investigator of the history of man, of the moral constitution of the human mind, and of the circumstances of our present condition, he is bound to take into view every fact and every circumstance which may have a bearing on the im- portant question which he undertakes to decide. Now, it is a fact that such a book as the Bible actually exists, that, amidst the wreck of thousands of volumes which the stream of time has carried into oblivion, it has survived for several thousands of years that its announcements have directed the opinions and the conduct of myriads of mankind that many INTRODUCTION. 19 of the most illustrious characters that "have adorned our race have submitted to its dictates, and governed their tempers and actions by its moral precepts that those who have been go- verned by its maxims have been distinguished by uprightness of conduct, and been most earnest and successful in promoting the happiness of mankind, that this book declares, that a moral revulsion has taken place in the constitution of man since he was placed upon this globe and that the whole train of its moral precepts proceeds on the ground of his being considered as a depraved intelligence. These are facts which even the infidel philosopher must admit; and, instead of throwing them into the shade, or keeping them entirely out of view, he is bound, as an unbiassed enquirer, to take them all into account in his researches into the moral economy of the human race. In particular, he is bound to enquire into the probability of the alleged fact of the depravity of man, and to consider whe- ther the general train of human actions, the leading facts of history in reference to all ages and nations, and the destructive effects of several operations in the system of nature, have not a tendency to corroborate this important point. For the fact, that man is a fallen intelligence, must materially modify every system of ethics that takes it into account. Should this fact be entirely overlooked, and yet ultimately be found to rest on a solid foundation, then all the speculations and theories of those moralists who profess to be guided solely by the dictates of unassisted reason, may prove to be nothing more than the reveries of a vain imagination, and to be built on " the baseless fabric of a vision." PEELIMINARY DEFINITIONS AND KEMARKS. SECTION I. On the Primary, or most general idea of Morality. T CONCEIVE that the first, or most general idea of Morality, *- is ORDER or, that harmonious disposition and arrangement of intelligent beings which is founded on the nature of things, and which tends to produce the greatest sum of happiness. Physical order, or the order of the material universe, is that by which every part is made to harmonise or correspond to some other part, and all individually to the whole collectively. Thus, the adaptation of light to the eye, and of the eye to light; the adaptation of the structure of the ear and of the lungs, to the constitution of the atmosphere, and its various undulations; the adaptation of the waters, the vegetable productions of the field, the minerals in the bowels of the earth, the colours pro- duced by the solar rays, and all the other parts and agencies of external nature, to the wants and the happiness of sentient beings; the adaptation of day and night to the labour and rest appointed for man; and the regularity of the motions of the planetary bodies in their circuits around the sun constitute the physical order or harmony of the visible world; and it is this which constitutes its principal beauty, and which evinces the wisdom of its Almighty Author. Moral Order is the harmony of intelligent beings in respect to one another and to their Creator, and is founded upon those relations in which they respectively stand to each other. Thus, Reverence, Adoration, and Gratitude, from creatures, corre- spond or harmonise with the idea of a self-existent, omnipotent, and benevolent Being, on whom they depend, and from whom they derive every enjoy ment,-^and love, and good- will, and a desire to promote each other's happiness, harmonise with the idea of intelligences of the same species mingling together in GENERAL IDEA OF MORALITY. 21 social intercourses. For it will at once be admitted, tliat affec- tions directly opposite to these, and universally prevalent, would tend to destroy the moral harmony of the intelligent universe, and to introduce anarchy and confusion, and consequently misery, among all the rational inhabitants of the material world. The following brief illustration, by way of contrast may per- haps have a tendency more particularly to impress the mind with the idea of order intended to be conveyed in the above- stated definitions. Suppose the principle which unites the planetary globes in one harmonious system to be dissolved, and the planets to run lawlessly through the sky suppose the planet Jupiter to for- sake his orbit, and in his course to the distant regions of space, to impinge against the planet Saturn, and to convulse the solid crust of that globe from its surface to its centre, to disar- range the order of its satellites, to shatter its rings into pieces, and to carry the fragments of them along with him in his law- less career, suppose the sun to attract his nearest planets to his surface with a force that would shake them to their centres, and dissolve their present constitution, suppose the moon to fly from her orbit, and rush towards the planet Venus, tfeo earth to be divested of its atmosphere ; its seas and rivers to forsake their ancient channels, and to overflow the land, and its human inhabitants swept promiscuously along with the inferior animals, into dens and caves and crevices of the earth, and into the bottom of the ocean : in such a scene, we should have presented to our view a specimen of physical confusion and disorder ; and it would form an impressive emblem of the state of rational beings, whose moral order is completely sub- verted. Again, suppose the rational inhabitants of our globe to be universally set against one another, for the purpose of produc- ing misery and destruction, suppose the child rising in opposi- tion to his parents, the wife plotting the destruction of her husband, teachers of all descriptions inculcating the arts of deception and of revenge, and representing every principle or fact as contrary to what it really is rulers setting themselves in opposition to the populace, and plotting their destruction, while they are, at the same time, actuated by a principle of 22 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. envy and malice against each other the populace rising against their rulers, exterminating them from the earth, subverting every principle of law and order, gratifying without control, every principle of revenge, avarice, lasciviousness, and sensual indulgence, and enjoying a diabolical satisfaction in contem- plating the scenes of misery they have created: in short, every one beholding in his neighbour the malevolence of a fiend armed with instruments of destruction, and devising schemes to secure his misery and ruin. Suppose the lower animals to rise up in indignation against man, and to swell the horrors of this gen- eral anarchy suppose the superior order of intelligeneies to mingle in this scene of confusion, to exert their high physical and intellectual powers in adding fuel to these malevolent prin- ciples and operations, and in attempting to- drag other intelli- geneies of a still higher order from their seats of bliss suppose all these intelligeneies actuated by an implacable hatred of their Creator, combined to deface the beauties of the material crea- tion, and then to engage in a war of universal extermination throughout every region of the universe ; such a state of things, if it could exist in the universe, would form a perfect contrast to moral order ; it would present a scene in which existence could not be desirable, and in which happiness could not pos- sibly be enjoyed by any rational being, unless by Him who is eternally happy independently of his creatures. Moral order, then, is completely opposed to such a"state of things as has been now represented ; it consists in every being holding its proper station in the universe, acting according to the nature of that station, and using its powers and faculties for the purposes for which they were originally intended ; and the grand object intended to be accomplished by this order, is the happiness of the whole, without which, misery would reign uncontrolled throughout all the ranks of intelligent exis- tence. This state of the moral world is most frequently designated in Scripture by the term holiness. Of the ideas included un- der this term, and several of its kindred epithets, very vague and imperfect conceptions are frequently entertained. Its lead- ing or generic idea, from what has been now stated, will evidently appear to be, a conformity to order, founded on the relations PRINCIPLES OF MORALITY. 23 of intelligent beings to one another ; or, in other words, it con- sists in u complete conformity to the law of God, (which is founded on those relations,) including both the action and the principle from which it flows. In reference to created beings, holiness may therefore be defined to be, 'a conformity to the moral order of the universe, ' and, in relation to the Creator, it is, 'that perfection of his nature which leads him to promote the moral order and happiness of intelligent beings, and to coun- teract every thing which stands in opposition to this object. ' That the leading ideas and definitions now stated are correct, will perhaps more distinctly appear in the course of the follow- ing discussions and illustrations. SECTION II. On the Fundamental Principles of Morality. THE leading idea of morality or holiness, as now stated, re- solves itself into the two following principles : Love to God the Creator, and Love to fellow intelligencies. These are the two grand springs on which the whole moral machine of the uni- verse depends. All the diversified actions by which happiness is diffused among intelligent agents, are only so many ramifi- cations of these two simple and sublime principles, which connect all holy beings throughout the wide empire of God in one har- monious union. This we are not left to infer merely from the nature of things, but have the authority of the supreme Legisla- tor, as our warrant for placing these principles at the founda- tion of all moral virtue among every class of moral agents. For thus saith our Saviour: "Tiiou SHALT LOVE THE LORD THY GOD WITH ALL THY HEART, AND WITH ALL THY MIND, AND WITH ALL THY STRENGTH. This is the first and great commandment. And the second is like unto it : THOU SHALT LOVE THY NEIGH- BOUR AS THYSELF. On these two commandments hang all the Law and the Prophets." These principles, now that they are communicated and sanc- tioned uy divine authority, appear quite accordant to the die- 24 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. tates of enlightened reason, and calculated to promote the hap- piness of the intelligent creation : yet we never find that the moral systems of pagan philosophers, in any country, were built on this foundation, or that they assumed them as indis- pensable axioms to guide them in their speculations on the sub- ject of ethics. In elucidating this topic, I shall endeavour to show the rea- sonableness and the utility of these principles of moral action, from a consideration of the nature of God, and the relations in which intelligent beings stand to him as the source of their felicity from the nature of subordinate intelligences, and the relations in which they stand to one another from the misery which must inevitably follow where such principles are violated or reversed from the happiness that would necessarily flow from their full operation and, lastly, that they apply to the circumstances of all created intelligencies wherever existing, throughout the boundless universe. I have used the plural term principles, to express the foun- dation of moral action, because our Saviour has arranged them under two distinct heads in the passage just now quoted ; but, strictly speaking, there is but one principle, namely, Love, which divides itself, as it were, into two great streams, one directing its course towards the supreme source of all felicity, and the other towards all the subordinate intelligencies He has created. CHAPTER I. ON THE MORAL RELATIONS OF INTELLIGENT BEINGS TO THEIR CREATOR. First Principle of Moral Action LOVE TO GOD. T OVE, considered in reference to the Supreme Being, may -L^ be viewed as dividing itself into a variety of streams of kindred emotions, all flowing from one source. The most pro- minent of these emotions are the following: Admiration, which consists in a delightful emotion, arising from a con- templation of the wonderful works of God, and of the wisdom and goodness which they unfold Reverence, which is nearly allied to admiration, is a solemn emotion, mingled with awe and delight, excited in the mind, when it contemplates the per- fections and the operations of the Eternal Mind Gratitude, which consists in affection to the Supreme Being, on account of the various benefits he has conferred upon us Humility, which consists in a just sense of our own character and condi- tion, especially when we compare ourselves with the purity and perfection of the Divine character. To these emotions may be added Complacency and delight in the character and opera- tions of God Adoration of his excellencies, and an unlimited Dependence upon him in reference to our present concerns and our future destination. I have stated these different modifica- tions of the first principle of morality, because, in the following illustrations, they may all occasionally be taken into account, when an allusion is made to the affections, which the character and operations of the Divine Being have a tendency to excite. Love is that noble affection which is excited by amiable ob- jects; and therefore, in order to its being rational, permanent, and delightful, it must be founded on the perception of certain amiable qualities or attributes connected with its object. In order to demonstrate the reasonableness of this affection in re^ ference to God, it is only requisite to consider his character and perfections, and the relation in which he stands to us as 26 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. the Author of our existence and enjoyments. But, as a com- prehensive view of this subject would require volumes for its illustration, I shall confine myself to the illustration of only two or three lineaments of the Divine character. SECTION I. On the Omnipotence of God. We naturally venerate arid admire a character in which physical energy is combined with high intellectual powers, when these powers are uniformly exerted in the counteraction of vice and misery, and in the promotion of happiness. On this ground, the Omnipotence of God is calculated to aifect the mind with that particular modification of love which is desig- nated by the term Reverence. Were it possible that any human being could construct a machine, by means of which, in combination with his own physical powers, he could rapidly transport himself from one region of the globe to another; and were he, at the same time, to devote his treasures, and his mo- ral and intellectual energies, to the improvement and meliora- tion of the various tribes of mankind in every clime through which. he passed, such an object could not fail of exciting in our minds a sentiment of admiration and reverence. Were one of the highest orders of created intelligences to descend from his celestial mansion, and to display himself to our view in all the bright radiance of his native heaven were he to take his station over the regions of Tibet or Hindostan, and, after hav- ing excited the attention of a wondering populace, were he to detach the huge masses of the Himalaya mountains from their foundations, and toss them into the depth of the Indian ocean, and, in the course of a few hours, transform the barren wastes of that dreary region into a scene of beauty and luxuriant vegetation, and cause splendid cities to arise, where formerly nothing was presented to the view but a bleak and frightful wilderness at such a display of physical power, combined with benevolent design, we could not withhold a feeling of awe, OMNIPOTENCE OF GOD-. 27 and a sentiment of reverence, almost approaching to religious adoration. If, tlien, the contemplation of physical and mental energies, with which even created beings may possibly be invested, would excite our admiration and reverence, what powerful emo- tions of this description must the energies of the Uncreated Mind be calculated to produce, when they are contemplated by the eye of enlightened reason, and in the light of Divine Revelation ! When this huge globe on which we dwell existed in the state of a shapeless and unformed mass; when- land and water and air were blended in wild confusion, and Chaos and Darkness extended then* dominion over all its gloomy re- gions, at His command " light sprung out of darkness, and order out of confusion;" the mountains reared their projecting summits, the valleys were depressed, the caverns of the ocean were hollowed out, and the waters retired to the places which He had appointed for them. The fields were clothed with luxuriant verdure; Eden appeared in all its beauty; the inferior tribes of animated existence took possession of the air, the wa- ters, and the earth, and man was formed in the image of his Maker, to complete this wondrous scene. Would we be struck with astonishment at beholding a su- perior created intelligence tossing a mountain into the sea? What strong emotions of reverence and awe, then, ought to pervade our minds, when we behold the Almighty every mo- ment producing effects infinitely more powerful and astonish- ing ! What would be our astonishment, were we to behold from a distance, a globe as large as the earth tossed from the hand of Omnipotence, and flying at the rate of a thousand miles every minute! Yet this is nothing more than what is every day produced by the unceasing energies of that Power which first called us into existence. That impulse which was first given to the earth at its creation k still continued, by which it is carried round every day from west to east, along with its vast population, and at the same time impelled forward through the regions of space at the rate of sixty-eight thousand miles in an hour. Nor is this among the most wonderful effects of divine power: it is only one comparatively small specimen of that omnipotent energy which resides in the Eternal Mind. 28 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. When we lift our eyes towards the sky, we hehold bodies a thousand times larger than our world, impelled with similar velocities through the mighty expanse of the universe. We behold the planetary globes wheeling, their rapid courses around the sun, with unremitting velocity the comets returning from their long excursions in the distant regions of space, and flying towards the centre of our system with a velocity of hundreds of thousands of miles an hour the sun himself impelled to- wards some distant region of space, and carrying along with him all his attendant planets and, in a word, we have the strongest reason to conclude, that all the vast systems of the universe, which are more numerous than language can express, are in rapid and incessant motion around the throne of the Eternal, carrying forward the grand designs of infinite wisdom which they were destined to accomplish. 1 It must, however, be admitted, that the manifestation of power, or great physical energy, abstractly considered, is not of itself calculated to produce that emotion of reverence which flows from love, unless the being in whom it resides exerts it for the purposes of benevolence. A superior being, endowed with great physical and intellectual energies, which are exerted solely for the purpose of destruction, could inspire no feelings but those of dread and alarm; and were it possible to conceive an Omnipotent Being divested of the attribute of benevolence, or possessed of a capricious character, he would form the most terrible object which the human mind could contemplate. But the attribute of infinite power, when conjoined with infinite wisdom and goodness, conveys an idea the most glorious and transporting. Every display of divine power to which I have now alluded has the communication of happiness for its object. The motion of the earth around its axis every twenty-four hours is intended to distribute light and darkness, in regular propor- tions, to all the inhabitants of the earth, And to correspond to the labour and rest appointed for man. It produces a variety which is highly gratifying to the rational mind ; for, while our fellow-men on the opposite side of the globe are enjoying the splendours of the noon-day sun, the shades of night, which at 1 See a more comprehensive illustration of this subject in ' The Chris- tian Philosopher.' OMNIPOTENCE OF GOD. 29 that time envelop our hemisphere^ are the means of disclosing to our view the magnificent glories of the starry frame. Were this motion to cease, this world and all its inhahitants would he thrown into a state of confusion and misery. While the inhahitants of one hemisphere enjoyed the splendours of per- petual day, the glories of the nocturnal heavens would he for ever veiled from their view, and the inhahitants of the other hemisphere would he enveloped in the shades of eternal night. While the one class was suffering under the searching effects of excessive heat, the other would he frozen to death amidst the rigours of insufferahle cold vegetable nature, in hoth cases,, would languish, and the animal tribes would he gradually ex- tinguished. The same benevolent intention may be perceived in that exertion of power by which the earth is carried forward in its annual course around the sun. From this motion we derive all the pleasures we enjoy from the vicissitude of the seasons; without which the variety of nature that appears in the beauties of spring, the luxuriance of summer, the fruits of autumn, and the repose of winter, would be completely destroyed. And, it is worthy of notice, that all this variety is enjoyed every mo- ment by some tribe or other of the human family; for while it is summer in one region, it is winter in another; and while one class of our fellow-men is contemplating the opening beauties of spring, another is gathering in the fruits of harvest. The same benevolent designs, we have every reason to believe, are displayed in those more magnificent exertions of divine power which appear among all the rolling worlds on high; for, in so far as our observations extend, all the arrangements of the planetary globes appear calculated to promote the happiness of sentient and intellectual beings. While, therefore, we contemplate the operations of divine power, either in the earth or in the heavens, we perceive every thing which is calculated to inspire us with love, admiration, and reverence. When we lie down on our pillows in the even- ing, how pleasing is it to reflect, that the power of our Almighty Father will be exerted in carrying us round in safety several thousands of miles, during our repose in sleep, in order that our eyes may be again cheered with the morning light! When, 30 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. amidst tlie gloom and storms of winter, we look forward to the reviving scenes of spring, we know that we must be carried forward more than a hundred millions of miles, before we can njoy the pleasures of that delightful season; and when spring arrives, we must be carried through the voids of space a hun- dred millions of miles farther, before we can reap the fruits of summer and harvest. How delightful, then, is the thought, that the omnipotent energy of our heavenly Father is inces- santly exerted in producing so wonderful an effect, accom- panied by such a variety of beneficent changes, all contributing to our enjoyment. What is the rea/son, then, why we feel so little admiration and reverence at the beneficent operations of divine power ? If we should be struck with veneration at beholding a superior created intelligence tossing a range of mountains into the sea, why do we behold with so much apathy effects ten thousand times more energetic and astonishing? One general reason, among ethers, undoubtedly is, that the moral constitution of man has suffered a melancholy derangement; in consequence of which, the train of his thoughts and affections has been turned out of its original channel. The Scriptures are clear and explicit on this point: they declare, in the most positive terms, that "the carnal mind is enmity against God" and that, in consequence of this depraved principle, the wicked " walk in the vanity of their minds, being alienated from the life of God. They say to the Almighty, Depart from us, for we desire not the knowledge of thy ways. God is not in all their thoughts, and through the pride of their countenances they will not call upon God." Another reason is, that the almighty Agent who produces so stupendous effects remains invisible to mortal eyes. Were a celestial intelligence to ap- pear in a splendid and definite form, and to produce such effects as I have supposed, the connection between the agent and the effects produced, would forcibly strike the senses and the imagination. But He who sits on the throne of the universe, and conducts all its movements, is a Being "who dwells in light unapproachable, whom no man hath seen, nor can see." He can be contemplated only through the sensible manifestations he gives of his perfections; and, were the train OMNIPOTENCE OF GOD. 31 of our thoughts properly directed, we would perceive him operating in every object and in every movement. We could hear his voice in the wind and the thunder, in the earthquake, the storm, and the tempest; we would see him in the beauties and sublimities of sublunary nature, in the splendours of the sun, and the glories of the nocturnal sky; and, in whatever situation we might be placed, we would feel ourselves sur- rounded with the omnipotent energies of an ever-present Deity. The contemplation of God as an omnipotent being, is cal- culated to inspire the mind with love and confidence in the prospect of futurity. The promises addressed to us by a wise and benevolent being can excite in us trust and dependence, only in so far as we are convinced of his ability to secure their fulfilment. If almighty power were not an attribute of the Eternal Mind, or were we unable to trace its operations in visible existing facts, then all the promises and delineations of Revelation, in reference to unseen and eternal objects, might prove to be nothing more than imaginary scenes that could never be realised. But the good man, who perceives omnipo- tent energy in incessant operation throughout all the scenes of the universe which surround him, feels the most perfect se curity in looking forward to the scene of his future destination, and to those changes and revolutions which shall succeed the period of his present existence. He knows that, in a few years at most, that immortal principle which now animates his frame, will take its flight from its earthly mansion to a world unknown. To what regions it will direct its course; what scenes and prospects will be unfolded to its view; what inter- course it may have with the spirits of departed men, or with other intelligences; in what state it shall pass its existence till the consummation of the present plan of Providence whether it shall remain as a naked spirit entirely disconnected with the visible universe, or be clothed with gome ethereal vehicle, to enable it to hold a correspondence with other re- gions of the material creation he is at present unable to determine. He knows that his body too shall disappear from the living world, and be reduced to corruption and ashes. In what manner the essential particles of this body shall be pre- served distinct from those of all other human bodies, after 32 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. ' they have been tossed about by the winds, and blended with the other elements of nature ; by what means they shall be re- united into a more glorious form; and how the separate spirit shall be enabled to recognise its renovated and long-lost partner at the resurrection of the just he can form no conception. He knows, that the globe on which he now resides is doomed to be dissolved amidst devouring flames, when " the elements shall melt with fervent heat, and the earth, and the works that are therein, shall be burnt up" that the ashes of all the myriads of the race of Adam shall issue from the caverns of the ocean, and from the charnel houses, in every region of the earth that they shall be moulded into new or- ganical structures, united with their kindred spirits, and be convened in one grand assembly before God, the Judge of all. He knows, that "new heavens and a new earth" will be ar- ranged for the residence of the " redeemed;" but in what re- gion of the universe this abode may be prepared, what scene? it will unfold, and by what means the innumerable company of the righteous shall be transported from amidst the ruins of this globe to that celestial habitation, he is at present unable to form even a conjecture. He knows, that after these 'solemn changes have been effected, ages numerous as the drops of the ocean will roll over him that worlds, numerous as the stars of heaven, will run their destined rounds that other systems may undergo important changes and revolutions that new systems of creation may be gradually emerging into existence, and that scenes of magnificence and glory, different from all that ever preceded them, may incessantly rise to view through- out the lapse of unceasing duration. But, in the prospect of all these solemn and important events, he beholds in that almighty energy which wheels our globe around from day to day, and impels it in its annual course, and which directs, at the same time, the movements of all the hosts of heaven the exertion of a benevolent power, which is calculated to inspire him with love and confidence, and which is able to secure his happiness amidst the revolutions of worlds, and amidst all the scenes through which he may pass during an immortal exist- ence. Under this impression, he can adopt the affectionate and triumphant language of the Psalmist: " Whom have I in OMNIPOTENCE OF GOD. 33 heaven but thee ? and there is none upon earth that I desire besides thee ! My. heart and my flesh shall fail ; but God is the strength of my heart, and my portion for ever." Thus it appears, that the omnipotence of God is one of those attributes of his nature which is particularly calculated to fill the mind with sentiments of love and confidence, admiration and reverence. And if such emotions be at all excited in the mind, they must rise to the highest pitch of elevation to which we can carry them ; for there is no other object or being that possesses the same perfection, or can claim the same degree of affection and love. If we love God at all, it must be "with all our heart, with all our understanding, and with all our strength. The considerations to which I have now adverted have been too seldom taken into view in moral and religious discussions on this topic. The omnipotence of the Deity is seldom exhibit- ed as a ground and an excitement of veneration and love, and yet it stands, as it were, on the forefront of the Divine charac- ter, giving beauty and efficiency to all his other perfections: with- out which, wisdom, benevolence, faithfulness, mercy, and pa- tience, would degenerate into empty names, and form no solid foundation for the exercise of. confidence and hope. And, therefore, it is the duty of every Christian to endeavour, by every proper mean, to enlarge his conceptions of the operations of omnipotence, and to familiarise his mind to contemplations of the magnitude, motions, grandeur, and immensity of God's works, in order that his love to God may be elevated and expanded, and his faith and hope strengthened and invigorated. To this attribute of Jehovah the inspired writers uniformly direct our views, as a source of joy and confidence. "Praise ye the Lord, praise him, ye servants of the Lord ; for I know that Jehovah is Great, and that our Lord is above all gods. Whatever the Lord pleased that did he, in heaven and in earth, in the seas, and all deep places. Great is the Lord, and greatly to be praised ; his greatness is unsearchable. I will speak of the glorious honour of thy majesty, and of thy wondrous icorks. I will speak of the might of thy terrible acts, and will declare thy greatness ; to make known to the sons of men thy mighty operations, and the glorious majesty of thy king- dom. Happy is he who hath the God of Jacob for his help, H C * -^*"'~ PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. whose hope is in the Lord his God, who made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is, who keepeth truth for ever." SECTION II. On the Wisdom and Goodness of God. ANOTHER feature in the divine character, which is calculated to excite our most ardent affection, is the Wisdom and Goodness of God. These two attributes may be considered under one head ; since they are always inseparable in their operation. Goodness proposes the end, namely, the happiness of the sen- sitive and intelligent creation ; and Wisdom selects the most proper means for its accomplishment. Wherever genius appears combined with benevolent intentions and beneficent operations, we cannot withhold a certain portion of affection and regard. When we behold a man like Howard, devoting his wealth his knowledge, his intellectual and active powers, to alleviate the sorrows, and to promote the happiness of his fellow-men when we behold him in retirement at his native mansion, a universal blessing to his neighbours around him, furnishing employment for the poor, erecting schools for the instruction of their children, watching over the morals of his neighbourhood, visiting the abodes of affliction, acting the part of a physician to their bodies, imparting spiritual instruction to their souls, promoting the knowledge and practice of religion, and extend- ing his benevolent regards to persons of all religious persuasions when we behold him leaving his native country, and the friends of his youth, on a tour of benevolence over all Europe and the East, hazarding his health and his life in the service of humanity, diving into the depths of dungeons, plunging into the infected atmospheres of hospitals and jails, visiting the lonely and squalid prisoner, entering the wretched hovels of sorrow and affliction, administering consolation and relief, and iurveying the dimensions of misery and distress among men of WISDOM AND GOODNESS OF COD. 35 all nations, for the purpose of devising schemes for the relief of the distresses of suffering humanity, and for promoting the comforts of mankind, when such a character appears on the stage Of life, there is no class of the human race, whose powers are not completely vitiated, but must feel towards it strong emotions of esteem and affectionate regard. But what are all the wise and beneficent designs of a fellow- mortal, when compared with the numerous and diversified streams of benevolence which are incessantly flowing from the uncreated Source of felicity! They are but as a drop to the ocean, or as an atom when compared with the immensity of the universe. On God all beings depend, to Him they are indebted for all their powers and faculties ; and on Him their eternal felicity depends. Were we to prosecute this subject to any extent, it would lead us into a field on which volumes might be written, and yet the greater part of the displays of the divine beneficence would remain unrecorded. I shall therefore confine myself to the selection of only a few instances of the wisdom and goodness of God. Wherever we turn our eyes in the world around us, we be- hold innumerable instances of our Creator's beneficence. In order that the eye and the imagination may be gratified and charmed, he has spread over the surface of our terrestrial habi- tation an assemblage of the richest colours, which beautify and adorn the landscape of the earth, and present to our view a picturesque and diversified scenery, which is highly gratifying to the principle of novelty implanted in the human mind. On all sides we behold a rich variety of beauty and magnificence. Here, spread the wide plains and fertile fields, adorned with fruits and verdure; there, the hills rise in gentle slopes, and the mountains rear their snowy tops to the clouds, distilling from their sides the brooks and rivers, which enliven and fertilise the plains through which they flow. Here, the lake stretches into a smooth expanse in the bosom of the mountains ; there, the rivers meander through the forests and the flowery fields, diversifying the rural scene, and distributing health and fertility in their train. Here, we behold the rugged cliffs and the stately port of the forest; there, we are charmed with the verdure of the meadow, the enamel of flowers, the azure of the sky, and 36 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. the gay colouring of the morning and evening clouds. In order that this scene of beauty and magnificence might be rendered visible, He formed the element of light, without which the expanse of the universe would be a boundless desert, and its "beauties for ever veiled from our sight. It opens to our view the mountains, the hills, the vales, the woods, the lawns, the flocks and herds, the wonders of the mighty deep, and the radiant orbs of heaven. It paints a thousand different hues on the objects around us, and promotes a cheerful and extensive intercourse among all the inhabitants of the globe. Again, in order to gratify the sense of hearing, He formed the atmosphere, and endowed it with an undulating quality, that it might waft to our ears the pleasures of sound, and the charms of music. The murmuring of the brooks, the whispers of the gentle breeze, the noise of the waterfall, the hum of bees, the chirping of birds, the soft notes of the nightingale, and the melody of thousands of the feathered songsters which 11 the groves with their warblings, produce a pleasing variety of delightful emotions; the numerous modulations of the human voice, the articulate sounds peculiar to the human species, by which the interchanges of thought and affection are promoted, the soft notes, the solemn sounds of music and even the roaring of the stormy ocean, the dashings of a mighty cataract, and the rolling thunders, which elevate the soul to sentiments of sublimity and awe, are all productive of a mingled variety of pleasures; and demonstrate, that the distribution of happiness is one grand end of the operations of our bountiful Creator. To gratify the sense of smelling, he has perfumed the air with a variety of delicious odours, which are incessantly exhaled from a thousand plants and flowers. Countless millions of these odoriferous particles, which elude the penetrating power of the finest microscope to discover, are continually wafted about by the air, and floating around us, impervious to the sight, the hearing, and the touch, but calculated to convey pleasure to the soul, through the medium of the olfactory nerves, and to enable us to "banquet on the invisible dainties of nature." To gratify the sense of feeling, he has connected pleasure with the contact of almost every thing we have occasion to touch, and has rendered it subservient for warning us of what- WISDOM AND GOODNESS OF GOD. 37 ever may he disagreeable or dangerous. Had a malevolent Being constructed the body of man, and formed the arrange- ments of external nature, he might have rendered the contact of every object of touch as acutely painful as when we clasp a prickly shrub, or thrust our fingers against the point of a needle. To gratify the sense of taste, and to nourish our bodies, he has furnished us with a rich variety of aliments, distributed, not with a niggardly and a sparing hand, but with a luxuriant profusion, suited to the tastes of every sentient being, and to the circumstances of the inhabitants of every clime. lie has not confined his bounty merely to the relief of our necessities, by confining us to the use of a few tasteless herbs and roots, but has covered the surface of the earth with an admirable profusion of plants, herbs, grains, and delicious fruits of a thousand different qualities and tastes, which contribute to the sensitive enjoyment and comfort of man. In almost every region of the earth, corn is to be found, in the valleys sur- rounded by the snowy mountains of the North, as well as in the verdant plains of the Torrid Zone. In warm regions, cool and delicious fruits are provided for the refreshment of the inhabitants, and the trees are covered with luxuriant foliage to screen them from the intensity of the solar heat! 1 Every season presents us with a variety of fruits peculiar to itself, distributed by the munificent hand of the "Giver of all good." And although we are indebted chiefly to summer and autumn for these rich presents, yet, by the assistance of human art, we can preserve and enjoy the greater part during winter and 4 1 The manner in which, the Creator has provided a supply for the tlrirst of man, in sultry places, is worthy of admiration. He h;is placed amidst the burning sands of Africa, a plant, whose leaf, twisted round like a cruet, is always filled with a larjre glass full of fresh water; the gullet of this cruet is shut by the extremity of the leaf itself, so as to prevent the water from evaporating. He has planted in some other districts of the same country, a great tree, called by the negroes Boa, the trunk of which, of a prodigious bulk, is naturally hollowed like a cistern. In the rainy season, it receives its fill of water, which continues fresh and cool in the greatest heats, by means of the tufted foliage which crowns its summit. In some of the parched rocky islands in the West Indies, there is found a tree, called the water lianne, so full of sap, that if you cut a single branch of it, as much water is immediately discharged as a man can drink at a draught, and it is perfectly pure and limpid. See Pierre Studies of Nature. 33 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. spring. The soil which produces these dainties has never yet lost its fertility, though it has brought forth the harvests of six thousand years, but still repays our labour with its annual treasures; and, were selfish man animated with the same liberal and generous views as his munificent Creator, every individual of the human family would be plentifully supplied with a share of these rich and delicious bounties of nature. In fine, the happiness of man appears to be the object of the Divine care every returning season, every moment, by day and by night. By day, He cheers us with the enlivening beams of the sun, which unfold to us the beauty and the verdure of the fields; and, lest the constant effiux of his light and heat should enfeeble our bodies, and wither the tender herbs, he commands the clouds to interpose, as so many magnificent screens, to ward off the intensity of the solar rays. When the earth is drained of its moisture, and parched with heat, he bids the clouds condense their watery treasures, and fly from other regions on the wings of the wind, to pour their waters upon the fields, not in overwhelming and destructive torrents, but in small drops and gentle showers, to refresh the thirsty soil, and revive the vegetable tribes. He has spread under our feet a carpet of lovely green, richer, than all the productions of the Persian loom, and has thrown around our habitation an azure canopy, which directs our view to the distant regions of infinite space. By night, He draws a veil of darkness over the moun- tains and the plains, that we may be enabled to penetrate to the regions of distant worlds, and behold the moon walking in brightness, the aspects of the planetary globes, the long trains of comets, and the innumerable host of stars. At this season, too, all nature is still, that we may enjoy in quiet the refresh- ments of sleep, to invigorate our mental and corporeal powers. " As a mother stills every little noise that her infant be not disturbed; as she draws the curtains around its bed, and shuts out the light from its tender eyes: so God draws the curtains of darkness around us, so he makes all things to be hushed and still, that his large family may sleep in peace." In a word, if we look around to the forests which cover the mountains, or if we look downwards to the quarries and mines in the bowels of the earth, we behold abundance of materials for constructing WISDOM AND GOODNESS OF GOD. 39 our habitations, for embellishing the abodes of civilised life, and for carrying forward improvements in the arts and sciences. And, if we consider the surrounding atmosphere, we shall find it to contain the principle of life and the element of Jlre, by means of which our winter evenings are cheered and illuminated in the absence of the sun. Contemplating all these benign agencies as flowing from the care and benevolence of our Almighty Parent, the pious mind may adopt the beautiful language of the poet, though in a sense somewhat different from what he intended: " For me kind nature wakes her genial power, Suckles each herb, and spreads out every flower ; Annual for me, the grape, the rose, renew The juice nectareous, and the balmy dew ; For me the mine a thousand treasures brings ; For me health gushes from a thousand springs ; Seas roll to waft me, suns to light me rise : My footstool earth, my canopy the skies." POPE. Viewing the various scenes and harmpnies of nature, in relation to man, and to the gratification of his different senses, we may also say, in the language of Akenside, in his poem 4 On the Pleasures of Imagination, ' that " Not a breeze Flies o'er the meadow, not a cloud imbibes The setting sun's effulgence ; not a strain From all the tenants of the warbling shade Ascends, but whence his bosom can partake Fresh pleasure and delight. The rolling waves, the sun's unwearied course, The elements and seasons, all declare For what the Eternal Maker has ordain'd The powers of man : we feel within ourselves His energy divine : He tells the heart He meant, He made us to behold and love What he beholds and loves, the general orb Of life and being; to be great like Him, Beneficent and active." Let us now consider the Wisdom which is displayed in the harmonious adjustment of the organ of sense to the scenes of external nature. All the scenes of beauty, grandeur, and benignity, which surround us, in the earth and heavens, would 40 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. remain as one mighty blank, unproductive of enjoyment, unle&s our bodies were endowed with organs fitted for enabling us to hold a correspondence with the material world. Ten thousands of vessels, tubes, bones, muscles, ligaments, membranes, motions, and adaptations, beyond the reach of the human understanding fully to investigate or to comprehend, must be arranged, and act in harmonious concert, before any one sense belonging to man can perceive and enjoy its objects. Before the eye can behold a landscape, and be charmed with its beauties, it was requisite that three humours should be formed, of different sizes, different densities, and different refrac- tive powers three coats, or delicate membranes, with some parts opake and some transparent, some black and some white, some of them formed of radial and some with cireular fibres, composed of threads finer than those of the spieler's web. The crystalline humour required to be composed of two thousand very thin spherical lamina, or scales, lying one upon another, every one of these scales, made up of one single fibre, or finest thread, wound, in a* most stupendous manner, this way and that way, so as to run several courses, and to meet in as many centres. This curious and delicate piece of organisation re- quired to be compressed into the size of a ball of only half an inch in diameter, and a socket composed of a number of small bones, to be hollowed out and exactly fitted for its reception. A bed of loose fat for this ball to rest upon, a lid or curtain to secure it from danger, a variety of muscles to enable it to move upwards and downwards, to the right and to the left, and a numerous assemblage of minute veins, arteries, nerves, lympha- tics, glands, and other delicate pieces of animal machinery, of which we have no distinct conception, were still requisite to complete this admirable organ. Even in this state it would be of no use for the purpose of vision, unless it were connected with the brain by the optic nerve, through the medium of which the impressions of visible objects are conveyed to the soul. Still, in addition to all these contrivances, a wonderful machinery requires to be in action, and an admirable effect produced, before a landscape can be contemplated. Ten thyi- sand millions of rays, compounded of a thousand different shades of colour, must fly off in every direction from the objects which WISDOM AND GOODNESS OF GOD. 41 compose the surrounding scene, and be compressed into the space of one eighth of an inch, in order to enter the eye, and must paint every object in its true colour, form, and proportion, on a space not exceeding half an inch in diameter. Were any one of the parts which compose this complicated machine either wanting or deranged ; were it changed into a different form, or placed in a different position: were even a single muscle to lose its capacity of acting, we might be for ever deprived of all the enchanting prospects of the earth and heavens, and envel- oped in the darkness of eternal night. Such is the skill and intelligence requisite for accomplishing, even in a single organ, the purposes of Divine benevolence. A^ain, Before we could enjoy the harmony of sounds, the charms of music, and the pleasure's of conversation, an instru- ment no less wonderful than the eye required to be constructed. In the ear, which is the organ of hearing, it was requisite that there should be an outward porch for collecting the vibrations of the air, constructed not of fleshy substances, which might fall down upon the orifice, or absorb the sounds, nor of solid bones, which would occasion pain and inconvenience when we repose ourselves but composed of a cartilaginous substance, covered with a smooth membrane, endowed with elasticity, and bent into a variety of circular folds, or hollows, for the reflection of sound. It was further requisite, that there should be a tube, or passage, composed partly of cartilage, and partly of bone, lined with a skin or membrane, and moistened with a glutinous matter, to form a communication with the internal machinery of this organ, where the principal wonders of hearing are per- formed. This machinery consists, first of the tympanum, or drum of the ear, which consists of a dry, thin, and round mem- brane, stretched upon a bony ring, so as actually to resemble the instrument we call' a drum. Under this membrane is a small nerve, or string, stretched tight, for the purpose of stretch- ing or relaxing the drum, and increasing or diminishing its vibrations, so as to render it capable of reflecting every possi- ble tone. Behind it is a cavity, hewn out of the temporal bone, the hardest one in the body, in which there seems to be an echo, by which the sound is reflected with the utmost precision. This cavity contains four very small, but remarkable bones, denomi- 42 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. nated tlie hammer, the anvil, the orbicular bone, and the stirrup, all connected together, and necessary for contributing to the extension and vibration of the tympanum. In this cavity are also formed various windings or cavities filled with air ; and, in order that the air may be renewed, there is an opening which communicates with the back part of the mouth, called the Eustachian tube. The next apparatus belonging to this curious machine, is the Labyrinth, which is composed of three parts, the vestibule or porch, three semicircular canals, and the cochlea. This last is a canal, which takes a spiral course, like the shell of a snail, and is divided by a very thin lamina, or septum of cords, which keeps decreasing from the base to the top. The air acting on cither side of these diminutive cords, produces a motion nearly in the same manner as the sound of one musical instrument excites a tremulous motion in the cords of another. All these tubes and winding canals may be considered as so many sound- ing galleries, for augmenting the smallest tremors, and con- veying their impressions to the auditory nerves, which conduct them to the brain. Besides the several parts now mentioned, a number of arteries, veins, lymphatics, glands, and a variety of other contrivances, which the human mind can neither trace nor comprehend, are connected with the mechanism of this admirable organ. All this curious and complicated apparatus, however, would have been of no avail for the purpose of hearing had not the atmosphere been formed, and its particles endowed with a tremulous motion. But this medium being prepared, a sound- ing body communicates an undulatory motion to the air, as a Btone thrown into a pond produces circular waves in the water ; the air, thus put in motion, shakes the drum of the ear ; the tremors, thus excited, produce vibrations in the air within the drum ; this air shakes the handle of the hammer ; the hammer strikes the anvil, with which it is articulated; the anvil trans- mits the motion to the stirrup, to which its longer leg is fast- ened; the stirrup transmits the motion it has received to the nerves; and the nerves, vibrating like the strings of a violin or a lyre, and the motion being still further augmented in the Labyrinth, the soul, in a manner altogether incomprehensible WISDOM AND GOODNESS OF GOD. 43 to us, receives an impression proportioned to the weakness or intensity of the vibration produced by the sounding body. Such is the exquisite and complicated machinery which re- quired to be constructed, and preserved in action every moment, before we could enjoy the benefits of sound, and the pleasures of articulate conversation. Again, Before we could enjoy the pleasures of feeling, an extensive system of organisation required to be arranged. A system of nerves, originating in the brain and spinal marrow, and distributed, in numberless minute ramifications, through the heart, lungs, bowels, blood-vessels, hands, feet, and every other part of the body, was requisite to be inter- woven through the whole constitution of the animal frame, before this sense, which is the foundation of all the other sen- sations, and the source of so many pleasures, could be pro- duced. Wherever there are nerves, there are also sensations; and wherever any particular part of the body requires to exert ; a peculiar feeling, there the nerves are arranged and distributed in a peculiar manner, to produce the ^ intended effect. And w nicely is every thing arranged and attempered, in this respect, to contribute to our comfort! If the points of the fingers require to be endowed with a more delicate sensation than several other parts, they are furnished with a correspond- ing number of nervous ramifications; if the heel require to be more callous, the nerves are more sparingly distributed. If feeling were equally distributed over the whole body, and as acutely sensible as in the membranes of the eye, our very clothes would become galling and insupportable, and we should be exposed to continual pain; and if every part were as insen- sible as the callous of the heel, the body would be benumbed, the pleasures we derive from this sense would be destroyed, and the other organs of sensation could not perform their functions in the manner in which they now operate. So that in this, as well as in all the other sensitive organs, infinite wisdom is admirably displayed in executing the designs of Benevolence. In order that we might derive enjoyment from the various aliments and delicious fruits which the earth produces, a pe- culiar organisation, different from all the other senses, was 44 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. requisite to be devised. Before we could relish the peculiar flavour of the pear, the apple, the peach, the plum, or the grape, the tongue, the principal organ of taste, required to he formed, and its surface covered with an infinite number of nervous papillae, curiously divaricated over its surface, to re- ceive and convey to the soul the impressions of every flavour. These nerves required to be guarded with a firm and proper tegument or covering, to defend them from danger, and enable them to perform their functions so long as life continues; and, at the same time, to be perforated in such a manner, with a multitude of pores in the papillary eminences, as to give a free admission to every variety of taste. It was likewise necessary, that these papillary nerves should be distributed in the great- est number in those parts of the organ to which the objects of taste are most frequently applied; and hence we find, that they are more numerous on the upper than on the lower parts of the tongue; and, therefore, when we apply highly-flavoured substances to the under part, we are not so sensible of the taste till we remove them to the upper surface. A variety of veins, arteries, glands, tendons, and other parts with which we are unacquainted, are also connected with this useful organ. When we consider how frequently these delicate organs are used, during a length of years, it is matter of admiration how well they wear. While age shrivels the must beautiful skin, these delicate nervous papillae last longer than instru- ments of iron or steel ; for the sense of taste is generally the last that decays. For the bestowment of this sense, there- fore, and the pleasure it conveys, we have abundant reason to admire and adore the wisdom and goodness of our Almighty Creator. Finally, that we might be regaled with the scent of flowers, and the aromatic perfumes of spring and summer, and that none of the pleasures of nature might be lost, the organ of smelling was constructed to catch the invisible odoriferous effluvia which are continually wafted through the air. For this purpose, it was requisite that bones, nerves, muscles, arteries, veins, cartilages, and membranes, peculiarly adapted to produce this effect, should be arranged, and placed in a certain part of the body. As the bones of the head are too WISDOM AND GOODNESS OF GOD. 45 hard for this purpose, the nerves of smelling required to have a hone of a peculiar texture, of a spongy nature, full of little holes, like a sieve, through which they might transmit their slender threads or hranches to the papillous membrane which lines the cavities of the hone and the top of the nostrils. The nostrils required to be cartilaginous and not fleshy, in order to be kept open, and to be furnished with appropriate muscles to dilate or contract them as the occasion might re- quire. It was likewise requisite that they should be wide at the bottom, to collect a large quantity of effluvia, and narrow at the top where the olfactory nerves are condensed, that the effluvia might act with the greatest vigour, and convey the sensation to the brain. By means of these and numerous other contrivances connected with this organ, we are enabled to distinguish the qualities of our food, and to regale ourselves on those invisible effluvia which are incessantly flying off from the vegetable tribes, and wa/ted in every direction through the atmosphere. Of all the senses with which we are furnished, the sense of smelling is that which we are apt to consider as of the least importance; and some have even been ready to imagine, that our enjoyments would scarcely have been diminished, although its organs had never existed. But it is presumptuous in man to hazard such an opinion in reference to any of the beneficent designs of the Creator. We know not what relation the minutest operations, within us or around us, may bear to the whole economy of nature, or what disastrous effects might be produced, were a single pin of the machinery of our bodies broken or destroyed. The exhalations which are at this mo- ment rising from a putrid marsh in the centre of New Hol- land, and hovering, in an invisible form, over that desolate region, may be forming those identical clouds, which, the next month, shall water our fields and gardens, and draw forth from the flowers their aromatic perfumes. The sense of smelling may be essentially requisite to the perfection of seve- ral of the other senses; as we know that the sense of feeling is inseparably connected with the senses of seeing, hearing, and tasting. Let us consider for a moment some of the agencies which require to be exerted when this sense is exercised and 4> PHILOSOPHY OP RELIGION. gratified. Before we could derive pleasure from the fragrance of a flower, it was requisite that a system of the finest tubes, filaments, and membranes, should be organised, endowed with powers of absorption and perspiration, furnished with hundreds of vessels for conveying the sap through all its parts, and per- forated with thousands of pores to give passage to myriads of odoriferous particles, secreted from the internal juices. It was also requisite that the atmosphere should be formed, for the purpose of affording nourishment to the plant, and for con- veying its odoriferous effluvia to the olfactory nerves. The rains, the dews, the principle of heat, the revolution of the seasons, the succession of day and night, the principle of eva- poration, the agitation of the air by winds, and the solar light, all combine their influence and their agencies in producing the grateful sensation we feel from the smell of a rose. So that the sense of smelling is not only connected with the agency of all the terrestrial elements around us, but bears a relation to the vast globe of the sun himself; for an energy exerted at the distance of ninety-five millions of miles, and a motion of 200,000 miles, every second, in the particles of light, are necessary to its existence; and consequently, it forms one of the subordinate ends for which that luminary was created: and, being related to the sun, it may bear a certain relation to similar agencies which that central globe is pro< ducing among the inhabitants of surrounding worlds. Thus it appears, that the various senses of man, as well as the external objects which contribute to their gratification, are the results of infinite wisdom and goodness, and calculated to promote the happiness of sensitive and intelligent beings. But, before any one of these senses could perform its func- tions, it required to be united with a most wonderful system of organisation. The heart required to be endowed with an immense degree of muscular power, and to be set in action in the centre of this complicated system hundreds of arteries required to be bored, and ramified, and arranged, to convey the blood to its remotest extremities, and hundreds of veins to bring it back again to its reservoir thousands of lacteal and lymphatic tubes to absorb nutriment from the food, and convey it to the circulating fluid thousands of glands to secrete WISDOM AND GOODNESS OF GOD. 47 humours that are noxious or redundant from the mass of blood, and emunctories to throw them off from the system hundreds of muscle? for moving the different members of the body, and for conveying the whole corporeal frame from place to place- hundreds of fine cords infinitely ramified over the whole body, to convey sensation to all its parts and thousands of millions of perforations to be made in the skin, through which the in- sensible perspiration might continually flow. To support this fine and delicate system of vessels, hundreds of bones of di- versified forms and different sizes, and connected together by various modes of articulation, required to be constructed and .arranged, and nicely adapted to their peculiar functions; and hundreds of tendons and ligaments, to connect these bones with the muscles, and with every other part of the animal frame. This machine required to be preserved in constant action, whether we be sleeping or waking, sitting or standing, in motion or at rest. The heart required to give ninety-six thousand strokes every twenty-four hours, to send off streams of the vital fluid through hundreds of tubes, and to impel the whole mass of blood through every part of the body every four minutes. The lungs required to be in constant play, expand- ing and contracting their thousand vesicles, at least twenty times every minute, to imbibe the oxygen of the atmosphere, and to transmit its enlivening influence to the circulating fluids the stomach to be dissolving the food, and preparing it for the nourishment of the body the liver and kidneys to be drawing off their secretions the lacteals to be extracting nutritious particles, to be conveyed, by the absorbent vessels, into the mass of the blood, and the perspiration, which might otherwise clog the wheels of the whole machine, to be thrown off incessantly through millions of pores. All this curious and delicate machinery, constructed of the most flabby sub- stances, required to be put in motion, and to be preserved in action every moment, before we could contemplate the beauties of a landscape, be delighted with the sounds of music, or in- hale the fragrance of a rose. It is worthy of notice, that, in the construction and ar- rangement of these numerous and complicated parts and func- tions, there is not a single instance that any physiologist caa 48 PHILOSOPHY OP RELIGION. produce, in wliicli pain is the object of the contrivance. Of all the thousands of adaptations which Infinite Wisdom has contrived, there is not one hut what has for its ohject, the communication of pleasure to the sentient being in which it is found. If a number of small muscles are connected with the eye, it is for the purpose of rendering that organ susceptible of a quick and easy motion in every direction, to meet every exigence. If the arteries are furnished with numerous valves, opening only in one direction, it is intended to prevent the blood from returning by a wrong course, and endangering the whole structure of the animal machine. If a joint is .formed to move only in one direction, as the joints of the fingers, it is intended to prevent those inconveniences which would inevitably have been felt, had it been capable of moving in every direction. If another kind of joint is constructed so as to move in every direction, it is intended to enable us to perform, with facility, those movements and operations which would otherwise have been either impossible, or have been attended with the greatest inconvenience and pain. There are certain parts connected with the human frame, whose precise use cannot be accurately determined, but this is owing to our limited knowledge of the various functions which are requisite to be performed in this complicated machine. In no instance whatever can it be shown, that the infliction of pain is the object of any one part or function of whose use we are uncertain; and it is con- formable to the dictates of the soundest reason to conclude, that, since every part, whose use we can ascertain, is adapted to communicate pleasure, every other part, throughout every branch of the animal system, is calculated to produce a similar effect. It is true, indeed, that pain is frequently felt in the different members which compose our corporeal system; but this is not owing to its original construction, but to the derangement which its parts receive, either from internal disease or from external violence; and such consequences are the effects, either of the folly of man, in exposing his body to danger, or in using its members for improper purposes, or of the physical changes which have happened in the system of nature since man was created, or of those depraved and immoral passions which so frequently agitate and convulse his corporeal frame. WISDOM AND GOODNESS OP GOD. 49 Let U3 now endeavour, if we can, to sum up a few of the blessings which we enjoy from these wise arrangements of our Beneficent Creator. In our bodies there are reckoned 245 bones, every one of them having forty distinct scopes or in- tentions, and 446 muscles for the purpose of motion, each having at least ten several intentions. All these are ready every moment to perform their functions; and every breath we draw, whether we be in motion or at rest, asleep or awake, a hundred muscles at least are in constant action. In the act of breathing, we respire at least twenty times every minute; the heart exerts its muscular force in propelling the blood into the arteries sixty times every minute; the stomach and abdo- minal muscles are every moment in action, and the curious little bones of the ear are ever ready to convey sensations of the softest whisper to the brain. So that, without a hyper- bole, or the least extravagance of expression, it may truly and literally be said, that we enjoy a thousand blessings every minute. For if any one of these numerous functions were to stop, or to be interrupted, pain, and even death itself might be induced. Let us ask the man who is gasping for breath, under an incurable asthma, or him who is smarting under the pain of a toothache, or him who has wounded a nerve, an artery, or a vein, or him who has dislocated his shoulderblade, if he would not consider it as a peculiar blessing to have the func- tions of nature restored to their original action? And if one member out of joint, or one function out of order, produces so much pain and uneasiness, how grateful ought we to feel for the thousands of blessings we enjoy every moment, while the wheels of the animal machine are moving on with smoothness and harmony! If we consider the number of years during which these blessings have been continued, if we consider the mercies received in childhood, which have been long overlooked or forgotten, if we count the many nights which we have passed in sound repose, and the many days we have enjoyed without bodily pain, if we reflect on the numerous objects ot sublimity and beauty with which our eyes have been delighted, the numerous sounds which have charmed our ears and cheered our hearts, and the numerous gratifications which our other senses have received, if we consider how often food has been U D 50 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. provided and administered for the nourishment of our bodies, and from how many visible and invisible dangers we have been delivered and, if we view these countless blessings as pro- ceeding every moment from Him, "whose hands have made and fashioned us," and who "breathed into our nostrils the breath of life," can we forbear to recognise our Almighty Benefactor as worthy of our supreme affection and our most lively gratitude? " For me, \vhen I forget the darling theme, Be my tongue mute, may fancy paint no more, And, dead to joy, forget my heart to beat." "Under an impression of the diversified agencies of Divine Wisdom which are incessantly contributing to our enjoyment, and of the vast profusion of our Creator's beneficence which we behold around us, and experience every passing hour, can we forbear exclaiming with the enraptured Poet "When all thy mercies, my God! My rising soul surveys, Transported with the view, I'm lost In wonder, love, and praise. Through every period of my life Thy goodness I'll proclaim ; And, after death, in distant worlds, Renew the glorious theme. Through all eternity to Thee A joyful song I'll raise ; For, oh ! eternity's too short To utter all thy praise." If, then, the construction of our bodies, and the terrestrial scene in which we are placed, present so many striking displays of Wisdom and Benevolence, what an astonishing and trans- porting scene of Divine Benignity would burst upon the view, were we permitted to explore those more extensive provinces of the empire of Omnipotence, where physical and moral evil have never shed their baleful influence, to interrupt the happi- ness of intellectual natures! Could we soar beyond the re- gions of the planetary system ; could we penetrate into that immensity of worlds and beings which are scattered in mag- nificent profusion through the boundless fields of ether; could WISDOM AND GOODNESS OF GOD. 51 ve draw aside the veil which now conceals the grandeur and beauty of their physical economy and arrangements; could we behold their inhabitants arrayed in robes of beauty, with ec- static joy beaming from their countenances, basking perpetually in the regions of bliss, united to one another by indissoluble bands of love and affection, without the least apprehension of evil, or of an interruption to their enjoyments, and looking forward with confidence to an interminable succession of de- lighted existence; could we retrace the history of their Creator's dispensations towards them since the first moment of their existence, and the peculiar displays of divine glory and be- nignity that may occasionally be exhibited to their view, it is more than probable, that all the displays of Wisdom and Benevolence which we now behold, numerous as they are, would be. thrown completely into the shade, and that this world would appear only as a la^ar-house when compared with the bright and transporting scenes of the celestial worlds. This we are infallibly led to conclude, in regard to a certain elass of intelligencies in the future state, by the express de- clarations of Scripture. For thus it is written, "Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have entered into the heart of man, the things which God hath prepared for them that love him." And if renovated men shall experience such superior enjoyments in the eternal world, there can be no doubt that all those intelligencies, in every region, who have retained their primitive integrity, are at this moment in possession of similar transporting enjoyments. It must, therefore, have an additional tendency to elevate our affections to the Supreme Intelligence, when we view him not only communicating hap- piness to the various tribes of beings which people our globe, but also distributing streams of felicity, in boundless profusion, among the inhabitants of unnumbered worlds. I shall conclude my illustrations of this topic, by exhibiting a few instances of the Wisdom and Goodness of God as de- lineated in the Sacred Scriptures. " The Lord is good to all, and his tender mercies are over all his works. He stretched forth the heavens, and laid the foundation of the earth, and formeth the spirit of man within him. He planted the ear, and formed the eye; and he breathed 52 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION 1 . into our nostrils the breath of life. In his hand is the sonl of every living thing, and the breath of all mankind. With him is wisdom and strength, and his understanding is infinite. He is wonderful in counsel, and excellent in working. He hath established the world by his wisdom, and stretched out the heavens by his understanding. the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and the knowledge of God ! how unsearchable are his operations, and his ways past finding out ? He eauseth the vapours to ascend from the ends of the earth; he bindeth up the waters in his thick clouds, and the cloud is not rent under them. He hath compassed the waters with bounds, un- til the day and night come to an end. He visiteth the earth and watereth it; he greatly enricheth it with rivers; he pre- pareth corn for its inhabitants; he watereth the ridges thereof abundantly; he settleth the furrows thereof; he maketh it soft with showers; he blesseth the springing thereof; he crowneth the year with his goodness, and his paths drop fatness. The pastures are clothed with flocks, the valleys are covered over with corn, and the little hills are encircled with joy. 1 " He sendeth the springs into the valleys which run among the hills; they give drink to every beast of the field. Beside these springs, the fowls of heaven have their habitation, which sing among the branches. He causeth the grass to grow for the cattle, and herb for the service of man; and wine that maketh glad the heart of man, and oil that maketh his face to shine, and bread that strengthened his heart. He planted the .tail trees and the cedars of Lebanon, where the birds make their nests, and the storks their dwellings. The high hills are a refuge for the wild goats, and the rocks for the conies. He appointed the moon for seasons, and the sun to enlighten the world ; he makes darkness a curtain for the night, till the sun arise, when man goeth forth to his work and to his labour till the evening. How manifold are thy works, Lord ! In wis- dom hast thou made them all; the earth is full of thy riches; so is the great and wide sea, wherein are creeping things in- numerable, both small and great beasts. These all wait upon ' * In this, and several other quotations from the Scriptures, the literal rendering from the Hebrew is substituted in place of the common trans- lation, and the supplements are frequently omitted. WISDOM AND GOODNESS OF GOD. 53 thee, that tliou mayest give them their meat in due season. Thou givest them they gather: thou openest thine hand they are filled with good. Thou hidest thy face they are troubled: thou sendest forth thy Spirit they are created; and thou renewest the face of the earth. The glory of the Lord shall endure for ever; Jehovah shall rejoice in all his works. He is Lord of heaven and earth ; he giveth to all, life and breath and all things; he hath made of one blood all nations of men, to dwell on all the face of the earth ; and hath deter- mined the times before appointed, and the bounds of their habitation. For in him we live and move and have our being. I will sing unto Jehovah as long as I live; I will sing praises to my God while I have my being ; I will utter abundantly the' memory of his great goodness, and speak of all his wondrous works." The inspired writers rise to still higher strains when they cele- brate the Divine Goodness in reference to our eternal salvation. "Praise ye Jehovah, for Jehovah is good; he remembered us in our low estate, for his mercy endureth for ever. I will praise thee, Lord my God, with all my heart, and I will glorify thy name for evermore; for great is thy mercy toward me, and thou hast delivered my soul from the lowest hell. God so loved the world, that he gave his only-begotten Son, that whosoever believeth on him should not perish, but have everlasting life." He sent an angel from the celestial glory to announce his birth; and a multitude of the heavenly host to proclaim, " Glory to God in the highest, peace on earth, and good-will to men. He spared not his own Son, but delivered him up for us all and shall he not with him also freely give us all things ? Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who hath blessed us with all spiritual blessings in heavenly things in Christ; in whom we have redemption through his blood, the forgiveness of sins, according to the riches of his grace. Bless the Lord, my soul, and all that is within me bless his holy name: who forgiveth all thine iniquities, who healeth all thy diseases; who redeemeth thy life from destruction, and crowneth thee with loving-kindness and tender mercies. As the heaven is high above the earth, so great is his mercy toward them that fear him. The mercy of 54 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION, Jehovah is from everlasting to everlasting upon them that fear him ; and his righteousness unto children's children. Many, Lord my God, are thy wonderful works which thou hast done, and thy thoughts to us-ward, they cannot he reckoned up in order unto thee; if I would declare and speak of them r they are more than can he numhered. I will praise thee, for 1 am fearfully and wonderfully made; marvellous are thy works. How precious are thy thoughts (or designs) towards me, God ! how great is the sum of them ! if I should count them, they are more in number than the sand." Thus it appears, that both the system of Nature, and the system of Revelation, concur In exhibiting the Wisdom and Benevolence of the Deity as calculated to excite the highest degree of ardent aifection in the minds of the whole intelligent creation. If an atom of gratitude is due to an earthly bene- factor, it is impossible to set bounds to that affection and gratitude which ought incessantly to rise in our hearts towards the Creator of the universe, who is the " Father of mercies, and the God of all consolation." And, therefore, we need not wonder, that "holy men of old," whose minds were over- powered with this sacred emotion, broke out into language which would be deemed extravagant by the frigid moralists of the present age. Under a sense of the unbounded love and good- ness of God, the Psalmist felt his heart elated, and formed these pious resolutions: " Seven times a day will I praise thee, Lord ! At midnight will I rise to give thanks to thee, be- cause of thy righteous precepts. I will rejoice in the way of thy precepts, as much as in all riches. The law of thy mouth is better unto me than thousands of gold and silver. 0, how love I thy law ! it is my meditation all the day. I will speak of thy testimonies before kings, and will not be ashamed of thy commandments. Whom have I in heaven but thee? and there is none upon earth that I desire besides thee. As the hart panteth after the brooks of water, so panteth my soul after thee, Godl " Under similar emotions, the apostle Paul exclaims, "I am persuaded, that neither death nor life,. nor angels nor principalities nor powers, nor things present nor things to come, shall be able to separate us from the love of God, which is in, Christ Jesus our Lord." MEROT AND FORBEARANCE OF GOD. 5 SECTION III. On the Mercy and Patience of God. ANOTHER feature in the divine character, which is peculiarly calculated to excite admiration, affection, and gratitude, is the Mercy and Patience of God. Mercy has its source in the Divine Goodness, and may be considered as a particular modification of the benevolence of the Deity. Goodness is the genus, Mercy the species. The Goodness of God extends to all his creatures, of whatever de- scription or character, to the fowls of the air, the fishes of the sea, the microscopic animalcules, and the most wicked class of human beings, as well as to angels, archangels, and other superior intelligences. Mercy can have a reference only to those who have sinned against their Maker, and rendered themselves unworthy of his favours. It consists in the bestowment of blessings upon those who have forfeited every claim to them, and have rendered themselves obnoxious to punishment. It cannot be exercised toward " the angels who have kept their first estate," or towards any other class of holy intelligences, because they do not stand in need of its exercise. The Patience or Forbearance of God is that attribute of his nature which consists in his bearing long with sinners, and refraining from inflicting deserved punishment, notwithstanding their impeni- tence, and long-continued provocations. -These attributes are seldom displayed, in our world, by one man, or class of men, towards another. Instead of clemency, mercy, and forbearance, we find in the character of mankind, as delineated in the page of history, the principle of revenge operating more powerfully than almost any other disposition ; and therefore, when any striking instance of mercy and long- suffering is exhibited in human conduct, we are disposed to admire it as an extraordinary moral phenomenon. When we behold a personage who is possessed of every degree of mora and physical power for crushing his enemies yet remaining calm and tranquil, and forbearing to execute deserved punish- ment, notwithstanding repeated insults and injuries, we are led (> PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. to admire such qualities, as indicating a certain degree of greatness and benevolence of mind. On this principle, we ad- mire the forbearance of David towards Saul, his bitterest enemy, when he had an opportunity of slaying him at the cave of En- gedi ; and afterwards, when he was sleeping in a trench at Hachilah ; and at the clemency which he exercised towards Shimei, who had cursed him and insulted him, and treated him most reproachfully. On the same principle, we admire the conduct of Sir Walter Raleigh, a man of known courage and honour, towards a certain rash, hotheaded youth. Being very injuriously treated by this impertinent mortal, who next pro- ceeded to challenge him, and, on his refusal, spit on him, and that too in public ; the knight, taking out his handkerchief, with great calmness, made him only this reply: " Young man, if I could as easily wipe your blood from my conscience, as I can this injury from my face, I would this moment take away your life." In order to exhibit the Mercy and Long-suffering of the Deity in their true light, let us consider, for a moment, some of the leading features in the conduct and the character of mankind. Whether we go back to the remote ages of anti- quity, or review the present moral state of the inhabitants of our globe, we shall find the following, among many other similar traits, in the character of the great mass of this world's population: An utter forgetfulness of God, and the preva- lence of abominable idolatries. Though an invisible and Om- nipotent energy may be clearly perceived in that majestic ma- chinery by which the vault of heaven appears to be whirled round our globe from day to day ; and though every returning season proclaims the exuberant Goodness of that Being who arranged our terrestrial habitation, yet, of the great majority of human beings that have hitherto existed, or now exist, it may with truth be said that " God is not in all their thoughts, and the fear of God is not before their eyes." And how gro- velling have been the conceptions of those who have professed to offer up their adorations to a superior Intelligence ! They have changed the glory of the incorruptible God, into an image made like to corruptible man, and have invested with the attri- butes of Divinity, a block of marble, the stock of a tree, a stu- MERCY AND FORBEARANCE OF GOD. 57 pid ox, and a crawling reptile ; to which they have paid that worship and homage which were due to the Almighty Maker of heaven and earth. Blasphemy and impiety is another characteristic of the majority of our species. How many have there been of our wretched race in all ages, and how many are there in the pre- sent age, who " set their mouths against the heavens in their blasphemous talk,", and "dare defy the Omnipotent to arms!" They say to God, "Depart from us, for we desire not the know- ledge of thy ways : What is the Almighty, that we should serve him? and what profit should we have, if we pray unto him?" While his hand is making their pulse to beat, and their lungs to play, and while he is distributing to them corn, and wine, and fruits in rich abundance, they are blaspheming his ador- able Majesty, and prostituting these very blessings for the purpose of pouring dishonour on his name. The diabolical passions which men have displayed toward one another is another striking trait in their character. War has been their employment and their delight in every age. Thousands of rational beings of the same species have set them- selves in array against thousands, and have levelled at each other spears, and arrows, and darts, and musketry, and cannon, and every other instrument of destruction, till legs, and arms, and skulls, and brains, were mingled with the dust till the earth was drenched with human gore till cities, and towns, and villages, were tumbled into ruins, or given up as a prey to the devouring flames and till the bounties of Providence, which God had provided for man and beast, were destroyed, and trampled down as the mire of the streets. And what adds to the enormity of such dreadful passions, they have often had the effrontery to implore the assistance of the God of mercy in this work of horror and destruction. When, to all these abom- inable dispositions and practices, we add the numerous other acts of atrocity that are daily committed in every quarter of the world, the oppression and injustice which the poor, the widow, and the fatherless, have suffered from the overwhelming hand of Power ; the persecutions which Tyranny has inflicted on the select few, who have raised their voices against such abominations; the falsehood, treachery, and perjury, which are 58 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. rampant in every land ; the lewd and unnatural crimes that are daily committed ; the thefts, murders, and assassinations that are incessantly perpetrating in some one region of the world or another ; the pride and arrogance which so many of the puny sons of men assume ; the murmurings and complainings at the dispensations of Providence, and the hase ingratitude with which the majority of mankind receive the bounties of Heaven ; and when we consider, for how many 'thousands of years these abominable dispositions have been displayed, we have reason to wonder that condign punishment is not speedily exe- cuted, and that the Almighty does not interpose his Omnipo- tence, to shatter this globe to atoms, and to bury its inhabi- tants in the gulf of everlasting oblivion. Yet, notwithstanding these depraved and ungrateful disposi- tions; notwithstanding that this spacious world, which was erected for a temple to the Deity, has been turned into a tem- ple of idols, its seas and rivers stained, and its fields drenched with the blood of millions of human beings, and its cities trans- formed into a sink of moral pollution : in spite of all these in- numerable and aggravated provocations, the God of heaven still exercises his Mercy and Forbearance. He impels the earth in its annual and diurnal course, to bring about the interchanges of day and night, and the vicissitudes of the seasons; he makes his sun to arise on the world, to cheer the nations with his light and heat; he sends his rains, to refresh the fields, both of "the just and of the unjust; 1 ' he causes the trees, herbs, and flowers, to bud and blossom every returning spring: he ripens the fields in harvest; he crowns the year with his bounty, and encircles the little hills with rejoicing. Instead of " sending forth his mighty winds," in incessant storms and hurricanes, to tear up whole forests by their roots, and to lay waste the productions of the soil, he fans the groves and the lawns with gentle breezes and odoriferous gales. Instead of opening the cataracts of hea- ven, and dashing down overwhelming torrents, to deluge the plains, and frustrate the hopes of man, he refreshes the parched ground with gentle showers. Instead of confining our sensitive enjoyments to bread and water, as if we were the tenants of a jail, he strews our gardens and fields with every variety of luxuriant delicacies, to gratify every appetite. Instead of directing the MERCt AND FORBEARANCE OF G'OD. 5$ lightnings to set on fire the mountains, and to level our cities to the ground, and the thunders to roll incessantly around us, he commands this terrific meteor to visit us only at distant inter- vals, and in its gentler operations, just to remind us what tre- mendous instruments of destruction he is capable of wielding, and that we ought to "he still and know that He is God,"" and that " he has- punished us less than our iniquities deserve.' 7 that men would praise the Lord for his Mercy, and for his Long-suffering towards the children of men ! This character of God is peculiar to himself, and cannot he supposed to helong, unless in a very inferior degree, to any created intelligence. Were the meekest man that ever appeared on the theatre of our world or were even one of the highest intelligences in heaven, to he invested with a portion of the attribute of omniscience ; could he penetrate, at one glance, over all that hemisphere of our globe on which the sun shines, and, at the next glance, survey the other hemisphere which is enveloped in darkness; could his eye pierce into the secret cham- bers of every habitation of human beings, and especially into those haunts where crimes are veiled by the shades of night from every human eye; could he behold at one ^glance all the abominations that are hourly perpetrating in every region of the world the Pagan worshippers in Tibet and Hindostan, per- forming their cruel and execrable rites the wheels of Jugger- naut crushing to death its wretched devotees the human vic- tims which are tortured and sacrificed, to gratify the ferocity of some barbarous chief the savage hordes of New Zealand, feasting on the flesh of their fellow-men, whom they have cruelly butchered, and drinking their blood out of human skulls the Indians of America tearing with pincers the flesh of their prisoners, and enjoying a diabolical pleasure in beholding their torments the haughty Inquisitors of Spain insulting their devoted victims, in the name of the merciful Saviour, and pre- paring tortures, and stakes, and flames, for their destruction the assassin plunging his dagger into his neighbour's bosom the midnight robber entering into the abode of honest indus- try, strangling its inmates, and carrying off their treasures the kidnapper tearing the poor African from his wife, and chil- dren, and native land the unfeeling planter and overseer lash- 60 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. Ving his degraded slaves tyrants and persecutors dragging "the excellent ones of the earth" to prisons, dungeons, and gibbets the malevolent and envious man devising schemes for the ruin and destruction of his neighbour the mutinous crew, in the midst of the ocean, rising up against their superiors, slash- ing them with their sabres, and plunging their bodies into the deep the gamester ruining a whole family by a throw of the dice the sceptic sporting with the most sacred truths the atheist attempting to defy the Omnipotent the prostitute wallowing in the mire of uncleanness the drunkard blasphem- ing the God of heaven in his midnight revels hypocritical professors of religion harbouring malice and revenge against their brethren and thousands of other iniquitous scenes which are daily presented before the pure eyes of Omniscience: could he behold all the abominable acts of this description which are perpetrated on the surface of our globe, in the course of a single day, and were the elements of nature under his control, for executing condign, punishment on transgressors, it is more than probable, that, before another day dawned upon the world, the great globe we inhabit would be shattered to its centre, and enveloped in devouring flames. For no finite intelligence could refrain his indignation for a length of years, or could penetrate into all the reasons, why " sentence against an evil work should not be speedily executed; " why the murderer should not be arrested by death before his hand is lifted up to strike ; why the tyrant should not be cut off before his victims are secured ; and why the slave should be doomed to drag out so many long years under the rod of a relentless master. But God beholds all these actions in all their bearings and relations to the plan of his government, and in all their eternal conse- quences ; and, beholding them, he "keeps silence, " and re- frains from executing immediate and deserved punishment. ; Thio part of the divine character, when seriously considered, is calculated to excite strong emotions of admiration and won- der; and these emotions must be raised to their highest pitch, when we consider the many instruments of vengeance which are every moment wielded by the hand of the Almighty. If for- bearance were owing to impotence, or a want of means for the infliction of retributive justice, our admiration would cease. MERCY AND FORBEARANCE OF GOD. SI But all the elements of nature are under the immediate control of the Governor of the Universe; and, in a thousand modes incomprehensible by us, He could make them the instruments of his vengeance to chastise a guilty world. " For in his hand is the soul of every living thing, and the breath of all mankind." Let us consider, for a little, some of those agents which lie within the sphere of our knowledge in the system of nature. Of all the elements of nature there is none more delightful and beautiful in its effects than light. " Truly the light is sweet, and a pleasant thing it is for the eyes to behold the sun. " It diffuses a thousand shades of colouring over the hills, the vales, the rivers, and the boundless deep, and opens to our view the glorious host of heaven. Yet this delightful visitant, by a slight modification from the hand of Omnipotence, is capable of being transformed into the most tremendous and destructive element in nature. Light flies from the sun at the rate of 200,000 miles in a second of time; and it is owing to its particles being almost infinitely small, that we feel no incon- venience from their rapid velocity. But were the Creator to condense several millions of these particles into cne, or impel them with a still greater velocity, the solid crust of our globe would be perforated and shattered in every point by this celestial artillery, and its inhabitants would soon be battered to atoms. Again, the atmosphere which surrounds us, and in which we live and breathe; which contains the principle of life; which fans us with its gentle gales, and wafts to our ears the harmonies of music is capable of being converted into an instrument of terror and destruction. It is composed chiefly of two different ingredients; one of these is the principle of flame, and if the other ingredient were extracted from the atmosphere, and this principle left to exert its native energy without control, instantly the forests would be in a blaze; the hardest metals, and the moFt solid rocks, would melt like wax; the waters of the ocean would add fuel to the raging element; and, in a few minutes, the whole expanse of our globe would be enveloped in one de- vouring flame. Again, the globe on which we reside is whirling round its axis every twenty-four hours, and is carried round the sun with a still greater velocity. Should that almighty arm which first $2 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION". impelled it in its career, cause these motions suddenly to stop, mountains would be tumbled into the sea, forests torn up by the roots, cities overthrown and demolished, all nature would be thrown into confusion, and terror and destruction would overwhelm the inhabitants of the world. Not only the stopping of the earth's motions, but even a new direction given to its axis of rotation, would be productive of the most fatal effects. The earth's axis at present is directed to certain points of the heavens, from which it never deviates but in a very small de- gree; but were the hand of Omnipotence to bend it so as to make it point in a different direction, the ocean would abandon its present bed, and overflow the land; and a second universal deluge would sweep the earth's inhabitants into a watery grave. Again, not only the elements which immediately surround us, but even celestial bodies which are just now invisible to our sight, and removed to the distance of a thousand millions of miles, might be employed as ministers of vengeance. There are at least a hundred comets connected with the solar system, which are moving in all directions, and crossing the orbits of the earth and the other planets. Were the orbit of one of these bodies, in its approach to the sun, to be bent in a direction to that of the earth, the most alarming phenomena would be exhibited in the heavens. A ruddy globe, larger in appearance than the moon, would first announce terror to the inhabitants of the earth every day this terrific object would increase in size, till it appeared to fill the celestial hemisphere with its tremendous disk; the light of the sun would be eclipsed the stars would disappear the ocean would be thrown into violent agitation, and toss its billows to the clouds the earth would " reel to and fro like a drunkard" and universal alarm and confusion would seize upon all the tribes of the living world. At length this tremendous orb would approach with accelerated velocity, and, striking the earth with a crash, as if heaven and earth had burst asunder, would shiver the globe into fragments, and for ever exterminate the race of man. It will at once be admitted, by every one who acknowledges the incessant agency of a Supreme Being in the movements of the universe, that any one, or all of these effects combined, are within the compass of Omnipotence; and not only so, but they MERCY AND FORBEARANCE OF GOD. 3 taight all be accomplished, with terrific energy, in the course of a few moments. If puny man, by his mechanical dexterity, can suddenly stop a stupendous machine which he has put in motion if he can impel red hot balls at the rate of 500 miles an hour if he can extract the oxygen from a small portion of the atmosphere, and cause it to set on fire the hardest metallic substances with infinitely greater ease, the Almighty could stop the earth in its career, separate the component parts of the atmosphere, set on fire the foundations of the mountains, or impel the blazing comet towards the earth, to crush it to atoms. That God has been a constant spectator of the wicked- ness of man for six thousand years; that he has, during all that period, wielded in his hands so many terrific ministers of ven- geance; and that he has hitherto refrained from executing deserved punishment on the workers of iniquity is, therefore, a striking evidence that his mercy is infinite, and that he is " long-suffering and slow to anger, not willing that any should perish, but that all should come to repentance." It would, however, be a most unwarrantable conclusion, from this circumstance to imagine, that God beholds with in- difference the scenes of iniquity that are hourly presented before him. In order to show that he is not an unconcerned spectator of the ways of men, and that the instruments of punishment are always in his hand, he sometimes " cometh out of his place to punish the inhabitants of the earth for their iniquity," and displays the holiness of his nature by " terrible things in righteousness." In such visitations, "his way is in the whirl- wind and the storm; clouds and darkness are round about him; a fire goeth before him, and burneth up his enemies round about; the stormy winds are his messengers, and flames of fire his ministers; the clouds pour out their waters; the sky sends forth a sound; the voice of his thunder is in the heavens; his lightnings enlighten the world ; the earth quakes, and the people tremble." The hurricane, which tears up whole forests by the roots, and tosses them about as stubble, which levels the loftiest spires with the ground, and dashes the stateliest ships against each other, till they are broken into shivers, and plunged into the deep: the lightnings, which fill the atmosphere with their blaze, which shatter the strongest buildings, and strike whole herds of 64 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. cattle into a lifeless group: the pestilence, " which walketh in darkness," and cuts off thousands of its victims in a day: the volcano, belching forth rivers of fire, causing surrounding cities to tremble, and sending forth its hellowings over a circuit of a thousand miles; these, and many other agents which are in operation in the system of nature, are experimental proofs of the dreadful energy of those ministers of destruction, which are constantly under the superintendence of the Almighty, and of his occasionally using them for the purpose of chastising the nations for their iniquities. In particular, the earthquake is one of the most terrible and destructive instruments of vengeance. In the year 1755, the shock of an earthquake was felt at Lisbon, which levelled to the ground more than the half of that populous city, and buried fifty thousand of its inhabitants in the ruins. This shock extended its influence over a space of four millions of square miles; and therefore it is easy to conceive, that had a little greater impulse been given to the physical agents which pro- duced this terrible effect, the solid globe on which we stand might have been convulsed to its centre, and all its inhabitants crushed to death amidst the universal ruin. We have also an experimental proof, that there are physical principles in the constitution of our globe sufficient to give it a shock throughout every part of its solid mass, and that such a shock, at one period, it actually received. When the Avicked- ness of man became great upon the earth, when " every ima- gination of the thoughts of his heart was only evil continually," the fountains of the great deep were broken up, the cataracts of heaven were opened, and the whole solid crust of our globe received such a shock as rent the mountains asunder, and hurled them into the plains; the effects of which are still visible in every Alpine district, and in the subterraneous caverns of the earth. Of all the millions of the race of Adam that then existed, only eight individuals survived to tell to their posterity the tidings of this universal wreck. The dreadful scenes of horror and consternation which must have been presented at this awful crisis; the stupendous forces which must have been in operation in the atmosphere above, and in the foundations of the earth beneath,' and the tremendous clash of elemental MERCY AND FORBEARANCE OF GOD. 65 war which must have ensued throughout every region of earth, air, and sea, it is heyond the power of the human imagination to depict in all their terrific grandeur. But we have every reason to conclude, that the bottom of the ocean was lifted up to the level of the loftiest mountains, that disruptions of the mountains and of the densest rocks ensued, and that the mighty waters hurled their hillows with resistless fury in every direc- tion, rolling immense rocks and forests from one continent to another, and whirling the wrecks of different regions to the opposite extremities of the glohe. Were it at any time the intention of the Almighty to inflict deserved punishment on a particular district or class of men, without deranging the whole structure of our globe, we have also an experimental proof how easily this could be effected, even without infringing the established laws of nature. He has only to condense the powerful energies of the electrical fluid in a large cloud, and to despatch it on the wings of the wind, to discharge its thunderbolts on any particular city, mountain, or plain, and the work of destruction is instantly accomplished. A striking instance of this kind happened in the year 1772, in the island of Java, in the East Indies. On the llth of August, at the dead hour of night, a bright cloud was observed covering a mountain in the district of Cheribon, and at the same moment several reports were heard like those of a cannon. The people who dwelt on the upper parts of the mountain not being able to fly with sufficient swiftness, a great part of the cloud, about nine miles in circumference, detached itself under them, and was seen at a distance, rising and falling like the waves of the sea, and emitting globes of fire so luminous, that the night be- came as clear as day. The effects of this dreadful explosion were astonishing. Every thing was destroyed for twenty miles around. The houses were demolished; the plantations were buried in the earth; vast numbers of goats, sheep, and horses, and 1500 head of cattle, were destroyed; and above two thou- sand human beings were in a moment plunged into the gulf of eternity. 1 " With God is terrible majesty. Who can stand 1 In this and the other illustrations of this subject stated above, I consider the Divine Being as the grand agent in directing the operations of the elements, but without infringing those general laws which are found to operate with undeviating constancy in the system of the universe. To U E G6 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. before his indignation? who can abide in the fierceness of his anger? The mountains quake before him; the hills melt, and the earth is burned at his presence. " "Let all the earth fear the Lord; let all the inhabitants of the world stand in awe of him." Thus it appears that God is not an unconcerned spectator of the ways of men that he has every moment at his com- mand the most destructive elements of nature and that we have abundant proofs that these elements have been occasionally used for inflicting condign punishment on the workers of ini- quity. Notwithstanding these resources of vengeance, we find, by experience, that his Mercy is exercised, from year to year, towards a world, the majority of whose inhabitants are daily trampling under foot his sacred institutions, and his holy laws. The instances which occur, of the devastations of the hurri- cane, the thunder, the volcano, the earthquake, and the pesti- lence, are comparatively few, and seem intended chiefly to arouse the attention of thoughtless and ungrateful man; to prevent him from running to the extreme of wickedness; and to convince him that " the Most High ruleth in the kingdoms of men," and that "verily there is a God who judgeth in the earth." Hence we may perceive the striking emphasis of the language of the inspired writers, " The Lord is slow to anger," and yet "great in power." explore the manner in which these general laws are directed to produce certain specific effects, in reference to particular regions and tribes of mankind, must obviously be beyond the limits of our faculties ; unless we could enter into all the designs of the Almighty, when he gave birth to the universe, and arranged its elementary parts ; and unless we could take a comprehensive view of the remotest tendencies of the elements of nature, and the times and circumstances in which they shall produce a specific and extraordinary effect. All these tendencies and circumstances were before the mind of the Eternal when he established the plan of his moral government ; and therefore, whatever events may occur in the physical system must be considered as the accomplishment of his moral purposes, in reference to the moral agents he has created. It would be presumptuous, in so limited a being as man, to determine in every case what is the precise moral reason of the extraordinary destructive effects of physical agents. We can only say in general, that they are connected with the sin and depravity of man. But, at that solemn day when the reasons of the Divine dispensations shall be laid open, it wilfperhaps be found that such uncommon and alarming effects were the punishment of aggravated transgressions, the peculiar malignity and tendency of which were removed, in a great measure, beyond the sphere of general ob- ervation. JUSTICE OF GOD. 67 This display of the exercise of the forbearance of God is therefore calculated, as well as his wisdom and goodness, to inspire us with emotions of Reverence, Admiration, and Love, " The Lord is merciful and gracious, slow to anger, and plen- teous in mercy. As the heaven is high above the earth, so great is his mercy toward them that fear him. Bless the Lord, my soul, and forget not all his benefits." SECTION IV. Of the Rectitude of the Divine Character. ANOTHER perfection in the character of God, which is cal- culated to inspire confidence and affection, is his Justice, or the Rectitude of his nature. The Rectitude of the Divine Being, in its most extensive sense, consists in doing that which, in all cases, is right: 01, in other words, that which will have the greatest tendency to promote the order and happiness of his universal empire. It includes under it the idea of distributive justice, which consists in rewarding the good, and punishing the bad, according to equitable laws, calculated to produce harmony and happiness throughout the whole intelligent system. This perfection of the Deity may be considered as a branch of his general bene~ volence, which appears to be the source of all his moral attri- butes, and the spring of all his actions. The display of his natural and moral perfections, and the general happiness of the intelligences which exist throughout the immense and eternal empire, appear to be the great object in view, in his moral government of the universe: and, in order to secure these objects, it is requisite that justice be impartially ad- ministered, according to the eternal rules of rectitude, and that "every one be rewarded according to his works." That this attribute is possessed by the Divine Being, in the highest degree, appears from the following considerations : lie exists, and has always existed, completely independent of all his creatures; he is in the actual possession of boundless 68 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. felicity, which no other being can interrupt; and is conse- quently liable to no evil, nor diminution of enjoyment. He is Omnipotent, and therefore can accomplish whatever he pleases, and can effectually prevent whatever might detract from his happiness or disturb the order of his government. He has, therefore, nothing to fear from any other being, and can de- sire nothing from his creatures to increase his felicity. Con- sequently, no possible motive or temptation can exist to induce him to inflict an act of injustice on any of the intellectual beings he has formed. Injustice among men proceeds either from want of intelligence to discriminate between what is right and wrong; from want of power to bring their purposes into effect; from the fear of some evil or disadvantage which may arise from the impartial distribution of justice; from the idea of some imaginary good of which they might be deprived; from some mental defect incident to the present state of hu- manity; from some prejudice against the individual towards whom justice ought to be administered; or from the indulgence of some cruel and depraved dispositions. But none of these causes or motives can exist in the mind of the all-perfect Creator. His comprehensive eye takes in, at one glance, all the circumstances, even the most minute, on which a righteous decision depends; he is no " respecter of persons;*' he can in- dulge no malevolent dispositions; he can expect no accession of enjoyment from an act of injustice; he has nothing to fear from the execution of his decisions; his power is all-sufficient to bring them into full effect, at the time and in the manner which is most conducive to the happiness of the universe; and his benevolence, which is displayed throughout all his works, effectually prevents him from withholding good, or inflicting evil beyond the desert of the subjects of his government. This character of the Deity is amply exhibited and confirmed in the declarations of Sacred Scripture; where it is asserted, that "He is a God of truth, and without iniquity; just and right is he." "Thou art just," says Nehemiah, " in all that is brought upon us; for thou hast done right, but we have done wickedly." " Shall mortal man be more just than God? Surely God will not do wickedly, neither will the Almighty pervert judgment. Is it fit to say to a king, Thou art JUSTICE OF GOD. 69 wicked, or to princes, Ye are ungodlj? How much less to Him who accepteth not the persons of princes, nor regardeth the rich more than the poor?" " The righteous Lord loveth righteousness; he shall judge the world in righteousness; he shall minister judgment to the people in uprightness. Jus- tice and judgment are the foundation of his throne. The Lord our God is righteous in all his works which he doth." " I am the Lord who exercise judgment and righteousness in the earth." "God is not unrighteous to forget your work and lahour of love which ye have showed towards his name. Great and marvellous are thy works, Lord God Almighty; just and true are thy ways, thou King of saints." The equitable laws which he has promulgated to his creatures; the justice he re- quires to be exercised by one man to another; his promises of reward, and his threatenings of punishment; and the impres- sive judgments which he has executed on individuals, on na- tions, and on the world at large, all bear testimony to the existence of perfect rectitude in the Divine character. But, although Scripture and Reason combine in attesting the Immutable Justice of God, we are unable, in many in- stances, to trace the display of this perfection in his dispensa- tions toward the inhabitants of our world. This is owing, in part, to the false maxims by which we form a judgment of his procedure; to the limited views we are obliged to take of the objects of his government; to the want of a comprehensive knowledge of the whole plan of his dispensations, and the ends to be effected by them ; to the limited views we have acquired of the whole range of his universal dominions; and to our ig- norance of the relations which may subsist, between our world and the inhabitants of other provinces of the Divine Empire. We behold many of " the excellent of the earth" pining in the abodes of poverty, and almost unnoticed by their fellowmen; while we behold the wicked elevated to stations of power, and encircled with riches and splendour. From a false estimate of true enjoyment, we are apt to imagine, that misery surrounds the one, and that happiness encircles the other; and that there is an apparent act of injustice in these different allotments; whereas, God may have placed the one in the midst of worldly prosperity as a punishment for his sins, and the other in ob 70 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. scuritj as a stimulant to the exercise of virtue. We behold a man of piety and benevolence falling before the dagger of an assassin who escapes with impunity: we are startled at the dispensation, and confounded at the mystery of Providence, and are apt to exclaim, "Is there not a God that judgeth in the earth?" But we are ignorant of the relation which such an event bears to the general plan of the Divine Government of the links in the chain of events which preceded it, and of those which shall follow in its train. We are ignorant of the relation it bears to particular families and societies, or to the nation at large in which it happened, and even to all the nations of the earth. An event apparently trivial, or mysteri- ous, or according to our views, unjust, may, for ought we know, form an essential link in that chain of events which ex- tends from the commencement of time to its consummation, which runs through a thousand worlds, and stretches into the depths of eternity. We all know, that some of the most ap- palling scenes of terror and destruction have often proceeded from an apparently trivial accident, and that events of the greatest importance have originated from causes so incon- siderable as to be almost overlooked. The British and Foreign Bible Society, which now engages the attention of the Chris- tian world, and whose beneficent effects will soon extend to the remotest corners of the world, derived its origin from a casual conversation between a few obscure individuals, on the subject of distributing the Scriptures. And the apparently trivial circumstance, of observing that a certain mineral sub- stance, when left free to move itself, uniformly points towards the north, has been the means, not only of the knowledge we have acquired of the different regions of our globe, but of im- parting to millions of mankind incalculable blessings, which will descend to their posterity to the latest generations. Hence it appears, that, in our present circumstances, we are altogether incompetent to form a correct judgment of what is just or unjust in the present dispensations of the Almighty, unless we could survey the ample plan of the Divine govern- ment, the whole chain of God's dispensations towards our race, the numerous worlds and beings over which his moral government extends, the relation which the events now passing JUSTICE OF GOD. 71 among us bear to other moral intelligences, either as subjects of contemplation, as warnings of the danger of apostacy from God, or as motives to universal subjection and obedience, and the connections, bearings, and dependencies of the whole of that moral system which embraces unnumbered worlds, and constitutes one grand and boundless empire, under the govern- ment of the Creator. Even then, with the eye and the mind of a finite intelligence, we should occasionally meet with events which would surpass our comprehension, and be altogether inexplicable, on the grounds of the knowledge we had previously acquired, and should still be constrained to exclaim, " the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and the knowledge of God! How unsearchable are his judgments and his ways past finding out! " But although " clouds and darkness" at present hang over the ways of the Almighty, so that we cannot, in every instance, perceive the rectitude of his procedure, we may rest satisfied that " Justice and judgment are for ever the foundation of his throne;" and we are assured, by the Sacred Oracles, that a period is approaching, when the mystery of Providence will be unfolded, and when all its dark and perplexing events, in re- ference to this world, will be explained to the full conviction of all its assembled inhabitants. For " God hath appointed a day in which he will judge the world in righteousness, by that man whom he hath ordained; whereof he hath given assurance unto all men, in that he hath raised him up from the dead." Then " the secrets of all hearts" shall be disclosed, and every man rewarded "according to his works;" for "God shall bring every work into judgment, with every secret thing, whether it be good, or whether it be evil." Then it will be clearly per- ceived, that " verily there is a reward for the righteous, and that there is a God that judgeth in the earth." Then the rectitude of Jehovah, in every part of his moral administration, will shine forth in all its lustre; a visible and everlasting dis- tinction will be made between the righteous and the wicked, nud the whole intelligent creation will plainly discern between " him that served God, and him that served him not." In the meantime, God has not left himself without a witness to the impartiality of his Justice in his allotments towards 72 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. men, in that he has invariably connected misery with the violation of his laws, and happiness with the observance of them. However different the allotments of mankind may be, in regard to wealth, honour, or station, it holds invariably true, that " there is no peace," or substantial happiness, " to the wicked;" and that "the man is blessed who fears the Lord, and delights in his commandments." Place a man on the highest pinnacle of earthly grandeur, and let him indulge in schemes of ambition, avarice, pride, revenge, cruelty, and other violations of the divine law, and he may as soon attempt to stop the sun in his course, as to expect substantial enjoyment while he continues in the indulgence of such malevolent passions. Place another in the most obscure abode of human life, and let him exercise piety, benevolence, humility, and every other Christian temper ; and he will enjoy a peace, an equanimity, and a portion of happiness, which the wicked can never possess, and which the wealth of the world can neither give nor take away. Hence it is that we behold so many instances of dis- gust at life, and of self-destruction, among those who are elevated to stations of power, and surrounded with every kind of sensitive enjoyment, This consideration, of itself, should silence every murmur that is apt to arise at the dispensations of God's Providence, and convince us that "he is righteous in all his ways, and holy in all his works." On the whole, then, it appears that the justice of God has a tendency to inspire us with confidence, and love, and joy, no less than his mercy and benevolence. Were it not for this perfection of the divine character, omnipotence might become a most terrific and tremendous attribute of the Deity. We should have no motive but that of fear to stimulate us to obedience ; we should feel no security against danger and dis- tress, and the perpetual recurrence of spectacles of vengeance ; and, in the course of ages, the spacious universe might be transformed into an immense region of "lamentation, and mourning, and wo." Were it not for this perfection, the benevolence of the Deity would degenerate into weakness and imbecility. Wicked men, and other depraved intelligencies, presuming on impunity, and their diabolical passions acquiring strength and vigour by long exercise, would carry misery and JUSTICE OF GOD. 73 destruction in their train, wherever they exerted their energies; and would interrupt, and ultimately destroy, the harmony and felicity of the intelligent universe. But while we recognise the rectitude of the divine character as an imrnutahle attribute of Deity, we can look forward with confidence through all the revolutions of time, and to those eternal scenes which shall succeed the demolition of the present system of things, fully assured, that God is the universal Protector of his unnumbered offspring that his power will never be interposed to inflict an act of injustice that no intelligent being will ever suffer a punishment beyond his desert and that no happiness which his benevolence has devised, and his word has promised, will ever be withheld from those " who put their trust in his name, and hearken to the voice of his commandments." Thus I have endeavoured to show that love to God, which is the first principle of the moral law, is founded upon the na- tural and moral perfections of the Deity that the attributes of omnipotence, wisdom, goodness, mercy, forbearance, and jus- tice, are calculated to excite this noble affection to the highest degree in the minds of all holy intelligencies. I might also have illustrated this subject from considerations drawn from the infinity, the eternity, the immutability, the holiness and veracity of God. But the illustrations already stated will, I presume, be sufficient to demonstrate, that this affection, in conjunction with all its kindred emotions, ought to occupy the highest place in the human heart, and in the minds of all created intelligencies. It may, perhaps, be insinuated by some, that the preceding illustrations have been carried to a greater length than the nature of the subject required and it is readily admitted, that the mere logical argument did not require so extended illus- trations. Every person who knows the meaning of the terms made use of, will at once admit, that, since God is a Being possessed of almighty power, infinite wisdom, boundless bene- volence, mercy, forbearance, and perfect rectitude he ought to be loved affectionately and supremely. But such general and metaphysical reasoning, though perfectly conclusive and incontrovertible, possesses but a slender influence over the mind, 74 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. in exciting it to the cultivation of holy affections. For the sake of impression, it is essentially requisite, that the various mani- festations of Divine Perfection should be presented to the view, in order that the mind may have a tangible train of thought before it, to stimulate its activities, and its religious emotions. General views and reasonings on any subject, and especially on the subject of Religion, produce a very slight impression on the majority of mankind. It is not owing so much to the want of conviction of the truth of certain important propositions in Religion, that divine truths take so slender a hold of the mind, as to the want of those definite and impressive conceptions which can be acquired only by a minute and attentive survey of the works and the dispensations of God. And, in this point of view, the preceding illustrations, had the limited nature of the present work permitted, might have been prosecuted to a much greater extent. I might also have illustrated this subject from a consideration of the Relations in which God stands to us, and to all his creatures. He is our Creator, and we are the workmanship of his hands. lie formed our bodies, and sustains our spirits. His physical energy is felt by us every moment, in making our hearts to beat and our lungs to play, and in impelling the crimson fluid which circulates in our bodies through a thousand different tubes. To him we are indebted for life, and all its comforts ; and for all the powers, capacities, and privileges, which dignify our nature, and exalt us above the lower ranks of existence. He is our Preserver and bountiful Benefactor, who, " sustains our souls in life," who supports the course of nature in its diversified movements, and " daily loads us with his benefits." To his superintending Providence we are in- debted for the food we eat, the water we drink, the clothes we wear, the air we breathe, the light which cheers us, the splen- dours of the sun, the milder radiance of the moon, the mag- nificence of the starry sky, the rains and dews which fertilise the soil ; the earth, with its riches and abundance ; the trees, plants, and waving grain, which enrich our fields ; the flowers which deck the meadows, the beautiful and magnificent colour- ing which is spread over the terrestrial landscape, the succession of day and night, and the vicissitude of the seasons. In short, ADMIRATION OF GOD S WORKS. |J to Him we arc indebted for all the objects and movements around us, which render our abode on earth convenient, desir- able, and productive of enjoyment. He is our Father, and we are his children. He watches over us with a tender care; and, "as a father pitieth his children, so the Lord pitieth them that fear him." This tender and indissoluble relation binds us to him by the strongest ties, and is calculated to excite the most ardent filial affection and gratitude. He is our Sovereign and Lawgiver, and we are his subjects ; and all his laws are framed on the principles of eternal and immutable rectitude, and are calculated to promote the harmony and happiness of the whole intelligent creation. He is our Master, and we are his servants, and his " com- mandments are not grievous." He is our Friend in adversity, our Protector in danger and in distress ; our Instructor, who has imparted to us knowledge and understanding; and our Eedeemer, who " spared not his own Son, but delivered him up for us all," that we might be rescued from the gulph of ruin, and exalted to a state of consummate felicity. In fine, He is that Being who is the inexhaustible fountain of light, of life, and of joy, to all beings on whom depend all our future pros- pects in this world, and all the transporting scenes to which we look forward in an interminable state of existence. All these, and many other relations, in which we stand to the God of Heaven, demonstrate, that Supreme Love to this Beneficent Being is the first and highest duty of every rational creature ; and they present the most powerful motives to stimulate us to its exercise. SECTION V. Modes in which Love to God is displayed. I SHALL now offer a remark or two, on the nature of this sublime affection, and the mannner in which it ought to be manifested. Love to God is not a single and solitary affection in the human breast, which evaporates in a few transient and 76 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. undefined emotions ; "but is the spring of every holy activity, and is intimately connected with every virtuous emotion, with every pious sentiment, with every religious requirement, with every sensitive enjoyment, with our present comforts, and our future and eternal prospects. It includes in it, complacency or delight in the character and administration of God. Viewing him as a Self-existent and Eternal being, filling immensity with his presence, launching innumerable worlds into existence, upholding them all by the "Word of his Power," and superintending the minutest concerns of all his offspring, from the loftiest seraph, through all the inferior gradations of existence, to the smallest animal- cule, the mind feels the most delightful emotions, in regarding the happiness of the universe as perfectly secure, under his physical and moral administration. Contemplating his bounty to angels and to men, to the birds of the air, the fishes of the sea, and the numerous tribes which traverse the surface of the land, his mercy towards our fallen race, his long-suffering and forbearance towards wicked nations and individuals, his faithfulness in the accomplishment of his promises and threaten- ings, and the unerring rectitude of his dispensations towards all his creatures, the mind feels supreme approbation and complacency in his attributes, purposes, and administrations ; beholding in hischaracter anexcellence and amiableness,amora] dignity and grandeur, which are not to be found in any created intelligence. Even in reference to those acts of his government which appear dreadful and appalling in the volcano, the earthquake, the thunders, the hurricane, the tempest, and the doom of the impenitent, its approbation and complacency are not withheld, convinced with perfect rectitude is the rule of his procedure, and that his Righteousness will one day be brought to light before an assembled world. Love to God includes admiration of his wonderful works. The man whose affections are directed to the Supreme Intelli- gence is not an indifferent spectator of the manifestations of Deity. lie beholds the magnificent canopy of heaven daily moving around him in silent grandeur; his eye penetrates be- yond the apparent aspects of the twinkling luminaries which adorn it, and surveys the hand of the Almighty wheeling 77 stupendous globes through the immeasurable regions of space, and extending his operations throughout unnumbered systems, dispersed over the boundless expanse of the universe. He be- holds the great globe on which he is placed, impelled by the same omnipotent arm, prosecuting its course through the depths of space and circling around the sun, to bring about the revo- lutions of the seasons. He contemplates the vast ranges of the mountains that stretch around it the mass of waters in the mighty ocean, and its numerous tribes of animated beings "the dry land," with all its furniture and inhabitants the vast caverns, chasms, and shattered strata which appear in its in- terior recesses and the atmosphere with which it is surrounded, with the clouds, the lightnings, and the tempests, which diver- sify its aspect. He traces the footsteps of the Almighty in his moral administration in the deluge which swept away the in- habitants of the Antediluvian world in the burning of Sodom, the dividing of the Red sea, the thunders and lightnings of Sinai the manifestation of the Son of God in human flesh; his sufferings, death, resurrection, and triumphant ascension in the propagation of the Gospel in the face of every opposi- tion, in the rise and fall of empires, the dethronement of kings, and the convulsions of nations. And while he contemplates such objects and operations, his admiration is excited by the incomprehensible knowledge displayed in the contrivance of the universe, the boundless benevolence which extends over all these works, and the omnipotent power by which all the mighty movements of Creation and Providence are effected. And, while he admires, he is inspired with the most profound rever- ence of that Being, whose mighty hand conducts those stupen- dous movements, and feels the full force of the impressive exhortation of the Psalmist, " Let all the earth fear the Lord; let all the inhabitants of the world stand in awe of him: for he spake, and it was done; he commanded, and it stood fast." Even the abstract conceptions we have of the immensity of the Divine Being, by which he is present in every part of in- finite space the eternity of his duration, and the range of his omniscience, which embraces an intimate knowledge of the thoughts, purposes, and actions of all creatures are calculat- ed to overpower the mind with emotions of reverence and awe, 73 PHILOSOPHY OF KELIGION. blended with feelings of affection and delight, at the recollection of the relation in which we stand to this glorious Intelligence. Again, love to God includes Humility and self-abasement in the Divine Presence. There is no disposition which appears more incompatible with supreme affection for the Creator than pride, haughtiness, and arrogance. " God resisteth the proud." Even a " proud look" is declared to be " an abomination" in his sight. And if the indulgence of pride be inconsistent with the love of God, humility must be regarded as one of its essen- tial and distinguishing accompaniments. When a man who loves God reflects on his condition and character that he is a creature who derived his existence from a Superior Being, to whom he is indebted for all his faculties, and by whose powei and mercy he is every moment preserved in existence; when he considers his station in the universe that he is only like an atom in the immensity of creation, when compared with the innumerable beings which people its wide domains that he stands near the lowest part of the scale of intelligent existence, and that all the inhabitants of the earth are as grasshoppers" before him who sits on the throne of the heavens ; when he recollects that he has apostatized from the God who made him, that he is guilty of innumerable violations of his righteous laws, and stands condemned at the bar of Him " who is of purer eyes than to behold iniquity ;" when he contemplates the circum- stances in which he is now placed in consequence of his trans- gressions the pains, diseases, poverty, bereavements, and re- proaches to which he is subjected; the storms, and tempests, and elemental war to which he is exposed ; the degradation which awaits his body at the hour of dissolution and in the mansions of the tomb; and the ignorance, the errors, and follies into which he has fallen; when he considers that "lowliness of mind" is a characteristic of the most exalted of created in- telligencies, who "veil their faces" in the Divine Presence, and cheerfully extend their benevolent regards to the meanest hu- man being who is an "heir of salvation," and, above all, when he reflects on the ineffable grandeur of that Being before whom "all nations are as the drop of a bucket," he is convinced that pride is the most unreasonable principle that can exist in the human breast, and that the most profound humility ought for HUMILITY. 79 ever to characterise his thoughts and actions, both in the pre- sence of God, and before the eyes of men. Oil such a character only will "the High and Lofty One who inhabits eternity" look with complacency, and in such a heart alone can the love of God be expected to reside in all its generous and noble exercises. Such a disposition, mingling with all the other benevolent affections, will render them sweet and delightful; it will render us amiable in the eyes of our fellow-men; it will secure us against all the wretched effects and boisterous passions which flow from haughtiness and pride ; it will mitigate the sorrows, the perplexities, and anxieties, to which we are subjected in our earthly pilgrimage; it will enable us to preserve our minds tranquil and serene amidst the pro- vocations, the affronts, and the contentions to which we are exposed in our intercourses with general society, and will pre- pare us for associating with the inhabitants of that happier world, where seraphic love, profound reverence of the Divine Majesty, and profound humility, mingle with all their inter- courses and employments. Resignation to the providential dispensations of the Almighty is another manifestation and accompaniment of Love to God. To be habitually discontented, and to murmur and repine under the allotments of his providence, must obviously appear to be inconsistent with sincere and ardent affection for the Supreme Disposer of events. Resignation to the will of God is the duty of every intelligent creature towards the Creator; and in proportion to the degree in which this principle exists will be the happiness of the intellectual being that exercises it. Angels are perfectly happy, because they are perfectly submissive to the will of their Creator being fully contented with the station allotted them in the universe, and completely resigned to all the future services and allotments which Infinite Wisdom has ordained. Wherever pure affection towards God actuates the mind, among the inhabitants of our world, it produces a dis- position similar in kind, though inferior in degree, to that which animates the breasts of the Cherubim and the Seraphim in the regions of bliss. He who is actuated by this noble principle regards every providential event as the appointment of his Father in heaven. 80 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. The devouring flames may consume his habitation to ashes, and scatter his treasures to "the four winds of heaven;" tha ship in which his wealth is embarked may be dashed against the rocks, and sink "as lead in the mighty waters;" hia friends may forsake him in the season of his deepest anxiety and distress; the wife of his bosom whom he tenderly loved may be snatched from his embrace by the cold hand of death; his children dearer to him than his own soul, may fall victims, one after another, to some pestilential disease, and be for ever removed from his sight to the "land of deep forgetfulness;" his familial friend, in whom he trusted, may "lift up his heel against him," and load him with unmerited reproaches; his own body may be chastened with sore pain and loathsome disease; he may be stretched for many long years on a bed of languishing; his country may either be ravished and laid waste by destroying armies, or rains and inundations may sweep away the produce of his fields. But, under all such calamities, he bows with submission to the will of Him " who rules in the whirlwind and directs the storm;" not because he has fortified his mind with a stoical apathy and indifference towards the evils of life; not because he is incapable of feeling the evils he is doomed to suffer; for he may feel them in the acutest degree, even while he exercises full resignation; but he is resigned, because he feels assured that they are the appoint- ment of his Almighty Friend that they are parts of the plan of unerring Wisdom that they are intimately connected with the whole chain of Providence that runs through his present existence that they are intended, in the scheme of Infinite Benevolence, to promote his happiness in a way which his limited faculties are unable at present to comprehend and, that they have a bearing on the scenes and enjoyments of the eternal world. And, therefore, under the pressure of his most painful feelings, he is enabled to adopt the triumphant lan- guage of the prophet, "Although the fig-tree shall not blossom, neither fruit be in the vine; the labour of the olive fail, and the fields yield no meat; the flock be cut off from the fold, and there be no herd in the stall: yet will I rejoice in the Lord, I will be glad in the God of my salvation." While others mur- mur and rage, and toss themselves like a wild bull in a net, GRATITUDE. 81 and curse the supposed authors of thoir calamities, he is en- abled to " possess his soul in patience," convinced of the rec- titude of the divine dispensations. Again, Love to God comprehends Gratitude for the benefits he bestows. Gratitude is that particular modification of Love which flows out towards God considered as the Author and Bestower of all felicity: it is love excited by kindness com- municated from benevolent motives. It is one of the most natural and obvious manifestations of that general principle which I have been hitherto illustrating; for ingratitude is alto- gether inconsistent with love to a benefactor. In order to kindle this amiable affection into a lively flame, the person in whose bosom it glows endeavours to take a minute and expansive survey of the countless variety of benefits he is continually receiving. He feels grateful to God for his existence, for the powers and capacities with which he is endowed, for the rank which he holds in the scale of terrestrial existence; in being raised above the clods of the valley, and furnished with facul- ties superior to the beasts of the forest and the fowls of heaven. He feels grateful that he was brought into existence in a Christian land, and in civilized society, that the " glad tidings of salvation" have reached his ears, that " God so loved the world that He gave his only-begotten Son that who- soever believeth on him might not perish, but have everlasting life," and that every enjoyment requisite for his present and future happiness is secured through this plan of Divine Bene- volence. But he does not rest satisfied with vague and general views of these important benefits: he contemplates the degra- dation into which sin had plunged him, the greatness of the misery from which the love of God has delivered him, the moral perfection of his nature to which he is now training, the serenity of mind he experiences in the practice of the divine precepts, the security he feels for his present and future safety under the protection of Omnipotence, the " strong consolation" under the evils of life which the promises of God lead him to expect, the victory over death of which he is secured " through Christ Jesus his Lord," the resurrection of his body at the close of time, the " new heavens and the new earth" to which he is destined at the dissolution of this sublunary system, the 14 F 82 PHILOSOPHY OP RELIGION. alliance into which he is brought to the angelic tribes and other pure intelligences, Via moral capacity for associating with every holy being in the universe, and the endless succession of transporting scenes which will burst upon his view through the ages of eternity. While contemplating these high privi- leges, in all their bearings and varied ramifications, emotions of affection and gratitude arise in his breast which can only be expressed in the language of elevated devotion. " O how shall words, with equal warmth, The gratitude declare That glows within my ravish'd heart ! But thou canst read it there." "Bless the Lord, my soul! and all that is within me bless his holy name. Give thanks to the Lord, and forget not all his benefits: who forgiveth all thine iniquities, who healeth all thy diseases; who redeemeth thy life from destruction, and crowneth thee with loving-kindness and tender mercies." Nor does he feel less grateful to God for his kindness as displayed in the material world, and in the ordinary course of his providence. He feels grateful for those scenes of sublimity and beauty with which the visible universe is adorned for the sun, when he ascends the vault of heaven, and diffuses his radiance over the mountains and vales for the moon, when she "walks in brightness" through the heavens, and cheers the shades of night for the planets, while they run their am- ple rounds, and proclaim the omnipotence of their Maker for the innumerable host of stars, which adorn the canopy of the sky, and display the grandeur and extent of God's universal kingdom for the light, which darts with inconceivable rapidity from the celestial luminaries, and diffuses a thousand shades of colour on the terrestrial landscape for the surrounding at- mosphere, which supports the element of fire, conveys the clouds over every region, and invigorates the functions of animal life for the beautiful and majestic scenery which diversifies our terrestrial system for the towering cliffs, the lofty mountains, and the expansive vales for the meandering river, gliding through the fields, and diffusing health and fer- tility wherever it flows for the riches which abound in the gardens, the forests, and the fields; and the mineral treasures tmATITUDE. 83 contained in the bowels of the mountains for the harmony of musical sounds, the mellifluous notes of the nightingale and the lark, and the melodious warblings which resound from the vales, the mountains, and the groves for the flowers which enamel the meadows, the trees, the shrubs, and the waving grain, which adorn the earth with picturesque beauty for the animated beings which contribute to our comfort; the bee, which collects for us honey from every opening flower; the sheep, which yields its fleeces for our clothing; and thousands of other creatures, which contribute to supply us with food, raiment, and innumerable enjoyments. In all these, and simi- lar objects, he perceives ample reasons for elevating his soul, in lively gratitude, to his bountiful Benefactor. When he turns his eyes upon himself, and considers the wonderful machinery which gives life and motion to hrs frame, he perceives the strongest reason for the exercise of incessant admiration and gratitude. He feels grateful for every joint of his fingers, and for every movement of his wrist, by which he is enabled, with the utmost ease, to perform a countless variety of manual operations essential to his comfort for the hundreds of bones which support his animal system, with their various articulations, and the hundreds of muscles and tendons which are interwoven with every part of the machine, which enable it to perform, without the least obstruction, a thousand varied movements subservient to his health, convenience, and pleasure. He cannot walk through his apartment, nor lift his eyes to the heavens, nor move a joint of his finger, nor draw a single breath, without perceiving an evidence of the wisdom and in- telligence of his Almighty Maker. He perceives that if only one joint were wanting, or one muscle out of action, or one movement out of a thousand interrupted, he would instantly be subjected to a thousand painful sensations, which would throw a gloom on every earthly enjoyment. But especially, when he reflects on the wonders of vision the thousands of millions of rays that are every moment darting from the objects around him, crossing each other in an infinity of directions, and yet conveying to every eye a distinct perception of their colours, motions, and diversified aspects ; when he reflects on the facility with which he can turn his eye in every direction, 84 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. upwards and downwards, to the right hand and to the left, and, in a moment, take in the landscape of the earth and heavens " at a small inlet, which a grain might close ; " when he con- siders the numerous and complicated movements continually going on within him the heart, like a powerful engine, in perpetual motion, impelling, with prodigious force, streams of blood through a thousand different tubes the numerous lacteal and lymphatic vessels, absorbing nutriment from the food, and conveying it through every part of this wonderful machine ; when he considers that these incessant motions are, as it were, the immediate hand of the Divinity within him, over which he can exercise no control, and which are all intended to preserve his existence, and minister to his enjoyment, he cannot for- bear exclaiming, in the language of grateful admiration, " How precious are thy wonderful contrivances concerning me, God ! how great is the sum of them ! If I should count them, they are more in number than the sand. I will praise thee ; for I am fearfully and wonderfully made! " He does not overlook such instances of " the loving-kindness of God," because to some they may appear minute and trivial. He does not contrast them with what are reckoned spiritual and more important blessings; nor attempt to institute com- parisons between the beneficent operations of Omnipotence, in order to throw a certain portion of them into the shade. He considers all the operations of God, from the plan of redemption for guilty men, and the mission of his Son into our world, to the minutest muscle that moves the joint of a finger, or the ray of light that darts from a flower of the field, as parts of one vast system of boundless benevolence, as essentially con- nected together as the links of a chain: and, in regard to him- self, he views all the variety of blessings now alluded to as one undivided stream of unbounded beneficence, commencing with the first moment of his being, running through all the scenes and circumstances of his terrestrial existence, and expanding into the unfathomable ocean of eternity. In the whole series of contrivances and events which relate to his present and fu- ture existence, both in what we consider the minutest and the most magnificent works of the Deity, he perceives the stamp of Infinite Perfection, and a connection of plan and of operation, SUBLIMITY OF THE PRIXCIPLE OF LOVE. 85 which excludes all attempts at comparisons and contrasts. Under such impressions, and with such views of the concatena- tion of every part of the scheme of divine benevolence, he is led to contemplate the kindness of God at every step, and in every object, and is ever ready to exclaim, " What shall I render to the Lord for all his benefits towards me! " In fine, supreme love to God includes, in its exercise, a delight in the public and private exercises of his worship, a constant endeavour to yield a willing and unreserved obedience to all the institutions he has appointed, and to all the laws he has issued for counteracting the depravity of our natures, and for raising us to a state of moral perfection ; an active and enlightened zeal for the honour of his name, and for promoting those institutions which have a tendency to advance his king- dom in the earth; a cordial approbation of all his plans and movements in creation and providence; and devout aspirations after that higher state of existence, where the glories of his nature shall be more clearly unfolded, and when love shall glow in one uninterrupted and perpetual emotion. Thus it appears, that love to God consists in complacency in his character and administration, and is inseparably con- nected with admiration of his wonderful works, with humility, resignation, and gratitude. I cannot conclude nay remarks on this topic without advert- ing, for a little, to the nobleness and sublimity of this first and fundamental spring of all moral action. From what has been already stated, it appears that love to God is the most reasonable and amiable affection 'that can animate the human mind; for that Being who is the object of it is the sum of all perfection, the standard of all moral and physical excellence, and the source of all the felicity enjoyed by every rank of existence throughout the boundless universe. It is also the most sublime and expansive affection that can pervade the mind of any created intelligence. It excites the most rapturous emotions when we contemplate the harmonies, the beauties, and the sublimities of the universe ; for it recognises them as the dis- plays of boundless wisdom and boundless goodness; as the production of that Almighty Being who stands in the relation of our Father and our Friend; and leads us to conclude, that 86 PHILOSOPHY OF BELIGIGff. that power and intelligence which gave birth to all that is grand and beautiful in heaven and on earth, will be for ever exercised in contributing to our eternal enjoyment. Without such a recognition, creation appears only like an immense de- sert, and is apt to fill the mind with apprehension and terror; for it can feel no pleasurable emotions in contemplating the operations of a Being for whom it entertains no affectionate regard. But in our solitary walks in the fields and gardens, amidst the emanations of divine munificence ; in our journeys through the fertile plains; in our excursions through the Alpine scenes of nature; in our investigations into the structure of the animal and the vegetable tribes; and in our contemplations on the wonders of the starry sky love throws a radiance on all these objects, and excites an interest which cannot be appre- ciated by that mind which has never felt the force of this sacred emotion. It renders us superior to the ills of life, while, under its in- fluence, we bow, in cordial submission, to the divine dispensa- tions, as the result of perfect wisdom, rectitude, and benevolence. It enables us to recognise the hand of a Divine Benefactor in every enjoyment, and the rod of an affectionate Father in every trial and affliction. It raises the soul above the carking cares and degrading pursuits of the world, and enables it to look down with heroic indifference on all those trivial incidents and fancied insults which irritate and torment " the children of pride. ' ' It preserves the mind in calm serenity amidst the raging of the tempest, the rolling thunders, the whirlwind and the hurricane, the eruptions of the volcano, and the convulsions of the earthquake; while it recognises the Ruler of the storm, who presides amidst the crash of warring elements, as its Omnipotent Protector and its eternal Refuge. 1 It enables the 1 The celebrated Kirclier, in his relation of the dreadful earthquake- in Calabria, in 1638, which overthrew the city of Euphemia, of which he was a spectator, expresses his feelings on that occasion in the following words : " The universal ruin around me, the crash of falling houses, the- tottering of towers, and the groans of the dying, all contributed to raise terror and despair. On every side of me I saw nothing but a scene of ruin and danger threatening wherever I should fly. I commended myself to God, as my last great refuge. At that hour, O how vain was every sublunary happiness ! wealth, honour, empire, wisdom, all mere useles's sounds, and as empty as the bubbles of the deep. Just standing on the threshold of eternity, nothing but God was my pleasure ; and the nearer I approached, I only loved him Ue more." SUBLIMITY OF THE PRINCIPLE OF LOVE. 87 man in whose bosom it resides, to contemplate with composure the downfall of kings and the revolutions of nations, to antici- pate the hour of his dissolution without dismay, and to look forward with fortitude to the ruins of dissolving nature, when " the elements shall melt with fervent heat," and the earth, with all its magnificence, shall he wrapt in flames; confident that, under " the shadow of the wings of the Almighty," he shall remain in perfect security, amidst " the wrecks of matter and the crash of worlds." This divine principle assimilates us to angels, and to every other class of holy intelligences. It qualifies us for associating with these superior intellectual natures for entering into their lofty and comprehensive views^ for conversing with them on the sublime topics which occupy their attention for bearing a part in their schemes of universal benevelence and for contri- buting, along with them, to the order and prosperity of God's everlasting kingdom. It secures to us the friendship and af- fection of all the virtuous inhabitants of the universe, and renders us fit for affectionate intercourse with them, wherever we may afterwards exist, throughout the boundless expanse of creation. Should we ever be permitted, during the lapse of eternal duration, to wing our flight from world to world, in order to enlarge our views of God's unbounded empire, the exercise of this holy affection would secure to us a friendly reception and an affectionate intercourse among all the pure intelligencies within the range of his moral administration: for, as this principle is founded on the nature of God who is eternal and unchangeable, it must pervade the minds of the inhabitants of all worlds that have retained their primitive in- tegrity. It is this divine affection which excites the rapturous flame that glows in the breasts of the angelic tribes, which enlivens the adorations of the cherubim and seraphim, which inspires them with a noble ardour in executing the commands of their Creator and which animates them in their flight from the celestial regions to this obscure corner of creation, when they minister to the heirs of salvation. It was this noble principle which impelled the angel Gabriel in his rapid flight through the celestial spaces, when he descended to announce to Daniel the answer to his supplications, and to Zacharias and 88 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. Mary the birth of the Saviour; which animated the angels who unbarred the prison-doors to Peter, and gave assurance to Paul of the divine protection, while he was tossing on the billows ot the Adriatic sea; and which fanned the flame of devotion ir> the heavenly host, when they sung, in the plains of Bethlehem, " Glory to God in the highest, peace on earth, and good- will towards men." In fine, this sublime affection assimilates us to God, who is benevolence itself, who supremely loves his own character, and who is incessantly displaying his benevolence, in all its infinitely diversified effects, throughout the intelligent universe. It assi- milates us to Jesus the Son of the Highest, who is " the brightness of the Father's glory, and the express image of his person," and who is for ever actuated with fervent zeal for the honour of God, and the happiness of man. It constitutes the foundation of all felicity; it opens the gates to perpetual enjoy- ment; it secures its possessor of eternal happiness, as its natural and necessary result, and prepares him for mingling in the employments of the " innumerable company of angels, and the spirits of just men made perfect : " for all the trans- porting delights which will be enjoyed by the immortal spirit, while ages, numerous as the sand, are rolling on, while mighty worlds are emerging out of nothing, and innumerable orders of beings are starting into existence, may be considered as so many streams of felicity flowing from supreme affection to the blessed God. Possessed of this divine principle, we secure the most honourable connections, become benefactors to the intelligent universe, participators of the enjoyments of seraphic natures, agents for carrying forward the plans of Infinite Benevolence, and "workers together with God," in accom- plishing his eternal designs. Without it, we become nuisances in the kingdom of God, rebels against his government, pests to fellow-intelligencies, destitute of the noblest of all affections, deprived of substantial enjoyment in the present world, and ex- posed to misery, without interruption, in the world to come. If such be the native effects of supreme love to God, and if this principle lie at the foundation of all genuine morality, how foolish and preposterous is it for Christian moralists to wander through the dark labyrinths of Greek and Roman literature, SUBLIMITY OF TEE PRINCIPLE OF LOYE. 89 and the intricate mazes of modern sceptical philosophy, in search of any other principles of moral action ! It is like grop- ing for the light of the sun in the windings of a subterraneous grotto, and preferring the glimmering of a taper to the full blaze of the orb of day. It is to forsake " the fountain of living waters, and to hew out to ourselves broken and empty cisterns that can hold no water." In order to invigorate and expand this affection, it is requi- site that we take a comprehensive view of all the manifestations of that Being towards whom it is directed, as exhibited in the history of his operations recorded in the volume of Inspiration ; in the details of his moral government among the nations, which may be collected from the writings of historians, voya- gers, travellers, and missionaries; in the economy of the inferior tribes of animated beings; in the diversified scenery of nature around us in our terrestrial system ; and in the sublime move- ments that are going forward, among distant worlds, in the firmament of his power : for, the more we know of the mani- festations of the Creator, the more acquaintance shall we have with the Creator himself ; and, in proportion as our knowledge of his character is enlarged, in a similar proportion will our love be ardent and expansive. Such extensive views and contemplations are indispensibly requisite, in order to a full recognition of the divine injunction " Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, with all thy strength, and with all thine understanding. This is the first and the great commandment." CHAPTEB II SECOND PRINCIPLE OF MORAL ACTION LOVE TO ALL SUBORDINATE INTELLIGENCES. IN the commencement of the last chapter, I had occasion to remark, that, strictly speaking, the fundamental principle or affection which gives birth to all the ramifications of moral action, is hut one; namely, Love. This noble affection may be considered as dividing itself into two great streams one directing its course towards the Creator, and the other expand- ing itself toward all the intellectual beings whom he has formed. Having, in the preceding pages, endeavoured to illustrate the foundation and the reasonableness of the principle of love to God, from a consideration of his j^rfections, character, and relations, and having described some of those kindred affections by which its existence in the minds of moral agents is mani- fested, I shall now endeavour to exhibit the foundation and the reasonableness of that modification of love which is directed towards created intelligencies, and which may be termed the second principle of moral action THOU SHALT LOVE THY NEIGH- BOUR AS THYSELF. Taking for granted that this is the funda- mental law prescribed by the Creator for regulating the conduct of intelligent beings towards each other because the supreme Lawgiver has proclaimed it as such in the revelation of his will I shall endeavour to exhibit the reasonableness of this amiable principle from the nature of man, and the relations in which all the individuals of the human race stand to one another from the happiness which would flow from the uniform opera- tion of this principle and from the misery which would in- evitably ensue were it completely eradicated from the minds of moral agents. Before proceeding to the illustration of these particulars, it may be proper to remark, that, by " our neighbour" is to be LOVE TO OUR NEIGHBOUR. 91 understood men of every nation, and of every clime, whether they avow themselves as our friends or our enemies, and what- ever may be their language, their religion, their rank, or station. This we are decisively taught by our Saviour in the parable of the good Samaritan, in which it is clearly shown, that, under the designation of neighbour, we are to include even our bitterest enemies. His Apostles avowed the same sentiment, and taught, that, in the bonds of Christian love, no distinction should exist between " Jews and Greeks, Barbarians, Scythians, bond or free: " for they are all members of the great family of God, and recognised as children by the Universal Parent. SECTION I. The Natural Equality of Mankind considered as the basis of Love to our Neighbour. I SHALL now exibit a few considerations founded on the Natural Equality of Mankind, in order to evince the reason- ableness of the operation of the principle of love towards all our fellow-men. In the first place, Men, of whatever rank, kindred or tribe, are the offspring of the great Parent of the universe. They were all created by the same Almighty Being, and to him they are indebted for all the members and functions of their animal frames, and for those powers, capacities, and endowments, which render them superior to the clods of the valley, and to the beasts of the forest. They derived their origin, too, as to their bodies, from the same physical principles, and from the same earthly parent. " Of the dust of the ground" the body of the first man was formed; and from Adam, the primogenitor of the human race, have descended all the generations of men. All derived their origin from the dust, and all return to the dust again. This consideration, on which it is unnecessary to dwell, shows the reasonableness of union and affection among men, on the same grounds from which we conclude, that bro- thers and sisters, belonging to the same family, ought to manifest a friendly affection for each other. 92 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. Secondly, Men of all nations and ranks are equal in respect to the mechanism of their bodies, and the mental faculties with which they are endowed. Whether their bodies be rudely covered with the skins of beasts, or adorned with the splendours of royalty; in their construction and symmetry, they equally bear the impress of infinite wisdom and omnipotence. The body of the meanest peasant, who earns his scanty subsistence, from day to day, by the sweat of his brow, is equally admir- able, in the structure of its limbs, and the connection and uses of its several functions, as the body of the mightiest and the proudest baron, who looks down upon him with contempt. The organs of vision form as delicate pictures upon the retina the bones are as accurately articulated the muscles perform their functions with as great precision and facility and the heart impels the blood through a thousand veins and arteries with as great a degree of rapidity and of purity, in the corporeal frame of a poor African slave, as in the body of the mightiest emperor. All the external trappings which fascinate the vul- gar eye, and by which the various ranks of mankind are dis- tinguished, are merely adventitious, and have no necessary connection with the intrinsic dignity of man. They are part of the consequences of the depravity of our species : in most instances, they are the results of vanity, pride, and frivolity; and they constitute no essential distinction between man and man. Men are also nearly on a level in respect to the mental faculties which they possess. Every man, however low his station in the present world, is endowed with a spiritual prin- ciple, which he received by "the inspiration of the Almighty," which is superior to all the mechanism and modifications of matter, and by which he is allied to beings of a superior order. The faculties of consciousness, perception, memory, conception, imagination, judgment, reasoning, and moral feeling, are com- mon to men of all castes and nations. The power of recollec- ting the past and of anticipating the future of deducing con- clusions from premises previously demonstrated of perceiving the qualities of moral actions, and distinguishing between right and wrong; of recognising a supreme intelligent Agent in the movements of the universe; and of making perpetual advances in knowledge and felicity; faculties which distinguish man EQUALITY OF MANKIND. 93 from all the other tribes which people the earth, air, or sea, are possessed by the dwarfish Laplander and the untutored peasant, as well as by the ruler of kingdoms, the enlightened statesman, and the man of science. It is true, indeed, that there is a mighty difference among men, in the direction of these faculties, in the objects towards which they are directed, in the cultivation they have received, and in the degree of perfection to which they have attained. There are innumerable grada- tions in the improvement and the energies of intellect, from the narrow range of thought possessed by a Greenlander or an Es- quimaux, to the sublime and expansive views" of a Bacon or a Newton. But this difference depends more on the physical and moral circumstances in which they are placed, than on any in- trinsic difference in the faculties themselves. Place the son of a boor, or of a Laplander, in circumstances favourable to the development of his mental powers, and afford him the requisite means for directing and increasing their activity, and he will display powers of intelligence equal to those which are found in the highest ranks of civilised life. A sound understanding, a correct judgment, vigour of mind, control over the irascible passions, and other mental endowments, (though destitute of polish,) will as frequently be found in the lower walks of life, as in the elevated ranks of opulence and power. The philosopher, however, as well as the man of rank, is apt to look down with a contemptuous sneer on the narrow con- ceptions of the husbandman, the mechanic, and the peasant; and is disposed to treat them as if they were an inferior species of intelligent beings. He does not always consider, that the profound and subtile speculations, which are dignified with the title of philosophy, are frequently of less importance to the progress of the human mind, and to the enjoyment of substan- tial comfort, than the deductions of common sense, and the dictates of a sound though plain understanding; that they tor- ment him with feelings, doubts, and perplexities, which some- times shake the whole fabric of his knowledge, and lead him into labyrinths, out of which he can scarcely extricate his way ; while the man of plain understanding, guided by a few certain and important points of truth, prosecutes the path of virtue with safety and success. For it may be considered as an 94 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. established maxim, that the most interesting and salutary truths connected with the happiness of man, are neither numerous nor difficult to be acquired, and are level to the comprehension of men of every nation and of every rank. But, however grovel- ling may be the affections, and however limited the intellectual views, of the untutored ranks of society, they are capable of being trained to the knowledge and the practice of every thing which regards their present comfort, and their future happi- ness; and, to devise and execute the means by which this ob- ject may be accomplished, is one way among many others, by which our love to* mankind should be displayed. We have no reason to complain of the want of mental energy, or of the ig- norance and folly of the lower orders of mankind, and to despise them on this account, while we sit still in criminal apathy, and refuse to apply those means which are requisite to raise them from their state of moral and intellectual degradation. Thirdly, Mankind are on an equality in respect of that moral depravity with which they are all infected. From whatever cause it may be conceived to have originated, the fact is cer- tain, that a mortal disease has spread itself through all the branches of the human family, in whatever station, or in what- ever regions of the globe they may be placed. Whether we look back on the "generations of old," or survey the moral state of the nations in modern times; whether we turn our eyes to the abodes of savage or of civilised life; whether we contem- plate the characters of the higher orders of society, or the practices which abound among the inferior ranks of social life, the stamp of depravity, in one shape or another, appears impressed on the general conduct of mankind. In the case of nations, this depravity has manifested itself in those wars, dissensions, devastations, and contentions for territory and power, which have in all ages convulsed the human race, and disturbed the peace of the world. Among lesser societies, families, and individuals, it is displayed in the operation of the principles of pride, ambition, tyranny, persecution, revenge, malice, envy, falsehood, deceit, covetousness, anger, and other malignant passions, which have infested all ranks and con- ditions of men. This depravity infects the higher ranks of mankind equally with the lower, though among the former it EQUALITY OF MANKIND. 95' is sometimes varnished over with a fairer exterior; and there- fore, there is no rank or order of men that have any valid rea- son, on this ground, for despising their fellow-creatures, or withholding from them the exercise of affection. For "there is none righteous, no, not one : for all have sinned, and come short of the glory of God." And, in this point of view, love ought to exercise its beneficent energies, in endeavouring to counteract the stream of human corruption, and in dissemina- ting those divine principles which are calculated to raise man- kind to the moral dignity of their nature. Fourthly, Mankind possess, substantially, the same pleasures and enjoyments. It is a trite saying, but it is, nevertheless, a true and important one, that happiness does not depend upon the rank and stations we occupy in life, nor upon the quantity of wealth or riches we possess. The pleasures which flow from the movements of the system of nature, and from the beauties which adorn the heavens and the earth, are common and open to all the inhabitants of the globe. The rising sun, the smiling day, the flowery landscape, the purling streamy the lofty mountains, the fertile vales, the verdure of the mea- dows, the ruddy hues of the evening clouds, the rainbow adorned with all the colours of light, the coruscations of the northern lights, the music of the groves, the breath of spring, the fruits of harvest, the azure sky, the blazing comet, the planets in their courses, the moon walking in brightness, and the radiant host of stars, convey to the mind thousands of de- lightful images and sensations, which charm the cottager and the mechanic no less than the sons of opulence and fame. The pleasures of the senses, of eating and drinking, of affec- tionate friendship, of social and domestic intercourse, of a cheerful, contented mind, of fervent piety towards God, and of the hope of immortality beyond the grave, may be enjoyed by men of every colour, and rank, and condition in life ; by the inhabitant of the cottage, as well as by the potentate who sways his sceptre over kingdoms. Nor does it materially de- tract from these enjoyments, in the case of the peasant, that his body is frequently hung with rags, that he subsists on the coarsest fare, and reposes under the thatch of a miserable hut. For habit is the great leveller of mankind: it reconciles us to 96 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. innumerable inconveniences and privations, and blunts the edge of the keenest pleasures. The owner of a princely mansion frequently loathes the most delicious dainties on his table, and walks through his magnificent apartments, surrounded with paintings and decorations, with as much apathy and indiffer- ence, as if he were in an Indian wigwam, or a clay-built cottage. So that, in the pleasures of sense, of affection, and sentiment, there is no essential distinction between the high and the low, the rich and the poor. But should it be insinuated, that the poor and the ignoble have fewer enjoyments than the rich, then it will follow, that towards them, in a particular manner, our benevolent affections ought to be directed, in order that they may enjoy a competent portion of those physical and in- tellectual pleasures which the Creator has provided for all his creatures. Fifthly, Men in every condition, and in every clime, have the same wants, and are exposed to the same disasters and afflictions. Hunger and thirst, cold and heat, motion and rest, are common to all orders and conditions of men; and in order to alleviate such wants, the aid of our fellow-men is indispen- sably requisite, to enable us to obtain food, raiment, light, warmth, comfortable accommodation and shelter. We all stand in need of comfort and advice in the hour of difficulty and danger; we all long for the friendship and good offices of those around us; and we all thirst for an increase of knowledge, happiness, and joy. And those wants and desires can be supplied and gratified only by the kindly intercourse and affec- tion of kindred spirits, All are exposed to the same sorrows and afflictions. Dis- appointments, anxiety, disgrace, accidents, pain, sickness, disease, loss of health, fortune, and honour, bereavement of children, friends, and relatives, are equally the lot of the prince and the peasant. Nay, the rich and the powerful are frequently exposed to miseries and vexations, from fancied in- sults, affronts, and provocations, from frustrated hopes, from pride, vanity, and ill-humour, from abortive projects, and dis- concerted plans, to which the poor are generally strangers. If we enter into one of the abodes of poverty, where one of the victims of disease is reclining, we may behold a poor emaciated EQUALITY OF MANKIND. 97 mortal, with haggard looks and a heaving breast, reposing on a pillow of straw, surrounded by ragged children and an affec- tionate wife, all eager to sooth his sorrows, and alleviate his distress. If we pass through a crowd of domestics and courtly attendants, into the mansion of opulence, where disease or the harbinger of death has seized one of its victims, we may also behold a wretch, pale, blotched, and distorted, agonising under the pain of the asthma, the gravel, or the gout, and trembling under the apprehensions of the solemnity of a future judgment, without one sincere friend to afford him a drop of consolation. Neither the splendour of his apartment, nor the costly crimson with which his couch is hung, nor the attentions of his physi- cians, nor the number of his attendants, can prevent the bitter taste of nauseous medicines, the intolerable pains, the misgiv- ings of heart, and the pangs of conscience, which he feels in common with the meanest wretch who is expiring in a hovel. Lastly, all ranks come to the same termination of their mor- tal existence, " Dust thou art, and unto dust thou shalt re- turn," is a decree which has gone forth against every inhabitant of our globe, of whatever kindred, rank, or nation. The tombs of mighty princes, of intrepid generals, of illustrious statesmen, may be adorned with lofty columns, with sculptured marble and flattering inscriptions; but within these varnished monuments, their bodies present carcases as loathsome, and as much the prey of worms and corruption, as the corpse of their meanest vassal. Their eyes are equally impenetrable to the light of day, their ears are equally deaf to the charms of mu- sic, and their tongues are equally silent in this land of deep forgetfulness. This consideration, of itself, fully demonstrates, if any demonstration be necessary, the natural equality of mankind, and that there is no essential difference between the noble and the ignoble, the emperor and the slave. And since mankind are all equally liable to afflictions and distresses, and are all journeying to the tomb, nothing can be more reasonable than the exercise of love, with all its kindred affections, to- wards every class of our fellow-men, in order to alleviate their sorrows, and to cheer them on their passage through this re* gion of mortality. Thus it appears, that there is a natural equality subsisting H 98 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. among mankind, in respect of their origin, their corporeal or ganization, their intellectual powers, their moral depravity, their wants, their afflictions, their pleasures and enjoyments, and the state to which they are reduced after they have finished the career of their mortal existence. The illustration of such circumstances would be quite unnecessary, were it not that a certain proportion of mankind, under the influence of pride and other malignant passions, are still disposed to look down on certain classes of their fellow-mortals, as if they were a species of beings of an inferior order in the scale of existence. To the propriety of the sentiments now stated, the sacred Scriptures bear ample testimony: "The rich and the poor meet together; the Lord is the maker of them all." 1 " Did not he that made me in the womb, make my servant, and did he not fashion us alike!" 2 " God hath made of one blood all nations of men for to dwell on all the face of the earth, and hath determined the times before appointed, and the bounds of their habita- tion." 3 Since, therefore, it appears that mankind are equal in every thing that is essential to the human character, this equality lays a broad foundation for the exercise of universal love to- wards men of all nations, conditions, and ranks. It must ob- viously appear contrary to every principle of reason, repugnant to every amiable feeling, and inconsistent with the general happiness of the species, that intelligent beings, who are all children of the same Almighty Parent, members of the same great family, and linked together by so many fraternal ties, should "bite and devour one another," engage in hostile enterprises against each other, look down with scorn and con- tempt on each other, or even behold with indifference the con- dition of the meanest member of the family to which they belong. On the other hand it is consistent with the dictates of enlightened reason, congenial to the best feelings of human nature, and indispensably requisite to the promotion of uni- versal happiness, that such beings should be united in the bonds of affection and harmony, that they should sympathize with the distressed, delight in beholding the happiness of all, " re- joice with them that do rejoice, and weep with them that weep;" 1 ProY., xxii r . 2. 2 Job, xxxi, 15. 3 Acts, xvii, 26. EQUALITY OF MANKIND. 99 that every one, whether he be near or far off, whether he be rich or poor, whether he be learned or unlearned, whether he belong to this or the other civil or religious society, whether his colour be black or white, whatever may be his language, manners, or customs, should be recognised, wherever he may be found, as a friend and brother; and a cordial interest felt in every thing that concerns his welfare and comfort. Such a recognition of man as man is a duty which necessarily flows from the natural equality of mankind, and is congenial to the conduct of the Universal Parent towards all his human off- spring. For, in his love to his numerous family, and without respect of persons, he makes the same vital air to give play to their lungs, the same sun to cheer and enlighten them, and the same rains and dews to refresh their fields, and to ripen the fruits of harvest. Let it not, however, be inferred from what has been now stated, that we mean to sap the foundations of that subordina- tion of ranks which exists in this world. Gradation in society is the appointment of God, and necessarily flows from the cir- cumstances and relations in which man is placed in this first stage of his existence ; and were it completely overthrown, so- ciety would be plunged into a scene of anarchy and confusion, and the greater part of the individuals which compose it would become a lawless banditti. In the actual condition of society in the world in which we dwell, a state of complete indepen- dence, and a perfect equality of wealth, station, and rank, are impossible, so long as there exists a diversity in the capacities, tempers, and pursuits of men. On the diversity of rank, and the relations which subsist between the different classes of so- ciety, as parents and children, masters and servants, princes and subjects, is founded a great proportion of those moral laws which God hath promulgated in his word, for regulating the inclinations and the conduct of mankind. Diversity of fortune and station appears absolutely inevitable in a world where moral evil exists, and where its inhabitants are exposed to dangers, difficulties, and distress. In such a world as ours, it is a wise and gracious appointment of the Creator, and is attended with many important advantages. Were there no diversity of wealth and station, we should be 100 PHILOSOPHY OP RELIGION. deprived of many of the comforts, conveniences, and assist- ances, which we now enjoy. Every one would be obliged to provide for himself food, drink, clothing, shelter, medicines, and recreations ; and in the season of sickness, danger, and distress, he would have few or none to alleviate his affliction, and contribute to his comfort. But, in consequence of the di- versity which now exists, an opportunity is afforded of em- ploying the several capacities and endowments of mankind in those lines of active exertion for which they are respectively fitted, and of rendering them subservient for the improvement and happiness of general society. One exercises the trade of a weaver, another that'Of a baker; one is a shoemaker, another a tailor; one is an architect, another a farmer, one is a teacher of science or religion, others have their minds entertained and improved by his instructions. One is appointed a ruler over a city, another over a kingdom ; one is employed in writing for the amusement and instruction of mankind, another is employed in printing and publishing his writings. By this arrangement, the powers and capacities in which individuals excel are gra- dually carried to the highest degree of attainable perfection ; And the exertions of a single individual are rendered subservient to the ease, the convenience, and the mental improvement of thousands. It is not to the diversity of rank and station, that the evils which exist among the various classes of society are to be at- tributed ; but to the influence of a spirit of pride on the one hand, and a spirit of insubordination on the other to the want of a disposition to discharge the duties peculiar to each station, and to the deficiency of those kindly affections which ought to be manifested towards every human being, by men in all the ranks and departments of life. If love, in all its benevolent ramifications, were to pervade the various ranks of social life, kings would never oppress their subjects, nor masters act un- justly towards their servants; nor would subjects and servants refuse to submit to just laws and equitable regulations. All would act their parts with harmony and delight in this great moral machine, and every station and rank would contribute, in its sphere, to the prosperity and happiness of another. For the poor cannot do without the rich, nor the rich without the RELATIONS OF MANKIND. 101 poor; the prince without his subjects, nor subjects without wise and enlightened rulers and equitable laws. All are linked to- gether by innumerable ties ; and the recognition of these ties, and the practice of the reciprocal duties which arise out of them, form the source of individual happiness, and the bonds of social enjoyment. SECTION II. The connections and relations which subsist among mankind considered as establishing the basis of Love to our neighbour. THE relations which subsist among mankind lay a founda- tion for the exercise of the benevolent affections, and for the various duties of social life; and these relations are far more numerous and extensive than the generality of mankind are disposed to admit. The relations of parents and children, of husbands and wives, of brethren and sisters, of masters and servants, of rulers and subjects, of teachers and scholars, of buyers and sellers, etc., are recognised by all as involving an obligation to the exercise of certain corresponding duties and affections. The moment we contemplate the relation of a pa- rent and a child, we at once perceive the obligation of love on the part of the parent, and of reverence and obedience on tha part of the child ; and in every other relation a corresponding duty is involved, resulting from the nature of that relation, and founded on the principle of love. But as these relations, and their corresponding duties and affections, have been fre- quently illustrated, I shall advert to a variety of circumstances, generally overlooked, which demonstrate the universal connec- tion of human beings with each other, and the reasonableness of the exercise of love towards all mankind. Wherever we turn our eyes towards the great family of mankind whether we look around on the land of our na- tivity, or to distant continents, and the oceans which surround them, we behold thousands of human beings toiling for our ease, our convenience, our pleasure, and improvement. Here, 102 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. we behold the ploughman turning up the furrows of the soil, and the sower casting in the seed which is to produce the fruits of harvest; there, we behold the reaper cutting down the corn which is to serve for our nourishment. On the one hand, we behold the cow-herd tending his cattle, which are to afford us milk, butter, and cheese; on the other, we behold the shepherd tending his flocks, whose wool is to provide us with warm and comfortable clothing. One is preparing leather from the hides of oxen another is shaping it into shoes and boots. One is spinning flax and cotton into yarn, another is weaving it into linen and muslin, to cover and adorn us. Here, we behold the blacksmith toiling and sweating at the anvil, preparing tongs, shovels, and grates, for our apartments; there, we behold the carpenter, with his hammer and plane and saw, fitting up beds, tables, and chairs, for our ease and accommodation. Here, one is preparing our food, and another our clothing; there, one is preparing our drink, and another our medicines. In one chamber, the student of science is preparing, at the midnight lamp, those compositions which are to convey entertainment and instruction to the minds of the public; in another the her- ald of salvation is meditating on those divine subjects, which he is about to proclaim for the illumination and comfort of as- sembled multitudes. In short, to whatever department of hu- man society we direct our attention, and to whatever quarter we turn our eyes, in the busy scene around us, we behold thou- sands of our fellow-men exerting their corporeal and intellectual powers in those employments which will ultimately contribute either to our ease, our entertainment, our security, our accom- modation, our subsistence, or our moral and intellectual im- provement, -t But our connections with human beings are not confined to our immediate neighbourhood, nor even to the nation in which we reside. There is scarcely a region of the globe towards which we can direct our view, in which we do not behold in- numerable links which connect us with the great family of mankind. Let us turn our eyes to the West India Islands, and we shall hehold the poor African toiling under the scorching heat of a tropical sun, in order to provide for us sugar, mo- lasses, and rice, to mingle with our dainties, and to regale our RELATIONS OF MANKIND. 103 appetites. If we direct our view to the empire of China, on the opposite side of the globe, we shall behold thousands and tens of thousands of our brethren of the human family busily employed in planting the tea tree, in plucking its leaves, in packing and shipping them off for distant shores, that we, at the distance of nine thousand miles, may enjoy a delicious beverage for our morning and evening meals. 1 If we turn our eyes on India and Persia, we shall find multitudes of men, women, and children, assiduously employed in cultivating the mulberry plant, in hatching and rearing silk worms, in wind- ing and twisting the delicate threads which proceed from these insects, and preparing them for the loom, in order that our ladies may be adorned with this finest production of nature and art. Let us pass in imagination to the frozen regions of Siberia and Kamtschatka, to the inhospitable shores of Ona- laska and the Aleutian isles, and we shall behold numbers of weather-beaten wretches exposed to innumerable dangers by sea and land, traversing snowy mountains, forests, marshes, and deserts, suffering frequent shipwrecks on the coasts of un- known islands inhabited by savage tribes, and exposed, night and day, to the chilling frosts of the polar regions, and the attacks of ravenous wolves, in order to collect the skins of otters, and furs of various descriptions, to adorn the dress of our female friends, and to shelter them from the winter's cold. Let us pass to the forests of Norway, Sweden, Canada, and Jamaica, and hundreds of hardy, weather-beaten peasants, ex- posed to many accidents and privations, will be seen cutting down the tall firs, larches, and mahogany, sawing them into planks and logs, and conveying them in floats along rapid rivers towards the sea, to be shipped for our country, for the purpose of being formed into floors and roofs for our buildings, and into elegant furniture to decorate our apartments. 1 For a portion of this beverage we are indebted even to some of the monkey tribe. As the tea shrub often grows on the rugged banks of steep mountains, access to which is dangerous, and sometimes imprac- ticable, the Chinese, in order to come at the leaves, make use of a singu- lar stratagem. These steep places are generally frequented by great numbers of monkeys, which, being irritated and provoked, to avenge themselves, tear off the branches, and shower them down upon those who have insulted them. The Chinese immediately collect these branches, and strip off their leaves. Encyc. Brit. Art. Tea. 104 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. Not only in distant islands and continents, but even in the midst of the vast ocean, multitudes of our brethren are toiling for our pleasure, convenience, and comfort. See yonder vessel in the southern Atlantic ocean, which has just weathered the storms on the southern cape of Africa, and narrowly escaped the dangers of shipwreck on a rocky shore. And why have they been exposed to danger so dreadful and appalling ? That they might convey to our shores, from China and Hindostan, stores of tea, coffee, sugar, porcelain, silks, carpets, and pre- cious stones, to supply luxuries to our tables and ornaments to our dress. See yonder vessel too, which is tossing in the midst of the Northern ocean, passing between shoals and icebergs, and liable every moment to be crushed to pieces between moun- tains of ice. Her mariners have long been exposed to the rigours of an arctic sky, in order that we might be supplied with seal-skins, whalebone, and oil for our lamps. Even in the bowels of the ocean, thousands of poor wretches, on the coasts of California, Ceylon, Persia, and China, are diving amidst its waves, remaining whole half hours at sixty feet below the surface of its waters, exposed to the danger ol being devoured by sharks and other monsters of the deep, in order to collect pearls for ornaments to the ladies of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. On the one hand, we behold thousands of hardy Russians, Swedes, and Norwegians, steer- ing their vessels along the Baltic and the German sea, to convey to our shores copper, timber, pitch, skins, hemp, and tallow; on the other, we behold the Americans ploughing the waves of the Atlantic, with stores of mahogany, sugar, ricu, flour, tobacco, cotton, and brandy. Along the vast Pacific ocean, the Spanish galleons are conveying to Europe gold, silver, pearls, precious stones, and all the other riches of Peru. Even from the southern icy ocean, where nature appears bound in the fetters of eternal ice, the adventurous mariner is convey- ing to our shores furs of various kinds, with the products of seals and whales. And in return for the supply we receive from foreign regions, our British sailors are traversing every sea and ocean, and distributing to the inhabitants of every clime the productions of our arts, sciences, and manufac- tures. RELATIONS OF MANKIND. 105 Even in the subterraneous apartments of the globe, as well as upon its surface, many thousands of human beings are labouring in confined and gloomy regions, to promote our comforts and enjoyments. The copper mines in Sweden are situated at more than a thousand feet below the surface of the ground, and contain a vast number of subterraneous apartments, branching in all directions. In these dreary abodes, twelve hundred wretched beings are doomed to pass their existence, deprived of the cheerful light of day toiling, almost naked, in the midst of hot and sulphureous vapours, and under severe taskmasters, in order that we may be supplied with the best species of copper. The salt mines of Hungary and Poland, the gold and silver mines of Potosi and Peru, and hundreds of similar subterraneous mansions in various parts of the earth, present to our view numerous groups of our fellow-men, al] engaged in similar toils and labours, in order that we may enjoy the riches, the elegancies, and the conveniences of life. Jn our own country, how many thousands of our brethren are labouring in the dark recesses of the earth, far beneath its sur- face, exposed to the suffocation of the cJioJce-damp and the explosions of the fire-damp, in procuring for us that invaluable fossil which warms and cheers our winter apartments, which cooks our victuals, and enables us to carry on the various pro- cesses of our arts and manufactories. Thus it appears, that we are connected with our fellow-men, in every quarter of the world, by thousands of ties; that millions of human beings, whom we have never seen, nor ever will see on this side the grave, are labouring to promote our interests, without whose exertions we should be deprived of the greatest proportion of our accommodations and enjoyments. And since we are connected with our fellow-creatures by so many links, is it not reasonable, is it not congenial to the nature of man, that we should be connected with them by the ties of sympathy and of benevolent affections? It is true, indeed, that the various classes of mankind in every country, who are toil- ing for our ease and gratification, seldom or never think of us in the midst of their difficulties and labours. Perhaps they have no other end in view than to earn their daily subsistence, and provide food and clothing for their families. But, from 106 PHILOSOPHY OF EELIGION. whatever motives their labours and exertions proceed, it is a fact which cannot he denied, and which they cannot prevent, that we actually enjoy the benefit of them; and that, without them, we should be deprived of the greater part of those com- forts and enjoyments which render existence desirable, and which cheer us in our pilgrimage to the grave. We have, therefore, in almost every artificial object that surrounds us, and in every enjoyment we possess from day to day, so many sensible emblems of our connection with every branch of the great family of mankind. And while we feel delighted with the diversified enjoyment which flows from the labour and industry of every class of mankind, is it reasonable that we should look with indifference on any one of them ? Is it not accordant with the dictates of enlightened reason, and with every thing that we consider as amiable in the nature of man, that we should embrace them all in the arms of kindness and brotherly affection, and that our active powers, so far as our influence extends, should be employed in endeavouring to promote their present and everlasting happiness ? At present, they seldom think about the benefits they are procuring; for us and others by their useful labours; but were their circumstances meliorated, were their minds expanded by instruction, were their moral powers cultivated and improved, were they to be- hold the various branches of the human family for whom they are labouring, exerting every nerve to promote their moral im- provement and domestic enjoyment, it would produce many pleasing emotions in their breasts, in the midst of all their toil- some labours, to reflect, that their exertions are the means of distributing numerous comforts and conveniences among men of different nations, ranks, kindreds, and languages. Their minds would take a more extensive range among the various tribes of mankind with which they are connected, as intelli- gences of the same species; they would learn to trace the remotest consequences of every branch of labour, and of every mechanical operation in which they are engaged, and they woald thus feel themselves more intimately related to every in- dividual of the great family to which they belong. That it is the intention of the Creator that an extensive acd affectionate intercourse should be carried on between the re- RELATIONS OF MANKIND, 107 motest tribes of mankind, appears even from the physical con- stitution and arrangement of our globe. The surface of the earth is every where indented with rivers of various dimensions, winding in every direction through the continents and the larger islands, and some of them running a course of several thousands of miles. In the eastern continent, above four hundred rivers of large dimensions are rolling from the mountains towards the sea; and in the western continent, more than one hundred and forty majestic streams are to be found, connecting the highest and remotest parts of the land with the ocean, besides thou- sands of streams of smaller dimensions. The water of the sea is formed of such a consistency, or specific gravity, that it is capable of supporting large floating edifices ; while, at the same time, its parts are so yielding as to permit such vehicles to move with rapidity through its waves and billows. In virtue of this arrangement, the ocean, instead of standing as an ever- lasting barrier between the nations, has become a medium for the most speedy intercourse between distant lands. The at- mosphere which surrounds the globe contributes likewise, by its agency, to promote the same important end. By the impul- sion of its different masses, in various directions, our ships are wafted, with considerable velocity, along the surface of rivers, seas, and oceans, to the remotest extremities of the globe. By means of these arrangements which the Creator has established, the treasures of the mountains and of the inland parts of the continents and islands, are conveyed towards the sea, and transported from one island and continent to another ; and thus the various tribes of mankind have an opportunity of visiting each other, of cultivating an affectionate intercourse, and of contributing to their mutual enjoyment. And I have no doubt, that in the future ages of the world, by means of improvements in art and science, such intercourse will be carried on in the spirit of benevolence, to an extent and with a rapidity of which we cannot at present form any adequate conception. It appears, then, to be one great design of the Creator in connecting mankind by so many links, and in rendering them dependent upon each other, though placed in opposite regions of the globe to lay a broad foundation for the exercise of the benevolent affections between men of all nations, and ultimately ] 08 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. to unite the whole human race in one harmonious and affec- tionate society. And it is obviously the duty of every human being to cultivate those dispositions, and to prosecute that train of action, which have a tendency to accomplish the plans of the Universal Parent, and to promote the happiness of his intelligent offspring. In so doing, he contributes to his own individual happiness, and, at the same time, to that of all the moral intelligences in heaven and earth with which he is con- nected. SECTION III. The ultimate destination of mankind considered as a oasis for love to our neighbour, and as a motive to its exercise. THE present world is not the ultimate destination of man- kind. It is only a passing scene, through which they are now travelling to that immortal existence which will have no termi- nation. Man is at present in the infancy of his being ; his faculties are only beginning to expand, his moral powers are feeble and depraved, his intellectual views are circumscribed within a narrow range, and all the relations in which he stands demonstrate that the present scene is connected with the future, and is introductory to a higher sphere of action and enjoy- ment. " We know, " says the apostle Paul, "that if this earthly house of our tabernacle were dissolved, we have a building of God, an house not made with hands, eternal in the heavens." And our Saviour declares, that " the hour is coming, in which all that are in their graves shall hear his voice, and shall come forth," and that "our vile bodies shall be changed, and fashioned like unto his glorious body," and shall enter into the enjoyment of a new world, " which is incorruptible, undefiled, and which fadeth not away." The capacity of making perpetual advances in knowledge and moral improvement in a future state of existence, is that in which the true dignity of man consists; and in this capacity, and the high destination with which it is connected, there is no DESTINATION OF MAN. 109 difference between the high and the low, the slave who is chained to a galley, and the sovereign at whose nod the nations tremble. They are equally destined to immortality, and will tixist in a future world, when time, and all the arrangements of the present state, shall come to a close. If man were only the creature of a day, whose prospects are bounded by this ter- restrial scene, and whose hopes terminate in the tomb, it might appear a matter of comparatively little importance whether or not our benevolent regards were extended to our fellow-men, except in so far as our self-interest and avarice were concerned. The happiness of a fellow-creature might then be considered as a matter of indifference, and his dissolution at death a cir- cumstance as trivial as the falling of a leaf in autumn. Even in this case, however, it would still be conducive to human happiness, during the short and uncertain span of our exis- tence, that all the branches of the human family were cemented together in union and affection. But when we reflect that all the intelligent beings around us, with whom we more immedi- ately associate, and all those in distant lands, with whom we are connected by the ties of one common nature, are destined, along with ourselves, to an eternal world, in another region of the Creator's empire; and that the affections we now cultivate, and the conduct we pursue, in reference to our brethren, have an intimate relation to that immortal existence ; this considera- tion stamps an importance on the exercise of brotherly affec- tion which is beyond the power of human language to express. It shows us that the dispositions which we now indulge, and the manner in which we treat the meanest of our fellow-crea- tures, may be recognised, and attended with the most impor- tant effects, a thousand millions of years hence, and may run parallel, in their consequences, even with eternity itself. We may, perhaps, view it as a matter of trivial moment in what manner we now conduct ourselves towards a servant or a slave; whether we render his life miserable by hard labour, cruel insults, and contemptuous treatment, or study to promote his comfort and domestic enjoyment; whether we neglect to in- struct him in the knowledge of his duty to his God and to his fellow-men, or labour to promote his moral and religious im- provement. We may view with indifference or contempt the person and the family of a poor pious neighbour, who has 110 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. earned a scanty subsistence by the sweat of his brow, and may behold his body laid in the grave with as much apathy as we behold the carcase of a dog thrown into a pond. But, could we follow the pious man beyond the precincts of the tomb, into that immortal scene which has burst upon his disencumbered spirit ; could we trace the gradual expansion of his moral and intellectual faculties ; could we behold his mouldered frame starting up to new life at "the resurrection of the just," and arrayed in new splendour and beauty; could we contemplate him placed in a station of dignity and honour among ' the sons of God," in that glorious residence to which he is destined; his mental powers expanding, grasping the most sublime objects, and pushing forward in the career of perpetual improvement, without the least stain of moral imperfection, would we now treat such a one with malevolence, or even with indifference or neglect ? And, were we placed by his side in such a dignified station, what would our feelings be, when we recollected the apathy, the indifference, and even the contempt with which he was treated in this sublunary scene? On the other hand, could we follow the poor wretched slave to the future world, and contemplate the degradation and misery to which he is there reduced in consequence of our malevolence and neglect, what emotions of horror and indignation should we not feel at the recollection of that pride and disaffection which led us to act so basely towards a fellow-immortal, whom it was in our power to have trained to wisdom, to excellence, and to a happy immortality? When, therefore, we behold individuals with- holding their benevolent regard from their brethren of mankind, and treating them with haughtiness and contempt, we must conclude, that such persons overlook the true dignity of man, and secretly disbelieve the reality of an immortal existence, whatever professions they may make to the contrary. For, the consideration of the eternal destiny of mankind reflects a dignity on the meanest human being, and attaches an impor- tance to all our affections and actions in relation to him, un- speakably greater than if his existence were circumscribed within the narrow limits of time, and throws completely into the shade all the degrading circumstances with which he is now surrounded. When we consider our brethren of the human family in the DESTINATION OF MAN. HI light of immortal intelligences, and look forward to the scenes of the eternal world, a crowd of interesting reflections naturally arises in the mind. A wide and unbounded prospect opens before us. Amidst new creations, and the revolutions of sys- tems and worlds, new displays of the Creator's power and pro- vidence burst upon the view. We behold ourselves placed on a theatre of action and enjoyment, and passing through "scenes and changes " which bear no resemblance to the transactions and events of this sublunary world. We behold ourselves mingling with beings of a superior order, cultivating nobler affections, and engaged in more sublime employments than those which now occupy our attention. We behold ourselves associated with men of all nations and kindreds, and with those who lived in the remotest periods of time. Millions of years roll on after millions, our capacities and powers of intellect are still expanding, and new scenes of beauty and magnificence are perpetually bursting on the astonished mind, without any pros- pect of a termination. Amidst those eternal scenes, we shall, doubtless, enter into the most intimate connections with persons whom we have never seen, from whom we are now separated by continents and oceans, with those whose bodies are now moul- dering in the dust, with those who have not yet entered on the stage of existence, and with those with whom we now refuse to associate on account of their rank, their station, and their reli- gious opinion. That man into whose dwelling we would not at present deign to enter, and with whom we would abhor to mingle in the public services of religion, may then be one of our chief companions in the regions of bliss, in directing and expanding our views of the glory and magnificence of God. The man whom we now hate and despise, and whose offers of assistance we would treat with disdain, may, in that happier world, be a principle agent in opening to our view new scenes of contemplation and delight. That servant whom we now treat as a being of inferior species, at whom we frown and scold with feelings of proud superiority, may be our instructor and director, and every way our superior, in that religion where earthly distinctions are unknown. That humble instructor whom we now despise, and whose sentiments we treat with con- tempt, may, in that world of intelligence and love, be our teacher 112 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. and our guide, to direct our views of the attributes of the Deity of the arrangements of his providence, and of the glories of his empire. There, the prince may yield precedence to his sub- jects, the master to the slave, and the peer to the humblest peasant. For no pre-eminence of birth, fortune, or learning, no excellence but that which is founded on holiness and virtue, on moral and intellectual endowments, will have any place in the arrangements of that world where human distinctions are for ever abolished and unknown. And shall we now refuse to acknowledge those who are to be our friends and companions in that future world ? Is it not agreeable to the dictates of reason, and to the voice of God, that we should regard them with complacency and affection, whatever be the garb they now wear, whatever be their colour or features, and in whatever island or continent they may now reside? It must, indeed, be admitted, that all the inhabitants of our world will not be exalted to dignity and happiness in the future state. A great proportion of them, in their present state of depravity and degradation, are altogether unqualified for parti~ cipating in the exercises and enjoyments of celestial intelli- gencies. Whole nations are still overspread with intellectual darkness, ignorant of their eternal destination, and immersed in immoralities and vile abominations. And, even in those countries where the light of revelation has dispelled the gloom of heathenism a vast mass of human beings are to be found, " having their understandings darkened, alienated from the life of God," and sunk into the mire of every moral pollution. Still we have no reason, on this account, to overlook their native dignity and their high destination. Every human being we see around us, however low in rank, or degraded by vice, is endowed with an immortal nature, and is capable of being raised to the dignity of an inhabitant of heaven ; and there is not a single individual to whom we can point, either in our own country or in other lands, in relation to whom we are au- thorised to affirm, that he will not be a participator in immor- tal bliss. And therefore, every man with whom we associate, and whom we recognise in the circle of society around us, ought to be viewed as one with whom we may associate in the world to come. And as to those who appear to be partially DESTINATION OF MAN. 113 enlightened and renovated in their minds, we ought not to withhold our affection and complacency on account of their ignorance, their contracted views, or erroneous opinions. We should view them, not as they are in their present state of in- fancy and weakness, but as they will be when arrived at maturity and manhood ; not as they appear in the first weak assays of their intellectual powers, and in the lowest step of their existence, but as they will appear in their career of im- provement after the lapse of millions of ages. Carrying for- ward our views to those eternal scenes, and accompanying our brethren of the human family through all the gradations of their existence in future worlds, we behold their faculties in progressive expansion, their minds approximating nearer to the Source of eternal wisdom, their views of the empire of Omnipotence continually enlarging, their knowledge of the plan of redemption, and its numerous bearings, for ever increasing; their love and affection to God and to fellow-intelligencies, waxing into a more ardent flame; every imperfection removed, every blossom of virtue fully expanded, and "joy unspeakable and full of glory" pervading every faculty of their souls. And can we behold intelligent minds capable of so high and digni- fied attainments, and the companions of our future destiny, with indifference or contempt? Is there not here a broad founda- tion laid for the most expansive emanations of love towards every member of the great family of mankind, however much he may be obscured and sullied by folly and sin in this first stage of his existence? In the meantime, while the greater part of mankind are im- mersed in ignorance and vice, while the image of their Maker is defaced, and their immortal powers prostituted to the vilest passions, the most noble and honourable operation in which love can be engaged, is to devise and execute schemes by which our degraded brethren may be raised to intellectual and moral excellence; to train up young immortals in religion and virtue; to diffuse the principles of useful knowledge among all ranks; to counteract the diabolical spirit of war and contention; to abolish slavery in every shape; to meliorate the social and do- mestic condition of the lower orders of society; to publish the revelation of God in every lant^ua^e; and to send forth the 14 H 114 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. messengers of salvation to every land, to instruct men of all nations and kindreds, and tongues, in the knowledge of the true God, and of the path which leads to a hlessed immortality. Thus shall we he enabled to manifest our love towards all our brethren of the human family; thus shall we contribute to render them worthy of our highest affection, and to prepare them for the exalted exercises and enjoyments of the life to come. SECTION IV. Love to God and our Neighbour enforced and illustrated, from a consideration of the miserable effects which would ensue were these principles reversed, and were rational beings to act accordingly. THE two leading principles which I have endeavoured to illustrate in the preceding pages, form the basis of the moral order of the intelligent universe. Consequently, were these principles reversed, and were moral agents to act accordingly, the world would soon be transformed into a scene of the most dismal anarchy and confusion. Every action would be dic- tated by feelings of pure malevolence, and misery in every shape would be the great object which human beings would exert their powers to accomplish. Could we suppose, for a moment, that society could subsist for any length of time under the unrestrained operation of such a principle, the following, among many thousands of similar effects, would be the natural and necessary results: Every individual would exhibit, in every action, the character of a fiend; and every family would display a miniature picture of hell. Between the husband and wife there would be nothing but incessant brawling, dissension, and execration. Whatever was ardently desired by the one, would be as resolutely and ob- stinately opposed by the other; and fury and resentment would destroy every vestige of peace and tranquillity. Their children would be actuated by the same diabolical tempers. The eon would take pleasure in cursing and insulting "the father that EFFECTS OF MALEVOLENCE. 1J5 begat him," and in trampling with scorn and indignation on the mother who gave him birth. Brothers and sisters would live under the continual influence of malice and envy, "hateful and hating one another." Whatever actions tended to irri- tate, to torment, and to enrage the passions of each other, and to frustrate their desires and expectations, would be performed with infernal delight. In larger societies, fraud, falsehood, deceit, seduction, quarrels, oppression, plunder, rapine, murde*r, and assassination, would be the common occurrences of every day. The seller would uniformly endeavour to cheat the buyer, and the buyer would endeavour by every kind of fraud to deprive the seller of the value of his commodities. The strong would oppress the weak, and rejoice in depriving them of every comfort, and the powerful would exult in trampling under foot the persons and property of the poor, and in beholding the extent of the miseries they had created. In the common intercourse of life, every one would be mal- treated, insulted, and reproached. Words would be exchanged between man and man that would cut each other's hearts "like the piercings of a sword," and horrible contentions ac- companied with rage and fury, would be presented to the view, in every city and village, and rural scene. Persons who sowed the seed in spring could have no confidence that they would ever reap the fruits in autumn; and no one could have the least security that the wealth and property he possessed to-day would be his to-morrow. No one could feel secure, for a single hour, that his life was not in danger from the sword of the murderer or the assassin; every man would live in continual fear and alarm; no pleasing prospects, nor hopes of future enjoyment, would ever calm the tumultuous passions, or cheer the dis- tracted mind; all confidence between man and man would be completely destroyed. Tormented by tumultuous passions raging within, in continual alarm from desperadoes, plunderers, and assassins, raging around, looking back on the past with horrible recollections, and contemplating the future with terror and dismay, the mind would feel itself fixed in a scene of misery and wretchedness, which no words could describe, nor pencil delineate. If we could suppose a number of such beings leagued to- 116 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. gether for the purpose of carrying the schemes of malevolence more completely into effect, one of their employments would be to set fire to houses and villages, in order that they might enjoy the infernal pleasure of seeing their fellow-creatures deprived of every shelter. The conflagration of a city, with all its accompaniments, the crash of falling houses, and of palaces tumbling into ruin; the terror and confusion of its inhabitants, the wailings of women and children, and the groans of the burning victims, would be a feast to the eyes, and music to the ears, of such malignant beings, as they once were to Nero, when, from the top of a high tower, he beheld Rome wrapt in the flames which he himself had kindled, and sung on his lyre the destruction of Troy. Could we suppose for a moment such beings occasionally combining, on a large scale, for the purpose of more extensively glutting their malevolence, their conduct towards each other as nations, and the contests in which they would be engaged in this capacity, would be tremendous and horrible beyond the power of description. Every malevolent affection would be brought into action; every infernal passion would be raised to its highest pitch of fury; every one, stimulated by his asso- ciates, would breathe nothing but revenge, execrations, slaughter, and utter extermination against opposing armies; every engine of human destruction which ingenuity could invent, would be brought into the scene of action; and a scene of horror would ensue beyond the power of imagination to conceive which would not terminate, till the one class of combatants had ex- terminated the other till they had destroyed the fruits of their ground, and turned their land into a wilderness till they had burned their villages to ashes, and tumbled their cities into a heap of ruins till they had drenched their fields with blood, and strewed them with the mangled carcases of thou- sands of men. But it is needless to dwell on such scenes ; since the history of all nations since even the history of mo- dern Europe, presents us with spectacles of horror scarcely inferior to those I have now described, and with moral agents who bear too striking a resemblance to those whose actions are completely subversive of the second commandment of the law, " Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself." Such then would be some of the dreadful effects which would EFFECTS OF MALEVOLENCE. 117 flow from a subversion of the second principle of the moral law, if we could suppose that organical intelligences, not endowed with immortal bodies, could exist for any length of time amidst such scenes of depravity and wretchedness. But it is more than prohable, that such a state of society could not long sub- sist in such a world as we now inhabit, and among rational beings whose corporeal organisation is constructed after the model of the human frame. The whole mass of society, in every land, would soon be transformed into one boundless scene of anarchy and confusion. 1 This is one of the most terrible representations we can form of the horrors of the future state of punishment, where malevo- lent passions rage without control ; and the considerations now stated demonstrate that the man who is actuated by a principle of hostility towards his neighbour, is training and preparing himself for becoming an inhabitant of that dreary region, " where the worm dieth not, and the fire" of malevolence and revenge " is never quenched." We are thus instructed, that if there be a future state at all, it must, from the very nature and constitution of things, be a state of misery and horror to every man whose mind is under the unrestrained dominion of depraved affections and malignant passions ; so that there is no possibi- lity, in such a case, of escaping "the wrath to come," unless the moral constitution of the intelligent universe were entirely subverted. If, then, it appears that such dismal consequences would flow from the subversion of this principle or law, it is obvious that the law itself must be "holy, just, and good," and calcu- lated to promote the perfection and happiness of all created in- telligencies among whom it is found in full operation. And, 1 Whether such scenes as some of those now described may be realised in the future state of punishment, or whether the principles of the moral law will be entirely subverted among the miserable beings who are sub- jected to that punishment, it becomes not us positively to determine. But we can scarcely conceive a more horrible idea than that of intelli- gent beings acting uniformly from principles of pure malevolence, and, at the same time endowed with immortal bodis, capable of sensations simi- lar to those we now feel. In this case, every accumulated wound received from malignant associates, would be an additional source of pain and misery, which would continually increase, without any prospect of relief from the stroke of death. 118 PHILOSOPHf OF RELIGION. in a world such as ours, where this law is partially violated, the consequent misery which is suffered, will be nearly in pro- portion to the extent to which this violation is carried, and to the number of individuals who are actuated by a principle of opposition to its requirements. In like manner it might be shown, that the most dismal ef- fects would be produced, were the first principle of the moral law reversed, and the malevolence of intelligent beings directed towards their Creator. In this case, instead of assembled mul- titudes joining in solemn adorations of the Divine perfections, the God of heaven would be blasphemed, and his name abhor- red in every land. Instead of reverence and profound humility in the presence of Jehovah, a spirit of pride and independency, and an impatience of control, would pervade every mind. In- stead of thanksgivings for the bounties of his providence, the basest ingratitude would be manifested, and the most marked contempt of all his favours. Instead of cordial submission to his wise arrangements, nothing but murmurings and repinings would be heard, and the most presumptuous decisions uttered against all the dispensations of his providence. Instead of complacency and delight in his character and operations, insults and reproaches would burst forth at every display of his wis- dom, justice, and omnipotence. Instead of admiration of the beauty and grandeur of his wonderful works, feelings of con- tempt would be mingled with all their surveys of the operations of nature. His omnipotence would be disregarded, his benevo- lence called into question or despised, and his wisdom and in- telligence arraigned. Like Alphonso, king of Castile, they would not hesitate to afiirm, " If we had been of God's privy council when he made the world, we would have advised him better." Such would be the dispositions and the conduct of intelligent beings, were the first principle of the moral law reversed, and their actions regulated by a principle of malevolence; and such, in a greater or less degree, are the dispositions of every man in whose heart the love of God has never taken up its residence. Revolting as the scenes now supposed must appear to every mind possessed of moral feeling, they must be admitted to be the necessary results of malignant passions raging without EFFECTS OF BENEVOLENCE. 119 control. And if there be any region of creation in which pure malevolence actuates its inhabitants, we must suppose the restraining influence of the Almighty interposed, to preserve their maligant operations within those bounds which are con- sistent with the plans of his moral government, and the general happiness of the intelligent universe. That principles have existed among mankind, which, if left to operate without restraint, would produce all the effects now supposed, appears from the description which the Apostle Paul gives of the character of the Gentile world, and even of that portion of it which had been brought into a civilised state. He declares that " they did not like to retain God in their know- ledge, but changed the glory of the incorruptible God into an image made like to corruptible man, and to birds, and four- footed beasts, and creeping things;" that they were filled " with all unrighteousness, fornication, wickedness, covetousness, ma- liciousness ;" that they were "full of envy, murder, deceit, malignity, backbiters, haters of God, despiteful, proud, boasters, inventors of evil things, disobedient to parents; without under- standing, without natural affection, implacable, unmerciful. Who, knowing the judgment of God, that they who commit such things are worthy of death, not only do the same, but have pleasure in them that do them." Were practices and pas- sions, of this description, which are all directly opposed to the principle of benevolence, to extend their influence without con- trol, the universe would soon be transformed into a boundless scene of misery and horror, of lamentation and wo. Turning our eyes from such revolting scenes, I shall now di- rect the attention of my readers to a more pleasing picture, and endeavour to delineate some of the happy effects which would naturally result from a complete conformity in thought and action to the principles of the divine law. SECTION V. Effects which would flow from the full operation of the principle of Love to God and Man. WEHE this divine principle in full operation ainonir the in 120 jNlflLOSOrfiY OF KELIG10*. telligencies that people our globe, this world would be tran- formed into a paradise, the moral desert would be changed into a fruitful field, and "blossom as the rose," and Eden would again appear in all its beauty and delights. Fraud, deceit, and cunning, with all their concomitant train of evils, would no longer walk rampant in every land. Prosecutions, law-suits, and the innumerable vexatious litigations which now disturb the peace of society, would cease from among men. Every debt would be punctually paid; every commodity sold at its just value; every article of merchandise exhibited in its true charac- ter; every promise faithfully performed; every dispute amicably settled; every man's character held in estimation; and every jail, bridewell, and house of correction, would be swept away. Injustice and oppression would no longer walk triumphant through the world, while the poor, the widow, and the father- less, were groaning under the iron rod of those who had de- prived them of every comfort. No longer would the captive be chained to a dungeon, and doomed to count, in sorrow and solitude, the many long days and years he has been banished from the light of day and the society of his dearest friends. No longer should we hear the sighs and groans of the poor slave, fainting under the lash of a cruel master. The bands of the oppressed would be loosed, the captives set at liberty, the iron fetters burst asunder, and a universal jubilee proclaim- ed throughout every land. The tongue of the slanderer, and the whisperings of the back- biter, would no longer be heard in their malicious attempts to sow the seeds of discord and contention among brethren. False- hood in all its ramifications, with the numerous train of evils it now produces, would be banished from the intercourses of so- ciety; nor would treachery prove the ruin of families and socie- ties, and interrupt the harmony of the commercial and the moral world. No longer should we hear of the embezzling of property by unfaithful servants; nor of the blasted hopes, the cruel disappointments, and the ruin of credit and of reputation now produced by the votaries of falsehood. " The lips of truth would be established for ever." Our property would remain sacred and secure from the midnight robber, and our persons from the attacks of the murderer and the assassin. Plunder and devastation would cease from the earth; "violence would EFFECTS OF BENEVOLENCE. 121 no more be heard in our land, nor wasting nor destruction in all our borders.'* Pride, which now stalks about with stately steps and lofty looks, surveying surrounding fellow-creatures with- feelings of contempt, would be for ever banished from the world. Ambi- tion would no longer wade through slaughter to a throne, nor trample on the rights of an injured people. Wars would cease to the ends of the earth, and the instruments of destruction would be beaten into ploughshares and pruninghooks. That scourge which has drenched the earth with human gore which has convulsed every nation under heaven which has produced tenfold more misery than all the destructive elements of nature, and which has swept from existence so many millions of man- kind would be regarded as the eternal disgrace of the human character, and the most shocking display of depravity in the annals of our race. No longer should we hear " the sound of the trumpet and the alarm of war," the confused noise of " the horseman and the bowman," and of mighty armies encamping around " the city of the innocent," to hurl against its walls the instruments of destruction. No longer should we behold the fires blazing on the mountain tops, to spread the alarm of in- vading armies ; nor the city which was once full of inhabitants " sitting solitary," without a voice being heard within its dwell- ings, but the sighs of the disconsolate. Nation would not lift up sword against nation, neither would they learn war any more. The instruments of cruelty, the stake, the rack, the knout, and the lash, would no longer lacerate and torture the wretched culprit ; cannons and guns, and swords and darts, would bo forged no more ; but the influence of reason and affection would preserve order and harmony throughout every department of society. The traveller, when landing on distant shores, and on the islands of the ocean, would no longer be assailed with stones, spears, arrows, and other instruments of death, and be obliged to flee from the haunts of his own species; but would be welcomed AS a friend and a messenger of peace. The ani- mosities which now prevail among religious bodies would cease. Christians would feel ashamed of those jealousies and evil sur- misings which they have so long manifested towards each other; and an affectionate and harmonious intercourse would be estab- lished among all the churches of the saints. 122 puiLosornY OF RELIGION. These, and a thousand other evils, which now render this world a vast wilderness of wretchedness and sorrow, would be completely eradicated, were the principle of holy love in inces- sant operation ; and, in their place, a scene of loveliness and moral beauty would burst upon the view, which would diffuse joy and extatic delight through every bosom. Every family would become a mansion of peace and love a temple consecrated to the God of heaven, from which the incense of prayer, and praise, and pious aspirations, would daily ascend to the throne above Domestic broils and conten- tions would cease; brothers and sisters would be cemented in the closest bonds of holy affection; the law of kindness would swell their hearts, and dwell upon their tongues; serenity and joy, and a desire to please, would appear on every countenance; a mutual exchange of sentiment and generous affections would circulate joy from father to son, and from children to parents; and all the members of the family circle, animated by the same benevolent spirit, would " dwell together in unity." To com- municate useful knowledge, to train each other to piety and virtue, to point out the different spheres in which benevolence should act, to assist in every kindly office, to sooth each other in distress, and to direct each other in the path to an endless life, would be the unceasing desire and endeavour of every in- mate of the family mansion. From every such mansion, the radiance of love would fly from family, to family, from one hamlet to another, from one city to another, from one nation to another, and from one continent to another, till all the families of the earth were converted into " the dwellings of the God of Jacob." In larger communities, the principle of love would effectuate a mighty change. That spirit of jealousy and selfishness, of avarice and monopoly, which now produces so many jarrings, contentions, and collisions of interests among corporations, and other associations, would cease to operate. Every one would see and feel, that the prosperity of the whole is also the pros- perity of every portion of the general community. Boisterous disputations, reproaches, and angry passions, would be banished from the deliberations of every society; and candour and kindly affections would animate the minds of all its members. Right- eous laws would be enacted, and distributive justice equitably administered. Every nation would form one great and har- EFFECTS OF BENEVOLENCE. 123 monious family; all its members being linked together by the ties of kindness and reciprocal affection. Its magistrates would become " nursing fathers" to the whole body of the people, to promote their domestic comfort, their knowledge, and their ge- neral improvement; and throughout all ranks of the community nothing would appear but submission, obedience, reverence, and respect. The mutual intercourse of nations would be established on the principles of friendship and affection, and on the basis of immutable justice and eternal truth. Raised above petty jea- lousies, secure from the alarms of war, and viewing each other as branches of the same great family, and as children of the same Almighty Parent every nation and empire would feel an interest in promoting the prosperity of another, and would rejoice in beholding its happiness and improvement. Commerce would be free and unshackled, and the productions of nature and art would quickly be transported into every nation, from every clime. Travellers and navigators would visit foreign shores, without danger or alarm from insidious or hostile tribes, and would land on the most obscure island of the ocean, fully assured of protection and comfort, and the welcome of friend- ship. Every vessel that ploughed the deep would become a floating temple, from which incense and a pure offering would daily ascend to the Ruler of the skies; and its mariners would join, with one heart and one inind, in imploring upon each other the blessing and protection of the God of heaven. The beams of love and affection would gladden every land, and add a new lustre to the natural beauties of its landscape. The in- habitants of China and Japan would be hailed as benefactors when they arrived on our coasts with their cargoes of tea, sugar, silk, and porcelain; and the natives of France and Great Britain, when they transported their manufactures to these dis- tant empires, would be welcomed as friends, and conducted, without the least jealousy or suspicion, through all their cities and rural scenes, to survey the beauties of nature and art with which those countries are adorned. The natives of Papua and Xew Zealand would land on our shores, without spears or darts, or other hostile weapons, and be recognised as friends and brethren; and our countyrnen, when traversing the different re 124 PHILOSOPHY OF BELIGION. gions of the globe, would always meet witli a cordial reception when landing on their coasts: for national jealousies and an- tipathies would cease; and, instead of selfish and revengeful passions, reason would be cultivated, and its powers expanded; the smile of benevolence and the hand of beneficence would gladden the inhabitants of every clime, and " righteousness and praise would spring forth before all the nations." Under the benignant influence of the spirit of love, useful in- telligence of every description would be rapidly and extensively communicated; the sciences would be improved, and carried for- ward to perfection; the jealousies which now exist among scien- tific men would be extinguished, and every fact on which science is built would be impartially investigated, and exhibited in its true aspect; the arts would flourish, and be carried to the highest pitch of improvement; no secrets in arts or trades would be locked up in the breast of the discoverer; but every useful hint would at once be communicated to the public; every invention would uniformly be applied to the promotion of a be- nevolent object. Under the hand of art, the habitations of men would be beautified and adorned, to correspond with the purity and improvement of their moral feelings, and a new lustre would be thrown over the face of nature : Towns and villages would be built on spacious plans, divested of all that gloom and filth which now disgrace the abodes of millions of human beings, and which form an emblem of their physical and moral wretch- edness; and the landscape of every country would present a scene of grandeur, fertility, and picturesque beauty: Those immense treasures which have been so long expended in the arts of war and devastation would be employed in turning immense deserts into fruitful fields, in beautifying the aspect of rural nature, in planting orchards and vineyards, in forming spacious roads, in establishing seminaries of instruction, in erecting comfortable habitations for the lower orders of society, and promoting their domestic enjoyment. What an immense variety of objects of this description would be accomplished within the limits of Great Britain by means of a thousand millions of pounds, which we all know have been lately expended, within the space of twenty-four years, in carrying forward the work of destruction! Under the influence of the reign of love, the instruction of all EFFECTS OP BENEVOLENCE. 125 ranks, in every department of useful knowledge, would be ra- pidly promoted; ignorance and error, with all their attendant evils, would soon evanish from the minds even of the lowest orders of society; seminaries would be erected, and established on a liberal basis, for instructing every class of mankind in all those branches of science which tend to expand the capacity of the human mind, and to extend the range of its contemplations; the hours of active labour would be abridged, in order that they might have leisure for the cultivation of their understand- ing, and the exercise of their moral powers. To add to their stock of knowledge, and to increase the sum of happiness around them, would be considered as interesting and as delightful as it now is to the sons of mammon to " add house to house, and field to field," and to riot on the gains of avarice: Societies would be formed for mutual improvement in knowledge and vir- tue, lectures delivered on every interesting and useful subject, experiments performed to illustrate the order and mechanism of nature, and instruments of every description procured for exhibiting the wisdom and omnipotence of the Creator, and the glories of the universe: The Revelation of heaven would be studied with intelligence in all its aspects and bearings, and every passion, affection, and active exertion, directed by its moral requisitions. The human mind thus trained and carried forward in wisdom and holiness, would shed a moral radiance around it, and be gradually prepared for entering on a higher scene of contemplation and enjoyment. Among all ranks of men, a spirit of selfishness and avarice would be extinguished, and in its stead a spirit of noble gene- rosity and beneficence would pervade the whole mass of society. That divine maxim inculcated by our Saviour, " It is more blessed to give than to receive," would be engraven on every heart, and appear in every action. This sublime principle forms a prominent trait in the character of God, and in all his ar- rangements towards his creatures; and it animates the minds of superior intelligences, in their associations with eaeh other, and in their occasional intercourses with the inhabitants of our world. In imitation of these glorious beings, the human race would consider it as the grand end of their existence, not merely to acquire wealth, knowledge, or power, but to employ such 12G PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. acquisitions in the unceasing diffusion of beneficence to all around. To communicate happiness throughout all the ranks of their fellow-men with whom they mingle, to sooth the dis- consolate and the desponding, to relieve the distressed, to in- struct the ignorant, to animate and direct the benevolent affec- tions, to increase the enjoyments of the lower orders of the com- munity, to direct the opening minds of the young, to lead them by gentle steps into the paths of wisdom and holiness, and to promote every scheme which has a relation to the public good, would form the constant aim of all conditions of men from the highest to the lowest. Every house would be open to the weary and benighted traveller, every heart would welcome him to the refreshments and repose it afforded, every countenance would beam benignity, every comfort would be afforded, every wish anticipated; and every stranger thus entertained would " bless the mansion,'* and implore the benediction of heaven on all its inmates. The houseless child of want would no longer wander amidst scenes of plenty, tattered and forlorn, pinched with poverty, exposed to the piercing blasts, and obliged to repose under the open canopy of heaven, for want of more comfortable shelter. And what a happy world would it be were kindness and affection the characteristic of all its inhabitants! The face of nature would wear a more cheering aspect, " the desert would rejoice and blossom as the rose," the flowers would look more gay, the " little hills" would be encircled with joy, the light of heaven would appear more glorious and transporting, a thousand delightful emotions would spring up in the mind amidst every rural scene, and every social inter- course would be a source of unmingled bliss. Paradise would be restored, heaven would descend to earth, and an emblem presented of the joys of the blessed above. blissful and auspicious era! when wilt thou arrive, to still the restless agitation of malignant passions, to promote peace on earth, and good-will among men? When will the benevo- lence of angels and archangels descend to dwell with man upon earth, to expel selfishness from the human breast, to hush every tumultuous passion, and to restore tranquillity among the be- wildered race of Adam ? When will the spirit of love, in all its beneficent energies, descend from the Father of lights, to EFFECTS OP BENEVOLENCE. 127 arrest the convulsions of nations, to heal tho wounds of suffer- ing humanity, to transform fields of slaughter into regions of beneficence, to soften tho ferocious tempers of " the people who delight in war," to unite in one holy and harmonious society, men of every language and of every tribe? Not till Christi- anity shall have shed its benign influence on every land; not till " the knowledge of the Lord shall cover the earth," and the cannons, swords, and battle-axes of tho warrior shall be broken to shivers, and forged into ploughshares and pruning- hooks. " Then shall the wolf dwell with the lamb, and tho leopard shall lie down with tho kid, and the calf and the young lion and the fatling together, and a little child shall lead them." " Then judgment shall dwell in the wilderness, and righte- ousness in the fruitful field. And the work of righteousness shall be peace, and the effect of righteousness quietness and assurance for ever And all tho people shall dwell in peaceable habitations, and in sure dwellings, and in quiet resting-places." In fine, under the reign of love, most of the evils, both phy- sical and moral, under which men are now doomed to suffer, would be either greatly mitigated or completely abolished. It is scarcely too mucli to affirm, that nine-tenths of all the evila that alt'ect humanity are tho result of the malice and unkind- ness of mankind towards each other. If all the sorrow and wretchedness produced by fraud, falsehood, extortion, injustice, oppression, perjury, seduction, treachery, litigations, slander, pride, ambition, revenge, murder, plunder, and devastation -were removed, little would remain besides tho incidental evils which occasionally flow from the elements of nature. And even these would bo greatly mitigated by tho benevolent opera- tions of art, directed by the discoveries of science. By clearing the surface of the globe of immense forests, by draining stag- nant marshes, and by tho universal cultivation and improvement of the soil, tho seasons would be meliorated; and the partial physical evils which still remained would be alleviated to tho sufferer by the sympathy and tenderness, and tho kind and fostering hand of universal benevolence. Where virtue, tem- perance, serenity of mind, and social joy reigned triumphant, and where none of the ghastly phantoms of scepticism and superstition haunted the mind, disease would seldom invade tho 128 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. human frame; the span of mortal existence would be extended ; death would become calm and tranquil, and every one would "come to his grave, like as a shock of corn cometh in in his season." Such are some of the beneficial effects which would be expe- rienced in the social state of the human race were a principle of benevolence to pervade the minds of mankind. The immense mass of moral evils under which the earth now groans would be removed, the moral aspect of society, in every nation, would assume a new lustre of loveliness and excellence, and nature herself would be arrayed in new robes of gracefulness and beauty. For it would be easy to show, were it at all necessary, that every particular now stated, and a thousand similar effects, would be the natural and necessary results of love, when it becomes the main spring of human actions. I shall now shortly trace some of the effects of love, consi- dered as directed more immediately towards God. Supreme love to God would excite complacency in his character and perfections ; and piety, in all its fervent and delightful emotions, would naturally flow upwards to the foun- tain of felicity. The character of Jehovah would be venerated, and his name revered over all the earth; and temples conse- crated to his worship in every land. Crowds of worshippers, beaming benignity and devotion, would be beheld in every region, converging towards the " dwelling-place" of the Most High, and encouraging one another in such language as this, " Come ye, and let us go up to the mountain of the Lord, to the house of the God of Jacob, and he will teach us of his ways, and we will walk in his paths." With enlightened views of the attributes of Deity, with glowing affections, and with pro- found reverence, would they join in the sublime exercises of the sanctuary, and listen to the intimations of his will. All voices would be tuned to melodious strains ; and would harmonise in exciting devotional affections, and in swelling the song of sal- vation " to Him who sits upon the throne, and to the Lamb who hath redeemed us to God by his blood." Every landscape, in every point of view, would present a noble edifice devoted to the worship of the God of heaven, adorned with every majestic decoration suitable to its sanctity, and rearing its spacious dome above all the surrounding habitations of men. Its gates EFFECTS OF BENEVOLENCE. 129 "would be open continually; they would not be shut day nor night," that men might have access at all seasons to bring " incense and a pure offering" to the shrine of Jehovah. The whole earth would soon be converted into one universal temple, sacred to the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, from which thanksgiving and the voice of melody would ascend to heaven without intermission, " from the rising of the sun to the going down of the same." Then the name of Jehovah would be One throughout all the earth. " All his works would praise him, and his saints would bless him. They would abun- dantly utter the memory of his great goodness, they would speak of the glorious honour of his majesty, and sing of hi<* righteousness." Among all ranks of men cordial submission to the will of God, and contentment under the arrangements of his provi- dence, would be uniformly manifested. Every one would consider the situation in which Providence had placed him as the best possible for promoting his present improvement and his future felicity, viewing it as the allotment of infinite wisdom and benevolence. In adversity he would sustain his afflictions with patience, and derive from them " the peaceable fruits of righteousness." In prosperity he would acknowledge God as the source of his enjoyments, and devote the wealth and influence he possessed to the promotion of religion, and the best interests of his fellow-men. By day and by night, and at every returning season, the overflowings of gratitude, in every heart, would burst forth in songs of thanksgiving to the Giver of all good. Every comfort would be recognised as " coming down from the Father of lights," and every pleasing sensation produced by the scenery of nature, as the result of his wisdom and beneficence. His wonderful works, which are now over- looked, or gazed at with apathy by nine-tenths of the inhabi- tants of the globe, would be contemplated with enlightened understandings, and with emotions of reverence, admiration, and delight. The majestic movements of the planetary orbs, the glories of the starry sky, the light beaming from a thousand suns through the immeasurable voids of space, the mighty ocean with all its wonders, the numerous rivers rolling into its abyss, the lofty ranges of mountains which encircle the earth, U I 130 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. the treasures of the fields, the riches of the mines, the beauties which adorn the hills and plains, the wonders of the atmo- sphere, the admirable structure and economy of the numerous tribes of animated beings these, and thousands of other ob- jects, considered as manifestations of the attributes of Deitv, would supply topics of conversation in every social circle, on which every heart would dwell with increasing delight. " They would speak of the glory of his kingdom, and talk of his power, to make known to the sons of men his mighty acts, and the glorious majesty of his kingdom." The work of human re- demption in its origin and progress, in its connections and bearings, in the lustre it reflects on the perfections of the Deity, in its relation to the angelic tribes, and in its glorious and happy consequences on thousands of millions of human beings throughout an eternal existence the person of the Redeemer, his amiable character, his grace and condescension, and the glories of his exalted state the joys of departed saints, the general resurrection, with all its solemn and transporting scenes, the new heavens and the new earth, and the boundless scene of grandeur and felicity which will open to the view when death shall be swallowed up in victory, and all things subjected to the moral order of the universe would afford subjects of sublime contemplation, and themes for social converse, on which enlightened and renovated minds will expatiate with ever-grow- ing improvement, and ever-growing pleasure. The providential dispensations of God towards the human race, would form another subject of investigation, which would be prosecuted with feelings of astonishment, admiration, and reverence. The history of all nations would be carefully per- used not for the purpose of admiring the exploits of mighty conquerors and barbarous heroes, and feasting the imagination on spectacles of human slaughter and devastation but for exciting abhorrence of those depraved passions which had drenched the earth with blood for drawing forth the tear of pity over the graves of slaughtered nations for stimulating the exercise of those holy affections which restored peace and tranquillity to the world for acquiring a display of the recti- tude of the moral character of God, and the equity of his ad- ministration among the nations for tracing the accomplish- EFFECTS OF BENEVOLENCE. 131 ment of divine predictions for illustrating the long-suffering and forbearance of God, and for exciting admiration of that inscrutable wisdom by which the whole train of events was con ducted, so as to set restraining bounds to the wrath of man, and to make it subservient to the introduction of the reign of happiness and peace. In all the revolutions of past ages, and in all the events that daily passed in review before them, they would uniformly recognise the agency and the purposes of that Almighty Being " who doth according to his will in the armies of heaven, and among the inhabitants of the earth," and who is carrying forward all the plans of his government to a glo- rious consummation. Every useful invention, every new instrument for investigat- ing the operations of nature, every new discovery in the earth or in the heavens, every exploration of an unknown region of the globe, every branch of commerce and manufacture, every new mode of facilitating labour and improving the productions of the soil, every improvement in the ease and rapidity of travel- ling, and of conveying intelligence from one region to another, and every art and science, would be consecrated, in some form or other, to the service of God, and to the accomplishment of the objects of general benevolence. One grand diffusive prin- ciple, manifesting itself in numberless ramifications, would pervade the whole mass of society; and one grand aim, the honour and glory of the Creator, and the diffusion of happiness in every direction, and among every rank of sentient and intel- ligent beings, would be the unceasing endeavour of men of all nations, and kindreds, and languages. The whole mass of this world's inhabitants would appear like one vast celestial army marching forward in harmony to the regions of bliss, every one, in his appointed order, passing in peace and tranquillity through the gates of death, to join the general assembly above, and to augment and enliven the congregation of the heavens. On such a world the God of heaven would look down with complacency, and his providential care would be exercised in averting those physical evils which now increase the moral wretchedness of mankind. His eye would be continually upon them for good, and his ear would be ever open to their requests. Then that glorious scene presented to the view of the apostle 132 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. John would be fully realised " Behold the tabernacle of God is with men, and he will dwell with them; and they shall be his people, and God himself shall be with them, and be their God. And God shall wipe away all tears from their eyes, and there shall be no more curse, neither sorrow nor crying, neither shall there be any more pain; for the former things have passed away." To such a world celestial messengers would rejoice to wing their downward flight on messages of love. Their visits which have been " few and far between," and which have been long interrupted by the malevolence of men, would be again resumed; and those "morning stars" that shouted for joy when this fair creation arose into existence, would be filled with unutterable delight when they beheld moral order restored, and the smiles of universal love irradiating the inhabitants of our globe, and would shout even with more extatic joy than they did before, " Glory to God in the highest, peace on earth, and good-will among men! " t Alas! such a picture as that which we have now faintly sketch- ed has never yet been realised in the moral aspect of the inha- bitants of this world. To the eye of an angelic intelligence, while he hovers over our globe in his flight through the plane- tary regions, nothing appears but a vast cloud of moral dark- ness and depravity, with here and there only a few faint radia- tions of truth and love emerging from the general gloom. He beholds throughout the whole extent of Africa, from the shores of Barbary and Egypt to the Cape of Good Hope- throughout the vast regions of Asia and its numerous islands, and throughout four-fifths of the continent of America, little else than one wide scene of moral desolation, where idolatry and superstition, tyranny and ambition, treachery and cruelty, war and dissension, reign triumphant among almost every tribe ; and where scarcely a ray of divine light and divine love gilds the horizon, from the one end of these extensive regions to the other. Even in Europe, where the light of science and of Revelation is converged to a focus what an immense cloud of moral darkness still appears enveloping its population! The fields of Waterloo, of Leipsic, of Borodino, of Smolensko, where so many thousands of human beings were sacrificed to the de- mon of war the vales of Switzerland and Hungary, the plains EFFECTS OF BENEVOLENCE. 133 of France and Italy, the anarchy and commotions of Spain and Portugal, and the ensanguined shores of Turkey and Greece, where massacres have heen perpetrated with the rage and fury of infernal demons, hear witness to the melancholy fact, that hatred and malignity still hold the ascendency over the nations of Europe, and over all the efforts of benevolence and love. But we trust that the period is fast approaching, when the breath of a new spirit shall pervade the inhabitants of every clime, and when holy love shall unite all the tribes of mankind in one harmonious society. When the messengers of the Prince of Peace " shall run to and fro" from the rising to the setting sun ; when the sound of the gospel-trumpet shall re-echo throughout every land; when the light of Divine Revelation shall diffuse its radiance on the benighted nations; when its sublime doctrines and moral requisitions shall be fully under- stood and recognised in all their practical bearings; and when the energy of that Almighty Spirit which reduced to light and order the dark and shapeless chaos, shall be exerted on the de- praved mass of this world's population then the death-like slumber which has seized upon the race of Adam shall be broken ; the dead in trespasses and sins shall awake to new life and activity; this bedlam of the universe will be restored to reason and intellectual freedom, and to the society of angelic messengers; and the face of the moral creation renewed after the image of its Maker. Then wars shall cease to the ends of the earth, and anarchy and dissensions shall convulse the na- tions no more ; violence will no more be heard in any land, " liberty will be proclaimed to the captives, and the opening of the prison-doors to them that are bound." The spirit of ma- levolence will be vanquished, its power broken, and its opera- tions demolished. The order and beauty of the celestial sys- tem will be restored. " Holiness to the Lord " will be inscribed on all the implements and employments of mankind. Love will spread her benignant wings over the globe, and reign un- controlled in the hearts of all its inhabitants. For thus saith the voice of Him who sits on the throne of the universe, " Be- hold I make all things new I create new heavens and a new earth, and the former shall not be remembered, nor come into mind. Be ye glad, and rejoice for ever in that which I create; 134 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. for behold, I create Jerusalem a rejoicing, and her people a joy, and the voice of weeping shall be no more heard in her, nor the voice of crying." SECTION VI. Universality of the principles of love to God, and to fellow- intelligencies. THE grand principles of morality to which I have now ad- verted, are not to be viewed as confined merely to the inhabi- tants of our globe, but as extending to all intellectual beings. They form the basis of the moral laws which govern all intel- ligencies throughout the universe, in whatever world or region of infinite space they may have their physical residence ; and they constitute the bond which unites to the Supreme Intelli- gence, and to one another, all holy beings, wherever existing in the wide empire of Omnipotence. This will at once appear, if we reflect, for a moment, on what has been stated in the preceding sections. We have seen, that if those laws or prin- ciples were reversed, and were the moral agents of our world to act accordingly, nothing would ensue but anarchy, wretch- edness, horror, and devastation, and ultimately a complete ex- termination of the race of mankind. And, by parity of reason, it will follow, that were the same principles to operate in any other world, however different the capacities, relations, and physical circumstances of its inhabitants might be, similar disastrous effects would be the inevitable result; and were they to pervade all worlds, disorder and misery would reign uncon- trolled throughout the whole intelligent system. When the Creator brought any particular world into exis- tence, and peopled it with inhabitants, we must suppose, that the laws to which I am now adverting, were either formally addressed to them by some external revelation, or so powerfully impressed upon their moral constitution, as to become the main spring of all their actions, so long as they might retain the original principles implanted in their minds by the Author of UNIVERSALITY OF THE PRINCIPLE OF LOVE. 135 their existence. Any other supposition would be fraught with the most absurd and horrible consequences. It would be sub- versive of every idea we are led to form of the character of the Divine Being, inconsistent with the perfect benevolence and rectitude of his nature, and incompatible with the relations in which rational beings stand to II im and to one another, and with the harmony and happiness of the universe, to suppose that any creatures now exist, or ever can exist, to whom such commands as these would be given ' Thou shalt hate thy Creator, who is the source of thine existence;' and, 'Thou shalt hate all thy fellow-intelligencies, with whom thou mayest associate.' And if the mind would recoil with horror at the idea of such laws issuing from the throne of the Eternal to any class of moral agents, it must necessarily be admitted, that the opposite principles or laws, to which I allude, are promulgated to all intelligences, and are obligatory on every inhabitant of all the worlds which lie within the range of Jehovah's empire. The natural scenery with which the inhabitants of other worlds are surrounded, the organisation of their corporeal frames, the intellectual capacities with which they are endowed, the stated employments in which they engage, and the relations in which they stand to each other, may be very different from those which obtain in our terrestrial sphere; but the grand princi- ples to which I refer must necessarily pervade every faculty of their minds, every active exertion, and every relation that sub- sists among them, by whatever character it may be distin- guished, if they be found existing in a state of happiness. The moral code of laws in other worlds may be somewhat differently modified from ours, according to the circumstances in which the inhabitants of each respective world are placed, and the relations which obtain among them; but the same general principles which run through every ramification of their moral precepts, and appear in the minutest actions they per- form, as the sap which proceeds from the trunk of a tree dif- fuses itself among the minutest and the most distant branches. The seventh commandment of our moral code can have no place in a world where the inhabitants "neither marry nor are given in marriage;" where the succession of intelligent beings is not carried on by any process analogous to human genera- 136 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. tion, where death is unknown, and where rational agents have a fixed and a permanent ahode. And in those worlds where the bounties of Divine Providence are equally enjoyed by all, or where external comforts are not necessary for the happiness of the individual, as in our world, or where the slightest temp- tation to interfere with the property of another does not exist, there will be no necessity for a distinct moral regulation cor- responding to the eighth commandment of our moral code. But in every world where happiness exists, and where the in- habitants have retained their original integrity, love to God, and love to all subordinate intelligencies with which they are connected, will animate every heart, regulate every desire, and run through every action. The greater part, however, of the precepts comprised in the moral law given to man must be considered as obligatory upon all the rational inhabitants of the universe. The^rsi com- mandment, which forbids the recognition of any object of ado- ration, or of supreme affection, besides the eternal Jehovah the second, which forbids the representation of thi* incompre- hensible Being by any material objects the third, which en joins reverence of the name or attributes of God and the spi- rit of the fourth, which enjoins a certain portion of duration to be set apart for solemn acts of worship and adoration, are applicable to all the moral agents that Jehovah has created. The sixth commandment, which forbids malice, revenge, and injurious actions of every description the ninth, which forbids falsehood, and inculcates truth, which is the basis of the moral universe and the tenth, which forbids envy, and every unhal- lowed desire to deprive our neighbour of any portion of his happiness, are also binding upon every class of moral intel- ligencies, wherever existing, throughout the unlimited empire of God. For, if we suppose any one of these precepts to be reversed, and moral agents to act on the principle of this sub- version, their moral order and harmony would be interrupted, and consequently their happiness destroyed. From what has been now stated respecting the universality of the principle of love, the following conclusions may be de- duced: 1. That the man in whose heart this principle is predomi- UNIVERSALITY OF THE PRINCIPLE OF LOVE. 137 nant, and whose actions arc directed by its influence, is quali- fied for associating with the pure intelligencies of all worlds. Were we transported to the surface of the planet Jupiter, and had we access to mingle with its vast population; or were we conveyed to one of the planets which revolve around the star Sirius if the inhabitants of these globes have retained the primeval purity of their natures, and if the principle of love reigned supreme in our . hearts, we should be assured of a wel- come reception from those distant intelligencies, and be quali- fied to mingle with them in their adorations of our common Creator, and in all their affectionate and harmonious inter- courses. Love would form the basis of every union, and amal- gamate us with every department of their society. With plea- sure, and with the most endearing affection, would they point out to us the peculiar glories of the world they inhabit, and rehearse the history of the Creator's dispensations in that por- tion of his empire; and with equal pleasure should we listen to the instructions which flow from the lips of Benevolence, and survey those transporting objects and arrangements which decorate a world where love pervades the breasts of all its inhabitants. To visit a distant world, although it were in our power, where the inhabitants were of an opposite description, could afford no gratification to an intelligent and benevolent mind, but would overwhelm it with anguish and dismay. What enjoyment would the capacious mind of a pure intelligence from the region of the constellation Orion derive from visiting a world inhabited by such beings as the inhabitants of Nootka Sound, New Guinea, or New Zealand, where the moral and in- tellectual principle is completely debased, and where the beau- ties of nature are defaced with interminable forests, and marshes, and the haunts of beasts of prey? He would be filled with disappointment and horror he might pity the wretched inhabitants; but he would soon wing his flight back to a more delectable region. A similar disappointment would be felt, were an inhabitant of our world, in whose mind hatred and cruelty, avarice and ambition, reigned without control, to be conveyed to a world of happiness and love. The novel scenes of beauty and grandeur which would burst upon his sight might captivate his senses for a little ; but he would feel no 138 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. enjoyment in the exercise of virtuous affections and rapturous adorations, to which he was never accustomed. Hence we may learn, that however expansive views we may have acquired of the range of the Creator's operations, and of the immensity of worlds which are diffused through boundless space, and however ardent desires we may indulge of visiting the distant regions of creation, we never can entertain a rational hope of enjoying such a privilege, were it possible, unless love to God and to man become the predominant disposition of our minds. For although we were invested, by the Almighty, with corporeal vehicles, capable of transporting us from one region of creation to another, with the most rapid motion, we could enjoy no solid satisfaction, while we remained unquali- fied for relishing the exercises, and mingling in the associa- tions of holy intelligences. 2. Another conclusion deducible from this subject is, that, by virtue of this grand and governing principle, man is con- nected with the highest order of intelligencies, and with the inhabitants of the most distant worlds; and his happiness per" petually secured. When we take a view of the universe by the light of modern science, our minds are overpowered and confounded at the idea of its vast and unlimited range. When we consider that it would require several millions of years for a cannon-ball, flying at the rate of five hundred miles an hour, to reach the nearest stars when we consider, that there are stars visible to the naked eye, at least fifty times farther dis- tant than these when we consider that there are stars visible by the telescope, a thousand times farther distant than any of the former and when we consider that all the suns and worlds which lie within this unfathomable range, are in all probabi- lity only as a grain of sand to the whole earth when compared with the immensity of systems which lie beyond them in the unexplored abyss of infinite space we are lost in the im- mensity of creation, and can set no bounds to the empire of the Almighty Sovereign. When we look forward to that eternal state to which we are destined when we consider, that after thousands of millions of centuries have run their rounds, eter- nity will be no nearer to a termination, and that ages, nume- rous as the drops of the ocean, will still roll on in intermiua- UNIVERSALITY OF THE PRINCIPLE OF LOVE. 139 ble succession we behold a lapse of duration and a succession of events stretching out before us, which correspond with the immeasurable spaces of the universe, and the number and mag- nitude of the worlds with which it is stored. When we view ourselves as thus connected with the immensity of creation on the one hand, and with infinite duration on the other; and when we reflect on the numerous changes that have happened both in the physical and moral aspect of our globe within the period of six thousand years, we cannot but conclude, that we are destined to pass through new scenes and changes in that eternity which lies before us, of which, at present, we can form no conception. After remaining for thousands of millions of years in that world which will be prepared for the righteous at the general resurrection, we may be transported to another sys- tem as far distant from that abode as we now are from the most distant stars visible to our sight, in order to contemplate new displays of the attributes of God in another province of his empire. We may afterwards be conveyed to an unoccu- pied region of immensity, where new creations, displaying new objects of glory and magnificence, are starting into existence. We may afterwards be invested with the wings of a seraph, and be enabled to wing our way in company with angels, from world to world, and to visit the most distant regions of that immense universe over which Omnipotence presides. In short, the imagination can set no limits to its excursions, when it attempts to survey the revolutions and changes that may take place, and the new scenes of glory which may burst upon the view, throughout the lapse of a duration which will have no end. Now, in whatever relation man may stand to any portion of the universal system, throughout every future period of his existence, and during all the revolutions of eternity, love will unite him to all other holy beings with whom he may asso- ciate, however distant their abode from the spot he now occu- pies, however different its scenery and arrangements, and how- ever superior they may be in point of corporeal organisation and intellectual capacity. For no intelligence, in any region of the universe, in whom the principle of love predominates, can ever be supposed to disdain to associate with another, of 140 PHILOSOPHY OP RELIGION. whatever rank or order, who is actuated by a similar affection; otherwise his love would degenerate into malevolence. This principle will unite him to angels and archangels, to cherubim and seraphim, to thrones, dominions, principalities, and powers, from whose discourses he will learn the history of the Divine dispensations, the wonders of Almighty power, and ''the mani- fold wisdom of God. " So long as it reigns uncontrolled in his heart, it will secure his happiness in all places and in every period of his existence, by a law established by the Almighty, and founded on his perfections ; a law which binds together the whole intelligent system, and forms the basis of the feli- city of the moral universe. So that his future blessedness is for ever secure, beyond the reach of danger, and rests upon a foundation stable and permanent as the throne of the Eternal. 3. From what has been now stated we may learn, that there is but one religion throughout the universe, however vast its magnitude, and boundless its extension. In this world nume- rous systems of religion prevail, and thousands of different opi- nions in relation to its ceremonies and objects ; but experience has demonstrated, that all of them, except one, are insufficient to guide rational beings to substantial felicity. And of this one system, how many foolish and inaccurate, and even con- tradictory opinions have been formed, through the ignorance and perversity of the human mind! Though all its parts have a direct reference to the actions of intelligent agents, and to the cultivation of benevolent affections, yet it has often been re- presented as a congeries of metaphysical dogmas and specula- tive opinions; and in this point of view, it has been the source of perpetual wrangling and contentions. Though it is calculated to expand the understanding, to warm the heart, and to elevate the soul to God, yet it has been reduced, by the cunning arti- fice of man, to a mass of unmeaning ceremonies. And though it breathes nothing but peace and good-will to man, it has been employed as an engine of persecution and of human de- struction. It is only in proportion as our religion approxi- mates to the character of the religion which is common to all holy beings, that it is worthy of our veneration and our ardent pursuit. And therefore, in order to determine the truth and UNIVERSALITY OF THE PRINCIPLE OF LOVE. 141 importance of any particular system of religious opinions, the best test we can apply to it is, to ascertain what bearings it has upon the grand principles to which we have been advert- ing. " Do all the sentiments and tenets which it strenuously supports, like the lines from the circumference to the centre of a circle, converge towards the promotion of love, in all its practical ramifications? Are the opinions we now so fiercely maintain, of such a nature, that we shall probably recognise them as important practical principles a million of years hence, in the regions of distant worlds? " If such a test were ap- plied to hundreds of opinions which have agitated the religious world, and obstructed the operations of the benevolent affec- tions, they would be driven away from the Christian system as chaff before the whirlwind; and Christians would feel ashamed of the importance they attached to their " mint, and anise, and cummin," while they neglected the weightier matters of the law, "judgment, mercy, and the love of God." How many false and foolish opinions shall we leave behind us in this region of darkness and contention, when we enter within the confines of the eternal state! How sublime, how lovely, and how beautifying will religion appear in that world, where it will be contemplated in its native simplicity, and stripped of all the foreign and adventitious circumstances which now obscure its brightness and glory! I need scarcely say, that the one religion to which I allude is Christianity, considered not merely in the glorious scheme of mediation which it unfolds, which may have a relation solely to man viewed in his character as a sinner, but in the leaning dispositions and virtues it incul- cates, and in the great objects which all its doctrines, facts, and supernatural communications have a tendency to accom- plish. In these points of view, it must be considered as em- bodying principles and laws which pervade the religious sys- tems of all worlds. Finally, Love is a principle in the moral and intelligent system, which bears a striking analogy to the principle of at- traction in the material world. Each of them unites, in its respective sphere, all the beings which compose it, in one grand and harmonious system; and both of them combined, give birth to all the moral and physical phenomena which diversify 142 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION the intellectual and material universe. By the principle of attraction, the inhabitants of the earth, along with their habi- tations, are retained to its surface, and prevented from flying off in wild confusion through the voids of space. It binds to- gether the infinity of atoms which constitute the globe on which we tread; it regulates the various movements of men and other animated beings; it forms mechanical powers; and gives im- pulsion to numerous machines and engines. It rolls the moon, in regular succession, around the earth, and prevents her from running lawlessly through the sky. It extends its influence from the sun to the remotest planets, conducting revolving worlds, with all their satellites, in their ample circuits, and preserving them all in one harmonious system. It connects the earth and the planetary globes with other systems in the distant regions of space ; and carries the sun, with all his at- tendant orbs, around the centre of that nebula to which it belongs, and all the systems and nebulce of the universe around the throne of God. In like manner, love unites all holy intelligences, wherever dispersed through the amplitudes of creation, in one amiable and harmonious system. It unites man to God, and God to man. It unites the renovated inhabitants of our globe to angels and archangels, and qualifies them for entering into the closest bonds of friendship and affection with superior intelligences that people the regions of distant worlds. It produces an ex- pansive and harmonious spirit, and an ardent desire to diffuse happiness among all surrounding beings. It gives birth to those sublime emotions which flow out towards the Creator, in the various forms of adoration, complacency, hope, confidence, humility, joy, submission, and reverence; and it is the spring of all those virtuous dispositions, which flow out towards our fellow-creatures in the form of mercy, compassion, sincerity, candour, sympathy, kindness, long-suffering, gentleness, meek- ness, charity, generosity, justice, and active beneficence. It impels its possessor to run to the assistance of the distressed, to support the weak, to console the desponding, to comfort the dying, to diffuse the rays of heavenly light over the benighted mind, and to rejoice in the prosperity of all around. It is the "bond of perfection'" which unites the members of an affec- ANALOGY OF LOVE TO ATTRACTION. 143 tionate family, and preserves the union of the faithful in all the churches of the saints. It unites man to man by the closest ties, however different in language, customs, colour, and com- plexion; and however far removed from each other in point of place. It enables the Greenlander, the Icelander, the African, the inhabitant of Hindostan, and the inhabitant of the British isles, in whose hearts it resides, to recognise each other as the " sons of God," and as " brethren in Christ Jesus." It sends forth the imagination over every quarter of the globe, carrying benevolent wishes, fervent prayers and intercessions, for men of all kindreds and ranks ; and employs every active endeavour to promote the present enjoyment, and the eternal felicity of the family of mankind. It inspires the soul with emotions of delight, when it becomes the instrument of communicating happiness to all within the sphere of its influence. It unites the host of seraphim and cherubim in one vast and harmonious association ; so that no jarring affection is ever felt, and no discordant voice is ever heard, among the thousands and ten thousands of these exalted intelligencies. It preserves every member of the holy and intelligent system in the rank and orbit prescribed by Infinite Wisdom, and leads them all to rejoice in accomplishing the plans of their benevolent Creator. Around Him, as the sun of the moral system the centre of light and joy they all revolve in their appointed order; cheered by the emanation of his love, enlightened by his beams, and reflecting a radiance upon all the beings with which they are surrounded. Though one orb differs from another in motion, in magnitude, and in glory, yet no one interferes with another, to impede its progress, or to intercept the emanations of light and love from the Uncreated Source and Centre of all enjoyment. Were the principle of attraction, which binds together the atoms of our globe, and connects the planetary orbs with the sun, to be completely dissolved, the earth would be shattered to its centre; the waters of the ocean would fly upward, and be dispersed through the highest regions of the atmosphere; rocks and mountains would be detached from their bases, and raised aloft above the clouds ; the moon would forsake her ancient course; the planets would run lawlessly through the immensity of space, and mighty worlds would be seen dashing against 144 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. each other, till they were shattered to pieces, and their frag- ments tossed about in disorder throughout surrounding systems. Effects equally disastrous to the intelligent system would be produced, were the influence of love completely suspended or annihilated. War would be proclaimed in heaven, and myriads of angels hurled from their seats of bliss. The rapturous songs and adorations of seraphim would be changed into the howlings and execrations of demons. The population of the universe would be changed into one vast assemblage of fiends; its regions of beauty and fertility would become one wide scene of desola- tion and horror, and the voice of lamentation and misery would be heard resounding throughout all worlds. On earth, king- doms would be shaken and convulsed; governments overturned; societies dissolved ; families dispersed ; the bonds of friendship burst asunder; the intercourse of nations suspended ; the pur- suits of science and religion abandoned ; and virtue banished from the abodes of men. Deserting all social beings, and for- saken by all, man would become a solitary monster, wandering without plan or object, an enemy to himself and to his species. Such a scene of moral desolation, selfishness and malignity have a natural tendency to create; and such a scene they have actually created in our world, in so far as their influence ha& extended. The power of attraction has never been completely suspended in relation to our globe, nor has the moral Governor of the universe suffered the principle of love to be entirely era- dicated from the minds of its inhabitants. But, as when the law of gravitation is counteracted in the case of earthquakes and volcanoes, the most destructive and desolating convulsions ensue so it happens in the moral world, when the law of be- nevolence is trampled under foot. " Nation rises against nation, and kingdom against kingdom;" "firebrands, arrows, and death," are scattered in every direction; garments are rolled in blood, and whole plains drenched with human gore, and covered with the carcases of the slain. But wherever love diffuses its powerful and benign influence, there harmony, happiness, and peace, are enjoyed by every rank of sensitive and intellectual existence. In every world where it reigns supreme, the intel- lectual faculty is irradiated, the affections are purified and ex- panded, transporting joys are felt, and like the planetary orbs, ILLUSTRATIONS FROM SCRIPTURE. 145 and their train of satellites, all shine with a steady lustre, and move onward, in harmonious order, around the Supreme Source of intelligence, and the Eternal Centre of all felicity. SECTION VII. The preceding views corroborated "by Divine Revelation. IN the preceding sections I have endeavoured to illustrate the two grand principles of the Moral Law, and to demonstrate their reasonableness, and the necessity of their universal opera- tion, in order to the promotion of the happiness of the intelli- gent system. I } have proceeded all along on the ground of Revelation, as well as of reason and the nature of things. But since these important principles form the basis of the system of religion, and of ajl the practical conclusions I may afterwards deduce in the remaining part of this work, it may be expedient to advert a little more explicitly to the declarations of Scripture on this subject. And here I propose very briefly to show, that it is the great end of Divine Revelation to illustrate these prin- ciples in all their various bearings, and to bring them into practical operation. This position is expressly stated by our Saviour himself in his reply to the scribe, who proposed the question, " Which is the great commandment in the law?" " Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind. This is the first and great commandment. And the second is like unto it: Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. ON THESE TWO COMMANDMENTS HANG ALL THE LAW AND THE PROPHETS." This declaration evidently implies, that it is the design of the whole of the Old Testament revelation to illustrate and enforce these laws, and to produce all those holy tempers which are comprised in the love of God and of our neighbour. This appears to be the grand object of all the historical facts, religious institutions, devotional exercises, moral maxims, prophecies, exhortations, promises, and threateninga which it records. H K 146 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. The history of the formation of the universe, and of the ar- rangement of our globe, as detailed in the Book of Genesis, is calculated to display the wisdom and goodness of the Creator, and to draw forth our affections towards Him who is the Author of our enjoyments, and who pronounced every thing he had made to he " very good." The history of the wickedness of the antediluvian world, of the dreadful effects it produced in the state of society, and of the awful catastrophe by which its in- habitants were swept from existence, and buried in the waters of the deluge, is calculated to illustrate, in the most striking manner, the guilt and danger of withdrawing the affections from God, and of indulging a principle of malevolence towards man. The history of the crimes of Sodom, and of the fate of its inhabitants ; the destruction of Pharoah and his armies in the Red sea; the history of the idolatrous practices of the Is- raelites, of their murmurings in the wilderness, and of the punishments inflicted for their rebellion ; the fate of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram, and of the worshippers of Baal; the destruction of the nations of Canaan ; the judgments which pursued the Jewish nation, during the whole period of their history, on account of their defection from God, and the cala- mities which befel them at the period of the Babylonish cap- tivity together with all the other facts connected with the history of that people and of the surrounding nations, are intended to exhibit the dismal consequences and the moral wretchedness which inevitably follow, when the affections of mankind are withdrawn from the God of heaven, and left to grovel in the mire of depravity and vice. The institutions of the Jewish church were appointed for promoting the knowledge and the love of God, and for exciting an abhorrence of every thing which is contrary to the rectitude and purity of his nature. Among the tribes that inhabited the land of Canaan, prior to the entrance of the Israelites, and among all the surrounding nations, the worship of false gods, the grossest superstitions, and the most abominable vices, uni- versally prevailed. It was one great end of the laws an(* ceremonies enjoined upon Israel, to excite abhorrence of every thing which was connected with idolatry, to portray its wicked- Bess and folly, to rivet the affections of the people to the ILLUSTRATIONS FROM SCRIPTURE. 147 worship of the true God, to preserve them uncontaminated from the malignant dispositions and the vile practices of the neighbouring nations, and to instruct them in the nature and attributes of the Deity; that they might be " a peculiar people to Jehovah, separated from all the people that were on the face of the earth." Hence, the following intimation and in- junction are placed on the front of the moral code of laws delivered to that nation: " Hear, Israel, the Lord our God is one Lord. Thou shalt have no other gods before me." To promote harmony and affection between man and man ; to enforce the exercise of justice and equity in all their dealings ; to inculcate chastity and purity of affection, kindness to strangers, compassion, and sympathy ; obedience to parents, charitable dispositions towards the poor and needy, and ten- derness and mercy towards the inferior animals, were the great objects of the various laws and regulations comprised in their moral and political code. The devotional portions of the Old Testament, particularly those contained in the Book of Psalms, have the same general tendency. The descriptions of the works of Creation and pro- vidence, the celebration of the divine character and excellencies, and the ascriptions of thanksgiving and praise for the mercy, long-suffering, and goodness of God, with which these divine compositions abound, are calculated to raise the affections to Jehovah as the source of every blessing, and to inspire the soul with love, admiration, and reverence. In many of these su- blime odes, particularly in the 119th Psalm, the mind of the Psalmist is absorbed in meditation on the excellency of the divine precepts, and the happiness which the observance of them is calculated to convey. " how I love thy law! " says David, "it is my meditation all the day. The law of thy mouth is better unto me than thousands of gold and silver. I have rejoiced in thy testimonies as much as in all riches." The moral maxims contained in the writings of Solomon are likewise intended to draw forth the desires after God, to coun- teract the influence of the depraved passions of the human heart, and to promote the exercise of candour, sincerity, justice^ and benevolence among mankind. The exhortations, remon- strances, and denunciations of the prophets, were also intended 148 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. to recall the affections of the people of Israel to the God from whom they had revolted, to show the unreasonableness of their conduct in "forsaking the fountain" of their happiness; to display the purity, the excellence, and the eternal obligation of the divine precepts, and to warn them of the inevitable ruin which will overtake the workers of iniquity. In short, all the promises and threatenings of the word of God, all the consi- derations addressed to the hopes and fears of men, all the providential dispensations of God, all the manifestations of the divine character and perfections, and all the descriptions of the glories of heaven, and of the terrors of hell, have a tendency to illustrate the indispensable obligation of love to God and to man, in order to secure our present comfort and eternal felicity. And as it was the main design of the Old Testament eco- nomy to illustrate and enforce the principle of love to God and man, so it is, in a particular manner, the great object of the Christian Revelation, to exhibit the law of love in all its bear- ings and practical applications. In one of the first sermons delivered by our Saviour, and the longest one recorded in the Evangelical History, the sermon on the Mount, the main design is, to explain and enforce these principles, in relation both to God and man, and to sweep away all the false glosses which ignorance and prejudice had mingled with their interpretations of the Divine law. In one part of this discourse, our Lord de- clares, that we may as soon expect to see " heaven and earth pass away," or the whole frame of the universe dissolved, as that " one jot or one tittle shall pass from the law." For as it is a law founded on the nature of God, it must be of eternal obligation, and can never be abrogated with regard to any class of rational beings, in consistency with the perfections of the Divine nature. As it is a law absolutely perfect, comprehend- ing within its range every disposition and affection, and every duty which is requisite for promoting the order and happiness of intelligent agents, nothing can be taken from it without de- stroying its perfection; and nothing can be added to it without supposing that it was originally imperfect. And as it was in- tended to preserve the harmony and to secure the felicity of the intellectual beings that people the earth and the heavens, the fabric of universal nature must be destroyed before this law can ILLUSTRATIONS FROM SCRIPTURE. 149 be set Aside or cancelled. For we have already seen (sect. iv,) that were it reversed, the whole intelligent system would be transformed into a scene of confusion and misery. For the pur- pose of affording an immense theatre, on which the operations of this law might be displayed, the earth with all its furniture and decorations, and the heavens with all their hosts, were called into existence; and, therefore, were it either cancelled or re- versed, neither the glory of the Creator would be displayed, nor the happiness of his intelligent creation secured. The mighty expanse of the universe, enclosing so many spacious worlds, would become one boundless moral desert, in which no " fruits of righteousness" would appear, nor any trace of the beauty and benevolence of the Eternal Mind. In the same dis- course, our Saviour enforces the duty of love towards even our most bitter enemies and most furious persecutors. " Ye have heard that it hath been said, Thou shalt love thy neighbour, and hate thine enemy. But I say unto you, Love your ene- mies, bless them that curse you, do good to them that hate you, and pray for them who despitefully use you and persecute you; that ye may be the children of your Father who is in heaven: for he maketh his sun to arise on the evil and on the good, and sendeth rain on the just and on the unjust." This is one of the most sublime exercises of the principle of love, in reference to our fellow-men; and it is enforced from the most sublime motive the conduct of Benevolence itself towards a race of rebellious and ungrateful creatures. All the other instructions of this Divine Teacher his para- bles, exhortations, admonitions, warnings, and consolatory addresses, though referring to particular cases and circum- stances had the same general object in view. When his dis- ciples would have called for fire from heaven to consume the Samaritans, he kindly, but with energy and decision, re- minded them, that a principle of malignity was embodied in their unhallowed desires, which is directly opposed to the law of love. " Ye know not what manner of spirit ye are of; for the Son of man is not come to destroy men's lives, but to save them." Among his last instructions to his followers, when he was about to depart from the scene of his earthly pilgrimage, love was the grand theme on which he repeatedly expatiated. *' A new 150 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. commandment give I unto you, that ye love one another; as I have loved you, that ye also love another. By this shall all men know that ye are my disciples, if ye have love one to ano- ther." " These things I command you that ye love one another." And as the promotion of the spirit of love was the great ob- ject of his instructions, so his whole life was an uninterrupted exemplification of the purest benevolence, both towards friends and towards enemies. Never did that holy affection which unites the angelic tribes, and diffuses joy among the pure inhabitants of all worlds, appear within the confines of our world, so amia- ble, so disinterested, and so ardent, as during the period of the public ministry of Jesus, and particularly towards the close of his earthly carreer. In the immediate prospect of sufferings, dreadful beyond our conceptions, his love to mankind was " strong as death," which the many waters of affliction which surrounded him were unable to quench. His whole soul seemed to be absorbed in affection towards his disconsolate disciples, and in a desire to cheer and animate their drooping spirits. His last addresses, as recorded by the Evangelist John, breathe a spirit of tenderness, of compassion, and of Divine benignity, of which we have no parallel in the annals of our race. To display his kindness and condescension, and to teach his disciples to perform with cheerfulness the humblest offices of friendship, he rose from supper; he laid aside his garments; he took a towel; he girded himself; he poured water into a basin; he began to wash his disciples' feet; and he wiped them with the towel wherewith he was girded. He then addressed them in such language as this: " Let not your heart be troubled: in my Father's house are many mansions; I go to prepare a place for you. And if I go and prepare a place for you, I will come again and receive you to myself; that where I am there ye may be also. I will not leave you comfortless; I will pray the Father, and he shall give you another Comforter, even the Spirit of truth, which shall abide with you for ever. Whatso- ever ye shall ask in my name, I will do it. Peace I leave with you, my peace I give unto you; not as the world giveth, give I unto you. Let not your heart be troubled, neither let it be afraid." In his last prayer, which accompanied these benedic- tions, the same ardent flow of affection burst from his benevolent ILLUSTRATIONS FROM SCRIPTURE. heart " Holy Father! keep, through thine own name, those whomthou hast given me, that they may be one as we are." But his love was not confined to the select few with whom he was surrounded at this interesting hour. His mental eye sur- veyed the various tribes which people this department of crea- tion it pierced through all the succeeding generations of man- kind and he embraced, in his expansive affections, the whole race of the faithful till the close of time. " Neither pray I for these alone; but for them also who shall believe on me through their word; that they all may be one, as thou, Father, art in ine, and I in thee; that they also may be one in us." Even towards his bitterest enemies, his benevolent emotions flowed out in earnest supplications for their forgiveness. Neither " the floods of ungodly men" which compassed him, nor the torrents of abuse which were poured upon him while he was nailing to the cross, could overpower that heavenly flame which burned in his holy breast. In the midst of all the mockeries, insults, and indignities which he endured, when he was made " a spectacle to angels and to men," his affectionate desires ascended, with the smoke of the evening sacrifice, to the throne of God in be- half of his murderers " Father, forgive them; for they know not what they do." what a striking contrast is here pre- sented, to those scenes of pride, malignity, and revenge, which have so long disgraced the race of Adam, and spread lamenta- tion, and mourning, and terror, among families, societies, and nations! What a happy world would this become, were it peopled with such amiable characters, and were all who profess to be followers of Jesus, instead of contending about " questions which gender strife, "to vie with each other in imitating his mild and benevolent spirit! Then Christianity would appear in ite native lustre, and receive the homage due to its divine character; the name of Jehovah would soon be proclaimed throughout all the earth, and the joys of his salvation felt in every clime. Again, it is one great end of the death of Christ to destroy the principle of malignity in the human heart, and to promote the operation of the law of love. "While we were enemies, (says the Apostle Paul,) we were reconciled to God by the death of his Son." "We are sanctified through the offering of the body of Jesus Christ once for all." " He loved us, and 152 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. washed us from our sins in his own blood." " They who were enemies in their mind, and "by wicked works, he reconciled in the body of his flesh through death, to present them holy, and unblameable, and unreprovable in his sight." Love to his heavenly Father, and love to mankind impelled him to " hum- ble himself, and to become obedient to death, even the death of the cross." And, in order that this divine principle might be kept alive, and form a bond of union among all his followers, he appointed an ordinance, consisting of sensible signs, in commemoration of his death, to be observed in all ages as a memorial of his love, and to remind his friends of the indis- pensable obligation under which they are laid to love one an- other. To promote the same benevolent design, he arose from the dead, ascended to heaven, sent down the Spirit of Holiness to abide in the Church, and now presides in the celestial world as "a Prince and a Saviour, to give repentance and the re- mission of sins." And as the instructions and the example of Jesus Christ were calculated to exhibit the principle of love in all its inter- esting aspects, and to promote its practical influence, so the preaching and the writings of his Apostles had the same im- portant object in view, as the ultimate scope of all their minis- trations. The one half of every Epistle to the Christian churches is occupied in delineating the practical bearings of this holy affection. Like the lines which proceed from the centre to the circumfererce of a circle, the various radiations of Christian affection are traced from love, as the grand central point, and exhibited in all their benign influence on individuals, families, churches, and the diversified relations which subsist in civil and Christian society. "Above all things," say the Apostles, " put on love, which is the bond of perfection. Though we speak with the tongues of men and angels, and have not love, we are become as sounding brass, or a tinkling cymbal. And though we understand all mysteries, and all knowledge, and bestow all our goods to feed the poor, and have not love, it profiteth nothing. Love suffereth long, and is kind ; love envieth not, vaunteth not itself, doth not behave itself unseemly, seeketh not her own, is not easily provoked, thinketh no evil. Prophecies shall fail, languages shall cease, ILLUSTRATIONS FROM SCRIPTURE. 153 earthly knowledge shall vanish away, but love never faileth. " '* Love worketh no ill to his neighbour; therefore, love is the fulfilling of the law. All the law is comprehended in this saying, namely, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. The works of the flesh," or those which flow from a principle of malignity, "are these: fornication, uncleanness, idolatry, hatred, variance, emulations, wrath, strife, seditions, envyings, murders, revellings, and such like. But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, long-suffering, gentleness, goodness, fidelity, meekness, and temperance." "Let love be without dissimula- tion, and walk in love as Christ also hath loved us. Be kindly affectioned one toward another with brotherly love, in honour preferring one another. Distributing to the necessity of saints, given to hospitality. Bless them who persecute you; bless, and curse not. Rejoice with them that do rejoice, and weep with them that weep. Husbands, love your wives, even as Christ also loved the church; children, obey your parents in the Lord; fathers, provoke not your children to wrath, but bring them up in the nurture and admonition of the Lord. Servants, be obedient to your masters, with good-will doing service as to the Lord, and not unto men; and ye masters, do the same thing unto them, forbearing threatening, knowing that your Master also is in heaven." "Put on, as the elect of God, holy and beloved, bowels of mercies, kindness, hum- bleness of mind, meekness, long- suffering; forbearing one an- other in love, and forgiving one another, if any man have a quarrel against any; even as Christ forgave you, so also do ye." Such is the general scope of the instructions which the Apostles delivered, in all their communications to the Christian churches, whether composed of Jews or of Gentiles. And, as it was the great aim of the Apostles themselves, in their writings and personal ministrations, to illustrate the numerous bearings of Christian love, so they gave solemn charges to their successors in the work of the ministry, to make all their instructions subservient to the promotion of the same import- ant object. Almost the whole of the Epistles addressed to Timothy and Titus, which relate to the duties and the objects of the Christian ministry, have a reference, not to the discus- sion of metaphysical questions in theology, which "are ua- 154: PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. profitable and vain," but to the illustration, and the inculcat- ing of those practical duties which flow from the spirit of love, and to the counteracting of those proud, malignant, and specu- lative dispositions, which are opposed to the meekness and benignity of the gospel of peace. I might also have shown, by numerous quotations, that, in the general Epistles of Peter, James, and John, the same grand object to which I have been adverting is steadily and uniformly kept in view. The first Epistle of John is almost exclusively devoted to the illustration of the love of God and of man; and on this theme, in which his soul appears to be almost entirely absorbed, he expatiates with peculiar energy and delight: "We know that we have passed from death to life, because we love the brethren. He that loveth not his brother abideth in death. Whosoever hateth his brother is a murderer; and ye know that no murderer hath [the principle of] eternal life abiding in him. Behold what manner of love the Father hath bestowed on us, that we should be called the sons of God! Beloved, let us love one another; for love is of God: and every one that loveth is born of God, and knoweth God. He that loveth not knoweth not God ; for God is love. No man hath seen God at any time. If we love one another, God dwelletK in us, and his love is perfected in us. If a man say, I love God and hateth his brother, he is a liar; for he that loveth not his brother, whom he hath seen, how can he love God, whom he hath not seen?" It is recorded by some ancient authors, that when this Apostle was grown old, and unable to preach, he used to be led to the church at Ephesus, and only to say these words to the people, " Little children, love one another." Such was the importance which this venerable Apostle at- tached to love, as the grand and governing principle in the Christian system. The book of Revelation, which closes the canon of Scripture, was written by the same amiable " servant of Jesus Christ:" and its great object is, not to gratify the curiosity of specula- tive commentators, by enabling them to settle the dates of either past or future events; but to portray the operations of malevolence, and the dreadful havoc which would be produced by the lawless passions of men, represented by the stings of ILLUSTRATIONS FROM SCRIPTURE. serpents and scorpions, and the teeth of lions, and by fire, smoke, and brimstone, issuing from their mouths to display the agency of God in directing and controlling the wrath of man to exhibit the gradual progress of the gospel of peace in the midst of all the opposition of its enemies and to depict the glories of that blissful era, when love shall reign trium- phant over every malignant passion; when "the tabernacle of God shall be with men;" when tears shall be wiped from all faces; and when there shall be no more slaughter, nor sorrow, nor crying; but peace on earth, and good-will towards men. Finally, the procedure of the last judgment will be conducted on evidence, deduced from the manifestations of love. At that solemn period, when the present economy of Divine Providence shall come to a termination; when the elements shall melt with fervent heat, and the great globe on which we tread shall be wrapt in flames ; when the Archangel shall descend, and sound an alarm with "the trump of God;" when the graves shall open, and give forth their dead; and when all the generations of men, " both small and great," shall stand before the throne of God ; the eternal destiny of all the millions of mankind will be unalterably determined, on the ground of the manifestations which have been given of the existence and the operation of the principle of love, and of the affections and conduct to which it is opposed. " When the Son of man shall come in his glory, and all the holy angels with him, then shall he sit upon the throne of his glory. And before him shall be assembled all nations. Then shall he say to them on his right hand, Come, ye blessed of my Father, inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world. For I was an hungered, and ye gave me meat; I was thirsty, and ye gave me drink ; I was a stranger, and ye took me in ; naked, and ye clothed me: I was sick, and ye visited me; I was in prison, and ye came unto me." And though you had no opportunity of performing these offices to me in person, yet, " inasmuch as ye did it to one of the least of these my brethren, ye did it unto me." "Then shall he say to them on the left hand, Depart from me, ye cursed; for I was an hungered, and ye gave me no meat ; I was thirsty, and ye gave me no drink ; I was a stranger, and ye took me not in; naked, and ye clothed 156 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. me not ; sick, arid in prison, and ye visited me not. Verily I say unto you, inasmuch as ye did it not to one of the least of these, ye did it not to me. And these shall go away into ever- lasting punishment, hut the righteous into life eternal." For every one shall be rewarded according to his works. Such is the importance which will he attached to the influence of this holy affection over the human mind, at that " day of dread, decision, and despair;" for it is quite obvious, that every action here specified in relation to the righteous, is an effect of the love of God and of man presiding in the heart ; and, therefore, if we shall ultimately be found destitute of this holy principle, we cannot expect the reward of the faithful, nor "have boldness in the day of judgment.'* Thus it appears, that it is the great end of all the historical facts, the religious institutions, the devotional writings, the moral maxims, the instructions of the prophets, the warnings, exhortations, pr6rnises, and threatenings, comprised in the Jewish revelation, to illustrate and enforce the law of love in its references both to God and to man that it is explained and illustrated in the various instructions delivered by our blessed Saviour, and enforced by his example that its nume- rous bearings and modifications are displayed in the writings of all the apostles; and in their instructions to Christian teachers and, that its existence in the heart, and its operation in active life, will form the decisive test of our characters at the final judgment. SECTION VIII. On the practical operation of Love, and the various modes in which it should be displayed towards mankind. We have already seen, that love is a most noble and expan- sive affection. It is not like a blazing meteor which dazzles the eye for a few moments, and then vanishes from the sight. It does not consist merely in a few transient emotions and fruit- less wishes for the good of others. It does not waste its ener- gies in eloquent harangues on the beauty of virtue, in theoris- PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF BENEVOLENCE. 157 ing speculations on the principles of morals, in framing Quix- otic schemes of philanthropy, or in weeping over tales of fic- titious wo. It is a substantial and an ever active principle; its energies are exerted for the purpose of communicating happi- ness to every rank of sensitive and intellectual heings; and the moral world, as it actually exists, is the grand theatre of its operations. I have already endeavoured to illustrate some of the modifications of this affection, in its relation to God; 1 and, in the preceding sections of this chapter, have occasionally ad- verted to some of its benignant effects in reference to man. It may however be expedient, in this place, to enter a little more explicitly into the practical operation of benevolence, and the various modes by which its influence may be manifested in rela- tion to our brethren of mankind. The grand object which love proposes to accomplish is the communication of happiness. And, in order to stimulate and direct us in its operations, the character and agency of God are set before us as our exemplar. There is not a more ami- able, attractive, nor comprehensive idea of the Divine Being any where to be found than that which is exhibited by the Apostle John, in three words GOD is LOVE. He is the eternal, uncreated Source of felicity, from which flow all those streams of joy which gladden the hearts of angels and archangels, che- rubim and seraphim; and whatever portion of happiness, sensi- tive or intellectual, is enjoyed by man on earth, and by all the subordinate tribes of animated nature, is derived from the same inexhaustible fountain. For the purpose of communicating happiness, he called the material universe into existence, to serve as an immense theatre, on which his benevolence migh be displayed to countless orders of sensitive and intelligent crea- tures; and all the perfections of his nature may be considered as so many agents employed for the execution of this noble de- sign. Impelled, as it were, by this essential and characteristic affection of the Divine Mind, all the attributes of Deity are in- cessantly operating throughout the immensity of creation, in th view of the 1 inhabitants of all worlds. His Omnipotence is employed in supporting the worlds already created, and in bring- 1 See pp. 77-85. 153 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. ing new systems and new orders of beings into existence; and his Wisdom, in devising, selecting, and arranging those means which are requisite for accomplishing the plans of benevolence. Towards those wretched beings who have abused his goodness, and wandered from happiness, his Mercy is proclaimed; and his Patience and forbearance are long exercised, in order to lead them to repentance, and to the paths of felicity. His Justice, conjoined with his power, is exercised for the purpose of restraining the efforts of malevolence, for preventing the in- roads of anarchy and confusion, and for preserving the order and happiness of the intelligent creation. In this view all the judgments which have been inflicted on the workers of iniquity in every age, have had a tendency to accomplish the purposes of benevolence, in reference to the universal system. For, the general good of God's universal empire, considered as one whole, must be viewed as the great end which benevolence is accomplishing; and the partial exclusions from happiness, which now happen in the case of certain classes of moral agents, must be regarded as necessary arrangements subservient to this important end. His infinite Knowledge, extending to all events, past, present, and to come; and his Omniscient eye, piercing into the secret purposes of every heart, surveying the various tribes of men, and the circumstances of all the worlds which float in the immensity of space, and comprehending the remotest consequences of all actions through infinite duration, enable Him, in every instance, to form those arrangements by. which the objects of benevolence may be accomplished on the most extensive scale, and by which the everlasting happiness of the holy and intelligent system may be most effectually secured. For the purpose of displaying his love to the moral intelli- gencies of our world, he has given us a revelation of his cha- racter and will; he has exhibited his law as a law of love; he has promised the agency of his Holy Spirit, to produce in us those dispositions which his law requires; and he has given the most affecting display of his love, in the mission of his Son into the world. " In this," says the Apostle John, " was manifested the love of God towards us; because that God sent his only- oegotten Son into the world, that we might live through him. Herein is love, not that we lov?d God, but that he loved us, PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF BENEVOLENCE. 159 and sent his Son to be a propitiation for our sins. Beloved, if God so loved us, how ought \ve to love one another?" Now, we are commanded in the sacred Scriptures to be imi- tators of God in his benevolent operations, and especially in those cases in which love requires to surmount every obstacle, and to exert all its powers in opposition to hatred, enmity, and ingratitude. " Be ye perfect," says our Saviour, " as your Father who is in heaven is perfect. Love your enemies, bless them that curse you, do good to them that hate you, and pray for them who despitefully use you, and persecute you; that you may be the children of your Father who is in heaven: for he maketh his sun to rise on the evil and on the good, and send- eth rain on the just and on the unjust." In like manner, the operation of love on the part of man may be considered as the whole energy of an intelligent mind, directing its faculties of perception, judgment, reasoning, and imagination, along with its physical powers, to the production of happiness, both among friends and enemies, so far as its influence can extend. In the prosecution of this noble end, man becomes " a worker together with God," a subordinate agent in carrying forward those plans of Infinite Benevolence which will issue in the ulti- mate happiness of the moral universe. And as the Almighty, in his benevolent operations, preserves the harmony of the universe by certain laws of order which he has established, as is apparent in the arrangement of the planetary system, and in the physical and moral economy of our terrestrial sphere: so it is the duty of man, in all the movements to which love impels him, to imitate his Creator, in this respect, and to employ the intellectual faculties with which he is endued, for regulating the exercise of the benevolent principle, for adapting and propor- tioning means to ends, and for discriminating between rational and enthusiastic schemes of exertion; so that order may facili- tate his movements, and that the greatest sum of happiness may result from his active endeavours. We may now attend more particularly to the practical ope- rations of love, and the objects towards which it should be directed. The principal objects towards which our benevolence should be directed are intelligent beings; and, in the sphere of action 160 PHILOSOPHY or RELIGION. to which we are at present confined, man is the chief object whom we have it in our power to benefit by our benevolent exertions. Our benevolent affections, indeed, ought to expand towards all the holy intelligencies of which we have any intima- tion, and, in another stage of our existence, we may have an opportunity of mingling with other orders of intellectual beings, and of co-operating with them in diffusing happiness throughout the universe: but, while we continue in this sublunary region, the improvement and happiness of our fellow-men is the chief object to which our exertions must necessarily be confined; and when we contemplate the present state of the moral world, in all nations, we behold a field of exertion sufficiently ample to employ all the energies of benevolence that have ever yet been displayed, or perhaps ever will be displayed, during the exist- ing economy of our world. Man may be considered in two points of view as possessed of a body, which is susceptible of agreeable or disagreeable sensations and feelings; and as endued with a mind, or spiritual principle, which is capable of perpetual improvement in know- ledge and virtue, and which is destined to an endless existence. In both these respects, Love will exert its powers in meliorating the condition and promoting the enjoyments of mankind. In regard to his corporeal system, Man has various wants which require to be supplied, and he is subjected to various sufferings which require to be soothed and alleviated. He stands in need of food, raiment, comfortable lodging and accommodation; light to cheer and to enable him to prosecute his employments; pure atmospheric air to invigorate his animal system, and water to cleanse and refresh him. He is exposed to corporeal weak- ness and to mental imbecility: to pain, sickness, and disease; to the loss of sight, of hearing, and of bodily feeling; to the de- crepitude of old age; and to all those lingering disorders which terminate in dissolution. He is also exposed to the afflictions occasioned by the loss of friends and relatives; to dejection of mind; to remorse of conscience; to doubt, despondency, and despair; and to a long train of anxieties, perplexities, and troubles of various kinds. Now in reference to the wants of mankind, love, when genuine and ardent, will endeavour to supply them, wherever a deficiency is known to exist; and iu PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF BENEVOLENCE. 161 reference to their calamities and sorrows, it will use its utmost exertions to relieve and assuage them, in as far as its powers and influence can extend. In this respect, every one, however low his situation in life, however limited the range of his knowledge, and however contracted the sphere of his influence may be, has it in his power, in a greater or less degree, to com- municate blessings to his brethren of mankind. He can visit the sick-bed of an afflicted neighbour; he can supply a cup of cold water to cool his parched tongue; he can wipe the sweat from his forehead; he can smooth his pillow; he can turn him round on his bed of languishing, that he may enjoy a more com- fortable repose; and he can cheer him with those expressions of tenderness and affection, which have a tendency, above all other acts of kindness, to sooth and revive the downcast spirit. He can assist his neighbour by his strength or by his skill, by his counsel and advice, and by taking a lively interest in his concerns: he can promote his joy, by rejoicing in his prosperity and success, by assisting him in his employment, by rescuing him from danger, by forgiving the injuries he may have received, by acknowledging the worth of his skill, virtues, and endowments of which he is possessed, and by listening, with patience and com- placency, to his sentiments, complaints, or grievances. He can even promote the happiness of his neighbour in a negative way, by not injuring him in his character or reputation, by not standing in the way of his prosperity or advancement, by not thwarting him in his schemes and enterprises, by not interrupt- ing him in his innocent amusements, and by refraining from every thing that would tend unnecessarily to injure him in his trade or profession. Such friendly attentions to promote the comfort of his fellow-men every one has it in his power to be- stow; and, upon such apparently trivial actions, the happiness of mankind in general more immediately depends, than on many of those legislative arrangments which arrest the attention of a whole empire. For, were they universally performed, the greater part of the miseries which afflict humanity would disappear from the world. But, in cases where a high degree of intellectual talent, of wealth, and of influence is possessed, love is enabled to take a wider range in its beneficent operations by endeavouring to 14 L 162 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. contract public evils, and to promote rational schemes of general philanthropy. When we take a survey of the condition of the great mass of the lower orders of society, we find them labouring under many physical evils and inconveniences, which have a tendency to injure their health and comfort, and to ob- struct their moral and intellectual improvement. In their private habitations, we find multitudes of them residing in places where they are almost deprived of light and of pure air; and surrounded with every thing that is insalubrious and of- fensive to the senses. We find whole families packed into an apartment of twelve feet square, in a narrow lane where the rays of the sun never penetrate, where the refreshing breeze is seldom felt, and where the beauties of nature are never beheld. In public manufactories we find hundreds of men, women, and children, with pale faces and emaciated looks, breathing a polluted atmosphere, half-poisoned with deleterious fumes, steam, smoke, or noxious gases. In large cities we find num- bers of children, through the carelessness and unprincipled disposition of their parents, left to wallow in filth and wretch- edness, without even rags to cover their nakedness, and en- couraged in the habits of pilfering, and of every other vice which can debase their minds and render them pests to society. We behold multitudes of human beings torn from their families and their native land, cooped up in an infernal floating dungeon, carried to a foreign land, sold like cattle to an avaricious planter, and held in the chains of perpetual slavery. In re- ference to all these, and similar evils which exist in human society, love will exert its energies either to alleviate or to remove them. It will induce one individual to investigate their causes, to point out the proper means of remedy, and to publish to the world the result of his deliberations and re- searches. It will induce another to apply the discoveries of natural science, and the inventions of art, to the purpose of improving the physical condition of mankind. It will induce a third individual, in conjunction with others, to form rational plans of melioration, and to organise societies to carry them into effect: and it will impel others to come forward with their wealth and influence to provide the means for carrying forward, on the most extensive scale, the plans of general beneficenca PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF BENEVOLENCE. 163 In short, the whole machinery of nature and art, of mind and matter, of religion and literature, of science and legislation, would be set in motion to promote the external enjoyments of mankind, were love a predominant principle in human society. Cottages on commodious and healthy plans would be reared for the industrious poor; streets would be formed, and gardens allotted them, for their pleasure and accommodation : public manufactories would be arranged and regulated in such a manner as to contribute to health, to comfort, and to rational improvement: 1 the children of the poor would be fed and clothed: and trained to habits of industry and virtue; employment would be provided for all classes of labourers and mechanics, and subsistence furnished when employment could not be procured; idleness would be universally discouraged, and honourable in- dustry would be rewarded in such a manner as to afford not only the comforts, but even many of the luxuries of life; slavery, in every shape, with all its injustice and cruelties, would be abolished, and rational liberty would be proclaimed among all ranks and in every clime. Thus the man in whose heart love presides takes a lively and sincere interest in every thing that has a tendency to pro- mote the external comfort and welfare of his neighbour. He is compassionate and merciful, gentle and indulgent, kind and tender-hearted, generous and humane; he feels for the sorrows of suffering humanity, and his wealth and activity are directed to relieve the distresses of the poor and the afflicted, to feed the hungry, to clothe the naked, to protect the widow and the 1 Some may be disposed to insinuate, that such attempts would be al- together visionary, and could never be realized. But I would ask such persons, Have such schemes ever been attempted to be realized on an extensive scale? Has the promotion of the health and comfort of the industrious poor ever become a particular object of attention to the legis- lature, to men of rank and influence, and to the whole class of opulent manufacturers ! Is it not a fact, that while the acquisition of wealth is made the main object of attention, the melioration of the condition of the industrious labourer and mechanic is either altogether overlooked, or viewed as a very subordinate object of attention? He is generally left to shift for himself the best way he can, and left to breathe in an impure atmosphere without any particular sacrifice being made to remedy the evil. I venture to affirm, that were the comfort of the lower orders of society made as particular an object of attention as is the acquisition of wealth, every obstacle to its accomplishment would soon be removed. 164 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. orphan, to encourage honest industry, to meliorate the condition of the useful mechanic, and to increase and extend his comforts and enjoyments. Of such a one it may be said, in the lan- guage of Job, " He is eyes to the blind, feet to the lame, and a father to the poor. When the ear hears him, then he blesses him, and when the eye sees him, it gives witness to him; be- cause he delivers the poor that cries, the fatherless, and him that hath none to help him. The blessing of him that was ready to perish comes upon him, and he causes the widow's heart to sing for joy." But the activities of benevolence are not confined to the communications of sensitive enjoyments. Man is a rational and immortal, as well as a sensitive being; and the operation & of genuine love will have for their ultimate object the promo- tion of his best interests as a moral and intellectual agent, and as an heir of immortality. When we consider man as an intellectual being, standing in various important relations to his God and to his fellow- creatures, we behold numerous evils which require to be re- medied, as well as in the circumstances of his physical condi- tion. Though the human mind is capable of vast expansion of acquiring an immense number of sublime and interesting ideas, and of enjoying the purest pleasure in contemplating the objects which lie within its range, yet it is a melancholy fact, that in all ages mental darkness has enveloped the great ma- jority of our race; and that the grossest ignorance of the most important truths, accompanied with the most degrading affec- tions, still prevails among the greater part of the population of every region of the globe. We need not go to the frozen climes of Lapland and Labrador, to the filthy huts of the Greenlander and the Esquimaux, to the rude savages of Nootka Sound, to the degraded tribes of New Holland and Van Diemen's Land, to the wild and wretched Bushmen and Caffres, or to the swarthy sons of central Africa, in order to be convinced of this lamentable truth. We need only look around us among the various ranks of our own population, and we shall not fail to see ignorance, in all its diversified forms, exerting its malign influence over the minds of men, accompanied with superstition, bigotry, intolerance, and every grovelling affection that can PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF BENEVOLENCE. 1G5 debase the human mind. Multitudes of the young, both in the city and in the country, are suffered to shoot up from infancy to manhood, as if they were mere animal existencies, ignorant of the character and operations of God, of the duties they owe to their Creator and to one another, and of the eternal state of existence to which they are destined. Even in many of those places where instruction is attempted to be communicated, what a pitiful picture is exhibited of the results of education, and of the folly which attaches itself to the character of man! The pronunciation of a number of unmeaning words, the recit- ing of passages which the young cannot understand, the re- petition of a few propositions in religion to which no ideas are attached, and the casting of a few accounts, are considered as sufficient to lead them forward in the path of knowledge and virtue; and are substituted in the place of those definite and luminous instructions which are requisite to expand the open- ing intellect, to convey distinct ideas to the mind, to unfold the scenes of creation and providence, to display the character of God, and to train up the youthful mind to glory and im- mortality. Now, in reference to the ignorance which prevails in the world, love to man, as an intellectual being, will excite to active endeavours in order to counteract its influence. It will prove an excitement to the erection of seminaries of instruction wherever they are deficient; it will patronise every scheme and every exertion by which knowledge may be increased; and will diffuse mental illumination as far as the sphere of its influence extends. It will not rest satisfied with the form of instruction without the substance with the elements of language without the elements of thought with the key of knowledge without knowledge itself; but will devise rational plans for conveying substantial information to the minds of the young, so as to win their affections, arrest their attention, and carry them for- ward with pleasure in the paths of improvement. It will not offer them stones instead of bread, but will spread before them an intellectual feast, and " feed them with knowledge and understanding." It will not confine its attention merely to the instruction of the young; but will endeavour, by writing, by conversation, by lectures, by lending and circulating books, 166 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. by establishing public libraries, and by organizing rational and scientific institutions to diffuse the rays of intellectual light among men of all ages, ranks, and professions; and will never cease its exertions, till ignorance, with all its degrading accompaniments, be banished from society, and till the light of truth illuminate the inhabitants of every land. In a word, it will endeavour to render every branch of knowledge subservient to the illustration of the character and the Revelation of God, and to the preparing of mankind for the employments of that nobler state of existence to which they are destined. Again, as man is possessed of an immortal nature, and, in his present state of sin and degradation, is exposed to misery in the future world so it is one of the highest offices of love to endeavour to promote the eternal salvation of mankind. For the accomplishment of this important object all its activi- ties are concentrated, and all its other labours are rendered subservient. To improve the physical condition of man as a sensitive being, and to enlarge his knowledge as an intellectual, while we overlook his eternal interests, is to neglect one of the most important duties of Christian philanthropy. The sensi- tive enjoyments of man are conducive to his happiness so long as they continue; and "knowledge is pleasant to the soul." But what are all the acquisitions and enjoyments of time when compared with the concerns of eternity! and what will they avail, if their possessor be found unqualified for the employ- ments of an endless life! If the soul of man be an immortal principle, and if the least danger exists of its being deprived, through ignorance and guilt, of happiness in the future world, no words can express the importance which ought to be at- tached to this "labour of love." What will it profit a man if he shall gain the whole world and lose his own soul ? or what shall a man give in exchange for his soul?" And, therefore^ the man in whose breast true benevolence resides, will consider the eternal happiness of his fellow-immortals as the grand and ultimate object, which ought always to be kept in view, and will exert all his faculties, powers, and influence, in order to its accomplishment. He will not rest satisfied with prayers and wishes for the salvation of men; he will not wait for any extraordinary afilatus of the Divine Spirit; but will prosecute. PRACTICAL OPERATIONS OF BENEVOLENCE. 1G7 with judgment and perseverance, that course of active duty which has a tendency to produce the desired effect. So far as the circle of his influence extends, he will endeavour to instruct the ignorant, to arouse the careless, to reclaim the dissipated, to convince the sceptic, to train up the young in the knowledge of God and in the paths of virtue, and to encourage and ani- mate every one who is enquiring the way to eternal life. He will exhibit religion in its most amiable, and attractive, and sublime aspects ; and will endeavour to fix the attention on the lovely tempers and the beneficial effects which the observance of its precepts has a tendency to produce. He will not make it his chief object to convert men to the belief of certain meta< physical dogmas in religion, nor to gain them over to embrace the peculiarities of a party; but to produce in their minds a cordial acquiescence in the plan of salvation which the Gospel exhibits, a reverence of the divine character and perfections, a desire to cultivate holy tempers, and a fixed determination to walk in the paths of God's commandments. Such a character will give every due encouragement, by his advice and by his wealth, to Christian churches, and to faith- ful and intelligent ministers of religion. He will patronise every rational scheme which has for its object to propagate the Gospel of peace among all nations. He will encourage the translation of the Scriptures into the languages of all kindreds and tribes; he will give countenance to societies formed for circulating the Bible in foreign lands ; and he will assist in sending forth intelligent and philanthropic missionaries to bar- barous and unenlightened tribes, for the purpose of diffusing the blessings of knowledge, civilisation, and religion ; and he will rejoice to co-operate, in such benevolent schemes, with all who sincerely wish to promote the best interests of their fellow- men, by whatever name they are distinguished, and to what- ever section of the Christian church they may belong. In short, love when genuine and ardent, will set itself in opposition to every species of bigotry and intolerance, and to all those petty jealousies and bitter animosities which have so long distracted the Christian Church, which have thrown an odium on its character, and prevented the harmonious inter- course of the followers of Jesus. It will make every sacrifice consistent with the great objects of Christianity, and will use 168 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. every appropriate mean to heal the unhappy divisions which exist in the religious world, and to promote an affectionate union of "all who love our Lord Jesus in sincerity;" in order that the church of Christ may form one compact harmonious body in opposition to atheists, sceptics, and the men of the world, and in order that every plan and effort to diffuse the knowledge and influence of the Christian religion may be car- ried more speedily and more extensively into effect. With regard to all the other branches of Christian morality, and to all the virtues which can adorn the human character, in every station and relation in life, they will be found to flow from the exercise of the principle I have now been illustrating, as naturally as the sap flows from the trunk to the remotest ramifications of a tree, or as the gas, which now illuminates our streets, flows from the main gasometer, through hundreds of pipes, to all the different burners. Sincerity and veracity in our words and actions, honesty and fair dealing in trade and commerce, fidelity to compacts and engagements, a regard to public liberty, an equitable administration of justice, conde- scension and kindness to inferiors, reverence and respect to superiors, submission to just laws and regulations, a cordial interchange of friendly sentiments and affections ; courtesy, affability, harmony, and good neighbourhood ; modesty, chas- tity, and discretion; forgiveness of injuries, hospitality to strangers, humanity to servants and dependants, compassion to the distressed ; parental, filial, and fraternal affection ; sym- pathy, generosity, temperance, and fortitude, together with all the other social virtues which unite man to man, will as natu- rally flow from the fountain of love, when it exists in the human breast, as water flows from a reservoir through all the pipes which distribute it to the inhabitants of a large city. For he who withholds the exercise of such virtues, or acts in direct opposition to them, can never be supposed to be sincerely at- tached to his fellow-creatures, or to consult their happiness ; and the meaning of language must be inverted before we can apply tc him the epithet Benevolent; and the order of the mo- ral system reversed, before we can expect happiness to flow from such a conduct. The cardinal virtues have been arranged by some moralists CARDINAL VIRTUES 169 under the heads of Prudence, Temperance, Fortitude, and Justice. Prudence consists in judging what is best, in the choice both of ends and means, particularly in reference to our own interests, and to the good or evil which may result from our choice. Temperance is that virtue which moderates and restrains the sensual appetites. Fortitude is that calm and steady habit of the mind, which either enables us bravely to encounter the prospect of ill, or renders us serene and invincible under its immediate pressure. Justice is that virtue which impels us to give to every person what is his due. Now, it could easily be shown that love is the impelling principle which excites to the exercise of all these virtues. It will lead us to pay a due regard to our own comfort and interest, but not so as to interfere with the interests, or to obstruct the happiness of others. It will teach us to preserve the dominion of the soul over sense and passion, and to restrain the influence of the sensual appetites, from considerations drawn from our own happiness, and from the good of others. For, as intemperance kindles the fire of resentment and the flames of lust, excites to boisterous words and to lawless actions, wastes the substance and reduces families to wretchedness and ruin, it must be di- rectly opposed to the principle of benevolence. It will inspire us with a generous and heroic indifference to the precarious possessions of this mortal scene, and will excite to activity and perseverance in promoting human happiness, in the face of every difficulty and obstruction, and in spite of obstinacy and ingratitude, and of all the reproaches that may be thrown upon us on account of the singularity of our conduct. And as Justice is nothing else than the measure of benevolence, it will uni- formly direct us to give to every one his due, and restrain us from withholding from our neighbour anything to which he is entitled by equity or by law. And in cases where the division of property is concerned, it will, in many instances, be induced to relinquish its right, when only a few paltry pounds or shil- lings are at stake, rather than run the risk of dissolving the bonds of affection and friendship. The duties of morality have by other moralists, particularly by the moderns, been arranged into the duties we owe to God, as piety, reverence, and confidence; the duties we owe to other 170 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. men. as fidelity, loyalty, humanity, and justice; and the duties we owe to ourselves, as chastity, sobriety, and temperance. From what has been already stated, both in this and in several of the preceding sections, it will obviously appear, that all these classes of duties necessarily flow from the operation of that expansive principle, which resides originally in the Eternal Mind, and which pervades the minds of all holy intelligences. Finally, the man who is actuated by the noble principle of benevolence will endeavour to discharge with fidelity every so- cial and relative duty, and will feel an interest in the domestic comfort and the religious improvement of all around him. He will display the activities of this holy affection more immediately in the family in which he resides, as a friend, a father, a hus- band, a son, or a brother; performing with punctuality all the duties which such relations include; promoting unity, harmony, affection, and a reciprocal interchange of those offices of kind- ness which tend to secure mutual confidence, pleasure and im- provement. From the family, his affections will be diffused to the neighbourhood around, in all the forms of kindness, com- passion, charity, generosity, humanity, and justice. He will contemplate every member of society as a kinsman and a bro- ther ; he will feel a fraternal attachment, he will delight in his success and prosperity, and will endeavour to encourage the social virtues, and to multiply the sources of enjoyment where- ever his influence extends. From the circle of his immediate neighbourhood, his affections will extend over all the nation to which he belongs. Its prosperity and advancement in arts, sciences, and legislation; its peace and tranquillity, and the wis- dom and rectitude of its rulers, will be the object of his fervent prayers to the God of heaven. To watch over its interests, to promote the improvement of its constitution and its laws, to expose the intrigues of bribery and corruption, to resist the efforts of tyranny and ambition, and to defeat every encroach- ment on its rights and liberties, in a manly and Christian man- ner, he will consider as a duty which he owes to his fellow- subjects and to succeeding generations. It will be his chief aim, not merely to prevent men from becoming thieves, and robbers, and murderers, but to make them pious, virtuous, and useful members of the general community; that every one CARDINAL VIRTUES. ]?1 may live "a quiet and peaceable life, in all godliness and honesty." Nor will his "benevolence be confined within the limits of a narrow-minded and selfish patriotism; his affections will ex- pand to surrounding nations, and embrace the interests of every people, and will excite him to co-operate in every scheme by which civilization and science, liberty and Christianity, may be promoted among all the tribes and kindreds of the earth. He will occasionally transport himself in imagination to dis- tant climes and to the islands scattered over the face of the ocean, and the joy or sorrow which is felt in the hut of the Greenlander, in the Indian wigwam, or among the tents of the Tartars, will find access to his feeling heart. An inundation, an earthquake, the eruption of a volcano, a destroying pesti- lence, or the horrors of war, happening in Persia, China, or Japan, will not be viewed with apathy or indifference, because those countries are placed thousands of miles beyond the boun- daries of his own ; but he will sympathise in the sorrows of those distant sufferers, as well as in the calamities which be- fal his brethren in his native land. Nor will his affections be confined to the men of the present age, but will stretch forward to embrace the sons and daughters of future times, who are destined to appear on the theatre of this world in suc- cessive generations. The plans which he now forms the groundworks of the improvements which he is now establishing, and the diversified operations of benevolence in which he is now engaged, will have for their ultimate object, the diffusion of the light of science and of religion, and the communication of happiness, in various forms, to unnumbered multitudes of the human race, after his spirit shall have taken its flight be- yond the bounds of this terrestrial sphere. Nor will the cur- rent of his love toward fellow-intelligencies be bounded by the limits of time and the range of this sublunary system, but will run forward into those interminable ages which shall succeed the dissolution of our globe, and will rise upward to the inha- bitants of those worlds which roll in the distant regions of creation. Contemplating the diversified scenes in which he may hereafter be placed, and the various orders of intellectual beings with which he may mingle, his soul will be transported 172 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. at the prospect of entering upon a more extensive field for the range of his benevolent affections, and of being qualified to receive and to communicate happiness on a more enlarged scale, in company with other holy intelligences, where the field of benevolence will be continually expanding, and the most exqui- site delight springing up in his bosom, and ever increasing as eternal ages are rolling on. Thus it appears that Benevolence is an expansive and an ever-active principle, diffusing happiness in its train wherever it extends. Were an extensive moral machinery to be set in action by this powerful principle, it is impossible to describe what a variety of blessings would soon be distributed among all mankind, and what a mighty change would be effected in the social state of human beings, and on the whole aspect of the moral world. And from what has been already stated, it is evident, that although intellectual talent, wealth, and influ- ence, have most in their power, as the prime directors of the moral machine, yet there is no individual in whom this prin- ciple resides, however limited his faculties and his sphere of action, but has it in his power to communicate happiness to his fellow-creatures, and to become at least a subordinate agent in promoting the plans of universal benevolence. From what has been stated above, and in several of the pre- ceding parts of this work, we may learn, that, in order to ac- quire a knowledge of our duty, and of the motives which should stimulate us to its performance, there is no need to engage in the study of voluminous systems of Ethical science, or to per- plex the mind with laboured disquisitions on the principles of Morals. The general path of duty is plain to every one who is inclined to walk in it ; and whoever wishes to be assisted and directed in his progress towards moral perfection, will find, in the Proverbs of Solomon, the sermons of Jesus Christ, and the practical parts of the apostolic Epistles, maxims, and precepts, and motives inculcated, infinitely superior, in regard both to their authority and their excellence, to those of all other systems of moral philosophy, whether in ancient or in modern times. This seems to be partly admitted even by the moral philosophers themselves. The celebrated Dr. Reid, in his MORAL SYSTEM. 173 * Essays on the Active Powers of Man,' after a variety of learned and abstract discussions on active power, and the prin- ciples of human action, when treating on the theory of morals, says, " This is an intricate subject, and there has been various theories and much controversy about it in ancient and in mo- dern times. But it has little connection with the knowledge of our duty; and those who differ most in the theory of our moral powers, agree in the practical rules of morals which they dictate. As a man may be a good judge of colours, and of the other visible qualities of objects, without any knowledge of the anatomy of the eye and of the theory of vision; so a man may have a very clear and comprehensive knowledge of what is right and of what is wrong in human conduct, who never studied the structure of our moral powers. A good ear in music may be much improved by attention and practice in that art ; but very little by studying the anatomy of the ear and the theory of sound. In order to acquire a good eye or a good ear, in the arts that require them, the theory of vision and the theory of sound are by no means necessary, and in- deed of very little use. Of as little necessity or use is what ice call the theory of morals, in order to improve our moral judgment." 1 To a man who is familiar with the Scriptures, and whose mind has acquired a relish for the simplicity and excellence of the Christian code of morals, how cold, and frigid, and unin- teresting do the laboured disquisitions of our most celebrated ethical writers appear ! There is little to be found in such writings to kindle the fire of holy love, and to inspire the soul with a noble ardour in carrying forward the plan of divine be- nevolence. What powerful stimulus to exalted virtue can be expected from abstract discussions on active power, on liberty and necessity, on theories of moral action, on the reason and fitness of things, on self-love, on public and private interests, on the law of honour, and the like; and of how little practical utility are the results of such disquisitions; since every princi- ple of action, every motive, and every duty conducive to the happiness of the intelligent system, is laid down in the Scrip- 1 Reid ' On the Active Powers.' Essay v, chap. ii. 174 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. turcs, with, a plainness and perspicuity which render them level to the meanest understanding? And what shall we say of those moralists who teach us, that " modesty, humility, and forgiveness of injuries," belong to the class of vices; 1 and, by consequence, that pride, impudence, and revenge, are to be ranked among the virtues? Such virtue, alas! has too long- prevailed in our degenerate world ; but were it universally to prevail, it would transform creation into a chaos, and banish happiness from the universe. What beneficial practical effects have ever yet been produced by all the systems of ethics which have hitherto been published to the world ? Let us look back on the nations of antiquity, on the schools of Plato, Socrates, Epicurus, and Zeno; let us survey the conduct of our modern sceptical philosophers, and the practices of our youths who attend courses of ethical lectures in our universities and acade- mies, and say, whether the general depravity of human nature has been counteracted, and a spirit of universal benevolence has been cherished and promoted, by such instructions. I ven- ture to affirm, that we are far more indebted to our Saviour's sermon on the mount, and to the practical writings of the Apostle Paul, for that portion of morality which has given a polish to the manners of modern society, than to all the systems of ethics, detached from Christianity, that have ever been pub- lished by the philosophers either of Greece or Rome, or of the British empire ; and that is only by following out the instruc- tions of the divine teachers, that we can expect to see the world regenerated, and vice and iniquity banished from our streets. In throwing out the preceding hints, I have confined my at- tention chiefly to the intelligent creation. But it is evident, that where a principle of genuine love actuates the mind, it will extend its benevolent regards even to the lower orders of ani- mated existence. Towards them the Creator has displayed his benevolence, as well as towards man. He has framed their bodies in as curious and admirable a manner as the bodies of mankind. He has bestowed upon them organs of sensation exactly adapted to the situations they occupy, and to their va- 1 This sentiment is taught by Mr. Hume and his followers. BENEVOLENCE TOWARDS ANIMALS. 175 rious modes of subsistence. He has formed them with instincts which enable them to construct their habitations, to select their food, to protect themselves from danger, and to choose the fit- test places for bringing forth their young. He has provided, in the different departments of nature, all that variety of food which is requisite to supply the wants of the whole of that im- mense assemblage of living beings which traverse the air, the waters, and the earth. " These all wait upon Him, and he giveth them their meat in due season." Their sportive motions, their varied movements, and the delight with which they seem to exercise their faculties, testify that they are the objects of the beneficence of their Almighty though unknown Maker. So that God not only takes care of men, but of the fishes of the sea, the creeping insects, and the fowls of heaven, for "a sparrow can- not fall to the ground" without his providential permission. This benevolent care of the Creator, which extends to the lowest order of his creatures, instructs us, that our benevolence also should be displayed towards the inferior ranks of sensitive existence that we should not only abstain from torturing, and unnecessarily depriving them of existence, but should endeavour to promote their enjoyment. It was the object of several of the laws delivered to the Jews, to inculcate compassion and humanity towards their domestic animals: and Solomon lays it down as a moral maxim, that " the righteous man regardeth the life of his beast." Benevolence will display itself in the shape of tenderness and humanity towards every creature that is endowed with feeling and sensation; but it cannot be supposed to have a powerful influence over that man who can wantonly torture a poor fly, lash a feeble old horse, wound a bird or a hare for mere sport, twirl a cockchaffer on a crooked pin, or even intentionally trample under foot a snail or a worm that is doing him no injury. The benevolent man rejoices in the hap- piness of all creation around him; and were this disposition uni- versally prevalent, not only should we see cock-fighting, dog- fighting, bull-baiting, and other cruel and degrading sports, for ever abolished, but should form a more delightful inter- course with many of the lower animals than we have ever yet enjoyed. Although the lower animals seem to be incapable of making 176 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. improvement when left to them selves, yet experience has proved, that, under the tuition of man, they are capable of making con- siderable advancement in knowledge, and in the exercise of the benevolent affections. Kindness and affection will frequently soften the most savage and obdurate dispositions among man- kind; and it is not improbable, that a judicious and universal display of friendly intentions towards those animals which occa- sionally associate with man, would go far to counteract their malevolent propensities, and to promote their harmony and af- fection I never was more delighted with an exhibition of ani- mals than on a late occasion, when I beheld a cat, a bird, and a mouse, living in the same cage, in the most cordial harmony and peace a fact which demonstrates that the strongest anti- pathies of the animal tribes may be overcome by the care and attention of man. And as such an experiment could not have been attempted with success, except when these animals were very young, it shows us the immense importance of an early attention to the training of our youth in habits of kindness and affection towards each other, and of humanity towards every sensitive being; and that it ought to be the great care of pa- rents, nurses, and servants, to counteract the first appearance of malevolent dispositions in very early life, however trivial the circumstances in which such dispositions are manifested. Many instances could be brought forward to illustrate the affection of the inferior tribes, and their capability of improve- ment. But although they were entirely destitute of mental qualities and actions, as they are sensitve beings, susceptible of pleasure and pain, the truly benevolent man will never inten- tionally inflict upon them unnecessary pain, and far less will he ever enjoy a savage delight, like some monsters in human shape, in beholding them writhing under the agonies occasioned by barbarous treatment. He will feel a joy in their comfort, and will endeavour to counteract their malignant propensities, and to train them up in those habits by which they may be rendered useful to man, and pleasing to each other. Were such a kind and humane disposition towards the lower animals generally to prevail, we might ultimately expect the literal accomplishment of those predictions recorded in ancient prophecy: - In that day will I make a covenant for them with the beasts of the CONCLUDING EXTRACT. 177 field, and with the fowls of heaven, and with the creeping things of the ground; and I will break the how and the sword, and the battle out of the earth, and will make them to lie down safely." I will cause the evil beasts to cease out of the land, and they shall dwell safely in the wilderness, and sleep in the woods." " The wolf shall dwell with the lamb; the cow and the bear shall feed in one pasture, and their young ones shall lie down together; the sucking child shall play on the hole of the asp, and the weaned child shall put his hand on the adder's den. They shall not hurt nor destroy in all my holy mountain, saith the Lord." The remarks which have been stated in this section, in refe- rence to the practical influence of the principle of benevolence, are intended merely as a few insulated hints in regard to some of the modes in which it may be made to operate. To illus- trate its operations in detail, and to trace its progress in all its diversified bearings and ramifications, would be to write a Body of Practical Morality, which would fill several volumes a work which is still a desideratum in Christian literature. I cannot conclude this chapter more appropriately than with the follow- ing excellent passage, extracted from Dr Dwight's System of Theology. " The divine law is wholly included in two precepts; Thou slialt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart: and thy neigh- bour as thyself. These are so short as to be necessarily in- cluded in a very short sentence; so intelligible as to be under- stood by every moral being who is capable of comprehending the meaning of the words God and neighbour; so easily remem- bered as to render it impossible for them to escape from our memory, unless by wanton, criminal negligence of ours; and so easily applicable to every case of moral action as not to be mistaken unless through indisposition to obey. At the same time, obedience to them is rendered perfectly obvious and per- fectly easy to every mind which is not indisposed to obey them. The very disposition itself, if sincere and entire, is either en- tire obedience, or the unfailing means of that external conduct by which the obedience is in some cases completed. The dis- position to obey is also confined to a single affection of the heart, easily distinguishable from all otber affections; namely, H x, 178 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. love. Love, saith St. Paul, is the fulfilling of the law. The humblest and most ignorant moral creatures, therefore, are in this manner efficaciously preserved from mistaking their duty. " In the meantime, these two precepts, notwithstanding their brevity, are so comprehensive as to include every possible moral action. The archangel is not raised above their control, nor can any action of his exceed that bound which they pre- scribe. The child who has passed the verge of moral agency, is not placed beneath their regulation; and whatever virtue he may exercise, is no other than a fulfilling of their requisitions. All the duties which we immediately owe to God, to our fellow- creatures, and to ourselves, are, by these precepts, alike com- prehended and required. In a word, endlessly varied as moral action may be, it exists in no form or instance in which he who perfectly obeys these precepts will not have done his duty, and will not find himself justified and accepted by God." CHAPTER III. ON THE MORAL LAW, AND THE RATIONAL GROUNDS ON WHICH ITS PRECEPTS ARE FORMED. IN the preceding chapters, I have endeavoured to illustrate the foundation of love to God, from a consideration of his attributes, and the relations in which he stands to his creatures. I have also illustrated the rational grounds of love to our neighbour, from a consideration of the natural equality of mankind, of the various relations in which they stand to one another, and of their eternal destination. The dismal conse- quences which would result from a total subversion of these laws, the beneficial effects which would flow from their universal operation, their application to the inhabitants of other worlds, the declarations of Scripture on this subject, and the various modes in which benevolence should display its activities, have also been the subject of consideration. The two principles now illustrated, may be considered as two branches proceeding from the same trunk, and spreading into different ramifications. The first four commandments of the moral law may be viewed as flowing from the principle of love to God, and the remaining six as ramifications of the principle of benevolence, or love to man. In the following brief illustrations, I shall endeavour to show the reasonableness of these moral laws in relation to man, from a consideration of the misery which would necessarily result from their universal violation, and of the happiness which would flow from universal obedience to their requisitions. These laws were published in the most solemn manner to the tribes of Israel in the wilderness of Horeb. While mount Sinai was shaking to its centre, and smoking like a furnace; while flames of fire were ascending from its summit, and thick darkness surrounding its base; while thunders were rolling in the clouds above, and lightnings flashing amidst the surround- ing gloom; and while the earth was quaking all around, aud 180 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. the voice of a trumpet waxing louder and louder, in the midst of this solemn and terrific scene, God spake the commandments with an articulate voice, in the hearing of the trembling mul- titude assembled round the mountain. A combination of ob- jects more awful and impressive the human mind can scarcely conceive. The most solemn preparations were made for this divine manifestation : the people of Israel were commanded to purify themselves from every mental and corporeal pollution, and strictly enjoined to keep within the boundaries marked out for them, and not to rush within the limits assigned to these <j,wful symbols of the Deity. An assemblage of celestial beings, from another region of creation, was present on this occasion, to perform important services, to swell the grandeur of the scene, and to be witnesses of the impressive transactions of that solemn day. 1 Moses was appointed as a temporary mediator between God and the people, to explain to them in milder terms the words of the law, and the further intimations of the Divine will. Yet so terrible were the symbols of the present Deity, that even Moses was appalled, and said, " I exceedingly fear and quake." In order that the impressive words which were uttered on that day might not be forgotten in future generations, they were written on tables of stone with the finger of God. They were not simply drawn on a plain, like the strokes of writing upon paper, but the characters were engraved, or cut out of the solid stone, so that they could not be erased. They were not written on paper or parchment, or even on wood, but on stone, which is a much more durable material. " The tables were written upon both their sides, on the one side, and on the other were they written ; and the tables were the work of God, and the writing was the writing of God, graven upon the tables." 2 This was intended to prevent the possibility of any thing being 1 Stephen says, that the Jews, " received the law by the disposition ot angels." Grotius observes, on this passage, that the Greek proposition il;, here signifies amidst, and that ^larayoct uyyihav, denotes troops of angels ranged in military order; and that there is a reference to Deut., xxxiii, 2: " The Lord came from Sinai, and rose up from Seir unto them; he shined forth from Mount Paran, and he came with ten thousands of his holy ones ; from his right hand went a fiery law for them." 2 Exod. stxii, 45. MORAL LAW. 181 added to the law, or taken from it. The tables were two in number, the one containing precepts which inculcate love to God, the other containing those which enjoin the love of our neighbour. These laws, thus engraven on the most durable materials, were deposited in the most sacred part of the taber- nacle, in the ark of the covenant under the mercy-seat. All the striking circumstances now mentioned, were evidently in- tended to proclaim the Majesty and Grandeur of the supreme Legislator the excellency and perfection of his law, that it is the eternal and unalterable rule of rectitude that it is of perpetual obligation on all the inhabitants of the earth that it is the rule of action to angels and archangels, and to all other moral intelligences, as well as to the human race and that the most dreadful consequences must ensue on all those who persist in violating its precepts. The proclamation of this law was prefaced by these words, " I am Jehovah thy God," which contain a ground and reason for our obedience. They evidently imply, that he is the Self- existent and Eternal Being who brought the universe into existence, who " garnished the heavens, and laid the founda- tions of the earth," and peopled all worlds with their inhabi- tants that he has sovereign authority to prescribe a rule of action to his creatures that he knows best what laws are requisite to preserve the order of his vast empire, and to secure the happiness of the intelligent creation that he is the former of our bodies, the father of our spirits, and the director of all the movements of nature and providence, from whose unceasing agency every enjoyment proceeds and that all his regulations and arrangements are calculated to promote the present and everlasting felicity of all rational agents that submit to his authority. That these laws are not mere acts of Divine Sovereignty, but founded upon the nature of things, and are calculated to preserve the harmony and order of the intelligent universe, will appear from the following illustrations and remarks. THE FIRST COMMANDMENT. "Thou slialt have no other gods before me." All the commandments except the fourth and fifth, are ei- 182 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. pressed in a negative form: but it is obvious, that every nega- tive command includes a requisition of the duty which is op- posed to the sin forbidden ; and those which are positive include a prohibition of the conduct which is opposed to the duty re- quired. This first commandment, therefore, though expressed in the negative form, must be considered as including a positive injunction to love God with all our hearts, to offer a tribute of supreme adoration to his perfections, and to exercise the graces of hope, gratitude, submission, and reverence. Having already considered the precept in this point of view, (pp. 76-87,) it 'is only necessary, in this place, to attend for a little to the negative form of the command. The prohibition contained in this precept must be considered as extending not only to poly- theism, and the various objects of worship which have prevailed in the heathen world, but to every thing which is the object of our supreme affection and regard. It is a dictate of enlightened reason, that the Being to whom we are indebted for existence, on whom we every moment de- pend, who daily loads us with his benefits, and on whom our hopes of eternal felicity entirely depend should be contem- plated with the most ardent affection and gratitude, and recog- nised as the Supreme Legislator, whose laws we are bound, by every tie of gratitude, to obey. Wherever such sentiments and affections pervade the mind, they constitute the first prin- ciples of piety, the source of all holy obedience, and the foun- dation of all true happiness. Were they universally felt and acted upon by human beings, the Most High God would be adored in every laud, his image would be impressed on every heart, his righteous laws would never be violated, and our world would be transformed into an abode of felicity. On the other hand, where the unity and the attributes of the Divine Being are not recognised, and where other objects are substituted in his place, the foundations of religion and of moral order are completely subverted, and a door opened for the introduction of every absurdity, immorality, and vile abo- mination, that can degrade a rational intelligence. The com- mand under consideration is placed on the front of the Divine law, as the foundation of all the other precepts; and therefore, wherever it is violated, or not recognised, a regular obedience MORAL LAW. 183 to the other subordinate injunctions of religion is not, in the nature of things, to be expected. Were its violation, in our world complete and universal, it is impossible to say what would be the miserable condition of human beings in their social capacity. To this general violation may be traced all the evils under which humanity has groaned in every age, and all the depraved passions and shocking immoralities which now disfigure the aspect of the moral world. There is nothing that appears more prominent in the history and the character of almost every nation under heaven than an infringement of this first and fundamental law of the Creator. An enlightened mind, on a first consideration of this subject, would be apt to surmise that such a law is almost superfluous and unnecessary. There is such an immense disproportion be- tween a block of marble, or a crawling reptile, and that Being who supports the system of universal nature, that it appears, at first view, next to impossible, that a reasonable being should ever become so stupid and degraded as to substitute the one for the other, and to offer his adorations to an object completely devoid of power and intelligence. Yet experience teaches us, that there is no disposition to which the human mind is more prone than " to depart from the living God,* and to multiply objects of idolatrous worship. This will appear if we take but the slightest glance of the objects of adoration which have pre- vailed and which still prevail in the pagan world. At one period of the world, with the single exception of the small nation of the Jews, idolatry overspread the face of the whole earth. And how numerous and degrading were the ob- jects which the blinded nations adored ! We are informed by Hesiod, Varro, and other ancient authors, that no less than thirty thousand subordinate divinities were compromised within /hat system of idolatry which prevailed among the Greeks and Romans. They had both celestial and terrestrial deities. They assigned peculiar gods to the fountains, the rivers, the hills, the mountains, the lawns, the groves, the sea, and even to hell it- self. The cities, fields, houses, edifices, families, gates, nuptial chambers, marriages, births, deaths, sepulchres, they also ap- propriated distinct and peculiar deities. Their principal celestial deities were Jupiter, Mars, Mercury, Apollo, Bacchus, Venus, 184 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. Juno, and Minerva their terrestrial, Saturn, Ceres, Diana, Neptune, Cybele, Proserpine, and Pluto. Their chief idol was Jupiter, whom they called the Father of gods and men ; and under his authority, Neptune had the jurisdiction of the sea, Juno of the air, Cybele of the earth, and Pluto of the realms below. Instead of worshipping- the living and immortal God, they deified a host of dead men, called heroes, distinguished for nothing so much as for murder, adultery, sodomy, rapine, cruelty, drunkenness, and all kinds of debauchery. To such contemptible divinities splendid temples were erected, 1 adora- tions addressed, costly offerings presented, and rites and cere- monies performed, subversive of every principle of decency and morality, and degrading to the reason and the character of man. A system of idolatry of a similar kind, though under a different form, prevailed among the Egyptians. The meanest and most contemptible objects sheep, cats, bulls, dogs, cows, storks, apes, vultures, and other birds of prey, wolves, and se- veral sorts of oxen were exalted as objects of adoration, " If you go into Egypt," says Lucian, "you will see Jupiter with the face of a ram, Mercury as a fine dog, Pan is become a goat; another god is Ibis, another the crocodile, and another the ape. There, many shaven priests gravely tell us, that the gods, being afraid of the rebellion of the giants, assumed these shapes. " Each city and district in Egypt entertained a peculiar devotion for some animal or other, as the object of its adoration. The city Lentopolis worshipped a lion; the city Mendez a goat; Memphis, the apis; and the people at the lake of Myris adored the crocodile. These animals were maintained, in or near their temples, with delicate meats; were bathed, anointed, perfumed, had beds prepared for them; and when any of them happened to die, sumptuous funerals were prepared in honour of the god. Of all these animals, the bull, apis, was held in the greatest venera- tion. Honours of an extraordinary kind were conferred on him while he lived, and his death gave rise to a general mourning. 1 The temple of Diana at Ephesus has been always admired as one oi the noblest pieces of architecture that the world ever produced. It was 425 feet long, 200 feet broad, and supported by 127 columns of marble 60 feet high : 27 of which were beautifully carved. Diodorus Siculus mentions, that the rich presents made to the temple of Apollo at Delphoa amounted to one million three hundred and thirty -three thousand pounds. IDOLATRY. 185 Such was the abominable idolatry that prevailed even among the most enlightened nations of antiquity. They changed the glory of the incorruptible God into " the similitude of an ox that eateth grass," and into images made like to corruptible man, and to birds, and to four-footed beasts, and creeping things. And if the Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Romans, who were distinguished from the rest of the world for their im- provements in literature, science, and the arts, had so far re- nounced their allegiance to the true God, we may rest assured that the surrounding nations were sunk still further into the pollutions of idolatry and of mental debasement. The Pheni- cians, the Syrians, the Canaanites, the Chaldeans and Baby- lonians, the Arabians, the Scythians, the Ethiopians, and the Carthaginians, the ancient Gauls, Germans, and Britons, were, if possible, more deeply debased ; and mingled with their idola- trous rites many cruel, obscene, and vile abominations. Such is still the moral debasement, even in modern times, of the greater part of the nations which dwell upon the earth. Even the Hindoos, the Birmans, the Chinese, the Persians, and the Japanese, thougli ranked among the most polished nations of the heathen world, are sunk into the grossest ignorance of the true God, and are found perpetrating, in their religious wor- ship, deeds revolting to humanity, and stained with cruelty and injustice The moral effects which were produced by a departure from this fundamental law of the Creator, were such as corresponded with the abominations of that religious system which was adopted. Man is an imitative being; and he generally imitates the actions of those whom he conceives to be placed in a supe- rior rank and station. When, therefore, the gods were intro- duced to his view as swollen with pride, mad with rage, fired with revenge, inflamed with lusts, engaged in battles and con- tests, delighting in scenes of blood and rapine, in hatred and mutual contentions, and in all kinds of riot and debauchery, it was natural to suppose that such passions and crimes would be imitated by their blind votaries. Accordingly we find, that such vices universally prevailed, even among the politest na- tions of antiquity; and some of their sacred rites, solemnised in honour of their gods, were so bestial and shocking as to ex- 186 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION cite horror in every mind possessed of the least sense of decencj and virtue. They gloried in the desolation and destruction of neighbouring nations. To conquer, and oppress, and enslave their fellow-men, and to aggrandise themselves by slaughter and rapine, were the great objects of their ambition. The law of kindness and universal benevolence was trampled under foot, and even the common dictates of humanity and justice were set at defiance. But this was not all Idolatry soon began to instigate its votaries to the perpetration of the most revolting and unnatural cruelties. Dreadful tortures were inflicted on their bodies, to appease their offended deities; human victims in vast numbers, were sacrificed, and even their infants and little children were thrown into the flames, as an offering to the idol which they adored. The Mexicans were accustomed to treat themselves with the most inhuman austerities, thinking that the diabolical rage of their deities would be appeased by human blood. " It makes one shudder," says Clavigero, "to read the austerities which they practiced upon themselves, either in atonement for their transgressions, or in preparation for their festivals. They mangled their flesh as if it had been insensible, and let their blood run in such profusion, as if it been a superfluous fluid in the body. They pierced themselves with the sharpest spines of the aloe, and bored several parts of their bodies, particularly their ears, lips, tongues, and the fat of their arms and legs." The priests of Baal, we are told in the book of Kings, " cut themselves with knives and lancets, till the blood gushed out upon them." When the Carthaginians were vanquished by Agathocles, king of Sicily, they conceived that their god, Jupiter Latialis, was displeased with their conduct. In order to appease him, and propitiate his favour, they sacrificed to him at once, two hundred sons of the first noblemen of their state. On the altars of Mexico, twenty thousand human beings are said to have been sacrificed every year ; and fifty thousand were annually offered up in the various parts of this empire, accompanied with circumstances of such dreadful cruelty and horror, as makes us shudder at the recital. In Hindostan, thousands of women were annually burned on the funeral piles of their deceased husbands, as victims to the religion they pro- IDOLATRY 187 fess; besides multitudes of other human victims, which are crushed to death under the wheels of that infernal engine which supports the idol Juggernaut. Were the one hundredth part of the abominations which have been perpetrated under the system of idolatry, in those countries where it has prevail- ed, to be fully detailed, it would exhibit a picture of infernal agency, at which the mind would shrink back with horror ; and would form a striking commentary on the divine declara- tion, that " the dark places of the earth are full of the habita- tions of cruelty." It appears, then, that a violation of the first precept of the moral law is the greatest crime of which a rational creature can be guilty; for it is the source of all the other crimes which have entailed wretchedness on mankind, and strewed the earth with devastation and carnage. It is a comprehensive summary of wickedness; which includes pride, falsehood, blasphemy, malignity, rebellion, hatred of moral excellence, and the basest ingratitude towards him from whom we derived our being, and on whom we depend for all our enjoyments. It is a crime which above all others has a tendency to degrade the charac- ter of man; for where it abounds, the human mind is sunk into the lowest state, both of moral and of intellectual debase- ment. What a pitiful and humiliating sight it is, and what emotions of astonishment must it excite in the mind of an archangel, to behold a rational and immortal intelligence cut- ting down an oak in the forest, burning part of it in the fire, baking bread and roasting flesh upon its embers, and forming the residue into an idol, falling down and worshipping it, and saying, " Deliver me, for thou art my God!" 1 And when we behold the same degraded mortal sacrificing the children of his own bowels before this stump of a tree, can we refrain from exclaiming, in the language of the prophet, "Be astonished, ye heavens, at this, and be ye horribly afraid ! " Were idola- try to become universal in the world, there is no crime, no species of cruelty, no moral abomination within the compass of the human heart to devise, but would soon be perpetrated without a blush, in the open face of day. Had not God, ia 1 See Isaiah, xliv, 0-21. 188 PHILOSOPHY OP KELIGION his mercy, communicated a revelation of his will, in order to counteract the influence of Pagan theology, instead of culti- vating the powers of our minds, and expanding our conception of the Almighty, by a contemplation of his word and works, wo might at this moment have been sunk into the lowest depths of moral degradation, been prostrating ourselves in adoration before a stupid ox, or a block of marble, and sacrificing our sons and daughters to an infernal Moloch. It is one of the glories of Revelation, and a strong proof of its divine origin, that all its promises and threatenings, its admonitions and reproofs, its doctrines, its laws and ordinances, are directly op- posed to every idolatrous practice ; and that there is not a single instance in which the least countenance is given to any of the abominations of the Pagan world. In the present age, and in the country in which we reside, we are in little danger of relapsing into the practices to which I have now adverted. But idolatry is not confined to the ado- ration of pagan divinities: it has its seat in every heart where God is banished from the thoughts, and where pride, ambition, and avarice occupy the highest place. " Covetousness," or an inordinate love of wealth, is declared by the Apostle Paul to be " idolatry;" and such mental idolatry, though more refined than that of the heathen world, is almost equally abhorrent to the Divine Being, and equally subversive of the grand princi- ples of Christian morality. If the acquisition of wealth and riches be the constant and supreme aim of any individual, Mammon is the God whom he regularly worships, and the God of heaven is dethroned from his seat in the affections. Such moral effects as the following are the natural results of this species of idolatry: It steels the heart against every benevo- lent and generous emotion; it shuts the ears to the cries of the poor and needy; it engenders cheating, falsehood, and deceit; it prevents the man in whom it predominates from exerting his active powers, and from contributing of his wealth to promote the happiness of mankind ; it chains down his noble faculties to the objects of time and sense ; it leads him to love and to serve himself more than the Creator; it wraps him up in selfish- ness, and an indifference to the concerns of all other beings; it undermines the principles of equity and justice; it blunts the IMAGE -WORSHIP. 189 feelings of humanity and compassion; and prevents him from attending to the salvation of his soul, and from looking at those things which are unseen and eternal. And in every other case where a similar principle holds the supreme seat in the affections, similar effects will be produced. THE SECOND COMMANDMENT. " Thou slialt not make unto thee any graven image, nor any likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the waters under the earth: thou shalt not bow down thyself to them, nor serve them." The first commandment, which I have illustrated above, re- spects the object of our worship ; forbidding us to substitute any other being in the room of God, or to offer to it that homage which is due to the eternal Jehovah. The second commandment respects the manner in which he is to be wor- shipped. And in regard to the manner in which the Divine Being is to be contemplated and adored, it is expressly declar- ed, that no image or representation of this incomprehensible Being is, at any time, or on any account, to be formed. This command, like the former, might at first sight appear to be unnecessary, if the almost universal practice of mankind had not taught us, that there is no disposition which the human mind is more apt to indulge, than to endeavour to bring the invisible Divinity within the range of our senses, and to con- template him as such a one as ourselves. The necessity of this injunction, its reasonableness, and the folly and absurdity of the practice against which it is directed, will appear from the following considerations. The Divine being fills the immensity of space with his pre- sence, and to his essence we can set no bounds. He inhabited eternity, before the earth or the heavens were brought into ex- istence, rejoicing in the contemplation of his own excellencies, and in the future effects of his power and benevolence. He is a spiritual, uncompounded substance, and consequently invisi- ble to mortal eyes, and impalpable to every other organ of sen- sation. His Omnipotence neither man nor angei can scan, nor 190 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. can they explore the depths of his wisdom and intelligence. At his command, worlds, numerous as the sand, started into being. Thousands of suns diffused their splendours through the regions of immensity; the ponderous masses of the planets were launch- ed into existence, and impelled in their rapid courses through the sky their surfaces were adorned with resplendent heauties, and replenished with myriads of delighted inhabitants. The seraphim and the cherubim began to chaunt their hymns of praise, "and shouted for joy," when they beheld new worlds emerging from the voids of space. Life, motion, activity, beauty, grandeur, and rapturous joy, among unnumbered in- telligencies, burst upon the view. And ever since duration began to be measured by the revolutions of celestial orbs, the same omnipotent energy has been incessantly exerted in direct- ing the movements of all worlds, and in upholding them in their vast career. Of a Being invested with attributes so glori- ous and incomprehensible, with power so astonishing in its effects, with goodness so boundless, and with wisdom so un- searchable, what image or representation can possibly be formed which will not tend to contract our conceptions, and to debase the character of the infinite and eternal Mind! "To whom will ye liken me, or shall I be equal? saith the HOLY ONE." Every attempt to represent the Divine Majesty by sensible images must have a tendency to narrow our conceptions of his glory, to debase his character, and to lessen our reverence and respect. What possible similitude can there be between that mighty Being, who, by his word, lighted up the sun, and dif- fused ten thousands of such immense luminaries through the regions of creation, whose hand wields the planets, and rolls them through the tracts of immensity, between Him who " meteth out the heavens with a span, and holds the ocean in the hollow of his hand" and the most resplendent image that was ever formed by human hands! Even the sun himself, with all his immensity of splendour, although our minds were ex- panded to comprehend his vast magnificence, would form but a poor and pitiful image of him whose breath has kindled ten thousand times ten thousand suns. How much less can a block of marble, or a stupid ox, adumbrate the glories of the King eternal, immortal, and invisible I It will, doubtless, redound IMAGE WORSHIP. 1 $ to the eternal disgrace of the human character, in every region of the universe where it is known, that ever such an impious attempt was made by the inhabitants of our world, as to com- pare the glory of the incorruptible God to an image made like to corruptible man. Wherever such attempts have been made, there we behold human nature in its lowest state of debasement ; the intellectual faculties darkened, bewildered, and degraded; the moral powers perverted and depraved; grovelling affections predominating over the dictates of reason, and diabolical pas- sions raging without control. Hence, too, the debasing ten- dency of all those attempts which have been made to introduce into the Christian church pictures and images to represent " the invisible things of God," and the sufferings of the Redeemer. For wherever such practices prevail, the minds of men will generally be found to entertain the grossest conceptions of the Divine Being, and of the solemn realities of religion. But the principal reason why any representation of God is expressly forbidden in this commandment, is that whenever such a practice commences, it infallibly ends in adoring the image ifself, instead of the object it was intended to represent. Or, in other words, the breach of this commandment necessarily and uniformly leads to a breach of the first. Notwithstanding the shock which the human mind appears to have received by the fall, it is altogether inconceivable, that any tribe of mankind should have been so debased and brutalised as, in the first in- stance, to mistake a crocodile, or the stump of a tree, however beautifully carved, for the Creator of heaven and earth. Such objects appear to have been first used as symbols or represen- tations of the Deity, in order to assist the mind in forming a conception of his invisible attributes. But as they had a direct tendency to debase the mind, and to obscure the glory of the Divinity, in process of time they began to be regarded by the ignorant multitude as the very gods themselves, which they were at first intended to represent; and that tribute of adoration was paid to the symbol itself, which was originally intended to be given to the invisible God, through this sensible medium. And when we contemplate kings and princes, poets and philo- sophers, heroes and sages, " young men and virgins, old men and children," whole provinces, nations, and continents, pros- 192 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. trating themselves before the shrine of such despicable idols, and the idea of the true God almost banished from the world, we have reason to feel ashamed that we belong to a race of intellk gencies that have thus so grossly prostituted their rational and moral powers. The only natural image or representation of God which is set before us for our contemplation, is, the boundless universe which his hands have formed; and his moral image is displayed in the laws which he has published, in the movements of his pro- vidence, and in the face of Jesus Christ his Son, who is " the image of the invisible God, and the brightness of his glory." All these exhibitions of the Divine Majesty, we are commanded to study and contemplate; and it is essentially requisite, in order to our acquiring correct and comprehensive views of the object of our adoration, that no one of these displays of the Divinity should be overlooked, or thrown into the shade. There are some Christians who imagine they may acquire a competent knowledge of the character of God, although they should never spend a single moment in contemplating his perfections as dis- played in his visible works. In regard to such, I hesitate not to affirm, that they are contented with most inadequate concep- tions of the Deity, so long as they refuse to contemplate, with intelligence, the operations of his hands. If a man's ideas never extend beyond the bounds of his visible horizon, and if, at the same time, he has overlooked the most striking displays of Di- vine wisdom and goodness within these bounds his conceptions of the Divine Being himself will nearly correspond with the conceptions he forms of his works. If his views be even con- fined within the limits of the globe on which he dwells, his con- ceptions of God will still be grovelling and imperfect. We can never expect, from the very nature of things, to be able to explore the depths of Jehovah's essence, or to compre- hend the whole range of his dominions and government. But a large portion of his operations lies open to our inspection; and it is from an enlightened contemplation of what is presented to our view in the visible universe, that we are, in some measure, at least, to form our conceptions of the grandeur of the Eternal Mind. For it may be admitted as an axiom, both in natural and revealed theology, that our conceptions of God will nearly IMAGE WORSHIP. 193 correspond with the conceptions we acquire of the nature and extent of his operations. In the universe around us, we per- ceive an image of his infinity, in so far as finite and material existence can adumbrate the attributes of an Infinite and Invi- sible Existence. When we lift our eyes towards the midnight sky, we behold a thousand suns diffusing their splendours from regions of space immeasurably distant. When we apply a tele- scope to any portion of this vast concave, we perceive thousands more which the unassisted eye cannot discern. When we in- crease the magnifying powers of the instrument, we descry numerous orbs of light, stretching still farther into the unfa- thomable depths of space; so that there appear no limits to the scene of creating power. When the eye of reason penetrates beyond all that is visible through the most powerful telescopes, it contemplates a boundless region teeming with other resplen- dent suns and systems, whose number and magnificence over- whelm the imagination; so that no limit can be set to the ex- cursions of the intellect when it wings its flight over the wide empire of Jehovah. Over all this vast assemblage of material splendour, over its movements, and over all the diversified ranks of intelligence it supports, God eternally and unchangeably pre- sides. He is an Infinite Being; arid in this immense universe which he has opened to our view, he has given us an image of his infinity, which corresponds with the perfections which the inspired writers ascribe to him and without a contemplation of which, the mind must have a very unworthy and circumscribed idea of the attributes of the Eternal Mind. Even in many of the objects which surround us in this lower world, we perceive an image of the infinity of the Creator particularly in those living worlds which are contained in a few drops of water, some of the inhabitants of which are several hundreds of thousands of times smaller than the least grain of sand. To the contem- plation of such objects we are directed by God himself, in order to acquire an impressive view of his character and operations: " Lift up your eyes on high, and behold who hath created these orbs, that bringeth out their host by number: he calleth them all by names, by the greatness of his might, for that he is etrong in power. And the prophets, when reasoning against idolatry, present us with a train of thoughts similar to that to 14 N 194 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. which I have now adverted. They describe the Almighty as " sitting on the circle of the heavens, and the inhabitants of the earth as grasshoppers in his sight." They represent him as " measuring the waters in the hollow of his hand, weighing the mountains in scales, and meting out the heavens with a span before whom all nations are as the drop of a bucket, and are counted to him less than nothing and vanity." It is strange, indeed, that the duty of contemplating the image of God as impressed upon his works, should be so much overlooked by the great body of the Christian world, notwith- standing the obvious reasonableness of this duty, and the pointed injunctions in relation to it which are reiterated in every de- partment of the word of God. It is most unaccountable, on every principle of reason, and revelation, that the wilful neglect of this duty should never be accounted either as a sin, or as a want of that respect which is due to the Majesty of Heaven. This fact is still more unaccountable, when we consider, that a knowledge of the abstrusities and technicalities of science is not requisite in order to the performance of this duty. It re- quires only the eye of sense, of reason, and of devotion, to be directed to the scene of divine operation within us and around us, and to be occasionally fixed on the object we contemplate, in order to appreciate the perfections and the glory of the ever- present Deity. It was chiefly owing to such criminal inattention to the dis- plays of the Divine Character in the works of creation, that the inhabitants of the Pagan world plunged themselves into all the absurdities and abominations of idolatry: " For the invisible things of God, even his eternal power and Godhead, are clearly .seen in the things that are made," if men would but open their eyes, and exercise their powers of intelligence: " The heavens declare the glory of Jehovah;" they declare to all the inhabi- tants of the earth: " There is no speech nor language where their voice is not heard : their line is gone out through all the earth, and their words to the end of the world." " In Reason's ear they all rejoice And utter forth a glorious voice ; For ever singing, as they shine, ' The hand that made us is divine !' " RELIGIOUS VENERATION. 195 But the Heathen world did not listen to the instructions thus conveyed, nor did they apply their understandings, as they ought to have done, to trace the invisible things of God, from the visible displays of his character and perfections in the uni- verse around them : " They became vain in their imaginations, and their foolish hearts were darkened; and professing them- selves to be wise, they became fools." While "the harp and the viol, the tabret, the pipe, and the wine, were in their feasts, they regarded not the works of the Lord, nor considered the operations of his hands." Wherefore they were given up by God to indulge "in vile affections," and "to worship and serve the creature rather than the Creator, who is blessed for ever." And, even under the Christian dispensation, we have too much reason to fear, that effects somewhat analogous to these have been produced, owing to inattention to the visible operations of Jehovah, and not connecting them with the dis- plays of his character and agency as exhibited in the revelations of his word. THE THIRD COMMANDMENT. " Thou shall not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain." The name of any person is that which distinguishes him from other individuals. Whatever word is employed to dis- tinguish any object, whether animate or inanimate, is its name. In like manner, the Name of God is that by which he is dis- tinguished from all other beings. It includes those terms which express his nature and character, as Jehovah those titles by which his relation to his creatures is designated, as " The Creator of the ends of the earth, The Father of mercies,* The God of salvation," etc., the attributes of which he is pos- sessed, as his Eternity, Omniscience, Omnipotence, Holiness, Justice, etc., the works which he has exhibited in heaven and on earth the movements of his Providence, and the Revela- tions of his word. By every one of these, the character of God is distinguished from that of all other beings in the universe. In relation to this name or character of the Divine Being, it is solemnly commanded, that " we are not to take it in vain,*' that is, we are not to use any of the titles or designations of 196 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. the Divine Majesty, for trifling, vain, or evil purposes ; nor are we to treat any displays of his character with levity, profane- ness, or irreverence. We violate this command, when we use the name of God, in common discourse, in a light and irreverent manner ; when we interlard our conversation with unnecessary oaths and assevera- tions in which this name is introduced ; when we swear to what we know to be false, or when we multiply oaths in reference to vain and trifling concerns; when we imprecate curses and damnation on our fellow-creatures ; when we approach God in prayer without those feelings of reverence and awe which his perfections demand ; when we swear by any object in heaven or in earth, or by the false deities of the heathen world ; when we treat his wonderful works with indifference or contempt ; when we endeavour to caricature and misrepresent them ; or attempt to throw a veil over their glory; when we insinuate that his most glorious and magnificent works were made for no end worthy of that infinite wisdom and intelligence by which they were contrived ; when we overlook or deny the Divine Agency, which is displayed in the operations of nature ; when we mur- mur and repine at his moral dispensations, or view the mighty movements of his Providence with a spirit of levity; when we treat the revelations of the Bible with indifference or with scorn; when we make the declarations of that book which unfolds to us the adorable character of Jehovah, the subject of merriment and jest ; when we endeavour to throw upon them contempt and ridicule, with the view of undermining their divine autho- rity; and when we sneer at the public and private worship of God, and at the ordinances he hath appointed. In all these and many other ways, the name of God is profaned, and that reverence of the Divine Being, which is the foundation of all religion and moral order, undetermined and subverted. The profanation of the name of God has an evident tendency to lessen our admiration of the Majesty of Heaven, and to banish from the mind every sentiment of veneration and reve- rence. The man who can deliberately violate this command from day to day thus offering a continual insult to his Maker proclaims to all around, that he has no emotions of reverence and affection towards that Almighty Being, whose power up- RELIGIOUS VENERATION. 1 97 holds the fabric of heaven and earth, and who dispenses life and death to whomsoever he pleases. " He stretcheth out his hand against God, and strengtheneth himself against the Al- mighty." He proclaims to every reflecting mind, that pride, enmity, and rebellion are deeply seated in his heart, and that "the fear of God," and the solemnities of a future judgment, " are not before his eyes." Were the violation of this law to become universal among men the name of God, among all ranks, ages, and conditions of life, would be associated, not only with every trifling dis- course and altercation, but with every species of ribaldry and obscenity. All reverence for Jehovah would be banished from society: no silent adorations of the heart would ascend to his throne ; no forms of worship appointed ; no tribute of thanks- giving and gratitude would be offered to his name, but the voice of profanity and of execration, among high and low, in every social intercourse would resound throughout all lands. No mo- tives to excite to moral action would be derived from the au- thority and the omnipresence of God, and from a consideration of his future retributions; for his character would be reproached and his authority trampled under foot by all people. " They would set their mouths against the heavens in their blasphemous talk," and would say, " How doth God know, and is there knowledge in the Most High?" " What is the Almighty that we should serve him, and what profit shall we have if we pray unto him? " " The Lord doth not see, neither doth the God of Jacob regard us." His wonderful works would either be overlooked, or treated with contempt, or ascribed to the blind operations of chance or of fate. They would be represented as accomplishing no end, as displaying no wisdom, and as con- trolled by no intelligent agency. Their apparent irregularities and defects would be magnified ; while the glorious evidences they exhibit of infinite wisdom and beneficence would be thrown completely into the shade. The dispensations of his Providence would be viewed as an inextricable maze, without order or design, directed by chance, and by the ever varying caprice of human beings. His venerable word would universally become the subject of merriment and ridicule, and a theme for enliven- ing the unhallowed song of the drunkard. The most solemn 198 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. scenes which it displays, and its most joyful and alarming declarations, would be equally treated with levity and con- tempt. Such are some of the impious practices which would follow, if the name of Jehovah were universally profaned. The very name of religion would he plotted out from the earth, its forms abolished, its sanctions disregarded, its laws violated, virtue and piety annihilated, the floodgates of every evil hurst open, and moral order entirely subverted. On the other hand, universal reverence of the name and cha- racter of God would lead to the practice of all the duties of piety and morality. The Most High would be recognised with sentiments of veneration at all times, and the silent adorations of the heart would flow out towards him in all places ; in the house and in the street, in the bosom of the forest and in the fertile plain, in the city and in the wilderness, under the shades of night and amidst the splendours of day. In every place, temples would be erected for his worship, hallelujahs of praise would ascend, and "incense and a pure offering" be presented to his name. With reverence and godly fear, and with expan- sive views of his magnificence and glory, would his worshippers approach him in prayer, in praise, in contemplation, and in all the services of his sanctuary. The whole earth would be consecrated as one grand temple, from which a grateful ho- mage would ascend from the hearts and the lips of millions of devout worshippers. In the domestic circle, in " the high places of the city," in the councils of nations, and in every other intercourse of human beings, the name of God would never be mentioned, nor his character alluded to, but with feelings of profound and reverential awe. His works would be contemplated with admiration and gratitude, as proclaim- ing the glory of his kingdom, the depths of his wisdom, and the extent of his power. His mighty movements among the nations would be regarded with submission and reverence, as accomplishing the eternal purposes of his will ; and his holy word would be perused by all classes of men, with affection and delight, as the oracle which proclaims the glories of his nature, the excellence of his laws, the blessings of his salva- tion, and the path which conducts to eternal felicity in the life to come. Such are some of the delightful effects which would INSTITUTION OF THE SABBATU. 199 follow were a sentiment of profound reverence to pervade the whole mass of human beings ; and corresponding sentiments of love and affection for each other would be the necessary and unceasing accompaniments of respect and veneration for their common Parent. THE FOURTH COMMANDMENT. " Remember the Sabbath-day to keep it holy. Six days shall thou labour, and do all thy work: but the seventh day is the Sabbath of the Lord thy God, 1 ' etc. This commandment obviously enjoins the setting apart of one day in seven, as a day of rest from worldly labour, and as a portion of time to be devoted to the devotional exercises of religion, and particularly to the public worship of God. It was given forth, not merely to display the Sovereignty of the Lawgiver ; but to promote both the sensitive and the intellec- tual enjoyment of man. "The Sabbath," says our Saviour, " was made for man, and not man for the Sabbath." It was made for man in the first place, as a day of rest. In this point of view, it is a most wise and merciful appoint- ment, especially when we consider the present condition of mankind, as doomed to labour and toil, and to the endurance of many sorrows. When we reflect on the tyrannical disposi- tions which prevail among mankind, on the powerful influence of avarice over the human mind, and on the almost total absence of benevolence and compassion towards suffering hu- manity, wherever such dispositions predominate, we cannot but admire the wisdom and benevolence of the Creator, in the ap- pointment of a weekly jubilee for the rest and refreshment of labourers spent with toil. On this day the master has an op- portunity of divesting his mind of worldly cares and anxieties; the servant of obtaining liberty and respite from his toilsome employments ; and labourers of every class, of enjoying repose in the bosom of their families. Such, however, are the avari- cious dispositions and the contracted views of a great proportion of mankind, that they are apt to regard the institution of the Sabbath as an obstruction to the advancement of their worldly 200 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. interests. They will calculate how much labour has been lost by the rest of one day in seven, and how much wealth might have been gained had the Sabbath not intervened to interrupt their employments. But all such selfish calculations, even in a worldly point of view, proceed on the principles of a narrow and short-sighted policy. We know by experience, that, on the six days out of seven appointed for labour, all the opera- tions requisite for the cultivation of the fields, and for the manufacture of every useful article for the comfort of mankind, can be performed with ease, and without the least injury to any class of men. And what more could be accomplished, although the Sabbath was converted into "a day of labour? Were this violation of the divine command to become univer- sal, it might be shown, that instead of producing an increase of wealth, it would infallibly produce an increase of toil and misery in relation to the great mass of mankind, without any corresponding pecuniary compensation. The labouring class at present receive little more wages than is barely sufficient to procure the necessaries of life. If their physical strength would permit them to work eighteen hours a-day instead of twelve, it is beyond a doubt, that, in a very short time, the work of eighteen hours would be demanded by their employers for the price of twelve, particularly in all cases where a suffi- cient number of labourers can be easily obtained. In like manner, were the Sabbath to be used as a day of labour, the wages of seven days would soon be reduced to what is now given for the labour of six. In the first instance, indeed be- fore such a change was thoroughly effected, the labouring part of the community would acquire a seventh part more wages every week than they did before ; and men accustomed to re- flection, and who never look beyond a present temporary ad- vantage, would imagine that they had acquired a new resource for increasing their worldly gain. But in a very short time, when the affairs of the social state were brought to a certain equilibrium, they would be miserably undeceived; and the abo- lition of the Sabbath, instead of bringing along with it an in- crease of wealth, would carry in its train an increase of labour, a continued series of toilsome and unremitting exertions which would waste their animal powers, cut short the years of INSTITUTION 0* THE SABBATH. 201 their mortal existence, "make their lives bitter with hard bondage," and deprive them of some of the sweetest enjoy- ments which they now possess. And as the Sabbath was appointed for the rest of man, so it was also intended as a season of repose for the inferior ani- mals which labour for our profit. " The seventh day is the Sabbath of the Lord thy God: in it thou shalt not do any work, thou, nor thy man-servant, nor thy maid-servant, nor thy cattle, nor the stranger that is within thy gates." This injunction exhibits the compassionate care and tenderness of the Creator in a very amiable and impressive point of view. It shows us that the enjoyments of the lowest ranks of sensi- tive existence are not beneath his notice and regard. As he knew what degree of relaxation was necessary for the comfort of the labouring animals, and as he foresaw that the avarice and cruelty of man would endeavour to deprive them of their due repose, so he has secured to them, by a law which is to continue in force so long as the earth endures, the rest of one day in seven, in common with their proprietors and superiors. And this privilege they will undoubtedly enjoy hereafter, in a more eminent degree than they have yet done, when man him- self shall be induced to pay a more cordial and unreserved obedience to this divine precept, when " he shall call the Sab- bath a delight, and the holy of the Lord, honourable." Again, the Sabbath was appointed for man as a season for pious recollection, and religious contemplation. "Re- member the Sabbath-day, to keep it holy" Amidst the nu- merous cares and laborious employments of human life, it is impossible to fix the mind, for any length of time, on the divine glory, as displayed in the works of creation, oil the important facts and doctrines of revealed religion, and on the grand realities of the life to come. And therefore, if the labouring classes enjoyed no regular season of repose for serious reflection and religious instruction, the objects of religion would soon be entirely neglected, and the impression of a future world evanish from the mind. But in the wise arrangements of the Creator, an opportunity is afforded to all ranks of men for cultivating their moral and intellectual powers, and for directing them to the study and contemplation of the most glorious and interest- 202 PHILOSOPHY OP RELIGION. ing objects. As the Sabbath was originally instituted as a sacred memorial of the finishing of the work of creation, so it is obvious that the contemplation of the fabric of the universe, and of the perfections of its Almighty Author therein displayed, ought to form one part of the exercises of this holy day; and consequently, that illustrations of this subject ought to be fre- quently brought before the mind in those discourses which are delivered in the assemblies of the saints. Since the references to this subject, throughout the whole of divine Revelation, are so frequent and explicit, it is evident that the Creator intended that this amazing work should be contemplated with admira- tion, and make a deep and reverential impression upon every mind. To call to remembrance the period when the voice of God resounded through the regions of boundless space, "LET THERE BE LIGHT; and there was light" to behold ten thousands of spacious suns lighted up at his command to trace the mighty masses of the planetary worlds projected from the hand of Omnipotence, and running their ample circuits with a ra- pidity which overwhelms our conceptions to contemplate the globe on which we stand emerging from darkness and confu- sion to light and order; adorned with diversified scenes of beauty and sublimity to reflect on the Almighty energy, the boundless intelligence, and the overflowing beneficence, dis- played in this amazing scene, has a tendency to expand the faculties of the human mind, and to excite emotions of rever- ence towards the omnipotent Creator. This is a work which Jehovah evidently intended to be held in everlasting remem- brance by man on earth, and .by all the inhabitants of the heavenly regions. It is the mirror of the Deity, and the na- tural image of the invisible God; and it forms the groundwork of all those moral dispensations towards his intelligent offspring, which will run parallel with eternity itself. And therefore, to overlook this subject in the exercises of the Sabbath, is to throw a veil over the glories of the Deity, to disregard the ad- monitions of his word, and to contemn one of the most magni- ficent and astonishing displays of Divine perfection. " By the word of Jehovah were the heavens made, and all the host of them by the breath of his mouth. He gathereth the waters of the sea together as an heap, he layeth up the depth in store- SABBATICAL EXERCISES. 203 houses. Let all the earth fear the Lord; let all the inhahitants of the world stand in awe of him. For he spake, and it was done; he commanded, and it stood fast." This is a command which never was abrogated, and which never can be abrogated, in relation to any intelligent beings, so long as the Creator exists, and so long as the universe re- mains as a memorial of his power and intelligence. Those sacred songs which are recorded in Scripture for directing the train of our devotional exercises, are full of this subject, and contain specimens of elevated sentiment and of sublime devo- tion, incomparably superior to what is to be found in any other record, whether ancient or modern. 1 As the book of God is the only correct standard of religious worship, so our devotional exercises both in public and in private, ought to be chiefly, if not solely directed by the examples of devotion contained in the inspired writings, which are calculated to regulate and en- liven the pious exercises of men of every age and of every clime. But the celebration of the work of creation is not the only, nor the principal exercise to which we are called on the Chris- tian Sabbath. Had man continued in primeval innocence, this would probably have constituted his chief employment. But he is now called to celebrate, in conjunction with this exercise, a most glorious deliverance from sin and misery, effected by the Redeemer of mankind. And for this reason the Sabbath has been changed from the seventh to the first day of the week, in memorial of the resurrection of Christ, when he was " de- clared to be the Son of God with power." In this deliverance, as in the first creation, a variety of the grandest and most in- teresting objects is presented to our view: The Son of God manifested in the flesh the moral image of the invisible Creator embodied in a human form, displaying every heavenly disposition, and every divine virtue, performing a series of the most astonishing and beneficent miracles, giving sight to the blind, and hearing to the deaf, making the lame man to leap as a hart, and the tongue of the dumb to sing, restoring the infuriated maniac to the exercise of reason, commanding dis- 1 See particularly Psalms viii, xviii, xix, xxix, xxxiii, Ixv, Ixvi, Ixviii, Ixxiv, Ixxxix, xcii, xciii, xciv, xcv, xcvi, c, civ, cvii, cxi, cxxxv, cxxrvi, cxxxix, cxlv, cxlvi, cxlvii, cxlviii, &.c. 204 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. eases to fly at the signal of a touch, raising the dead to life, and, on every occasion, imparting heavenly instructions to at- tending multitudes. We behold this illustrious Personage suspended on the cross encompassed with the waters of afflic- tion, and the agonies of death the veil of the temple rent in twain, from the top to the bottom the rocks of mount Calvary rent asunder the sun covered with blackness darkness sur- rounding the whole land of Judea the graves opening, the dead arising, and the Prince of Life consigned to the mansions of the tomb. On the third morning after this solemn scene, " a great earthquake" having shaken the sepulchre of the Saviour, we behold him bursting the prison-doors of the tomb, and awakening to a new life which shall never end we behold ce- lestial messengers, in resplendent forms, descending from the ethereal regions to announce to his disconsolate disciples, that he who was dead "is alive, and lives for evermore" we be- hold him, at length, bestowing his last benediction on his faithful followers, winging his way on a resplendent cloud, at- tended by myriads of angels, through distant regions, which "eye hath not seen;" and entering into "heaven itself, there to appear in the presence of God. for us." In the redemption achieved by this glorious Person, we are directed to look back on that scene of misery in which sin has involved the human race, and to those "regions of sorrow and doleful shades" from which his mercy has delivered us; and to look forward to a complete deliverance from moral evil, to a resurrection from the grave, and to the enjoyment of uninterrupted felicity in brighter regions, while countless ages roll away. Such are some of the sublime and interesting objects which we are called upon to contemplate on the day appointed for the Christian Sabbath objects which have a tendency to inspire the mind with sacred joy, and with an anticipation of nobler employ- ments in the life to come. Again, the Sabbath was appointed as a stated season for the public worship of God. As mankind are connected by innumerable ties, as they are subject to the same wants and infirmities, are exposed to the same sorrows and afflictions, and stand in need of the same blessing from God, it is highly reasonable and becoming that they should frequently meet to- SABBATICAL EXERCISES. 205 gether, to offer up in unison their thanksgiving and praise to their common henefactor, and to supplicate the throne of his mercy. These exercises are connected with a variety of inte- resting and important associations. In the public assemblies where religious worship is performed, " the rich and the poor meet together." Within the same walls, those who would never have met in any other circumstances, are placed exactly in the same situation before Him in whose presence all earthly distinctions vanish, and who is "the Maker of them all." Here, pride and haughtiness are abased; all an placed on the same level, as sinners before Him "who is of purer eyes than to behold iniquity;" the loftiness of man is humbled, the poor are raised from the dust, and the Lord alone is exalted in the courts of his holiness. Here, we feel ourselves in the imme- diate presence of Him before whom all nations are as the drop of a bucket : we feel our guilty and dependent character, and stand as suppliants for mercy to pardon, and for grace to help us in the time of need. Here, knowledge of the most import- ant kind is communicated to assembled multitudes, almost "without money and without price." Here, the youth and the man of hoary hairs, may learn the character of the true God, and of Jesus Christ whom he hath sent the way to eternal happiness the sources of consolation under the afflic- tions of life and the duties they owe to their Creator and to all mankind. In a word, here the sinner, in the midst of his unhallowed course, is aroused to consideration ; and here the saint is animated and encouraged in his Christian journey, and enjoys a foretaste of the blessedness of heaven, and an earnest of the delightful intercourses and employments of "the saints in light." Let us now suppose, for a moment, that the Sabbath and its exercises were universally abolished from the civilised world. What would be the consequences? The knowledge of the true God, which the institution of the Sabbath, more than any other mean, has tended to perpetuate, would soon be lost, his worship abandoned, and religion and moral principle buried in the dust. In Pagan countries, where the Sabbath is unknown, the true God is never adored, the soul of man is debased, and prostrates itself before the sun and moon, and even before demons, mon- 200 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. sters, insects, reptiles, and blocks of wood and stone. In France, where the Sabbath was for a season abolished, an impious phan- tom, called the Goddess of Reason, was substituted in the room of the Eternal God; the Bible was held up to ridicule, and com- mitted to the flames; man was degraded to the level of thebrutes; and the cheering prospects of immortality were transformed into the shades of an eternal night. Atheism, Scepticism, and Fa- talism, almost universally prevailed; the laws of morality were trampled under foot; and anarchy, plots, assassinations, mas- sacres, and legalised plunder, became " the order of the day." With the loss of the knowledge of God, all impressions of the divine presence, and all sense of the accountableness for human actions, would be destroyed. The restraints of religion, and the prospect of a future judgment, would no longer deter from the commission of crimes; and nothing but the dread of the dun- geon, the gibbet, or the rack, would restrain mankind from the constant perpetration of injustice and deeds of violence. No social prayers from assembled multitudes would be offered up to the Father of mercies; no voice of thanksgiving and praise would ascend to the Ruler of the skies; the work of the creation, as displaying the perfections of the Deity, would cease to be admired and commemorated; and the movements of Providence, and the glories of redemption, would be overlooked and disre- garded. The pursuit of the objects of time and sense, which can be enjoyed only for a few fleeting years, would absorb every faculty of the soul; and the realities of the eternal world would either be forgotten, or regarded as idle dreams. In short, were the Sabbath abolished, or were the law which enforces its obser- vance to be reversed, man would be doomed to spend his mortal existence in an unbroken series of incessant labour and toil; his mental powers would languish, and his bodily strength would be speedily wasted. Habits of cleanliness, civility of deport- ment, and decency of apparel would be disregarded; and the persons and habitations of the labouring classes would soon re- semble the filthiness and the wretched objects which are seen in the kraal of a Hottentot. Their minds would neither be cheered with the prospect of seasons of stated repose in this world, nor with the hope of eternal rest and joy in the world to come. RELATIONS OF MANKIND. 207 TUB FIFTH COMMANDMENT. 41 Honour thy Father and thy Mother." The four preceding commandments, whose importance I have endeavoured to illustrate, were written on a separate tablet from those that follow, and have been generally considered as enjoin- ing the practice of piety, or those duties which more imme- diately respect God as their object. But they also include the duties we owe to ourselves; for in yielding obedience to these requirements, we promote our best interests in this world, and are gradually prepared for participating in the enjoyments of the world to come. These laws are binding upon angels and arch- angels, and upon every class of intelligent beings, in whatever quarter of the universe their residence may be found, as well as upon the inhabitants of the earth. The fourth commandment, indeed, in so far as regards the particular portion of time to be set apart for the worship of God, may be peculiar to the in- habitants of our world. But the spirit of this precept, or the principle on which it is founded, must be common to all worlds. For we can conceive of no class of intelligent creatures, on whom it is not obligatory to devote a certain portion of time for the social worship of their Creator, and for commemorating the displays of his Power and Benevolence; and all holy intelli- gencies will cheerfully join in such exercises, and will consider it as a most ennobling and delightful privilege, to engage, at stated seasons, along with their fellow-worshippers, in adoring the Uncreated Source of their enjoyments. But the stated sea- sons appointed by the creator for such solemn acts of worship, the manner and circumstances in which they shall be performed, may be different in different worlds, according to the situations in which they are placed. The fifth commandment, to which I am now to advert, is one of those moral relations which may possibly be peculiar to the relations which exist in our world; at least it cannot be supposed to apply to the inhabitants of any world where the relations of parents and children, of superiors and inferiors, are alto- gether unknown. But, in the circumstances in which man is placed, it is a law indispensably requisite for preserving the 208 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. order and happiness of the social system. It requires the exer- cise of those dispositions, and the performance of those duties, which are incumbent upon mankind, in the various relations in which they stand to each other. It consequently includes, within its spirit and references, the duties which children owe to their parents, and parents to their children; the duties of husbands and wives, of masters and servants, of teachers and scholars, of brothers and sisters, and of governors and their subjects; to- gether with all those dispositions of reverence, submission, affec- tion, gratitude, and respect, with which the performance of these duties ought to be accompanied. It must also be considered as forbidding every thing that is opposed to these dispositions, and to the obedience required as contumacy, rebellion, and want of respect, on the part of children towards their parents; disobe- dience of servants to the reasonable commands of their masters; and every principle of disaffection and of insubordination among the various ranks of society. That all this is included within the range of this precept might be proved from the principles on which our Saviour explains the sixth and seventh command- ments, in his Sermon on the Mount, and from the illustrations of these duties which are given in the Apostolic epistles, and in other parts of Scripture. As it forms no part of my plan to enter into any particular explanations of the duties required in the Decalogue, which have frequently been expounded by many respectable writers, in works appropriated to this object, I shall simply illustrate, in a few words, the reasonableness of this and the following precepts, from a consideration of the effects which would follow, were these laws universally observed, or universally violated. Were this law to be reversed, or universally violated, it is im- possible to form an adequate conception of the dreadful scene of anarchy and confusion which would immediately ensue. Every social tie would be torn asunder, every relation inverted, every principle of subordination destroyed, every government over- turned, every rank and order of mankind annihilated, and the whole assembly of human beings converted into a discordant mass of lawless banditti. Instead of love, unity, and obedience, the son would rise in rebellion against his father, and the father would insult and trample under foot his son. To use the words IMPORTANCE OF RELATIVE DUTIES. 209 of our Saviour, " the brother would deliver up the brother to death, and the father the child; the children would rise up against their parents, and cause them to be put to death; the daughter would be set at. variance against her mother; the daughter-in-law against her mother-in-law; and a man's foes would be they of his own household." Children would be un- provided with proper food, clothing, and instruction, and left to wander, houseless and forlorn, as vagabonds on the face of the earth; and parents, abandoned by their children, in sick- ness, poverty, and old age, would sink into the grave in wretch- edness and despair. The young, instead of" rising up before the hoary head, and honouring the face of the old man," would treat the aged and infirm with every mark of derision and con- tempt. No instructions could be communicated by teachers and guardians to the rising generation; for insolence and con- tempt would frustrate every effort to communicate knowledge to a youthful group. No building nor other work of art could be commenced with the certain prospect of being ever finished; for its progress would depend upon the whims and humours of the workmen employed. No regular government nor subordi* nation in a large community could possibly exist; for the great mass of society would form themselves into a league to prevent the execution of the laws. These effects would inevitably follow, even although the requisition contained in this precept were to be viewed as confined solely to the reverence and obedience which children owe to their parents. For, were this obedience with- drawn, and an opposite disposition and conduct uniformly mani- fested, the young would carry the same dispositions which they displayed towards their parents, into all the other scenes and relations of life, and fill the world with anarchy and confusion. But it would be needless to expatiate on this topic, as it ap- pears obvious to the least reflecting mind, that a universal vio- lation of this law would unhinge the whole fabric of society, and would soon put an end to the harmonious intercourse of human beings. On the other hand, a constant and universal obedience to this precept would produce such effects on the deformed aspect of our world, as would transform it into a paradise of moral beauty, of happiness and love. Every family would exhibit a U 210 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. picture of peace and concord, of harmony and affection. No harsh and bitter language, no strifes, nor contentions, would ever interrupt the delightful flow of reciprocal affection between parents and children. Every parental command would be cheerfully and promptly obeyed. Reverence and filial affection would glow in every youthful breast towards his father, and towards the mother that gave him birth. Their persons and characters would be regarded with veneration and respect, and their admonitions submitted to without a murmur or complaint. To gladden the hearts of their parents, to run at the least sig- nal of their will, to share in their benignant smile of approba- tion, and to avoid every species of conduct that would produce the least uneasiness or pain would be the unceasing aim of all the youthful members of the family circle. In sickness, they would smooth their pillows and alleviate their sorrows, watch like guardian angels around their bed, drop the tear of affec- tion, and pour the balm of consolation into their wounded spi- rits. In the decline of life, they would minister with tenderness to their support and enjoyment, guide their feeble steps, sym- pathise with them in their infirmities, cheer and animate their dejected spirits, and smooth their passage to the tomb. And how delighted would every parent feel amidst such displays of tenderness and affection! There is perhaps nothing in the whole range of human enjoyment that creates a higher and more unmingled gratification to parents, than the dutiful and affectionate conduct of their offspring. It sweetens the bitter ingredients of human life, and adds a relish to all its other comforts and enjoyments. It imparts a continual satisfaction and serenity to the parental breast ; it cheers the spirits under the infirmities of declining nature, and soothes the dying bed of old age. And the joy and satisfaction thus felt by parents would be reflected into the bosom of their children ; which would produce a union of interests, a cordiality of affection, and a tranquillity of mind in every member of the family, which no adverse occurrence in future life could ever effectually destroy. From the family circle, the emanations of filial piety would diffuse themselves through all the other departments of society. The same spirit of love and dutiful respect which united and endeared parents to children, and children to parents, would LAW IN RELATION TO HERDER. 211 unite one family to another, one village to another, one city to another, one province to another, one kingdom and empire to another, till all the tribes of the human race were united in affection, as one great and harmonious family. Every dutiful child would become a faithful and obedient servant, a docile scholar, and a loyal and submissive subject, when placed in these relations; and would prove a blessing and an ornament to every society of which he was a member. And every duti- ful and affectionate parent, when placed in the station of a king, or subordinate ruler, would display a parental affection towards every member of the community over which he was appointed. Hence it might easily be shown, that the peace, the harmony, and the prosperity of all nations, will ultimately depend on the spirit of filial piety being infused into every family. "Honour thy father and thy mother," says the Apostle, "which is the first commandment with promise; that it may be well with thee, and that thou mayest live long upon the earth." These words, which are frequently repeated in Scripture, are not empty sounds; nor ought they to be de- prived, even under the Christian dispensation, of their obvious and literal meaning. Filial piety has a natural tendency to produce health, long life, and prosperity; and could we trace the whole of the secret history of Providence in reference to this precept, we should doubtless find this position abundantly exemplified. At any rate, were it universally practised, it would carry along with it a train of blessings which would con- vert the tumults and convulsions of nations into peace and tranquillity, and transform the moral wilderness of this world into a scene of beauty and loveliness, which would enrapture the mind of every moral intelligence ; and among its other be- nefits, " length of days, and long life and peace," would un- doubtedly " be added" to the other enjoyments of mankind. THE SIXTH COMMANDMENT. " Thou shalt not kill" This precept forbids the taking away of the life of any sen- sitive or intelligent existence. The command is absolute, with- 212 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. out the least exception, as it stands in the Decalogue; and it is universal, extending to every rational and moral agent. It implies that, as every sensitive and every intelligent being de- rived its existence from the Omnipotent Creator, no one has a right to deprive it of that existence, except the Being by whom it was bestowed. And whatever exceptions to the universality of this law may be admitted, they can be admitted only on the authority of the Law-giver himself, who is the Original Foun- tain of existence to all creatures. The principal exceptions to this law are the following: 1, The man who has violently taken away the life of another is commanded, by the authority of God, to be put to death: "Whoso sheddeth man's blood, by man shall his blood be shed." This is the dictate of reason as well as of Revelation : for no human power can recall the departed spirit, or reanimate the lifeless corpse, and no ade- quate compensation can ever be given for such a crime. 1 2. The life of the lower animals is permitted by the same authority to be taken away, when these animals are necessary for our food, or when they endanger our existence. This permission was first granted, immediately after the flood, to Noah and his de- scendants: " God said to Noah and his sons, Every thing that moveth shall be meat for you; even as the green herb have I given you all things." Without such a positive grant from the Creator, man could have had no more right to take away the life of an ox, or a sheep r than he has to imbrue his hands in the blood, or to feast on the flesh, of his fellow-men. To take the life of any sensitive being, and to feed on its flesh, appears incompatible with a state of innocence ; and therefore, no such grant was given to Adam in paradise; nor does it ap- pear that the Antediluvians, notwithstanding their enormous crimes, ever feasted on the flesh of animals. It appears to have been a grant suited only to the degraded state of man after the deluge. But although the inferior animals are subjected to 1 Notwithstanding the considerations here stated, the Author is doubt- ful whether the Creator has conceded to man the right of taking away the life of another, even in the case of murder. If the passage here quoted ought to be considered as a prediction rather than a law, as is most probable, it will afford no warrant for the destruction of human life; and there is no other injunction of this kind which has any relation to the New Testament dispensation. LAW IN RELATION TO MURDER. 213 our use, no permission is granted to treat them with harsh- ness or cruelty, or to kill them for the sake of sport and amusement. And therefore, the man who wantonly takes away the lives of birds, hares, fishes, and other animals, for the mere gratification of a taste for hunting or fishing, can scarcely be exculpated from the charge of a breach of this commandment. The above are the principal exceptions which the Creator has made in reference to the law under consideration. And it may not be improper to remark, that besides the direct act of murder, every thing that leads to it, or that has a tendency to endanger life, is to be considered as forbidden in this command- ment. All unkindness and harsh treatment exercised towards servants, dependants, and brute animals, by which life may be shortened or rendered intolerable all furious and revengeful passions which may lead to acts of violence all quarrelling, fighting, and boxing, either for bets or for the gratification of hatred or revenge all wishes for the death of others, and all contrivances, either direct or indirect, to compass the destruc- tion of our neighbour all criminal negligence by which our own life or the life of others may be endangered or destroyed every species of drunkenness and intemperance and all those actions by which murder may be committed as a probable effect are to be regarded as involving the principle of murder, as well as the direct acts of suicide, duelling, and assassina- tion ; and consequently, as violations of that law which ex- tends to the secret purposes of the heart as well as to the exter- nal actions. Even unreasonable anger, malice, and scurrility, are declared by our Saviour to be a species of murder: "Who- soever is angry with his brother without a cause shall be in danger of the judgment, and whosoever shall say to his brother, Raca" that is, thou worthless empty fellow, " shall be in danger of the council." 1 Life is desirable only as it is con- 1 Matth. v. 22. Christ in this passage, refers to a common court among the Jews, composed ot twenty -three men, wherein capital sentences might be passed, on which a malefactor might be strangled or beheaded: this was called the Judgment. But the Sanhedrim, or Council, was the su- preme Jewish court, consisting of seventy-two; in which the highest crimes were tried, which they, and they alone, punished with stoning, which was considered a more terrible death than the former. 214: PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. nected with enjoyment; and therefore, when a man treats his brother with such a degree of hatred and scurrility, as to ren- der his existence either unpleasant or intolerable, he ought to be ranked among the class of murderers. For the Apostle John declares, without the least limitation, that "whosoever hateth his brother is a murderer, and he that loveth not his brother, abideth in death.*' And, if this criterion be admitted, a train of murderers will be found existing in society far more numerous than is generally supposed. It would be needless to attempt an illustration of the conse- quences which would ensue, were the breach of this law to be- come universal. It is obvious, on the slightest reflection, that were this to happen, human society would soon cease to exist. That prophecy which was given forth respecting Ishmael would then receive a most terrible accomplishment, in the case of every human agent; "His hand shall be against every man, and every man's hand against him." Every man would as- sume the character of a fiend ; the voice of wailing, and of fury, would be heard in every family, in every city, in every kingdom, and in every clime. The work of destruction would go on with dreadful rapidity, till the whole race of man were extirpated from the earth, leaving this vast globe a scene of solitude and desolation, an immense sepulchre, and a spectacle of horror to all superior intelligences. And let it be remem- bered, that such a picture, horrible and revolting as it is, is nothing more than what would be the natural result of the principle of hatred, were it left to its native energies, and were it not controlled in the course of Providence by Him who sets restraining bounds to the wrath of man. In order to counteract the tendencies of this baleful prin- ciple, it is of the utmost importance that youth be trained up in habits of kindness, tenderness, and compassion, both to- wards human beings, and towards the inferior animals ; that an abhorrence should be excited in their minds of quarrelling, fighting, and all mischievous tricks and actions ; that they be restrained from the indulgence of malicious and resentful pas- sions; that every indication of a cruel and unfeeling disposi- tion be carefully counteracted; and that every tendency of the heart towards the benevolent affections, and every principle of TENDENCIES OF LOVE. 215 active beneficence, be cultivated and cherished with the moat sedulous care and attention. For, in youth, the foundation has generally been laid of those malevolent principles and pas- sions which have led to robbery, assassination, and deeds of violence which have filled the earth with blood and carnago and which have displayed their diabolical energy in so dreadful a manner amidst the contests of communities and nations. Were the disposition to indulge hatred, which leads to every species of murder, completely counteracted, the greatest pro- portion of those evils which now afflict our world would cease to exist. Human sacrifices would no longer bleed upon Pagan altars; the American Indians would no longer torture to death their prisoners taken in war, nor the New Zealanders feast upon the flesh and blood of their enemies. The practice of duelling would for ever cease, and would be universally exe- crated as an outrage on common sense, and on every generous and humane feeling, and as the silly attempt of a puny mortal to gratify wounded pride or disappointed ambition, at the ex- pense of the life of his fellow-creature. Despotism would throw aside its iron sceptre, the nations would be ruled with the law of love; and conspiracies, treasons, and massacres, would be attempted no more. The fires of the Inquisition would cease to be kindled; the supposed heretic would no longer be consigned to the horrors of a gloomy dungeon; racks, gibbets, and guillotines, would be shivered to pieces and thrown into the flames; and the spirit of cruelty and persecu- tion would be extirpated from the earth. War would for ever cease to desolate the nations; the confused noise of invading armies, the sounds of martial music, the groans of dying vic- tims, and the hoarse shouts of conquerors, would be heard no more. Peace would descend from heaven to dwell with man on earth ; prosperity would follow in her train ; science would enlarge its boundaries, and shed its benign influence upon all ranks ; the useful arts would flourish, and advance towards perfection ; philanthropy would diffuse its thousand blessings in every direction, and every man would sit " under his vine and fig-tree" in perfect security from all danger or annoy- ance. 216 PHILOSOPHY OF SEVENTH COMMANDMENT. " Thou shalt not commit adultery.' 1 This commandment is to be viewed as comprehending, with- in its prohibition, every species of lewdness, both in thought, word, and action ; as adultery, fornication, incest, polygamy, etc. ; and likewise all those licentious desires and affections from which such actions proceed. In this comprehensive sense it is explained by our Saviour in his sermon on the Mount, and by the Apostles in their letters to the Christian churches. It is founded on the distinction of sexes which exists among man- kind, and on the law of Marriage, which was promulgated im- mediately after the creation of the first pair, a law which was intended to limit and to regulate the intercourse of the sexes ; and to promote purity, affection, and order, among the several generations of mankind. By this law the marriage union is limited to two individuals. He who made mankind at the be- ginning, says Christ, made them male and female, and said, " For this cause shall a man leave father and mother, and shall cleave to his wife; and they twain shall be one flesh." And it might easily be shown, from an induction of facts, and from a consideration of the present circumstances of the human race, that this law, and this alone, is calculated to pro- mote the mutual affection of the married pair, and to secure the peace and happiness of families, and the harmony of general society. By this law the union is made permanent, so long as the parties exist in this world: "What God hath joined, let not man put asunder." This regulation has a tendency to promote union of affection and interests, and to induce the parties to bear with patience the occasional inconveniences and contentions which may arise. Were divorces generally per- mitted, on the ground of unsuitableness of temper, or occa- sional jars, society would soon be shaken to its centre. Every real or supposed insult or provocation would be followed out, till it terminated in a separation of the parties; families would thus be torn into shreds, the education of the young would be neglected, parental authority disregarded, and a door opened for the prevalence of unbounded licentiousness. Soon LAW OF MARRIAGE. 217 the commencement of the Revolution in France, a law permit- ting divorces was passed by the National Assembly; and, in less than three months from its date, nearly as many divorces as marriages were registered in the city of Paris. In the whole kingdom, within the space of eighteen months, upwards of twenty thousand divorces were effected; and the nation sunk into a state of moral degradation, from the effects of which it has never yet recovered. This is one of the many practical proofs, presented before us, of the danger of infringing on any of the moral arrangements which the Creator has established. The precept under consideration is to be considered as di- rectly opposed to all promiscuous and licentious intercourse between the sexes. And the reasonableness of this prohibition will appear, if we consider what would be the consequences which would inevitably follow were this law to be set aside, or universally violated. A scene of unbounded licentiousness would ensue, which would degrade the human character, which would destroy almost all the existing relations of society, an<J unhinge the whole fabric of the moral world. One end of the institution of marriage was, to "replenish the earth" with in- habitants, to perpetuate the successive generations of men, and to train up a virtuous and intelligent race to people the con- gregation of the heavens. But this end would be ultimately frustrated were a promiscuous and unlimited intercourse to become either general or universal. For it has been found that, wherever such intercourse partially prevails, it strikes at the root of human existence, and has a tendency to prevent the operation of that law which the Creator impressed on all living beings, "Increase and multiply." In the haunts of licentiousness, in large cities, and in all such societies as those which formerly existed in Otaheite, under the name of Arreoy, the laws of nature are violated, the course of generation ob- structed, and numbers of human beings strangled at the very porch of existence. So that were mankind at large to relapse into such licentious practices, the human race, instead of in- creasing in number, to replenish the desolate wastes of our globe, according to the Creator's intentions, would rapidly decrease every succeeding generation, till, after the lapse of a few centuries, human beings would be entirely extirpated, and 218 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. the earth barren and uncultivated, would be left to the domi- nion of the beasts of the forest. But although such a distant event were to be altogether disregarded, the immediate consequences of such unhallowed courses would be dismal in the extreme. That union of heart, of affection, and of interests, which subsist between the great majority of married pairs, and those reciprocal sympathies and endearments which flow from this union, would be altogether unknown. The female sex, (as already happens in some na- tions,) with minds uncultivated and unpolished, would be de- graded into mere instruments of sensitive enjoyment, into household slaves, or into something analogous to beasts of burden, and would be bought and sold like cattle and horses. The minds of all would be degraded to the level of brutes, and would be incapable of prosecuting either rational or religious pursuits. Their bodies would be wasted and enfeebled with squalid disease ; the infirmities of a premature old age would seize upon them; and before they had "lived half their days," they would sink into the grave in hopelessness and sorrow. The training up of the youthful mind to knowledge and virtue would be quite neglected; and all that civility and softness of manners, which are now acquired under the eye of parental authority and affection, would be unknown in society. The en- dearing relations of father and mother, of brothers and sisters, of uncles, aunts, and cousins, and all the other ramifications of kindred, which now produce so many interesting and delight- ful associations, would fail to be recognised among men; for in such a state of society, the natural relations of mankind would be either disregarded, or blended in undistinguishable confusion. Children, neglected or abandoned by their mothers, would be left to the full influence of their own wayward and impetuous passions; they would depend for subsistence either on accident, on pilfering, or on the tender mercies of general society; they would wander about as vagabonds, tattered and forlorn; their hearts shrivelled with unkindness, their bodies chilled with the rains and biting frosts, and deformed with filthiness and disease. In every land would be seen multitudes of houseless and shiver- ing females, set adrift by their seducers, wandering with their EFFECTS OF LICENTIOUSNESS. 219 hungry and half-famished offspring, the objects of derision and contempt; and imploring, in vain, the comforts of food, of shelter, and protection. For among human heings, in such a degraded state, the kindly and benevolent affections would seldom be exercised; a cold-blooded selfishness and apathy, in relation to the sufferings of others, would supplant all the finer feelings of humanity; which would dispose them to vie\v the wretched objects around them with perfect indifference, and even with contempt. " However it may be accounted for," says Dr. Pa- ley, " the criminal commerce of the sexes corrupts and depraves me mind and the moral character, more than any single species of vice whatsoever. That ready perception of guilt, that prompt and decisive resolution against it, which constitutes a virtuous character, is seldom found in persons addicted to these indul- gences. They prepare an easy admission for every sin that seeks it; are, in low life, usually the first stage in men's pro- gress to the most desperate villanies; and, in high life, to that lamented dissoluteness of principle which manifests itself in a profligacy of public conduct, and a contempt of the obligations of religion and of moral probity. Add to this, that habits of libertinism incapacitate and indispose the mind for all intellec- tual, moral, and religious pleasures." 1 In short, in such a state of society as would inevitably ac- company a general violation of the seventh precept of the moral law, all the softness and loveliness of filial piety, of parental affection, of brotherly attachment, and of the intercourse of kindred, would for ever cease; a sufficient stimulus would be wanting to the exercise of industry and economy; a lazy apathy would seize upon the mass of society. The positions now stated could be illustrated, were it expe- dient, by a variety of melancholy facts, borrowed from the his- tory and the present state both of savage and civilised nations. The annals of Turkey, of Persia, of Hindostan, of China, of the Society Isles, and even of the civilised nations of Europe and America, would furnish abundance of impressive facts, to demonstrate the demoralising and miserable effects which would flow from a spirit of universal licentiousness. In an account of i Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy, Book 111, Part iii, chap. 2. 220 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. the ' Moral Statistics and Topography of New York,' in 1820, by Ward Stafford, A.M., we are informed that, in that city alone, there are more than 6000 abandoned females! " In passing a distance of thirty or forty roods, not less than twenty ball-rooms have been counted, in which were assembled hun- dreds of this class of people, dancing to the sound of the viol. It is known that there is a class of men who keep large num- bers of these voluntary slaves, for the purposes of corruption and gain, that many of them are held by their masters in the most abject slavery, and, to keep them in subjection, they are at times scourged in the most cruel manner. Some who, when wasting with the consumption, have fled from one place to another where they supposed they would be better treated, have been seized by violence, and carried back, and kept by their old masters till approaching death had destroyed all hope of further gain. The windows of at least one, and probably of many more of these slaughter-houses, are actually grated with bars of iron. It is known, also, that children, some their own ille- gitimate offspring, and some obtained, by various arts of de- ception, from the families of others, are trained up expressly for this polluted traffic, and engage in it at a very early period of life. Some of this description have been found whose age did not exceed eleven years!" And if such a melancholy picture of wretchedness is dis- played amidst the boasted civilization and Christianity of New York, what still more revolting scenes would open to view, were we to survey the haunts of licentiousness which abound in Algiers, in Constantinople, in Teheran, in Pekin, in Canton, in Jeddo, and other populous cities, where the restraints of Christianity are altogether unknown! In such receptacles of impurity, every moral feeling is blunted, and every moral prin- ciple abandoned. Impiety, profanity, falsehood, treachery, perjury, and drunkenness, rear their unblushing fronts; and thefts, robberies, and murders, follow in their train. The un- happy female who enters these antichambers of hell, is, for the most part, cut off from all hopes of retreat. From that mo- ment the shades of moral darkness begin to close around her; she bids a last adieu to the smiles of tenderness and sympathy, to the kind embraces of father and mother, of sisters and MARRIAGE A TEMPORARY LAW. 221 brothers, to the house of God, to the instructions of his word, and to the society of the faithful. Instead of the cheering sounds of the gospel of peace, her ears become accustomed to oaths, and curses, and horrid imprecations; the voice of con- science is hushed amidst the din of revelry and riot; every generous feeling is shrunk and withered; she stalks abroad, like a painted corpse, to fill with horror the virtuous mind, and to allure the unwary to the shades of death; till at length, wasted with consumption and loathsome disease, she is stretched upon the bed of languishing, abandoned by her former associates, deprived of the least drop of consolation, haunted with the ghastly forebodings of futurity, and sinks, "in the midst of her days,'' into the chambers of the grave, without the least hope of a glorious resurrection. And if we consider that this is a picture of the wretchedness, not only of a few individuals, but of thousands, and of millions of human beings, it is impossible to describe the accumulated mass of misery which impurity has created, or to form any adequate conception of the horrible and revolting scenes of wretchedness which would be displayed, were the law under consideration to be set aside by all the inhabitants of our globe. There is a certain levity of speech in relation to this subject, which prevails among many who wish to be considered as re- spectable characters, which proceeds from a contracted view of the consequences of human actions. They conceive that no great harm can be done to society by a few insulated actions of the kind alluded to, especially if they be concealed from general observation; and that the Creator will be disposed to make every allowance for human frailty. But, let such re- member, that, if it were right to violate this, or any other law of the Creator in one instance, it would be right in a thousand, in a million of instances; and then all the revolting scenes now described, and thousands of similar effects, of which we cannot at present form a distinct conception, would inevitably take place. And therefore, every man who, from levity and thought- lessness, or from a disregard to the laws of Heaven, persists in the occasional indulgence of such unhallowed gratifications, indulges in a practice which, were it universally to prevail, would sap the foundation of all moral order, exterminate the 222 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. most endearing relations of society, prostrate man below tlie level of the brute, open the flood-gates of all iniquity, diffuse misery over the whole mass of human beings, and at length empty the world of its inhabitants. The precept which we have now been considering appears to be a temporary regulation, to remain in force only during the limited period of the present economy of Providence; for, in the future destination of the righteous, we are told, " that they neither marry nor are given in marriage, but are as the angels of God." In the existing circumstances of mankind, however, the operation of this law is essentially necessary to the stability and happiness of the moral world; and were its requisitions universally observed, the melancholy scenes to which I have alluded would no longer exist; the present and everlasting ruin of thousands and of millions would be prevented; and a scene of happiness and love, such as the world has never yet wit- nessed, would be displayed among all the families of the earth. THE EIGHTH COMMANDMENT. "Thoushalt not steal." When the Creator had arranged our globe in the form in which we now behold it, he furnished it with every thing re- quisite for the sustenance and accommodation of living beings, and bestowed the whole of its riches and decorations as a free grant to the sons of men. To man he said, " Behold, I have given you every herb bearing seed, which is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree in the which is the fruit of a tree yielding seed; to you it shall be for meat." Ever since the period when this grant was made, God has not left himself without a witness to his benignity, in that he has unceasingly bestowed on mankind " rain from heaven, and fruitful seasons, filling their hearts with food and gladness." The earth has, in every age, brought forth abundance to supply the wants of all the living beings it contains; and there is still ample room on its surface for the accommodation and support of thousands of millions of the human race, in addition to those which now exist. But mankind have never yet agreed about the division LAW RESPECTING PROPERTY. 223 of this ample gift of the Creator; for every one is disposed to think that his share in it is too small, and is continually at- tempting to make inroads upon the allotment of his neighbour. To this disposition is to he ascribed more than one half of all the evils which have afflicted the world in every age since the fall of man. To counteract such a propensity in mankind, aiul to regulate their conduct in relation to property, is the great object of this command, "Thou shalt not steal." To steal, is to take the property of others, without their knowledge or consent, and to apply it to our own use. The most flagrant breaches of the law, consist in robbery, house- breaking, pilfering, plunder, and pillage. But it may be vio- lated in a thousand different ways, of which human laws sel- dom take any cognizance. It is violated by every species of fraud by which our neighbour may be injured in his wealth or property. It is violated in the ordinary commerce of mankind, by the use of false weights and measures; by selling deteriorated commodities as if they were sound and good; by depreciating the value of what we wish to buy, and concealing the defects of what we sell; by contracting debts of which we have no prospect of discharging, and neglecting to pay them when they are due; by breaches of trust, in the case of servants, guardians, executors, or public officers, embezzling the substance of others, or applying it to their own use. It is also violated by tres- passing on the property of others, so as to injure gardens, orchards, plantations, or corn-fields; and by that disposition to vulgar mischief which delights in breaking lamps, windows, and fences; in injuring and defacing public buildings, walks, and ornamental improvements; in hacking and carving walls, wainscottings, doors, and balustrades; and in cutting down trees and shrubs planted for use or for ornament. In short, this law is violated by every species of idleness, vanity, gam- ing, and prodigality, which has a tendency to injure the ex- ternal prosperity, either of our own family, or of the families of others. Were the law which forbids those actions to be set aside, or universally violated, it is easy to foresee, that, in a short time, the whole assemblage of human beings would be transformed into a set of lawless banditti. Peace, harmony, and good 224 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. neighbourhood, would be unknown among men; the strong would plunder the possessions of the weak, and deprive them of every enjoyment ; children would rob their parents and parents their children; brothers would plunder brothers, and servants their masters ; every man's covetous eye would be di- rected to the wealth and property of his neighbour, with a view of depriving him of his enjoyments; and a thousand schemes, either of treachery or of open violence, would be con- trived to effectuate his purpose. Murders would be daily con- trived and perpetrated, for the purpose of more easily obtaining the possession of the estates of the powerful and opulent; and every man's life and happiness would be at the mercy of his covetous neighbour. The inhabitants of one province would rise against those of another, and, by force of arms, plunder them of all their earthly treasures. One nation would invade the territories of another, for the purpose of ravaging its cities and provinces, and of appropriating its wealth and riches. In such a state of society, no man could have confidence in his brother; fear would be on every side; uncertainty would attend every pursuit and possession: of the wealth which any one had acquired, and of the enjoyments which he possessed to-day, he might be deprived before to-morrow. And, as no one would think of engaging in regular labour, while he could subsist in plundering his weaker neighbours the earth would soon be left uncultivated, the useful arts would be abandoned, and a universal famine would overspread every land, which would thin the human race, and gradually exterminate them from the face of the earth. Such scenes of plunder and depredation have in fact been partly realized in every age and nation of the world, and are still realized, to a certain extent, even in nations which boast of their progress in religion, civilization, and science. The annals of the human race contain little more than a series of melancholy records, of wholesale robbery, committed by one tribe of human beings upon another. One public robber and desperado has arisen after another in constant succession, and, at the head of numerous armies has violated the territories of peaceful industry, demolished the habitations of their unof- fending inhabitants, wasted and devoured the fruits of their DISHONESTY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES. 225 ground, and plundered them of every thing which could render existence desirable. And the inferior ranks of mankind, stimulated by the same principles which actuate their superiors, have supported a system of peculation, of cheating, of litiga- tion, of injustice and oppression, which, were it left solely to its own native energies, would soon undermine the foundations of the moral world. That such principles and practices have never yet become universal in their operation, is not owing so much to any deficiency in their malignant tendency, as to the overruling providence of the Moral Governor of the world, who has, by his influence, and his physical arrangements, confined the lawless passions of men within certain bounds, beyond which they cannot pass. Were a principle of honesty and justice, in regard to pro- perty to pervade the mind of every human being; or, in other words, were the law to which I am now adverting universally recognised, a new scene would open the moral world, altogether different from what has hitherto been displayed in the trans- actions of mankind. The iron rod of oppression would be broken, and destroying armies would no longer ravage the habitations of men. The crowds of sharpers, cheats, and jockeys, that now stalk through the world, with unblushing fronts, to entrap the unwary, would for ever disappear from the world. Impartial justice would reign triumphant over every department of society; and all the harassing lawsuits and prosecutions, which now distress so many thousands of families, would be swept away. Every debt punctually discharged, ac- cording to the nature of the obligation, and at the period at which it is due; every bargain would be transacted on the principles of immutable justice, and the conditions of every contract faithfully performed : no suspicions of knavery would ever harbour in the breast, nor the least alarm at the possible consequences of any mercantile transaction. Locks, and bars, and bolts, would no longer be required for securing our sub- stance from the pilferer and the robber; and the iron gratings of a bridewell or a jail would never again remind us of the dishonesty and depravity of man. Servants would be univer- sally honest and trust-worthy, and the property of their mas- ters would be regarded as a sacred deposit. 14 P 226 PHILOSOPHY OJ? RELIGION. And what a happy change would such a state of society in- troduce among mankind ! What a host of cares, anxieties, suspicions, vexations, and perplexities, would he chased away! and what a world of conveniences and of delightful associations would thus be created! Every one's mind would he at perfect ease in regard to his property, whether he were at home or ahroad, in health, or in sickness ; being firmly persuaded that every trust would be faithfully discharged, and every commer- cial concern fairly and honourably transacted. Selfishness and rapacity would give place to a spirit of justice and equity; peace *md concord would prevail, and righteousness and truth would shed their benign influence over the whole brotherhood of mankind. THE NINTH COMMANDMENT. " Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour.'" This command, like most of the others, is expressed in * negative form. It is directed against every species of false hood, and, consequently, must be viewed as inculcating a sa- cred and universal adherence to truth in all our thoughts, words, and actions. In the remarks I may throw out in relation to this precept, I shall consider it chiefly in its positive form, as commanding an inviolable attachment to truth. Truth may be considered in two different points of view logical truth, which consists in the conformity of a proposition or assertion to the actual state of things; and moral truth, which consists in the agreement of our words and actions with our thoughts. Lo- gical truth belongs to the thing or the fact asserted ; moral truth, or what is termed veracity, has a reference to the per- son who utters it. In both these respects, truth is of immense importance to all intelligent beings. The importance of truth and veracity will appear from the following considerations : In the first place, it is the bond of society and the founda- tion of all that confidence and intercourse which subsist among rational beings. On the veracity of others, we confide in all the domestic relations and intercourses of life; and on this ground all the transactions of commercial society, ai><! all the IMPORT AX CE OF TRUTH. 227 arrangements and operations of government, are conducted. On this ground, the pupil, confides in his teacher for instruc- tion; the child in his parents for sustenance, clothing, and protection ; the master in his servant for the execution of his orders ; and the wife in her husband for provision and support. We confide every moment in the faithfulness of the Almighty for the regular returns of day and night, of summer and winter, of seedtime and harvest. Could the veracity of God he im- peached or rendered liable to suspicion, we should remain in awful suspense, whether another day would dawn upon the world, or whether the earth would be shattered to pieces, and its fragments dispersed throughout the surrounding worlds, before the sun again appeared in the horizon. A being pos- sessed of boundless knowledge and omnipotence, without vera- city, would- be the terror of the whole intelligent universe, and would produce universal agitation and alarm. Again, truth is the foundation of our present comfort and of our future prospects. On the veracity of those illustrious characters that have gone before us, whose declarations wero confirmed by signs and miracles, we depend for the hope ot forgiveness and acceptance with God, and for those rich sources of consolation which are calculated to support the mind under the afflictions of mortality, and to cheer us in the prospect of a future world. Our hopes of happiness beyond the grave of the resurrection of our bodies at the termination of the pre- sent plan of providence of a complete restoration to holiness and virtue of are-union with departed friends of associating with virtuous beings of a superior order of mingling in a happier world with all those illustrious saints who have gone before us of contemplating the manifestations of Deity on a more extensive scale and of enjoying unmixed felicity, with- out interruption and without end, depend upon the testimony of the inspired writers, and the light in which we view the truths or declarations they have recorded. And therefore, the man who endeavours to undermine the authority of the sacred records, or to distort or misrepresent their meaning by sophis tical reasonings, ought to be viewed as a deceiver, and as an enemy to his specie?, who wishes to deprive his fellow-men of their most substnntial enjoyments, and of their most cheering prospect? 228 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. Again, truth and veracity are of the utmost importance in relation to the views we ought to take of the character of God. The moral character of the Deity is delineated in the Scrip- tures, and we are enabled to contemplate this character, in its true light, in so far as we understand and appreciate the de- lineations of the sacred writers. But his character is also exhibited in the works of creation and providence. Every phy- sical law of nature, every arrangement in the material system, every movement which exists in the universe; every apparent deviation from the general course of nature, as in the case of earthquakes and volcanoes; every event in the history of na- tions, every fact in relation to the physical and moral condition of the different tribes of the human race, and every arrange- ment in reference to the lower ranks of animated beings embodies in it an exhibition of certain aspects of the Divine character; and these aspects, if fairly represented, ought to harmonise with the delineations contained in the sacred records. To ascertain such facts as those to which I allude, requires, in many instances, the exercise of profound reasoning and of ac- curate investigation, that the mind should be free from the influence of prejudice and of every improper bias, and that the facts, when ascertained, be fairly represented, and accurately recorded ; otherwise, nothing but a distorted view of the Divine character will be exhibited to the mind. For example, if the earth be represented as among the largest bodies in nature, and as placed at rest in the centre of the universe, and that the sun, moon, and all the other celestial orbs revolve around it every day; and consequently, that the planetary bodies move in orbits which display inextricable confusion such a repre- sentation is not a true exhibition of the God of heaven; and, if carried out to all its legitimate consequences, would involve an impeachment of the wisdom and intelligence of the Deity, and of the sublime simplicity and order which characterise his operations in the universe. In some instances, the inaccurate statement of a physical fact, or the false colouring put upon it, may have a tendency to endanger the eternal interests of mankind. Mr. Brydone, in his 'Tour through Sicily,' states, on the authority of a priest named Recupero, that, in sinking a pit near Jaci, in the neighbourhood of Mount Etna, " they pierced through seven IMPORTANCE OF TRUTH. 229 distjnct lavas, one under the other, the surfaces of which were parallel, and most of them covered with a bed of thick earth." From suppositions founded on questionable data, he concluded, that " it requires 2,000 years or upwards to form but a scanty soil on the surface of a lava," and, consequently, that "the eruption which formed the lowest of these lavas, must have flowed from the mountain at least 14,000 years ago." This pretended fact was, for a while, triumphantly exhibited by sceptics, as an unanswerable argument against the truth of the Mosaic history; and its publication has, no doubt, tended to stagger weak minds, and to confirm the infidel in his prejudices against the truth of Revelation. But it has been shown by eminent geologists, that the facts alluded to are grossly mis- stated, and that no vegetable mould exists between these beds of lava; and consequently, the argument founded upon them goes for nothing. Mr. Brydone himself, in the very same vo- lume in which these pretended facts are stated, before he had advanced twenty pages further in his account of the regions about Mount Etna, states a fact which completely overturns all his preceding reasonings and calculations. In describing the country near Hybla, as having been " overwhelmed by the lava of Etna, and having then become totally barren, " he adds, " In a second eruption, by a shower of ashes from the moun- tain, it soon reassumed its ancient beauty and fertility." So that it is here admitted, that, instead of requiring a period of 2,000 years, a bed of lava may speedily be transformed into a beautiful and fertile region. But even although such facts were fairly represented, yea, although Mr. Brydone and the Canon Recupero could have proved, to a demonstration, that the strata of the earth is not only fourteen thousand, but fourteen hundred thousand years old, it would not in the least invalidate a single assertion contained in the Mosaic history; for Moses describes only the arrangement of the earth into its present form, but nowhere asserts, that the materials of which our globe is com- posed were created, or brought out of nothing, at the period at which his history commences. The circumstance, however, to which I have now adverted, shows us of how much importance it is, in many cases, that even a physical fact be fairly stated, as well as the moral facts and the doctrines recorded in the 230 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. Scriptures. For, since every fact in the economy of nature, and in the history of providence, exhibits a certain portion of the Divine character, a very different view of this character will be exhibited, according to the different lights in which we view the divine operations. And therefore, every one who wilfully misrepresents a physical fact or law of nature is a deceiver, who endeavours to exhibit a distorted view of the character of the Deity. It is nothing less than a man "bear- ing false witness" against his Maker. Again, veracity is of infinite importance in reference to our future improvement in the eternal world. In that world, we have every reason to believe, our knowledge of the attributes of God will be enlarged, and our views of the range of his operations in creation and providence extended far beyond the limits to which they are now confined. But the Divine Being himself, from the immateriality and immensity of his nature, will remain for ever invisible to all finite intelligencies; and hence he is described by the Apostle, as " the King Eternal, Immortal, and Invisible, whom no man hath seen or can see." It is, therefore, not only probable, but absolutely certain, that a great portion, perhaps the greatest portion of our knowledge in that state, will be derived from the communications of other intelligencies. With intellectual beings of a higher order we shall hold the most intimate converse; for we are informed, that " just men made perfect" will join " the innumerable company of angels." These beings are endued with capacious powers of intellect, and have long been exercising them on the most exalted objects. As messengers from the King of heaven to the inhabitants of the earth, they have frequently winged their way through the celestial regions, and surveyed many of those glorious systems which lie hid from the view of mortals. We have every reason to believe that they have acquired expansive views of the dispensations of the Almighty, not only in relation to man, but in relation to numerous worlds and intelligencies in different provinces of the empire of God. And therefore, they must be admirably qualified to impart ample stores of information on the sublimest subjects, to the redeemed inhabi- tants from our world. From the communication of these intelli- gencies we may derive information of the order and arrangements IMPORTANCE OF TRUTH. 231 of other systems; of the natural scenery of other worlds; of the different orders of intellectual beings who people them; of the means by which they are carried forward in moral and intellectual improvement; of the most remarkable events which have happened in the course of their history; of the peculiar displays of divine glory that may be made to them, and of the various changes through which they may have passed in the course of the divine dispensations. But the utility of such sublime communications, and the delightful transports with which they will be accompanied, will entirely depend upon the immutable veracity of those moral intelligences who shall be employed in conveying information respecting the divine operations. No fictitious scenes and nar- rations will be invented, as in our degenerate world; nothing but unvarnished truth will be displayed in that world of light; and the real scenes which will be displayed will infinitely tran- scend, in beauty, in grandeur, and in interest, all that the most fertile imagination can conceive. Were a single falsehood to be told in heaven, were the tongue of an archangel to misrepresent a single fact in the divine economy, or were the least suspicion to exist that truth might be violated in such communications, the mutual confidence of celestial intelligencies would instantly be shaken; and, from that moment, their intercourse and their happiness would be destroyed. Hence, we are repeatedly told, in the book of Revelation, that " Whosoever loveth, or maketli a lie, shall in no wise enter within the gates of the new Jeru- salem." And therefore, every one who expects to be an inha- bitant of that happy world, ought now to cultivate a strict regard to veracity in all his researches, intercourses, and com- munications; otherwise he cannot be admitted, from the very constitution of things, to the society of saints and angels in the realms of bliss. Thus it appears, that truth is of the utmost importance to all rational beings, as it forms the source of our knowledge, the foundation of all social intercourse, the ground of our pre- sent comfort and future prospects, the basis of all the views we can take of the divine character and operations, and of all our prospects of future improvement in the eternal world. It is the bond of union among all the inhabitants of heaven; it is the 232 fHlLOSOPHt OF RELIGION. chain which connects the whole moral universe; and it consti- tutes the immutable basis on which rests the throne of the Eternal. In the depraved society of our world, truth is violated in a thousand different ways. It is violated in thoughts, in words, in oral discourses, in writings, in printed hooks, by gestures and by signs, by speaking and by remaining silent. It is vio- lated in reference to the character of our neighbour, when we invent tales of falsehood respecting him; when we listen with pleasure to such tales when told by others; when we sit mute, and refuse to vindicate his character when it is unjustly aspersed; when we endeavour to aggravate the circumstances which may have accompanied any criminal action; when we make no allow- ances for the force of temptation, and the peculiar circumstances in which the criminal may have been placed; when we fix upon an insulated act of vice or folly, and apply it to our neighbour as a general character; when we rake up, with a malevolent design, an action which he has long since repented of; and when, by smiles, and noddings, and gestures, we insinuate any thing injurious to his reputation. It is violated in promises when we promise either what we have no intention of perform- ing, or what we had no right to promise, or what is out of our power to perform, or what would be unlawful for us to execute. It is violated in history, when the prip^ipal facts are blended with doubtful or fictitious circumstances; when the conduct of liars and intriguers, of public robbers and murderers, is var- nished over with the false glare of heroism and of glory; and when the actions of upright men are, without sufficient evidence, attributed to knavery or to the influence of fanaticism ; when the writer construes actions and events, and attributes to the actors motives and designs, in accordance with his own preju- dices and passions, and interweaves his opinions and deductions, as if they were a portion of the authenticated records of his- torical fact. It is violated in the invention of ^fictitious nar- ratives, and in the relation of marvellous stories, when the system of nature is distorted, historical facts caricatured, mis- represented, and blended with the vagaries of a romantic ima- gination; when scenes, events, and circumstances, " which never did nor can take place," are presented to the view, VIOLATIONS OF TRUTH. 233 merely to convey a transient gratification to trifling and indo- lent minds. It is violated by men of science, when they give an inaccu- rate statement of the results of their observations and experi- ments; when, either through carelessness or design, they give an unfair representation of the facts and principles in nature, in order to support a favourite system or hypothesis; and when they studiously keep out of view the various circumstances in which every fact should be contemplated. It is violated in the literary world, when the editor of a magazine or a review writes an article, and addresses it to himself as if it came from the pen of another; when, for the sake of " filthy lucre," or to gratify a friend, he bestows encomiums on a work which is unworthy of the attention of the public; or when, to gratify a mean or revengeful passion, he misrepresents or abuses the literary productions of hia opponents. It is violated by contro- versialists, when they bring forward, in support of any posi- tion, arguments which they are conscious are either weak or unsound; when they appear more anxious to display their skill and dexterity, and to obtain a victory over their adversaries, than to vindicate the cause of truth; when sneers, sarcasms, and personal reproaches, are substituted in the room of sub- stantial arguments; when they misrepresent the sentiments of their opponents, by stating them in terms which materially alter their meaning; and when they palm upon them doctrines and opinions which they entirely disavow. It is violated in commercial transactions, when deteriorated goods are varnished over with a fair outside, and puffed off as if they were saleable and sound; when a merchant depreciates the commodities of his neighbour; when he undervalues whatever he is purchasing, and makes an overcharge for the articles of which he is disposing; when he denies the goods he has in his possession, when there is a prospect of an advancing price, and in a thousand other ways, best known to the nefarious trader. It is violated by persons in every department of life, not only when they utter what they know to be false, but when they profess to declare the whole truth, and keep back part of it with an intention to deceive; when they make use of a proposition that is literally true, in order to convey a false- 234 PHILOSOPHY OF hood; 1 when they flatter the vanity of weak minds; when they ascribe to their friends or to others good qualities which do not belong to them, or refuse to acknowledge those accomplish- ments of which they are possessed; when they endeavour to cajole children into obedience, by promising what they never intend to perform, and threatening what they never intend to inflict; and when they indulge in a habit of exaggeration, in the account they give of their adventures, and of the things which they have seen or heard. Truth is violated by signs, as well as by words; as, when a British ship hoists Spanish colours; when flags of truce are violated; when spies insinuate themselves into society as upright men, for the purpose of entrapping the unwary; when false intelligence is communicated to an enemy; when fires are lighted or put out, in order to deceive mariners at sea; and when signals of distress are counterfeited by ships at sea, for the purpose of decoying into their power the ships of an enemy. Truth is violated in relation to God, when we conceal from those whom we are bound to instruct, the grandeur of his works, and the displays of divine intelligence and skill which are exhibited in his visible operations; when we exhibit a di- minutive view of the extent and glory of his kingdom; when we give an inaccurate and distorted representation of the laws of nature, and of the economy of the universe; when we mis- represent the facts which exist in the system of nature, and which occur in the history of providence ; when we call in question the truth of that revelation which he has confirmed by signs and miracles, and by the accomplishment of numer- ous predictions ; when we misrepresent its facts, its doctrines, and its moral requisitions ; when we transform its historical i The following fact will illustrate this and similar species of falsehood: A person, when selling a watch, was asked by the purchaser, if it kept time correctly? He was told by the owner, that neither the hour nor the minute hand had required to be altered for more than a twelvemonth. This was literally true ; but the watch was, nevertheless, a very bad regu- lator of time. When hung in a perpendicular position it went too slow, and when laid in a horizontal position it went too fast ; but by alter- nately shifting these positions, and thus modifying the rates of motion, the hands did not require to be altered. Such assertions, however, are to be considered as direct lies, when they are intended to convey a false or erroneous conception, as in the instance now stated. EFFECTS OF UNIVERSAL FALSEIICOD. 235 narrations into a series of parables and allegories ; when we distort its literal meaning by vague and injudicious spiritual- izing comments ; when we fix our attention solely on its doc- trines, and neglect to investigate its moral precepts; and when we confine our views to a few points in the system of revela- tion, and neglect to contemplate its whole range, in all its as- pects and bearings. In the above, and in a thousand other modes, is the law of truth violated by the inhabitants of our world. The mischiefs and miseries which have followed its violation, in reference to the affairs of nations, to the private interests of societies, families, and individuals, and to the everlasting concerns of mankind, are incalculable and dreadful beyond description. It is one of the principal sources from which have sprung the numerous abominations and cruelties connected with the sys- tem of Pagan idolatry, the delusion of Mahomet, and the pre- tended miracles, and "lying wonders," of that church which is denominated " the Mother of Harlots and abominations of the earth." It has been chiefly owing to the violation of this law, that the thrones of tyrants have been supported, that liberty has been destroyed, that public safety and happiness have been endangered, that empires have been overturned, and that war has produced among the human race so many over- whelming desolations By the pernicious influence of false- hood, the peace of families has been invaded, their good name dishonoured, their wealth destroyed, their hopes disappointed, and their bright prospects of happiness involved in a cloud of darkness and despair. By the sophistry of unprincipled m.en, literature and science have been perverted, and the avenues to substantial knowledge rendered difficult and dangerous; litiga- tions have been multiplied without number; human beings have been agitated, perplexed, and bewildered; and the widow and the fatherless oppressed and robbed of their dearest enjoy- ments. Could we search the private record of ancient kings, princes, and legislators, and trace the deceitful plans which have been laid in palaces, and in cabinets or could we, at this moment, penetrate into all the intrigues, deceptions, treacheries, plots, and machinations, which are going forward in the cabinets of despots, the mansions of princes, and the 236 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. courts of law throughout the world; such a host of falsehoods and "lying abominations,'* like an army of spectres from the infernal regions, would stare us in the face, as would make us shrink back with horror and amazement, and fill us with as- tonishment that the patience of the God of heaven has been so long exercised towards the inhabitants of such a depraved and polluted world. Let us now consider some of the effects which would in- evitably follow were the law of truth UNIVERSALLY violated. It is obvious, in the first place, that rational beings could never improve in knowledge, beyond the range of the sensi- tive objects that happened to be placed within the sphere of their personal observation. For by far the greater part of our knowledge is derived from the communications of others, and from the stimulus to intellectual exertion which such commu- nications produce. We could acquire a knowledge of nothing but what was obvious to our senses in the objects with which we were surrounded. Of course, we should remain in absolute ignorance of the existence and attributes of God, of the moral relations of intelligent beings to their Creator and to one another, and of the realities of a future state. For it is only, or chiefly, through the medium of testimony, combined with the evidence of our senses, that we acquire a knowledge of Buch truths and objects. In the next place, all confidence among intelligent beings would be completely destroyed. Disappointment would inva- riably attend every purpose and resolution, and every scheme we wished to execute, if it depended in the least degree upon the direction or assistance of others. Confidence being de- stroyed, there could be no friendship, nor affectionate inter- course, no social converse, no consolation in the hour of dis- tress, no hopes of deliverance in the midst of danger, and no prospect of the least enjoyment from any being around us. In such a case, the mind would feel itself as in a wilderness, even when surrounded by fellow-intelligencies ; and whereyer it roamed over the expanse of nature, or among the mass of liv- ing beings around it, it would meet with no affectionate inter- change of feelings and sentiments, and no object on which it could rest for solace and enjovment. EFFECTS OF UNIVERSAL FALSEHOOD. 237 All social intercourses and relations would cease, families could not possibly exist, nor any affectionate intercourse be- tween the sexes; for truth and the confidence which is founded upon it, are implied in all the intercourses of husbands and wives, of brothers and sisters, and of parents and children. In such a state, trade and commerce, buying and selling, social compacts and agreements, would be annihilated; and, conse- quently, were truth completely banished from the earth, it would present a picture of that dark and dismal region where "all liars have their portion ;" where all are deceivers and deceived, and where the hopeless mind roams amidst innumer- able false intelligences, for one ray of comfort, or one confi- dential spirit in which it may confide, but roams in vain. In short, were truth banished not only from this world, but from the universe at large, creation would be formed into a chaos; the bond which now connects angels and archangels, cherubim and seraphim in one harmonious union, would be for ever dissolved; the inhabitants of all worlds would be thrown into a state of universal anarchy; they would shun each other's society, and remain as so many cheerless and insulated wretches, amidst the gloom and desolations of universal nature: all improvement in knowledge, and all progressive advances to- wards moral perfection, would be for ever interrupted: and happiness banished from the whole intelligent system. The government of the Eternal would be subverted, the moral order of the intelligent system overturned; and misery would reign uncontrolled throughout every region of intellectual existence. For truth is implied in the principle of love; it is essential to its existence, BO that the one cannot operate except on the basis of the other ; and we have already shown that the de- struction of love would be the destruction of all order, and of all happiness among intelligent beings. Such are some of the dreadful effects which would inevitably follow, were the law under consideration reversed or universally violated. In our world, this law has hitherto been only par- tially violated ; yet what dreadful mischiefs, beyond calcula- tion, and even beyond conception, has its frequent violation created! Ever since that moment when " the father of lies" deceived the first human pair, how many thousands of millions 238 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. of liars have trodden in his footsteps ! and what a host of false- hoods has followed in their train, which have destroyed the harmony of the moral system, and rohbed the world of happi- ness and repose ! Yet how little are we affected by the fre- quent violations of this law ! and how seldom do we reflect, that every falsehood we unadvisedly utter is an infringement of that law on which rest the throne of the Almighty, and the eternal happiness of the universe ! Of how much importance is it then, that an inviolable attachment to truth, in its mi- nutest ramifications, be early impressed upon the minds of the young, by persuasion, by precept, by example, and by a vivid representation of its importance, and of its inestimable benefits! and how careful should we be to preserve them from all incen- tives to the practice of lying, and especially from the company of those " whose mouth speaketh vanity, and their right hand is a right hand of falsehood!'* Were falsehood universally detested, and the love of truth universally cherished, what a mighty change would be effected in the condition of mankind, and what a glorious radiance would be diffused over all the movements of the intelligent sys- tem! The whole host of liars, perjurers, sharpers, seducers, slanderers, tale-bearers, quacks, thieves, swindlers, fraudulent dealers, false friends, flatterers, corrupt judges, hypocrites, and religious impostors, with the countless multitude of frauds, im- positions, falsehoods, and distresses which have followed in their train, would instantly disappear from among men. The beams of truth penetrating through the mists of ignorance, error, and perplexity, which have so long enveloped the human mind, would diffuse a lustre and cheerfulness on the face of the moral world, like the mild radiance of the morning after a night of darkness and tempest. Confidence would be restored throughout every department of social life; jealousy, suspicion, and distrust, would no longer rankle in the human breast; and unfeigned affection, fidelity, and friendship, would unite the whole brotherhood of mankind. With what a beautiful sim- plicity, and with what smoothness and harmony, would the world of trade move onward in all its transactions! How many cares and anxieties would vanish ! how many perplexi- ties would cease ! and how many ruinous litigations would be EFFECTS OF UNIVERSAL VERACITY. 233 prevented ! For the violation of truth may be considered as the chief cause of all those disputes respecting property which have plunged so many families into perplexity and wretched- ness. The tribunals of justice would be purified from every species of sophistry and deceit; and the promises of kings, and the leagues of nations, would be held sacred and inviolate. Science would rapidly advance towards perfection; for, as all its principles and doctrines are founded upon facts, when truth is universally held inviolable, the facts on which it is built, would always be fairly represented. Every fact assert- ed by voyagers and travellers, in relation to the physical or the moral world, and every detail of experiments made by the che- mist and the philosopher, would form a sure groundwork for the development of truth, and the detection of error, without the least suspicion arising in the mind respecting the veracity of the persons on whose testimony we rely. In fine, the clouds which now obscure many of the sublime objects of religion, and the realities of a future world, would be dispelled were falsehood unknown, and truth beheld in its native light; and religion, purified from every mixture of error and delusion, would appear arrayed in its own heavenly radi- ance, and attract the love and admiration of men. When ex- hibited in its native grandeur and simplicity, all doubts re- specting its divine origin would soon evanish from the mind the beauty and sublimity of its doctrines would be recognised as worthy of its Author and all its moral requisitions per- ceived to be " holy, just, and good," and calculated to promote the order and everlasting happiness of the intelligent universe. Divine truth, irradiating every mind, and accompanied with the emanations of heavenly love, would dispel the gloom which now hangs over many sincere and pious minds; would unite man to man, and man to God ; and the inhabitants of this world, freed from every doubt, error, and perplexity, would move forward in harmony and peace, to join "the innumer- able company of angels, and the general assembly of the spirits of just men made perfect, whose names are written in heaven/' 240 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. THE TENTH COMMANDMENT. " Thou sJialt not covet thy neighbour's house, thou shalt not covet thy neighbour's wife, nor his man-servant, nor his maid-servant, nor his ox, nor his ass, nor any thing that is thy neighbour's.'" Every precept of the law to which I have hitherto adverted has a reference not only to the external conduct of moral agents, "but also to the internal motives or principles from which that conduct proceeds. This is evident from the considerations already stated, and from the whole tenor of divine Revelation; and it is in unison with the common sense of mankind, that the merit or demerit of any action is to be estimated, accord- ing to the intention of the actor, and the disposition from which it flows. That no doubt may remain on this point, the Supreme Legislator closes the Decalogue with a command, which has a reference solely to the desires and dispositions of the mind: "Thou shalt not covet." Covetousness consists in an inordinate desire of earthly objects and enjoyments. This desire, when uniformly indulged, leads to a breach of almost every other precept of the divine law; and is the source of more than one-half of all the evils which afflict the human race. It leads to a breach of the eighth command, by exciting either to fraudulent dealings, or to direct acts of theft and robbery. It leads to a breach of the ninth command, by cherishing the principle of falsehood which is implied in every fraudulent transaction. It leads to a violation of the sixth command, by engendering a spirit of revenge against those who stand in the way of its gratification; and by exciting the covetous man to the commission of murder, in order to accomplish his avaricious desires. It also leads to a violation of the seventh command; for when one "covets his neighbour's wife," the next step is to endeavour to withdraw her affections from her husband, and to plunge a family into distress. It also leads to a violation of the fifth precept of the law, not only as it steels the heart against those kindly filial affections which children ought tc exercise towards their parents, but as it excites them to with- hold from their parents, when in old age and in distress, those TENDENCY OF COVETOUSNESS. 241 external comforts which are requisite to their happiness, and which it is the duty of affectionate children to provide. And, when covetousness has thus led to the breach of every other precept of the second table of the law, it follows that all the precepts of the first table are also virtually violated. For all the commandments of the first table are briefly summed up in this comprehensive precept "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart:" but it is obviously impossible, nay it would be a contradiction in terms, to suppose, that supreme love to the Creator can reside in the same breast in which an inordinate desire of worldly enjoyments reigned uncontrolled, and in which love to man has no existence. So that covetous- ness may be considered as the great barrier which separates man from his Maker, and also as the polluted fountain from whence flow all the moral abominations and miseries of man- kind. The more obvious and direct manifestation of this principle is generally distinguished by the name of avarice, or, an inordi- nate desire of riches. And what a countless host of evils has flowed from this unhallowed passion, both in relation to indi- viduals, to families, to nations, and to the world at large! In relation to the avaricious man himself, could we trace all the eager desires, anxieties, perplexities, and cares which harass his soul; the fraudulent schemes he is obliged to contrive, in order to accomplish his object; the miserable shifts to which he is reduced, in order to keep up the appearance of common honesty, the numerous disappointments to which his eager pursuit of wealth continually exposes him, and by which his soul is pierced as with so many daggers we should behold a wretched being, the prey of restless and contending passions, and grovelling affections, like a cage full of every unclean and hateful bird, a mind incapable of any rational enjoyment in this life, and entirely incapacitated for relishing the nobler enjoyments of the life to come. Such a man is not only miserable himself, but becomes a moral nuisance to the neighbourhood around him; stinting his own family of its necessary comforts; op- pressing the widow and the fatherless; grasping with insatia- ble fangs, every house, tenement, and patch of land within hia reach ; setting adrift the poor and needy from their long-ac- H Q 242 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. customed dwellings ; and presenting to the young and thought- less a picture which is too frequently copied, of an immortal mind immersed in the mire of the most degrading passions, and worshipping and serving the creature more than the Crea- tor, who is blessed for ever. In relation to large communities and nations, this grovelling passion has produced, on an extensive scale, the most mischiev- ous and destructive effects. It has plundered palaces, churches, seats of learning, and repositories of art; it has polluted the courts of judicature, and the tribunals of justice: it has cor- rupted magistrates, judges, and legislators; and has trans- formed many, even of the ministers of religion, into courtly sycophants, and hunters after places and pensions. It has ground whole nations to poverty, under the load of taxation ; spread misery over whole empires; drenched the earth with human gore; and waded through fields of blood, in order to satiate its ungovernable desires. What has led to most of the wars which have desolated the earth, in every age, but the in- satiable cravings of this restless passion? It was the cursed love of gold that excited the Spaniards to ravage the territories of Mexico and Peru ; to violate every principle of justice and humanity; to massacre, and to perpetrate the most horrid cruelties on their unoffending inhabitants. The same principle commenced, and still carries on, that abominable traffic, the slave trade a traffic which has entailed misery on millions of the sons of Africa; which has excited wars, and feuds, and massacres, among her numerous tribes; which has for ever separated from each other brothers and sisters, parents and children; which has suffocated thousands of human beings in the cells of a floating dungeon, and plunged ten thousands into a watery grave; a traffic which is a disgrace to the human species; which has transformed civilized men into infernal fiends; which has trampled on every principle of justice; which has defaced the image of God in man, and extinguished every spark of humanity from the minds of the ferocious banditti which avarice has employed for accomplishing her nefarious designs. Ambition, or, an inordinate desire of power, superiority, and distinction, is another modification of this malignant principle. EFFECTS OF AMBITION. 243 This passion is manifested, in a greater or lesser degree, by men of all ranks and characters, and in every situation in life, It is displayed in the school-room, by the boy who is always eager to stand foremost in his class; in the ball-room, by the lady who is proud of her beauty, and of her splendid attire; in the corporation-hall, by the citizen, who struts with an air of conscious dignity, and is ever and anon aiming at pompous harangues; on the bench, by the haughty and overbearing judge; in the church, by those rulers, who, like Diotrephes, " love to have the pre-eminence ; " in the pulpit, by the preacher whose main object is to excite the admiration and applause of a surrounding audience; in the streets, by the pompous airs of the proud dame, the coxcomb, and the dashing squire; in the village, by him who has a better house and a longer purse than his neighbour; in the hamlet, by the peasant who can lift the heaviest stone, or fight and wrestle with the greatest strength or agility; and in the city, by the man who endeavours to rival all his compeers in the magnificence of his mansion, and the splendour of his equipage; among the learned, by their eager desire to spread their name through the world, and to extend their fame to succeeding generations; and among all classes who assume airs of importance, on account of the anti- quity of their families, their wealth, their exploits of heroism, and their patrimonial possessions. But it is chiefly on the great theatre of the world, that am- bition has displayed its most dreadful energies, and its most overwhelming devastations. In order to gain possession of a throne, it has thrown whole nations into a state of convulsion and alarm. The road to political power and pre-eminence has been prepared by the overthrow of truth and justice, by foment- ing feuds and contentions, by bribery, murder, and assassina- tions, by sanguinary battles, and by the sighs, the groans, and lamentations of unnumbered widows and orphans. In order to raise silly mortals to despotic power, how many human victims have been sacrificed at the altar of ambition ! how many families have been plunged into irremediable ruin! and how many illus- trious patriots have been immured in dungeons and have ex- pired under the axe of the executioner! To recount all the evils which ambition has produced over this vast globe, would 244 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. bo to write a history of the struggles and contests of nations, and of the sorrows and sufferings of mankind. So insatiable is this ungovernable passion that the whole earth appears a field too small for its malignant operations. Alexander the Great, after having conquered the greater part of the known world, wept, because he had not another world to conquer. Were there no physical impediments to obstruct the course of this detestable passion, it would ravage, not only the globe on which we dwell, but the whole of the planetary worlds; it would range from system to system, carrying ruin and devastation in its train, till the material universe was involved in misery and desolation : and it would attempt to subvert the foundations of the throne of the Eternal. Such are some of the dismal and destructive effects of covet- ousness, when prosecuting the paths of avarice and ambition : and when we consider that it is uniformly accompanied in its progress, with pride, envy, discontentment, and restless desires, it is easy to perceive, that, were it left to reign without con- trol over the human mind, it would soon desolate every region of the earth, and produce all the destructive effects which, as we have already shown, would flow from a universal violation of the other precepts of God's law. On the other hand, contentment the duty implied in this command would draw along with it a countless train of bless- ings, and would restore tranquillity and repose to our distract- ed world. To be contented under the allotments of the provi- dence of God is one of the first fundamental duties of every ra- tional creature. By contentment and resignation to the divine disposal, we recognise God as the Supreme Governor of the universe ; as directed by infinite wisdom, in the distribution of his bounty; as proceeding on the basis of eternal and immutable justice, in all his providential arrangements; and as actuated by a principle of unbounded benevolence, which has a regard to the ultimate happiness of his creatures. Under the govern- ment of such a Being, we have abundant reason, not only to be resigned, but to be glad and rejoice. " The Lord reigneth, let the earth be glad, let the multitude of the isles thereof rejoice." However scanty the portion of earthly good measured out to us at present, and however perplexing and mysterious the external EFFECTS OF CONTENTMENT. 245 circumstances in which we may now he involved, we may rest assured that, under the government of unerring wisdom, recti- tude, and benevolence, all such dispensations shall ultimately he found to have been, not only consistent with justice, but conducive to our present and everlasting interests. Were such sentiments and affections to pervade the minds of all human beings, what a host of malignant passions would be chased away from the hearts and the habitations of men ! Restless cares, and insatiable desires, which constitute the source and the essence of misery, would no longer agitate and torment the human mind. Voluptuousness would no longer riot at the table of luxury on dainties wrung from the sweat of thousands; nor avarice glut its desires with the spoils of the widow and the orphan; nor ambition ride in triumph over the miseries of a suffering world. Everyone, submissive to the allotments of his Creator, and grateful for that portion of his bounty which he has been pleased to bestow, would view the wealth of his neigh- bour with a kind and benignant eye, and rejoice in the pros- perity of all around him. Benevolence and peace would diffuse their benign influence over the nations; and mankind, delivered from the fear of everything that might "hurt or destroy," would march forward in harmony and affection to that happier world, where every wish will be crowned, and every holy desire satisfied in God "their exceeding great reward." Thus it appears, that, on the observance of this law, which closes the Decalogue, and which has a reference to a single affection of the mind the happiness of the intelligent system almost entirely depends. Let the floodgates of covetousness be burst open, and let it flow in every direction without con- trol, in a short period the world is desolated, and overwhelmed with a deluge of miseries. Let the current of every passion and desire be restrained within its legitimate boundary, and let contentment take up its residence in every heart, and this de- luge will soon be dried up, and a new world will appear arrayed in all the loveliness, and verdure, and beauty of Eden. May Jehovah hasten it in his time ! Thus I have endeavoured, in the preceding sketches, to illus- trate the reasonableness of those laws which God has promul- 246 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. gated for regulating the moral conduct of the intelligent crea- tion. If the propriety of these illustrations be admitted, they may be considered as a commentary on the words of the Apostle Paul: " The law is holy, and the commandment is holy and just and good." In like manner, it might have been shown that all the apostolic injunctions, and other precepts recorded in the volume of inspiration, are accordant with the dictates of reason, and with the relations of moral agents ; for they are all so many subordinate ramifications of the principles and laws which I have already illustrated. General conclusions and Remarks, founded on the preceding Illustrations. I SHALL conclude this chapter with a few remarks in relation to the moral law, founded on the illustrations which have been given in the preceding pages; which may be considered as so many inferences deduced from the general subject which has now occupied our attention. I. In the first place, One obvious conclusion from the pre- ceding illustrations is, That the laws of God are not the mere commands of an arbitrary sovereign, but are founded on the nature of things, and on the relations which exist in the intel- ligent system. It is evident, that the moral law is not founded merely on the will of God, but on the relations of intelligent beings, and on its own intrinsic excellence; or, in other words, on its ten- dency to produce happiness throughout the intelligent system. This idea nearly coincides with that of some of our modern moralists, who maintain " that virtue is founded on utility," if by utility is meant a tendency to promote happiness. But it by no means follows, from this position, as some moralists have concluded, that utility is the guide, or the rule by which we are to be directed in our moral conduct. This may be considered as the rule which directs the conduct of the Di- vine Being, whose eye takes in the whole system of creation, whose knowledge extends from eternity past to eternity to GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 247 come, and who perceives, at one glance, the remotest conse- quences of every action. But it cannot be a rule for subordi- nate intelligencies, and especially for man, who stands near the lowest degree of the scale of intellectual existence. From the limited range of view to which he is confined, he cannot trace the remote consequences of any particular action, the bearings it may have on unnumbered individuals, and the re- lation in which it may stand to the concerns of the eternal world. An action which, to our limited view, may appear either beneficial or indifferent, may involve a principle which, if traced to its remotest consequences, would lead to the de- struction of the moral universe. It might appear, at first view, on the whole, beneficial to society, that an old unfeeling miser should be gently suffocated, and his treasures applied for the purpose of rearing asylums for the aged poor, and seminaries of instruction for the young. But the principle which would sanction such an action, if generally acted upon, would lead to universal plunder, robbery, and bloodshed. Man, in his pre- sent state, can be directed only by positive laws proceeding from the Almighty, whose comprehensive mind alone can trace all their consequences to the remotest -^rners of the universe, and through the ages of eternity. These laws are contained in the Scriptures a comprehensive summary of which has been the subject of the preceding illustrations. And we know, in point of fact, that in every country where these laws are either unknown or not recognised, there is no fixed standard of morals; and vice, in its various ramifications, almost uni- versally prevails. II. A full and unreserved obedience to the Divine law is a most reasonable requisition. Men are too frequently dis- posed to view the commands of God as the dictates of an arbi- trary sovereign. There is a secret thought that occasionally lodges in the heart of every human being, that the law of God is too rigorous in its demands, accompanied with a secret wish that the severity of its requisitions could be a little modified or relaxed. Every man is subject to some "besetting sin," and he is apt to say within himself " If I were allowed but a little licence in regard to one precept of the law, I would endeavour to do what I could to comply with the requisitions of the rest." 248 PHILOSOPHY OF EELIGION. But it would be inconsistent both with the benevolence of the Deity, and with the happiness of his moral creation, either to modify or to relax any one requirement of his law; for it is a perfect law, from which nothing can be taken without impair- ing its excellence and utility. Were he to do so, it would be, in effect, to shut up the path to happiness, and to open the floodgates of misery upon the universe. Although it is im- possible for man, in his present condition, to yield a perfect obedience to this law, yet nothing short of perfect obedience ought to be his aim. For in as far as we fall short of it, in so far do we fall short of happiness; and consequently, till that period arrive when our obedience shall reach the summit of perfection, our happiness must remain incomplete, and a cer- tain portion of misery must be expected to mingle itself with all our enjoyments. III. There is so intimate a connection beticeen all the parts of the Divine law, that the habitual violation of any one pre- cept necessarily includes the violation of the greater part, if not the whole of the other precepts. This is evident from the general tenor of the preceding illustrations. It has been shown that a breach of the first commandment includes pride, false- hood, blasphemy, ingratitude, and hatred of moral excellence ; and that it leads to injustice, cruelty, murder, obscenity, and the most revolting abominations. A breach of the fifth involves a principle which would sap the foundations of all government and moral order, and transform society into a lawless banditti. The violation of the eighth is connected with falsehood, treach- ery, and covetousness, and leads to oppression, robbery, mur- ders, and the devastation of empires; and the violation of the tenth, though consisting only in the indulgence of an irregular desire, is the origin of almost every other species of moral tur- pitude, in relation either to God or to man. In like manner it might be shown, that the strict observance of any one precept is necessarily connected with a regard for all the other require- ments of God's law. IV. It appears, from the preceding illustrations, that a uni versal violation of any one of the six precepts of the second table of the law, would lead to the entire destruction of the human race. In the case of the sixth commandment being supposed GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 249 to be reversed or universally violated, this effect would be most rapidly produced ; but the destruction and complete extirpation of human beings from the earth would be as certainly effected, in the course of two or three generations, by the universal vio- lation of any one of the other five precepts. And as the first principle of the moral law> love to God, is the foundation of the precepts contained in the second table, it is obvious that the same effect would ultimately follow from a universal viola- tion of the first four precepts of the Decalogue. V. It follows from what has hitherto been stated, that the moral law has never yet been universally violated; nor has any one of its precepts been completely reversed in the conduct of the inhabitants of our globe. Every individual of mankind has indeed, in one shape or another, broken every one of the commandments of God: but such breaches have not been con- stant and uniform, and running through every action he per- formed. Falsehood has always been mingled with a portion of truth, theft with honesty, cruelty with clemency and mercy, anarchy with subordination, and licentiousness with chastity and purity. It is owing to this partial obedience to the dic- tates of the law of nature, impressed upon every human heart, that the world of mankind has hitherto been preserved in exist- ence. The partial violation, however, of the divine law, which has characterised the actions of mankind in all ages, has been the source of all the calamities, miseries, and moral abomina- tions, under which the earth has groaned from generation to generation; and, in proportion to the extent of this violation will be the extent of misery entailed on the human race. That a universal violation of God's law has never yet taken place in any region of the earth, is not owing so much to any want of energy or of malignity in the principle of disobedience which is seated in the hearts of men, as to the restraining influence of the moral Governor of the world, and to the physical impedi- ments which he has placed to prevent the diabolical passions of men from raging without control. VI. The greater part of the precepts of the Decalogue is binding upon superior intelligencies, and upon the inhabitants of all worlds, as well as upon man. For any thing we know- to the contrary, there may be worlds in different regions of the 250 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. universe, and even within the hounds of our planetary system, where their inhabitants are placed in circumstances similar to those in which man was placed in his paradisaical state; and consequently, where the precepts which compose their moral code may he exactly the same as ours. But it is highly probable, that, in general, the inhabitants of the various globes which float in the immensity of space, differ as much in their moral circumstances and relations, as the globes themselves do in their size, their physical constitution, and their natural scenery. I have already shown (p. 135, etc.,) that there are seven pre- cepts of our moral law which are common to the inhabitants of all worlds, namely the first, second, third, fourth, (see p. 207,) the sixth, the ninth, and the tenth. And, if there is no portion of the intelligent system in which subordination, in a greater or lesser degree, does not exist, then the fifth precept also of our code must be a law common to all intelligences. So that the moral laws given to man may be considered as substan- tially the same with those which govern all the other parts of the universal system. VII. From the preceding illustrations, we may infer the excellency and the divine origin of the Christian Revelation. The Scriptures contain the most impressive evidence of their heavenly original in their own bosom. The wide range of objects they embrace, extending from the commencement of our earthly system, through all the revolutions of time to the period of its termination; and from the countless ages of eternity past, to the diversified scenes of eternity to come the plan of Pro- vidence they unfold, and the views they exhibit of the moral principles of the Divine government, and of the subordination of all events to the accomplishment of a glorious design the character and attributes of the Creator, which they illustrate by the most impressive delineations and the most sublime descriptions the views they exhibit of the existence, the powers, the capacities, the virtues, and the employments of superior orders of intellectual beings the demonstrations they afford of the dignified station and the high destination of man and the sublime and awful scenes they unfold, when the earth " shall melt like wax at the presence of the Lord," when the judgment shall be set, and the unnumbered millions of the race of Adam GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 251 shall be assembled before the Judge of all, infinitely surpass every thing which the unassisted imaginations of men could have devised, and consequently prove, to a moral demonstra- tion, that a Power and Intelligence, superior to the human mind, must have suggested such sublime conceptions; since there are no prototypes of such objects to be found within the ordinary range of the human mind. But the subject to which we have been hitherto adverting, when properly considered, suggests an evidence of the truth and divinity of the Scriptures, as striking, and perhaps more con- vincing than any other. They unfold to us the moral laws of the universe they present a summary of moral principles and precepts which is applicable to all the tribes and generations of men, to all the orders of angelic beings, and to all the moral intelligencies of human beings that people the amplitudes of creation to man, during his temporary abode on earth, and to man, when placed in heaven, so long as eternity endures pre- cepts, which, if universally observed, would banish misery from the creation, and distribute happiness among all the intellectual beings that exist throughout the empire of God. Can these things be affirmed of any other system of religion or of morals that was ever published to the world ? The Greek and Roman moralists, after all their laboured investigations, could never arrive at any certain determination with regard to the nature of happiness, and the means of attaining it. We are told by Varro, one of the most learned writers of the Augustin age, that the heathen philosophers had embraced more than two hundred and eighty different opinions respecting the supreme good. Some of them taught that it consisted in sensual enjoy- ments, and in freedom from pain: others considered it as placed in. study and contemplation, in military glory, in riches, honours, wealth, and fame. Some of their moral maxims, separately considered, were rational and excellent; but they were connected with other maxims, which completely neutralised all their virtue, and their tendency to produce happiness. Pride, falsehood, injustice, impurity, revenge, and an unfeeling apathy to the distresses of their fellow-creatures, were considered as quite consistent with their system of morality; and such malignant principles and practices were blended with their most virtuous 252 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. actions. But we have already shown that the uniform opera- tion of such principles would necessarily lead to the destruction of all happiness, and to the overthrow of all order throughout the intelligent creation. Now, can it be supposed for a moment that a Jew who had spent forty years of his life as a shepherd in a desert country, who lived in a rude age of the world, who had never studied a system of ethics, and whose mind was altogether incapable of tracing the various relations which subsist between intelligent beings and their Creator, could have investigated those princi- ples and laws which form the foundation of the moral universe, and the basis of the Divine government in all worlds; unless they had been communicated immediately by Him, who, at one glance, beholds all the physical and moral relations which exist throughout creation, and who can trace the bearings and the eternal consequences of every moral law? Or can we suppose, that throughout the whole period of the Jewish economy, and during the first ages of the Christian dispensation, a multitude of writers should appear, many of them unknown to each other, all of whom should uniformly recognise those laws in their mi- nutest bearings and ramifications; unless their minds had been enlightened and directed by the same powerful and unerring Intelligence? If these laws are distinguished by their extreme simplicity, they are the more characteristic of their divine Author, who, from the general operation of a few simple prin- ciples in the system of nature, produces all the variety we per- ceive in the material world, and all the harmonies, the contrasts, the beauties and sublimities of the universe. If it be asked why these laws, which are so extremely simple and compre- hensive, were not discovered nor recognised by the ancient sages'? The true reasons are that the unassisted powers of the human mind were inadequate to the task of surveying all the moral relations which subsist throughout the intelligent system, and of tracing those moral principles which would apply to the whole assemblage of moral agents, so as to secure the happiness of each individual, and of the system as one great whole that the laws of God were almost directly contrary to the leading maxims of morality which prevailed in the world and that they struck at the root of all those principles of pride, ambi- GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 253 tion, revenge, and impurity, which almost universally directed the conduct of individuals and of nations. If, then, we find in a book which professes to he a Revelation from heaven, a system of laws which can clearly he shown to he the basis of the moral order of the universe, and which are calculated to secure the eternal felicity of all intellectual beings it forms an unanswerable argument, that the contents of that book are of a celestial origin, and were dictated by Him who gave birth to the whole system of created beings. VIII. From this subject we may learn the absurdity and the pernicious tendency of Antinomianism. Of all the absurdities and abominations which have as- sumed the name of Religion, I know none more pernicious and atheistical in its tendency, than the sentiment which is tenaciously maintained by modern Antinomians, " That Chris- tians are set free from the law of God as a rule of conduct." That, in the nineteenth century of the Christian era, amidst the rapid progress of physical and moral science, under the mask of a Christian profession, and with the moral precepts and injunctions of the prophets, of Jesus Christ, and of his apostles, lying open before them, a set of men, calling them* selves rational beings, should arise to maintain, that there is such a thing as "imputed sanctification," that the moral law is not obligatory upon Christians, and that " whoever talks of progressive sanctification is guilty of high treason against the Majesty of heaven" 1 is a moral phenomenon truly hum- bling and astonishing; and affords an additional proof to the many other evidences which lie before us, of the folly and per- versity of the human mind, and of its readiness to embrace the most wild and glaring absurdities! If the leading train of sentiment which has been prosecuted in the preceding illustra- tions be admitted, there appears nothing else requisite in order to show the gross absurdity and the deadly malignity of the Antinomian system. If any system of religion be founded on the cancellation of every moral tie which connects man with man, and man with God if it can be shown, that the operation of such principles constitutes the chief ingredient of the misery 1 See Cottle's Strictures on the Plymouth Antinomians. 254: PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. which arises from " the worm that never dies, and the fire which is never quenched;" and that, if universally acted upon, they would overthrow all order in the intelligent system, and "banish happiness from the universe it necessarily follows, that such a system cannot he the religion prescribed by the All-wise and Benevolent Creator, nor any part of that Revelation which pro- claims "peace on earth and good-will towards men," and which enjoins us to " love the Lord our God with all our hearts, and our neighbour as ourselves." The Antinomian, in following out his own principles, if no human laws or prudential considerations were to deter him, might run to every excess of profligacy and debauchery might indulge in impiety, falsehood, and profanity might commit theft, robbery, adultery, fraud, cruelty, injustice, and even murder, without considering himself as acting contrary to the spirit of his religious system. On his principles, the idea of heaven, or a state of perfect happiness, is a physical and moral impossibility; and the idea of hell a mere bugbear to frighten children and fools. For, wherever the moral law is generally observed, there can be no great portion of misery experienced under the arrangements of a Benevolent Creator; and if this law be set aside, or its observance considered as a matter of indifference, the foundation of all the happiness of saints and angels is necessarily subverted. A heaven without love per- vading the breasts of all its inhabitants would be a contradic- tion in terms; but love, as we have already seen, is the foun- dation of every moral precept. I trust the moral conduct of the deluded mortals who have embraced this system is more respectable than that to which their principles naturally lead; but the consideration, that such absurd and dangerous opinions have been deduced from the Christian Revelation, should act as a powerful stimulus on the Christian world, for directing their attention to a more minute and comprehensive illustration than has hitherto been given, of the practical bearings of the Christian system, and of the eternal and immutable obligation of the law of God, which it is the great end of the Gospel of Christ to enforce and demonstrate. IX. Faith and repentance, as required in the Gospel, are FAim AND REPENTANCE. 255 absolutely necessary, in the present condition of man, in order to acceptable obedience to the divine law. " Without faith it is impossible to please God ; for he that cometh to God must believe that he is, and that he is the rewarder of them that diligently seek him." Faith, as the term is used in Scripture, denotes confidence in the moral character of God, founded on the belief we attach to the declarations of his word. It is defined, by the Apostle Paul, in the eleventh chapter of the Epistle to the Hebrews, to be " the confident expectation of things hoped for," and " the conviction of things which are not seen." 1 Faith substantiates and realises those objects which are invisible to the eye of sense, and which lie beyond the reach of our present comprehension. It recognises the existence and the omnipresence of an invisible Being, by whose agency the visible operations of nature are conducted ; and views him as possessed of infinite wisdom, power, benevolence, faithfulness, rectitude, and eternal duration. It realises the scenes of an invisible and eternal world the destruction of the present fabric of our globe, the resurrection of the dead, the solemni- ties of the last judgment, the new heavens and the new earth, the innumerable company of angels, and the grandeur and felicity of the heavenly world. These invisible realities it recognises, on the testimony of God exhibited in his word; and without a recognition of such objects, religion can have no ex- istence in the mind. In a particular manner, faith recognises the declarations of God in relation to the character and condi- tion of men as violators of his law, and as exposed to misery; and the exhibition which is made of the way of reconciliation, through the mediation of Jesus Christ, who is " set forth as a propitiation to declare the righteousness of God in the remis- sion of sins." The man in whose heart the principle of faith operates, convinced that he is guilty before God, and exposed to misery on account of sin, confides in the declarations of God respecting " the remission of sins through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus;" he confides in the goodness, mercy, faithfulness, and power of God, which secure the accomplish- ment of his promises, and the supply of all requisite strength 1 Doddridge's Translation of Heb., xi, 1. 256 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. and consolation to support him amidst the dangers and afflio tions of life; he confides in the wisdom and excellence of those precepts which are prescribed as the rule of his conduct, and which are fitted to guide him to the regions of happiness ; and, in the exercise of this confidence, he " adds to his faith, fortitude, knowledge, temperance, patience, godliness, brotherly kindness, and charity;" and prosecutes with courage this course of ohedience, till at length, " an entrance is abundantly admi- nistered to him into the everlasting kingdom of our Lord and Saviour, Jesus Christ." But, without a recognition of such objects, and an unshaken confidence in the declarations of God respecting them, it is obvious, from the nature of things, that we "cannot please God," nor yield him an acceptable and " reasonable service." In like manner, it might be shown, that repentance is essen- tially requisite to acceptable obedience. Sin is directly op- posed to the character of God, and is the great nuisance of the moral universe. While the love of it predominates in any mind, it leads to every species of moral turpitude ; and conse- quently, completely unfits such a mind for yielding a cheerful obedience to the divine law. But repentance, which consists in hatred of sin, and sorrow for having committed it, natur- ally prepares the mind for the practice of universal holiness. It tends to withdraw the soul from the practice of sin, and warns it of the danger of turning again to folly. It is the commencement of every course of virtuous conduct, and the avenue which ultimately leads to solid peace and tranquillity. It is intimately connected with humility and self-denial, and is directly opposed to pride and self-gratulation. It must therefore be indispensably requisite to prepare us for conformi- ty to the moral character of God, for universal obedience to his law, and for the enjoyment of substantial never-ending felicity. Hence the importance which is attached to the exercise of re- pentance by our Saviour and his apostles. In connection with faith, it is uniformly represented as the first duty of a sinner, and the commencement of the Christian life. Repentance was the great duty to which the forerunner of the Messiah called the multitudes who flocked to his baptism, and on which the Messiah himself expatiated during the period of his public mi- GOOD WORKS NOT MERITORIOUS. 257 nistry. " Repent ye, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand." "Except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish." And the apostles, in their instructions to every nation, and to every class of men, laid down the following positions as the founda- tion of every moral duty: " Repentance towards God, and faith towards our Lord Jesus Christ/' X. From the preceding illustrations we may learn, that no merit, in the sense in which that term is sometimes used, can be attached to human actions in the sight of God; and that the salvation, or ultimate happiness of sinners, is the effect of the grace or benevolence of God. That the good works of meo are meritorious in the sight of God, is a notion, as unphiloso* phical and ahsurd, as it is impious and unscriptural. They are requisite, and indispensably requisite, as qualifications or preparations for the enjoyment of felicity, without which the attainment of true happiness either here or hereafter is an im- possibility; but the actions of no created being, not even the eublimest services of the angelic hosts, can have the least merit m the eyes of the Creator, " Thy wickedness may hurt a man as thou art, and thy righteousness may profit the son of man;" but " if thou sinnest, what dost thou against God? or if thou be righteous, what givest thou unto him, and what receivest he of thine hand? MI " Thy goodness extendeth not unto him," and "he that sinneth against him wrongeth his own soul." What merit can there be in the exercise of love, and in the cultivation of benevolent affections, when we consider, that these affections are essentially requisite to our happiness, and that the very exercise of them is a privilege conferred by God, and one of the principal ingredients of bliss ? What merit can be attached to the noblest services we can perform, when we reflect, that we derived all the corporeal and intellectual faculties by which we perform these services, and all the means by which they are excited and directed, from our bountiful Creator? What merit can there be in obedience to his law, when disobedient must infallibly lead to destruction and misery? Our benevolent affections, and the active services to which they lead, may be meritorious in the eyes of our fellow- 1 Job, xxxr, 6, 8. Psalm xvi, 2, etc. 14 B 258 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. men, in so far as they are the means of contributing to their enjoyment; but in the presence of him who sits on the throne of the universe, we shall always have to acknowledge that "we are unprofitable servants." It is probable, that, if the great object of religion were represented in its native simplicity, if the nature of salvation were clearly understood, and if less were said on the subject of human merit in sermons and sys- tems of divinity, the idea which I am now combating would seldom be entertained by any mind possessed of the least share of Christian knowledge, or of common sense. That the eternal salvation of men is the effect of the grace of God, is also a necessary consequence from what has been now stated. For every power, capacity, and privilege we pos- sess, was derived from God: " What have we that we have not received?" Even our very existence in the world of life is an act of grace. We exerted no power in ushering ourselves into existence: we had no control over the events which determined that we should be born in Britain and not in Africa ; which determined the particular family with which we should be con- nected; the education we should receive; the particular objects towards which our minds should be directed, and the privileges we should enjoy. And when we arrive at the close of our earthly career, when the spirit is hovering on the verge of life, and about to take its flight from this mortal scene, can it di- rect its course, by its own energies, through the world unknown? can it wing its way over a region it has never explored, to its kindred spirits in the mansions of bliss ? can it furnish these mansions with the objects from which its happiness is to be derived? can it reanimate the body after it has long mouldered in the dust ? can it reunite itself with its long-lost partner ? can it transport the resurrection-body to that distant world where it is destined to spend an endless existence? or can it create those scenes of magnificence, and those ecstatic joys which will fill it with transport while eternity endures ? If it cannot be supposed to accomplish such glorious objects by its own inherent powers, then it must be indebted for every en- tertainment in the future world to the unbounded and unmerit- ed love and mercy of God. To Him, therefore, who sits upon the throne of the heavens, and to the Lamb who was slain and SALVATION AN ACT OF GRACE. hath redeemed us by his blood, let all praise, honour, dominion, and power, be ascribed, now and for ever. Amen. Having now finished what I proposed in the illustration of the principles of love to God and to man, and of the precepts of the Decalogue, in the following chapter I shall take a bird's eye view of the moral state of the world ; and endeavour to as- certain, to what extent these principles and laws have been recognised and observed by the inhabitants of our globe. CHAPTER IV. A BRIEF SURVEY OF THE MORAL STATE OF THE WORLD; OR, AN EXAMINATION OF THE GENERAL TRAIN OF HUMAN AC- TIONS, IN REFERENCE TO ITS CONFORMITY WITH THE PRIN- CIPLES AND LAWS NOW ILLUSTRATED. THE discoveries of modern astronomy have led us infallibly to conclude, that the universe consists of an immense num- ber of systems and worlds dispersed, at immeasurable distances from each other, throughout the regions of infinite space. When we take into consideration the benevolence of the Deity, and that the happiness of the intelligent creation is the great object which his Wisdom and Omnipotence are employed t accomplish it appears highly probable, that the inhabitants of the whole, or at least of the greater part, of those worlds whose suns we behold twinkling from afar, are in a state of moral perfection, and consequently in a state of happiness. At any rate, it is reasonable to conclude, that the exceptions which exist are not numerous. Perhaps this earth is the only world where physical evil exists, and where moral order is sub- verted ; and these dismal effects may have been permitted to happen, under the government of God, in order to exhibit to other intelligencies, a specimen of the terrible and destructive consequences of moral evil, as a warning of the danger of in- fringing, in the least degree, on those moral principles which form the bond of union among the intelligent system. Could we trace the series of events which have occurred in any one of those happy worlds, where moral perfection prevails, ever since the period when it was replenished with inhabitants, and the objects to which their physical and rational powers have been directed, we should doubtless be highly delighted SCENES IN A WORLD OF PURITY. 261 with the moral scenery which the history of such a world would display. Its annals would uniformly record the transactions of benevolence. We should hear nothing of the pomp of hos- tile armies, of the shouts of victory, of the exploits of heroes, of the conflagration of cities, of the storming of fortifications, of the avarice of courtiers, of the burning of heretics, or the ambition of princes. The train of events presented to our view would be directly opposed to every object of this description, and to everything which forms a prominent feature in the his- tory of mankind. To beautify and adorn the scenery of na- ture around them, to extend their views of the operations of the Almighty, to explore the depths of his wisdom and intelligence, to admire the exuberance of his goodness, to celebrate the praises of the Author of all their enjoyments, to make pro- gressive advances in moral and intellectual attainments, to circulate joy from heart to heart, to expand their views of the Divine perfections, and to increase the sum of happiness among fellow-intelligencies, will doubtless form a part of the employ- ments of a world where moral purity universally prevails. One circumstance which may probably diversify the annals of such a world, and form so many eras in its history, may be the oc- casional visit of angelic or other messengers, from distant regions of creation, to announce the will of the Almighty on particular emergencies, to relate the progress of new creations in other parts of the Divine empire, and to convey intelligence respecting the physical condition, the moral arrangements, and the history of other orders of intellectual beings. Such visits and occasional intercourses with celestial beings would un- doubtedly have been more frequent in our world had not man rendered himself unqualified for such associations by his gro- velling affections, and by the moral pollutions with which his character is now stained. When we turn our eyes from the transactions of such a world, to the world in which we live, how very different a scene is presented to the view ! The history of all nations embraces little more than A RECORD OF THE OPERATIONS OF MALEVOLENCE. Every occurrence has been considered as tame and insipid, 262 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION and scarcely worth of being recorded, unless it has been sso- ciated with the confused noise of warriors, the shouts of con- querors, the plunder of provinces, the devastation of empires, the groans of mangled victims, the cries of widows and or- phans, and with garments rolled in blood. When such male- volent operations cease for a little in any part of the world, and the tumultuous passions which produced them subside into a temporary calm, the historian is presented with a blank in the annals of the human race ; the short interlude of peace and of apparent tranquillity is passed over as unworthy of notice, till the restless passions of avarice and ambition be again roused into fury, and a new set of desperadoes arise, to carry slaugh- ter and desolation through the nations. For, during the short temporary periods of repose from the din of war which the world has occasionally enjoyed, the malignant passions, which were only smothered, but not extinguished, prevented the ope- ration of the benevolent affections ; and, of course, no exten- sive plans for the counteraction of evil, and the improvement of mankind, worthy of being recorded by the annalist and the historian, were carried into effect. In order to produce a definite impression of the moral state of the world, I shall endeavour, in this chapter, to give a rapid sketch of the prominent dispositions of mankind, as displayed in the general train of human actions that we may be enabled to form a rude estimate of the degree in which the law of God has been recognised, and of the extent to which its violation has been carried on the great theatre of the word, and in the ordinary transactions of general society. I shall, in the first place, take a rapid view of the moral state of the world in ancient times, and then take a more par- ticular survey of the present state of morals among savage and civilised nations in the Christian world and among the va- rious ranks and orders of society. SECTION I. State of morals in the ancient world. Man was originally formed after the moral ima^e of his MORALS OF THE ANTEDILUVIANS. 263 Maker. His understanding was quick and vigorous in its per- ceptions; his will subject to the divine law, and to the dic- tates of reason; his passions serene and uncontaminated with evil; his affections dignified and pure; his love supremely fixed upon his Creator; and his joy unmingled with those sorrows which have so long heen the hitter portion of his degenerate race. But the primogenitor of mankind did not long continue in the dignified station in which he was placed. Though he was placed in " a garden of delights," surrounded with every thing that was delicious to the taste and pleasant to the eye, yet he dared to violate a positive command of his Maker, and to stretch forth his impious hand to pluck and to taste the fruit of the forbidden tree a picture and a prelude of the con- duct of millions of his degraded offspring, w r ho despise the lawful enjoyments which lie within their reach, and obstinately rush on forbidden pleasures, which terminate in wretchedness and sorrow. The dismal effects of the depraved dispositions thus introduced among the human species, soon became apparent. Cain, the first-born son of Adam, had no sooner reached the years of maturity, than he gave vent to his revengeful passions, and imbrued his hands in his brother's blood. And ever since the perpetration of this unnatural deed, the earth has been drenched with the blood of thousands and of millions, and the stream of corruption has flowed without intermission, and in every direc- tion around the globe. Of the state of mankind in the ages before the flood, the sacred history furnishes us with only a few brief and general descriptions. But those descriptions, short and general as they are, present to us a most revolting picture of the pitch of de- pravity and wickedness to which the human race had arrived. We have the testimony of God himself to assure us, that, within 1600 years from the creation of the world, " the wicked- ness of man had become great upon the earth that the earth was filled with violence" yea, that " every imagination of the thoughts of man's heart was only evil continuallv," or, as it may more literally be rendered from the Hebrew, " the whole imagination, comprehending all the purposes and desires of the mind, was only evil from day to day.'' " God looked upon the earth: and behold it was corrupt; for all flesh had corrupted 264 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. their way upon the earth." A more comprehensive summary of the greatness and the extent of human wickedness it is scarcely possible to conceive. The mind is left to fill up the outline of this horrid picture with every thing that is degrading to the human character, with every thing that is profligate and abominable in manners, with every thing that is base, false, deceitful, licentious, and profane, and with every thing that is horrible and destructive in war, and ruinous to the interests of human happiness. The description now quoted contains the following intima- tions: 1. That, previous to the deluge, wickedness had become universal. It was not merely the majority of mankind that had thus given unbounded scope to their licentious desires, while smaller societies were to be found in which the worship of the true God, and the precepts of his law, were observed; for " all flesh had corrupted their ways. " 2. The description implies, That every invention, and every purpose and scheme devised both by individuals and by communities, was of a malevolent nature: "The imagination of every man's heart was only evil continually. 5 ' The dreadful spectacles of misery and horror which the universal prevalence of such principles and practices as then existed, must have produced, are beyond the power of human imagination either to conceive or to delineate. Some faint idea, however, may be formed of some of these spectacles, from the descriptions I have already given of the effects which would inevitably follow, were the principle of benevolence to be eradicated from the mind, or were any one of the precepts of the divine law to be universally violated (see Chap II, Sect, iv, and Chap. Ill throughout.) 3. The effects produced by this universal depravity are forcibly expressed in the words, " The earth was filled with violence." From this declaration, we are necessarily led to conceive a scene in which anarchy and dis- order, devastation and wretchedness, every where prevailed the strong and powerful forcibly seizing the wealth and posses- sions of the weak, violating the persons of the female sex, oppressing the poor, the widow, and the fatherless, overturning the established order of families and societies, and carrying bloodshed and devastation through every land a scene in which cruelty, injustice, and outrages of every kind, obscenity, MORALS OF THE ANTEDILUVIANS. 265 riot, and debauchery of every description, triumphed over every principle of decency and virtue. Such appears to have been the state of general society at the time when Xoah was commanded to build an ark of refuge a state of society which could not have long continued, but must inevitably, in the course of a few generations, have thinned the race of mankind, and ultimately have extirpated the race of Adam from the earth, even although the deluge had never been poured upon the world. Wickedness appears to have come to such a height, that no interposition of Providence could be supposed available to produce a reformation among mankind, without destroying their freedom of will; and therefore it was an act of mercy, as well as of judgment, to sweep them away at once by the waters of the flood, after having given them warnings of their danger; in order to convince such obstinate and abandoned characters, that " there is a God that judgeth in the earth;" and in order to prevent the misery which would otherwise have been entailed on succeeding generations. These facts respecting the depravity of the antediluvians, present to us a striking example, and a demonstrative evidence of the dreadful effects to which a general violation of the divine law necessarily leads; and of the confusion and misery which are inevitably produced when the law of love is set aside, and when malevolence exerts, without control, its diabolical ener- gies. All order in society is subverted, every species of rational happiness is destroyed, and the existence of intelligent beings, in such a state, becomes a curse to themselves and to all around them. Had not this been the case in the primeval world, we cannot suppose that the Deity would have exerted his Omni- potence in burying its inhabitants under the waters of a deluge. After the deluge had subsided, and the race of Noah had begun to multiply on the earth, it was not long before the de- pravity of man began to show itself by its malignant effects though human wickedness has never arrived to such a pitch as in the times before the flood; for this reason, among others, that the life of man has been reduced to a narrow span, which prevents him from carrying his malevolent schemes to such an extent as did the inhabitants of the world before the flood, whose lives were prolonged to the period of nearly a thousand years. 266 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. The lust of ambition soon began to exert its baleful influence over the mind; and an inordinate desire after wealth, distinc- tions, and aggrandisement, paved the way for the establish- ment of despotism, and for encroachments on the rights and enjoyments of mankind. Among the heroes and despots of antiquity, Nimrod, the founder of the Babylonish empire, holds a distinguished place. He was the grand-son of Ham, the son of Noah, and is the first one mentioned in Scripture who appears to have made invasions on the territories of his neighbours. Having distinguished himself by driving from his country the beasts of prey, and by engaging in other valorous exploits, he appears to have aspired after regal dignity and power, and to have assumed the reigns of absolute government. He was the first that subverted the patriarchal government; and is supposed to hare introduced among his subjects the Zabian idolatry, or the worship of the heavenly host. "The beginning of his kingdom," we are told, " was Babylon, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar." In the footsteps of this proud and ambi- tious despot has followed a train of Alexanders, Cesars, Han- nibals, Jengiz-Khans, Attilas, Alarics, Tamerlanes, Marl- boroughs, Fredericks, and Buonapartes, who have driven the ploughshare of devastation through the world, erected thrones over the graves of slaughtered nations, decorated their palaces with trophies dyed in blood, and made the earth to resound with the groans and shrieks of dying victims, and the voice of la- mentation and wo. To delineate all the scenes of desolation which have been produced by such desperadoes, and the atrocious crimes which have followed in their train, would be to transcribe the whole records of ancient and modern history, which contain little else than a register of human folly, avarice, and ambition; and of the daring villanies with which they have been accompanied. Even then we should acquire but a very limited conception of the extent of moral evil, and of the immense variety of shapes which it has assumed; for the one-tenth of the crimes of man- kind have never been recorded, and it is to the public transac- tions of only a small portion of the world, that the page of the historian directs our attention. I shall therefore content my- WARLIKE DISPOSITIONS. 267 self with stating a few insulated facts, as specimens of the train or actions which have generally prevailed in the world. WARLIKE DISPOSITIONS OF MANKIND. War, as already noticed, has heen the delight and the em- ployment of man in every age; and under this term may be included every thing that is base and execrable in moral con- duct, and subversive of the principle of benevolence ; every thing that is destructive of human enjoyment, that rouses the passions into diabolical fury, and adds to the sum of human wretchedness; every thing that is oppressive, cruel, and unjust, and every thing that is dreadful and appalling to mankind. As an exemplification of the destructive effects of war, I shall, m the first place, state a few facts in relation to the Cartha- ginians : Carthage was originally a small colony of Phenicians, who, about 800 years before the Christian era, settled on the north- ern coast of Africa, on a small peninsula, adjacent to the bay of Tunis. Having increased in wealth and power, by means of their extensive commerce, like most other nations they at- tempted to make inroads on the territories of neighbouring tribes, and to plunder them of their treasures. By degrees they extended their power over all the islands in the Mediterranean, Sicily only excepted. For the entire conquest of this island, about 480 years before Christ, they made vast preparations, which lasted for three years. Their army consisted of 300,000 men; their fleet was composed of upwards of 2,000 men of war, and 3,000 transports. With such an immense armament, they made no doubt of conquering the whole island in a single cam- paign. But they were miserably deceived. Hamilcar, the most experienced captain of the age, sailed from Carthage with this formidable army, and invested the city of Hymeiia. The be- sieged were much straitened and dismayed by the operations of this powerful armament; but Gelon, the tyrant of Syracuse, flew immediately to their relief, with 50,000 foot and 5,000 horse. A dreadful slaughter ensued ; a hundred and fifty thousand of the Carthaginians were killed in the battle and pursuit, and all the rest taken prisonsrs ; so that not a single person escaped of this mighty army. Of the 2,000 ships of 2G8 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. war, and the 3,000 transports, of which the fleet consisted, eight ships only, which then happened to he out at sea, made their escape: these immediately set sail for Carthage, hut were all cast away, and every soul perished, except a few who were saved in a small boat, and at last reached Carthage with the dismal tidings of the total loss of the fleet and army. Here we have presented to our view, in one short struggle, the entire destruction of more than two hundred thousand hu- man beings, if we take into account the number which must necessarily have fallen in the Sicilian army. And, if we take into consideration the many thousands of mangled wretches, whose existence from that moment would be rendered miserable ; the destruction of property in the besieged city; the victims crushed to death amidst the ruins of falling houses; the cries, and shrieks, and lamentations of women and children; the diseases and misery induced by terror and alarm, and the loss of friends; the appalling spectacle of 5,000 ships all on a blaze, of ten thousands of burning and drowning wretches, supplicating in vain for mercy, and the execrations and furious yells which would be mingled with this work of destruction, we shall find it difficult to form an adequate conception of the miseries and horrors of such a scene. And what was the cause of this dread- ful slaughter and devastation? That a proud and opulent city, whose inhabitants were rioting in every species of luxury, might gratify its ambition, by tyrannising over neighbouring tribes, and by plundering them of that wealth of which it did not stand in need. And this is but one instance out of ten hun- dred thousand of the miseries of war, one faint shade in the picture of human wo ! One would have thought that, after such a signal loss and discomfiture, the Carthaginians would have contented them- selves with their own territory, and refrained from aggressive war. This, however, was not the case. Where benevolence is banished from the mind, and revenge occupies its place, it will hurry unprincipled men to the most wild and atrocious actions, although they should terminate in destruction to them- selves, and to all around them. It was not long after this pe- riod, when preparations were again made for the invasion of Sicily. Hannibal, the grandson of Hamilcar, landed on the CARTHAGINIAN WARS. 269 coast of Sicily, and laid siege to Selinus. The besieged made a vigorous defence; but at last the city was taken by storm, and the inhabitants were treated with the utmost cruelty. All were massacred by the savage conquerors, except the women, who fled to the temples; and these escaped, not through the merciful dispositions of the Carthaginians, but because they were afraid that, if driven to despair, they would set fire to the temples, and by that means consume the treasure they ex- pected to find in those places. Sixteen thousand were mas- sacred; the women and children, about 5,000 in number, were carried away captive; the temples were plundered of all their treasures, and the city razed to the ground. Hymera was next besieged by Hannibal, and razed to its foundations. He forced three thousand prisoners to undergo all kinds of ignominy and punishments, and at last murdered them, on the very spot where his grandfather had been killed by Gelon's cavalry, to appease and satisfy his manes, by the blood of these unhappy victims. Such is the humanity and the justice of those men whom we are accustomed to distinguish by the names of Pa- triots and Heroes! Elated with these partial victories, thy Carthaginians meditated the reduction of the whole of Sicily v They marched against the city of Agrigentum, and battered its walls with dreadful fury. The besieged defended themselves with incredible resolution. In a sally, they burned all the bat- tering machines raised against their city, and repulsed the ene- my with immense slaughter. Again the Carthaginians rallied their forces, beat down the walls of the city, plundered it of an immense booty, and, with their usual cruelty, put all its inha- bitants to the sword, not excepting even those who had fled to the temples. The Carthaginians were soon after forced to re- tire from Sicily. Again they renewed their expeditions; again they were repulsed ; and again they plunged into the horrors of war: while thousands and ten thousands were slaughtered at every onset; men, women, and children massacred in cold blood ; and the pestilence, produced by the unburied carcases of the slain proved more fatal to myriads than even the sword of the warrior. In this manner did these infatuated mortals carry on a se- ries of sanguinary contests for several centuries, with the Si- 270 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. cilians, Greeks, and other nations; till at length they dared to encounter the power and the formidable forces of the Ro- mans, and commenced those dreadful and long - continued conflicts, distinguished in history hy the name of the Punic Wars. The first Punic War lasted twenty -four years; the second, seventeen years; and the third, four years and some months. In this last contest, the ploughshare of de- struction was literally driven through their devoted city by the Romans. It was delivered up to be plundered by their soldiers ; its gold, silver, statues, and other treasures, amount- ing to 4,470,000 pounds weight of silver, were carried off to Rome ; its towers, ramparts, walls, and all the works which the Carthaginians had raised in the course of many ages were levelled with the ground. Fire was set to the edifices of this proud metropolis, which consumed them all, not a single house escaping the fury of the flames. And, though the fire began in all quarters at the same time, and burned with incredible violence, it continued for seventeen days before all the build- ings were consumed. Thus perished Carthage a city which contained seven hundred thousand inhabitants, and which had waged so many ferocious wars with neighbouring nations a terrible example of the destructive effects produced by malevo- lent passions, and of the retributive justice of the Governor of the world. The destruction of human life in the numerous wars in which it was engaged, is beyond all specific calculation. During the space of sixteen years, Hannibal, the Carthaginian ge- neral, plundered no less than four hundred towns, and destroy- ed three hundred thousand of his enemies; and we may safely reckon, that nearly an equal number of his own men must have been cut off by the opposing armies; so that several millions of human victims must have been sacrificed in these bloody wars. The following is a summary statement of the number of hu- man beings that were slain in several of the battles recorded in history: In the year 101 before Christ, in an engagement be- tween Marius, the Roman Consul, and the Ambrones and the Teutones, in Transalpine Gaul, there were slain of these bar- barians, besides what fell in the Roman army, 200,000 ; some historians say 290,000. And it is related, that the inhabitants of the neighbouring country made fences for vineyards of their SCENES OF HUMAN DESTRUCTION. 271 uones. In the following year, the Romans, under the com- mand of the same general, slaughtered 140,000 of the Cimhri, and took 60,000 prisoners. In the year 105 B. c. the Romans, in a single engagement with the Cimbri and the Teutones, lost upwards of 80,000 men. In the battle of Cannae, the Romans were surrounded by the forces of Hannibal, and cut to pieces. After an engagement of only three hours, the carnage became so dreadful, that even the Carthaginian general cried out to spare the conquered. Above, 40,000 Romans were left dead on the field, and 6,000 of the Carthaginian army. What a dreadful display of the fury of diabolical passions must have been exhibited on this occasion! and what a horrible scene must have been presented on the field of battle, when we con- sider that, in the mode of ancient warfare, the slain were li- terally cut to pieces ! In the battle of Issus, between Alexan- der and Darius, were slain 110,000 ; in the battle of Arbela, two years afterwards, between the same two despots, 300,000; in the battle between Pyrrhus and the Romans, 25,000; in the battle between Scipio and Asdrubal, 40,000; in the battle be- tween Suetonius and Boadicea, 80,000. In the siege of Jeru- salem by Vespasian, according to the account of Josephus, there were destroyed, in the most terrible manner, 1,100,000; and there were slaughtered in Jerusalem, 170 B. c. by Antio- chus, 40,000. At Gyrene, there were slain of Romans and Greeks, by the Jews, 220,000; in Egypt and Cyprus, in the reign of Trajan, 240,000; and in the reign of Adrian, 580,000 Jews. After Julius Caesar had carried his arms into the ter- ritories of the Usipetes in Germany, he defeated them with such slaughter, that 400,000 are said to have perished in one battle. At the defeat of Attila, king of the Huns, at Chalons, there perished about 300,000. In the year 631, there were slain by the Saracens in Syria, 60,000; in the invasion of Milan by the Goths, not less than 300,000; and in A. D. 734, by the Saracens in Spain, 370,000. In the battle of Fontenay were slaughtered 100,000; in the battle of Yermock, 150,000; and in the battle between Charles Martel and the Mahometans, 350,000. In the battle of Muret, in A. D. 1213, between the Catholics and the Albigenses, were slain 32,000; in the battle of Cressy, in 1346, 50,000; in the battle of Halidon-hill, in 272 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. 1333, 20,000; in the battle of Agincourt, in 1415, 20,000; in the battle of Towton, in 1461, 37,000; in the battle of Le~ panto, in 1571, 25,000; at the siege of Vienna, in 1683, 70,000; and in a battle in Persia, 1734, 60,000.! The most numerous army of which we have any account in the annals of history, was that of Xerxes. According to the estimate of Rollin, which is founded on the statements of Herodotus, Isocrates, and Plutarch, this army consisted of 1,700,000 foot, 80,000 horse, and 20,000 men for conducting the carriages and camels. On passing the Hellespont, an ad- dition was made to it from other nations, of 300,000 which made his land forces amount to 2,100,000. His fleet consisted of 1207 vessels, each carrying 230 men; in all 277,610 men, which was augmented by the European nations, with 1200 ves- sels, carrying 240,000 men. Besides this fleet, the small gal- leys, transport ships, etc., amounted to 3000, containing about 240,000 men. Including servants, eunuchs, women sutlers, and others, who usually follow an army, it is reckoned, that the whole number of souls that followed Xerxes into Greece, amounted to 5,283,220. After remaining some time in Greece, nearly the whole of this immense army, along with the fleet, was routed and destroyed. Mardonius, one of his ablest com- manders, with an army of 300,000 was finally defeated and slain at the battle of Platea, and only 3000 of this vast army, with difficulty, escaped destruction. The destruction of human life in the wars which accompa- nied and followed the incursions of the barbarians who over- threw the Roman empire, is beyond all calculation or concep- tion. It forms an era in history, most degrading to the human species. In the war which was waged in Africa, in the days of Justinian, Procopious remarks, " It is no exaggeration to say, that five millions perished by the sword, and famine, and pestilence." The same author states, that, during the twenty years' war which Justinian carried on with the Gothic con- querors of Italy, the loss of the Goths amounted to above 1 The above statements are collected from the facts stated in Rollin's Ancient History, Millet's Elements, Mavor's Universal History, the his- torical articles in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, from a list of battles contained in the ' Pictures of War,' etc. NUMBERS SLAIN IN WAR. 273 15,000,000; nor will this appear incredible, when we find, that in one campaign 50,000 labourers died of hunger. About the beginning of the thirteenth century arose that cruel and bloody tyrant Jenghiz-Khan. With immense armies, some of them amounting to more than a million in number, he overran and subdued the kingdom of Hya in China, Tangut, Kitay, Turke- stan, Karazm, Great Buckaria, Persia, and part of India, committing the most dreadful cruelties and devastations. It is computed, that, during the last twenty-two years of his reign, no fewer than 14,470,000 persons were butchered by this scourge of the human race. He appeared like an infernal fiend, breathing destruction to the nations of the East; and the principle which he adopted after conquest, was utter exter- mination. Nearly about the same period, when this monster was ravag- ing and slaughtering the eastern world, those mad expeditions, distinguished by the name of Crusades, were going forward in the west. Six millions of infatuated wretches, raging with hatred, and thirsting for blood, assumed the image of the cross, and marched in wild disorder to the confines of the Holy Land, to recover the city of Jerusalem from the hands of the infidels. In these holy wars, as they were impiously termed, more than 850,000 Europeans were sacrificed before they ob- tained possession of Nice, Antioch, and Edessa. At the siege of Acre, 300,000 were slain; and at the taking of Jerusalem, in 1099, about 70,000. For 196 years, these wild expeditions continued in vogue, and were urged forward by proclamations issued from the throne, and by fanatical sermons thundered from the pulpit, till several millions of deluded mortals perish- ed from the earth , for by far the greater part of those who engaged in the Crusades were either slain or taken prisoners. About this period, and several centuries before it, the whole earth exhibited little else than one great field of battle, in which nations were dashing against each other, conquerors ravaging kingdoms, tyrants exercising the most horrid cruel- ties; superstition and revenge immolating their millions of vic- tims ; and tumults, insurrections, slaughter, and universal alarm, banishing peace from the world, and subverting the moral order of society. " In Europe, Germany and Italy H S 74- PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. were distracted by incessant contests between the pope and the emperors ; the interior of every European kingdom was torn in pieces by the contending ambition of the powerful barons; in the Mahometan empire, the caliphs, sultans, emirs, etc., waged continual war; new sovereignties were daily arising, and daily destroyed: and amidst this universal slaughter and devastation, the whole earth seemed in danger of being laid waste, and the human race to suffer a total annihilation." 1 Such is a bird's eye view of the destruction of the human species, which war has produced in different periods. The instances ' have brought forward present only a few detached circumstances in the annals of warfare, and relate only to a few limited periods in the history of man ; and yet, in the four instances above stated, we are presented with a scene of horror, which includes the destruction of nearly 50 millions of human beings. What a vast and horrific picture, then, would b presented to the eye, could we take in at one view all the scenes of slaughter which have been realized in every period, in every nation, and among every tribe! If we take into consideration not only the number of those who have fallen in the field of battle, but of those who have perished through the natural consequences of war, by the famine and the pestilence which war has produced; by disease, fatigue, terror, and melancho- ly: and by the oppression, injustice, and cruelty of savage conquerors, it will not, perhaps, be overrating the destruction of human life, if we affirm, that one-tenth of the human race has been destroyed by the ravages of war. And if this esti- mate be admitted, it will follow, that more than fourteen thou- Fand millions of human beings have been slaughtered in war since the beginning of the world which is about eighteen times the number of inhabitants which, at present, exist on the globe ; or, in other words, it is equivalent to the destruc- tion of the inhabitants of eighteen worlds of the same popula- tion as ours. 8 What a horrible and tremendous consideration! 1 Mayor's Universal History, Robertson's Charles V, etc. 3 This calculation proceeds on the ground, that 145 thousand millions of men have existed since the Mosaic creation. See Christian Philoso- pher, Art. Geography. NUMBERS SLAIN IS WAR. 275 to reflect, that 14,000,000,000 of beings endowed with in- tellectual faculties, and furnished with bodies curiously organ- ised by divine wisdom, should have been massacred, mangled, and cut to pieces by those who were partakers of the same common nature, as if they had been created merely for the work of destruction! Language is destitute of words suffi- ciently strong to express the emotions of the mind, when it seri- ously contemplates the horrible scene. And how melancholy is it to reflect, that in the present age, which boasts of its im- provement in science, in civilization, and in religion, neither reason, nor benevolence, nor humanity, nor Christianity, has yet availed to arrest the progress of destroying armies, and to set a mark of ignominy on " the people who delight in war!" ATROCITIES CONNECTED WITH WAR. However numerous may have been the victims that have been sacrificed in war, it is not so much the mere extinction of human life that renders the scene of warfare so horrible, as the cruelties with which it has always been accompanied, and the infernal passions which it has engendered and carried into operation. It extirpates every principle of compassion, hu- manity, and justice; it blunts the feelings, and hardens the heart; it invents instruments of torture, and perpetrates, with* out a blush, cruelties revolting to every principle of virtue and benevolence. When Jerusalem was taken by Antiochus Epiphanes, in the year 168 B. c., he gave orders to one division of his army to cut in pieces all who were found in the temple and synagogues; while another party, going through the streets of the city, massacred all that came in their way. lie next ordered the city to be plundered and set on fire ; pulled down all their stately buildings ; caused the walls to be demolished, and car- ried away captive ten thousand of those who had escaped the slaughter. He set up the statue of Jupiter Olympus on the altar of burnt-offerings, and all who refused to come and wor- ship this idol were either massacred, or put to some cruel tor- tures, till they either complied or expired under the hands of the executioners. In the war which the Carthaginians waged 276 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. with the Mercenaries, Hamilcar, the Carthaginian general, threw all the prisoners that fell into his hands to he devoured by wild heasts. Asdruhal, another Carthaginian general, when engaged in war against the Romans, in revenge for a defeat he had sustained, brought all the Roman prisoners he had taken during two years upon the walls, in sight of the whole Roman army. There he put them to the most exquisite tortures, putting out their eyes, cutting off their noses, ears, and fingers, legs and arms, tearing their skin to pieces with iron rakes or harrows; and then threw them headlong from the top of the battlements. 1 He was of a temper remarkably inhuman, and it is said that he even took pleasure in seeing some of these unhappy men flayed alive. In the year 1201, when Jenghiz-Khan had reduced the rebels who had seized upon his paternal possessions, as a specimen of his lenity, he caused seventy of their chiefs to be thrown into as many caul- drons of boiling water. The plan on which this tyrant con- ducted his expeditions, as already stated, was that of total extermination. For some time he utterly extirpated the inha- bitants of those places which he conquered, designing to peo- ple them anew with his Moguls; and, in consequence of this resolution, he would employ his army in beheading 100,000 prisoners at once. Tamerlane, one of his successors, who fol- lowed in his footsteps, is said to have been more humane than this cruel despot. Historians inform us, that " his sportive cruelty seldom went farther than the pounding of three or four thousand people in large mortars, or building them among bricks and mortar in a wall." If such be the "tender mer- cies of the wicked," how dreadful beyond description must their cruelties be! We are accustomed to hear Alexander the Great eulogised as a virtuous and a magnanimous hero; and even the celebrated Montesquieu, in his ' Spirit of Laws, ' has written a panegyric on his character. Yet we find him guilty of the most abomi- nable vices, and perpetrating the most atrocious crimes. At the instigation of the strumpet Thais, during a drunken banquet, he set on fire the beautiful city of Persepolis, and consumed it 1 Roilin's Ancient Hist. Vol. I. ATROCITIES CONNECTED WITH WAR. 277 to ashes. His treatment of the Branchidae furnishes an example of tho most brutal and frantic cruelty which history records. These people received Alexander, while pursuing his conquests, with the highest demonstrations of joy, and surrendered to him both themselves and their city, The next day he commanded his phalanx to surround the city; and a signal being given, they were ordered to plunder it, and to put every one of its inhabi- tants to the sword, which inhuman order was executed with the same barbarity with which it had been given. All the citizens, at the very time they were going to pay homage to Alexander, were murdered in the streets and in their houses; no manner of regard being had to their cries and tears, nor the least distinction made of age or sex. And why were those ill- fated citizens punished in so summary and inhuman a manner? Merely because their forefathers, upwards of one hundred and fifty years before, had delivered up to Xerxes the treasure of the temple Didymaon, with which they had been intrusted! l When he entered the city of Tyre, after a siege of seven months, he gave orders to kill all the inhabitants, except those who had fled to the temples, and set fire to every part of the city. Eight thousand men were barbarously slaughtered; and two thousand more remaining, after the soldiers had been glutted with slaughter, he fixed two thousand crosses along the sea shore, 2 and caused them all to be crucified. War has given rise to the most shocking and unnatural crimes, the idea of which might never otherwise have entered into the human mind. Lathyrus, after an engagement with Alexander, king of the Jews, on the banks of the river Jordan, the same evening he gained the battle, in going to take up his quarters in the neighbouring villages, he found them full of women and children, and caused them all to be put to the sword, and their bodies to be cut to pieces, and put into caul- drons in order to their being dressed, as if he intended to make his army sup upon them. His design was to have it believed, that his troops ate human flesh, to spread the greater terror throughout the surrounding country. 3 Even under the pretext of religion, and of the Cfiristian 1 Rollin's Ancient Hist. 2 Ibid. Ibid. 278 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. Religion, too, the most shocking barbarities have been com- mitted. Under the pretence of vindicating the cause of Him who, in the midst of cruel sufferings from men, prayed, " Fa- ther forgive them, for they know not what they do," the Cru- saders hurried forward towards Jerusalem, wading through seas of blood. When their banners were hoisted on a principal emi- nence of Antioch, they commenced their butchery of the sleep- ing inhabitants. The dignity of age, the helplessness of youth, and the beauty of the weaker sex, were disregarded by these sanctimonious savages. Houses were no sanctuaries; and the sight of a mosque added new virulence to cruelty. The number of Turks massacred on this night of frantic fury, was at least ten thousand. When Jerusalem was taken by these furious fanatics, they suffered none to escape the slaughter: "Yet, after they had glutted themselves with blood and carnage, they immediately became devout pilgrims, and, in religious tran- sports, ran barefooted to visit the holy sepulchre." 1 In what light must that Religion appear to Eastern Infidels, which is supposed to lead to the perpetration of such enormities ? And how wofully are the mild precepts and doctrines of Christianity misrepresented, when desperadoes of this description dare as- sume the Christian name! Even the finer feelings of the female sex have been blunted, and, in many instances, quite extirpated, by the mad schemes of ambition, and the practices connected with war. Towards the beginning of the thirteenth century, a queen of Hungary took the sign of the cross, and embarked in the mad expedi- tions of the Crusaders, as did likewise fifty thousand children and a crowd of priests; because, according to the Scripture, " God has made children the instruments of his glory." 2 Cleopatra, daughter of Ptolemy Philometer, in order to gratify her restless ambition of reigning alone and uncontrolled in her dominions, killed her son Seleucus with her own hand, by plunging a dagger into his breast. She had been the wife of three kings of Syria, and the mother of four, and had occa- sioned the death of two of her husbands. She prepared a poisoned draught to destroy Grypus, another of her sons; but 1 Millet's Element's of Gen. Hist. 2 Ibid. AT110CITIES CONNECTED WITH WAR. 2?9 her intention having been suspected, she was compelled to swal- low the deadly potion she had prepared, which took immediate effect, and delivered the world from this female monster. The Carthaginians were in the practice of offering human sacrifices to their god Saturn, when they were defeated in war, in order to propitiate the wrath of this deity. At first, children were inhumanly hurued, either, in a fiery furnace like those in the valley of Ilinnom, so frequently mentioned in Scripture, or in a flaming statue of Saturn. The cries of these unhappy victims were drowned by the uninterrupted noise of drums and trum- pets. Mothers made it a merit, and a part of their religion, to view the barbarous spectacle with dry eyes, and without so much as a groan; and if a tear or sigh stole from them, the .sacrifice was considered as less acceptable to the deity. This savage disposition was carried to such excess, that even mo- thers would endeavour, with embraces and kisses, to hush the cries of their children least they should anger the god. 1 When Carthage was taken by the Romans, the wife of Asdrubal the Carthaginian general, who had submitted to the Romans, mounted to the upper part of one of the temples which had oeen set on fire; and placing herself, with her two children, in sight of her husband, uttered the most bitter imprecations against him: "Base coward, (said she,) the mean things thou hast done to save thy life shall not avail thee; thou shalt die this instant, at least in thy two children." Having this spoken, she stabbed both the infants with a dagger, and while they were yet struggling for life, threw them both from the top of the temple, and then leaped down after them into the flames. 2 Such are only a few insulated pictures of the atrocities of war, and of the unnatural and infernal passions which uni- formly follow in its train, which may be considered as specimens of many thousands of similar instances, which the records of history furnish of the malignity and the depravity of mankind. I have selected my examples chiefly from the history of ancient warfare: but weie we to search the annals of modern warfare, and confine our attention solely to the battles of Alexandria, of the Pyramids, of Borodina, of Smolensko, of Austerlitz, of 1 Rolliu's Anc. Hist. 2 Encyc. Brit. Art. Cartha<jt. 280 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. Leipsic, of Jena, of Ejlan, of Waterloo, and other warlike events, which have happened within the last fifty years, we should meet with atrocities and scenes of slaughter no less hor- rible than those which I have now related. I shall content myself with stating only two or three instances. After the taking of Alexandria by Buonaparte, " We were under the necessity," says the relator, " of putting the whole of them to death at the breach. But the slaughter did not cease with the resistance. The Turks and inhabitants fled to their mosques, seeking protection from God and their prophet; and then, men and women, old and young, and infants at the breast, were slaughtered. This butchery continued for four hours; after which the remaining part of the inhabitants were much astonished at not having their throats cut. " Be it re- membered, that all this bloodshed was premeditated. " We might have spared the men whom we lost," says General Boyer, 14 by only summoning the town; but it was necessary to begin by confounding our enemy." 1 After the battle of the Pyra- mids, it is remarked by an eye-witness, that the whole way through the desert was tracked with the bodies of men and animals, who had perished in these dreadful wastes. In order to warm themselves at night, they gathered together the dry bones and bodies of the dead, which the vultures had spared ; and it was by afire composed of this fuel that Buonaparte lay down to sleep in the desert!" 2 A more revolting and infernal scene it is scarcely possible for the imagination to depict. Miot gives the following description in relation to a scene at Jaffa: " The soldier abandons himself to all the fury which an assault authorises. He strikes, he slays, nothing can im- pede him. All the horrors which accompany the capture of a town by storm, are repeated in every street, in every house. You hear the cries of violated females calling in vain for help to those relatives whom they are butchering. No asylum is respected. The blood streams on every side; at every step you meet with human beings groaning and expiring," etc. Sir Robert Wil- son, when describing the campaigns in Poland, relates, that " the ground between the wood and the Russian batteries, about 1 Miot's Memoirs. 2 ibid. ATROCITIES CONNECTED WITH WAR. 281 a quarter of a mile, was a sheet of naked human bodies, which friends and foes had during the night mutually stripped, not leaving the worst rag upon them, although numbers of these bodies still retained consciousness of their situation. It was a sight which the eye loathed, but from which it could not remove." In Labaume's * Narrative of the Campaign in Russia,' we are presented with the most horrible details of palaces, churches, and streets, enveloped in flames, houses tumbling into ruins, hundreds of blackened carcases of the wretched inhabitants, whom the fire had consumed, blended with the fragments, hospitals containing 20,000 wounded Russians on fire, and consuming the miserable victims, numbers of half-burned wretches crawling among the smoking ruins, females vio- lated and massacred, parents and children half naked, shiv- ering with cold, flying in consternation with the wrecks of their half-consumed furniture, horses falling in thousands, and writhing in the agonies of death, the fragments of carriages, muskets, helmets, breast-plates, portmanteaus, and garments strewed in every direction, roads covered for miles with thou- sands of the dying and the dead heaped one upon another, and swimming in blood, and these dreadful scenes rendered still more horrific by the shrieks of young females, of mothers and children, and the piercing cries of the wounded and the dying, invoking death to put an end to their agonies. But I will not dwell longer on such revolting details. It is probable that the feelings of some of my readers have been har- rowed up by the descriptions already given, and that they have turned away their eyes in disgust from such spectacles of depravity and horror. Every mind susceptible of virtuous emotions, and of the common feelings of humanity, must, in- deed, feel pained and even agonised, when it reflects on the depravity of mankind, and on the atrocious crimes they are capable of committing, and have actually perpetrated. A se- rious retrospect of the moral state of the world in past ages, is calculated to excite emotions, similar to those which over- powered the mourning prophet when he exclaimed, " that my head were waters, and mine eyes a fountain of tears, that I might weep day and night, for the slain of the daughters of 282 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. my people!" But however painful the sight, we ought not to turn away our eyes, with fastidious affectation, from the spec- tacles of misery and devastation which the authentic records of history present before us. They form traits in the character of man which ought to he contemplated, they are facts in the history of mankind, and not the mere pictures of fancy which are exhibited in poetry, novels, and romances, facts which forcibly exemplify the operation of the malevolent principle, and from which we ought to deduce important instructions, in reference to the evil of sin, and the malignancy of pride, cove- tousness, ambition, and revenge. We think nothing, in the common intercourse of life, of indulging a selfish disposition, of feeling proud and indignant at a real or supposed affront, of looking with a covetous eye at the possessions of our neigh- bours, of viewing the success and prosperity of our rivals with discontentment and jealousy, or of feeling a secret satisfaction at the distress or humiliation of our enemies; and we seldom reflect on the malignant effects which such passions would pro- duce, were they suffered to rage without control But, in the scenes of warfare which have been realised on the theatre of the world, we contemplate the nature and effects of such malig- nant dispositions in their true light; we perceive the ultimate tendency of every malevolent affection, when no physical ob- struction impedes its progress; we discern that it is only the same dispositions which we daily indulge, operating on a more extensive scale; and we learn the necessity of mortifying such dispositions, and counteracting their influence, if we expect to enjoy substantial felicity either here or hereafter, and if we wish to see the world restored to happiness and repose. I shall only observe further, that, besides the atrocities al- ready noticed, war has been the nurse of every vicious dispo- sition, and of every immoral practice. The Carthaginians, who were almost incessantly engaged in war, were knavish, vicious, cruel, and superstitious; distinguished for craft and cunning, lying and hypocrisy, for the basest frauds and the most perfidious actions. The Goths and Vandals are uniformly characterised, as not only barbarous and cruel, but avaricious, perfidious, and disregardful of the most solemn promises. It was ever a sufficient reason for them to make an attack, IMMORALITIES CONNECTED WITH WAll. 233 that they thought their enemies could not resist them. Their only reason for making peace, or for keeping it, was because their enemies were too strong; and their only reason for com- mitting massacres, rapes, and all manner of crimes, was be- cause they had gained a victory. The Greeks and Romans, it is well known, notwithstanding their superior civilization, were distinguished for the most degrading and immoral practices. They gloried in being proud, haughty, and revengeful; and even their amusements were characterised by a spirit of fero- city, and by the barbarisms of war. It is almost needless to say that war blunts the finer feelings of humanity, and engen- ders a spirit of selfishness, and of indifference even towards friends and companions. Of this many shocking instances could be given. Rocca, in his 'Memoirs of the War in Spain,' remarks, " The habit of danger made us look upon death as one of the most ordinary circumstances of life ; when our comrades had once ceased to live, the indifference which was shown them amounted almost to irony. When the soldiers, as they passed by, recognised one of their companions stretched among the dead, they just said, 'He is in want of nothing, he will not have his horse to abuse again, he has got drunk for the last time,' or something similar, which only worked, in the speaker, a stoical contempt of existence. Such were the funeral ora- tions pronounced in honour of those who fell in our battles." Simpson, in his 'Visit to Flanders,' in 1815, remarks, " No- thing is more frightful than the want of feeling which charac- terises the French soldiery. Their prisoners who were lying wounded in the hospitals of Antwerp, were often seen mimicking the contortions of countenance which were produced by the agonies of death, in one of their own comrades in the next bed. There is no curse to be compared with the power of fiends like these." Thus it appears that wars have prevailed in every period during the ages that are past, and have almost extirpated the principle of benevolence from the world ; and therefore it is ob- vious, that, before the prevailing propensity to warfare be coun- teracted and destroyed, the happiness which flows from the operation of the benevolent Affections cannot be enjoyed by 284 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. mankind at large. To counteract this irrational and most de- plorable propensity, by every energetic mean which reason, hu- manity, and Christianity can suggest, must be the duty of every one who is desirous to promote the present and everlast- ing happiness of his species. SECTION II. Moral State of Savage Nations in Modern Times. I SHALL now take a very brief survey of the state of morals in modern times, and of the prevailing dispositions which are displayed by the existing inhabitants of our globe. Were I to enter into those minute and circumstantial details which the illustration of this subject would require, several volumes would be filled with the details of facts, and with the sketches of mo- ral scenery which might be exhibited. But the narrow limits within which the present work must be comprised, compel me to confine my attention to a few prominent features in the cha- racters of mankind, and to a few insulated facts by which they may be illustrated. I shall consider, in the first place, some of the PROMINENT DISPOSITIONS WHICH APPEAR AMONG SAVAGE AND HALF-CIVILIZED NATIONS. It is not to be disputed, that numerous individuals among the uncivilized tribes of mankind, have occasionally displayed the exercise of many of the social virtues, that they have been brave and magnanimous, faithful to their promises, strong in their attachments, and generous and affectionate to their friends and relatives. But their virtues, for the most part, proceed from a principle of selfishness, and are confined to the clan or tribe to which they belong. Towards their enemies, and to- wards all who have injured them in the slightest degree, they almost uniformly display cruel, perfidious, and revengeful dis- positions. The following facts and descriptions, selected from the authentic records of voyagers and travellers, will tend to corroborate these positions. The most prominent feature which appears in the character DISPOSITIONS OF SAVAGE NATIONS. 285 of savage nations is their disposition for war, and to inflict re- venge for real or supposed injuries. With respect to the NORTH AMERICAN Indians, it is the uniform description given of them by all travellers, that, if we except hunting, war is the only employment of the men, and every other concern is left to the women. Their most common motive for entering into war is either to revenge themselves for the death of some lost friends, or to acquire prisoners, who may assist them in their hunting, and whom they adopt into their society. In these wars, they are cruel and savage, to an incredible degree. They enter, una- wares, the villages of their foes, and while the flower of the nation are engaged in hunting, massacre all the children, wo- men, and helpless old men, or make prisoners of as many as they can manage. But when the enemy is apprised of their design, and coming on in arms against them, they throw them- selves flat on the ground, among the withered herbs and leaves, which their faces are painted to resemble. They then allow a part to pass unmolested ; when, all at once, with a tremendous fihout, rising up from their ambush, they pour a storm of mus- ket-bullets on their foes. If the force on each side continues nearly equal, the fierce spirits of these savages, inflamed by the loss of friends, can no longer be restrained. They abandon their distant war, they rush upon one another with clubs and hatchets, magnifying their own courage, and insulting their enemies. A cruel combat ensues; death appears in a thousand hideous forms, which would congeal the blood of civilized na- tions to behold, but which rouse the fury of these savages. They trample, they insult over the dead bodies, tearing the scalp from the head, wallowing in their blood like wild beasts, and sometimes devouring their flesh. The flame rages on till it meets with no resistance; then the prisoners are secured, whose fate is a thousand times more dreadful than theirs who have died in the field. The conquerors set up a hideous howling, to lament the friends they have lost. They approach their own village; the women, with frightful shrieks, come out to mourn their dead brothers, or their husbands. An orator proclaims aloud a circumstantial account of every particular of the expe- dition; and as he mentions the names of those who have fallen, the shrieks of the women are redoubled. The last ceremony 2S6 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. is, the proclamation of victory: each individual then forgets his private misfortunes, and joins in the triumph of his nation; all tears are wiped from their eyes, and, by an unaccountable transition, they pass in a moment from the bitterness of sor- row, to an extravagance of joy. 1 As they feel nothing but revenge for the enemies of their nation, their prisoners are treated with cruelty in the extreme. The cruelties inflicted on those prisoners who are doomed to death, are too shocking and horrible to be exhibited in detail. One plucks out the nails of the prisoner by the roots; another takes a finger into his mouth, and tears off the flesh with his teeth; a third thrusts the finger mangled as it is, into the bowl of a pipe made red hot, which he smokes like tobacco: they then pound his toes and fingers to pieces between two stones; they apply red hot irons to every part of his mangled body; they pull off his flesh, thus mangled and roasted, and devour it with greediness; and thus they continue for several hours, and sometimes for a whole day, till they penetrate to the vital parts, and completely exhaust the springs of life. Even the women, forgetting the human, as well as the female nature, and transformed into something worse than furies, frequently outdo the men in this scene of horror; while the principal persons of the country sit round the stake to which the prisoner is fixed smoking and looking on without the least emotion. What is most remarkable, the prisoner himself endeavours to brave his torments with a stoical apathy. " I do not fear death, (he exclaims in the face of his tormentors,) nor any kind of tortures; those that fear them are cowards, they are less than women. May my enemies be confounded with despair and rage! Oh, that I could devour them, and drink their blood to the last drop! " Such is a faint picture of the ferocious dispositions of the Indians of America, which, with a few slight modifications, will apply to almost the whole of the original natives of that vast continent. Instead of the exercise of benevolent affec- tions, and of forgiving dispositions; instead of humane feel- ings, and compassion for the sufferings of fellow-mortals, we here behold them transported into an extravagance of joy t 1 See Encyc. Brit., Art. America. DISPOSITION'S OF SAVEGE NATIOX3. 287 over the sufferings they had produced, the carnage they had created, the children they had deprived of their parents, and the widows whose husbands they had mangled and slain; be- cause they had glutted their revenge, and obtained a victory. Nothing can appear more directly opposed to the precepts of Christ, and to the benevolence of heaven. If, from America, we cross the Atlantic, and land on the shores of Africa, we shall find the existing inhabitants of that continent displaying dispositions no less cruel and ferocious, Bosnian relates the following instances of cruelties practised by the Adomese negroes, inhabiting the banks of the Praa, or Chamah river. " Anqua, the king, having in an engagement taken five of his principal Antese enemies prisoners, he wounded them all over; after which, with a more than brutal fury, he satiated, though not tired himself, by sucking their blood at their gap- ing wounds; but bearing a more than ordinary grudge against one of them he caused him to be laid bound at his feet, and his body to be pierced with hot irons, gathering his blood that issued from him in a vessel, one half of which he drank, and offered up the rest to his god. On another occasion, he put to death one of his wives and a slave, drinking their blood also, as was his usual practice with his enemies." 1 Dispositions and practices no less abominable arc regularly exhibited in the kingdom of Dahomy, near the Gulf of Guinea. An immola- tion of human victims, for the purpose of watering the graves of the king's ancestors, and of supplying them with servants of various descriptions in the other world, takes place every year, at a grand festival, which is held generally in April and May, about the period when the Bible and Missionary Societies of this country are holding their tinniversaries. The victims are generally prisoners of war, reserved for the purpose; but should there be lack of these, the number (betwixt sixty and seventy) is made up from the most convenient of his own sub- jects. The immolation of victims is not confined to this par- ticular period ; for at any time, should it be necessary to si-nd an account to his forefathers of any remarkable event, the king despatches a courier to the shades, by delivering a message to 1 Dupuis' Journal in Ashantcc. 288 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. whoever may happen to be near him, and then ordering his head to be chopped off immediately. It is considered an honour where his majesty personally condescends to become the execu~ tioner in these cases: an office in which the king prides him- self in being expert. The governor was present on one occa- sion, when a poor fellow, whose fear of death outweighing the sense of the honour conferred on him, on being desired to carry some message to his father, humbly declared on his knees, that he was unacquainted with the way. On which the tyrant vo- ciferated, "I'll show you the way," and with one blow made his head fly many yards from his body, highly indignant that there should have been the least expression of reluctance. 1 On the thatched roofs of the guard-houses which surround the pa- lace of this tyrant, are ranged, on wooden stakes, numbers of human skulls; the top of the wall, which encloses an area be- fore it, is stuck full of human jaw-bones, and the path leading to the door is paved with the skulls. In the kingdom of Ashantee, similar practices uniformly prevail. " When the king of this country (says Dupuis) was about to open the campaign in Gaman, he collected together his priests, to invoke the royal Fetische, and perform the ne- cessary orgies to ensure success. These ministers of supersti- tion sacrificed thirty-two male, and eighteen female victims, as an expiatory offering to the gods; but the answers from the priests being deemed by the council as still devoid of inspira- tion, the king was induced to make a custom, at the sepulchres of his ancestors, where many hundreds bled. This, it is af- firmed, propitiated the wrath of the adverse god." The same king, when he returned, having discovered a conspiracy, de- creed, that seventeen of his wives, along with his own sister, should be strangled and beheaded. " His sister's paramour, and all those of his party, were doomed to the most cruel deaths, at the grave of the king's mother. While these butcheries were transacting, the king prepared to enter the palace; and, in the act of crossing the threshold of the outer gate was met by several of his wives, whose anxiety to embrace their sovereign lord impelled them thus to overstep the boundary of female de- eoruin in Ashantee; for it happened that the king was accoin- 1 M'Leod's Voyage to Africa, DISPOSITIONS OF SATAGE NATIONS. 289 paiiied by a number of bis captains, wbo, accordingly, were compelled to cover tbeir faces witb botb tbeir bands, and fly from tbe spot. This is said to have angered the monarch, although his resentment proceeded no farther than words, and he returned tbe embraces of his wives. But another cause of anger soon after occurred, and he was inflamed to the highest pitch of indignation, and, in a paroxysm of rage, caused these unhappy beings to be cut in pieces before his face, giving or- ders at the same time to cast the fragments into the forest to be devoured by beasts of prey. Nor did the atonement rest here; for six more unhappy females were impeached of incon- stancy, and they also expiated their faults with their lives. Like another Ulysses, his majesty then devoted himself to the purification of his palace; when, to sum up the full horrors of these bloody deeds, two thousand wretches, selected from the Gaman prisoners of war, were slaughtered over the royal death-stool, in honour of the shades of departed kings and heroes."! Such are a few specimens of the ferocious dispositions of the petty tyrants of Africa. But we are not to imagine, that such dispositions are confined to kings, and to the higher ranks of society. Wherever such malevolent passions are dis- played among barbarous chieftains, they pervade, in a greater or less degree, the whole mass of the people; and almost every one, in proportion to the power with which he is invested, per- petrates similar barbarities. The following instance will cor- roborate this position, and at the same time show, for how many cruelties and acts of injustice the abbettors of the in- famous traffic in slaves are accountable. It is extracted from Major Gray's ' Travels in Africa, in 1824.' The Kaartan force which the Major accompanied had made 107 prisoners, chiefly women and children, in a predatory ex- cursion into Bondoo, for the purpose of supplying themselves with slaves. The following is an account of the manner in which they were dragged along. "The men were tied in pairs by the necks, their hands secured behind their backs; the wo- men by the necks only; but their hands were not left free from any sense of feeling for them, but in order to enable them to 1 Dupuis' Mission to Ashantce, in 1823. H 290 PHILOSOPHY OP RELIGION. balance the immense loads of corn or rice which they were obliged to carry on their heads, and their children on their backs." "I had an opportunity," says Major Gray, "of witnessing, during this short march, the new-made slaves, and the sufferings to which they are subjected in their first state of bondage. They were hurried along (tied) at a pace little short of running, to enable them to keep up with the horse- men, who drove them on as Smithfield drovers do fatigued bullocks. Many of the women were old, and by no means able to endure such treatment. One in particular would not have failed to excite the tenderest feelings of compassion in the breast of any save a savage African. She was at least sixty years old, in the most miserable state of emaciation and debility, nearly doubled together, and with difficulty dragging her tottering limbs along. To crown the heart-rending pic- ture, she was naked, save from her waist to about half way to the knees. All this did not prevent her inhuman captors from making her carry a heavy load of water, while, with a rope about her neck, he drove her before his horse; and when- ever she showed the least inclination to stop, he beat her in the most unmerciful manner with a stick." Were we to travel through the whole interior of Africa, and round its northern, eastern, and western coasts, we should find, among almost every tribe, numerous displays of the same inhuman and depraved dispositions. The Algerines are cha- racterised as the most cruel and dangerous pirates base, per- fidious, and rapacious, to the last degree. No oaths nor ties, human or divine, will avail to bind them when their interest interferes. Whatever respect they may pretend to pay to their prophet Mahomet, gold is the only true idol which they wor- ship. The emperors of Morocco are well known as a set of rapacious and blood-thirsty tyrants, who have lived in a state of habitual warfare with Christian nations, and in the perpetration of deeds of injustice and cruelty. The Gallas, on the borders of Abyssinia, are a barbarous and warlike na- tion. They are hardy, and of a ferocious disposition; they are trained to the love of desperate achievements, taught to believe that conquest entitles them to the possession of what- ever they desire, and to look upon death with the utmost con- tempt; and, therefore, in their wars they fight with the most DISPOSITIONS OP SAVAGE NATIONS. 291 desperate resolution, and neither give nor take any quarter. " The negroes of Congo, (says M. de la Brosse, in his Travels along the coast of Angola, in 1738,) are extremely treacherous and vindictive. They daily demanded of us some brandy for the use of the king and the chief men of the town. One day this request was denied, and we had soon reason to repent it; for all the English and French officers having gone to fish on a small lake near the sea-coast, they erected a tent for the purpose of dressing and eating the fishes they had caught. When amus- ing themselves after their repast, seven or eight negroes, who were the chiefs of Loango, arrived in sedans, and presented their hands, according to the custom of the country. These negroes privately rubbed the hands of the officers with a sub- tile poison, which acts instantaneously; and, accordingly, five captains and three surgeons died on the spot." If we pass from Africa to the regions of ASIA, we shall find similar depraved principles and practices pervading its several tribes, and the various ranks of its population. Here tyran- ny, in all its degrading and cruel forms, reigns supreme over a superstitious, a deluded, and an idolatrous race of man- kind, of which the following recent instance, in relation to a petty despot of Persia, may serve as a specimen. ** The go- vernor, Zulfecar Khun, is pronounced to be a cruel and unprin- cipled tyrant; unfortunately for the people, he has the ear of the sovereign, and they have no resource against his rapacity. He pays to the crown 7000 tomans a-year, but it is asserted that he collects from the district 100,000. His oppression was so grievous, that the inhabitants, wearied out, went in a body to the king to complain; but his majesty only referred them back to their tyrant, who, exasperated at their boldness, wreaked upon them a cruel vengeance. It is said, that he maimed and put to death upwards of a thousand of both sexes, cutting off the hands, putting out the eyes, and otherwise mu- tilating the men, and cutting off the noses, ears, and breasts of the women. The people, desponding and broken-hearted after this, paid, in as far as they were able, the rapacious de- mands of their oppressor, and the natural consequence, ruin and desolation, has ensued. 1 1 Fraser's Journey to Khorasan, 1823. 292 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. Sir John Chardin gives us the following account of the in- habitants of Mingrelia, particularly of the women. " The people are generally handsome, the men strong and well-made, and the women very beautiful; but both sexes are very vicious and debauched. The women, though lively, civil, and affec- tionate, are very perfidious ; for there is no wickedness which they will not perpetrate, in order to procure, preserve, or to get rid of their gallants. The men likewise possess many bad qualities. All of them are trained to robbery, which they study both as a business and as an amusement. With great satisfaction they relate the depredations they have committed; and from this polluted source they derive their greatest praise and honour. In Mingrelia, falsehood, assassination, and theft, are good actions ; and whoredom, bigamy, and incest, are es- teemed as virtuous habits. The men marry two or three wives at a time, and keep as many concubines as they choose. They not only make a common practice of selling their chil- dren, either for gold, or in exchange for wares and provisions, but even murder them, or bury them alive, when they find it difficult to bring them up." The Tartars, who occupy vast regions of the Asiatic conti- nent, are uniformly described by travellers as a rude, plunder- ing, and uncultivated race of men. " There is something frightful," says Smellie, "in the countenances of the Calmuc Tartars. All of them are wandering vagabonds, and live in tents made of cloth or of skins. They eat the flesh of horses, either raw, or a little softened by putrifying under their sad- dles. No marks of religion, or of decency in their manners, are to be found among most of these tribes. They are fierce, warlike, hardy, and brutally gross. They are all robbers; and the Tartars of Daghestan, who bordered on civilised nations, have a great trade in slaves, whom they carry off by force, and sell to the Persians and Turks." x The Arabians, like the Tartars, live mostly without govern- ment, without law, and almost without any social intercourse. They still continue in a state of rudeness and of lawless inde- pendency. Their chiefs authorise rape, theft, and robbery. They have no estimation for virtue, and glory in almost every 1 Smellie's Philosophy of Natural History. DISPOSITIONS OF SAVAGE NATIONS. 203 species of vice. They roam about in the deserts, and attack caravans and travellers of every description, whom they fre- quently murder, and plunder of their property. The Chinese, though more highly civilised than the tribes now mentioned, and though they merit great applause for their ingenuity, in- dustry, and perseverance, are as despicable in their moral cha- racters, and as destitute of true benevolence, as almost any na- tion upon earth. Avarice is their leading passion; and in order to gratify it, they practice every species of duplicity and fraud. They cannot be influenced by motives either of honesty or of humanity; and they surpass every nation on the globe in pri- vate cheating. Captain Cook observes, that (the danger of being hanged for any crime being excepted) " there is nothing, however infamous, which the Chinese will refuse to do for gain." The Birmans are a lively, inquisitive race, active, irascible, and impatient. While in peace they give proofs of a certain degree of gentleness and civilisation : in war, they display the ferocity of savages. The inland inhabitants of Malacca, called Monucaboes, are a barbarous savage people, delighting in doing continual mischief to their neighbours; on which account, no grain is sown about Malacca, but what is enclosed in gardens, with the thickest hedges or deep ditches; for when the grain is ripe in the open plains, the Monucaboes never fail to set fire to it. The Persians, in their dispositions, (says Mr. Frank- lin,) are much inclined to sudden anger, are quick, fiery, and very sensible of affronts, which they resent on the spot." It is well known that the wars and fiendlike cruelties in which the despots of this country have been engaged, have trans- formed many of its provinces into scenes of sterility and deso- lation. Hindoos are effeminate, luxurious, and early initiated into the arts of dissimulation. They can caress those whom they hate, and behave with the utmost affability and kindness to such as they intend to deprive of existence, by the most sanguinary means. Though they seldom scold or wrangle, they often stab each other insidiously, and, without any public quarrel, gratify a private revenge. The cruel and idolatrous rites which distinguish their religious services, are too well known to require description. The Turks, though grave and 294 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. rather hypochondriac, yet, when agitated by passion, are fuo- ous and ungovernable, fraught with dissimulation, jealous, suspicious, and vindictive beyond conception. They are super- stitious, and obstinately tenacious in matters of religion, and are incapable of exercising benevolence, or even humanity, to- wards Christians or towards Jews, Interest is their supreme good, and, when that comes in competition, all ties of religion, consanguinity, or friendship, are, with the generality, speedily dissolved. They have deprived of their liberty and wealth, all who have been subjected to their iron sceptre, and have plunged them into the depths of moral and of mental debasement. If we take a survey of the numerous tribes which inhabit THE ISLANDS OF THE INDIAN AND THE PACIFIC OCEANS, we shall find similar malevolent passions, raging without control, and pro- ducing all those malignant and desolating effects which have Counteracted the benevolence of the Creator, and tailed misery on the human race. The dismal effects of the principle of hatred directed towards human beings, the disposition to engage in continual warfare, and the savage ferocity of the human mind, when unrestrained by moral and prudential con siderations, are no where so strikingly displayed as in the isles which are scattered throughout the wide expanse of the Pacific ocean. Of the truth of these positions we have abundance of melancholy examples, in the reports of missionaries, and in the journals which have been published by late navigators, from which I shall select only two or three examples. The first instance I shall produce, has a relation chiefly to the inhabitants of New Zealand. With respect to these islan- ders, Captain Cook remarks, " Their public contentions are frequent, or rather perpetual; for it appears from their number OL weapons, and dexterity in using them, that war is their principal profession." "The war-dance consists of a great variety of violent motions, and hideous contortions of the limbs, during which the countenance also performs a part: the tongue is frequently thrust out to an incredible length, and the eye-lid so forcibly drawn up, that the white appears both above and below as well as on each side of the iris, so as to form a circle around it; nor is any thing neglected so as to render the human shape frightful and deformed. To such as have not been accustomed DISPOSITIONS OF THE NEW ZEALANDERS. 295 to such a practice, they appear more like demons than men, and would almost chill the boldest with fear; at the same time they brandish their spears, shake their darts, and cleave the air with their patoo-patoos. To this succeeds a circumstance almost foretold in their fierce demeanour, horrid and disgrace- ful to human nature, which is, cutting to pieces, even before being perfectly dead, the bodies of their enemies ; and, after dressing them on a fire, devouring the flesh, not only without reluctance, but with peculiar satisfaction." There is perhaps nothing that can convey a more striking idea of the actions of pure malevolence, and of the horrible rage and fury of infer- nal fiends, than the picture here presented of these savage islanders. These people live under perpetual apprehensions of being destroyed by each other; there being few of their tribes that have not, as they think, sustained wrongs from some other tribe, which they are continually on the watch to avenge; and the desire of a good meal is no small incitement. Many years will sometimes elapse before a favourable opportunity happens, yet the son never loses sight of an injury that has been dona to his father. " Their method of executing their horrible de- signs is, by stealing upon the adverse party in the night, and if they find them unguarded, (which is very seldom the case,) they kill every one indiscriminately, not even sparing the wo- men and children. When the massacre is completed, they either feast and gorge themselves on the spot, or carry off as many dead bodies as they can, and devour them at home, with acts of brutality too shocking to be described. To give quar- ter, or to take prisoners, makes no part of their military law; so that the vanquished can save their lives only by flight. This perpetual state of war, and destructive method of conducting it, operates so strongly in producing habits of circumspection, that one hardly ever finds a New Zealander off his guard, either by night or by day." 1 While the mind is kept in such a state of incessant anxiety and alarm, it must be impossible for human beings to taste the sweets of rational, or even of sensitive enjoyment. A melancholy gloom must hang over 1 Cook's Voyages. 296 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. these wretched beings, and the dark suspicions, and the re- vengeful passions which agitate their minds, can only fit them for those regions of darkness where the radiations of benevo- lence are completely extinguished. Similar dispositions are displayed throughout almost all the other islands of the Southern Ocean. The following descrip- tion is given by M. de la Perouse, of the inhabitants of Haou- na Oyolava, and other islands in the Navigator's Archipel- ago: " Their native ferocity of countenance always expresses either surprise or anger. The least dispute between them is followed by blows of sticks, clubs, or paddles, and often costs the combatants their lives. The treachery and ferocity of these savages were strikingly displayed in massacring M. de Langle, the astronomer, and eleven of the crew that belonged to Perouse's vessel ; and such was their fierce barbarity, that, after having killed them, they still continued to wreak their fury upon the inanimate bodies with their clubs. The natives of New Caledonia are a race of a similar description. The French Navigator, Admiral D'Entrecasteaux, in his intercourse with these people, received undoubted proofs of their savage disposition, and of their being accustomed to feed on human flesh. Speaking of one of the natives, who had visited his ship, and had described the various practices connected wth cannibalism, he says, " It is difficult to depict the ferocious avidity with which he expressed to us, that the flesh of their unfortunate victims was devoured by them after they had broil- ed it on the coals. This cannibal also let us know, that the flesh of the arms and legs was cut into slices, and that they considered the most muscular parts a very agreeable dish. It was then easy for us to explain, why they frequently felt our arms and legs, manifesting a violent longing; they then utter- ed a faint whistling, which they produced by closing their teeth, and applying to them the tip of their tongue; afterwards opening their mouth, they smacked their lips several times in succession." The character of the islanders now described, may be con- sidered as common to the inhabitants of the New Hebrides, the Friendly Islands, the Marquesas, New Guinea, New Bri- ton, the Ladrones, and almost all the islands which are dis- WARLIKE ATTITUDE OF NATIONS. 297 persed over the vast expanse of the Pacific ocean. Captain Cook, when describing the natives of New Zealand, remarks, that " the inhabitants of the other parts of the South Seas have not even the idea of indecency with respect to any object, or to any action." Such are a few specimens of the moral dispositions the hatred, the horrid warfare, and the abominable practices, which are displayed over the greater portion of the Eastern and Western Continents, and among the thousands of islands which diversify the surface of the Ocean, dispositions and practices, which, if permitted to extend their influence universally and without control, would soon extirpate the intelligent creation, and ba- nish happiness from the Empire of God. WARLIKE ATTITUDE OF NATIONS. Were Benevolence a characteristic of the inhabitants of our globe, every traveller would be secure from danger from his fellow-men; he might land on every shore without the least suspicion or alarm, and confidently expect that his distresses would be relieved, and his wants supplied, by every tribe of the human race among whom he might occasionally sojourn. Xo hostile weapons would be lifted up to repel a stranger, when gratifying his curiosity in visiting distant lands; and no instru- ments of destruction would require to be forged, to preserve a nation from the inroads of destroyers. But when we survey the actual state of mankind, we find almost every nation under heaven, if not actually engaged in war, at least in a warlike attitude, and one of their chief employments consists in devis- ing schemes, either of conquest or revenge, and in furbishing the instruments of death. The following instances may suffice, as illustrations of this position. The armies of Ashantee, says Dupuis, amount to upwards of 80,000 men, armed with tomahawks, lances, knives, jave- lins, bows and arrows; and 40,000 who can occasionally be put in possession of muskets and blunderbusses. The opposing armies of Moslem and Dinheru, amounted at times to 140,000 men. The King of Dahomy, and his auxiliaries, can raise about 50,000 men, armed with bows and arrows, sabres, and 298 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. iron maces. The King of Benin can arm 200,000 upon an emergency, and furnish 10,000 of them with muskets. In those countries of Africa where fire-arms and gunpowder are unknown, they wield the following kinds of arms with great dexterity and execution. These are, very strong supple lances, which are barbed and poisoned, targets, bows and arrows, to- mahawks, and iron maces; the former of which they are in the practice of poisoning with a venom more deadly than that which is used by any other nation, as its operation is said to be some- times instantaneous, and its wound, though ever so slight, usually produces death within the lapse of a few minutes. 1 Such is the warlike disposition displayed by a few compara- tively insignificant tribes in Africa; and similar dispositions are manifested, and similar attitudes assumed, by almost all the tribes which inhabit that continent. Their time, and their physical and mental exertions, seem to be spent as much in war, and in the preparation of warlike instruments, as if these were the great ends for which the Creator had brought them into existence. If the ingenuity and energies displayed in such pursuits were employed in operations calculated to promote the benefit of mankind, what an immense proportion of happiness would be distributed among numerous tribes which are just now sunk into depravity, and into the depths of wretchedness and wo! Pallas, in his description of the nations inhabiting the Cauca- sus, when speaking of the Circassians, says, " Persons of wealth and rank never leave the house without a sabre, nor do they venture beyond the limits of the village, without being com- pletely arrayed, and having their breast-pockets supplied with ball cartridges." In regard to the lower class, " when they do not carry a sabre, with other arms, they provide themselves with a strong staff, two arshines long, on the top of which is fixed a large iron head, and the lower end is furnished with a sharp iron pike, about eighteen inches long, which they are accustomed to throw expertly, like a dart. The Princes and Knights pursue no other business or recreation than war, pil- lage, and the amusements of the chase; they live a lordly life, 1 Dupuis' Mission to Ashantec, in 1828. WARLIKE ATTITUDE OF NATIONS. 299 wander about, meet at drinking parties, and undertake military excursions." Among these people, " the desire of revenge for injuries received is hereditary in the successors and in the whole tribe. It remains, as it were, rooted with so much ran- cour, that the hostile princes or nobles of two different tribes, when they meet each other on the road, or accidentally in another place, are compelled to fight for their lives; unless they have given previous notice to each other, and bound themselves to pursue a different route. Unless pardon be purchased, or ob- tained by intermarriage between the two families, the principle of revenge is propagated to all succeeding generations. ' ' l It is well known, that in almost all the islands in the Indian and the Southern oceans, when navigators attempt to land, in order to procure water and provisions, they are almost uniformly opposed by crowds of ferocious savages, armed with long spears, clubs, lances, bows and arrows; and, with horrid yells, brandishing them in the most hostile attitudes. In some in- stances, these warlike attitudes might be accounted for, from a fear of the depredations and murders which might be com- mitted by strangers, with whose characters they are unacquainted. But the implacable hatred which they manifest towards even the neighbouring tribes with which they are acquainted, and of which I have already stated several instances, shows, that war, revenge, and the preparation of the instruments of death, are both their employment and their delight. Yea, not only savage and half-civilised tribes, but almost every civilised nation on the face of the earth, is found in a hostile attitude with re- spect to surrounding nations either actually engaged in a deadly warfare with a foreign power, or preparing for an attack, or keeping up fleets and standing armies, and forging cannons, and balls, and swords, in the prospect of a rupture with neigh- bouring states. In such hostile preparations and employments, a great proportion of those treasures is expended, which, if directed by the hand of Benevolence, would be the means of transforming the wilderness into a fruitful field, of diffusing intelligence and moral principle among all ranks, and of making the hearts of the widow and the orphan " to leap for joy." What a pitiful 1 Pallas' ' Travels througu the Southern Provinces of the Russiao Empire,' Vol. ii, pp. 401, 40$, 300 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. picture is here presented of Man, who was originally formed after the image of his Maker, for the purpose of displaying benevolent affections towards his fellows, now divided into hostile tribes, and brandishing, with infernal fury, at all around, the instruments of destruction! " How art thou fallen, Man, from thy original station of dignity and honour! How is the gold become dim, and the most fine gold changed! The crown is fallen from our heads; wo unto us, for we have sinned!" INHUMANITY OF UNCIVILISED TRIBES TO UNFORTUNATE TRAVELLERS. In passing through the scene of his earthly pilgrimage, Man is exposed to a variety of distresses and dangers. Sometimes he is exposed to the destructive pestilence and to the ravages of the earthquake and the volcano; the blasts of the tempest, the hurricane, and the tornado, and the fury of a stormy ocean. At other times he is exposed to the attacks of the lion, the tiger, and the hyena, in the dark recesses of the forest. It Avould be well, however, with man, were these the only evils and enemies which he had to encounter. But the greatest enemy which man has to combat, is Man himself those whc are partakers of the same nature, and destined to the same immortal existence. From these kindred beings he is exposed to calamities incomparably greater and more numerous than all the evils which he suffers from the beasts of prey, or from the fury of the raging elements. It is a most melancholy re- flection that, throughout the greater part of the habitable world, no traveller can prosecute his journey, without being in hazard either of being dragged into captivity, or insulted and maltreated, or plundered of his treasures, or deprived of his life, by those who ought to be his friends and protectors. After he has eluded the pursuit of the lion or the tiger, or after he has escaped, with difficulty, from the jaws of the devouring deep, he is frequently exposed to the fury of demons in human shape, who insult over his misfortunes, instead of relieving the wants of his body, and soothing the anguish of his mind. The following relations among a numerous series which might be presented to the view of the reader, will tend to illustrate these remarks. INHUMANITY TOWARDS TRAVELLERS. 301 My first example shall be taken from the ' Narrative of the Loss of the Grosvenor Iiuliaman." This vessel sailed from Trincomalce, June 13th, 1782, on her homeward-bound voyage, and was wrecked on the coast of Caffraria, on the 4th of Au- gust following. It is needless to dwell on the circumstances which attended the shipwreck, and on the consternation and despair which seized upon the passengers and the crew, when they became alive to all the terrors of the scene. Shipwreck, even in its mildest form, is a calamity which never fails to fill the mind with horror; but what is instant death considered as a temporary evil, compared with the situation of those who had hunger, and thirst, and nakedness to contend with; who only escaped the fury of the waves, to enter into conflicts with the savages of the forest, or the still greater savages of the human race; who were cut off from all civilised society, and felt the prolongation of life to be only the lengthened pains of death! After losing about twenty men, in their first attempts to land, the remaining part of the crew and passengers, in num- ber about a hundred, after encountering many difficulties and dangers, reached the shore. Next morning, a thousand uneasy sensations were produced, from the natives having come do^n to the shore, and, without ceremony, carried off whatever suited their fancy. They were at this time about 447 leagues from the Cape of Good Hope, and 226 beyond the limits of any Christian habitation. Their only resource appeared to be, to direct their course by land to the Cape, or to tlie nearest Dutch settlement. As they moved forward, they were followed by some of the natives, who, instead of showing compassion to this wretched group, plundered them from time to time of what they liked, and sometimes pelted them with stones. In this way they pursued their journey for four or five days; during which, the natives constantly surrounded them in the day, tak- ing from them whatever they pleased, but invariably retired in the night. At last, they came to a deep gully, where three of the Caffres met them, armed with lances, which they held se- veral times to the captain's throat. Next day, on coming to a large village, they found these three men, with three or four hundred of their countrymen, all armed with lances and tar- gets, who stopped the English, and began to pilfer and insult 302 PHILOSOPHY OP RELIGION. them, and at last fell upon them and heat them. With these inhuman wretches they had to engage in a kind of running fight for upwards of two hours; after which, they cut the hut- tons from their coats, and presented them to the natives, on which they went away and returned no more. Next day, as they were advancing, a party of natives came down upon them, and plundered them, among other things, of their tinder-box, flint and steel, which proved an irreparable loss. Every man was now obliged to travel, hy turns, with a fire-brand in his hand ; and before the natives retired, they showed more inso- lence than ever, rohbing the gentlemen of their watches, and the ladies of their jewels, which they had secreted in their hair. Opposition was vain; the attempt only hrought fresh insults or blows. This group of wretched wanderers now separated into differ- ent parties, and took different directions ; their provisions were nearly exhausted ; and the delay occasioned hy travelling with the women and children was very great. Their difficulties in- creased as they proceeded on their journey; they had numerous rivers, sometimes nearly two miles in hreadth, to swim across in the course of their route, while the women and children were conveyed across on floating stages, at the imminent hazard of their lives, and of being carried down hy the impetuous current into the sea. Whole days were spent in tracing the rivers to- wards their source, in order to ohtain a ford. They traversed vast plains of sand, and hleak and harren deserts, where nothing could he found to alleviate their hunger, nor the least drop of water to quench their raging thirst. They passed through deep forests, where human feet had never trode, where nothing was heard hut the dreadful bowlings of wild beasts, which filled them with alarm and despair. Wild sorrel, berries which the birds had picked at, and a few shell-fish which they occasionally picked up on the shore, were the only food which they had to subsist on for several days; and on some occasions the dead body of a seal, or the putrid carcase of a whale, was hailed as a delicious treat to their craving appetites. One person fell after another into the arms of death, through hunger, fatigue, and despair; and were sometimes obliged to be left in the agonies of dissolution, as a prey to ravenous beasts, or to the INHUMANITY TO SHIPWRECKED MARINERS. 303 fowls of heaven. The following circumstance shows the dread- ful situation to which they were reduced for want of food : " It appeared that the captain's steward had heen buried in the sand of the last desert they had passed, and that the survivors were reduced to such extremity, that, after he had been inter- red, they sent back two of their companions to cut off part of his flesh ; but while they proceeded in this horrid business, they had the good fortune to discover a young seal, newly driven on shore, which proved a most seasonable relief." Imagination cannot form a scene of deeper distress than what the tender sex and the little children must, in such a case, have experienced. It harrows up the very soul to think what pangs those delicate females who had so lately been inured to all the luxuries of India must have endured, when they were fain to appease their craving appetites on the putrid carcase of a whale, and obliged to repose on the bare ground, amidst the bowlings of the tempest, and the more dismal yells of the beasts of prey. But, amidst this heart-rending scene, their fellow-men, who ought to have been their protectors, and who had it in their power to have alleviated their distresses, were the greatest enemies they had to encounter; and their ap- pearance filled their minds with greater alarm than if they had beheld a roaring lion or a raging bear. The following are some specimens of the perfidy and inhumanity of the natives : In passing through a village, one of the company observing, " that a traffic would not be unacceptable, offered them the inside of his watch for a calf; but though they assented to the terms, no sooner had they obtained the price, than they with- held the calf, and drove the English from their village." In the same manner were they used on many other occasions. One time, when resting at a village, where the natives offered no particular resistance, " they produced two bowls of milk, which they seemed willing to barter, but as our wretched coun- trymen had nothing to give in exchange, they denied them this humble boon without an equivalent, and ate it up themselves." On another occasion, " on coming to a large village, the in- habitants set upon them with such fury, that several were se- verely wounded, and one of them died soon after." In this manner did the wretched remains of these hanleBa 304 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. wanderers traverse the wilds of Africa, during the space of one hundred and seventeen days, till they accidentally met with some Dutch settlers, when within 400 miles of the Cape. Here they were treated with the kindest attention, and their wants relieved. But, by this time, only 15 or 20 emaciated beings survived, out of more than 120 persons who were on board the Grosvenor. Now, all the accumulated miseries endured by these unfortunate travellers, and the premature death of nearly a hundred persons, are to be attributed to that spirit of selfish- ness and hostility, which, in all ages, has prevented enjoyment, and entailed misery on the human race. Had a principle of love to mankind pervaded the hearts of the wretched Caffres, or had even the common feelings of humanity been exercised towards their fellow-creatures in distress, the whole of the unfortunate in- dividuals that perished in Africa's inhospitable clime, might have been conducted in safety to their friends and their native land. My next example is taken from M. de Brisson's ' Narrative of his Captivity among the Moors.' M. Brisson was ship- wrecked on the coast of Barbary, on the 10th of July, 1785, and, after much difficulty and danger, he, along with the crew, escaped safe to land. No sooner had they reached the shore than they were surrounded by a crowd of savages, and seized by the collars. " The Arabs," says M. Brisson, " armed with cutlasses and large clubs, fell upon my companions with in- credible ferocity; and I had the mortification of soon seeing some of them wounded, whilst others, stripped and naked, lay stretched and expiring on the sand. The news of our ship- wreck being spread abroad through the country, we saw the savages running with the greatest eagerness from all quarters. The women, enraged that they could not pillage the ship, threw themselves upon us, and tore from us the few articles of dress which we had left. While they went to the shore to ob- tain more plunder, a company "of Ouadelims discovered and pillaged our retreat, and beat us in the most unmerciful man- ner, till I was almost at the last gasp. My mind was so much affected that I could not refrain from tears; and some of the women having observed it, instead of being moved with com- passion, threw sand in my eyes, ( to dry up my tears,' as they expressed it." M. Brisson was forced, by these rude barba- INHUMANITY TO SHIPWRECKED MARINERS. 305 rians, into the interior of the country, as a captive. "After passing," says he, '* mountains of a prodigious height, which were covered with small sharp flints, I found that the soles of my feet were entirely covered with hlood. I was permitted to get up behind my master on his camel ; but as I was naked, I could not secure myself from the friction of the animal's hair, so that in a very little time my skin was entirely rubbed off. My blood trickled down over the animal's sides, and this sight, instead of moving the pity of these barbarians, afforded them a subject of diversion. They sported with my sufferings ; and that their enjoyments might be still higher, they spurred ou their camels." After travelling for sixteen days, during which they were exposed to the greatest fatigue, and the most dread- ful miseries, they at length reached the place of their destina- tion, in a most wretched condition. And what was the manner of their reception ? The women having satisfied their curiosity in enquiries about the strangers, immediately began to load them with abuse. " They even spat in our faces," says M. B., " and pelted us with stones. The children, too, copying their example, pinched us, pulled our hair, and scratched us with their nails, whilst their cruel mothers ordered them to attack sometimes one and sometimes another, and took pleasure in causing them torment us." They were compelled to work at the most fatiguing and menial employments, and beaten with severity when they did not exert themselves far beyond their strength, while they were denied a single morsel of wholesome food. " As we were Christians," says the narrator, "the dogs fared better than we, and it was in the basins destined for their use that we re- ceived our allowance ; our food was raw snails, and herbs and plants trodden under foot by the multitude." In this manner did these unfortunate travellers drag out the period of their captivity; some died of the blows and harsh treatment they received, and others died of hunger and despair. M. Brisson one day found the captain of the vessel, in a neighbouring ham- let, stretched out lifeless upon the sand, and scarcely distin- guishable but by the colour of his body. In his mouth he held one of his hands, which his great weakness had no doubt pre- vented him from devouring. He was so changed by hunger, 14 U 306 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. that his body exhibited the most disgusting appearance; all his features being absolutely effaced. A few days after, the second captain having fallen down through weakness below an old gum tree, became a prey to the attacks of a monstrous ser- pent. Some famished crows, by their cries, frightened away the venomous animal, and alighting on the body of the dying man, were tearing him to pieces, while four savage monsters in human shape, still more cruel than the furious reptile, be- held this scene without offering him the least assistance. " I attempted to run towards him," says M. Brisson, "and to save his life if possible ; but the barbarians stopped me, and, after insulting me, said, * This Christian will soon become a prey to the flames.' ' Such were the scenes of inhumanity and of cruelty which M. Brisson witnessed, during the whole period he remained in the territories of these barbarous tribes. They present to our view so many pictures of abominable sel- fishness, and even of pure malevolence. And it is a most melancholy reflection, that numerous tribes of a similar descrip- tion are spread over a very large portion of the habitable world. It makes one feel degraded, when he reflects that he is related, by the ties of a common nature, to beings possessing a charac- ter so malignant and depraved. In this instance, we can partly account for the barbarity, from the inveterate prejudices which all Mahometans entertain against Christians; but it still remains to be accounted for, why any one should refuse a suffering fellow-creature the com- mon bounties of Providence, which he has in his power to be- stow, however different he may be in complexion, in national character, or in the religion he professes. A religion which encourages such prejudices, and which leads to such inhuma- nity, must be an abomination in the sight of Him who has a special regard to the wants of all his creatures, and who " sendeth rain to refresh the fields of the just and of the un- just. 1 ' The prevalence of such dispositions over so large a portion of the world shows that the moral constitution of ma& has suffered a sad derangement since the period when he pro- ceeded as a pure intelligence, from the hands of his Creator. Such are a few specimens of the inhumanity displayed by uncivilised tribes towards strangers, and unfortunate voyagers DISFIGURING OF THE HUMAN BODY. 307 and travellers. They exhibit dispositions directly repugnant to every principle of benevolence, and present to our view a gloomy prospect of the difficulties and dangers to be surmount- ed by philanthropic missionaries, before the habitable world can be thoroughly explored, and before the blessings of civilisation and religion can be communicated to the benighted tribes of mankind. MALEVOLENT DISPOSITIONS, AS DISPLAYED IN DISFIGURING THE HUMAN BODY. The human frame, when preserved its original state, is one of the finest pieces of mechanism which the mind can contem- plate. In beauty, in symmetry, in the harmony and proportion of all its parts and functions, it is superior to the organical structures of all the other ranks of sensitive existence. There is no part imperfect or deformed, no part defective, and no part useless or redundant. All its members are so constructed and arranged as to contribute to the beauty and perfection of the whole, and to the happiness of the intelligent mind by which it is governed and directed. In combination with the power of thought and volition, and when unstained by malig- nant passions, it is a visible representative of the Creator, having been formed after his image; and it displays, in a most striking manner, the wisdom and goodness of its Almighty Maker. But notwithstanding the acknowledged excellence of the human frame, it has been the practice of the degraded tribes of mankind, in almost every country, and in every age, to disfigure its structure, and to deface its beauty; as if the Creator, when he formed it, had been deficient in intelligence and in benevolent design. Such practices, I am disposed to think, imply a principle of malevolence directed towards the Creator, and a disposition to find fault with his wise contriv- ances and arrangements. At any rate, they display a degree of ignorance and folly, a vitiated taste, and a degradation of mind, inconsistent with the dignity of a rational intelligence. The following facts will tend to illustrate these remarks: Condamine, when describing the natives of South America, informs us, that the Omaguas, and some other savages, flat- 308 PHILOSOPHr OF RELIGION. ten the faces of their children, by lacing their heads between two hoards; that others pierce the nostrils, lips, or cheeks, and place in them feathers, the hones of fishes, and similar orna- ments; and that the savages of Brazil pull the hair out of their beards, their eyebrows, and all parts of their bodies, which makes them have an uncommon and a ferocious appearance. Their under lip they pierce, and, as an ornament, insert into it a green stone, or a small polished bone. Immediately after birth the mothers flatten the noses of their children. The whole of them go absolutely naked, and paint their bodies of different colours. Captain Cook informs us, that, in New- Zealand, both sexes mark their faces and bodies with black stains, similar to tattooing in Otaheite. The men particularly add new stains every year, so that, in an advanced period of life, they are almost covered from head to foot. Besides this, they have marks impressed, by a method unknown to us, of a very extraordinary kind. They are furrows of about a line deep, and a line broad, such as appears upon the bark of a tree which has been cut through after a year's growth. The edges of these furrows are afterwards indented by the same method, and being perfectly black, they make a most fright- ful appearance. Both sexes bore their ears, they gradually stretch the holes till they are so large as to admit a finger. Into these holes they put feathers, coloured cloth, bones of birds, twigs of wood, and frequently the nails which they re- ceived from the ships. The same voyager, when describing the New Hollanders, tells us, "Their chief ornament is a bone, which is thrust through a hole bored in the cartilage which divides the nostrils. This bone is as thick as a man's finger, and six inches in length. It reaches quite across the face, and so effectually stops up both nostrils, that they are forced to keep their mouth wide open for breath, and snuffle so when they attempt to speak, that they are scarcely intelli- gible to each other. Our seamen, with some humour, called it their sprit sail yard; and indeed it had so ludicrous an appearance, that, till we were used to it, we found it difficult to restrain from laughter.*' He also describes a custom of a peculiar nature which prevails in the Friendly Islands: " The greater part of the inhabitants, both male and female, were DISFIGURING OF THE HUMAN BODY. 309 observed to have lost one or Loth of their little fingers. This custom seemed not to have heen characteristic of rank, of age, or of sex; for, with the exception of some young children, very few people were discovered in whom both hands were perfect. They likewise burn or make incisions in their cheeks." All the eastern nations are said to have a predilection for long ears. Some draw the lobe of the ear, in order to stretch it to a greater length, and pierce it so as to allow the admis- sion of an ordinary pendant. The natives of Laos, so prodi- giously widen the holes in their ears, that a man's hand may be thrust through them. Hence the ears of these people often descend to the tops of their shoulders. 1 Gentil assures us, that the women, in the Northern parts of China, employ every art in order to diminish their eyes. For this purpose, the girls, instructed by their mothers, extend their eyelids continu- ally, with the view of making their eyes oblong and small. These properties, in the estimation of the Chinese, when joined to a flat nose, and large, open, pendulous ears, constitute the perfection of beauty. We are informed by Struys, that the women of Siam wear so large and heavy pendants in their ears, that the holes gradually become wide enough to admit a man's thumb. The natives of New Holland pull out the two fore-teeth of the upper jaw. In Calicut there is a band of nobles called Naires, who lengthen their ears to such a de gree, that they hang down to their shoulders, and sometimes even lower. 2 The Arabs paint their lips, arms, and the most conspicuous parts of their bodies, with a deep blue colour. This paint, which they lay on in little dots, and make it pene- trate the flesh, by puncturing the skin with needles, can never be effaced. Some of the Asiatics paint their eyebrows of a black colour, and others eradicate the hairs with rusma, and paint artificial eyebrows, in the form of a black crescent, which give them an uncommon and ugly appearance. The inhabitants of Prince William's Sound paint their faces and hands, bore their ears and noses, and slit their upper lips. In the holes made in their noses, they hang pieces of bone, which are often two or three inches long; and, in the slit of the lip, they place * Smellie's Philosophy of Natural History, Vol. U, * Ibid. 310 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. a bone or ivory instrument with holes in it, from which they suspend beads that reach below the chin. These holes in the lip disfigure them greatly, for some of them are as large as their mouths. 1 Such distortions of the beautiful structure of the human frame are not peculiar to savage tribes, but are practised by nations which have made considerable advances in science and civilisation. It is well known that, in China, a custom pre- vails of rendering the feet of their females so small that they can with difficulty support their bodies. This is deemed a principal part of their beauty; and no swathing nor compres- sion is omitted, when they are young, to give them this fancied accomplishment. Every woman of fashion, and every woman who wishes to be reckoned handsome, must have her feet so small that they could easily enter the shoe of a child of six years of age. We have every reason to believe that the harsh and ugly features, and the ferocious aspect by which numerous tribes of mankind are distinguished, are owing to such voluntary dis- tortions of the human frame, and to the filthy and abominable practices in which they indulge. It is somewhat unaccount- able, and it shows the perversity of the human mind, that such practices should be so general, and so obstinately persist- ed in, when we consider the pain and inconvenience with which they are attended. To pull the hairs of the chin or eyebrows from the roots; to slit the under lip, till the incision be as large as one's mouth; to pierce the nostrils, till a bone as large as a man's finger can be thrust through them; and to cover the body with black streaks, which make the blood flow at every stroke of the instrument by which they are produced, must be attended with excruciating pain. I am therefore disposed to view such absurd and barbarous practices, as intimately connected with the operation of a prin- ciple of malevolence, as an attempt to frustrate the wise de- signs of divine benevolence, and as directly repugnant to the spirit of Christianity, and to its benevolent precepts. And it becomes some of the ladies and dandies of modern Europe to 1 Portlook's Voynge round the World. MALEVOLENT SYSTEMS OF RELIGION. 311 consider, whether some of their awkward attempts to improve the symmetry of the human frame ought not to he viewed in the same light. Not many years ago, it was considered, in the higher circles of society, as an admirable improvement of the female form, to give the lower half of the hody the appear- ance of the frustrum of a large tun, as if it had heen ten times the capacity of its natural size, hy supporting their rohes with enormous hoops; and, ahout the same period, the lower ranks of female society considered it as the perfection of beauty, to have their waists compressed into the smallest possible space, till the vital functions, in many instances, were deranged, and ultimately destroyed. Were the dictates of sound reason uni- versally attended to, and were the influence of Christianity felt among all nations, the preposterous practices to which I have now adverted would not only be discontinued, but held in abhor- rence. And were such customs completely abolished, we might soon expect to behold, among all the tribes of mankind, every distortion of the features of the countenance removed, and the human form restored to its original beauty and perfection. In- stead of a ferocious aspect, and the frightful appearance of naked savages, streaked with colours of black and blue, we should behold, in every land, every countenance beaming with the radiations of benevolence, and reflecting the moral image of the Creator. MALEVOLENCE AS 'T APPEARS IN THE RELIGION OF SAVAGE TRIBES. There is scarcely a nation on the face of the globe but what appears to have some impressions of the existence of a Superior Power, and to have formed a system of religious worship. But it is a striking fact that, among the greater portion of human beings, their religious notions and their sacred rites, instead of breathing a spirit of benevolence towards their fel- low-creatures, are blended with a principle of hatred and re- venge. This might be illustrated by an induction of a great variety of instances, in reference to almost every uncivilised portion of the human race. I shall content myself, however, with stating only one instance, in reference to the Nesserie, a tribe not much known in Europe, and which may serve as an example of many others. 312 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. The territory of this people extends from Antioch nearly to Tripoli. They occupy almost all the mountains to the east of Latakia, and a great part of the plain. Among them is perceived a mixture of the religious usages of Paganism, of the Jewish law, of that of Mahomet and Ali, and of some dogmas of the Christian religion. The women are considered as a part of the domestic animals of the house, and treated as slaves. They have no idea of religion, and when they are hold enough to enquire of their masters con- cerning it, the latter answer them, that their religion is to he charged with the reproduction of the species, and to be sub- ject to the will of their husbands. The Nesserie say their prayers at midnight and before sunset. They may say them either sitting, standing, or walking; but they are obliged to begin again repeating their ablution, if they speak to a person not of their religion, if they perceive, either near or at a distance, a camel, a pig, a hare, or a negro. In their prayers, they curse the man who shaves below the chin, him who is impotent, and the two Caliphs, Omar and Abou-Bekr. They detest the Turks, to whom they are sworn enemies. This war- like people of mountaineers would be strong enough to shake off the yoke of the Turks, and live independently, if they were not divided by interested motives, almost all occasioned by im- placable family hatreds. They are vindictive, and cherish their rancour for a length of time: even the death of the guilty person cannot assuage their fury; their vengeance is incomplete, if it does not fall besides on one or several members of his family. They are so obstinately superstitious in their attach- ment to their peculiar system, that no threats nor punishments can extort from them the secrets of their religion. 1 Here, then, we are presented with a system of religion, which appears to be founded on malevolence, which directs its devo- tees to curse their fellow-men which leads them to keep their women in profound ignorance of every thing which they hold sacred which induces them to conceal its mysteries from all the rest of the world and which, in so far from producing any beneficial effects on their own conduct, leads to " implaca- ble family hatreds. " A religion, unless it be founded on a 1 See Dupont's Memoirs of the Manners and Religious Ceremonies of the Nesserie, a work lately published. REFLECTIONS. 313 principle of benevolence, is unworthy of the name; it must be an abhorrence in the sight of God, and can never communicate happiness to man. And, were we to examine the various reli- gious systems which prevail in the numerous islands of the. Indian and Pacific oceans, in Cabul, Tibet, and Hindostan, and among the uncivilised tribes which are scattered over a large portion of Asia and of Africa, we should find them not only blended with malevolent principles and maxims, but sanctioning the perpetration of deeds of cruelty, obscenity, and horror. In the preceding pages I have endeavoured to illustrate some of the prominent features in the moral character of the uncivi- lised tribes of the human race. The examples I have selected have not been taken from the records of Missionaries, or of professed religionists, who might be suspected by some to give an exaggerated description of the depravity of the Pagan world but from the unvarnished statements of respectable voyagers and travellers, who could have no motives for misrepresenting the facts they have recorded. These illustrations might have been extended to a much greater length; for every book of travels, as well as every historical document, contains a record of the operations of malignity, and of the diversified modes in which human depravity is displayed. The dispositions which I have illustrated, it will be readily admitted, are all of a ma- lignant character, directly repugnant to that benevolent prin- ciple which forms the basis of the moral laws of the universe. And when we consider that such malevolent dispositions are displayed by a mass of human beings, amounting to more than three-fourths of the population of the globe, and that true hap- piness cannot be experienced where malignant passions reign uncontrolled, a benevolent mind cannot refrain from indulging a thousand melancholy reflections, when it casts its eye over the desolations of the moral world, and from forming an anx- ious wish that the period may soon arrive when the darkness which covers the nations shall be dispelled, and when benevo- lence and peace shall reign triumphant over all the earth. I shall now present a few facts and sketches which may have a tendency to illustrate the moral character and aspect of the civilised world. 314 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. SECTION III. Moral State of Civilised Nations in Modern Times. The present population of the globe may he estimated at about 800 millions. Of these, if we except the empires of China and Hindostan, we cannot reckon above 180 millions as existing in a state of enlightened civilisation; a number which is less than the fourth part of the human race. Were even this small portion of mankind uniformly distinguished for intel- ligence, and for the practice of benevolence, it would form a glo- rious picture for the philanthropist to contemplate; and would be a sure prelude of the near approach of that happy era, when " all the ends of the earth shall remember and turn to the Lord, when all the Jcindreds of the nations shall do homage unto him, and when there shall be nothing to hurt nor destroy" among all the families of mankind. But, alas! when we in- vestigate the moral state even of this portion of human beings, we find the principle of malignity distinctly visible in its opera- tions, and interwoven in numerous and minute ramifications through all the ranks and gradations of society. Though its shades are less dark and gloomy, they are no less real than among the hordes of Africa and Tartary, and the other abodes of savage life. To illustrate this position is the object of the fol- lowing sketches; in which I shall chiefly refer to the state of society among the nations of Europe and the United States of America, and particularly to the moral aspect of the British empire. I shall, in the first place, consider the operation of the male- volent principle as it appears in the actions and dispositions of the young, and in the modes of tuition by which they are trained. In many thousands of instances it may be observed, that, even before a child has been weaned from its mother's breasts, malignant dispositions are not only fostered, but are regularly taught both by precept and example. Does a child happen to hit its head accidentally against the corner of a table it is taught by its nurse, and even by its mother, to avenge the MORAL STATE OF CIVILISED NATIONS. 315 injury on the inanimate object which caused it, and to exhibit its prowess and revenge by beating the table with all its might. Does it cry through peevishness or pain it is immediately threatened with being thrown into a ditch, tossed out of a window, or committed to the charge of some frightful spectre. Is it expedient to repress its murmurings, and to cajole it into obedience it is then inspired with fallacious hopes, and allured with deceitful promises of objects and of pleasures which are never intended to be realised. Does it require to have its phy- sical powers exercised a wooden sword or a whip is put into its hands; and it is encouraged to display its energies in inflict- ing strokes on a dog, a cat, or any of its play-fellows or com- panions. I have seen a little urchin of this description, three or four years of age, brandishing its wooden sword with all the ardour of a warrior, and repeating its strokes on every person around, while the foolish parents were exulting in the prowess displayed by their little darling, and encouraging it in all its movements. By these and similar practices, revenge, false- hood, superstition, and the elements of war, are fostered in the youthful mind; and is it to be wondered at, that such malig- nant principles and passions should " grow with their growth, and strengthen with their strength," till they burst forth in all those hideous forms which they assume amidst the contests of communities and of nations? The false maxims by which children are frequently trained under the domestic roof, and the foolish indulgence with which they are treated by injudi- cious parents, in too many instances, lay the foundation of those petulant and malignant tempers, which are a pest both to Christian and to general society. Indulgence often leads to another extreme; and produces such a degree of insubordination among the young that nothing is to be seen and heard but a perpetual round of scolding and beating, and the contest of angry passions. " Among the lower ranks of people,'* says Dr Witherspoon, " who are under no restraint from decency, you may sometimes see a father or a mother running out into the street, after a child who has fled from them, with looks of fury and words of execration; and they are often stupid enough to imagine, that neighbours or passengers will approve them in this conduct." Wherever parental authority is thus un- 316 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. dennined, and such conduct uniformly pursued, a sure founda- tion is laid for an extensive display, in after life, of the malig- nant passions of the human heart. If we follow our youth from the nursery to the school-room, we shall find the same malevolent affections developing them- selves on a larger scale, and indirectly cherished hy the hooks they read, the discipline hy which they are trained, and the amusements in which they indulge. Here we may hehold one little fellow taking a malicious pleasure in pinching his neigh- bour, another in kicking him, a third in hoxing him, a fourth in tearing his book, a fifth in pilfering his property, and a sixth in endeavouring to hold him up to scorn and ridicule; and all of them combined to frustrate, if possible, the exertions of their teacher, and to prevent their own improvement. If we look into the majority of the books which are read in schools, we shall find them full of encomiums upon war, and upon warriors. The Cesars, the Alexanders, and the Buonapartes, whose rest- less ambition has transformed the earth into scenes of desola- tion and carnage, are represented as patterns of everything that is brave, noble, generous, and heroic. The descriptive powers of the poet are also called in, in order to inflame the youthful mind with warlike dispositions, and to excite an ardent desire for mingling in scenes of contention, and for the acquisition of false glory and military renown. Hence, there is no part of their school-exercises in which the young so much delight, and in which they so much excel, as in that, in which they are called to recite such pieces as ' Sempronius's speech for war,' or to ape the revengeful encounter of Norval and Glenalvon. While the spirit of war is thus virtually cherished, the coun- teraction of vicious propensities, and the cultivation of the moral powers of the young, are considered as a matter of in- ferior importance, and, in many seminaries of instruction, are altogether overlooked. Many of the school-collections to which I allude, instead of exhibiting, in simple language, the beau- ties and sublimities of the works of nature, the displays of the natural and moral character of the Deity, the facts of Sacred History, the morality of the Gospel, the scenes of rural and domestic life, and the operations of philanthropy, are filled with extracts from metaphysical writers, from parliamentary debates, MORAL STATE OF CIVILIZED NATIONS. 317 and from old plays, novels, and farces, which are frequently interlarded with oaths, obscenity, and slang, which can have no other tendency than to pollute and demoralise the youthful mind. It needs therefore excite no surprise, that the great hody of mankind is still so deficient in rational information and substantial knowledge, and that a warlike spirit is still afloat, and exerting its baleful influence among the nations. If we follow the young from the school-room to the play- ground, or to the streets and highways, we shall find the spirit of malignity displaying itself in a vast diversity of forms. Here, we may behold one mischievous little boy slapping his neighbour in the face, another tearing his clothes, another tossing his cap into a dirty ditch, another chalking his back in order to hold him up to ridicule, and another pouring upon him a torrent of nicknames, and of scurrilous epithets. There, we may behold a crowd of boys pelting a poor beggar or an unfortunate maniac with stones and dirt, for their diversion, mocking the lame, the deformed, and the aged, and insulting the passing traveller. And, when such objects do not happen to occur, we may see them assailing, with a shower of stones. a cat, a dog, a hare, or a fowl, that happens to cross the path, and enjoying a diabolical pleasure in witnessing the sufferings of these unfortunate animals. Here, we may behold an inso- lent boy insulting a timid girl, overturning her pitcher, and besmearing her with mire; there we behold another saluting his fellow with a malignant scowl, and a third brandishing his whip, and lashing a horse or a sow, for his amusement. On the one hand, we may sometimes behold a ring of boys, in the centre of which two little demons are engaged in mutual com- bat, with eyes glaring with fury and revenge, in order to la- cerate, and cover with blood and gore, the faces of each other: on the other hand we may behold an unfortunate boy, to whom a natural temperament, or a virtuous principle, prevents from engaging in similar combats, assailed with opprobrious epithets, and made a laughing-stock, and an object of derision and scorn, because he will not be persuaded to declare war against his neighbour. And, what is still more atrocious and disgusting, we may behold children of thirty or fortv years of age, en- couraging such malevolent dispositions, and stimulating such 318 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. combatants in their diabolical exertions ! : Such infernal prac- tices, among creatures originally formed after the divine image, if they were not so common, would be viewed by every one in whose breast the least spark of virtue resides, with feelings of indignation and horror. The greater body of our youth, habituated to such disposi- tions and practices, after having left school at the age of four- teen or fifteen a period when headstrong passions and vicious propensities begin to operate with still greater violence have access to no other seminaries, in which their lawless passions may be controlled, and in which they may be carried forward in the path of moral and intellectual improvement. Through- out the whole of the civilized world, I am not aware that there exist any regular institutions exclusively appropriated for the instruction of young persons, from the age of fifteen to the age twenty-five or upwards, on moral, religious, and scientific sub- jects; in order to expand their intellectual capacities, and to direct their moral powers in the path of universal benevolence. Yet, without such institutions, all the knowledge and instructions that they may have previously acquired, in the great majority of instances, are rendered almost useless and inefficient for promoting the great end of their existence. From the age of fifteen to the age of twenty-five is the most important period in human life ; and, for the want of proper instruction during this period, and of rational objects to employ the attention at leisure hours many a hopeful youth has been left to glide insensibly into the mire of corruption, and to become a pest to his friends, and to general society. Our streets and highways are infested, and our jails and bridewells filled with young persons of this age, who, by means of rational and religious training, might have been rendered a comfort to their friends, blessings to so- ciety, and ornaments of the Christian church. 1 The practice of boxing among boys, which so generally prevails, espe- cially in England, is a disgrace to the boasted civilization and Christi- anity of that country, and to the superintendents of its public seminaries. That pugilistic contests between grown-up savages in a civilized shape, should be publicly advertised, and described in our newspapers, and the arena of such contests resorted to by so many thousands of the middling and higher classes of society, is a striking proof that the spirit of folly and of malignity still prevails to a great extent, and that the spirit of Christianity has made little progress, even within the limits of the Bri- tish empire. MORAL STATE OF CIVILIZED NATIONS. 319 It would be inconsistent with the limited plan of this work, to attempt to trace the principle of malignity through all the scenes of social, commercial, and domestic life. Were I to enter into details of filial impiety, ingratitude, and rebellion of faithless friendships of the abominable selfishness which ap- pears in the general conduct and transactions of mankind of the bitterness, the fraud, and the perjury, with which law-suits are commenced and prosecuted of the hatred and resentment manifested for injuries real or supposed of the frauds daily committed in every department of the commercial world of the shufflings and base deceptions which are practised in cases of bankruptcy of the slanders, the caballing, and falsehood, which attend electioneering contests of the envy, malice, and resentment, displayed between competitors for office and power of the haughtiness and insolence of petty tyrants both in church and state of the selfishness and injustice of corporate bodies, and the little regard they show for the interests of those who are oppressed, and deprived of their due rewards of the gluttony, drunkenness, and prodigality, which so ge- nerally prevail of the brawlings, fightings, and contentions which are daily presented to view in taverns, ale-houses, and dram-shops, and the low slang and vulgar abuse with which such scenes are intermingled of the seductions accomplished by insidious artfulness and outrageous perjury of the multi- plied falsehoods of all descriptions which are uttered in courts, in camps, and in private dwellings of the unblushing lies of public newspapers, and the perjuries of office of the sys- tematic frauds by which a large portion of the community are cheated out of their property and their rights of the pride, haughtiness, and oppression of the rich, and of the malice, envy, and discontentment of the poor such pictures of ma- lignity might be presented to the view, as would fill the mind of the reader with astonishment and horror, and which would require a series of volumes to record the revolting details. There is one very general characteristic of civilized, and even of Christian society, that bears the stamp of malignity, which may particularly be noticed; and that is, the pleasure with which men expatiate on the faults and delinquencies of their neighbours, and the eagerness with which they circulate 320 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. scandalous reports through every portion of the community. Almost the one half of the conversation of civilized men, when strictly analysed, will be found to consist of malignant insinuations, and of tales of scandal, the one half of which is destitute of any solid foundation. How comes it to pass, that the slightest deviation from propriety or rectitude, in the case of one of a generally respectable character, is dwelt upon with a fiend-like pleasure, and aggravated beyond measure, while all his good qualities are overlooked and thrown com- pletely into the shade ? What is the reason why we are not as anxious to bring forward the good qualities and actions of our fellow-men, and to bestow upon them their due tribute of praise, as we are to blaze abroad their errors and infirmities ! How often does it happen, that a single evil action committed by an individual, contrary to the general tenor of his life, will be trumpeted about by the tongue of malice, even to the end of his life, while all his virtuous deeds and praiseworthy ac- tions will be overlooked and forgotten, and attempted to be buried in oblivion ! If benevolence were the prevailing cha- racteristic of mankind, such dispositions would seldom be dis- played in the intercourses of human beings. If benevolence pervaded every heart, we would rejoice to expatiate on the ex- cellencies of others; these would form the chief topics of conversation in our personal remarks on others; we would en- deavour to throw a veil over the infirmities of our brethren, and would be always disposed to exercise that charity " which covers a multitude of sins." If we now turn our eyes for a moment to the amusements of civilized society, we shall find many of them distinguished by a malignant character and tendency. What an appropriate exhibition for rational and immortal beings do the scenes of a cockpit display! to behold a motley group of bipeds, of all sorts and sizes, from the peer to the chimney-sweep, and from the man of hoary hairs to the lisping infant, betting, bluster- ing, swearing, and feasting their eyes with a savage delight on the sufferings of their fellow-bipeds, whom they have taught to wound, to torment and to destroy each other! There is scarcely any thing that appears so congenial to the spirit which pervades the infernal regions, as the attempt to inspire the MORAL STATE OF CIVILIZED NATIONS. 321 lower animals with the same malignant dispositions which cha- racterise the most degraded of the human species. That such a cruel and disgusting practice still prevails in England, and that it formed, till lately, a part of the amusements of Scot- land, is a reproach to the civilization, and the Christianity of our country. And what a fine spectacle to a humane and civilized mind is the amusement of bull-baiting! an amusement in which the strength and courage of this animal are made the means of torturing him with the most exquisite agonies ! Can benevolence, can even the common feelings of humanity, reside in the breast of that man who can find enjoyment in encourag- ing and in witnessing such barbarous sports ? And what a dignified amusement is the horse-race! where crowds of the nobility, gentry, and of the most polished classes of society, as well as the ignoble rabble, assemble from all quarters, to be- hold two noble animals panting and heaving, and endeavouring to outstrip each other on the course ! What a scene of bully- ing, and jockeying, and betting, and cheating, and swearing, ond fighting, is generally presented on such occasions! What a wonderful degree of importance is attached by the most dig- nified ranks of society, to the issue of the race; as if the fate of an empire, or the salvation of an immortal spirit, were de- pending on the circumstance of one horse getting the start of another! I do not mean to decry, indiscriminately, public amusements; nor to call in question the propriety of improving the locomotive powers of the horse; but surely it would require no great stretch of invention, to devise spectacles and enter- tainments much more dignified, and congenial to the noble powers and the high destination of the human mind, and which might be exhibited with as little expense either of time or of money. And what shall we say of lion fights, and dog fghts, and boxing matches between animals in the shape of men, which have been lately advertised in the public prints with so much impudence and effrontery! Are the patrons of such revolting exhibitions, and the crowds which resort to them, to be consi- dered as patterns of taste, of humanity, and of refined benevo- lence? And what shall we think of the amusements of one half of our gentry, country squires, gentlemen farmers, and 14 X 322 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION* the whole tribe of the sporting community, who derive more exquisite enjoyment in maiming a hare, a partridge, or a moor- fowl, than in relieving the wants of the friendless poor, in me- liorating the condition of their dependants, or in patronising the diffusion of useful knowledge? If one of our hest moral poets declared, that, " he would not enter on his list of friends, though graced with polished manners and fine sense, the man who needlessly sets foot upon a worm," what would he his estimate of the man who derived one of his chief gratifications, day after day, from making havoc among the feathered tribes, and from lacerating and maiming a timid hare, for the sole purpose of indulging a sporting humour, and proving himself an excellent marksman? Can we suppose that the benevolent Creator so curiously organised the beasts of the earth and the fowls of heaven, and endowed them with exquisite feelings and sensibility, merely that tyrannical man might torture and de- stroy them for his amusement ? For the persons to whom I allude cannot plead necessity for such conduct, as if they were dependent for subsistence on their carcases. Such is still the mania for these cruel amusements, that the butchery of the brutal and the winged tribes, it is likely, will soon be reduced to a regular system, and enrolled among the number of the fine arts. For, an octavo volume of 470 pages, which has already passed through six editions, has been lately published, entitled, ' Instructions to young Sportsmen in all that relates to Game and Shooting: ' by Lieut.-Colonel Hawker. The au- thor, after having stated that he has now lost his eyes and nerves for a good shot, says, " The greatest pleasure that can possibly remain for me, is to resign the little I have learned, for the benefit of young sportsmen. The rising generation of shooters might otherwise be left for many years to find out all these little matters." And a most important loss, doubtless, the rising generation would have sustained, had not the worthy colonel condescended to communicate his discoveries ! I was lately making an excursion in a steam-boat through one of the Scottish lakes. Among the passengers were several of the sporting gentry, furnished with all the requisite accoutrements, who seemed to enjoy a higher gratification in disturbing the happiness of the feathered tribes, than in contemplating the PUBLIC AMUSEMENTS. 323 natural beauties of the surrounding scene. When any of these hapless animals appeared in view, a hue and cry commenced, a shot was prepared, and a musket levelled at the unoffending creatures, which created among them universal agitation and alarm. Some of them were killed, and others, doubtless maimed and rendered miserable for life; while no human being could enjoy the least benefit from such wanton cruelty. To kill, or even to maim any living creature, that is doing us no harm, and when there is no possibility, nor even a desire to procure its carcase for food, cannot, I should think, by any so- phistry of reasoning, be constructed into an act of benevolence. 1 I cannot here forebear inserting a passage from ' Salt's Travels in Abyssinia,' which exhibits a very different spirit in one whom some would be disposed to rank among the class of semi-barbarians. " In the evening, Baharnegash Yasons, a servant of the Ras (of Abyssinia) who had attended me during my whole stay in the country, took his leave. Among all the men with whom 1 have been intimately acquainted, I consider this old man as one of the most perfect and blameless charac- ters. His mind seemed to be formed upon the purest princi- ples of the Christian religion ; his every thought and action appearing to be the result of its dictates. He would often, to ease his mule, walk more than half the day; and as he journey- ed by my side, continually recited prayers for our welfare and future prosperity. On all occasions, he sought to repress in those around him every improper feeling of anger ; conciliated them by the kindest words, and excited them, by his example, to an active performance of their duties. If a man were weary, he would assist him in carrying his burden; if he perceived any 1 In throwing out these reflections, the author by no means wishes to insinuate, that it is improper in every instance, to kill any of the inferi- or animals ; his remarks being directed solely against the practice of wantonly maiming or destroying them for the sake of mere sport or amusement. Even in those cases where it may appear expedient or ne- cessary to extirpate a portion of the animal tribes, it appears somewhat strange, that gentlemen should be the voluntary agents employed in this work of destruction, and that their minds should be so much absorbed in the satisfaction which it creates. One would have thought that the very lowest class of the community would have been selected for this purpose, as there is something naturally revolting in the employment of destroy- ing the life of any sensitive being. 324 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. of the mules' backs to be hurt, he would beg me to have them relieved; and constantly, when he saw me engaged in shooting partridges, or other birds, he would call out to them to fly out of the way, shaking his head, and begging me, in a mournful accent, not to kill them. I have remarked, in my former Journal, that, with all this refined feeling of humanity, he was far from being devoid of courage ; and I had an opportunity, subsequently, of witnessing several instances of his bravery, though he appeared on all occasions peculiarly anxious to avoid a quarrel. We parted, I believe, with mutual regret: at least for my own part, I can truly say, that I have seldom felt more respect for an individual than I did for this worthy man." As a contrast to the benevolent dispositions displayed by this worthy Abyssinian, I shall give a short description of a bull-fight in Madrid, extracted from a work, the author of which was a spectator (in 1803) of the scene he describes. " The Spanish bull-fights are certainly the most extraordinary exhibitions in Europe: we were present at one of them this morning. The places in the amphitheatre were nearly all fill- ed at half-past nine, and at ten, the corregidor came into his box; upon which the trumpets sounded, and the people rose and shouted, from the delight that the show was to begin im- mediately. Four men in black gowns then came forward, and read a proclamation, enjoining all persons to remain in their seats. On their going out of the arena, the six bulls which were to be fought this morning, were driven across led on by a cow, with a bell round her neck. The two picadores (the men who are appointed to fight the furious animals) now ap- peared, dressed in leathern gaiters, thick leathern breeches, silk jackets covered with spangles, and caps surmounted by broad-brimmed white hats: each rode a miserable hack, and carried in his hand a long pole, with a goad at the end. As soon as they were prepared, a door was opened, and the first bull rushed in. In the course of the contest I felt first alarm- ed for the men, and then for the horses. Soon the accidents of the men withdrew my pity from the beasts: and latterly, by a natural and dreadful operation of the mind, I began to look without horror on the calamities of both. The manner of the fight is thus: The bull rushes in, and makes an attack sever. SPANISH BULL-FIGHTS. 325 ally upon the picadores, who repulse him; he being always upon these occasions wounded in the neck; after a few re-en- counters, he becomes somewhat shy; but, at the same time, when he does rush on, he is doubly dangerous. He follows up the attack, and frequently succeeds in overthrowing both horse and rider. As long as the horse has strength to bear the picadore, he is obliged to ride him. This morning one of these wretched animals was forced to charge, with his entrails hanging out between his legs 1 His belly was again ripped open by the bull, and he fell for dead ; but the attendants ob- liged him to rise and crawl out. This seems the cruellest part of the business ; for the men almost always escape ; but the blood and sufferings of thirteen horses were exhibited in the short space of two hours. Four men were hurt; one who was entirely overturned with his horse upon him, was carried out like a corpse ; but the spectators, totally disregarding this melancholy sight, shouted for his companion to renew the at- tack. The bull, after his first rage, and subsequent fury dur- ing many rounds, begins to feel weakness, and declines further attacks on the horsemen. Upon this, a loud shout re-echoes through the theatre, and some of the attendants advance and stick his gored neck full of arrows, which cause him to writhe about in great torment. When the efforts he makes under these sufferings have considerably spent his strength, the cor- regidor makes a motion with his hand, and the trumpets sound as a signal to the matador to despatch him. This is a service which requires great skill and bravery; for the madness of the bull, and the torture he endures, prompt him to destroy every one around. The matador advances with a red cloak in one hand, and a sword in the other. He enrages the bull with the cloak, till at length getting opposite him, he rushes forward, and the sword pierces the spinal marrow, or, what is more common, is buried to the hilt in his neck; upon which he turns aside, at first moaning, but a torrent of blopd gushes from his mouth; and he staggers round the arena, and falls. The trumpets sound; three mules, ornamented with ribbons and flags, appear to drag the wretched victim out by the horns, and the horsemen prepare for the attack of a fresh animal." " In the evening the show began at half-past four, and ten 326 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. "bulls were brought forward. To enrage them before the mata- dor approached, a new expedient was resorted to, most infam- ously cruel, namely, the covering of the darts with sulphur and fire-works. The torments of these were so dreadful, that the animals, whose strengths were fresh, raged about terribly, so that the assistants were forced to use great agility to get from them. There were many hair-breadth escapes; one of the ani- mals, in pursuit of a man, leaped the barrier of the arena, which is about eight feet high. A second bull was still more furious, and made more tremendous attacks. In one of these, he pinned the man and horse against the barriers, got his horns under the horse, and lacerated him dreadfully; in a mo- ment afterwards, he lifted him up, and threw the man with such force through one of the apertures, as to kill him on the spot. He was borne past the box in which we were, with his teeth set, and his side covered with blood; the horse staggered out, spouting a stream of gore from his chest. The remaining picadore renewed the charge, and another came in with shouts to taJce the dead man's place. One of these had his horse's skin dreadfully ripped off his side, and when he breathed, the entrails swelled out of the hole; to prevent which, the rider got off, and stuffed in his pocket handkerchief," etc. 1 " I have seen," says Bourgoing, "eight and ten horses torn, and their bellies ripped open, fall and expire in the field of battle. Some- times these horses, affecting models of patience, of courage, and of docility, present a spectacle at which it may be allow- able to shudder. You see them tread under their feet their own bloody entrails, hanging out of their open sides, and still obey for some time the hand that guides them." Such are the amusements which, in Spain, fascinate all ranks of the community, from the prince to the peasant. Young ladies, old men, servant girls, and people of all ages and all characters are present. The art of killing a bull, which seems exclusively .to be the business of a butcher, is gravely discussed and exalted with transport, not only by the rabble, 1 Travels through Spain and part of Portugal, in 1803, Vol. ii, pp. 35-45. A more circumstantial account of these fights, and in perfect ac- cordance with the above description, may be seen in Bourgoing's ' Mo- dern State of Spain/ Vol. ii, pp. 346-360, POPULAR LITERATURE. 327 but by men of sense, and by women of delicacy. The day of ti bull-fight is a day of solemnity for the whole canton. " The people come," says Bourgoing, "from ten and twelve leagues distance. The artizan who can with difficulty earn enough for his subsistence, has always sufficient to pay for the bull- fight. Wo be to the chastity of a young girl whose poverty excludes her ! The man who pays for her admittance will be her first seducer. It is indeed a very striking sight to see all the inhabitants assembled round the circus, waiting the signal for the fight, and wearing in their exterior every sign of im- patience." There is not a town in Spain but what has a large square for the purpose of exhibiting bull-fights ; and it is said that even the poorest inhabitants of the smallest villages will often club together, in order to procure a cow or an ox, and fight them riding upon asses for want of horses. Can a spirit of pure benevolence be general among a people addicted to such cruel and savage amusements! And, need we wonder to find, that troops of lawless banditti are continually prowling among the mountains and forests of that country, committing murders and depredations? One of the authors just now quoted, when alluding to banditti, and detailing the incidents which occurred in his route to Madrid, says, " In this country it is impossible to distinguish friends from foes, as all travellers go well arm- ed. We met just here half a dozen horsemen, many of whom had swords and pistols, and we afterwards saw peasants riding on asses, armed in the same way. A few leagues further on, we met a strong detachment of cavalry patrolling the road, in consequence of a daring robbery, which had just been commit- ted on a nobleman who was bringing his bride to court from Barcelona. He had a numerous retinue ; the banditti were twelve in number, and completely armed." If we now take a cursory glance at our POPULAR LITERARY WORKS, and at several of our publications intended for the nursery, we shall find that a goodly portion of them is stamp- ed with the character of frivolity and of malignity. When the young mind is just beginning to expand, instead of being irradiated with the beams of unadulterated truth, a group of disturbed and unsubstantial images, which have no prototypes 328 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. ia nature, is presented to the view of the intellect, as tne ground- work of its future progress in wisdom and knowledge. Instead of the simple and sublime precepts of Christian benevolence, the wild and romantic notions connected with chivalry, the superstitions of the dark ages, and the love of false heroism, and of military glory, are attempted to be indelibly riveted on the minds of the young. What else can be expected, when such legends and romances as the following occupy the princi- pal part of the nursery library? Blue Beard; Cinderella; Tom Thumb; Jack the Giant-killer; Valentine and Orson; The Seven Champions of Christendom; Robin Hood; Goody Two Shoes; Puss in Boots; Sinbad the Sailor; Aladdin, or the Won- derful Lamp; Thalaba, or the Destroyer; The Blood-Red Knight; The Maid and the Magpie; Fairy Tales, and a long list of similar romances, equally improving and important! Such works are published, even at the present time, not only in a Lilliputian size, to suit the lower ranks of the community, but in a style of elegance, calculated to fascinate the highest circles of society. Ten thousands of copies of such publications are presently in circulation throughout every part of the British empire; and what is the great object they are calculated to accomplish? To exhibit distorted views of the scenes of nature, and of human society; to foster superstitious notions; to inspire the minds of the young with an inordinate desire after worldly honour and distinction; to set before them, as an ultimate ob- ject, the splendour and felicity of " riding in a coach and six;" and to familiarise their minds to chivalrous exploits, and to scenes of butchery and revenge. If we glance at the popular literary works of the present day, intended for the amusement of children of a larger growth, we shall find many of them imbued with a similar spirit, and having a similar tendency. What is it that fascinates our li- terary loungers, our polished gentry, our educated females, nay, all ranks of the community, from the dignified clergyman to the humble weaver; and which threatens to destroy all relish for plain unvarnished facts, and for substantial knowledge? The novels of Waverley, Guy Mannering, Rob Roy, Tales of my Landlord, The Fortunes of Nigel, St. Ronan's Well, Marmion, The Corsair, Childe Harold, and a shoal of similar POPULAR LITERATURE. 329 publications, which are daily issuing from the press. And what is the general tendency of the great majority of such works? To distort and caricature the facts of real history; to gratify a romantic imagination; to pamper a depraved mental appetite; to excite a disrelish for the existing scenes of nature, and for the authenticated facts which have occurred in the history of mankind; to hold up venerable characters to derision and con- tempt; to excite admiration of the exploits and the malignant principles of those rude chieftains, whose names ought to de- scend into everlasting oblivion; to revive the revengeful spirit of the dark ages; to undermine a secret regard for truth and moral principle, which are the basis of the happiness of the intelligent universe; and throw a false glory over scenes of ra- pine, bloodshed, and devastation. To such works, and to their admirers, we might apply the words of the ancient Prophet: " He feedeth on ashes; a deceived heart hath turned him aside, that he cannot say, Is there not a lie in my right hand?" " For sure, to hug a fancied case, That never did, nor can take place, And for the pleasures it can give, Neglect the ' facts of real life,' Is madness in its greatest height, Or I mistake the matter quite." WILKIE. To affirm that it is necessary, for the entertainment of the human mind, to have recourse to fictitious scenes and narra- tives, and to the wild vagaries of an unbridled imagination, is, in effect, to throw a reflection upon the plans and the conduct of the Creator. It implies, that, in the scenes of nature which surround us, and in the administrations of his moral govern- ment among men, God has not produced a sufficient variety of interesting objects for the contemplation, the instruction, and the entertainment of the human race and that the system of the moral and physical world must be distorted and deranged, and blended with the creations of human folly, before its sce- nery be rendered fit to gratify the depraved and fastidious tastes of mankind. And is it indeed true, that there is not a sufficient variety to gratify a rational mind in the existing scenes of creation and providence? If we survey the Alpine scenes of nature; if we explore the wonders of the ocean; if we penetrate into the subterraneous recesses of the globe; if we 330 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. direct our view to the numerous objects of sublimity and beauty to be found in every country; if we investigate the structure and economy of the animal and vegetable tribes; if we raise our eyes to the rolling orbs of heaven; if we look back to the gene- rations of old, and trace the history of ancient nations; if we contemplate the present state of civilised and of savage tribes, and the moral scenery which is everywhere displayed around us shall we not find a sufficient variety of every thing which is calculated to interest, to instruct, and to entertain a rational mind? I am bold to affirm, that, were a proper selection made of the facts connected with the system of nature, and with the history of the present state of human society, and were the sketches of such facts executed by the hand of a master, and interspersed with rational and moral reflections volumes might be presented to the public, no less entertaining, and certainly far more instructive, than all the novels and romances which the human imagination has ever produced; and that, too, with- out distorting a single fact in the system of nature or of human society, or exciting a sentiment of admiration or of approbation of the exploits of warriors. If we wish to be amused with enter- taining narrations and novel scenes, the narratives of adventu- rous voyagers and travellers, when written with spirit and animation, will supply us with entertainment not inferior to that of the best written novel; and it is the reader's own fault, if he do not from such sources derive moral instruction. Such adventures as those of Mungo Park in Africa, and Captain Cochrane in Siberia, and such narratives as those of Byron, Brisson, Pierre Vaude, Anson, Cook, Bligh, Perouse, and others, abound with so many striking and affecting incidents, th&t the reader's attention is kept alive, and he feels as lively an interest in the fate of the adventurers, as is usually felt in that of the fictitious hero, of a novel or a romance. If man were only the creature of a day, whose whole exist- ence were confined within the limits of this sublunary scene, he might amuse himself either with facts or with fictions, or with any toys or gewgaws that happened to strike his fancy, while ho glided down the stream of time to the gulf of oblivion. But if he is a being destined for eternity, the train of his thoughts ought to be directed to objects corresponding to his high destination, FUTILITY OF FICTITIOUS SCENES. 331 and all his amusements blended with those moral instructions which have an ultimate reference to the scene of his immortal existence. When I read one of our modern novels, I enjoy, for a few hours, a transitory amusement, in contemplating the scenes of fancy it displays, and in following the hero through his numerous adventures; I admire the force and brilliancy of of the writer's imagination, (for I am by no means disposed to underrate the talent which has produced some of the works to which I allude;) but when I have finished the perusal, and re- flect, that all the scenes which passed before my mental eye, were only so many unsubstantial images, the fictions of a lively imagination I cannot indulge in rational or religious reflec- tions on the subject, nor derive a single moral instruction, any more than I can do from a dream or a vision of the night. When I survey the scenes of creation; when I read the history of ancient nations; when I peruse the authentic narratives of the voyager and traveller; when I search the records of Re- velation; and when I contemplate the present state of society around me, I learn something of the attributes and the prov;- dence of God, and of the moral and physical state of mankind. From almost every scene and every incident, I can deduce in- structions calculated to promote the exercise of humility, meek- ness, gratitude, and resignation to lead the mind to God as the source of felicity, and as the righteous governor of the world and to impress the heart with a sense of the folly and depravity of man. But it is obvious that no distinct moral instructions can be fairly deduced from scenes, circumstances, and events " which never did nor can take place." Such, how- ever, is at present the tide of public opinion on this subject, that we might as soon attempt to stem a mountain torrent by a breath of wind, or to interrupt the dashings of a mighty ca- taract by the waving of our hand, as to expect to counteract, by any considerations that can be adduced, the current of popu- lar feeling in favour of novels, and tales of knights, and of tournaments, of warlike chieftains, and military encounters. Such a state of feeling never can exist in a world where moral evil has never shed its malign influence. Again, if we consider the sentiments and the conduct of many of our Literary and Scientific characters, we shall find 332 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGIOX. that even philosophy has had very little influence in promoting the exercise of benevolence. Do not many of our literary cha- racters in their disputes frequently display as keen resent- ments, and as malevolent dispositions, as the professed war- rior and the man of the world? In proof of this, need I refer to the mean jealousies and contentions which have been dis- played, and the scurrilous paragraphs which have been written by various descriptions of competitors for literary fame? Such a display of temper and conduct in men of professed erudition is not only inconsistent with moral principle, and the dignity of true science, but has a tendency to hold up philosophy and sub- stantial knowledge to the scorn both of the Christian and of the political world. Again, is it an evidence that benevolence forms a prominent character of modern civilised society, when philanthropists, who have devoted their substance and their mental activities totheprO' motion of the best interests of mankind; and when men of science, who have enlarged the sphere of our knowledge and improved the useful arts, are suffered to pine a way in penury and neglect; while, on the warrior, who has driven the ploughshare of destruction through the world, and wounded the peace of a thousand fa- milies, enormous pensions are bestowed, and trophies erected to perpetuate his memory to future generations? And how comes it to pass, if benevolence and justice be distinguishing features of our age and nation, that authors, whose writings afford instruction and entertainment to a numerous public are fre- quently suffered to pine away in anxiety and distress, and to remain in hopeless indigence? Yet, while we leave them to remain in abject penury during life, no sooner have their spirits taken flight to the world unknown, than subscriptions are set on foot, statues and mausoleums are erected, flattering inscriptions are engraved on their tombs, and anniversary din- ners appointed to celebrate their memories. Such displays of liberality might have been of essential benefit to the individuals, while they sojourned within the limits of this sublunary sphere; but they are altogether futile and superfluous in relation to the separate spirits which are now placed for ever beyond the reach of such vain pageantry and posthumous honours. If we now attend to the Penal Codes of civilized nations, SYSTEM OF PRISON DISCIPLINE. 333 we shall find them, not only glaringly deficient in a spirit of benevolence, but deeply imbued with a spirit of cruelty and re- venge. The great object of all civil punishments ought to be, not only the prevention of crimes, but also the reformation of the criminal, in order that a conviction of the evil of his con- duct may be impressed upon his mind, and that he may be re- stored to society as a renovated character. When punishments are inflicted with a degree of severity beyond what is necessary to accomplish these ends, the code which sanctions them be- comes an engine of cruelty and injustice. But, the reforma- tion, and the ultimate happiness of the criminal scarcely seem to have been taken into consideration, in the construction of the criminal codes of any nation in Europe. The infliction of pain, and even of torture, and of every thing that is degrading and horrible, to a degree far beyond what is necessary for the security of the public, and which has no other tendency than to harden the culprit, seems to have been the main object of the framers of our penal statutes. If a man has committed a crime, he is either confined to a jail, thrown into a dungeon, loaded with irons, whipped through the streets, banished to a distant land, hung upon a gallows, or broken on the wheel. No system of moral regimen calculated to counteract his cri- minal habits, to impart instruction to his mind, and to induce habits of industry and temperance, (except in a few insulated cases,) has yet been arranged by our legislators; so as to ren- der punishment a blessing to the criminal, and to the commu- nity which he has injured. The following circumstances in relation to punishments mani- fest a principle both of folly and of malignity in the arrange- ments of our criminal jurisprudence. In the first place, The present system of our prison discipline, instead of operating to prevent the increase of crime, has a direct and inevitable ten- dency to produce vice and wretchedness, and to render our jails the nurseries of every depraved propensity, and of every species of moral turpitude. From the indiscriminate association of the young and the old, and of persons charged with every de- gree of criminality, the youthful and inexperienced culprit is soon tutored in all the arts of fraud, deception, and robbery, and prepared for acting a more atrocious part on the theatre 334 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. of crime. " I make no scruple to affirm," says Mr. Howard, " that, if it were the aim and wish of magistrates to effect the destruction, present and future, of young delinquents, they could not desire a more effectual method than to confine them in our prisons." Of the truth of this position, the reader will find an ample and impressive proof in the Honourable T. F. Buxton's ' Enquiry whether crime and misery are produced or prevented by our present system of Prison Discipline. ' In the second place, The disproportion between crimes and punishments, and the sanguinary character of every civilized code of penal statutes, are directly repugnant to every principle of justice and benevolence. In France prior to the revolution, the punishment of robbery, either with or without murder, was the same ; and hence it happened, that robbery was seldom or never perpetrated without murder. For, when men see no distinction made in the nature and gradations of punishment, they will be generally led to conclude, that there is no distinc- tion in the guilt. It is an indelible disgrace to an age which boasts of being enlightened with the beams of science and of re- ligion, that laws, framed in an ignorant and barbarous age, and intended to apply to temporary or fortuitous occurrences, should still be acted upon, and stand unrepealed in the criminal codes of the nations of Europe, in the 19th century of the Christian era, when so many distinguished writers have demonstrated their futility, their injustice, and their inadequacy for the pre- vention of crime. For, instead of diminishing the number of offenders, experience proves, that crimes are almost uniformly increased by an undue severity of punishment. This was strikingly exemplified in the reign of Henry VIII, remarkable for the abundance of its crimes, which certainly did not arise from the mildness of punishment. In that reign alone, says his historian, seventy-two thousand executions took place, for robberies alone, exclusive of the religious murders, which are known to have been numerous, amounting on an average, to six executions a-day, Sundays included, during the whole reign of that monarch. In the next place, The shocking and unnecessary cruelties which are frequently inflicted upon criminals, are inconsistent with every principle of reason and of justice, and revolting to SHOCKING CRUELTIES. 335 every feeling of humanity. If the forfeiture of life ought, in any ease, to be resorted to, as the punishment of certain crimes, humanity dictates, that it should he accompanied with as little pain as possible to the unfortunate criminal. But man, even civilized man, has glutted his savage disposition, by inventing tortures to agonise his fellow-man, at which humanity shudders. It is not enough, that a poor unfortunate wretch, in the prime of life, whom depravity has hurried to the commission of crime, should be deprived of his mortal existence, his soul must be harrowed up at the prospect of the prolonged torments which he must endure, before his spirit is permitted to take its flight to the world unknown. Instead of simply strangling or be- heading the unhappy criminal, his flesh must be torn with pincers, his bones dislocated, his hands chopped off, or his body left to pine away in exquisite torments, amidst devouring flames. In Sweden, murder is punished by beheading and quartering, after having previously chopped off the hand. In Germany, Poland, Italy, and other parts of the Continent, it was cus- tomary, and I believe still is, in some places, to put criminal:* to death by breaking them alive on the wheel. The following account is given, by a traveller, who was in Berlin, in 1819, of the execution of a man for murder, which shows that the execution of criminals, in Prussia, is frequently distinguished by a species of cruelty worthy of the worst days of the inquisi- tion. Amidst the parade of executioners, officers of police, and other judicial authorities, the beating of drums, and the waving of flags and colours, the criminal mounted the scaffold. No ministers of religion appeared to soothe the agonies of the criminal ; and no repentant prayer closed his quivering lips. "Never," says the narrator, "shall I forget the one bitter look of imploring agony that he threw around him, as, imme- diately on stepping on the scaffold, his coat was rudely torn off his shoulders. He was then thrown down, the cords fixed round his neck, which were drawn until strangulation almost commenced. Another executioner then approached, bearing in his hands a heavy wheel, bound with iron, with which he vio- lently struck the legs, arms, and chest, and lastly the head of the criminal. I was, unfortunately, near enough to witness his mangled and bleeding body still convulsed. It was then 336 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. carried down for interment, and, in less than a quarter of an hour from the beginning of his torture, the corpse was com- pletely covered with earth. Several large stones, which were thrown upon him, hastened his last gasp ; he was mangled into eternity! " In Russia, the severest punishments are inflicted for the most trivial offences. The knout is one of the most common punish- ments in that country. This instrument is a thong made of the skin of an elk or of a wild ass, so hard that a single stroke is capable of cutting the flesh to the bone. The following de- scription is given by Olearius, of the manner in which he saw the knout inflicted on eight men, and one woman, only for selling brandy and tobacco without a licence: " The execu- tioner's man, after stripping them down to the waist, tied their feet, and took one at a time on his back. The executioner stood at three paces distance, and, springing forward with a knout in his hand, wherever he struck, the blood gushed out at every blow. The men had each twenty-five or twenty-six lashes; the woman, though only sixteen, fainted away. After their backs were thus dreadfully mangled, they were tied to- gether two and two; and those who sold tobacco having a little of it, and those who sold brandy a little bottle put about their necks; they were then whipped through the city of Petersburgh for about a mile and a half, and then brought back to the place of their punishment and dismissed." This is what is termed the moderate knout; for when it is given with the utmost se- verity, the executioner, striking the flank under the ribs, cuts the flesh to the bowels: and therefore, it is no wonder that many die of this inhuman punishment. The punishment of the pirates and robbers who infest the banks of the Wolga is another act of savage cruelty common in Russia. A float is built, whereon a gallows is erected, on which is fastened a number of iron hooks, and on these the wretched criminals are hung alive by the ribs. The float is then launched into the stream, and orders are given to all the towns and villages on the borders of the river, that none, upon pain of death, shall afford the least re- lief to any of these wretches. These malefactors sometimes hang, in this manner, three, four, and even five days alive. The pain produces a raging fever, in which they utter the most CRUEL PUNISHMENTS. 337 horrid imprecations, imploring the relief of water and other liquors. 1 During the reign of Peter the Great, the robbers who infested various parts of his dominions, particularly the banks of the Wolga, were hung up in this manner by hundreds and thousands, and left to perish in the most dreadful manner. Even yet, the boring of the tongue, and the cutting of it out, are practised in this country as an inferior species of punish- ment. Such cruel punishments, publicly inflicted, can have no other tendency than to demoralise the minds of the populace, to blunt their natural feelings, and to render criminal charac- ters still more desperate: and hence we need not wonder at what travellers affirm respecting the Russians, that they are very indifferent as to life or death, and undergo capital punish- ments with unparalleled apathy. Even among European nations more civilized than the Rus- sians, similar tortures have been inflicted upon criminals. The execution of Damiens, in 1757, for attempting to assassinate Louis XV, king of France, was accompanied with tortures, the description of which is sufficient to harrow up the feelings of the most callous mind tortures which could scarcely have been exceeded in intensity and variety, although they had been de- vised by the ingenuity of an infernal fiend. And yet they were beheld with a certain degree of apathy by a surrounding po- pulace; and even councillors and physicians could talk together about the best mode of tearing asunder the limbs of the wretched victim, with as much composure as if they had been dissecting a dead subject, or carving a fowl. The practice, too, of tor- turing supposed criminals, for the purpose of extorting a con- fession of guilt, was, till a late period, common over all the countries of Europe; and, if I am not mistaken, is still resorted to in several parts of the continent. Hence, Baron Bielfeld, in his ' Elements of Universal Erudition,' published in 1770, lays down as one of the branches of criminal jurisprudence, " The diferent kinds of tortures for the discovery of truth.' 1 Such a practice is not only cruel and unjust, but repugnant to every principle of reason. For, as the Marquis Beccaria has well observed, "It is confounding all relations, to expect that a 1 See Hanway's 'Travels through Russia and Persia' Salmon's Present State of all Nations.' vol. vi. Guthrie's Geography, etc. 14 Y 338 PHILOSOPHY OF KELIGION. man should be both the accuser and the accused, and that pain should be the test of truth; as if truth resided in the muscles and fibres of a wretch in torture. By this method, the robust will escape, and the feeble be condemned." If the confined limits of the present work had admitted, I might have prosecuted these illustrations to a much greater extent. I might have traced the operations of malevolence in the practice of that abominable traffic, the Slave Trade the eternal disgrace of individuals and of nations, calling them- selves civilised. This is an abomination which has been en- couraged by almost every nation in Europe, and even by the enlightened States of America. To the disgrace of America, that boasted land of liberty, slavery in its most cruel and de- grading forms still exists : and every proposition for restoring the negroes to their natural liberty, and to the rank which they hold in the scale of existence, is pertinaciously resisted by gentlemen who would spurn at the idea of being considered as either infidels or barbarians. They even attempt to deprive these degraded beings of the chance of obtaining a happier ex- istence in a future world, by withholding from them the means of instruction, and persecuting their instructors. Is such conduct consistent with the spirit of benevolence, or even with the common feelings of humanity? J I might have traced the same malignant principle in the practice of a set of men de- nominated wreckers, who, by setting up false lights, allure mariners to destruction, that they may enrich themselves by plundering the wrecks in the warlike dispositions of all the governments of Europe, and the enormous sums which have been expended in the work of devastation, and of human de- struction, while they have refused to give the least direct en- couragement to philanthropic institutions, and to the improve- 1 To the honour of' Great Britain, she has, by an act, which not less distinguishes her for its justice than for its humanity, emancipated her slaves from their long-continued bondage. With a generosity which is unexampled, her people nobly consented to pay Twenty Millions sterling, as the price of their freedom. And thus the people of Great Britain, who stand distinguished above all other nations for freedom, intelligence, and Christian worth, have set an example in this respect also, to other nations, worthy of their imitation ; and every Briton must rejoice that this foul stain in his country's history has been, by one generous act, for ever swept away. STATE OF MORALS IN CUBA. 339 tuont of the community in knowledge and virtue and in that spirit of tyranny, and thirst for despotic power, which have led them to crush the rising intelligence of the people, and to lend a deaf ear to their most reasonable demands. For there is no government on this side of the Atlantic, so far as I know, that has ever yet formed an institution for promoting the objects of general benevolence, for counteracting the baleful effects of de- pravity and ignorance, and for enlightening the minds of the people in useful knowledge. Knowledge is simply permitted to be diffused ; it is seldom directly encouraged ; its progress is frequently obstructed; and, in some instances, it is positive- ly interdicted, as appears from the following barbarous edict, published in the year 1825: "A Royal Sardinian Edict di- rects, that henceforth no person shall learn to read or write who cannot prove the possession of property above the value of 1500 livres, (or about 60 sterling.) The qualification for a student is the possession of an income to the same amount." 1 Such is the firm determination of many of the kings and princes of Europe, to hold their subjects in abject slavery and ignorance, that they will rather suffer their thrones to shake and totter beneath them, than give encouragement to liberal opinions, and to the general diffusion of knowledge. But, instead of illustrating such topics in minute detail, I shall conclude this section by presenting a few miscellaneous facts tending to corroborate several of the preceding state- ments, and to illustrate the moral state of the civilised world. The following extract from Mr. Howison's ' Foreign scenes and Travelling Recreations,' will convey some idea of the state of morals in the island of Cuba: " Nothing can be worse," says Mr. II., "than the state of society in Havanna. The lower classes are all alike dissolute and unprincipled. Assassi- nations are so frequent that they excite little attention; and assault and robbery are matters of course, when a man passes alone and at night through a solitary quarter of the town. Several assassinations take place in the streets every week." This depraved and lawless state of things may be ascribed to three causes: the inefficiency of the police; the love of gaming 1 Hamburg Paper, August, 1825. 340 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION, and dissipation that prevails among the lower orders ; and th facility with which absolution of the greatest crimes may he obtained from the priests. In fact, the Catholic religion, as it now exists in Cuba, tends to encourage rather than to check vice. We shall suppose, for example, that a man makes him- self master of 100 dollars by robbing or by murdering another, and that the church grants him absolution for half the sum thus lawlessly obtained; it is evident that he will gain 50 dol- lars by the whole transaction, and think himself as innocent as he was before he committed the crime. No man need mount the Havanna scaffold, whatever be his crime, if he has the means of ministering to the rapacity of the church, and of bribing the civil authorities. A poor friendless criminal is executed in a few days after sentence is pronounced upon him; but a person of wealth and influence generally manages to put off capital punishment for a series of years, and at last to get it commuted to fine and imprisonment. Of these depraved practices, Mr. Howison states several striking examples. Those statements of Mr H. in reference to the moral state of Cuba, I find corroborated by a short account of this island, in the Monthly Magazine for March, 1820, page 120. " They act here very frequently those sacred mysteries which so delighted our good forefathers. I have witnessed (says the writer) the triumph of the Ave Maria, a tragi-comedy, which closes with the sudden appearance, in the midst of a theatre, of a chival- rous worthy, mounted on a real horse, shaking at the end of a lance the bloody head of an infidel. This horrid exhibition excited a titter of enjoyment in all the spectators. The ladies, in particular, seemed to be highly entertained; no fainting fits, no nervous attacks. How could a mere fiction agonise the blunt feelings of woman, hardened by the specta- cle of bull-fights, and almost every day meeting with the dead body of some human being who has been assassinated? " There is no situation in which human beings can be placed, where we should more naturally expect the manifestation of benevolent affections, than in those scenes of danger where all are equally exposed to deep distress, and where the exercise of sympathy and kindness is the only thing that can alleviate the anguish of the mind. When the prospect of immediate death, DEPRAVITY IN THE MIDST OF DANGER. 341 or of prolonged agonies even more dreadful than the simple pain of dissolution, is full before the mind, one should think that ferocious dispositions would be instantly curbed, and kindly affections begin to appear. Yet, even in such situa- tions, it frequently happens that feelings of malevolence, and all depraved passions, are most powerfully excited to action. There is, perhaps, no occurrence that has happened in mo- dern times, which so strikingly displays the desperate malignity of human beings in the midst of danger, as the conduct of the crew of the Medusa frigate, while tossing on the raft by which they endeavoured to save themselves, after that vessel had been shipwrecked. The Medusa was stranded, in the month of June 1816, on the bank of Arguin, near the western coast of Africa. A raft was hastily constructed, which was but scan- tily supplied with provisions. There were five boats, which contained in all about 240 persons; and upon the raft there embarked about 150 individuals. The boats pushed off in a line, towing the raft, and assuring the people on board that they would conduct them safely to land. They had not proceed- ed, however, above two leagues from the wreck when they, one by one, cast off the tow lines, and abandoned the raft to its fate. By this time the raft had sunk below the surface of the water to the depth of three feet and a half, and the people were so squeezed one against another, that it was found impossible to move ; fore and aft they were up to the middle in water. Night at length came on; the wind freshened; the sea began to swell; about midnight the weather became very stormy, and the waves broke over them in every direction. Tossed by the waves from one end to the other, and sometimes precipitated into the sea; floating between life and death; mourning over their own misfortunes ; certain of perishing, yet contending for the remains of existence with that cruel element which menaced to swallow them up such was their situation till break of day, when a dreadful spectacle presented itself. Ten or twelve unhappy men, having their extremities jammed be- tween the spars of the raft, had perished in that situation, and others had been swept away by the violence of the waves. All this, however, was nothing to the dreadful scene which took place the following night. "Already," says the narrator, 342 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION* " was the moral character of the people greatly changed. A spirit of sedition spread from man to man, and manifested it- self by the most furious shouts." Night came on; the heavens were obscured with thick clouds; the wind rose and with it the sea; the waves broke over them every moment; numbera were swept away, and several poor wretches were smothered by the pressure of their comrades. Both soldiers and sailors resolved to sooth their last moments by drinking to excess; they became deaf to the voice of reason ; boldly declared their intention of murdering their officers; and, cutting the ropes which held the rafts together, one of them seizing an axe, ac- tually began the dreadful work. The officers rushed forward to quell the tumult, and the man with the hatchet was the first that fell the stroke of a sabre terminated his existence. One fellow was detected secretly cutting the ropes, and was im- mediately thrown overboard; others destroyed the shrouds and halyards; and the mast, destitute of support, immediately fell on a captain of infantry, and broke his thigh; he was instantly seized by the soldiers and thrown into the sea, but was saved by the opposite party. About an hour after midnight the m- surrection burst forth anew. They rushed upon the officers like desperate men, each having a knife or a sabre in his hand; and such was the fury of the assailants, that they tore their flesh, and even their clothes, with their teeth. There was no. time for hesitation; a general slaughter took place, and the raft was strewed with dead bodies. On the return of day, it was found that, in the course of the preceding night of horror, sixty-five of the mutineers had perished, and two of the small party attached to the officers. A third night of horror ap-* proached, distinguished by the piercing cries of those whom hunger and thirst devoured ; and the morning's sun showed them a dozen unfortunate creatures stretched lifeless on the raft. The fourth night was marked by another massacre. Some Spaniards and Italians conspired to throw the rest into the sea. A Spaniard was the first to advance with a drawn knife; the sailors seized him and threw him into the sea. The Italian, seeing this, jumped overboard; the rest were mastered, and order was restored. But, before the ship Argus came to their relief, of the 150 that embarked on the raft, AMERICAN AMUSEMENTS. 343 fifteen unhappy creatures only remained, covered with wounds and bruises, almost naked, stripped of their skin, shrivelled with the rays of the sun, their eyes hollow, and their coun- tenances savage. Such are the dreadful effects of malignity, which produces more sufferings and fatal effects than the most tremendous elements of nature ! The following is a short description of the moral character of the inhabitants of Carolina, and of one of the amusements of a people who boast of their liberty and civilisation," as it is found in 'Morse's American Geography.' "The citizens of North Carolina who are not better employed, spend their time in drinking, or gaming at cards or dice, in cock-fighting, or horse-racing. Many of the interludes are filled up with a box- ing match; and these matches frequently become memorable by feats of gouging. This delicate and entertaining diversion is thus performed: When two boxers are wearied with fighting and bruising each other, they come, as it is called, to close quarters; and each endeavours to twist his forefingers in the ear-locks of his antagonist. When these are fast clenched, the thumbs are extended each way to the nose, and the eyes gently twined out of their sockets. The victor, for his expert- ness, receives shouts of applause from the sporting throng, while his poor eyeless antagonist is laughed at for his misfor- tune. In a country that pretends to any degree of civilisation, one would hardly expect to find a prevailing custom of putting out the eyes of each other. Yet this more than barbarous cus- tom is prevalent in both the Carolinas, and in Georgia, among the lower class of people." " Lord, what is man! " In a savage and civilised state in infancy and manhood in his games and diversions in the instructions by which he is trained in the remarks he makes upon his neighbours in the sports and amusements in which he indulges in his literary pursuits and lucubrations in his system of rewards and pun- ishments in his intercourses and contests with communities and nations in his commercial transactions in his judicial administrations in the height of prosperity, and in scenes of danger and distress a principle of malignity is for ever oper- ating to destroy his comforts, and undermine the foundation of his happiness! 344 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. The above sketches may suffice, as specimens of some of the prominent dispositions of that portion of the human race who have assumed to themselves the character of civilised nations. It will readily be admitted, that the dispositions displayed in the instances I have selected, are all directly repugnant to the principle of benevolence recognised in the divine law, and tend to undermine the happiness of intelligent beings. I shall now conclude with a brief sketch of the conduct of Christians, and of Christian societies towards each other, and of the leading traits of character which appear in the religious world. SECTION IV. Moral state of the professing Christian world. I have already endeavoured to show, that Christianity is a religion of love; that its facts, its doctrines, and its moral pre- cepts, are all calculated to promote " peace on earth," and to form mankind into one affectionate and harmonious society. This happy effect, in the first instance, it actually produced. We are told in the history of the Apostles, that the multitudes who were converted to the Christian faith, by the powerful ser- mon delivered by Peter on the day of Pentecost, had their malignant propensities subdued, and their minds animated with an ardent affection for each other; and, as a practical proof of the operation of this noble principle, " they had all things com- mon, and sold their possessions and goods, and parted them to all, as every one had need." During the early ages of Chris- tianity, a goodly portion of the same spirit was manifested by the greater part of those who had enrolled themselves as the disciples of Christ. Even in the midst of the severe persecu- tions to which they were subjected during the two first cen- turies of the Christian era, a meek and forgiving disposition, and a spirit of benevolence, towards one another, and towards all men, distinguished them from the heathen around, and con- strained even their enemies to exclaim, " Behold how these Christians love one another! " But in the reign of Constantino, EARLY AGES OP CHRISTIANITY. 345 the native purity of the Christian Church began to be tainted, and Pagan maxims, and wordly ambition, began to be blended with the pure precepts, and the sublime doctrines of the Gospel. Many of its professed adherents, overlooking the grand prac- tical bearings of the Christian system, began to indulge in vain speculations on its mysterious doctrines, to substitute a number of unmeaning rites and ceremonies in the room of love to God and man, and even to persecute and destroy all those who re- fused to submit to their opinions and decisions. Pride, and a desire of domination, usurped the place of meekness and hu- mility; and the foolish mummeries of monastic superstition, and the austerities of the Ascetics, were substituted in the room of the active duties of justice and beneficence. Saints were deified; the power of the clergy was augmented; celibacy was extolled; religious processions were appointed; pilgrimages were undertaken to the tombs of martyrs; monasteries and nunneries, without number, were erected; prayers were offered up to de- parted saints; the Virgin Mary was recognised as a species of inferior deity; the sign of the cross was venerated as capable of securing victory in all kinds of trials and calamities, and as the surest defence against the influence of malignant spirits; the bishops aspired after wealth, magnificence, and splendour; errors in religion were punished with civil penalties and bodily tortures; and the most violent disputes and contentions con- vulsed every section of the Christian world; while the mild and beneficent virtues of the religion of Jesus were either discarded or thrown into the shade. Of these, and similar practices, details might be exhibited which would fill many volumes, and would carry conviction to every mind, that the true glory of Christianity was sadly ob- scured, and its heavenly spirit almost extinguished, amidst superstitious observances, vain speculations, and angry feuds and contentions. Millot, when adverting to the state of the Church in the days of Constantine and the succeeding empe- rors, justly remarks: " The disciples of Christ were inspired with mutual feuds, still more implacable and destructive than the factions which were formed for or against different emperors. The spirit of contention condemned by St. Paul became almost universal. New sects sprung up incessantly, and combated 346 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. each other. Each boasted its apostles, gave its sophisms for divine oracles, pretended to be the depository of the faith, and used every effort to draw the multitude to its standard. The Church was filled with discord: bishops anathematised bishops; violence was called in to the aid of argument, and the folly of princes fanned the flame which spread with so destruc- tive rage. They played the theologists, attempted to command opinions, and punished those whom they could not convince. The laws against idolaters were soon extended to heretics; but what one emperor proscribed as heretical, was to another sound doctrine. What was the consequence? The clergy, whose influence was already great at court, and still greater among the people, began to withdraw from the sovereign authority that respect which religion inspires. The popular ferments being heightened by the animosity of the clergy prince, country, law, and duty, were no longer regarded. Men were Arians, Donatists, Priscillianists, Nestorians, Eutychians, etc., but no longer citizens; or rather, every man became the mor- tal enemy of those citizens whose opinions he condemned. This unheard-of madness for irreconcileable quarrels on sub- jects that ought to have been referred to the judgment of the Church, never abated amidst the most dreadful disasters. Every sect formed a different party in the state, and mutual animosities conspired to sap its foundations." 1 At the period to which these observations refer, it appears that two erroneous maxims generally prevailed, which tended to undermine the moral system of Revelation, and which were pro- ductive of almost all the tumults, massacres, and disasters, which distinguished that era of the Christian church. These were, 1. That religion consists chiefly in the belief of certain abstract and incomprehensible dogmas, and in the performance of a multitude of external rites and ceremonies ; and, 2. That all heresies or differences of opinion on religious points, ought to be extirpated by the strong arm of the civil power. Than such maxims, nothing can be more repugnant to reason, more subversive of genuine morality, or more inconsistent with the spirit and genius of the Christian religion. And yet, to this Millot's Ancient History, vol. i. INTOLERANCE OF CHRISTIAN EMPERORS. 347 very hour, they are recognised and acted upon by more than three-fourths of the Christian world, notwithstanding the me- lancholy examples which history has furnished of their futility, and their pernicious tendency. The narrow limits to which I am confined will permit me to state only two or three instances in reference to the period to which I allude. Theodosius, one of the emperors, who commenced his reiga in the year 379, and who received "baptism during a dangerous distemper, in the second year of it, professed great zeal in fa- vour of religion. By a law addressed to the people of Con- stantinople, he enacted, " That all subjects shall profess the catholic faith with regard to the article of the Trinity ; and that they who do not conform shall ignominiously be called heretics, until they shall feel the vengeance of God and our own, according as it shall please Divine Providence to inspire us." He declared apostates and Manicheans incapable of making a will, or receiving any legacy; and having pronounced them worthy of death, the people thought they had a right to kill them as proscribed persons. He enacted a law, condemn- ing to the flames cousins-german who married without a spe- cial licence from the emperor. He established inquisitors for the discovery of heretics. He drove the Manicheans 1 from Rome as infamous persons, and, on their death, ordered their goods to be distributed among the people. Yet, with all this religious zeal, he, on one occasion, gave orders for a universal massacre at Thessalonica, because some persons of distinction had been killed in a sedition at the time of the races. The inhabitants were caused to assemble in the circus, under pre- tence of an exhibition of games, and slaughtered without dis- tinction of age. Seven thousand, according to some, and fif- teen thousand according to others, the greater part unques^ tionably innocent, were thus sacrified to atrocious revenge. 2 Leo, another emperor, "commanded everypers.cn to be baptised, under pain of banishment, and made it capital to relapse into ido- latry after the performance of the ceremony; "just as if Christians could be made by a forced baptism, or by a law of the state. Such 1 The distinguishing characteristic of the Manicheans was, their recot% nising the doctrine of two independent and eternal principles, the one tlie author of all good, the other the author of all evil. 2 Millot's Ancient History, vol. ii. 348 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. edicts clearly showed, that, whatever zeal princes or the clergy might manifest in favour of the Christian religion, they were grossly ignorant of its true spirit, and of the means by which its benevolent objects were to be accomplished. As a specimen of the manner in which such edicts were sometimes carried into effect, the following instance may be stated : Hypatia, daughter of the celebrated geometrician, Theon of Alexandria, exceeded her father in learning, and gave public lectures in philosophy with the greatest applause; nor was she less admirable for the purity of her virtue, joined to an uncommon beauty, and every accomplishment that could adorn human nature. But this accomplished woman, because she was a Pagan, trusted by the magistrates, and suspected to be active against St. Cyril, the bishop, became an object of detestation to the Christian multitude. A set of monks and desperadoes, headed by a priest, seized her in the open street, hurried her into a church, where they stripped her naked, tore her body with whips, cut her in pieces, and publicly burned hei mangled limbs in the market-place. 1 St. Cyril, who was sus. pected of having fomented this tragedy, had previously at- tacked the synagogues, and driven out the Jews: their goods were pillaged, and several persons perished in the tumult. Such conduct plainly demonstrates the tendency of the human mind to abuse power and authority for the purposes of persecution and revenge; and shows us what false ideas the Christians of that period must have entertained of the God of mercy, and how soon they had forgotten the sufferings which their fathers had so lately endured under the reign of the heathen emperors. About this period, too, vain speculations about abstruse and incomprehensible subjects, occupied the attention of theologians, and engendered religious disputes, which burst asunder the bonds of affection and concord. Councils were held to deter- mine the orthodox side of a question, anathemas were thundered against those who refused to acquiesce in their decisions; princes interposed their authority, and the civil sword was un- sheathed, to compel men to believe what they could not under- stand; while the substantial truths of religion were overlooked, and its morality disregarded. " Religion," says Millot, "in- spires us with a contempt of earthly vanities, a detestation of 1 Millet's Ancient Hist. Vol. ii. MORALITY OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 349 vice, and indulgence for the frailties of our neighbour; invin- cible patience in misfortunes, and compassion for the unhappy; it inspires us with charity, and heroic courage; and tends to sanctify every action in social life. How sublime and comfort- ing the idea it gives of the Divinity! What confidence in his justice and infinite mercy! What encouragement for the exer- cise of every virtue! W T herefore, then, such errors and ex- cesses on religious pretences ? It is because heresy shooting up under a thousand different forms, incessantly startles the faith by subtleness and sophistry, by which almost the whole energy of men's minds is absorbed in the contest. Disputes engender hatred; from hatred springs every excess; and vir- tue, exhausted with words and cabals, loses her whole power." How happy would it be, and how glorious for the cause of genuine Christianity, were the present generation of Christians to profit by the sad experience of the past ! As we advance in the history of the Christian church, through the middle ages, the prospect appears still more dark and gloomy. The human mind, at that period, appeared to have lost its usual energy, and its powers of discrimination; the light of reason seemed almost extinguished ; sophisms and absurdi- ties of all kinds were greedily swallowed ; and superstition dis- played itself in a thousand diversified forms. Morality was smothered under a Leap of ceremonies and arbitrary observances, which acquired the name of devotion. Relics, pilgrimages, offerings, and pious legacies, were thought capable of opening the gate of heaven to the most wicked of men. The Virgin Mary, and the souls of departed saints were invoked ; splendid churches were erected to their honour; their assistance was entreated, with many fervent prayers; while the mediation of Jesus Christ was almost disregarded. An irresistible efficacy was attributed to the bones of martyrs, and to the figure of the cross, in defeating the attempts of Satan, in removing all sorts of calamities, and in healing the diseases both of body and mind. Works of piety were viewed as consisting chiefly in building and embellishing churches; in endowing monasteries; in hunting after the relics of martyrs; in procuring the inter- cession of saints, by rich oblations; in worshipping images; in pilgrimages to holy places; in voluntary acts of mortifica- tion; in solitary masses; and in a variety of similar services. 350 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. which could easily be reconciled with the commission of the most abominable crimes. So that the worship of " the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ" was exchanged for the worship of bones, hair, fragments of fingers and toes, tattered rags, images of saints, and bits of rotten wood, supposed to be the relics of the cross. 1 The dubbing of saints became a fruit- ful source of frauds and abuses throughout the Christian world ; lying wonders were invented and fabulous histories composed, to celebrate exploits that were never performed, and to glorify persons that never had a being; and absolution from the greatest crimes could easily be procured, either by penances or by money. The absurd principle, that Religion consists in acts of au- sterity, produced the most extravagant behaviour in certain devotees and reputed saints. They lived among the wild beasts; they ran naked through the lonely deserts, with a furious as- pect, and with all the agitations of madness and frenzy; they prolonged their wretehed lives by grass and wild herbs; avoided the sight and conversation of men, and remained almost mo- tionless for several years, exposed to the inclemency of the sea- son; and all this was considered as an acceptable method of worshipping the Deity, and of attaining a share in his favour. But all the instances of superstitious frenzy which disgraced those times, none was held in higher veneration than that of a certain order of men, who obtained the name Pillar saints. These were persons of a most singular and extravagant turn of mind, who stood motionless on the tops of pillars, expressly raised for this exercise of their patience, and remained there for several years, amidst the admiration of a stupid and won- 1 Stephen, in his ' Trait6 Preparatif a 1'Apologie pour Herodote,' says, " A monk of St. Anthony having been at Jerusalem, saw there several relics, among which were, a bit of the finger of the Holy Ghost, as sound and entire as it had ever been. the snout of the Seraph that ap- peared to St. Francis, one of the nails of a Cherub, one of the ribs of the Verbum carofactum, (the Word made flesh), some rays of the star that appeared to the three kings of the East, a vial of St. Michael's sweat, when he was fighting with the Devil, ahem of Joseph's garment, which he wore when he cleaved wood," etc. Henry III of England was a great hoarder of relics. He informed his Council on one occasion, that the Grand Master of the Templars had sent him a vial, containing a email portion of the blood of Christ, which he shed upon the cross ; and attested to be genuine, by the Patriarch of Jerusalem. He ordered a procession the following day, in honour of the gift. POWER OF THE ROMISH CLERGY. 351 dering populace. This strange superstitious practice began in the fifth century, and continued in the East for more than six hundred years. To the same principle are to be attributed the revolting practices of the Flagellants, a sect of fanatics who chastised themselves with whips in public places. Numbers of persons of this description, of all ages and sexes, made proces- sions, walking two by two, with their shoulders bare, which they whipped till the blood ran down in streamlets, in order to obtain mercy from God, and appease his indignation against the wickedness of the age. They held, among other things, that flagellation was of equal virtue with baptism and the other sacraments; that the forgiveness of all sins was to be obtained by it, without the merits of Jesus Christ; that the old law of Christ was soon to be abolished, and that a new law, enjoining the baptism of blood, to be administered by whipping, was to be substituted in its place. The enormous power conferred on the ministers of religion was another source of immorality and of the greatest excesses. The pope and the clergy reigned over mankind without control, and made themselves masters of almost all the wealth of every country in Europe. They were immersed in crimes of the deepest dye; and the laity, imagining themselves able to pur- chase the pardon of their sins for money, followed the example of their pastors without remorse. The most violent contentions, animosities, and hatred, reigned among the different orders of monks, and between the clergy of all ranks and degrees. " In- stead of consecrating ecclesiastical censures solely to spiritual purposes, they converted them into a weapon for defending their privileges, and supporting their pretensions. The priest- hood, which was principally designed to bless, was most fre- quently employed in cursing. Excommunication was made the instrument of damning instead of saving souls; and was in- flicted according to the dictates of policy or of revenge." The great and the noble, and even kings and emperors were excom- municated, when it was designed to rob or to enslave them ; and this invisible engine, which they wielded with a powerful and sovereign hand, was used to foment dissensions between the nearest relatives, and to kindle the most bloody wars. The generality of priests and monks kept wives and concubines, yvithout_shame or scruple, and even the papal throne was the 352 PHILOSOPHY OF RELTGIOX. seat of debauchery and vice. The possessions of the church were either sold to the highest Didder, or turned into a patri- mony for the bastards of the incumbents. Marriages, wills, contracts, the interests of families and of courts, the state of the living and of the dead, were all converted into instruments for promoting their credit, and increasing their riches. It was therefore a necessary result from such a state of things, that vices of every description abounded, that morals were mired, and that benevolence required in the divine law was trampled under foot. The theological speculations in which they indulged, cor- responded to the degrading practices to which I have adverted, and tended to withdraw the mind from the substantial realities both of science and of religion. Sophisms and falsehoods were held forth as demonstrations. They attempted to argue after they had lost the rules of common sense. The cultivation of letters was neglected ; eloquence consisted in futile declama- tions; and philosophy was lost in the abyss of scholastic and sophistical theology. " They attempted to penetrate into mys- teries, and to decide questions which the limited faculties of the human mind are unable to comprehend or to resolve; " and such vain speculations they endeavour to incorporate into the system of religion, and to render theology a subject of meta- physical refinement, and of endless controversy. A false logic was introduced, which subtilised upon words, but gave no idea of things; which employed itself in nice and refined distinctions concerning objects and operations which lie beyond the reach of the human understanding, which confounded every thing by attempting to analyse every thing, and which opened an arena for men of fiery zeal to kindle the flame of controversy, and to give birth to numerous heresies. The following are a few instances, out of many which might be produced, of the questions and controversies which occupied the attention of bishops and seraphical doctors, and gave rise to furious contentions : Whether the conception of the Blessed Virgin was immaculate? Whether Mary should be denomi- nated the Mother of God, or the Mother of Christ ? Whether the bread and wine used in the eucharist were digested ? In wha,t manner the will of Christ operated, and whether he hcid one will or two? Whether the Hol.y Ghost proceeded from the THEOLOGICAL SPECULATIONS. 353 Father and Son, or only from the Father! Whether leavened or unleavened bread ought to be used in the eucharist? Whe- ther souls in their intermediate state see God, or only the hu- man nature of Christ? It was disputed between the Domini- cans and Franciscans, Whether Christ had any property? The pope pronounced the negative proposition to be a pestilential and blasphemous doctrine, subversive of catholic faith. Many councils were held at Constantinople, to determine what sort of light it was that the disciples saw on Mount Tabor: it was so- lemnly pronounced to be the eternal light with which God is encircled ; and which may be termed his energy or operation, but is distinct from his nature and essence. The disputes re- specting the real presence of Christ in the eucharist led to this absurd conclusion, which came to be universally admitted " That the substance of the bread and wine used in that ordi- nance is changed into the real body and blood of Christ ; ' ' and consequently, when a man eats what has the appearance of a wafer, he really and truly eats the body and blood, the soul and divinity of Jesus Christ; and when he afterwards drinks what has the appearance of wine, he drinks the very same body and blood, soul and divinity, which, perhaps, not a minute before, he had wholly and entirely eaten ! At the pe- riod to which I now allude, the authenticity of a suspected relic was proved by Bulls councils assembled and decided upon the authority of forged acts with regard to the antiquity of a saint r or the place where his body was deposited ; and a bold impose tor needed only to open his mouth, to persuade the multitude to believe whatever he pleased. To feed upon animals strangled or unclean, to eat flesh on Tuesday, eggs and cheese on Friday, to fast on Saturday, or to use unleavened bread in the service of the mass were, by some, considered as indispensable duties, and by others, as vile abominations. In short, the history of this period is a reproach to the human understanding; an insult offered to the majesty of reason and of science, and a libel on the benevolent spirit which breathes through the whole of the Christian system. 1 1 As a striking instance of the folly and imbecility of the human mind at this period, it may be noticed, that in several "churches in France, they celebrated a festival in commemoration of the Virgin Mary's flight into Egypt, which was called the Feast of the Ass. A young girl, richly dressed, with a child in her arms, was set upon an ass, richly caparisoned. U Z 354 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. Nothing can be conceived more directly repugnant to the benevolence which the religion of Jesus inculcates, than the temper and conduct of those who arrogated to themselves the character of being God's vicegerents on earth, and who assumed the supreme direction of the Christian church. In persons who laid claim to functions so sacred and divine, it might have been The ass was led to the altar in solemn procession. High mass was said with great pomp. The ass was taught to kneel at proper places; a hymn, no less childish than impious, was sung in his praise; and when the cere- mony was ended, the priest, instead of the usual words with which he dismissed the people, brayed three times like an ass, and the people, in- stead of the usual response, " We bless the Lord," brayed in the same manner. This ridiculous ceremony was not a mere farcical entertain- ment ; but an act of devotion, performed by the ministers of religion, and by the authority of the church. Robertson's 'History of Charles V,' vol. i. In accordance with such foolish ceremonies, were the ideas which pre- vailed of the qualifications requisite to constitute a good Christian. " He is a good Christian," says St. Eloy, a canonised saint of the Romish church, " who comes frequently to church ; who presents the oblation which is offered to God upon the altar ; who doth not taste of the fruits of his own industry until he has consecrated a part of them to God ; who, when the holy festivals approach, lives chastely even with his own wife during several days, that with a safe conscience he may draw near to the altar of God ; and who, in the last place, can repeat the Creed and the Lord's Prayer. Redeem, then, your souls from destruction, while you have the means in your power ; offer presents and tithes to churchmen ; come more frequently to church ; humbly implore the patronage of the saints ; for, if you observe these things, you may come with security in the day of retribution to the tribunal of the eternal Judge, and say, ' Give to us, O Lord, for we have given unto thee,' " Here we have an ample description of a good Christian, in which there is not the least mention of the love of God, of resignation to his will, obedience to his laws, or of jus- tice, benevolence, or charity towards men. Mosheim's Church History. The following are the terms in which Tetzel and his associates de- scribed the benefit of indulgences, about the beginning of the sixteenth century, a little before the era of the Reformation. " If any man," said they, " purchase letters of indulgence, his soul may rest secure with re- spect to its salvation. The souls confined in purgatory, for whose re- demption indulgences are purchased, as soon as the money tinkles in the chest, instantly escape from that place of torment, and ascend into hea- ven. That the efficacy of indulgence was so great, that the most heinous sins, even if one should violate (which was impossible) the Mother of God, would be remitted and expiated by them, arid the person be free both from punishment and guilt. That this was the unspeakable gift of God, in order to reconcile men to himself. That the cross erected by the preachers of indulgences, was as efficacious as the cross of Christ itself. Lo ! the heavens are open, if you enter not now, when will you enter? For twelve pence you may redeem the soul of your father out of purga- tory; and are you so ungrateful that you will not rescue your parent from torment ? If you had but one coat, you ought to strip yourself in- stantly, and sell it, in order to purchase such benefits," etc. Robertson') Charles V, vol. ii. MALIGNANT DISPOSITIONS OF THE POPES. 355 expected, that the appearance at least, of piety, humility, and benevolence, would have been exhibited before the eyes of the Christian world. But the history of the popes and their sa- tellites displays almost every thing which is directly opposed to such heavenly virtues. Their avarice, extortion, and licen- tiousness, became intolerable and excessive, almost to a proverb. To extend their power over the kingdoms of this world, to in- crease their revenues, to live in opulence and splendour, to humble kings, to alienate the affections of their subjects, and to riot in luxury and debauchery, seemed to be the great ob- jects of their ambition. Instead of acting as the heralds of mercy, and the ministers of peace, they thundered anathemas against all who called in question their authority, kindled the flames of discord and of civil wars, armed subjects against their sovereigns, led forth hostile armies to the battle, and filled Europe with confusion, devastation, and carnage. Instead of applying the mild precepts of Christianity, and interposing the authority they had acquired for reconciling enemies, and sub- duing the jealousies of rival monarchs, they delighted to widen the breach of friendship, and to fan the flame of animosity and discord. Dr. Robertson, when adverting to the personal jea- lousies of Francis I and Charles V, remarks, " If it had been in the power of the Pope to engage them in hostilities, without rendering Lombardy the theatre of war, nothing would have been more agreeable to him than to see them waste each other's strength in endless quarrels." 1 The Son of man came into the world, not to destroy men's lives, but to save them; but, in such instances, we behold his pretended vicars, preparing and arranging the elements of discord, laying a train for the de- struction of thousands and tens of thousands, and taking a diabolical delight in contemplating the feuds, the massacres, and the miseries which their infernal policy had created. The decrees of the papal throne, instead of breathing the mildness and benevolence of Jesus, became thundering curses, and san- guinary laws; and a set of frantic enthusiasts, or a lawless banditti, were frequently appointed to carry them into effect. Not contented with the insurrection they had produced among the European nations, they planned an expedition for the pur- pose of massacring the inhabitants of Asia, and ravaging their 1 Robertson's Charles V, vol. ii. 356 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. country. Pope Urban II, about A. D. 1095, travelled from province to province, levying troops, even without the consent of their princes; preaching the doctrine of " destruction to the infidels; " and commanding the people, in the name of God, to join in the holy wars. St. Bernard ran from town to town, haranguing the multitude, performing pretended miracles, and inducing all ranks, from the emperor to the peasant, to enrol themselves under the banners of the cross. Peter the Hermit, a man of hideous aspect, covered with rags, walking bare- footed, and speaking as a prophet, inspired the people every where with an enthusiasm similar to his own. Thousands of abandoned debauchees were thus collected; bishops, priests, monks, women and children, were all enrolled in the holy army. A plenary absolution of their sins was promised; and if they died in the contest, they were assured of a crown of martyrdom in the world to come. With hearts burning with revenge, this army of banditti, without discipline or provisions, marched in wild confusion through the eastern parts of Europe, and, at every step of their progress, committed the most dread- ful outrages. So inveterate was their zeal against the Jews, wherever they were found, that many of those unfortunate be- ings, both men and women, murdered their own children, in the midst of the despair to which they were driven by these infu- riated madmen; and when they arrived at Jerusalem, and had taken that city by assault, they suffered none of the infidels to escape the slaughter. Such was the way in which the succes- sors of the Apostle Peter displayed their general benevolence, and their love to the souls of men ! The establishment of the Inquisition is another mode in which the tyranny and cruelty of the Romish church has been displayed. This court was founded in the 12th century, by Father Dominic and his followers, who were sent by Pope In- nocent III with orders to excite the Catholic princes and people to extirpate heretics. It is scarcely possible to conceive an in- stitution more directly opposed to the dictates of justice and humanity, to the genius of Christianity, and to the meekness and gentleness of Christ, than this infernal tribunal. The pro- ceedings against the unhappy victims of this court are conducted with the greatest secrecy. The person granted them as counsel is not permitted to converse with them, except in the presence TEE INQUISITION. 357 of the Inquisitors; and, when they communicate the evidence to the accused persons, they carefully conceal from them the names of the authors. The prisoners are kept for a long time, till they themselves, through the application of the torture, turn their own accusers; for they are neither told their crime, nor confronted with witnesses. When there is no shadow of proof against the pretended criminal, he is discharged, after suffering the most cruel tortures, a tedious and dreadful im- prisonment, and the loss of the greater part of his effects. When he is convicted and condemned, he is led in procession, with other unfortunate beings, on the festival of the Auto da Fe, to the place of execution. He is clothed with a garment, painted with flames, and with his own figure, surrounded with dogs, serpents, and devils, all open-mouthed, as if ready to de- vour him. Such of the prisoners as declare that they die in the communion of the church of Rome, are first strangled, and then hurned to ashes. Those who die in any other faith are burned alive. The priests tell them, that they leave them to the devil, who is standing at their elbow, to receive their souls, and carry them with him into the flames of hell. Flaming furzes, fastened to long poles, are then thrust against their faces, till their faces are burnt to a coal, wilich is accompanied with the loudest acclamations of joy, among the thousands of spectators. At last fire is set to the furze at the bottom of the stake, over which the criminals are chained so high, that the top of the flame seldom reaches higher than the seat they sit on; so that they seem to be roasted rather than burned. There cannot be a more lamentable spectacle: the sufferers continually cry out, while they are able, " Pity for the love of God! " yet it is beheld, by all sexes and ages, with transports of joy and satisfaction; and even the monarch, surrounded by his courtiers, has sometimes graced the scene with his presence, imagining that he was performing an act highly acceptable to the Deity! ! l And what are the heinous crimes for which such dreadful punishments are prepared? Perhaps nothing more than read- ing a book which has been denounced as heretical by the holy 1 See Encyc. Brit. Articles Act of faith and Inquisition; and Botir- going's ' Modern State of Spain,' vol. i. The Instructions for the office of the Holy Inquisition given at Toledo in 1561,' may be seen in the Appendix to ' Peyrou's Essays on Spain,' which forms the fourth volume of Bourgoing's work. 358 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. office, such as ' Raynal's History of the Indies,' assuming the title of a freemason irritating a priest or mendicant friar uttering the language of free thinkers declaiming against the celibacy of the clergy insinuating hints or suspicions re- specting their amours and debaucheries or throwing out a joke to the dishonour of the Virgin Mary, 1 or, at most, hold- ing the sentiments of a Mahometan, of a Jew, or of the fol- lowers of Calvin or Luther. In the year 1725, the Inquisition discovered a family of Moors, at Grenada, peaceably employed in manufacturing silks, and possessing superior skill in the exercise of this profession. The ancient laws, supposed to have fallen into disuse, were enforced in all their rigour, and the wretched family was burnt alive. 2 On the entry of the French into Toledo, during the late Peninsular war, General La- salle visited the palace of the Inquisition. The great number of instruments of torture, especially the instruments to stretch the limbs, and the dropbaths, which cause a lingering death, excited horror, even in the minds of soldiers hardened in the field of battle. One of these instruments, singular in its kind for refined torture, and disgraceful to humanity and religion, deserves a particular description. In a subterraneous vault adjoining to the audience chamber, stood, in a recess in the wall, a wooden statue, made by the hands of monks, represent- ing the Virgin Mary. A gilded glory beamed round her head, and she held a standard in her right hand. Notwithstanding the ample folds of the silk garment which fell from her shoul- ders on both sides, it appeared that she wore a breastplate; and upon a closer examination, it was found, that the whole front of the body was covered with extremely sharp nails, and small daggers, or blades of knives, with the points projecting outwards. The arms and hands had joints, and their motions were directed by machinery, placed behind the partition. One of the servants of the Inquisition was ordered to make the machine manoeuvre. As the statue extended its arms, and gradually drew them back, as if she would affectionately env 1 The Chevalier de St. Gcrvais was imprisoned in the Inquisition on the following occasion: A mendicant having come to his chamber, with a purse, begging him to contribute something for the lights or tapers to be lighted in honour of the Virgin, he replied, " My good father, the Virgin has no need of lights, she need only go to bed at an earlier hour." 2 Bourgoing's State of Spain, vol. i. p. 349. HORRORS OF THE INQUISITION. 359 brace and press some one to her heart, the well-filled knapsack of a polish grenadier supplied for this time the place of the poor victim. The statue pressed it closer and closer; and when the director of the machinery made it open its arms and return to its first position, the knapsack was pierced two or three inches deep, and remained hanging upon the nails and daggers of the murderous instrument. This infamous tribunal is said to have caused, between the years 1481 and 1759, 34,658 persons to be burned alive; and between 1481 and 1808, to have sentenced 288,2 14 to the gal- leys, or to perpetual imprisonment. 1 In the Auto of Toledo, in February 1501, 67 women were delivered over to the flames for Jewish practices. The same punishment was inflicted on 900 females for being witches, in the Duchy of Lorraine, by one inquisitor alone. Under this accusation, upwards of thirty thousand women have perished by the hands of the Inquisi- tion. 2 Torquemada, that infernal inquisitor of Spain, brought into the Inquisition, in the space of 14 years, no fewer than 80,000 persons; of whom 6,000 were condemned to the flames, and burned alive with the greatest pomp and exultation; and of that vast number, there was perhaps not a single person who was not more pure in religion, as well as morals, than their outrageous persecutor. 3 Has the Deity, then, whom the In- quisition professes to serve, such a voracious appetite for the blood of human victims? Has that benevolent Being, who maketh his sun to cheer the habitations of the wicked as well as of the righteous, and whose " tender mercies are over all his works," commissioned such blood-thirsty monsters to act as his ministers of vengeance, and to torment and destroy the rational creatures he has formed ? The very thought is absurd, and blasphemous in the highest degree. All his beneficent operations in creation, and all the gracious promises and de- clarations of his word, stand directly opposed to such hellish practices, and condemn the perpetrators as audacious rebels against the divine government, and as nuisances in the universe of God. The numerous Massacres which, in different ages, have taken 1 Histoire Abrigee do la Inquisition. 2 ' The Inquisition Unmasked.' By Antonio Puigblanch. 9 Kaims' Sketches, vol. iv. 360 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. place, on account of religious opinions, is another revolting tiait in the character of the professed votaries of the Christian cause. Of these, the massacre of the Protestants in France on the feast of St. Bartholomew, on the 24th August, 1572, was, perhaps, one of the most diaholical acts of perfidy, injustice, and cruelty, which have stained the character of our race. Every thing was atrocious and horrible in this unexampled conspiracy and assassination; feelings of the most sacred na- ture were annihilated ; religious zeal was changed into an im- pious frenzy; and filial piety degenerated into sanguinary fury. ITnder the direction of the infamous Duke of Guise, the soldiers and the populace en masse, at the signal of the tolling of a bell, flew to arms, seizing every weapon that presented itself; and then rushing in crowds to every quarter of the city of Paris, no sound was heard but the horrible cry Kill the Hugue- nots! Every one suspected of being a Calvinist, without any distinction of rank, age, or sex, was indiscriminately massacred. The air resounded with the horrid cries and blasphemous im- precations of the murderers, the piercing shrieks of the wounded, and the groans of the dying. Headless trunks were every in- stant precipitated from the windows into the court-yards of the streets: the gate-ways were choked up with the bodies of the dead and dying, and the streets presented a spectacle of mangled limbs, and of human bodies, dragged by their butchers in order to be thrown into the Seine. Palaces, hotels, and public build- ings, were reeking with blood; the image of death and desola- tion reigned on every side, and under the most hideous appear- ances; and in all quarters, carts were seen loaded with dead bodies, destined to be cast into the river, whose waters were for several days sullied by tides of human gore. The infuriated assassins, urged on by the cry, that " It was the king's will that the very last of this race of vipers should be crushed and killed," became furious in the slaughter; in proof of which, one Cruce, a jeweller, displaying his naked and bloody arm, vaunted aloud, that he had cut the throats of more than 400 Huguenots in one day. During this horrid period, every species of the most refined cruelty became exhausted; the weakness of infancy proved no impediment to the impulse of ferocity; chil- dren of ten years, exercising their first homicidal deed, wera seen committing the most barbarous acts, and cutting tko RELIGIOUS PERSECUTIONS. 361 throats of infants in tlicir swaddling clothes! The number of victims thus slaughtered in the city of Paris amounted to above six thousand; and, in the provinces, at the same time, there perished about sixty thousand. And, what is still more shock- ing, the news of this massacre were welcomed at Rome with the most lively transports of joy. The Cardinal of Lorraine a large reward to the courier; and interrogated him upon the subject in a manner that demonstrated he had been previ- ously aware of the intended catastrophe. The cannons were fired, bonfires wore kindled, and a solemn mass was celebrated, at which Pope Gregory XIII assisted, with all the splendour which that court is accustomed to display on events of the most glorious and important consequence! l The horrid practice of Dragooning, which was used by Pa- pists for converting supposed heretics, was another melancholy example of religious cruelty and frenzy. In the reign of Louis XIV of France, his troopers, soldiers, and dragoons, entered into the houses of the Protestants, where they marred and de- faced their household stuff, broke their looking-glasses, let their wine run about their cellars, threw about and trampled under foot their provisions, turned their dining-rooms into stables foi their horses, and treated the owners with the highest indigna- tion and cruelty. They bound to posts mothers that gave suck, and let their sucking infants lie languishing in their sight for several days and nights, crying, mourning, and gasping for life. Some they bound before a great fire, and, after they were half roasted, let them go. Some they hung up by the hair, and some by the feet, in chimneys, and smoked them with wisps of wet hay till they were suffocated. Women and maids were hung up by their feet, or by their arm-pits, and exposed stark naked to public view. Some they cut and slashed with knives, and after stripping them naked, stuck their bodies with pins and needles from head to foot; and, with red hot pincers, took hold of them by the nose and other parts of the body, and dragged them about the rooms till they made them promise to be Catholics, or till the cries of these miserable wretches, calling upon God for help, induced them to let them go. If any, to 1 See a late publication entitled ' Memoirs of Henry the Great and of the Court of France during his reign,' 2 vols. 8vo, in which is contained the fullest description of this massacre which has appeared in our language. 362 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. escape these barbarities, endeavoured to save themselves by flight, they pursued them into the fields and woods, where they shot at them, as if they had been wild beasts; and prohibited them from departing the kingdom, upon pain of the galleys, the lash, and perpetual imprisonment. On such scenes of de- solation and horror, the Popish clergy feasted their eyes, and made them only a matter of laughter and sport. 1 What a striking contrast to the benevolence of the Deity, whom they impiously pretend to serve ! Could a savage American have devised more barbarous and infernal cruelties ? In the civil wars on account of religion, which happened in France in the beginning of the 17th century, above a million of men lost their lives, and 9 cities, 400 villages, 2,000 churches, 2,000 monasteries, and 10,000 houses, were burned or de< stroyed during their continuance; besides the many thousands of men, women, and children, that were cruelly butchered: and 150,000,000 livres were spent in carrying forward these slaugh- ters and devastations. It is said of Louis XIII, who carried on these wars, by one of his biographers and panegyrists, Madame de Motteville, that, " what gave him the greatest pleasure was his thought of driving heretics out of the king- dom, and thereby purging it of the different religions which corrupt and infect the church of God." 2 In the Netherlands alone, from the time that the edict of Charles V was promul- gated against the reformers, more than 100,000 persons were hanged, beheaded, buried alive, or burned on account of reli- gion. The prisons were crowded with supposed heretics; and the gibbet, the scaffold, and the stake, filled every heart with horror. The Duke of Alva, and his bloody tribunal, spread universal consternation through these provinces; and though the blood of eighteen thousand persons, who, in five years, had been given up to the executioner for heresy, cried for vengeance on this persecutor and his adherents, yet they gloried in their cruelty. Philip II, in whose reign these atrocities were com- mitted, hearing one day, that thirty persons at least had a little before been burned at an auto de fe, requested that a like exe- cution might be performed in his presence; and he beheld with 1 For a more particular account of such, scenes, see Encyc. Brit., Article Dragooning. 2 Motteville's Memoirs of Anne of Austria, vol. i, p. 98. PERSECUTIONS IN ENGLAND. 363 joy forty victims devoted to torments and to death. One of them, a man of distinction, requesting a pardon, " No," replied he, coldly, " were it my own son I would give him up to the flames if he obstinately persisted in heresy." 1 Even in our own island, the flames of religious persecution have sometimes raged with unrelenting fury. During two or three years of the short reign of Queen Mary of England, it was computed, that 277 persons were committed to the flames, besides those who were punished by fines, confiscations, and imprisonments. Among those who suffered by fires were five bishops, twenty-one clergymen, eight lay gentlemen, and eighty- four tradesmen; one hundred husbandmen, fifty-five women, and four children. And a century and a half has scarcely elapsed since the Presbyterians in Scotland were hunted across moors and mosses, like partridges of the wilderness, slaughtered by bands of ruffian dragoons, and forced to seek their spiritual food in dens, and mountains, and forests, at the peril of their lives. Hunter, a young man about nineteen years of age, was one of the unhappy victims to the zeal for Papacy of Mary Queen of England. Having been inadvertently betrayed by a priest, to deny the doctrine of transubstantiation, he absconded to keep out of harm's way. Boner, that arch-hangman of Popery, threatened ruin to the father, if he did not deliver up the young man. Hunter, hearing of his father's danger, made his appearance, and was burned alive, instead of being re- warded for his filial piety. A woman of Guernsey was brought to the stake, without regard to her advanced pregnancy, and her belly bursting by the torture, she was delivered in the midst of the flames. One of the guards snatched the infant from the fire; but the magistrate who attended the execution, ordered it to be thrown back, being resolved, he said, that nothing should survive which sprung from a parent so obstinately heretical."* What a dreadful picture would it present of the malignity of persons who have professed the religion of Christ, were we to collect into one point of view all the persecutions, tortures, burnings, massacres, and horrid cruelties, which, in Europe and Asia, have been inflicted on conscientious men for their firm adherence to what they considered as the truths of reli- 1 Millet's Modern History, vol. ii, p. 100. 2 Kaims' Sketches, vol. iv. 364 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. gion! When we consider, on the one hand, the purity of morals, and the purity of faith which generally distinguished the victims of persecution; and, on the other, the proud pam- pered priests, abandoned without shame to every species of wickedness, we can scarcely find words sufficiently strong to express the indignation and horror which arise in the mind, when it views this striking contrast, and contemplates such scenes of impiety and of crime. Could a religion which breathes peace and good-will from heaven towards men be more basely misrepresented ? or can the annals of our race present a more striking display of the depravity of mankind? To represent religion as consisting in the belief of certain incomprehensible dogmas, and to attempt to convert men to Christianity by fire, and racks, and tortures, is as absurd as it is impious and pro- fane, and represents the Divine Being as delighting in the tor- ments and the death of sinners, rather than that they should return and live. " By their fruits ye shall know them," says our Saviour. Wherever religion is viewed as consisting chiefly in the ob- servance of a number of absurd and unmeaning ceremonies, it is natural to expect that the pure morality of the Bible will seldom be exemplified in human conduct. This is strikingly the case in those countries, both in Europe and America, where the Papal religion reigns triumphant. " The infinite number of churches," says a late writer, " is one of the most efficient causes of the decline of the religion of Rome, whose maxims and practices are diametrically opposite to those of the Gospel. The Gospel is the friend of the people, the consoler of the poor. The religion of Rome, on the contrary, considers all nations as great flocks, made to be shorn or eaten according to the good pleasure of the shepherds; for her the golden lever is the lever of Archimedes. The favours of the church are only showered on those who pay; with money we may purchase the right to commit perjury and murder, and be the greatest villains at so much per crime; according to the famous Tariff printed at Home, entitled, ' Taxes of the Apostolic Chancery.' J>1 1 'Picture of Modern Rome/ by M. Santo Domingo. 1824. iTOKAL STATE OF THE PROTESTANT CHURCH, ETC. 365 'MORAL STATE OF THE PROTESTANT CHURCH, AND OF THE DIS- POSITIONS GENERALLY MANIFESTED AMONG CHRISTIANS IN OUR OWN COUNTRY. This is a topic which would admit of a very extended illus- tration; but my present limits will permit me to do little more than simply to allude to a few prominent dispositions displayed by the different sections of the Protestant church. We have already seen some of the pernicious effects which flowed from the divisive and contentious spirit of Christians, under the reign of the Christian emperors, and during the middle ages, when ignorance and intolerance so extensively prevailed. The pre- sent state of the Christian world affords abundant proofs that this spirit is far from being extinguished. Christians are at present distinguished by the peculiarity of their opinions respecting the Person of Christ, and the attri- butes of -which he is possessed the means by which salvation is to be obtained the measure and extent of divine benevo- lence the government of the Christian church and the cere- monies connected with the administration of the ordinances of Religion. Hence the religious world appears arranged into sects and parties. Most of these sectaries profess their belief in the existence of One Eternal, Almighty, Wise, Benevolent, and Righteous being, the Creator and Preserver of all things, in the Divine authority of the Holy Scriptures, that God is the alone object of religious worship, that Jesus of Nazar- eth is the true Messiah, and the son of God, " that he died for our offences, and was raised again for our justification," that there is a future state of rewards and punishments, that there will be a resurrection from the dead, that it is our duty to love God with all our hearts, and our neighbour as our- selves, that the Divine law is obligatory on the consciences of all men, that virtue and piety will be rewarded, and vice and immorality punished, in the world to come. Yet, though agreeing in these important articles of the Christian system, how many boisterous and malignant disputes have taken place between Calvinists and Arminians, Episco- palians, Presbyterians, Independents, and Methodists, respect- ing the speculative points in which they disagree! While 366 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. controversies among philosophers have frequently been con- ducted with a certain degree of candour and politeness, the temper with which religious disputants have encountered the opinions of each other has generally been opposed to the spirit of Christian love, to the meekness and gentleness of Christ, and even to common civility and decorum. And what are some of the important doctrines which frequently rouse such furious zeal! Perhaps nothing more than a metaphysical dog- ma, an unmeaning ceremony, or a circumstantial punctilio in relation to the government of the church! While the peculiar notions of each party, on such topics, are supported with all fierceness of unhallowed zeal, the grand moral objects which Christianity was intended to accomplish are overlooked, and the law of meekness, humility, and love, is trampled under foot. What a contrast to the mild and gentle spirit of Christianity, to behold one zealot dipping his pen in wormwood and gall, when he sits down to defend the religion of love ! and another standing up in a Synod or Assembly, with eyes sparkling with indignation, a mouth foaming with rage, and a torrent of ana- themas and abusive epithets bursting from his lips, against the supposed abettors of an erroneous opinion! while, at the same time, they imagine that they are fired with holy zeal for the honour of the Lord God of Sabaoth. Such disputants seem not to be aware that they are grossly misrepresenting the genius of the Christian system, and bidding defiance to its most distinguishing principles and laws. There are heresies in conduct as well as heresies in doctrine; and of all heresies, the former are the most pestilential and pernicious. And why do not Controversialists and Religious Societies manifest as much zeal against heresies in temper and morality, which are nursed among the members of every church, as they do against heresies in theology? If these heresies were more particularly investigated and subverted, and a greater latitude allowed for the exercise of private judgment, the Church of Christ would present a very different moral aspect from what she has hither- to done. Again, there is nothing which so strikingly marks the cha- racter of the Christian world in general as the want of candour, the spirit of jealousy, and the evil surmising s which the dif- TEMPERS OF CONTROVERSIALISTS. 367 ferent denominations of religionists manifest towards each other. There is a prevailing disposition in one religious party to speak evil of another; and it appears, in many instances, to afford a degree of satisfaction when one party can lay hold of the inadvertencies of another denomination, or even of the im- prudence of a single individual, in order to asperse the charac- ter of the whole hody and to hold it up to general contempt. Even among Christians belonging to the same religious so- ciety, how often do we behold a display of "bitter envyings," contentious dispositions, and malignant passions ! Perhaps a mere punctilio respecting a certain mode of worship, or a dif- ference in opinion about the choice of a pastor, will throw the whole society into a flame. Evil passions will be engendered; backbitings, whisperings, and dissensions will arise; harsh and unfounded conclusions, respecting the motives and characters of individuals, will be drawn ; alienation of affection will be in- duced; friendly intercourse interrupted; an attitude of hostility assumed; and even the rules of common civility violated; so that a calm and impartial spectator will plainly discern, that the spirit of Christianity has never been thoroughly imbibed, and that they have never learned the apostolic precept " to forbear one another in love," however high pretensions they may have previously made to spirituality of affection and de- portment. Among Christians of every name, we find practices daily prevailing which are altogether inconsistent with the genius of the religion of Christ, and directly repugnant to its precepts. Slander, dishonesty, falsehood, cheating, and vexatious litiga- tions are far from being uncommon among those who profess to be united in the bonds of a common Christianity. How many instances of fraudulent bankruptcy happen among the professors of religion! And in cases of common bankruptcy, where a settlement has been obtained, is there one out of a hundred that ever thinks of performing an act of natural jus- tice, in restoring to his creditors the loss they had sustained, when he afterwards has it in his power? Finally, the degree in which the spirit of intolerance and persecution still prevails, shows a lamentable deficiency of be- nevolence and of Christian spirit in the religious world, Not- withstanding the uujustand cruel sufferings which English Protestants endured from Popish priests and rulers, a short 368 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. period only elapsed, after they had risen to power, before they began, in their turn, to harass their dissenting brethren with vexatious and cruel prosecutions, and fines and imprisonments, till they were forced to seek for shelter in a distant land. And no sooner had the English Independents settled in America, than they set on foot a prosecution against the Quakers, no less furious than that which they themselves had suffered in the country from which they had fled. Nor did the reformed clergy in Scotland lose sight of that magisterial authority which had been assumed by the Romish church. Upon a representation, in 1646, from the Commission of the Kirk of Scotland, James Bell and Colin Campbell, bailies of Glasgow, were committed to prison by the Parliament, merely for having said, that " Kirkmen meddled too much in civil matters." 1 Even so late as the middle of the eighteenth century, when Whitefield, and other pious men, began to address the ignorant villagers of England on the most important subjects, " a multitude has rushed together, shouting and howling, raving and cursing, and accompanying their fero- cious cries and yells with loathsome or dangerous missiles, driving the preacher from his humble stand, forcing him, and and the few who wished to hear him, to flee for their lives, sometimes not without serious injury before they could escape. And these savage tumults have, in many cases, been well under- stood to be instigated by persons, whose advantage of superior condition in life, or even express vocation to instruct the people better, has been infamously lent in defence of the perpetrators, against shame or remorse, or legal punishment for the outrage. And there would be no hazard in affirming, that since Wesley and Whitefield began to conflict with the heathenism of the country, there have been in it hundreds of instances answering in substance to this description. Yet the good and zealous men who were thus set upon by a furious rabble of many hun- dreds, the foremost of whom active in direct violence, and the rest venting their ferocious delight in a hideous blending of ribaldry and execration, of joking and cursing, were taxed with a canting hypocrisy, or a fanatical madness, for speaking of the prevailing ignorance, in terms equivalent to those of the prophet, ' The people are destroyed for lack of knowledge.'"* 1 Kaims' Sketches of the History of Man, 2 Foster's Essay on Popular Ignorance. PERSECUTIONS IN BARBADOES. 369 But we need not go back even to the distance of half a cen- tury, in order to find instances of religious intolerance among Protestant communities and churches; our own times unhap- pily furnish too many examples of a bigoted, intolerant, and persecuting spirit. Little more than twenty years have elapsed since the Methodist chapel in Barbadoes was thrown down and demolished by the mob-gentry, and with the connivance of the public authorities of that slave-trafficking island; and Mr. Shrewsbury, a worthy and respected pastor and missionary, obliged to flee for his life. Such is the tolerant and humane conduct of gentlemen Protestants of the nineteenth century; gentlemen who would no doubt, consider it very unhandsome were they to be compared to Goths and Vandals, or to the rude and barbarous savages of Papua or New Holland. 1 About the same period, the authorities of Demerara set on foot a persecution against Mr. SE\ith, missionary from the Lon- don Society, under various pretexts: but his real crime, in the eyes of his persecutors, was his unwearied zeal in instructing the negroes in the knowledge of religion. He was condemned to death by a court-martial, in the face of every principle of justice: he died in prison, was refused the privilege of a Chris* tian burial, and his friends were prohibited from erecting a stone to mark the spot where his body was laid. In Switzerland, which was formerly the head-quarters of Protestantism, the demon of religious persecution not long ago reared its head. The council of state of the Pays do Vaud, at the instigation of the clergy, on January 15, 1825, published a decree, " prohibiting, under the penalty of severe fines and im- prisonments, all meetings for religious worship or instruction, other than those of the Established Church; and, in the follow- ing May, another decree was issued, which denounces " fines imprisonment, or banishment, upon the most private kind of religious assembly, or even the admission of a single visitor to family worship." In pursuance of these disgraceful laws, seve- ral ministers and private Christians of high character for piety and acquirements, were banished from the Canton, some for one, and some for two years; and so cut off from the means of 1 For a more particular account of these execrable transactions, see ' Re- port of the Wesleyan Missionary Society for 1824 ;' and the ' Debates in Parliament in 1825.' U 2 A 370 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. subsistence, unless possessed of independent fortunes, and left perhaps to starve and perish in foreign lands. If they return before the expiration of their sentence, it is said that death is the punishment to be inflicted. One poor man, a schoolmaster, in the principality of Neufchatel, was condemed to ten years' banishment. He was brought out from prison, tied with cords, and compelled to kneel in the snow in the public square to hear his sentence read. His crime was, gathering together a few fellow-Christians in his own house, and there having the Lord's supper administered by a regularly ordained minister I 1 And is England pure from the spirit of persecution and into- lerance? Let us see. At Kenneridge, in Dorsetshire, a worthy individual, belonging to the Wesleyan denomination, had at- tended on a green, where twenty or thirty persons usually con- gregated, on a Sunday afternoon, to listen to the truths he thought it important to declare. The clergyman of the parish approached with a retinue of servants, and commanded him to desist. The preacher took no notice of the command, and proceeded to read his text. The clergyman then commanded the tithing-man to seize him. He was conveyed to Wareham jail; and to every question put, as to the ground of his being seized upon, the reverend and worthy clergyman only replied by the brandishing of his stick. Instances have occurred in which clergymen of the Establishment have refused to bury the dead. At Catsfield, in Sussex, when the bell had tolled, when the earth was to fall heavily upon the coffin containing the only remains of the being that affection had endeared, and when those who stood by needed all the consolations that religion can supply at this moment the clergyman appeared, but ad- vanced only to give pain to the mourners, and to agonise a parent's heart, by saying, " Now that you have waited an hour till it suited me to come, I will not inter your child! I did not know that you were Dissenters take your child elsewhere take it where you please, but here it shall not lie in consecrated ground." And, in fact, they were compelled to carry the child eleven miles from the abode of its parents, and from the place that gave it birth, before it could find repose in its kin- dred dust. Such a power appears to be conceded to the clergy 1 See a pamphlet on this subject, by Dr. Pye Smith. See also Cong. M.i. for June, 1825; and other periodical -works of that date. EXAMPLES OF BENEVOLENCE. 371 by the laws of the church; hut the spirit which gave it exist- ence is deeply to ho deplored, as the spirit of "bigotry and into- lerance. After what has heen stated in the preceding part of this work, it is almost needless to say, that such an intolerant and persecuting spirit is diametrically opposite to every principle that pervades the Christian system; and there cannot he a grosser misrepresentation of its spirit and tendency, than to ascribe such dispositions to the genius of that religion which INTOLERANCE has thought proper to assume. Can a single instance be produced of a persecuting spirit in the conduct of Jesus Christ, or in that of any one of his Apostles? When he " was reviled, he reviled not again; when he suffered, he threat- ened not:" and he solemnly rebuked his followers, when the least symptom of intolerance or revenge was displayed. Can a religion which commands us to "love our neighbours as our- selves to be kindly affectioned one towards another to love our enemies to do good to them that hate us to bless them that curse us and to pray for them that despitefully use us," can such a religion be supposed to give the least counte- nance to actions that are both intolerant and inhumane? If the religion of Christ have any one prominent object which dis- tinguishes it from all others, it is this to unite mankind in one harmonious and affectionate society; but such an object is altogether incompatible with resentment, intolerance, or perse- cution, in any shape: "By this shall all men know," says Jesus, " that ye are my disciples, if ye love one another." Here I must close my illustrations of the moral state of mankind, though they might have been carried to a much greater extent. They present to every benevolent mind a gloomy picture of the moral aspect of the human race, and of the evils which the principle of malevolence carries in its train. It is a picture which shows us that those moral prin- ciples and laws which the Creator intended to promote the fe- licity of all worlds, have never yet been brought into full effect in the world in which we live. It is a picture, however, from which we ought not to turn away our eyes. It sets before ua 372 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. the evils which require to be counteracted, and the obstacles which must be surmounted, before the principles of malignity be extirpated, and the moral principles of the Christian system take root in the world. But such views of the existing state of the moral world, so far from operating as sedatives, ought to stimulate us to exert every energy, and to use every judicious and powerful mean which has a tendency to promote the accom- plishment of this important object. Here a question may be proposed by some of my readers, Is it possible to bring the inhabitants of this world, in their present depraved state, to a general observance of the laws of benevolence which have been illustrated in the preceding part of this work? To such a question I would reply, Whatever man has done, man may do. Amidst the depravity and the darkness with which the earth has been generally enveloped, individuals have occasionally arisen who have shone as lights in the moral world, and exhibited bright patterns of Christian temper and of active beneficence. The Apostle Paul had his mind imbued with a large portion of the spirit of love. He voluntarily embarked in a tour of benevolence through the na- tions; and in spite of reproaches, persecutions, stripes, and im- prisonments; in the midst of " perils in the waters, perils of rob- bers, perils by his own countrymen, perils in the city, and perils in the wilderness;" and in the face of every danger, and of death itself, he prosecuted, with a noble heroism, his labour of love, purely for the sake of promoting the best interests of mankind. All the Apostles engaged in the same benevolent undertaking; they sacrificed every private interest, and every selfish consi- deration; " neither counted they their lives dear unto them- selves, so that they might finish their course with joy," and be the means of accomplishing the aalvation of their fellow- men. Even in our own times, many distinguished individuals have arisen, who have reflected honour on our species. The name of Howard is familiar to every one who is in the least acquainted with the annals of philanthropy, (see p. 34.) This excellent man, and truly philanthropic character devoted his time, his strength, his genius, his literary acquisitions, and his fortune, to the cause of humanity, and finally sacrificed his life, in the unwearied prosecution of active benevolence. He travelled EXAMPLES OF BENEVOLENCE. 373 over every country in Europe, and in the adjacent regions of Asia, impelled by the spirit of Christian love, in order to sur- vey the mansions of sorrow and of pain, and to devise schemes for the relief of human wretchedness wherever it existed; and in. the execution of this scheme of benevolence, the energies of his mind were so completely absorbed, that " he never suffered himself, for a moment, to be diverted from carrying it into effect, even by the most attractive of those objects which for- merly possessed all their most powerful influence upon his cu- riosity and his taste." 1 The late Walter Yenning, Esq., who has been denominated, by Prince Galitzin the second Howard walked in the steps of his illustrious predecessor, and, with the most fervent Christian zeal, devoted his short but useful life to the alleviation of hu- man misery, and to the promotion of the best interests of thou- sands who were " ready to perish." He withdrew himself from the ordinary round of genteel society, and declined all com- mercial business, that he might devote the whole energies of his soul to benevolent occupations. He commenced his phi- lanthropic career, by co-operating in the formation of the ' So ciety for Improvement of Prison Discipline,' which was formed in London in 1816; and afterwards visited the prisons in Pe- tersburgh, Novogorod, Tver, Moscow, and other cities in the Russian empire. The prisons, hospitals, work-houses, mad- houses, houses of correction, and the abodes of misery of every description in Petersburgh, were visited by him day after day: " and many a prisoner, bowed down with affliction and iron, was cheered, instructed, and saved by his ministrations:" for his philanthropy extended both to the bodies and souls of men. Many other examples might be produced from the annals of our times, and of illustrious characters now living, to demon- strate, that a noble and disinterested benevolence is a principle capable of being exercised, even in the present degenerate state of the inhabitants of our world. Would not the universal ex- ercise of such dispositions be highly desirable ? would it not tend to banish war and discord from the world, and to promote peace on earth, and good-will among men? Why then are such dispositions so seldom displayed ? Not because the universal 1 For a particular account of the labours ot' this eminent philanthropist, See Brown's ' Memoirs of the Public and Private Life of John iiovrara.' 374. PHILOSOPHY or RELIGION. exercise of them is a thing impossible; but "because men, ac- tuated by selfishness, are unwilling to give full scope to the benevolent affections; and because they have never yet em- ployed all the requisite means for bringing them into full operation. If all the energies of the intellect, and all the trea- sures which have been expended in fostering malignant passions and in promoting contentions and warfare, had been devoted to the great object of cultivating the principle of benevolence, and distributing happiness among men; the moral and physical state of our world would long ago have assumed a very dif- ferent aspect from what it now wears. The philanthropic individuals to whom I have alluded, were men whose actions were sometimes blended with the imperfec- tions incident to degenerate humanity; but the principle of benevolence ruled supreme over all the subordinate affections: and if the world were peopled with such men, notwithstanding the imperfections which attached to them, society, in every land, would present the appearance of a moral paradise, and form an image of the harmony and felicity of " the saints in light." Every one who believes in the existence of a future state, fondly imagines that he shall enjoy happiness in that state. But, whence is his happiness to arise in the future world, but from the exercise of those dispositions which the law of God requires? And if the exercise of benevolent dispositions be essentially requisite for securing supreme felicity in the eter- nal state, their cultivation, even in the present world, must be indispensable, in order to our preparation for the employments of the celestial world. For it is a law of the Creator, which is eternal and immutable, that " without holiness no man can see the Lord." And whenever the requisite means are em- ployed for the cultivation of holy dispositions, we may rest assured that our labour will be crowned with success. For, the energy of the divine Spirit, from whom proceedeth every good and perfect gift, is promised to accompany the use of every proper mean, so at to render it effectual for counteracting the effects of moral evil, and promoting the renovation of the world. We have examples before us, not only of a few insulated individuals, but of societies where the principle of benevolence, in a greater or less degree, pervades the whole mass. The MEANS OF PROMOTION BENEVOLENCE. 375 people who have been denominated Quakers have always been distinguished by their humane and peaceable dispositions, their hospitality to each other, the cheerfulness of their manners, their opposition to war, and the active zeal which they have displayed in contributing to the good of mankind. The Mo- ravians are also distinguished for their affectionate intercourse with each other, the liberality of their dispositions, the peace- ableness of their tempers, the purity of their lives, and their missionary efforts for evangelising the heathen world. I intended, in this place, to enquire into the MEANS BY WHICH THE PRACTICE OF CHRISTIAN MORALITY MIGHT BE PROMOTED; but I find, that this is a subject which would require a distinct vo- lume for its illustration. At present, I can suggest only two or three hints. In the first place, the intellectual instruction of the young should be an object of universal attention, both in public and private. For true knowledge is the spring of all religious emotions, and of all virtuous actions. By intellectual instruc- tion, I do not mean merely a series of exercises in spelling, pronouncing, parsing, construing, waiting, and figuring; but a communication of the elements of thought, and of clear and extensive conceptions of the physical and moral relations of the universe. 2. The moral instruction of the young should be an object of particular and incessant attention. Moral instruction should be inculcated, not merely by a reiteration of dry precepts, maxims, and abstract doctrines, or by a reference to the flimsy sentiments contained in fictitious narratives; but by a pointed and specific reference to real facts; as exhibited in the Sacred History, the annals of nations, and in the scenes of the family, and of general society. I would expect no greater assistance in the work of moral instruction, from the Religious Novels with which the Christian world is now deluged, than I would do from a circulation of the Pious Frauds which were so com- mon in the first ages of the church. In schools, and in fami- lies, every thing which has a tendency, either directly or indi- rectly, to foster pride, envy, contention, revenue, antl other 376 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. malignant affections, should be firmly and sedulously discour- aged and counteracted; and higher rewards (if rewards be ex- pedient) should, in every instance, he bestowed on the indi- vidual who displays benevolent affections, than on him who is distinguished merely for intellectual acquirements. Hitherto, a more decided preference seems to have been given to what is termed genius, than to moral accomplishments. 3. Institutions should be formed for communicating literary and scientific knowledge, blended with moral instructions, to persons of both sexes, and of every rank and age, from fifteen years and upwards, particularly to apprentices, journeymen, clerks, shop-keepers, and others, for the purpose of calling forth into action the energies of their minds, and for preventing the growth of habits of dissipation. In such institutions, the manifestation of benevolent affections, and propriety of con- duct, should be made the conditions of enjoying the instruc- tions and privileges of the association. 4. In connection with these and other means, the cause of practical morality would be powerfully promoted were the mi- nisters of religion, among all parties, to direct their energies to the discussion of moral subjects, on Christian principles, in- stead of confining their attention almost exclusively to doctrinal discussions. Religion is not a system merely of speculative and metaphysical truths, nor does it consist in the contempla- tion of mysterious facts, or incomprehensible dogmas; but is a rational and tangible subject, addressed to the reason, the feelings, the hopes and fears, and the common sense of man- kind; and, therefore, its illustrations should be chiefly derived from the facts of Sacred History, the system of nature, and from the existing objects, scenes, and associations with which we are connected. I need scarcely add, that all such means ought to be accom- panied with fervent prayer to the "Father of lights," and dependence on the promised aid of the Spirit of holiness. But, without the application of all the energetic means which reason and Revelation suggest, we have no reason to conclude, and it would be presumption to expect, that the influences of heaven would descend upon the moral world. For it appears, in point of fact, to be one part of the plan of the Divine procedure, that human agents shall be the means of enlightening each other. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 377 and of promoting the renovation of the world, as " workers together with God." CONCLUSIONS FROM THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES ILLUSTRATED IN THIS VOLUME. IF the general train of sentiment which runs through the preceding discussions and illustrations he admitted, the follow- ing conclusions may he deduced respecting, I. The subject of preaching, and the grand aim which the ministers of religion, in their discourses, ought always to have in view. We have already seen, that it is the great ohject of Revelation to bring into practical operation the principles of love to God and man: and it is obvious, that what is the main ob- ject of Christianity to accomplish, ought to be the ultimate aim of every Christian preacher. It is not merely to convert nen to the belief of certain opinions, or to induce them to em- brace the peculiarities of a party. It is, that they may " be renewed in the spirit of their minds," and "made meet for the inheritance of the saints in light," it is, that they may " deny ungodliness and worldly lusts, and live soberly, righte- ously, and godly, in the present evil world; " and be " united to- gether in love, which is the bond of perfection." Metaphysical disquisitions respecting dogmas in religion, have very little tendency to ameliorate the heart, and to promote benevolent affections. On the contrary, they have frequently produced a temper of mind directly opposite to the spirit of Christianity. They have led multitudes to pique themselves on the supposed purity of their profession, and the orthodoxy of their creed, and to point to others as heretics, and subverters of the Gospel, on account of some slight differences in sentiment about a par- ticular doctrine: while they themselves have never attempted to cultivate heavenly dispositions, and to display that charity which " suffereth long and is kind, which is not easily pro- voked, and thinketh no evil." There are certain doctrines and facts which we ought always to recognise and to keep in view, as fundamental axioms in the Christian system; such as, that " there is otfe God, and one Mediator between God and 378 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. man, the man Christ Jesus;" that "he died for our offences, and rose again for our justification;" that '' all have sinned and come short of the glory of God;" and that " we are jus- tified freely by his grace, through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus." But there is no necessity for expatiating almost exclusively on these and similar doctrines, as is frequently done, to the exclusion of practical morality, since they ought to be regarded in the light rather of first principles in religion, than as topics which require to be proved by laboured and diffuse arguments. One of the great objects of preaching ought undoubtedly to be, to investigate the numerous and minute ramifications of human conduct; to explore every avenue of corruption; to en- deavour to draw forth from its hidding-place every immoral principle and action, which exerts its pernicious influence in Christian or in general society; and, with all the powers of graphical description we can command, to portray them before the eyes of men, in all their repulsive features, and in all their abominations. At the same time, we ought to apply the touch- stone of the divine law to every unchristian propensity and practice ; to exhibit its contrariety to the spirit of our holy religion; to show how the principle of love ought to operate in every given case and circumstance, and in the minutest actions of human life; and how very different effects would be produced, were the principles laid down by our Saviour and his Apostles to operate with full effect throughout every department of the moral world. Let no class of religionists presume to tell us, that, if the fundamental doctrines of religion be simply declared, Christian morality will follow as a matter of course; and that, to expatiate on any particular branch of social conduct, is to degenerate into legal preaching. If this principle were to be admitted, then all the expostulations and denunciations of the Prophets, all the reproofs and exhortations of the Apostles; all the moral sermons of our Saviour, and all the minute directions in refer- ence to moral conduct, detailed in every epistle to the Christian churches, may be regarded as egregious trifling. If it be one grand design of Revelation to restore mankind from the ruins of the fall, and to reinstate them in that integrity which they at first possessed; if it was the chief design of " the Law and MORAL PREACHING. 379 the Prophets" to bring into action, on the theatre of the world, the two fundamental principles of the moral law, as the Law- giver himself has expressly stated, (Matt., xxii, 37-40); if the sweet singer of Israel devoted a large portion of his inspired strains to the celebration of the divine precepts, (Psalm cxix, etc.); if most of the sermons and parables of our Saviour have a direct bearing on the same important subject; if the Apos- tle Paul, in his instructions to a Christian minister, enlarged particularly on the duties which should be inculcated on the various ranks and relations of men, (Titus ii, 3); if all the apostolic letters to the Christian churches are full of minute directions, in relation to every branch of moral duty; if heaven be the scene of perfect moral rectitude, where ardent affection towards God, and towards fellow-intelligencies, ever reigns where love, peace, and harmony eternally prevail; if the happiness of that world depend upon the absence of moral evil, and the attainment of moral perfection; if the present world be a state of preparation for the employments of that happier region; if this preparation consist in having the prin- ciples of love to God and man interwoven through the whole constitution of the mind, and brought forth into action in the diversified scenes of civil and religious intercourse; if such important effects cannot be produced, unless by laying open the latent abominations of the heart, by impelling the moral principles of the Gospel through all the avenues and windings of the human passions, and by illustrating, with minute parti- cularity, every subordinate branch of Christian duty; if these positions be admitted, it will follow, that the duties of Christian morality, so far from being thrown into an obscure corner, ought to occupy a prominent place in the ministrations of every Christian minister who is desirous to promote the reno- vation of the world. In short, we expect no grand moral reformation to be achiev- ed no commencement of the millennial era of the church, till " the watchmen upon Mount Sion," with more energy than they have yet displayed, " shall lift up their voice like a trumpet, and show to the house of Jacob their transgressions," "till they lift it up with strength and not be afraid" of any suspi- cions that may be thrown out against their orthodoxy, when they show unto men the path of duty in all its bearings on the 330 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION". relations of time, and on the employments of eternity till they make the moral principles of Revelation bear, in all their force, not only on the prominent features of social life, but upon every minute ramification of human conduct till every lurking- principle of jealousy, envy, avarice, and revenge, be made to feel their energy till even the very amusements of public and domestic life be made to bend to the eternal laws of rectitude, and to carry on their fronts that noble inscription, " HOLINESS TO THE LORD." II. If the preceding train of sentiments be admitted, we may be directed in our views of the nature and ends of church discipline, and the persons on whom it ought to he exercised. In a great majority of Christian churches, censures are in- flicted chiefly, or solely, on persons guilty of an external breach of one or two precepts of the decalogue only one or two species of violations of the moral law are considered as worthy of cognisance ; while the systematic operations of slander, revenge, envy, and avarice the indications of harsh, sour, and ungovernable tempers, and the absence of Christian candour and affection circumstances which display the real characters of men far more distinctly than any insulated acts of immorality can do are either wholly overlooked, or con- sidered as characteristics of very trivial import. A person guilty, in a single instance, of a breach of the seventh or eighth commandments, will lie under the frown of a religious society for years, and even to the close of his life, notwithstanding every evidence he can give of the sincerity of his repentance: while another may habitually violate almost all the other pre- cepts of the decalogue, and be screened from the discipline of the church. He may be avaricious, cunning, and deceitful; harsh and unfeeling in his conduct; uncandid and uncharitable in his dispositions towards others; proud, selfish, and obstinate in his temper; addicted to slander and to incessant litigations; impatient of control; and boisterous and contentious in his general deportment and yet be considered as no proper object of censure; and, though never manifesting the least symptom of penitence, will be viewed as a tolerably fair character in re- ligious society, especially if he has acquired a considerable share of wealth and of influence in general society. III. This subject has a particular bearing upon the divi- MEANS OF CHRISTIAN UNION. 331 which subsist in the religious world, and the grand prin- ciples which ought to form a bond of union among all who acknowledge the truth of the Christian Revelation. If the train of thought illustrated in the preceding pages he correct, it will follow, that a cordial union of the various sections of the Christian church is to be expected from tbe cultivation of the spirit of love, more than from any attempt to produce an exact coincidence of opinion on those theological points on which they now differ. Wherever this spirit is found expand- ing the soul, and governing the affections, it will lead its pos- sessors to view the peculiar opinions of others with candour; to respect their persons ; to allow them liberty of thought on all the subordinate ramifications of theological sentiment; and to set a higher value on moral qualifications, and the manifes- tation of benevolent affections, than on those circumstantial opinions which do not enter into the essence of the Christian scheme. If the professing Christian world were thoroughly investigated, it would be found that it is owing more to the absence of this spirit, that Christians stand so much aloof from each other, than to the speculative opinions which they respec- tively maintain. It can form no decisive mark of a man's Christianity, that he recognises the peculiar opinions of Baptists or Psedo-Bap- lists, of Presbyterians, Episcopalians, or Independents. But it is unquestionably a matter of the highest moment, both to the person himseif, and to Christian society, that his temper and conduct should be in unison with the holy law of God, and that he should display the love which it requires, in all his so- cial, commercial, domestic, and Christian intercourses; and if such dispositions and conduct were universally to prevail among the various denominations of the Religious world, union would soon follow as a matter of course. If, therefore, we wish to behold the unhappy divisions of the church cemented, let us cultivate those amiable and affectionate dispositions which our Benevolent Religion inculcates, and be more anxi- ous to correct our own mental and moral aberrations, than to magnify the errors and the faults of others. Let us make every allowance for the effects which education, habit, local circumstances, and particular associations, may have produced 382 PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. on the opinions of our supposed erring brethren; and let us consider, that we ourselves, had we been placed in the same circumstances, might have imbibed the same sentiments. Let us endeavour to acquire clear and well-defined ideas on every subject connected with religion; that we may not contend about trifles, about mere abstract ideas, or the application of particular terms or phrases. Let us keep our eyes fixed on the great and prominent objects of Revelation, and on all the subordinate active means by which they may be promoted. Let us consider religion as consisting more in action than in speculation. Let our love to Christian brethren be founded, not so much on a general coincidence of opinion, as on the re- semblance they bear to the Divine image: and then we may confidently expect, that that period will soon approach, when the saints of God " shall see eye to eye," in reference to all the grand bearings of the Gospel scheme, and when the name of Jehovah shall be ONE throughout all the earth. IV. From the preceding illustrations we may learn some- thing of the nature and essence of future punishment. If the exercise of love, in all its diversified modifications, constitutes the foundation and the essence of happiness, the unrestrained operations of malevolence must be the source and the sum of misery. We cannot form a more dreadful picture of future punishment,than by conceiving the principles of falsehood, deceit, and malignity, and the passions of pride, hatred, malice, and revenge, raging with uncontrolled and perpetual violence. We need represent to ourselves nothing more horrible in the place of punishment, than by supposing the Almighty simply to permit wicked men to give full scope to their malevolent dispositions; leaving them " to eat of the fruit of their own ways, and to be filled with their own devices." The effects produced by the uncontrolled operation of such principles and passions would be such as may be fitly represented by the emblems of "the worm that never dies," of " devouring fire," and of their ne- cessary concomitants, " weeping, and wailing, and gnashing of teeth." V. We may learn, from the subject we have been illustrating, what notions we ought to form of the NATURE of a future state of happiness, and of the PREPARATION requisite for enabling FUTURE STATE OF HAPPINESS. 383 its to engage in its employments. The felicity of the future world will not consist simply iii a change of place; nor will it consist chiefly in a change of sentiment or opinion. Its foun- dation must be laid in the principle of LOVE, and in the com- plete renovation of the moral powers, without which, no celestial scene could produce permanent enjoyment. All who believe in the reality of a future world, indulge in anxious wishes to be made happy when they pass from this mortal scene to the world of spirits. Even wicked men, whose consciences fre- quently forebode evil to them in the other world, indulge the hope that God will ultimately be merciful to them, and admit them to the joys of heaven. But this is impossible, in the very nature of things, unless they be "renewed in the spirit of their minds," and endowed with those holy dispositions which alone can qualify them for relishing substantial happiness, and for participating in "the inheritance of the saints in light." How could Malignity associate with Benevolence, Contention with Friendship, or War with Peace ? How could the sons of dis- cord dwell in unity, in an assembly where all is harmony and love ? How could the malicious and revengeful spirit find de- light in the employments of kindness and pure benignity ? How could the man, who now finds his chief pleasure in hound- ing and horse-racing, in brawling and fighting, have any relish for the sublime adorations, the enraptured praises, and the refined contemplations of the celestial inhabitants ? The thing is impossible, unless the moral order of all worlds were com- pletely subverted. Such characters will be banished from the abodes of bliss; not by any arbitrary decree of the Almighty, but in virtue of the moral constitution of the intelligent uni- verse. 1 It is therefore evident, that the happiness of heaven must be founded upon the exercise of love, affection, harmony, perfect 1 The reader will find a full illustration of this and other kindred topics, in my work, entitled ' The Philosophy of a Future State ;' which com- prises proofs of a future state from the light of Nature and of Revelation discussions on the connection of science with a future world on the aids which its discoveries afford for enabling us to form a conception of the perpetual improvement of the celestial inhabitants in knowledge and felicity and on the moral qualifications requisite to the enjoyment of celestial bliss. 384: PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION. good-will to fellow-intelligencies, and the infinite variety of ramifications into which such principles may diverge, com- bined with enlightened views and holy affections, in relation to the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ. When these and similar dispositions are uniformly exercised, without the least mixture of any ingredient of moral evil, it is easy to con- ceive, with what transports of delight the inhabitants of heaven will contemplate the displays of the Power, Wisdom, and Good- ness of the Deity, and investigate the history of his dispensa- tions in the moral government of our world, and in the arrange- ments of all the other worlds whose physical and moral eco- nomy may he laid open to their view. Such views are in perfect accordance with the representa- tions of Scripture: " Without holiness no man can see the Lord." " The pure in heart (and they alone) shall see God." " Nothing that worketh abomination can enter within the gates of the heavenly city." " As we have borne the image of the earthly, (says the Apostle,) so shall we bear the image of the heavenly." " Christ Jesus gave himself for the church, that he might sanctify and cleanse it, and that he might present it to himself a glorious church, holy, and without blemish." The crown of glory, reserved in heaven for the faithful, is desig nated " a crown of righteousness." " The spirits of just men,'' in the future world, "are made perfect," freed from every taint of moral pollution, and unrestrained in the exercise of their moral powers. The inheritance to which they are des- tined, is " undefined " with the least stain of corruption, or with the example of impure and malignant spirits." " When Christ, who is our life, shall appear we shall be like him;" transformed into his moral image, and animated with those Divine principles and virtues which he displayed in his con- duct when he tabernacled among men. The saints " shall walk with him in white," an emblem of their perfect moral purity; " they shall receive an inheritance among them that are sanc- tified;" and "there shall be no more death, neither sorrow, nor crying, for the former things shall have passed away." GLASGOW: "* WlflJtiM COLLINS AND CO., PEINTESS. UNIVEKSI 42.9/J- .. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA UBRARY '-. I"'' :'. i^j/J *'. '.!;,-/ vV ,Vi-