LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Class 
 
A GUIDE 
 
 TO THE STUDY OF 
 
 CHURCH HISTORY 
 
 BY 
 
 W. J. McGLOTHLIN, Ph. D. (Berlin), D. D., 
 
 Professor of 
 Church History 
 
 in the 
 
 Southern Baptist Theological Seminary 
 Louisville, Ky. 
 
 1908 
 
 BAPTIST WORLD PUBLISHING CO. 
 Louisville, Ky., U. S. A. 
 
Copyright 1908 
 
 by 
 BAPTIST WORLD PUBLISHING CO. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 As the title indicates, this volume is intended to be a 
 guide to students. It is not designed to take the place 
 of larger works or render lecturing unnecessary, but 
 to be a guide to the best known manuals and a basis 
 for lecturing. The effort has been made to present 
 the essentials of church history in a form so compact 
 as to appeal to the eye and be easily remembered, and 
 at the same time to direct the student to wider reading 
 on the various subjects. For this purpose, four of the 
 best known manuals, representing different confession- 
 al view-points, those of Newman (Baptist), Hurst 
 (Methodist), Kurtz (Lutheran) and Alzog (Catho- 
 lic), have been selected for constant reference, with 
 occasional references to Schaff, Moeller and other 
 works. No attempt has been made to refer to a wide 
 range of works. The student who is passing through 
 the vast field of Church History for the first time can 
 find enough to do with the references given. As he 
 advances he can easily enlarge his bibliography. In 
 order to secure brevity there have been frequent abbre- 
 viations of words and condensations of sentences, but 
 it is believed that no obscurity has resulted. The needs 
 of students in theological seminaries have been steadily 
 in mind, but it is hoped that others may find the work 
 of value. 
 
 W. J. M. 
 
 9.0fil77 
 
ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 A. Alzog's Universal Church History. 
 
 A. N. F. Ante-Nicene Fathers. 
 
 C. C. SchafFs Creeds of Christendom. 
 
 Henderson. Henderson Historical Documents of the 
 
 Middle Ages. 
 
 H. Hurst's History of the Christian Church. 
 K. Kurtz's Church History. 
 M. Moeller's Church History. 
 N. Newman's Manual of Church History. 
 S. SchafFs Church History. 
 Underhill. Underhill's Baptist Confessions of Faith. 
 
A GUIDE TO THE STUDY OF CHURCH 
 HISTORY. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Historic Christianity is the resultant of the gospel 
 acting on the world of men. Both the gospel and the 
 world into which it came must be studied as a prelimi- 
 nary to church history. 
 
 I. THE GOSPEL. 
 
 The gospel consisted ( 1 ) of the teachings and doings 
 earthly life of Jesus; (2) Jesus himself, including 
 His death, resurrection and ascension; (3) interpre- 
 tations of Jesus; (a) by apostles who knew Him; (b) 
 by Paul and others. 
 
 II. THE WORLD INTO WHICH THE GOSPEL FIRST 
 CAME. 
 
 References: N. i. 20-64; H. i. 61-86; K. Sees. 6-11; A. i. 
 62-135; S. i. 55-89. 
 
 Christianity was born in the Roman Empire, and 
 scarcely passed beyond its boundaries for five hundred 
 years. 
 
 1. EMPIRE'S LOCATION AND BOUNDARIES; surround- 
 ing the Mediterranean Sea. Rest of the world little 
 known and without influence on the West. Popula- 
 tion c. 100,000,000. 
 
 2. ITS GOVERNMENT. By Romans. (1) Central 
 by Emperor and Senate; (2) Provincial by appointed 
 
2 A Guide to the Study 
 
 governors; (3) Municipal. It was firm and orderly, 
 with much local freedom ; brought all races under law, 
 preserved order, prevented petty internicine strifes, 
 suppressed robbery, built good roads, kept open com- 
 munications by sea and land between all parts of the 
 Empire. All offices below the Senate were appointive, 
 its judges, in the main, just, its law faithfully admin- 
 istered. 
 
 3. ITS RACES AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION. Many 
 peoples intermingled and greatly mixed. (1) Latins 
 in Italy, North Africa, Spain and Gaul, which were 
 largely Latinized. (Compare their languages.) The 
 military and governing classes everywhere were Ro- 
 mans; Latin the official language. (2) Greeks In 
 Greece and its islands, Asia Minor, Syria, N. and E. 
 Palestine, Egypt, the coasts of Italy, Sicily, Rome, 
 S. E. Gaul, and elsewhere. (3) Jews (a) Palestine; 
 (b) the Dispersion, mostly commercial people in the 
 cities of Egypt, Cyprus, Asia Minor, Greece, Mace- 
 donia, in Rome, Spain, Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia and 
 further East. (4) Other Semites (a) Syrians in 
 Syria and Mesopotamia; (b) Arabs in Arabia; (c) 
 Phoenicians in Phoenicia and North Africa; (5) other 
 native populations (a) Celts in Gaul, British Islands 
 and Galatia; (b) Copts in Egypt; (c) Berbers in North 
 Africa; (d) various native peoples in Asia Minor and 
 Southeast Europe. Surrounding the Empire were the 
 Germans on the north, still barbarous ; on the east the 
 Persians, Parthians, Scythians; on the south various 
 desert tribes in Asia and Africa. 
 
 4. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS. (1) Many 
 slaves, without legal rights, and often cruelly treated ; 
 (2) woman was debased, with few rights, often im- 
 
of Church History. 3 
 
 moral; children were poorly educated and little re- 
 garded; (3) there were extremes of wealth and pov- 
 erty (200,000 mendicants in Rome alone). 
 
 5. CULTURE. The masses everywhere ignorant; no 
 system of public schools; education left largely to 
 slaves; books few and costly; education was literary, 
 rhetorical, artificial. Sources of culture were various : 
 ( 1 ) That of ancient Egypt, Babylonia and Assyria had 
 largely perished. Only the ruins of their architecture 
 and sculpture remain. (2) The native populations had 
 never possessed much culture. (3) The culture of 
 Persia had affected the Empire little, that of India and 
 of China perhaps not at all. (4) The golden age of 
 Greece was past, but the language had been widely dif- 
 fused by commerce, colonization and war (Alexander), 
 and was the chief vehicle of culture for the world. 
 The elements of Greek culture were : (a) A beautiful, 
 flexible and expressive language, widely distributed, 
 (b) An extensive literature, which still serves as mod- 
 els in dramatic, lyric and epic poetry, in oratory and in 
 history, (c) Art, which still exerts influence on sculp- 
 ture and architecture (Doric, Ionic and Corinthian), 
 (d) Philosophy, which has deeply affected theology 
 and philosophy to the present time. Socrates (469- 
 399), Plato (427-347), Aristotle (384-322); Stoic 
 School founded by Zeno (340-260) ; Epicurean School 
 founded by Epicurus (342-270). (5) Romans, con- 
 tributed law, stable government, internal order, good 
 roads, open seas. Their literature and philosophy were 
 dependent upon Greek models, but Latin ultimately be- 
 came the language of theology and learning for the 
 Western world, and held that position till recently. 
 (6) Jews can not be said to have contributed anything 
 
4 A Guide to the Study 
 
 of importance to culture. Their contribution was in 
 the realm of religion and morals. 
 
 6. RELIGION. All religions were national; i. e., not 
 personal or universal. All, except Judaism, polythe- 
 istic, with male and female divinities ; only in Judaism 
 was there union of morals and religion, the gods being 
 immoral. All had sacrifices, priesthood, temples, more 
 or less ritual, but little or no religious instruction. 
 Roman conquests and commercial intercourse had 
 largely broken down religious prejudices by bringing 
 all religions into contact with one another. ( 1 ) Greek 
 religion. The gods were personifications of the pow- 
 ers of nature resting on a semi-pantheistic basis ; aes- 
 thetic, intellectual, but morally feeble. (2) Roman re- 
 ligion. The gods were personifications of the func- 
 tions of society, the reproduction of a Roman house- 
 hold. State ceremonies, emperor worship. (3) Jew- 
 ish religion, (a) One true and living God, absolutely 
 holy, the creator of all things ; monotheism, (b) High 
 moral precepts with religious sanction, (c) Hope of 
 a Messiah ; golden age in the future ; one temple, a 
 priesthood, ritual; synagogues for non-sacrificial wor- 
 ship and instruction. Jewish parties in Palestine were 
 Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, Samaritans. (4) Syri- 
 an, Egyptian, and other religions were widely distrib- 
 uted, often grossly immoral, rarely elevating. Wor- 
 ship of Cybele, Isis, Mithra, etc., spread over the Em- 
 pire. The last century B. C. was an age of skepticism, 
 but through efforts of Augustus and others, faith in 
 the fundamentals of religion was reviving during the 
 first Christian century. 
 
 7. MORALS. Political life was debased. Provincial 
 governors usually became rich by graft and oppression. 
 
of Church History. 5 
 
 The emperor, often made by the army and controlled 
 by favorites, slaves or concubines, was supreme; the 
 Senate and other subordinate officials subservient, ve- 
 nal, cringing. Amusements gladiatorial shows, races, 
 the theatre were idolatrous and morally degrading. 
 Little or nothing elevating. The army was efficient, 
 but cruel. War almost constant. Slavery was exten- 
 sive and corrupting. Literature was often debased; 
 morals had little religious sanction. There was bound- 
 less sexual immorality, unnatural vices, low regard for 
 children; abortion frequent, exposure and murder of 
 children allowed; theft, graft, oppression, gambling 
 and drunkenness were common. 
 
A Guide to the Study 
 
 BOOK I 
 
 APOSTOLIC ERA, 1-100 A. D. PLANTING 
 CHRISTIANITY IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 References: N. i. 67-143; H. i. 87-159; K. Sees. 12-18; 
 A. i. 136-235. 
 
 I. EXTERNAL HISTORY. 
 
 1. POLITICAL HISTORY. The Empire engaged in re- 
 pressing internal disorders and establishing its borders. 
 Acquisition of England, A. D. 44. Character of the 
 emperors bad. Jewish rebellion, destruction of Jeru- 
 salem A. D. 70 (Josephus, Jewish Wars). 
 
 2. PLANTING AND SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY. K. 
 Sees. 13-16, A. i. 138-94. (1) Extent: (a) Work of 
 Jesus and His disciples confined to Palestine north of 
 Jerusalem, fairly successful among masses, but rejected 
 by upper classes, (b) To Death of Stephen. Pentecost, 
 (c) After death of Stephen among Jews of Palestine, 
 Samaritans, the Dispersion, Gentiles (Antioch) ; work 
 of Peter, the rest of the twelve ; of Paul ; of nameless 
 missionaries. (2) Missionary methods. Travel, 
 preaching, miracles, letters. (3) Message: (a) to Jews, 
 (b) to Gentiles. (4) Means of support. (5) Success; 
 number, size, location and character of the churches; 
 nationality, social and intellectual standing and eco- 
 nomic condition of the Christians. (6) Opposition and 
 persecution; motives, methods, extent, (a) By Jews, 
 Sadducees, Pharisees, the Dispersion; (b) by Gentiles; 
 mobs, provincial governments, imperial government; 
 by Nero (64), by Domitian (96), both at Rome only. 
 
of Church History. 7 
 
 II. THE CHURCH. 
 
 Three meanings of the word church'. ( 1 ) All Chris- 
 tians ; (2) all Christians in a city or other geographical 
 unit; (3) Christians worshiping in one place. No gen- 
 eral organization as association, convention, national 
 or denominational church. A measure of unity and 
 uniformity was preserved by correspondence and* by 
 traveling missionaries (Paul). 
 
 1. ITS MEMBERS. Baptized believers, walking or- 
 derly. 
 
 2. OFFICERS. Bishops (elders) and deacons, both in 
 plural. Qualifications, selection, ordination and duties 
 of each. 
 
 Other officers of Christianity at large regarded as 
 divinely appointed, not bound to one church, are apos- 
 tles, prophets, teachers and evangelists. Duties of 
 each. 
 
 3. POLITY. Democratic self government under the 
 oversight 'of the apostles. 
 
 4. ORDINANCES. (1) Baptism immersion (possi- 
 bly trine) of a believer in water, in the name of the 
 trinity, by a baptized believer, as the sign of a renewed 
 life, as soon after conversion as convenient. (2) 
 Lord's table eating of bread and drinking of wine by 
 baptized believers as a memorial of Christ's suffering, 
 probably every Lord's day ; probably connected with a 
 feast. 
 
 III. DOCTRINES. 
 
 Sources of doctrine were the Old Testament (for 
 Gentile Christians the Septuagint, containing the 
 Apocrypha), for a century and more the only Chris- 
 
8 A Guide to the Study 
 
 tian Bible. Traditions of Jesus and interpretations of 
 Jesus by Paul and others. No systematic theology in 
 this period. Doctrine is practical ; ( 1 ) unity, holiness, 
 justice, love and mercy of God. Sinfulness and lost 
 condition of man; (3) redemption of sinners by Jesus 
 Christ, son of man and Son of God ; the facts of His 
 life, death, burial, resurrection and ascension. (4) 
 Salvation by faith in Him. (5) Speedy return of 
 Christ ; final resurrection of all ; eternal life and eternal 
 punishment. 
 
 Great controversy between Jewish and Gentile Chris- 
 tians over the relation of the Jewish law to salvation ; 
 many of the former claimed that circumcision and the 
 observance of the law were necessary, while the latter, 
 under leadership of Paul, asserted that salvation was 
 by faith, apart from the law, claiming freedom from 
 ceremonial law for Gentile Christians. By the great 
 conference at Jerusalem, A. D. 51 (Acts 15), a settle- 
 ment was reached fairly satisfactory to both parties. 
 1. Things required were abstention from (a) blood, 
 
 (b) things strangled, (c) things sacrificed to idols, 
 (d) fornication. 2. Things not required : (a) Observ- 
 ance of Jewish sacred seasons (passover, Pentecost, 
 new moon, Sab*bath, etc.), (b) offering of sacrifices, 
 
 (c) priesthood, (d) temple worship, support, etc., (e) 
 distinction in foods, (f) circumcision. 
 
 This settlement was the formal and general recogni- 
 tion of the fact that Christianity had broken through 
 the walls of Judaism. It was a temporary compromise, 
 some of whose requirements Paul did not observe, nor 
 have they been regarded as binding by the church since. 
 
 Some of the errors within the Christian fold were : 
 denial of the divinity of Christ, of His humanity, of 
 
of Church History. 9 
 
 the resurrection; the worship of angels and various 
 philosophical speculations detracting from the exalta- 
 tion of Christ. Jesus was regarded as the Christ, serv- 
 ant of God, the pre-existent maker of all things ; He in 
 whom all things consist, the Savior, the Redeemer and 
 Judge of mankind, the slain but eternally reigning 
 Lamb, distinct from God, but finally, in John's Gospel, 
 identified with God. 
 
 IV. WORSHIP. 
 
 1. PLACE. Temple, synagogue, private houses, 
 school buildings. No distinctive church buildings in 
 this period. 
 
 2. TIME. Sabbath, first day (Lord's day), or both. 
 Often at night. Sacred seasons, probably; passover 
 (later called Easter), and Pentecost, both with Chris- 
 tian (not Jewish) meaning. 
 
 3. ELEMENTS. Informal, democratic, not liturgical, 
 (a) Singing, Psalms from the Old Testament, but also 
 hymns and spiritual songs of their own composition, 
 sung by individuals. No instrument, (b) Reading 
 from Old Testament ; incidents and teachings from the 
 life and work of Jesus, (c) Exhortation, admonition, 
 instruction, prophesying, speaking with tongues, etc. 
 (d) Extempore prayers in which women sometimes 
 led. (e) Celebration of the Lord's supper. 
 
 V. CHRISTIAN LIFE. 
 
 (Dobschutz, "Christian Life in Primitive Church.") 
 1. MORALS often low (I. Cor. and Rev.). Gentile 
 converts ignorant of the elements of morals. Exclu- 
 sion from church fellowship and all social intercourse 
 was the penalty for moral lapses. 
 
10 A Guide to the Study 
 
 2. SLAVERY, modified but not forbidden. No word 
 of emancipation. Slaves and masters in same church. 
 
 3. WOMEN take prominent part in Christian work 
 and worship. Not given official position or allowed to 
 teach. Deaconesses. 
 
 4. PROPERTY held by Christians. Voluntary com- 
 munism at Jerusalem for brief period, not elsewhere; 
 no involuntary communism. 
 
 5. CHARITIES extensive (collection for poor at Jeru- 
 salem). Care of widows, orphans, poor, travelers per- 
 secuted, etc. Support of the ministry. 
 
 6. CHRISTIANS withdrew largely from heathen so- 
 ciety, theatres, temples, festivals, etc. 
 
 7. CIVIL GOVERNMENT was obeyed and respected as 
 ordained of God. 
 
 VI. CHRISTIAN LITERATURE. 
 
 Written in Greek, with the possible exception of 
 Matthew, largely, if not wholly, by Christians of Jew- 
 ish origin. Some of the literature of this period has 
 been lost. All that has been preserved is found in N. 
 T. ; not marked by great literary finish. Four kinds : 
 (1) Brief fragmentary accounts of the life and teach- 
 ings of Jesus, Gospels. (2) Letters to individuals, 
 churches, groups of churches called forth by special 
 circumstances, but usually intended for a more or less 
 general circulation; e. g., Eph. and Col. (3) One 
 brief, fragmentary history, largely devoted to the do- 
 ings of Paul, Acts. It gives no adequate conception of 
 the spread of Christianity as a whole. (4) Apocalyp- 
 tic literature, Rev. 
 
 These books were not gathered into one volume until 
 later. They were not part of a sacred book, a bible, 
 but each had only its own authority. 
 
of Church History. 11 
 
 BOOK II 
 
 HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT CHURCH, 
 100 A. D. TO c. 600 A. D. 
 
 First Period 100-323 A. D. Christianity in the 
 heathen Roman Empire, finally triumphant. 
 
 I. EXTERNAL HISTORY. 
 
 References: N. i. 147-72; H. i. 149-79; K. Sees. 19-22; A. 
 i 236-86. Ramsay, "The Church in the Roman Empire ;" Ad- 
 dis, "Christianity in the Roman Empire;" Uhlhorn, "Conflict 
 of Christianity with Heathenism;" Harnack, "The Expansion 
 of Christianity;" Merivale, "History of the Romans under 
 the Empire;" Bigg, "The Church's Task under the Roman 
 Empire." 
 
 1. POLITICAL, SOCIAL, RELIGIOUS AND EDUCATIONAL 
 CONDITIONS. 
 
 (1) Political. Conditions, on the whole, happy 
 under "the five good emperors" (96-180). Under Tra- 
 jan the Empire reached its widest extent. Dacia, Ar- 
 menia, Mesopotamia and Assyria made Roman provin- 
 ces; last three "given up by Hadrian. Revolt of the 
 Jews, 132-5, under Barcocheba. Peace under Pius 
 and under Marcus Aurelius. Asiatic plague. Commo- 
 dus begins the decline. Various border wars with Par- 
 thians and other barbarians. 
 
 From 192 to 284 is the period of transition to abso- 
 lute monarchy. Emperors elected by the army ; twenty- 
 one out of twenty-five met violent deaths, ten of whom 
 were assassinated. Struggle in East with the new Per- 
 
12 A Guide to the Study 
 
 sian Empire, which rose about 226; in the West with 
 German tribes, which began to make incursions into 
 the Empire about 250. Goths along the Danube, Franks 
 in Gaul and Spain, Alemani in upper Italy. About 260, 
 Romans seriously defeated by new Persians in the 
 East. Empire, seemingly on point of dissolution, is 
 restored by Aurelian, who makes peace with Goths by 
 giving up Dacia, defeats his enemies in Syria and re- 
 conquers Egypt. 
 
 In order to meet the increasing dangers and difficul- 
 ties on the German and Syrian borders, Diocletian re- 
 organized the entire government, making two capitals, 
 Milan and Nicomedia, two emperors and two Caesars, 
 increasing the number and reducing the size of the 
 provinces, making the empire an Oriental despotism 
 with unbearable taxes. His resignation in 305, fol- 
 lowed by chaos and civil war until Constantine became 
 sole ruler in 323. 
 
 (2) Social. The period was marked by the grad- 
 ual rise of the provincials ; most of the emperors were 
 from the provinces ; Caracalla bestowed Roman citi- 
 zenship upon all freemen within the empire. Frequent 
 civil and foreign wars decimated and corrupted the 
 people. Germans more and more introduced them- 
 selves into the provinces, the army and governmental 
 positions. Italy and the old Roman race largely lost 
 their significance. Slavery, immorality, war and taxa- 
 tion were ruining agriculture, reducing population, de- 
 stroying the state, corrupting social, civil and family 
 life. 
 
 (3) Religious. There was a revival of the Roman 
 religion ; emperor worship was made universally oblig- 
 atory ; many cults introduced from the East, especially 
 
of Church History. 13 
 
 that of Isis from Egypt and Mithra from Persia. 
 These were much warmer and more personal than the 
 Roman faith. Extensive syncretism in first half of the 
 third century. 
 
 Neo-Platonism. The revival of Platonism (Neo- 
 Platonism) was the significant movement in the realm 
 of thought (Plotinus d. 270, Porphyry d. 305). It 
 sought to be the religion of the cultured heathen, and 
 was intensely hostile to Christianity. It was the last 
 effort of non-Christian philosophy. 
 
 (4) Education. Education was more generally dif- 
 fused than in former period ; was taken under patron- 
 age of the state, which controlled and supported the 
 schools ; it consisted almost exclusively of the study of 
 grammar, rhetoric and literature, was artificial and 
 showy, with little beneficial effect on character. 
 
 2. SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY MISSIONS. 
 
 References: N. i. 291f ; H. i. 397-409; K. Sec. 21 ; S. ii. 14- 
 30; A. i. 236-56. 
 
 (1) Among the Jews, Christianity made no further 
 progress. The calamities that befell them, 70-135, 
 made them wholly inaccessible to the gospel. Most of 
 the Jewish Christians were gradually absorbed by Gen- 
 tile Christian circles, while the remainder (Nazarenes, 
 Ebionites) became heretics and disappeared in the 
 fourth century. 
 
 (2) Among the G entiles , Christianity spread east- 
 ward and westward, chiefly among Greeks. Three 
 translations of Scripture mark its entrance into wider 
 circles: (a) Syriac for the native population of Syria 
 and Mesopotamia; (b) two Coptic translations for na- 
 tives of middle and upper Egypt; (c) Latin transla- 
 
14 A Guide to the Study 
 
 tions, made in North Africa, spreading to Italy and 
 elsewhere. The authors, dates and places of these 
 translations are unknown ; the work probably extended 
 over several years of second half of second century. 
 Christianity largely remained in the Empire, but went 
 beyond its borders .eastward. By the end of this 
 period Christians were to be found in parts of Pales- 
 tine, Phoenicia, Coele-Syria, Cyprus, Mesopotamia, 
 Persia, Parthia, India, Arabia, Egypt and North Africa, 
 throughout Asia Minor and in Armenia; in all parts 
 of Greece, Italy, in the provinces south of the Danube, 
 in various parts of Gaul, Belgium, Spain and Britain ; 
 most numerous in Asia Minor, Cyprus and along the 
 shores of the ^Egean, there constituting almost half the 
 population; next in Egypt, Africa about Carthage, 
 South Spain, and at a few points in Gaul and Italy. 
 Elsewhere they were very sparse; estimated at from 
 one-twentieth to one-fifth of the population of the Em- 
 pire. Alexandria, Antioch and Edessa (Abgar IX, c. 
 200) in the East, Rome and Carthage in the West, 
 were the chief Christian cities. The cultured, the rich, 
 civil and military officers, soldiers, the imperial court 
 and upper classes in general were more and more 
 affected. 
 
 This splendid work was accomplished in the face of 
 vested interests, established religions, debased social 
 and moral life and hostile governments, without mis- 
 sionary boards or paid missionaries, much of the time 
 without church buildings, public services, trained 
 preachers, without governmental protection. How? 
 The world was prepared for it, and the common Chris- 
 tians had great zeal. Their mutual love and helpful- 
 ness, their care for the poor and unfortunate, their 
 
of Church History. 15 
 
 steadfastness in persecution, their morality, made a 
 profound impression; but it was the gospel itself that 
 appealed chiefly to that heathen world. It was a 
 gospel of healing for soul and body, of redemption 
 from sin and the world of demons, of mystery in the 
 two ordinances, a revealed religion, based on a book, 
 and therefore authoritative, giving assurance of im- 
 mortality and a rational scheme for the future life, a 
 rational explanation of the universe, a righteous and 
 loving God, a personal Savior. 
 
 3. OPPOSITION. 
 References: N. i. 148-50; A. i. 257-62; S. ii. 32-82. 
 
 (1) Causes of Opposition, (a) Christians re- 
 nounced and opposed the heathen religions, (b) With- 
 drew largely from heathen society, (c) Having no 
 images, they were regarded as atheists, (d) They 
 preached what seemed to be foolish and unreasonable 
 doctrines; e. g., resurrection, incarnation, worship of 
 crucified Jew. (e) Injured certain trades dependent 
 upon idolatry, (f) Were thought to commit horrible 
 deeds; e. g., eating children, promiscuous intercourse, 
 (g) Were thought to cause various calamities ; e. g., 
 earthquakes, floods, famine, pestilence, etc. (h) The 
 upper educated classes despised Christianity as an "im- 
 moderate and depraved superstition." The simple 
 Christians professed to know more of the vital things 
 of life than the philosophers, (i) The government 
 opposed Christianity because every new religion re- 
 quired a license, and Christianity was never licensed; 
 it frequently caused unrest and uproars ; Christians re- 
 fused to worship the national gods or the image of the 
 
16 A Guide to the Study 
 
 emperor, a service required by the state, and thus 
 became guilty of high treason; it was dissolving and 
 recasting society and government wherever it went; 
 Christians held secret meetings thought to be danger- 
 ous to the state, (j) There doubtless remained an 
 unexplained residuum of opposition due to the an- 
 tipathy of a sinful heart to a cleansing gospel. 
 
 (2) Efforts to Suppress Christianity. (References: 
 N. i. 150-72; H. i. 153-79; K. Sec. 22; A. i. 263-86.) 
 Persecutions by mobs, municipal, provincial, imperial 
 government. 
 
 a. Methods of Procedure. No consistent policy. 
 Christians not tried by regular legal processes, but 
 subject to police regulations. 
 
 Trajan's Regulations, (aa) Christians not to be 
 sought out by officials, (bb) When accused and con- 
 victed they must be punished, (cc) Those who deny 
 they are Christians and invoke the gods are to be 
 released without inquiring into the past. (dd) 
 Anonymous accusations are not to be considered. 
 (Pliny Ep. 96, 97; Euseb. iii. 33, note.) 
 
 Hadrian's regulations designed to protect Christians 
 against mob violence (Euseb. iv. 9, note). 
 
 b. History. Frequent local persecutions in vari- 
 ous parts of Empire, often very severe. Martyrdom 
 of Symeon of Jerusalem 106, Ignatius of Antioch 115, 
 Polycarp of Smyrna 155; persecution at Athens 
 (Euseb. iv. 23, 3) ; death of Justin at Rome 165; per- 
 secution at Lyons and Vienne 177 (Euseb. v. ff). 
 Peace from 202-250. An imperial persecution 250 to 
 260 by Decius, Callus and Valerian covering the em- 
 pire. Cyprian. Peace to 305, then persecution to 311 
 (Mason, Persecution of Diocletian, 1876). Edicts of 
 
of Church History. 17 
 
 Galerius and Constantine 311 (Euseb. viii. 17) and 
 313 (Euseb. x. 5). Cessation of persecution within 
 the Roman Empire. The Emperor a Christian. 
 
 c. Modes of Punishment, (a) Confiscation of 
 property, (b) Banishment, (c) Imprisonment, (d) 
 Labor in the mines, (e) Torture, (f) Execution 
 by fire, wild beasts and for Roman citizens by the 
 sword (Euseb. V:lf). 
 
 d. Results, (a) Many Christians suffered death 
 martyrs; (b) many more suffered punishment of 
 various kinds short of death confessors; (c) mul- 
 titudes renounced Christianity permanently or tem- 
 porarily lapsed; (d) many bribed the officers or pur- 
 chased certificates stating that they had sacrificed to 
 the gods libellatici. The church was laid waste far 
 and wide. Differences of opinion concerning the treat- 
 ment of the penitent caused schism and strife in the 
 churches. 
 
 (3) LITERARY ATTACKS ON CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 References: A. i. 287-93; S. ii. 85-120; H. i. 180-9; K. 
 Sees. 23f. 
 
 Frequent oral discussions. No books by Jews have 
 been preserved, though some were probably written. 
 Attitude of Tacitus (55-117), Marcus Aurelius (d. 
 180), Juvenal (60-140), Epictetus (60-c. 120), Lucian 
 (120-200). Celsus' 'True Discourse" (177), an- 
 swered by Origen (248). Porphyry (233-305) wrote 
 fifteen books against Christians. Hierocles, governor 
 of Bithynia under Diocletian, wrote "Candid Treatise 
 against the Christians," drawing parallel between Ap- 
 polonius of Tyana and Jesus. All the fundamental 
 
18 A Guide to the Study 
 
 and distinctive facts, doctrines and ideals of Christian- 
 ity attacked by these heathen writers. Much modern 
 opposition was anticipated by them. 
 
 4. CHRISTIAN DEFENSES. 
 References: N. i. 237-46; H. i. 191-206; S. i. 37-40, 104-20. 
 
 (1) Never by force of arms. No account of a 
 single uprising or sign of disloyalty. (2) By heroic 
 and patient suffering passive resistance. (3) By liter- 
 ary defenses apologies. From 130-250: (a) They de- 
 nied all charges of immorality, political intrigue or 
 other evil, and asserted their loyalty to the state ; (b) 
 demanded the trial of each Christian on criminal 
 charges rather than condemnation on the basis of the 
 name Christian; (c) explained and defended Chris- 
 tian doctrines and practices on the basis of reason and 
 Scripture, and set forth the excellence of Christian 
 morals; (d) attacked the absurdities and immoralities 
 of the heathen religions and the errors and inconsist- 
 encies of the philosophers. These apologies were 
 written both by Greeks and by Latins Greeks wrote 
 in second century and were for the most part philoso- 
 phers; Latins mostly in the third century and were 
 rhetoricians. The most important Greeks are (1) 
 Aristides of Athens, c. 138. (2) Justin, originally of 
 Palestine, martyred c. 165 ; two apologies to em- 
 perors, 147 and after. Dialogue with Trypho the Jew. 
 
 (3) Athenagoras of Athens wrote apology c. 177. 
 
 (4) Theophilus of Antioch, wrote to Autolycus c. 
 190. The Latin apologists lived in North ^frica and 
 were (1) Tertullian who wrote his apology c. 197, 
 (2) Minucius Felix wrote Octavius c. 180. Many 
 others wrote apologies along with other writings. 
 
of Church History. 19 
 
 II. THE CHURCH, ITS POLITY, OFFICERS, ORDINANCES. 
 
 1. THE CHURCH. The independence and signifi- 
 cance of the local church sinks down and is lost in the 
 predominance and power of the great city churches, 
 and these in turn are merged into the conception of 
 one universal (Catholic) church which contains all 
 Christians and many unworthy people. It is con- 
 ceived of as an entity in itself, independent of its 
 members, holy, indivisible and inviolate (Cyprian), 
 no longer a community of saved, but a saving insti- 
 tution, outside of which there is no salvation; not 
 the members, but the institution is holy, the indivisible 
 body of Christ, whose essence and unity is in the 
 episcopate; it is the only mediator of grace. To at- 
 tempt to rend it is the greatest sin, and to cut oneself 
 off from it is to lose all hope of salvation. Govern- 
 ment of the church passes largely or wholly into the 
 hands of the clergy, leaving the laity with little sig- 
 nificance. New and small congregations were at- 
 tached to the great churches, under care of presbyters. 
 
 Provincial synods begin to be held about the middle 
 of second century and became a fixed institution by 
 end of period. Questions in dispute affecting Christ- 
 ianity at large were considered, and the decisions were 
 regarded with great respect and soon became binding. 
 Several synods of importance in this period. Elvira 
 306 (?), Aries 314, Ancyra 314. 
 
 2. ITS OFFICERS. (References: H. i. 325-40; K. Sec. 
 34; A. i. 389-415; S. ii. 121-87.) Development rapid, 
 but not everywhere uniform. 
 
 (1) Number of Officers, a. Old Biblical Officers. 
 (a) The general officers apostles, prophets, evangel- 
 
20 A Guide to the Study 
 
 ists, etc. continue into this period, but disappear by 
 end of second century, (b) The two officers of the lo- 
 cal church become three (one bishop, a college of pres- 
 byters and a board of deacons) during first half of sec- 
 ond century (first in Ignatius). These three officers 
 come to be called clergy (elect), while other Christians 
 were only laity (people) ; to have only clinic baptism, to 
 be bound by law to civil or military office, to have been 
 twice married, to have committed heinous sin after bap- 
 tism, to have mutilated oneself, or to be a slave was re- 
 garded as a bar to the clergy before end of period. 
 Bishops and presbyters begin to be called priests c. 200, 
 set apart by special grace conferred in ordination, 
 standing between God and the people, mediators of 
 grace. This holiness is official, not personal. The 
 clergy were supported from their own estates, their 
 own labors and from gifts. 
 
 b. Five new officers had developed in the larger 
 churches by 250 A. D. Subdeacons, assistants of the 
 deacons ; Acolytes, assistants of the bishops ; Exorcists, 
 Readers, Janitors. None of these were ordained. 
 
 (2) Bishops, a. Development was rapid into (a) 
 monarchial bishop, (b) diocesan bishop, (c) archbish- 
 op, (d) bishops about the great cities begin to be re- 
 duced to chor-episcopoi (country bishops), and in next 
 period disappear. Bishops come to be regarded as suc- 
 cessors of the apostles, thus guaranteeing the truth of 
 all church doctrines; they were all called papa (pope), 
 and their sees "Apostolic sees"; their authority came 
 through ordination and was independent of the laity. 
 
 b. Qualifications. He should be thirty years old, 
 chosen from the church where he was to preside, and 
 should have passed through one or more of the lower 
 grades of office. 
 
of Church History. 21 
 
 c. Election was (a) sometimes by local laity, espe- 
 cially early in period, (b) by local clergy, with approval 
 of laity, (c) by neighboring bishops, with approval of 
 local clergy and laity. As yet civil government did not 
 interfere with elections. 
 
 d. Ordination was by (a) neighboring bishops, at 
 least three, and (b) later, by the Metropolitan and 
 neighboring bishops. 
 
 e. Functions, (a) To act as head and presiding of- 
 ficer in the government of the church, (b) to adminis- 
 ter the finances, (c) to administer confirmation and 
 ordination, (d) to sit and vote in the synods, (e) to 
 preach. In addition to these exclusive privileges, he 
 could perform the functions of the other officers. The 
 essence of the church was thought to be in him. Cy- 
 prian says: "The bishop is in the church and the 
 church in the bishop." 
 
 (3) Presbyters were selected usually by people and 
 clergy and ordained by the bishop. They lose greatly 
 in dignity and position in this period. Their functions 
 came to be (a) the conduct of worship on ordinary 
 occasions and in subordinate churches (parishes), (b) 
 administration of ordinances, (c) instruction of the 
 people, (d) advising bishops in diocesan and provin- 
 cial synods, (e) assisting in ordination of other pres- 
 byters. 
 
 (4) Deacons ordained by bishops, belonged to cler- 
 gy, but not priesthood ; assisted in finances, in admin- 
 istration of supper, etc. 
 
 (5) Before end of period the office of metropolitan 
 or archbishop had been developed in certain quarters. 
 Except in North Africa, where the office belonged to 
 the bishop oldest in service, he was the bishop of the 
 
22 A Guide to the Study 
 
 capital or metropolitan city of a political province, and 
 had the superintendence of all the bishops in that 
 province. Other bishops of the province were then 
 called suffragan bishops. The special duties of the 
 metropolitan, as developed in this and the next periods, 
 were (a) the ordination of his suffragans, who in turn 
 ordained their metropolitan, (b) deciding disputes 
 among his suffragans, (c) the calling and presiding 
 over provincial synods, which were usually held twice a 
 year, (d) several other minor duties. 
 
 (6) from the beginning the Roman Church was one 
 of the most influential churches in Christendom, due 
 
 (a) to its excellent character, strength and helpfulness, 
 
 (b) to its location in the eternal city, the capital of the 
 world, (c) to the absence of any other great church 
 in the West that could be a rival, (d) to the fact that 
 it was an apostolic church, supposed to have been 
 founded by Peter and Paul, the greatest apostles, who 
 were martyred and buried there. Toward the end of 
 the period it began to be asserted that Peter was first 
 bishop of the church. But during this period the Ro- 
 man bishop, although widely influential, had no more 
 authority and legal rights than the great metropolitans 
 in the East. He had no jurisdiction over other 
 churches, except in the immediate neighborhood of 
 Rome. 
 
 3. ITS ORDINANCES. During this period the ordi- 
 nances became mysteries, with magical powers, and 
 are surrounded with more and more ceremonies and 
 superstitious reverence, and are more and more bound 
 to the officers in administration. 
 
of Church History. 23 
 
 (1) Baptism. (References: K. Sec. 35; A. i. 416- 
 24; S. ii. 247-65.) 
 
 a. Act. Prevailingly immersion, often, if not usually, 
 trine. Trine pouring allowed first c. 120 A. D., where 
 there was not sufficient water to immerse, and in cases 
 of supposed fatal illness (Novatian). Tertullian is the 
 first to mention holy water (de< bap. 4). 
 
 b. Subject. Usually believers who as catechumens 
 had been instructed in Christian doctrines; but also 
 infants of Christian parents and those under care of 
 Christian people, with sponsors (Tert.). Infant bap- 
 tism found possibly in Irenseus (Her. 2:22), probably 
 in Tertullian (de bap.) and Origen, but first certainly 
 in Cyprian, c. 250 A. D. 
 
 c. Administrator. The bishop (Ig. Smyr. 8), or 
 some one authorized by him (presbyter, deacon or lay- 
 man. Tert. de bap., 17). Tendency is toward greater 
 freedom in this respect. 
 
 d. Significance. It secures remission of sins, sancti- 
 fies, illuminates, perfects (Justin), washes away all pre- 
 vious sin, regenerates; without it salvation is impossi- 
 ble (Hermas, Cyprian). 
 
 e. Additional Ceremonies, (a) Preceding. Extend- 
 ed instruction, two or three years (catechumens), fast- 
 ing (Did.), renunciation of the devil, his pomp and his 
 angels (face westward), vow of obedience to Christ 
 and repetition of creed (face eastward), (b) Follow- 
 ing. Anointing and imposition of hands for gift of 
 Holy Spirit (in West by bishop only), clothes white 
 for a week, kiss of peace, tasting of milk and honey 
 (Tert. de bap. and de Corona, 3). 
 
 f. Time. Any time, but Easter and Pentecost in 
 West and Epiphany in East, specially recommended 
 (Tert. de bap.). 
 
24 A Guide to the Study 
 
 g. Heretical (alien) Baptism. Opinion divided. 
 North Africa and Asia Minor opposed its reception. 
 Rome and other regions favored its reception if ad- 
 ministered in name of Trinity. It must be completed, 
 however, by imposition of hands of bishop. Latter 
 view finally prevailed. 
 
 (2) Eucharist. (References: K. Sec. 36; A. i. 433- 
 40; S. ii. 235-47.) 
 
 Eucharist was part of weekly worship, but is best 
 treated separately, a. Time. Every Sunday, and to- 
 ward end of period at other times, b. Administrator. 
 Bishop, or presbyter authorized by him. Deacons dis- 
 tributed the elements and carried some to the sick and 
 those in prison, c. Elements. Bread and wine min- 
 gled with water. They were taken from the offer- 
 ings brought by the people and consecrated by prayer, 
 d. Participants. The baptized, sometimes children as 
 well as adults. Toward end of period none but partici- 
 pants were allowed to be present, others being dis- 
 missed before the supper (Missa.). e. Significance. 
 It is called the body and blood of Christ, without speci- 
 fying how. It is implied and expressly said to be an 
 offering or sacrifice in Iren. Her. IV 19 :5 ; 18 :4 ; Cyp- 
 rian, eps. 63. Regarded as a high and holy mystery, 
 important for the support of the spiritual life. f. Cel- 
 ebrated in time of Justin (1 Apol. 66) with songs, read- 
 ing Scripture, homily, kiss of peace, consecration, dis- 
 tribution by deacons, the participants standing ; toward 
 end of period much more elaborate ceremonies ; early 
 in this period the love feast (agape) was separated 
 from the supper, then gradually fell into disfavor, and 
 in next period was formally prohibited. 
 
of Church History. 25 
 
 III. WORSHIP. 
 
 References: K i. Sec. 36-38:3; H. i. 348-57; A. i. 440-50; 
 S. ii. 198-235. 
 
 1. TIME. (1) Weekly Worship. Sabbath worship 
 continued into this period, but ceased before its close, 
 being gradually superseded by first or eighth day of the 
 week (heathen Sunday), because Christ arose on this 
 day. It was often before day and after nightfall 
 (Pliny). Day was joyous (no fasting, prayed stand- 
 ing), in contrast with Sabbath, which was gloomy. 
 Apparently work continued on this day in early times. 
 Tertullian is the first to oppose it. In some places 
 worship may have been held on other days also. (2) 
 Annual Seasons. Passover or Easter (controversies 
 over reckoning, 160 and 196), Pentecost, Epiphany 
 from 360 on, dying day of martyrs. (3) Fasts. Two 
 weekly (Did.), forty hours before passover, and at 
 other times appointed by bishop. 
 
 2. PLACE. In private houses, rented halls, and about 
 200 (Clem. Al. and Tert.) special buildings called 
 churches, Lord's houses, houses of God, houses of 
 prayer. The building was a parallelogram, divided into 
 vestibule, nave for the people and raised platform for 
 the bishop, clergy and altar. In form it was a modified 
 basilica. Without pictures, images, stained glass or 
 lights in day time. 
 
 3. CONTENTS. Divided into two parts. (1) When 
 all are present, a. Singing of psalms and hymns to 
 music, adopted probably from both Jewish and heathen 
 sources, b. Reading Scripture (O. and N. Ts.), prob- 
 ably before end of period divided into fixed lessons, c. 
 Prayers, with people standing, d. Preaching by bishop, 
 
26 A Guide to the Study 
 
 at first very simple, but growing more elaborate as 
 period advances. (2) When only believers were pres- 
 ent. Celebration of the supper (see preceding section). 
 
 IV. CHRISTIAN LIFE. 
 
 References: H. i. 358-95; S. ii. 311-414; A. i. 450-61; K. 
 Sees. 38, 39. 
 
 1. HEATHEN MORALS in this period very low. (Ref- 
 erence: Dill, "Roman Society from Nero to Marcus 
 Aurelius.") 
 
 2. CHRISTIAN MORALS, in general greatly better than 
 heathen. 
 
 ( 1 ) Family life was improved ; opposition to marital 
 unfaithfulness, abortion, exposure of children, degrada- 
 tion and abuse of women, divorce except for adultery. 
 Marriage (monogamy) was given religious sanction 
 before 200, while many of the old marriage customs 
 (ring) continued; strong aversion to second marriages 
 (forbidden to clergy) ; high estimate of celibacy as the 
 holier state. The dead were buried (not cremated) in 
 consecrated cemeteries (sleeping places) without ex- 
 travagant lamentations, while the tomb was marked by 
 inscriptions and symbols expressive of hope and vic- 
 tory (anchor, palm, harp, crown). The Catacombs of 
 Rome and other places used for burying ; their extent, 
 ornamentation (fish, ship, dove, historic scenes). Be- 
 fore end of period there were funeral sermons and 
 prayers for the dead, at first prayers of thanksgiving, 
 but later intercessions. Slavery was ameliorated but 
 not abrogated. Many slaves became Christians, and 
 some of them suffered martyrdom heroically. 
 
 (2) Social Life. As far as possible, Christians lived 
 like their neighbors, but largely withdrew from cruel, 
 
of Church History. 27 
 
 corrupting and idolatrous amusements (theatres, cir- 
 cus, gladiatorial combats, religious feasts, etc.) ; from 
 trades and callings that involved the support and recog- 
 nition of idolatry (idol making, instruction of players, 
 etc). This caused them to be stigmatized as haters of 
 mankind. 
 
 (3) Civil and Army Life. Christians rather shunned 
 public life because it exposed them to danger and 
 necessitated contact with heathen rites and morals, and 
 because they opposed war and capital punishment. 
 Still, some were found in the army and in civil office. \ 
 
 (4) Religious Life. There was Sunday worship, 
 fasts on Wednesday and Friday until 3 p. m., daily 
 prayers, frequently at night, constant use of the cross 
 (Tert.). There were extensive charities carried on 
 through the church in aid of widows and orphans, the 
 poor, the imprisoned, etc. Christian symbols replaced 
 heathen ones in the adornment of the home, the ring, 
 etc. Asceticism was highly regarded by 200 (Tert.). 
 Both men and women, while still living in the midst 
 of society, renounced property and marriage, avoided 
 wine and flesh and devoted themselves to prayer and 
 other religious exercises and strove for perfection. 
 Their vow was not irrevocable, but they already formed 
 the spiritual aristocracy, the pride of the church (Tert. 
 and Cyprian). 
 
 (5) Schools and Culture. Apparently there were 
 no Christian schools for general culture, only heathen 
 schools. Some of the Christians were highly educated, 
 while others disdained and despised culture. 
 
 3. DISCIPLINE. (References: H. i. 341-7; K. Sec. 
 39 :2 ; S. ii. 65-7 ; A. i. 424-29.) (1) Persons were pre- 
 pared for baptism by a period of instruction which usu- 
 
28 A Guide to the Study 
 
 ally extended over two years, but might be longer or 
 shorter. These catechumens were divided into three 
 classes : (a) Hearers, permitted to hear only a part of 
 the services; (b) Kneelers, permitted to take part in 
 some of the prayers, but kneeling; (c) Co-standers f 
 who took part in prayers standing, up to time of eucha- 
 ristic service. 
 
 (2) All sins committed prior to baptism were 
 thought to be washed away in that ordinance. 
 
 (3) Sins committed after baptism were divided, from 
 Tertullian on, into venial an\I mortal sins: (a) Venial 
 sins were forgiven on repentance by the imposition of 
 the hands of the clergy, (b) Mortal sins (murder, 
 apostasy, adultery, heresy, schism, etc.) led to exclu- 
 sion from the church. Many held that persons guilty 
 of mortal sins could never be restored to church fel- 
 lowship ; others that they could be restored once ( Her- 
 mas) ; others still laxer. Long penance required by all 
 parties, from one to fifteen or twenty years. At first 
 details of discipline were left to local churches, but 
 before end of period it was regulated, in part at least, 
 by synods (Ancyra, 314). Four degrees of punish- 
 ment: (a) Weepers outside the church, (b) hearers, 
 (c) kneelers, (d) co-standers; the last three 'corres- 
 ponding to grades of catechumens. On conclusion of 
 the period of penitence the imposition of hands and the 
 kiss of peace admitted to communion. This was only 
 the church's forgiveness, and did not insure divine for- 
 giveness. This penitence was only an assurance of 
 repentance, but Tert. calls it "satisfaction," and before 
 long it began to be regarded as the means of regain- 
 ing favor with God. All penitent sinners received the 
 communion when dying the viaticum. Martyrdom, 
 
of Church History. 29 
 
 the "baptism of blood," was supposed to wash away all 
 sins. Persons who had committed mortal sins were not 
 admitted to the clergy. 
 
 V. DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINE. 
 
 References: A. i. 348-87; H. i. 259-98; K. i. Sec. 33; S. ii. 
 509-620. 
 
 1. MAKING THE CHRISTIAN BIBLE. Christians soon 
 began to write as occasion demanded (Paul, some of 
 the twelve, others). These scattered writings circu- 
 lated more or less freely from the first, having an au- 
 thority equal to that of the author and their intrinsic 
 worth for the church at large. As the generation that 
 knew Jesus passed away, these books became the sole 
 depositories of information about Him, and the earliest 
 and most authoritative interpretation of Him. So they 
 began to be quoted for content of fact and doctrine. 
 As time passed, the supreme importance of some of 
 them was more and more recognized, and they began to 
 be put together here and there, and to be called a canon 
 (rule) by which to test doctrine. Controversy with the 
 Gnostics doubtless hastened this process. At any rate, 
 by 160 (Muatorian Canon) the widely scattered 
 Christians, without conciliary action or much discus- 
 sion, had reached a measure of agreement as to what 
 books were to be treated as normative. Absolute unan- 
 imity was never reached, and at the close of the period 
 seven of the books now in our New Testament were 
 still in doubt in the West, while certain sections of the 
 East rejected this or that book now accepted by us. 
 Other books not used by us were read in the churches. 
 None of the early ecumenical councils passed upon the 
 
30 A Guide to the Study 
 
 subject. The books were selected by a process of natural 
 selection by the Christians of the world under the prac- 
 tical test of daily use, and, we believe, divine guidance. 
 The present canon was first defined by the Council of 
 Hippo, 393. This collection came to be called the New 
 Covenant (Testament), and was put alongside the Jew- 
 ish Bible, which now came to be called the Old Cove- 
 nant (Testament), and later the two together were 
 called the Bible (book). 
 
 2. THE FIRST CREED (Apostles'), the product of nat- 
 ural forces, not the decree of a council. It probably 
 grew up around the baptismal formula. Its substance 
 is found in Ire. and in Tert., who calls it a "rule of 
 faith." Its words were not then fixed, but it had most 
 of the ideas of the Apostles' Creed into which it later 
 developed (C. C. ii. 11-41). 
 
 3. RISE AND DEVELOPMENT OF THEOLOGY. The his- 
 tory of theology is the story of faith seeking knowl- 
 edge. It is the formulation and development of Chris- 
 tian truth in contact with usually in more or less con- 
 flict with the general thought of the time ; one of the 
 deposits of controversy. During this period it was in a 
 formative state. There was general agreement, but no 
 authoritative doctrine (dogma). (1) God. There was 
 one only true, living and righteous God, Creator and 
 Preserver of all things visible and invisible (against 
 Gnostics). (2) Christ and the Trinity. There was gen- 
 eral agreement that Christ was God (Pliny, Igna.) and 
 man. The problem was to formulate a statement which 
 preserved (a) the unity of God, (b) the Deity of 
 Christ, (c) the independent personality of Christ. All 
 Christians held to (a), but some were uncertain as to 
 (b) or (c), and a satisfactory statement was not 
 
of Church History. 31 
 
 reached in this period. Three general types of Chris- 
 tology were developed: (a) Dynamic Monarchianism. 
 Christ not truly God, but divinely endowed and exalted 
 to divinity. Alogi in Asia Minor, 170; Theodotians 
 (Theodotus the tanner and Theodotus the banker) at 
 Rome, 192 on ; Artemonites, 200 on ; Paul of Samosata 
 at Antioch, 260 on ; (b) Modal Monarchianism. Christ 
 and God are identical, the Son only a manifestation of 
 the Father. Praxeas of Asia Minor at Rome, 180 on; 
 Noetus of Smyrna at Rome, 200 on ; Zephyrinus and 
 Callistus I, bishops of Rome, 200 on ; Sabellius at Rome 
 and in Egypt, c. 210 on; Beryll of Bostra, 244; (c) 
 Subordination or Logos Christology. The Logos is of 
 the Father but subordinate to Him. Held by many, but 
 specially Tertullian, Hypolitus and Origen ; eternal 
 generation. The relation between divine and human 
 in Christ not yet much discussed. (3) Holy Spirit. 
 Not much discussed. (4) Man. Emphasis was laid 
 upon the freedom of the will, but anthropology and 
 soteriology remained undeveloped. There is a distinct 
 legalistic tendency, a failure to grasp the evangel of 
 Paul. In general, Christ's death was not emphasized ; 
 rather His revelation of life and immortality. In some 
 places Chiliasm highly developed. Belief in good 
 angels and in demons who were constantly exorcised 
 by name of Christ. 
 
 VI. SECTS AND SCHISMS. 
 
 References: N. i. 173-210; S. ii. 415-508; H. i. 207-58; K. i. 
 Sees. 26-29; Sees. 40, 41; A. i. 304-348; 429-32. 
 
 1. HERESIES. 
 
 (1) Among Jewish Christians. Ebionites, Naza- 
 renes and others. Various shades of opinion, but gen- 
 
32 A Guide to the Study 
 
 eral agreement in trying to combine Judaism and Chris- 
 tianity. Mosaic law was thought to be binding on 
 Jews (or all) ; Jesus was only a man, but was specially 
 endowed by the Spirit, and pious above all men. He 
 was the Messiah, worked miracles and supplemented 
 the Law by His commands. General opposition to 
 Paul. 
 
 (2) Among Gentile Christians. Gnosticism, the 
 most dangerous of all the early heresies, was an at- 
 tempt to combine pagan philosophy with the new Chris- 
 tian thought. It rose and flourished in Asia Minor, 
 Egypt, Syria and Rome. 
 
 Doctrines, a. God. One absolute Spirit, with a 
 descending series of JEons or Emanations, source of 
 all good (Pleroma). b. Matter. The eternal kenoma, 
 abode of evil. c. Visible Universe was mixture of 
 spirit and matter, good and evil, brought into shape 
 by the demiurge, usually identical with the God of the 
 Jews, who worked either in opposition to or in igno- 
 rance of the true God. d. Man was mixture of good 
 and evil. Three classes: (a) hylic, wholly material 
 and incapable of salvation ; (b) psychic, endowed with 
 soul and capable of partial salvation; (c) pneumatic 
 (Gnostics), endowed with spirit and capable of com- 
 plete salvation, e. Redemption was effected through 
 knowledge revealed by Christ, one of the highest ./Eons 
 who came on the man Jesus at His baptism and left 
 before crucifixion. /. All spirit would finally be 
 released from matter and ascend with all the redeemed 
 into the pleroma, where it would abide forever. From 
 these fundamental ideas flowed several other doctrines : 
 (a) Rejection of the Old Testament and the Jewish 
 elements of the New; (b) denial of the reality of 
 
of Church History. 33 
 
 r 
 
 Christ's body and sufferings; denial of the resurrec- 
 tion ; (c) an ascetic or a libertine life. Gnosticism was 
 supported by a brief canon, a pretended secret tradi- 
 tion and an extensive spurious literature ascribed to 
 apostles. The most important Gnostics were Saturninus 
 in Syria, c. 100 ; Basilides in Egypt, about 130 ; Valen- 
 tinus in Rome, c. 135 ; Marcion in Rome, c. 138. Mar- 
 cion organized his followers into independent churches. 
 Gnosticism, in one form or another, extended over 
 nearly the whole Christian world, and continued till 
 the fourth century. Gnostics regarded themselves as 
 the elite among Christians and produced an extensive 
 literature. 
 
 2. SCHISMS. (1) Montanism (References: N. i. 
 202-6; H. i. 233-40; K. Sec. 40; A. i. 342-7) 
 was the other extreme from Gnosticism a ref- 
 ormation puritanism. (a) History. It was found- 
 ed by Montanus (Priscilla and Maximilla) in 
 Phrygia, c. 150, spread over Asia Minor, North 
 Africa and the East, made a profound impression, al- 
 most won the recognition of Rome, but was finally 
 condemned as heresy and disappeared in the sixth 
 century, (b) Doctrines and Aims. It sought to re- 
 form the church and restore primitive Christianity. 
 While agreeing in general with church doctrines, it 
 claimed to be the continuation of prophecy and mirac- 
 ulous gifts by the dispensation of the Paraclete through 
 Montanus ; opposed the hierarchy and asserted the uni- 
 versal priesthood of believers ; enforced rigid discipline, 
 rejected second marriages, demanded frequent and 
 rigid fasts, exalted virginity, distinction of venial from 
 mortal sins, of which the latter could not be forgiven 
 by the church ; expectation of the end of the world. 
 
34 A Guide to the Study 
 
 (2) Novatianism (References: N. i. 206f ; H. i. 241- 
 6; K. Sec. 41:3; A. i. 429-32) rose at Rome in 251, 
 after Decian persecution. Novatian, a presbyter in the 
 Roman church, who had received only clinic baptism, 
 opposed the election of Cornelius as Bishop of Rome, 
 and was himself elected opposing bishop. In doctrine 
 he agreed with the church, but maintained that the 
 lapsed should not be restored to church fellowship, 
 and rebaptized all who came to him. He and his 
 followers were excommunicated, but the movement 
 spread rapidly over much of the empire, dividing 
 churches and founding new ones, which existed till the 
 sixth century. They called themselves Cathari, Puri- 
 tans. 
 
 (3) Donatism (References: N. i. 208-10; H. i. 249- 
 58 ; K. 63 :1 ; A. i. 511-18) arose at Carthage during the 
 Diocletian persecution. A fanatical party in North Af- 
 rica courted martyrdom and venerated martyrs' bones. 
 Constantine opposed, and after their condemnation by 
 several church councils, persecuted them. Persecu- 
 tion continued with interruptions throughout fourth 
 century. Augustine apposed them and counseled their 
 suppression. Accordingly, in 415 the government un- 
 dertook more vigorous measures. Still they main- 
 tained their existence, even through the Vandal in- 
 vasion, and were swept out of existence with the rest 
 of Christianity in North Africa by the Mohammedan 
 invasion in the seventh century. 
 
 They agreed with the church in organization and in 
 doctrine, infant baptism, baptismal regeneration, etc.; 
 but rebaptized, held that the validity of an ordinance 
 depended on the character of the administrator, op- 
 
Church Histor. 35 
 
 posed the interference of the government in church 
 affairs (after futile efforts to influence the govern- 
 ment in their behalf), enforced strict discipline. 
 
 (4) Manichaism (References: N. 194-7; H. i. 225-7; 
 K. Sec. 29; A. i. 335-42), more a rival religion closely 
 akin to Gnosticism than a sect of Christianity ; founded 
 early in third century in Persia by Mani d. 277; he 
 grafted Buddhist and Christian elements upon the old 
 Zoroastrian religion, and proclaimed the mixture as 
 the only genuine Christianity. By his gifts he attained 
 great favor and propagated his views widely in Persia ; 
 spread into the Empire, were persecuted by Diocletian 
 (287) and in fourth and fifth centuries deeply affected 
 Italy and North Africa (Augustine). It disappeared 
 as an organization in sixth century, though its in- 
 fluence continued deep into the Middle Ages in the 
 doctrines of other sects. Its principal doctrines were 
 an absolute dualism, rejection of the Old Testament, 
 and of the Jewish elements from the New, Docetic 
 Christology. The world is a mixture of the two ele- 
 ments of light and darkness, and the work of Christ 
 is to redeem the light. The Manichseans were divided 
 into "hearers" and "perfect," the latter practicing 
 rigid asceticism, rejecting marriage, etc. They were 
 organized into independent churches, kept Sunday, 
 had simple worship, celebrated baptism with oil and 
 the supper with bread only. 
 
 VII. CHRISTIAN LITERATURE. 
 
 References: N. i. 211-90; S. ii. 621-866; H. i. 191-206; K. 
 Sees. 30-32; A. i. 293-298. 
 
 The Christian literature of the period was chiefly 
 in Greek, but in North Africa Latin was the literary 
 
36 A Guide to the Study 
 
 language of Christianity. From the region of Edessa 
 emanated a translation of Scripture into Syriac along 
 with some other literature of minor importance. In 
 addition to defenses of Christianity against heathen- 
 ism (see apologists), there appeared able and exten- 
 sive polemics against Gnosticism and other perversions 
 of Christianity, against Montanists, Novatianists and 
 other schismatics; expositions of Scripture, often fan- 
 ciful and crude ; tracts for edification and the enforce- 
 ment of Christian virtues; explanation and defense 
 of prevailing religious customs ; toward end of period 
 tracts on doctrines and the beginnings of systematic 
 theology and of history ; wholly by Gentile Christians. 
 It adopted the prevalent literary forms, and compares 
 favorably in ability and finish with the literature of 
 the heathen. The most important authors of this 
 period in Greek were Clement of Rome, c. 96; Bar- 
 nabas, c. 120; Ignatius, c. 115; Hermas, c. 140; Di- 
 dache, c. 120; Aristides, c. 140; Justin Martyr, fc. 
 165 ; Tatian, c. 172 ; Athenogoras, c. 177 ; Irenaeus, fc. 
 202; Clement of Alexandria, fc. 220; Hippolytus, fc. 
 235 ; Origen, fc. 254. The only authors of note who 
 used the Latin were Tertullian, f c. 220 ; Cyprian, f258, 
 and Novatian, c. 251. 
 
 SECOND PERIOD, 323 TO c. 600. 
 
 Christianity in the Christian Roman Empire. The 
 % Imperial Church gradually dissolving with the disso- 
 lution of the Empire. 
 
 I. EXTERNAL HISTORY. 
 
 1. SECULAR HISTORY. Constantine (sole emperor 
 323-37) reorganizes the government, regulates the 
 
of Church History. 37 
 
 taxes, separates military from civil government, abol- 
 ishes the Pretorian guard, moves the capital of the 
 empire to Byzantium (Nova Roma) ; divides empire 
 among his three sons as emperors; Constantine II 
 (337-40) reigns over Gaul ; Constans (337-50) Illyri- 
 cum, Italy, and after defeating and killing Constan- 
 tine II (340), over Gaul also; Constantius (337-61) 
 over Orient, and after death of Constans (350) over 
 the reunited empire. Julian (361-3), Jovian (363f), 
 Valentinian I (364-75) divides empire again, making 
 his brother Valens emperor over Eastern half (364- 
 78) ; Gratian, emperor in West (375-83) makes Theo- 
 dosius emperor in East (379-95), on death of Valens 
 in battle with Goths. Gratian, killed by the usurper 
 Clemens Maximus (383-8), is succeeded by Valen- 
 tinian II (383-94). On his death Theodosius once 
 more unites the whole empire (394-5). On his death 
 it was again divided, never to be re-united, though it 
 was regarded as a unit with a divided government 
 until 476, when the fiction of re-union was revived by 
 the overthrow of the western emperor, the delivery of 
 the imperial insignia to the emperor in the East, and 
 the actual government of Italy by Germans. The 
 Western Empire fell in 476, the Eastern in 1453. 
 
 In East. Theodosius was succeeded by his elder 
 son Arcadius (395-408). Theodosius II (408-50). 
 Marcian (450-7). Leo I (457-74). Zeno (474-91). 
 Anastasius I (491-518). Justin I (518-27), Justinian 
 I, The Great (527-65), Justin II (565-78), Tiberius 
 II (578-82). Maurice (582-602). The empire was 
 able to drive westward the West and East Goths who 
 had at first appropriated territory south of the Dan- 
 ube ; but lost territory on the East to the Persians ; 
 
38 A Guide to the Study 
 
 was torn by internal strife due to corrupt court and 
 bitter religious controversy. Justinian, making a de- 
 termined effort to restore authority over the West, 
 succeeded through his great generals Belisarius and 
 Narses, in recovering North Africa (534) and Italy 
 (555). Most of the latter was lost again (568) to 
 the Lombards, and North Africa in seventh century 
 I rf to Mohammedans. 
 
 In West. Theodosius was succeeded by his younger 
 son Honorius (395-423), who removed the imperial 
 residence to Ravenna for safety, 402. After a usurper 
 comes Valentinian III (425-55) ; utter confusion till 
 476, when Romulus Augustulus was forced to resign 
 by the German adventurer Odoacer, leader of the 
 Heruli, who rules Italy as patrician under the eastern 
 emperor. 
 
 One by one the German tribes had rent the western 
 provinces from the empire and set up independent 
 governments, thus laying the foundations of the mod- 
 ern European states. They were still barbarous, hav- 
 ing neither literature nor written language, no cities 
 or settled life, with organization gradually developing 
 from tribal into kingly; imperfect agriculture; largely 
 engaged in .hunting and war;! either heathen or Arian 
 in religion; they everywhere largely overthrew exist- 
 ing institutions. They broke over the Rhine and the 
 Danube about the same time. In 375 the West Goths 
 (Visigoths), pressed by the Huns and East Goths, 
 crossed the lower Danube, defeated and killed Valens 
 at Adrianople in 378, and were permitted by Theodo- 
 sius to settle; soon rebelled (395) and wasted Mace- 
 donia, Illyria and Greece ; moving westward they enter 
 Italy (401), sack Rome (410), then become allies of 
 
of Church History. 39 
 
 Romans, move into South Gaul and Spain to fight 
 other Germans and found West Gothic Empire in 
 Spain, with capital at Toledo (415-711). Vandals, 
 Suevi and Alani had crossed the Rhine (406), fought 
 their way across Gaul into Spain (409), where they 
 settled, Vandals in South, Alani in Southwest, Suevi 
 in Northwest. Attacked by Goths the Vandals cross 
 to North Africa (429) and form an empire, capital at 
 Carthage, that lasts till 534. They waste the country ; 
 persecute orthodox Christians; found a navy, waste 
 the coasts of the Mediterranean and sack Rome (455), 
 (Vandalism). Burgundians at first settled on middle 
 Rhine, but c. 443 on upper Rhine. Alemanni, c. 443, 
 settled modern Alsace and part of Switzerland. 
 Angles, Saxons and Jutes began invasion of England 
 449, and gradually over-ran all except Wales and 
 Cornwall, destroying all civilization and establishing 
 heathenism again. Formed seven kingdoms (hep- 
 tarchy). The Huns (Mongolians) appear in East 
 Europe 375, spread over country north of the Danube 
 and under their king, Attila (Scourge of God), waste 
 much of West Europe; defeated at Chalons (451) by 
 Romans and allied Germans ; they wasted North Italy 
 452, but Attila died 453 and his kingdom falls to 
 pieces. The Salian Franks, c. 406, begin to cross the 
 lower Rhine and spread over North Gaul; their king, 
 Clovis (481-511), defeated Syagrius, the last Roman 
 governor in Gaul, at Soissons 486, makes himself king 
 of all the Franks, thus forming the Frankish Empire; 
 defeats the Alemanni (496) at Strasburg, becomes am 
 orthodox Christian and extends his power over most 
 of Gaul, founding the Merovingian dynasty. The 
 East Goths (Ostro-Goths) follow the West Goths 
 
40 A Guide to the Study 
 
 across the lower Danube and settle in Pannonia; by 
 agreement with Eastern emperor, their king, Theodoric 
 the Great (474-526) undertook to recover Italy for 
 the empire (489) ; he defeated, captured and executed 
 Odoacer 493, and then, instead of turning over Italy 
 to the Eastern empire, founded the East Gothic e'm- 
 pire in North Italy with capital at Verona ; a great and 
 good ruler, establishing justice, preserving the old 
 culture and restoring order out of chaos. His min- 
 ister, Cassiodorus, wrote history of the Goths. Boe- 
 thius and Symmachus executed 525. In 535 East * 
 Empire began war to exterminate East Goths in Italy ; 
 after 20 years fighting they disappear and Italy is 
 made a province of Eastern empire with capital at Ra-* 
 venna (exarchate). The Lombards, who since about 
 500 had settled in Pannonia, invaded Italy 568, made 
 Pavia their capital and gradually overran most of 
 central Italy, founding duchies in Friaul, Spoleto and 
 Beneventum. Venice, Ravenna, Naples and Calabria 
 remained in possession of the Eastern empire; Rome 
 and the Patrimony of Peter was ruled by the pope, . 
 while acknowledging the suzerainty of the Eastern f 
 emperor. 
 
 2. EXTERNAL HISTORY OF CHRISTIANITY. (Refer- 
 ences: N. i. 305-19; H. i. 410-26; K. Sec. 42; A. i. 
 463-504; S. iii. 10-71.) At beginning of period per- 
 haps one-tenth of the population was Christian, at close 
 the whole of it. One-tenth was won in 300 years, and 
 remaining nine-tenths in 275 years. 
 
 (1) Decay and death of heathenism and establish- 
 ment of Christianity within the Empire both natives* 
 and Germans converted by end of period, except in 
 England. 
 
of Church History. 41 
 
 Gradually heathenism dies both in East and West"] 
 and Christianity, itself being corrupted by degrees, 
 succeeds to its place in private and public life in the 
 state. It is now to have governmental favor and con-* 
 trol. Not a Christian foresaw the danger, not a single 
 protest except by Donatists, and by them only after 
 failure to win favor of the government. World was 
 accustomed to union of religion and the state, and ' 
 Christianity accepted it as matter of course. Each 
 party protested under persecution and sought to win 
 favor of state, but no party protested against the 
 principle of union. \Constantine did not, except in 
 a few cases, persecute or repress heathenism, but 
 favored Christianity without establishing it as the' 
 state religion. He preached, promoted Christians in 
 office, relieved the clergy from taxation, military and 
 municipal duties, built churches, legalized gifts to 
 churches, made Constantinople a Christian city, made 
 Sunday a legal holiday, modified some cruel laws, 
 gave his sons a Christian education; considered him- 
 self bishop in externals, called council of Nicea, re- 
 pressed the Donatists, favored the orthodox, but later 
 the Arians. Constantine II and Constans favored the 
 orthodox; Constantius repressed heathenism (heathen 
 sacrifice made capital crime 356), and tried ineffec- 
 tually to impose Arianism on the entire Empire (after 
 350). Julian, educated as a Christian, secretly re- 
 turned to heathenism (351), and as emperor re- 
 nounced Christianity and sought to revive heathenism 
 restored and reorganized the heathen priesthood 
 and worship, organized charities after Christian 
 models; tolerated all parties of Christians in order 
 to introduce confusion, but removed them from mili- 
 
42 A Guide to the Study 
 
 tary and civil office, imposed heavy taxes, forced them 
 to restore heathen property and support heathen wor- 
 ship; forbade Christians to teach in the state schools 
 or even study the classics ; wrote against Christianity ; 
 favored the Jews and sought ineffectually to rebuild 
 the temple at Jerusalem. Jovian restored Christianity 
 to its former privileges but tolerated heathenism ; Val- 
 entinian and Valens prohibited bloody heathen sacri- 
 fices and divination, branding heathenism as paganism. 
 Valens was Arian and persecuted the orthodox. Gra- 
 tian renounced the title of Pontifex Maximus, con- 
 fiscated the heathen temples, abolished the privileges 
 of the heathen priests and vestal virgins, withdrew 
 state support from public worship, and in 382 re- 
 moved the altar and statue of Victory from senate 
 house; Theodosius further repressed heathenism andj 
 fully established orthodox Christianity as the religion 
 of the Empire ; many temples East and West destroyed 
 by mobs. In East Theodosius II ordered (435) all 
 temples to be destroyed or turned into churches ; Jus- 
 tinian I prohibited heathen worship on pain of death] 
 and in 529 closed the school of Athens, thus bringing 
 heathen culture to end. In West the German invasion 
 largely destroyed heathenism, but it lingered till mid- | 
 die of sixth century. (How much still lingers in the 
 church?) (At the end of the period heathenism is 
 dead within the bounds of the old Roman Empire 
 
 Jand Christianity has taken its place as the state re- 
 ligion.) In the imperial government and among the 
 Franks it is orthodox, among other Germans, Arian. 
 This the principal mission work of the period. Details 
 as to where, by whom and when Germans were con- 
 verted to Arianism, then to orthodoxy, unknown for 
 
of Church History. 43 
 
 most part; apparently it was with ease and without^ 
 persecution. Probable reasons: (1) Their religion 
 was a nature worship, which probably had little hold 
 on them, was unorganized, without priests, images, 
 temples, social worship, liturgy, sacred books or theol- 
 ogy. (2) In migrating they left behind all sacred 
 places; gods were local deities, and hence largely left 
 behind, too. (3) Christianity's union with culture and 
 civilization, its ornate worship, great churches, theol- 
 ogy, sacred books, priesthood, etc., easily mastered 
 these untutored children of nature. 
 
 (2) Missions outside the Empire.- (1) In the West, 
 N. i. 412-15; H. i. 619-31; 651-61. a. Ireland evan- 
 gelized by Patrick, a Briton. Carried as captive to 
 Ireland he escaped, was converted, returned to Ireland 
 and began work c. 432. Great success. Ireland soon 
 nominally Christian. The church had monastic organ- 
 ization, missionary enthusiasm, culture, was inde- 
 pendent of Rome, "Isle of Saints." b. In Scotland 
 first important missionary was Ninian, a Pict, educated 
 at Rome, who preached among Picts of Southwest 
 Scotland, c. 402 on. Work did not prosper until Irish 
 began. Columba (521-97), a well educated Irish 
 monk, who had done much work in Ireland, settled 
 with twelve companions at lona, 563 ; evangelized Picts 
 and Scots over much of Scotland, founded churches 
 and monasteries. Christianity independent of Rome 
 and of same general character as that in Ireland, mon- 
 astic organization, emphasis on education, simple piety, 
 missionary zeal. 
 
 (2) In the East (K. Sec. 64; A. i. 499-505). a. Per- 
 sia. Christianity, introduced into the region east of the 
 Tigris in preceding period, continued to flourish in 
 
44 A Guide to the Study 
 
 this. Under the Parthians (226) Christians were not 
 molested, but under the native Sassanide dynasty 
 (226-632), who were devoted to Zoroastrianism, they 
 were bitterly persecuted at times, e. g., 343-78 and 
 418-48. Persian Christians long closely allied with| 
 those of the Empire, hence suspected of disloyalty to 
 Persia, which was usually at war with the Empire. 
 In 410 Bishop of Ctesiphon was made head of the 
 church, and in 423 appeals to Antioch were forbidden, 
 thus severing the Persian from the imperial church.! 
 The Nestorians, driven from the Empire (431 on- 
 ward), were welcomed in Persia, and in 498 the whole 
 Persian church adopted Nestorianism. Henceforth 
 development was independent, missions flourished, ex- 
 tending to India and even China, where flourishing 
 churches were established. Had married clergy, mon- 
 asteries and schools, b. Armenia. Mesrob, c. 440, in- 
 vented alphabet and translated Scripture into Arme- 
 nian, beginning the golden age of Armenian literature. 
 They resisted (c. 450) an attempt of the Persians to 
 force Zoroastrianism on them, rejected Nestorianism, 
 but accepted Monophisitism, rejecting creed of Chal- 
 cedon, 527. Toward end of fourth century Armenian 
 church became entirely independent of the imperial * 
 church. Had married clergy and monasticism. Chris- 
 tianity was also planted in Georgia and flourished, 
 c. Abyssinian Church planted in this period, became 
 \monophysite and so remains. 
 
 (3) Among the Germans. Ulfilas or Wolf (311- 
 81), an Arian, educated at Constantinople, converted 
 the West Goths to Arian Christianity (341 onward),, 
 before they moved into the Empire, reducing the 
 Gothic language to writing, translating portions of the 
 
of Church History. 45 
 
 Bible into it, thus beginning a German literature. The 
 other Germanic tribes, except the Franks, were orig- 
 | inally converted to Arianism, but had embraced ortho- 
 dox views for the most part by the end of the period. 
 < (4) Jerome (340-420) revised the Latin version, 
 which became the Bible of Western Christendom (Vul- 
 gate) and remains the Catholic Bible to the present 
 time. It has been more widely used and influential 
 than any other version. 
 
 II. THE CHURCH. 
 
 ITS OFFICERS, ORGANIZATION, COUNCILS, LAW, 
 ORDINANCES. 
 
 1. ITS OFFICERS. (References: K. Sec. 45; S. iii. 
 234-359; A. i. 646-63.) The people had less and less 
 
 (i influence in the selection of their officers, who more 
 and more formed a close corporation, an exclusive 
 order. Most of them had only such education as they 
 
 /could pick up in actual service or in monastic or dio- 
 cesan schools. No theological schools in the West; 
 in the East five, Alexandria, Cesarea, Antioch, Edessa 
 and Nisibis (Nestorian). Several of the greatest 
 fathers were educated in heathen schools, e. g., Basil, 
 the two Gregories, Chrysostom. Celibacy was more 
 and more exalted and finally required in the East for 
 the bishops, in the West for all clergy down to sub- 
 deacon. In the East clergy from the priest down are 
 allowed to marry once, but not after ordination. This 
 led to much sexual immorality f The number of 
 
 ^ church officers was increased in the large churches by 
 creation of stewards and secretaries to care for prop- 
 erty, nurses and buriers of the dead. There were also 
 
46 A Guide to the Study 
 
 arch-presbyters and arch-deacons, the latter standing 
 near the bishop and usually succeeding him. Dea- 
 conesses disappeared in the West about end of period, 
 while they continued in the East till twelfth century. 
 Tonsure was introduced, before end of period; in East, 
 
 'clergy wore full beard jj in West gradually discarded 
 beard altogether. A solemn investiture of bishops 
 
 j with the insignia of office (ring, crozier and pallium) 
 was gradually introduced. Clergy were freed from 
 
 ^burdens of civil life and from jurisdiction of civil 
 courts, and made subject to ecclesiastical courts which 
 gradually grew up around the bishops. By end of 
 period bishops had gained the exclusive right of con- 
 firming, ordaining and consecrating the holy oil ; had 
 attained great eminence in society and the state. Em- 
 perors now assumed right to control the elections of 
 the most important ones and in some cases appointed 
 them. Byzantine emperors believed the control of the 
 church a part of their rights. 
 
 s 2. ORGANIZATION. (References: N. i. 393-406; K. 
 Sec. 46; A. i. 663-77; S. iii. 271-329.) The West 
 becomes more unified and centralized under leadership 
 of Bishop of Rome ; the East, divided among four 
 patriarchs and torn by ecclesiastical rivalry and theo- 
 logical discussion, broken into several parties.' 
 
 a. Patriarchs. The episcopate, already divided into 
 country bishops, city bishops and metropolitans (arch- 
 bishops in West), now developed five patriarchs 
 (Alexandria, Antioch, Rome, Constantinople and 
 Jerusalem) who had oversight over two or more prov- 
 inces, ordained metropolitans, conducted councils, pub- 
 lished decrees of councils and of the Emperors, etc. 
 
 b. Roman Bishop called himself Papa, and gradually 
 '^ extended patriarchal authority over most of the West. 
 
of Church History. 47 
 
 Some conditions that helped him were : Rome was ( 1 ) 
 the only patriarchate in West; (2) capital city of the 
 world; (3) the only apostolic church in the West; 
 (4) was thought to have been founded by Peter, now 
 regarded as prince of the apostles; (5) it remained 
 staunchly orthodox, while the East was torn by theolog- 
 ical controversy; (6) removal of the emperors from 
 Rome ; (7) political confusion in West, due to German 
 invasions; (8) several great bishops, Leo I (440-61), 
 Gregory I (590-604) and others. 
 ^c. Councils. (K. 43:2; A. i. 677-84; iii. 65, 66.) 
 An ascending series of councils was developed: (1) 
 Diocesan, frequent; (2) Provincial, semi-annually ; 
 (3) National; (4) Patriarchal; (5) Ecumenical. The 
 last three were held irregularly at call of king, patri- 
 arch or emperor. The Ecumenical, supposed to rep- 
 
 I resent all Christendom, were mainly oriental, held near 
 Constantinople, composed chiefly of Greek bishops, 
 using Greek language, engaged with Greek theolog- 
 ical questions. The earlier ones were called by the 
 emperor, while later the call was made in conjunction 
 with the pope. Emperors ratified the decrees, making 
 
 them laws of the empire; later this was done by the 
 pope. They exercised both judicial and legislative 
 functions. The laity were not represented; deacons 
 and presbyters could deliberate, but only bishops 
 voted. !ln matters of discipline the majority decided ; 
 on faith and morals unanimity was required and was 
 sometimes attained by exclusion of the intractable. 
 
 / Doctrinal decisions (dogmas) were regarded as in- 
 spired and infallible; disciplinary decrees (canons) 
 could be changed. . These councils were characterized 
 by intrigue and violence. They were Nicea 325, I 
 
48 A Guide to the Study 
 
 Constantinople 381, Ephesus 431, Chalcedon 451, II 
 Constantinople 553, III Constantinople 680, II Nicea 
 787. 
 
 d. Ecclesiastical Courts and Canon Law. (K. Sec. 43 : 
 3f ; S. iii. 353-5.) During this period a body of church 
 law grew up and was practically complete by end of 
 period. It was put together in the West by Dionysius 
 Exiguus, c. 500 (later added to by Isidore of Seville), 
 and in East (with some differences) by John Scholas- 
 ticus, c. 550. It consists of (a) Apostolic Canons, 
 origin unknown, (b) Canons of the ecumenical coun- 
 cils, (c) Decrees of several important provincial coun- 
 cils, (d) Some letters of the more important bishops, 
 (e) Ecclesiastical laws of the emperors. Violations 
 of canon law were penalized by the state and punished 
 like other crimes. The clergy were exempt from the 
 jurisdiction of the civil courts and law, being tried by 
 ecclesiastical (episcopal) courts according to canon 
 law. 
 
 3. ORDINANCES (baptism and eucharist) (N. i. 425f ; 
 K. Sec. 58; A. i. 706-25; S. iii. 480-517.) have grown 
 into sacraments, signs and mediators of inward grace. 
 By end of period confirmation, ordination and marriage 
 iwere usually added to baptism and eucharist as sac- 
 raments. 
 
 (1) Baptism. Infant baptism not universal, but 
 rapidly spreading; trine immersion in the East and in 
 the West outside of Spain ; sprinkling allowed only in 
 case of sickness; heretical baptism, if done in the name 
 of the Trinity, generally accepted after the imposition 
 of the bishop's hands. Baptism of adults was pre- 
 ceded by, and that of children followed by a course of 
 instruction which was becoming briefer and less thor-t 
 
of Church History. 49 
 
 ough. Baptism was administered, if possible, at 
 Easter, Pentecost or Epiphany, and by end of period 
 usually in a baptistry. Ceremonies preceding baptism 
 were exorcism, breathing on candidate, touching the 
 ears with the exclamation Ephphatha, making the 
 sign of the cross on the forehead and breast and giv- 
 ing salt; following the ordinance the candidate was 
 clothed in white and given milk and honey. Baptism 
 was a saving ordinance, removing the guilt of all pre- 
 ceding sin and making an indelible impression on the 
 soul. 
 
 (2) Confirmation consisted in anointing the fore- 
 head, nose, ear and breast with consecrated oil, and 
 the imposition of the hands of the bishop (or priest in 
 East). It was thought to complete baptism and con- 
 firm its gracious effects. 
 
 (3) Eucharist "is both a sacrament wherein God 
 conveys to us a certain blessing, and a sacrifice which 
 man offers to God. As a sacrament, or the com- 
 munion, it stands at the head of all sacred rites ; as a 
 sacrifice it stands alone." It was growing to be the 
 center, the holy of holies in the worship, (a) As a 
 sacrament the eucharist was not the subject of con- 
 troversy or church action in this period ; hence various 
 shades of opinion existed, but it was regarded as most 
 holy and as in some sense containing the presence of 
 the glorified Christ, but was not adored. The wine 
 was mixed with water; the Greek church used leav- 
 ened, the Latin unleavened bread. In North Africa 
 and the East there was infant communion and the 
 withholding of the cup from the laity. In the pre- 
 ceding period secret (disciplina arcani), the eucharist 
 
 /now becomes public and the center of worship, (b) 
 
50 A Guide to the Study 
 
 As a sacrifice it is the most solemn mystery of the 
 church, the point where the human and divine best 
 meet and mingle. The Ante-Nicene fathers regarded 
 the eucharist as a "thank offering of the church; the 
 congregation offering the consecrated elements of 
 bread and wine, and in them itself, to God." As the 
 consecrated elements came to be identified with Christ, 
 it became a sacrifice of Christ, a daily unbloody repeti- 
 tion of the tragedy of Calvary, the antitype of the 
 Mosaic sacrifice, offered only by a priest, and is effica- 
 cious for the whole body of the church, living and dead, 
 for whom prayer is made at that time. The elaborate 
 ceremony of consecration is very impressive, and af- 
 fects all that art can do to stimulate devotion. This 
 conception is complete in Gregory I, and henceforth 
 , the sacrifice more and more overshadows the sacra- 
 ment. 
 
 III. WORSHIP. 
 References: K. Sees. 55-60; A. i. 685-706; S. in. 375-599;. 
 
 Questions relating to worship were not discussed as 
 those in theology, and consequently worship was not 
 
 'as uniform as was theology; many local differences 
 with broader variations between the Latin and Greek 
 churches. The practice of the Roman church grad- 
 ually extended over the entire West. Worship devel- 
 ops very rapidly, becoming more elaborate and complex 
 in every respect during this period. 
 
 1. PLACE. There were many and great church 
 
 /buildings from the time of Constantine on chiefly 
 basilicas, oblong buildings facing east and west, but 
 also round and polygonal ones. Chief elements of 
 
of Church History. 51 
 
 basilicas were vestibule, nave, aisles, transept, choir. 
 Chief furniture was an altar and a reading desk. 
 Baptistries were sometimes separate buildings. 
 Churches ornamented with frescoes, mosaics and re- 
 liefs of Christ, Mary and other saints, and symbolic 
 ' figures. Monks began to erect large monasteries. 
 
 2. TIME. (1) Weekly Cycle. Clergy and monks 
 kept seven hours of prayer daily (3 A. M., 6 A. M., 
 etc., to 9 P. M.) Wednesday, Friday and sometimes 
 Saturday were kept as partial fast days. Sunday was 
 
 ^ chief day of worship. Civil Sunday begins with Con- 
 stantine who prohibited manual labor in the cities, 
 judicial proceedings and military exercises on that 
 day, while the soldiers, pagan and Christian, were re- 
 quired to worship. (2) The Christian Year is almost 
 completed in this period, and is intended to set forth 
 annually and in pictorial and dramatic form belief 
 in the great facts of redemption, "a chronological con- 
 
 Ifession of faith." The order, date and character of 
 the celebrations are determined partly by the Old Tes- 
 tament, partly by gospel history, partly by natural 
 year, and partly by pre-existing heathen and Jewish 
 festivals, which were adopted and adapted. When 
 completed there were three groups or cycles: Christ- 
 mas, Easter and Pentecost, representing respectively 
 (1) the birth, (2) passion and resurrection of Christ, 
 (3) the gift of Holy Spirit, and each preceded by pre- 
 paratory and followed by completing ceremonies, (a) 
 Christmas, December 25th (closely related to Saturna- 
 lia and other heathen festivals of that season), in cele- 
 bration of Christ's birth first appears at Rome c. 360. It 
 is preceded by four (in East six) Advent Sundays, and 
 is followed by feast of the naming of Jesus, January 
 
52 A Guide to the Study 
 
 1st, and on January 6th Epiphany (in East the feast 
 of His baptism and of his first miracle, in West feast 
 of the Three Kings), (b) Easter (first Sunday after 
 first full moon after vernal equinox), in celebration of 
 the resurrection, is preceded by forty days of repent- 
 ance and fasting, beginning with Ash Wednesday. 
 Passion or Holy Week begins with Palm Sunday 
 (triumphal entry), followed by Maundy Thursday 
 (Institution of Supper), Good Friday (crucifixion), 
 Great Sabbath (Jesus in grave, a favorite time for 
 baptisms), Easter Sunday (resurrection), a day of 
 great rejoicing. (c) Pentecost (seventh Sunday 
 after Easter) was the feast of the Holy Ghost. The 
 whole period of seven weeks between Easter and 
 Pentecost a joyous season, a continuous Sunday (no 
 fasting or kneeling in prayer). The fortieth day 
 (Thursday) Ascension day. After 10th century Sun- 
 day following Pentecost was celebrated as feast of 
 the Trinity, and still later the following Thursday 
 became Corpus Christi, the feast of tran-substantia- 
 tion, thus completing the cycle. 
 
 Gradually every day in the year became sacred to 
 some saint (several to different events in the life of 
 Mary). 
 
 3. OBJECTS. Before end of period there is worship 
 of saints, images, relics and angels. The invocation 
 of Mary (thought to have remained a virgin free from 
 actual, and by some authors, original sin, to have 
 risen from the dead and to have been taken up to 
 heaven (assumption), begins in second half of the 
 4th century. She became the "Mother of God," 
 "Queen of Heaven," the compassionate, who moves 
 her Son to mercy; a sort of restoration of the female 
 
of Church History. 53 
 
 divinities of the heathen. Other saints apostles, 
 prophets, martyrs were venerated and invoked from 
 the beginning of the 5th century, so angels; patron 
 angels led to saints as patrons of countries, trades, 
 etc. James of Spain, Andrew of Greece, Luke of 
 Painters, etc. Churches and chapels were built over 
 graves of martyrs and dedicated to saints. This de- 
 scended from the heathen hero-worship, and is a sort 
 of refined polytheism. In order to avoid the heathen 
 abuses that poured into the church, the fathers in- 
 vented distinction between douleia, service given to 
 saints, images, relics, cross, crown and coat of Jesus, 
 etc., and latreia, that given to God. This new idolatry 
 
 I produces a new mythology Acta Sanctorum lives 
 or stories of the saints, very extensive. Miracles of 
 healing, immense traffic in relics (largely fraudulent) ; 
 pilgrimages to holy places frequent. 
 
 4. CONTENT. Public worship now entirely litur- 
 
 1 gical, conducted by authorized officers only. Cele- 
 bration of mass and Eucharist was center (see above). 
 The elements were : ( 1 ) the reading of Old and New 
 Testaments, in West arranged in collects or lessons 
 suited to the season in the Christian year; (2) Sing- 
 ing psalms and an increasing number of uninspired 
 songs; trained singers; (3) Prayers; (4) Preaching 
 by the bishop. This the golden age of preaching 
 among the Latin and Greek fathers. Among the 
 Greeks were Chrysostom, the "Three Cappadocians," 
 Eusebius of Nicomedia and others ; among the Latins 
 Ambrose, Augustine and others. Sermons were rhe- 
 torical, built on classical models. 
 
54 A Guide to the Study 
 
 IV. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THEOLOGY 
 CONTROVERSIES. 
 
 Reference: S. iii. 600-16. 
 
 f This was the golden age of theological develop- 
 ment and formulation. Never was Christendom so 
 torn by controversy about fundamental things. Its 
 history is the story of the development of Christian 
 
 | truth under the influence of classical culture, and speci- 
 fically of philosophy. The sources were the Scrip- 
 tures including Apocrypha, and tradition which de- 
 termined the contents of Scriptures and interpreted 
 them. The process was controversy, carried on chiefly 
 by the Greeks and eventuated in statements of doc- 
 trine by ecumenical councils, which were regarded 
 as inspired, and their acceptance necessary to salva- 
 tion. The councils were often marked by intrigue 
 and violence and led to schisms. Their decrees were 
 accepted as laws of the empire, and were often en- 
 forced by the imperial power. The main theological 
 controversies were (1) Trinitarian, (2) Origenistic, 
 
 / (3) Christological, (4) Anthropological. 
 
 1. TRINITARIAN DISCUSSION CONTINUED ARIAN- 
 ISM. (References: N. i. 324-31; K. Sees. 49, 50; 
 H. i. 427-38; A. i. 519-54; S. iii. 616-98. Newman, 
 Arians of the 4th Century 1838; Gwatkin, Studies in 
 Arianism 1882 and The Arian Controversy 1889.) 
 
 The final stage of the trintarian controversy was 
 started by the priest Arius at Alexandria 318. It 
 involved the deity of Christ and the entire conception 
 of God. Arians held that the Logos was the first 
 creation of God, that He existed before the incarnation 
 but was not eternal ; that he created all else (even the 
 
of Church History. 55 
 
 Holy Spirit), and was worthy of worship, but did not 
 perfectly comprehend God or perfectly reveal Him. 
 The controversy may be divided into four stages, (1) 
 from 318 to the temporary victory of orthodoxy at 
 the Council of Nicea 325; (2) the reaction and 
 temporary victory of Arianism 325 to 361 ; (3) second 
 reaction and final victory of orthodoxy in the empire 
 361 to 381 ; (4) gradual conversion of the Germans / 
 to orthodoxy extending to about 600. In general the ' 
 Germans and most of the Greeks were Arian, while the 
 Latins were orthodox. 
 
 (1) The controversy started (318) at Alexandria 
 and quickly spread to adjacent regions. After var- 
 ious attempts to convince him, Arius was excommuni- 
 cated at Alexandria 321. After a vain attempt to re- 
 store harmony Constantine called a world (ecumen- 
 ical) council to settle the dispute. 318 bishops out of 
 a total of 1,800 came, only seven of these from the 
 West ; a Greek council almost wholly. There arose 
 three parties, Arian, Semi-Arian and Orthodox. 
 Through the influence of Athanasius, a young deacon 
 of Alexandria, and the Emperor, orthodoxy triumphed 
 in the Nicene Creed (C. C. II. 57-61). It was de- 
 clared that Christ is truly God, one in essence with 
 the Father while distinct in person. Arius was ban- 
 ished, his books burned, and his followers branded as 
 enemies of Christianity; the beginning of the civil 
 punishment of heresy. 
 
 (2) Reaction soon set in, the question became one 
 of imperial politics. Constantine was won over to 
 the side of Arius, councils at Tyre and Constantinople 
 (335) condemned Athanasius (Bishop of Alexandria 
 since 328); he was banished (336). Arius would 
 
56 A Guide to the Study 
 
 have been restored to church fellowship at Constanti- 
 nople but for his sudden death (336). Of the sons of 
 Constantine Constantius was a fanatical Arian, and 
 when he became sole ruler (350) he forced Arianism 
 on the entire empire. 
 
 (3) But the Arians became divided among them- 
 selves. Julian recalled all bishops. Orthodoxy grad- 
 ually regained a dominant position, and Theodosius 
 required all his subjects to confess the orthodox faith; 
 called council of Constantinople (381), which reaf- 
 firmed the Nicene Creed with some slight changes, 
 added a clause on the Holy Spirit, and then forcibly 
 suppressed all Arian worship. 
 
 (4) Conversion of Germans to orthodoxy can not 
 be traced. 
 
 With the Nicene Creed the Greek church rested 
 content. In the West it was further developed by the 
 addition to the creed of the statement that the Spirit 
 proceeded from the Father and the Son (filioque), 
 at the council of Toledo (589) and by the formulation 
 of the Athanasian Creed by an unknown author of 
 the 5th century }(C. C. II. 66-71). 
 
 2. ORIGENISTIC CONTROVERSY. (References: S. iii. 
 698-705; A. i. 554-63; K. Sec. 51; N. i. 332-5; H. i. 
 451-52.) This controversy was over the question of 
 the orthodoxy of Origen, was personal and exceed- 
 ingly bitter, but unimportant in the development of 
 doctrine. 
 
 3. CHRISTOLOGICAL CONTROVERSIES. (References: N. 
 i. 335-58; K. Sec. 52; H. i. 439-50; A. i. 590-645; S. 
 iii. 705-83.) The question of the person of Christ had 
 been more or less involved in all preceding discus- 
 sions of Him, some denying the reality or complete- 
 
of Church History. 57 
 
 ness of His divinity, others the reality or completeness 
 of His humanity. It had now been officially decided 
 that He was very God. It remained then to determine 
 whether He was truly human, and if so to determine 
 ^the relation between the human and the divine natures. 
 Christians had generally regarded Him as both man 
 and God, but there had been no sharp definitions. 
 The problem was precisely the opposite of that in the 
 preceding controversy. There it was to find a plu- 
 rality of persons in a unity of essence or nature ; here 
 it was to preserve unity of person with a duality of 
 natures. How can a human and a divine nature be 
 united into one personality? The former dealt with 
 the pre-existent Logos, the nature and inter-relation 
 of the divine persons in eternity ; the latter with the 
 person of the historic Christ as he lived on earth. 
 
 Two general tendencies existed: the Antiochan, 
 which emphasized the human nature and held the two 
 natures apart, and the Alexandrine, which emphasized 
 the divine nature and the unity of person. This con- 
 troversy arose in the midst of the former one, passing 
 through several stages, and lasting over three centu- 
 ries. 
 
 (1) Apollinarianism (362-381) developed by Apol- 
 linarius of Laodicea before the close of the preceding 
 controversy. Origen had asserted that Christ had a 
 human soul, while Arius had declared that the Logos 
 was joined to a human body only. Apollinarius be- 
 lieved that man was a trichotomy (body, soul and 
 spirit), and asserted that Christ had human body and 
 soul, while the place of the human spirit was supplied 
 by the Logos, thus denying the completeness of his 
 humanity ; only thus could Christ be sinless and pro- 
 
58 A Guide to the Study 
 
 vide an adequate atonement for the race. This view 
 was condemned by several provincial councils and 
 finally by the Council of Constantinople 381. By 
 this action the church negatively asserted that 
 Christ's human nature was complete, and henceforth 
 the only question was one of relation between the two 
 natures. The Apollinarians were persecuted, later 
 united with the Monophysites. 
 
 (2) Nestorianism was started at Constantinople by 
 Nestorius (monk, priest of Antioch, patriarch of Con- 
 stantinople 428, an eloquent heresy hunter), who was 
 educated by Theodore of Mopsuestia, the real author 
 of the views. He objected to the term "Mother of 
 God" (theotokos) applied to Mary, regarding the 
 two natures, which worked harmoniously, so distinct 
 as almost to involve double personality. Christ was 
 God and man, not God-man. He was opposed by 
 Cyril of Alexandria, condemned by synods at Rome 
 and Alexandria 430. Council of Ephesus (431), called 
 by the two emperors, was very violent, split, reached 
 no conclusion. In 433 a compromise was reached by 
 which Nestorius was banished, his views condemned, 
 "Mother of God" approved. His followers, driven 
 out of the empire, fled to Persia; favored by Persian 
 kings, in 498 they renounced all connection with the 
 orthodox church of the empire, and have since re- 
 mained independent of both the Greek and Roman 
 churches. For several centuries they flourished, 
 spread to Arabia and India (where they are called 
 Thomas Christians) and China. They brought many 
 Mongols to Christianity, but were almost exterminated 
 by Tamerlane. They still exist in the valleys of Ar- 
 menia and Kurdistan, with a patriarch on the border 
 
of Church History. 59 
 
 of Turkey and Persia. They differ from the Greek 
 church in that they refuse to recognize the council of 
 Ephesus, to worship Mary or use images, deny the 
 doctrine of purgatory and transubstantiation and have 
 more simple worship. 
 
 (3) Eutychianism or Monophysitism was a reaction 
 against Nestorianism, a further development of Cyril's 
 views. Eutyches, an aged archimandrite of Constan- 
 tinople, emphasized the divine in Christ, denying that 
 Christ had two natures after the incarnation. The 
 human nature is so assimilated by the Logos that His 
 body is not of the same nature with ours. He was of 
 
 I two natures, but in only one. "All human attributes 
 are transferred to the one subject, the humanized 
 Logos/' so that God suffered and died. He was op- 
 posed by Theodoret, by Domnus, Patriarch of Antioch, 
 and Flavian, Patriarch of Constantinople, while he 
 was supported by Dioscurus, Patriarch of Alexandria. 
 Both parties appealed to the court of Constantinople 
 and to Leo, Bishop of Rome. Eutyches was deposed 
 by a local synod at Constantinople (448), while Leo 
 wrote to Flavian his famous dogmatic letter opposing 
 this view. The council called by the Emperor Theo- 
 dosius II at Ephesus 449 (Robber Synod), held under 
 presidency of Dioscurus, was very violent, deposed 
 Theodoret, Flavian and Leo, who protested vigorously. 
 The new emperor, Marcian, with the Western Em- 
 peror, called a new council (Chajcedon, 451), which 
 annulled the acts of Ephesus, deposed Dioscurus and 
 other leaders of the Eutychians, and defined the person 
 of Christ as composed of two natures, complete and 
 
 ' unmixed but inseparable in one person (C. C. II. 
 62-5), while the emperor ordered all Eutychians to 
 
60 A Guide to the Study 
 
 be banished and their writings burned. This creed 
 contains the Christology of the Greek, Latin and Prot- 
 estant churches. 
 
 The controversy (henceforth called Monophysite) 
 continued with great violence. The Emperor Zeno 
 issued (482) a formula of Concord (Henoticon), 
 which sought to reconcile the two parties by propos- 
 ing the avoidance of disputed expressions, the con- 
 demnation of both Nestorianism and Eutychianism, 
 thus tacitly setting aside the Chalcedonian creed. 
 
 This caused the Bishop of Rome to renounce com- 
 munion with the East (484), and the schism continued 
 35 years till 519, when the Emperor Justin canceled the 
 Henoticon and banished its adherents. 
 
 In the hope of reconciling the Monophysites to the 
 church Justinian issued a decree (544) condemning 
 Theodore of Mopsuestia, the real author of Nes- 
 torianism, the writings of Theodoret against Cyril, 
 and the letter of Ibas, Bishop of Edessa, to the Per- 
 sian Bishop Maris complaining of the outrages of 
 Cyril's party in Edessa, the last two having been de- 
 clared orthodox by the council of Chalcedon. This 
 decree, accepted in the East, was violently opposed in 
 the West. To end the controversy Justinian called 
 fifth ecumenical council at Constantinople (553), which 
 condemned the three chapters, thus confirming the 
 decree of the emperor. The acceptance of these de- 
 crees by the Bishop of Rome led Africa, Illyria and 
 North Italy to renounce fellowship with him, and the 
 schism continued till Gregory I. 
 
 The Monophysites founded independent churches 
 hostile to the Catholic church and to the empire, and 
 in seventh century most of them assisted the Moslems. 
 
of Church History. 61 
 
 (1) The Jacobites in Syria, Mesopotamia and Baby- 
 lonia, named after Jacob Baradai or Zanzalus, who 
 (541-78) organized them. A feeble remnant is now 
 found in Turkey and Persia. (2) The Copts of 
 Egypt have since 536 had a "Patriarch of Alexandria," 
 who commonly resides at Cairo with jurisdiction over 
 Egypt, Nubia and Abyssinia. They practice circum- 
 cision and observe the Jewish law of meats. (3) The 
 Abyssinian church, a daughter of the former, rejects 
 the Council of Chalcedon, observes the Jewish Sab- 
 bath and also Sunday, Jewish law of meats, and has 
 other peculiarities. (4) The Armenians fell away 
 from the Greek church 595 and adopted Monophysite 
 creed. Some of them have joined the Roman Catholic 
 church recently. 
 
 (4) Monothelite (one will) Controversy, the last 
 phase of the long and bitter Christological controversy, 
 was the result of an attempt by the emperor Hera- 
 clius to restore the Monophysites to the unity of the 
 church by asserting one will in Christ. The patriarchs 
 of Constantinople, Antioch and Alexandria and Pope 
 Honorius were won over to this view, and many Mono- 
 physites were restored to the church, but the patriarch 
 of Jerusalem condemned it 634. In 638 the emperor 
 issued a decree (the Ecthesis) imposing Monothelit- 
 ism on all. The popes and various provincial coun- 
 cils now condemned it, and the controversy waxed 
 warm. The Emperor Constans II, in a decree (the 
 Typus), forbade the teaching of either view (648), 
 and had the pope, when he opposed, brought in chains 
 to Constantinople and banished. The next emperor 
 called sixth ecu. council (1 Trullan, 680) (C. C. II. 
 72f), at Constantinople, which affirmed two wills, con- 
 
62 A Guide to the Study 
 
 demned the Monothelites as accursed heretics (among 
 them Pope Honorius) ; this action was approved by 
 Pope Leo II. Practically the whole Christian world 
 accepted this decision, and thus ended the long con- 
 troversy. Christ had two natures, human and divine, 
 both complete, unmixed but inseparably united; and 
 two wills. 
 
 4. ANTHROPOLOGY PELAGIAN CONTROVERSY (412- 
 529 A. D.) (References: H. i. 455-61 ; A. i. 571-90; 
 K. Sec. 53; N. i. 359-71 ; S. iii. 783-870.) 
 
 Hitherto man's nature had been little discussed, but 
 the freedom of the will and moral responsibility had 
 been emphasized against the types of philosophy then 
 prevalent. This controversy was largely Western 
 and Latin. The questions at issue were never decided 
 by ecumenical councils and hence are still open. 
 There is no orthodox anthropology. The two ex- 
 tremes were represented by Pelagius, a British monk 
 (also Celestius and Julian of Eclanum), and Augus- 
 tine, Bishop of Hippo. Both systems were fairly 
 complete and logical, while standing in sharp opposi- 
 tion. Pelagius emphasized the goodness and ability 
 of man, Augustine the ruin of man and the continu- 
 ous sovereign activity of God. Some of the leading 
 contrasts were as follows: (1) Primitive man. P. 
 Man was innocent, endowed with absolute free will, 
 but mortal. A. He was innocent, endowed with a will 
 free but inclined to good, and capable by continuous 
 obedience of becoming unable to sin, and immortal. 
 (2) The Fall. P. It brought spiritual death to Adam, 
 but affected his posterity only as an example. A. 
 It brought spiritual and physical death to Adam and 
 through him to the entire race, enslaved the will. 
 
of Church History. 63 
 
 (3) Man After the Fall. P. Every man enters the 
 world innocent and free as Adam was before the fall, 
 and falls into sin by example only. A. Every man 
 comes into the world with a corrupt nature (inherited 
 guilt), a will enslaved to evil, incapable of real right- 
 eousness. (4) Will. P. It is always free, equally 
 capable of choosing good and evil. A. It was free 
 before the fall and inclined to righteousness, but with 
 the fall it lost its freedom to righteousness, is enslaved 
 to evil, and can choose only civil righteousness. (5) 
 Sin. P. It is an act, flowing from the will, not the 
 nature of each individual ; therefore men are not neces- 
 sarily sinners, and some have lived without sin. A. 
 Sin inheres in human nature (original sin) and event- 
 uates in sinful actions (actual sin). Hence every man, 
 except Christ, is necessarily a sinner from birth. (6) 
 Grace. P. It is the natural endowment of the indi- 
 vidual with will, intellect, etc. A. It is the operation 
 of God's truth and Spirit by which the spiritual life 
 is begun, continued and completed. Without it man 
 can neither repent nor believe. Redeeming grace is 
 irresistible in its operation on the elect. (7) Election. 
 P. There is no such thing as unconditional election. 
 A. Election is eternal, absolute and unconditional. 
 (8) Infant Baptism. P. It is a good thing but un- 
 necessary to salvation of infants. A. It is necessary 
 to salvation of infants since they are sinners, and bap- 
 tism is the church's only means of regeneration. Some 
 of those regenerated in baptism might and did fall 
 away, but the elect could not. 
 
 Pelagians were condemned by a synod at Carthage 
 (412), and by Pope Innocent (416) ; were supported 
 by synods at Jerusalem (415) and Diospolis, and at 
 
64 A Guide to the Study 
 
 first by Pope Zosimus; after a general council of the 
 African churches had condemned them (418) this pope 
 concurred. They, but not their doctrines, were con- 
 demned by council of Carthage (431). Neither sys- 
 tem won general acceptance. Before the death of 
 Augustine there began attempts to modify one system 
 by the other, chiefly by a school in South France. 
 John Cassian, Vincent of Lerins and others rejected 
 Pelagianism but modified many of Augustine's posi- 
 tions. They were known as Massilians (from the 
 location of their monastery), and later semi-Pelagians. 
 The discussion continued for a century, and finally re- 
 sulted in a victory for moderate Augustinianism at 
 the Synod of Orange 529, but the Catholic church 
 still continues to be divided on the subject. 
 
 V. CHRISTIAN LIFE MORALS, DISCIPLINE, 
 MONASTICISM. 
 
 References: K. Sees. 61, 44; A. i. 725-65; S. iii. 107-233, 
 356-74; Lecky, History European Morals, Vol. II. 
 
 There was of course development during the period 
 and variations from one locality to another. There 
 was improvement in some directions, decline in others. 
 
 Iln general we may say that the condition of society 
 was improved by the church, while the life of the 
 church was corrupted by the world. 
 
 1. IMPROVEMENTS. More humane laws in the em- 
 pire, abolition . of crucifixion, of gladiatorial games 
 404 (Telemachus), establishment of educational and 
 charitable institutions (asylums, hospitals, etc.), im- 
 provement of marriage and divorce laws, elevation of 
 women and children, amelioration of slavery, and 
 
of Church History. 65 
 
 encouragement of manumission, care for the poor, 
 widows, orphans and the sick. 
 
 2. POINTS OF DECLINE. Frightful division and 
 strife, brutal polemics, persecution of heathen and 
 Christian opponents, decline in personal morals, sup- 
 erstition, purgatory (5th century), masses for the 
 dead; luxury and pomp, interference of the Byzan- 
 tine court in religious affairs. 
 
 3. DISCIPLINE against heresy was strict and was 
 executed by the state, while as to morals it was re- *" 
 laxed, at the same time extended to private offenses. 
 Confession of secret sins privately to a specially ap- 
 pointed priest began to be recommended and intro- 
 duced here and there, but as yet was not required as 
 
 a prerequisite of communion. The church imposed 
 certain penalties in the form of fasts, prayers, alms, 
 etc., for each offense. Protests against the growing 
 laxness caused several schisms (Donatist, Audians, 
 etc.). There was zeal for purity of doctrine and in- 
 difference to purity of life, "hatred for heresy and 
 laxity of morals." 
 
 4. MONASTICISM arose frorh (1) Heathenism, (2) 
 Judaism or (3) Christianity. It has three forms,(l) 
 the Anchorite or Hermit, (2) the Cenobite or com- 
 munity, and (3) the Order, or union of communities. 
 Women belonged to the last two kinds only. Mon- 
 asticism arose in Egypt, where conditions of weather, 
 temperament and religious ideas were favorable, and 
 spread thence to the whole Christian world. The 
 motives were various flight from corrupt and cor- 
 rupting world, from an oppressive church, from temp- 
 tations, from work and the duties of society. The 
 first (Anchorite) was largely confined to the East, and 
 
66 A Guide to the Study 
 
 was the ne plus ultra of freedom. The other forms 
 lived a carefully regulated communal life, simple, act- 
 ive, religious. It was regarded as the highest the reli- 
 gious life and the monks were called religious regu- 
 lar clergy, in distinction from the ordinary (secular) 
 clergy. The monks were at first laymen, but later 
 were counted among the clergy, and the monasteries 
 became seminaries out of which came priests, bishops, 
 etc. At first ordinary costume was worn, but later 
 tonsure and distinctive dress was adopted. Monas- 
 teries produced both good and evil effects. (a) 
 Good. They contained the best Christians, produced 
 missionaries, scholars; were schools, publishing 
 houses, hospitals, hospices, refuges from sin and dan- 
 ger, taught agriculture, architecture, labor, were 
 nearly always on side of orthodoxy, (b) Evil Ef- 
 fects. They withdrew the best people from society 
 and marriage, created a double standard of morality 
 and exalted the false standard, made salvation depend 
 upon outward asceticism, fostered superstition, often 
 became frightfully corrupt. Monks took the three- 
 fold vow of personal poverty (communal property 
 was allowed), chastity (including renunciation of mar- 
 riage), and obedience to superiors. These vows were 
 irrevocable. At first free from the bishops, they were 
 gradually brought under episcopal jurisdiction. Later 
 (from 10th century on) they were largely removed 
 from jurisdiction of the bishops to that of the pope. 
 (1) Asceticism developed before end of 2d century, 
 and the first Anchorites appeared before end of 3d. 
 The prototypes, and most celebrated were Paul of 
 Thebes and Anthony (3d and 4th centuries) in Egypt, 
 Hilarius in Palestine, and Simon (Stylite) in Syria in 
 5th century. 
 
of Church History. 67 
 
 (2) The Cenobite form was established by Pachom- 
 ius on the island of Tabernae in the Nile in 325, and 
 was soon extended to women. He became abbot or 
 archimandrite, and wrote the first monastic rule. This 
 form was recommended by almost all of the leading 
 fathers who belonged to it, was carried by Ephraim 
 to Mesopotamia, by Eustathius to Armenia and Paph- 
 lagonia, by Basil to Pontus and Cappadocia. The latter 
 wrote an improved rule which is still in use in the 
 East. 
 
 Athanasius introduced (340) monasticism into 
 Rome, whence it spread over the Western world, being 
 recommended by Ambrose, Augustine, Martin of 
 Tours, Jerome and others. Here it was less fanatical, 
 better organized and more useful than in the East. 
 
 (3) The first Order, the Benedictine, was founded 
 by Benedict of Nursia (480-543) at Monte Cassino 
 in 529. His rule (Henderson 274-314) superseded all 
 former rules in the West, and was the model of all 
 later ones. Under this rule the church reared its 
 scholars, authors, missionaries, saints, artists, bishops, 
 cardinals, popes. The cultivation of learning was in- 
 troduced by Cassiodorus 528 on. The opponents of 
 monasticism were few Jovinian, Helvidius, Vigilan- 
 tius, Aerius. 
 
 VI. LITERATURE AND AUTHORS. 
 References: K. Sees. 47, 48; S. iii. 871-1028. 
 
 During this period Christianity completely con- 
 quered the literary world, Pagan literature ceased. 
 It was chiefly in Greek and Latin, but some was in 
 Syriac, Armenian, Coptic and (translation) Gothic. 
 
68 A Guide to the Study 
 
 It is entirely theological, for the most part polemical, 
 often bitter and brutal; but there is profound theo- 
 logical speculation, exegetical studies, sermons, history, 
 lives of saints for popular reading. The three main 
 schools or types were the Alexandrian, the Antiochan 
 and the Western. The output of literature was 
 enormous. 
 
of Church History. 69 
 
 BOOK III 
 
 THE MIDDLE (DARK) AGES, c. 600 TO c. 1517. 
 AGE OF FAITH AND UNITY. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 In general characteristics this period is sharply dis- 
 tinguished from the preceding and following. The 
 political separation of the East from the West was 
 followed by an increasing religious estrangement, 
 finally resulting in division in the eleventh century. 
 
 ( 1 ) In the East. Mohammedanism rose as a mighty" 
 religious and political power early in the seventh cen- 
 tury, quickly rent North Africa, Egypt, Syria and Asia 
 Minor from the empire and subdued Persia. The 
 empire continued to shrink and decay until it was 
 finally extinguished by the Turks by the capture of 
 Constantinople 1453. The church, without a strong 
 centralized government, utterly subservient to civil 
 power, oppressed by Mohammedanism, fell into com- 
 plete stagnation. All intellectual life ceased, and its 
 only missionary activity was the conversion of the 
 Russians and other Slavs in 9th and 10th centuries. / 
 
 (2) In the West. Settled kingly governments 
 gradually rose on the ruins of the empire, Mohamme- 
 danism was forced back into Spain, and a new deluge 
 of northern barbarians (Northmen) were converted 
 and civilized. The empire was revived by Charle- 
 magne and the Franks (800), and during much of 
 the middle ages its power was great in West Europe, 
 without, however, interfering seriously with the ex- 
 
70 A Guide to the Study 
 
 istence and development of national governments. 
 Feudalism as a social, economic and political system 
 preserved a measure of local independence, while the 
 crusades unified the people and elevated royalty and 
 the papacy. Religiously, it was a period of great 
 activity. All of Western Europe, the entire Teutonic 
 part of the race, was Christianized, dissent disap- 
 peared, the Western church was unified c. 8th century, 
 and the whole was brought under the bishop of Rome. 
 Canon law and the ecclesiastical courts became the 
 rivals of civil law and civil courts ; the Roman Curia 
 the great court of appeal for Christendom. The 
 Bishop of Rome became the mightiest potentate of 
 the world. In the long struggle for supremacy be- 
 tween the papacy and the empire, both powers were 
 greatly weakened towards the end of the period. In 
 the 12th century dissent reappeared, and, despite the 
 development of the Inquisition for its suppression, 
 continued to gather strength to the end of the period. 
 The church unfolded remarkable intellectual activity 
 (scholasticism), a rich monastic life, produced won- 
 derful architectural and artistic beauties. Universities 
 arose at all the great centers and soon dominated the 
 intellectual life of the world; Monks were the pro- 
 fessors, artists and authors of the time. 
 
of Church History. 71 
 
 A. EASTERN CHRISTIANITY TO 1453. 
 (A) THE HOLY ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH. 
 References: K. Sees. 66-71, 73; M. ii. 3-29. 
 I. EXTERNAL HISTORY. 
 
 1. POLITICAL HISTORY. At close of preceding per- 
 iod the empire was weak and torn by factions. It 
 never recovered its former glory and power. Strug- 
 gle with internal and external enemies continued to 
 weaken it and reduce its territory till the capture of 
 Constantinople by the Turks (1453), when it ceased to 
 exist. 
 
 2. MOHAMMEDANISM. 
 
 References: N. i. 431-4; S. iv. 143-201; K. Sec. 65, 81; H. 
 i. 522-37; A. ii. 191-206. 
 
 Islam, founded by Mohammed (571-632), is a fatal- 
 istic monotheism, of which Mohammed was the last 
 and greatest prophet. Its Bible, produced wholly by 
 Mohammed, is the Koran. Islam recognizes good 
 and bad angels, a sensual heaven, permits polygamy, 
 missionary operations with the sword, forbids intoxi- 
 cating drinks. As a political system it was carried 
 by the sword, over the whole eastern world. Jeru- 
 salem fell 637, all Syria by 639, Egypt by 641, all 
 North Africa by 711, when it crossed into Spain, 
 which was overrun by 713 ; but it was turned back at 
 Tours 732. Eastward it had subdued Persia and ex- 
 tended to the Indus. In Asia Minor and Southeastern 
 Europe it gradually encroached upon the empire until 
 the capture of Canstantinople 1453. In the meantime 
 
72 A Guide to the Study 
 
 it had split up into two great religious parties and 
 many political divisions. To heathen it gave the al- 
 ternative of conversion or the sword; to Christians 
 conversion, tribute or the sword. It destroyed prop- 
 erty, appropriated the churches for mosques and op- 
 pressed the Christians, many of whom became Mo- 
 hammedans. 
 
 3. DIVISION BETWEEN EASTERN AND WESTERN 
 CHURCHES. 
 
 References: K. Sec. 67; H. i. 538-45; S. iv. 304-25. 
 
 Before close of last period considerable differences 
 in doctrine and practice had been developed, and sharp 
 rivalries between Rome and Constantinople had caused 
 friction and bitterness. The differences continued to 
 increase; for, while the East became stationery, the 
 West continued to develop. The differences were de- 
 clared to be doctrinal and a bar to fellowship in 867, 
 and in 1054 the two churches mutually excommuni- 
 cated each other and the schism was complete. Apart 
 from constitution the differences do not seem to be 
 great. Eastern Church permits marriage of clergy up 
 to the priest, the West does not; in West priests 
 shave, in East do not; the West uses unleavened, the 
 East leavened bread ; the West uses images in worship, 
 the East only flat surfaces; the West inserted filioque 
 in the Nicene Creed, East rejected it; East practiced 
 trine immersion, the West any mode. Several ineffec- 
 tual attempts at reunion, notably at Councils of Lyons 
 (1274) and Florence (1439), were followed by com- 
 plete cessation of such efforts after fall of Constanti- 
 nople. The two churches have remained hostile till to- 
 
of Church History. 73 
 
 day. The Patriarch of Constantinople exercises spirit- 
 ual primacy and jurisdiction over all orthodox subjects 
 of the Turkish Empire. His election by the synod must 
 be confirmed by the Sultan. The Russian, Greek, and 
 some other orthodox Eastern churches are now inde- 
 pendent of Constantinople. 
 
 4. MISSIONS. 
 References: K. i. Sec. 73; A. ii. 235-52. 
 
 About the beginning of the period Slavs poured into 
 the provinces of Greece and for a time rent them from 
 the empire and Christianity. By the middle of the 
 9th century they had been Christianized and reunited 
 to the empire. About 850 the Monk Cyril was sent 
 upon request to the Chazars in the Crimea. The en- 
 tire kingdom was soon converted. In 861 the Bul- 
 garian king and people were converted by Cyril and 
 his brother Methodius, but in 866 for political reasons 
 they joined the Roman Church. Since then Bulgaria 
 has been under the Greeks, the Tartars, the Turks 
 and has been independent. 
 
 The Christianizing of the Russians was begun about 
 850 by the Greeks, and was completed in about 150 
 years, Vladimir making Christianity the official re- 
 ligion in 988. The Metropolitan of Kiev was primate 
 of Russia under the suzerainty of the Patriarch of 
 Constantinople. The center of government was 
 moved to Moscow in 1328, and in 1589 the jurisdiction 
 of Constantinople was thrown off. 
 
 Cyril and Methodius also Christianized Moravia and 
 Bohemia, reduced the Slavic language to writing, and 
 laid the foundation for Slavic literature. 
 
74 A Guide to the Study 
 
 II. INTERNAL HISTORY. 
 
 1. ATTEMPTED REFORM OF WORSHIP ICONOCLASM 
 (A. D. 726-842). 
 
 References: N. i. 386-92; K. Sec. 66; H. i. 507-21; A. ii. 
 206-22; S. iv. 447-65. 
 
 Image worship, both East and West, had grown 
 beyond all bounds by eighth century. Opposition by 
 Jews, Mohammedans, Monophysites and a few ortho- 
 dox Christians. During the long and bloody contro- 
 versy the reform in the East seemed twice to be vic- 
 torious, but each time was defeated by a woman. For 
 both political and religious reasons the Emperor Leo 
 the Isaurian (726) forbade the worship of images, 
 and (730) ordered them removed from the churches 
 and destroyed. By the help of the army these decrees 
 were executed with great violence. Germanus, Pa- 
 triarch of Constantinople, was deposed, and most of 
 the monks who supported image worship were chased 
 out of the empire. In 754 a council at Constantinople 
 declared against images, and the opposition continued 
 till 780. In that year Irene became virtual empress 
 because of the minority of her son Constantine VI. 
 She called a synod in 787 in Nicea, which restored 
 images to the churches, making the distinction between 
 the adoration of images and the worship of God. 
 They remained till Leo V (813-20) started a second 
 crusade which lasted till 842, when Theodora, the re- 
 gent, again restored them to the churches. Since then 
 they have held undisputed sway in the Greek church. 
 
 The reform was largely inoperative in the West. 
 The pope was the constant and determined friend of 
 images. In 731 he excommunicated the iconoclasts. 
 
of Church History. 75 
 
 The emperor responded by cutting off all his reve- 
 nues in South Italy and annexing the churches of 
 Illyria to Constantinople. But the pope triumphed, 
 and this controversy shook Italy entirely loose from 
 the empire. Charlemagne opposed image worship 
 (Caroline books), and a synod of German bishops 
 (794) condemned it, but this caused no cessation. 
 In fact, the development, much freer in the West than 
 in the East, has never been seriously disturbed except 
 by the Reformation. Since this controversy both the 
 Eastern and Western churches have made the distinc- 
 tion between the veneration (veneratio, proskunesis, 
 douleia) of images and the worship (latreia) given 
 to God. 
 
 The element of teaching and preaching almost en- 
 tirely disappeared from worship which became more 
 formal and cabalistic. The church produced a pe- 
 culiar style of church architecture, characterized by 
 gilded cupola or a trinity of them. 
 
 2. General stagnation, no important development in 
 other respects. John of Damascus (700-54) the last 
 writer of importance. 
 
 (B) OTHER EASTERN CHURCHES. 
 Reference: K. Sec. 72, 
 
 1. THE NESTORIANS OF PERSIA, opposing the wor- 
 ship of images, saints and relics and priestly celibacy, 
 flourished under the Mohammedans till 13th century. 
 Their seminaries at Edessa, Nisibis and Seleucia were 
 famous. They produced an extensive theological 
 literature (now mostly lost), and prosecuted mission 
 work successfully in China and India. With the 
 
76 A Guide to the Study 
 
 overthrow of the Caliphs by Genghis-Khan in 1219 
 their prosperity ended and they were almost extermi- 
 nated and driven into the mountains by Tamerlane, the 
 scourge of Asia (1369-1405). They have not flour- 
 ished since, but still exist. 
 
 2. THE MONOPHYSITE CHURCHES. (l)The Armen- 
 ian Church enjoyed a good measure of independence 
 and flourished accordingly. In the 8th and again in 
 the 12th century it unfolded a rich literary activity. 
 Some of the Armenians united with the Roman church 
 in the 15th century. (2) The Jacobite Church (a) 
 In Syria it was considerably oppressed but showed 
 some literary activity, (b) In Egypt they (Copts) 
 suffered terrible persecution in 13th century, being 
 driven out of the cities and reduced to miserable weak- 
 ness, (c) In Abyssinia they maintained their inde- 
 pendence, but also fell into utter stagnation, (d) The 
 Maronites in Mt. Lebanon joined the Roman Catholic 
 church in 1182. They constitute the largest gains 
 the Roman Catholics ever made in the East, and now 
 number c. 200,000. 
 
 B. WESTERN CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 Here the complexity and richness of development 
 makes it necessary to study by periods which are 
 marked with tolerable clearness. 
 
 (A) FIRST PERIOD, c. 600 TO c. 850. 
 I. EXTERNAL HISTORY. 
 
 1. POLITICAL. Christian government was complete- 
 ly overthrown in North Africa by the Mohammedans 
 during the seventh century, and has never been re- 
 established. Beginning in 711, they- rapidly overran 
 
of Church History. 77 
 
 all Spain except the northwest portion, where the 
 Christians rallied and began the struggle to throw off 
 the Moslem yoke, which lasted till the end of the 
 fifteenth century. The various German tribes settled 
 down in their new homes, began to adopt the language, 
 culture and religion of their subjects and to establish 
 stable governments, which were elective monarchies, 
 built on the old tribal organization, and were for a 
 long time exceedingly crude and unstable. In Eng- 
 land the Heptarchy continued till 827, when all Eng- 
 land was united under Egbert, king of Wessex. On 
 the continent the Franks continued to be the leaders. 
 Their empire, which at the beginning of the period 
 consisted of three parts (Austrasia, Neustria, Bur- 
 gundy), was reunited 613, but each part retained a 
 ruler or majordomus (mayor of the palace). Grad- 
 ually these mayors became stronger than the kings 
 themselves. In 687 Pepin, the Middle, of Austrasia, 
 conquered the Mayor of Neustria and made himself 
 Mayor of the entire Prankish empire to 714. His son, 
 Charles Martel (Mayor 714-41) reduced the rebellious 
 Prankish nobles, fought the heathen Saxons and Fri- 
 sians, defeated and turned back the Moslems at Tours, 
 732. His son, .Pepin the Short (Mayor since 741), 
 with the approval of the pope, deposed the king and 
 was himself anointed king by Bishop Boniface at Sois- 
 sOns, 751, thus beginning the Carolingian (Carloving- 
 ian) line. In 754 he and his sons were anointed by 
 the pope himself at St. Denis near Paris; in return 
 the Franks became the pope's protectors. Since 568 
 the Lombards had held most of North Italy, with 
 their capital at Pavia, and were threatening to incor- 
 porate into their kingdom Rome and the Patrimonium 
 
78 A Guide to the Study 
 
 Petri, which were ruled by the pope in semi-independ- 
 ence. Pepin drove back the Lombards, confirmed the 
 pope's rule, enlarged his territory by the gift of the 
 exarchate and Pentapolis, thus (755) laying the foun- 
 dation of the papal state; for this service Pepin re- 
 ceived the title Patricius of Rome. Charles the Great 
 (Charlemagne, 768-814), king, with his brother, Carl- 
 oman, to 771, and then alone, destroyed the Lombard 
 empire, 773, confirmed and enlarged the papal states, 
 and himself took the title of King of Italy, extending 
 his authority over Northern and Middle Italy, while 
 the southern portion remained under the Greek (By- 
 zantine) Empire. From 772 to 804, in many wars, 
 he reduced the heathen Saxons and forced them to 
 accept Christianity. He drove back the Mohamme- 
 dans into Spain, conquered the Avars and other Slavs 
 along the German border, and (Christmas, 800) was 
 crowned emperor by the pope at Rome, thus reviving 
 the Roman Empire in the West. The empire con- 
 tained most of France and large sections of Germany, 
 Switzerland, Italy and other modern states. Under 
 Louis the Pious (814-40) the affairs of the empire 
 fell into disorder, and after his death his sons, by the 
 treaty of Verdun (843), divided the empire into three 
 parts, East portion fell to Louis the German, West to 
 Charles the Bald, and a Central strip, with the impe- 
 rial dignity, to Lothair. 
 
 By the close of the period the Saracens had reduced 
 Sicily and were threatening South Italy, still held 
 largely by the Greeks. The Scandinavian countries 
 were just beginning to come into view of history by 
 piratical raids upon the coasts of Germany (Vikings). 
 
of Church History. 79 
 
 2. MISSIONS. (References: K. Sees. 75-80; N. i. 
 406-22; H. i. 556-89; A. ii. 50-124; M. ii. 49-98; S. iv. 
 27-42, 84-106.) This was a period of considerable/ 
 missionary activity. Early in the period the remnants 
 of Arianism were converted to orthodoxy or over- 
 thrown by the Mohammedans, so that western Chris- 
 tianity was almost completely unified. Many new mis- 
 sions were undertaken and new methods adopted. 
 They were originated and supported by the pope, by 
 bishops or by kings; began at the top of the social! 
 scale and worked downward ; produced a strong and 
 secure ecclesiastical organization, but the rapid con- 
 versions were superficial and often political. The 
 Christianity was of course not primitive, but the papal 
 Christianity of the seventh and following centuries; 
 in all cases the new mission was attached to the papal 
 chair. 
 
 (1) Anglo-Saxons had remained heathen since 
 their conquest of the British (449). Pope Gregory 
 sent Augustine to England 597 ; he Christianized Kent 
 and founded Canterbury, of which he was archbishop. 
 Through half a century the work went on, Roman 
 missionaries converting South and Scottish mission- 
 aries North England. The two types came in conflict, 
 and at Synod of Whitby (664) the English decided 
 to accept the Roman type for all England. The Scotch 
 retired, and by 716 had themselves submitted to the 
 Roman church. Most of the Irish had submitted as 
 early as 701, and the Welsh did so later in this period, 
 thus completing the Roman conquest of the British 
 isles. The only changes necessary were the adoption 
 of the Roman hierarchy and Easter reckoning. They 
 continued priestly marriage, the use of the vernacular 
 
80 A Guide to the Study 
 
 in worship and other national customs, and were not 
 completely Romanized until after the Norman con- 
 quest. A second archbishopric was created at York, 
 and other bishoprics as needed. The final organiza- 
 tion of parishes and bishoprics was made by Theodore 
 of Tarsus, archbishop of Canterbury (668-80). 
 
 (2) Irish mission to the continent began in 
 590, when Columban (543-615), with twelve monks, 
 settling in Burgundy, founded the monastery of Lux- 
 euil and did extensive work among the moribund 
 Christianity of the region. Driven away (610), they 
 went to Bregenz, in Switzerland, and did successful 
 work among the heathen. Leaving some of his fol- 
 lowers (Callus) behind to found St. Gall, Columban 
 removed to Northern Italy (612) and founded the 
 famous monastery of Bobbio. The influence of this 
 Irish mission extended over wide areas along the 
 Rhine, and lasted until the eighth century, when these 
 monks joined the Benedictines. This missionary work 
 was not subject to Rome. 
 
 ^ (3) Conversion of Germany, a. During seventh 
 century much mission work was done by Scottish and 
 Frankish missionaries along the western and southern 
 borders of Germany, but Christianity regarded by 
 Saxons as the religion of the hostile Franks was op- 
 posed on political as well as religious grounds; mis- 
 sionaries suffered much hardship, and there were many 
 martyrdoms, b. Real progress began with the coming 
 of Anglo-Saxon missionaries, the greatest of whom 
 were Willibrord and Boniface. Willibrord (658-739), 
 apostle of the Frisians, began work 690 under protec- 
 tion of Pepin and supported by Rome. In 696 he 
 became archbishop of Utrecht, and before his death 
 
of Church History. 81 
 
 had converted the South Frisians, despite the continual 
 opposition of their prince. Before close of period the 
 Frisians were Christianized and furnished with Chris- 
 tian institutions. Boniface (680-755), the apostle of 
 Germany, began his work in 716. He addressed him- 
 self to the overthrow of the Celtic mission and the 
 revival and organization of existing Christianity in 
 subjection to Rome more than to the conversion of 
 ,the heathen. After preaching to the heathen Frisians 
 he was, in 723, ordained by the pope missionary bishop 
 and primate of Germany, after having sworn fealty to 
 the pope. The year 724 he spent in Hesse, overthrow- 
 ing the heathen and Scots and organizing the church 
 in subjection to Rome; from 725 to 735 he did a 
 similar work in Thuringia; the years 735 to 741 he 
 spent in a not very successful attempt to organize the 
 church of Bavaria in subjection to Rome. The sons 
 of Charles Martel were favorable to the ideas of 
 Boniface, who spent the next ten years in reorganiz- 
 ing the Frankish church in conformity and subjection 
 to Rome. In 742 Austrasia, and in 744 Neustria, 
 through synods, adopted his ideas and then gradually 
 worked them out. In 755 he was killed while on a 
 mission to the Frisians, c. The Saxons were violent 
 opponents of Christianity and maintained their inde- 
 pendence and their paganism till Charlemagne, by 
 several bloody wars (772-804), forced them to accept 
 Christianity and the Frankish yoke. He organized 
 the church with eight bishoprics, and soon the Saxons 
 were real Christians, d. Scandinavia. This mission 
 was exceedingly difficult and discouraging for many 
 years. It was begun among the Danes in 823 by Ebo, 
 archbishop of Rheims, head of a diplomatic mission. 
 
82 A Guide to the Study 
 
 -*" 
 
 In 826 the king was baptized, and a young monk, 
 Ansgar (801-65), the apostle of Scandinavia, began 
 his work. Driven out of Denmark (830), he labored 
 in Sweden for eighteen months. In 834 the bishop- 
 ric of Hamburg was founded as a basis for the prose- 
 cution of this northern work. About 840 the mission 
 was almost completely destroyed by heathen reaction 
 and opposition. But about 850 both Sweden and 
 Denmark were again opened to Christian work by 
 favorable governments, and from that time on the 
 mission flourished. The final work was done by mis- 
 sionaries from England. 
 
 II. ECCLESIASTICAL CONSTITUTION THE PAPACY, 
 HIERARCHY, CLERGY, MONKS. 
 
 References: K. Sees. 82-87; H. i. 473-501; M. ii. 84-110; 
 A. ii. 125-162, 252-92; S. iv. 211-73. 
 
 1. THE PAPACY. The influence of the pope was 
 greatly strengthened and extended during this period. 
 The Mohammedan concQiests eliminated his great 
 eastern rivals, political anarchy in Italy made him a 
 temporal ruler there, missions extended his sway over 
 the British isles, the F?ankish empire and parts of 
 Scandinavia ; renunciation of Byzantine authority and 
 alliance with the Franks greatly strengthened him in 
 all Western Europe; Pepin and Charlemagne made 
 him temporal ruler of Central Italy (755) ; the forgery 
 of the Donation of Constantine (Henderson, 319-29) 
 confirmed his authority in the state; the transfer of 
 the royal crown from the Merovingians to Pepin in 
 752, and the crowning of Charles as emperor in 800 
 increased his prestige. In this advance the popes were \ 
 
of Church History. 83 
 
 compelled to oppose the princes in the state and the 
 metropolitans in the church, and the struggle led to 
 the production of the pseudo-Isidorian decretals, c. 
 850, which gave the pope temporal rule over princes 
 and spiritual rule over the church, as against the met- 
 ropolitans. These forged documents played a very 
 important role throughout the Middle Ages (A. N. 
 F. viii. 599-644). 
 
 2. THE HIERARCHY. Newly converted lands were 
 divided into bishoprics and parishes and provided with 
 clergy as rapidly as possible. In the Prankish empire 
 the canonical election of the upper clergy was usually 
 set aside by the princes who appointed or nominated 
 them. Because of their culture and wealth, they were 
 often more important than the secular nobles, and 
 engaged much in political affairs, constituting one of 
 
 I the estates of the realm, with both secular and spiritual 
 jurisdiction. The lower clergy were largely appointed 
 by the bishops, but many churches and chapels had the 
 right of private patronage. 
 
 3. CHURCH (CANON) LAW was introduced into the 
 newly converted regions and enforced by state and 
 church. The most important additions to these laws 
 were the pseudo-Isidorean decretals. 
 
 4. CHURCH AND MONASTIC PROPERTY could not, ac- 
 cording to the thought of the time, be alienated when 
 once in ecclesiastical possession. Princes and rich peo- 
 ple were generous with their gifts, and all property of 
 clergymen and monks went to the church at their 
 death. As a consequence, the church was growing 
 
 ^ immensely wealthy. 
 
 5. MONASTICISM was rapidly extended into Eng- 
 land, Germany, and elsewhere. Monasteries for men 
 
84 A Guide to the Study 
 
 and for women were centers of culture and material 
 development, sources of missionaries, etc. They were 
 under the jurisdiction of their bishops, and the monks 
 received priestly consecration only when they went as 
 missionaries or were otherwise required to perform 
 clerical functions. Many of the great monasteries 
 were mighty forces for righteousness and religion. 
 Their decay occasioned a reform in Germany by Ben- 
 edict of Aniane beginning about 817. 
 
 III. THEOLOGY. 
 References: K. Sees. 90-92; S. iv. 511-572. 
 
 The developments in theology were unimportant and 
 gathered around three controversies: 1. The Adop- 
 tionist Controversy (782-99) rose in Spain in an at- 
 tempt to meet the monotheistic criticisms of the Sara- 
 cens. It spread to Germany, where it was vigorously 
 opposed by the theologians of Charlemagne. The 
 Adoptionists held that only Christ's divine nature was 
 properly son of God; His human nature became son 
 by adoption. 2. Eucharistic controversy in Germany, 
 831 on. Paschasius Radbert, in 831, set forth clearly 
 for the first time transubstantiation, the substance of 
 the bread and wine are changed into the body and 
 blood of Christ, though the term transubstantiation 
 was not yet used. He was opposed by Ratramnus and 
 most of the writers of the time 844 on, and was con- 
 demned by several synods. This controversy will be 
 renewed in eleventh century and decided in thirteenth 
 in his favor. 
 
 3. PREDESTINATION CONTROVERSY (847-68) was 
 started by Gottschalk, a German monk, who read Au- 
 
of Church History. 85 
 
 gustine and taught a double predestination to life, 
 and to damnation. He was condemned by several 
 German synods, which asserted a moderate Augustin- 
 ianism as orthodox doctrine. 
 
 IV. WORSHIP. 
 References: K. Sec. 88; M. ii. 112-14; S. iv. 397-454. 
 
 Naturally, worship, as it was practiced in Rome, 
 was carried into the newly converted lands ; it was also 
 k successfully introduced in most countries already 
 Christianized. Only Milan and Spain were able to 
 hold out against the Romanizing tendency. The Latin 
 language and Roman liturgy were introduced, preach- 
 ing decayed utterly (Charlemagne attempted to re- 
 vive it), Roman music received some German addi- 
 tions, the organ was imported from Greece, 757. Ev- 
 ery new church and monastery was provided with rel- 
 ics (what?), of which Rome was chief source; saint 
 worship was common, but image worship not so gross 
 elsewhere as in Italy and East ; pilgrimages to graves 
 of Peter, Martin of Tours, James of Compostella were 
 frequent. The beginning of the church year was 
 changed to Christmas, while the Roman saints days 
 and church festivals were adopted and others created. 
 Heathen days, temples, saints and customs were adopt- 
 ed, as far as possible, to conciliate the new converts. 
 The name of the Passover was changed among Teu- 
 tons to Easter and brought into connection with the 
 spring festival of the goddess Eostra. Churches were 
 built on the model of the Roman basilica, and were 
 ornamented with paintings, wood carvings, altar 
 pieces, etc. As long as only a few churches had the 
 
86 A Guide to the Study 
 
 right of baptism, there were baptistries, clock and bell 
 towers apart from the churches, but when that right 
 was conferred on all churches the tower began to be 
 built on the church, fonts to take the place of baptist- 
 ries, and sprinkling the place of immersion. 
 
 V. CHRISTIAN LIFE. 
 
 References: K. Sec. 89; A. ii. 153-66; M. ii. 114-19; S. iv. 
 371-85. 
 
 In general, this was a period of ignorance, supersti- 
 tion and deep moral degradation. The church, though 
 it was the chief moral and intellectual force of the 
 (time, could not escape the general decline. The higher 
 I clergy, appointed for social or political reasons, or as 
 ; a result of simony, delighted in hunting, war and 
 ;, debauchery, giving little or no attention to their proper 
 : duties. The lower clergy, as a rule from the lower 
 classes, were ignorant, superstitious and immoral. 
 1 Charlemagne sought to elevate the standard of effi- 
 ciency by establishing schools, introducing canonical 
 ilife (communal life around the bishop) and rigid dis- 
 cipline, but with little success. The monks were the 
 saving salt, founding schools, furnishing missionaries 
 and reformers, improving agriculture, diffusing learn- 
 ing. The church was compelled to tolerate slavery 
 had slaves itself), and such legal customs as the oath, 
 the ordeal (duel, fire, water, cross, eucharist and other 
 tests) by which it was thought God decided questions. 
 Before end of period confession was required at least 
 once a year, and excommunicated persons suffered 
 certain civil disabilities. For venial sins penance was 
 required, and the penalties for various sins were so 
 
 Of 
 
 \" 
 
of Church History. 87 
 
 fixed that they were written out in penitential books 
 (Theodore, Bede, others). The payment of money in 
 place of other forms of punishment (an old German 
 legal custom) gave rise to the practice and doctrine 
 of indulgences, which consist in the payment of money 
 for a part or all the punishment imposed by the 
 church. Later the punishment of purgatory was 
 thought to be shortened or absolved by the church on 
 payment of money. 
 
 VI. LITERATURE AND THEOLOGICAL SCIENCE. 
 References: K. Sec. 90; A. ii. 167-88; M. ii. 122-32. 
 
 The beginnings of theological literature in the ver- 
 nacular, seen among the Goths in the last period, died 
 away and only the Latin was used. Submission to the 
 Roman See brought the Teutons in contact with the 
 earlier Christian and classic culture. Some knowledge 
 of Greek lingered here and there. Literature, pro- 
 duced wholly by monks, was mostly historical and 
 practical, and showed little originality, being largely 
 compilations from the fathers. Literary activity passed 
 almost entirely from the Latins to the Teutons, Greg- 
 ory the Great being the last Roman writer of note. 
 The most notable writers were Isidore, a Visigoth" of 
 Seville, d. 636 ("Sentences" and "Ecclesiastical Offi- 
 ces") ; Venerable Bede, an Anglo-Saxon monk of Jar- 
 row, d. 735 (Eccl. Hist, of Eng., others) ; Alcuin, an 
 Anglo-Saxon, d. 804, assistant of Charlemagne (com- 
 pilations, letters) ; Paulus Diaconus, a Lombard at 
 court of Charlemagne, d. 795 (His. of Lombards) ; 
 Rabanus Maurus (d. 856), of Roman blood, but long 
 Germanized (commentaries, homilies, etc.) ; Pascha- 
 
88 A Guide to the Study 
 
 sius Radbert, d. 865 ; John Scotus Erigena, Irish, mys- 
 tical philosopher, died c. 877. 
 
 SECOND PERIOD, FROM c. 850 TO c. 1050. 
 (In many respects, the darkest period in 
 Christian History.) 
 
 I. EXTERNAL HISTORY. 
 References: Bryce, Holy Roman Empire, Chaps. VI-IX. 
 
 1. POLITICAL HISTORY. It was a period of terrible 
 / disorders, robbery, bloodshed, almost anarchy. Europe 
 was beset on the southeast by the Mohammedans, who 
 laid waste the Mediterranean coasts; on the east by 
 hordes of Slavs (Hungarians, Wends and others), who 
 again and again laid Germany waste and penetrated to 
 the heart of France ; on the west and north by the 
 Northmen (Danes, Swedes and Norwegians), who 
 wasted the Atlantic coasts, penetrated Germany and 
 France by the rivers, appropriated a large section of 
 Western France (Normandy), passed into the Medi- 
 terranean and formed a kingdom in Southern Italy, 
 harried the British Isles for two centuries and finally 
 completely overthrew the existing government of Eng- 
 land. 
 
 (1) Germany. Carlovingians, 843-911 (Louis the 
 German, 843-876, Charles the Fat to 887, Arnulf to 
 899, Louis the Child to 911) ; Conrad I. to 918; Saxon 
 line, 919-1024 (Henry I to 936, Otto I (the Great) to 
 973, Otto II to 983, Otto III, 1002, Henry II, 1024) ; 
 Conrad II to 1039 ; Henry III to 1056. In 870 the por- 
 tion of the old empire between Germany and France 
 was apportioned between them, Germany obtaining the 
 
of Church History. 89 
 
 imperial dignity. It has remained debatable ground to 
 the present. In 875 Charles the Bald of France be- 
 came emperor, but in 881 Charles the Fat, of Germany, 
 recovered the title for Germany, and henceforth the im- 
 perial dignity remained with the German king, but was 
 actually worn only when able to assert authority as 
 king of Italy and secure the papal crowning and an- 
 ointing as emperor. Hence frequently there was no 
 emperor, and often the king of Germany was com- 
 pelled to wait long for the imperial dignity. From 899 
 to 962 Germans exercised no authority in Italy, and 
 Italian nobles were fighting for the imperial crown. 
 Germany was wasted by the Slavs on the east, and the 
 Northmen on the west, until under Louis the Child the 
 German kingdom threatened to dissolve into great in- 
 dependent duchies (Saxony, Franconia, Bavaria, 
 Schwabia, Lothringia). Henry I (The Fowler) 
 stopped the advance of the Slavs and Northmen, began 
 to reduce the great nobles to submission, and bring 
 order and safety in the land. Otto I completely de- 
 feated the Slavs, reduced all the great nobles to sub- 
 mission, restored German authority in Italy, and in 962 
 revived the empire (Holy Roman Empire of the Ger- 
 man Nation) by having himself crowned emperor. He 
 made the bishops and archbishops secular princes to 
 offset the great nobles. They held high place in gov- 
 ernment, but were appointed by and were subject to the 
 king. The imperial coronation was nearly always ob- 
 tained from the pope by force, and frequently caused 
 bloodshed. After the death of Otto I the empire de- 
 cayed until Henry III brought it again to a high point 
 of glory and power. 
 
 (2) France. The Carlovingians, 843-987; Charles 
 the Bald to 877 ; Louis the Stammerer, 879 ; Louis III 
 
90 A Guide to the Study 
 
 and Carloman, 884 (L. killed accidentally 882 ; C. 884) ; 
 Charles the Fat, 884-7. After the death of Charles 
 there was political anarchy for a century. Sometimes 
 six or seven men were contending for the crown. 
 
 France did not suffer seriously from the Slavs, but 
 the internal disorders were greater than in Germany, 
 and the Northmen settled on the Seine, ravaged the 
 country till they were recognized as the lawful vassals 
 of the king in 911 (Normandy). Here they soon 
 adopted the French language and the Christian reli- 
 gion. In 987 Hugo Capet became the founder of a 
 new dynasty, which lasted till 1328, but the royal 
 authority was greatly reduced and the great nobles 
 were long practically independent, often more powerful 
 than the king, and the central government was only a 
 name. 
 
 (3) England. The attacks of the Danes on Eng- 
 land had begun before the middle of the ninth century. 
 They were still ruthless heathen. Alfred the Great 
 succeeded in stemming the tide, but was compelled to 
 leave a large part of North England to them. They set- 
 tled down and were gradually Christianized, but to- 
 ward end of tenth century invasions began again. In 
 1002 the Danes were massacred (Danish Vespers), 
 and this caused the complete reduction of England by 
 Canute and his son (1016-1042). He was succeeded 
 by Edward the Confessor, the last of the Anglo-Saxon 
 kings. 
 
 (4) Spain. The splendid Caliphate of Cordova last- 
 ed from 755 to 1031, when it broke up into many 
 smaller Mohammedan states. The Christians in the 
 north had formed three kingdoms, Castile, Aragon 
 and Navarre. The struggle between the two faiths 
 
of Church History. 91 
 
 continued through the period, with the Christians grad- 
 ually regaining their lost territory. 
 
 2. THE PAPACY. (References: K. Sec. 96:1-5; 
 M. ii. 155-88; N. i. 494-502; A. ii. 253-320; S. 
 iv. 273-303.) The earlier Carlovingians exerted a 
 very decided influence upon the election and policy 
 of the popes ; but as the line decayed the popes strug- 
 gled for independence and increased influence in church 
 and state. This culminated in Nicholas I (858-67), 
 one of the most powerful of the popes ; he and his next 
 two successors sought to extend their authority over 
 all opponents in church and state and destroy the power 
 and rights of metropolitans and kings. The papacy 
 (then fell into utter decay for almost a century. It was 
 the football of Italian parties, and was generally filled 
 by unworthy men. From 904-63 the Pornocracy, the 
 pope controlled by three unworthy women (Theodora 
 and her daughters, Marozia and Theodora), brought 
 frightful moral conditions. In Germany the Saxon 
 kings were reforming the church by appointing able 
 bishops, investing them with authority over temporal 
 matters and requiring service from them as from other 
 nobles. When Otto the Great reached Rome he de- 
 posed a corrupt pope (963), had a better one elected, 
 and forced the Romans to swear never to elect a pope 
 without the emperor's consent and approval. There 
 was frequent schism, but under the Ottos real improve- 
 ment. Otto III adopted the plan of appointing Ger- 
 man popes. After his death the great office fell back 
 into the hands of the Italian nobles and became un- 
 speakably corrupt. Henry III in 1046 held a synod at 
 fSutri, which deposed two corrupt popes and elected a 
 
J 
 
 92 A Guide to the Study 
 
 new one. This was the beginning of the great reform 
 which ushered in the glorious period of papal power 
 and ascendency. 
 
 3. MISSIONS. (References: M. ii. 133-54; A. ii. 223- 
 52; K. Sec. 93:1-9.) The Northmen who migrated 
 into Christian territory were all converted during this 
 period. The work of Christianizing Denmark, Norway 
 and Sweden was carried to completion amid many re- 
 lapses and much persecution. In each case it was finally 
 accomplished by the conversion of the royal family, 
 who then used its influence in favor of Christianity. 
 The work of preaching was done chiefly by Anglo- 
 Saxons and Danes converted in England. In Denmark 
 Christianity was finally firmly established by Canute 
 the Great (1016-35). About the same time it was 
 finally victorious in Sweden and Norway. During the 
 century, from about 950 on, the Wends, Poles, Prus- 
 sians and Hungarians were converted by German mis- 
 sionaries and organized, for the most part, under Ger- 
 man bishops and archbishops. 
 
 II. INTERNAL HISTORY. 
 References: M. ii. 189-221; A. ii. 337-442; S. iv. 367-70. 
 
 Of the internal development of the church during 
 these two centuries there is little to relate. It was a 
 
 ! \period of stagnation and decay ; few men of ability and 
 little literature. In England Alfred the Great strove 
 to enlighten and elevate his people, but with little suc- 
 cess. He was followed by St. Dunstan (925-88), with 
 little better success. An important reform of the mon- 
 \asteries was begun by the organization of the Congre- 
 
J 
 
 of Church History. 93 
 
 gation of Clugny, 910 (Henderson, 329-33). It was 
 made directly subject to the pope, under strict rule, 
 possessed of a beautiful service, and devoted to the 
 hierarchal reform of the church. Many subordinate 
 monasteries were associated with the mother institu- 
 tion, and together formed a branch of the Benedictines 
 known as the Congregation of Clugny. This move- 
 ment had great influence on the general reform of the 
 church. New orders and congregations were also 
 formed. Schools continued in connection with the 
 more important monasteries, but were much decayed. 
 For keeping the peace the church established at various 
 places the "Truce of God," by which no one was al- 
 lowed to fight from Wednesday evening to Monday 
 morning, nor on feast days. The Interdict was also 
 developed, by which a whole community was denied 
 all the blessings of religion for a period. 
 
 Theology suffered complete decay, there being no 
 
 i development or writer of importance in the entire 
 world during the two centuries of the period. Preach- 
 ing and religious instruction suffered the same fate. 
 Morals and Christian life were at their ebb tide. This 
 
 I period is the "Dark Age." 
 
 (C) THIRD PERIOD FROM c. 1050 TO 1305. 
 
 This is the period of papal glory and supremacy, and j 
 1 of splendid intellectual activity. The great revival be- 
 gan with the period, and continued to increase to about 
 / 1215, and then maintained its high level for nearly a 
 century. 
 
94 A Guide to the Study 
 
 I. EXTERNAL HISTORY. 
 
 1. POLITICAL HISTORY. In general the nobility were 
 repressed, royal authority exalted and strengthened, the 
 nations consolidated; but the empire began to fall to 
 pieces toward the close. 
 
 (1) The Empire. _(Bryce, chs. x-xii.) The out- 
 standing facts of the period were the struggle of the 
 emperors to suppress the great nobles of the realm, to 
 assert their authority over Italy, and to control the 
 church ; i. e., the papal elections, the episcopal appoint- 
 ments and the church's property. Henry IV. (1056- 
 1106) reached his majority and took over the reins of 
 government in 1065, put down a Saxon uprising in 
 1075, had the pope, Gregory VII, deposed by a Ger- 
 1 man synod (1076) because of his investiture decree, 
 was put under the ban, did penance before the pope 
 (Canossa, 1077), and was released. Henceforth two 
 great parties in the empire, Ghibeline and Guelph, sup- 
 ported the pope and emperor respectively. Rudolph 
 of Swabia chosen king by German princes, carried on 
 civil war till 1080, when he was killed. Henry captured 
 Rome (1084), set up an anti-pope, who crowned him 
 emperor and drove out Gregory VII, who died at Sa- 
 lerno, 1085. Henry was still opposed by many nobles, 
 and was finally overthrown by his own son, who 
 ascended the throne as Henry V (1106-1125). The 
 strife with nobles continued; likewise that with the 
 pope, till ended (1122) by Concordat of Worms (Hen- 
 derson 408f), by which in Germany bishops and abbots 
 must be elected in presence of emperor or his represent- 
 ative, and be invested before consecration (not with 
 ring and staff) with scepter by emperor. In Burgundy 
 
of Church History. 95 
 
 and Italy investiture took place after consecration. This 
 compromise peace did not last long, and the struggle 
 with the nobles continued. Frederick I (Barbarossa), 
 an exceedingly able prince, undertook to restore the 
 imperial authority over the German princes, Italy and 
 the papacy. The Lombard cities, which had grown 
 into independent republics in recent years, and the Nor- 
 man kingdom in South Italy (Kingdom of the Two 
 Sicilies), which had risen in the eleventh century, were 
 the chief support of the papacy. To reduce them and 
 the pope, Barbarossa made six expeditions to Italy. 
 During the first (1154) the republic which Arnold 
 of Brescia, an opponent of the worldly authority and 
 riches of the church, had set up, was overthrown and 
 Arnold was burnt, while the pope, restored to his au- j 
 thority, crowned Frederick emperor. On the second 
 expedition the rebellious city of Milan was destroyed 
 (1162) and an anti-pope was set up. Milan was soon 
 rebuilt, and in 1 176 the Lombard cities completely de- 
 feated Frederick at Legnano and he was compelled to 
 make peace with them and the pope practically on their 
 own terms. Drowned on crusade (1190), he was suc- 
 ceeded by Henry VI, who reigned ably until 1197. 
 Civil war followed his death to 1208 (Philip to 1208, 
 Otto IV to 1215). Struggle between papacy and em- 
 pire reached climax under Frederick II (1215-50), a 
 highly gifted prince and decided opponent of the 
 worldly power of the papacy. Crowned emperor 1220 
 on the promise to lead a crusade, he was put under the 
 ban 1227 for failure to do so, went in 1228, was suc- 
 cessful ; was released from the ban 1230; peace to 1239, 
 and then war to his death. In 1239 he was put under 
 the ban, in 1245 deposed. The pope renewed the ban 
 
96 A Guide to the Study 
 
 and ordered the princes to execute the deposition. Sev- 
 ral opposing kings were set up. After the death of 
 Frederick, his house quickly died out. There was an 
 interregnum in Germany (1256-73); the kingdom of 
 the Two Sicilies was given by the pope to the French 
 under Charles of Anjou (1266) ; the French in Sicily 
 were murdered, 1282 (Sicilian Vespers), and the island 
 was attached to Aragon, while the French continued to 
 hold Naples. The long struggle between the papacy 
 and the empire had exhausted both. The empire was 
 never again able to exercise authority over Italy or the 
 pope, and contented itself with trying to hold Germany 
 together. The popes at the close of the period became 
 the vassals of France, and plunged into the depths of 
 impotence. 
 
 (2) Italy, as we have seen, was not a political unity. 
 In the northern portion the empire exercised sover- 
 eignty, but gradually lost control and left the North 
 Italian cities (Venice, Florence, Genoa, Milan, etc.) to 
 grow into independent states of various forms ; in the 
 center the papal state cut the peninsula in two ; in the 
 south the Normans began to settle about 1027, rapidly 
 made themselves masters of Southern Italy and Sicily, 
 driving out Greeks and Saracens ; were sometimes the 
 opponents and sometimes the supporters of the pope, 
 who gave the ruler the title of king. In 1189 the king- 
 dom passed by inheritance through the wife of Henry 
 VI to the Hohenstaufen, was given by the pope to 
 Charles of Anjou (1266), and 1282 Sicily was given 
 to Peter of Aragon. It was the political policy of the 
 popes to protect their own dominions by fostering dis- 
 union in Italy, striving to prevent any power from be- 
 coming dominant. 
 
of Church History. 97 
 
 (3) In Spain the conditions of the preceding period 
 continued through this, with the Christians growing 
 gradually stronger. Aided in a crusade by 60,000 
 Christians from France and Germany, they inflicted a 
 decisive defeat on the Mohammedans near Tolosa 
 (1212), and founded the kingdom of Portugal. *-- *** 
 
 (4) The history of France was largely a struggle of 
 the king to put down the feudal nobility and expel the 
 English kings from their possessions in France. At 
 the beginning of the period the king had little more 
 authority than many of his nobles. When the duke of 
 Normandy became king of England in 1066 he re- 
 tained his possessions in France. Subsequently these 
 were enlarged by marriage and conquest, and consti- 
 tuted a source of infinite trouble for the French. Philip 
 II (Augustus), 1180-1223, won back much of this ter- 
 ritory from the English and greatly strengthened the 
 royal authority. The same work was carried forward 
 by St. Louis (1226-70) and Philip Jthe Fair (1285- 
 1314), but at the close of the period the English kings 
 still held large portions of France and would soon lay 
 claim to the French crown and bring on the Hundred 
 Years War. 
 
 (5) England. At the beginning of the period Eng- 
 land was a united kingdom, with Scotland, Wales and 
 Ireland independent. Feudalism had not risen there. 
 Dane and Saxon had been amalgamated, Anglo-Saxon 
 language, customs and laws prevailed. William, duke 
 of Normandy (the Conqueror), overthrew the govern- 
 ment and became king, 1066. He was French in lan- 
 guage, ideas, customs, etc. He was an able ruler; re- 
 organized and greatly improved the condition and gov- 
 ernment of England, both in church and state, intro- 
 
98 A Guide to the Study 
 
 ducing many Normans in all departments. Henry II 
 (1154-89), the first of the Plantagenets, obtained by 
 inheritance and marriage nearly half of France, but 
 much of this was lost by his own sons, Richard ( 1 189- 
 99) and John (1199-1216). Henry greatly improved 
 the administration of justice and the government of 
 the realm. John was forced to grant the Great Charter 
 (Magna Charta) in 1215 (Henderson, pp. 135-48). 
 Under Henry III (1216-72) parliament began to be 
 formed, the Commons being called first in 1265. This 
 innovation was formally adopted in 1295. Under Ed- 
 ward I (1272-1307) Wales was incorporated in Eng- 
 land, and an effort made to conquer the Scotch, who 
 defeated the English at Bannockburn in 1314. 
 
 2. THE PAPACY. (References: N. i. 502-23 ; A. ii. 
 477-639; K. Sec. 96:6-23; M. ii. 243-91 ; H. i. 753-77; 
 S. v. Part I, 7-210.) The church had been deeply de- 
 based in morals, utterly subservient to secular power,, 
 often only a tool of princes. The spirit of the Clugniac 
 J reform seized the papacy with the German popes at the 
 beginning of our period. It was directed against 
 simony and concubinage among the clergy. The popes 
 from 1046 on sought to repress these two evils. As 
 means to these ends, the effort was made to subdue the 
 whole church under the papacy and subject the state 
 to the control of the church, the spiritual, and there- 
 fore the higher power. In order to free the popes from i 
 the control of the Roman nobles, and of the emperor, 
 the decisive voice in the election of pope was given to 
 a college of cardinals in 1059 (Henderson, 361ff). 
 Hildebrand, a moving spirit in these reforms from 
 1050 on, became Pope Gregory VII (1073-85), and at 
 
of Church History. 99 
 
 once pushed them with great vigor and ability. Polit- 
 ical circumstances caused the chief conflict to be with 
 . the Empire, but there were conflicts with all the West- 
 ern powers. In 1074 Gregory renewed the law against 
 concubinage, and sent the canons to all bishops and le- 
 gates to see that they were enforced. In cases of 
 resistance he called upon the secular princes to execute 
 them, and it was done with great severity. He se- 
 cured the complete triumph of official celibacy. He 
 next attacked simony (1075), striking at its root by 
 forbidding laymen to give, or bishops and abbots to 
 receive from laymen, a bishopric or abbacy by investi- 
 ture with ring and crozier as a sign of their allegiance 
 to secular authority. This led to the celebrated con- 
 flict with Henry IV (Canossa, 1077, see above) and 
 the election of an anti-pope, causing a schism which 
 lasted to 1139, and the pillaging and burning of Rome 
 by the Normans, who became the pope's chief support- 
 ers. In England William the Conqueror, who, with 
 Lanfranc, was reorganizing the English church on a 
 French model, 1070 on, resisted successfully Gregory's 
 claims. He appointed and invested the bishops, giving 
 the pope only the right of confirming his action ; gave 
 Canterbury the primacy over York; allowed no pope 
 to be recognized by his clergy, nor any papal legate or 
 communication to enter England without his permis- 
 sion ; refused to swear fidelity to Gregory and his suc- 
 cessors, and forbade marriage to the canonical clergy 
 only, and to those who were in the future to be or- 
 dained. After Gregory's death the struggle continued 
 in Germany, France and England (Anselm). In 1111 
 pope and emperor made a treaty by which the church 
 gave up all its feudal rights and possessions, and the 
 
100 A Guide to the Study 
 
 emperor gave up the right of investiture, but the clergy 
 would not accept this arrangement. Peace finally made 
 with the empire by Concordat of Worms, 1122. Dur- 
 ing the reign of Barbarossa the strife broke out afresh. 
 Imperial law was set over against canon law (Ron- 
 caglia, 1158), and a new schism lasted from 1159 to 
 1177. 
 
 At this time there was serious difficulty between 
 church and state in England. Henry II of England 
 sought to make the clergy amenable to the royal court 
 and otherwise bring them under the control of the 
 state. He was opposed by Thomas a Becket, who, 
 however, agreed to the Constitutions of Clarendon, 
 1164 (Henderson, pp. 11-16), which gave the king 
 authority over the clergy. Becket repented, fled to 
 France, was later reconciled to the king, returned to 
 England, caused fresh trouble, and was killed at Can- 
 terbury, 1170. Henry did penance for this, gave up 
 most of his advantages, and Becket was canonized, his 
 body working many miracles down to the Reformation. 
 
 In 1179 it was decreed at the third Lateran council 
 that two-thirds of the votes of the cardinals were nec- 
 essary to election. This to avoid further schism (Hen- 
 derson, p. 336f). 
 
 Innocent III stands at the zenith of papal power. 
 He mediated between the rival kings Otto and Philip 
 of Germany; educated and consecrated the Emperor 
 Frederick II; put France under interdict (1200) and 
 forced the king, Philip, to take back his wronged wife ; 
 he held the king of Portugal in leash, and crowned 
 Peter of Aragon at Rome ( 1204) as a fief of the Holy 
 See ; Armenia sought his protection ; the Hungarian 
 king obtained his crown from the pope. He forced an 
 
of Church History. 101 
 
 objectionable man, Stephen Langton, into the See of 
 Canterbury, and when John resisted, put England 
 under the interdict, 1208, put John under the ban 
 and deposed him, 1212, and ordered the King of 
 France to execute his decree. John surrendered, made 
 over England to the Holy See, and received it again 
 as a fief 1213. The brilliant fourth Lateran Council, 
 1215, was "the apex of papal glory." A bitter fight 
 between pope and emperor continued through the reign 
 of Frederick II, and even St. Louis of France issued 
 a Pragmatic Sanction (1269, of doubtful authenticity) 
 protecting the French church from the tyranny and 
 exactions of the papacy. Boniface VIII undertook to 
 play the role of Innocent III. The kings of France and 
 England were taxing the clergy to carry on their wars. 
 This Boniface forbade on pain of excommunication in 
 the Bull Clericis laicos (1296, Henderson, 432-4). 
 Philip replied by forbidding the export of money from 
 France. The pope explained away his meaning and 
 canonized Philip's grandfather, Louis IX. In England 
 he met with no better success. In 1300 he celebrated 
 a great jubilee (the first), and in 1302 published 
 the Bull Unam Sanctam (Henderson, 435-7), making 
 obedience to the pope necessary to salvation. He died 
 in mortal conflict with the French king in 1303. 
 
 3. THE HIERARCHY AND THE CONSTITUTION OF THE 
 CHURCH. (References: A. ii. 640-51; M. ii. 292- 
 320; K. Sec. 97; S. V. Part I, 764-829.) Dur- 
 ing this period power was more and more cen- 
 ' tralized in the pope and the clergy freed from sec- 
 ular control. Canon law was thoroughly systematized 
 by Gratian (c. 1150) ; the Crusades made the pope the 
 
102 A Guide to the Study 
 
 central figure of Christendom; he is coming to be 
 considered the vicar of God, or of Christ, in whom is 
 the ultimate source of all authority in church and state ; 
 in church this authority is exercised directly; in state 
 indirectly, through secular rulers; both swords belong 
 to the church, the spiritual wielded by the church, the 
 secular by kings for the church, and at its command; 
 the pope is more and more the source of ecclesiastical 
 law, so that councils must be called and held under 
 papal authority, and their decrees published in his 
 name ; he can dispense with these laws, and as a court 
 of last resort, all cases can be appealed to him either 
 before or after trial; metropolitans were required to 
 swear the oath of fealty to the pope, while the exclu- 
 sive right of confirming and consecrating bishops, and 
 in some cases nominating them, begins to be claimed 
 by the pope; legates go over the world exercising 
 directly and personally the pope's power; increasing 
 business develops a large Roman court (the Curia), 
 which is henceforth to play an important part in papal 
 history; the effort is made to deprive the laity of all 
 influence on the election of bishops and to withdraw 
 the clergy entirely from all civil burdens and jurisdic- 
 tion ; the enormous income of the church from its own 
 possessions was further increased by tithes and many 
 special taxes, often raised to meet the burdens of a 
 crusade, and then expended otherwise; the enforcing 
 of celibacy made the clergy more dependent on the 
 hierarchy, while the monks were gradually released 
 from episcopal and put under direct papal control ; the 
 mendicant orders established under the direct control 
 of the papacy formed a powerful standing papal army. 
 While this hierarchical organization was being thus 
 consolidated into an absolute monarchy, it was at the 
 
of Church History. 103 
 
 same time being geographically extended by missions 
 over the remainder of Northern Europe and, by the 
 influence of the Norman conquerors of England, over 
 Scotland under St. Marguerite (1045-93) and David 
 (1124-53). Ireland was given by the pope to the 
 English king (1154) who invaded the island (1171) 
 and began the reorganization of the church under the 
 papacy. 
 
 4. MONASTICISM MENDICANT ORDERS. (Ref- 
 erences: M. ii. 346-54, 404-21 ; A. ii. 681-727 ; H. i. 707- 
 13, 807-18 ; K. Sec. 98 ; S. v. Part I, 308-426.) This was 
 the flourishing period in monastic history. Old orders 
 Were reformed, new ones founded, the mendicant friars 
 organized, the monks greatly multiplied, furnishing 
 the great men of the time ; abbots had practically epis- 
 copal rank with liberty to wear bishop's mitres. The 
 monks were now considered clergymen, and lay breth- 
 ren were admitted to attend to worldly business. (1) 
 The congregation of the Cistercians founded at Cit- 
 aux 1098 on the basis of obedience to bishops, non- 
 interference with pastorates of others, absence of orna- 
 ments in churches and monasteries. Bernard of Clair- 
 vaux. (2) Carthusians, founded 1086 in Southeast- 
 ern France, were very rigid. (3) Premonstratensians 
 founded 1121, strictly ascetic, but given to preaching. 
 Others of less importance multiplied to such an extent 
 that the formation of other orders was forbidden at 
 Fourth Lateran Council 1215. Nevertheless the two 
 great mendicant orders were approved by the Pope 
 almost immediately. They did not withdraw from the 
 world, but went among men, teaching, preaching, serv- 
 ing; living from charity. They were home mission- 
 
1(H A Guide to the Study 
 
 aries, traveling evangelists, with all their powers, ex- 
 cellencies and faults. (1) Franciscans or Minorites 
 (fratres minores), founded by Francis of Assisi (Life 
 of Francis, by Paul Sabatier) about 1208, and recog- 
 nized by pope 1223 (Rule, Henderson, 344-9). They 
 renounced all property, went barefoot, clothed in rough 
 garments, devoted themselves to acts of self-denial. 
 The order soon split over the question of holding 
 property, and the rigorous party (spirituelles) even- 
 tually became bitter enemies of the papacy and hierar- 
 chy. They had a general in Rome, a provincial in each 
 country, and a guardian over each cloister. (2) The 
 Dominicans or Preaching Monks, founded by Dominic, 
 a Spanish noble, for winning back the heretics of 
 South France, were authorized by the pope, 1216. 
 Their purpose was popular preaching and hearing con- 
 fession; they had a general in Rome, a provincial in 
 each country and a prior over each monastery. They 
 encouraged liberal studies, soon held most of the im- 
 portant professorial chairs, had many great scholars, 
 were ardent missionaries, were entrusted with the man- 
 agement of the Inquisition 1232. The Franciscans 
 cultivated learning to a less degree. The two orders 
 have ever been sharp rivals. Other orders of some- 
 what similar character were the Carmelites (founded 
 on Mt. Carmel), and the Augustinians. Several orders 
 of women rose during this period. The great orders 
 became rich, brought confusion in the church and were 
 bitterly criticised by the end of the period. 
 
 Semi-monastic organizations were formed among 
 laymen. (1) The Humiliati at Milan in llth and 
 12th centuries. (2) The Beguines for women and 
 Beghards for men in France, Belgium and elsewhere. 
 
of Church History. 105 
 
 They kept up their work but lived a celibate life de- 
 voted to Christian service and eventually became more 
 or less hostile to the church. 
 
 5. CRUSADES (Wars of the Cross). (References: 
 K. Sees. 94, 98:8; N. i. 456-63; S. v. Part I, 211- 
 307; H. i. 787-804; Ludlow, The Crusades, N. Y., 
 1897.) The crusades (1095-1291) were an attempt 
 of Western Christians to recover the holy places 
 of Palestine from the Mohammedans, who had held 
 them for over four centuries. The causes were (1) 
 economic, (2) social, (3) political, (4) religious. 
 Every possible motive was appealed to in order to in- 
 duce men to go. The separate crusades, variously 
 numbered, were rather periods of special activity than 
 single expeditions. (1) The first, preached by Peter 
 the Hermit and Urban II (Clermont) in 1095, was 
 composed almost entirely of French, led by Norman 
 and French nobles (Godfrey of Bouillon, Raymond, 
 Hugh, Tancred, Robert of Normandy, but no kings), 
 went overland, captured Nicea, Tarsus, Antioch, 
 (Holy Lance), Jerusalem July 15, 1099. They set up 
 the kingdom of Jerusalem, discovered the true cross 
 and organized a Roman Catholic church, with patri- 
 arch, four archbishops and several bishops, under the 
 authority of the pope. A side expedition by Baldwin 
 captured Edessa and set up government there (1097- 
 1144). Soon most of the surviving crusaders returned 
 to Europe. (2) The second crusade (1147-9) occa- 
 sioned by the fall of Edessa in 1144 and again 1146, 
 preached by Bernard of Clairvaux, composed of 
 French and Germans and led by Louis VII of France 
 and Conrad III of Germany, went partly by land and 
 
106 A Guide to the Study 
 
 partly by sea, lost most of its men on the way, at- 
 tempted in vain to capture Damascus. A dead failure. 
 (3) The third crusade (1189-92), occasioned by the 
 re-conquest of Palestine by Saladin and his capture 
 of Jerusalem (1187), was composed of French, Ger- 
 mans and English, led by the Emperor Frederick Bar- 
 barossa, who went by land and was drowned near 
 Tarsus (1190), by Philip II of France and Richard 
 Coeur de Lion, of England. The last two went by 
 sea, capturing Cyprus on the way to Acco, which was 
 quickly captured; the French then returned home, 
 while Richard tried in vain to capture Jerusalem, suc- 
 ceeding in recovering the coast from Joppa to Acco. 
 On his way home he was held a captive in Austria for 
 several months until he was ransomed. (4) The 
 fourth crusade (1202-4), roused by Innocent III, com- 
 posed chiefly of French and led by French barons, 
 aimed primarily at Egypt; but on way captured Zara 
 in Dalmatia for the Venetians who were transporting 
 them by sea; at Constantinople they were persuaded 
 to restore the deposed Isaac Angelus to the throne, 
 and when he failed to establish the Roman church and 
 pay the money he had promised they recaptured Con- 
 stantinople and set up a Latin empire there (1204-61) 
 and several duchies and kingdoms in various parts of 
 the East, all having the Roman church. Several 
 minor expeditions followed; Children's crusade 1212 
 and others. (5) The fifth crusade (1228f) under- 
 taken by Emperor Frederick II, who recovered by 
 treaty Jerusalem (where he crowned himself emperor) 
 and Nazareth, together with a strip of land from 
 Nazareth to the sea. In 1244 Jerusalem was recap- 
 tured by Mohammedans who have since held it. (6) 
 
of Church History. 107 
 
 Sixth crusade (1248-54) was led by Louis IX (Saint) 
 of France who attacked Egypt as the key to the Mo- 
 hammedan position, was defeated and captured near 
 Cairo, was ransomed, sailed to Palestine, fortified 
 Acco and other coast cities and returned to France 
 1254. Antioch fell 1268. (7) The seventh crusade 
 (1270) was also led by Louis IX who attacked Tunis 
 but was swept away with most of his army by disease. 
 In 1291 Acco was captured by the Mohammedans, 
 the Christians gave up Tyre, Beyrut and Sidon and the 
 crusades were at an end. Various subsequent at- 
 tempts of the popes to arouse the crusading spirit were 
 
 Some of the results were (1) the elevation of the 
 church and papacy; (2) the destruction of feudal- 
 ism and the strengthening of kingly governments; (3) 
 development of commerce and of cities ; (4) diffusion 
 of culture in the West ; ( 5 ) the development of knight- 
 hood ; (6) founding of three orders of spiritual knights 
 who took the three monastic vows and in addition the 
 vow to fight the infidels, (a) Knights Templars or 
 Templars were founded by French knights (1118) 
 near Solomon's temple. Wore white mantle and red 
 cross; 1291 they were transferred to Cyprus, and in 
 1312 dissolved by the pope at the request of the 
 French king who wanted their great wealth, (b) 
 Knights of St. John or Hospitalers. Originally a 
 brotherhood of the hospital of St. John in Jerusalem 
 formed by Italian merchants (1048), it was changed 
 into an order of knights. They wore black mantle 
 and white cross, were transferred to Cyprus 1291, 
 to Rhodes 1310, to Malta 1526, where they were dis- 
 solved by Napoleon 1798. (c) Teutonic Order. A 
 
108 A Guide to the Study 
 
 brotherhood of Germans formed at Acco (1190) to 
 care for the sick; was transformed into an order of 
 knights 1198, wore white mantle, black cross. Invited 
 in 1226 by Duke of Poland to fight the heathen Prus- 
 sians, they reduced Prussia (1230-83) and founded a 
 monastic state. In 1291 the seat of the Master of the 
 order was transferred to Venice, 1309 to Marienburg, 
 1457 to Koenigsburg. In 1525 many of the knights 
 joined the Reformation, and the state was made a 
 secular duchy. 
 
 6. MISSIONS. (References: K. Sec. 93; M. ii. 361-7; 
 A. ii. 800-10; S. v. Part I, 427-57.) Amid much hard- 
 ship and suffering, many relapses and discouragements, 
 tt of North Europe was Christianized and organized 
 ler papacy during this period. It was done largely 
 by the monastic orders under the direction and with the 
 support of northern bishops. The Wends, Pomeran- 
 ians, Finns in 12th century ; Esthonia, Livonia, Cour- 
 land in 12th and 13th centuries ; Prussia and Lithuania 
 in 13th century. A Latin mission was undertaken by 
 the popes to the Mongols in the far East in 1249 and 
 1253. Unsuccessful. Again in 1292 the Dominicans 
 were unsuccessful (Marco Polo). In 1291 Francis- 
 cans began mission in Pekin; founded churches, bap- 
 tized many Mongols, translated the Psalms and New 
 Testament into Mongolian and flourished generally 
 until 1370, when the Mongolian dynasty was over- 
 thrown and driven away along with the Christians, by 
 the Ming dynasty. In Persia the Mongolian dynasty 
 wavered between Christianity and Islam until 1405, 
 when it was overthrown and Islam has been the royal 
 religion since. 
 
 Various efforts were made for the conversion of 
 the Mohammedans in North Africa, Sicily and Spain. 
 
of Church History. 109 
 
 St. Francis at Damietta (1219) and several Francis- 
 cans; likewise several Dominicans. Raymund Lull of 
 Majorca, d. 1315. All were fruitless. 
 
 II. THEOLOGY SCHOLASTICISM. 
 
 References: K. Sees. 99-103; N. i. 474-90; H. i. 851-901; 
 A. ii. 728-89; M. ii. 368-81, 422-38; S. v. Part I, 587-699; 
 Fisher, Hist. Doc. pp. 212-62. 
 
 This is the rich and productive period in mediaeval 
 ' theology. It was written in Latin, chiefly by Italians, 
 French and Germans; characterized by some of the 
 boldest and most acute thinking of Christian history. 
 From the fact that it found its home in the schools 
 it is commonly called Scholasticism. Its aim was not 
 the discovery or further development of truth, but the 
 ' justification of existing church doctrines by reason. 
 Its method was that of deductive logic, dialectic and 
 speculation, the division and subdivision of a general 
 subject until each detail was exhausted. The material 
 was sentences of the Fathers, dogmas and canons of 
 councils, decretals of the popes, etc. The conclusion 
 was confirmed by quoting the Fathers, Aristotle and 
 sometimes the Bible. No subject was too vast to be 
 understood. It was in no sense Biblical theology, and 
 in later years it degenerated into trivialities. The 
 great philosophical problem was the truth of realism, 
 conceptualism or nominalism {ante rem, in re, post 
 rem) ; affected more or less all other questions. Ques- 
 tions discussed were the being, nature and attributes 
 of God ; the Trinity ; the relation of God to the world ; 
 freedom and necessity; ethics, etc. The study of 
 Aristotle exerted profound influence on the method 
 
110 A Guide to the Study 
 
 and later upon the matter of theology. Scholasticism 
 is usually divided into three periods. (1) Its rise 
 1050-1200. (2) Its glory 13th century. (3) Its de- 
 cline 14th century. In the first period nominalism, in 
 the second realism, and in the third nominalism again 
 prevailed. The universities in 13th century became its 
 chief home. There was little study of church history, 
 exegesis or practical theology. 
 
 The period begins with a revival of the transub- 
 stantiation controversy in 1050. Berenger of Tours 
 (1000-1088) opposed the view that the substance of 
 the elements is changed into the body of Christ. Only 
 believers partake of his body and blood. He was op- 
 posed by Lanfranc of Bee (1005-89), and 1059 was 
 forced to admit that the elements become the body of 
 Christ which is eaten with the teeth. Later it was 
 determined that the whole of Christ (body, soul and 
 divinity) is in every particle of the bread and of the 
 wine. This view adopted by the Lateran Council of 
 1215. Anselm (1059-1109) maintained that faith pre- 
 cedes knowledge, developed the ontological argument 
 for the existence of God, the theory of the vicarious 
 atonement in Cur deus homo, and further developed 
 the doctrine of original sin. Abelard (1079-1142), a 
 famous teacher and dialectician, exalted the intellect, 
 criticised many church doctrines, e. g., the trinity 
 (holding Sabellian views) and inspiration, founded 
 the moral theory of the atonement, championed ethical 
 rather than dogmatic interests, was the modern man of 
 the Middle Ages; was condemned by councils in 1121 
 and 1141. His great opponent was Bernard of Clair- 
 vaux (1091-1153), conservative and churchman, a 
 great preacher with vast influence, mystical but de- 
 
of Church History. Ill 
 
 voted to church doctrines, a defender of orthodoxy, 
 a brilliant hymn-writer. He earnestly opposed Abe- 
 lard's view of the atonement and his exaltation of in- 
 tellect, maintaining that faith is the door to knowledge, 
 that ecstatic intuitions of divine truth are possible. 
 The theologians of the school of St. Victor near Paris 
 struck a middle course between the rationalism of 
 Abelard and the conservatism of Bernard, trying to 
 combine mysticism and fearless dialectics. These were 
 William of Champeaux, Hugo and Richard of St. Vic- 
 tor* Criticism led men to fortify the statement of their 
 own views by quoting the Fathers, especially Augus- 
 tine, thus forming books on theology known as sen- 
 tences. The most notable of these is the Sentences 
 of Peter the Lombard (1100-64) which was the stand- 
 ard text book on theology for centuries. As we turn 
 into the 13th century there appear two new influences 
 which bring mediaeval theology to its zenith. They 
 were the mendicant orders, and renewed study of 
 Aristotle. St. Francis sought to reproduce the "life 
 and the poverty of Jesus," through contemplation, 
 self-renunciation and service of men; this personal 
 effort for the salvation and care of souls was largely 
 open to the laityy. His methods were copied by the 
 Dominicans, and during this century nearly all the 
 great scholars belonged to one or the other of these 
 orders. Aristotle was scarcely known in the West 
 before 1200, though he was intelligently studied, trans- 
 lated and commented on by the Arabs and Jews of 
 Spain (Averroes of Cordova, d. 1198 and the Jew 
 Maimonides, d. 1204). This study, introduced by the 
 Jews into France, was at first opposed by the church 
 (1209), but soon thoroughly approved; he was called 
 
112 A Guide to the Study 
 
 the "precurser of Christ in natural things," was 
 ' 'thought to have exhausted the powers of human 
 reason in the ascertainment of religious and ethical 
 truth." The man who introduced him into the Uni- 
 versity of Paris and Western theology was Alexander 
 Hales, d. 1245, "irresistible doctor," an Englishman 
 who in 1222 became the first Franciscan teacher in 
 the University of Paris. He studied Aristotle, the 
 Arabic commentaries on him, and wrote commentaries 
 of his own which soon received the approval of the 
 pope. He was succeeded by the Franciscan Bona- 
 ventura (1221-1274), an Italian, "seraphic doctor," 
 who wrote extensively, combining in himself dialecti- 
 cal and mystical tendencies. Among the Dominicans 
 the greatest were Albert the Great, a German (1193- 
 1280), "doctor universalis," with wonderful attain- 
 ments in theology, philosophy and the sciences ; taught 
 at Cologne and elsewhere, wrote on many subjects. 
 His pupil, Thomas Aquinas, an Italian (1227-74), 
 "doctor angelicus," educated at Cologne and Paris, 
 taught at Rome, Bologna, Pisa, Naples, was the ablest 
 thinker of the Middle Ages, and next to Augustine the 
 writer of most influence in the Catholic Church. He 
 was deeply pious, Augustinian in theology, author of 
 many works, of which his summa theologica is the 
 most important book of the middle ages. He was 
 opposed at many points by John Duns Scotus, a Scotch- 
 man (1266-1308), "doctor subtilis," a subtle dialecti- 
 cian and bold thinker. He attacked many arguments 
 of scholasticism, while holding the church doctrines, 
 and thus prepared its downfall; was a semi-Pelagian 
 in theology, supported the doctrine of the immaculate 
 conception. Two parties, Thomists and Scotists, kept 
 
of Church History. 113 
 
 up a long and bitter controversy. The mystics of the 
 church were the heralds of a better day when spiritual 
 religion should once more be paramount. Roger Ba- 
 con, c. 1214-94. 
 
 III. WORSHIP. 
 
 References: K. Sec. 104; M. ii. 321-45; S. v. Part I, 
 830-96, 700-63. 
 
 The Roman liturgy was now generally adopted ex- 
 cept in Spain where it and others were used. Preach- 
 ing was revived in the eleventh century and became a 
 * power among the sects and in the church in the 12th 
 and 13th centuries. Many bishops and most of the 
 great schoolmen were popular preachers ; so the Do- 
 minicans, Franciscans and other orders, while laymen 
 and uneducated secular clergy were forbidden to 
 preach. Popular preaching was in the vernacular, 
 while before the clergy it was in Latin. For substance 
 it was largely the stories of saints, miracles, etc., but 
 there was also sound moral teaching. Bernard of 
 Clairvaux, Berthold of Regensburg, d. 1272. Sunday 
 was largely superseded by annual festivals of one kind 
 and another. The number of the sacraments, still 
 under discussion in this period, was finally fixed at 
 seven (baptism, confirmation, eucharist, penance, ex- 
 treme unction, marriage, ordination) at Council of 
 Ferrara in 1439. Transubstantiation was accepted as 
 the doctrine of the church in 1215, and the cup grad- 
 ually withdrawn from the laity to avoid spilling the 
 consecrated wine. To avoid losing the consecrated 
 bread the wafer was adopted instead of bread to be 
 broken. Infant communion ceased in 13th century; 
 
114 A Guide to the Study 
 
 the adoration of the sacrament by prostration at the 
 elevation of the host (contrary to the old rule of 
 standing during prayer) was ordained by the pope 
 1217, and the feast of Corpus Christi adopted for the 
 whole church by pope 1264. By end of period private 
 masses became a source of serious abuse. The wor- 
 ship of relics was greatly stimulated by the crusades, 
 crusaders bringing back all sorts of relics from Pales- 
 tine : holy lance, Holy Grail, holy coats, bodies of the 
 three kings, the true cross, a tooth of Jesus, etc. The 
 fraudulent trade in relics became so great that the 
 popes made efforts to restrain it. Likewise the adora- 
 tion of saints. Mary was now declared by many 
 scholars to have been sinless from conception, practi- 
 cally deified and made the intercessor between men and 
 her Son. Her name was inserted in the liturgy, and 
 the ave Maria with rosary began to come into use in 
 llth century, while the Feast of the Immaculate Con- 
 ception arose. All these views were vigorously op- 
 posed, and were not adopted for the entire church. 
 From the 12th century the right to canonize was en- 
 tirely in the hands of the pope, and hence all new 
 saints, of whom there were many, were for the entire 
 church. Church music was considerably developed, 
 especially among the Germans, and many noble hymns 
 in Latin were written by Abelard, Bernard, Adam of 
 St. Victor, Aquinas, Thomas of Celano (Dies irae 
 1260) and Jacopone da Todi, d. 1306 (Stabat mater 
 dolorosa). Church architecture developed wonder- 
 fully in this period, creating enormous stone structures 
 full of wonderful beauty and impressiveness. The 
 romanesque, in 12th century greatly developed by the 
 Normans, was massive with round arches, enormous 
 
of Church History. 115 
 
 columns, vaulted roof, massive towers, ornamented 
 with plants, animals and geometric figures (Durham 
 Cathedral). This was followed by the Gothic in 13th 
 and 14th centuries, characterized by pointed arches, 
 slender and lofty columns, tall and beautiful windows, 
 ornamented by hideous figures symbolizing triumph 
 over powers of darkness (Cologne and Strasburg 
 cathedrals). In the 13th century both statuary and 
 painting began to be developed and put at the service 
 of worship. 
 
 Closely associated with worship was the system of 
 confession, penance and indulgences, which was fully 
 developed before the end of this period. The church 
 always required the public confession of gross public 
 sins, and had long insisted on the private confession 
 of such (mortal) hidden sins to a priest in order that 
 he might fix the penalty. Gradually the view devel- 
 oped that all sins must be confessed to a priest, and 
 the fourth Lateran Council (1215) declared that every 
 Christian must confess all his sins at least once a year 
 to his own priest, who should impose the penalties and 
 absolve the penitent. Up to beginning of the 13th 
 century absolution was in the form of a prayer by the 
 priest; then it became declarative, "I absolve thee." 
 This removed the, guilt of sin and the eternal punish- 
 ment, but did not deliver from temporal penalties in 
 this life and in purgatory. These could, however, be 
 greatly minimized by indulgences, granted at first by 
 all bishops, but later claimed as the exclusive preroga- 
 tive of the popes. By the payment of money or the 
 performance of designated tasks a part or even 
 ( rarely ) v all the temporal penalties of sin were re- 
 mitted for one's self or another. In the case of pur- 
 
116 A Guide to the Study 
 
 gatorial pains this remission was accomplished by the 
 transfer by the church of some of the superabundant 
 good works of Christ and the saints to the needy souls 
 in purgatory for whom payment had been made. This 
 view was completed by the scholastics of the 13th 
 century. 
 
 Other methods of discipline were the ban and in- 
 terdict, which were often used by the pope for purely 
 political purposes. 
 
 IV. OPPOSITION TO THE CHURCH THE SECTS. 
 
 References: S. v. Part I, 458-533; K. Sees. 108, 109; N. i. 
 541-81; M. ii. 382-403; H. i. 823-49; A. ii. 652-80; Newman, 
 Anti-Pedobaptism, chaps. Ill and IV. 
 
 The unity of the Western church, well nigh com- 
 plete for four or five centuries, begins to break up in 
 llth and 12th centuries. The possible sources of these 
 sects were (1) The possible persistence of primitive 
 Christianity. This has not been proven. (2) The 
 probable persistence of earlier sects, especially the 
 Manicheans. (3) The revival of religion and Bible 
 study within the Catholic Church. This is by far the 
 most probable source, especially of the evangelical 
 sects, since their leaders all came out of the Catholic 
 Church. In South France, in the Netherlands and 
 along the Rhine there was in the last half of llth 
 and throughout 12th and first half of 13th centuries 
 tremendous opposition to the Catholic Church, its doc- 
 trines, practices, worship and organization. This op- 
 position took many forms, sometimes remaining in the 
 church, more frequently separating from it ; sometimes 
 remaining unorganized, again reaching an organiza- 
 
of Church History. 117 
 
 tion; overlapping, merging into one another until it 
 is often impossible to distinguish the various parties 
 historically. Only a few of the more important forms 
 can be noticed; for information concerning these we 
 are largely dependent on the records of the Inquisition 
 of 13th century. 
 
 1. CATHARI. (Albanenses, Albigenses, etc.) a num- 
 erous party or parties, with many internal differences, 
 found chiefly in Southeastern France, from about 1000 
 on until their extermination by a crusade (1208-29). 
 The majority of them were dualists, rejected marriage 
 and the Old Testament, held docetic views of the body 
 of Christ, emphasized the laying on of hands for the 
 gift of the Spirit, rejected baptism and the supper, 
 divided their adherents into believers and elect or per- 
 fect. (See Key of Truth.) 
 
 2. More evangelical were the Petrobrusians and 
 Henricans, founded by Peter of Bruys, a Catholic 
 priest burned 1126, and Henry of Lausanne, a monk 
 and deacon, d. 1148. They preached evangelical doc- 
 trines throughout Southeastern France with great 
 power and effect; rejected tradition, holding to the 
 Scriptures alone; rejected infant baptism, practicing 
 believer's baptism ; denied transubstantiation, all works 
 for the dead, veneration of the cross, relics, etc. ; 
 opposed consecrated buildings, holding that God can 
 be worshipped in one place as well as another. (Poor 
 Men of Lyons, Poor Men of Lombardy, etc.) 
 
 3. WALDENSES were founded by Peter Waldo, a 
 wealthy merchant of Lyons about 1170. They re- 
 mained a body of laymen in Catholic Church till 1184 
 when they were excommunicated and became hostile 
 to the church, spreading rapidly over South France, 
 
118 A Guide to the Study 
 
 North Italy, into Spain, Germany and Austria, ab- 
 sorbing and carrying on the work of some of the ear- 
 lier sects. They preached and taught the Bible in the 
 vernacular, made vernacular versions of the Bible, 
 sought to reproduce the life of Christ on earth, rejected 
 transubstantiation, infant baptism, purgatory and all 
 its related doctrines, veneration of saints, relics, mir- 
 acles, etc., refused to take an oath, opposed capital 
 punishment, magistracy and war. They were divided 
 into perfect and disciples, and their women also taught. 
 The officers, taken from the perfect, renounced prop- 
 erty and marriage; they were superintendent, presby- 
 ters and deacons. This body, at its annual meeting, 
 transacted all the business of the society, sending out 
 missionaries, exercising discipline, etc. They were 
 terribly persecuted by the Inquisition from the be- 
 ginning of the 13th century on, but were able to pre- 
 serve an existence, and now constitute the bulk of the 
 evangelicals in Italy. 
 
 There were many other individuals or parties hold- 
 ing views more or less evangelical throughout the 
 later Middle Ages. To meet this rising tide of oppo- 
 sition there was organized 
 
 4. THE INQUISITION. (N. i. 463-9; Lea, Hist, of 
 Inqui. of the Mid. Ages, 3 vols. His. Inqui. in Spain 
 and Dependencies, 5 vols.) Heresy was regarded as a 
 mortal sin, a heinous crime. It had long been the duty 
 of bishops to seek out heretics, who had in some cases 
 been put to death. The rapid increase of heresy in 
 12th century led to a more systematic effort to sup- 
 press it, both by preaching and by force. The Third 
 Lateran Council (1179) required systematic persecu- 
 tion of heretics by episcopal courts; laymen were 
 
of Church History. 119 
 
 sworn to inform on all suspects, and bishops were re- 
 quired to proceed against them on pain of deposition. 
 The Fourth Lateran Council (1215) required secular 
 rulers to confiscate the goods of condemned heretics 
 and to execute them on pain of being themselves ex- 
 communicated, deposed and deprived of their property. 
 All who protected heretics fell under the ban, and all 
 suspects must clear themselves within a year or be 
 treated as heretics. In 1233 the inquisition was made 
 a special department of papal government and given 
 to the Dominicans (Domini canes), who proceeded 
 ruthlessly. Confiscated property was divided with the 
 informers, the accused was not permitted to know his 
 accusers or the witnesses, who were often disreputable ; 
 torture was used to wring out confessions, etc. The 
 effectiveness of the Inquisition depended upon the 
 subservience of secular rulers. In Latin countries, 
 France, Italy, Spain, it was effective, thousands of 
 people being put to death ; in Teutonic countries it was 
 less effective, still many perished here. Its opera- 
 tions were extended to witches, Jews and Saracens in 
 13th century. Its results were frightful. 
 
 V. LEARNING AND LITERATURE THE UNIVERSITIES. 
 
 References: S. v. Part I, 534-86; N. i. 469-74; H. i. 935-49; 
 M. 423-26; Rashdall, Universities of the Middle Ages. 
 
 The monastic and cathedral schools of the earlier 
 \ Middle Ages grew into universities in the latter part 
 of this period. The trivium (grammar, rhetoric, logic) 
 and the quadrivium (music, arithmetic, geometry, as- 
 tronomy) of the older schools were enlarged into cor- 
 porations for teaching practically all knowledge. 
 
120 A Guide to the Study 
 
 These enjoyed self-government and many other privi- 
 leges granted by popes and temporal rulers. They 
 began to be organized about the beginning of the 13th 
 century. Bologna 1158, Montpelier 1180, Paris, Ox- 
 ford and Salerno c. 1200, eight more in 13th, twenty 
 in 14th, twenty in 15th and two in 16th centuries. 
 Paris was noted for theology (Sorbonne), Bologna 
 for law, Salerno for medicine. There was really no 
 investigation in these earlier years, but rather preser- 
 vation, disputation and instruction. 
 
 There was a mass of literature, all of it Christian, 
 most of it theological and ecclesiastical. Latin was the 
 language of learning and serious literature ; a vernacu- 
 lar literature began to appear in France, Germany, 
 England and especially Italy, where a native literature 
 is to blaze so splendidly in the next period. 
 
 (D) FOURTH PERIOD, FROM 1305 to c. 1517. 
 I. POLITICAL HISTORY. 
 
 1. THE EMPIRE. (Bryce, chaps. XIV-XVIII.) 
 . The empire never recovered from the confusion that 
 ' followed the death of Frederick II (1250). Italy 
 never again acknowledged its suzerainty. Now and 
 then an emperor was crowned at Rome, but exercised 
 no authority. The German states and nobles threw off 
 all control. The league of the Rhine was formed by 
 about sixty cities along the Rhine for mutual protection 
 similar to the Hanseatic League in the North, formed 
 1241. Feudal castles rose all over Germany, private 
 war and robbery were universal. Civil war, lasting 
 for ten years broke out in 1314 between Frederick 
 of Austria and Louis of Bavaria. At its conclusion 
 
of Church History. 
 
 Pope John XXII sought to depose Louis and give the 
 imperial crown to Philip of France. This led to vig- 
 orous literary war, in which Louis and the Germans 
 maintained that the emperor received the throne not 
 from the popes, but from the German electors (1338), 
 and this repudiation of the pope's authority was con- 
 firmed by the Golden Bull in 1356 fixing the number 
 and rights of electors (Henderson, pp. 220-61; 437f). 
 The confusion continued through most of the 14th 
 and 15th centuries. Bohemia and Hungary were al- 
 most independent kingdoms until they were swallowed 
 up by the Turks, while the Swiss cantons, beginning 
 with the union of three (Uri, Schweiz, Unterwalden) 
 in 1291, gradually built up a confederacy which was 
 able to drive off the Austrians on the East (Morgarten 
 1315, Sempach 1386), and the Burgundians under 
 Charles the Bold on the West (Granson 1476, Nancy 
 1477, Charles the Bold killed). The Crusades were 
 followed by an advance of the Ottoman Turks toward 
 end of 13th century; destroying the remnants of the 
 Seljukian Turks in Asia Minor under Murad I (1361- 
 89), they crossed to Europe, captured Adrianople and 
 made it their capital 1365. Before the end of the 
 century they had conquered Macedonia, Thessaly and 
 Greece. Constantinople was threatened and paying 
 tribute when the invasion of Tamerlane 1402 stopped 
 them. Under Murad II the project of destroying the 
 Greek empire was taken up again, and under Mo- 
 hammed II Constantinople was captured and made 
 the capital of the new Turkish empire 1453. They 
 now passed up the Danube to attack the Western em- 
 pire, and before end of period most of Hungary and 
 much of Poland had been overrun. Maximilian I 
 
122 A Guide to the Study 
 
 (1493-1519), the last emperor of the period, was 
 stronger than his predecessors, but was able to ac- 
 complish little for the reform of the empire. 
 
 2. ITALY. The decline of the empire and the Baby- 
 lonian captivity of the popes left Italy without any 
 central authority. Strife between Guelphs and Ghi- 
 
 \ belines continued. Anarchy prevailed, cities and 
 classes fighting with each other. Gradually five states 
 secured the lead. Kingdom of Naples, duchy of 
 Milan, republics of Florence and Venice, and the papal 
 state. Sicily and Naples were reunited 1435 under 
 Spanish prince. Florence from 1378 was ruled by the 
 Medici, a rich merchant family, but under republican 
 forms. Romans attempted to establish old Roman 
 republic under Rienzi (1347-54). In 1494 Charles 
 VIII of France, in order to recover the kingdom of 
 Naples, invaded Italy, intending after that to extend 
 his conquests to the East. This began the rivalry of 
 France and Spain for the control of Italy which caused 
 so much bloodshed. 
 
 3. FRANCE. The socalled "hundred years war" 
 V (1337-1453) was caused by the desire of the French 
 
 to drive the English off the continent and the desire of 
 the English to retain their land and take the French 
 crown. (1) From 1337-60. English successful. 
 Crecy 1346, Poitiers 1356. By treaty of Bretigne 
 (1360) the English secured the province of Aquitaine 
 with other lands, renounced their claims to French 
 throne and all lands north of the Loire and released 
 the captive king on payment of a ransom. A terrible 
 revolt in Paris and among peasants 1356-8. (2) To 
 Peace of Troyes, 1420. War soon broke out again, 
 and was at first favorable to France. The imbecility 
 
of Church History. 123 
 
 of Charles VI caused division in France, the northern 
 portion (Burgundy) favoring the English, the south- 
 ern portion (Armagnacs) favoring the French king. 
 At Agincourt 1415 Henry V of England completely 
 defeated Armagnacs. By treaty of Troyes he mar- 
 ried a daughter of Charles VI of France, was recog- 
 nized as regent of France, to be king after death of 
 Charles. (3) To end, 1453. Both kings died (1422), 
 and Charles VII was crowned king of France south of 
 Loire. Joan of Arc (1429) turned fortunes of France. 
 In 1435 Duke of Burgundy was reconciled to the king 
 of France, and the English were rapidly driven out 
 until 1453 they held only Calais, which they held till 
 1558. France was desolated, but rapidly recovered. 
 Burgundy and other great duchies were won for the 
 king until at close of period it was a strong and well 
 organized government. 
 
 4. ENGLAND was engaged with France during the 
 Hundred Years War. In 1371 Scotland gained com- 
 plete independence under the house of Stuart. Fre- 
 quent struggles with the nobility. Wars of the Roses 
 
 ^ (1459-85) between the houses of York and Lancaster, 
 a war of the nobility which was almost destroyed, leav- 
 ing the king supreme and England strongly centralized 
 at end of period. 
 
 5. SPANISH PENINSULA. The kingdoms of Castile 
 and Aragon continued separate but gained upon the 
 Moors in South until they were completely overthrown 
 in 1492. The marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon (the 
 Catholic) and Isabella of Castile prepared the way for 
 the union of these two kingdoms under Charles I (V). 
 The southern part of Navarre was annexed to Aragon 
 1512. The "Spanish" Inquisition stamped out all in- 
 
124 A Guide to the Study 
 
 ternal disorders, the church was reformed. There 
 were discoveries by Italians in Spanish service (Co- 
 lumbus, Amerigo Vespucci), by Spaniards (Balboa), 
 by Portugese (Vasco de Gama, Cobral, Magellan). 
 Spain is rapidly becoming the leading nation of Eu- 
 rope at close of period. 
 
 7. SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES. Denmark, Sweden, 
 
 1 and Norway united in Union of Colmar (1397) under 
 
 an elective king. There was considerable friction and 
 
 one dissolution of the Union, but it was restored and 
 
 still existed at end of period. 
 
 II. EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 References: N. i. 523-40; K. Sec. 110; A. ii. 816-931; H. i. 
 778-86. 
 
 The political power of the papacy sinks rapidly to 
 * end of period. 
 
 1. BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY, 1309-78. French influ- 
 ence on the papacy, which had been increasing for some 
 time culminates in its complete domination by the 
 French. Benedict XI recalled most of the action of 
 Boniface VIII against Philip of France. The next 
 pope, Clement V, was a Frenchman and never left 
 the country after his election 1305, settling at Avignon 
 on border of France 1309. Popes now completely 
 under French influence. John XXII claimed right 
 to mediate between Louis of Bavaria and Frederick of 
 Austria, to appoint imperial vicar for Italy. Louis 
 repudiated the assumption of the pope, claimed to ex- 
 ercise authority in virtue of his election, deposed the 
 pope and set up an anti-pope. He was himself excom- 
 municated (the last emperor excommunicated) and the 
 
of Church History. 125 
 
 empire laid under the interdict. The controversy pro- 
 duced voluminous literature on the source of political 
 authority. (Marsilius of Padua and William of 
 Occam.) The papal court luxurious and corrupt, 
 cf. Petrarch. Finally after much outside pressure 
 (Catherine of Sienna and Briget of Sweden) the pope 
 returned to Rome 1378. 
 
 2. GREAT SCHISM 1378-1417. There had been many 
 schisms before, but this is the most serious and longest 
 in papal history. Urban VI, unanimously elected at 
 Rome, soon alienated the French cardinals, who de- 
 clared the former election void, and proceeded to elect 
 Clement VII, who retired to Avignon. He was sup- 
 ported by France, Naples, Savoy, Castile, Aragon, Na- 
 varre, Scotland and Lorraine. The rest of the Catholic 
 world supported the Roman pope. Ruinous to religion. 
 Public opinion finally forced the cardinals, against the 
 
 j protest of both popes, to call the Council of Pisa 
 (1409), which deposed both, and then proceeded to the 
 election of another, Alexander V. Result was three 
 popes, each supported by various nations. Alexander 
 was succeeded in 1410 by John XXIII, a profligate. 
 
 . Forced by public opinion, he called the Council of Con- 
 stance (1414-18) to (1) heal schism, (2) put down 
 heresy, and (3) reform church in head and members. 
 Largest and most brilliant council in history. The 
 council voted by nations (Italian, French, German, 
 
 v English) ; declared final supreme authority to rest in 
 the council. (1) John and Benedict XIII (Avignon) 
 were deposed, Gregory XII (Rome) persuaded to re- 
 sign, and Martin V elected, thus securing one pope and 
 closing the schism (1417). (2) John Huss and Jerome 
 of Prague were condemned and burned, John Wye- 
 
126 A Guide to the Study 
 
 liffe's bones ordered dug up and burned, Bohemia put 
 under ban. (3) Little done for reform. 
 
 3. FROM 1417 TO 1517. Followers of Huss in Bohe- 
 mia had broken into revolt on his execution. To settle 
 ? this war and reform the church the Council of Basel 
 was convened 1431. Bent on reform and hostile to the 
 claims of the pope, he once dissolved it, then acknowl- 
 edged and finally transferred it to Ferrara 1437. The 
 fathers refused to disband, and in 1439 deposed the 
 pope and elected another who was not widely recog- 
 nized. It closed 1443. The ideas of the council re- 
 garding the relation of the pope to the church and to 
 civil government were adopted by the French and 
 German governments in pragmatic sanctions. In the 
 meantime a council convened in Ferrara (1439 trans- 
 ferred to Florence), took up the question of union with 
 Greek Church, the Emperor, the Patriarch of Constan- 
 tinople, and the pope being present in person. The 
 chief points of difference were filioque, condition of the 
 blessed after death, leavened bread, the primacy of the 
 pope. The union was effected on paper, but could 
 never be carried into effect at Constantinople. Begin- 
 ning with Nicholas V (1447-55), the founder of the 
 Vatican library, the popes for nearly a century were the 
 leading patrons of the new learning, humanists. Pius 
 II is an excellent example. Alexander VI (1492-1503), 
 a monster of wickedness, divided the new world be- 
 tween Spanish and Portugese. Julius II (1503-13), a 
 warrior, restored the papal state. Leo X (1513-21), 
 son of Lorenzo Medici, was a humanist, patron of art, 
 etc., without religion. 
 
of Church History. 127 
 
 III. INNER LIFE OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 1. THEOLOGY. (References: K. Sees. 113, 114; A. 
 ii. 988-99.) As we turn into the fourteenth cen- 
 i tury theological learning rapidly decays until at end of 
 period there is no learning worth the name. Scholasti- . 
 cism degenerates into hair-splitting in questions of 
 casuistry and about unimportant matters. Nominalism 
 rises again in William of Occam and is triumphant 
 in fifteenth century. Duns Scotus, fl308, his pupil 
 Occam, f!349, Nicholas of Cusa, f!464. One of the 
 chief subjects of controversy was the immaculate con- 
 ception of Mary. -There was little progress made in 
 these two centuries in the development of doctrines. 
 
 A new type of theology is found in the mystics of 
 fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, chiefly in Germany 
 and the Netherlands and among Dominicans. Abandon- 
 ing dialectics and logic, they sought to know God by 
 Idirect intuition through contemplation and feeling, the 
 illumination of the spirit. They preached in the ver- 
 Inacular in a popular way with great effectiveness. 
 The founder was Meister Eckhart (1260-1327), born 
 Strasburg, studied under Albert the Great, was a Do- 
 minican, provincial of Saxony, vicar general of Bohe- 
 mia ; teacher in Paris, Strasburg and Cologne, accused 
 of pantheism. German theology. John Tauler ( 
 1361), born Strasburg, pupil of Eckhart, Dominican, 
 great popular preacher. Henry Suso (1295-1366), 
 pupil of Eckhart, Dominican, writer. Among the 
 Dutch were John of Ruysbroek (1298-1381), and 
 Thos. a Kempis (1380-1471), author of De Imitatione 
 Christi. Mysticism made a deep impression on the 
 masses, who formed sects in Germany, the Netherlands 
 
128 A Guide to the Study 
 
 and elsewhere. "Friends of God," were orthodox, but 
 some mystics were pantheistic and libertine. 
 
 2. WORSHIP. (References: K. Sec. 115; A. ii. 1026- 
 58; H. i. 909-34.) In this period there were few great 
 
 'preachers (Tauler, Vincent Ferrer) and little preach- 
 ing. This among Mendicants, Augustinians and the 
 sects. There arose Bible translations, Bible histories, 
 picture books, catechisms, sacred plays, etc., which dis- 
 
 * seminated knowledge of the gospel among the people. 
 Hymn writing in Latin decayed, but reappeared in the 
 vernacular. Popular and congregational singing ap- 
 peared, especially among the flagellants, Hussites and 
 other sectaries. Church music was improved by the 
 introduction of harmony. Gothic architecture contin- 
 ued to prevail in Germany, France and England, 
 though the great building age was past. In Italy Re- 
 naissance architecture arose with such masters as Bra- 
 mante and Michael Angelo (1474-1564). Foundation 
 of new St. Peter's laid 1506. Sculpture (Ghiberti, 
 +1455; Michael Angelo, +1564) and painting now 
 made tremendous progress and were largely in the 
 service of the church. Four schools: (1) Florentine 
 school, Giotto +1336, Fra Angelico +1455, Leonardo 
 da Vinci +1519, Fra Bartolomeo +1517, Michael An- 
 gelo +1564. (2) Lombard or Venetian: Bellini +1516, 
 Corregio +1534, Titian +1576. (3) Umbrian: Ra- 
 phael +1520 and others. (4) German: The Brothers 
 van Eyk, Albert Durer +1528, and Hans Holbein, Sr., 
 +1524. 
 
 3. CHRISTIAN LIFE. (References: K. Sec. 117.) 
 There was decline in morals, a tendency to 
 
of Church History. 129 
 
 .break away from the church, a revival of skep- 
 ticism and pagan ideas. The traffic in indulgences 
 to raise money for various undertakings became a 
 universal scandal and well nigh destroyed dis-j 
 cipline. The inquisition was used without mercyj 
 against heretics, especially in France and Spain. The 
 Spanish Inquisition (Lea's Hist. Span. Inq.), organize< 
 by Ferdinand aricl Isabella (1480) was, under Torqu< 
 mada (1483-99) and Ximines (1507-17), the most ter- 
 rible tribunal in history. "It was directed specially 
 against Moors and Jews, converted by force and then' 
 suspected of apostasy (Moriscos) ; thousands per- 
 ished. It did not appear in Germany till 1386, and 
 never with effectiveness in England. Persecution of 
 witches was even worse than that of heretics. The 
 church discouraged belief in witches till c. 1200. Then 
 the belief grew rapidly and was encouraged by the 
 church. In 1484 the pope called attention to the spread j 
 of witchcraft, and appointed special inquisition for its I 
 suppression. The terrible work of destruction contin-/ 
 ued among Catholics, and after the Reformation, 
 among Protestants till the beginning of the eighteenth 
 century. It is supposed that as many as 300$QQ,wom- 
 en perished, most of them at the stake. 
 
 The morals of the clergy (A. ii. 1014-26), monks 
 
 'and nuns were low. Many prelates lived in open con- 
 cubinage and allowed the lower clergy to do so, while 
 unnatural sin was not uncommon. Monasteries were 
 rich, monks idle and debased. Franciscans and Domin- 
 icans ceased to be mendicant, continually quarreled 
 over the immaculate conception, while the strict part 
 of the Franciscans were declared to be heretical and 
 persecuted. The Knights Templars were dissolved 
 
130 A Guide to the Study 
 
 1311 on a charge of heresy, sorcery and vice, their 
 great possessions being largely appropriated by the 
 princes, their leaders burned as heretics. Historians 
 4 are divided as to their guilt. Several new orders of 
 monks and nuns arose. Brothers of the Common Life, 
 founded c. 1382 in the Netherlands, was a society of 
 pious priests and laymen, holding Catholic doctrines, 
 but devoted to Bible study, mystical contemplation, 
 preaching, teaching, pastoral service, supporting them- 
 selves by labor. Thomas a Kempis. This movement 
 I unconsciously prepared the way for the Reformation. 
 Missionary labor practically ceased in this period. 
 
 IV. SIGNS AND HELPS TO A NEW AGE. 
 
 References: K. Sec. 118-20; H. ii. 1-114. 
 
 1. Use of GUNPOWDER imported from East, c. mid- 
 dle thirteenth century, completely changing the charac- 
 ter of war and putting peasant on equality with knight 
 in battle. 
 
 2. Invention of MARINER'S COMPASS, c. 1310, by Fla- 
 vio Giorja of Amain, making it possible to launch out 
 on the high seas with safety. 
 
 3. Invention of PRINTING, c. 1450, by John Guten- 
 burg, in Mainz, and paper, making books cheap and 
 plentiful. Latin Bible first printed book, 1455. 
 
 4. DISCOVERIES on earth and in the heavens broke up 
 men's fundamental conceptions of things and prepared 
 the way for religious changes. Discovery of America, 
 1492, sea route to India, 1498, Brazil, 1500, Pacific 
 Ocean, 1513. Magellan sails around earth, 1519-22. 
 Copernicus (1473-1543) discovered the true view of 
 the solar system. 
 
 5. The rise of a VERNACULAR LITERATURE in prose 
 and poetry, which reached the people as well as the 
 
of Church History. 131 
 
 learned. In Italy are three great men, all of Florence 
 Dante (1265-1321) wrote in Italian, "The Divine 
 Comedy," and in Latin De Monarchia; Petrarch ( 1304- 
 74), lyric poet and letter writer, reviver of classical 
 studies; Bocaccio (1313-75), writer of prose, some of 
 it pagan in its morals. All three were more or less 
 hostile to the church, while the first two held firmly 
 to church doctrines and ethics. In Germany the popu- 
 lar preachers, especially the mystics, used the vernac- 
 ular. In 1494 appeared Brant's "Ship of Fools," in 
 which the clergy are held up to ridicule. In England 
 French ceased to be used during the Hundred Years 
 War. In 1362 English was adopted in the courts, and 
 a new native English literature began in this period. 
 lit was hostile to the clergy and church, though not to 
 Christianity. Wycliffe (+1384) wrote some of his 
 works in English; Wm. Langland's "Vision of Piers 
 Plowman" (1362) and "Pierce the Plowman's Creed," 
 by another author, are bitterly hostile to the church 
 and clergy. Chaucer (1340-1400), "Fount of English 
 Undefiled," ridiculed the clergy in his "Canterbury 
 Tales." 
 
 6. RENAISSANCE OF CLASSICAL CULTURE. The Re- 
 naissance may be described as a re-birth of ancient clas- 
 1 sical culture in Western Europe. The Greek language 
 and literature, the classical Latin language and litera- 
 ture, classic architecture, art and philosophy. It be- 
 gan naturally in Italy, where there had been a classic 
 past; was prosecuted not in the interest of religion, 
 but humanity, hence called humanism, and spread from 
 Italy to Germany and England. In Italy it began with 
 the teaching of Greek by Chrysoloras (1396), Bessa- 
 rion and other Greeks (1439 on), and especially by 
 
132 A Guide to the Study 
 
 scholars who fled from Constantinople 1453. Schools 
 of Platonic and peripatetic philosophy were founded 
 in Florence. With pagan literature came pagan public 
 
 * and private morals and other conceptions. The church 
 and even essential Christianity, was neglected, despised 
 or opposed (Machiavelli +1527). Laurentius Valla 
 (+1457) started the critical movement by denying the 
 genuineness of the Donation of Constantine, the cor- 
 respondence of Christ and Abgar, the authenticity of 
 the Apostles' Creed, etc. Students from all parts of 
 
 ' Europe studied in Italy, and carried the new learning 
 back to their homes. In Germany it found place 
 chiefly in the universities of Erfurt, Heidelberg, Tubin- 
 gen and Wittenberg (founded 1502). Its most emi- 
 nent representatives were Ulrich von Hutten and 
 Reuchlin (1455-1522), a great Hebrew scholar, de- 
 fender of Hebrew literature, opponent of the monks 
 (Epistolae Obscurorum Virorum, 1515) ; Erasmus of 
 Rotterdam (1465-1536), scholar, literateur, publisher 
 of New Testament in Greek (1516 on), editions of the 
 Fathers, "Praise of Folly," opponent of the schoolmen, 
 monks and clergy. In England John Colet (+1519), 
 professor in Oxford, abandoned scholastic method and 
 expounded Bible from original text. Thos. More 
 (1480-1535) was friend of humanism, political reform- 
 er, author of Utopia (1516). German and English 
 
 . humanism was religious, sought reform of the morals 
 and abuses of the church, desired freedom and literary 
 excellence ; but sought them by ridicule, invective, etc., 
 not by the preaching of the Scriptures. Few of them 
 adopted Luther's doctrines. In France humanism took 
 little hold till reign of Francis I, and in Spain little 
 
of Church History. 133 
 
 except under Ximines, who published Complutensian 
 Polyglott (1520). 
 
 Chief benefits of Renaissance to religion were (1) 
 
 general enlightenment, (2) publication and study of 
 
 1 the Scriptures in the original, (3) revival of the gram- 
 
 matico-historical method of interpretation, (4) general 
 
 intellectual revival men began to think again. 
 
 7. REFORMATORY MOVEMENTS. (Ullman Reform- 
 ers before the Reformation.) 
 
 The reformatory sects of the preceding period con- 
 tinued into this, but do not seem to have had much 
 influence on the Reformation. The effort to reform 
 the church through the three reforming councils of 
 fifteenth century was a failure. But there were move- 
 ments of highest moment. ( 1 ) In England John Wyc- 
 liffe (1320-84), "the morning star of the Reformation/' 
 fellow and professor of Oxford, priest at Lutterworth, 
 condemned by the church and dismissed by the uni- 
 versity, but protected by the government, which he 
 'defended against the assumptions of the papacy. He 
 translated the Scriptures into English from the Vul- 
 gate, wrote many tracts in English and Latin, rejected 
 most of the distinctive Catholic doctrines; e. g., wor- 
 ship of saints, relics, images ; transubstantiation, indul- 
 gences, purgatory, ban, interdict, papal authority; af- 
 firmed Augustinian theology, sole authority of Scrip- 
 tures, universal priesthood of believers ; organized his 
 followers (Lollards) and sent them forth to preach; 
 they were practically suppressed before the Reforma- 
 tion. (2) In Bohemia, Bohemian students, returning 
 home from England, carried Wycliffe's writings, which 
 found acceptance in University of Prague. John Huss 
 
\ 
 
 134 A Guide to the Study 
 
 (1369-1415), professor of theology, a preacher with 
 popular gifts and power, accepted Wycliffe's theologi- 
 cal and philosophical views and became leader of a 
 Bohemian party, while the Germans opposed. Accused 
 of heresy by the clergy, he was protected by his bishop 
 and king till 1408. King Wenzel determined to re- 
 main neutral between the popes, while the bishop 
 and the Germans in the University supported the Ro- 
 man pope. Huss and his party supported the king, and 
 secured a decree giving the Bohemians three out of 
 four votes in the control of the university, an action 
 which led the foreigners in the university to withdraw 
 and found University of Leipzig, 1409. Huss^ now 
 rector of the university, was supported by king, nobles 
 and magistrates, while he was condemned by the pope ; 
 Prague was put under the interdict. He attended 
 Council of Constance with emperor's safe conduct, but 
 was arrested, condemned and executed as a heretic, 
 1415. (Jerome of Prague, 1416.) Wrote many tracts, 
 dependent on Wycliffe, but not quite so radical, holding 
 transubstantiation, etc. The followers of Huss were 
 
 Iput under the ban and the emperor ordered to destroy 
 them. This led to civil war (1420-36). Hussites 
 founded two parties: (1) Calixtines or Utraquists, 
 who demanded (a) communion in both kinds, (b) 
 free preaching of pure gospel in the vernacular, (c) 
 strict discipline of the clergy, and (d) renunciation of 
 property by clergy. (2) Taborites, who would have 
 no communion with Catholic church; led by John 
 Ziska, they were irresistible. Destructive wars in Bo- 
 hemia and Germany. Calixtines finally reunited with 
 Catholics (1431-6), through Council of Basel. Ta- 
 borites defeated and scattered (1453), formed union 
 
of Church History. 135 
 
 of Bohemians and Moravians, closely identified with 
 Waldenses. They were terribly persecuted, but at be- 
 ginning of Reformation had several hundred congrega- 
 tions. (3) In the Netherlands. John of Goch, in 
 Cleves (+1475), John of Wesel (+1481), professor 
 at Erfurt, preacher at Mainz and Worms; John of 
 Wessel (+1489), professor at Cologne, Lyons, Paris, 
 Heidelberg, all held views almost identical with those 
 of Luther later. (4) In Italy. Jerome Savonarola 
 (1452-98), Dominican, bold and eloquent preacher of 
 repentance, a political and religious reformer of Flor- 
 ence, put under ban 1497 and executed 1498. Not so 
 radical religiously as those in other countries. 
 
 All the above reformers held to Augustinian theol- 
 ogy, and were hostile to the church as then conducted. 
 
136 A Guide to the Study 
 
 BOOK IV 
 
 MODERN PERIOD 1517 TO PRESENT. 
 
 The period has been characterized ( 1 ) In the church 
 by a return towards apostolic Christianity, by religious 
 strife and practical beneficence, by rapid growth and 
 spread of Christianity, by division and diversity; (2) 
 In the state by differentiation and solidification ; rise of 
 the republic and of constitutional government ; state as- 
 sumes new duties; e. g., education, care of poor and 
 unfortunate, direction of labor, commerce, etc. (3) 
 In social sphere by decay of the nobility and rise of the 
 masses ; latter better housed, fed, educated, more con- 
 scious of a place in the world. (4) In the world of 
 culture by spread of general intelligence, popular edu- 
 cation, large reading public, state education, many uni- 
 versities, technical schools. (5) A period of great dis- 
 coveries. (6) Great literature and philosophical sys- 
 tems. 
 
 FIRST DIVISION THE REFORMATION, 
 1517_1648 IN ENGLAND TO 1689. 
 
 References: Fisher, History of the Reformation; Hausser, 
 Period of the Reformation; Vol. ii, Camb. Mod. History; 
 Lindsay, History of Reformation, 2 vols. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS. 1. It was a period of great 
 turmoil, strife and rapid change. In fifty years nearly 
 half of Europe changed their religious views and 
 church relations ; religious wars. 2. Reformation took 
 six forms or directions: (a) Lutheran, in Germany 
 and North and East Europe; (b) Zwinglian in Ger- 
 man-speaking -Switzerland and South Germany; (c) 
 
of Church History. 137 
 
 Calvinistic in French-speaking Switzerland, France, 
 Netherlands, parts of Germany and German-speaking 
 Switzerland, in Scotland ; influenced England and other 
 English-speaking lands; (d) Anabaptist spread over 
 much of West Europe; (e) English Reformation; (f) 
 Catholic or Counter-Reformation. 3. Reformation 
 was confined to West or Roman Catholic church ; East 
 or Greek Catholic church, being little affected. 4. It 
 sprang out of the bosom of the Catholic church, not 
 from any of the sects. All the leaders were originally 
 Catholics, many of them monks or priests. 5. It was 
 successful only where old Roman Empire had not been 
 established ; partially successful where the land was 
 partially Romanized ; complete failure where land was 
 completely Romanized. 6. It was everywhere largely 
 a political movement; it succeeded or failed according 
 as it won the various governments. No two confes- 
 sions were tolerated in the same territory. Persecu- 
 tion by all parties except Anabaptists (But cf. Miin- 
 ster). England, France, Spain and the Empire were 
 leading nations; first three well centralized, while the 
 Empire was an aggregation of small German states 
 and free cities, nominally members of the empire, but 
 largely independent. Spain was wealthy, proud, ambi- 
 tious ; France also ; England rising, while the Empire 
 was sinking; three able and ambitious rulers, Henry 
 VIII of England, Francis I of France, and Charles V 
 of Spain, elected Emperor 1519. Two other important 
 political factors were (1) the popes, (2) the Turks, 
 who were exceedingly aggressive and troublesome in 
 Southeast Europe. There was no separation between 
 church and state, but the state generally assumed con- 
 trol over the various reformed churches. 7. Mission 
 
138 A Guide to the Study 
 
 work. (1) Protestants did little mission work among 
 heathen (Dutch in East Indian colonies; Williams, 
 Eliot, Brainard, Edwards and others among American 
 Indians), but they translated the Bible into all the lan- 
 guages of Europe. (2) Catholics did much mission 
 work among heathen, chiefly in connection with colo- 
 nial enterprises and through Dominicans, Franciscans 
 and the newly founded Jesuits. Spain, Portugal and 
 France furnished most of the missionary zeal. The 
 Spanish worked in Southern North America, Central 
 and South America, West Indies and Philippines ; Por- 
 tugese in East Indies, South Africa and Brazil ; French 
 along the St. Lawrence, the Great Lakes, in Canada 
 and Northern U. S. ; Jesuits carried on work in India 
 and China with conspicuous success (cf. Xavier). 
 
 8. Ecclesiastical organization. (1) Catholics in no 
 way altered their organization, and succeeded in sav- 
 ing most of it in Germany, even where the masses of 
 the people became Protestants. (2) Protestants adopt- 
 ed many different forms of organization. Lutherans 
 had no fixed form, Calvinists adopted the presbyterial, 
 Church of England kept the Catholic, Anabaptist was 
 never fully developed, Independents and English Bap- 
 tists adopted democratic congregational government. 
 
 9. Theology. (1) Catholic theology experienced no 
 further development during the Reformation, but was 
 crystalized and fixed in the Tridentine Creed. (2) 
 Protestant theology agreed with Catholics in the doc- 
 trine of God, Christ and Holy Spirit (accepting the 
 Apostles, Nicene and Athanasian creeds), differing 
 chiefly as to the Bible, the church, the plan of salva- 
 tion and the future life ; denied the authority of tradi- 
 tion, rejected O. T. apocrypha, asserted right of indi- 
 
of Church History. 139 
 
 vidual interpretation, translated and recommended Bi- 
 ble to the people; their theology was Augustinian, in- 
 sisting on justification by faith apart from works; as 
 to the church and its ordinances, they were badly di- 
 vided, but reduced the means of grace to two, the word 
 and the sacraments ; they denied the existence of a spe- 
 cial priesthood, asserting the priesthood of all believers, 
 denied purgatory, indulgences, transubstantiation, the 
 sacrifice of the mass, etc. Their various views were 
 incorporated in creeds and catechisms from 1530 to 
 1650, during which time all the great creeds of Chris- 
 tendom, with few exceptions, were formulated. Ana- 
 baptists were anti-Augustinian in theology, emphasiz- 
 ing free will and the importance of following Christ. 
 10. Worship. (1) Among Catholics, no radical 
 changes ; only a few abuses removed. (2) Among 
 Protestants, worship was put into the vernacular; the 
 Bible, preaching and teaching restored, the mass and 
 incense abolished, congregational singing and com- 
 munion in both kinds restored; the number of holy 
 days was greatly reduced or abolished, a new sacred- 
 ness was given to Sunday; invocation of saints, relics 
 and images abolished; so prayers for the dead; pil- 
 grimages and shrines abandoned; infant baptism was 
 retained by most Protestants, but usually with changed 
 significance; Catholic church buildings appropriated 
 wherever possible ; vestments, candles and written serv- 
 ice widely but not universally retained. 
 
 11. Christian Life. (1) Among Catholics was great 
 improvement. Popes became models of piety for Cath- 
 olics, and no one of scandalous morals has since 
 reigned ; the secular clergy were greatly improved ; old 
 monastic orders were reformed and new ones founded, 
 notably the Jesuits. (2) Among Protestants all monas- 
 
140 A Guide to the Study 
 
 tic vows, for both men and women, were abolished, the 
 clergy married, from lowest to highest. Discipline for 
 moral lapses was widely restored, and was often very 
 strict, notably among the Anabaptists and Calvinists. 
 Christian benevolence not largely cultivated, but in 
 general, Christian life was greatly improved by the 
 
 Reformation. 
 
 
 
 A. THE LUTHERAN REFORMATION, 
 1517-1648. 
 
 Some distinctive features are its rise in Electoral 
 Saxony, in the heart of Germany, in the newly founded 
 University of Wittenberg; started by Martin Luther, 
 an Augustinian monk, who was professor. He began 
 by an attack on abuses, without intending to break with 
 the church, but soon advanced to the denial of funda- 
 mental Catholic doctrines. Its theology is found in 
 Luther's longer and shorter catechisms, Melanchthon's 
 Loci Communes, and in the Augsburg Confession, 
 1530; its core is justification by faith; baptismal re- 
 generation, infant baptism, sprinkling, consubstantia- 
 tion ; communion in both kinds ; no uniform method of 
 organizing, Luther caring little for it ; in worship, can- 
 dles, vestments, liturgies, pericopes retained, with em- 
 phasis on preaching and congregational singing ; Chris- 
 tian life left largely to the individual ; little church dis- 
 cipline, a sharp decline in morals for a time. Luther's 
 principle of reform was: "Retain all customs now in 
 the church which the Scriptures do not condemn." 
 
 (A) IN GERMANY. 
 
 1. LUTHER'S LIFE TO 1517. (References: H. ii. 
 115-55; N. ii. 3-52; K. Sec. 122; S. vi. 1-145; Kostlin, 
 Life of Luther; Jacobs, Life of Luther.) Martin 
 
of Church History. 141 
 
 Luther, son of a miner, b. Nov. 10, 1483, at Eisleben, 
 studied at Mansfield, Magdeburg, Eisenach, law in 
 University of Erfurt, taking master's degree 1505 ; en- 
 tered Augustinian monastery 1505, ordained priest 
 1507; influenced by Staupitz to study Bible, Augustine 
 and mysticism ; strong religious experience, began 
 teaching in University of Wittenberg 1509; visited 
 Rome 1511; became D. D. 1512, and began to teach 
 Bible, gradually moving toward evangelical views. 
 
 2. REFORMATION 1517-25. (References: H. ii. 
 156-83; K. Sees. 123-125; N. ii. 52-93; A. iii. 1-68; 
 S. vi. 146-484.) Sale of indulgences and conse- 
 quent posting of ninety-five theses by Luther October 
 31, 1517; attacked by Tetzel and Prierias he replies; 
 summoned to Rome August, 1518, the Elector obtains 
 permission for him to meet Cajetan, the papal legate, 
 at Augsburg, October, 1518; Luther appeals to an ecu- 
 menical council; Miltitz, sent to Germany, January, 
 1519, obtains Luther's promise to keep silence if his 
 opponents do so ; Eck attacks Luther ; Leipsic disputa- 
 tion June-July, 1519, leads Luther to deny infallibility 
 of pope and ecumenical councils ; supported by Philip 
 Melanchthon (1497-1560) ; war of pamphlets; Luther 
 publishes "To His Imperial Majesty and the Christian 
 Nobles of Germany" June, 1520; "Concerning Chris- 
 tian Liberty," September, and soon afterward "The 
 Babylonish Captivity" ; bull of excommunication se- 
 cured by Eck June 16, 1520, publicly burned by Luther 
 December 10th ; Luther appears before Diet at Worms 
 during emperor's first visit to Germany, April 17, 18, 
 1521, and on May 26 was put under ban of the Empire ; 
 on way back to Wittenberg was taken to Wartburg for 
 
142 A Guide to the Study 
 
 safety, where he remains to March 3, 1522, writing 
 many tracts and translating N. T. ; returns to Witten- 
 berg because of disturbance by Zwickau prophets ; con- 
 troversy with Henry VIII in 1522; Knight's War 
 1522-3; 1525 marriage of Luther; Peasants' War (see 
 the twelve articles), break with Humanists (Erasmus), 
 with Anabaptists, with Zwingli and his followers. 
 
 3. REFORMATION, 1526-32. (References: H. ii. 184- 
 200; K. Sees. 126:5 to 129; 132; 133:1, 2; N. ii. 93- 
 108; A. iii. 68-87; S. vi. 484-744.) Political events in- 
 fluenced the history. War with Francis (1521-4) made 
 it impossible for Charles V to execute ban on Luther ; 
 German diet refused to do so (1522 and 1524). In 
 1524 Catholic nobles formed league at Regensburg to 
 enforce edict of Worms; strengthened (1525) at Des- 
 sau ; in 1526 Protestant nobles form league for defense 
 at Torgau. Francis I captured at Pavia (1525) by 
 Charles V, was released March 17, 1526, on signing 
 humiliating Treaty of Madrid in favor of the emperor. 
 Released from his oath by pope ; war broke out again 
 (1527-9). In 1526 Diet of Spires practically revoked 
 edict of Worms by giving each prince freedom to act 
 as he could justify himself before God and the Em- 
 peror. Under protection of this action various princes 
 and cities of North Germany proceeded (1527-30) to 
 reform worship and organize territorial churches on 
 the model drawn up by Luther for Electoral Saxony 
 m 1526. 
 
 Charles chastised the pope by sacking Rome May, 
 1527; peace made with the pope at Barcelona June 20, 
 1529, and with Francis I at Cambray, in July; Turks 
 driven back from Vienna October; this left Charles 
 
of Church History. 143 
 
 free to punish Protestants; Pack episode 1527-8. At 
 Diet of Spires, 1529, Catholics were in majority, re- 
 scinded action of 1526 and demanded execution of edict 
 of Worms against Luther ; evangelicals protested, hence 
 name Protestants; they seek union for protection. Con- 
 ference between Luther and Zwingli at Marburg Sep- 
 tember 29f, 1529; pope crowns Charles at Bologna, 
 February 24, 1530; Diet of Augsburg 1530; Augsburg 
 Confession (CC. Ill 3-73), its origin and character: 
 emperor gives Protestants till April 15, 1531, to return 
 to the church ; Protestants form powerful Schmalkald 
 League February, 1531, composed of Lutherans, S. 
 German cities and some Catholics, and having support 
 of France, England, Denmark and Zapolya of Hun- 
 gary ; Turks again advanced into Hungary ; all this 
 forced Charles to grant Peace of Nuremberg July. 
 1532, granting peace till a general council should be 
 called to settle the question. 
 
 4. REFORMATION 1532-55. (References: H. ii. 199- 
 218; N. ii. 108-122; K. Sees. 133:3 to 137a; A. ii. 109- 
 43.) The promised council was not convened until 
 1545, and in the meantime, protected by Peace of 
 Nuremberg, Protestantism spread rapidly; Wurtem- 
 berg, Anhalt and Pomerania reformed 1534; Bran- 
 denburg and Ducal Saxony, 1539; Archbishop of 
 Cologne, 1542; Brunswick and Duke of Julich-Cleve, 
 1543; many free cities during this time. Bigamy of 
 Philip of Hesse, 1540. Many efforts at union between 
 Catholics and Protestants, culminating in conference at 
 Regensburg, 1541. Peace of Crespy with Francis I, 
 September, 1544; truce with Turks October, 1545; 
 opening of Council of Trent December, 1545; Luther's 
 
144 A Guide to the Study 
 
 death February 18, 1546. Schmalkald war 1546-7; 
 treachery of Maurice, defeat of Protestants at Muhl- 
 berg; forcible introduction of the Augsburg Interim 
 and expulsion of Lutheran preachers, 1548; Leipzig 
 Interim 1549; 1551 Maurice betrayed and defeated the 
 emperor; treaty of Passau, 1552; continued reverses 
 of the emperor and peace of Augsburg (1555) between 
 Catholics and Lutherans. (1) Princes to have abso- 
 lute control over the religion of their subjects. (2) 
 Subjects of other than the faith established by law 
 should have right to emigrate without loss of honor or 
 goods. (3) A Catholic prelate becoming Protestant 
 must resign and give place to a man satisfactory to the 
 hierarchy. (4) In free cities, where both faiths ex- 
 isted, they should so continue. 
 
 Before death of Luther divisions and sharp theolog- 
 ical controversies had begun among his followers (N. 
 ii. 307-28; K. Sec. 140f ; H. ii. 500-10; A. iii. 315-25), 
 and they continued to increase in volume and bitter- 
 ness. They were occasioned by the relations of Luth- 
 eranism with Calvinism on one side and Catholicism on 
 the other. The more important of these controversies 
 were (a) Antinomian (1537-41), continued by the Ma- 
 joristic controversy (1551-62) on the place of the law 
 in the Christian system; (b) Osiander controversy on 
 justification (1549-56), in which Luther's views of 
 justification and sanctification were confounded; (c) 
 Synergistic controversy (1555-67) over man's part in 
 .his own salvation; (d) Adiaphoristic controversy 
 (1548-55) over things essential and unessential; (e) 
 communication of idioms, ubiquity of Christ's body; 
 (f) Crypto-Calvinism in the supper, 1552-74; 1586-92. 
 These controversies were violent, leading to frequent 
 
of Church History. 145 
 
 deposition and banishment of pastors and professors, 
 and almost to bloodshed. They were somewhat allayed 
 by the Formula of Concord, 1576 (CC. Ill 93-180), 
 which was formally promulgated by many Lutheran 
 princes in 1580, and was a triumph of strict Lutheran- 
 ism. Dead and fighting orthodoxy led to the rise of a 
 mystical piety closely akin to pantheism (H. ii. 519-28). 
 Jacob Bohme, d. 1634; John Valentine Andreae, d. 
 1654; George Calixtus, d. 1656. The division and 
 strife within the Lutheran ranks, as also between Luth- 
 erans and Calvinists, continued through the period and 
 greatly weakened the Protestants during Thirty Years' 
 War. But Protestantism made progress in South 
 Germany to end of sixteenth century. 
 
 (B) IN SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES. 
 
 References: N. ii. 298-301; K. Sec. 139:1,2; A. iii. 175-91-, 
 H. ii. 357-9. 
 
 1. SWEDEN. By Union of Colmar (1397) Denmark 
 Sweden and Norway formed one kingdom under rule 
 of Danish kings. Nobility and clergy were rich and 
 powerful, king weak. Sweden had rebelled once 
 (1448-57), and again under Sten Sture. The king, 
 Christian II, defeated Swedes; "Stockholm Bath of 
 Blood" (1520) ; Gustavus Vasa returning from Ger- 
 many 1521, is elected king of Sweden 1523, and gradu- 
 ally wins independence of the country; Protestantism 
 preached and Bible translated by Olaf and Lars Peter- 
 son and Lars Anderson ; king forces country to accept 
 Reformation 1527; monks banished, church property 
 confiscated to nobles and king ; liturgy in the vernacu- 
 lar ; clerical marriage permitted ; episcopal organization 
 continued, most of the bishops accepting the reform. 
 
146 A Guide to the Study 
 
 Gradually reform was introduced throughout the coun- 
 try. Vasa was succeeded by his son Eric XIV (1560- 
 8), and he by his brother John III (1568-92), who, 
 under the influence of his Polish wife and the Jesuitb, 
 sought to restore Catholicism. His son Sigismund III 
 (also king of Poland) was openly Catholic, was de- 
 feated (1600) and succeeded by his Protestant uncle, 
 Charles IX. This fixed Sweden among Protestant na- 
 tions. Under Gustavus Adolphus (1611-32) Sweden 
 became world power, helping Protestants in Thirt) 
 Years' War. 
 
 2. DENMARK. King Christian II (1513-23), for po- 
 litical and religious reasons, favored the Reformation ; 
 1521 appeals to Rome were forbidden ; clergy were per- 
 mitted to marry, the monasteries reformed and the 
 power of the bishops limited. The people were un- 
 favorable to reform and hated the king. In 1523 he 
 was deposed, the reform overturned and his uncle, 
 Frederick I (1523-33) chosen king. A Protestant at 
 heart, he swore to protect the Catholic faith. He pro- 
 tected Lutheran preachers, and Hans Tausen (1524 
 onward) preached Lutheranism; 1527 toleration grant- 
 ed to Lutherans ; clergy restricted and right of clerical 
 marriage granted; Scriptures in Danish circulated; 
 confession of faith 1530; Christian III (1533-59) was 
 openly Protestant, imprisoned and deposed all Catholic 
 bishops and secularized all monasteries in 1536. Bu- 
 genhagen (1537) crowned the king and ordained seven 
 Protestant bishops; this approved by Diet 1539. Diet 
 of Copenhagen (1544) confiscated all Catholic prop- 
 erty ; disfranchised Catholics and banished their clergy. 
 
of Church History. 147 
 
 3. NORWAY for a time supported Christian II 
 (turned Catholic 1530) and Catholicism, but 1536 ac- 
 cepted Christian III and was quickly reformed. 
 
 4. ICELAND accepted Lutheran bishops 1540, also 
 New Testament. Catholics rose 1548, but by 1554 
 Protestants victorious. 
 
 (C) EASTERN EUROPE. 
 
 References: N. ii. 301-7; A. iii. 156-75; H. ii. 361-3; K. 
 Sec. 139:18-20. 
 
 1. PRUSSIA, the ecclesiastical state of the Teutonic 
 Order, was reformed and made hereditary duchy in 
 1525. 
 
 2. POLAND was a weak elective monarchy, with pow- 
 erful nobles, corrupt and ignorant clergy. Jews and 
 Bohemian Brethren present in large numbers. Luther- 
 an views and writings introduced early by Polish stu- 
 dents educated at Wittenberg. King Sigismund I 
 (1506-48) vigorously opposed. Reading of Luther's 
 writings forbidden 1 523 ; persecution of various kinds, 
 even death, but growth, nevertheless. From 1540 on, 
 Calvinism made progress. Sigismund Augustus II 
 (1548-72) more tolerant. Polish N. T. 1551f ; in ac- 
 cordance with action of national assembly 1555, the 
 king demanded of the pope a national council, permis- 
 sion for priestly marriage, mass in vernacular, cup for 
 the laity and abolition of annats. Protestants now had 
 upper hand; John a Lasco; Socinians from Italy es- 
 tablished at Racov, with university and press, grew 
 rapidly. In 1570 Bohemian Brethren, Lutherans and 
 
148 A Guide to the Study 
 
 Calvinists united, and 1573 "Peace of the Dessidents" 
 assured peace between the Catholics and Protestants.. 
 Protestant divisions, the Jesuits and King Sigismund 
 III (1587-1632) turned tide against Protestants; never 
 again regained the ascendency. 
 
 3. BOHEMIA AND MORAVIA. Hussites and Bohemian 
 Brethren predominated at outbreak of Reformation. 
 Lutheran doctrines acceptable to former, but not to 
 latter; Anabaptists present 1526 onward; Bohemian 
 Brethren ceased rebaptizing 1535 to escape persecution 
 of Anabaptists, and in 1542 reached agreement with 
 Luther; after Peace of Augsburg 1555, most Protest- 
 ants became Lutherans for protection. Under Maximil- 
 ian II (1564-76) toleration and rapid growth; Bible 
 translated and sacred songs written; Calvinism intro- 
 duced and grew rapidly. To resist Jesuits in 1575 all 
 parties united in a confession of faith and federated 
 government. In 1609 they forced the fanatical Catho- 
 lic king, Rudolph II (1576-1612), to grant them char- 
 ter of complete religious freedom and a body of "De- 
 fensors" at Prague; nine-tenths of the people were I/ 
 Protestants. Infraction of this charter (1618) started 
 Thirty Years' War, in which Protestants were ruined. 
 
 4. HUNGARY AND TRANSYLVANIA. Lutheranism in- 
 troduced into Hungary by students from Wittenberg, 
 1524 on; King Louis II, a vigorous opponent, was 
 killed in battle of Mohacz with Turks, 1526; part of 
 the land fell under the Turks ; John Zapolya and Ferdi- 
 nand, contestants for the throne, both opposed reform, 
 but progress was made, nevertheless ; Hungarian N. T. 
 1541; Lutheran confession 1545; Calvinistic doctrines 
 introduced among Magyars early; Calvinistic creed 
 1557; also Anti-trinitarians and Anti-pedobaptists ; 
 
of Church History. 149 
 
 Protestant controversy gave Jesuits their opportunity, 
 1560 on; complete religious peace 1606; by 1634 Cath- 
 olics regained majority in Hungarian Diet; in Tran- 
 sylvania Lutheran doctrine preached 1521 on; John 
 Honter (1498-1549) evangelized Kronstadt and vicin- 
 ity 1533 on; persecution; religious freedom 1557. 
 
 (D) SOUTH GERMANY. 
 
 Lutheranism early penetrated into Austria, Tyrol, 
 Salsburg, Styria, etc., and made considerable progress ; 
 Anabaptists, present from 1526 on, were bitterly per- 
 secuted; nobles protected Lutherans after Peace of 
 Augsburg (1555) ; Ferdinand grew more tolerant in 
 old age; Maximilian (1564-76) granted them liberal 
 treatment and there was rapid growth. Under suc- 
 ceeding emperors Protestantism was largely stamped 
 out by persecution and the Jesuits. The dukes of Ba- 
 varia were most determined opponents of reformation, 
 and never allowed it to get footing in their land. 
 
 (E) ITALY AND SPAIN. 
 References: N. ii. 291-8; K. Sec. 139:21-26; H. ii. 349-54. 
 
 1. ITALY (McCrie, Thos. t Progress and Suppression 
 of the Reformation in Italy, etc.) Composed of numer- 
 ous states, but subservient to papal influence; church 
 corrupt, secularized; humanism paganized, destructive 
 to faith and morals. Luther's early writings widely read 
 in Italy, so "The Benefits of Christ's Death." "Orato- 
 ry of Divine Love" founded at Rome 1523 by promi- 
 nent young clergymen to promote reform; Italian 
 translation of Bible 1530; Protestant churches at Na- 
 
150 A Guide to the Study 
 
 pies and Venice, and Protestant circles at Modena, 
 Florence, Bologna, Padua, Verona, etc. Princess Renee 
 of Ferrara and Juan Valdez, secretary of the Spanish 
 Viceroy of Naples, active in protecting and promoting 
 Protestant views. Bernardino Ochino (1487-1566), 
 general of the Capuchin order, and Peter Martyr, an 
 honored Augustinian, and other prominent men con- 
 verted to Protestant views. Many anti-pedobaptist 
 (Socinian) congregations in territory of Venice and 
 North Italy 1550 on. After conference at Regensburg, 
 1541, reaction. Jesuit order 1540; Inquisition reorgan- 
 ized in Italy 1542 ; Council of Trent 1545 on. All lead- 
 ers forced to flee ; Protestantism gradually suppressed, 
 before end of century had disappeared. The Walden- 
 ses in Italy and France were protestantized 1532 on. 
 
 2. SPAIN. (McCrie, Progress and Suppression of the 
 Reformation in Spain; Prescott, History of the Reign 
 of Philip II ; Robertson, Charles V) had strong central 
 government, was rich, ambitious and powerful; union 
 of Castile and Aragon 1481 ; Conquest of the Moors 
 1492; discovery of America 1492; Navarre annexed 
 1512; Sardinia, Sicily and Southern Italy and Nether- 
 lands recently added; 1519 King Charles elected em- 
 peror. Spanish church had been reformed by Ximines 
 (1436-1517), was ferocious from long fighting, and 
 used the powerful Inquisition (Lea, Spanish Inquisi- 
 tion). Lutheranism introduced by court officials, who 
 attended Charles to Germany; Seville and Valladolid 
 chief centers, but Protestants at many other points; 
 Spanish N. T. 1543; a few prominent clergymen be- 
 came Protestants. Some persecution under Charles V ; 
 extermination under Philip II 1556 on; Protestants 
 disappeared before end of century. 
 
of Church History. 151 
 
 B. ZWINGLIAN REFORMATION. 
 
 References: N. ii. 122-48; H. ii. 219-70; K Sec. 130; A. 
 iii. 87-109; S. vii. 1-222; Jackson, Huldreich Z, N. Y. 1901; 
 Baur, Z's Theologie, Halle '85. 
 
 
 
 1. CHARACTERISTICS. (1) It had its center at Zu- 
 rich and was limited geographically to Northern Switz- 
 erland and Southern Germany ; the only type of reform 
 which lost its independent existence, being later ab- 
 sorbed in the Calvinistic movement. (2) Church was 
 subjected to state; mass abolished, monasteries dis- 
 solved, etc., by cantonal governments. But the church 
 had independent synodal organization and was not so 
 abjectly dependent as in Germany. (3) It was more 
 biblical than Luther's reform. "All that does not find 
 express warrant in Scripture must be rejected." Its 
 theology was Augustinian, emphasizing election and 
 predestination, but produced no great work on theolo- 
 gy. (4) Ordinances were symbols, not vehicles, of 
 grace. Infant baptism retained, not because it effected 
 salvation, but succeeded circumcision as the sign of the 
 Christian covenant ; immersion recognized as the prim- 
 itive mode, but not practiced. The supper was a mem- 
 orial of Christ's death. (5) Worship was made very 
 simple. Pictures, altars, candles, organs, etc., removed, 
 preaching emphasized, singing abandoned for a time, 
 all holy days except Sunday, Christmas, Good Friday, 
 Easter and Pentecost abandoned. Communion four 
 times a year. (6) Christian life improved. Monasteries 
 abolished, many priests, monks and nuns married; 
 Christian morals emphasized. 
 
 2. CONDITIONS favorable. The Swiss Confederation 
 founded 1291, nominally part of the empire, but really 
 
152 A Guide to the Study 
 
 independent, was composed of thirteen cantons, with 
 subject territory and formed a loose federation. In 
 local matters each canton was independent, while mat- 
 ters of common interest were managed by a federal 
 council composed of two from each canton. The 
 people were brave, lovers of freedom, but mercenary 
 soldiers; humanism at Basel, Zurich, Berne, etc.; 
 church corrupt, badly organized (six bishops only) ; 
 weak. 
 
 3. HISTORY. Zwingli, b. Wildhaus, 1484 ; good fam- 
 ily, educated at Berne, Vienna, Basel ; pastor at Glarus 
 1506, Einsiedeln 1516, Zurich January 1, 1519; conver- 
 sion; began study of New Testament Greek 1513; 
 preached against Samson 1518; 1520 Council of Zurich 
 granted freedom to preach from Bible; 1522 Zwingli 
 demanded privilege of marriage, and certain citizens ate 
 meat in fast time; disputation (Sixty-seven articles, 
 CC. iii. 196-210) with Catholics January 23, 1523, fol- 
 lowed by marriage of clergy, opening of convents, 
 translation of baptismal service; second disputation 
 October 26; images, altars, statues destroyed, relics 
 buried 1524; mass suppressed, supper in both kinds, 
 monasteries converted into schools 1525; rise of Ana- 
 baptists, beginning of strife with Luther 1525, Mar- 
 burg Conference 1529. 
 
 Reform doctrines appeared early in other cantons, 
 but after disputation at Baden May, 1526, the federal 
 council decided against Reformation, which, however, 
 continued to make progress. After disputation at Berne 
 1 528 reform was introduced into this the most powerful 
 canton, and was thoroughly organized by 1532, Ber- 
 thold Haller and Sebastian Meyer being leaders ; Basel, 
 seat of a university and printing presses, home of Eras- 
 mus and humanism, early received gospel from Wyt- 
 
of Church History. 153 
 
 tenbach, Capito, Reublin, but hesitated until under 
 (Ecolampadius religious freedom was attained 1527; 
 reform introduced 1529 with a storm of iconoclasm; 
 St. Gall, under leadership of Vadian, received gospel 
 1524 on, and was thoroughly reformed 1527-8; Appen- 
 zel, S chaff haus en and Graubauden followed. 
 
 The tension led to war, first of the religious wars of 
 the Reformation. In 1528 the five forest cantons 
 (Catholic) formed leagues among themselves, and in 
 1529 alliance with Ferdinand of Austria. The Prot- 
 estant cantons did likewise with Protestant powers; 
 first Cappel war 1529; bloodshed narrowly averted, 
 peace favorable to Protestants; second Cappel war, 
 1531 ; Zwingli killed October 11 ; peace unfavorable to 
 Protestants ; Catholicism restored in some places ; Hen- 
 ry Bullinger succeeded Zwingli ; first Helvetic Confes- 
 sion (CC. iii. 211-31) drawn up by several theologians 
 1536 to express the common Swiss faith. In consensus 
 of Zurich 1549 Calvin and Bullinger and their follow- 
 ers reached agreement on the Eucharist, thus complet- 
 ing the Calvinistic conquest of Switzerland; second 
 Helvetic Confession (CC. iii. 233-306, translated Vol. 
 i, 396-420), drawn up by Bullinger 1566 and accepted 
 by the Swiss, the Palatinate and other countries. 
 Strasburg, Constance, Memmingen, Lindau and other 
 South German cities deeply affected by Zwingli's views. 
 After 1549 the movement was absorbed into that of 
 Calvin. 
 
 C. CALVINISTIC REFORMATION. 
 I. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 1. It rose in Geneva, which remained center of influ- 
 ence until after Calvin's death; spread over France, 
 
154 A Guide to the Study 
 
 Netherlands, Scotland, parts of Switzerland, Germany 
 and Eastern Europe ; deeply influenced English Refor- 
 mation and all English-speaking peoples ; most aggres- 
 sive and progressive type of Protestantism; mediated 
 between Lutheran and Zwinglian views. 
 
 2. CHURCH AND STATE not separated, but church 
 more nearly independent than among Lutherans ; even 
 dominated the civil authority in Geneva. 
 
 3. POLITY was presbyterial. (1) Local church had 
 pastor, elders and deacons ; was ruled by session elected 
 by people ; (2) presbytery composed of representatives 
 from various sessions ; (3) general assembly some va- 
 riations from country to country. Formed a series of 
 legislative and judicial bodies; polity regarded as di- 
 vinely revealed in Bible. 
 
 4. THEOLOGY started from the absoluteness of God ; 
 emphasized predestination, election, decrees, depravity 
 and helplessness of man, impotence of the will, salva- 
 tion by grace, perseverance of saints. Found in Cal- 
 vin's Institutes (1536) and many creeds. 
 
 5. ORDINANCES. Baptism does not effect regenera- 
 tion, but is a sign and seal of God's grace, a token of 
 purification. Infants of Christians are to be baptized 
 because they are in the covenant of grace with their 
 parents ; immersion was the primitive mode, but is not 
 essential. In the supper the body and blood of Christ 
 were partaken of spiritually and by faith ; not with the 
 mouth and not by the unbeliever a view midway be- 
 tween Luther and Zwingli. 
 
 6. Catholic elements of WORSHIP removed altars, 
 candles, pictures, etc.; vestments retained in places; 
 liturgy with some freedom, emphasis on preaching and 
 
of Church History. 155 
 
 catechetical teaching, singing Psalms; holy days abol- 
 ished, Sunday (Sabbath) strictly observed. 
 
 7. CHRISTIAN LIFE very strict ; social and moral life 
 revolutionized ; insisted on renewed life and strict dis- 
 cipline ; here possibly the greatest contribution of Cal- 
 vinism. 
 
 II. LIFE OF CALVIN AND REFORM OF FRENCH 
 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 References: N. ii. 200-25; H. ii. 271-304; K. Sec. 138; 
 S. vii. 223-882; A. iii. 143-55; Walker, Jno. Calvin, 1906; H. 
 M. Baird, Theodore Beza, 1899. 
 
 1. JOHN CALVIN (1509-64), b. Noyon, Picardy, 
 France, of good family; educated for priest at Paris, 
 and early held benefice; 1529 decided to study law, at 
 Orleans and Bourges; interested in classical literature 
 and New Testament ; taught by Wolmar ; gradually be- 
 came more interested in religious things, converted 
 1533, forced to leave Paris, imprisoned at Noyon; es- 
 caped to Angouleme, Nerac, Poitiers, Paris ; meets Le 
 Fevre, Olivetan and other reformers; persecution 
 aroused by "Placards" again forced him to flee, 1534; 
 Strasburg, Basel (1535), where appeared "Institutes" 
 (1536), dedicated to Francis I; visits Duchess Renee 
 at Ferrara, pressed into service in Geneva by Farel, 
 1536. 
 
 2. REFORM OF GENEVA, NEUCHATEL AND LAUSANNE. 
 Geneva, long governed by its bishops and the Count of 
 Savoy, had gained its independence (1526) and made 
 alliance with Berne and the Swiss. This opened way 
 for Wm. Farel (1489-1565), Peter Viret (1511-71), 
 and Antoine Froment to preach gospel (1532 on) ; re- 
 form officially adopted 1535-6, mass abolished, images 
 
156 A Guide to the Study 
 
 and relics removed, bishop banished, all Catholic wor- 
 ship forbidden, school and hospital founded, daily ser- 
 mons, simple communion and strict discipline intro- 
 duced. 
 
 3. CALVIN IN GENEVA (1536-64). Calvin came to 
 Geneva July, 1536, introduced new church order, re- 
 formed catechism, banished Anabaptists 1537; oppo- 
 sition to Calvin; banished 1538; at Strasburg 1538-41; 
 disorders and Catholic aggressions at Geneva; returns 
 to Geneva 1541, receiving ovation; drew up "ecclesias- 
 tical ordinances" and civil code; church governed by 
 consistory of six ministers and twelve laymen nomi- 
 nated by the ministers, with jurisdiction over discipline, 
 serious cases being turned over to the civil courts; 
 four church officers Ministers, elected by college of 
 ministers and confirmed by the council ; elders, deacons 
 and teachers. "Genevan catechism" and liturgy 1542; 
 rigid discipline; renewed opposition till 1555; execu- 
 tion of Servetus 1553; high character of Geneva con- 
 tinued two centuries till Rousseau and Voltaire ; Calvin, 
 widely influential, spent his old age in peace and honor. 
 
 III. REFORMATION IN FRANCE. 
 
 References: N. ii. 225-34; 480-8; H. ii. 305-28; K. Sec. 
 139:13-17; Sec. 153:4; A. in. 270-84; Baird, H. M., History 
 of the Rise of Huguenots in France, 1879; Huguenots and 
 Henry of Navarre, 1886; Huguenots and Revocation of the 
 Edict of Nantes, 1896. 
 
 1. CONDITIONS. France a well organized, central- 
 ized kingdom; Francis I, brilliant, able, favorable to 
 humanism ; the church rich, corrupt, oppressive, hated ; 
 its freedom (Gallican liberties; Pragmatic sanctions, 
 
of Church History. 157 
 
 1269 and 1438) lost by Concordat 1516, king nominat- 
 ing all higher officers and pope taking revenues. 
 
 2. HISTORY OF REFORM. (I) To 1559. Earliest re- 
 formers were Jacques Le Fevre, a humanist who wrote 
 commentaries on Psalms and Romans, taught justifica- 
 tion by faith, denied tran substantiation, translated 
 New Testament 1523, Old Testament 1525; Briconnet, 
 Bishop of Meaux, Wm. Farel and others in Meaux. 
 In 1521 Sorbonne condemned Luther's writings, Par- 
 liament of Paris ordered them burned ; king favorable 
 to reform 1525-8, hostile 1528-33 ; Cop and Calvin flee ; 
 favorable 1533-4. Placards, October 18, 1534, embit- 
 tered king ; persecution, death and flight of many ; 
 Protestant books prohibited in France 1542; nearly 
 4,000 Waldenses butchered in Southeastern France 
 1545. Persecution continued with brief cessations 
 throughout reign of Francis, but Protestants increased. 
 Calvin's influence strongly felt from 1536 on, many 
 preachers and colporteurs from Geneva. Henry II 
 (1547-59) more stringent; chambre ardente 1547; 
 Edict of Chateaubriand 1551 ; Reformed began to or- 
 ganize churches, c. 1555. a. Local congregation with 
 deacons, elders (chosen by people and forming a con- 
 sistory) and minister (chosen by consistory and ap- 
 proved by the people), b. Colloquy, c. Provincial 
 synods, d. General or national assembly; the last 
 organized 1559, drew up Confession of Faith (CC. 
 Vol. Ill, 356-82) and Book of Discipline. Probably 
 300,000 at this time. (2) From 1559-98. Protestants j 
 now become political party, opposed by Guise family | 
 (six brothers), but supported by old nobility three 
 noble ladies, Margaret of Navarre, Jeanne d'Albret, 
 Renee, duchess of Ferrara; three of the Bourbons, 
 
158 A Guide to the Study 
 
 Antoine, husband of Jeanne d'Albret, Louis, Prince of 
 Conde, Henry of Navarre, son of Antoine; three 
 brothers of the Chatillon family, Cardinal Chatillon, 
 Admiral Gaspard de Coligny and Francis d'Andelot; 
 under Francis II (1559-60) Guises control government 
 and persecution is severe ; Conspiracy of Amboise sup- 
 pressed 1560. Charles IX (1560-74) only ten years 
 old, his mother Catherine de Medici as regent rules 
 by playing off the parties against each other. Perse- 
 cution stopped, effort at harmony; Colloquy of Passy 
 September, 1561 ; edict gives Protestants right to pub- 
 lic worship outside the walled towns and in private 
 houses in such towns; massacres at Vassy March 1, 
 1562, Toulouse (3,000 killed) and elsewhere precipi- 
 tated first civil war 1562-3, ended by Edict Amboise, 
 unfavorable to Protestants; effort of the Protestants 
 to get possession of the king's person precipitated 
 second war 1567, peace terms same as before; third 
 war followed by Edict of St. Germaine August 8, 1570, 
 giving Protestants freedom of conscience, freedom of 
 worship wherever it had been free before, in the sub- 
 urbs of at least two towns in every government and 
 in the palaces of the great nobles, while four towns 
 La Rochelle, Montauban, Cognac, La Charite given 
 them as pledges for at least two years ; the king gave 
 up the Spanish alliance. Marriage of Henry of Na- 
 varre to Marguerite, the king's sister, August 18, 1572 ; 
 massacre of St. Bartholomew August 24, 1572 (70,000 
 killed), followed by fourth war, concluded by peace of 
 Rochelle, July, 1573, less favorable to Protestants. 
 Charles IX succeeded 1574 by Henry III (1574-89). 
 Fifth war followed by Edict of Beaulieu May 6, 1576, 
 most unfavorable to Protestants so far. The favor- 
 
of Church History. 159 
 
 able terms of this peace and the fact that Henry of 
 Navarre, a Protestant, was recognized as next heir to 
 the throne, led the Duke of Guise to form a league 
 for defense of Catholic faith. Sixth war ended by 
 peace of Bergerac September 15, 1578, less favorable 
 to Protestants ; a seventh war ended 1580. The eighth 
 war "War of the three Henrys" began 1585. Grad- 
 ually the League became more hostile to the king; 
 king had two of the Guises assassinated, had to flee to ( 
 Henry of Navarre for protection and was himself 
 assassinated August 1, 1589. Most of the Catholics 
 refused to accept Henry of Navarre as king and set 
 up Cardinal Bourbon as Charles X; d. 1590. Henry, 
 opposed by Catholics supported by Philip II of Spain, 
 became Catholic 1593, and was soon accepted by all 
 France as Henry IV. Granted Protestants Edict of 
 Nantes April, 1598, giving complete liberty of con- 
 science, full civil rights and protection, freedom of 
 worship with considerable geographical restrictions, 
 places of safety for eight years. 
 
 Henry IV assassinated 1610; Louis XIII, a child 
 of nine ; Richelieu real ruler 1624-42 ; oppression of I \/r 
 Protestants; La Rochelle captured 1628 and Protest- * 
 ants cease to be a political party, a "state within a 
 state;" Edict of Nismes (1629) withdrew all special 
 privileges but confirmed their religious rights; perse- 
 cution under Louis XIV till revocation of edicts of 
 Nantes and Nismes 1685 ; Protestantism in every form 
 illegal; thousands forced back into Catholic Church, ; 
 50,000 or more families leave France. 
 
 IV. THE NETHERLANDS. 
 
 References: N. ii. 244-6; K. Sec. 139:12; H. ii. 331-6; 
 A. iii. 284-91 ; Robertson, Chas. V. ; Prescott, History of Philip 
 
160 A Guide to the Study 
 
 II, 3 vols. ; Motley, Rise of Dutch Republic, 3 vols.; History 
 of the United Netherlands, 4 vols.; Life and Death of John 
 of Barneveld, 2 vols. 
 
 1. CONDITIONS. The Netherlands, covering approx- 
 imately the territory now composing Belgium and Hol- 
 land, consisted of seventeen provinces, differing in laws, 
 customs and characteristics ; the people were wealthy, 
 hardy, thrifty, intelligent, possessing important privi- 
 leges and loving freedom. They were under the 
 suzerainty of the empire, the direct government having 
 gradually fallen into the hands of one family during 
 the latter half of the 15th century, passed by inherit- 
 ance to Charles V. In 1548 he was able to detach 
 them from the empire, and in 1555 they passed to his 
 son Philip thus becoming attached to the crown of 
 Spain. Religiously they had enjoyed great freedom, 
 having little hierarchical organization, being the home 
 of all kinds of evangelical dissent in the later Middle 
 Ages. 
 
 2. COURSE OF REFORM. Lutheran movement early 
 felt in Netherlands; Charles ordered its suppression 
 1521 and established the inquisition; first martyr of 
 the Reformation at Brussels July 1, 1523; Zwinglian 
 elements early introduced along the Rhine; Dutch 
 Bible 1525 ; from 1529 Anabaptists (Hofmannite type) 
 were strongest party of reformers, especially in the 
 north. Calvinism introduced c. 1553 and rapidly 
 gained the lead. Charles V persecuted continually, 
 thousands perished (100,000, Grotius). Under re- 
 gency of Maria some relief, many English Protestants 
 fleeing thither 1553-8; Philip II (1555-98), deter- 
 mined to crush all dissent, began by creating fourteen 
 new bishoprics, also making archbishoprics of four 
 
of Church History. 161 
 
 old bishoprics, and retaining in the country the Span- 
 ish soldiers he had promised to remove. Margaret 
 of Parma regent 1559-67 had constant friction with 
 the people. ("Compromise of Breda," union of nobles 
 for defense of their rights 1565, "Beggars"). Storm 
 of Calvinistic iconoclasm 1566 suppressed by Egmont 
 and William of Orange. Infamous Alva came with 
 20,000 veterans as generalissimo (1567-73) "Council 
 of Blood," death of Egmont (Goethe) and other 
 nobles ; resistance by William of Orange ; Alva ruined 
 the country by taxes and put at least 18,000 to death. 
 Siege of Leyden 1574; war continued to 1576 when 
 all the provinces, regardless of religion, united to drive 
 out the Spaniards; Alexander of Parma (1578-92) 
 was, however, able to recover the southern provinces 
 (Belgium) by promising the restoration of all politi- 
 cal privileges, thus saving them for Spain and the 
 Catholics. Seven northern provinces form Union of 
 Utrecht 1579, in 1581 declare their independence of 
 Spain and elect William of Orange stadtholder for life. 
 William, assassinated 1584, was succeeded by his son 
 Maurice who continued the war assisted by England; 
 Spanish Armada 1588; war continued till 1609 when 
 a twelve-year truce was followed by war until 1648 
 when Holland was recognized as a free republic by 
 Spain and the empire. Great prosperity and develop- 
 ment in latter part of period. Universities estab- 
 lished; Leyden 1575, Groningen 1612, Utrecht 1636. 
 Calvinists drew up Belgic confession (CC. Ill 383- 
 436) in 1561, adopted by synod of Antwerp 1566 and 
 by National Synod at Dort 1574, revised by Synod of 
 
162 A Guide to the Study 
 
 Dort 1619; it with Heidelberg catechism became the 
 doctrinal standard of the state church of Holland. 
 
 3. RISE OF ARMINIANISM. Jas. Arminius (1560- 
 1609), professor of theology at Leyden (1603), under- 
 taking to defend Calvinism against attack, was himself 
 converted to the views he opposed and began to ad- 
 vocate revision of the symbols ; opposed by Francis 
 Gomarus (1563-1645), he was supported by other 
 theologians and by the statesman Olden Barnaveldt 
 (1549-1619) and the great scholar Hugo Grotius 
 (1583-1645), They drew up five articles called Re- 
 monstrance 1610 (CC. Ill 545-9), hence were called 
 Remonstrants or Arminians. They opposed the cen- 
 tralizing tendencies of Maurice in politics, favoring 
 a republican confederacy, and were thus driven into 
 the position of a political party. The bitter contro- 
 versy culminated in the great Synod of Dort (No- 
 vember 13, 1618, to May 9, 1619), composed of Dutch 
 Calvinists and representatives of other Reformed 
 churches, called and supported by States General. 
 Calvinism completely triumphant of course. Canons 
 of the Synod drawn in opposition to Arminian articles 
 (CC. Ill 550-97) ; 200 Arminian preachers deposed 
 and driven out of the country. Barnaveldt beheaded, 
 Grotius imprisoned but escaped (1621). After death 
 of Maurice (1625) Arminians were allowed to return 
 and build churches and schools and the era of tolera- 
 tion began ; but they have not flourished and the state 
 church of Holland is still Calvinistic. 
 
 Before end of period several advocates of foreign 
 missions (1620 onward) ; mission work among natives 
 by chaplains in East Indian possessions. 
 
of Church History. 163 
 
 V. SCOTLAND. 
 
 References: N. ii. 235-44; H. ii. 444-77; K. Sec. 139:8-11; 
 A. iii. 228-35; McCrie, John Knox, 1811, and Scottish Church 
 History, 2 vols. ; Cowan, John Knox; Cunningham, Church 
 History of Scotland. 
 
 1. CONDITIONS. Politically, Scotland, free from 
 England since 1314, had a weak monarchy (Jas. V.) ; 
 parliament and a body of rich, violent and powerful 
 nobles; the enemy of England, the ally of France. 
 The Church, at first pure and independent (Culdees), 
 had been romanized by the N'ormans in the llth cen- 
 tury, was now wealthy and corrupt, under primacy 
 of the profligate Cardinal Beaton, archbishop of St. 
 Andrews. 
 
 2. REFORM TO 1560. James V. (1513-42) married 
 to Mary of Guise, was dominated by the clergy. Par- 
 liament forbade (1525) introduction of Lutheran 
 books and doctrines. Patrick Hamilton burned at St. 
 Andrews 1528. During next fourteen years Tyndale's 
 Bible was widely sold and reform doctrines otherwise 
 propagated at the cost of several martyrs at Edin- 
 burgh, Perth, St. Andrews, Glasgow and elsewhere. 
 During regency of Mary of Guise (1542-60) policy 
 of repression continued while she educated her daugh- 
 ter Mary in France. February 28, 1546, Geo. Wish- 
 art was martyred at St. Andrews; May 29 Cardinal 
 Beaton was assassinated in retaliation; conspirators 
 captured with aid of the French and sent to French 
 galleys. Among them John Knox (1505-72), a 
 teacher, with university education, converted c. 1542 
 by Wishart whom he accompanied and defended; 
 preached first in castle of St. Andrews, then spent 
 
164 A Guide to the Study 
 
 nearly two years on a galley; 1549-54 was pastor in 
 England; then lived at Geneva, Frankfort on the 
 Main, Geneva again ; spent nearly a year in Scotland 
 1555-6, then at Geneva till 1559, writing, assisting with 
 Geneva version of Scriptures and acting as pastor of 
 the English church. In 1557 Protestant nobles of 
 Scotland formed "covenant" to further reform. Knox 
 returned 1559. French defeated and driven out of 
 Scotland 1560 by aid of English; the regent died dur- 
 ing the year. Parliament commissioned Knox and 
 others to draw up a confession (CC. Ill 437-79) ; 
 adopted by parliament August 17, 1560, but never ap- 
 proved by the queen ; August 24 the mass, jurisdiction 
 of the pope and all laws supporting Roman Church 
 abolished ; but reformed church was first formally 
 established 1567. Book of discipline adopted by first 
 General Assembly of the church December, 1560, 
 never approved by parliament, provided for four of- 
 ficers (ministers, teachers, elders, deacons) all elected 
 by the congregation ; for local sessions, provincial 
 synods and a national assembly. Church claimed in- 
 dependence of the state in formulating doctrines, 
 choosing ministers, exercising discipline, controlling 
 property, etc.; provided for excellent educational sys- 
 tem, supported by sequestrated church property, most 
 of which, however, eventually fell to the nobles. 
 
 3. REFORM TO 1592. Mary returned to Scotland 
 1561. Struggle with Knox and the Reformers till 
 1567 when, forced to abdicate in favor of her infant 
 son James VI, she flees to England, where as a 
 prisoner she is the center of Romanist plots for twenty 
 years; executed 1587. Government favors episcopacy 
 and civil control of the church; new confession or 
 
of Church History. 165 
 
 "National Covenant" 1581 (CC. Ill 480-5) ; in 1592 
 government recognized church's claims and established 
 Presbyterian church government. 
 
 4. REFORM TO 1690. By death of Elizabeth 1603 
 James VI became also king of England as James I. 
 Desire to harmonize the two countries led him grad- 
 ually to impose episcopacy upon Scotland. In 1612 
 Scottish parliament re-established episcopal govern- 
 ment and 1618 Five Articles of Perth established epis- 
 copal practices and worship. Charles I even more 
 strenuous; 1633 re-establishing tithes, in 1636 estab- 
 lishing complete episcopal system by "Book of 
 Canons;" July 23, 1637, riot at Edinburgh over in- 
 troduction of English prayer book (Jenny Geddes). 
 Signing of the Covenant March 1, 1638, and out- 
 break of war 1639. Financial needs of king forces 
 convening of English Parliament (1640), which unite 
 with Scotch in "Solemn League and Covenant" (1643) 
 to preserve Presbyterian church in Scotland and es- 
 tablish it in England. Westminster Assembly 1643-9. 
 Execution of Charles I 1649; the Scotch crown 
 Charles II at Scone January 1, 1651, after he had 
 accepted the Covenant ; driven out by Cromwell who 
 holds Scotland but permits religious freedom ; Charles 
 II accepted as king of England 1660, forces episco- 
 pacy on Scotland 1662, driving out 350 Presbyterian 
 ministers. Severe measures caused rebellion of the 
 Scotch 1679. Claverhouse (Scott's Old Mortality), 
 "Cameronians." Severe persecution until Revolution 
 1688 placed William of Orange on the throne. In 
 1690 episcopal church was abolished, Presbyterian es- 
 tablished and the Westminster standards adopted. 
 Church was Presbyterian in policy, Calvinistic in doc- 
 trine, rigid and stern in life. 
 
166 A Guide to the Study 
 
 VI. OTHER LANDS. 
 References: H. ii. 511-18; K. Sec. 154. 
 
 Calvinism spread into other lands, affecting the 
 course of history Switzerland the Palatinate, Hesse, 
 Brandenburg and other German states ; Hungary, Po- 
 land and Transylvania; England, Northern Ireland 
 and with the English throughout the world. 
 
 D. ENGLISH REFORMATION. 
 
 References: N. ii. 248-91; H. ii. 364-443; 605-51; K. 
 Sees. 139:4-6; 155; A. iii. 191-228; Dixon, History of the 
 Church of England from Abolition of Roman Jurisdiction, 
 5 vols. 
 
 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 1. It was confined largely to England and has 
 spread only with the spread of English speaking peo- 
 ple. 2. It had no great leader and was the resultant 
 of various forces; hence lacked thoroughness and 
 consistency and soon began to split into denomina- 
 tions. 3. It was dominated by the government, politi- 
 cal considerations largely controlling its course, leav- 
 ing church subservient to the state. 4. It was the 
 least radical of all types, preserving more of Medie- 
 val Christianity than any other. 5. The Catholic or- 
 ganization was preserved without change, the king 
 becoming head in lieu of the pope. 6. Its theology 
 (39 articles) was moderately Calvinistic, on Lutheran 
 basis ; Arminian elements early appeared. 7. Worship 
 (Book of Common Prayer) was a translation and 
 adaptation of parts of the Catholic liturgy ; more Cath- 
 olic than other forms of Protestantism. 
 
of Church History. 167 
 
 I. COURSE OF REFORM. 
 
 1. POLITICAL, RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS. 
 England a strongly centralized government with a 
 rough, cruel but able king, Henry VIII. The nobility 
 had been ruined by "Wars of the Roses" while Henry 
 VII had greatly increased the power and wealth of 
 the king. The church was subservient to the state and 
 very corrupt; the leading officials were nominated by 
 the state; the people were ignorant, rude, degraded 
 and superstitious, but rapidly increasing their wealth 
 and improving their condition. 
 
 2. REFORM TO DEATH OF HENRY VIII, 1547. Lol- 
 lard doctrines had continued here and there. Work 
 of Erasmus, Colet and More (Seebohm, The Oxford 
 Reformers). John Tyndale's translation of New Tes- 
 tament 1526. Demand for divorce; beginning of pro- 
 ceedings 1526; difficulties; fall of Woolsey and (at 
 suggestion of Cranmer) appeal to universities 1529; 
 Thos. Cromwell advises Henry to declare himself 
 head of the church and thus obtain divorce 1530; 
 clergy declared guilty of the statute of praemunire 
 1531 ; right of independent legislation taken from Con- 
 vocation, also right to pay annates and to appeal to 
 Rome 1532; divorce by Convocation, and marriage 
 with Anne Boleyn 1533; Act of Supremacy by parlia- 
 ment making king head of the church 1534; opposition 
 forcibly suppressed (Thos. More) ; "Court of Star 
 Chamber;" suppression of the monasteries (1535-9) 
 and confiscation of their property to the king, who 
 founded with it six bishoprics and fourteen churches, 
 but lavished most of it on his favorites and personal 
 ends; disastrous to the poor; destruction of images 
 and shrines (a Becket) ; England under papal inter- 
 
168 A Guide to the Study 
 
 diet 1538. All this was political, but Protestant doc- 
 trines were making progress also. Anne Boleyn, 
 Cranmer and Cromwell favored reform; translation 
 of the Bible allowed 1535f, "Ten Articles" 1536; read- 
 ing Bible encouraged in the churches 1537, "Institu- 
 tion of a Christian Man." Reaction in 1539; "six 
 articles" enforcing transubstantiation, communion in 
 bread only, celibacy, chastity, private masses, con- 
 fession. Fall of Cromwell 1540; opposition to reform 
 till Henry's death which left the Catholic system in- 
 tact. 
 
 3. UNDER EDWARD VI, 1547-53. The impulse to 
 reform under Henry VIII was Lutheran ; under Ed- 
 ward Calvinism was more influential. Edward, the 
 regents and advisers were Protestants ; many reform- 
 ers from continent brought over to assist (Bucer, 
 Peter Martyr, Ochino, John a Lasco and others; also 
 John Knox) ; all laws against evangelical doctrines 
 were repealed, images removed from the churches, 
 priestly marriage permitted, mass abolished, commun- 
 ion in both kinds instituted and English liturgy 
 adopted. The "Book of Common Prayer" 1549 (con- 
 taining many Catholic elements eliminated in 1552), 
 was imposed on clergymen under heavy penalties; 
 "42 Articles" 1553 were Calvinistic; persecution of 
 Catholics ; the masses of the people remained Catholics. 
 
 4. UNDER MARY, 1553-8. All laws favoring Prot- 
 estantism immediately repealed; thousands of Prot- 
 estants fled, some imprisoned and afterwards mar- 
 tyred (Latimer, Ridley, Hooper, Cranmer and oth- 
 ers) ; 1554 England was absolved and formally re- 
 ceived back into Catholic church by Reginald Pole, 
 papal legate; Mary married Philip II of Spain, who 
 
of Church History. 169 
 
 deserted her and still further embittered her ; 279 per- 
 sons martyred. 
 
 5. UNDER ELIZABETH, 1558-1603. Daughter of 
 Anne Boleyn, reared a Protestant, during Mary's reign 
 living as Catholic, was crowned by Catholics but speed- 
 ily showed Protestant sympathy; thousands of exiles 
 returned, bringing Calvinistic ideas. Elizabeth's dif- 
 ficulties and aims? In January, 1559, the sovereign 
 was made "Supreme Governor" of the church, thus 
 again cutting England loose from the papacy and giv- 
 ing the queen great authority in the spiritual and tem- 
 poral affairs of the church; repeal of Mary's anti- 
 Protestant legislation; "Act of Uniformity" June, 
 1559, forced the prayer book, revised, on all clergy- 
 men; the "42 Articles" were revised and imposed in 
 Latin 1563 as "the 39 Articles" (CC. Ill 486-516) and 
 in English 1571 ; all but one bishop and many of the 
 lower clergy refused the oath of supremacy and were 
 deposed. Doubtful validity of Parker's consecration. 
 Persecution of Catholics, some 200 Catholics being 
 martyred during the reign; colleges for education of 
 English Catholic priests at Douay, Rheims and Rome 
 1569 on; Catholic English Bible, Douay Version; var- 
 ious conspiracies against Elizabeth ; placed under the 
 ban by the pope 1570; execution of Mary Stuart 1587, 
 attack by Spanish Armada 1588. 
 
 PURITAN PARTY due to Calvinism brought by re- 
 turning exiles from the continent. They (a) opposed 
 episcopacy, favoring presbyterial government as di- 
 vinely ordained; (b) favored simplicity of worship, 
 opposing vestments, candles, organs, litany, etc.; (c) 
 urged strict discipline; they did not all separate from 
 the church but sometimes refused to conform (non- 
 
170 A Guide to the Study 
 
 conformists) ; able, aggressive, influential. Thos. 
 Cartwright. From this party rose most of the separat- 
 ists (Congregationalists 1578 on, Baptists 1611 on, 
 Quakers 1646 on. See below). At first Anglicans 
 supported episcopacy as a human institution (de jure 
 humano, Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity) ; later held it 
 to be divinely ordained (de jure divino, Bancroft). 
 Elizabeth succeeded in reducing Catholicism, but Pur- 
 itanism was growing stronger at her death. Lambeth 
 articles 1595 (CC. Ill 523-5). 
 
 6. UNDER JAMES I, 1603-25. The expectation that 
 James, a Scotch Calvinist, would favor the Puritans 
 led to the "Millenary Petition" 1603, and the "Hamp- 
 ton Court conference," January, 1604, where Puritans 
 were rebuffed, the king favoring episcopacy ; aided by 
 the "Court of High Commission," he sought to sup- 
 press them ; deposed and imprisoned many ; repression 
 of Catholics and Gunpowder Plot 1605 ; King James 
 version of Bible 1611; "Book of Sports" 1618; less 
 rigor towards Puritans because of Archbishop Abbott, 
 and towards Catholics for political reasons, later in 
 his reign. Flight of many separatists to the conti- 
 nent 1605 onwards. 
 
 7. UNDER CHARLES I, 1625-49. Charles married a 
 Catholic and was favorable to Catholic doctrines; be- 
 lieved in divine right and absolute authority of kings ; 
 ruled without parliament 1629-40. Wm. Laud (1573- 
 1645), typical high churchman, bishop of St. Davids 
 1621, Bath and Wells 1626, London 1628, Archbishop 
 of Canterbury 1633; Privy Councilor 1627, Lord 
 Chancellor 1628, was under Charles all powerful; la- 
 bored to enforce rigid high church principles on both 
 England and Scotland; emigration of Puritans to 
 
of Church History. 171 
 
 America; bitter persecution through "Star Chamber" 
 and "Court of High Commission;" resistance by the 
 people in the interest of both religious and civil free- 
 dom; "ship money" and John Hampden; Scotch re- 
 bellion and National Covenant 1638; to obtain money 
 to suppress it Charles calls parliament 1640. Proving 
 intractable it was dismissed and another called 1640 
 (Long Parliament 1640-53) ; soon at war with the 
 king; Stratford and Laud convicted of treason and 
 executed 1641 and 1645 ; in order to alliance with the 
 Scotch, Parliament accepted the "Solemn League and 
 Covenant" 1643 which involved the preservation of 
 Presbyterianism in Scotland and its adoption in Eng- 
 land; Parliament called "Westminster Assembly" 
 (July 1, 1643; sat to February 22, 1649), inviting 
 moderate Anglicans, Puritans, Independents and 
 Scotch divines ; Presbyterians predominated ; produced 
 a Longer and a Shorter Catechism (CC. Ill 676-703) 
 and the Westminster Confession (CC. Ill 597-673) ; 
 these were adopted as their symbols by the Scotch 
 General Assembly August 27, 1647, and by the Scotch 
 Parliament February 7, 1649; by the English Parlia- 
 ment June, 1648, but they were never widely enforced 
 on England. Defeated at Marston Moor and Naseby 
 1645 (Oliver Cromwell) Charles fled to the Scots, was 
 delivered to Parliament 1647; Cromwell expels the 
 Presbyterian members, leaving the "Rump Parlia- 
 ment" and defeats the Scots who invade England on 
 behalf of the king (1648) ; executes the king (1649). 
 8. THE COMMONWEALTH, 1649-59. England be- 
 comes a republic while Scotland recognizes and crowns 
 Charles II (1651) ; Cromwell puts down rebellion in 
 Ireland and Scotland, expelling Charles II and in 1653 
 
172 A Guide to the Study 
 
 dissolves Parliament becoming Lord Protector and 
 ruling alone; successful war with the Netherlands 
 and Spain; order at home, honor abroad; Cromwell 
 gave religious freedom to all except Catholics, allowed 
 no established church, sought to raise the efficiency 
 and character of the preachers (Board of Triers), 
 and supported all good ministers from the state treas- 
 ury; protected Protestants abroad. 
 
 9. UNDER CHARLES II (1660-85) AND JAMES II 
 (1685-9). (References N. ii. 624-30; H. ii. 652-9; 
 K. Sec. 155). Charles was weak and immoral; had 
 promised toleration (Savoy Conference), but gave 
 way before the pressure of the Anglican party ; restor- 
 ation of Episcopacy in England 1660, followed by se- 
 vere persecution of all dissent ; Corporation Act 1661 ; 
 Act of Uniformity 1662, ousting some 2,000 ministers ; 
 Conventicle Act 1664 ; Five Mile Act 1665 ; in order to 
 spare the Catholics king made "Declaration of Indulg- 
 ence" 1672 ; Parliament answered with Test Act 1673 ; 
 efforts of the king to help Catholics were vain; he 
 joined Catholic church on his death bed and was suc- 
 ceeded by his brother James II, a Catholic ; efforts to 
 favor Catholics (Declaration of Freedom of Con- 
 science 1687); trial of the seven bishops 1688; the 
 Protestants invite William of Orange, grandson of 
 Charles I and son-in-law of James II, to take the 
 throne ; this he did 1689 (William and Mary) ; Act of 
 Toleration (1689) gave religious liberty to all except 
 Catholics and Socinians; but dissenters were still ex- 
 cluded from the exercise of political rights, were re- 
 quired to pay tithes and other church dues to the An- 
 glican clergy, and their preachers must sign the 39 
 Articles with reservations. Protestantism was now 
 
of Church History. 173 
 
 firmly and finally established in England, though many 
 of the clergy, including nine bishops, refused to swear 
 allegiance to the new king (non- jurors) and in 1691 
 were deposed. They kept up an independent exist- 
 ence until 1805. 
 
 In the latter part of the period were several men of 
 note: Wm. Chillingworth, d. 1644; Ralph Cudworth, 
 d. 1688; John Tillotson, d. 1694 and Gilbert Burnet, 
 d. 1715. 
 
 Morals of England were low under Charles and 
 James. The stage and literature utterly debased. 
 But compare Milton and Bunyan. 
 
 II. RISE OF THE DENOMINATIONS. 
 
 English Protestantism soon began to break up into 
 denominations. 
 
 1. INDEPENDENTS ( CONGREGATION ALISTS). (Refer- 
 ences: H. ii. 675-90.) Anabaptists had existed in 
 Eastern England since about 1530, and may have 
 exerted some influence on this movement. It 
 came out of the Puritan party, was Calvinistic 
 in theology and Christian life, but believed in 
 separation from Church of England, in religious 
 freedom, converted church membership and the in- 
 dependence of local church as a self-governing 
 democratic body of believers. Their founder was 
 Robert Browne (c. 1550-c. 1630), hence long called 
 Brownists. About 1578 Browne reached the conclu- 
 sion ( 1 ) that the apostolic church was a local inde- 
 pendent body; (2) its government was democratic; 
 (3) it was composed of believers only; (4) that mag- 
 istrates have no power in religious matters ; the church 
 
174 A Guide to the Study 
 
 is independent of the state as well as of other churches. 
 He formed a congregation at Norwich, but fled to 
 Middleburg, Zeeland, 1581, where he wrote several 
 tracts sustaining the above positions; returning to 
 Scotland 1583 he reunited with Anglican church 
 (1586), dying in its communion. A second congre- 
 gation ( Presbyterial local government) founded in 
 London 1586; John Greenwood, Henry Barrowe, John 
 Penry executed and congregation scattered 1593 ; 
 Francis Johnson, converted 1593, led several separat- 
 ists to Amsterdam where he labored along with Henry 
 Ainsworth; a third congregation at Gainsborough 
 under John Smyth 1602 and at Scrooby (Wm. Brew- 
 ster, Wm. Bradford, Jtio. Robinson, Thos. Helwys, 
 Jno. Murton) ; in 1606 Smyth and his people fled to 
 Amsterdam and soon afterwards Robinson and the 
 Scrooby flock to Leyden. Some of the latter emi- 
 grated to New England 1620 (Pilgrim Fathers, May- 
 flower). In 1616 Henry Jacob returned from Middle- 
 burg, Zeeland, to revive Congregational work in Lon- 
 don. His church became the mother of Congregation- 
 alism in England. Other churches arose, but growth 
 was slow until the Civil War when under Cromwell 
 they controlled the government and grew rapidly. At 
 invitation of Cromwell 200 delegates from 120 congre- 
 gations gathered at the Savoy in London (September 
 29-October 12, 1658) and drew up the great Congre- 
 gational creed, "Savoy Declaration" (CC. Ill 707-29). 
 Persecution after the restoration; they received tolera- 
 tion in 1689. 
 
 2. BAPTISTS. (References: H. ii. 691-704; N. ii. 
 881-91; Vedder, Short History of Baptists.) Eng- 
 lish Baptists sprang out of the Congregationalists, 
 
of Church History. 175 
 
 though they may have had some connection, not now 
 traceable, with the Anabaptists (Mennonites) settled 
 in England since the second quarter of the sixteenth 
 century. Two distinct types, differing in theology and 
 slightly in other respects: "General Baptists," who 
 rose among English Congregationalists in Amsterdam 
 and were Arminian, believing in a "general" atone- 
 ment; "Calwnistic" or "Particular Baptists" (believing 
 in a "particular" atonement) who rose later among 
 Congregationalists in London. Both were long called 
 Anabaptists by their enemies, while they used no dis- 
 tinctive name among themselves. 
 
 (1) General Baptists. John Smyth, who with his 
 Gainsborough congregation had fled to Amsterdam 
 1606, became convinced of the nullity of infant baptism 
 about 1608, baptized himself (probably by affusion) 
 and then such of his congregation as agreed with him, 
 including Helwys and Murton. They also adopted 
 Arminian theology which was agitated at this time in 
 Amsterdam. Soon convinced that he had acted with- 
 out authority Smyth sought baptism at the hands of 
 the Mennonites, while Murton, Helwys and others 
 maintained the validity of their baptism, and in 1611 
 drew up the so-called first Baptist creed (Underbill, 
 pp. 3-10) . Returning to England Murton and Helwys 
 founded the General Baptist cause which flourished for 
 many years. Other Confessions were drawn up in 
 1660 (Underbill, 109ff) and 1678 (Underbill, 121ff) ; 
 when they adopted immersion is unknown. 
 
 (2) Particular Baptists sprang out of the First Con- 
 gregational church of London (Jacob's, see above) 
 when on September 12, 1633, John Spilsbury and a 
 few others withdrew and formed a new church on the 
 
176 A Guide to the Study 
 
 basis of believers' baptism. Source and form of bap- 
 tism unknown, though it was probably affusion; 1638 
 seven other persons left the Congregational church 
 and joined Spilsbury's church. About 1640 they be- 
 came convinced that immersion was the only Scrip- 
 tural mode of baptism; a part insisting on succession 
 sent Richard Blount to Holland to procure baptism in 
 1641 (according to the "Kiffin Ms.") ; others denying 
 the necessity of succession revived baptism by one 
 baptizing another, who in turn baptized all the rest. 
 This may have been earlier than 1641. By 1644 there 
 were seven churches in and about London who drew 
 up the first Calvinistic Baptist creed (Underbill, 
 llff) ; under Cromwell they were numerous and in- 
 fluential in the army and government. Persecuted 
 under Charles II and James II (John Bunyan) ; they 
 received freedom in 1689, and in that year 100 congre- 
 gations in England and Wales united in the best known 
 Baptist confession (Underbill, 169ff). The less im- 
 portant "Somerset Confession" had been drawn up 
 1656 (Underbill, 61ff). 
 
 3. SOCIETY OF FRIENDS or Quakers (H. ii. 705-15) 
 sprang out of the Anglican church of the Puritan 
 wing. Geo. Fox (1624-91), son of a weaver in Lei- 
 cestershire, pensive, serious, was led, after powerful re- 
 ligious experience, to accept Christ (1646) and began 
 preaching as layman (1647) ; emphasized the "inner 
 light" of the Spirit, rejected oaths, war, civil office, 
 the ordinances, creeds, consecrated houses, ordination, 
 all formal services, paid preachers ; showed peculiari- 
 ties of dress and language; opposed capital punish- 
 ment and slavery, urged prison reform, etc.; insisted 
 powerfully on holy living ; he and his followers showed 
 
of Church History. 177 
 
 wonderful missionary zeal, growing rapidly in Eng- 
 land despite severe persecution, and carrying the 
 "light" to the continent and America; field preaching 
 and woman preachers. Organized into (1) monthly, 
 (2) quarterly and (3) yearly meetings. Robt. Bar- 
 clay, the theologian of Quakerism ; Wm. Penn. Quak- 
 ers were never numerous (few outside Great Britain 
 and United States), but of high character and in- 
 fluential. 
 
 III. REFORMATION OF IRELAND. 
 
 References: H. ii. 478-99; K. Sec. 139:7, Sec. 153:6; 
 A. iii. 235-69. 
 
 The woes of Ireland began long before the Reform- 
 ation ; Protestant England is guilty only of perpetuat- 
 ing what Catholic England had long been doing. Ire- 
 land rejected Protestantism because it came from Eng- 
 land, which was the symbol of all that was bad. In 
 general the official reformation of Ireland followed 
 that of England, while the masses of the people re- 
 mained staunchly Catholic. By act of the Irish Par- 
 liament Henry VIII was made head of the church 
 1535, monasteries were dissolved and ecclesiastical 
 property divided among English and Irish lords as 
 far as English authority extended, i. e., in the "Pale." 
 Under Edward VI there was an attempt to introduce 
 the new Protestant English liturgy, articles, etc., but 
 these efforts were resisted with vigor. Mary restored 
 the Catholic church in Ireland as in England. Under 
 Elizabeth Protestantism was again officially established 
 as in England as far as English authority extended; 
 but little was done to convert the people. A few 
 
178 A Guide to the Study 
 
 Bibles in English sold, an Irish catechism and primer 
 published 1571, the Prayer Book in Irish in 1603, and 
 New Testament in Irish 1608, but the religious and 
 moral condition remained the same. Under James I 
 and Charles I the Jesuits were suppressed, the Irish 
 lords ruined, all church property turned over to Angli- 
 can church and all Catholics were made ineligible to 
 civil office. This occasioned the massacre of thous- 
 ands of Protestants (Irish Massacre) 1641 ; in 1649 
 Cromwell took terrible vengeance and subdued the 
 entire island to English rule. Under Charles II and 
 James II Irish Catholics suffered as did the English, 
 and the Act of Toleration 1689 left them without 
 civic rights, though persecution ceased. Irish Articles 
 (C. C. III. 526-44). 
 
 E. ANABAPTIST REFORMATION. 
 
 References: N. ii. 148-200; K. Sees. 145-48; H. ii. 557-62; 
 Newman, History of Antipedobaptism ; Vedder, Short History 
 of Baptists; Vedder, Balthaser Hubmaier. 
 
 1. CHARACTERISTICS. (1) Anabaptists may have 
 had some historical connection with earlier sects, but 
 it has not been proven, and many considerations render 
 it doubtful. All their leaders and their members as 
 far as they can be followed came out of Catholic 
 church ; they had no consciousness of connection with 
 earlier sects, nor did they enter into communion with 
 them. The more probable source is the renewed 
 study of the Bible. (2) They held a great variety of 
 views but agreed in general on the following points: 
 (a) Churches are composed of believers only, saints. 
 This the central normative doctrine of the system. 
 
of Church History. 179 
 
 (b) Infant baptism is the invention of man or the 
 devil, is corrupting and without Scriptural warrant, 
 is null; only baptism of believers is valid; various 
 modes practised, (c) The church is to be kept pure 
 by the practice of rigid discipline, (d) Absolute sep- 
 aration of church and state, and consequent religious 
 freedom, (e) Rejection of oaths, war, the holding 
 of civil office, (f) Property is held by Christians as 
 stewards only; many of them favored and practiced 
 communism, (g) Anti-Augustinian theology, (h) 
 Itinerant ministry under general super intendency. (i) 
 They had no leader. It was a movement of the peo- 
 ple, of the laity. 
 
 2. THEIR HISTORY. Anabaptist views seem to have 
 sprung up independently and simultaneously at var- 
 ious places, but they can be divided into four general 
 geographical groups. 
 
 (1) The Swiss-Moravian Anabaptists rose among 
 the friends and supporters of Zwingli and spread 
 quickly over reformed Switzerland. Leaders were 
 Conrad Grebel, Felix Manz, Geo. Blaurock, Ludwig 
 Hatzer and Balthasar Hubmeier. Believer's baptism 
 begun January, 1525, by Grebel (not immersion) ; 
 disputation between Zwingli and Anabaptists January 
 17, 1525; repressive measures; spread to Basel, Berne, 
 Chur, Schaffhausen, Appenzell, St. Gall; persecution 
 everywhere; martyrdom of Manz 1527; martyrdoms 
 in Basel, Berne and elsewhere. Waldshut reformed 
 1524; Hubmeier becomes Anabaptist 1525, driven out, 
 imprisoned in Zurich, fled to Nickolsburg. Swiss 
 Anabaptists flee into Tyrol and Moravia. Continued 
 to be persecuted in Switzerland but remain to the 
 present. At Nickolsburg and Austerlitz they built up 
 
180 A Guide to the Study 
 
 great communal houses; for a while peace, then per- 
 secution. Some fled to Russia and in 1874 to South 
 Dakota. Closely associated with the Swiss were Hans 
 Denck and others from South Germany. 
 
 2. German Anabaptists rose at Zwickau near Wit- 
 tenberg, leaders were Thos. Miinzer and Nicholas 
 Storch, "Zwickau prophets," emphasized "inner light," 
 church of saints, etc. Set up independent church c. 
 1520; Storch and Steubner visit Wittenberg 1521, win 
 Carlstadt and Cellarius ; chiliastic and socialistic views 
 lead to Peasants' war in which Miinzer and his fol- 
 lowers perished; this destroyed the Anabaptist move- 
 ment in Germany. Miinzer infected many other men; 
 Hut, etc. 
 
 (3) Dutch Anabaptists founded by Melchior Hof- 
 mann, a radical reformer with chiliastic notions 1523 
 on; preached over all North Germany, along the 
 Rhine; in Sweden, Denmark and Netherlands; be- 
 came Anabaptist at Strasburg c. 1529; regarded 
 Christ's body as divine; owing to persecution he sus- 
 pended baptism; returned to Strasburg 1533 to await 
 coming of the Lord ; was thrown into prison where he 
 died ten years later. Leadership of the Anabaptists 
 assumed by Jan Mathys who ordered the resumption 
 of baptism, proclaimed himself the promised Enoch, 
 invited all the faithful to Miinster, which had recently 
 accepted the Reformation (Bernard Rothmann), where 
 he set up the "Miinster kingdom" 1534-5. Destroyed 
 by the bishops, supported by the princes. Horrible 
 history. 
 
 After this storm Menno Simon (1536 on) gath- 
 ered the remnants of the quiet Anabaptists, hence 
 known as "Mennonites." 
 
of Church History. 181 
 
 (4) Anti-Trinitarian Anabaptists. Campanus, Serv- 
 etus and the Italian Anabaptists 1545 on; in Italy 
 persecuted 1551, on they flee to Switzerland and Po- 
 land where they establish a work at Racov. Laelius 
 and Faustus Socinus. Their Christology. Practiced 
 immersion. 
 
 F. COUNTER (CATHOLIC) REFORMATION. 
 
 References: N. ii. 350-89; H. ii. 529-56; K. Sec. 149:1-12, 
 151 ; A. iii. 339-401. 
 
 For twenty-five years after the outbreak of the Re- 
 formation the church took no measures to stop its 
 progress, seemed dazed. All effective opposition came 
 from Catholic princes. Compromise and reunion ef- 
 forts were frequent. But c. 1541 it began earnest ef- 
 forts to meet Protestantism. Object was (a) to re- 
 form the church in morals, (b) stop the progress of 
 Protestantism, (c) recover lost territory, (d) win 
 the heathen. The means were (a) Council of Trent, 
 (b) revival of monasticism, specifically the founding 
 of the Jesuits, (c) reorganization and enlargement of 
 the Inquisition. This counter-reformation continued 
 for more than a century, recovered much lost ground, 
 brought on Thirty Years War. It did not in any way 
 modify the policy or doctrines of the Catholic church, 
 but removed many abuses, crystallized its doctrines 
 and gave it a great forward impulse. 
 
 I. MEANS EMPLOYED. 
 
 1. COUNCIL OF TRENT. A free ecumenical council, 
 long demanded by Protestants and Catholics and fre- 
 
182 A Guide to the Study 
 
 quently promised by popes, had been often postponed 
 Why? Council met in three periods, Dec. 13, 1545- 
 March 11, 1547; May 1, 1551- April 28, 1552; Jan. 18, 
 1562-Dec. 4, 1563. Small attendance till toward close; 
 almost exclusively Latin, largely Italian, bishops ; con- 
 trolled by papal legates and papal theologians (two 
 Jesuits). Protestants refused to attend though in- 
 vited. Why? Reforms and doctrines considered * in 
 alternate sessions. It (a) ordered many reforms of 
 the clergy, which were, however, never fully enforced, 
 and (b) formulated its doctrines in a creed (CC. II 
 77-206) which is summed up in the Profession of the 
 Tridentine Faith (CC. II 207-10; I. 98f) which must 
 be signed by all Catholic priests and professors. It is 
 the most important Catholic creed, and was drawn to 
 meet Protestantism. Its final interpretation was re- 
 served to the pope. 
 
 2. SOCIETY OF JESUS (Jesuits). (1) The Founder. 
 Every reform in the Catholic church has been ac- 
 complished by a revival in monasticism. The Refor- 
 mation brought revival of old orders and the formation 
 of new ones: Theatines c. 1524, Capuchins c. 1528, the 
 Ursulines c. 1537 and many others, male and female. 
 But the most important of all orders was the Jesuits, 
 founded by Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556), a Spanish 
 soldier of noble blood. Permanently disabled by a 
 wound 1521, he turned to religion, became a monk, 
 studied in the schools of Spain and University of Paris 
 where in 1534 he founded a society of young men to 
 carry on mission work in Palestine. Hindered by war, 
 they labored in Venice 1537 and Rome 1539, where 
 they were established as an order September 27, 1540, 
 taking the ordinary monastic vows and the additional 
 
of Church History. 183 
 
 vow to go on a mission wherever the pope might wish. 
 Loyola wrote the "Spiritual Exercises" and the "Con- 
 stitution." 
 
 (2) Constitution. Members divided into four 
 grades (classes), (1) novices, (2) scholars, (3) co- 
 adjuters (temporal, spiritual), (4) professed (three 
 vows, four vows). Last three classes are priests. 
 Professed of the four vows constitute the "Congrega- 
 tion" who alone conduct the business and are eligible 
 to the offices of the society. The officers are (1) a 
 General (the black pope) elected for life, with six 
 assistants, residing at Rome, receiving reports from 
 all officers and being almost absolute. (2) Provin- 
 cials, presidents, professors, etc., appointed by the Gen- 
 eral for three years. 
 
 (3) The Training is very thorough, lasting some 
 thirty years for the professed. Applicants must be 
 fourteen years old, sound in mind and body; they are 
 trained by study and teaching in languages, the arts, 
 theology, the effort being to make a scholarly modern 
 gentleman, absolutely obedient to his superiors, cos- 
 mopolitan in his knowledge and capabilities. They 
 wear no distinctive dress. 
 
 (4) Aims and Methods. Their motto, "For the 
 greater glory of God;" the recovery of lands lost to 
 Protestantism and Mohammedanism, and the conver- 
 sion of the heathen world-wide triumph of the Ro- 
 man church. To accomplish this they (a) preached, 
 (b) gave great attention to higher education, founding 
 colleges, and wherever possible becoming professors 
 in existing schools, (c) used the confessional, (d) and 
 political intrigue. 
 
 (5) Ethical System. Strict moralists themselves 
 they threw down all restraint for their rich patrons. 
 
184 A Guide to the Study 
 
 (a) Their doctrine of obedience destroys man's moral 
 nature, (b) End justifies the means, (c) Probabil- 
 ism. (d) Intention, (e) Mental reservation. 
 
 (6) Their Subsequent History. They introduced 
 themselves rapidly into all the countries of Europe, 
 showed heroic devotion and fanatical zeal for the 
 church, quickly made themselves felt among the upper 
 and ruling classes through their schools and the con- 
 fessional, won back many Protestants and moved 
 princes to suppress others ; started the great reaction. 
 
 Among the peoples of the far East (Xavier) and the 
 newly discovered Americas they unfolded wonderful 
 missionary activity which for a time was highly suc- 
 cessful, but eventually fell to pieces because of its 
 superficial character. Their theology has been semi- 
 Pelagian ; they have fostered Mariolatry and super- 
 stition; have been banished by various governments 
 and generally distrusted; have been the earnest advo- 
 cates of the infallibility and irresponsible power of the 
 pope, the chief supporters of ultramontanism, reac- 
 tion and superstition. 
 
 3. THE INQUISITION was reorganized in Italy 1541 
 
 - by Caraffa and speedily suppressed Protestants in all 
 
 the states of the peninsula ; Council of Trent drew up 
 
 list of prohibited books 1562, and the Congregation of 
 
 the Index founded 1571. 
 
 II. COURSE OF COUNTER REFORMATION. 
 
 The Jesuits soon entered most of the countries of 
 Europe, and with wonderful zeal and success labored 
 for the conversion of Protestants, at the same time 
 moving princes to suppress Protestantism by force 
 
of Church History. 185 
 
 wherever possible. They labored in Spain, Portugal, 
 France where they were largely responsible for the 
 wars and bitter persecutions of 16th and 17th cen- 
 turies; in Belgium, England, Poland, Sweden, Ger- 
 many and Austria. In the last two countries they won 
 their most signal triumphs. For while Catholicism 
 was united and enthusiastic, the Lutherans had be- 
 come divided and were engaged in bitter theological 
 strife. By teaching and preaching, by moving the 
 Hapsburg and Bavarian princes to repressive meas- 
 ures, they finally brought on the 
 
 THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 
 
 References: N. ii. 390-411; H. ii. 550-6; A. iii. 442-60. 
 
 Archduke Ferdinand restores Catholicism in Styria 
 1596 on; Donauworth Catholicised by Maximilian of 
 Bavaria 1607; formation of W. German princes into 
 Evangelical Union (1609) under leadership of Fred- 
 erick, Elector of the Palatinate ; formation of Catholic 
 League under Maximilian of Bavaria (1609), com- 
 posed of Hapsburg, Bavarian and ecclesiastical 
 princes, supported by pope and Spain; Emperor Ru- 
 dolph II attempts to suppress Protestants in Bohemia 
 and Silesia, and is forced to grant them religious lib- 
 erty and a Parliament of Defenders by Royal Charter 
 (1609); dispute over succession to Julich-Cleves 
 further embittered Protestants, already divided among 
 themselves between Calvinism and Lutheranism; 1617 
 Ferdinand of Styria becomes king of Bohemia and 
 begins attempt to suppress Protestants. They appeal 
 to the emperor, and being rebuffed, cast the imperial 
 ministers out of the window and begin the war. 
 
186 A Guide to the Study 
 
 1. FIRST STAGE (1618-23), chiefly in Bohemia. Bo- 
 hemian Protestants were helped by Evangelical Union ; 
 the Emperor and Ferdinand by the Catholic League; 
 1619 Ferdinand was elected Emperor, Frederick of 
 the Palatinate king of Bohemia; Protestants were di- 
 vided and defeated by Tilly ; the electorate transferred 
 from Frederick to Maximilian of Bavaria 1623, while 
 Bohemia was rapidly re-Catholicised, Protestants, who 
 were eighty per cent, of the population, being destroyed 
 or won over to Catholicism ; so in Austria and Silesia. 
 
 2. SECOND STAGE (1623-30), chiefly in Germany. 
 Mansfeld and Christian of Brunswick keep up the 
 struggle while England, France, Denmark and Sweden 
 seek to form league against Catholics. During the 
 long negotiations Wallenstein, a Bohemian general of 
 the emperor, and Tilly, general of the Catholic League, 
 overran all North Germany, reaching the Baltic, Den- 
 mark alone assisting the Germans; 1629 the emperor 
 decreed the restoration of Germany to the condition 
 obtaining 1555 (Edict of Restitution), which would 
 have ruined Protestantism. 
 
 3. THIRD STAGE (1630-5) in Germany. Protestant 
 princes, now more strongly united, were assisted by 
 France (Richelieu) and Sweden (Gustavus Adol- 
 phus). Wonderful success of the latter, overrunning 
 all Germany by 1631. Tilly destroyed Magdeburg 
 (1631), was defeated at Leipsic (1631), and slain 
 at Donau worth (1631). Gustavus Adolphus and Pap- 
 penheim killed in battle of Liitzen November 16, 1632, 
 Wallenstein defeated ; deposed and murdered 1634. In 
 Peace of Prague (1635) electors of Saxony and Bran- 
 denburg and some other Protestant princes make peace 
 with emperor in effort to drive Swedes out of Ger- 
 many. 
 
of Church History. 187 
 
 4. FOURTH STAGE (1635-48), almost wholly polit- 
 ical. All Germany overrun many times by Swedish, 
 French and German troops. Brought to a close by 
 Peace of Westphalia (1648), in which Sweden re- 
 ceived five million thalers and land in North Germany ; 
 France received land on left bank of the Rhine ; Switz- 
 erland and the Netherlands were recognized as inde- 
 pendent both Protestant; many internal changes in 
 the empire practically destroyed it; in religious things 
 Peace of Augsburg (1555) was confirmed and now 
 extended to Calvinists; as regards ecclesiastical prop- 
 erty the year 1624 was regarded as normal; i. e., the 
 status quo of 1624 was restored, leaving vast quanti- 
 ties of Catholic property in hands of Protestants. Im- 
 portant results of the war were (1) almost total de- 
 struction of Protestantism in Southern Germany, Bo- 
 hemia, Poland, Hungary, etc. ; (2) desolation of Ger- 
 many, setting back progress for years; (3) formal 
 recognition of Calvinism as a legal religion of the 
 empire; (4) Catholics forced to recognize impossibil- 
 ity of coercing Protestants. 
 
 III. INTERNAL DEVELOPMENT OF CATHOLIC CHURCH 
 TO 1648. 
 
 References: H. ii. 563-71; A. iii. 401-41; K. Sec. 149-150. 
 
 1. MISSIONS. Active mission work among the 
 heathen by Jesuits, Dominicans, Franciscans and other 
 orders. In India and Japan great success by Xavier 
 1542 on; in China by Ricci; among the Indians of 
 South America, Cuba, Central America and the south- 
 ern and western parts of North America, and in the 
 Philippines. Congregation of the Propaganda estab- 
 
188 A Guide to the Study 
 
 lished in Rome 1622, and the college of the Propa- 
 ganda 1627. Various attempts at union with the 
 Greek, Russian, Nestorian and other churches of the 
 Orient failed or were only partially successful. 
 
 2. THEOLOGY. The Reformation produced an enor- 
 mous theological literature in the Catholic church, 
 chiefly by Jesuits and other monks, and dealing with 
 all phases of theology, but especially dogmatic. Some 
 of the best known were Petavius of Orleans, d. 1652, 
 a Jesuit; Robt. Bellarmine of Tuscany (1542-1621), a 
 Jesuit, most noted theologian of his church; a host of 
 writers in France, Spain, Italy and Germany on exe- 
 getical, dogmatic, pastoral, practical and ascetic the- 
 ology. 
 
 The reformation also started a controversy in Cath- 
 olic church over original sin, free will, the relation of 
 works to grace, etc. Michael Bains, professor in Lou- 
 vain after 1551, attacked the scholastic method, sup- 
 porting his views by texts from Scripture and from 
 Augustine; seventy-nine of his propositions con- 
 demned by pope 1567. His rapidly spreading views 
 vehemently opposed by Jesuits, some of whose views 
 were in turn condemned as semi-Pelagian. 
 
 Louis Molina, a Spanish Jesuit, in trying to har- 
 monize (1588) the two views, set forth Pelagianism, 
 and thus revived the struggle between Dominicans and 
 Jesuits. A commission appointed 1599 to determine 
 relation of grace to conversion, was never allowed to 
 report, and both parties were enjoined to silence by 
 pope 1611 ; Jesuits adopted view of congruous and in- 
 congruous grace 1613. Cornelius Jansen (1585-1638), 
 professor in Louvain and bishop of Ypres, studied 
 Augustine thoroughly, and left behind him a book 
 called Augustinus f advocating the doctrine of human 
 
of Church History. 189 
 
 inability and irresistible grace. This was published 
 1640, and provoked the violent opposition of the Jesu- 
 its. Condemned 1642. Controversy spread to France. 
 (See next period.) 
 
 3. ART AND Music. Degeneration of church archi- 
 tecture into Renaissance and Rococo styles; painting 
 flourishes, but gradually decays: Corregio (1494- 
 1534), Titian (1477-1576), Guido Reni (1575-1642) 
 and others in Italy; Velasquez (1599-1660), Murillo 
 (1617-82) and others in Spain; Rembrandt (1606-69), 
 Rubens (1577-1640), Van Dyke (1599-1641) and oth- 
 ers in the Netherlands. 
 
 G. GREEK CHURCH. 
 References: A. iii. 461-74; K. Sec. 152; H. ii. 793-804. 
 
 After capture of Constantinople by Turks (1453), 
 Christians suffered much persecution, being deprived 
 of their church buildings and heavily taxed ; Christian 
 population was greatly reduced in numbers by death 
 and apostasy. Sultans assumed right to appoint and 
 depose Patriarch of Constantinople, who was "Ecu- 
 menical Patriarch," was head of the whole Greek 
 church, though patriarchs of Antioch, Jerusalem and 
 Alexandria continued. 
 
 Efforts at union between Lutherans and Greeks 
 made by Melanchthon and (1573-5) by two Tubingen 
 theologians, Andreae and Crusius. Jeremiah II, Pa- 
 triarch of Constantinople, replied 1576, rejecting the 
 overture and criticising Lutheranism ; this answer was 
 approved by synod of Jerusalem 1672. In 1589 Jere- 
 miah II, on a collecting tour in Russia, conferred the 
 patriarchal dignity on the Metropolitan of Moscow, 
 "third Rome," thus laying foundation for independ- 
 
190 A Guide to the Study 
 
 ence of Russian church. The patriarchs were conse- 
 crated by the patriarchs of Constantinople until 1660, 
 when they were recognized as independent. Cyril 
 Lucar (1572-1638), b. in Crete, traveled, studied and 
 taught in Europe; became Patriarch of Alexandria 
 1602, Patriarch of Constantinople 1620; gradually ap- 
 proaching Calvinistic doctrine in effort to reform East- 
 ern church, was five times deposed and (1638) stran- 
 gled by Sultan on charge of high treason. In 1629-31 
 he wrote a confession which was decidedly Calvinistic 
 and influential in Europe, but rejected and anathema- 
 tized by Eastern Church in Synods of Constantinople 
 1638, Jassy 1643, Jerusalem 1672. In opposition the 
 "Orthodox Confession of the Catholic and Apostolic 
 Eastern Church" (CC. ii. 275-400) was drawn up 
 (1640) by Peter Mogilas, Metropolitan of Kiev, and 
 adopted by a Russian synod for that country, by the 
 Synod of Jassy 1643, and signed by the four Eastern 
 patriarchs, thus making it the confession of the whole 
 Eastern Church. Calvinism continued and was again 
 condemned in the important Synod of Jerusalem 
 (1672), when the confession of Dositheus was adopted 
 (CC. ii. 401-44). By these the doctrinal system of the 
 Eastern Church was crystalized, as was that of the 
 Western at Trent. 
 
 SECOND DIVISION, 1648 TO 1789. 
 
 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 
 References: N. ii. 415-24; H. ii. 740-3. 
 
 1. RATIONALISM. It was an age of dead hyper- 
 orthodoxy on one side and skepticism, liberalism and 
 rationalism on the other. Wearied with strife and the- 
 
I V* Is* 
 
 V 
 
 N^w^ 
 
 * K> 
 
 of Church History. 191 
 
 ological controversy, men turned to natural religion or 
 away from religion altogether, regarding Christian 
 doctrine as the cause of all their woes. For the future 
 they would give up their superstitions and live by 
 reason. Reason must rule in religion, law, architecture, 
 art, poetry. It was the age of Aufkl'drung, "illumina- 
 tion," when the accumulated errors and wrongs of cen- 
 turies were to be swept away. All that could not jus- 
 tify itself to reason must be rejected. The period of 
 unbelief began first in England in seventeenth century, 
 spread to France, and finally to Germany toward end 
 of period. A new hopefulness, joy and self-confidence 
 filled the hearts of men. 
 
 2. POLITICALLY, it was an age of great progress. 
 Two Protestant states arose Prussia became a king- 
 dom in 1701, and the United States, a republic 1776; 
 North America was (1764) wrested from Catholic 
 France by Protestant England, and then partially lost 
 1776. Progress was made towards equality before the 
 law, and sentiment against serfdom and slavery was 
 growing in Europe and America. Progress was made 
 toward religious freedom in Europe, notably in Eng- 
 land, and the United States was founded on a consti- 
 tution which prohibited any establishment of religion. 
 Persecution of witches, heretics and unbelievers ceased 
 in most Christian countries. 
 
 3. PHILOSOPHY breaks from the leading strings of 
 religion and starts on its career of independence. 
 Most of the great systems of modern philosophy 
 founded in this period. Francis Bacon (1561-1626), 
 Thos. Hobbs (1588-1679), Descartes (1596-1650), 
 Spinosa (1632-77), John Locke (1632-1704), Berke- 
 ley (1684-1753), Leibnitz (1646-1716), Christian 
 
192 A Guide to the Study 
 
 Wolff (1679-1754), David Hume (1711-76), Eman- 
 uel Kant (1724-1804). This was pre-eminently a 
 philosophical age, Deism, Pantheism and materialism 
 strongly represented. Modern sciences were just be- 
 ginning their career in this period. 
 
 4. LITERATURE also breaks away from the church 
 and manifests the general tendencies of the time. 
 There is an enormous output of theological literature, 
 mostly polemical and apologetical ; the scientific treat- 
 ment of church history and exegesis begins toward 
 end of period. 
 
 Much literature indifferent or hostile to Christianity, 
 especially in England, France and Germany. It did 
 good service in lashing the inequalities, ignorance, su- 
 perstition, absurdities and iniquities of the time. In 
 France there were, beside many others, Voltaire 
 (1694-1778), Montesquieu (1689-1755), Rousseau 
 1712); Diderot (1713-84), and d'Alembert (1717- 
 83) founded and published the Encyclopedia (1751- 
 77) ; in England Dryden (1631-1700) and Pope (1688- 
 1744), Addison (1672-1719), Swift (1667-1745) and 
 others, were artificial but not so hostile to the church. 
 In Germany Klopstock (1724-1803), Lessing (1729- 
 81), Wieland (1733-1813), Herder (1744-1803), the 
 earlier periods of Goethe (1749-1832) and Schiller 
 (1759-1805). 
 
 Publication of newspapers began in first half of sev- 
 enteenth century (first weekly) ; in second half other 
 periodicals devoted to criticism, philosophy and other 
 learned subjects. Before end of period they were 
 largely developed and a powerful factor in the intel- 
 lectual life of the time. Scarcely any religious week- 
 lies and periodicals in this period. 
 
of Church History. 193 
 
 5. Music, which had been developing rapidly since 
 the Reformation, reached a high state in this period. 
 Handel (1685-1759), Bach (1685-1750), Haydn 
 (1732-1809), Mozart (1756-91). Much of the best , 
 music was distinctly religious. 
 
 6. Protestant foreign missions expand in this period. 
 Rationalism and political changes caused decay of 
 Dutch missions in East Indies, and English missions 
 in America; Danish-Halle mission, founded 1705, and 
 Moravians begin work 1732 ; serious retrogression be- 
 fore end of period. 
 
 7. Rise of a new denomination, Methodism, in Eng- 
 land, 1739, is of world- wide significance. 
 
 A. CATHOLIC CHURCH. 
 
 I. EXTERNAL HISTORY. 
 References: N. ii. 425-42, 488-92; K. Sec. 156:1-4. 
 
 1. RELATIONS TO CIVIL GOVERNMENT AND NATIONAL 
 CHURCHES. In the Treaty of Westphalia, the pope 
 and his protest were wholly ignored by both Catholics 
 and Protestants. Henceforth his influence on civil 
 government and secular affairs almost ceased, and his 
 moral influence was greatly weakened. Catholic 
 princes showed marked independence, and even hos- 
 tility to papal pretensions, and were widely supported 
 by the bishops and church. The period was one of 
 almost constant and steady decline in the influence and 
 standing of the pope. (1) In this opposition France 
 took the lead. In 1662 papal envoys were ordered to 
 quit France, Avignon and Venaissin were occupied by 
 French troops. Italy was invaded and a humiliating 
 
194 A Guide to the Study 
 
 treaty forced from the pope 1664; controversy over 
 "Right of Regalia," i. e., revenues of vacant bishoprics, 
 led Louis XIV to appeal from the pope to a General 
 Council ; 1682 the assembly of French clergy drew up 
 (Bossuet) famous Gallican Liberties in "Four Arti- 
 cles" : a. The church has power only in spiritual, not 
 in civil or temporal things; rulers are not subject to 
 the church in temporal affairs, nor can they be de- 
 posed or their subjects be released from obedience, 
 b. The final seat of authority is in the Ecumenical 
 Council, c. Papal authority is limited by the canons 
 and by the ecclesiastical customs and institutions of the 
 Gallican kingdom and church, d. The pope's judg- 
 ment is not irreversible until confirmed by a council. 
 The pope refused to confirm the French bishops, while 
 Louis XIV threatened to cut the French church loose 
 from the papacy. In 1693 the bishops expressed re- 
 gret for the articles of 1682, but friction continued 
 throughout the period. 
 
 (2) In Austria there was frequent friction and Jo- 
 seph II, co-regent with Maria Theresa (1766-80), Em- 
 peror (1780-90) introduced sweeping reforms grant- 
 ed toleration to Protestants, prohibited pilgrimages 
 and processions, suppressed many monasteries and 
 placed others under strict regulation, permitted publi- 
 cation of papal bulls and episcopal ordinances only 
 after governmental approval, placed monastic houses 
 under bishops, etc. The "Congress of Ems," a gather- 
 ing of German clergy, took steps looking toward sev- 
 ering the German church from Rome. So serious was 
 the outlook that Pius VI journeyed to Vienna in the 
 hope of averting the disaster. 
 
 (3) Other Catholic States Venice, Naples, Spain, 
 Portugal showed marked spirit of independence, and 
 
of Church History. 195 
 
 frequent frictions throughout the period. In the Span- 
 ish Netherlands an independent church, "Old Roman 
 Catholic Church of the Netherlands," was formed 
 (1723), which now has 6,000 members. 
 
 2. MISSIONS. (1) In Europe. Conversion of 
 Count- Palatine Wolfgang William of Neuburg in 1614 
 prepared way for Catholicising of the Palatinate 
 1685 ; Christiana, daughter of Gustavus Adolphus, be- 
 came Catholic, but resigned her crown 1654; Freder- 
 ick Augustus II, Elector of Saxony, became Catholic 
 (1697) to qualify himself for the Polish crown, but 
 safeguarded the rights of his Protestant subjects. In 
 France persecution throughout seventeenth and eight- 
 eenth centuries drove many Protestants back into 
 Catholic church; all Lutherans banished from arch- 
 bishopric of Salsburg 1731. In England, Scotland, 
 Ireland, Holland and North Germany and Scandina- 
 vian countries Catholics were, for the most part, with- 
 out political or religious rights. 
 
 (2) Foreign Missions (A. iii. 576-84). Catholic 
 foreign missions were almost destroyed before end of 
 period. In India at beginning of period were some 
 300,000 Christians, Pariahs and Brahmins (Nobili), 
 chiefly the result of Jesuit work. By end of period 
 they have almost disappeared. In China Ricci (d. 
 1610) was followed by Verbiest (d. 1688), Schall 
 (1728-63), and many other Jesuits; they accommo- 
 dated Christianity to Chinese customs and made them- 
 selves otherwise useful to the government. The em- 
 peror officially permitted conversion to Christianity, 
 and by 1700 there were 300,000 Christians ; from 1630 
 on, Jesuits were opposed by Dominicans and Francis- 
 cans; forbidden by pope to continue accommodation 
 
196 A Guide to the Study 
 
 methods; after 1723 Christianity was forbidden by 
 Chinese government; much persecution. In Japan 
 there had been almost a million nominal Christians; 
 change of political situation brought persecution, and 
 1641 all foreign missionaries were banished and the 
 work almost perished. In most of North America 
 Catholic missions were brought to an end by the Eng- 
 lish. In Mexico, Central and South America and the 
 Antilles, Dominicans, Franciscans and other orders 
 carried on a successful mission. In Paraguay the Jes- 
 uits had great success, a semi-independent state, sup- 
 pressed by Spain and Portugal 1750, and completely 
 ruined; success in the Philippines. 
 
 II. INTERNAL HISTORY. 
 
 References: N. ii. 467-79; K. Sees. 157, 165 :7f; A. iii. 
 500-17. 
 
 1. JANSENISM AND QUIETISM. Jansen's Augustin- 
 ianism was supported by St. Cyran (d. 1643) and 
 Antoine Arnauld, by Port Royal Convent under Ange- 
 lique (Arnauld), and many able and famous men con- 
 nected with the convent Le Maitre, DeSaci, Blaise 
 Pascal, Nicole, Tillemont, Quesnel, Racine. Condem- 
 nation of "Five Propositions," alleged to be taken from 
 "Augustinus," by the pope (1653) : expulsion of Ar- 
 nauld and eighty other doctors from Sorbonne (1656) ; 
 "Provincial Letters" 1656; French clergy required by 
 pope and king to sign "Declaration" condemning the 
 propositions, 1661 ; persecution ; Port Royal broken up 
 1709 and building destroyed 1710. Quesnel had pub- 
 lished "Moral Reflections" on New Testament 1671-87, 
 and new edition 1693; widely read; 101 propositions 
 
of Church History. 197 
 
 condemned in bull Unigenitus 1713 ; archbishop of 
 Paris, other bishops and doctors refused to accept the 
 bull and appealed to General Council 1717; they were 
 called "Appellants," their opponents "Acceptants ;" 
 1727 a deacon, Francis of Paris, died with the appeal 
 in his hand ; his grave in St. Medard worked miracles ; 
 wild fanaticism and gradual death of Jansenism in 
 France; bishops returned to obedience or were ban- 
 ished, 1728 on. 
 
 In 1723 archdiocese of Utrecht in the Netherlands 
 seceded from the papacy and set up an independent 
 Jansenist church, "Old Catholic Church of the Neth- 
 erlands." 
 
 Parallel with the above was the controversy over 
 "Quietism," Spanish mysticism. Michael Molinos 
 (1627-96), a Spaniard, went to Rome 1669 and soon 
 afterward wrote the "Spiritual Guide;" author forced 
 to retract 1687; died in prison 1696; many followers. 
 Madame Guyon (1648-1717), gifted French lady, 
 adopted these views ; condemned 1695, she submitted, 
 but continued to propagate her views ; roused contro- 
 versy between Bossuet and Fenelon ; submission of the 
 latter 1697 on. 
 
 2. SUPPRESSION OF JESUITS (A. iii. 562-72; K. 
 Sec. 165-9). Jesuits had rendered themselves ex- 
 tremely unpopular by (1) lax moral principles, (2) 
 meddling in politics, (3) their vast power in church 
 and state, (4) semi-Pelagian theology, (5) extensive 
 commercial enterprises, (6) lax missionary methods, 
 (7) disobedience to pope. (8) "Provincial Letters" of 
 Pascal brought them into contempt, were unpopular 
 with laity, church, government. They were banished 
 from Portugal and its dominions (E. and W.), and 
 
198 A Guide to the Study 
 
 their property confiscated 1759; suppressed in France 
 1762; banished from Spain and her possessions, Na- 
 ples, Parma and Piacenza 1767 ; on urgent demand of 
 the Bourbon princes, suppressed by pope July 21, 1773. 
 They lingered for a time in Silesia, and in Russia till 
 their revival. 
 
 3. RELIGIOUS THOUGHT AND LITERATURE (A. iii. 
 517-62). Catholics produced little non-ecclesiastical 
 literature, were little affected by the prevailing ration- 
 alism. Several scholars of note are found in Catholic 
 countries. In France, Bossuet (+1704) and Fenelon 
 (-1-1715) were scholars and preachers; Flechier 
 (+1710), Bourdalou (+1704), Massillon (+1742) 
 great preachers; members of various orders did ad- 
 mirable work in Church History; e. g., Tillemont, 
 Harduin, Labbe, Cossart and others. Toward end of 
 period religious literature declined under influence of 
 skepticism. In Italy were Muratori and Mansi ; men 
 of less note in other lands. 
 
 B. LUTHERAN CHURCHES. 
 
 References: N. ii. 519-44; K. Sees. 154, 159-60, 167-68; H. 
 ii. 573-87; A. iii. 585-621. 
 
 1. LUTHERAN REFORMATION. The Reformation left 
 the churches completely subservient to princes whose 
 influence was often evil. The strife and ruin, econom- 
 ic depression and moral degeneration of the Thirty 
 Years War were accompanied and followed by bitter 
 theological battles. A new scholasticism and rigid, 
 intolerant, polemical Lutheran orthodoxy characterized 
 last half of seventeenth century in Germany and Scan- 
 dinavia. Formula of Concord the standard. Empha- 
 
of Church History. 199 
 
 sis on the objective, external features of Christianity 
 baptism, the word, confession, Eucharist, church, min- 
 istry; neglect of the spiritual, and of personal faith; 
 immorality; formal theological preaching. Efforts of 
 Geo. Calixtus (1586-1656), highly educated and wide- 
 ly traveled, professor in University of Helmsted 
 (1613-56), on basis of the Bible and the consensus of 
 teaching in first five Christian centuries, to bring about 
 more harmony and better feeling (conference at Thorn 
 1645) precipitated violent Syncretistic controversy. 
 University of Wittenberg and Leipzig orthodox. 
 
 2. Reaction against dead orthodoxy produced Piet- 
 ism, the German revival. Beginnings of other men 
 gathered up, crystalized and made effective by P. J. 
 Spener (1635-1705), b. in Alsace, highly educated, 
 widely traveled, able, spiritual ; pastor and professor in 
 Strasburg (1663-6); pastor at Frankfort (1666-86); 
 chief court preacher at Dresden (1686-91); provost 
 of St. Nicolai church, Berlin (1691-1705) ; began re- 
 form work c. 1666, with earnest, practical, spiritual 
 preaching; collegia pietatis for devotional and Bible 
 reading 1670 onward ; Pia Desederia published 1675 ; 
 he emphasized necessity for regeneration and conver- 
 sion, private Bible study, activity of laymen, personal 
 piety, church discipline; bitter opposition of orthodox 
 Lutherans. 
 
 In 1686 A. H. Francke, Paul Anton and six other 
 young professors in University of Leipzig under Spen- 
 er 's influence formed a club (Collegium Philobibli- 
 cum) for exegetical and devotional Bible study; 1690 
 collegia biblica, exegetical lectures on Bible for stu- 
 dents; opposition (Carpzovius) drove Francke and 
 others out of the University; University of Halle 
 
200 A Guide to the Study 
 
 founded 1694 with Thomasius in jurisprudence, 
 Francke, Anton and Breithaup in theology, thoroughly 
 pietistic, immensely popular; orphan house founded 
 (1695) ; hundreds of pastors and missionaries educa- 
 ted here. Pietism becomes censorious, divided, polemi- 
 cal. Strife with Christian Wolf, (1697-1754) profes- 
 sor of philosophy, who in popularizing teachings of 
 Leibnitz, maintained that only those Christian doc- 
 trines which can be proven are to be believed, began 
 1721 and ended in his deposition and banishment 1723. 
 Pietism never formed an independent denomination, 
 and now gradually decayed before the rising ration- 
 alism. 
 
 3. The AUFKLAERUNG (Illumination), German ra- 
 tionalism. Germany's revival began to wane fifteen 
 years before England's began to rise. Wolf's philoso- 
 phy, eliminating the supernatural, and recommending 
 natural religion, mastered Germany by 1740, was im- 
 mensely popular. Assisted by French skepticism (Vol- 
 taire) and extensive use of French language and liter- 
 ature. "Popular Philosophy," Semler (d. 1768), Rei- 
 marus (d. 1768) ( Wolff enbiittel Fragments published 
 by Lessing, 1774 onward) ; Mosheim (d. 1755) ; Edel- 
 mann (d. 1767). 
 
 4. MISSIONS, chiefly to heathen in colonies of Chris- 
 tian nations. Various voices raised in favor of mis- 
 sions in seventeenth century, bitterly opposed by ortho- 
 dox Lutherans. Baron Justinian Von Weltz (1621- 
 c. 1670) wrote in favor of missions 1664 onward, went 
 to Dutch Guiana and soon died, martyr. Spener, Leib- 
 nitz, Francke and others favored. Denmark had colo- 
 nial possessions in East Indies 1619 onward, and in 
 West Indies 1672 onward. King Frederick IV deeply 
 
of Church History. 201 
 
 interested in missions, commissioned court preacher 
 Liitkens (1705) to find and send out missionaries. 
 No Danes being found, two Germans from Halle were 
 sent out (1705) to Tranquebar (Danish-Halle Mis- 
 sion) ; supported by State of Denmark, but manned 
 and directed from Halle, whence sixty missionaries 
 were sent out during the century. First missionary 
 magazine began 1710 (Missionsnachrichten der ostin- 
 dischen Missionsanstalt 2U Halle) by Francke. Mis- 
 sion flourished till Rationalism destroyed its support 
 at home. A missionary college at Copenhagen sent 
 missionaries to Lapland (1716 onward) and Green- 
 land (1721 onward). 
 
 "United Brethren" most notable missionaries of the 
 period. Count Zinzendorf (1700-60) studied at Halle, 
 Wittenberg and elsewhere, deeply and earnestly pious ; 
 permitted fugitive Moravians to settle on his estates 
 (1722) ; Germans and other pious people joined them 
 and they became "United Brethren" (Unitas Fra- 
 trum) ; named Herrnhut 1727; had old Bohemian or- 
 ganization with bishops, but accepted Augsburg Con- 
 fession; not intended as new denomination, but an 
 evangelizing agency ; 1728 it was decided to undertake 
 foreign mission work; on a visit to Copenhagen, 1731, 
 Zinzendorf learned of conditions of Negroes in West 
 Indies and conditions in Greenland ; missionaries to 
 West Indies 1732, Greenland 1733, Pennsylvania 1735, 
 Georgia 1737 (the Wesleys), Labrador 1771. Mission- 
 aries not university bred, but brave and faithful, doing 
 work in hardest fields. 
 
 5. The New Jerusalem Church founded (1783) by 
 disciples of Emanuel Swedenborg (1688-1772), pan- 
 theistic. 
 
202 A Guide to the Study 
 
 C. CALVINISTIC OR "REFORMED" 
 CHURCHES. 
 
 References: N. ii. 568-70, 573-8, 585-7, 589-99; K. Sees. 
 161:3, 162,- 169:1-3; H. ii. 772f, 776-81; 864-8. 
 
 Calvinism showed same two tendencies as Lutheran- 
 ism: (1) hyperorthodoxy, (2) growing liberalism; 
 both fostered strife, deadness and coldness. There is 
 little pleasing history, only theological strife in the 
 earlier years, shading off into liberalism and rational- 
 ism in the later. 
 
 1. Swiss "REFORMED" (N. ii. 568-73; K. Sec.169: 
 2). At beginning of period the Swiss churches were 
 staunchly Calvinistic. Johann Buxtorf, the Younger 
 (1599-1664). In opposition to school of Saumur (La 
 Place 1596-1655; Cappel 1585-1658, who discovered 
 true history of Hebrew vowel points, Amyraut 1596- 
 1644), who denied verbal inspiration, particular pre- 
 destination and imputation of Adam's sin, a new creed, 
 Helvetic Consensus Formula (CC. I. 487-9) was 
 adopted by the "Reformed" cantons and made binding 
 on ministers and theological professors. Rigid Cal- 
 vinism ; it was gradually abolished by one canton after 
 another in first half of eighteenth century. Gradually 
 a more liberal spirit appeared (J. A. Turretin, 1674- 
 1737), and before end of period Switzerland was 
 deeply affected by the rationalism of France and Ger- 
 many. 
 
 2. GERMAN "REFORMED" (N. ii. 585-7; K. Sec. 
 169:1) were deeply depressed by Thirty Years War. 
 Prussia, an asylum for persecuted Calvinists of other 
 parts of Germany, and from France. Contrary to pro- 
 visions of Treaty of Westphalia, Calvinists were per- 
 
of Church History. 203 
 
 secuted almost throughout the entire period. German 
 Calvinists were deeply affected by the "Illumination," 
 and practically lost their identity by "Evangelical Un- 
 ion" in Prussia, 1817. 
 
 3. FRENCH PROTESTANTS (N. ii. 589-99; H. ii. 776- 
 81; Baird, Huguenots and Rev. Edict of Nantes). 
 Protestants had flourished during first half of seven- 
 teenth century, counting possibly 2,000,000, many 
 preachers' of ability (DuMoulin, Saurin), four theo- 
 logical schools Nismes, noted for its attempts to unite 
 Catholics and Protestants ; Saumur, noted for its mod- 
 ifications of current orthodoxy and Calvinism; Sedan 
 and Montauban, orthodox; many colleges and other 
 schools. Gradually their church buildings had been 
 destroyed, their schools broken up, numberless other 
 oppressions suffered; emigration began c. 1660; possi- 
 bly 500,000 or more Protestants emigrated in next 30 
 years ; dragonades and inducements of money and po- 
 sition led thousands to become Catholics. Revocation 
 of edicts of Nantes and Nismes (1685) destroyed all 
 organization and property, forbade all worship, ban- 
 ished all preachers, made Protestant marriage invalid. 
 Many remained faithful, especially in Southern and 
 Southeastern France, and, with or without ministers, 
 held secret worship. Camisard War in the Cevennes 
 (1702-5) ; fanaticism, prophecy, etc. Antoine Court 
 (1695-1760), "restorer of the Reformed Church of 
 France," organized Synod of the Desert (1715), and 
 began to reorganize whole church of France, sending 
 Corteiz to Switzerland to secure ordination. Progress 
 now steady. Theological school for French preachers 
 established at Lausanne 1730. Paul Rabaut (1718-94), 
 wonderful evangelist. Last execution 1762. Influence 
 
204 A Guide to the Study 
 
 of Voltaire, Lafayette and the liberals against perse- 
 cution or proscription. Edict of Toleration (1787) 
 was practically a re-instatement of Edict of Nantes. 
 
 4. DUTCH "REFORMED" (N. ii. 573-8; H. ii. 772; 
 K. Sec. 169:3). The Netherlands not much af- 
 fected by Thirty Years War; division between Cal- 
 vinists and Remonstrants (Arminians) continued; 
 rigid Calvinism gradually decayed. Remonstrants had 
 a seminary and produced some men of note : P. Lim- 
 borch (1633-1712) wrote "History of the Inquisition"; 
 J. Clericus (1657-1736); other writers and literature. 
 The Orthodox, torn by theological strife, produced an 
 immense theological literature. Cocceius (1603-69), 
 father of "federal theology," and founder of biblical 
 theology ; relation between God and man is one of cov- 
 enants; (1) covenant of works before the fall, (2) cov- 
 enant of grace after fall, divided into three dispensa- 
 tions, ante-legal, legal, post-legal. He and his follow- 
 ers were liberal in keeping Sabbath, in dress, life and 
 amusements. He was opposed by Voetius (1588- 
 1676), a rigid Calvinist, strict Sabbatarian; peculiari- 
 ties in dress, abstaining from amusements, etc. The 
 whole people, churches, schools, government divided 
 into warring factions. Compromise: churches should 
 have pastors alternately from the two parties, univer- 
 sities should divide their professors among the parties. 
 
 5. SCOTLAND (N. ii. 603-9; H. ii. 864-8). The estab- 
 lishment of the Episcopal church in Scotland on resto- 
 ration of Charles II (1661) ousted four hundred min- 
 isters, led to renewal of the covenant and the forma- 
 tion of a party of Covenanters (Cameronians, or Re- 
 formed Presbyterians), which continued as an inde- 
 pendent party after the Revolution and re-establish- 
 
of Church History. 205 
 
 ment of Presbyterianism as the state church of Scot- 
 land (1689) on basis of 1592; Episcopalians a minor- 
 ity, persecuted party; Scottish parliament united with 
 the English 1707; restored lay patronage (what is it?) 
 1711; Scottish General Assembly, having protested 
 several years, pronounced in favor of lay patronage 
 1732 ; protest against this act and the growing laxness 
 in life and theology due to Deism and Socinianism 
 (Moderateism), led the assembly to depose Ebenezer 
 Erskine (1680-1754) and others (1733), who formed 
 the "Secession Church" highly Calvinistic and rigid in 
 morals ; this church split 1749, but the parties reunited 
 1820 into the "United Secession Church." Thos. Mc- 
 Crie was member of this church. In 1752 .Thos. Gil- 
 lespie, refusing to assist in ordaining a man forced on 
 a church, was deposed by the Assembly, and formed 
 the "Relief Church," moderately Calvinistic. The state 
 church suffered decline in morals, evangelical doc- 
 trines and zeal ; many men of culture in it : Robertson, 
 the historian ; Hugh Blair, the rhetorician ; Thos. Reid, 
 the philosopher ; John Home, the dramatist, and many 
 other preachers were famous as literary men; Hume 
 (d. 1776) was friendly with preachers. Criticism of 
 current Christianity by Robt. Burns (1759-96) ; Mod- 
 erateism dominant in state church, but condition not 
 so bad as in England in this period. 
 
 D. ENGLAND. 
 
 References: N. ii. 633-50, 681-9, 704; H. ii. 809-27; 844-6, 
 851 f; K. Sec. 169 :4f. 
 
 During last half of the seventeenth century and first 
 half of eighteenth century, England was at low ebb 
 religiously and morally, due to reaction against (a) 
 
206 A Guide to the Study 
 
 preceding political and religious strife, (b) Puritan 
 sternness and severity, and (c) rise of Deism and So- 
 cinianism (or Arianism). Drunkenness, profanity, 
 theft, robbing, gambling and the social evil prevailed 
 among all classes to frightful extent ; severe laws una- 
 vailing; ignorance and poverty among lower classes; 
 in the state church plurality, non-residence, luxury 
 and indifference among the upper clergy; poverty, 
 immorality and ignorance among lower. The clergy 
 were scorned, religion was laughed at and appeared 
 ready to perish. Preaching lost all distinctive Chris- 
 tian evangelical elements, and only insisted on ethics. 
 
 DEISM rose in England, was transplanted to France, 
 thence to Germany and the Netherlands, everywhere 
 exercising disastrous influence on evangelical religion. 
 It was a system of natural religion, insisting upon (a) 
 existence of God, (b) obligation to worship Him, (c) 
 obligation to virtuous living, (d) obligation of repent- 
 ance, (e) immortality, (f) rewards and punishments 
 here and hereafter, but denying revelation (except in 
 nature), miracles, divinity and atoning work of Christ; 
 sought the elements of a universal religion, acceptable 
 to all parties and classes. Its father was Lord Herbert 
 of Cherbury (d. 1648) ; others were Thos. Hobbes (d. 
 1679), John Locke (d. 1704), John Toland (d. 1722), 
 Anthony Collins (d. 1729), Mathew Tindal (d. 1733), 
 Bolingbroke (d. 1751), David Hume (d. 1776), Ed- 
 ward Gibbon (d. 1794). 
 
 Closely related to Deism was Arianism (Socinian- 
 ism), which insisted on the reality of revelation, but 
 denied the essential deity and atoning work of Christ. 
 This worked far more harmfully among the masses 
 of Christians than Deism. Founded by Samuel 
 
of Church History. 207 
 
 Clarke (d. 1729), followed by Whiston (d. 1752) and 
 Daniel Whitby (d. 1726). 
 
 Deism and Socinianism called forth able defenders 
 of Christianity: Joseph Butler (d. 1752), bishop of 
 Bristol, later of Durham; Daniel Waterland (d. 1740), 
 Wm. Warburton (d. 1779), Geo. Barkeley (d. 1753), 
 and others. 
 
 1. DISSENTERS (Independents, Baptists, Quakers. 
 Presbyterians) were deeply affected by the genera] 
 decline in morals and religious fervor. Not only was 
 there no progress in the early part of the period, but 
 positive decline. Presbyterians were swept out of ex- 
 istence by Socinianism; Calvmistic Baptists became 
 hyper-Calvinistic, orthodox, dead till toward end of 
 period. Arminian Baptists almost perished; reorgan- 
 ized and started afresh by Dan Taylor (1770). Con- 
 gregationaiists and Quakers suffered decline in the 
 same way. 
 
 2. ANGLICAN CHURCH showed most serious decay. 
 Some two hundred clergymen (nine bishops, including 
 Ken and Sancroft) refused to swear allegiance to 
 William and Mary, supporting the Stuarts and re- 
 garding themselves as the true church (nonjurors), 
 kept up separate organization to 1805. Union of 
 Scotland with England (1707), admitting Presbyte- 
 rians to Parliament, roused high churchmen; punish- 
 ment of Sachverel, 1709; triumph of Tories, 1710; 
 George I (1714-27) allied himself with Whigs in 
 favor of toleration; sermon by Hoadly, Bishop of 
 Bangor (1717), favoring liberty of conscience, pre- 
 cipitated the "Bangorian Controversy"; Convocation 
 impeached him and was itself suppressed by the gov- 
 ernment, 1717. General decline until beginning of the 
 Wesleyan revival. 
 
208 A Guide to the Study 
 
 3. RISE OF METHODISM. The Methodist movement 
 was begun (1738) by John Wesley (1703-91), Chas. 
 Wesley (1708-88), and George Whitefield (1714-70), 
 all Oxford men, excellent scholars, linguists; Wesleys 
 of an old and honored family, sons of high church cler- 
 gyman of Epworth; Whitefield, son of an innkeeper. 
 John Wesley entered Oxford 1720, bachelor 1724, or- 
 dained 1725, fellow and Greek lecturer 1726, a posi- 
 tion which he held till 1735, assisting his father, 1727- 
 9, when he returned to Oxford (1729) ; his brother 
 Charles Avas known as "Methodist," because of his 
 methodical observance of the regulations of the Uni- 
 versity; they, Whitefield and others formed a "Holy 
 Club" for Bible study, prayer and practical work, and 
 soon the name "Methodists" had a religious meaning. 
 Charles had entered Oxford 1726, bachelor 1730, 
 tutor, ordained 1735 ; Wesleys went out as missiona- 
 ries to colonists and Indians at Savannah 1736-8; con- 
 tact with Moravians on the trip, and in London led 
 to conversion of John in England, May 24, 1738. 
 Whitefield entered Oxford 1732, was converted 1735, 
 ordained 1736, went as missionary to Georgia. All 
 three began evangelizing in England 1739 ; opposition, 
 open-air preaching, first class-meeting 1739; England, 
 Scotland, Wales, Ireland and America evangelized. 
 Whitefield was moderate Calvinist, powerful preacher, 
 without organizing ability; Lady Huntingdon gave 
 him access to the nobility, built churches, supported 
 pastors, founded Trevecca College, South Wales; his 
 followers, called "Lady Huntingdon Connection," 
 were Calvinistic in doctrine and congregational in 
 polity. Charles Wesley was the poet of Methodism 
 (6,500 hymns), itinerant preacher to 1756, when he 
 
of Church History. 209 
 
 settled as pastor at Bristol and later at London. John 
 Wesley, preacher (42,000 sermons) and organizer of 
 Methodism, evangelical Arminian, insisting on the wit- 
 ness and sanctification of the Spirit, reproducing Mo- 
 ravian piety, powerfully impressing the middle and 
 lower classes; never wished to separate from the An- 
 glican church; held services at other hours, organized 
 societies in the church, built chapels, long used lay 
 workers. Organization grew out of the exigencies of 
 the work: Local societies organized into classes with 
 class leaders, a steward and local lay preachers ; several 
 societies formed a circuit, with several "circuit riders" 
 and a presiding elder ; above these was the conference 
 of preachers. Wesley preached moral responsibility, 
 free grace, universal atonement, possible sanctification 
 and assurance. A new joyous type of Christianity, 
 full of song, assurance and vocal demonstration; in- 
 fant baptism retained, immersion the original but not 
 necessary form, service taken from English prayer- 
 book. First conference 1744, a dispensary 1746, a 
 tract society 1747. First academy opened 1748, Ar- 
 minian Magazine founded 1778; Wesley instituted 
 legal proceedings to make permanent the conference, 
 and ordained Coke and others 1784, thus beginning 
 the separation which was completed after his death. 
 
 The followers of Wesley and Whitefield fell into a 
 bitter theological feud. Augustus Toplady, Rowland 
 Hill and others supported Calvinism, while John 
 Fletcher of Madeley, and others, Arminianism. 
 
 Before the close of the period, Baptists, Congrega- 
 tionalists and Anglicans began to show new life, usher- 
 ing in the next and most glorious period in the history 
 of English Christianity. Scotland and Ireland were 
 affected, but not so deeply as England. 
 
210 A Guide to the Study 
 
 E. AMERICA TO THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 References: H. ii. 875-91 ; N. ii. 563f, 615-18, 658, 666-77, 
 691-6. 
 
 All types of European Christianity were transplant- 
 ed by the colonists to America, and in some cases by 
 law established, a. Catholics. Spanish and Portu- 
 gese Catholics settled South and Central America, 
 Mexico, West Indies and southern parts of North 
 America ; French Catholics the region of the St. Law- 
 rence, Great Lakes and the Mississippi, 1604 onward ; 
 English Catholics, Maryland. Catholics did much 
 work among the natives, and most Indians in contact 
 with Catholics were soon converted to that faith, 
 b. Protestants settled along the Atlantic seaboard in 
 small, independent, more or less hostile colonies. In 
 Virginia (1607 onward) Anglicans; also in North and 
 South Carolina population was mainly Anglican, so in 
 Georgia (1735 onward) ; in New England (1620 on- 
 ward), Independents and Puritans, fleeing from perse- 
 cutions of Laud; in New York (New Amsterdam till 
 1664) Dutch Reformed (Presbyterians), 1623 on- 
 ward; New Jersey, Swedish Lutherans; West Jersey 
 and Pennsylvania, Quakers (1682 onward); German 
 Lutherans, Moravians and Reformed in Pennsylvania 
 and in small colonies elsewhere; Scotch Irish Presby- 
 terians at various points in the Alleghenies ; French 
 Huguenots in South Carolina and elsewhere; Rogei 
 Williams, a Congregationalist, driven from Boston, 
 founded colony with freedom of conscience at Provi- 
 dence 1636, and 1639 became Baptist and organized 
 first Baptist church in America. 
 
 The colonists, especially in New England, were de- 
 voted to education. Public schools as early as 1640; 
 Harvard College founded 1636, William and Mary 
 1693, Yale 1701, Princeton 1746, Brown 1765. 
 
of Church History. 211 
 
 Negro slavery introduced at Jamestown 1619 and 
 by 1790 there were over 700,000; came direct from 
 Africa and from West Indies, chiefly in South. 
 
 1. THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND was established in 
 Virginia (first church Jamestown, 1607), the Caro- 
 linas, New York (after 1664) and Maryland (after 
 1655); in Virginia well-endowed; everywhere except 
 Virginia it contained only a minority of the people 
 with unworthy ministers, subject to England; loyal- 
 ists in the Revolution, at the close of which they were 
 weak and discouraged. Then separated from English 
 Church, revised the prayerbook and adopted name, 
 "Protestant Episcopal Church" 1785. Samuel Sea- 
 bury was consecrated their first bishop by non-juring 
 bishops of Scotland 1784; Provost and White by 
 Archbishop of Canterbury 1787. 
 
 2. CONGREGATIONALISTS formed the established 
 church of Massachusetts and Connecticut (First 
 Church Plymouth 1620, Mayflower), Calvinistic in 
 theology, semi-presbyterial in polity, theocratic, 
 church membership being necessary to citizenship; 
 many able and learned men. Cambridge Platform 
 (1648) strongly presbyterial ; public profession of 
 faith necessary to communion, only those in commun- 
 ion were eligible to office and the rights of citizenship 
 or had right to have their children baptized; all re- 
 quired to assist in support of the ministry; object was 
 to eliminate dissent; half-way Covenant (1662) ex- 
 tended privileges of baptism to children or persons 
 who were moral and orthodox even though not ad- 
 mitted to communion ; in practice this regulation was 
 extended to include children of others; bitter con- 
 troversy ; decline of religion ; "Stoddardism ;" failure 
 
212 A Guide to the Study 
 
 of attempts to unite with Presbyterians ; Presbyterian- 
 izing of Congregational churches by associations in 
 Massachusetts (1705) was never effective, but in Con- 
 necticut it was accomplished by Saybrook Platform 
 (1708). Immorality, deadness and Socinianism af- 
 fected American churches of the period as those of 
 England; tide turned by Great Awakening; Gilbert 
 Tennant and other Presbyterians in middle colonies 
 (1726 onward), Jonathan Edwards at Northampton 
 (1734 onward), assisted by visits from Geo. White- 
 field throughout all the colonies 1739 onward. Many 
 thousands converted; much opposition in New Eng- 
 land by preachers, and by Harvard and Yale ; churches 
 split, people separated and formed new evangelical 
 churches, known as "Separates" or "New Lights," 
 many preachers professed conversion. Developed 
 "New England Theology," a modified evangelistic 
 Calvinism. Revival continued at intervals almost to 
 the Revolution. 
 
 3. PRESBYTERIANS English, Dutch, Irish scat- 
 tered in the Jerseys, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Mary- 
 land, Virginia and elsewhere, began to be aroused 
 and organized 1683 by Francis Makemie; first presby- 
 tery (Philadelphia) organized 1705 ; 1716 the seven- 
 teen churches of America organized first synod; 1729 
 the synod adopted the Westminster symbols; "Old 
 Side" insisted on educated ministry and discouraged 
 the revival, "New Side" insisted on converted ministry 
 and favored revival; split 1741 to 1758; Presbyterians 
 were strong patriots. 
 
 4. BAPTISTS sprang up on American soil and were 
 but slightly reinforced by immigration. Roger Wil- 
 liams (1604-83) reached conviction that only immer- 
 
of Church History. 213 
 
 sion of a believer was baptism, was baptized by E. 
 Holliman and he baptized Holliman and others 
 (1639). He and his followers were Calvinistic ("Par- 
 ticular") Baptists; soon Arminian Baptists ("Gen- 
 eral") appeared and quickly got the lead. Also "Sev- 
 enth Day Baptists," "Six Principle Baptists." They 
 grew slowly to Great Awakening, Providence, Phila- 
 delphia and Charleston being chief centers. Phila- 
 delphia Association organized 1707. Great Awaken- 
 ing opposed by many Baptists, but it put Calvinism 
 in the ascendancy and aroused Baptists to more evan- 
 gelistic zeal. Many of the Pedo-Baptist converts 
 (Separates), especially in New England, became Bap- 
 tists ("Separate Baptists") 1750 onward; the older 
 Baptists were then called "Regular Baptists." Trans- 
 planted from New England to Virginia and North 
 Carolina by Shubael Stearns and Daniel Marshall, the 
 "Separate Baptists" flourished greatly (Sandy Creek 
 Association) ; the two parties, at first unfriendly, were 
 almost entirely united before end of century, forming 
 in Virginia and North Carolina and Kentucky the 
 "United Baptists." London Confession of 1689 (be- 
 ing an adaptation of the Westminster Confession) was 
 adapted and adopted by the Philadelphia Association 
 (1742), and hence is known as Philadelphia Confes- 
 sion of Faith. Rhode Island College (Brown Uni- 
 versity) founded 1765, James Manning first President. 
 5. OTHER DENOMINATIONS. (a) Catholics were 
 very few and discouraged at close of Revolution, (b) 
 Lutherans and Moravians in low condition. (c) 
 Quakers persecuted by Massachusetts 1656-60 (three 
 men, one woman executed), settled in New Jersey, 
 Delaware and Pennsylvania (1681), flourished greatly 
 
214 A Guide to the Study 
 
 till toward end of period, (d) Methodists began in 
 New York 1766 by Philip Embury and Barbara Heck, 
 then Maryland and Virginia; first Conference 1773; 
 Wesley ordained Thos. Coke superintendent for 
 America 1784, and in December, 1784, Coke ordained 
 Francis Asbury in Baltimore and they organized the 
 "Methodist Episcopal Church." Wesley gave them 
 a liturgy, rules, and a modification of the 39 Articles 
 as a creed. 
 
 THIRD DIVISION, 1789 TO 1908. 
 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 This in many respects the most progressive and 
 glorious period in the world's history. 
 
 1. POLITICALLY. (a) Growth of constitutional, 
 popular government has been marked, (b) Growth 
 in size and power of United States ; (c) unification of 
 Germany, foundation of the empire 1870; (d) unifi- 
 cation of Italy and establishment of kingdom 1870; 
 (e) freedom of South and Central American repub- 
 lics and Mexico; (f) France becomes republic (1870), 
 Brazil 1890; (g) Kingdom of Holland founded 1815, 
 Belgium 1830, Norway secedes from Sweden and be- 
 comes kingdom 1906; (h) Holy Roman Empire dis- 
 solved and the Austrian Empire formed 1806; (i) 
 Austria reduced by the loss of Northern Italy and the 
 Netherlands, Spain by the loss of her whole colonial 
 empire; (j) China in 1840 and Japan in 1851 opened 
 to foreign commerce, religion and settlement. Japan 
 adopts western education, science and government and 
 takes place as one of the great nations, (k) Russia 
 expands over Northern Asia (Siberia) to the Pacific. 
 
of Church History. 215 
 
 (1) Turkey is almost driven from Europe and several 
 independent and semi-independent Christian states set 
 up in Southeastern Europe Greece declared her in- 
 dependence 1821 and founded kingdom with approval 
 of European powers 1832 ; Servia became independent 
 principality 1817 and kingdom 1882; Montenegro and 
 Bulgaria became semi-independent principalities 1878; 
 Roumania became a principality 1861 and kingdom 
 1881. (m) Africa divided among the great powers, 
 who colonize and exploit it. (n) Wonderful expan- 
 sion of English speaking peoples, (o) Hague Peace 
 Conferences 1899 and 1907 and wide adoption of prin- 
 ciple of arbitration and other means of limiting the 
 probability and horrors of war. (p) Geneva Conven- 
 tion (Red Cross) 1864 for protection of sick and 
 wounded. 
 
 2. RELIGIOUSLY it has been marked by (a) expan- x 
 sion of Greek Church in territory and political power, 
 (b) by rise of Roman Catholic states of Italy, Bel- 
 gium and all American states from Mexico south- 
 ward ; the decline of Catholic Spain, Austria and 
 France; (c) rise of Protestant states of Holland, Ger- 
 many, Norway and the great British colonies of Can- 
 ada, South Africa, New Zealand and Australia; great 
 expansion of the Protestant United States; (d) ex- 
 pansion of Protestantism through missions into all 
 parts of the world; (e) separation of church and state 
 in all the newer nations and in Ireland (1869) and 
 France (1905). (f) Adoption of religious toleration 
 in all lands, Christian and non-Christian, (g) Disso- 
 lution of all ecclesiastical courts and states, including 
 the papal state, (h) Great expansion of Protestant 
 missionary activity among all denominations; (i) rise 
 
216 A Guide to the Study 
 
 of many auxiliary Christian organizations; Sunday- 
 schools (Robt. Raikes 1780), Young Men's Christian 
 Association (Geo. Williams 1844), Salvation Army 
 (Wm. Booth 1861), Young Peoples Societies (F. E. 
 Clark 1881), rise of women's missionary societies, 
 (j) Rise of several new denominations especially in 
 America Mormons, Disciples, Christian Scientists, 
 etc. more recently a tendency toward union among 
 Protestants at many places, (k) Tremendous inter- 
 est in the Bible: Revisions and translations, popular 
 study, study in schools and colleges, critical study 
 (lower and higher), exploration of Bible lands. (1) 
 Decline of interest in dogmatic theology, creeds, cate- 
 chisms ; emphasis on the application of Christian prin- 
 ciples to practical life, (m) Great expansion of re- 
 ligious press. (n) Extensive charities; (o) home 
 missions and revival type of Christianity, (p) Vig- 
 orous criticism of Bible and life of Christ, going from 
 Germany to America and other lands, dividing all 
 churches into hostile camps. 
 
 3. SOCIALLY AND ECONOMICALLY the period has 
 been marked by (a) rise of the masses in education, 
 wealth, comfort, influence, (b) Complete abolition 
 of slavery in all Christian lands, (c) adoption of uni- 
 versal suffrage in many countries, (d) tremendous 
 aggregations of capital in conflict with organized 
 labor, (e) struggle with slum, intemperance, gamb- 
 ling, "the social evil;" (f) general diffusion of intelli- 
 gence through the daily, weekly, monthly and quar- 
 terly press and the great multiplication of books ; (g) 
 enormous increase of wealth, from manufacture, ag- 
 riculture, commerce, mining; (h) advance in surgery 
 and medical knowledge, resulting in improved health, 
 
of Church History. 217 
 
 lower death rate, longer life; (i) consequent rapid 
 expansion of population, (j) Various migrations of 
 peoples ; (k) increasing religious complexity due to 
 extension of denominations everywhere. 
 
 4. EDUCATIONALLY, (a) Widespread adoption of 
 free school system from primary school to university, 
 often compulsory in lower grades, (b) illiteracy has 
 almost disappeared from some countries, (c) Great 
 literature (mainly favorable to Christianity) in Ger- 
 many, France, England, Norway, America, Russia, 
 Italy. 
 
 5. DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS, (a) Almost the 
 entire surface of the earth has been explored except 
 about the poles, (b) wonderful discoveries in all nat- 
 ural sciences astronomy, geology, chemistry, zool- 
 ogy, biology, etc. (c) Subjection of steam and elec- 
 tricity to service of man. 
 
 6. THOUGHT. Intellectual activity has been very 
 great. (1) It has been predominantly scientific, de- 
 veloping the doctrine of evolution which has modified 
 every phase of thought. (Darwin 1859) ; (2) his- 
 torical method and attitude have been applied to every 
 phase of life; political history and church history 
 have been recast and rewritten, ancient history revo- 
 lutionized, the history of society, etc., written for first 
 time. (3) Philosophical thought rather decayed 
 (Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, Herbart, Lotze, Schopen- 
 hauer, Spencer) in first half of period, gradually re- 
 viving since 1860. (4) Much thought is material- 
 istic, semi-pantheistic, anti-supernatural, rationalistic, 
 skeptical. 
 
218 A Guide to the Study 
 
 I. CATHOLIC CHURCH IN GENERAL. 
 
 References: N. ii. 442-67, 492-518; H. ii. 757-9, 770f, 853-5; 
 K Sees. 185-91; A. iii. 626-964. 
 
 1. FRENCH REVOLUTION, 1789-1814. Period opens 
 with French Revolution which profoundly affected 
 the whole church, all Europe. An effort at "Liberty, 
 equality, fraternity," aimed at state and church as 
 then constituted, due to absolutism and oppression in 
 state, wealth and corruption in church ; skepticism and 
 even atheism; state and church allies against the peo- 
 ple. Upper clergy wealthy, worldly, corrupt; lower 
 clergy poor, ignorant, inefficient. Church owned half 
 the landed and much other property of France, was 
 recipient of royal gifts and enjoyed right of demand- 
 ing tithes ; the clergy, one-hundredth of the popula- 
 '* tion, enjoyed one-fifth of income of France. Finan- 
 cial embarrassment of the government compelled call- 
 ing of the Estates General (clergy, nobility, commons 
 or third estate) which became 
 
 (1) The National or Constituent Assembly (May, 
 1789- April, 1791). Third Estate quickly gets the upper 
 hand and undertakes to reform France and give her a 
 constitution. Storming of Bastile July 14, 1789; 
 abolition of feudal system August 4, of tithing sys- 
 tem August 10, December 21 freedom of worship and 
 full citizenship given Huguenots, and a little later to 
 all other dissenters; November 2 all church property 
 was confiscated and the state undertook to support the 
 church ; February 14, 1790, monastic orders were abol- 
 ished; on July 12 was adopted "The Civil Constitution 
 of the Church," abolishing existing organization of 
 the church in France and its relation to the papacy; 
 
of Church History. 219 
 
 establishing ten metropolitans and eighty-three bishops 
 (instead of 136) with dioceses corresponding to poli- 
 tical divisions; bishops and priests to be chosen by 
 electors as other officers of state, inducted into office 
 by metropolitans and bishops after swearing allegiance 
 to the state; a theological seminary in every diocese. 
 Most of the clergy, higher and lower, refused to swear 
 allegiance to this constitution (non- jurors), were de- 
 posed and their places filled by others ("Constitutional 
 Clergy") ; Pius VI condemned the constitution (April, 
 1791) and forbade the new clergy to exercise their 
 functions; assembly confiscated Avignon and Venna- 
 issin which belonged to pope ; much rioting and blood- 
 shed; many clergy and nobles emigrate. 
 
 (2) Legislative Assembly (October, 1791-Septem- 
 ber, 1792.) Wholesale massacre of non-juring priests 
 at Avignon, Paris (300, an archbishop and two 
 bishops), Meaux, Rennes, Lyons and elsewhere. Ar- 
 rest of the king, Louis XVI, August 10, 1792, and 
 calling of 
 
 (3) National Convention (September, 1792-Octo- 
 ber, 1795). September 21, 1792, France declared to 
 be a republic; January 21, 1793, king executed; Reign, 
 of Terror; coalition of foreign powers against the 
 Revolution ; non-juring clergy banished in April and 
 constitutional clergy allowed to marry; September 22 
 names of days and months changed and ten day period 
 substituted for week; execution of Marie Antoinette 
 in October, Christianity abolished in November and 
 worship of Reason instituted; churches desecrated 
 throughout France. Reaction in 1794; worship of 
 Reason abolished, a Supreme Being and the immor- 
 tality of the soul recognized; Catholic and Protestant 
 worship permitted 1795. 
 
220 A Guide to the Study 
 
 (4) The Directory (1795-9). Coalition war against 
 France 1792 onward ; great French success ; Napoleon 
 appears 1794 ; Directory gradually restores order ' in 
 the state and carries on successful war against outer 
 foes; 1795 pope joined the coalition against France; 
 Napoleon invades Italy, captures Rome 1798, dissolves 
 papal state, founds Roman Republic, carries pope 
 prisoner to France where he dies 1799; succeeded by 
 Pius VII (1800-20). French defeats lead to inde- 
 pendence of papal state. 
 
 5. Consulate (1799-1804). Napoleon first consul. 
 Concordat with Pius VII in 1801 Catholicism recog- 
 nized as religion of majority of Frenchmen, all exist- 
 ing bishops required to resign, number of bishops re- 
 duced to sixty, all archbishops and bishops nominated 
 by Napoleon, consecrated by pope; all higher clergy 
 compelled to take oath of allegiance, lower clergy 
 must be satisfactory to government; clergy paid by 
 state ; pope renounces all right to confiscated property, 
 forgave married clergy ; civil control of worship. No 
 provision for restoration of monasticism; Protestants 
 and Jews soon accorded same rights as Catholics, 
 their clergy and worship being supported and con- 
 trolled by state. 
 
 By Peace of Luneville February, 1801, France re- 
 ceived all territory on left bank of Rhine, and to com- 
 pensate the various states which lost territory (Ba- 
 varia, Baden, Wurtemburg, Prussia, Oldenburg, Han- 
 over, from which this territory was taken) most of 
 the ecclesiastical states and the imperial cities (except 
 Liibeck, Hamburg, Bremen, Frankfort, Augsburg, 
 Nuremburg) were confiscated and apportioned among 
 them (1803). 
 
of Church History. 221 
 
 (6) Empire (1804-15). Napoleon crowned em- 
 peror December 2, 1804, after anointing by Pius VII 
 at Paris ; soon broke with the pope, incorporated papal 
 state into France (1809), and when pope protested 
 imprisoned him in Savona and Fontainebleau, where 
 (January, 1813) pope signed concordat giving up 
 papal state. Napoleon's reverses led him to ^release 
 the pope March 10, 1814; Jesuit Society reorganized 
 by pope August 7, 1814; Congress of Vienna (1815) 
 restored to him the papal state, but not the confiscated 
 property of Germany and France. 
 
 2. PERIOD OF REACTION (1815-48). Ultramontan- 
 ism ; emphasis on papal infallibility and authority, op- 
 position to civil, intellectual and academic freedom, 
 bitterness towards Protestantism, Bible societies, Free- 
 masons ; favorable concordats with German, Dutch, 
 South American and other states ; Jubilee 1825 ; eman- 
 cipation of Catholics in England 1829 ; widespread 
 revolution 1830, Belgium becomes independent Cath- 
 olic state ; successful struggle with Prussia over mixed 
 marriages and academic freedom. Austria called in 
 to suppress rebellion in papal state 1831. 
 
 3. Pius IX (1846-78), at first a liberal, becomes a 
 reactionary after the year of the Revolution (1848), 
 favoring Jesuits, fostering superstition, condemning 
 every form of freedom, etc. Assumed authority to 
 declare immaculate conception of Mary to be a dogma 
 of the church December 8, 1854 (CC. II 21 If) ; pub- 
 lished Syllabus of Errors December 8, 1864 (CC. II 
 213-33) ; celebrated 19th centennial of death of Peter 
 and Paul (1867) ; Vatican Council (December 8, 1869- 
 October 20, 1870) declared infallibility of pope (CC. 
 II 234-71); Italy gradually united under Victor 
 
222 A Guide to the Study 
 
 Emanuel, king of Sardinia (1859-70) ; capture of 
 Rome (September 20, 1870), made capital of the new 
 kingdom; papal state confiscated, pope permitted to 
 retain Vatican, have his own postal system, govern- 
 ment, officials, handsome income. Vatican Council 
 led to schism of some 70,000 Catholics, chiefly in Aus- 
 tria (Old Catholics 1873 onward) ; held to Scripture 
 versus tradition, councils of first five centuries, com- 
 munion in both kinds, marriage of clergy, use of ver- 
 nacular, renunciation of papal authority ; the body has 
 not flourished, but dwindled. 
 
 4. LATEST PERIOD (1878-1908), Leo XIII (1878- 
 1903), "peace pope," a skilled diplomat, but reaction- 
 ary, ultramontane ; restored friendly relations with the 
 
 various powers. Pius X (1903- ), pious, earnest, 
 
 but mediaeval and unskilled in diplomacy ; at war with 
 France 1904 onward; new Syllabus of Errors and 
 encyclical on Modernism 1907 (Catholic Review). 
 In 1908 he removed United States, Canada, Nether- 
 lands and other countries from the position of mission 
 fields. 
 
 5. CATHOLIC MISSIONS have been vigorously pushed 
 in all parts of the world ; directed by the Propaganda 
 at Rome, supported by various societies, e. g., "So- 
 ciety for the Propagation of the Faith," founded 1822 
 at Lyons, "Association of the Holy Childhood of 
 Jesus," founded at Paris 1844, and others; also by 
 various governments, by income of the orders and in- 
 vested funds of the Propaganda. Jesuits, Franciscans, 
 Dominicans, Lazarists and others furnish the mission- 
 aries ; equipped with schools and colleges for training 
 missionaries, educating children, etc. ; strong religious 
 press; missions well organized at home and in most 
 of the nations of the earth. 
 
of Church History. 223 
 
 II. CHRISTIANITY IN COUNTRIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 Christian history now becomes so complex that it 
 seems best to treat it by countries. 
 
 1. GERMANY. 
 
 References: N. ii. 544-63; H. ii. 745-52; K. Sees. 176-84, 
 193-97; A. iii. 965-94. 
 
 (1) Political History. Wars of Napoleon greatly 
 harried but thoroughly aroused Germany; political 
 conditions much modified, ecclesiastical states and free 
 cities almost disappear; empire was dissolved 1806, 
 leaving the states free and independent ; German Bund 
 formed at congress of Vienna 1815 composed of thirty- 
 five states and cities, of which Austria, Prussia and 
 Bavaria were the leading ones ; tariff union 1833 ; 
 revolutions force the princes to grant constitutions in 
 several states; attempt to form a German Empire 
 1848-9 failed through rivalry of Prussia and Aus- 
 tria; in war of 1864 Austria and Prussia take from 
 Denmark the duchies of Lauenburg, Schleswig and 
 Holstein; the war of 1866, Prussia and small North 
 German states defeat Austria, supported by Saxony, 
 Hanover, both Hesses, Bavaria, Wurtemburg, Baden, 
 etc.; German Bund dissolved; Austria excluded from 
 Germany, Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, Electoral 
 Hesse, Nassau and Frankfort incorporated in Prussia ; 
 North German Bund formed 1867 under leadership 
 of Prussia; victorious war with France 1870-1 ; organ- 
 ization of German Empire January 18, 1871, at Paris 
 (Bismarck) with Prussia at its head, including all the 
 German states except Austria. 
 
 (2) Religious History. Astounding intellectual ac- 
 tivity along all lines: Church history, exegesis (Old 
 
224 A Guide to the Study 
 
 and New Testament), theology, lives of Christ, 
 church government; Germany the theological teacher 
 of the world ; weakness in practical matters ; Missions 
 (home and foreign), charities, preaching. Churches 
 supported by the states, dissenters tolerated with con- 
 siderable restrictions; masses irreligious, often athe- 
 istical (socialism) ; universities usually rationalistic, 
 anti-supernatural. 
 
 a. Rationalism continued throughout the period, but 
 was early modified by the philosophy of Kant (1724- 
 1804), Fichte (1762-1814), Schelling (1775-1854) and 
 especially Hegel (1770-1831) and by the theology of 
 Schleiermacher (1768-1834), Neander (1789-1850) 
 and others; apparently almost dead it was aroused 
 anew (1835) by D. F. Strauss' "Life of Jesus," by the 
 Tubingen School of New Testament criticism founded 
 by F. C. Baur (1826-60) and the Old Testament 
 school of Wellhausen, Kuenen and others. Albrecht 
 Ritschl (1822-89) founded school of theology now 
 represented by Harnack, Kaftan and others. 
 
 b. Super naturalistic Views have stood over against 
 this rationalism. The sufferings of the Napoleonic 
 period aroused religious interest; likewise the work of 
 Schleiermacher ; so Reformation Centennial 1817, 
 bringing about union of Lutherans and Calvinists 
 (Evangelical Union) in Nassau and Prussia, universi- 
 ties of Halle and Wittenberg united; union in the 
 Palatinate 1818, Baden 1821, Hesse 1823 and other 
 small states later; union and introduction of new 
 liturgy caused small split of orthodox Lutherans; 
 persecuted and driven to America; Hengstenberg 
 (1802-69), the ablest and most violent supernaturalist. 
 
 c. Mediating School marked by ability, piety, learn- 
 ing; have handled Bible freely, but have insisted on 
 
of Church History. 225 
 
 divinity of Christ, fact of revelation and miracle, sub- 
 stantial accuracy of Scripture; Tholuck, Dorner, 
 Rothe, Lange, et al. 
 
 d. High Church Lutheran party insists on im- 
 portance of church and ordinances. Stahl, Franz 
 Delitzsch. 
 
 e. Expulsion of Jesuits, Redemptorists, Lazarists, 
 etc., 1872. Kulturkampf (1873-87), struggle to con- 
 trol ultramontane tendencies of the Catholics. 
 
 f. Other denominations. Baptists began work in 
 Germany 1834 ; persecuted and grew slowly ; now have 
 38,000 members, seminary at Hamburg, organizations 
 extending over the empire. Methodists also at work. 
 
 2. AUSTRIA AND EASTERN EUROPE. (References: 
 K. Sec. 198.) Little of religious interest has ap- 
 peared in these countries. The small countries of 
 the Balkan peninsula have been freed from Turkish 
 misrule, but are more or less dependent on Austria 
 and Russia; Mohammedans, Greek Catholics and Ro- 
 man Catholics; in Austria there has developed since 
 1897 a strong "Loose from Rome" movement; several 
 thousand persons have become Protestants, chiefly 
 Lutherans. Protestantism is now tolerated and pro- 
 tected by government in all these lands, is supported 
 by German churches and is making progress. 
 
 3. ITALY. (References: K. Sec. 204.) Was left 
 by Congress of Vienna (1815) divided; so it re- 
 mained to 1859, revolutions and efforts at union 
 being suppressed by Austria and France; three union 
 parties (1) union under pope, (2) union as a republic 
 (Garibaldi), (3) union under Sardinia (Cavour and 
 Sardinian kings). Sardinia, supported by France, de- 
 feated Austria 1859, thus winning Lombardy; Tus- 
 
226 A Guide to the Study 
 
 cany, Parma, Modena, Legations drove out their rulers 
 and united by vote with Sardinia March, 1860; Gari- 
 baldi overthrew the government of the two Sicilies, 
 which were then incorporated into Sardinia by vote 
 (October, 1860) ; 1861 name was changed from King- 
 dom of Sardinia to Kingdom of Italy; 1865 Florence 
 was made capital; 1866, Italy as ally of Prussia, re- 
 ceived Venice from Austria, and when French troops 
 were withdrawn (1870) Rome was taken September 
 20, and (1871) made capital. None of the states had 
 tolerated Protestants, but united Italy tolerates and 
 protects them since 1870. Now 30,000 or more Wal- 
 denses; small contingent of Baptists (American and 
 English) ; American Methodists. 
 
 4. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. (References: K. Sec. 
 205.) Spain had begun to decline under Philip IV 
 (1621-65), Dutch Netherlands being given up 1648, 
 Portugal reasserted its independence 1640; in Wars 
 of Spanish Succession (1700-14) Spain lost Belgian 
 Netherlands, Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, Lombardy and 
 Gibraltar; Napoleon placed on throne his brother 
 Joseph Bonaparte, but the Spanish people, assisted by 
 English, successfully resisted; all the countries on the 
 American mainland gained their independence (1810- 
 26) ; Florida ceded to United States 1819 ; government 
 unstable throughout 19th century, struggle between 
 liberals and reactionaries ; Inquisition abolished 1834 ; 
 church intolerant; anti-clerical demonstrations; very 
 few Protestants; Spain loses Cuba, Porto Rico and 
 Philippines 1898; sold other islands to Germany, is 
 now without colonies. 
 
 5. FRANCE. (References: N. ii. 599-603; K. 
 Sec. 203.) (1) Political History. Monarchy was 
 
of Church History. 227 
 
 restored (Louis XVIII) by Congress of Vienna 1815; 
 July Revolution (1830) overthrew the Bourbon 
 Charles X and raised Louis Philippe to the throne; 
 monarchy overthrown (1848) and second Republic 
 formed (1848-52) under presidency of Louis Napol- 
 eon who is elected Emperor (1852-70) ; monarchy lost 
 Alsace-Lorraine and was again overthrown in Franco- 
 German war (1870), Third Republic was formed and 
 continues to present. 
 
 (2) Religious History, a. Catholicism. Napoleon's 
 concordat remained in force till 1905 ; religious orders 
 gradually returned, some legally, more illegally, en- 
 gaged in teaching, manufacture, etc. ; French church 
 fostered superstition; Lourdes (1858), LaSalette 
 (1846), holy coat of Treves exhibited 1844 and 1891 ; 
 struggle with ultramontane church began c. 1880; ex- 
 pulsion of the orders, and secularizing of the schools 
 (1901), disestablishment 1905. At present strong 
 critical and liberalistic tendency in French Catholic 
 church; atheism is rampant; religious condition of 
 France deplorable ; church and state at dead-lock over 
 church property, while church has been disestablished. 
 
 b. Protestants (Reformed, Lutherans, Jews) sup- 
 ported and controlled by the state till 1905 when they 
 were disestablished ; few Lutherans outside Alsace ; 
 Reformed have seminary at Montauban ; divided into 
 liberal and orthodox wings ; "Union of Evangelical 
 Churches," free from state, formed 1848 ; "Declaration 
 of Faith" adopted 1872, the basis of the state sup- 
 ported church, but the liberals have not regarded it. 
 Reformed number c. 600,000. Very influential ; a few 
 Baptists, Methodists, Presbyterians; McAll missions. 
 
 6. SWITZERLAND. (References: K. Sec. 199.) Made 
 a loose independent confederation by congress of 
 
228 A Guide to the Study 
 
 Vienna 1815; Catholics seceded 1848, but were over- 
 powered and the confederacy strengthened ; frequent 
 struggles between Catholics and government; increas- 
 ing liberalism among Protestants; struggle and divis- 
 ion; evangelicals led by Haldane, Malan, Vinet were 
 persecuted; church still etsablished in Switzerland; 
 radical criticism in Universities of Zurich and Basel. 
 
 7. HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. (Reference: K. Sec. 
 200.) By the revolution of 1830 the Catholic prov- 
 inces of the Netherlands became an independent state, 
 Belgium. Since then there has been constant struggle 
 between the liberals and Ultramontanes in this coun- 
 try; few Protestants. In Holland the Reformed has 
 continued to be the state church, but Remonstrants, 
 Mennonites, Lutherans present and tolerated; increas- 
 ing rationalism led to formation of independent ortho- 
 dox church 1839, "Christian Reformed Church;" 
 three parties developed in state church, (1) Strict 
 Calvinist, led by A. Kuyper ; (2) Middle party, (3) 
 Radical party, "Moderns," led by Kuenen with centre 
 in University of Leyden; bitter strife; strict party 
 formed "Confessional Union" and a "Free Reformed 
 University" at Amsterdam 1880; liberal party formed 
 "Protestant Federation." No doctrinal tests now re- 
 quired for confirmation or ordination. Catholic hier- 
 archy reorganized 1853 ; now several thousand Catho- 
 lics with monks and nuns. 
 
 8. SCANDANAVIAN COUNTRIES. (Reference: K. 
 Sec. 201.) All three countries were suffering from 
 rationalism and dead orthodoxy at beginning of 
 period. In Denmark, 1849, dissenters were given full 
 civil rights, 1851 civil marriage, 1857 compulsory bap- 
 tism abolished, 1868 right of forming independent 
 
of Church History. 229 
 
 congregations in state church granted. Baptists and 
 Methodists both flourishing. In Sweden persecution 
 of the evangelicals ; conversion from state church first 
 allowed 1860; dissenters granted full civil rights 1870; 
 civil marriage 1879. Baptists entered Sweden (1848) 
 and now number 46,000; Methodists also flourish. 
 In Norway religious freedom and civil rights have 
 been granted all dissenters, though state church is 
 more intact there than elsewhere. Catholics have re- 
 entered all three countries and are making some 
 progress. 
 
 9. SCOTLAND. (References: N. ii. 609-14; K. Sec. 
 202 :6-8 ; H. ii. 868-70) At beginning of period the 
 Scotch were in low religious condition ; early in cen- 
 tury evangelical revival led by Haldanes ; Thos. Chal- 
 mers (1780-1847) from 1810 onward; reviving inter- 
 est roused desire for more freedom from state ; the 
 act of the General Assembly (1834) granting congre- 
 gations right to veto candidate presented by patron 
 (lay patronage abolished by Reformation but restored 
 1712) was nullified by civil courts; this led 1843 to 
 formation of "Free Church of Scotland" (470 minis- 
 ters, most evangelical laymen, all missionaries went 
 out, leaving all property at home and abroad with 
 state church) ; built "Free Church" colleges (theolo- 
 gical seminaries) at Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen; 
 evangelical and active at home and abroad; reaction 
 on state church beneficial; union of "Secession" and 
 "Relief" churches into "United Presbyterian Church 
 of Scotland" 1847; active in evangelistic and mission- 
 ary work. "United Presbyterian" and "Free Church" 
 united (1900) to form "United Free Church of Scot- 
 land;" property jeopardized by "Wee Frees;" final 
 settlement. 
 
230 A Guide to the Study 
 
 Rationalism had affected Scotch but little, Calvin- 
 ism remaining intact. Growing liberalism in recent 
 years. W. Robertson Smith deposed from Aberdeen 
 1881 ; Henry Drummond, Geo. Adam Smith. Many 
 learned and gifted men in all churches; all churches 
 actively engaged in mission work; independent socie- 
 ties as early as 1796 ; state church began mission work 
 1829 (Alex. Duff first missionary) ; "Free Church" 
 began work 1843. 
 
 Catholics, Anglicans, Baptists, Calvinistic Metho- 
 dists have small bodies in Scotland. 
 
 10. ENGLAND. Many reforms in government; 
 vast colonial power developed; mistress of the seas. 
 Religious conditions rapidly improving at beginning 
 of period ; great activity and power among all denomi- 
 nations throughout the period; not greatly affected 
 by rationalism and criticism; growing freedom and 
 equality of all religious beliefs ; many great modern 
 movements started in England in this period : ( 1 ) 
 Founding modern Sunday-school at Gloucester by 
 Robt. Raikes, Anglican, 1780; (2) beginning of Prot- 
 estant missions among English speaking peoples by 
 Baptists 1792; (3) founding Religious Tract Society, 
 Anglican, 1799; (4) founding British and Foreign 
 Bible Society, London, 1804; (5) Founding Young 
 Men's Christian Association by Geo. Williams, Angli- 
 can, at London, 1840; (6) founding Salvation Army 
 at London by Wm. Booth, Methodist, 1861 ; (7) Eng- 
 lish prohibited slave trade 1824, abolished slaves in 
 English domain 1833 ; affected slavery throughout the 
 world. 
 
 (1) State Church. (References: N. ii. 647-58; 
 K. Sec. 202:1-5; H. ii. 835-43, 856-63.) A strong 
 
of Church History. 231 
 
 evangelical party in Anglican Church at beginning 
 of period; John Newton, d. 1807, Wm. Cowper, 
 Thos. Scott, Jno. Venn, Wm. Wilber force, Han- 
 nah More, d. 1833 ,and others ; these constituted "Low 
 Church Party," and have gradually declined with time. 
 "Broad Church Party" favored German methods, re- 
 sults and spirit, demanding utmost freedom in doc- 
 trine and teaching; most prominent were Sidney 
 Smith, S. T. Coleridge, Thos. Arnold, d. 1842, Chas. 
 Kingsley, F. D. Maurice, F. W. Robertson, Milman, 
 Farrar and others ; favored liberalism in politics and 
 religion and seem to have grown with time. "High 
 Church Party," ritualistic, romanizing, insisting on 
 episcopal succession, became powerful with the Trac- 
 tarian (Oxford) movement 1833 onward, have con- 
 tinued to grow in aggressiveness and power to present. 
 Tractarian movement led by Keble, Pusey (hence 
 called Puseyites), J. H. Newman; Newman joined 
 Catholics 1845 and was followed by many others, pro- 
 fessors, clergymen and laymen. 
 
 Controversies among the parties frequent and bit- 
 terly fought in the press and the civil courts. By the 
 Gorham case 1847 onward the courts decided Low 
 Churchmen had place in the English Church; by con- 
 troversies over Hampden, "The Essays and Reviews" 
 1860, Bishop Colenso 1863, it was decided that Broad 
 Churchmen have place in Anglican Church ; whatever 
 does not conflict with plain meaning of XXXIX Ar- 
 ticles and Prayer Book is tolerated, but High Church 
 party is most active and aggressive. 
 
 Anglicans have done active mission work at home 
 and abroad. "London Missionary Society," interde- 
 nominational (Independents, Presbyterians, Metho- 
 
232 A Guide to the Study 
 
 dists, Anglicans), founded 1795; "Church Missionary 
 Society" 1797, the missionary organ of the evangeli- 
 cal Anglicans; "Society for the Propagation of the 
 Gospel" revived and directed to foreign as well as 
 colonial missions, the organ of High Church Party; 
 other missionary societies, chiefly High Church. 
 
 (2) Dissenters. (References: H. ii. 844-52.) Have 
 been gradually granted more freedom ; right of found- 
 ing schools granted 1798; Corporation and Test Acts 
 annulled (1826), giving Protestant dissenters right to 
 hold civil office ; universities opened to all except theo- 
 logical students 1854, and to all 1871 ; compulsory 
 church rates abolished 1868. 
 
 a. Presbyterian Church of England reorganized 
 1876; new doctrinal statement 1889. 
 
 b. Congregationalists have flourished; missions 
 (London MS. 1795), Sunday-schools, education, char- 
 ities, "Congregational Union of England and Wales" 
 1832 ; Declaration of Faith and Principles 1833 ; many 
 able men, Jno. Stoughton, R. W. Dale, R. A. Vaughn, 
 A. M. Fairbbairn ; now have nearly 4,000 churches 
 and 400,000 members. 
 
 c. Baptists have flourished ; organized "Baptist Mis- 
 sionary Society" October 2, 1792; Sunday-schools as 
 early as 1800; Jno. Ryland, Andrew Fuller, d. 1815, 
 Wm. Carey, Robt. Hall, d. 1831, eloquent preacher 
 led toward open communion; many churches practice 
 open communion and open membership ; Baptist Union 
 formed 1812, strengthened 1832; General Baptists 
 preserved their own societies and schools till 1891 
 when there was complete union; Chas. Spurgeon, d. 
 1891, Alex. Maclaren; have eight small colleges (theo- 
 logical schools), 500,000 members, successful foreign 
 work. Welch Baptists stricter. 
 
of Church History. 233 
 
 d. Quakers. Have declined. Now weak. 
 
 e. Methodists. (References: (H. ii. 828-34.) 
 Severed all connection with state church on death of 
 Wesley 1791, and became known as Wesleyan Metho- 
 dist Church; have grown in numbers, divided, had 
 few great men, laid little emphasis on education, en- 
 tered foreign mission work late. "Methodist New 
 Connection" formed 1797 over lay representation, 
 "Primitive Methodist Church" 1810 over revival meth- 
 ods; dispute over organ led to formation of "Wes- 
 leyan Protestant Methodist Church" 1828 ; "Wesleyan 
 Methodist Association" founded 1835 ; another schism 
 from the Wesleyan Methodist Church (1849) united 
 (1857) with the "Protestant" and "Association" 
 Methodists to form "Union Methodist Free Church." 
 In 1811 Methodists sent out first foreign missionary, 
 and 1814 "Wesleyan Missionary Society" organized. 
 
 f. Catholics. (References: H. ii. 853-5.) Per- 
 mitted to hold services 1791 onward ; Catholic Emanci- 
 pation 1829, admitting to civil office except that of 
 regent, king, etc., reorganization of English hierarchy 
 1850; Tractarian movement started Catholic revival; 
 rapid growth to present. 
 
 11. IRELAND. Irish Parliament united with Eng- 
 lish 1801 ; Catholic emancipation (1829) gave freedom 
 to Irish Catholics; Anglican Church disestablished 
 1869; Trinity College, Dublin; Presbyterian Church 
 in Ulster prospered, great revival 1859; a few Bap- 
 tists and Methodists; Ireland passionately Catholic, 
 constant friction with English government. 
 
 III. CHRISTIANITY IN AMERICA. 
 
 1. FROM MEXICO SOUTHWARD. (References: K. 
 Sec. 209.) Spanish and Portugese Catholicism holds 
 
234 A Guide to the Study 
 
 almost unbroken sway except in Argentina, where is 
 considerable Protestant immigration; many heathen 
 natives in interior of South America ; many European 
 and American Protestant missions; people ignorant, 
 superstitious, fanatical, immoral, lacking power of 
 self-government. 
 
 2. BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA have 
 many French Catholics along St. Lawrence ; elsewhere 
 predominantly Protestant; Anglicans, Presbyterians, 
 Baptists, Methodists, all well equipped, aggressive, 
 flourishing; missions to Indians and Eskimos. 
 
 3. UNITED STATES. (References: K. Sec. 208.) 
 ( 1 ) Political History. At beginning of period United 
 States extended from Atlantic to Mississippi and 
 from Great Lakes to Florida line; Louisiana Pur- 
 chase 1803; Florida Purchase 1819; annexation of 
 Texas 1845 ; Oregon obtained 1846 ; cession of Mex- 
 ican territory 1848; Gadsden Purchase 1853; Hawaii 
 1898; Porto Rico and Philippines 1898. Popu- 
 lation increased from c. 2,000,000 to 80,000,000, 
 among them c. 10,000,000 Negroes, emancipated 1863. 
 Indians gradually dispossessed and largely extermi- 
 nated; gathered in reservations for most part. 
 
 (2) General conditions and characteristics of re- 
 ligious history (a) Constitution forbade establishment 
 of religion by Federal Government and led to dis- 
 establishment by state governments; Virginia 1802, 
 Connecticut 1832, Massachusetts 1833, (b) great mul- 
 tiplicity of denominations (c. 150), transplanted from 
 Europe and native (Mormons, Disciples, Christian 
 Scientists, etc.). (c) Tremendous immigration, alien 
 in religion and ideals, (d) Constant shifting of pop- 
 ulation westward and into cities. (e) Enormous 
 
of Church History. 235 
 
 energies put into subduing and developing material 
 conditions and resources of the country, (f) Quan- 
 tities of money spent in church building, etc. (g) 
 Christianity practical and aggressive rather than doc- 
 trinal, contemplative and reflective, (h) Foreign mis- 
 sions 1810 onward and home evangelism (protracted 
 meetings, camp meetings, great revivals) have been 
 pushed; (i) Many auxiliary organizations: Y. M. C. 
 A. ; Y. W. C. A. (founded in New York 1873) ; Y. P. 
 S. C. E. 1881, Brotherhood of St. Andrew 1883, Kings 
 Daughters 1886, Epworth League 1889, B. Y. P. U. 
 1891, Y. M. I. and many others, (j) Great develop- 
 ment of Sunday-school and chautauquas for popular 
 study of the Bible ; (k) efforts at reform temperance, 
 "social evil," municipal reform. (1) Growing em- 
 phasis on theological education, all great denomina- 
 tions have well equipped theological seminaries un- 
 connected with universities, (m) Much theological 
 literature in earlier years on Systematic Theology; 
 more recently on practical themes, exegetical studies, 
 church history, etc. (o) Preaching has been practical, 
 pungent, evangelistic, hortatory, (p) Church music 
 has been popularized, but debased, (q) Religious press 
 weekly, monthly, quarterly Bible and tract socie- 
 ties, highly developed and widely used, (r) Great de- 
 velopment of educational facilities from kindergarten 
 to universities, supported by states and cities, and by 
 private beneficence; a nation of readers; denomina- 
 tional schools highly developed. 
 
 (3) Various denominations. Only a few of the 
 more important can be noted. 
 
 a. Congregationalists. (References: H. ii. 897-900; 
 N. ii. 677-81; Walker, Hist. Cong. Chs. in U. S.) 
 
236 A Guide to the Study 
 
 Have been among the foremost in literature, learning, 
 philanthropy, education, missions, reforms, etc. ; still 
 largely confined to New England and its descendants ; 
 growth prevented by Unitarian defection and by "Plan 
 of Union" (1801) with Presbyterians, which sent most 
 of its western emigrants into Presbyterian church; 
 now have c. 600,000; well equipped with theological 
 seminaries: Yale Divinity School, 1822; Andover, 
 1808, removed to Harvard 1908; Hartford, 1834; Chi- 
 cago, 1854; Oberlin, 1835; Bangor, 1811; Pacific The- 
 ological seminary, 1869; organization has (1) local 
 associations, (2) state associations, (3) National 
 Council. Several home mission societies. "American 
 Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions," or- 
 ganized 1810, oldest foreign mission society in U. S. 
 
 b. Out of Congregationalists came Unitarians (Al- 
 len and Eddy, His. Unitarians and Universalists in U. 
 S.) 1786 onward; English Socinianism transplanted to 
 New England by Hazlitt, Freeman and others, worked 
 quietly in the Congregationalist body until 1815, when 
 it was found that Harvard University and many 
 churches were thoroughly Socinian; courts gave 
 church property to majority; most Congregational 
 churches in and around Boston went over ; still largely 
 confined to this region; little aggressive work in any 
 direction ; now c. 70,000 ; have produced many literary 
 men of prominence ; recently Socinianism has degen- 
 erated into simple humanitarianism, regarding Jesus 
 as a fine example to follow. 
 
 Closely allied to Unitarianism is Universalism; 
 founded by James Relly in London, c. 1750, trans- 
 planted to Massachusetts by John Murray, who found- 
 ed first church 1779; congregational polity; colleges 
 and seminaries. 
 
of Church History. 237 
 
 c. Protestant Episcopal Church. (References: N. 
 ii. 659; H. ii. 894-6; Tiffany, His. Protestant Episco- 
 pal Church in United States.) 
 
 At close of Revolution, Anglican church greatly de- 
 pressed; Samuel Seabury, ordained by non-juring 
 bishops of Scotland, 1784; Wm. White and Samuel 
 Provost by Archbishop of Canterbury, 1787 ; "Protest- 
 ant Episcopal Church in U. S." organized independent 
 of England, 1789 ; Prayer Book, slightly modified ; 
 (1) Parish, (2) Diocese, (3) General Convention, 
 composed of "House of Bishops" and "House of Cler- 
 ical and Lay Deputies" (four clergymen and four lay- 
 men from each diocese), meets triennially at different 
 places under presidency of bishop longest consecrated 
 (presiding bishop), legislates for entire church; 
 church did not prosper till c. 1810; High Church ten- 
 dencies predominant; great gain, chiefly from other 
 denominations; almost confined to cities; "society" 
 church, discipline lax, S. S. and missionary activity not 
 great; several colleges and theological seminaries; 
 now has over 600,000 members. 
 
 "Reformed Episcopal Church" organized 1873 as 
 protest against baptismal regeneration, special priest- 
 hood of clergy, sacrifice of mass, etc. 
 
 d. Presbyterians. (References : N. ii. 618-23 ; H. 
 ii. 900-2 ; Thompson, His. Presby. Ch. in U. S. ; Scoul- 
 ler, Foster and Johnson, United, Cumberland and Pres- 
 byterian Church, South.) 
 
 At close of Revolution Presbyterians in favorable 
 position ; have not grown rapidly ; never a popular de- 
 nomination, but dignified, of high character, mission- 
 ary in temper, but wanting in evangelistic gifts and 
 work ; highly educated ministry ; General Assembly or- 
 
238 A Guide to the Study 
 
 ganized 1788, adopting Westminster symbols slightly 
 modified; revival of 1801 in Kentucky led to organiza- 
 tion of Cumberland Presbyterian Church 1810; it is 
 Arminian in theology, education not required in clergy. 
 Split between old and new school Presbyterians 1837 ; 
 not geographical division, both parties being repre- 
 sented both North and South, both claiming title of 
 General Assembly; New School split on slavery 1854, 
 Old School 1861 ; in South the two schools united 
 1864 to form "Presbyterian Church in U. S." (S. 
 Pres. Ch.), and in 1869 the two schools united in 
 North to form "Presbyterian Church in United States 
 of America" (N. Pres. Ch.) ; both churches carry on 
 mission work at home and abroad ; Northern Church 
 has following Seminaries; Princeton (1812), Auburn 
 (1820), Western at Allegheny, Pa. (1827), Lane 
 (1832), Union (1836), McCormick (1859), San Fran- 
 cisco (1871) ; Southern Church has Union at Rich- 
 mond, Va., and Columbia at Columbia, S. C, theologi- 
 cal departments at University of Texas and South- 
 western Presbyterian University, Clarksville, Tenn. ; 
 Louisville Seminary is controlled by the two churches. 
 
 Northern Presbyterian Church (1903) adopted 
 some additional articles and declaratory statements to 
 Westminster symbols, somewhat softening Calvinistic 
 doctrine of election; united with Cumberland Presby- 
 terian Church 1907. 
 
 Many small Presbyterian bodies; also German Re- 
 formed, Dutch Reformed, etc. (Vol. viii, Amer. Ch. 
 His. Series), all of which in more or less flourishing 
 condition, and altogether having nearly 2,000,000 
 members. 
 
 e. Baptists. (References: N. ii. 696-699; H. ii. 
 902f ; Newman, His. Bapt. Chs. in U. S.) 
 
of Church History. 239 
 
 At beginning of period fewer than 100,000, now 
 more than 4,000,000, white and black, with perhaps 
 seven or eight millions more of Baptist sentiment; in- 
 crease largely from conversions ; from immigration 
 very little ; have gained on population ; negroes largely 
 Baptist; more white Baptists in South than in North; 
 one of the great popular denominations ; improvement 
 in educational facilities, culture, wealth, social posi- 
 tion ; have not contributed largely to literature, science, 
 higher politics, art; contributions to religious litera- 
 ture largely polemical, theology, homiletics, church 
 history, exegetics, etc. ; have been practical, active in 
 home evangelism, missions, schools, Sunday-schools, 
 etc. ; effective preaching ; behind other denominations 
 in gifts for missions. 
 
 Organization has been rapid ; only few district asso- 
 ciations at beginning of period, engaged in local evan- 
 gelization; increasing interest in missions and educa- 
 tion led to larger organizations; small societies at be- 
 ginning of century; conversion of Adoniram Judson 
 and Luther Rice from Congregational to Baptist views 
 led to organization of Missionary Union, 1814, at Phil- 
 adelphia; removed to Washington 1822, to Boston 
 1826; in 1817 it undertook Home Mission work (J. 
 M. Peck), and 1822 education (Columbia College, 
 Washington) ; withdrew from educational and home 
 mission work 1826; Home Mission Society founded 
 1832; these organizations led to formation of State 
 conventions, 1821 onward; Baptist General Tract So- 
 ciety organized (1824), changed to American Baptist 
 Publishing Society 1840. All these organizations 
 aroused fear and opposition, especially in South ; slav- 
 ery controversy led to secession of Southern Baptists 
 
240 A Guide to the Study 
 
 1845, and formation of Southern Baptist Convention; 
 new plan of organization, one body with boards; or- 
 ganization of North American Convention 1905 ; Bap- 
 tist World Conference at London 1906; N. Bapt. 
 Conv., 1908. 
 
 Mission Work has been pushed successfully; many 
 Baptists in South especially, opposed; due to fear of 
 increased organization, to their type of theology, and 
 to selfishness; split 1826, forming various parties of 
 "Hardshells," "Anti-missionary," "Anti-effort," 
 "Primitive Baptists;" 100,000 now, opposed to Sun- 
 day-schools, all societies, high Calvinists. Baptists 
 have numerous educational institutions, an able relig- 
 ious press and well equipped seminaries: Newton 
 (1825), Rochester, Colgate, Crozer; S. B. T. Sem. 
 (1859), S. W. Bap. Sem. (1907), K. C. Sem., Theo. 
 Fac. of Univ. Chicago. 
 
 Older parties have persisted and new ones been 
 formed: Freewill Baptists, by Benj. Randall (1779), 
 (Arminian, open communion). 
 
 f. Christians and Disciples of Christ. (References : 
 N. ii. 699ff.) Early in nineteenth century, five Pres- 
 byterian preachers (B. W. Stone) in Kentucky and 
 Ohio founded a "Christian" denomination; earlier 
 O'Kelley, a Methodist in Virginia, and Abner Jones, 
 a Baptist in Vermont, had done likewise; these three 
 had united to form the "Christians" (Arian Christol- 
 ogy, immersion, believer's baptism, opposition to 
 creeds, sectarian names, etc.) ; now number 100,000. 
 
 Thos. Campbell, a Seceder Presbyterian preacher of 
 Ireland, settled in Pennsylvania 1800 ; his son Alexan- 
 der studied in University of Glasgow, came under in- 
 fluence of Sandeman and Haldanes, and by 1811 he 
 
of Church History. 241 
 
 and his father left Presbyterians, organized independ- 
 ent church (believer's immersion, rejection of creeds, 
 names, human societies, etc.) ; 1813 their church 
 joined Redstone Baptist Association, in 1823 the Ma- 
 honing Association of Ohio; disseminated their views 
 as Baptists, through Baptist organizations; excluded 
 by Baptists 1827; Alex. Campbell, able speaker, with 
 good deal of learning, opposed creeds, societies, Sun- 
 day-schools, missions ; taught baptismal remission ; 
 Holy Spirit works through Word only ; Arminianism ; 
 would unite Christendom on basis of Biblical Chris- 
 tianity; called his movement a "Reformation," hence 
 known as "Reformers ;" B. W. Stone and many of the 
 "Christians" joined him, hence confusion as to name; 
 popularly known as "Campbellites ;" now divided into 
 right and left wing; number nearly a million, with 
 schools, missions, etc. 
 
 g. Methodists. (References: N. ii. 706-9; H. iL 
 892-4; Buckley, His. Meths. in U. S.; Alexander, M. 
 E. Ch., South. 
 
 Methodists at close of Revolution few and weak; 
 marvelous growth since ; now probably most numerous 
 Protestant denomination; Thos. Coke ordained Su- 
 perintendent by Wesley (1784), and Francis Asbury 
 by Coke at Baltimore (1784), when the societies took 
 name of Methodist Episcopal Church; government at 
 first wholly in hands of clergy ; agitation to admit lay- 
 men to church councils led to formation of "Methodist 
 Protestant Church" 1826; opposition to slavery led to 
 formation of "Wesleyan Methodist Church" 1843 in 
 New York; pro-slavery sentiment led to secession of 
 Southern societies and organization of M. E. Church 
 South, 1845; in interest of stricter discipline, "Free 
 
242 A Guide to the Study 
 
 Methodist Church," 1860, in New York. Organiza- 
 tion (1) local church, (2) circuit, with presiding 
 elder, (3) annual conferences presided over by bishop, 
 (4) quadrennial conference, composed of equal num- 
 ber of clergy and laymen; bishops have no diocese, 
 local preachers may remain three or four years, and 
 are located at annual conferences ; all types of Meth- 
 odists now claim nearly eight million communicants; 
 prosecute education, missions, etc. 
 
 h. Lutherans (References: N. ii. 564-7; H. ii. 
 903f; Jacobs, His. Evang. Luth. Ch. in U. S.) have 
 had much strife and division, have lost great num- 
 bers to other denominations, and to irreligion ; grown 
 only by births and immigration; now over 1,000,000 
 of several nationalities, types of life, etc., each with its 
 own organizations and work; German and English 
 used in services; many shades of opinion and differ- 
 ence in practice. 
 
 i. Catholics (References: 0' Gorman, His. Rom. 
 Cath. Ch. in U. S.) were few at beginning of period, 
 but they have outgrown any other denomination, claim- 
 ing fourteen millions of population; growth chiefly 
 from births and immigration, though some conver- 
 sions, especially through marriages; now thoroughly 
 organized and equipped with schools of all grades; 
 hostile to public schools ; one cardinal ; American Cath- 
 olics have lost enormously, but are looked to with hope 
 by the whole church ; in some respects, more freedom 
 here than elsewhere. 
 
 j. Mormons, or "The Church of Jesus Christ of Lat- 
 ter Day Saints," founded by Joseph Smith, Jr. (born 
 in Vermont), uneducated, superstitious; assisted by 
 Sidney Rigdon, a Baptist preacher; Smith claimed to 
 
of Church History. 243 
 
 have found, by a vision, gold plates engraved with 
 reformed Egyptian characters which he translated by 
 looking through a crystal; this "Book of Mormon" 
 published 1830; church founded April 6, 1830, in On- 
 tario County, N. Y. ; moved to Kirtland, O., 1831; 
 built temple, organized hierarchy (twelve apostles, 
 seventy elders), introduced community of goods, po- 
 lygamy; mission to England 1837; financial disaster 
 drove them to Jackson County, Mo., 1837; converts 
 poured in, friction developed almost into civil war ; 
 troops called in; moved to Nauvoo, 111., 1839; fric- 
 tion renewed ; 1843 plurality of wives and eternity of 
 marriage revealed to Smith; Smith murdered in jail 
 at Carthage, 111., 1844; Mormons began to remove to 
 Utah 1845, intending to build independent State ; mur- 
 der of other settlers and travelers ; friction with U. S. 
 Government ; suspension of polygamy 1890. 
 
 k. Jews now form an independent and important 
 element in the financial, commercial, political and moral 
 life of many communities; large immigration from 
 Russia. 
 
 1. Christian Science, founded 1875, by Mrs. Mary 
 Baker G. Eddy ; "Science and Health ;" denial of the 
 reality of matter, of evil, etc.; healing; astounding 
 growth; headquarters at Boston. 
 
 IV. CHRISTIANITY IN SOUTH AFRICA, AUSTRALIA, 
 NEW ZEALAND 
 
 Is predominantly English and Protestant, manifest- 
 ing the same divisions and variety seen in United 
 States; Episcopalians, Baptists, Methodists, Presbyte- 
 rians are the predominant denominations. 
 
244 A Guide to the Study 
 
 V. GREEK CHURCH. 
 Reference: K. Sec. 206,7. 
 
 Numbers c. 100 million members, one-sixth of all 
 Christians ; without any unified government, as in case 
 of Roman Catholics, being fourteen independent ad- 
 ministrative bodies; ignorance, superstition, corrup- 
 tion; (a) Patriarchate of Constantinople, nearly four 
 millions, nominally since 1839, actually since 1856, 
 equal to Moslems before the law, governed by patri- 
 arch (named by the Porte) and a synod of twelve 
 bishops chosen every two years by their colleagues 
 and a mixed council of four bishops and eight laymen ; 
 (b) Patriarchate of Alexandria, with 8,000 souls, un- 
 der English rule ; (c) Patriarchate of Antioch, c. 100,- 
 000 souls, patriarch residing in Damascus; (d) Pa- 
 triarchate of Jerusalem, c. 15,000; (e) Archbishopric 
 of Cyprus, c. 200,000; (f) Church of Greece, free since 
 1833, c. 2,000,000; governed by Metropolitan of 
 Athens and council of four bishops changed annually ; 
 (g) Russian Orthodox Church, c. 85,000,000; ruled 
 independently of Constantinople by its own patriarch 
 of Moscow since 1589; patriarchal government dis- 
 solved by Peter the Great 1700, and Holy Synod, 
 established consisting of from eight to eleven clerical 
 members and a lay representative of the Czar, pro- 
 curator; partly supported by the state; conversion 
 from orthodox church was forbidden till Easter, 1905, 
 when religious freedom was granted; about 2,000,000 
 Protestants (chiefly Lutherans and Reformed), be- 
 sides numerous sects (Stundists, Baptists, etc.) and 
 Roman Catholics (Poles) ; Russians very religious, 
 but immoral ; this the most vigorous part of Eastern 
 church, (h) Seven independent organizations in S. E. 
 
of Church History. 245 
 
 Europe, Bulgaria, Roumania, etc., numbering alto- 
 gether several million people. The orthodox church 
 is being extended eastward with the spread and con- 
 quest of the Russias over Siberia and whole of North 
 Asia; not otherwise missionary. 
 
 VI. MISSIONS. 
 
 All great denominations busy extending Christianity 
 into all parts of the world; Catholics active since six- 
 teenth century; colonial missions by Dutch and Eng- 
 lish Protestants in seventeenth; by Danes, Germans 
 and by Moravians in first half of eighteenth century; 
 gradually by all Protestants since 1792, when Baptist 
 Missionary Society was formed at Kettering, Eng- 
 land ; for most part, by societies of those interested in 
 missions; lately a few churches, as such; Protestants 
 probably expend twenty million dollars, support 12,000 
 missionaries annually, and have four and a half mil- 
 lions of Christians on mission fields ; work is done 
 through colonial schemes, and by direct missionary 
 effort ; all, except some Moslem countries, open ; con- 
 stantly increasing interest at home and on the fields; 
 property has been acquired, schools established, Bible 
 translated, spoken languages reduced to writing, begin- 
 nings of Christian literature laid; vast missionary lit- 
 erature at home ; instruction on history, principles and 
 present condition of mission work in seminaries and 
 other institutions of learning; dissemination of infor- 
 mation by Sunday-schools, women's societies, favor of 
 governments and secular press, hundreds of agencies 
 for collecting funds, vast fund of experience in direct- 
 ing missions, protection of missionaries by Christian 
 nations ; these things point to the rapid progress of 
 Christianity to a final and complete conquest. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 Bishops of Borne, later called Popes, as given by Catholics. 
 Peter was never Bishop anywhere ; first few names 
 following his wholly uncertain, as well as dates of many 
 others. (Single dates refer to year of death.) 
 
 St. Peter, 42-67. 
 
 St. Linus. 
 
 St. Anencletus or Cletus. 
 
 St. Clement, 92-101. 
 
 St. Evaristus. 
 
 St. Alexander till 119. 
 
 St. Sixtus, 127. 
 
 St. Telesphorus, 139. 
 
 St. Hyginus, 142. 
 
 St. Pius, 157. 
 
 St. Anicetus, 168. 
 
 St. Soter, 177. 
 
 St. Eleutherus, 192. 
 
 St. Victor, 202. 
 
 St. Zephyrinus, 219. 
 
 St. Calistus, 223. 
 
 St. Urban, 230. 
 
 St. Pontian, 235. 
 
 St. Antherus, 236. 
 
 St. Fabian, 250. 
 *St. Cornelius, 252. 
 
 St. Lucius, 253. 
 *St. Stephen, 257. 
 *St. Sixtus II, 258. 
 
 St. Dionysius, 269. 
 
 St. Felix, 274. 
 
 St. Eutychian, 283. 
 
 St. Caius, 296. 
 
 St. Marcellinus, 304. 
 
 St. Marcellus, 308-310. 
 
 St. Eusebius, 310. 
 
 St. Melchiades, 311-14. 
 
 St. Sylvester, 335. 
 
 St. Marcus, 336. 
 
 St. Julius, 337-52. 
 
 Liberius, 366. 
 
 (Felix II, 355, Antipope.) 
 *St. Damasus, 384. 
 
 St. Siricius, 385-98. 
 
 St. Anastasius, 402. 
 
 St. Innocent, 417. 
 
 St. Zosimus, 418. 
 
 St. Boniface, 422. 
 
 St. Celestine, 432. 
 
 St. Sixtus III, 440. 
 *St. Leo I (the Great), 461. 
 
 St. Hilarus, 467. 
 
 St. Simplicius, 483. 
 
 St. Felix III, 492. 
 
 St. Gelasius, 496. 
 
 St. Anastasius II, 497. 
 
 St. Symmachus, 498-514. 
 
 (Lawrence, Anti-pope.) 
 *St. Hormisdas, 523. 
 
 St. John I, 526. 
 
 247 
 
 St. Felix IV, 530. 
 
 St. Boniface II, 532. 
 
 St. John II, 535. 
 
 St. Ag-apetus I, 536. 
 
 St. Silverius, 540. 
 
 Vig-ilius (537), 540-55. 
 
 Pelag-ius, 560. 
 
 John III, 573. 
 
 Benedict, 578. 
 
 Pelag-ius II, 590. 
 *St. Gregory I (the Great), 
 590-604. 
 
 Sabinian, 605. 
 
 Boniface III, 606. 
 
 St. Boniface IV, 607-14. 
 
 St. Deusdedit, 615-18. 
 
 Boniface V, 619-25. 
 
 Honorius I, 638. 
 
 Severinus, 640. 
 
 John IV, 642. 
 
 Theodore I, 649. 
 *St. Martin I, 653. 
 
 St. Eugene I, 654-7. 
 
 St. Vitalian, 672. 
 
 Adeodatus, 676. 
 
 Domnus I, 678. 
 
 St. Agatho, 682. 
 
 St. Leo II, 683. 
 
 St. Benedict II, 685. 
 
 John V, 686. 
 
 Conon, 678. 
 
 St. Sergius I, 701. 
 
 John VI, 705. 
 
 John VII, 707. 
 
 Sisinnius, 708. 
 
 Constantino, 715. 
 *St. Gregory II, 731. 
 *St. Gregory III, 741. 
 *St. Zachary, 752. 
 
 Stephen II (died before 
 
 consecration). 
 *Stephen III, 757. 
 
 St. Paul I, 767. 
 
 Stephen IV, 772. 
 *Hadrian I, 795. 
 *St. Leo III, 816. 
 
 Stephen V, 816. 
 
 St. Paschal I, 817-24. 
 
 Eugene II, 827. 
 
 Valentine, 827. 
 
 Gregory IV, 827-44. 
 
 Sergius II, 847. 
 
 St. Leo IV, 855. 
 
 (Popess Joana-fraud.) 
 
 Benedict III, 855-8. 
 
248 
 
 A Guide to the Study 
 
 'St. Nicholas I (the Great), 
 867. 
 
 St. Hadrian II, 872. 
 
 John VIII, 882. 
 
 Marinus I, 884. 
 
 Hadrian III, 844-5. 
 
 Stephen VI, 891. 
 
 Formosus, 896 
 
 Boniface VI, 896. 
 
 Stephen VII, 896-7. 
 
 Romanus, 897. 
 
 Theodore II, 896. 
 
 John IX, 900. 
 
 Benedict IV, 903. 
 
 Leo V, 903. 
 
 Christopher, 903. 
 
 Sergius III, 904-11. 
 
 Anastasius III, 913. 
 
 Lando, 913. 
 
 John X, 914-28. 
 
 Leo VII, 928. 
 
 Stephen VIII, 929-31. 
 
 John XI, 936. 
 
 Leo VI, 939. 
 
 Stephen IX, 942. 
 
 Marinus II, 943-6. 
 
 Agapetus II, 955. 
 
 John XII, 956-64. 
 
 (Leo VIII, 963, Benedict, 
 964, Antipopes.) 
 
 John XIII, 965-72. 
 
 Benedict VI, 974. 
 
 Boniface VII, 974, 984-5. 
 
 Benedict VII, 974-83. 
 
 John XIV, 983. 
 
 John, XV, 985-96. 
 
 *Gregory V, 996-9 (Ger- 
 man). 
 
 (John XVI, 997, Antipope.) 
 'Sylvester II, 999-1003 
 (French). 
 
 John XVII, 1003. 
 
 John XVIII, 1003-9. 
 
 Sergius IV, 1012. 
 
 Benedict VIII, 1024. 
 
 John XIX, 1033. 
 
 Benedict IX, 1044. 
 
 Gregory VI, 1046. 
 
 Clement II, 1047 (Ger- 
 man). 
 
 Damasus, 1048 (23 days, 
 German). 
 
 *St. Leo IX, 1049-54 (Ger- 
 man). 
 
 "Victor II, 1055-7 (Ger- 
 man). 
 
 Stephen X, 1058 (Ger- 
 man). 
 
 'Nicholas II, 1061 (Ger- 
 man). 
 
 'Alexander II, 1073. 
 (Honorius II, Antipope.) 
 
 *St. Gregory VII, 1085. 
 
 Victor III, 1086-7.' 
 
 'Urban II, 1088-99. 
 
 'Paschal II, 1118. 
 
 Gelasius II, 1118. 
 
 Calixtus II, 1119-24. 
 
 Honorius II, 1124-30. 
 
 Innocent II, 1143. 
 
 Celestine II, 1143. 
 
 Lucius II, 1144-5. 
 'St. Eugenius III, 1153. 
 
 Anastasius IV, 1153-4. 
 'Hadrian IV, 1159 (English- 
 man). 
 'Alexander III, 1181. 
 
 Lucius III, 1185. 
 
 Urban III, 1187. 
 
 Gregory VIII, 1187. 
 
 Clement III, 1191. 
 
 Celestine III, 1198. 
 'Innocent III, 1216. 
 
 Honorius III, 1227. 
 'Gregory IX, 1241. 
 
 Celestine IV, 1241 (17 
 days). 
 
 Innocent IV, 1243-54. 
 
 Alexander IV, 1261. 
 
 Urban IV, 1264. 
 
 Clement IV, 1268. 
 
 Gregory X, 1271-6. 
 
 Innocent V, 1276 (French- 
 man). 
 
 Hadrian V, 1276 (38 days). 
 
 John XXI, 1276-7 (Portu- 
 gese). 
 
 Nicholas III, 1277-80. 
 
 Martin IV, 1281-5 (French- 
 man). 
 
 Honorius IV, 1287. 
 
 Nicholas IV, 1288-92. 
 
 St. Celestine V, 1294 (re- 
 signed voluntarily). 
 
 Boniface VIII, 1303. 
 
 Benedict XI, 1304. 
 
 Babylonian Captivity at 
 
 Avig-non 1305-78. 
 
 Frenchmen. 
 
 Clement V, 1305-14. 
 
 John XXII, 1316-34. 
 
 Benedict XII, 1342. 
 
 Clement VI, 1352. 
 
 Innocent VI, 1362. 
 
 St. Urban V, 1370. 
 
 Gregory XI, 1378. 
 GREAT SCHISM 1378-1417. 
 At Rome. 
 
 Urban VI, 1389. 
 
 Boniface IX, 1404. 
 
 Innocent VII, 1406. 
 
 Gregory XII, 1409-1417. 
 
 Alexander V, 1409-10. 
 
 John XXIII, 1415. 
 At Avignon. 
 
 Clement VII, 1394. 
 
 Benedict XIII, 1409-1417. 
 
 'Martin V, 1417-31. 
 Eugene IV, 1447. 
 
of Church History. 
 
 249 
 
 (Felix V, Antipope 1439-48, 
 the last Antipope.) 
 
 Nicholas V, 1448-55. 
 
 Calixtus III, 1458 (Span- 
 iard). 
 
 Pius II, 1464. 
 
 Paul II, 1471. 
 
 Sixtus IV, 1484. 
 
 Innocent VIII, 1492. 
 
 Alexander VI, 1503 (Span- 
 iard). 
 
 Pius III, 1503. 
 
 Julius II, 1513. 
 *Leo X, 1521. 
 
 Hadrian VI, 1522-3 (Dutch- 
 man). 
 
 Clement VII, 1534. 
 
 Paul III, 1549. 
 
 Julius JII, 1550-5. 
 
 Marcellus II (21 days). 
 
 Paul IV, 1555-9. 
 
 Pius IV, 1559-65. 
 
 St. Pius V, 1566-72. 
 "Gregory XIII. 1585. 
 
 Sixtus V, 1590. 
 
 Urban VII (13 days). 
 
 Gregory XIV (10 months). 
 
 Innocent IX, 1591 (2 
 months). 
 
 ECUMENICAL 
 Acknowledged by both Ro- 
 man and Greek Catholic 
 Churches 
 
 Nicea, 325. 
 Constantinople, 381. 
 Ephesus, 431. 
 Chalcedon, 451. 
 
 II. Constantinople, 553. 
 
 III. Constantinople, 680. 
 II. Nicea, 787. 
 
 Acknowledged by Roman 
 Catholic Church, only. 
 
 IV. Constantinople, 869. 
 Lateran, 1123. 
 
 II. Lateran, 1139. 
 
 III. Lateran, 1179. 
 
 IV. Lateran, 1215. 
 
 Clement VIII, 1592-1605. 
 
 Leo XI (21 days). 
 
 Paul V, 1605-21. 
 * Gregory XV, 1623. 
 
 Urban VIII, 1644. 
 
 Innocent X, 1655. 
 
 Alexander VII, 1667. 
 
 Clement IX, 1669. 
 
 Clement X, 1670-6. 
 
 Innocent XI, 1689. 
 
 Alexander VIII, 1691. 
 
 Innocent XII, 1700. 
 *Clement XI, 1721. 
 
 Innocent XIII, 1724. 
 
 Benedict XIII, 1730. 
 
 Clement XII, 1740. 
 *Benedict XIV, 1758. 
 
 Clement XIII, 1769. 
 
 Clement XIV, 1774. 
 *Pius VI, 1775-99. 
 *Pius VII, 1800-23. 
 
 Leo XII, 1829. 
 
 Pius VIII, 1830. 
 
 Gregory XVI, 1831-46. 
 *Pius IX, 1878. 
 
 Leo XIII, 1903. 
 
 Pius X, 1903. 
 
 COUNCILS. 
 
 Lyons, 1245. 
 II. Lyons, 1274. 
 Vienne, 1311-12. ' 
 Pisa (?), 1409. 
 Constance, 1414-18. 
 Florence, 1439. 
 V. Lateran, 1512-17. 
 Trent, 1545-63. 
 Vatican, 1869-70. 
 
 OTHER IMPORTANT 
 
 COUNCILS. 
 Elvira, 305. 
 Aries, 314. 
 Ancyra, 314. 
 Sardica, 343. 
 Constantinople, 692. 
 Basel, 1431. 
 
 EMPERORS OP THE 
 
 *Augustus, 31 B. C. to 14 
 A. D. 
 
 Tiberias, 14-37. 
 
 Caligula, 37-41. 
 
 Claudius, 41-54. 
 *Nero, 54-68. 
 
 Galba, 68-9. 
 
 Otho, 69. 
 
 Flavian Emperor*. 
 
 "Vespasian, 69-79. 
 *Titus, 79-81. 
 *Domitian, 81-96. 
 
 ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 Five Good Emperors. 
 
 Nerva, 96-8. 
 *Trajan, 98-117. 
 "Hadrian, 117-38. 
 "Antoninus Pius, 138-61. 
 *Marcus Aurelius, 161-80. 
 
 Commodus, 180-92. 
 
 Pertinax, 193. 
 "Septimius Severus, 193-211. 
 
 Caracalla, 211-17. 
 
 Macrinus, 217-8. 
 
 Heliogabalus, 218-22. 
 "Alexander Severus, 222-35. 
 
 Maximinus Thrax, 235-8. 
 
250 
 
 A Guide to the Study 
 
 Gordian 1 1 237-8. 
 Gordian II J 
 Gordian III, 238-44. 
 Philip the Arabian, 244-9. 
 *Decius, 249-51. 
 Gallus, 251-3. 
 (Valusian.) 
 Valerian, 253-60. 
 Gallienus, 260-8. 
 Claudius II, 268-70. 
 *Aurelian, 270-5. 
 Tacitus, 275-6. 
 Probus, 276-82. 
 Carus, 282-4. 
 *Diocletian, 284-305. 
 EMPIRE DIVIDED 286-323. 
 Maximian Co-Emp., 286- 
 
 305. 
 
 *Constantius Chlorus, 305-6. 
 *Constantine I, the Great, 
 
 306-37. 
 
 Maxentius, 306-12. 
 Galerius, 305-11. 
 *Licinius, 306-23. 
 Constantino Sole Ruler 
 
 323-37. 
 Empire Divided Among 1 His 
 
 Sons. 
 
 Constantine II, 337-40. 
 Constans, 337-50. 
 *Constantius, 337-61. 
 EMPIRE REUNITED, 350. 
 *Julian, the Apostate, 361-3. 
 
 Jovian, 363-4. 
 
 EMPIRE AGAIN DIVIDED, 
 364-94. 
 West. 
 
 Valentinian I, 364-75. 
 Gratian, 375-83. 
 Clemens Maximus, 383-8. 
 Valentinian II, 383-392. 
 Argobast, 382-4. 
 East. 
 
 Valens, 364-78. 
 *Theodosius, 379-92. 
 EMPIRE REUNITED, 394. 
 
 Theodosius alone, 394-5. 
 EMPIRE AGAIN DIVIDED, 
 395-476. 
 
 West. 
 
 Honorius, 395-423. 
 Valentinian III, 425-55. 
 Rome sacked, 410, by W. 
 Goths and 455 by Van- 
 dals. 
 
 Confusion to 476 when 
 Romulus Augustulus 
 was deposed by Odoacer, 
 who rules as patrician. 
 
 East. 
 
 Arcadius, 395-408. 
 Theodosius II, 408-50. 
 Marcian, 450-7. 
 Leo I, 457-74. 
 Zeno, 474-91. 
 
 EMPIRE HENCEFORTH 
 CALLED EAST ROMAN, 
 BYZANTINE OR 
 
 GREEK EMPIRE. 
 
 Anastasius I, 491-518. 
 
 Justin I, 518-27. 
 "Justinian I, 527-65. 
 
 Justin II, 565-78. 
 
 Tiberius II, 578-82. 
 
 Maurice 602. 
 
 Phocas 610. 
 Heraclian Dynasty, 610-717. 
 
 Heraclius I 641. 
 
 Constantine III, 641. 
 
 Heracleonas, 641. 
 
 Constans, 641-68. 
 
 Constantine IV (Pogona- 
 tus), 668-85. 
 
 Justinian II 695. 
 
 Leontius 697. 
 
 Tiberius III 705. 
 
 Justinian II, again Emper- 
 or, 705-11. 
 
 Philippicus Bardanes 713. 
 
 Anastasius II, 713-16. 
 
 Theodosius III, 716-7. 
 Syrian (Isaurian) Dynasty, 
 717-820. 
 
 Leo III (the Isaurian), 
 717-41. 
 
 Constantine V (Coprony- 
 mus), 741-75. 
 
 Leo IV, 775-80. 
 
 Constantine VI 797. 
 *Empress Irene, 797-802. 
 
 Nicephorus I, 802-11. 
 
 Stauracius, 811. 
 
 Michael I, 811-13. 
 
 Leo V, the Armenian 820. 
 
 Amorian Dynasty, 820-67. 
 
 Michael II (Stammerer) 
 829. 
 
 Theophilus, 829-42. 
 
 Michael III (the Drunk- 
 ard) 867. 
 
 Basilian or Armenian (Ma- 
 cedonian) Dynasty, 
 867-1O57. 
 
 Basil I (the Macedonian), 
 867-86. 
 
 Leo VI (the Wise), 886-912. 
 
 Constantine VII, Porphy- 
 rogenitus 959. 
 
 (Alexander, associate em- 
 peror, 912-13. 
 
 Romanus I, together with 
 his three sons, associate 
 emperors, 919-44.) 
 
 Romanus II, 959-63. 
 
 Basil II (Bulgaroctonus) 
 1025. 
 
 (Nicephorus II and Phocas, 
 associate emperors 963-9. 
 
 John I (Zimisces), associ- 
 ate emperor 969-76.) 
 
of Church History 
 
 251 
 
 Constantine VIII, 1025-8. 
 Romanus III (Argyrus), 
 
 1028-34. 
 Michael IV (the Paphlago- 
 
 nian) 1041. 
 Michael V, 1041, 2. 
 Constantine IX (Monoma- 
 
 chus) 1055. 
 Theodora 1056. 
 Michael VI (Stratioticus) 
 
 1057. 
 
 Isaac I (Comnenus), 1057-9. 
 Constantine X (Ducas) 
 
 1067. 
 
 Eudocia (in name of her 
 sons, Michael VII, An- 
 dronicus and Constan- 
 tine, and her second 
 husband, Romanus IV), 
 1067-71. 
 Michael VII (see above), 
 
 1071-8. 
 
 Nicephorus III (Botani- 
 ates), 1078-81. 
 Comnenian Dynasty, 
 
 1081-1185. 
 Alexius (Comnenus), 1081- 
 
 1118. 
 
 John II (Comnenus) 1143. 
 Manuel I (Comnenus) 
 
 1180. 
 Alexus II (Comnenus) 
 
 1183. 
 Andronicus I (Comnenus) 
 
 1185. 
 
 Angrelian Dynasty, 1185-1204. 
 Isaac II (Angelus), 1185- 
 95. 
 
 PRANKISH 
 Merovingians, 428-752. 
 Franks overran Gaul, 400 
 
 onward. 
 Clodion, 428. 
 Merovic, 448. 
 Childeric I, 481. 
 Clovis, 481-511. 
 Kingdom divided among 
 his four sons, Theodoric 
 at Metz, Chlodomer at 
 Orleans, Childebert, at 
 Paris and Clotaire at 
 Soissons. 
 
 Clotaire sole ruler 558-61. 
 Divided among his sons 
 into four, later (567) 
 three parts, Austrasia, 
 Neustria, and Burgundy. 
 Frightful anarchy and 
 civil wars till 613 when 
 it was reunited under 
 Clotaire II, 613-28. 
 Dagobert, 628-38. Kings 
 growing weaker; three 
 parts ruled by mayors of 
 the palace; 687 Pepin of 
 
 Alexius III (Angelus), 
 1195-1203. 
 
 Isaac II (Restored), 1203. 
 
 Alexius IV (Restored), 
 1204. 
 
 Alexius V (Ducas), 1204. 
 Latin Emperors, 1204-1261. 
 
 Baldwin I, 1204-6. 
 
 Henry of Flanders, 1206-16. 
 
 Peter of Courtenay 1219. 
 
 Yolande, 1219-21. 
 
 Robert, 1221-8. 
 
 John of Brienne, 1229-37. 
 
 Baldwin II 1261. 
 
 Xicean Emperors, 1206-60. 
 
 Theodore I (Lascaris), 
 1206-22. 
 
 John III (Ducas) 1254. 
 
 Theodore II (Ducas) 1258. 
 
 John IV (Ducas) 1260. 
 Faleologl, 1261-1453. 
 
 Michael VIII (Paleologus), 
 1261-82. 
 
 Andronicus II (Paleolo- 
 gus) 1328. 
 
 Andronicus III (Paleolo- 
 gus) 1341. 
 
 John V (Paleologus) 1394. 
 (John VI, Co-emperor, 
 1341-54.) 
 
 Manuel II (Paleologus), 
 
 1391-1425. 
 
 (John VII, Co-emperor, 
 1398-1402.) 
 
 John VIII, 1425-48. 
 
 Constantine XI, 1448-53. 
 
 Fall of Constantinople and 
 
 end of Empire, 1453. 
 EMPIRE. 
 
 Heristal, mayor of Aus- 
 trasia, overthrew other 
 two mayors (Testry) and 
 ruled over whole. His 
 grandson, Pepin, deposed 
 Childeric III 742-52 and 
 became king. 
 
 Carloviagian Dynasty, 752- 
 
 Pepin, the Short, 752-68. 
 Carloman, 768-71. 
 Charlemagne, 768-71, alone 
 to 800. 
 
 Revival of West Roman 
 Empire by Charlemagne, 
 called German Roman 
 Empire, Holy Roman 
 Empire of the German 
 Nation. 
 
 Charlemagne Emperor, 800- 
 14. 
 
 Louis, the Pious, 814-40. 
 
 Empire divided into three 
 parts by treaty of Ver- 
 dun, 843. 
 
252 
 
 A Guide to the Study 
 
 Eastern ruled by Louis, the 
 German, 840-76. 
 
 Central portion with impe- 
 rial title by Lothair, 840- 
 55. 
 
 Western portion by Charles 
 the Bald, 840-77. 
 
 Middle portion divided be- 
 tween Eastern and West- 
 ern portions, 870, the im- 
 perial title going with 
 the Eastern. 
 
 Charles the Fat, 876-87. 
 
 Arnulf, 887-99. 
 
 Louis, the Child, 899-911. 
 
 Conrad I, of Franconia, 
 911-18. 
 Saxon House, 918-1024. 
 
 Henry I, the Fowler, 918- 
 36. 
 
 Otto I, the Great, 936-73. 
 
 Holy Roman Empire of the 
 German Nation, estab- 
 lished 962. 
 
 Otto II, 973-83. 
 
 Otto III, 983-1002. 
 
 Henry II, the Saint, 1002- 
 24. 
 
 House of Franconia, 
 1024-1125. 
 
 Conrad II, 1024-39. 
 
 Henry III, 1039-56. 
 
 Henry IV, 1056-1106. 
 
 Henry V, 1106-25. 
 
 Lothair of Saxony, 1125-37. 
 
 House of the Hohen- 
 
 staufen, 1138-1254. 
 
 Conrad III, 1138-52. 
 
 Frederick I, Barbarossa, 
 1152-90. 
 
 Henry VI, 1190-7. 
 
 Philip of Swabia, 1198-1208. 
 
 Otto IV, of Brunswick, 
 1198-1215. 
 
 Frederick II, 1212 (1215)- 
 1250. 
 
 Conrad IV, 1250-4. 
 
 William of Holland, 1247- 
 56. 
 
 Disorder, rival claimants, 
 interregnum, 1256-73. 
 
 King's and Emperors from 
 various houses, 1273-1438. 
 
 Rudolph I, of Hapsburg, 
 1273-91. 
 
 Adolph of Nassau, 1292-8. 
 
 Albert I, of Austria, 1298- 
 1308. 
 
 Henry VII, of Luxemburg, 
 1308-13. 
 
 Frederick of Austria, 1314- 
 30. 
 
 Louis of Bavaria, 1314-47. 
 
 Charles IV, of Luxemburg- 
 Bohemia, 1347-78. 
 
 Wenceslas (his son), 1378- 
 1400. 
 
 Ruprecht of the Palatinate, 
 1400-10. 
 
 Sigismund (brother of 
 
 Wenceslas), 1410-37. 
 
 House of Hapsburg, or 
 
 Austria, 1438-. 
 
 Albert II, 1438-9. 
 
 Frederick III, 1440-93. 
 
 Maximilian I, 1493-1519. 
 
 Charles V, 1519-56. 
 
 Ferdinand I, 1556-64. 
 
 Maximilian II, 1564-76. 
 
 Rudolph II, 1576-1612. 
 
 Matthias, 1612-19. 
 
 Ferdinand II, 1619-37. 
 
 Ferdinand III, 1637-57. 
 
 Leopold I (son of Ferdi- 
 nand III), 1658-1705. 
 
 Joseph I (son of Leopold 
 I), 1705-11. 
 
 Charles VI, 1711-40. 
 
 Maria Theresa, 1740-80. 
 
 Joseph II, 1765 (1780)-90. 
 
 Leopold II, 1790-2. 
 
 Francis II, 1792-1806. 
 
 End of Holy Roman Em- 
 pire, succeeded by Aus- 
 trian Empire, of which 
 Francis II becomes Fran- 
 cis I, 1806-35. 
 
 Ferdinand I, 1835-48. 
 
 Francis Joseph, 1848-. 
 
 FRENCH KING-S. 
 
 France under the Romans 
 from time of Caesar to 
 5th century A. D. Then 
 subdued by the Franks, 
 under Merovingian kings, 
 496-752; then under Car- 
 lovingians to division of 
 Empire by Treaty of 
 Verdun, 843; then as sep 
 arate kingdom under 
 Carlovinffians, 843-987. 
 
 Charles the Bald, 840-77. 
 Louis II (the Stammerer), 
 
 877-9. 
 
 Louis III, 877-82. 
 Carloman, 877-84. 
 Charles II (the Fat), 884- 
 
 deposed 887. 
 Eudes, 887-98. 
 Charles III (the Simple), 
 
 887-922. 
 Robert, 922-3. 
 
of Church History. 
 
 253 
 
 Raous, 923-36. 
 
 Louis IV, d'Outre-Mer, 936- 
 
 54. 
 
 Lothaire, 954-86. 
 Louis V, 986-7. 
 
 Capetiau Line, 987-1328. 
 Hugh Capet, 987-96. 
 Robert II (the Saint), 
 
 996-1031. 
 
 Henry I, 1031-60. 
 Philip I, 1060-1108. 
 Louis VI (the Fat), 1108- 
 
 Loui's VII (the Lion), 1137- 
 
 80. 
 Philip II, Augustus, 1180- 
 
 1223. 
 
 Louis VIII, 1223-6. 
 Louis IX (Saint Louis), 
 
 1226-70. 
 
 Philip III, 1270-85. 
 Philip IV (the Fair), 1285- 
 
 1314. 
 
 Louis X, 1314-16. 
 Philip V (the Long), 1316- 
 
 22. 
 Charles IV (the Fair), 
 
 1322-8. 
 
 House Of Valois, 1328-1498. 
 Philip VI, 1328-50. 
 John II (the Good), 1350- 
 
 64. 
 Charles V (the Wise), 
 
 1364-80. 
 Charles VI, 1380-1422. 
 
 KINGS 
 
 Italy under the Roman Em- 
 perors to 476, after 
 which it was not again 
 united under one govern- 
 ment till 1870. Under 
 Odoacer as Patrician till 
 overthrown in 493 by 
 
 The Ostrogoths, 493-552. 
 
 Theodoric, 493-526. 
 
 Athalaric, 526-34. 
 
 Theodat, 534-6. 
 
 Vitiges, 536-40. 
 
 Hildebald, 540-1. 
 
 Eraric, 541. 
 
 Totila, 541-52. 
 
 Teias, 552. 
 
 Principal Lombard King's, 
 
 Alboin, 568-73. 
 Cleph, 573. 
 Interregnum. 
 Utharis, 584-91. 
 Agilulph, 591-636. 
 Rotharis, 636-62. 
 Pertharit, 662-. 
 Grimoald, 661-71. 
 Pertharit, Again, 671-712. 
 Ausprand, 712. 
 
 Charles VII (the Victori- 
 ous), 1422-61. 
 Louis XI, 1461-83. 
 Charles VIII, 1483-98. 
 Houses of Orleans and An- 
 
 groulexne, 1498-1589. 
 Louis XII, 1498-1515. 
 Francis I, 1515-47. 
 Henry II, 1547-59. 
 Francis II, 1559-60. 
 Charles IX, 1560-74. 
 Henry III, 1574-89. 
 House of Bourbon, 
 
 1589-1793. 
 
 Henry IV, 1589-1610. 
 Louis XIII, 1610-43. 
 Louis XIV, 1643-1715. 
 Louis XV, 1715-74. 
 Louis XVI, 1774-93. 
 
 Republic, 1793-1804. 
 
 (Revolution and Directory 
 to 1799; Consulate 1804.) 
 
 First Empire under Napo- 
 leon, 1804-14. 
 
 Kingdom restored by Con- 
 gress of Vienna 1814. 
 
 Louis XVIII, 1814-24. 
 
 Charles X, 1824-30. 
 
 Louis Philippe, 1830-48. 
 
 Second Republic, 1848-52. 
 
 Second Empire under Na- 
 poleon III, 1852-70. 
 Third Republic, 1870 to 
 Present. 
 
 OF ITALY. 
 
 Luitprand, 712-44. 
 
 Ratchis, 744-9. 
 
 Astolph, 749-56. 
 
 Didier, Duke of Istria, 756-. 
 
 The Prankish Carlovinglans, 
 
 774-888. 
 
 Charlemagne, 774-814. 
 
 Louis the Pious, 814-40. 
 
 Lothaire, 840-55. 
 
 Louis II, 855-75. 
 
 Charles the Bald, 875-7. 
 
 Carloman of Bavaria, 877- 
 80. 
 
 Charles the Fat, 880-8. 
 King's of the Feudal Period, 
 888-951. 
 
 Guy, Duke of Spoleto, 888. 
 
 Berenger, Duke of Frioul, 
 888-91. 
 
 Lambert, son of Guy, 891-6. 
 
 Arnulf, king of Germany, 
 896-9. 
 
 Louis, king of Provence, 
 899-921. 
 
 Rudolph, king of Burgun- 
 dy, 921-6. 
 
 Hugh, count of Aries, 926- 
 47. 
 
254 
 
 A Guide to the Study 
 
 Lothair, his son, 947-50. 
 
 Berenger II, 950-1. 
 
 In 951 Otto I, king of Ger- 
 many, assumed the title 
 king of Italy, and this ti- 
 tle attached to the crown 
 of Germany until the 
 downfall of the Empire. 
 The title was revived 
 again when Victor Em- 
 manuel, king of Sardinia, 
 took the title "King of 
 Italy," March 17, 1861. 
 KINGS OF NAPLES. 
 Normans, 1046-1189. 
 
 Robert Guiscard arrives in 
 Italy 1046, and becomes 
 duke in 1057. 
 
 Roger becomes duke 1085. 
 
 William becomes duke 1111. 
 
 Roger I becomes count of 
 Sicily 1050. 
 
 Roger II becomes count of 
 
 Sicily 1101. 
 
 Roger II becomes duke of 
 Sicily 1127. 
 
 Roger II becomes king of 
 the Sicilies 1130. 
 
 William I becomes king of 
 the Sicilies 1154. 
 
 William II becomes king of 
 the Sicilies 1166. 
 
 Germans, 1189-1266. 
 
 (Dates indicate time of 
 
 accession.) 
 
 Henry I (VI. in Germany), 
 1189. 
 
 Frederick I (II in Germa- 
 ny), 1197. 
 
 Conrad, 1250. 
 
 Conradin, 1254. 
 
 Manfred, 1258. 
 French House of Anjou, 
 1266-1435. 
 
 Given by the pope to 
 Charles I, 1266. 
 
 Loses Sicily (Sicilian Ves- 
 pers), 1282. 
 
 SPANISH 
 
 Spain was under the Ro- 
 mans from 197 B. C. till 
 its invasion by Germans 
 (Vandals, Suevi, Alani), 
 409 onward; W. Goths 
 conquer most of Spain, 
 526-711, capital at Toledo. 
 Moors (Mohammedans) 
 overrun all the peninsula 
 except N. W. portion, 711 
 onward. Christians grad- 
 ually build up the king- 
 doms of Leon, Navarre, 
 Castile, Aragon and Por- 
 
 Charles II, 1285. 
 
 Robert, 1309. 
 
 John I, 1343. 
 
 Charles III, 1382. 
 
 Ladislas, 1386. 
 
 John II, 1411. 
 
 Naples passes under the 
 crown of Aragon, 1435; 
 1458 independent, 1504 
 subject to Spain; 1714 
 passed under Austria; 
 1738 passed under Span- 
 ish line of the "House of 
 Bourbon," but was not 
 connected with the Span- 
 ish crown. After Napo- 
 leonic wars, Naples 
 passed under control of 
 Austria till 1860. 
 
 KINGS OF SICILY, 
 1282-1409. 
 
 (Dates indicate time of 
 accession.) 
 
 Peter (III in Aragon), 
 1282. 
 
 James, 1285. 
 
 Frederick I, 1296. 
 
 Peter II, 1336. 
 
 Louis, 1342. 
 
 Frederick II, 1355. 
 
 Marie, 1377. 
 
 Martin I, 1391-1409. 
 
 Martin II unites Sicily to 
 Aragon in 1409. By 
 Treaty of Utrecht, 1713, 
 concluding the wars of 
 the Spanish succession, 
 Sicily passed under con- 
 trol of Duke of Savoy, 
 who was compelled, 1718, 
 to exchange it for Sar- 
 dinia, and henceforth 
 called himself "King of 
 Sardinia." Sicily passed 
 under control of Austria 
 till 1860. 
 
 PENINSULA. 
 
 tugal, which, by degrees, 
 win back the territory 
 till 1492, when the Mo- 
 hammedan government 
 was completely over- 
 thrown. 
 
 Navarre. 
 
 Became kingdom 858, re- 
 mained independent till 
 1512, when it was over- 
 thrown by Ferdinand of 
 Aragon, and the larger 
 part incorporated in Ara- 
 gon, the northern portion 
 
of Church History. 
 
 255 
 
 remaining free under a 
 French count until final- 
 ly incorporated in 
 France. 
 
 Arag-on. 
 
 Became independent king- 
 dom 1035; Leon united 
 with Castile 1230; Castile 
 and Aragon were united 
 1479, after the marriage 
 of Ferdinand, king of Ar- 
 agon, and Isabella, queen 
 of Castile, in 1469; the 
 union was personal till 
 1516, when they were 
 completely united into 
 the Kingdom of Spain. 
 King's of Spain. 
 
 Charles I (Emperor Chas. 
 V in Germany), 1516-56. 
 
 Philip II, 1556-98. 
 
 Philip III, 1598-1621. 
 
 Philip IV, 1621-65. 
 
 Charles II, 1665-1700. 
 Bourbon Dynasty. 
 
 Philip V, 1700-46. 
 
 Ferdinand VI, 1746-59. 
 
 Charles III, 1759-88. 
 
 Charles IV, 1788-abdicated 
 1808. 
 
 After the Napoleonic wars, 
 Ferdinand VII, 1814-33. 
 
 Isabella II, 1833-deposed 
 1869. 
 
 Amadeus I (son of Victor 
 Emanuel), 1870-abdicated 
 1873. 
 
 Republic 1873-5. 
 
 Alfonso XII (son of Isa- 
 bella), 1875-85. 
 
 His widow, Christina Re- 
 gent, 1885-1902. 
 
 Alfonso XIII, 1902- 
 
 TKE HOHENZOLZ.ERN 
 Electors of Brandenburg*. 
 
 Frederick I, 1415-40. 
 Frederick II (the Iron 
 
 Duke), 1440-70. 
 Albert, Achilles, 1470-86. 
 John, Cicero, 1486-99. 
 Joachim I, 1499-1535. 
 Joachim II, 1535-71. 
 John George, 1571-98. 
 Joachim Frederick, 1598- 
 
 1608. 
 
 John Sigismund, 1608-19. 
 George William, 1619-40. 
 Frederick William, the 
 
 Great Elector, 1640-88. 
 Frederick III, William, 
 
 1688-1713. 
 Takes the title "Frederick 
 
 PORTUGAL. 
 
 The county of Portugal be- 
 came kingdom in 1139. 
 
 Alfonso I, 1112-85. 
 
 Sancho I, 1185-1211. 
 
 Alfonso II, 1211-23. 
 
 Sancho II, 1223-48. 
 
 Alphonso III, 1248-79. 
 
 Dionysius III, 1279-1325. 
 
 Alphonso IV, 1325-57. 
 
 Peter I, 1357-67. 
 
 Ferdinand, 1367-83. 
 
 John I, 1385-1433. 
 
 Edward, 1433-38. 
 
 Alphonso V, 1438-81. 
 
 John II, 1481-95. 
 
 Emanuel the Great, 1495- 
 1521. 
 
 John III, 1521-57. 
 
 Sebastian, 1557-78. 
 
 Henry, 1578-80. 
 
 Portugal a Spanish prov- 
 ince 1581-1640. 
 
 Houso of Brag-anza, 
 1640 to Present. 
 
 John IV, 1640-56. 
 
 Alfonso VI, 1656-67. 
 
 Peter II, 1667-1706. 
 
 John V, 1706-50. 
 
 Joseph, 1750-77. 
 
 Maria (and Peter III to 
 
 1786), 1777-1816. 
 Prince John, regent since 
 
 1789, became John VI, 
 
 1816-26. 
 Maria, 1826-53. 
 Peter V, 1853-61. 
 Louis, 1861-89. 
 Charles I, 1889-assassi- 
 
 nated 1908. 
 
 IN PRUSSIA. 
 
 William I, king of Prus- 
 sia," 1701. 
 
 Frederick I, 1713-40. 
 Frederick II, the Great, 
 
 1740-86. 
 Frederick William II, 1786- 
 
 97. 
 Frederick William III, 
 
 1797-1840. 
 Frederick William IV, 
 
 1840-61. 
 William I, the Great, 1861- 
 
 88. 
 Became Emperor of the 
 
 newly formed Empire, 
 
 1871. 
 
 Frederick III, 1888. 
 William II, 1888 to present. 
 
256 
 
 A Guide to the Study 
 
 KINGS OF 
 
 England under Romans A. 
 D. 44 to 449. 
 
 A n g 1 o-Saxon Heptarchy, 
 with confusion and vari- 
 ous changes to 827, when 
 the Heptarchy was unit- 
 ed under Egbert of Wes- 
 sex. 
 Anglo-Saxon King's. 
 
 Egbert, 827-36. 
 
 Ethelwulf 857. 
 
 Ethelbald 857. 
 
 Ethelbert, 857-66. 
 
 Ethelred 871. 
 
 Alfred the Great 901. 
 
 Edward 925. 
 
 Athelstan 941. 
 
 Edmond I 946. 
 
 Edred 955. 
 
 Edwy 957. 
 
 Edgard 975. 
 
 Edward II, the Martyr 
 978. 
 
 Ethelred 111013. 
 
 Danish Princes. 
 
 Sweyn, 1013. 
 
 Ethelred II, again, 1014-16. 
 
 Canute the Great, 1015-35. 
 
 Edmund Ironside, 1015-17. 
 
 Harold I, 1035-40. 
 
 Hardicanute, 1040-2. 
 Anglo-Saxon King's. 
 
 Edward the Confessor, 
 1042-66. 
 
 Harold, son of Godwin, 
 1066. 
 
 Norman Kings, 1066-1154. 
 
 William I, 1066-87. 
 
 William Rufus, 1087-1100. 
 
 Henry I, 1100-35. 
 
 Stephen of Blois, 1135-54. 
 
 House of Anjou, or Planta- 
 
 genets, 1154-1399. 
 
 Henry II, 1154-89. 
 
 KOTOS OF 
 
 Scotland never under the 
 Roman Empire. Tribal 
 governments gradually 
 transformed into petty 
 kingdoms, which were 
 slowly united into one by 
 war and marriage. This 
 reached some degree of 
 unity and power by the 
 year 1000. 
 
 Malcolm II, 1005-34. 
 
 Duncan. 
 
 Macbeth. 
 
 Malcolm III, Canmore, 
 1054-97. 
 
 Edgar, 1097-1107. 
 
 Alexander I, 1107-24. 
 
 David I, 1124-53. 
 
 Richard Coeur de Lion, 
 
 1189-99. 
 
 John (Lackland), 1199-1216 
 Henry III, 1216-72. 
 Edward I, 1272-1307. 
 Edward II, 1307-27. 
 Edward III, 1327-77. 
 Richard II, 1377-99. 
 House of Lancaster, 
 
 1399-1461. 
 
 Henry IV, 1399-1413. 
 Henry V, 1413-22. 
 Henry VI, 1422-61. 
 
 House of York, 1461-85. 
 Edward IV, 1461-83. 
 Edward V, 1483. 
 Richard III, 1483-5. 
 House of Tudor, 1485-16O3. 
 Henry VII, 1485-1509. 
 Henry VIII, 1509-47. 
 Edward VI, 1547-53. 
 Mary, 1553-8. 
 Elizabeth, 1558-1603. 
 House of the Stewarts, 
 
 1603-1714. 
 James I, 1603-25. 
 Charles I, 1625-49. 
 Commonwealth, 1649-60. 
 Charles II, 1660-85. 
 James II, 1685-8. 
 William III and Mary 
 1688-1702. 
 
 (Mary only to 1694.) 
 Anne, 1702-14. 
 House of Hanover, 1714 to 
 
 Present. 
 
 George I, 1714-27. 
 George II, 1727-60. 
 George III, 1760-1820. 
 George IV, 1820-30. 
 William IV, 1830-7. 
 Victoria, 1837-1900. 
 Edward VII, 1900-. 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 Malcolm IV, 1153-65. 
 
 William the Lion, 1165- 
 1214. 
 
 Alexander II, 1214-49. 
 
 Alexander III, 1249-89. 
 
 Marguerite, 1289-91. 
 
 John Balliol, 1291-deposed 
 1296. 
 
 Edward I, of England, ac- 
 knowledged king of Scot- 
 land 1296. 
 
 William Wallace. 
 
 Robert Bruce, 1306-29. 
 
 David II, 1329-deposed 
 1332. 
 
 Edward Balliol, 1332-de- 
 posed 1342. 
 
 David II, restored 1342-71. 
 
of Church History. 
 
 257 
 
 House of the Stuarts, 
 1371-1603. 
 
 Robert II, 1371-96. 
 
 Robert III, 1396-1406. 
 
 James I, 1406-37. 
 
 James II, 1437-60. 
 
 James III, 1460-88. 
 
 James IV, 1488-1513. 
 
 James V, 1513-42. 
 
 Mary, 1542-66; represented 
 by regent to 1560. 
 
 James VI, 1566-1603, when 
 he became king of Eng- 
 land also, thus uniting 
 the two crowns and re- 
 moving capital to Lon- 
 don. Scotch Parliament 
 united with the English 
 1707. 
 
 WALES. 
 
 Was never subdued by Ro- 
 mans or Anglo-Saxons. 
 Divided into several 
 small states under inde- 
 pendent princes until 
 1284, when it was com- 
 
 pletely subjected to Eng- 
 land; in 1301 the heir to 
 English throne was giv- 
 en title, "Prince of 
 Wales," and in 1536 the 
 country was completely 
 incorporated in England. 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 Was not under the Romans 
 or Anglo-Saxons. Many 
 small, independent 
 princes, constantly at 
 war with one another un- 
 til 1155, when it was 
 granted by Pope to 
 Henry II, of England, 
 with title "Lord of Ire- 
 land." Always rebellious 
 and never wholly sub- 
 dued; had its own par- 
 liament; 1541 Henry VIII 
 was recognized as "King 
 of Ireland," and 1801 the 
 Irish parliament was 
 united with the English. 
 
 THE UTETHEStliANDS. 
 
 Were subjected to the Ro- 
 man Empire from time 
 of Julius Caesar onward; 
 passed into Frankish 
 Empire, then into Ger- 
 man Empire, 843 onward; 
 during feudalism many 
 semi-independent states 
 of various forms were 
 developed; the whole 
 passed under sway of 
 dukes of Burgundy 1369 
 onward, and under House 
 of Hapsburg by marriage 
 of Maximilian of Austria 
 and Mary of Burgundy, 
 1477; in 1549 they were 
 attached by Charles V to 
 crown of Spain; Spanish 
 cruelty excited revolt, 
 1568; seven northern 
 provinces unite 1579 
 (Union of Utrecht), and 
 1581 declare their inde- 
 pendence, under leader- 
 ship of William of Or- 
 ange (the Silent), as 
 Stadholder ; Maurice, 
 1584-1625; Frederick 
 Henry, 1625; after Wil- 
 liam II, Stadtholdership 
 
 abolished. Recognized as 
 independent republic by 
 Treaty of Westphalia, 
 1648; Stadtholdership re- 
 vived 1672, and William 
 III made Stadtholder; be- 
 comes King of England 
 1688-1702; down to Napo- 
 leonic wars, sometimes a 
 Stadtholdership and 
 sometimes pure republic. 
 Southern provinces had 
 been saved to Spain in 
 16th century, were trans- 
 ferred to Austria 1713, 
 and by Congress of Vi- 
 enna, 1815, were united 
 with the northern prov- 
 inces into the Kingdom 
 of the Netherlands, un- 
 der William I, 1815-40; 
 William II, 1840-9; Wil- 
 liam III, 1849-90; Wilhel- 
 mina, 1890-. 
 
 Kingdom of Belgium was 
 formed of revolted south- 
 ern provinces, 1830; 
 Prince Leopold, of Saxe- 
 Coburg, was elected king 
 1831-65; Leopold II, 1865. 
 
 RUSSIA. 
 
 Never under the Romans. 
 Tribal government till 
 862, when Ruric, a Swed- 
 ish prince, laid founda- 
 
 tion of the Empire, with 
 capital at Novgorod, later 
 Kiev; became Christian 
 under Vladimir the Great 
 
258 
 
 A Guide to the Study 
 
 (988); divided into many 
 principalities under suz- 
 erainty of Kiev. Rus- 
 sia under the Mongols, 
 1241-1480. During this 
 period the principality of 
 Moscow rose, and its 
 prince became the foun- 
 der of the united Mon- 
 archy, 1480. 
 
 Ivan III, the Great, 1462- 
 1505. 
 
 Ivanovitch, 1505-33. 
 
 Ivan IV, 1533-84. 
 
 Feodor I, 1584-98. 
 
 Boris Godunow, 1598-1605. 
 
 Demetrius, 1605-6. 
 
 Wasilij Schwiskoi, 1606-10. 
 
 Whadislaw, 1610-12. 
 
 House of the Romanof s, 
 1613 to Present. 
 
 Michael F. Romanov, 1613- 
 
 45. 
 
 Alexius, 1645-76. 
 Feodor II, 1676-82. 
 Interregnum, 1682-9. 
 Peter I, the Great, 1689- 
 
 1725. 
 
 Catharine I, 1725-7. 
 Peter II, 1727-30. 
 Anna, 1730-40. 
 Ivan VI, 1740-1. 
 Elizabeth, 1741-42. 
 Peter III, 1742. 
 Catharine II, 1742-96. 
 Paul I, 1796-1801. 
 Alexander I, 1801-25. 
 Nicholas I, 1825-55. 
 Alexander II, 1855-81. 
 Alexander III, 1881-94. 
 Nicholas II. 1894- 
 
of Church History. 
 
 259 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Abelard, llOf. 
 
 Abyssinian Monophysite 
 
 Churches, 76. 
 
 Adoptionist Controversy, 84. 
 Agape, 24. 
 
 Albert the Great, 112. 
 Albigenses, 117. 
 Alfred the Great, 90. 
 Alien Baptism (100-323 A. 
 
 D.), 24. 
 Alva, 161. 
 
 America: To the Revolu- 
 tion, 210ff; Revolution to 
 
 1908, 233ff. 
 
 Anabaptists, 148, 160. 
 Anabaptist Reformation, 
 
 178ff. 
 
 Ancient Church, 11. 
 Anderson, Lars, 145. 
 Anglican Church (1689-1789 
 
 A. D.), 207. 
 Anglo-Saxons (600-850 A. 
 
 D.), 79. 
 Anselm, 110. 
 Ansgar, 82. 
 Antinomian Controversy, 
 
 144. 
 
 Anti-trinitarian Anabap- 
 tists, 181. 
 
 Antoine Court, 203. 
 Apollinarianism, 57f. 
 Apologetics (100-323 A. D.), 
 
 18. 
 
 Apostles' Creed, 30. 
 Apostolic Era, 6. 
 Aquinas, Thomas, 112. 
 Archbishops, 21. 
 Arianism, 54ff, 206f. 
 Armenia (323-600 A. D.), 44. 
 Armenian Church, 76. 
 Arminianism, Rise of, 162f. 
 Art and Music, Catholic 
 
 (1517-1648 A. D.), 189. 
 Asceticism (323-600 A. D.), 
 
 66. 
 
 Aufklarung, 200. 
 Augustine, the Missionary, 
 
 79. 
 
 Augustinians, 104. 
 Austria: 1648-1789 A. D., 
 
 194; and Eastern Europe 
 
 (1789-1908), 225. 
 Babylonish Captivity, 124f. 
 Baptism: 100-323 A. D., 23; 
 
 323-600 A. D., 48f. 
 
 Baptists: 174ff; in America 
 to Revolution, 212f; in 
 England (1789-1908), 232; 
 in Germany, 225; in Unit- 
 ed States (Revolution to 
 1908), 238ff. 
 
 Barbarossa, 95, 106. 
 
 Becket, Thomas a, 100. 
 
 Bede, 87. 
 
 Belgic Confession, 161. 
 
 Benedictine Order, 67. 
 
 Belgium (1789-1908), 228. 
 
 Bernard of Clairvaux, HOf. 
 
 Bible (100-323 A. D.), 29f. 
 
 Bohemia and Moravia 
 (Luth. Reformation), 148. 
 
 Bohemian Brethren, 148. 
 
 Bonaventura, 112. 
 
 Boniface, 80f. 
 
 Boniface VIII, 101. 
 
 British America, 234. 
 
 "Broad Church Party," 231. 
 
 Brothers of the Common 
 Life, 130. 
 
 Browne, Robert, 173f. 
 
 Calixtines, 134. 
 
 Calixtus, George, 199. 
 
 Calvin, John, 155. 
 
 Calvinistic Churches (1648- 
 1789), 202ff. 
 
 C a 1 v i n i stic Reformation, 
 153ff. 
 
 Campbell, Alexander, 240f. 
 
 Canon of Scriptures Its 
 Formation, 29f. 
 
 Cappel Wars, 153. 
 
 Carthusians, 103. 
 
 Cathari, 117. 
 
 Catholic Church: 1648-1789, 
 193fC; in America, 210; 
 English (1789-1908), 233; 
 in United States (Revolu- 
 tion to 1908), 242. 
 
 Catholic Reformation, ISlff. 
 
 Ceremonies for Converts 
 (100-323 A. D.), 23. 
 
 Charlemagne, 78. 
 
 Charles I, 170f. 
 
 Charles II, 171, 172f. 
 
 Charles V, 142f, 160. 
 
 Charles the Bald, 89. 
 
 Charles the Fat, 89. 
 
 Christian II, 146. 
 
 Christian Activity: 1-100 A. 
 D. 10. 
 
260 
 
 A Guide to the Study 
 
 Christian Life (100-323 A. 
 D.) f 26f; 323-600 A. D., 
 64ff; 600-850 A. D., 86f; 
 1305-1517 A. D., 128ff; 
 1517-1648 A. D., 139f ; Cal- 
 vinistic Ref., 155; Zwingl. 
 Ref., 151. 
 
 Christian Literature (1-100 
 A. D.), 10. 
 
 Christian Science, 243. 
 
 "Christians," 240. 
 
 Christological Controversies, 
 56ff. 
 
 mrch: 1-100 A. D., 7; 
 Architecture, 114; Inter- 
 nal History of (850-1050 
 A. D.), 92; Music, 114; 
 Officers (100-323 A. D.), 
 19f; 323-600 A. D., 45; Or- 
 ganization (323-600 A. 
 D.), 46; Polity (100-323 A. 
 D.), 19; Property (600- 
 850 A. D.), 83. 
 
 Church and State: Calv. 
 Ref., 154; 1648-1789, 193f; 
 in United States, 234. 
 
 Church (Canon) Law, 83. 
 
 Cistercians, 103. 
 
 "Civil Constitution of the 
 Church," 218f. 
 
 Clement VII, 125. 
 
 Clugny, Congregation of, 93. 
 
 Cocceius, 204. 
 
 Columba, 43. 
 
 Columban, 80. 
 
 Concordat with Pius VII, 
 220. 
 
 Confessional, 115. 
 
 Confirmation (323-600 A. 
 D.), 49. 
 
 Congregationalists: In Eng- 
 land (1789-1908), 232; in 
 America, 211f; in United 
 States, 235f. 
 
 Conrad III, 105. 
 
 Constantine, 36f. 
 
 Consulate, 220. 
 
 Controversies (1537-1592), 
 144f. 
 
 Copts, 76. 
 
 Coeur de Lion, 106. 
 
 Council of Constance, 125. 
 
 Council of Trent, 181f. 
 
 Councils (323-600 A. D.),47f. 
 
 Courts and Canon Law (323- 
 600 A. D.), 48. 
 
 Covenanters, 204f. 
 
 Cromwell, 167, 171f. 
 
 Crusades, 105ff. 
 
 Cyril, the Monk, 73. 
 
 Danes massacred, 90. 
 
 Decay of Heathenism and 
 Triumph of Christianity, 
 40ff. 
 
 Denmark: Luth. Ref., 146f; 
 1789-1908, 228f. 
 
 Denominations: In United 
 States, 234, 235f; Rise of, 
 173ff. 
 
 Deism, 206f. 
 
 Diet of Copenhagen, 146. 
 
 Dissenters, 207. 
 
 Discovery, 130, 217. 
 
 Discipline: 100-323 A. D., 
 27f; 323-600 A. D., 65. 
 
 Disciples of Christ, 240f. 
 
 Directory, The, 220. 
 
 Division between Eastern 
 and Western Churches. 
 72f. 
 
 Doctrines: 1-100 A. D., 7; 
 Development of, 29. 
 
 Dominicans, 104, 112, 127. 
 
 Donatism, 34. 
 
 Dutch Anabaptists, 180f. 
 
 Dutch "Reformed" Church- 
 es, 204. 
 
 Dynamic Monarchianism, 31. 
 
 Eastern Christianity to 1453 
 A. D., 71. 
 
 Eastern Empire, 37f. 
 
 East Goths, 39f. 
 
 Eckhart, Meister, 127. 
 
 Edict of Nantes, 159. 
 
 Edict of Nismes, 159. 
 
 Educational: 100-323 A. D., 
 27; progress (1789-1908), 
 217. 
 
 Edward I, 98. 
 
 Edward VI, 168. 
 
 Edwards, Jonathan, 212. 
 
 Elizabeth, 169f. 
 
 Empire, The: 1050-1305 A. 
 D., 94ff; 1305-1517 A. D., 
 120f. 
 
 England: 600-850 A. D., 77; 
 1050-1305 A. D., 97, 101; 
 1305-1517 A. D., 123; 1689- 
 1789 A. D., 205ff; 1789- 
 1908, 230ff; 850-1050 A. D., 
 90. 
 
 English Reformation, 166. 
 
 Erasmus, 132. 
 
 Eucharist: 100-323 A. D., 24; 
 323-600 A. D., 49f; Contro- 
 versy, 84. 
 
 Eutychianism, 59f. 
 
 Farel, William, 155f, 157. 
 
 Fasts (100-323 A. D.), 25. 
 
 Federal Theology, 204. 
 
 Fox, George, 176f. 
 
 France: Reformation of, 156; 
 1050-1305 A. D., 97; 1305- 
 1517 A. D., 122; 1648-1789 
 A. D., 193f; 1789-1908, 
 226f. 
 
 Francke, A. H., 199. 
 
 Francis I, 142f. 
 
of Church History. 
 
 261 
 
 Francis of Assisi, 104. 
 Franks, 39; 600-850 A. D., 77. 
 Franciscans, 104, lllf. 
 Frederick I, 95. 
 Frederick II, 95f, 106. 
 Frederick IV, 20 Of. 
 "Free Church of Scotland," 
 
 229. 
 French Catholics (1789- 
 
 1908), 227. 
 French Empire, 221. 
 French Protestants: 203f; 
 
 1789-1908, 227. 
 French Reaction, 219, 221. 
 French Revolution, 218. 
 Frisians, 8 Of. 
 General Baptists, 175. 
 Geneva, Reform of, 155f. 
 German Anabaptists, 180. 
 Germans, Conversion of, 42f, 
 
 44f, 80f. 
 German "Reformed" 
 
 Churches, 202f. 
 German Theology, 127. 
 German Tribes, 38ff. 
 Germany: 850-1050 A. D., 
 
 88f; Luth. Ref., 140ff; 
 
 1789-1908, 223ff. 
 Gnosticism, 31f. 
 Gospel, The, 1. 
 Gregory VII, 94, 98f. 
 Gregory, Pope, 79. 
 Greek Church, 189f, 244f. 
 Guise family, 158. 
 Gustavus Adolphus, 146, 186. 
 Haller, Berthold, 152. 
 Helwys, 175. 
 
 Helvetic Conferences, 153. 
 Henricans, 117. 
 Henry I, 89. 
 Henry II, 98, 100. 
 Henry III, 9 If, 98. 
 Henry IV, 94. 
 Henry VIII, 167f. 
 Henry of Navarre, 158ff. 
 Herbert of Cherbury, 206. 
 Heresies: 1-100 A. D., 8; 
 
 100-323 A. D., 31ff. 
 Hierarchy: 600-850 A. D., 
 
 83; 1050-1305 A. D., lOlff. 
 "High Church Party," 231. 
 Higher Clergy (600-850 A. 
 
 D.), 86. 
 
 Hildebrand, 98f. 
 Hoffmann, Melchior, 180. 
 Holland (1789-1908), 228. 
 Holliman, 213. 
 "Holy Orthodox Eastern 
 
 Church, 71. 
 Humanism, 126, 131. 
 Hungary and Transylvania 
 
 (Luth. Ref.), 148. 
 Huns, 39. 
 
 Huss, John, 125f, 133f. 
 Iceland (Luth. Ref.), 147. 
 
 Iconoclasm, 74. 
 
 Image worship, 114. 
 
 Independents, 173f. 
 
 Indulgences, 115. 
 
 Innocent III, 100, 106. 
 
 Inquisition: 226; 1050-1305 
 A. D., 118; 1305-1517 A. 
 D., 129; 1541 A. D., 184. 
 
 Invention, 130, 217. 
 
 Investiture, 94f. 
 
 Isidore, 87. 
 
 Italy: 1050-1305 A. D., 96; 
 1305-1517 A. D., 122; Luth. 
 Ref., 149f; 1789-1908 225f. 
 
 Ireland: 323-600 A. D., 43; 
 1050-1305 A. D., 103; Ref- 
 ormation of, 177f; 1789- 
 1908, 233. 
 
 Irish Mission to the Conti- 
 nent, 80. 
 
 Jacob, Henry, 174. 
 
 Jacobite Church, 76 
 
 James I, 165, 170. 
 
 James II, 172f. 
 
 James V, 163. 
 
 Jansen, Cornelius, 188. 
 
 Jansenism, 19 6f. 
 
 Jeremiah II, 189. 
 
 Jerome, 45. 
 
 Jesuit Order, 150. 
 
 Jesuits, 182ff, 197f. 
 
 Jewish Heresies (100-323 A. 
 D.), 32. 
 
 John of England, 98, 101. 
 
 John XXII, 121, 124f. 
 
 Johnson, Francis, 174. 
 
 Judson, Adoniram, 239. 
 
 Judaistic Controversy, 8. 
 
 Julian, 41. 
 
 Justinian I, 42. 
 
 Knights of St. John, 107. 
 
 Knights Templars, 107. 
 
 Knox, John, 163ff. 
 
 Lateran Council, 101. 
 
 Laud, Wm., 17 Of. 
 
 LeFevre, Jacques, 157. 
 
 Legislative Assembly, 219. 
 
 Leo XIII, 222. 
 
 Leo the Isaurian, 74. 
 
 Literary attacks on Christi- 
 anity (100-323 A. D.), 17f. 
 
 Literature: 1-100 A. D., 10; 
 100-323 A. D., 35f ; 323-600 
 A. D., 67f; 600-850 A. D., 
 87f; and Learning (1050- 
 1305), 119f; 1648-1789 A. 
 D., 192 ; and Religious 
 Thought, Catholic (1648- 
 1789), 198. 
 
 Lombards: 40, 77f ; cities, 95. 
 
 Lower Clergy (600-850 A. 
 D.), 86. 
 
 Louis of Bavaria, 124f. 
 
 Louis the Pious, 78. 
 
 Louis VII, 105. 
 
262 
 
 A Guide to the Study 
 
 Louis IX, 107. 
 
 "Low Church Party," 231. 
 
 Loyola, Ignatius, 182. 
 
 Lucar, Cyril, 190. 
 
 Lutkens, 201. 
 
 Luther, Life of, 14 Of. 
 
 Lutheran Reformation : 
 1517-1648 A. D., 140ff; 
 1648-1789 A. D., 198ff. 
 
 Lutherans in U. S. (Revolu- 
 tion to 1908), 242. 
 
 Manichaeism, 35. 
 
 Mariolatry, 52f, 114. 
 
 Martin V, 125. 
 
 Maronites, 76. 
 
 Martel, Charles, 77. 
 
 Mary of England, 168f. 
 
 Mary of Guise, 163ff. 
 
 Mathys, Jan., 180. 
 
 Maximilian of Bavaria, 185f. 
 
 Maximilian II, 148. 
 
 Mediating School, 224f. 
 
 Medici Family, 122. 
 
 Medici, Catherine de., 158f. 
 
 Mendicant Orders, 103f. 
 
 Mennonites, 180. 
 
 Methodism, 193, 208f. 
 
 Methodists: English (1789- 
 1908), 233; in U. S. (Revo- 
 lution to 1908), 241f. 
 
 Methodius, 73. 
 
 Metropolitans, 2 If. 
 
 Meyer, Sebastian, 152. 
 
 Middle Ages, 69ff. 
 
 Missionary Union, 239. 
 
 Missions: 100-323 A. D., 13ff; 
 323-600 A. D., 43; 600-850 
 A. D., 79; 850-1050 A. D., 
 92; 1050-1305 A. D., 108; 
 1517-1648 A. D., 138; Bap- 
 tist, in U. S. (Revolution 
 to 1908), 240; Catholic 
 (1517-1648 A. D.) f 187f; 
 Catholic (1648-1789 A. D.), 
 195f; Catholic (1789-1908), 
 222; Protestant (1648-1789 
 A. D.), 193; Eastern (600- 
 1517 A. D.), 73; English 
 1789-1908), 230, 231f; 
 Lutheran (1648-1789 A. 
 D.), 200f; General (1789- 
 1908), 245f. 
 
 Modal Monarchianism, 31. 
 
 Modern Period, 136ff. 
 
 Mohammedanism (600-151 < 
 A. D.), 71f. 
 
 Molino, Louis, 188. 
 
 Monasticism: 323-600 A. D., 
 65f; 600-850 A. D., 83f; 
 1050-1350 A. D., 103f. 
 
 Mongols, Mission to (1050- 
 1305), 108. 
 
 Monks (600-850 A. D.), 86. 
 
 M o n o t h e lite Controversy, 
 61f. 
 
 Monophysite Churches, 76. 
 
 Monophysitism, 59ff. 
 
 Montanism, 33. 
 
 Morals: 1-100 A. D., 9; 100- 
 323 A. D., 26; 323-600 A. 
 D. 64f; 1305-1517 A. D. 
 129f. 
 
 Mormons, 242f. 
 
 Munster Kingdom, 180. 
 
 Miinzer, 180. 
 
 Murton, 175. 
 
 Music (1648-1789), 193. 
 
 National, or Constituent, 
 Assembly, 218f; Conven- 
 tion, 219. 
 
 Napoleon, 220f. 
 
 Neo-Platonism, 13. 
 
 Nestorianism, 58f. 
 
 Nestorians of Persia, 75f. 
 
 Netherlands (Calv. Ref.), 
 159ff. 
 
 New Jerusalem Church, 201. 
 
 Nicholas I, 91. 
 
 Nonjurors, 207. 
 
 Normans (1050-1305 A. D.), 
 96. 
 
 Northmen (850-1050 A. D.), 
 88. 
 
 Novatianism, 34. 
 
 Norway (Luth. Ref.), 147. 
 
 CEcolampadius, 153. 
 
 Origenistic Controversy, 56. 
 
 Ordinances: 100-323 A. D., 
 22f; 323-600 A. D., 48ff; 
 Calv. Ref., 154; Zwing. 
 Ref., 151. 
 
 Organization: 1517-1648 A. 
 D., 138; Baptist in U. S., 
 239; Methodists in U. S., 
 242. 
 
 Opposition to Christianity 
 
 100-323 A. D., 15. 
 ^- Orthodox (Dutch "Re- 
 formed"), 204. 
 
 Otto I, 89. 
 
 Otto the Great, 91. 
 
 Papacy: 600-850 A. D., 82f; 
 850-1050 A. D., 91; 1050- 
 1305 A. D., 98. 
 
 Particular Baptists, 175f. 
 
 Patriarchate of Constantino- 
 ple, 244. 
 
 Patrick, 43. 
 
 Peace of Augsburg, 144. 
 
 Peace of Dessidents, 148. 
 
 Peace of Luneville, 220. 
 
 Peace of Nuremberg, 143. 
 
 Pelagian Controversy, 62fl*. 
 
 Penance, 115. 
 
 Pepin the Middle, 77. 
 
 Pepin the Short, 77f. 
 
 Persecution: 100-323 A. D., 
 16f; 1305-1517 A. D., 129. 
 
 Persia: 323-600 A. D., 43f; 
 1050-1305 A. D.,108. 
 
of Church History. 
 
 263 
 
 Petersen, Olaf and Lars, 145. 
 Peter the Hermit, 105. 
 Peter the Lombard, 111. 
 Petrobrusians, 117. 
 Philadelphia Confession of 
 
 Faith, 213. 
 
 Philip II, 97, 106, 160f. 
 Philosophy: 1648-1789 A. D., 
 
 191f; and Science (1789- 
 
 1908), 217. 
 Pietism, 199f. 
 Pius IX, 221. 
 Pius X, 222. 
 Planting and Spread of 
 
 Christianity, 6. 
 Poland (Luth. Ref.), 147. 
 Political Conditions (100- 
 
 323 A. D.), 11. 
 Political History: 600-850 A. 
 
 D., 76ff; 850-1050 A. D., 
 
 88f; 1050-1305 A. D., 94f; 
 
 1305-1517 A. D., 120f; 
 
 Eastern (Mid. Ages), 71. 
 Polity (Calv. Ref.), 154. 
 Political Progress: 1648- 
 
 1789,191; 1789-1908, 214f. 
 Predestination Controversy, 
 
 84f. 
 
 Premonstratensians, 103f. 
 Presbyterians: in America, 
 
 212, 237f; in England, 232. 
 Protestant Episcopal 
 
 Church, 211, 237. 
 Protestants in America, 210. 
 Provincial Synods, 19. 
 Prussia (Luth. Ref.), 147. 
 Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals, 
 
 83. 
 
 Puritan Party, 169. 
 Quakers, 176f, 233. 
 Quietism, 197. 
 Raikes, Robert, 230. 
 Rationalism, 190f, 224. 
 Reform atory Movements, 
 
 133. 
 
 Reformation, 136ff. 
 Regular Baptists, 213. 
 Religious Activity (100-323 
 
 A. D.), 27. 
 Religious Condition (100-323 
 
 A. D.), 12. 
 Religious Progress (1789- 
 
 1908), 215f. 
 "Relief Church," 205. 
 Remonstrants, 204. 
 Renaissance, 131ff; Benefits 
 
 of to Religion, 133. 
 Reuchlin, 132. 
 Revocation of Edicts of 
 
 Nismes and Nantes, 203. 
 Rice, Luther, 239. 
 "Rights of Regalia," 194. 
 Roman Church, The, 22. 
 Russians, Christianizing of 
 
 the, 73. 
 
 Russian Orthodox Church, 
 
 244f. 
 
 St. Francis, lllf. 
 Saint Worship, 53, 114. 
 Savonarola, 135. 
 Savoy Declaration, 174. 
 Saxons (600-850 A. D.), 81. 
 Scandinavia (600-850 A. D.), 
 
 81f. Countries: 850-1050 
 
 A. D., 92; 1305-1517 A. D., 
 
 124; Luth. Ref., 145ff; 
 
 1789-1908, 228f. 
 Schisms (100-323 A. D.), 33. 
 Schism, The Great, 125f. 
 Schmalkald League, 143. 
 Schmalkald War, 144. 
 Scholasticism, 109. 
 Scotland: 323-600 A. D., 43; 
 
 Calv. Ref. (1517-1648 A. 
 
 D.), 163ff; 1648-1789 A. D., 
 
 204f; 1789-1908, 229. 
 Scotus, Duns, 127. 
 "Secession Church," 205. 
 Sects (1050-1305 A. D.), 116. 
 Separate Baptists, 213. 
 "Separates" ("New Lights"), 
 
 212. 
 
 Sigismund III, 148. 
 Signs and Helps to a New 
 
 Age, 130f. 
 Sins and their Forgiveness 
 
 (100-323 A. D.), 28. 
 Slavs (850-1050 A. D.), 88. 
 Smith, Joseph, 242. 
 Smyth, John, 174f. 
 Social and Economical Prog- 
 ress (1789-1908), 216f. 
 Social Conditions: 1-100 A. 
 
 D., 10; 100-323 A. D., 12. 
 Social Life (100-323 A. D.), 
 
 26f. 
 
 Socinianism, 236. 
 "Solemn League and Cove- 
 nant," 171. 
 Spain: 850-1050 A. D., 90; 
 
 1050-1305 A. D., 97; Luth. 
 
 Ref., 150; and Portugal 
 
 (1789-1908), 226. 
 Spanish Peninsula (1305- 
 
 1517 A. D.), 123. 
 Spener, P. J., 199. 
 Spilsbury, John, 175f. 
 Subordination (Logos Chris- 
 
 tology), 31. 
 Supernaturalism, 224. 
 Sweden: Luth. Ref. (1517- 
 
 1648 A. D.), 145f; 1789- 
 
 1908, 229. 
 Swiss-Moravian Anabaptists, 
 
 179f. 
 Swiss "Reformed" churches, 
 
 202. 
 
 Switzerland, French, Re- 
 form of, 155; 1789-1908, 
 227f. 
 
264 
 
 A Guide to the Study 
 
 Synod of Dort, 162. 
 
 Synod of the Desert, 203. 
 
 Taborites, 134f. 
 
 Tausen, Hans, 146. 
 
 Tauler, John, 127. 
 
 Teutonic Order, 107f. 
 
 Thirty Years War, 148,185ff. 
 
 Theodoric the Great, 40. 
 
 Theodosius, 42. 
 
 Theology: 600-850 A. D., 
 84f, 87f; 1050-1305 A. D., 
 109ff; 1305-1517 A. D., 127; 
 1517-1648 A. D., 138f ; Cal- 
 vinistic, 154; Catholic 
 1517-1648 A. D.), 188f; 
 Rise of, 30f; Development 
 of (323-600 A. D.), 54ff. 
 
 Tractarian Movement, 231. 
 
 Trajan's Regulations, 16. 
 
 Transubstantiation Contro- 
 versy, 110. 
 
 Treaty of Westphalia, 193. 
 
 Tridentine Creed, 182. 
 
 T r i n i t a rian Controversy, 
 54ff. 
 
 Toleration, Act of, 172. 
 
 Turks, Ottoman, 121. 
 
 Ulfilas, 44f. 
 
 Uniformity, Act of, 169. 
 
 Unitarians, 236. 
 
 United Brethren, 201. 
 
 "United Secession Church," 
 205. 
 
 United States (Revolution 
 to 1908), 234ff. 
 
 United Presbyterian Church 
 of Scotland, 229. 
 
 Universalism, 236. 
 
 Universities (1050-1305 A. 
 D.), 119f. 
 
 Urban II, 105. 
 
 Urban VI, 125. 
 
 Vandals, 39. 
 
 Vatican Council, 222. 
 
 Vernacular Literature, 130f. 
 
 Von Weltz, Baron Justinian, 
 200. 
 
 Waldenses, 117f. 
 
 Waldo, Peter, 117f. 
 
 Wars of the Roses, 123. 
 
 Wesley, John and Charles, 
 208f. 
 
 Western Christianity, 76ff. 
 
 Western Empire, 38. 
 
 West Goths, 38f. 
 
 "Westminster Assembly," 
 171. 
 
 Whitefield, George, 208f. 
 
 William of Orange, 161. 
 
 Williams, Roger, 212f. 
 
 William the Conqueror, 97f. 
 
 Willibrod, 80f. 
 
 Wishart, George, 163. 
 
 World into which the Gos- 
 pel Came, 1. 
 
 Worms, Concordat of, 94. 
 
 Worship: 1-100 A. D., 9, 25; 
 100-323 A. D., 25f ; 323-600 
 A. D., 50ff; 600-850 A. D., 
 85f; 1050-1305 A. D., 113ff; 
 1305-1517 A. D., 128; 1517- 
 1648 A. D., 139; Calv. Ref., 
 154f; Zwing. Ref., 151. 
 
 Wycliffe, 133. 
 
 Zinzendorf, 201. 
 
 Zwinglian Reformation, 
 151fC. 
 
 Zwingli, 152. 
 
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