GIFT OF 
 
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS 
 UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION AND SOCIAL WELFARE 
 
 BULLETIN No. 1 
 
 STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION 
 
 IRA WOODS HOWERTH 
 
 Professor of Education and Director of University Extension 
 
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLICATIONS 
 UNIVERSITY EXTENSION 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION AND SOCIAL WELFARE 
 
 BULLETIN No. 1 
 
 STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION 
 
 IRA WOODS HOWERTH 
 
 Professor of Education and Director of University Extension 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS 
 
 BERKELEY 
 JANUARY, 1913 
 
vi 7 
 
FOREWORD. 
 
 ry ;m amendment to the Constitution of the State of Cali- 
 fornia, adopted by the people at the last election, the legislature 
 is i ( , provide for the appointment or election of a State Board 
 of Education, which board is to "provide, compile or cause to 
 he compiled, and adopt a uniform series of text-books for use in 
 the day and evening elementary schools throughout the state," 
 ,ni(l to perform such other duties as may be prescribed by law. 
 This in effect abolishes the existing State Board of Education and 
 1- hi-cs upon the legislature the responsibility of creating a new 
 one and defining its powers and duties. 
 
 The creation of a new state board of education in these days 
 when educational legislation is basing itself more and more upon 
 scientific educational principles is a delicate and a difficult, as well 
 as a mast important task, a task which should not be undertaken 
 without a full knowledge of the structure, functions, and degrees 
 of efficiency of the existing state boards of education throughout 
 the country. 
 
 It is desirable, therefore, for the benefit of citizens who may be 
 interested in any attempt to modify the educational system of the 
 State, and particularly those upon whom must devolve the respons- 
 ihility of le<rishition. to have at hand and easily accessible the 
 main facts pertaining to state boards of education. These facts 
 altered through the educational codes and the constitutions 
 of the forty -eiirht states. Few persons have the time, the neces- 
 sary documents, or the patience to look them up, even if they 
 should feel a need of so doing. 
 
 It .seemed, therefore, that a public service might be rendered 
 by assembling these facts and issuing them in the form of a 
 bulletin. The author undertook a similar service for the State 
 of Illinois in 1!)<)S. Fn os has been made of the data then 
 
 collected. 
 
STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION 
 
 I. NUMBER. 
 
 Since 1784, at which time New York created a state board of regents, 
 "to found schools and colleges in any part of the state," the tendency in 
 American school legislation has been toward consolidation, system, the 
 articulation of educational agencies, and the elimination of educational 
 waste. There has consequently been a gradual, though often socially un- 
 conscious, evolution of state educational systems, and the creation of 
 state boards of education as means to the desired ends. Within recent 
 years the tendency has been marked. In 1904 New York enacted legis- 
 lation providing for educational consolidation to an extent which some 
 regarded as extreme. Since that time twenty-five states have appointed 
 educational commissions to consider the possibilities of improving either 
 some form of educational effort, or the entire state educational system. In 
 each of a dozen or more states the commission was authorized to investi- 
 gate the educational system of the state with a view to proposing recom- 
 mendations in regard to its improvement. Of these commissions, every 
 one has proposed the creation of a state board of education, or the re- 
 organization of the state board if one was already in existence. Vermont, 
 Pennsylvania, Iowa and Arkansas have created new boards. Massachu- 
 setts, New Jersey, Delaware, Georgia, Oklahoma, Washington, Arizona 
 and New Mexico have reorganized old ones. 
 
 Still other states, as for instance, Illinois, are endeavoring to secure a 
 state board of education. Today state boards of education are found in 
 thirty-seven states, that is to say, in all the states except Maine, New 
 Hampshire, Alabama, Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, North and South Dakota, 
 Nebraska, Wisconsin and Wyoming. Even some of these have educational 
 boards with state functions. The following states make constitutional pro- 
 vision for a state board: California, Colorado, Florida, Louisiana, Okla- 
 homa, North Carolina, New Mexico, New York, Montana, Mississippi, 
 Missouri, Michigan, South Carolina, Texas and Utah. The principle of 
 educational control through a state board of education may be said to be 
 thoroughly established in American education. 
 
II. MEMBERSHIP. 
 
 The number of members in the different state boards of education varies 
 from three to eleven. The board of New Jersey formerly had twenty 
 members; as reoriran i/ed it contains eight. Massachusetts has recently 
 reduced the membership of its board from ten to nine. The boards of 
 Delaware. 1 Vnnsy! vania, Oklahoma and Washington, all recently created 
 or reor<rani/ed, have seven members. The new boards of Arkansas and 
 Vermont ha\ >ight and seven members respectively. The favorite num- 
 <-t to the members of new and proposed state boards are 
 seven and nine. The existing situation with respect to number of mem- 
 bers in each of the state boards of education is as follows: 
 
 of 
 
 States. 
 
 3 Colorado, Idaho, Kentucky, Mississippi, Nevada, Oregon, Texas. 
 
 4 Michigan, Missouri. 
 Florida, Utah, Vermont. 
 
 6 Georgia, West Virginia. 
 
 Connecticut, Delaware, Kansas, New Mexico, North Carolina, 
 Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Washington. 
 
 8 Arizona, Arkansas, Maryland, New Jersey, Rhode Island, Ten- 
 
 nessee, Virginia. 
 
 '. Iowa, Massachusetts, South Carolina. 
 
 10 Louisiana. 
 
 1 1 California, Indiana, Montana, New York. 
 
 of the thirty-seven state boards of education ten are wholly ex officio. 
 
 of the^e, eight consist of state officers alone. Nevada makes the president 
 
 -tate university a member of its board of three. The boards of 
 
 California ami Delaware, as hitherto constituted, are the only completely 
 
 -i sting almost entirely of school officials. 
 
 All the state boards of education, save those of Massachusetts, New 
 
 A York, aiid Fowa, have one or more members ex officio. They 
 
 usually include the governor or state superintendent, or both. The boards 
 
 of Ari/ona, Indiana, Kansas, Utah, Virginia and Washington include 
 
 one or more professional educators among their ex officio members. The 
 
 tendency, houever. as indicated by the reconstruction of the boards of 
 
 8y, (ieorgia. Oklahoma, Vermont and the newly 
 
 created boards of I 'en nsy 1 vania, Arkansas and Iowa, is away from the 
 t .; tiffii-in type. New York has gone so far in this direction as to prescribe 
 that ''there shall be no < r ntfim, members" of the board of that state, 
 and that no member shall be a trustee, president, principal, or any other 
 olh'cer of an educational institution under the supervision of the board. 
 
 267561 
 
In the states in which the state board of education contains other 
 than ex officio members, the usual method of appointment is by the gov- 
 ernor, often with the provision "by and with the advice and consent 
 of the Senate." Appointment by the governor prevails in Arizona, Ar- 
 kansas, Georgia, Indiana, Kansas, Louisiana, Maryland, Pennsylvania, 
 Iowa, Massachusetts, Montana, New Jersey, New Mexico, Oklahoma, 
 South Carolina, Tennessee, Utah and Washington. In certain states, as, 
 for instance, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Louisiana and West Virginia, the 
 statutory provision is that one member must be appointed from each 
 congressional district. In New York, judicial districts must be repre- 
 sented "as far as may be." Such boards as a rule must be bi-partisan. 
 In Massachusetts, New Jersey and Iowa, all members are appointed by 
 the governor; in Arkansas, Oklahoma and Pennsylvania all but one are 
 so appointed; in Connecticut and Rhode Island non-ex-officio members 
 are elected by the general assembly; in Virginia, by the Senate from 
 a list of eligibles, and in West Virginia they are appointed by the 
 state superintendent. In New York all are elected by the legislature. 
 Michigan is the only state which provides for the election of non-ex-officio 
 members by popular vote. The prevailing practice, then, with respect 
 to the selection of members of state boards of education, is appointment 
 by the governor. 
 
 The appointment of members of a state board of education by the 
 governor is obviously attended with dangers. Various methods have been 
 devised to guard against the possibility of these dangers. As already 
 pointed out, Virginia limits the selection of members by the Senate to a 
 list of eligibles. This list must include members of the faculties of state 
 institutions. Arizona, Indiana, Kansas, New Mexico, Pennsylvania, 
 Washington and West Virginia, by narrowing the list of eligibles to 
 certain school officials, or persons of certain educational qualifications, 
 also, as already said, practically insure for themselves a professional 
 board. 
 
 When educational qualifications are prescribed they are usually of :i 
 general character, as, for instance, "citizens of prominence actively en- 
 gaged in the educational work of the state," as in Indiana, Utah and 
 Kansas; or persons of "high character, integrity and capacity," as in 
 Maryland and Utah. Of the more efficient boards consisting largely 
 of appointed or elected members, only Massachusetts, New York and New 
 Jersey prescribe no educational qualifications whatever. 
 
 In terms of office of appointed or elected members of the different 
 state boards of education there is wide variation. In Kansas and Wash- 
 ington such members serve for two years; in Indiana, Massachusetts, 
 Ehode Island and Virginia three years; in Connecticut, Georgia, Louisiana, 
 Virginia and Montana four years; in New Mexico and West Virginia five 
 
years; in Maryland, Iowa, Michigan, Tennessee and Pennsylvania six 
 years; in Arkansas seven; in New Jersey eight, and in New York eleven. 
 In West Virginia there is a peculiar situation whereby a board is ap- 
 pointed for a term of five years by a state superintendent whose term of 
 office is only four years. Provision is almost invariably made so that 
 members are not all appointed at one time. Thus continuity of educa- 
 tional policy is secured, and the control of the board by an executive or 
 political party is at least in part prevented. This unity and freedom 
 from external control are apparently the only principles implied in fix- 
 ing the term of office. 
 
 The compensation of members of state boards of education is univer- 
 sally nominal. The actual expenses incurred by members in attendance 
 upon meetings of the board are usually allowed. Sometimes the amount 
 so incurred is limited to a specific sum. In many of the states a per 
 (In in in addition to necessary expenses is allowed, but in no case, ex- 
 cept Oklahoma, in which it is fixed at six dollars, does this amount ex- 
 ceed five dollars. Certain states limit the number of days for which a 
 per diem, or expenses, may be drawn. Georgia grants an honorarium of 
 $250 in addition to traveling expenses. The principle of providing salaries 
 for members of a state board of education receives no recognition in any 
 of the states. 
 
 III. I'OWKRS AND DUTIES. 
 
 The different powers and duties of state boards of education, as pre- 
 M-rihed in the constitutions and legislation of the various states, number 
 some seventy-five or one hundred. Many of them, however, are unimpor- 
 tant. A few boards are limited to the performance of very few functions. 
 In Iowa, fur instance, the sole important function of the state board is to 
 control tlu- higher educational institutions of the state; in Texas, merely to 
 and apportion school funds, and act as a court of appeals from the 
 MS .if the state superintendent. As a rule, however, the board is 
 vested with such powers and performs such duties as give it high educa 
 tional diirnity ami importance. Among the most important powers and 
 'rihed in the various states are the following: the supervision 
 of all educational \\ork supported in whole or in part by the state; the 
 management ami investment of school funds; the employment of a state 
 superintendent or equivalent officer; the granting and revoking of teach- 
 ers' certificates; the adoption of courses of study and uniform series of 
 text -hooks for elementary schools; the standardi/ing of the secondary 
 schools and colleges of the state; the inspection of school buildings for 
 sanitary purposes* and the furnishing of plans and specifications for 
 school buildings; the medical inspection of school children and the pre- 
 of tests for the: t and hearing; the recommendation of 
 
needed school legislation; the appointment and removal of county super- 
 intendents; the encouragement and promotion of new forms of educational 
 effort; the conferring of degrees and diplomas; the control of appropri- 
 ations for equalizing educational advantages throughout the state, and the 
 supervision of semi-public schools. The tendency, particularly as re- 
 vealed by recent school legislation, is to increase the powers and duties 
 of the state board. Idaho, for instance, has recently extended the duties 
 of the state board from the mere power of issuing and revoking teachers' 
 certificates to the general supervision of the entire educational work of 
 the state. The most complete educational authority is vested in the 
 boards of Massachusetts, New York and New Jersey. 
 
 IV. CONSPECTUS. 
 
 Most of the facts already specified with respect to state boards of 
 education may be seen at a glance in the following table showing the 
 particular states that now have a state board of education, the number of 
 members of these boards, the terms of office, composition, and the most 
 important powers and duties prescribed. 
 
 STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION 
 
 State. 
 
 S -3 
 II 
 
 Composition. 
 
 Powers and Duties. 
 
 Arizona 8 Governor, superintendent, 
 
 principals of normal 
 schools, president uni- 
 versity, and a principal 
 of high school, a city 
 superintendent and a 
 county superintendent 
 appointed by governor.. 
 
 (1) To prescribe and enforce uni- 
 form series of text-books in pub- 
 lic schools. (2) Same in regard 
 to course of study. (3) To grant 
 six-year and life diplomas and 
 revoke them. (4) To adopt list 
 of books for school libraries. 
 
 Arkansas .. 
 
 Superintendent, and one 
 
 member from each 
 
 congressional district 
 
 appointed by governor.. (1) To manage and invest the com- 
 mon school fund. (2) To charter 
 educationaf institutions. (3) To 
 nave general supervision of the 
 schools of the state, with wide 
 
 advisory functions. 
 
STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION (Continued) 
 
 State. 
 
 || * 
 
 Composition. 
 
 Powers and Duties. 
 
 SS HO 
 California .... 11 
 
 Governor, superintendent, 
 president University of 
 California and its pro- 
 fessor of pedagogy, 
 principals normal 
 
 schools (7) (1) To prescribe uniform series of 
 
 text books in common schools 
 and cause them to be printed by 
 state and sold at cost. (2) To 
 adopt rules for government of 
 schools and libraries. (3) To 
 prescribe high school credentials. 
 
 (4) To grant life diplomas of 
 four grades and revoke them. 
 
 (5) To designate an educational 
 journal as official. (6) To desig- 
 nate credentials of other states on 
 which certificates may be issued. 
 
 Colorado 3 2 Superintendent, secretary 
 
 of state, attorney gen- 
 eral (1) To grant and revoke certifi- 
 cates. (2) To adopt rules and 
 regulations for government of 
 schools. (The legislature and the 
 board are prohibited by the con- 
 stitution from prescribing text 
 books) 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Governor, lieutenant gov- 
 ernor, secretary board 
 of education, and four 
 appointed by general 
 bly 
 
 ( 1 ) To have general supervision 
 and control of educational inter- 
 ests. (2) To direct what books 
 may be used in schools. (3) To 
 secure uniformity of reports. (4) 
 To hold and conduct teachers' 
 meetings. (5) To grant and re- 
 voke certificates. (6) To provide 
 for testing eyesight of children. 
 
 (7) To enforce child labor law. 
 
 (8) To maintain normal school 
 and model school. (9) To ap- 
 point a secretary and fix his 
 salary. 
 
 Governor, secretary of 
 .-t;it', president Dela- 
 \v-.-in- C..l!f(;t>, state au- 
 ditor, and senior im-m- 
 IMTS of county school 
 commissioners . 
 
 (1) To prescribe uniform series of 
 Looks. (2) To secure uni- 
 form system of reports from 
 teachers and school officers. (3) 
 To determine matters of contro- 
 versy. 
 
10 
 
 STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION (Continued) 
 
 State. 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Composition. 
 
 4 Governor, superintendent, 
 secretary of state, at- 
 torney general, and 
 state treasurer ... 
 
 Governor, state superin- 
 tendent, and four mem- 
 bers appointed by gov- 
 ernor ... 
 
 2 Superintendent, secretary 
 of state, attorney gen- 
 eral 
 
 Powers and Duties. 
 
 (1) To remove public school officers 
 for cause. (2) To manage and 
 invest school funds. (3) To de- 
 cide appeals. (4) To direct and 
 control normal schools, Military 
 Institute and Institute for Blind, 
 Deaf and Dumb. 
 
 (1) To decide appeals. (2) To or- 
 der school census. (3) To select 
 text-books for common schools. 
 
 (1) To grant certificates and re- 
 voke them. (2) To recommend 
 legislation. (3) To have general 
 supervision of educational work 
 of the state. (4) To present reg- 
 ulations for sanitary equipment 
 and inspection of school build- 
 ings. (5) To prepare course of 
 study for public schools. (6) To 
 prescribe rules and regulations 
 for institutes. (7) To prepare 
 examination questions for teach- 
 ers' certificates. 
 
 (Duty of county superintendents 
 to carry out the instructions of 
 state board and state superin- 
 tendent. The state board of edu- 
 cation, state superintendent and 
 county superintendents may issue 
 teachers' certificates. The state 
 board has general control of en- 
 tire system.) 
 
 11 3 Governor, superintendent, 
 president State Univer- 
 sity, president Purdue 
 Universitv, president 
 state normal, superin- 
 tendents three largest 
 cities, and three citi- 
 zens actively engaged 
 in educational work, 
 one of whom must be 
 county superintendent, 
 appointed by governor.. 
 
 (1) To grant and revoke certifi- 
 cates. (2) To act as teachers' 
 training board. (3) To act as 
 state library board. (4) To ap- 
 point board of visitors to state 
 normal. (5) To prescribe course 
 of study for accredited schools. 
 (6) To select or procure the 
 compilation of a series of text- 
 books to be used in common 
 echools. 
 
11 
 
 STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION (Continued) 
 
 State. 
 
 It 
 
 Composition. 
 
 Powers and Duties. 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 6 Appointed by governor, 
 not more than five from 
 same political party.... 
 
 2 Superintendent, chancel- 
 lor State University, 
 president State Agri- 
 cultural College, presi- 
 dent state normal and 
 three appointed by 
 governor 
 
 4 Superintendent, attorney 
 general, secretary of 
 state . 
 
 (Jr.v.-rnor. superintendent, 
 attorney general, seven 
 appointed by governor, 
 one from each con- 
 gressional district 
 
 6 Governor, superintendent 
 and six appointed by 
 governor, at least two 
 horn sli.-ill be from 
 ;ti- political par- 
 Principals of nor- 
 mal schools and of nor- 
 mal departments of any 
 school or college under 
 control of the State 
 Board are honorary 
 members, but with no 
 richt to vote 
 
 (1) To control higher educational 
 institutions. 
 
 (1) To grant certificates. (2) To 
 prescribe courses of study for 
 public schools, normal institutes 
 and Indian training schools. (3) 
 To examine and accredit educa- 
 tional institutions upon applica- 
 tion. 
 
 (1) To prepare rules, by-laws and 
 regulations for government of 
 schools. (2) To prepare suitable 
 lists of books for county libraries. 
 (3) To prescribe regulations for 
 management of libraries. (4) To 
 prescribe and publish graded 
 course of study for public schools. 
 
 (1) To prepare rules, regulations 
 and by-laws for government of 
 public schools. (2) To enforce 
 uniformity of text-books in pub- 
 lic schools. 
 
 ( 1 ) To remove or suspend county 
 superintendents. (2) To decide 
 controversies arising over the law. 
 (.*]) To have general care and 
 supervision of public school in- 
 is. (4) To secure uniform- 
 ity in statistical reports of teach- 
 ers and county boards. (5) To 
 grant MrttfiOMW. (6) To act as 
 trustees of state normal schools. 
 
STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION (Continued) 
 
 State. 
 
 Composition. 
 
 Powers and Duties. 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Appointed by governor, 
 with approval of coun- 
 cil 
 
 (1) To secure uniformity of re- 
 ports. (2) To appoint secretary. 
 (3) To manage state normal 
 schools. (4) To arrange for prac- 
 tice schools. (5) To direct and 
 supervise education of state bene- 
 ficiaries in special institutions 
 for deaf and blind. (6) To re- 
 ceive applications of teachers and 
 furnish information concerning 
 such applicants to school com- 
 mittees and superintendents. (7) 
 To manage the school fund. (8) 
 To determine the length of insti- 
 tutes and apply not more than 
 $350 to meet expenses of each. 
 (9) To grant high school certi- 
 ficates and certificates to sup- 
 erintendents of schools. (10) To 
 prescribe rules of instruction, 
 test cards, blanks, etc., for test- 
 ing sight and hearing of chil- 
 dren. (11) To visit county tru- 
 ancy schools. (12) To inspect 
 high schools for the purpose of 
 approving, for state reimburse- 
 ment of tuition, expenditures for 
 pupils of other towns not having 
 high schools. (13) To provide 
 for the introduction of training 
 in industry, agriculture and the 
 household arts. (14) To have 
 supervision of all educational 
 work supported in whole or in 
 part by the commonwealth. 
 
 Michigan 4 
 
 Mississippi .... 3 
 
 Superintendent (secre- 
 tary), three elected by 
 popular vote 
 
 Secretary of state, attor- 
 ney general and super 
 intendent public in- 
 struction 
 
 ( 1 ) To supervise normal schools, 
 and prescribe course of study in 
 same. (2) To grant state certifi- 
 cates. (3) To pass on text-books 
 in physiology. 
 
 (1) To decide appeals from the 
 decision of the county or the 
 state superintendent. (2) To re- 
 voke county certificates for 
 cause. (3) To audit claims against 
 the common school fund. (4) To 
 determine necessary contingent 
 expenses of state superintendent's 
 office. (5) To regulate all matters 
 arising in the practical admini- 
 stration of the school system 
 which are not otherwise provided 
 for. (6) To adopt, if thought 
 necessary, a course of study to 
 
L8 
 
 STATK BOARDS OF EDUCATION 
 
 State. 
 
 Composition. 
 
 Powers and Duties. 
 
 HO 
 
 Missouri 
 
 4 Superintendent (presi- 
 dent), governor, secre- 
 tary of state, attorney 
 general 
 
 Montana 
 
 11 
 
 Governor, superintendent, 
 attorney general and 
 eight appointed by gov- 
 ernor 
 
 Kcrradi 
 
 Governor, superintendent, 
 president of university.. 
 
 Ni-\v Jersey ..8 8 Appointed by governor.... 
 
 be pursued in the schools. (7) 
 To designate an arbor day. (8; 
 To require reports from county 
 superintendents. 
 
 ( 1 ) To supervise entire educational 
 interests of state. (2) To see 
 that state school moneys are col- 
 lected and properly applied, and 
 to report to the legislature. (3) 
 To prescribe requirements for 
 approved summer schools. (4) 
 To prepare outlines of work for 
 county institutes. 
 
 (1) To control and supervise state 
 educational institutions. (2) To 
 grant six-year and life diplomas. 
 
 (3) To appoint instructors in 
 county institutes. (4) To formu- 
 late a state course of study for 
 high schools, and to accredit such 
 high schools as do satisfactory 
 work. (5) To authorize the sup- 
 erintendent to provide rules and 
 regulations for conducting eighth 
 grade examinations. (6) To 
 choose and appoint a president 
 and faculty for state institutions 
 and fix compensation. (7) To have 
 financial management of said in- 
 stitutions. (8) To regulate course 
 and prescribe text-books for state 
 university. 
 
 (1) To prescribe the course of study 
 in public schools. (2) To recom- 
 mend list of books for district 
 libraries. '3) To issue and re- 
 voke state and county certificates. 
 
 (4) To act with four appointees 
 of governor as state text-book 
 commission. 
 
 ( 1 ) To manage state normal schools 
 and state charitable <Mlin-:itioiial 
 institutions. (2) To appoint, and 
 for cause remove, county super- 
 intendents of schools. (3) To 
 prescribe rules and regulations 
 for teachers' institutes. (4) To 
 decide appeals from the decision 
 of the state superintendent. (51 
 To make rules and regulations 
 for the examination of teachers 
 and the grading of MitUtoatM. 
 (6) To appoint one member to 
 act with superintendent and 
 principals of normal schools as 
 board of examiners. 
 
14 
 
 STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION (Continued) 
 
 State. 
 
 as 
 
 Composition. 
 
 Powers and Duties. 
 
 New Mexico.. 7 5 Governor, superintendent, 
 three appointed by gov- 
 ernor from heads of 
 state educational insti- 
 tutions, one from coun- 
 ty superintendents, and 
 one from persons con- 
 nected with educational 
 
 work (1) To grant, renew and revoke 
 
 certificates. (2) To adopt series 
 of text-books. (3) To prescribe 
 uniform course of study for pub- 
 lic schools. (4) To control teach- 
 ers' institutes. 
 
 New York.... 11 11 Elected by legislature ; as 
 
 far as may be, one from 
 
 each judicial district.... (1) To establish such rules and 
 regulations as are necessary to 
 carry into effect the statutes re- 
 lating to education. (2) To en- 
 courage and promote higher edu- 
 cation. (3) To visit and inspect 
 educational institutions and de- 
 partments of the university and 
 to require reports. (4) To dis- 
 tribute to, to expend or to ad- 
 minister for them such property 
 and funds as the state may ap- 
 propriate therefor, or as the uni- 
 versity may own or hold. (5) To 
 establish examinations in the 
 academies of the university, fur- 
 nishing a suitable standard for 
 graduation from academies and 
 admission to colleges. (6) To 
 confer degrees, diplomas and 
 certificates. (7) To cooperate 
 with other agencies in extending 
 opportunities and facilities for 
 education to adults as well as to 
 youths. (8) To have control of 
 the state library and state mu- 
 seum, and to establish other de- 
 partments, if deemed necessary, 
 and to maintain lectures con- 
 nected with higher education. 
 
 N. Carolina .. 7 
 
 4 Governor, superintendent, 
 lieutenant governor, 
 secretary o f state, 
 treasurer, auditor, at- 
 torney general 
 
 (1) To loan money from state 
 literary fund to county boards of 
 education for building and im- 
 proving school houses. (2) To 
 adopt uniform series of text- 
 books for public schools. (3) To 
 control colored normals. (4) To 
 elect directors of state normal 
 and Indian C'ollesre and trustees 
 of East Carolina Training School. 
 (6) To sell swamp lands belong- 
 ing to board. (7) To pass upon 
 
15 
 
 STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION (Continued) 
 
 State. -^ = 
 
 5 Si 
 
 Oklahoma 
 
 Composition. 
 
 Superintendent, and six 
 members appointed by 
 governor with advice 
 and consent of senate- 
 
 Powers and Duties. 
 
 appeals from county board. (8) 
 To prescribe other studies deemed 
 necessary in public schools. 
 
 Oregon 
 
 4 Governor, secretary of 
 state, and superinten- 
 dent ... 
 
 Pennsylvania 7 
 
 Superintendent and six 
 appointed by governor.. 
 
 Kh..ilf Island 8 
 
 (inv.-rnor. lirut-nant gov- 
 ernor, one from each 
 of four counties and 
 twii from Providence 
 oountv. county miMiiln-rs 
 fleeted by general as- 
 sembly 
 
 (1) To prepare questions for coun- 
 ty and city examinations. (2) 
 To grant certificates to teachers, 
 and to conductors and instructors 
 of normal institutes. (3) To pre- 
 pare blanks. (4) To classify and 
 accredit schools. (5) To adopt 
 courses of study for common 
 schools and institutes, and text- 
 books and courses for higher 
 institutions. 
 
 ( 1 ) To authorize series of text-books 
 adopted by text-book commission 
 (the latter composed of five ap- 
 pointed by governor). (2) To 
 prepare course of study of gram- 
 mar grade schools and of cer- 
 tain high schools. (3) To pre- 
 scribe rules and regulations for 
 general government of schools. 
 
 (4) To grant state certificates 
 and diplomas on recommenda- 
 tion of state board of examiners 
 (four to nine professional teach- 
 ers appointed by state board). 
 
 (5) To indicate source of ques- 
 tions on theory and practice. (6) 
 To act as regents of state univer- 
 sity. 
 
 (1) To equalize educational advan- 
 tages. (2) To inspect and require 
 reports from schools and insti- 
 tutions wholly or partly sup- 
 ported by state. (3) To encour- 
 age new and desirable forms of 
 education. (4) To prescribe rules 
 and regulations for the sanitary 
 equipment and inspection of 
 school buildings. 
 
 (1) To elect commissioner of schools 
 (who acts as secretary). (2) 
 To appropriate money for libra- 
 ries and to prescribe the char- 
 acter of books for same. (3) To 
 exercise certain control over 
 private schools. (4) To pre- 
 scribe blanks. (5) To examine 
 teachers and to issue and revoke 
 certificates. 
 
16 
 
 STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION (Continued) 
 
 State. 
 
 Mil 
 
 Composition. 
 
 Powers and Duties. 
 
 S. Carolina.... 9 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 4 Governor, superintendent 
 
 and not more than 
 
 seven appointed by 
 
 governor (1) To adopt rules and regulations 
 
 for government of free schools. 
 (2) To prescribe and enforce 
 rules for examination of teach- 
 ers. (3) To prescribe standard 
 of proficiency entitling persons 
 examined by county board to 
 certificates as teachers. (4) To 
 prescribe and enforce the course 
 of study in free public schools. (5) 
 To prescribe and enforce uniform 
 series of text-books in free pub- 
 lic schools. (6) To grant and re- 
 voke certificates. (7) To award 
 scholarships created by general 
 assembly in state institutions. 
 
 6 Governor, superintendent 
 
 and six appointed by 
 
 governor (1) To report to general assembly. 
 
 (2) To manage state normal 
 schools. (3) To locate, adopt 
 course of study and employ 
 teachers and officers of normal 
 schools. (4) To grant diplomas. 
 (5) To prescribe rules and regu- 
 lations for examination of appli- 
 cants for county superintendent. 
 
 Texas 3 
 
 Utah .. 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Governor, superintendent 
 (secretary ex officio), 
 secretary 
 
 comptroller 
 
 of state, 
 
 (1) To apportion available school 
 funds among counties, cities and 
 towns. (2) To consider appeals 
 from state superintendent. (3) 
 To care for investment of perma- 
 nent school funds. 
 
 4 Superintendent, president 
 State University, presi- 
 dent agricultural col- 
 lege, two appointed by 
 
 governor (1) To grant diplomas and certi- 
 ficates. (2) To appoint two of 
 five members to prescribe course 
 of study. (3) To promote the 
 establishment of libraries and 
 gymnasiums. (4) To standardize 
 high schools. 
 
 3 Governor, superintendent, 
 and three appointed by 
 
 governor (1) To act as normal school com- 
 missioners. (2) To control nor- 
 mal-industrial or industrial 
 schools. 
 
17 
 
 STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION (Continued) 
 
 State. 
 
 Composition. 
 
 Powers and Duties. 
 
 fcS HO 
 
 Virginia .84 Governor, attorney gen- 
 eral, superintendent, 
 three elected by senate 
 from list of eligibles, 
 including members of 
 faculties of state institu- 
 tions, two division sup- 
 erintendents of schools. (1) To divide state into appropri- 
 ate school divisions. (2) To pre- 
 scribe duties of superintendent, 
 and to make rules and regulations 
 for the management and conduct 
 of schools. (3) To provide for 
 the examination of teachers bv 
 a state board of examiners, and 
 to accredit schools. (4) To select 
 text-books, furniture and appli- 
 ances for use in the public 
 schools. (5) To guard against 
 the multiplication of schools. (6) 
 To decide appeals from superin- 
 tendent of public instruction. (7) 
 To punish, suspend or remove di- 
 vision superintendents of schools. 
 (8) To appoint directors of the 
 state library. (9) To report to 
 general assembly. 
 
 Washington ..7 2 Superintendent, president 
 State University, presi- 
 dent State College, nor- 
 mal school principal, 
 and three holding state 
 diplomas appointed by 
 
 governor (1) To prepare a course of study 
 
 for primary, grammar and high 
 schools. (2) To grant state cer- 
 tificates and diplomas. (3) To 
 prepare uniform series of ques- 
 tions to IH> used by countv super- 
 intendents in examinations. (4) 
 To accredit schools. (5) To ap- 
 prove courses of higher institu- 
 tions, and to unify educational 
 system. 
 
 W. Virginia.. 6 5 Superintendent and five 
 
 others engaged in edu- 
 cational work appointed 
 by him, one from each 
 
 congressional district. ... (1) To act as state board of ex- 
 aminers. (2) To prescribe a 
 course of study for the public 
 schools. (3) To define the rela- 
 tion of the different kinds of 
 schools. 
 
18 
 
 V. RELATION OF THE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC 
 INSTRUCTION. 
 
 On January 14, 1813, New York elected the first state superintendent 
 of schools. For exactly a hundred years, then, state supervision of schools 
 by a single educational official has had a place in American school systems. 
 Today every state in the Union has such supervision. The name of the 
 official varies in the different states, but his functions are in general of 
 the same character. In the earlier period of state supervision in almost 
 all of the states, the functions of a state superintendent of schools were 
 performed by some other state officer, usually the secretary of state. Dela- 
 ware, however, is the only state in which this practice now prevails. 
 
 As to the method of selection, state superintendents of schools are, in 
 the majority of states, elected by the people. This practice prevails in 
 thirty-five states. In Maine, Maryland, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New 
 Jersey, Pennsylvania and Tennessee, however, the superintendent is ap- 
 pointed by the governor. In Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island 
 and New York he is appointed by the state board of education, and in 
 Vermont by the general assembly. 
 
 In all ex officio state boards of education the superintendent is a mem- 
 ber. He is also a member of the board in twenty other states, namely, 
 Arizona, Arkansas, Connecticut, Georgia, Indiana, Kansas, Louisiana, 
 Maryland, Michigan, Montana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, 
 South Carolina, Tennessee, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington and 
 West Virginia. In Arkansas, Kansas, Michigan, Mississippi, Oklahoma, 
 Pennsylvania, Utah, Washington and West Virginia, he is chairman of 
 the board, and in West Virginia he is authorized to appoint the other mem- 
 bers. The prevailihg tendency in modern thought upon school administra- 
 tion is to favor the appointment of a superintendent by the state board 
 of education, to act as secretary and executive agent of the board. This is 
 the method practiced by Massachusetts since 1837. It is also the method 
 of New York. In New Jersey the relation of the superintendent is 
 similar, although he is appointed by the governor. These states have 
 initiated a practice which in time wiJl probably become general, that is, 
 of selecting a superintendent with respect only to his ability and without 
 regard to his place of residence. Election of a superintendent by the 
 I eople has many things to commend it, but it is gradually giving way 
 to the principle of selection, almost generally accepted in political science, 
 that expert service may be more certainly secured by appointment than 
 by popular election. 
 
lit 
 
 VI. liOAIiDS <)F MASSACHUSETTS, NEW YORK, PENNSYLVANIA 
 AND WASHINGTON. 
 
 For the purpose of comparison it may be well to describe somewhat 
 in <lrtail the two oldest state boards of the country and one or two of 
 the newest. 
 
 The oldest board is that of New York. In 1904 the Unification Act 
 nt' New York destroyed the division of power existing prior to that time 
 1. etween the board of regents and the superintendent of public instruction, 
 :-iid provided New York with an educational organization more elaborate 
 than is to be found in any other state. 
 
 The University of the State of New York is a corporation created in 
 1784. It includes all the incorporated higher educational institutions of 
 the state. The state library and the state museum are departments of the 
 university and the board of regents may establish other departments if 
 they are deemed necessary to the discharge of its duties. 
 
 The board of regents of the University of the State of New York is 
 thus in reality a state board of education. It is composed of eleven mem- 
 ben who are elected by the legislature to serve for a period of eleven 
 years. No officers of any of the incorporated educational institutions of 
 ,te are eligible to membership. There are no ex ojficio members, but 
 the commissioner of education acts as its executive officer. This board 
 has power to exclude from membership any institution failing to comply 
 with the law of the state or the rules of the board. It has charge of 
 private academies and in some measure of the public secondary schools 
 as well as of all the higher institutions. All the powers and duties of the 
 board in relation to the supervision of elementary and secondary schools, 
 including all s.-hooK except colleges, technical and professional schools, 
 devolve upon the commissioner of edu<-;it ion, who is elected by the board 
 
 t" serve during ^ 1 lehaxior. The hoard of New York has pouer to 
 
 ' Mahlish such rules and regulations as are necessary to carry into effect 
 the statutes of the state relating to education. It cooperates with other 
 agencies in bringing within the reach of the people of the state, young 
 and old. the largest educational opportunities by stimulating interest, 
 recommending method-*, dr-i g na t i i:- Miitahle teachers and lecturers, and 
 l>y lending hooks and apparatus. It i->t aldishes in the academies of the 
 university examinations in -Indies, furnishes a suitalde standard for grad 
 nation from academie> and of admission to college, and grants certificates 
 and diplomas to those \\lio pa*s Mich examinations. It controls the whole 
 matter of granting honorary degn-es and diplomas. The hoard has power 
 to incorporate any university, college, academy, lihrarv. museum, or other 
 institution for the promotion of science, literature, art, history or other 
 departments of knowledge. 
 
20 
 
 The New York plan has been criticised as illustrating too great cen- 
 tralization of authority. It is perhaps too early to determine whether it 
 is superior to the other types of board. There can be no doubt, however, 
 about the general tendency being strongly toward greater centralization. 
 "Not only are its advantages quite apparent," says President Butler of 
 Columbia University, "b'ut the overwhelming current of legislation and 
 cf the decisions of the courts is making it imperative. These are practi- 
 cally in accord, and are to the effect that in each state the school system 
 is not local, but general; not individual schools controlled by separate 
 communities, but a closely related system of schools which has become a 
 state system and is entirely under state authority. Local school officials 
 are now uniformly held to be agents of the state for the administration of 
 a state system of education." 
 
 The Massachusetts board of education originated in 1837. Horace 
 Mann was its first secretary. It consisted of ten members the governor, 
 lieutenant governor, and eight members appointed by the governor. The 
 number of members and the method of appointment remained the same 
 until 1909. Attempts were made soon after its establishment to abolish 
 the board, but its effectiveness is now generally admitted. ' 'It has always 
 stood for safety, at least, if not for brilliant initiative. Still further it 
 has no doubt provided, all things considered, a better state educational 
 administration than the people would have directly provided for them- 
 selves, voting at the popular election. The board has also proved a very 
 competent authority to manage, with the help of its secretary, the state 
 normal schools. ' '1 A former secretary of the board declares that * ' the 
 board has been almost the sole instrumentality in securing helpful legis- 
 lation and in protecting the schools from hostile enactments. It has also 
 had a powerful uplifting and broadening influence." Its reports have 
 carried information to the people of Massachusetts and have often been 
 republished by the legislatures of other states, by the British parliament, 
 and by the German government. 
 
 In 1905 Massachusetts appointed a commission on industrial and tech- 
 nical education. It was authorized to investigate "the needs for education 
 in the different grades of skill and responsibility in the various industries 
 of the commonwealth," and also to ascertain "how far the needs are met 
 by existing institutions," and to "consider what new forms of educa- 
 tional effort may be advisable." This commission in its report recom- 
 mended the creation of a commission on industrial education, and such a 
 commission was appointed in 1906. In 1909 this commission was consoli- 
 
 iHinsdale: Horace Mann and the Common School Revival in the 
 United States, page 108. 
 
21 
 
 dated with the state board of education. This new board consists of 
 nine members appointed by the governor and confirmed by the council. 
 
 As constituted in 1837, the board had duties but no particular powers. 
 It was to prepare an abstract of the school returns and to make an annual 
 report to the legislature concerning the conditions and the efficiency of 
 the common school system, and to suggest means of improving it. Its 
 powers and duties have been gradually enlarged until today it is author- 
 ized to supervise all the school work of the state supported in whole 
 or in part by the commonwealth, and to appoint a commissioner of educa- 
 tion, to fix his salary, and to appoint two deputy commissioners at equal 
 salaries, one of whom shall be especially qualified to deal with industrial 
 education. 2 Other powers and duties of this board are specified on page 12. 
 
 One of the newest boards of education is that of Pennsylvania. The 
 new code adopted in that state provides for a state board of education con- 
 sisting of the superintendent and six members appointed by the governor. 
 The term of office is to be six years. Three of the appointive members 
 must be successful educators of high standing, connected with the school 
 system of the commonwealth. All members serve without compensation 
 other than the payment of necessary expenses incurred in the performance 
 of their duties as members of the board. The superintendent of public 
 instruction is < ./ o///V/o a member of the board and its president. Among 
 the powers and duties of the board are the following: to recommend 
 needed school legislation; to equalize, through special appropriations for 
 that purpose, or otherwise, the educational advantages of the different 
 of the commonwealth; to inspect schools and institutions wholly or 
 partly supported by the state which are not supervised by other public 
 authorities, and require reports from them; to encourage and promote 
 agricultural education, manual training, domestic science and such other 
 \ocational and practical education as the needs of the commonwealth may 
 require; to prescribe rules and regulations for the sanitary equipment and 
 inspection of school buildings, and to take such other action as it may 
 deem eeenny and expedient to promote the physical and moral welfare 
 of the children in the puldic schools; and to appoint such officers as it 
 deem- Reeanary and to define their duties. 3 Of this board the United 
 <'iimnii-sioner of Education says, it "appears to be an innovation 
 of importance, hut the provi-ions relating to it are Mich that it has little 
 independent power. Its functions are not greatly differentiated from 
 of the superintendent of public instruction, and it is apparently 
 expected that the latter official will be the ruling force in the board, of 
 which he is president.''-* As a rule, however, boards when first created 
 
 - Reports t*. S. Commissioner of Education, 1908, Vol. 1, page 44; 
 
 I'.HI'.t. Vol. 1. pa-e ll 1 . 
 
 B Mool Laws and Decisions of Pennsylvania. I'.'ll, pages 49-50. 
 
 * Reports, 1911, Vol. 1, pages 6s 
 
22 
 
 are not endowed with great powers. Their powers grow. Connecticut 
 has long had a state board of education, but according to the report of 
 the Connecticut educational commission it is not yet armed with sufficient 
 authority to carry out its legitimate purposes. "The board often finds 
 itself confronted by unwillingness to accept advice, resentment of coun- 
 sel, determined opposition to anything like control. The statutes whose 
 operation would tend, and do tend, to an amelioration of evil are mostly 
 permissive. ' ' These statutes in the opinion of the commission should be 
 changed "so that they should compel rather than permit. In short, the 
 commission is distinctly of the opinion that the state board should be 
 armed with a lawful authority to supervise and control the educational 
 interests of the state. "5 
 
 Washington is one of the states which has recently reorganized its 
 State board of education. The facts concerning it are perhaps sufficiently 
 set forth in the table (see page 17). 
 
 VII. ADVANTAGES OF A STATE BOARD. 
 
 The advantages of a properly constituted state board of education 
 are perhaps sufficiently obvious, and yet in almost every attempt to re- 
 organize a state educational system some opposition to the principle of 
 control of educational affairs by a state board has been manifested. In 
 view of this, it may be well to set forth briefly some of these advantages. 
 In the first place, a state board is usually regarded as necessary to secure 
 the systematic organization of the state educational forces. Such a board 
 has proved to be an effective means of developing and sustaining public 
 sentiment in favor of the highest and best things in education. It repre- 
 sents public recognition of the importance and dignity of the educational 
 work of a state. It may hold aloft high ideals with respect to schools, 
 prevent the over-lapping of the work of the different educational institu- 
 tions, be instrumental in formulating needed school legislation and in 
 securing its passage. It should protect schools from ill-advised, needless 
 or hostile legislation. In short, through a properly constituted and effi- 
 cient state board of education, orderly and intelligent educational ad- 
 vancement may be secured, and the educational system may be enabled 
 to adjust itself more or less automatically to the changing educational 
 needs and conditions of a growing state. 
 
 s Eeport of the Connecticut Special Educational Commission, 1909, 
 page 7. 
 
23 
 
 VIII. INFERENCES. 
 
 It is unsafe to draw anything but general inferences from the present 
 constitution and powers of state boards of education with respect to the 
 creation of a new board for California. Educational conditions here are 
 not exactly the same as in the other states. Moreover, the existing boards 
 are not ideal. They are not what they ought to be, but what they may 
 be; that is, they are the results of compromise. 
 
 In general, however, and without regard to the particular needs of 
 *;ite, the following inferences with respect to the creation of a 
 state board of education may be drawn from existing practice and modern 
 thought upon educational administration. First, a state board of educa- 
 tion properly constituted is a valuable educational agency, and should be 
 tn integral part of a state educational system. Second it should consist 
 of not less than five nor more than nine members. These members should 
 not be ex ojficio. They should be appointed by the governor with the 
 advico and consent of the senate, and should be citizens of recognized 
 ability and public spirit. The board should be non-partisan. The term 
 of office should be in general longer than that of the appointing officer. 
 Third, among the powers and duties that should be assigned to such board 
 are the following: to have general supervision of the public schools of the 
 state; to elect a secretary who shall be its executive officer, and to appoint 
 such other officers as it may deem necessary to the effective supervision 
 of the schools of the state; to classify and standardize the public schools; 
 to provide rules for the apportionment of school funds, and for the dis- 
 tribution of any fund that may be set aside to assist and encourage 
 schools; to provide rules and regulations for the granting of teachers' 
 certificates; to provide plans and specifications for school buildings; to 
 provide for the sanitary inspection of school buildings and for the ex- 
 amination of pupils to detect contagious and infectious diseases and physi- 
 cal defects, and to take such other action as may seem necessary to pro- 
 mote tlio physical welfare of school children; to prescribe, or recommend, 
 minimum courses of study for public schools; to encourage, and provide for, 
 new forms of educational effort, and in general to take such action as 
 may be necessary to promote the organization and increase the efficiency 
 .f the educational systom of the state. With such or similar powers and 
 duties a properly constituted board of education should be of the highest 
 value with respect to educational administration and educational develop- 
 
24 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 DEXTER, E. G. The State System; in his History of Education in the 
 United States, 1904, pp. 199-202. 
 
 DRAPER, A. S. Limits of State Control in Education. Educational Re- 
 view 1:26-32 (January, 1901). 
 
 DRAPER, A. S. Educational Organization and Administration. In mono- 
 graphs on Education in the United States, edited by N. M. Butler, 
 1:3-31, 1904. 
 
 DUTTON, S. T. and SNEDDEN, DAVID The Administration of Public Educa- 
 tion in the United States, 1908, pp. 54-72. 
 
 EASTON, WARREN Best System of State Supervision. United States Bureau 
 of Education, Circular of Information, 1887. No. 3, pp. 156-173. 
 
 FAIRLIE, J. A. Public Education; in his Centralization of Administration 
 in New York State, Columbia University Studies in History, Econo- 
 mics and Public Law, Vol. 9, No. 3, 1898. 
 
 MACLEAN, G. E. Unification of a State's Educational Forces. New Eng- 
 land Magazine, Vol. 44:355. 
 
 NEW YORK (STATE) LEGISLATURE Final Report of the special joint com- 
 mittee on Educational Administration, 1904. 
 
 SCHOOL REVIEW Appointive or Elected Boards of Education, 16:36 (1908). 
 
 SCHOOL REVIEW Proposed Unification of Educational Administration, 11: 
 423 (1903). 
 
 WEBSTER, W. A. Recent Centralizing Tendencies in State Educational 
 Administration. Columbia University Studies in History, Econo- 
 mics and Public Law, Vol. 8, No. 2, 1897. 
 
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