LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 DAVIS 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 
 in 2007 with funding from 
 
 IVIicrosoft Corporation 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/essaysonnaturalhOOrennrich 
 
1/ 
 

 
 
 ^1^^ 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 "^^^^ ^/^^Y ^ £L/^r^ -^^^d^.^ ^^ 
 
 c^^-^-U^ ^^^^tf^ ^f^^^ X«f^^^ 
 
 cX 
 
 ^ ^ -^i-^i*^^ 
 
/ 
 
 / «'/-<«/ f ' A'c 
 
 C'kJ 
 
 /rrr«*<^, <^^* ** t^<^y/ 
 
 ■/ 
 
 
 7 
 
 --/ //c^. ^K<v.c^.y. 
 
 ^. 
 
 ^ a^^ /u ^ w^x. <!, 
 
 jt 
 
 ^ «*■•«' ^<^ -^^ 
 
 -Q 
 
 <^«_, 
 
 /. 
 
 A^^o.., 
 
 <? <^«. *:^^\ir. 
 
 ^^ « <u* i^ X.<^ 
 
 
 
 t<*i:CC 
 
 t^ A_ 
 
 JZ4^ L C ^ < <-*J * 
 
 «,<^ 'I-* -^-^-f •<-< 
 
 ^<^ 
 
 .. /< 
 
 /^ 
 
 .i^.^JtS<J 
 
 c^cSi ^7 t^<^i.^ ""//c^/ ^^/Z^. /yU^j^ 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 «^*-*<^^ x.^^ ^ X 
 
 ^ < c ^ c ^ 
 
 
 ^^ Cy'r^^M^i <r^ c>r--«.t- 
 
 
 <-»- t^ 
 
 -^c. 
 
 c-^ <::« c 
 
 
 ^'C/^ 4t • «:^ OK^- C_ * y^ 
 
-f^-f^-xi........ 
 
k7 /L ^ 
 
 c / 
 
 7 
 
 C^<: ( ""^Z CO 
 
 o 
 
 \y^acK^^ c^'^-^'C-^^n^eD 
 
 /(////c-^-^Z 
 
 /iXU. c <^ 
 
 \ 
 

 /^ty»./^^ ^*^<^* <C^^ ^/<.'^x*^ '"//H^^ &<ji^'^^ 
 
 
 ESSAYS 
 
 ON THE 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY AND ORIGIN 
 
 OF 
 
 PEAT MOSS 
 
 THE PECUHAa / 
 
 QUALITIES OF THAT SUBSTANCE ; 
 
 THE MEANS OF IMPROVING IT AS A SOIL ; 
 
 THE METHODS OF CONVERTING IT INTO A MANURE J ANU THE 
 
 OTHER ECONOMICAL PURPOSES TO WHICH IT MAY BE MADE 
 
 SUBSERVIENT. 
 
 BY THE REV. R. RENNIE, KILSYTH. 
 
 EDINBURGH : 
 
 Printed hy George Ramsay Sf Co, 
 
 i>OR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & CO. EDINBURGH J 
 
 AND JOHN MURRAY, FLEET-STREET, 
 
 LONDON. 
 
 Ifi07. 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 
V, 
 
TO 
 
 THE PRESIDENT, 
 
 AND OTHER MEMBERS OF 
 
 THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE, 
 
 THESE ESSAYS ARE DEDICATED 
 
 BY THE 
 
 AUTHOR, 
 
 AS A HUMBLE TESTIMONY 
 
 OP THE 
 
 HIGH SENSE HE ENTERTAINS OF THEIR 
 
 PATRIOTIC EXERTIONS 
 
 IN PROMOTING THE INTERESTS OF AGRICULTURE, 
 
 AND THE 
 
 IMPROVEMENT OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 
 
 Manse, Kilsyth, > 
 Oct, I St 1807. J 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 ESSAY I. 
 
 OF LIGNEOUS PLANTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 Introduction^ 1 
 
 Sect, I. — Forests abounded in the North of 
 
 Europe two thousand years ago^ . 18 
 II. — Reasons why more abundant then than 
 
 now^ 22 
 
 III. — Means by which they were destroyed^ 25 
 IV. — Of the period at which these forests 
 
 have been overset^ and by whom, 34 
 V. — Many of these forests were destroyed 
 
 by fire, 42 
 
 VI. — Other means by which forests have 
 
 been mined, 51 
 
Vi CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 VII. — General Conclusions : 1st, Forests, . 56 
 
 2d, destroyed, 57 
 
 Sd, laid foundation of mosses ; 58 
 4th, so7ne of these ruined by 
 
 the Romans 68 
 
 5th5 some mosses of recent 
 
 origin, 76 
 
 VII-I. — Objections to the above hypothesis, 81 
 Considerations which obviate these, 
 
 1st, Age of these forests, . . 85 
 2d, Accession of leaves during' 
 
 that period, 87 
 
 Sd, Seeds, S^c 91 
 
 4th, Txvigs, 93 
 
 5th, Bark and rind, 95 
 
 6th, Decay — Of white wood, 98' 
 
 7th, Roots, S^c 100 
 
 8th, Effects of tempests, S^^c. ib 
 Lastly, that 7iature thus pro- 
 vides materials for the 
 formation of moss, ... 102 
 
 ESSAY II. 
 
 OF AaUATIC I>LAT^TS. 
 
 Sect. I. — That moss is qflen renovated when 
 
 dug, 114 
 
 II. — What is requisite to this process,, .. 121 
 III. — The period of time Inquired, ..... 127 
 
CONTENTS. VU 
 
 Page 
 
 IV. — The plants that promote this renova* 
 
 tion^ 133 
 
 V. — That the same plants contribute to 
 
 the formation of moss ^ 136 
 
 VI. — That many lakes^ (§*c. have^ by these ^ 
 
 been converted into moss, 148 
 
 VIL — That these plants may still be traced 
 
 in moss, 164 
 
 VIII. — The qualities of these plants, 183 
 
 IX. — The above hypothesis accounts for 
 the variety and depth, S^c, of 
 
 moss, 191 
 
 X. — General conclusions, 220 
 
 1st, All moss of vegetable 
 
 origin, and consists of ib 
 2d, Ligneous and aquatic 
 
 plants 222 
 
 ,Sd, Thechangeswhichmosses 
 
 Jiave undergone, .... 224 
 4th, That moss grows mth 
 
 rapidity, 230 
 
 5th, That the deepest moss 
 may not be of very 
 ancient origin, .... 231 
 
^x^^-*- 
 
ESSAYS 
 
 ON THE 
 
 NATURAL HISTORY AND ORIGIN 
 
 CP 
 
 PEAT MOSS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION* 
 
 Natural History is become the favourite study of 
 all the nations of Europe. Great exertions have been 
 made to elucidate every branch of this delightful sub- 
 ject. The vegetable, mineral, and animal kingdoms, 
 have been surveyed with the most critical minute- 
 ness, and much light is daily poured 'in on every de- 
 partment of these. 
 
 The only branch that seems to have been over- 
 looked is that of Peat Moss. Though it exists, nay 
 abounds in every region of the north of Europe,, and 
 though it is every day under the eye of the philo- 
 sopher, the natural history and origin of this sub- 
 =Jtance has been neglected for ages* 
 
2 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 By some It seems to be regarded as a mystery be- 
 yond the reach of science itself ; by others it is look- 
 ed upon as beneath their notice. While the chemist 
 and natural historian, in a course of lectures, minute- 
 ly describes every other substance, no attempt is 
 made to elucidate the origin, or account for the dis- 
 tinguishing qualities of peat moss ; and in no one 
 language is there to be found a Complete treatise 
 on the subject. There are many loose hints thrown 
 out occasionally, and a variety of chemical experi- 
 ments have been made by men of science ; but no 
 author has hitherto collected these scattered frag- 
 ments, or attempted to form a clear or satisfactory 
 hypothesis on the subject, from a collection of well- 
 attested facts. 
 
 Nothing can be a more convincing evidence of the 
 universal neglect, and imperfect knowledge of this 
 branch of natural history, tlian the many incoherent 
 and inconsistent theories that have been espoused and 
 defended, by men of distinguished talents of different 
 nations. 
 
 In general they agree in supposing, that ligneous 
 plants have chiefly contributed, in one shape or an- 
 other, to the formation of that substance ; but as to 
 the manner- in which that process has been effected 
 they differ widely. Some suppose that moss is alto- 
 gether formed by alluvion. They are of opinion, 
 that it consists of the leaves and twigs of trees, washed 
 down from the declivities and mountains into the 
 vallies by rivers and floods j and that these, in a 
 
INTRODUCTION. S 
 
 course of ages, have been converted into moss by 
 the mixture of reeds and aquatic plants. Others 
 have supposed that it is a certain species of native soil, 
 on which ligneous and aquatic plants naturally grow; 
 and that these, by their Continual decay, originally 
 formed, and still continue to form moss. 
 
 Picard, Lemnius, Piganiol, and Grammaye are of 
 opinion, that it is a congeries of bark, boughs, leaves, 
 and roots of trees, or of whole forests, overset and 
 immersed in water, mixed with grass and reeds. 
 
 Lentilius and Commelinus think that it is a marshy 
 bituminous earth, mixed with ligneous and aquatic 
 plants, putrified under water. They suppose that 
 Holland, at one period, was an extended forest, and 
 that this was overflown by an inundation of the ocean : 
 That, of course, the wood thus overset sunk in the 
 mud, and by the accession of particles of earth, de- 
 posited by the waters, formxcd the immense mosses 
 of that country. 
 
 Stevinus thinks that it is a fat sulphuro-bitumlnous 
 earth of rotten wood. He supposes that the leaves, 
 &c. of trees which grew on rising grounds, after 
 being reduced to earth, have been washed down into 
 the vallies, and thus, in a course of ages, have been 
 converted into moss. He adds, as a proof of this, that 
 black rich mould, if frequently washed with water, 
 yields a solution which, when filtered and evapora- 
 ted, leaves a residuum of a sulphureous and inflam- 
 mable nature like peat, and not distinguishable from 
 it. 
 
4 lNTRODUCT10^r, 
 
 All these respectable authors agree in this general 
 opinion, that moss is of vegetable origin, and that 
 ligneous plants have chiefly contributed to the forma- 
 tion of it. As to the manner in which that process 
 has been carried on, and the various changes and com- 
 binations that have been accomplished by it, they 
 seem to have formed no clear or decided opinion. 
 
 Other authors, equally respectable, have suppos- 
 ed, that all moss is of mineral origin. Scheuchtzer 
 was of opinion, that it is a mere fossile bituminous 
 earth, only accidentally mixed with vegetable matter. 
 Stahl was of a similar opinion. In his Fund. Chem. 
 he says, that it is a bituminous mineral subterraneous 
 substance. Morhoffius, in his Polyhist. calls it a 
 mineral earth, and classes it with coal. He says, 
 that it differs from mold, as it is more inflammable, 
 and swims on water, whereas mold sinks. 
 
 Some have even supposed that moss is a primitive 
 earth. Guiccardin and Oudhoff, &c. adopt this opi- 
 nion. They imagined that it is a distinct species of 
 earth peculiar to marshy levels : That, by the sin- 
 gular providence of God, this earth has been provid- 
 ed for the use of man : That, though partly carried 
 oft, the germ still remains; and, by the annual in* 
 crement of aquatic plants and alluvial soil, it is re- 
 novated. 
 
 Others have supposed, that all mosses were ori- 
 ginally lakes ; that, when these were drained or filled 
 up, they were converted into moss. The bitumen 
 and sulphur they contained were supposed, by O'Dap- 
 
IN'TRODUCTION. 5 
 
 per, to be the cause of this change, and of commu- 
 nicating inflammability to that substance. He there- 
 fore describes peat in the following words : " It con- 
 " sists of bitumen, asphalt, and naphtha, mixed with 
 " leaves, &c. of trees and aquatic plants." He quotes 
 Agricola de Ortu Subterran. in corroboration of this 
 opinion, who says, that no fat earth is inflammable 
 unless it contain bituriien and sulphur. 
 
 Some of the Dutch have supposed that moss is a 
 marine production ; that, being torn up from the 
 bottom, and tossed about by the waves of the ocean, 
 it is thrown ashore. The spongy reedy turf called 
 dary^ is, of course, they say, often found in the bot- 
 tom of the sea near Antwerp, and elsewhere ; they 
 therefore conclude, that it has been originally form- 
 ed there. It contains a liquid bitumen, and a por- 
 tion of sea salt. 
 
 Others have supposed, that peat moss is a grow- 
 ing vegetable, sui generis. This opinion has been 
 adopted by some of the Dutch writers upwards of a 
 century ago, and Dr Anderson, in his Essay, stre- 
 nuously defends it. 
 
 It is almost unnecessary for me to add, that some 
 writers of distinction, and almost all the vulgar, are 
 of opinion, that moss is of antediluvean origin. Dr 
 Morton supposed that the strata of peat found in 
 Northampton and other parts of England, with all 
 the trees they contain, were deposited by the deluge. 
 Ever)^ peasant is of opinion that this has been upiver- 
 
6 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 sally the case with all peat mosses, and that none are 
 of more recent origin. 
 
 Such a variety of opinions, so discordant, clearly 
 proves, that this subject has been either much ne- 
 glected, or, at least, that the origin and natural his- 
 tory of peat moss has not been hitherto elucidated in 
 a scientific and satisfactory manner. 
 
 This neglect is unaccountable, if not criminal. 
 Whether we consider the vast extent of surface co- 
 vered with moss in every kingdom of the north of 
 Europe, or the various and important purposes it is 
 calculated to serve, the subject must rise in import- 
 ance in the estimation of every enlightened mind; 
 and it must appear astonishing, that a subject so in- 
 teresting and so important has hitherto been so much 
 neglected. 
 
 It is utterly impossible for me accurately to ascer- 
 tain the number of square miles covered with moss. 
 It may, however, arrest the attention of the reader 
 to give a rough guess at it. 
 
 I shall name a few mosses. These are by no 
 means the most extensive ; they are not selected as 
 such ; yet they may suffice to give a faint view of 
 the vast extent of surface covered with that substance. 
 At one period, perhaps, the whole of that surface 
 was rich arable land, or, at another, an extended 
 forest. 
 
 Hatfield moss, in England, seems to be of this de- 
 scription : It contains upwards of 1 80,000 acres. 
 Some of the mosses in Ireland are still more exten- 
 sive. Dr Boates speaks of one on the Shannon, fifty 
 
INTRODUCTION. 7 
 
 miles long, by two or three broad. Carr, in his 
 Stranger in Ireland, says, that the bog of Allan alone 
 contains 300,000 acres. Blavier mentions some 
 mosses in France, probably of much greater extent. 
 The great marsh of Moutoire, near the mouth of the 
 Loire, he says, is more than fifty leagues in circum- 
 ference. And Mons. De Luc says, that the moss of 
 JBremerford, near Bremen, is upwards of sixty miles 
 long, by twelve or fifteen broad : At a moderate cal- 
 culadon, it must contain upwards of 600,000 acres. 
 In other places of Holland, Germany, Poland, Prus- 
 sia, Sweden, and Russia, I might point out some of 
 double or treble that extent. To calculate the num- 
 ber of acres these may contain, would be an unavail- 
 ing task ; for though that calculation were correct, 
 it could only give a very imperfect view of the vast 
 extent of surface covered with moss in the north of 
 Europe. Innumerable millions of acres lie as a use- 
 Less waste, nay, a nuisance to these nations. The 
 benefits that might accrue to Europe by a slight at- 
 tention to this subject are above all calculation. It 
 is impossible for numbers to express, or the imagina- 
 tion to conceive, correctly, the extent of these. 
 
 I speak not of moss as a soil only ; there are other 
 economical purposes it is calculated to serve, of equal 
 importance ; yet the cultivation of it as a soil alone 
 is important. The following statement, in the com- 
 munications to the Board of Agriculture, will shew 
 this in a satisfactory manner : It is said that, in Cam- 
 bridgeshire alone, there are not less than 150,000 
 
tl INTRODUCTION. 
 
 acres of waste unimproved fen. By a moderate im- 
 provement, these might be made to yield 10s. per 
 acre, so that no less than 75,OOOl. of yearly rent 
 might thus be added to that single county. Accord- 
 ing to Dr Halley, Cambridgeshire is only a sevendeth 
 part of England and Wales. If the above results be 
 multiplied by 70, the number of acres that lie waste, 
 may be 22,351,000 in these kingdoms alone. At a 
 moderate rent of 10s. per acre, they might yield up- 
 wards of 10,000,0001. At 30 years purchase, these 
 would add 300,000,0001. Sterling to the national 
 capital. 
 
 The above is surely no more than an ideal calcula- 
 tion, and perhaps it ought not to be allowed to be 
 correct* For, although Cambridgeshire be only a 
 seventieth part of England and Wales, it is not pro- 
 bable that all that kingdom contains the same propor- 
 tion of unimproved moor and fen, "v^dth that single 
 county ; yet the calculation is valuable ; and the 
 subject cannot be too often or too strongly pressed 
 upon the attention of the public. 
 
 Beatson in the First Vol. of the Communications to 
 the Board of Agriculture, calculates, in general, that 
 there are upwards of 20 millions of unimproved 
 mosses and moors in Britain. He supposes that there- 
 are upwards of seven in England, and 14 in Scotland. 
 
 The proportion of improveable fens and marshes 
 and mosses, in Ireland, it is likely, is far greater than 
 in either. 
 
I 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 9 
 
 Is It not, then, astonishing, and Is it not to be la- 
 mented, that a subject of such national importance 
 has hitherto been so shamefully neglected ? Is it not 
 a reproach to every nation in Europe ? Ought it not 
 to be deprecated by all ranks ? And ought not every 
 potentate of these vast dominions to blush at the re- 
 collection ? Shall they spend the treasures and the 
 blood of their subjects in the wild schemes of ambi- 
 tion, in seeking to extend their dominions, and ag- 
 grandize their nation and their name by new con- 
 quests, while kingdoms lie uncultivated in their own 
 empires, and myriads of acres of their richest vallies 
 lie as a useless waste ? If but one ten thousand part 
 of the treasures wasted in one campaign, were devot- 
 ed to the improvement of these uncultivated regions, 
 then might the wilderness be made to smile, and the 
 desart to bud forth and blossom as the rose ; then 
 might the voice of melody and health be heard in the 
 peaceful cot of the lowly peasant, in place of the 
 sound of the trumpet, and the alarm of war. 
 
 The heath covered mountain would no longer shew 
 its unseemly front, but be cloathed in all the verdure 
 of spring. In place of impassable fens, the waving 
 corn and yellow harvest would adorn the vallies. 
 The peasant would no longer need to pine for want 
 of food or employment, or pant for distant climes. 
 While the upstart tyrant and his creatures, in France, 
 pant for honour, and pursue the path that leads to it, 
 all drenched in blood, let Britons of all ranks direct 
 their attention to the toils of a healthful, happy pea- 
 
10 ^ INTRODUCTION. 
 
 vsantry ; let them diffuse the light of service aver the 
 British Isles, and point out and pursue the mighty 
 plans of economical improvement, especially of the 
 neglected fens and mosses. 
 
 Say that the task is arduous : say not that the diffi- 
 culties are insurmountable, or that it is a forlorn hope 
 to make the attempt. These difficulties are not once 
 to be named with those with which the industrious 
 Dutch have long contended, and at last surmounted. 
 While they have converted seas into dry land, and 
 impassable fens and lakes into fertile plains, let none 
 despair of seeing the mosses of Europe converted 
 into purposes equally important and useful. 
 
 It were a fruitless attempt in an obscure individual 
 to endeavour to rouse the attention of the potentates 
 of Europe to this subject : yet when I see such spirit- 
 ed attempts in Britain, and so many rapid improve- 
 ments already made,, and every day making, in every 
 department of agriculture ; and, more especially, 
 when so many of the first rank and first talents in 
 the kingdom, have formed patriotic societies for the 
 encouragement of that most noble of all arts, I can- 
 not but flatter myself, that even my feeble efforts may 
 arrest the attention of some of my countrymen. And 
 I hope the time is not far distant, when the Natural 
 History of Peat Moss, like every other branch of 
 that delightful subject, shall be elucidated. 
 
 It is the pride and distinguishing glory of Britons, 
 that they excel all the world in the art of agriculture. 
 Mons. Mirabeau, in France, was forced to acknow- 
 
mTRODUCTION. 11 
 
 ledge this. " The English," says he, " have been 
 " the first to establish the principles of agriculture in 
 ^' Europe, and to discover that this is the foundation 
 '' of all other arts, and the very hinge on which all 
 *' commerce ought to turn." Don Jos. Volcarel was 
 obliged to bear a similar testimony : "It must be 
 " acknowledged," says he, " that England has open- 
 " ed the eyes of other nations. These islanders have 
 *' discovered at last, after many schemes, that it is 
 " agriculture alone which forms the source and ori- 
 *' gin of their greatness. If, on these principles, we 
 " were to calculate the progress of that monarchy, 
 " we would find their power to have increased in a 
 " threefold degree, and that this has been augmented 
 •** in proportion to their improvement in this art." 
 When I see such a testimony from the most enligh- 
 tened enemies of my native country in her behalf, I 
 feel an honest elation of heart ; and when I think 
 that the maritime power and flourishing commerce of 
 Great Britain depend so much on her internal re- 
 sources, and especially on the improvement of her 
 soil, I am not without hopes that peat moss (the only 
 part that has been neglected) shall soon arrest the at- 
 tention of every patriot, and call forth the talents of 
 the distinguished chemist. 
 
 To rouse the attention of all ranks to this subject, 
 and especially that of the patriotic societies in Scot- 
 land, England, and Ireland, and, if possible, that of 
 the Senate itself, is my great object. With this view 
 I have, at my leisure hours, prepared a number of 
 
12 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 essays on the natural history and origin of peat moss. 
 These are ready for the press, and will be published 
 in succession. I have likewise prepared a number of 
 essays on moss, as a soil, a manure, a fuel, &c. &c. 
 
 The first five essays are entirely devoted to the na- 
 tural history and origin of that substance. Till this 
 be clearly ascertained, every attempt to improve it as 
 a soil, or convert it into manure, must be hazardous. 
 Experiments may be made, but, in that case, they are 
 only made at random : And, perhaps, nine-tenths of 
 these attempts have originated in ignorance, and 
 therefore failed. Even of those which have succeed- 
 ed, the greater part of that success may be ascribed 
 to accident ; and accidental discoveries, without know- 
 ing on what principles they proceed, cannot be deem- 
 ed satisfactory. 
 
 To point out the origin and distinguishing qualities 
 of peat moss ; to ascertain, if possible, the chemical 
 principles on which it may be converted into a soil or 
 manure, or turned to other economical purposes ; and, 
 above all, to show that no disappointments ought to 
 damp the ardour of Britons, or make them despair 
 of success, is the great end I have in view in these 
 essays. 
 
 In the prosecution of this subject I have felt the 
 most pleasing amusement. It has been a fvmd of de- 
 lightful recreation to me for years. Prompted by a 
 sense of the importance of the subject, and still more 
 encouraged by the polite attention of the Highland 
 
INTRODUCTION. 1$ 
 
 Society and the Board of Agriculture, I have pur- 
 sued the plan with perseverance. 
 
 My obligations to them are great and many. I 
 feel, too, and am proud to express, the high sense of 
 gratitude I owe to the Curators of the Advocates' 
 Library, for the liberal manner in which they fur- 
 nished me with the books they had, and even procu- 
 red some from the Continent on the subject. 
 
 It might hurt the delicacy of individuals were I to 
 express, in this public manner, my obligations to 
 them. It is enough to say, I feel, and ever will re- 
 tain, a grateful sense of these. 
 
 To the University of Glasgow, and every Member 
 of that learned Society, I am under such obligations 
 as I cannot, and therefore mil not attempt to ex- 
 press. 
 
ESSAY I. 
 
 ON LIGNEOUS PLANTS. 
 
AN 
 
 ESSAY 
 
 ON THOSE 
 
 LIGNEOUS PLANTS 
 
 WHICH LAY THE FOUNDATION, 
 4ND FURNISH MATERIALS FOR THE FORMATION 
 
 OP 
 
 MOSS. 
 
 JL HE natural history of Peat Moss is very obsCure ; 
 and, it is probable, that it will never be fully elucida- 
 ted. Many ingenious and plausible theories have 
 been suggested upon the subject. Without enume- 
 rating all of these, I shall endeavour to state and sup*, 
 port those which appear to me the most rational and 
 consistent. 
 
 It is almost universally allowed to be of vegetable 
 origin ; and it seems to be the general opinion, that 
 k is either a congeries of ligneous or aquatic plants, or 
 of both. To these two sources all the mosses of the 
 North of Europe may be traced. 
 
 In this Essay I shall confine myself to Ligneous 
 Plants: and endeavour to trace up many of our mosses 
 to this source. 
 
18 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 SECTION L 
 
 It is the opinion of eminent men, that the whole 
 habitable earth was originally covered with woods ; 
 and that it continued to be so until mankind formed 
 themselves into societies, and subdued these by fire 
 or steel. Dr Darwin, in his Botanic Garden, gives 
 this as his decided opinion, in so many words. St 
 Pierre thinks that the whole earth, if left uncultiva- 
 ted, would become aTorest. He thinks, that even the 
 Alps and Pyrenees were once covered with wood. 
 
 It cannot be denied, that there are facts which tend 
 to corroborate this opinion. I shall state a few of 
 these, which are well known, and need no attesta- 
 tion. 
 
 1 . When the earth is uninhabited, and allowed to 
 lie in an uncultivated state, trees of all kinds sponta- 
 neously spring up and flourish, each in the soil and 
 climate suited to its species. 
 
 2. Even land at present in cultivation, if enclosed, 
 and allowed to lie waste, in the vicinity of a forest. 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 19 
 
 will speedily be covered with wood. The seeds of 
 various trees are scattered over the surface ; there 
 they strike root^ and spring up in abundance. 
 
 3. Most of the glens and precipices, especially in 
 low sheltered situations, inaccessible to cattle, are co- 
 vered with copse-wood. 
 
 4. Many regions of the earth, both in the old and 
 new worlds (as they are called), when first explored, 
 were one extended forest : And the remotest re- 
 gions, which the traveller has never trod, in all pro- 
 bability, are similar to these* 
 
 Whether this opinion be well founded or not, it is 
 certain that the north of Europe once abounded in 
 woods and forests, more than now. It appears that 
 trees have flourished even in the cold inhospitable 
 climate of Lapland, where scarcely a tree or shrub is 
 now to be seen.— ^They are dug out under the perpe* 
 tual snows of that region. 
 
 It is impossible to trace the changes in the climate, 
 arid the consequent changes in the productions of 
 different regions of the globe, up to a very remote 
 period. History leads us back only a few hundred 
 years. But we have both geographers and historians 
 of credibility who bear testimony, that, eighteen hun- 
 dred years ago, the north of Europe abounded in fo- 
 rests, in many places where scarcely a tree can now 
 be seen. 
 
 Ptolemy is one of the most ancient of our geogra- 
 phers t and, considering the period at which he wrote, 
 he is very correct. Let any person look at his map 
 
 b2 
 
20 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 of Europe, he will see, that, in the south of that quar- 
 ter of the globe, there were few forests of any consi- 
 derable extent. In Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Greece, 
 there appears to have been none. 
 
 In the north of Europe forests appear to have been 
 numerous and very extensive in his days. In Ger- 
 i^any they are so immense as to make a very conspi- 
 cuous figure in the map. Helvetiorum Sylva, Ga- 
 brieta Sylva, Hircinia Sylva, Somana Sylva, cover im- 
 mense tracks, and give the whole of Germany, &c» 
 the appearance of one extended forest, with only a 
 few interstices of open land. 
 
 Ortelius corroborates the testimony of Ptolemy. 
 According to his representation, Arduenna Sylva 
 (now Ardennes) seems to have covered one third 
 part of ancient Belgium. The Hircinian forest seems 
 to cover more than one half of Germany : 
 
 Whereas, according to these geographers, there 
 was not a single forest, of any considerable extent, 
 in Asia, Africa, or the south of Europe* The Py- 
 renees are, indeed, represented as partly covered with 
 wood at that period ; but in no place is there the 
 appearance of any forest so far south, excepting up- 
 on these mountains *. 
 
 The testimony of historians, upon this point, is 
 equally decided and clear. Csesar, Tacitus, Pliny^ 
 
 * It is not asserted that no forests did ever exist in the south 
 of Europe. The probability is that they did abound as much, 
 if not more, than in the north. 
 
 All that I mean to insinuate is, that this was not the case at 
 the period alluded to. 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 21 
 
 Pomponius, Strabo, and Tyrius, all agree, that the 
 forests of the north of Europe were numerous and 
 extensive. 
 
 I shall not give a detailed account of these forests. 
 A few quotations respecting the extent and situation 
 of the most remarkable may suffice. 
 
 Caesar was the conqueror of Gaul ; of course, he 
 narrowly inspected that country, and points out its to- 
 pography with minuteness : He gives a distinct ac- 
 count of the sylva Ar duenna in his days : He calls it a 
 forest of vast extent, and by far the greatest of all 
 Gaul. He points out its limits : He says it reached 
 from the Rhine, through the territories of the Tre- 
 viri, to the conflux of the Schelde, and the Maese ; 
 so that it extended upwards of 500 miles. :I 
 
 Strabo gives a similar account of its extent. His 
 words are " efficiunt Jiccc qiiatuor millia stadioru7n,'' 
 
 Pomponius describes Gaul as abounding in forests. 
 He calls it " Terra amcena lucis immaiiibusJ^ 
 
 The Hircinian forest is described with equal pre- 
 cision. Pliny says, that it covered almost the whole 
 extent of Germany. Caesar and Pomponius both 
 agree that it was no less than nine days journey in 
 breadth, and 60 in length. It seems even to have 
 been more extensive ; for it is added by the same 
 authors, that no man, in those days, had ever reach- 
 ed the extremity of it. 
 
 If we were to trust to etymology, the prevailing 
 names of these districts would indicate that most of 
 Germany, and a great part of the United Provinces^ 
 
22 ON THE NATURAJL HISTORY AND 
 
 was once covered with wood. The very name Hoir 
 land indicates this. Degner observes that Holt signi- 
 fies wood. Holland, therefore, must signify the woody 
 country ;' and all those districts, whose names termi- 
 nate in Jiolt or houtj tsoould^ *woed^ *wolde^ &c. in- 
 dicate that they were originally forests. Seven woU 
 den is still the name of the seven forests of Friez- 
 land. 
 
 It cannot be doubted that the forests of the north 
 of Europe were more numerous and more extensive 
 2000 years ago, than they are at present. It seems 
 probable that they do not occupy one-fifth, perhaps 
 one-tenth, of the space they did at that period. 
 
 This point I have been at some pains to establish. 
 It would, however, tend to the elucidation of this 
 subject, if we could ascertain the causes of this change. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 1. In proportion to the progress of agriculture 
 forests decrease. Every new settler in North Ame- 
 rica clears a part of that country of wood, and con- 
 verts it into a cultivated soil. A similar change. 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 23 
 
 doubtless, ensued in the North of Europe ; and the 
 more rapid the progress of agriculture, forests would 
 disappear in proportion. 
 
 At the remote period of the Roman invasion, the 
 inhabitants of the greatest part of the north of Eu- 
 rope seem to have been ignorant of the arts of cul- 
 tivation. Like the wandering tribes of North Ame- 
 rica, they seem to have depended for their subsist- 
 ence, in a great measure, on the spontaneous produc- 
 tions of the earth. They lived by the chace : or, if 
 they had herds and flocks, these were but few iu 
 number, in proportion to what are now reared in that 
 region. 
 
 This may be one cause why forests abounded at 
 that period. Few were cut, with a view to cultivate 
 the soil. The young plants, or seedlings, of every 
 species, were suffered to spring up with less injury 
 from man or beast. Besides this, the different arts, 
 introduced into the north of Europe, occasioned a 
 great consumpt of fuel. The forests that abounded 
 would naturally present themselves as the readiest 
 means of supplying that article. The quantity thus 
 consumed, in France alone, from the want of coal, 
 and other combustibles, must have been great j and 
 economical writers have often raised the alarm that, 
 by this means alone, die whole woods of France will 
 soon be consumed, 
 
 2. Besides this, the rude nadons of the north, at 
 that early period, had a religious veneral^on fyr the^f 
 
24 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 forests. They were all druids ; they worshipped un- 
 der every green tree ; forests were deemed sacred 
 to their deities ; each had its peculiar divinity ; and 
 some trees were regarded as peculiarly sacred. 
 
 Maximus Tyrius mentions, that the Oak was wor- 
 shipped by druids of every nation ; that, for this cause, 
 it was carefully preserved. He also adds, that the 
 fir-tree was the favourite of the Danes, and preserv- 
 ed by them with equal care.^'' 
 
 These two species were the most abundant of all 
 the trees of the forest. To injure or destroy them 
 would be deemed a deed of sacrilege; to preserve them 
 would be esteemed an act of religious homage. But, 
 
 3. There were civil as well as religious motives, 
 which prompted them to preserve these forests. 
 These rude nations, at that remote period, made fre- 
 quent inroads upon one another. Each wa6 ready to 
 fall a prey to his neighbour. When overpowered by 
 numbers, or unable to meet the invading foe in open 
 field they fled to their woods for succour and for 
 safety. These offered a secure retreat ; thither the 
 enemy, though numerous, durst not pursue them. 
 
 The Roman historians bear testimony to this. 
 They all agree that the inhabitants of Britain, and 
 the north of Europe, retreated to their woods on 
 every emergency. There they rallied ; from thence 
 they rushed forth, with impetuous fury, upon the 
 foe. Csesar mentions many instances of this. Cas- 
 gibelaunus, after his defeat, retired beyond the Thames, 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 25 
 
 and took refuge in the woods and marshes : The 
 Silures, when attacked by Agrlcola, did the same: 
 Venutius, king of the Brigantines, imitated their ex- 
 ample. 
 
 The same historian observes, that these nations 
 had few cities or fortified places ; that their woods, 
 surrounded with a rampart and ditch, served them for 
 a bulwark and strong-hold. As such they would be 
 preserved with care. 
 
 The great object of the invader would be, on the 
 contrary, to destroy them, and thereby cut off the 
 natives from a secure retreat. 
 
 This leads me to point out, 
 
 SECTION III. 
 
 The Means by which these -Forests *were destroyed. 
 
 1. It will naturally occur to every one that some 
 of these have decayed through age. This is 
 the universal law of nature. Every herb, fruit, and 
 flower fadeth. The lofty cedar, and the stately oak, 
 
-26 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 that have stood for ages, at last tumble into ruins ; 
 and the fashion of the world passeth away. 
 
 This account of the matter may appear satisfactory 
 to some, perhaps plausible to all ; but it is only plau- 
 sible ; and it will, by no means, account for the great 
 and general wreck of these forests. 
 
 It is with the vegetable as with the animal king- 
 dom 'y one generation goeth, and another cometh, in 
 endless succession. 
 
 Every tree yields fruit after its kind ; these natu- 
 rally drop each species upon the soil suited to its pro- 
 duction (that is, near the parent tree.) There they 
 would spring up ; and thus one generation would 
 naturally supply the place of another. Du Hamel, 
 accordingly observes, that the seeds of the fir tree, 
 which drop in the forests of Bourdeaux, in August, 
 open by the heat of the sun, and spring up so thick 
 that it is necessary to thin them from time to time. 
 
 In place of a forest's decaying through age, it is 
 probable that, in some situations, it may be renovat- 
 ed ; and, it is certain, that the new generation must 
 exceed the old, both in number of trees and extent 
 of surface. 
 
 That this has been the case with some of our an- 
 cient forests, which now lie in ruins, appears proba- 
 ble, from the following circumstances : — 
 
 1. («) The trees found in our mosses are, for the 
 most part, perfectly straight. Even oaks, which are 
 most apt to spread in a crooked branchy form, where 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 2*7 
 
 they have room to extend, are often found 90 faf3t 
 long, without abend, or the appearance of a hoi^pv* 
 
 2. (b) The roots of trees are often found so thickly 
 studded in the subsoil of moss, that it is hard to con- 
 ceive how they could extend to such a size in so 
 small a place. 
 
 These circumstances render it probable, if not cer- 
 tain, that such forests have been originally very thick 
 set. 
 
 There are other circumstances, that render it 
 equally probable that one generation has risen upon 
 the ruins of another. 
 
 1 . («) In many mosses one tier of roots appear per- 
 pendicularly above another ; yet both are fixed ia 
 the subsoil. 
 
 2. (^) In some even three tier appear, in succes- 
 sion, the one above the other. 
 
 3. (c) In other cases, the branches of the trees that 
 have been overset continue to grow, while the trunk 
 decays. These branches send out new roots, which 
 take a new hold of the soil, and thus form a new ge- 
 neradon. In the Phil. Trans. No. 275, this appears 
 to be the case in Hatfield m.oss, and elsewhere. 
 
 4. (^d) It is a w^ell known fact, in natural history, 
 that the roots of many trees may be converted into 
 branches, and the branches into roots. If the tree 
 be overset, and the roots turned up, so as to have ac- 
 cess to air and light, they vegetate like branches, and 
 grow into trees : If, on the contrary, the branches 
 be covered with earth, and thus cut off from access 
 
S8 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 to air and light, they are converted into roots, and 
 serve the same purpose. Cordiner, in his antiquities 
 of the North, mentions an instance of this in Mar Fo- 
 rest. A large pine, with spreading branches, arrest- 
 ed his attention. One ol these branches, by the weight 
 of timber, had reached the ground ; there it had 
 taken root ; for many years it had grown ; a new 
 tree had sprung up from this new stock : By the im- 
 petuosity of the storm this new tree had been torn 
 up ; and the roots and branch, and tree that had 
 sprung from it, hung high suspended in the air. 
 
 5. (e) Even, in some cases, trees are found still 
 growing upon the ruins of others, after they have 
 been converted into moss. De Luc mentions that, 
 in Kidinger Moor, trees are still growing, though there 
 is three feet of moss formed on the surface by the ruins 
 of former generations. Dr Walker mentions a simi- 
 lar instance in the moss of Strathcluony. 
 
 All these circumstances combined, render it pro- 
 bable, that time alone will not account for the gene- 
 ral wreck of our forests ; at least, it appears certain, 
 that they may survive for several succeeding genera- 
 tions, before they finally decay through age. 
 
 Other causes may be assigned, and no doubt have 
 co-operated in this great catastrophe : nor can it be 
 ascribed to one cause. We are not to suppose that 
 every forest has undergone the same fate. 
 
 There are, however, evident marks. 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 29 
 
 2. That some have yielded to the storm^ and been 
 overset by hurricanes. 
 
 In every age, and in every quarter of the globe, 
 the stateliest trees and the most extensive forests have 
 been overset, or totally ruined, by the impetuosity of 
 the tempest. Csesar, Tacitus, and Pomponius, all 
 agree that Gaul, in their days, was exposed to tre- 
 mendous hurricanes. They speak of whole forsets 
 being overset by tempests of wind. Tacitus, who 
 knew both countries, describes Germany as being 
 still more exposed to such tempests than even Gaul. 
 He speaks of the largest oaks being thereby overset ; 
 and, he says, that their extended roots and branches 
 and trunks, when thus overblown, gave them the ap- 
 pearance as if whole mountains were moved. 
 
 Thus trees which stood on the firmest foundation, 
 and had the fastest hold of the earth, may yield to 
 the storm ; much more those which sprung up in a 
 looser soil ; and, most of all, those which had risen 
 upon the ruins of former generations : — their roots 
 would naturally sink into the mass of leaves and 
 boughs and trunks in search of nourishment; of 
 course, having a less firm hold, they would more 
 readily yield. When the rains descended, and the 
 floods came, and the winds blew, they would be more 
 easily overset. 
 
 Besides this, if it happened that several feet of 
 tnoss had been formed, during the growth of these 
 trees, they would, on this account, more easily yield 
 to the storm. Senebier shews, by experiments, that 
 
80 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 a tree sunk in the earth, half its length, will speedily 
 perish ; the same must take place if it be sunk in 
 moss. Chilled by this means, it must be checked in 
 its growth, and readily yield to the impetuosity of the 
 tempest. 
 
 Mons. De Luc, in a letter to me in January last, 
 makes a similar remark : 
 
 " That there have been vast forests in the north of 
 " Europe, which no more exist, is ascertained by his-* 
 *' torical monuments ; and it appears to me, that 
 *' peat mosses have been one of the causes of their 
 *' destruction : The accumulation of peat having 
 *' softened the soil, the winds must have blown down 
 " the trees. Hence whole masses of the mossy sub- 
 " soil has, by this means, been torn up ; especially on 
 " the banks of rivers and lakes. These have caused 
 " those floating islands which still subsist in the coun- 
 '' try of Bremen, that I have described in my works. 
 
 ^' Trees thus overset must have sunk- into the 
 *' mossy subsoil, and added to the mass of moss. In 
 " this subsoil, the seeds they had dropped would 
 " cease to vegetate. The attempt to plant new tree& 
 ^' on the spot has been vain ; they are soon covered 
 '* with a grey moss, which speedily destroys them/' 
 
 Dr Walker mentions a recent instance of this. In 
 the year 1 756, the wood of Drumlanrig was overset 
 by the wind ; and many forests, both in Britain and 
 on the Continent, have, no doubt, suffered the same 
 fate. Hence, in many mosses, the trees are ail 
 broken over within two or tliree feet of the surface ; 
 
♦ ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. ^J 
 
 their trunks all lie in the same direction, a proof that 
 they have yielded to the same element. 
 
 In the British Islands, they mostly lie in the direc- 
 tion from S. W. to N. E. because our prevailing winds 
 and heaviest rains come from that quarter. I have 
 examined many mosses in this neighbourhood, and 
 found this to be the case. The same is said of Hat- 
 field, Phil. Trans. No. 275, and Dr Collet says the 
 same of Berkshire moss. 
 
 Junius, in his Histor. Batav. mentions, that in many 
 mosses in Holland, though not in all, immense trees 
 are found ; that their roots all incline to the N. W. 
 and their tops to the S. E. He says, that this is a 
 proof that forests once abounded in those regions, and 
 that they were overset by north winds, or incursions 
 of the northern ocean. 
 
 It is of little consequence in what direction the 
 trunks are found lying. If, in any moss, they lie 
 chiefly in one direction, the probability is, that they 
 have been overset by the wind. 
 
 No doubt other causes have combined to overset 
 these forests. The hands of men have been employ- 
 ed for this purpose, and there are evident proofs that 
 some 
 
 3. Have been cut doxnyn. 
 
 ' A number of well attested facts lead to this con- 
 clusion : Historians, both ancient and modern, bear 
 us out in forming it. As this is an important point. 
 
32 OT THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 and tends greatly to illustrate the origin of many of 
 our mosses, I shall endeavour to establish it, upon 
 the most unequivocal evidence. 
 
 (a.) There are evident marks of the hatchet in many 
 of our ruined forests, and in the deepest mosses, both 
 in the British Islands and on the Continent. 
 
 Numberless instances of this must have occurred 
 to the reader ; I shall only point out a few that have 
 been carefully recorded. 
 
 The Rev. Mr Taitj in his account of Kincardine 
 moss, mentions, that it has been originally a forest ; 
 that it bears evident marks of having been cut ; that 
 the stumps of the trees are generally about two or 
 three feet high. At that height, he adds, the diame- 
 ter of a tree is generally less, and therefore more 
 easily cut : the cutter can better apply his strength 
 than at a greater or less height. Hence, in Russia, 
 where wood abounds, and is used for fuel, they cut 
 it about the same height. Mr Tait adds, that there 
 are clear marks of the hatchet still to be seen ; that 
 it seems to have been two and a half inches broad ; 
 that there is no reason to suppose that this forest 
 was overset by the winds, for none of the trees ap- 
 pear to have been torn up by the roots. 
 
 Mr Ure, in his History of East Kilbride, mentions 
 a similar case. " A few years ago, the trunk of a 
 " tree, with part of the root, was dug out of a peat 
 " moss near Renfrew. In the trunk, a little above 
 " the root, was found sticking an iron hatchet, of a 
 *^ Tery uncommon kind." 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 5S 
 
 Mr Alton, in his essay on peat earth, says, that he 
 has seen many thousands of trees in mosses that had 
 been evidently cut. 
 
 In the Phil. Trans. No. 275, similar instances are 
 mentioned in Hatfield moss. Some of the trees 
 found deep in the moss are chopped, some squared, 
 some bored through, others half riven with great 
 wooden wedges and stones ; and broken axe heads, 
 similar to the sacrificing axes of the Romans, are 
 found in them. 
 
 Dr Leigh, in his Natural History of Lincolnshire^ 
 mentions, that the trees dug out of the fens of that 
 county bear evident marks of being cut ; that the 
 marks of the hatchet are still fresh and obvious. He 
 adds, that, in some of the deepest drains, trees were 
 found cut, squared, and formed into rails, stoups, 
 bars, &c. &c. 
 
 In Somersetshire, Cheshire, Lancashire, West- 
 moreland, Yorkshire, Staffordshire, and other coun- 
 ties, the same author observes, that there are similar 
 marks of the hatchet to be seen. He adds, that in 
 the Netherlands, France, Switzerland, &c. there are 
 the same. 
 
 Mr De Luc, who narrowly examined the mosses 
 on the Continent, mentions, that there are evident 
 marks of the hatchet to be seen on the trees dug out 
 of Kedinger moor. Pontus Henterus says the same 
 of all the trees dug out of the mosses of Picardy in 
 France. 
 
34 0N THE NATURAL HISTORY ANf> 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 Of the period at which these forests have heeii 
 ova^sety and hy whom. 
 
 It cannot be expected that we can ascertain at what 
 precise period, or by whom these forests have been 
 cut ; there are only a few scraps of history to direct 
 bur researches. — I shall name a few : 
 
 (Z>.) It appears from the history of Britain, that 
 some of our forests, which are now mosses, were cut 
 ^t different periods. 
 
 Even the records of the British Parliament bear 
 evidences of this. At one period, the extensive fo- 
 rests became a national nuisance ; they harboured 
 wolves and wild beasts of prey : these wer^ destruc- 
 tive to the live-stocl?:, and sometimes dangerous to the 
 inhabitants. — By several acts of the Legislature these 
 forests were ordered to be destroyed. 
 
 Edward the First ordeared the trees of Wales to be 
 cut and burnt. Pembrokeshire moss, of course, may 
 have been formed upon their ruins. And it is cer- 
 tain, that the trees dug out of that moss bear the 
 marks both of fire and steel. 
 
 "When Henry the Second conquered Ireland, he 
 did the same in that country. The object of that 
 prince was to prevent the' natives from having any 
 harbour in their woods, and harassing his troops. 
 
 Dr Boates, in his Natural History of Ireland, ob- 
 serves, that trunks of trees are found near Castle- 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. SS 
 
 Forbes, which have been burnt, and that the ashes 
 are still seen lying on the stumps of these trees. He 
 ascribes the destruction of them, first to the Danes, 
 and afterwards to the English. 
 
 In the wars of the borders, John Duke of Lan- 
 caster, to avenge himself of the depredations the in- 
 habitants had committed, set 24,000 axes to work 
 at once to destroy the woods. Perhaps Lammer- 
 muir, and the mosses of the borders may owe their 
 origin to this or a similar cause. 
 
 King Robert the Bruce, when he pursued the Earl 
 of Buchan to Inverary, destroyed some of the forests 
 in that neighbourhod. In the Statistical Account it 
 is said, that the trees then cut down are sUll found 
 under the deep mosses of that district. 
 
 Other intances might be mentioned ; but we must 
 look to a more remote period of history for a more 
 complete illustration of this subject. 
 
 (c.) The records of the Roman history furnish us 
 with more ample and satisfactory evidence. 
 . To that restless and ambitious nation w^e must 
 chiefly look as the cause of the ruin of the forests of 
 the north of Europe. The object of the Roman 
 emperors was not only to conquer the barbarous na- 
 tions of the northj but to secure their conquest. 
 They were not sadsfied, therefore, with having 
 extended their arms from the Caspian to the Baldc 
 Sea, and from the Pillars of Hercules to the Elebrides, 
 they sought to establish their extended empire, and 
 
S6 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 to secure it from the incursions of the nations they 
 had subdued. 
 
 During the short intervals of peace which they en- 
 joyed, we accordingly find that they employed the 
 legions of Rome, and oftentimes the inhabitants of 
 the tributary provinces, in cutting down the forests 
 and draining the marshes. Tacitus states this in ex- 
 plicit terms. Dion Cassius and Herodian join their 
 testimony to the same effect. Severus, in his last ex- 
 pedition to Britain, is not only said to have given 
 general orders for the destruction of all the forests 
 of these provinces he had subdued, but to have lost 
 50,000 of his soldiers in that undertaking in Britain 
 alone. 
 
 Throughout the whole of Britain accordingly, and 
 a great part of the north of Europe, there are still 
 to be seen evident traces of the Roman power in the 
 ruined forests, mosses, and moors. 
 
 Roman coins, or utensils, or the remains of Ro- 
 man works, have been discovered deep in these 
 mosses. 
 
 I. Many Roman coins have been discovered in 
 Scotland. I mention a few instances ; others will oc- 
 cur to the reader. They ought to be recorded. 
 
 In Possil moss, near Glasgow, a leathern bag, 
 containing above 200 silver coins of Rome, were 
 found. 
 
 In Dundaff moor, a number were discovered about 
 forty years ago. 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS, 37 
 
 In Annan moss, near the Roman Causeway, an 
 ornament of pure gold was discovered. 
 
 Many have also been found in the English mosses. 
 
 In Lincolnshire fens, two or three coins of Ves- 
 pasian, with the head of that Emperor on one side, 
 and the Roman eagle on the reverse, were discovered. 
 
 In Hatfield moss a variety of these coins were 
 found near the root of a tree deep in the moss. 
 
 A thousand coins of the Emperor Victorinus were 
 discovered in the marsh of Mazarion in Comwal ; 
 
 And some have been discovered in the mosses of 
 the Continent. 
 
 In Low Modena Roman coins were dug out of 
 the marsh 30, 40, and 50 feet deep. 
 
 De Luc mentions that similar discoveries have 
 been made all over the Continent. Mr Heerkens, 
 in his Elegia de Terra Groninguensi, speaks of a 
 coin of the Emperor Gordian being found 30 feet 
 deep in moss, and many other phenomena, wliich 
 shews these mosses to be of recent origin. 
 
 Besides coins, 
 
 II. Many utensils, of Roman workmanship, have 
 likewise been found in these mosses. 
 
 A Roman camp-kettle was found eight feet under 
 a moss in the estate of Ochtertire. 
 
 In moss Flanders a similar implement was found. 
 A Roman jug was found in Locher moss, Dumfries- 
 shire. A pot and decanter, of Roman copper, was 
 found in Kirkmichael parish, in the same county. 
 
S8 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 Two pair of vessels, of Roman bronze, were dis- 
 covered in the moss in Glenderhill in Strathaven ; 
 and in the Isle of Sky a chest of Roman arms was 
 found under moss. 
 
 Degner mentions similar instances on the Conti- 
 nent. He says that all kinds of coins, antique stones, 
 with various inscriptions, fragments of arms, earthen 
 pots, &c. are dug out of these mosses. 
 
 But it may be said these utensils and coins were 
 only dropt through accident, and sunk in these mosses 
 after they were formed ; or that they may have been 
 buried there on purpose, so that they are no proof 
 that these mosses were formed over them since the 
 period in which they were deposited. It may be pro-, 
 per to add, that, 
 
 III. The remains of Roman works have been also 
 found deep in these mosses. Many of these must 
 have been executed before these mosses had a being. 
 In the Dullatur bog some Roman altars were disco- 
 vered when the great canal was dug ; these are lodg- 
 ed in the University of Glasgow, and may still be 
 seen. In a moss in the immediate neighbourhood of 
 this, a beautiful Roman altar, dedicated to the 
 nymphs, was found : It is still standing at Nether- 
 croy, in the parish of Cumbernauld, near the spot 
 from whence it was dug. In Ardennis a beaudful 
 marble altar was found, dedicated to Diana. 
 
 It may be said, however, that even these were 
 bpried or sunk in the mosses where they lay, long 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 39 
 
 after these mosses were formed. There are other 
 remains of Roman works to which this remark can 
 scarcely be applied. 
 
 The Rev. Mr Headrick, in his Essay, Vol. 11. Com. 
 Bd. Agr. mentions, that the Roman causeway was 
 lately discovered in the moss of Mr Fulton of Hart- 
 field, near Paisley ; that it lies on a bed of moss ; but 
 that over it several feet of moss has been formed. 
 
 Girard in his Hist, of the Valley of the Somme, 
 in the north of France, mentions, that a similar cause- 
 way was discovered near the village of Brevilly, un- 
 der the moss. That it is clearly the work of mens* 
 hands ; probably of the Romans. As an evidence 
 of this, he adds, that this is the common tradition of 
 the country ; that many of the old forts in the neigh- 
 bourhood have Roman names, or allusions to that na- 
 tion ; that one is called the camp of C^sar. 
 
 Abbe de Basuf. clearly proves, that the forts near 
 Pecquingy are Roman ; and he thinks this cause- 
 way, and the banks that intersect the moss, are the 
 remains of Roman works. Hence they are still 
 called X)iez from via. And one is called viez du 
 camp. 
 
 Lambardie, who made a general survey, and gives 
 a minute description of the mosses of France, states 
 it as his decided opinion, that, in Caesar's time, the 
 banks of the Somme, though now an extended mo- 
 rass, were covered with woods and lakes : That the 
 inhabitants were therefore called by the Romans 
 Morini ; by the. Celts, Mourinin, or the inhabitants 
 
40 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 of the moors and marshes : that, having these woods 
 and marshes as a secure and safe retreat, they were 
 therefore the last of all the Gauls that Caesar could 
 subdue. 
 
 Lest any doubt should remain on this subject, I 
 may refer the reader to the Rev. Mr Tait's account 
 of Kincardine moss. There a discovery was made of 
 the Roman causeway, which leaves no doubt that 
 that moss was an extended forest at the time of the 
 Roman invasion ; and that it was cut down by them. 
 
 The Roman causeway can still be traced through a 
 great part of Britain. In the neighbourhood of Kincar- 
 dine moss these traces are clearly seen. It enters upon 
 the south of the moss at Craigforth ; on the north 
 of the same moss, near the river Teith, it is still visi- 
 ble : while it communicates with the moss on both 
 sides, it seemed to be interrupted there. Traces of 
 it have, however, lately been discovered, in digging 
 that moss. After the peat, eight feet deep, was re- 
 moved, the remains of this road were laid open to 
 view. It is twelve feet broad ; it is not paved with 
 stones like the rest of that work ; it is constructed of 
 trees from nine to 1 2 inches diameter. Those form- 
 ing the first tier are laid in the direction of the road ; 
 over these, another tier of trees, of half the diameter, 
 are laid across. The whole is covered with brush- 
 wood. The first tier of trees generally lies on the 
 surface of the subsoil of clay. In the lowest and 
 wettest places they are sunk, as might be expected^ 
 two feet below the surface of this clay. 
 
bRIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 41 
 
 The same author adds ; It can scarcely be doubted, 
 this is a Roman work connected with the Roman 
 xoad, and forming a part of it. And he concludes. 
 
 That before the time of Agricola, this level was 
 occupied by a forest : That about that period this 
 forest was cut down by the Romans : That from 
 these trees thus cut down, and suffered to decay on 
 the marshy grounds, originated the vast body of peat 
 moss which now covers that level : That the age of 
 the moss, therefore, cannot much exceed 1700 years. 
 
 De Luc, from a general survey of the mosses of 
 the Continent, draws a similar conclusion. He says, 
 that all along the mosses and moors, which he ex- 
 amined, there are Roman antiquities to be found ; 
 that there are evident marks that many of these 
 mosses were forests, at the period of the Roman in- 
 vasion ; and, that it is more than probable, thaf: 
 these forests were ruined by that power. 
 
 Demoustier, in his account of the fossil wood, dis- 
 covered near Paris, observes, That it appears from 
 Caesar's account of Labienus's expedition against the 
 Gauls under Camelogenus, that all the neighbour- 
 hood of that city was, at that period, woods and 
 marshes : That the inundations of tlie Seine over- 
 flowed these : That Camelogenus retreated thither : 
 determined to wait the attack of the Roman legions : 
 That Labienus attempted to force a passage through 
 the morass, by twigs and branches covered with sod : 
 That he found this impracticable : That he therefore 
 went up as far as Melun, and, mounting 50 boats 
 
42 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 with soldiers, sailed down the stream into the city ; 
 That the Gauls set fire to the city, cut down the 
 bridges, and placed themselves beyond the marshes : 
 That they were there surrounded, and completely 
 defeated by the Romans. Gobelinus mentions, that 
 moss is found at the port of Paris, where these woods 
 and lakes formerly lay. 
 
 I may add, that it would appear from the Roman 
 historians, that London, at the same tune, was sur- 
 rounded by woods and marshes ; and it is probable, 
 that the extensive mosses found in the vicinity of that 
 metropolis, in digging the docks at Deptford and 
 Blackwall, and in all the marshes adjoining, origina- 
 ted from these *. 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 Many of these forests *were destroyed hyfre. 
 
 I WAS not a little surprised at the remark of a very 
 ingenious gentleman, upon this subject. When I 
 hinted to him the probability that many of the forests 
 of Europe had been consumed by fire, he said, he 
 doubted much whether a green growing forest would 
 burn at all. Perhaps others may entertain similar 
 
 * Blavier mentions, that the Roman causeway was discover- 
 ed under the mosses near Calais, on the banks of the Seusel 
 river. 
 
 And Mr Aiton mentions, that the remains of this same 
 road has been discovered under the moss of Logan, in th« 
 neighbourhood of Kincardine moss. 
 
I 
 
 ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 45 
 
 doubts. To these I would reply, that Innumerable 
 accidents of this kind have happened over all Europe. 
 Whole forests have thus been consumed in a single 
 day. Rozier observes, that before the mendicant 
 beggars were dismissed from France, the whole coun- 
 try was in a continual consternation ; for, when they 
 were refused any thing they asked, they threatened to 
 set fire to the forests, and often put these threats into 
 execution. He adds, that shepherds, by leaving small 
 fires burning, often occasioned similar accidents. 
 
 He mentions two instances of forests kindling of 
 their own accord. In the parish of St Cyr this hap- 
 pened in the year 1774. About 50 years before 
 that, a similar accident took place in that neighbour- 
 hood. These both stood on a subsoil of moss. To 
 this he ascribes the accident. He supposes, either 
 that the moss was so dry, and the inflammable air so 
 abundant, that it caught fire ; or that it was owing 
 to the pyrites which abounded in the moss, which 
 kindles as soon as it comes in contact with the air. 
 By such an accident whole forests may have been ut- 
 terly ruined ; for he observes, that the trees thus 
 burnt in these forests were easily overset. The soil 
 was so dried by the fire, and the roots of the trees 
 so loosened, that the first gust of wind overset them. 
 
 Mathiole, in his Commentary on Dioscorides, ob- 
 serves, that the larix trees in Norway are overgrown 
 with a species of fog or moss which kindles on the 
 smallest spark : That he slept one night in these 
 woods : That the shepherds set fire to this moss ; 
 
44 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 That the forest blazed and burnt with the rapidity of 
 gun-powder, and diffused a most delicious odour all 
 around. 
 
 Wedelius de Musco Terrestri says, that all the 
 mosses contain an oleaginous inflammable matter. 
 Some of these, he observes, if speedily dried, spon- 
 taneously take fire. Hence, he adds, whole forests 
 have been consumed ; these mosses being kindled by 
 the heat of the sun, or by lightening, or a dry warm 
 summer. 
 
 He says, that many instances of such accidents 
 were known to him, especially in Holland, where 
 such conflagrations have continued for weeks, and 
 even months. 
 
 De Vries mentions many mstances near Geethorn, 
 Beukween, and Haula. 
 
 In 1567, one occurred by the carelessness of a 
 shepherd. 
 
 In 1541, Guicard mentions, that another took 
 place in Brabant. 
 
 At Stavoren in Friezland, a whole forest, with all 
 the subsoil of moss, was consumed in the year 1 222, 
 and converted into large caverns and lakes. 
 
 In 1593, when the Spaniards were attempting to 
 form a road near Sheouerbeck, the inhabitants set 
 fire to the morass, and it burnt with such impetuosity 
 as to consume every thing in its way. The whole 
 morass was thereby rendered impassable by the ca- 
 verns and lakes that were formed by the conflagra- 
 tion. 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 45 
 
 t is unnecessary for me to mention instances of 
 similar accidents in Britain ; That a few years ago, 
 the fir woods of Melville in Fifeshire, and a vigorous 
 young plantation in Baldernock in Stirlingshire, were 
 consumed by fire. I only observe, that such is the 
 conviction of the danger of similar accidents, that 
 salutary laws have been enacted in almost every na- 
 tion in Europe to prevent them. Many ingenious 
 arts have been devised and used to arrest the fury 
 of the flames, or extinguish them altogether. Deg- 
 ner describes the means used by the Dutch ; and the 
 Marquis de Tourbillie mentions the precautions he 
 was obliged to use in France. 
 
 That many of the forests of the north of Europe 
 have suffered this fate, seems to me absolutely cer- 
 tain. Many of these that now lie in ruins under the 
 mosses bear evident marks of this. 
 
 Carr mentions that many of the trees found in the 
 Irish mosses have been consumed by fire. 
 
 Degner mentions, that burnt trees are often found 
 under the Dutch mosses. De Luc observes, that 
 many of the trees found under the mosses of the 
 Continent have fallen a prey to the flames. Dr 
 Boates describes similar marks of fire on the trees 
 dug out of the Irish mosses. ' 
 
 In many of the mosses of Britain, in the parishes 
 of Strathaven, Applecross, Edzel, Kilbride, &c. in 
 Scodand, and in Hatfield Moss, &c. in England, 
 there are similar marks of fire. In many mosses 
 which I have examined, especially those which lie 
 
46 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 along the line of Hadrian's wall, there are similar 
 appearances. 
 
 The stocks of the trees are found standing erect as 
 they grew. These are generally broken over about 
 two feet above the level of the original soil. Great 
 quantities of ashes are found bye these roots ; and 
 the lowest stratum of these mosses is entirely made 
 made up of ashes. Chips of charred wood abound 
 in it. These are not only observable by the micros- 
 cope, but obvious to the naked eye. I was somewhat 
 surprised at this when I first observed it ; but the 
 more minutely I examined the peats dug from that 
 stratum, I was the more convinced of the truth of 
 what I state. I have seen many beautiful specimens 
 of these peats. In some the chips of charred wood 
 are smaller than a goose quill. They are so closely 
 united, that they appear like a piece of net-work. In 
 others, they are upwards of an inch in diameter; 
 yet all these were dug out of the very bottom of a 
 moss, from three to six feet deep. It is utterly im- 
 possible to examine such mosses, without concluding, 
 that the forests which originally gave birth to them 
 were consumed by fire. The whole of the lowest 
 tier of peat has the appearance of powdered charcoal 
 and chips of charred wood kneaded together. 
 
 By what accident, or by whom such forests have 
 been consumed, must remain a secret. 
 
 There are, however, many circumstances that ren- 
 der it highly probable that the Roman legions were 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 47 
 
 the chief actors in this scene. These I shall shortly 
 state. 
 
 1. No one nation, at that early period, ever ex- 
 tended their empire over all the north of Europe, 
 but the Romans. 
 
 2. None had therefore such means, or so many 
 powerful motives to prompt them to destroy these 
 forests. 
 
 3. As none had such means or motives, so none 
 seem to have formed the resolution, or given such 
 general orders to this purpose. 
 
 4. The only remains of the ancient forests of Eu- 
 rope are to be found beyond the ancient limits of the 
 Roman Empire. 
 
 5. Over all the extent of that empire, the ruins of 
 these forests may still be traced in the mosses and 
 marshes of Europe. 
 
 6. In most of these, Roman antiques may still be 
 found : 
 
 7. And in none, so far as I have heard, have any 
 relicts of any more ancient nation been discovered. 
 
 I have, therefore, no hesitation in concluding that 
 many, if not most of the forests of Europe, were 
 ruined by the Romans. 
 
 Their great object was the utter ruin of these 
 forests. It is natural to suppose that they would 
 adopt the easiest and most expeditious methods of 
 accomplishing their ejid ; and no method could be 
 more speedy 2nd effectual than the flames. It is na- 
 tural to conclude, therefore, even though we had 
 
4jS on the natural history and 
 
 little or no evidence of this, that these means would 
 be often employed. 
 
 On this subject I cannot but notice a Very remark- 
 able paper in the Phil. Trans. No 27o. The sub- 
 ject is Hatfield Forest. The account of it I give in 
 the author's words : 
 
 " That the Romans did destroy great woods and 
 " forests in these moors, marshes, and bogs, I come 
 " now to prove. The common road of the Roman 
 '* armies was from south to north, by Lindum (Lin- 
 " coin) to Sigiculum (a little burrow upon Trent), 
 " from thence to Donum (Doncaster) where slept 
 " a standing garrison of Crispinian horse. On the 
 " E. and N. E. of the road between these two last 
 *' named places lay the borders of the Great Forest. 
 " This swarmed with wild Britons, who were mak- 
 " ing continual sallies from the same, and retreating 
 " to it again ; intercepting the provisions of the Ro- 
 '' mans, and destroying their carriages ; killing their 
 " allies and passengers ; and disturbing their garri- 
 " sons. This at length so enraged the Romans, that 
 '' they were resolved to destroy this forest. That 
 '' they might do it the more easily and effectually, 
 '' they marched with a great army against the same, 
 " and encamped on a great moor near Tinningly, as 
 " appears from the fortifications that may still be 
 " seen. 
 
 " Near this it is probable tliat a great engagement 
 " took place ; for hard by it is a litde town called 
 '^ Osterfield. Now, ^sjieldy the latter part of the 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 49 
 
 ** word, is never used to be added to any other but 
 " where there has been a battle, so Oster^ the former 
 " part of the name, seems to tell us what Roman ge-^ 
 *' neral it was who fought, viz. the famous Ostorius^ 
 ** whom all the Roman Historians assure us was in 
 *' those parts. 
 
 " Who got the victory is not so easy to say. No 
 *' doubt it was the valiant Romans, who, besides 
 " multitudes of the Britons whom they slew, drove 
 ''^ the rest into the woods and forests that covered 
 ** this low country. Wherefore the Romans, that 
 '^ they might destroy the enemy more easily, took 
 " the opportunity of a strong S. W. wind, set great 
 *^ fires to the forest, which, taking hold of the fir 
 *' trees, burnt like pitch, and consumed infinite num- 
 '' bers of them. When the fire had done what mis- 
 *' chief and execution it cOuld, the Romans brought 
 " their army nearer, and, with whole legions of cap- 
 *•' tive Britons, chopped and cut down most of the 
 " trees that were left, leaving only here and there 
 *' some great ones untouched, as monuments of their 
 "fury. 
 
 " These, being destitute of their underwood and 
 " neighbouring trees, were easily overturned by strong 
 " winds. All these trees, falling across the rivers that 
 " formerly ran through that low country, soon dam- 
 " med up the same, and, turning it into a great lake, 
 " gave origin to the great turf-moors that are here^ 
 *' by the girations of the waters, the precipitation of 
 " terrestrial matter, the consumption and putrefaction 
 
50 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 " of rotten boughs and branches, the vast Ihcreas^i 
 " of thick water-mosses, which wonderfully flourish 
 " and grow upon such rotten grounds. 
 
 " Even now, since the drainage, and since that 
 *' ground is laid dry, for many miles, they are so 
 '' surged with water, and so soft and rotten, that they 
 ^'' will scarcely bear men to walk on them. 
 
 " Hence old Roman coins, axes, &c. have been 
 " found near the roots of the trees that lie at the bot- 
 " tom of these moors and levels. 
 
 " Hence, too, on all these grounds great numbers 
 '' of trees are found burnt, some in two, some length 
 '' ways, and some chopped and hewn. 
 
 " Hence some are found with their roots, and 
 " others, as they have lain all along, have branches 
 " growing out of their sides. 
 
 " Hence they he bye their own proper roots, with 
 ^^ their tops to the N. E* 
 
 " But, to return to the Romans, as they were the 
 " destroyers of this forest, so were they likewise of all 
 " the others that grew on the low countries of Ghe- 
 ^' shire, Lancashire, Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, Staf- 
 '^ fordshire, Somersetshire, &c. &c. Yea, and of the 
 *^ countries beyond the seas, where such trees are 
 " commonly found. " 
 
 I may add, that De Luc, who examined these 
 countries, gives it as his opinion, that the Roman 
 unis, and other antiquities found in the bottom of 
 the mosses, are evidences that these forests were de- 
 stroyed by that people. 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 51 
 
 SECTION VI. 
 
 Other means by which Forests have been ruined. 
 
 Whole forests have slidden down from the moun- 
 tains, where they grew, into the adjacent vallies. In- 
 stances of such accidents are recorded. Kirwan, in 
 bis geology, mentions a case. In the year 1787, a 
 whole side of a hill (near Meudon in France), cover^ 
 ed with wood, descended 50 feet into a plain, and 
 covered it to the height of 70 feet. Its descent lasted 
 six years, 
 
 Dr Boats mentions a similar instance in Ireland* 
 Upwards of four acres of a hill, near Clogher, slipped 
 down from the declivity, carrying trees and shrubs, 
 &c. and burying them in the valley, in the year 1712. 
 Rozier mentions a similar case in Bohemia, 1770: 
 Part of the mountain of Zeigenberg slid down 38 
 fathoms, till it reached the Elbe, with its trees stand- 
 ing partly erect and partly inclined. 
 
 Similar accidents may have happened elsewhere. 
 By these not only forests may have been overset, but 
 the water or rivers in vallies may have been pent up, 
 so as to form a morass over such forests, and give 
 origin to mosses. 
 
 It seems probable, too, if not certain, that som^ 
 forests have been overwhelmed by inundations of 
 the ocean. Those in the Basse Somme seem to 
 have suffered this fate. It would appear, both from 
 Caesar's account of that district, and from Pontus 
 
S% ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 Henterus's survey of it, that the lower part of the 
 maritime coast of Picardy was at one period over- 
 flown by the sea, though now a moss. Not above 500 
 years ago, sah works existed in that district ; and 
 soda of course may still be extracted from the mosses 
 of Picardy. 
 
 Lentilius and Commelinus both agree in the sup- 
 position that Holland was once an extended forest ; 
 that this was overflown by the German Ocean ; that 
 this forest sunk in the mud, and, by the accession 
 of pardcles of earth, formed the immense mosses o^ 
 that country. 
 
 Picard mentions an instance that happened at 
 Cimmerium before the Christian sera ; 
 
 And there are historical records of similar instan- 
 ces. Westerman mentions a case in 1230, where 
 the sea overflowed a woody region near Stavoren, 
 where the subsoil was moss. 
 
 Schotanus supposes, that the mosses of Friezland 
 originated in Norway, and were carried hither by 
 the sea ; that the vallies where they now lie were 
 forests overwhelmed by this inundation. He says, 
 many trees are found at the bottom of these, as 
 monuments of what they once were. 
 
 He mentions a remarkable circumstance of two 
 lakes near Cauches. The borders of these are 
 covered with immense oaks. These are sometimes 
 undermined by the billows, or torn up by the tern- 
 pest, and swept away like floating islands, carrying 
 these vast trees along w^th them. 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 53 
 
 The submarine forests on the east coast of Lin- 
 colnshire seem to have suffered a similar fate. 
 
 These are very extensive ; they reach not only 
 over all the fenny country, but far into the German 
 ocean ; in every respect they resemble the mosses 
 in Hatfield and the adjacent fens. Dr Alderston 
 observes, that wherever bores have been made, 
 moor and peat earth is found on the same level, 
 .whatever the incumbent soil on the surface may 
 be. 
 
 Joseph Correa de Serra, in his excellent paper 
 upon this subject, mentions the. species of wood 
 found in this submarine forest, " That it is tiie same 
 -*' as in the adjacent fens : 
 
 " That as in mosses, so in this forest, wood is 
 *' found fit for economical purposes : 
 
 " That the trunks of many of the trees are found 
 *' flattened like the Surturbrand and Bovey coal, 
 " by the incumbent weight of sand : 
 
 " That the trees are found precisely in the same 
 " positions as in most of our mosses. Some are 
 " fastened in the original soil from whence they 
 *' sprung ; the trunks of others are broken over ; 
 ^^^ the bark of some is perfectly fresh, especially of 
 " the branches ; the silvery skin, or outer m^n> 
 ^^ brane, is discernible, 
 
 " The subsoil is also similar, viz. a greasy clay. 
 " This is covered, many inches deep, ^vith rotten 
 ." leaves, whose form is scarcely distinguishable by the 
 t^ naked eye 5 but when these leaves are put intp 
 
54 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 " water, they separate each from the other, so thai the 
 *' several species of the leaves may he discovered, 
 
 " It is clear, that these trees are not water-borne, 
 *' but all grew upon the spot. Each trunk has its 
 " corresponding root attached to its native soil.'' 
 
 As to the means by which this forest has been sub- 
 dued, we can be at no loss to conclude, that it was 
 by an inundation of the German ocean ; and we 
 must suppose one of two things ; either that the sur- 
 face of the sea has risen to such a height, as to over- 
 flow this forest, and lay it in ruins ; or, that the soil 
 on which it grew has subsided. The former of these 
 suppositions is not consistent with geological facts : 
 the latter is more probable ; especially, as we know 
 of instances where the shores of the sea have sunk 
 many feet. At Venice, Pola, Lessa, Bora, &c. this 
 happened. Borlaze records similar instances, too, in 
 England ; other instances might be mentioned ; that 
 in Yorkshire is well known. 
 
 I may add, that there are similar appearances on 
 the opposite shores of the Continent ; yet, from au- 
 thentic evidence, we have reason to conclude, that 
 the level of the sea, in those quarters, is the same as 
 in Caesar's time. The coast is still, in every respect, 
 similar to what he describes it ; the Roman ways 
 still exist, and reach and terminate at the very spot 
 which he points out. 
 
 So that if the sea has risen, so as to overwhelm 
 these forests, it must have been prior to the period of 
 his reign. Indeed, there seems strong reasons for 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 35 
 
 supposing, that these forests were overwhelmed at a 
 much earlier period. On the coasts of Lincoln there 
 is a stratum of solid soil above these trees, in many 
 places 16 feet deep. To form this, would, in all 
 likelihood, require many ages. Hence these forests 
 are called, by the vulgar, Noah's wood : for they 
 suppose that they are coeval with the flood. 
 
 It is unnecessary to enumerate all the places along 
 the English coast, where the remains of forests are 
 still discovered under the sea, at low water. Camb- 
 den specifies many, and Childry mentions a num- 
 ber. He says, that about two miles east of St Mi- 
 chael's mount, at low water, they cast aside the sand 
 on the shore, and dig up turfs that are full of the 
 roots of trees : on some of these trees they find nuts. 
 Large trunks are also dug up by the tinners, which 
 they suppose have lain there since the deluge. 
 
 On the coast of Cumberland, he observes, that 
 similar discoveries are made. 
 
 , He says, too, that the sandy shore on the coast of 
 Pembrokeshire was laid bare in the reign of Hen- 
 ry IL by a violent storm. By this means great 
 trunks of trees were discovered. Some of these, he 
 says, bore the marks of the hatchet ; and they lay so 
 thick, that they seemed to be a whole forest in ruins. 
 
 Borlase mentions similar appearances on the coast 
 of Cornwal. Great numbers of trees are found be- 
 low sea-mark : especially oak, hazel, and willow : 
 "When the tide is in, these lie 12 feet under water. 
 
56 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 There can be no doubt, that immense forests have, 
 at one period, flourished on these coasts ; and the 
 probability is, that they have been overwhelmed by 
 the ocean. 
 
 SECTION VII. 
 
 General Conclusions from the above facts. 
 
 Firsts That at one period^ probably as late as the 
 Roman invasion of these countries, Britain and the 
 North of Europe abounded in forests. 
 
 The only exception to this seems to be Friezland 
 and the Orkney Islands. The former seems to have 
 been comparatively barren of wood, in the days of 
 Pliny : he says, there were few trees in it j and 
 there are few still. 
 
 The latter are described as a dreary waste, with- 
 out tree or shrub. Solinus says of them " vacant 
 *' homine^ nee hahent si/lvas, tantum juncis herhis 
 
I 
 
 c::- -eRimN OF -PEAT MOSS, 
 
 f^ mhorrescioiti cmtet^a earum nudce rupes et areruE 
 " tenenV\ Xorfaeus gives a similar account of them 
 in his days : he says, that in the year 890, they pro- 
 duced no wood ; that Einar was the first who taught 
 the inhabitants the use of turf as a fuel \ that, on that 
 account, he obtained the name of To/;/ Einar. 
 
 Mr Jamieson, who surveyed these islands a few years 
 ago, represents them to be in much the same state 
 as they were 1000 years ago. He says, that on a 
 general view, *' they present a wonderful scene of 
 *' rugged, bleak, and barren rocks ; no tree, no 
 " shrub relieves the eye, in wandgring over the dreary 
 " waste." 
 
 Yet these islands, as well as Friezland, abound in 
 mosses. How these were formed, I shall endeavour 
 to point out in my Second Essay. 
 
 Secondly^ That these immense fai^ests have fallen 
 into rtdns ; some by accident, as by the tempest, or 
 inundations of the sea 5 others by design, have been 
 cut or burnt. 
 
 In place of immense forests of lofty pine and 
 stately oaks, extensive marshes, moors, and mosses, 
 now cover these regions : what a dreary dismal 
 change must this have occasioned over all the north 
 of Europe ? 
 
 The fragments of, these fallen forests may still be 
 traced. The vast trunks of oak and fir found in 
 these impassable morasses, like the stately ruins of an 
 ancient edifice, give us some idea of the extent and 
 
58 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 magnificence of these forests ; and the marks of fire 
 and steel point out the cause of their ruin. 
 
 Thirdly^ That these ruined forests have laid the 
 
 FOUNDATION Of MANY (9/^^ tlw MOSSeS qf thfi JlOrth of 
 
 Europe, rrfLrr : > o ! / 
 
 This conclusion may appear to some more dubi- 
 ous : it is of importance to establish it. I shall, there- 
 fore, shortly state a few of those facts and circum- 
 stances which have led me to form it. 
 
 1. Many mosses now occupy the place of these 
 forests. To be convinced of this, let any one read 
 De Luc's minute detail of the mosses on the Conti- 
 nent, and compare this with the delineation of these 
 countries by Ptolemy and Ortelius, or the Roman 
 historians of that age, and he must conclude that 
 this is the case. The very site of a great part of the 
 immense forests of Hircinia, Semana, Ardennes, &c. 
 is now occupied by mosses and moors, by fens and 
 lakes. 
 
 2. Trees are found in most of the mosses of Europe. 
 In nine-tenths of the British mosses they abound : of 
 this I need not adduce evidence. 
 
 The same is the case with the Irish mosses. Dr 
 King says, that " trees are generally found at the 
 *' bottom^ not only of the wet, tzU even of the dry red 
 *' bogsr 
 
 In the preceding pages, I have shewn, that the 
 same is the case with most of the mosses in France. 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 59 
 
 I only add, that Blavier was so struck with this, that 
 he says it is probable that all the French mosses 
 were once forests. Ribaucourt also makes a general 
 remark, that there is scarcely a valley in France with- 
 out moss ; that under this moss, wood is found. 
 
 Even in Holland, immense trees are found in many 
 mosses, though not in all. Is it not natural to con- 
 clude that these mosses, for the most part, are the 
 remains of ruined forests ; otherwise, how came these 
 trees to be found in them ? 
 
 Degner tells us, that some of the Dutch suppose 
 that these have grown up like subterraneous plants, 
 after the manner of minerals and fossils : is not this 
 directly contrary to the laws of vegetation ? When 
 was it ever known, or where was it ever seen, that a 
 stately oak or fir was found growing in the deep 
 caverns of a lake ? Even supposing they had sprung 
 up there, how have they been cut and burnt, &c. as 
 they are often found ? Have these caverns and sub- 
 terraneous regions been peopled with inhabitants? 
 Have their coins and hatchets, and other utensils, 
 been so similar to the terraneous inhabitants, as not 
 to be distinguished from them ? Have they needed 
 fuel ? And, have their fires been kindled and kept 
 alive in these lower regions ? 
 
 He tells us farther, that others suppose that these 
 trees have grown above the marsh, and sunk by their 
 s{)^cific gravity to the bottom, where they now lie. 
 If they grew upon the marsh, how have their roots 
 been fixed t6 the subsoil, even of the deepest of these 
 
60 ON TjHE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 morasses ? Is it possible to concdve that a tree, by- 
 sinking in a marsh or lake, should strike its roots and 
 tenderest fibres deep and wide into a solid mass of 
 clay ? Is it not much more reasonable to conclude, 
 that this clay was the native soil from which the tree 
 first sprung ? 
 
 He adds, that others suppose these trees to be wa- 
 -ter-borne ; that they have been carried by inundations 
 of the sea, and lodged in lakes and mosses. That this 
 may have happened in some cases, I have already 
 shewn : that trees may have sunk in the ocean can- 
 not be doubted. Dr Watson proves, by a number 
 of simple experiments, that wood becomes specifically 
 heavier than water after being steeped in it. A piece of 
 fir, steeped 100 days, sunk in water at 60 degrees ; 
 oak and ash sunk much sooner. But, if all the trees 
 in moss have thus been water-borne, how comes it 
 tliat, in almost every moss, the trunk is found lying 
 bye the root ? Did these trunks, after performing 
 their voyage, like dutiful children, return to be buri- 
 ed in the same grave with their parents ? And how 
 did each species, by some elective attraction, or ma- 
 gical charm, after being huddled together, return each 
 to its proper soil, the oak to the clay, and the fir to 
 the sand, from which they sprung ? 
 
 Dr Anderson gives a still more learned, though 
 not less ludicrous, account of the matter. He con- 
 cludes, not only that moss is a plant sui generis ^ 
 which continues to increase to an immense magni- 
 tude and indefinite age, but that, in its progress, it 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. €t 
 
 envelopes trees and every other matter that comes in 
 its way ; and, in a learned note, he endeavours to 
 shew, that this is nothing contrary to the course of 
 nature ; that similar instances of extraneous mat- 
 ter in growing vegetables have been discovered. 
 He mentions two ; the first is a hazle nut, found 
 quite fresh, near the heart of a large beech tree ; 
 the second is a knife, found also near the heart of 
 a large fir tree ; and he endeavours to shew, that 
 these cases are quite analogous to wood found in 
 moss. He carries on the analogy still farther, and 
 endeavours to shew, that animal matter, and even 
 animals, have been preserved alive in the heart of 
 trees j that this also is analogous to moss ; that 
 the carcasses of animals are found inclosed in the 
 same manner, and preserved in the same state, in 
 that substance ; but that this is no proof that the 
 trees found in moss grew upon the spot. His 
 words are, " // is frue tJmt wood is sometimes found 
 *^ in moss J and it is equally true^ thatjlies are found 
 *' in amber; but does it follow from hence that amber 
 " is produced from decay ed fies V^ 
 
 I shall not presume to follow up the Doctor's rea- 
 soning, nor attempt to trace the analogy he endea- 
 vours to establish ; I only observe, that moss has been 
 supposed to be a growing vegetable, sui generis^ 
 nearly a century ago, by some of the Dutch : That 
 this hypothesis may be wholly the Doctor's own, as 
 he insinuates in his preface, but that it is by no means 
 new : That as it appeared at first to him (as he-ac- 
 
02" ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 knowledges) only a jeu d^ esprit, it is but fair to let 
 him enjoy his own sport in his own way. I shall 
 therefore dismiss this new species of vegetable from the 
 list of plants, till its habits and qualities ai'e distinctly 
 ascertained. I would only suggest, that of all de- 
 vouring monsters it must be the most dreadful, ac- 
 cording to the Doctor's account ; for, as I shall 
 shew, ploughed fields, large trees, loaded boats, men 
 and women, and the largest animals, houses, nay, 
 streets and whole cities, have been swallowed up in 
 its all-devouring jaws. 
 
 S. Most of the trees found in moss must have 
 grown on the spot where they lie. Of this there can 
 be little doubt. — ^The following facts will satisfy the 
 reader of this. 
 
 The same species of trees which abounded in the 
 ancient forests of Europe, are still found lying in 
 ruins in moss. Pomponius and Pliny both agree that 
 the fir, the oak, the birch, were the most prevalent 
 in their days. Dr Guthrie states, that the same spe- 
 cies form the greatest part of the Russian forests at 
 present. It is unnecessary to prove that, in all the 
 mosses of the north of Europe, the ruins of these 
 species are found in the greatest abundance. This 
 clearly proves that these mosses have been formed of 
 the indigenous plants that prevailed, and still prevail, 
 to grov/ on their native soil ; that this congeries of 
 vegetables has not been water-borne, or brought from 
 remote regions or distant climes* 
 
I 
 
 ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 63 
 
 ' But it is equally certain, that the trees generally 
 found in moss have flourished and decayed on the 
 very spot where they are now found. 
 
 For, in the Jirst place. Each species is now found 
 lying prostrate on the very subsoil which is peculiar- 
 ly adapted to its growth ; if the subsoil of moss be 
 clay, oak is the most abundant ; if sand, fir prevails. 
 
 Secondly/, It is well known that, in low warm levels, 
 trees arrive at a greater size than on high mountains, 
 or in colder regions ; and that the size of trees di- 
 minishes in proportion to the height of the surface on 
 which they grow. Dr Walker accordingly observes, 
 that, in all the mosses of Scotland, the largest trees 
 are found in the low-lying level mosses ; and that the 
 higher the mosses lie, the trees are proportionally 
 smaller. Mons. De Lu<^ makes a similar remark 
 with regard to the mosses of the Continent. And 
 both agree that this is a strong presumptive proof 
 that these trees grew on the spot. 
 
 Thirdlif, The trunks of many trees found in moss 
 are still attached to their roots ; these roots are fixed 
 in the subsoil. Even when the trunk is broken off, 
 it is generally found lying prostrate, near the parent 
 root, which stands fixed in the native soil. These 
 trees are often found standing erect as they grew. In 
 many of the deepest mosses on the Continent this is 
 the case : in the Isle of Man, especially, in the Marsh 
 of Curragh, vast trees are discovered standing firm 
 on their roots, though at the depth of eighteen, or 
 twenty feet below the surface. 
 
64 ON the! natural history and 
 
 Fourthly^ All the roots of trees found in moss 
 are thus fixed in the subsoil ; they are seldom or never 
 found lying loosely huddled together, or lying top- 
 sy-turvey, as if they had been water-borne. Accord- 
 ingly Lord Dundonald observes, that this is a proof 
 that the moss in which they lie neither gave birth to 
 nor supported these trees, but the original subsoil ; 
 and that the ruins of these gave origin to, and furnish- 
 ed the mateiials for, the moss which now occupies 
 their place. 
 
 Ftflhly^ The leaves and fruits of each species are 
 found immersed in the moss along "wath the parent 
 tree. The leaves and acorns of the oak, the cones 
 and leaves of the fir, the nuts, &;c. of the hazel, are 
 all found huddled together in one mass on the spot 
 where they grew. It is almost unnecessary for me 
 to add, 
 
 Slocthlij^ The upper side, or surface of trees found 
 in moss, is uniformly most consumed. An oak may 
 be often seen where the upper half is so consumed 
 that only the semi-diameter of the tree remains : this 
 is a proof that such a tree, when it fell on the spot, 
 had been half immersed in the mass of ruins j that 
 half has been thereby preserved entire. 
 
 4. Instances are recorded in which wood has been 
 converted into moss, or a bituminous substance simi- 
 lar to it, equally inflammable, and possessing all the 
 other qualities of that substance. Dr Anderson de- 
 nies this. I shall therefore mention a few cases in: 
 point. 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 65 
 
 Cordiner, in his Antiquities of the North, men- 
 tions a case. In describing Mar Forest, he says, 
 " that part of the woods being fallen into decay, 
 " ranges of vast trunks of trees, which have long 
 '^ lain along the ground, are immured in moss. Their 
 *^ perishing leaves, and dissolving branches, strewed 
 " around, constitute the present soil, and are in 
 " a great measure turned into one general mass of 
 "vegetable earth. 
 
 " In some places v/here water has stagnated a- 
 " mong the fallen trees, the morass is complete and 
 *' inaccessible ; in others, the trunks are so com- 
 " pact and firm as to afford a safe and dry path, only 
 " now and then the specious heath gives way bcr 
 " tween the logs." 
 
 He adds, " of some trees one end may be dug 
 " into peats, and the other sawed off and used as 
 " good timber.'' 
 
 Dr Walker mentions another case of the wood of 
 Drumlanrig, and the Earl of Cromarty speaks of ' 
 •another near Lochbroom. The Doctor says that 
 this forest was .overset by a storm about 60 years 
 ago. Being neglected, and suffered to remain as it 
 fell, it rotted on the ground ; so that now the whole 
 is nearly ripened into peat earth. 
 
 The case mentioned by the Earl of Cromarty is 
 well known. It cannot but be interesting to the 
 reader. I shall therefore state it in his Lordship's 
 own words. He says, " That, in the year 1651, 
 '* when he was yet young, he visited the parish of 
 
 E 
 
66 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY ANl> 
 
 *' Lochbroom in West Ross : That he there saw at 
 " small plain covered with a standing wood of fir 
 " trees : That they were then so old that they had 
 " dropped both their leaves and bark : That he had 
 " occasion to visit this forest fifteen years afterwards r 
 *' That, by this time, there was not a tree to be 
 *' seen : That the plain was covered with green moss : 
 " That, in the year 1699, he saw that the whole 
 *' was converted into peat moss, from which the in- 
 '' habitants dug peats." 
 I may add that, 
 
 5. The names of mosses imply that they have 
 originally been woods. 
 
 There are innumerable instances of this both in the 
 British Islands and on the Continent of Europe. Im- 
 mense tracts of moss, in which there is not a single 
 blasted trunk of a tree standing, bear still the origi- 
 nal name of wood or forest. This clearly proves, 
 that, at the period in which they obtained that name, 
 they were not mosses but forests ; and that they re- 
 tain still that name though in ruins. 
 
 It were an easy task to enumerate a variety of in- 
 stances of this that have come under my own obser- 
 vation. It appears to me more satisfactory to observe 
 in general, 
 
 Firsts That all mosses which bear the name df 
 "wood^ bank^ shau\ calder^ &c. are of this descrip- 
 tion. 
 
 Secondly^ That the names of many mosses indi* 
 pate not only that they were once forests, but dis* 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 67 
 
 dnctly bear the name of the particular species of tree 
 •which prevailed most. Of this description are all 
 mosses which bear the following names, OAKshaw, 
 Aiui^ERbanky Asuwood, Bikkei^ Jiead, Aller- 
 trees, &c. 
 
 Thirdly^ That all mosses in Britain and on the 
 Continent, which are called forests, may be includ- 
 ed in the above list. Many such lie along the line 
 of Hadrian's wall. Easter forest, Wester forest, and 
 Middle forest, &c. are the names of different districts 
 where no vestige of a forest remains, excepting the 
 vast trunks that lie in ruins in the adjacent mosses. 
 
 Fourthly^ Wolde^ woed^ wode, xjoaelde^ ail mean 
 the same thing. They correspond to our English 
 word *xood or forest All mosses on the Continent 
 which bear this name, such as the Seven Wolden of 
 Friezland, &c. ; and those in the British Isles, such 
 as Lincolnshire Woldes, the Waeldes of Kent, &c. 
 &c. may be included in the above list. 
 
 Fifthly^ Innumerable mosses on the Continent are 
 called holt^ or hout^ or hoom^ or the names of them 
 include these monosyllables. All of them signify 
 the same thing, viz. wood, Holtand or Holland is 
 the woody country, Bocmen^ &c. &c. signifies the 
 same. 
 
 Lastly, The names of many mosses on the Con- 
 tinent are descriptive of the particular species of trees 
 which prevailed in the forest while it stood, and 
 which may now be traced in its ruins. Note-boom 
 is the hazel or mit-tree : FIzen-boom is the ash ; 
 Fy It en-boom the oak : Piiyi-boom the Jir : Birhen' 
 
68 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 boom the birch i Kien-hoomen the pine, &c. &c* 
 All the mosses, therefore, bearing these names, 
 must have not only been originally forests, but forests 
 abounding with that distinct species of tree whose 
 name they bear. 
 
 If all the mosses included in the above list, or 
 bearing such names, or names of similar import, be 
 allowed to have been at one period forests, we may 
 conclude that the half, or perhaps the greater part 
 of the mosses of the north of Europe are of this 
 description. .-:;..» - 
 
 From all these considerations combined, ^viz. That 
 many mosses now occupy the place where forests 
 once stood : That trees are found in most of the 
 mosses of Europe : That most of these trees clearly 
 appear to have grown and decayed upon the spot 
 where they now lie : That there are instances record- 
 ed wherein ruined trees in forests have been convert- 
 ed into moss: and That many mosses still bear names 
 which indicate that they have once been wood : from 
 all these considerations combined, I hesitate not to 
 conclude, that ruined forests have laid the foundation 
 of many of the mosses of the north of Europe. 
 
 It seems equally natural to conclude from what 
 has been stated. 
 
 Fourthly, That some of these forests hccce been 
 ruined by the Romans ; and that the mosses formed 
 on these ruins are of no earlier origin than the age 
 ofjidius Caesar, 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 69 
 
 I say some, not alL There are mosses, no doubt, 
 of very ancient origin : perhaps some may be coeval 
 with the flood. 
 
 Part, too, of the moss may have been formed 
 before these forests were overset. I have already 
 mentioned instances in which two or three feet of 
 moss was formed at the roots of the trees of a forest 
 before these fell into ruins. ' 
 
 In all probability this has been the case in gene* 
 ral. 
 
 But some, if not many m^osses, seem to have been 
 formed within 2000 years. 
 
 1. It is probable that all those in which Roman 
 coms, axes, arms, and other utensils of that nation have 
 been found, are of no earlier origin. It is remark- 
 able, that of all the antiques found in mosses, by far 
 the greatest part are Roman. No coins nor uten- 
 sils of any other nation, so far as I know, at least 
 none that would lead us back to a^more remote 
 period than the Roman invasion, have ever been 
 discovered. The only exception to this that I 
 have heard of, is that of a Phoenician canoe that was 
 said to be found in moss. 
 
 Of this description are many mosses over the north 
 of Europe. The mosses of Kincardine, Annandale, 
 Ochtertire, Kirkmichael, &c. in Scotland ; of Hat- 
 field, Lancashire, Lincolnshire, and Cornwal, &c. 
 in England ; of Kedinger-moor, Picardie, and near 
 Paris and Calais, in all of which Roman antiques, or 
 relicts of Roman works have been found, are pro- 
 
70 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 bably of no earlier origin than the age of Julius 
 Csesar, 
 
 2. It is equally probable, that the mosses that lie 
 along the line of the great Roman road are also of 
 this description. If Severus and other emperors 
 gave so strict orders, and made such great exertions 
 |to cut down and destroy all the forests in the con^ 
 quered provinces, it is more than probable that those 
 which lay in the direct line of their march would be 
 the first to fall a prey. 
 
 I have examined one district. I shall give a short 
 detail of facts, chiefly with a view to induce others 
 to make similar inquiries and satisfy themselves. 
 
 I hve in the immediate vicinity of Hadrian's wall. 
 All along that line, from the Frith of Forth to the 
 Clyde, there is a continuation of mosses on the south 
 and north of that wall. In most of the vallies, these 
 mosses are obvious to the eye : they appear still on 
 the surface : they have never been brought into cul- 
 tivation, or converted into soil. 
 
 A great part of these vallies, however, are now 
 rich meadows or arable land : Yet all along the banks 
 of the Kelvin and Carron, these low lands lie on a 
 S7ihsoil of moss. Whether they consist of meadow, 
 or pasture, or arable land, this is generally the case. 
 After passing through the soil or sward, on the sur- 
 face, which is from one to two and three feet thick, 
 you come to four or five or ten feet of moss. 
 
 Through all this extent between the two Friths, 
 the surface, for the most part, is waving ; that is, it 
 
I 
 
 ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 71 
 
 consists of alternate hills and vallies. Yef in all these 
 vallies, and even on the summits of the hills, if they 
 be level, moss either forms the surface or subsoil. 
 From the declivities it has indeed been washed away ; 
 on them little moss now appears ; yet even on many 
 of these sloping hills, which have submitted to the 
 plough, there are evidences that wood once grew, 
 and that moss once existed. The soil is still, in many 
 places, a mixture of moss and clay. Many roots 
 and trunks of trees are still dug up from time to time. 
 
 These remarks are not limited to one parish or 
 county only ; they apply to many. In the parishes 
 of Falkirk, Slamannan, Cumbernauld, Monkland, 
 Kirkintilloch, Cadder, Kilpatrick Easter and Wester, 
 Renfrew, Paisley, Kilbarchan, Kilmalcolm, that is, 
 all along the south of Hadrian's wall, these traces are 
 to be seen ; in Airth, Larbert, Denny, St Ninians, 
 Kilsyth, Kippen, Campsie, Fintry, Baldernock, Strathr 
 blane, Drummond, and Bonhill, on the north of the 
 wall, they are equally conspicuous. 
 
 A superficial observer may overlook these. As he 
 passes along he sees few trees, and none of the re- 
 mains of our ancient forests. He would never call 
 this district horrida sylvis. Here and there he would 
 discover a tuft of moss or heath, a trifling lake, or 
 extended morass. The rich vallies would arrest his 
 attention ; the extensive me?idows would please his 
 eye 5 but, upon a closer inspection, he would find, 
 that all these lie on a subsoil of moss. These mosses^ 
 too, all exhibit evident marks of their origin. Tbf 
 
72 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 trunks of large trees found in them shew that they 
 were once a forest. Many of these trees, too, bear 
 marks of their having been cut or burnt. The con- 
 clusion from this is natural,* that as Britain was de- 
 scribed, in the days of Agricola, to be hideous with 
 forests ; as these forests were industriously destroy- 
 ed by the Roman legions, it is probable, that those 
 which lay along the line of their march would first 
 fall a prey to their fury ; and it is probable, also, that 
 many of these mosses, in the line I have described, 
 were of no earlier origin. Were this allowed, it 
 would include a considerable extent of moss. 
 
 But the same remarks apply to the whole mosses 
 that lie along the Roman road, both in Britain and 
 the Continent. The same traces have been discover- 
 ed, accordingly, through the parish of Strathaven, 
 &c. in Scotland. The same are still more distinctly 
 marked, as I have already stated, p. 50. in the low 
 countries of Cheshire, Lancashire, Yorkshire, Lin- 
 colnshire, Staffordshire, Somersetshire, kc, &c. in 
 England. It is not to be expected that, in every 
 stage of the Roman itinerary, such traces should now 
 be detected ; nor is it possible to point out the parti- 
 cular spots which were covered with wood, and those 
 which were morasses, at that period. 
 
 It deserves, however, to be observed, that there is 
 not one vestige remaining of the ancient forests which 
 Caesar describes, along ti'C whole line of the Roman 
 way, excepting in the mosses where the vast ruined 
 trunks of trees now lie. 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. tS 
 
 Csesar landed at Portus Ritupenses. Round that 
 spot, still the level lands all lie on a subsoil of moss. 
 The probability is that, at that period, these levels 
 were either morasses or woods. 
 
 He next directed his course to the Thames. The 
 banks of that river were then impassable morasses, 
 or impenetrable forests ; now they are extensive 
 meadows, or arable lands : yet, on either side of the 
 river, the subsoil is moss 5 and large trunks of trees 
 are dug out of this. 
 
 Through Suffolk, Norfolk, Lincoln, and York- 
 shire, similar traces may be seen ; the Roman cause- 
 way passes through the woods which are still stand- 
 ing, and the fens and mosses which probably were 
 forests at that period. 
 
 In Lancashire, extensive forests stood at that period. 
 These lie now in ruins, in the immense fens of that 
 iiistrict. Chatmoss, Penwortham, Pillens mosses, 
 &c. are probably the only remains of these forests* 
 
 Bodotria is supposed to be Fifeshire. Agricola 
 engaged and obtained a signal victory over the na- 
 tives in that kingdom ; and Tacitus says, that the 
 woods and fens covered the flight of the enemy. 
 Though no traces of these woods can now be seen, 
 yet, in the mosses of that county, the ruins of them 
 can yet be detected. Within two miles of Lochleven 
 there is a large morass, where there has been an exr 
 tensive wood : and there are still the remains of a 
 Roman camp, in the lands of Sir John Malcolm, 
 hard bye this spot. 
 
74 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 The probability is, that all those mosses, whos(* 
 names indicate that they were forests, were ruined at 
 that period ; and, of course, are of no earlier origin ; 
 those, on the contrary, whose names bear that they 
 were morasses, are of an earlier origin. Horsely and 
 Dr Stukely both agree, that the word car signifies a 
 fen. Mosses, therefore, whose names begin with 
 this monosyllable, were probably morasses at a very 
 early period. I need not add, that there are the same 
 appearances in France and Holland. 
 
 It deserves, however, to be mentioned, as a very 
 singular confirmation of tlik conclusion, that in Bri- 
 tain, in proportion as we advance northward, the 
 traces of our ancient forests become more entire. Be- 
 yond the boundaries of the Roman empire, in Aberr 
 deen and Inverness-shire, &c. where their arms never 
 reached, in these districts alone the stately fragments 
 of these forests still remain, as the sad and only re- 
 licts of their departed glory. 
 
 The same remark applies to the Continent of 
 Europe in all its extent. Where are the lofty pines 
 and stately oaks now to be found ? — Where but in 
 those regions which the Roman eagle never reached. 
 In the remote circles of the German empire, in Po- 
 land and Prussia, and still more in Norway and 
 Sweden, and the vast empire of Russia, there and 
 there only can we see what Europe was, before it 
 yielded to the power of Rome. 
 
 And could the art of man restore these ruined 
 forests that lie buried in moss to their pristine glory. 
 
I 
 
 ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. l5 
 
 what beauty would smile around every nation of 
 Europe, where nothing but dreary wastes and dread- 
 ful desolation now reigns ? What a barrier would 
 these forests afford against every invading foe ? What 
 a source of national wealth and national greatness 
 would they prove ? 
 
 It is demonstrable that there is more oak lies buried 
 in moss than would supply all the navies of every 
 nation of Europe ; and that there is more fir lying 
 there, as a useless waste, than would answer every 
 economical purpose which it can serve. 
 
 3. It is more than probable, it is almost certain, that 
 wherever the Roman way can be traced under moss, 
 especially when it appears, from authentic records, 
 that wood existed upon the spot at the period of the 
 Roman invasion, that the moss formed over that 
 road is of no earlier origin. Instances of this have 
 already been mentioned; many more may exist., 
 though not recorded or known to me. There seems 
 to be little doubt that Kincardine and Hatfield mosses 
 were forests at that period ; they, therefore, come 
 under this description. 
 
 In the former of these, the Roman way has been 
 traced ; eight feet of moss has been formed over it. 
 The conclusion is, that all this has been formed since 
 that way was laid. In the moss of Hartfield, near 
 Paisley, in the valley of the Somme, and near Calais, 
 also in France, in Moss Logan, &c. &c. similar dis- 
 coveries of that way have been made ; and it is natu- 
 ral to form a similar conclusion as to these mosses. 
 
t6 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 When I mentioned this to an ingenious friend, he 
 replied, that perhaps the Roman way was formed not 
 before, but after the moss ; and that it had sunk in 
 this soft subsoil. In some places this may have been 
 the case ; it seems, however, clear and unquestion^ 
 able, that Kincardine was a forest in which little or 
 no moss existed at that period : for the road is not 
 only formed of the wood, but the marks of the axe 
 jnay be seen in the roots of the trees which are fixed 
 in the soUd subsoil of clay ; besides, the road lies on 
 this subsoil, without any moss below it ; whereas, 
 had it been originally laid on moss, and afterwards 
 subsided, that moss, though compressed, must still 
 have been discovered below the road, which is not 
 the case. The eight feet of moss, therefore, which 
 lies above this road, must have grown after it was 
 formed, or since the reign of J. Caesar. I only add. 
 
 Fifthlj/y That some mosses appear to be of much 
 more recent origin than those I have mentioned, 
 
 I need not allude to Cordiner's account of Mar 
 forest, which seems to be forming into moss ; nor 
 need I repeat what is said by Dr Walker and the 
 Earl of Cromarty, of the mosses of Drumlanrig and 
 Lochbroom. 
 
 • There are other mosses that bear evident marks 
 of recent origin. Mr Aiton, in his essay, shews that 
 there is strong ground to believe that the forest of 
 Paisley existed in the 12th century. In the charter 
 of the foundation of the monastery there, the Great 
 
I 
 
 ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 77 
 
 Steward conveys to the monks the tithes of all the 
 lands below the fo est of Paisley. He says, that as 
 late as the year 1460 and 1524, the tenants of Dun- 
 scaith-wood, in the vicinity of Paisley, were bound by 
 the abbot to keep the wood or forest^ and to uphold 
 mid repair the dike round it ; yet, at this moment, 
 there is not a vestige of that forest remaining, except- 
 ing the names Linwood, Fullwood, Woodhead, &c. 
 &c. an extensive moss, many feet deep, over the 
 low grounds, where it must have stood. 
 
 The probability is, that all this moss has been form- 
 ed on the ruins of that forest, in the course of two, 
 three, or four centuries. 
 
 The same author states it as probable, that the 
 mosses in the upper parts of Strathaven and Avon- 
 dale were of no earlier origin. This district formed 
 a part of the forest of Selkirk. That forest seems to 
 have extended over the upper parts of Ayrshire, 
 Clydesdale, Peebles-shire, &c. It is ascertained that it 
 existed as a forest in the 1 2th century. In the yeat 
 11 80, Walter, the Grand Steward of Scotland, grant- 
 <id a charter to the Cistertian monks of Melrose. Iri 
 that charter, he grants them in pure alms the whole 
 pasture of this forest, as far as the marches of Doug- 
 las, Leshmahagow, and Glengivel ; yet, in all that 
 extent, there is not a tree remaining which can be. 
 considered as a relict of that forest. Four-fifths of 
 the surface is covered with moss ; and there is no- 
 other traces of it, excepting the names of Hanvood, 
 Neitherwood, Woodhall, &c. &c» 
 
*78 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 The conclusion he draws, is in the following 
 words : *' When I consider that the moors of Muir- 
 *' kirk and higher parts of Avondale formed part 
 *' of the forest of Selkirk, which is well known to 
 *' have existed in the 13th and 14th centuries ; when 
 '' I look at the charter above quoted ; and when I 
 *' find a great proportion of the land in these regions 
 " still named by "wood in the Saxon language, I am 
 *' warranted to conclude, that the parishes of Sorn, 
 " Muirkirk, and the higher parts of Strathaven and 
 " Leshmahagow, Douglas, &c. now almost wholly 
 *' covered with moss, were all growing forests at 
 " and after the end of the 12th century. " 
 
 Dr King, in his account of the Irish mosses^ 
 mentions several instances where there appears the 
 clearest evidence of their recent origin. I name one. 
 •' There are many bogs of late standing in Ireland. 
 " When O'Donald and Tyron came to the relief 
 *' of Kinsale, they wasted the country, especially 
 '' as they came through Connaught, which, by 
 " means of the Earl of Clanrichard, was generally 
 " loyal ; and there is a great track of land noW a 
 " bog that was then a ploughed field. There re- 
 " mains the mansion-house of my Lord in the midst 
 «ofit." 
 
 Dr Boates, in his Natural History, likewise men- 
 tions, that many of the Irish bogs seem to be of re- 
 cent origin : he states the following instances : 
 " Under a bog, five or six feet deep, a proper soil, 
 " with the marks of the plough, and the form of 
 
Origin of peat moss. 79 
 
 ridges, were discovered." He adds, " That there are 
 ^' few bogs removed but bear similar marks ; particu- 
 " larly in Armagh, Dundalk, Londonderry, Donne- 
 " gal." He says, " that in the latter a plough was 
 *^ found very deep in the bog, and a hedge with 
 *' wattles standing, five or six feet deep." He men- 
 tions, " that there are reports that the streets and 
 ** footsteps of a large town may be traced under a 
 *' moss in the north of Ireland." 
 
 M. De Luc mentions an instance on the Continent 
 which also deserves attention. He says, that in dig- 
 ging a ditch in Davels moor, at the depth of four feet 
 in the moss, was found the subsoil : that this for- 
 med an inclined plane. In this was found a trough 
 or water-run, made of planks of wood, which 
 shewed that it was a mill-trough. In the sand 
 near this trough a wimble was also found. He says 
 that he saw it, and that it differed nothing from a 
 carpenter's wimble. 
 
 Here, he observes, is not only four feet of moss of 
 recent origin, but a much greater depth ; for all the 
 lower level, at which this trough terminated, and in 
 which the mill stood, is covered deep with moss. 
 
 It is almost unnecessary for me to observe, that 
 the introduction of mills is of a modern date in 
 Europe, and that the probability is great that the a- 
 bove moss is of very recent origin ; it must have 
 been posterior to the erection of that mill. 
 
 The above named author adds, that he has no 
 doubt but, on a careful examination^ n^siny other 
 
80 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 instances might be found, in proof of the recent ori- 
 gin of moss. 
 
 The rapidity with which moss might be formed 
 and accumulated, in an extended level, is great. 
 
 An instance of this is mentioned by M. De Luc : 
 near Bremerford there is a vast plain of this descrip- 
 tion. In that plain there is a village called Islerheim. 
 The place itself is called Islerberg, or the town 
 in the isle, or rising ground ; yet he observes the 
 whole is now a horizontal plain. At the time it ac- 
 quired its name, and probably, when the village was 
 first established, this spot must have been a rising 
 eminence like an island; yet that appearance is gone; 
 the adjacent moss has now risen to the level of 
 its summit : so that what was once an island, has 
 now disappeared, or rather it is now on a level 
 with the adjacent moss. 
 
 As a proof of the recent origin of many mosses on 
 the Continent, he makes a general remark, that the 
 names and terminations of niany places are Ger- 
 man j that these are descriptive of the topography 
 of the country. Of this he mentions four instances : 
 vorde, berg, holZy and thai; the first signifies a 
 Jbrd the second a height or eminence^ the third a 
 forest^ and the last a valley ; hence these names are 
 prevalent in many mosses. Bremerford, Ottes- 
 berg, Osterholz, and Lilienthal, he quotes as in- 
 stances of this. These being all German names, he 
 observes, is a proof, that the origin of the mosses, 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 81 
 
 which occupy their place is comparatively recent; 
 that is, since the German language was introduced : 
 That, at the period they acquired these names, 
 fords, eminences, forests, and vallies, occupied these 
 regions, which are now covered entirely with moss. 
 
 According to Pontus Henterus, the mosses in the 
 lower parts of Picardy, along the sea coast, are of 
 recent origin ; he clearly makes it appear that these 
 were overflown by the ocean at the distance of 500 
 years ; and he attempts to prove, that salt works 
 existed at that period where nothing but an extend- 
 ed moss now appears. 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 Objections to the above hypothesis, 
 
 I AM aware that formidable objections have beea 
 made to this hypothesis. 
 
 Degner and Dr Anderson have both combated it 
 with great keenness : the former sums up his objec- 
 tions under the following particulars : 
 
 " 1. That it is contrary to the common opinion of 
 *' the inhabitants of Holland. 
 
 *' 2. That trees are not found in every moss, 
 
 " 3. That trees are often found buried where no 
 " moss is formed. 
 
Ea ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 " 4. Wher^ trees abound, there are fewest mosses: 
 ^' Tliat they seem rather to retard than to expedite 
 .** tile formation of moss. 
 
 *' 5. That some mosses are found to be thirty feet 
 *' deep before we reach the wood : That it seems in- 
 *' credible that such immense quantities of that mat- 
 ^*^ teif tQuid be formed of wood : That the largest 
 ^' and thickest forest could not supply materials suf- 
 *' ficient for the purpose : That one single acre of 
 ^' moss contains more inflammable matter than twen- 
 *^ ty acres of the finest forest. 
 
 " 6. That if forests are converted into moss, the 
 " greatest part of Muscovy, Tartary, America, and 
 *' other woody Uncultivated regions, would, long ere 
 " now, have undergone that change, which is not the 
 « case.'* 
 
 From all these considerations he concludes, " that 
 " moss is not formed of decayed wood.*' 
 
 The latter sums up his objections in stronger lan- 
 jguage, and marshals them in more formidable array. 
 I shall state them, as they appear in this essay, in all 
 their collected force : They may be reduced to the 
 ibllowing heads : 
 
 " 1. That all vegetable substances, when dead, 
 " decrease in bulk so much that they occupy Hot 
 " above one hundredth, part of the space they did. 
 
 *'.2. That Wioss produces few vegetables j that 
 " these tead rapidly to decay. 
 
0R!GIN of PEAt MOSS. 8^ 
 
 '^ 3. That the vegetable substance v/hich formd 
 ^' moss must therefore have been one hundred times 
 *' more bulky than the moss itself. 
 
 " 4. That mosses are found thirty, even forty feet 
 *' deep. 
 
 " 5. That the most abundant crop, on the most fer* 
 " tile soil, will not cover the earthy when fresh cut^ 
 " half an inch deep ; that, when rotten, it only co- 
 " vers the earth one hundredth part of this. 
 
 " 6* That, therefore, it would require nine thou- 
 " sand six hundred years to form a moss twenty feet 
 *' deep on the most fertile soil. 
 
 " 7. That moss produces not one hundredth part 
 *' of the crop of a fertile soil ; therefore, it would re* 
 " quire upwards of nine hundred thousand years to 
 " produce twenty feet of moss earth on such a soil.'* 
 
 From all which he draws the following conclu*> 
 gions, and retires in triumph : 
 
 *' Nothing can be so absurd, nothing so contra* 
 *' dictory to reason, and every known fact respecting 
 *^ the decomposition of vegetables, than the whole of 
 " the doctrine that has been implicitly adopted re-« 
 '' specting the formation of moss, by means of decay- 
 *' ed sphagnum, or any other plant whatever." 
 
 This seems to me to be the sum of his objections : 
 They are plausible, and seemingly strong ; but their 
 strength will appear imaginary, when brought to the 
 test. 
 
 I shall endeavour to obviate these objections. My 
 animadversions may appear severe j they shall he 
 
^4 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 made with candour. All the apology I plead is, that 
 in the pursuit of science, and especially in the prose-^ 
 cution of a subject hitherto much neglected, and little 
 known, tJiere is no beaten track in which we are all 
 bound to tread. On such a subject, we ought to set 
 out with this motto, nuUius jurare in verba magis- 
 triy otherwise there is an end to all fair investigation *. 
 
 The whole of his objections resolve themselves in- 
 to one general point. 
 
 That if moss be formed of decayed wood, or any 
 other vegetable substance, it must require an im- 
 mense time to its formation. This, too, is the 
 amount of Degner's fifth objection. As it is the 
 most formidable at first appearance, I begin with it. 
 , Let us suppose, for the sake of argument, (and 
 the supposition will not appear absurd after what has 
 been already stated) let us suppose, that what is now 
 a moss was once a forest : Let us also allow, what the 
 Doctor asserts as a well known fact, " that the thick- 
 *' est wood that ever grew, would not form a solid 
 ^' body above two or three feet deep over the surface 
 *' on which it stood;" or, in the Words of Degner^ 
 ^' That one single acre of moss contains more inflame 
 *' mable matter than 20 acres of the finest forest." 
 
 * Few men have displayed more pubKc spirit than Dr Air- 
 cierson ; and still fewer have devoted more of tlieir time and 
 talents to promote the interests of -his country. If any expres- 
 sion that drops from my pen appear disrespectful, it is not iri- 
 tended. On the contrary, I feel, and ever will avow, great 
 respect for him as an author. 
 
I 
 
 ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 85 
 
 Even upon this supposition the hypothesis I have 
 suggested may be supported. There are a variety of 
 considerations that come into the account, which 
 seem to have been entirely overlooked by the inge- 
 nious Doctor and the learned Dutchman ; the age 
 of the forest, the annual accession of leaves, and seeds, 
 and boughs, it must have yielded during all the pe- ' 
 riod of its growth : the bark, and rind, and roots, 
 after it was ruined, also must have added greatly to 
 the mass of vegetable matter. 
 
 I shall endeavour to state, and follow up the Doc* 
 tor's argument upon this supposition. Even upon 
 his own datwn^ " That the thickest wood that ever 
 " grew would not, when overset, furnish two or 
 *' three feet of moss," I hope to show, that the hy* 
 pothesis I have endeavoured to support, is neither so 
 absurd, nor so contradictory to reason, and every 
 fact, as he asserts. 
 
 I. In the JiJ^st place ^ The age of the forest must 
 be taken into the account. 
 
 Many of our mosses certainly contain the ruins of 
 aged forests ; trees of an immense, nay almost in- 
 credible size have been found in them. 
 
 In Hatfield moss, Vv^hich we have endeavoured to 
 show was a forest 1 800 years ago, fir trees h^ve been 
 found above ninety feet long, and sold for masts and 
 keels of ships ; oaks have been also discovered there 
 upwards of 100 feet long. In No. 213. of the Phil. 
 Trans, an oak is mentioned of the following dimenr 
 
86 ON THE J^ATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 siojis; one hundred and twenty feet long, twelve 
 feet diameter at the root, and six at thp top. No 
 such tree exists now in the British dominions ; per- 
 haps few, if any, in Europe can be found equal to it. 
 Twenty pounds Sterling was offered for it, which 
 ^hews that it was in a state of tolerable preservation. 
 A fir tree is mentioned by the same author no less 
 than a hundred and fifty-three feet in length, and of 
 proportional thickness. 
 
 Even in Scotland, and the higher regions of it too, 
 where a tree will scarcely now strike root, some 
 have been dug out of the mosses of very large di- 
 mensions. Mr Aiton speaks of an oak tree, dug up 
 in the parish of Kilbride, upwards of sixty feet long, 
 and, at the upper end, four feet circumference. 
 
 These stately plants, which now lie in ruins, could 
 not have rushed up in a season, an age, or a century ; 
 they must have survived many generations of the 
 human race. Upon a rough, but moderate calcu- 
 lation, we may suppose that such a fir would require 
 some centuries to grow to such a size, and such an 
 oak perhaps 1000 years. 
 
 Mr Tait, in his account of Kincardine moss, not 
 only mentions the size of the oaks dug up, that some 
 were fifty feet long, and three feet in diameter, but 
 adds, that 314 circles, or years growth, were count- 
 ed on the roots ; yet some trees were larger : he 
 vSpeaks of one four feet, and another fifteen feet 
 fiiameter at the surface of the clay. 
 
I 
 
 ORIGIN OF P^AT MOSS. 87 
 
 All these shew, that mosses contain the ruins ci' 
 aged forests. 
 
 Taking this for granted, it leads us on to considera- 
 tions of great importance in the calculation ; for. 
 
 11. In the second place ^ Every tree sheds its leaves 
 annually. The oak has an abundant foliage ; that 
 of the fir is still more bulky. Where a forest is 
 thick, as has unquestionably been the case in many 
 of our mosses, the crop of leaves which it must have 
 yielded annually, must have been equal in bulk to 
 the richest crop of wheat on the most fertile soil. 
 
 Yet all these leaves must have dropt annually, 
 during all the period in which the forest grew ; say 
 that this was only 500 years : even upon this suppo- 
 sition, the mass of vegetable matter thus formed must 
 be very great. 
 
 Besides this, we cannot suppose that these leaves 
 would cover the surface equally : each leaf would 
 jiot drop to the root of the parent tree. Tossed by 
 the winds and tempest, or washed down from de- 
 clivities by the torrents, they must have been depo- 
 sited in the sheltered corners, and deepest hollows of 
 the woods ; there, it is natural to conclude, they 
 would be amassed annually in heaps ; and while the 
 declivities and eminences were stripped of leaves, 
 these hollow levels would become the general depot 
 of the forest. 
 
 I have often seen a mass of leaves, tossed by the 
 winds into the hollow places of a wood, upward^ pf 
 
8S ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 a yard deep. Supposing that these, when tliey de- 
 cayed and were compressed, would only, furnish 
 one quarter of an inch deep of materials for forming 
 moss ; even, on this supposition, we may account for 
 a considerable depth of moss during the growth of 
 any forest, at least in these hollow places.; and it is 
 only in low levels where deep mosses are found. 
 
 All the above mass was only the produce of one 
 year. If the forest be allowed to have stood for 
 500 years before it fell into decay, these leaves, ac- 
 cording to the above calculation, by dropping an- 
 nually during all that period, would furnish materials 
 for nearly twelve feet of moss, if annually accumu- 
 lated in the same hollow. 
 
 It would tend greatly to illustrate this point, if we 
 could shew that leaves have actually contributed to 
 form moss in these hollows. From the accounts that 
 we have of the mosses of Holland and France, Bra- 
 bant and Britain, this seems to be the case. 
 
 I have already shewn that leaves have been dis- 
 covered in Hatfield moss ; that the several species 
 maybe distinguished. The same author who men- 
 tions this adds, " that many inches of the lowest 
 " tier of moss consists of rotten leaves." 
 
 Similar appearances present themselves in Kin- 
 cardine moss. In theEncycl. Brit, it is stated, " that 
 ** between the moss and the clay there is a stratum 
 ", nine inches deep, of a dark brown, or blackish 
 *' colour ; that this is the remains of the leaves, he. 
 '" of the woods be&re the moss was formed." Dr 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 89 
 
 -Collet observes, " that the lowest tier of Berkshire 
 " moss abounds with leaves," &c. 
 
 In the French mosses similar discoveries have been 
 made. Demoustier, in the Journ. des Mines, men- 
 tions, that, in digging the foundation of the Pont de 
 la Revolution at Paris, a kind of moss was found 
 below the level of the river, divided into leaves and 
 rubbish of vegetables, clearly distinguishable ; that 
 it exhaled a strong odour of sulphur. 
 
 De Boot says, that near Bruges, on digging fifty 
 feet, whole forests were found ; that the leaves and 
 and trunks were so little altered, that the distinct 
 species of the trees might be discovered : He says, 
 even that the different series of leaves which had 
 fallen annually may be distinguished. 
 
 Stevinus gives a similar account of the Dutch 
 mosses, and states it as his decided opinion, '' that the 
 " leaves, &c. of fallen woods, washed down from the 
 *' rising grounds into the vallies, are, in a course of 
 '' ages, converted into moss." 
 
 In the Diet. Raisonne, similar appearances are 
 mentioned to have been seen in the mosses of Bra- 
 bant. I quote the passage in the words of the au- 
 thors : 
 
 " In digging the peats in Brabant, at a place called 
 " Pieland, they find below the sand a stratum very 
 " hard and very compact, which is nothing else than 
 " a mass of leaves of trees, &c. ; the odour this emits, 
 *' (it is added), is insupportable : but, when exposed 
 ^J to the air, this substances separates of itself into 
 
90 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 " leaves, and one can easily distinguish that this whola 
 *' stratum is nothing but an immense mass of leaves 
 *' heaped together, and formed into a body. This 
 *' phenomenon (they add) proves, in a decisive and 
 *' satisfactory manner, the origin of moss." 
 
 Sir Joseph Bankfi mentions a still more striking cir- 
 cumstance : *' He says, that he found a species of 
 *' schistus in Iceland, a great part of which consists of 
 " leaves, evidently those of the alder, interposed be- 
 *' tween the lamillas ; that they were not the mere 
 *' impression, but the real substance of leaves, ap- 
 *' parently half charred." 
 
 St Fond mentions, that a similar schistus, with leaves 
 in it, in a similar state, was discovered at Roche Sauve, 
 in the Vivarais. 
 
 I need not add that Werner mentions that trees 
 with branches and leaves petrified were found 150 
 fathoms deep, and that Rozier says that coal is 
 sometimes discovered with leaves in it ; 
 
 But I cannot pass over a remark of Dr Anderson, 
 upon this point : he makes no hesitation in deciding, 
 '' that moss is an organized body, a growing plant, 
 '' sui generis ;" and he mentions it as one of the 
 ^* great outlines of the species, that mosses which pro- 
 *' duce the best peat, seem to be of 2i foliated texture. 
 *' When these are broken, they rise in flakes, which 
 *• have much the appearance of a congeries of leaves, 
 *' or rather hops pressed close on one another. 
 
 He adds, " that this \erj appearance has served 
 ** to confirm some in the opinion that moss is produ- 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 91 
 
 *' ced from decayed wood, as they believe these are 
 ^' the leaves of the trees preserved ; not adverting 
 " to this, that, by all their hypotheses, the trees have 
 " been felled before the moss began to be formed, 
 " and, of course, that their leaves must have fallen 
 " to the ground, and been totally consumed before 
 *' the moss began to grow : nor would all the 
 *' leaves produced by any wood in the course of a 
 *' hundred y ear ^^ while in a growing state, though 
 *' they had been all preserved from decay during 
 " that period, have accounted for half the quantity 
 " that is found in some mosses." 
 
 I am afraid that the Doctor is inadvertent himself; 
 not attending to this, that some, if not most of the 
 forests alluded to, must have stood, not for one or 
 two, but for five or ten hundred years, as I shall 
 shew afterwards ; and that the leaves of oak, fir, 
 and birch, have been discovered, free from decay, in 
 the deepest mosses, nay, upwards of a hundred feet 
 below the surface of the earth, where they must have 
 remained many hundred years, without being diminish* 
 cd in bulk or consumed. 
 
 But I dismiss this article, and proceed to observe, 
 
 III. In the third place ^ That every tree yields see A 
 after its kind, 'file oak drops its acorns annually, as 
 well as its leaves ; the fir sheds it cones : the for- 
 mer are numerous ; the latter are much more bulky. 
 
 During all the period of its growth, and part of 
 the time in which a forest falls into decay, the acorns 
 
dSJ" ON TH^ NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 of the oak, the cones of the fir, and the nuts of thq 
 filbert, must have annually dropt. Blended with the 
 leaves and the ruins of many generations, they must 
 have added to the mass of vegetable matter. 
 
 Few of these, comparatively speaking, have been 
 discovered in mosses ; but, though they have disap- 
 peared, or may still lie deep in these fens, they have 
 not been lost. They may, indeed, have undergone 
 a partial, perhaps in some cases a total, disorganiza- 
 tion ^ yet, even in this case, the vegetable matter of 
 which they consisted would not be dissipated in air, 
 or evaporate entirely, but remain among the ruins, 
 and add to the mass. 
 
 There are, however, many instances in which these 
 have been found deep in our mosses, in an entire 
 and organized state. I shall mention a few ; the 
 reader may recollect many more ; and they ought to 
 be recorded. 
 
 Dr Leigh, in his N. Hist, of Lancashire, mentions, 
 that many cones of firs are dug out of the mosses 
 of that county. 
 
 Dr Collet says the same of the Berkshire mosses. 
 . In the fens of Lincolnshire the cones of the fir 
 tree are sometimes found entire, No. 275. Phil. Trans.; 
 it is added, that they are found in whole bushels. 
 
 Ramazini assures us, that in Low Modena, not 
 only roots of trees, but nuts, ears of corn, leaves, 
 &c. are found SO, 40, and 50 feet, below the pret 
 sent surface. 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS^ 93 
 
 And PIganiol says, that, in the mosses of Holland 
 and France, not only innumerable trees are found, 
 but that sometimes fruit-trees are discovered with 
 their leayes and fruits ; the oak with its acorns ; the 
 hazle erect, with its leaves and nuts, entire as they 
 grew *. 
 
 These nuts and acorns, and cones, the produce of 
 many hundred years, must have added a vast con- 
 geries of vegetable matter, and may have contributed 
 their part to form moss. 
 
 I may add to this. 
 
 IV. In the foiirtJi place^ That, when a forest is 
 thick, innumerable small twigs rot and drop off from 
 time to time. 
 
 It were superfluous to offer any further proof, that 
 many of the forests that now lie in ruins under moss 
 have been very thick set. The trunks of most of 
 these trees are perfectly straight ; they have mostly 
 attained an immense height ; their roots remain close- 
 ly studded in the soil from which they sprung. All 
 these are evidences that they must have grown close- 
 ly together ; indeed, it is natural to suppose that this 
 would be the case : for, where trees drop their seeds, 
 and these are suffered to spring up with impunity, 
 
 * Mons. De Luc, in his letter to me in January last, says, 
 that, in the mosses in the north of tlie Continent of Europe, a 
 great number of resinous trees are found, and likewise the cones 
 of that species. 
 
^ ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 (as Du Hamel states, in the forests of Bourdeaux), 
 they uniformly grow up in a thicket. 
 
 I may refer to the reader, or to Dr Anderson him- 
 self, whether there are not the clearest evidences that 
 this has been the case with many of the forests found 
 buried in moss. He acknowledges, that " in the ex- 
 " hausted moss of South Fanthing, the roots and 
 ** stumps of many very large oak trees are found 
 *' standing j some of these are six and eight feet dia- 
 " meter, and yet they stand so closely together, that 
 " they are not more than three or four diameters 
 *^ distant from each other." 
 
 Now where this is the case, as Rozier observes of 
 the forests of France, all the lower branches and 
 twigs rot and drop oif ; so that we may see eighty 
 feet of a trunk without one twig or low branch. 
 This, too, must take place during all the period of 
 the growth and decay of these forests ; yet none of 
 these twigs, few even of the branches of trees, are 
 found in moss. 
 
 Leland, in his Itinerary, takes notice of this cir* 
 cumstance : " Oftentymes, in digging the moss or 
 ** moor of Cholmley for pettes and turves, they fynd 
 *' whole trees, some short, some veri long, without 
 ** twig or bow." 
 
 I appeal to the reader whether this be not the case 
 in mosses in general. Upon a narrow inspection, he 
 Will find all the small twigs blended with the moss $ 
 some in an entire organized state j some half decay* 
 
i 
 
 ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. V3 
 
 cd ; and some where the disorganization is almost 
 complete. 
 
 These twigs, with the branches, which are also 
 found sometimes in the same state, must have added, 
 in the lapse of ages, a great accession of vegetable 
 matter*. 
 
 There is a consideration of still more importance : 
 
 V. In the Jlfth place. Every tree has m bark and 
 rind. 
 
 Du Hamel, a distinguished writer on forest trees, 
 points out the quantity of bark which each tree pro- 
 duces in proportion to its size. He says that the bark 
 of a fir tree, though only half an inch thick when 
 young, is often an inch and a half when old. The 
 oak, it is well known, is equally remarkable for the 
 thickness of its bark, especially when it advances tO; 
 a great age. 
 
 De Luc observes, that in the mosses on the Con- 
 tinent no fir nor oak is discovered but what is strip- 
 ped of its bark. This is generally the case in Britain; 
 the only exception is that which I have alieady no- 
 ticed, that the bark is often found entire, and adhe. 
 ring to the under part of the tree. 
 
 * It h certain that the branches of a tree are the first part of 
 it that falls into decay ; the trunk falls next to these ; but, after 
 both ha-ve fallen into rUin, the roots remain entire in the soil 
 for a long period. It is not, therefore, surprising, that more 
 trunks than branches, and more roots than trunks^ are found m^ 
 an organized stole in raoss.^- 
 
96 ON THE NATtTRAL HISTORY AND 
 
 This bark has disappeared ; or rather it has been 
 blended in the common ruin. By this meanSy it must 
 have added an accession of vegetable matter, and con- 
 tributed its part to form moss : this is not only a 
 natural, but an inevitable conclusion, and that it has 
 been the case, there is the clearest evidence. 
 ., I have seen many beautiful specimens of peat which 
 proves this ; especially those dug out of a moss in 
 this neighbourhood. The lowest stratum seems to 
 consist almost entirely of a congeries of bark knead- 
 ed together ; the organic structure of it may still be 
 distinguished ; the fibrous form of the inner rind is 
 visible, and, though it appears to be often broken and 
 crumbled into chips of one or two inches square, yet 
 the thickness of the bark can be ascertained. I have 
 this moment before me a specimen six inches long, 
 three broad, and upwards of an inch and a half thick, 
 although the outer layer seems to be gone. I can 
 distinctly count upwards of thirty layers remaining ; 
 it smells still somewhat like fir, and bums with a 
 bright flame, emitting a very fragrant odour. It 
 cracks when held to a burning candle. — This speci- 
 men was dug out of a moss which abounds in fir 
 wood. 
 
 That the whole bark of the tree to which this be- 
 longed has been buried in the moss, and contributed 
 to form a part of it, cannot be doubted ; and that the 
 whole bark of every tree found in moss, whether 
 that bark still adheres to the tree, or be found de- 
 tached from it in a disorganized state, adds an acces* 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 97 
 
 sion of vegetable matter, is equally obvious. That 
 peat moss may be imitated, and artificial peat made 
 of bark is certain. Degner mentions, that in West- 
 phalia, Drenthea, Velavia, &c. they niix the refuse 
 of tanner's bark with cows dung, and dry it in the 
 sun. In form, colour, and weight, he says, they 
 can scarcely be distinguished from real peat. They 
 are equal in quality as a fuel to the middle species 
 of moss he describes ; their ashes are similar* 
 
 As to the quantity of bark any forest may furnish, 
 it is all conjecture. But since Dr Anderson is pleas- 
 ed to state his objections to the hypothesis I have en- 
 deavoured to support, with mathematical precision^ 
 according to the strict rules of arithmetical numbers^ 
 I shall attempt to reply to him in his own style. My 
 calculation may appear fanciful, perhaps incorrect ; 
 it cannot be more fanciful, nor perhaps more incor- 
 rect than his, as stated in page 83 of this essay. 
 
 In order to calculate the quantity of bark a forest 
 may yield, let us take one tree for an example : 
 
 Suppose it be the oak of Hatfield, above mention- 
 ed ; say it was 120 feet long, 12 feet diameter at the 
 base, and 6 at the top : then take the mean diame- 
 ter for the whole, call it 9 feet,^-this makes the 
 whole tree 27 feet circumference : multiply this by 
 the length ; this gives 8240 feet of surface ; — suppose 
 the bark to have been only an inch and a half thick, 
 this gives 4860 feet of bark. All this is independent 
 of the top and branches : allow only a moderate 
 
 a 
 
0S ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 quantity for these, and call the whole 5000 feet in 
 round numbers. 
 
 Yet this tree, from its immense height, must have 
 stood in a thick forest. It could not have covered a 
 great surface : say that it occupied four falls of ground. 
 Even upon this supposition, the quantity of bark is 
 great for that space : every fall contains thirty-six 
 yards, every yard contains nine feet : four falls, there- 
 fore, contain 1296 feet. Yet this tree, on a very 
 moderate calculation, must have yielded 5000 feet of 
 bark, which gives nearly five inches of solid bark to 
 the whole surface it occupied : this is certainly more 
 Vegetable matter than a thousand crops of the finest 
 wheat would yield, if suffered to decay upon the soil. 
 
 All this matter, too, it would yield at once, viz. at 
 the period of its ruin and decay. 
 
 When this accumulation of bark is added to the 
 mass of leaves, and fruits, and twigs and branches, 
 l^e can more easily conceive how materials may be 
 furnished for the formation of moss. 
 
 It is of importance also to attend to another cir- 
 cumstance : 
 
 VI. In the sixth place ^ That some trees in every fo- 
 rest decay through age : That it is probable whole fo- 
 rests may have suffered this fate ; especially where a 
 subsoil of moss had been formed around the roots of 
 the trees during the period of their growth. Chilled 
 by this means, and checked in their growth, not only 
 the bark but the white- wood might crumble away be- 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 99 
 
 fore the trees were finally overset. This is rio im- 
 aginary case ; the Earl of Cromarty mentions an in- 
 stance that came under his own eye. His Lordship 
 observes, that, when he saw the forest (alluded to 
 in p. 66,) in ruins, the " trees were all blasted, the 
 '' bark was all gone^ the white-wood was quite rotten.*^ 
 Whether this all dropped off and crumbled down 
 before the trees were overset it is not said ; nor is it 
 of any importance to the argument : for this one 
 thing is certain, that it must soon have mouldered 
 after the fall of the forest, and thus mixed with the 
 mass of ruins. 
 
 It is equally certain, that the trees found in moss 
 are generally, if not always^ stripped of this white- 
 wood ; the red only remains : or, if any of the white- 
 wood is to be seen, it is so soft, spongy, and porous, 
 as scarcely if at all to be distinguished from the sur- 
 rounding moss. 
 
 If this be allowed, that the tr^es which decay 
 through age drop their white-wood sometimes be- 
 fore they be overset, and that all trees found in 
 moss are mostly divested of it, the whole of this 
 white-wood must have contributed its part to the 
 formation of this substance. What proportion it 
 may have yielded it is impossible to ascertain ; it 
 may be Considered as nearly equal, if not in most 
 cases greater, than the bark. 
 
 Hitherto, we have only considered the trunks and 
 branches, I mav add. 
 
©S ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 quantity for these, and call the whole 5000 feet in 
 round numbers. 
 
 Yet this tree, from its immense height, must have 
 stood in a thick forest. It could not have covered a 
 great surfatce : say that it occupied four falls of ground. 
 Even upon this supposition, the quantity of bark is 
 great for that space : every fall contains thirty-six 
 yards, every yard contains nine feet : four falls, there- 
 fore, contain 1296 feet. Yet this tree, on a very 
 moderate calculation, must have yielded 5000 feet of 
 bark, v^^hich gives nearly five inches of solid bark to 
 the whole surface it occupied 5 this is certainly more 
 vegetable matter than a thousand crops of the finest 
 wheat would yield, if suffered to decay upon the soil. 
 
 All this matter, too, it would yield at once, viz. at 
 the period of its ruin and decay. 
 
 When this accumulation of bark is added to the 
 mass of leaves, and fruits, and twigs and branches, 
 •We can more easily conceive how materials may be 
 furnished for the formation of moss. 
 
 It is of importance also to attend to another cir- 
 cumstance : 
 
 VI. In the sixth place ^ That some trees in every fa- 
 rest decay through age : That it is probable whole fo- 
 rests may have suffered this fate; especially where a 
 subsoil of moss had been formed around the roots of 
 the trees during the period of their growth. Chilled 
 by this means, and checked in their growth, not only 
 the bark but the white- wood might crumble away be- 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 99 
 
 fore the trees were finally overset. This is no im- 
 aginary case ; the Earl of Cromarty mentions an in- 
 stance that came under his own eye. His Lordship 
 observes, that, when he saw the forest (alluded to 
 in p. 66.) in ruins, the " trees were all blasted, the 
 '' bark was all gone^ the white-wood was quite rotten.** 
 Whether this all dropped off and crumbled down 
 before the trees were overset it is not said ; not* is it 
 of any importance to the argument : for this one 
 thing is certain, that it must soon have mouldered 
 after the fall of the forest, and thus mixed with the 
 mass of ruins. 
 
 It is equally certain, that the trees found in moss 
 are generally, if not always^ stripped of this white- 
 wood ; the red only remains : or, if any of the white- 
 wood is to be seen, it is so soft, spongy, and porous, 
 as scarcely if at all to be distinguished from the sur-^ 
 rounding moss. 
 
 If this be allowed, that the trfes which decay 
 through age drop their white-wood sometimes be- 
 fore they be overset, and that all trees found in 
 moss are mostly divested of it, the whole of this 
 white-wood must have contributed its part to the 
 formation of this substance. What proportion it 
 may have yielded it is impossible to ascertain ; rt 
 may be Considered as nearly equal, if not in most 
 cases greater, than the bark. 
 
 Hitherto, we have only considered the trunks and 
 branches, I mav add. 
 
100 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 VII. In the seventh place ^ That the roots are also 
 io be taken into the account. These also have thehr 
 bark and rind. For the most part, the roots of trees 
 found in moss, are stripped of both ; of course, they 
 must have added to the mass of vegetable matter. It 
 is impossible to calculate or conceive what that quan- 
 tity may have been. 
 
 But I have endeavoured to prove, that some of the 
 ruined forests, found in moss, have been overset by 
 the violence of the tempest, and that others have 
 been burnt. 
 
 If this be allowed. 
 
 VIII. It must also add greatly to the account. 
 The violence of the tempest would not only tear off 
 many of the branches, but the sudden and tremen- 
 dous crash of one tree upon another, would mangle 
 the whole. The high twigs and branches would thus 
 be torn and scattered about in wild disorder. 
 
 Nor Would this only take place upon the supposi- 
 tion, that the forest yielded to the impetuosity of the 
 tempest : when cut with the hatchet, the effect would 
 be the same, with this additional consideration, that 
 the chips cut out of such immense trees before they 
 were felled would add greatly to the mass. 
 
 Above all, if it be allowed, that some of these 
 forests were burnt, this must have added to the ac- 
 count. Wood, when green and growing, though it 
 burn with fury, is not speedily or entirely consumed ; 
 that is, it is not altogether reduced to ashes ; on the 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 101» 
 
 contrary, a great part of it is only charred. The quan- 
 tity of charr that a forest thus partially consumed 
 may yield, we may calculate or conceive from the 
 following statement : 
 
 Proust says, that wood, in general, yields nearly 
 one-fifth part of carbon ; that is, nearly 20 parts in 
 the 100. The pine yields precisely this quantity ; 
 €1 green growing oak yields the same proportion ; 
 some species of wood yields more. 
 
 If so, what a prodigious quantity must a single tree, 
 such as that found in Hatfield moss, produce ? Let 
 us, for the sake of illustration, give a rough calcula- 
 tion of it. 
 
 Say this tree was 120 feet long; call it only six 
 feet square in all its length, though it must have been 
 more ; every running foot, upon this loose calculation, 
 must have yielded 36 cubic feet of wood ; the whole 
 tree, therefore, must have contained upwards of 4000 
 cubic feet : supposing it afforded one fifth of carbon, 
 this single tree must have yielded upwards of 800 
 cubic feet ; and, if it occupied only four falls of 
 ground, as we have stated, the carbon it contained, if 
 equally spread over that surface, would cover it nine 
 inches deep. 
 
 That charred wood has actually contributed to the 
 formation of some mosses seems to me incontestable. 
 As I hinted already, p. 46. some mosses I have ex- 
 amined bear evident marks of this ; the lowest stra- 
 tum seems to consist almost entirely of chips of char- 
 red wood ; the fibres of the wood are still distinct j 
 
102 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY ANO 
 
 its original form remains ; it has still the clear black 
 glossy colour of charcoal. 
 
 The peat it yields is almost as hard and heavy as 
 coal ; it burns with a bright flame ; emits a great 
 heat, and yields a lasting fire : in some of these peats 
 the fibrous form of the wood is lost, j^nd they appear 
 a solid hard jet black substance, precisely similar to 
 pounded charcoal firmly cemented together. 
 
 If we take all these into the account, we can be at 
 no loss to find sufficient materials for a moss of con- 
 siderable depth. 
 
 Hitherto we have argued upon the supposition, that 
 there has been only one generation of such a forest ; 
 there are, however, incontestible evidences that some 
 mosses contain, 
 
 IX. The remains of two^ and even three genera- 
 iions^ each rising in succession upon the ruins of the 
 other. 
 
 De Luc mentions several instances on the Conti- 
 nent, where this appears to have been the case : In 
 Kedmger moor, he says, there are still a few trees, 
 the fragments of the former forest. Though the moss 
 be three feet deep, it still bears stately oaks ; their 
 roots strike through the moss, reach the subsoil, and 
 receive their nourishment from it : these trees, he 
 adds, must at least be the Sccmd or third geiier^a- 
 tion of thai forest. 
 
 He likewise mentions many instances where a new 
 generation springs up on the ruins of the old ; and 
 he observes, that " when he saw the roots and ruins 
 
I 
 I 
 
 ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. lOS 
 
 '-* of the old trees sheltering the young, it brought 
 " him in mind of a number of children around their 
 */ grandmother/' He adds, " the seeds of former 
 *' generations had taken root among the rubbish, and 
 " sprung up to supply their place." 
 
 Dr Walker makes a similar remark on the moss 
 of Strathcluony : He says, " That it has formerly 
 " been a very thick extensive fir wood : That the trees 
 " found in it have been deposited at different periods : 
 '' That large roots of fir trees which had evidently been 
 *' broken down by the wind^, are found in it : That 
 *' some of these roots, with part of the trunk in their 
 " natural position, were found at the bottom of the 
 *' moss, fixed in the gravelly loam from which they 
 " had sprung : That above these was a stratum of 
 *' peat, three feet thick, evidently formed during the 
 " growth and decay of these trees : in the same 
 ** place, the old roots of other fir trees were discover- 
 *' ed, two or three feet immediately above the former, 
 *' with their fangs spread horizontally, having three 
 ^' or four feet of moss above them. It was clear 
 ^' that these roots belonged to trees oi another genera- 
 *' tion, and of a date much poste?ior to the former ; 
 f' for they had only begun to grow after the trees rot- 
 " ted in the loam had decayed, and after three feet of 
 ^' moss had been formed by their growth and decay." 
 Again, he adds, " Over these last roots, situated 
 " three or four feet deep in the moss, an aged fir 
 '' was growing on the surface : — ^there were here three 
 ^' generations, or, as it were, three tier of trees visibly 
 '^ pUced above one another." 
 
104? ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 He concludes, ^' This renders it probable, that 
 " many of our deepest mosses have been formed by 
 *' two, three, or more generations of trees, which have 
 *' grown successively above one another, at different 
 *' and distant periods." 
 
 To sum up the whole account, let us suppose that 
 these forests that lie in ruins in our mosses had each 
 existed only 500 years before they were finally over- 
 set ; that the whole leaves they had dropped in suc- 
 cession for so many ages, were tossed by the winds 
 or washed down by the waters into the low levels ; 
 that the acorns and cones, &:c. the bark and rind, 
 the twigs and boughs ; the whole wood, and roots, 
 and trunks were all accumulated in one rugged, 
 ruinous, and unseemly group ; What an immense 
 congeries of vegetable matter must thus be deposited 
 by this simple and certain process of nature ! To 
 make the calculation complete, let us suppose that 
 some of these mosses are the ruins of two, three, or 
 more generations : on this supposition, more vege- 
 table matter must be formed than many hundred 
 thousand crops of the finest wheat on the most fer- 
 tile soil. 
 
 Thus nature provides materials for the formation 
 of moss ; materials sufficient in quantity ; materials, 
 too, w^hich do not speedily decay ; materials which 
 are not soon diminished in bulk ; and materials which 
 must of necessity have existed wherever any forest 
 falls into ruins. 
 
i 
 
 ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 105 
 
 1. That the quantity of materials is sufficient will 
 appear even from Dr Anderson's concession : for if 
 a forest, when it falls into ruins, may yield sufficient 
 matter for three feet of moss, we may safely allow 
 that it would furnish three feet more, during the pe- 
 riod of its growth, by its leaves and twigs, &c. ; and 
 if we suppose two or three generations to have suc- 
 ceeded each other, the account must be doubled or 
 tripled. 
 
 2. That these materials do not (as the Doctor sup- 
 poses every vegetable does) rapidly tend to decay, 
 can be clearly proved. Leaves have been found 30, 
 40, nay 50 feet deep in moss, which had not under- 
 gone the smallest disorganization. Barks have been 
 found equally entire. Birch bark of all substances 
 seems to be least liable to decay ; it is almost incor- 
 ruptible. Pliny mentions, that the volumes that were 
 buried along with Nerva were wrote on this : that 
 though they had lain in the grave 400 years, they 
 were perfectly entire. And Joseph Correa mentions, 
 that the bark found in Lincoln fens, though it had 
 probably lain five times that period, was perfectly 
 fresh, especially that of the branches : that the silvery 
 skin, or outer membrane, is discernible. 
 
 Even when exposed to the air, as well as buried 
 deep in the earth, it is not liable to rapid decay. 
 
 Maupertius says, that among the numerous trees 
 which lay on the ground in Lapland, destroyed 
 through age, or blown down by the winds, many 
 birch trees appeared whole, owing to the undecayed 
 
106 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AN^ 
 
 State of the bark ; but they erumbled into powder 
 when trod upon : That the Swedes take the hint 
 from this, and cover their houses with this unperish- 
 able bark. 
 
 Nay, even after the wood is not only decayed, but 
 mineralized, the bark of trees has been found entire 
 in an organized state, Mr Took mentions instances 
 of this in Russian Lapland. In the martial springs 
 of Ussona, &c. are discovered vast quantities of stems, 
 branches, twigs, and leaves of birch trees, mine- 
 rahzed by iron ; the texture of the wood is still vi- 
 sible ; the tender white rind is preserved entire in its 
 natural appearance. 
 
 In the copper mines of the Riphean mountains, 
 similar instances are mentioned by Abbe Chappe, 
 In these, and likewise in the Souxson mines, he says 
 that pieces of wood are often found mineralized by 
 copper ; the internal part is almost reduced to char- 
 coal ; the copper is sometimes chrystallized in cells ; 
 the bark is still distinguishable ; it is about four lines 
 in thickness. 
 
 3. That these materials are not soon diminished 
 in bulk, so as not to occupy one hundredth part of the 
 space they did, as the Doctor supposes, is clear to 
 demonstration. The leaves, and bark, and cones, 
 and nuts, S:c. of the trees found in moss, occupy 
 nearly the same space as when they dropped from 
 the parent tree. 
 
 Of this no proof is necessary : every one who has 
 paid the least attention to the subject must be con- 
 vinced of it. 
 
I 
 
 ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 10? 
 
 The conclusion of the whole is, that the ruined 
 forests of the north of Europe have laid the founda* 
 iion of many of our mosses ; I say only the founda- 
 tion ; on that foundation nature builds her work. 
 
 To point out the materials and progress of that 
 work, by means of aquatic plants, &c. shall be the 
 subject of my Second Essay. 
 
 The subject is difficult and intricate, but it is in- 
 teresting and important ; — it far exceeds my feeble 
 powers. The short line of the human intellect never 
 can fathom the depths of Infinite Wisdom displayed 
 in his works ; yet every physical fact we discover, 
 throws a ray of light on the darkest and deepest sub- 
 ject, and elevates the soul with pure and solid sadsfac- 
 tion. 
 
ESSAY II. 
 
 ON AQUATIC PLANTS. 
 
112 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 if we fix our attention to any moss, we must take it 
 as it now exists. In this case, we may, perhaps, dis- 
 cover what are the plants that now contribute to its 
 increase ; but it does not follow that the same plants 
 contributed to its original formation, or subsequent 
 growth, in every period of it. 
 
 Direct information on the subject cannot be ex- 
 pected ; and I do not pledge myself to furnish it. 
 Yet the task is not hopeless, nor do I think it by any 
 means impossible, to ascertain what are the plants 
 which first laid the foundation of moss, and furnish- 
 ed materials for its subsequent increase : 
 
 For, if moss be renovated when dug ; if we can 
 by any means ascertain what is requisite for this pur- 
 pose ; especially, if we can point out the period of 
 time necessary ; and, above all, the precise plants 
 which have furnished the materials for this renova- 
 tion ; it is not an unfair or unphilosophical conclu- 
 sion, that the same plants may have contributed to 
 its original formation. 
 
 More especially, if it can be proved that the same 
 aquatic plants still flourish in lakes and marshy 
 grounds ; that some lakes and marshes have by these 
 been converted into mosses within the memory of 
 man, or since a precise period : Above all, if it can 
 be shewn that these very plants can be traced in moss, 
 through all its depth, the above conclusion must, in 
 that case, be corroborated ; and we may thus form a 
 distinct idea of the aquatic plants that have given ori- 
 gin to moss I of the period requisite for its formation 5 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. US 
 
 and account for all the various appearances it as- 
 sumes. 
 
 With this view I shall, in this essay, shew, 
 
 I. That many mosses, when dug, are renovated ; 
 and then point out, 
 
 II. What is requisite to this renovation. I shall, 
 
 III. State some facts to ascertain the time required 
 for this purpose : 
 
 IV. Point out the aquatic plants which furnish the 
 materials : , 
 
 V. Shew that the same aquatic plants still flourish 
 in lakes and marshes : 
 
 VI. Prove that many lakes and marshes have been 
 converted into mosses by the growth and decay of 
 these plants : 
 
 VII. That these plants may be traced still in an or- 
 ganised state in moss, through all its depth. I shall 
 then endeavour, 
 
 VIII. To ascertain the distinguishing qualities of 
 these plants, 
 
 IX. I shall attempt, on this hypothesis, to account 
 for the various appearances moss assumes; for the vast 
 depth to which it sometimes reaches ; and the differ- 
 ent situations in which it is found. 
 
 Lastly, I shall state some general conclusions. 
 
 The above is the plan of this essay. I allow that 
 it is a circuitous way of ascertaining the point at is- 
 sue ; it appears to me, however, to be the only cer<- 
 tain method, therefore I have adopted it, 
 
 H 
 
114 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 SECTION 'l. 
 
 That AlosSy when dugy is Renovated, 
 
 This is a point of the greatest importance : I shall, 
 therefore, endeavour to establish it upon the testimo- 
 ny of those who have had the most extensive means 
 of information. 
 
 Some ingenious^ men have denied that mosis is ever 
 renovated when dug. Lentilius and Commelinus 
 are decidedly of this opinion. Girard, in his account 
 of the valley of the Somme, also denies that there is 
 any renovation of moss in that district : He says, that 
 the pits dug on the banks of that river are converted 
 into lakes ; that they are not again filled up with 
 moss. 
 
 General de Jean is of a different opinion : He says 
 that, upon examination, he found that these pits in 
 that district are filled with aquatic plants, which, in 
 course of time, are converted into moss. 
 
 Ribaucourt is decidedly of the same opinion : He 
 says, that, in favourable circumstances, new moss is 
 formed, and fills up the place of the old which has 
 been dug. 
 
 Mr Headrick, in his account of Swinridge moor, 
 says, that the old peat pits there are filled up to the 
 
OklGIN OF PEAT MOSS. ' 115 
 
 surface with new formed moss ; but that this is 
 more soft and spongy than the old. 
 
 The Earl of Cromarty in his paper, to which I 
 have already referred, plainly asserts, that moss is 
 renewed after being dug. His wordg are^ 
 
 " In wasted moss pits, where w^ater hinders to 
 " cut the earth to the bottom, these pits are filled 
 *' again, in a good number of years, with new spongy 
 " earth, which, in progress of time, will come to 
 *•' the consistency of peat moss as at first ; and a 
 " scurfy heath turf will grow on the top of it." 
 This is not a mere conjecture of that Noble Earl ; 
 his assertion is founded on experience ; he says he 
 was an eye-witness of the fact. 
 
 Dr King, in his account of the Irish bogs, asserts 
 the same thing. He says, " that the turf holes^ 
 ■" and little gutters dug in them, are again filled 
 *' with new formed moss.'* 
 
 Degner describes the Dutch mosses with minute- 
 ness : he gives it as his decided opinion, that they 
 are often renovated when dug. He says that the 
 pits and ditches are filled with aquatic plants ; that 
 these are converted into turf: that this new formed 
 turf, though not so solid, compact, or heavy as tlie 
 old, is equally inflammable, and, if allowed to ripen, 
 that they are equal to the best. He adds, diat this 
 is not a mere conjecture ; that he has seen it, espe- 
 cially in the neighbourhood of Craneburg. He says, 
 that the mosses in that district are intersected with 
 many ditches to drain, them. In these ditches a vast 
 
116 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 quantity of aquatic plants speedily rush up 5 these 
 are converted into moss : the turf dug out 9f 
 them is soft and spongy, but inflammable. When 
 dried, these turf are sold to sailors ; by them they 
 are used for stopping leakes in their vessels. 
 
 As Mons. De Luc has had more opportunities 
 of surveying the mosses of Europe than most men, 
 J used the freedom to write him in Januaa*y 1806. 
 I requested information upon this and many other 
 points. To this letter I received an immediate re- 
 ply : With the greatest frankness he furnished me 
 with ample information. I wrote him again, re- 
 questing his permission to publish his letters : to this 
 request he readily yielded. 
 
 I shall avail myself of this advantage ; but I rejoice 
 to add, ihdit though this "venerable philosopher be 
 entered into his 80th year, he is preparing for ilie 
 press an extensive and imimrtant "work upon the 
 subject of geology, from which I expect more ample 
 reformation. 
 
 In his first letter he says, he never saw more 
 " peat moors than in summer 1804, when travel- 
 '< ling through Brandebourg, ' Mecklenbourg, Hol- 
 ** stein, and Shleswig, or with more peculiar circum- 
 "' stances." He says, " that three distinct kinds 
 '^ of peat grounds may distinguished." His words 
 are : 
 
 " The first of these kinds is very common over 
 " all the north parts of the Continent of Europe. 
 " The peat lies on horizontal parts of sandy hills. 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 117 
 
 •' a little lower than the general surface ; these levels 
 " are covered with heath ; the peat is commonly very 
 " shallow ; the surface is very rough, giving me an 
 " idea of those lands in Ireland, where are bog-trot- 
 *' ters ; it rises like mole-hills ; the intervals between 
 " these are a boggy soil of soft peat. I think, how^- 
 " ever, that the peat would thicken on these soils, 
 " were it not the source of fuel for the inhabitants, 
 " and constantly disturbed, 
 
 " I'his kind of peat grounds cannot answer my 
 *' main purpose, that of finding natural chronome- 
 " ters, as they are constantly acted upon by men ; 
 " but if long and attentively studied by natural phi- 
 ^' losophers upon the spot, they would be useful in 
 ^' determining the cause of peatification (if I may be 
 ^' allowed to coin that word.) This shallow peat is 
 " a sort of incrustation on the sand. When the for- 
 *^ mer is removed the latter is laid open ; but in time 
 ** this sand is again covered xvith peat. If the pro- 
 *' gress of its renovation were studied, and experi- 
 *' ments made, these might tend to ascertain the 
 " causes of this renovation." 
 
 " If this kind of peat ground lie on a much lower 
 " level than the surrounding hills, it is sometimes 
 " covered with thickets of trees ; such as the alnus^ 
 *' which is fond of moisture. These levels are im- 
 *' passable in wet weather ; the peat is as soft as mud 
 ^' between the stems, or rather pedestals of the trees : 
 " It is not very deep, so that in summer, when plants 
 ^' grow over it, one may go in to cut the wood.'' 
 
118 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 The second kind of peat grounds he thus describes : 
 " They lie on a lower level, not much above the 
 ^' rivers, and are traversed by rivulets. I have 
 ^' seen a vast extent of these in Brandebourg and 
 ^' Brunswic. When peat is diig from these, it is 
 ^^ renovated and grows up again. These grounds 
 '' form horizontal meadows, on a sandy base ; some 
 *' parts of them afford pasture in summer ; in winter 
 " they are too deep undor water for this pui*pose ; 
 ^' other parts, not so deeply overflowed, with some 
 ^' dressing, become good hay fields, and yield excel- 
 *' lent pasture in autumn, 
 
 '' A third kind of peat ground particularly attract- 
 '' ed my attention in the survey of these countries. It 
 '* is connected with lakes, which appear innumerable 
 " among the sandy hills, and of all sizes : these 
 " form commonly a part of all the dales." The 
 manner and rapidity with which moss is renovated 
 and formed in these mosses, and by which these 
 lakes are filled aip, I shall state aftei*u^ards. 
 
 Suffice it to say, that, from a very careful and 
 very extensive survey of alj these kinds of peat 
 grounds, he gives it as his decided opinion, that 
 there is, in all of them, a renovation of the moss 
 when dug. 
 
 From the fibove testimonies it appears certain, 
 that moss grows up again, and is renovated in fa- 
 vourable circumstances. EveiT attentive obser\'^er 
 must have seen instances of this, especially in low 
 level kct'inosSj as it is called, in tliis country j and 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MQSS. '119 
 
 I cannot but solicit the attention of the public to this 
 point. In order to assist their researches, I beg leave 
 to mention a few circumstances, which will enable 
 them to ascertain the fact. 
 
 1. The new formed moss in these old pits can 
 easily be distinguished. It is always more soft, 
 spongy, and porous than the old. The organization 
 of the plants is obvious in the former ; in the latter 
 the organization is almost entirely gone, especially 
 in the lower strata. 
 
 2. The new formed moss never adheres to the 
 old. Picard takes particular notice of this : He says, 
 " That when new moss is formed in the pits, it never 
 " adheres to the old ; that it can thus be easily dis- 
 ^' tinguished, even at the greatest depth." 
 
 Mr Headrick makes a similar remark of Swinridge 
 moor : He says, that the sides of the pit are still per- 
 pendicular and entire ; that the old and new moss 
 seem never to have coalesced. And he farther ob- 
 serves, that this new formed moss could not be oc- 
 casioned by any earth or dust or moss blown into 
 these pits ; that it must be owing to the growth of 
 the moss ; for the surrounding surface is all covered 
 with heath and herbage. 
 
 3. The marks of the spade may be seen in the old 
 pits. Degner takes notice of this circumstance : H^ 
 says, " that he was informed by workmen of credit, 
 " that this is often the case at the depth of six and 
 " seven feet in these pits :" He adds, " that they 
 ^ shewed these marks to himself. That this was ^ 
 
120 • ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 " clear proof, that moss had been dug by former 
 *' generations, on that very spot ; and that the mbs5 
 *' they were then digging, was new formed since that 
 *' period." 
 
 4. Upon examining these pits, too, other circum- 
 stances may lead to this conclusion ; sometimes uten- 
 sils, &c. are found in them, which clearly ascertain the 
 fact. 1 have in my eye an instance of this which occur- 
 red in the parish of Denny : four feet below the surface 
 of a moss, the marks of an old pit were discovered ; 
 in the bottom of it some sheaves of flax were found ; 
 this flax was still entire, though brittle ; when expos- 
 ed to the air, it, however, speedily crumbled down. 
 
 It appears to me unquestionable, that this pit had 
 been used for watering the flax ; and it seems equal'- 
 ly certain, that the four feet of moss above these 
 sheaves had been new formed after that period. 
 
 I need not say, that utensils found in such circum- 
 stances are evidences of the same. 
 
 No doubt can be entertained upon this point ; moss 
 is certainly renovated in favourable circumstances ; 
 but, as Degner observes, this renovation is not always 
 observed ; and he assigns the following reasons of 
 this : That in Holland, the ground from whence the 
 turf is dug, is frequently cultivated ; that moss is so 
 valuable as a fuel, that it is greedily dug without al- 
 lowing time for its renovation ; that in some situations 
 this renovation is slow in its progress, though in others 
 very rapid : I may add to this, that it appears cer- 
 
ORIGIN OF' PEAT MOSS. 321 
 
 tain, that in some cases, too, there is no renovation at 
 all. 
 
 There are certain requisites, without which it can- 
 not take place, or may be greatly retarded *. 
 
 To point out these shall now be my object. 
 
 SECTION 11. 
 
 fVhat is requisite to the Renovation of Moss. 
 
 It appears, from undoubted evidence, that when 
 the pits dug in moss are drained of water, and left 
 dry, or when these pits are large or very deep, or 
 when a current of water is permitted to pass through 
 them, in all of these cases, there is little or no renova- 
 tion of moss ; that in order to expedite this process, 
 it is requisite that the pits be left full of water ; that 
 
 * It is generally allowed, that coal is likewise renovated 
 when dug. Buffon in his Mineralogy, says, that he has seen 
 this new formed coal. Mr Gennett says, that in the Liege 
 mines this is the case : a bitumen impregnated with carbon, 
 is said to transcide the veins which forms coal ; and in 4.<0 
 years these mines are filled up with this. 
 
122 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 these pits be small, and not very deep ; and, that the 
 water in them be stagnant. 
 
 1. In the Jir St place ^ It is requisite that the pits be 
 left full of water : Dr Anderson himself, though he 
 seems to doubt of the renovation of moss at all, and 
 though he never saw an instance of it in Aberdeen- 
 shire, in the experience of 30 years, acknowledges, 
 that this is the general opinion of the inhabitants of 
 that county. His words are, " I acknowledge, that 
 " where the Aberdeenshire mosses are wrought in a 
 " foret, L e. where the moss left is laid dr}^, they are 
 *' never supposed to grow ; it is only when they are 
 " pitted." This remai*k is founded on experience. 
 
 The Earl of Cromarty makes the same distinction : 
 His words are pointed ; " I have observed, that when 
 *' they dig the peats to the channel, or in places 
 *' where the waters run off and do not stagnate, the 
 *' mosses did not grow nor revive there again. This 
 " moved me to order my tenants not to cut the moss 
 *' to the channel, nor in very large openings, but in 
 ** small pits, that they might grow more hastily." 
 He adds, " The event answered my expectation." 
 How plausible is his Lordship's account of the matter ? 
 How like the language of unadorned truth ? How 
 consistent with the experience of every candid, care- 
 ful observer ; and the general opinion of those who 
 have examined the subject with precision ? 
 
 I may add, that it is equally consistent with ana- 
 logy ; for if moss be renovated by the growth of 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 123 
 
 aquatic plants, as I shall endeavour to prove, it is im- 
 possible that this renovation can take place when the 
 pits are left diy, and no aquatics can grow. 
 
 2. Secondly^ His Lordship takes notice, that in 
 small pits this process is more rapid than in very 
 large openings. This remark tallies with the testi- 
 mony of every other writer upon the subject. 
 
 Mr De Luc states this distinction from the experi- 
 ence of Mr Findorf : his authority is high ; his op- 
 portunities of information were extensive; he was 
 Commissary-General of Duvels moor for many years ; 
 and a curious enquirer into the natural history of peat 
 moss. He says, that small pits are prefered to large 
 ones ', and he assigns the reasons of this : " They 
 " prefer small pits, not so much for the sake of re- 
 *' novating the moss carried off; this is an object of 
 *' no importance to them, as it abounds so much in 
 " these regions, it is more for the sake of their cattle ; 
 " for when the pits are small, they are soon filled 
 " up, whereas large pits would require an age for 
 *' this purpose." 
 
 Degner makes a similar remark of the Dutch 
 mosses : He says, that when a large pit is dug, and 
 a large sheet of water is left exposed to the agitation 
 of the winds, the vegetation of aquatic plants is re- 
 tarded, of course, the renovation of the moss is 
 checked ; whereas, in small pits aquatics rush up 
 with rapidity,' and the renovation of the moss is pro- 
 •portionally rapid. 
 
124 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 Poiret makes a similar remark ; and he assigns a 
 similar reason for it. 
 
 It may not be improper to add, that I have examine 
 ed many mosses in this neighbourhood : the inhabi- 
 tants all agree in affirming, that the moss pits of the 
 above description are filled again with peat ; and 
 many assert, that they have dug new peat out of these 
 old pits. 
 
 3. Thirdly^ When these pits or pools are very 
 deep, the renovation of moss is less rapid. In order 
 to expedite the process, it is requisite that they be 
 shallow. Poiret assigns the following reasons for 
 this : That a greater variety of aquatic plants grow 
 in shallow than in deep waters ; in the latter, only 
 those can flourish which float on the water, and re- 
 quire no soil to fix upon ; in the former, both those 
 which float on the water, and those which fix in the 
 firm soil of the bottom, spring up and flourish, and 
 thus promote the renovation of moss with more ra- 
 pidity. 
 
 4. Fourthly^ It is requisite that the waters in these 
 pits be stagnant. If, on the contrar)'-, there be a cur- 
 rent in them, aquatic plants grow with less rapidity, 
 or, though they grow, they are not converted into 
 moss. They grow with less rapidity ; for the seeds 
 of these plants are floated down the stream : They 
 do not, therefore, fix so readily, nor flourish so well, 
 as in stagnant water. They are not converted into 
 moss ; for, as I shall shew hereafter, the current 
 robs the water of those very quahties that are requir 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 125 
 
 site to the formation of moss from aquatic or ligneous 
 plants. . 
 
 General de Jean observes, that, in stagnant pools, 
 the progress of the formation of moss is perceptible 
 to the eye : " That in some there is only a kmd of 
 " net-work begun on the verge ; that others are half 
 *' covered over with it ; while some are wh: lly fill- 
 ** ed, to the depth of two or three feet ; that, after 
 ^' a certain progress, these plants reach the solid base 
 ** at the bottom of the lake ; that other plants rise 
 '* upon the surface ; that these, by being exposed 
 ^' to the influence of the sun and air, are dissolved 
 *' and reduced to common mold, forming a slight 
 ** soil over the moss ; that this soil yearly increases 
 *' till the aquatic plants disappear ; that meadow 
 *^ grasses rise up and occupy their place ; that these 
 " meadows are at last consolidated ; and, that the 
 *' plough can thus pass over this solid soil, where, 
 *' thirty years before, sheep could not pasture. This 
 *' progress, he says, is so obvious, that it cannot be 
 " doubted." 
 
 He adds, that^ under the soil, moss is still forming ; 
 and, he says, that the stillness of the waters in 
 these lakes, and the equable temperature, is peculiarly 
 favourable to the growth of aquatic plants, as the 
 calmness and equable temperature of the sea in polar 
 regions is favourable for fishes. 
 
 Accordingly, Poiret observes, that when all the 
 above circumstances combine, that is, when the pits 
 are not drained of water, or too extensive in their 
 
126 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 surface, or too deep, and especially where there is no 
 current, that, in such favourable circumstances, the 
 formation and renovation of moss is very rapid ; that 
 fish-ponds would soon be filled up by it, and canals 
 would soon cease to be navigable ; that they would 
 all speedily be converted into mosses. He adds, that 
 the Dutch are completely aware of this, but that their 
 indefatigable industry in using every precaution pre- 
 vents it. With this view, they either endeavour to 
 give an occasional current to their canals, by the in- 
 flux of the adjacent rivers, when they are swelled 
 above the level of the sea at low tides, or carefully 
 clear these canals of moss. He says, that without 
 these precautions, compact moss would soon occupy 
 their place. 
 
 From the above statement, it would appear, that 
 there is no room for disputation upon this subject. 
 One may assert that moss is renovated ; another may 
 deny it : Each may be right or wrong, according to 
 the particular spots he had examined. 
 
 All depends upon circumstances : In some situa- 
 tions, moss may be, and certainly is renovated with 
 great rapidity ; in others this renovation cannot take 
 place, or it may be so slow as not to be perceptible 
 in an age. 
 
 Hitherto we have only endeavoured to ascertain the 
 fact, that moss i^ renovated, and to shew what are the 
 circumstances requisite to expedite this process. 
 
 It would be very satisfactory if we could form any 
 conjecture as to the rapidity with which this process 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS, 127 
 
 is carried on, and the time requisite to accomplish it. 
 I say, conjectm-e, for it is the Utmost we can expect 
 on this subject. Yet there are a variety of facts that 
 render it probable that it does not require a long pe- 
 riod. 
 
 These I shall state, in 
 
 SECTION IIL 
 
 Time requisite for the Renovation of Moss. 
 
 Third place, Degner says, he was informed by 
 the old inhabitants of credit, that ditches not too 
 wide nor deep were filled anew with excellent turf, 
 in 70, 80, or 100 years ; but that this operation was 
 much more rapid in a slimy than in a sandy soil. 
 
 He mentions, too, that it is a well known fact that 
 a ditch 10 feet wide by 7 feet deep, is often so filled 
 with aquatic plants, in 10, 20, or 30 years, that men 
 and cattle may safely pass over it. He says, that 
 though the bottom be loose and liquid, it is solid on 
 the surface, and that in an age or two the whole- 
 would be ripened into turf. 
 
128 ON THE NATURAL, HISTORY AND 
 
 . Mr de Luc has been at great pains to ascertain 
 the period requisite to: the renovation of moss. He 
 has stated a variety of facts with this view. He men- 
 tions, " That Mr Findorf assured him, that the pits 
 '' dug in Duvel's moor were in a few years filled up 
 '' with aquatic plants : That," in thirty years these 
 *' were converted into a firm, spongy substance. 
 *' That the solid surface of this, at the end of that 
 '' period, nourishes heath and other Hgneous plants 
 " that grow on the adjacent moor." 
 
 His observations were founded upon experience, 
 and the accuracy of them is thus attested by De Luc, 
 in the following words : 
 
 " I saw these pits in.all their different stages : being 
 «« booted, I sounded some of them with a pole to 
 « know tlieir age ; I then boldly stepped into the 
 " floating bed, which sunlc under me ; by this means 
 " I was half leg under water. The surface sunk and 
 " rose according to the pressure ; but with my pole 
 •* I easily felt the bottom, while the surface support- 
 " ed me from sinking. 
 
 «' Mr Findorf shewed me other pits where this 
 « matted substance had reached the bottom ; and 
 ** others so compact that I walked on them with as 
 " much ease and safety as on the rest of the moor. 
 
 He further adds, « That the surface of these pits is 
 ** covered with all kinds of ligneous and aquatic 
 " plants, that delight in such a soil ; that these alter- 
 *' nately overtop one another ; that the ligneous 
 ^' plauts make the greatest progress in a dry sum- 
 
i 
 
 i 
 
 ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 129 
 
 <« MER, SO that the surface seems to be entirely co- 
 " vered with them : That the reverse is the case in 
 *« a RAINY summer *. That the aquatic plants over- 
 " top the ligneous and choke them, insomuch, that 
 " the whole surface seems to be entirely covered with 
 " a matting of aquatics, which, by decaying, form a 
 /' soil for the ensuing season : That, if it continue 
 ." rainy for a succession of years, these aquatic plants 
 " continue to prevail, till a dry season ensue*" 
 
 He adds, " This is so certain, that in the sueces- 
 <^ sion of beds, or strata of the moss, these different 
 " species of plants are distinguishable. These strata 
 " are either composed of the roots and fibres of lig- 
 *' neous plants, or of the remains of aquatic ; so that^ 
 «« upon examining some of the cuts of the deepest 
 " canals, he saw distinctly the produce of the several 
 " years." He says " he could even distinguish by 
 *' this means, the different produce of a wet and dry 
 <« season^ from the residuum each had left, as well as 
 « the gradual formation of moss, in all its progress, 
 « from the white, soft, and spongy, to the brown, 
 ** hard, and black." 
 
 The general conclusion he draws seems to me na- 
 tural and well founded. It is, indeed, contrary to 
 the general axiom which Dr Anderson lays down, 
 viz. that the produce of moss is small, and its pro- 
 gress in forming very slow. " The formation of 
 '' peat moss," says De Luc, " is thus obvious. 
 *' The rapidity of its increase and renovation is 
 " eqically so.'^ With his usual accuracy he adds j 
 
130 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 " one inch at the base is perhaps equal to the liia- 
 " terials of two feet at the surface; yet, even 
 " upon this allowance, the growth of moss, thirty 
 " feet deep, does not lead us back to a remote 
 " cerar 
 
 I was so much struck with the above account, 
 that I wrote the author of it again in January 1806. 
 I requested him to furnish me with any farther infor- 
 mation he could on this subject ; and, if possible, to 
 fix some data by which I could ascertain more accu- 
 rately the period requisite to the renovation of moss. 
 To this he gave an immediate reply ; and in this his 
 second letter he states the following particulars on 
 this point in these words : " You ask me what time 
 '' is requisite for the renovation of peat in the second 
 *' kind of mosses I have described in my former let- 
 " ter ? I cannot answer that question with certain- 
 *' ty ; but as I know such a ground near Brunswic, 
 *' and as I am soon to write to a friend of mine there, 
 " I will beg of him to procure every information on 
 " this point, and communicate it to you. 
 
 " Yet I know that when peat is dug Out of small 
 " pits, these are soon filled with good peat. There 
 *' the conferva, the very first summer, fills the water 
 ** with its green clouds ; the sphagna thicken the 
 *' bed it forms ; and the growth of other aquatic 
 ** plants is very rapid ; so that, in the course of SO 
 " years, good peat may be again cut out of the same 
 " pits/' He adds. 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 131 
 
 " The way in which I have seen peat cut in the 
 ** second kind of moss I have described in Brande- 
 " bourg and Brunswic is this : A long ditch is cut 
 " down to the sand, four, five, or six feet deep, in 
 ** the direction of the course of the water to some 
 " rivulet. There the section of the whole moss is 
 *' seen on the side where this operation goes on. 
 *• They begin by cutting the turf on the surface to 
 " a certain breadth, throwing it to the opposite side 
 " of the ditch. Then about three or four feet of 
 •' good peat is cut, in the usual form of bricks, and 
 " piled up to dry : — this is the work of summer. In 
 •' autumn this ditch begins to fill up with water, and 
 *' the peat is too soft to be cut. The next summer 
 ** another such slip is cut in the same manner, and 
 *' this process goes on yearly on the same side of the 
 " moss. Meanwhile the peat grows again ; so that, 
 ** at a certain distance of time, these pits are repaired 
 " to their original level. There are many such 
 ** trenches in meadows of great extent which belong 
 ** to different parishes. These trenches are at that 
 " distance from each other, thtit when the cutting is 
 " arrived at the limit on one side, the work may be 
 *' begun again on the new formed moss on the other^ 
 " in the same manner as the regular cutting of trees 
 " is carried on in a forest." 
 
 It has been stated already, that in some situations 
 the renovation of moss is more rapid than in others. 
 tn the vicinity of Craneberg, this process seems to 
 be uncommonly rapid, Degner, as I have shewn, 
 
132 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 States that the mosses there are intersected with many 
 ditches on purpose to drain them. In these a vast 
 variety of aquatic mosses rush up ; and though these 
 ditches are cleared, in a few weeks they are filled 
 again ; so that they require to be cleared often evay 
 stimmer\ This, he says, is not so requisite in winter. 
 Yet if the weather be mild it is necessary, as they 
 grow even then ; and unless thus cleared, they are 
 consolidated into turf. 
 
 I only add, that the Earl of Cromarty states, that 
 some mosses grow up in a shorter time than others. 
 This assertion is founded on his own experience ; 
 he was an eye witness of the fact. His words are : 
 
 *' I have observed that pits which have been dug 
 V since I remember y have grown up again w ith new 
 *' peats ; and that, too, somedmes oftener tlian once 
 " in the same pits." 
 
 That peat moss is renovated to a considerable 
 depth seems therefore unquestionable : that this pro- 
 cess does not require a long period, but is somedmes 
 accomplished in an age or less, seems equally pro- 
 bable : that it has taken place in many moss pits in 
 this parish, I am fully convinced :- — But my attesta- 
 tion is utterly superfluous, after stadng such a variety 
 of well-attested facts. 
 
 It would, however, be highly satisfactory, and 
 tend greatly to the elucidation of this subject, if we 
 could ascertain precisely the species of aquadc plants 
 which tend to expedite this process. 
 
 This is the subject of 
 
OTIIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 133 
 
 SECTION IV 
 
 t 
 
 Mons. De Luc has paid particular attention to this 
 subject : he gives the following account of it, found- 
 ed on the experience of Mr Findorf. In speaking 
 of the renovation of the mosses of Bremen, he says, 
 that 
 
 " It is customary to dig pits in these rnosses. 
 *' These are about twenty feet long by six feet wide. 
 " This shape and size is preferred, in order that they 
 " may be able to throw out the water with a bucket 
 " when they cut the pit. When these pits are form- 
 " ed they are left, and allowed to fill up with water." 
 
 The manner in which moss is formed again in 
 these pits, he thus describes : 
 
 *' TheJ^r^^ year they are filled with a mucous sub- 
 " stance that swims on the water like a green cloud. 
 
 " Tb^ second year this substance is composed of 
 ^^Jine threads^ knit together, and garnished with 
 ** very small leaves, and flowers, and seeds ; so that 
 " the water is filled with these nearly twofiet deep." 
 
 ** The third year this is covered with (mousse a 
 ** long panaches J mosses with creeping roots an^ 
 
134 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 " leaves and branches. These cover the water en- 
 ** tirely, arrest the dust, and all the seeds which float 
 " in the air. Thus it becomes a fit soil for aquatic 
 *' plants, as rushes, reeds, grasses, &c. &c. which 
 " grow with great luxuriance. 
 
 " The fourth year these plants are so high and 
 " thick set, that they change the surface on which 
 *' they grew, and sink with it in the water ; yet the 
 " mosses reach again, and cover the surface, receive 
 " new seeds, and produce a new race of aquatic 
 *' plants. These sink the surface or sward lower 
 " and lower, which, being always garnished anew 
 " with mosses within and without, at last reach the 
 *' bottom of the water in a few years. The plants 
 *^ at the bottom then decay and die ; compressed by 
 *' the incumbent weight, they become somewhat con- 
 *' solidated. Those on the surface also decay and 
 *' drop in their turn, Descending by little and little, 
 " they at last occupy the place of the water, and fill 
 " up the whole pit ; so that, in SO years, its surface 
 *' is so solid as to nourish heath and other ligneous 
 " plants that grow on the adjacent moor." 
 
 From the above account, we may learn, what are 
 the precise plants which promote the renovation of 
 moss. The mucous matter which appears the first 
 year like a green cloud, no doubt consists chiefly of 
 the conferva : To ascertain this, I applied to Mr De 
 Luc himself. In his second letter, already alluded 
 to, he says, that 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 135 
 
 " The green cloudy matter, I mentioned, Is cer- 
 " talnly the conferva, a vegetable, the fructification of 
 " which has been discovered by microscopic observa- 
 ** tions of one of my countrymen." 
 
 The growth of the second year may also be ascer- 
 tained ; the fine threads that knit together the mass, 
 is most probably a collection of those aquatics whose 
 roots and leaves are of a capillary form ; such as the 
 byssus or chara, vulgarly called horse-tail, equise- 
 tum, &c. The small leaves and flowers and seeds 
 which cover the surface, are most probably the 
 lemna or duck-weed. This certainly grows on the 
 surface of water, in ponds, and frequently covers it 
 all over ; its roots are of a capillary form ; and it is 
 very rapid in its growth *. 
 
 The mousse a long panaches which he describes 
 is no doubt the sphagnum. This Mr De Luc asserts, 
 in his second letter to me, in these words : 
 
 * The lemna is very frequently found in the moss pits in 
 this neighbourhood. I examined one which had been dug only 
 a few months before ; the surface of the water was nearly 
 covered with the beautiful verdure of the small green leaves 
 of this plant. Upon stirring the pond, I found that the roots 
 reached upwards of six inches deep ; all that space was, of 
 course, filled with the fine delicate net-work, which the capil- 
 lary roots of the plant had formed. I plucked up a part of 
 these, plants ; I have kept them in water ever since, in a small 
 glass bottle ; they have flourished amazingly, and grown with 
 rapidity ; the whole water is now filled with them ; and the 
 interstices between the roots, are filled almost entirely with the 
 conferva. 
 
136 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 " The conferva begins to be the bed of the sphagna, 
 " and thus contributes much to the preparation of 
 ^* the mass of vegetables, which are turned into peat. 
 ** It fills the water with its green clouds the first sum- 
 " mer ; the sphagna thicken the bed ; the growth of 
 '* other aquatic plants is very rapid." 
 
 From the above facts, it would appear, that the 
 following aquatic plants furnish the materials for the 
 renovation of moss in these pits : 
 
 The conferva, lemna, byssus. Sec. 
 
 The sphagna, and other mosses. 
 
 The varieties of aquatic grasses, rushes, and reeds, 
 &c. 
 
 Having endeavoured to establish the fact, that moss 
 is renovated when dug, and to ascertain and point 
 put a few of the aquatic plants which furnish the ma- 
 |:erials, I now proceed to shew. 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 In the fifth place, That the same species of plants 
 have co7itribi(ted, a?id still contribute to the original 
 Jbrmation of many mosses : this conclusion is natural 
 and obvious. 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 137 
 
 On this important subject, I cannot but communi- 
 cate the information I obtained from Mr De Luc, in 
 his letter January 1806 : He points out the plants 
 that contribute to the formation of moss, and the pro- 
 cess by which that is accomplished, in the following 
 manner : 
 
 *' A third kind of peat ground has attracted my 
 f attention in the survey I took of Brandebourg, 
 *' Brunswic, and Shleswig : It is connected with 
 ♦' lakes. 
 
 '• The bottom of every dale is a meadow, on a sub- 
 * soil of peat ; this, by gradually advancing into, con- 
 *' tracts the original extent of the lakes ; and, it is 
 *' well known in that country, that many large lakes 
 ** have been converted into smaller ones, by the peat 
 ** advancing from the original shores, and many 
 ' places now meadows, and only traversed by a 
 '* stream, had still a lake in the middle of them, in 
 " the memory of old people." 
 
 The manner and means by which this change is 
 effected, he minutely describes in the following words: 
 
 ** I have said that the peat gradually extends for- 
 '-* ward in these lakes, contracting their surface. This 
 " is occasioned by the following causes. The sandy 
 " sediment carried into these lakes by streams, gra- 
 ■' dually raises the bottom of them : The consequence 
 ** of this shallowness is the growth of common reeds; 
 '* these are like the van in the progress ; these ad- 
 " vance forward as the bottom of the lake is raised. 
 *' No peat appears among the reeds, nor even among 
 
138 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 " the small aquatic plants which form a zone behind 
 " them. 
 
 *' 2. Behind the zone of reeds, another rises up : 
 " It is distinct from the former ; and it is composed 
 " of different aquatic plants, which rise much less 
 *' above the surface of the water. 
 
 ** This zone, which has a greater breadth in pro- 
 " portion as the declivity of the bottom is small, 
 " is not so thick as to prevent small boats passing 
 ** through it. These bend the plants in the water, 
 " which is still clear ; and these plants form, like the 
 *' twigs of basket-work, for the future peat. They 
 ** differ in their aggregates in different lakes, when 
 " distant from each other. To enumerate the parti- 
 " cular species of which they consist is difficult ; I 
 " shall only specify those which are found in the 
 ** lakes round Rostock, as delineated to me by Pro- 
 " fessor Linek, of the University of Mecklenburgh 
 *' Strelitz ; they are as follows : scirpus maritimus, 
 " scirpus casspitosus, scirpus paucifloris, equisetum 
 •* palustre, equisetum fluviatile, eriophorum polysta- 
 *' chion, eriophorum vaginatum ; the last of which 
 " retains its form and appearance longest in the re- 
 *' mote peat *. 
 
 ♦ This plant exhibits a very singular appearance in some 
 mosses in this neighbourhood. It may be traced, in an orga- 
 nized state, to the depth of four feet. The roots and stems of it 
 form a mass so hard, tough, and tenacious, that few edge-tools 
 can pierce it. The interstices of the moss, which are formed 
 of other plants, are soft and porous. When peat is cut out of 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 139 
 
 *' 3. Behind this zone, the conferva begins to em- 
 " brace those plants with its green clouds ; this forms 
 *' the bed in which the different species of aquatic 
 " sphagna grow ; these thicken the matting, and fa- 
 " vour the growth of common moss plants, on the 
 " more compact surface; there the little boats are 
 *' stopped; the lake is no farther navigable; but the 
 *' surface is still yielding, and will not support any 
 " great weight. 
 
 ** 4. Behind this, another zone appears ; it con- 
 *' sists of the same kind of plants ; but these are so 
 *' interwoven, that the surface is more compact and 
 ^- bears more weight, though very elastic. On this 
 *' zone some grasses appear. I have sometimes been 
 *' drawn unexpectedly on this zone : At one time, 
 " being inattentive to the direction I had followed, I 
 « missed my way in retiring ; by this means I was 
 " obliged to walk there a long time, half leg up, in 
 " water, before I could find a more solid ground : 
 « The surface that supported me was like a mattress ; 
 " the water that rose was still clear. 
 
 " 5. Proceeding backward from this zone, the sur- 
 « face becomes more aAd more compact ; many kinds 
 " of land plants begin to grow over it, especially 
 « where that surface, by being raised, is dry in sum- 
 « mer. There the tedum palustre, vaccinium occy- 
 " coccon, comerum palustre, erica tetralix, and va- 
 
 these, it can be easily torn asunder ; that which is composed 
 of the eriophorum, on the contrary, can scarcely be separated. 
 
140 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 « rious kinds of grasses grow. Thus begins a zone 
 « on which cattle may pasture in summer. There, 
 « also, peat is formed, as may be seen by the colour 
 « of the water ; tinged into dark brown, it assumes 
 «« the colour of moss water. 
 
 " 6. From the beginning of this useful zone, still 
 « backward, the ground becomes more and more 
 « solid j hay may be made on it in summer, and it 
 <« yields a good pasture in autumm : Yet, even in 
 « these grounds, there are dangerous places, on ac- 
 « count of the small streams that pervade them. 
 
 " These can only be discerned by the different ap- 
 « pearances of the grass that grows in them, known 
 « only to the people of that country. There are fre- 
 « quented paths which must be. carefully kept. In 
 « the line of these, plants are laid over these hidden 
 <* streams, which serve the purpose of bridges. In 
 <» going across these grounds at random, one may 
 «« sink suddenly very deep in peat-mud there accu- 
 « mulated. 
 
 <« This happened once to me, quite unawares ; 
 « luckily I could throw myself back on a more solid 
 *< path, and thus crawling out, I was quit for being 
 « covered with peat-mud. 
 
 '* This is the last zone that can be distinguished by 
 « a decided diiference in the progress. 
 
 ** I have said before, that the succession of these 
 <« different zones, from the border of the water 
 *' towards the original border of sand, represents the 
 ^« succession of changes that have taken place through 
 
I 
 
 ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 141 
 
 *' time in each of the anterior zones, so that, in pro- 
 " portion as the reeds advance,^ new zones are form- 
 *' ing behind the advancing reeds, on the same places 
 " which they thus abandon. That process is more 
 " rapid in lakes which are originally shallower, and 
 " slower in deep lakes. It seems even to be stopped 
 " in some parts where the reeds, which cannot ad- 
 << vance beyond a certain depth, approach the brow 
 ** of a great declivity under water ; there, the pro- 
 " gress, if continued, is not perceptible : But in 
 « lakes originally not very deep, and in which the 
 <* sandy sediments are advancing all around, the reeds, 
 « forming a ring, gradually contracting its circum- 
 " ference, meet in the centre ; and at last these reeds 
 « themselves vanish, so that, instead of a lake, a mea- 
 « dow occupies its place. In some of these meadows 
 « attempts have been made, either for ornament or 
 " use, to keep up a piece of water ; but the attempt 
 *' is vain, excepting at a great expence : for luxuri- 
 <« ant aquatic plants soon occupy that space, and the 
 " peat, advancing rapidly, restores the meadow. 
 
 " Such is the process observed in almost all the 
 «* dales, in an immense e^vtent of country^ by which 
 <« lakes and pools are converted into meadows and 
 " mosses.*' 
 
 Mons. Poiret gives a similar account of the forma- 
 tion of moss from aquatic plants ; he likewise speci- 
 fies what kinds of plants contribute to this. 
 
 He says, that mosses are formed either 
 
 " Firsts In morasses, that is, in planes where the 
 
142 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 " waters are shallow ; in these, marshy plants abound." 
 He enumerates some of them : " Grasses, mosses, 
 *' rushes, the scirpus, the (preles) horse-tail." Or, 
 
 " Secondly^ In canals and deep lakes, where only 
 *' aquatic plants prevail." Among these he men- 
 tions the conferva, lemna, byssus, and potamogeton. 
 
 So that both he and De Luc agree, that the samef 
 plants which occasion the renovation of moss in pits, 
 promote the growth of it in marshes and lakes. 
 
 Mr Poiret's account of the manner in which moss 
 is originally formed, claims particular attention ; 
 more especially as he points out the plants which con- 
 tribute to the formation of it. 
 
 I have already shewn that it is requisite to the re- 
 novation of moss, in the pits dug in it, that the waters 
 be stagnant. Poiret observes the same thing when 
 moss is formed in lakes or pools. He says, " That 
 ** if there be a current in these, or if they be much 
 " agitated by the winds, as in great lakes, the growth 
 •* of aquatic plants is retarded ; but when the waters 
 " are stagnant and tranquil, and not very extensive 
 ** in their surface, that they are speedily stocked with 
 •' aquatics." 
 
 These he distinguishes into two general orders : 
 
 " First, those that float upon the waters, and re* 
 " quire no soil to fix upon ; Secondly, those which 
 " fix upon the bottom of the lake." 
 
 Of the first order he names the conferva, lemna. 
 byssus, &c. " These," he says, " are the first that 
 *' make their appearance. By annual increase they 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 143 
 
 " form a soft green crust over the water : this is 
 *' smooth, and seemingly solid till trod upon. This 
 " first layer of vegetables floating on the surface sinks 
 ** to the bottom : at last they form a soil fit for the 
 
 " Second order. The seeds of these floated along 
 *' the surface of the water, sink to the bottom, and 
 *' supply that soil with a stock of plants fit for it." 
 Of this order he names the following numerous 
 species, " the potamogeton, the chara, myriophyl- 
 " lum, ceratophyllum, &c. which adorn the bottom 
 " of such lakes. 
 
 " These rush up with astonishing rapidity, and in- 
 *' crease annually, till the bottom of the lake, when 
 " the waters are clear, may be seen like a rich fer- 
 ** tile meadow. 
 
 " These two genera of plants," he adds, " contri- 
 *' bute to furnish abundant materials for the forma- 
 *' tion of moss, and they are the grand basis of this 
 ** substance in such situations. 
 
 *' But, upon the ruins of these, other more beau- 
 " tiful and majestic plants rise up and adorn the sur* 
 *' face ; the butomus, with its rosy red, the sagit- 
 ** taria, with its milk-white flower, the nenufar ne- 
 *' lumbo, with their yellow and purple hue, recline 
 ** on the surface of the lake." 
 
 He observes, in general, " that the most part of 
 " the above plants, whether they float on the surface 
 *' or sink to the bottom, are of a pulpy, tender, and 
 ** spongy texture ; their fibres are neither hard nor 
 "tenacious J their roots, for the most part, consist 
 
144 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 " of capillary tubes ; they have no coriaceous nor 
 ** ligneous structure, of course they are more speedi- 
 *' iy dissolved or decomposed than marshy plants to 
 *• be described afterwards : they are converted into 
 *' a pulpy, black, and heavy substance, which sinks 
 *' to the bottom of the lake." 
 
 He farther observes, " that there are particular 
 " causes which tend to expedite or retard this de- 
 " composition, and furnish less or more moss." Of 
 this he gives the following instance. 
 
 Mr Van Marum, in his letter to Mr De Faujas^ 
 observes, " that the conferva was singularly favour- 
 " able to the formation of moss : that he had an ex- 
 *' ample of this in a fish pond : that though he c\v. 
 " and carried oif the aquatic plants which incommod- 
 *' ed the fish, or concealed them from his view, yet, 
 ** in four years, four feet of moss was formed in this 
 " pond. 
 
 " During eight years after he had cleared the pond 
 " of this moss, no conferva appeared. The myri- 
 *' ophyllum flourished in great abundance, which he 
 .'* frequently removed ; yet, when he emptied the 
 " pond after this period, he found no moss in it. 
 *' From this he concluded, that the conferva was the 
 *' principal cause of the formation of moss. 
 
 " It appears, too, that the frequent clearing of the 
 " pond of the aquatic plants retarded the process of na- 
 ** ture in the production of moss. Van Marum also 
 '* observes, that the conferva, in harvest, becomes 
 " specifically heavier than the water : that it sinks to 
 
< ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 143 
 
 '** the bottom, and carries along with it the other aqua- 
 ** tic plants : that thus their putrefaction is retarded, 
 *' and the process of the formation of moss is pro- 
 " moted." 
 
 From the above account it appears obvious, that 
 the same plants, in similar circumstances, tend to 
 form moss in lakes, which promote the renovation 
 of it in moss pits. 
 
 Poiret, however, observes, " that the moss formed 
 •*' of the above aquatics is always soft and slimy : that 
 *' it is never fibrous, and ought to be disdnguished 
 ** from that in which the fibrous form of the ongi- 
 " nal plant appears. The carbon it contains is like 
 " a small powder, as it proceeds from herbaceous 
 " plants. When it is the production of ligneous 
 ** plants, it is frequently found in the organized form 
 *' of the roots and branches of the original trees, 
 "though these are often bituminated as in coal ; but, 
 « though loose and pulpy v/hen lately formed, even tlie 
 *< moss produced from aquatics by pressure becomes 
 " more compact and hard. It is sometimes pure ; 
 «< more frequently it is mixed with mud, or small 
 « particles of calcareous matter, or the shells of aqua- 
 ** tic animals." 
 
 It is almost unnecessary for me to add, that Mons. 
 Rozier gives a similar account of the origin and for- 
 mation of moss :in lakes : He says, " that all the 
 " genera of aquatic mosses, especially the ceratophyl- 
 *' lum and myriophyllum, as above described, con- 
 ** tribute their partj but he especially takes notice 
 
 K 
 
146 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 " of the ranunculus aquatilis, and of the rapidity of 
 *' its growth :" He says, " that it frequently covers 
 " a whole lake with its leaves and stems and flowers, 
 *' and gives it the appearance of an extensive mea- 
 ** dow : that he has plucked them three and four 
 *' fathoms long, reaching to the bottom of the lake : 
 ** that in winter the whole plant drops and sinks to 
 *' the bottom : that new shoots spring up next sum- 
 *' mer, nourished by the roots and decayed leaves of 
 " the former : that, by this single plant, a deep lake 
 ** may soon be converted into moss." 
 
 It only remains, that we endeavour to ascertain 
 what are the plants which contribute to the format 
 tion of moss in marshes or shallow waters. 
 
 Poiret observes, " that the mosses formed in such 
 *' situations are distinct from those formed in lakes 
 '* or deep waters, and that they exhibit a different 
 " appearance. Composed chiefly of the roots, stems, 
 *' and branches, of marshy plants, they form a loose, 
 " porous, and elastic substance, retaining the organic 
 *' zation of the original plant : these he calls by the 
 ♦* general name of fibrous mos^. 
 
 '* The plants which chiefly compose this kind, he 
 *' says, are reeds, scirpus, carex, rushes, iris, mosses, 
 ** and especially the hypnum and sphagnum, &c. 
 '* These cannot flourish but in marshes ; they perish 
 ** as soon as the ground is drained ; their roots must 
 *' be nourished by a moist soil ; while their stems rise 
 " up above the water. 
 
 *' When these are reduced to fibrous moss, they 
 *' scarcely undergo any decomposition ; their roots 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 247 
 
 *' and stems retain their form for ages : over these 
 *' new generations of the same plants rise up ; the 
 " soil is thus annually raised, till the whole marsh is 
 " filled with this species of fibrous moss many feet 
 " deep." 
 
 How these plants are presented, and retain so long 
 itheir organization, is a phenomenon which claims oui* 
 attention : it will furnish the subject of another essay * 
 It may be proper to observe, however, that all plants 
 are not equally susceptible of being thus preserved : 
 Poiret takes notice of the aquatics, ** that they are 
 *' more speedily dissolved : that the grasses, on the 
 " contrary, whose leaves are dry and coriaceous, are 
 ** almost entirely preserved : that the mosses, above 
 *' all, retain their organic form for the longest period.'* 
 
 He farther observes, *' that fibrous moss is often 
 ^*'^und covered so deeply with alluvial soil above it, 
 " that its origin must be traced back to the remotest 
 " ages : that it seems therefore impossible to say how 
 " long they may retain their organic structure, when 
 " thus secluded from the sun and air ; yet it seems 
 ** probable, that they must progressively pass into the 
 ** state of solid moss, totally disorganized.*' 
 
 He adds, " that this fibrous moss, though loose, 
 " light, and elastic, may be hardened to such a pitch 
 " by compression as to receive a polish like wood : 
 *' that when thus compressed, it can only be dis- 
 " tinguished from wood by the horizontal strata, ia 
 <' which may sdll be seen the fragments of the stems- 
 *-* and leaves of grasses preserved entire.'* 
 
148 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 SECTION VI 
 
 Sivth 'place ^ It seems probable, if not certain, that 
 many lakes in tJie north of Europe have been con-- 
 verted into moss^ by the growth and decay of these, 
 or similar aquatic plants. That this has been the 
 case, is the opinion of those who have had the best 
 opportunities of information on the subject. I need 
 not remind the reader, that De Luc states this ta be 
 a well known fact in Brunswic and Brandebourg. 
 Picard says, that, according to historians, all the mosses 
 in Holland were formerly lakes ; and Poiret thinks, 
 that it is beyond a doubt, that the largest and deepest 
 lakes may be converted into marshes and mosses, and 
 then into meadows, by aquatic plants : that these, by 
 being consolidated, may ultimately become a soil fit 
 for all the purposes of agriculture : He says, that 
 many of the mosses and meadows of France appear 
 to have been formed in this manner. 
 
 He thinks the whole valley of the Somme is of 
 this description. Girard is of the same opinion : 
 lie says, that the whole valley has been formerly an 
 

 ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 14^ 
 
 extensive lake : that this lake, by being partly drain- 
 ed, has been converted into a moss or marsh, v^ith a 
 river in the middle of it. He accordingly thus de- 
 scribes it : He says, " that it is covered with two feet; 
 « of soil ; below this, there is from six to ten feet of 
 <« moss, from Amiens to Pecquingy ; opposite to 
 " Etolle, it is even SO feet deep. The lower part of 
 *« the city of Amiens is built upon a subsoil of moss, 
 "12 feet deep in some places ; below this is a stra-: 
 « turn of marl ; and below this marl, a bank of 
 « sand and sea-shells : all this proves, that this moss, 
 ** however remote its origin may be, has been forme4 
 « since the sea receded from that spot.'' 
 . Add to this, that the valley has risen considerably 
 within a few ages : this is owing to the stagnation of 
 the waters, which has occasioned an accumulation of 
 aquatic and marshy plants, and, by that means, an. 
 accumulation of moss, 
 
 These waters, when the valley was low at first, 
 behoved to be deep ; they were then navigable lakes ; 
 $iccordingly, boats are found buried in these mosses 
 in dilterent places, and at different depths. 
 
 Poiret observes, that, at this early period, no fibrous 
 
 oss would be formed, because marshy plants could 
 not flourish in the deep waters. Aquatic plants would 
 then abound ; these have contributed to the format 
 tion of that ancient black compact moss, found in the 
 lower strata. 
 
 But as the soil rose higher, the waters would, in 
 proportion, become more shallow ; marshy plants^ 
 
150 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 such as he described before, would supplant these 
 aquatics : the wreck of these would at first form an 
 intermediate kind of moss, partly fibrous, and partly 
 compact. 
 
 At last the surface rising higher still, would be- 
 come fit only for marshy plants ; fibrous moss would 
 therefore form the superior strata ; there the roots 
 and branches of marshy plants would form the com- 
 ponent parts. This is precisely the case ; and it 
 shews that, at the formation of this buzin, or rushy 
 reedy turf on the surface, the valley was only a 
 marsh, though unquestionably a navigable lake at a 
 former period. 
 
 Poiret adds, that it is true that fibrous peat is some- 
 times found in the bottom of very deep mosses ; but 
 he accounts for this phenomenon. He thinks, that, 
 after the marshy plants had grown up, the water 
 must have been stemmed, and formed a lake over 
 what was formerly a morass ; that this lake would, 
 in time, be filled with aquatics, in the manner above 
 described, and that these aquatics might give origin 
 to the compact moss that now appears above the 
 fibrous. 
 
 General de Jean is of the same opinion. He thinks 
 that all mossy grounds were once covered with wa- 
 ter ; that aquatic plants, by their continual growth 
 and decay, have filled up the space occupied by the 
 waters, and given origin to moss ; that, of course, 
 these aquatic plants may still be detected in these 
 jrioss^s. 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 151 
 
 The above accounts corroborate this opinion ; but 
 the following considerations will, I trust, place it be- 
 yond the possibility of a doubt, that many mosses 
 have been originally lakes. 
 
 1. Many of the deepest mosses in Europe are still 
 in a liquid state. The deepest moss I have ever 
 heard of, is that described by Mr Aiton in his essay. 
 He says, that he lately attempted to sound Moss Mul- 
 loch in Avendale, and sunk wooden rods upwards of 
 40 feet without finding the subsoil. From the man- 
 ner in which he describes this operation, I am led to 
 conclude that this moss must be very soft, and in a 
 semiliquid state. 
 
 The deepest moss in this neighbourhood is the 
 Dullatur bog. Many attempts have been made to 
 sound it. In some places it is so deep that these at- 
 tempts have been fruitless. It seems to be precisely 
 in a similar state with the deepest mosses in the val- 
 ley of the Somme. The surface is covered with a 
 solid but elastic mass of fibrous matter ; below this 
 is a black semiliquid pulpy moss : in one spot the 
 water appears on the surface like a contracted lake. 
 
 Many of the deepest mosses on the Continent are 
 of a similar description : Mr De Luc delineates them 
 with all the minuteness of a careful observer. He 
 says, that " the deepest mosses in Bremen are so 
 ** thin^ that they may be considered in a liquid state : 
 " that they are often of the consistency of a pulp 
 " like rags preparing for paper : that .the surface, 
 " though more compact, is only a slight mxatting, nof 
 
152 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 *' safe for man or beast to tread upon : that no per- 
 '' son dare venture on them without planks : two of 
 " these planks is all that is necessary ; each of these 
 " has a cord attached to it. After the traveller has 
 *' laid down the first plank on the moss, he passes 
 ^' along it, dragging the second after him by the 
 *' cord ; this second he lays to the end of the first, 
 " and, lifting it, he carries it along with him in the 
 ^' same manner." 
 
 These mosses seem to be of the same liquid con- 
 sistency, even to the greatest depth : for he adds, 
 that " he sounded them with an instrument which 
 ^' he carried along with him ; that, without any ef- 
 " fort, this instrument sunk by its own weight till it 
 " reached the clay 36 feet deep." 
 
 If the deepest mosses be still in a semiliquid state, 
 the probability is, that at a former period they were 
 lakes. 
 
 2. These mosses thus pent up in the vallies are 
 often swelled to such a pitch that they burst forth 
 wherever there is a declivity, and overflow the adja- 
 cent fields. De Iaic observes, that " this is no un- 
 " common event on the Continent ; that, on the 
 " contrary, it is a danger dreaded by the inhabitants 
 " of the mosses themselves, and also of the adjacent 
 " vallies ; — 
 
 " By the inhabitants of the vallies, for these are 
 " sometimes overflown to a considerable depth with 
 *' this liquid stream of flowing moss, w^hen it bursts 
 *' its former bounds. It is no less dreaded by the 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS^'PfO 153 
 
 •*' inhabitants of tliese mosses, for whole plots of this 
 " spongy substance, when gorged up, are sometimes 
 *' swept away like a floating island, with all its trees 
 " and cattle, and houses, and inhabitants. The ex- 
 ^' ternal coat," he says, "is of a more solid consis- 
 " tency than the internal mass ; yet, like a torrent 
 *' of lava, when an opening is made, it will run like 
 *' a river, even though the surface seems not to 
 " move." 
 
 It is almost unnecessary for me to add, that the in- 
 habitants are under the necessity of using precautions 
 to prevent such fatal accidents ; they fix down the 
 surface of the moss by large stakes and beams, driven 
 into the subsoil, &c. &c. 
 
 Far less is it needful for me to specify and describe 
 the numberless instances of similar accidents that 
 have happened at different times in different king- 
 doms. 
 
 In Scotland, a number of accidents of this kind 
 have occurred. That of the Solway moss is univer- 
 sally known ; that of the Aberdeenshire moss, de- 
 scribed by Dr Anderson, and of the moss of Kincar- 
 dine, in the years 1792 and 1793, described by the 
 Rev. Mr Tait, are well ascertained. 
 
 In Ireland, similar instances might be mentioned ; 
 as that of Charleville moss, in 1697, and that at Gar- 
 tenmalach, described by Dr Ledwick as a kind of 
 bog-dropsy. 
 
 The moving moss of Lancashire and that of Morle^ 
 in England, might likewise be pointed out. 
 
154 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 The alarming inundations at Wishafen and other 
 places on the Continent might also be mentioned. 
 
 But, without describing these, I only observe, that 
 the probability is, that all those mosses which appear 
 in this semiliquid state, have at one period been lakes. 
 
 3. It is a well known fact, that many of our deep- 
 est mosses are still in so liquid a state, that, like a 
 lake swelled by a flood, they are frequently gorged 
 up above their ordinarv level. Their surface, by this 
 means, alternately rises and falls, although they do 
 not thus burst forth in a torrent. Almost every pea- 
 sant has observed this ; it is unnecessary to point 
 out instances of it. 
 
 None can deny that many mosses, when drained, 
 sink considerably, and some many feet. Dr King 
 says, that the bog of Castle Forbes sunk 30 feet ; 
 Dr Mills allows that it sunk upwards of 15. This 
 is a clear proof that this moss was in a semiliquid 
 state. Upwards of one-iialf of its depth was filled 
 with water ; and many mosses are still in the state 
 of lakes, only covered over with a thin matting of 
 moss on the surface. 
 
 A yery great proportion of the mosses in Holland 
 and Friezland are of this description. They are ac^ 
 cordingly all highest in the centre, that is, where the 
 water has the least egress or opening. Picard ol> 
 serves this, and adds, that, by an accession of stagnant 
 water, and the growth of aquatic plants, they rise and 
 swell rapidly ; they are, too, so porous and spongy, 
 that they are called Hoi bol loSy that is, trembling 
 
VORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 15v^ 
 
 ground ; or, Het land leeft^ i. e. living land that 
 moves. 
 
 In the Scotish dialect there is a similar distinction 
 of quick and dead moss. By quick moss, however, 
 is not meant, as Dr Anderson would insinuate, moss 
 that lives, vegetates or grows, but that which trembles 
 and shakes, or in which a person will sink. The word 
 is used metaphorically in other instances. By quick- 
 sands are meant, in the same sense, moving sands, in 
 which a person sinks, or may be quickly swallowed 
 up. 
 
 The quaking bogs in Ireland are of the same kind 
 with those in Holland called living land, and in Bri- 
 tain quick-moss. 
 
 4. Another proof that many mosses have been ori- 
 ginally lakes, is, that they contain the remains of the 
 shell-fish and other exuviae of animals which exist 
 only in marshes or pools. 
 
 5. After the peat has been dug from the surface, 
 many mosses again revert to their original state of 
 lakes. 
 
 " Degner describes the mosses in the neighbourhood 
 of Utrecht. He says, " that, after digging a foot 
 " and a half deep on the surface, they come imme- 
 " diately to the subterraneous water : that when the 
 *« moss is entirely dug out, all that remains is an ex- 
 *' tended lake : that, in 20 or 30 years, 60, 80, or 
 " 100 acres are sometimes cleared of moss -in this 
 " way." He adds, that, 
 
159 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 " However sad and gloomy, and even dangerous 
 " these lakes may be, they are not entirely useless. 
 *^ After the 'moss is removed, the waters become 
 " sweet, and fit for ewery domestic purpose. Fish 
 " of the best quality abound in these lakes. These 
 ** are supplied by the canals and rivers that commu- 
 " nicate with the mosses ; and 100 families some- 
 " times subsist by fishing on one such lake.*' 
 
 He observes farther, " that these lakes are some- 
 " times drained at an immense expence, and con- 
 " verted into a rich soil. They first surround the 
 " lake with a mound, to prevent the surface-water 
 " from flowing into it. By wind-mills they then 
 " drain off the water of the lake : the little moss that 
 " remains at the bottom they burn ; by this means 
 " the whole becomes a fertile soil. 
 
 " So that these mosses may be seen undergoing 
 " the following changes : They first appear as a rich 
 ** meadow ; then turf is dug from under this : a rich 
 " supply of wood is often found under the turf. 
 " When these are all removed, the whole appears 
 " as an extensive lake, abounding with fish ; and, at 
 *^ last, when this water is drained off, it is converted 
 " into a rich and fertile soil. 
 
 ** To drain off these watei^s requires an immense 
 " expence. In the year 1728, a certain nobleman 
 ** drained vSOO acres by four mills ; these cost him 
 ** 30,000 florins Dutch ; and, before the whole was fit 
 " for culture, it cost him 200,000 florins : besides, 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 157 
 
 '' these mills required to be kept up at a great ex- 
 *^ pence annually, to carry off the superfluous water. 
 
 « The attempt to drain such lakes sometimes fails 
 ^' altogether ; for, when the moss on the original 
 " surface is removed, the spongy bottom called darry 
 " (a particular species of moss which shall be de- 
 " scribed) rises up, and leaves a lake sometimes 30 
 " feet deep. To drain this is impossible; for, as such 
 " lakes are often far below the level of the sea, when 
 *' it bursts its banks the whole may be overwhelmed 
 ** in a deluge." 
 
 It is impossible to ascertain what progressive chan- 
 ges such mosses may have undergone. The wood 
 found in them renders it probable that they were ori^ 
 ginally forests. The darry at the bottom (which 
 consists almost entirely of reeds and rushes) would 
 lead us to suppose, that these ruined forests had been 
 converted into marshes in the next stage, when these 
 rushes and reeds grew. The depth of the moss, and 
 the liquid state in which it is still found, and their re- 
 verting again into lakes when the moss is removed, 
 render it highly probable that they were, at a future 
 stage, deep pools of water. In these pools it is pro- 
 bable the aquatic plants afforded materials for the 
 black, loose, pulpy moss. 
 
 The account he gives of the different strata of these 
 inosses corroborates this conjecture. He says, tliat 
 the first stratum that appears after the surface is re- 
 moved, is a blackish red moss, very tenacious, but 
 Soft and pulpy; this yields the best fuel, and is ge- 
 
158 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 nerally about two feet deep. This appears to me to 
 be produced by the aquatic plants which must have 
 flourished when the whole was in the form of a lake. 
 
 The next stratum is somewhat redder, equally tena- 
 cious, but partly fibrous. This appears to me to 
 have been formed partly by the marshy plants, and 
 partly by aquatics. 
 
 The lowest stratum is much redder ; it is so fi-^ 
 brous and spongy, that it appears to consist entirely 
 of rotten wood : it is the worst fuel. This seems 
 to me to have been formed of the ruins of the forest^ 
 when the whole was converted into a morass. 
 
 Some mosses in this neighbourhood exhibit the 
 same proofs that, at one period, they were lakes. 
 After digging four, six, or ten feet deep, the sub- 
 terraneous water is laid open ; this often rushes up 
 with such rapidity, that the pit is filled to the sur- 
 face before the person who dug it can escape out of 
 it. 
 
 Degner states it as a well known fact, that, in 
 many instances, peats are dug where a navigable 
 lake once existed ; not only in Zealand, which once 
 lay under the ocean, but in many places, especially 
 in Oldhampton. 
 
 This leads me to notice another circumstance that 
 confirms this : 
 
 '6. That boats and nautical instruments are often 
 found in the deepest mosses. 
 
 It is superfluous to specif)' all the instances of this* 
 I shall name a few. 
 
ORlGlK OF PEAT MOSS. 159 
 
 Degner says, that pieces of ships, nautical instru- 
 ments, oars, &c. are found in the Dutch mosses. 
 
 Girard, in his history of the valley of the Somme, 
 mentions that, in the lowest tier of that moss, was 
 found a boat loaded with bricks. 
 
 It seems to me inconceivable how ships, boats, 
 and nautical instruments could exist in the depth of 
 mosses, on any other supposition than that these 
 were at one period navigable lakes, or arms of the 
 sea. 
 
 I have only to add another circumstance thai leads 
 to the conclusion, that many mosses were at one 
 period lakes. 
 
 7. The name they bear implies this. 
 
 Mons. De Luc, in his letters to me already 
 alluded to, observes, that some of the dales on 
 the Continent, now filled with peat, retain still the 
 German name See : that the meaning of this word 
 is lake : from whence he concludes, that these 
 mosses were lakes in known times. 
 
 Picard observes, that many mosses on the Conti- 
 nent still bear the name of poel : that this is a proof 
 that, at one period, they were pools or lakes. 
 
 It is almost unnecessary for me to add, that the 
 words j^w, marshy and the terminations brook^ maeVy 
 gooVy &c. which are so prevalent over Europe, in- 
 dicate the same thing. Innumerable mosses, and 
 many cultivated low levels, bear these names. Deg- 
 ner takes particular notice of this. 
 
160 ON THE NATURAL HISTORA' AND 
 
 - He says, diat many regions abounding in mosses 
 are called r^^-iand, veen-grond : that veen signi- 
 fies a muddy marshy soil. Hence the Saxon word 
 Jenney and the Engiish Je?i. 
 
 He says, that many other regions are called brock^ 
 land ; that brock signifies a lake ; that the names of 
 many villages in Holland and Friezland have this 
 termination : hence the inhabitants, in the time of 
 the Romans, were called Bructeri^ or the inhabitants 
 of the laky country. 
 
 ; jrllhe words nioer^ moeras^ via?'se, mershc^ maer^ 
 he observes, signify a lake or marshy ground. Moer 
 signifies that on which brushwood and ligneous 
 plants grow ; hence innumerable places are called by 
 names having this termination, as Gravenmoer, The- 
 jsenmoer, &c. and the inhabitants were called Morini 
 by the Romans. 
 
 Morass y or mocras^ or marse^ &c. denote a lake 
 or laky country : He says they are derived from 
 the verb meer^ signifying to dissipate into small par- 
 deles ; because the waters which overflow these low 
 vaihes, by subsidence diffuse small particles of earth 
 over them. That the German, French, Saxon, and 
 Anglo-Saxon, names of the sea, are derived from this. 
 In the German it is called mere ; in French mer ; 
 in Anglo-Saxon viere ; in Saxon maer ; in Spanish 
 mar : hence the inhabitants of these countries were 
 called by Pliny, Ivlarsatii -, by Tacitus, Marsaci : and 
 hence the names of places still bear this or similar 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 161 
 
 terminations, denoting that lakes abounded where 
 mosses now occupy their place. 
 
 He observes, too, that the Flemish word gor or 
 goor is the name of many mosses : that gor signifies 
 a lake or laky soil : that the adjective goor signifies 
 putrid, fetid, or subacid : that vergooren signifies to 
 become acid by being stagnant, from the verb goer^ 
 gier^ gereii^ to ferment : hence the Saxon mmegj/ra, 
 signifying a lake or marshy soil where waters fer- 
 ment, and goor signifying a land new formed by al- 
 luvion : hence Caesar calls the inhabitants Gorduni, 
 goor signifying a lake, and dui/ii a sandy hill. 
 
 Girard, in his history of the valley of the Somme, 
 takes notice of the etymology of that name : He says, 
 that Somme, in Celtic, signifies water kept within 
 bounds ; that the Celtic word mos signifies water that 
 spreads : hence the name AJosa to that river, as it fre- 
 quently overflows and stagnates. 
 
 .As the original Celdc name mos, is descriptive of 
 the origin of peat, I have preferred it, and still am 
 determined to retain it. I know that Dr Walker 
 says, that peat is a word used in Scotland and in the 
 north of England; that, till of late years, it has seldom 
 been used by any English author : this to me is of 
 little importance ; nor shall I attempt to prove, that 
 it was used by Leland in his Itinerary, as early as the 
 year 1712, and by Dr Hans Sloan about the same 
 period. 
 
 Granting that it is a Scotch word, it is a word uni- 
 versally understood in Britain j and when we speak 
 
1'62 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 of peat moss, the meaning is equally obvious, as whea 
 we use the word peat earth, which is not in itself de- 
 scriptive, or the word turhairy^ which is of foreign 
 derivation. 
 
 As peat is descriptive of the distinguishing quality 
 of that substance, inflammability, and moss, of its 
 origin or situation, I think it preferable to retain it. 
 
 8. It is almost unnecessary to add, that those 
 mosses from which soda and salt turf are dug, have,, 
 at one period, most probably, been salt lakes, or arms 
 of the sea. 
 
 I have already shewn, that there is every proba- 
 bility that the lower parts of the coasts of Picardy, 
 though now covered with moss, were once overflown 
 . by the ocean. I only mention, that the soda which 
 may be extracted from the peat in that district, ren- 
 ders this highly probable. ^ • 
 
 It seems absolutely certain, that many of the mosses 
 in Zealand have once been lakes of salt-water, or arms 
 of the sea. Braak truf is accordingly dug out of 
 these lakes ; the water in them, hke the turf, still 
 contains salt. These turfs, when burning, emit, of 
 course, a fetid odour ; this odour is disagreeable, and 
 by the Zealanders deemed dangerous ; it communi- 
 cates a livid death-like colour to the skin ; it occa- 
 sions a sickly squeamish feeling ; sometimes it brings 
 on a syncope and fainting fits : to remedy this, they 
 sprinkle salt on the turf while burm'ng. Degner, 
 .however, is of opinion, that this, in place of a remedy, 
 only increases the evil : he thinks, that the white ef- 
 
ORIGIN OF ]?EAT MOSS. 165 
 
 florescence that forms on the turf, is not owing to 
 sulphur, as some have supposed, but to the salt it 
 contains. As a proof of this, he says, that salt thrown 
 on the turf emits a similar blue flame : that Hoff- 
 man, in distilling common salt with sand, observed 
 the same whitish yellow efflorescence on the retort. 
 
 Many, if not most of the mosses in Friezland, ap- 
 pear to have originated in a similar manner. Much 
 of that country, like Holland, still lies below the level 
 of the sea ; none of it rises far above that level ; and 
 the soil, in general, is so soft, that no solid foundation 
 can be found for building their houses upon ; they 
 are under the necessity of driving piles into the solid 
 subsoil, on purpose to form a proper foundation. 
 Many of the mosses in that district, are, like the other 
 Dutch mosses, impregnated with salt ; they abound 
 in what is called b7'aak torf, or salt peat. 
 
 This is a proof that the site of these mosses was 
 originally occupied by the ocean ; else, whence comes 
 the quantity of salt contained in them ? This sup- 
 position becomes more probable, when it is consider- 
 ed, that much of that country has been reclaimed 
 from the ocean, and that many different districts of 
 it have been overwhelmed by inundations of the deep. 
 
 If it be granted, that all those mosses in Europe 
 which are still in a fsemiliquid state, or have burst 
 their barriers, or alternately rise and fall, or revert 
 into lakes when the moss is removed, or contain 
 pieces of ships or nautical instruments, or bear the 
 nam* poel^ &c. or contain salt and soda, were onco 
 
164 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 lakes, this list must include some of the largest and 
 most extensive mosses in the world. 
 
 Having endeavoured to shew that moss is renova- 
 ted, with the circumstances and time requisite ; hav- 
 ing also endeavoured to ascertain the aquatic plants 
 which promote this renovation ; that the same plants 
 have contributed to the original formation of moss ; 
 and that many lakes in the north of Europe have 
 thus been filled up with this substance, it only re- 
 mains for me to shew, 
 
 SECTION VIL 
 
 That aquatic plants may he traced in most^ if not 
 in all moss. The organization of these is often so 
 entire, that we can easily ascertain the distinct species 
 that prevails. 
 
 I regret that I have not been able to collect such a 
 variety of specimens as I expected. I am confident, 
 that if a complete collection of these were made, there 
 would be no difficulty in discriminating the distinct 
 plants, of which all fibrous moss is formed. 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 165 
 
 I shall mention a few facts, which may tend to elu- 
 cidate this subject. 
 
 In the Jirst place ^ tlie conferva has been shewn 
 to promote the renovation and growth of moss. This 
 may still be traced in recent mosses ; but in those of 
 a more remote origin, it is in vain to expect this : the 
 organs of this species are so small and delicate, that 
 they cannot be distinguished after they have under- 
 gone a partial disorganization. 
 
 There are other tender plants of this description : 
 The leaves of the lemna, and the delicate organiza- 
 tion of this plant, cannot continue long distinguish- 
 able, when incorporated with such a mass of extrane- 
 ous matter. 
 
 The byssus, &c. whose roots are of a hair-like 
 or capillary form, may be more distinctly traced ; 
 and in the soft pulpy black moss, these roots, &c. are 
 the cause of that filamentous form and appearance it 
 assumes. 
 
 2. The organization, however, of other aquatics, 
 may be, and has been ascertained with certainty. 
 The hypnum is of this description ; it may be traced 
 deep in moss in a distinct organized form. 
 
 Mons. Faujas de St Fond mentions a beautiful spe- 
 cimen of moss as an instance of this. In the valley 
 of Sanchy, at the depth of seven or eight feet, a moss 
 was dug 1 1 feet thick ; this seemed to be composed 
 solely of the hypnum. He says, that ^' the species 
 *' resembled the hypnum adunum Lin. There seem- 
 " ed to be no mixture of any other plant in this 
 
166 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 *' moss excepting some leaves of trees, equally well 
 " preserved. " He observes farther, that ^* the 
 " depth of soil above the moss, and the many layers 
 " of spongy elastic matter in the moss itself, clearly 
 *' evince that it must be of very ancient origin, and 
 *' must have remained in this state for many ages ; 
 *' yet the organization of the hypnum is so distinct 
 " and entire, that the stems, branches, and leaves are 
 " all discernible." 
 
 The conclusion is obvious, that this plant has con- 
 tributed chiefly to the formation of the moss he de- 
 scribes. Dr Walker thinks that the hypnum fluitans 
 is one of the most luxuriant of this species. He says 
 it grows two or three feet long in a season ; and that, 
 in the course of 20 years, it has formed a thin stra- 
 tum of flow peat in Annandale. 
 
 3, Aquatic grasses may also be traced in moss. 
 Poiret observes, that the leaves of these are dry, and 
 the stems somewhat coriaceous ; that, on this ac- 
 count, they preserve their organic structure long. 
 Degner observes, that these, by rushing up in pits, 
 contribute to the renovation of the moss. Though 
 this be of recent origin, yet it yields fuel. It is light 
 and spongy at first, but when left for 30 or 40 years 
 it is consolidated into excellent turf. 
 
 \\ hen thus consolidated, he observes, that, upon 
 examination, it consists of nothing but grasses with 
 a small mixture of moss and mud. Hence it is cal- 
 led groos, or groes^ i. e. grassy ; and the peat dug 
 from it is called hey turfy or grassy peat. 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 1-67 
 
 Dr Collet describes the best Berkshire peat as 
 a compost of the branches, twigs, and leaves of trees, 
 with grasses, straw, plants, and weeds. 
 
 Dr King gives a similar account of the Irish mosses. 
 He says, that " Ireland abounds in springs. Grass 
 *' and weeds grow rapidly at the out-burst of these. 
 ^' In winter, these springs swell and loosen all the 
 " earth about them ; the sward, consisting of the 
 " roots of grasses, is thus lifted up by the water. 
 *' This sward grows thicker and thicker, till at last it 
 '' forms a quaking bog. As it swells higher and 
 ^' higher, the grass and roots become more putrid : 
 *' mixed with mud and slime, the whole acquires the 
 *' blackness and consistency of a turf bog." 
 
 I will not attempt to enumerate the aquatic grasses 
 that may be expected in moss. Doubtless, all the 
 varieties may be found ; and a careful obsen^er, by 
 the use of a good microscope, may easily ascertain 
 the particular species found in any peat. 
 
 4. Rushes and reeds, I have shewn, contribute to 
 the original formation and subsequent renovation of 
 moss ; it is certain, that they can still be traced in 
 that substance in an organized state. 
 
 I have seen whole masses of moss that consisted 
 almost entirely of rushes. Their original form and 
 figure is still retained ; they presented precisely the 
 appearance as if they had been petrified, only, the 
 coagulum, or cement, that bound them together, was 
 black and soft. The moss on the surface of the val- 
 Jey of the Somme seems to be similar to this. QU 
 
168 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 rard says it is loose and friable ; yet the roots of reeds 
 and rushes may be distinctly seen in it. Lambardie, 
 in his view of the orighi of this moss, says that the 
 marsh is all covered over with rushes and reeds on 
 the surface. He supposes, that, when the banks that 
 crossed the valley and stemmed up the water were 
 cut, these waters issued out ; that this crust of roots 
 reached the bottom ; that the whole, by condensa- 
 tion and decomposition, were converted into moss. 
 
 Reeds may be traced in many mosses ; especially 
 in that species which seems to be peculiar to Holland, 
 called by the Dutch darry. It is found most fre- 
 quently along the sea coast. Degner says, that after 
 the moss is extracted, they frequently come to slimy 
 mud at the bottom ; that sand is seldom discovered 
 there. At other times a light, porous, spongy bot- 
 tom, full of grasses and reeds, is laid open ; this is 
 called darrnj^ or derry. In the heat of summer, this 
 substance often rises up to the surface of the water 
 in large masses ; sometimes these are 100 feet long, 
 by three to 10 feet deep, though this seldom happens 
 ia winter *. 
 
 * In the lake Derwent Water, a similar substance is some- 
 times found. It appears in the form of floating islands. These 
 rise from the bottom of the lake : sometimes one and some- 
 times two appear in the year : Some sink to the bottom again 
 in the space of 24 hours ; others swim on the surface for six 
 weeks, two months, or even longer : One rose in 1798, which 
 was 1 80 yards long and 50 wide : Some of them have been 
 found 21 feet thick. 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 169 
 
 This substance swims along the surface of the lake, 
 and is, on this account, called dryvend-hxiA^ for the 
 inhabitants can enter upon it, and move it about like 
 a vessel. If it rest in one place for a number of 
 years, it is covered with aquatic plants, reeds, and 
 mosses. It is combustible ) but the quality of the 
 turf is inferior. 
 
 On account of its being thus moved about, it is of- 
 ten found in the sea. Hence the Dutch have suppo- 
 sed this and other kinds of mosses to be a marine 
 production. Degner, however, observes, that it ha§ 
 
 There can be no doubt that the substance of which these 
 islands consists is a species of moss ; for, excepting about two 
 feet of the surface, (which consists of mud), the whole appears 
 to be a congeries of leaves and roots of trees and other plants. 
 
 And it seems probable, that the moss found in this place is 
 similar to what is called darry. Were I to hazard a conjec- 
 ture, it would be this, that the name of the lake denotes tliis. 
 Darricy Jerrie, or darink, signifies a combustible matter : It is 
 derived from the Danish word darlen, to burn. 
 
 Derwent water, cr Darink water, may denote the lake con- 
 taining darry^ or inHammable matter ; but I mention this 
 merely as a conjecture. 
 
 I only observe, tliat similar floating islands have been seen 
 in Kinson Pool in Staffordshire. Dr Plott says that they con- 
 sist of a kind of stringy bituminous earth. He speaks of two, 
 about 20 feet broad, by 30 or 40 long, which appeared in 
 1680. 
 
 It appears that similar floating islands have existed since the 
 days of Seneca and Pliny. Both these authors take notice 
 of a lake near to Actila, a tovm of the Sabines, in which was a. 
 floating island. 
 
176 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 unquestionably been carried to the ocean by alluvion. 
 He thinks it probable that it may have been thrown 
 out from the sea into some of the lowest districts of 
 Holland, and afterwards covered over with moss and 
 mud ; but he adds, that this is by no means a proof, 
 either that it was originally formed in the ocean, or 
 that all moss is a marine producdon. 
 
 He thinks that, as it is certain that many mossy 
 levels have been overwhelmed by the sea, this species 
 of moss might thus be elevated and torn up by the 
 ^vinds and waves, and afterwards swept into the ocean. 
 Hence, he observes, that it is only this spongy reedy 
 turf that is found th'^re, just as trees are found car- 
 ried thither by alluvion. 
 
 This kind of moss is found at the bottom of the 
 sea, near Antwerp, at the depth of 20 feet ; and like- 
 wise in the bottom of mosses and lakes at Ziric Zeam. 
 It is said to contain a liquid bitumen, and a portion 
 of salt : Hence it is called braak turf. The nearer 
 it is to the sea, the greater is the quantity of salt it 
 contains, and the odour it emits is more fetid. 
 
 Whether the moss found in the bay of Oban, on 
 the coast of Cornwall, Wales, and Cumberland, &c. 
 he, be similar to this, I have not had any opportuni- 
 ty of knowing. It is certain, however, that rushes 
 and reeds contribute their part to the formation of 
 moss. It is. impossible for me to ascertain the parti- 
 cular species of each that prevails most in any parti- 
 cular spot ; in general, however, we may expect the 
 following species : 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS, 171 
 
 Scirpus lacustris, or the common bulrush j 
 
 Schi:Enus mariscus, or prickly bog-rush ; 
 
 Juncus conglomeratus, or the common rush ; 
 . Arundo phiagmites, or reed ; 
 
 Scirpus csESpitosus, or deer's hair; 
 
 Juncus squarrosus, or wire bent ; 
 
 Juncus articulatus, or spret, &;c. &c. 
 
 And it would be desirable that every person who 
 examines rush peat, would endeavour to ascertain the 
 particular species of rush or reed that prevails in it. 
 
 5. The leaves, roots, and stems of the iris may of- 
 ten be traced in moss ; every careful observer must 
 have seen instances of this. These may be traced to 
 a great depth, especially in black pulpy moss. 
 
 6. Heath may be likewise traced in moss. Mr 
 Alton is of opinion that heather peat does not exist. 
 He allows that it grows on moss in almost every state 
 we find it : But he says that it is extremely slow in 
 its growth, and as slow of decay ; that the bulk of 
 earth it yields is so small as to be almost impercep- 
 tible ; and he does not believe that the thousandth 
 part of any moss was ever composed of decayed hea- 
 ther. 
 
 It cannot be denied that, on dry moorish grounds, 
 heath is slow in its growth ; yet, even in such situ- 
 ations, it contributes to the formation and renovation 
 of moss. De Luc accordingly observes, that, in the 
 plains of Twickel, it promotes the formation of peat. 
 He says, that when the peat is dug out of the pools, 
 the sand, which forms the subsoil, appears purej 
 
172 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 that it is speedily covered with water ; that heath 
 springs up spontaneously, and with great rapidity in 
 these pools ; that this water and heath constitute their 
 part to the formation of new moss in such places ; 
 that even the rain-water which falls on the heath, 
 when it is allowed to stagnate, leaves a sediment 
 similar to moss, and acquires the brownish tinge of 
 moss water. 
 
 This, however, is not the point I aim to establish. 
 My object is to shew, that heath may be, and is de- 
 tected as a component part of many mosses : it is 
 even found in an entire organized form in those of 
 the most remote origin. I have seen peat dug out 
 of mosses in this neighbourhood at the depth of four 
 and five feet, one half of which was composed of 
 heath ; the roots, branches, and even seeds of the 
 plant could still be distinguished. Mr Tait, in his 
 account of Kincardine moss, observes the same thing. 
 He says, that, at the bottom of that nioss, which is in 
 some places 1 4! feet deep, bunches of heath are found, 
 far more entire than those found nearer the surface : 
 that the roots of this plant are often seen fixed in the 
 clay subsoil. Williams, in his essay on coal, de- 
 scribes a species of heath peat in the following words: 
 " A foot and a half of the surface consists entirely of 
 <« the branches, roots, blossoms, and seeds of heath, 
 *' apparently not in the least decayed ; the second 
 ** stratum below this is the same, only beginning to 
 " decay ; the third consists of flow moss ; the last is 
 « perfectly black, and of a close texture." He says. 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 17S 
 
 that this Is a description of moss Flanders, moss Kin- 
 haw in Ardnamurchan, of Solway, and most of the 
 Highland mosses. 
 
 It is not enough to invalidate tills argument to say, 
 that the heath is not reduced to earth ; or that, be- 
 cause it retains its organic structure, it does not con- 
 tribute to form moss. Upon the same principles, 
 every plant I have named, whether aquatic or ligne- 
 ous, may be banished from the list, for they are all 
 found in an organised state ; and the organization 
 of them is often as entire as heath ; yet all of them 
 yield an inflammable earth ; in other words, they 
 form a part of moss. 
 
 Nor is it a sufficient objection, that heather may 
 have grown uninterruptedly for ages, and yet no 
 moss has been formed under it. Other circumstan- 
 ces, as I shall shew hereafter, are requisite to the for- 
 mation of moss than the growth of those plants which 
 form it. 
 
 On dry moors, such as those immense regions 
 called geest on the Continent, where the water is not 
 allowed to stagnate, the formation of moss, either 
 by heath or any other plant, must be slow and im- 
 perceptible ; but, on level plains, the growth of 
 heath is rapid, and the formation and renovation of 
 moss rapid in proportion. 
 
 7. Aquatic mosses may be detected at all depths 
 in almost every peat ; this is a very numerous class. 
 Upwards of 300 species of mosses have been detect- 
 
174 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 ed ; they flourish in all low marshy soils where peat 
 is found. 
 
 It is reasonable to expect, therefore, that they may 
 all be traced in moss ; accordingly, many peats seem 
 to consist of nothing else. 
 
 King, in his account of the Irish bogs, says, that 
 aquatic mosses abound more in Ireland than in any 
 other kingdom : that the light spongy turf is nothing 
 but a congeries of these : that he has frequently ob- 
 served this before the turf was sufficiently rotten. 
 He adds, " truly I impute the formation of the red 
 «« or turf bogs chiefly to this. On examining a sec- 
 « tion of such mosses, this will appear obvious. The 
 •'sphagnum, and other moss plants, may be seen 
 f« growing fresh and vigorous at the surface ; a foot 
 .« deep they exhibit marks of decomposition ; and 
 .« deeper still, they are completely disorganized.'* 
 
 The woolly turf which Degner describes is proba- 
 bly of this description. He says, that it is full of 
 filaments and organized matter : that it is therefore 
 called by the Dutch locTce^ i. e. wooly, or dractagtig^ 
 i. e. filamentous. 
 
 That which is found near Craneberg is certainly 
 similar to the red bogs of Ireland. It seems to con- 
 sist almost entirely of mosses. Degner says he ex- 
 amined it. Besides pure aquatic moss, of a light 
 yellow colour, and a few filaments of aquatic grasses, 
 he found nothing else. 
 
 Mr De Luc, in his first letter to me, gives the 
 following account of a similar turf. He savs, 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT M05S. 17^ 
 
 c< I have brought a specimen of some peat of the 
 country of Shleswig ; it has hardly any thing else 
 '" in its composition, than a ramified common moss. 
 •* I have let some of it stand a whole year in a bason 
 «* of water, always repairing the loss of water by eva- 
 « poration, yet it did not change its shape, or tinge 
 «< the water : at last I took it to pieces, which was 
 « but to force the separation of the interwoven threads 
 «* of the moss. I washed these separate tufts in the 
 " water in which it had been steeped : though this 
 <« gave a turbid appearance to the fluid at first, yet 
 " after being left to settle, it became clear. The par- 
 " tides mixed in the water, were of two sorts ; one 
 " of these floated on the surface, the other sunk to 
 « the bottom of the bason. The former were only 
 " small bits of moss, which had not undergone the 
 <« process of the separation of the molecules ; the 
 " other was a brownish powder, probably the divid- 
 •« ed molecules which produce the peat mud, and are 
 «« of a greater specific gravity than water. 
 
 ** If the broken pieces of this specimen, (which 
 «* probably would produce the same effect after be- 
 « ing sunk in water and more divided), can be of 
 " any use to you, I will send to you with pleasure." 
 
 Ribancourt describes two species of peat found in 
 France, similar to the above. The first is white and 
 heavy, filled with shells, and mixed with much earth ; 
 this is called earthy peat. The second is brown, of 
 a bright hue, very light and porous, full of openings ; 
 
176 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND ^ 
 
 it precisely resembles a collection of fog j it is there- 
 fore calle4 mossTj peat. 
 
 Both of these are of little value ; they are seldom 
 used as a fuel, 
 
 I have examined several mosses with care, and I 
 am confident, that all the red mosses, or those of a 
 reddish yellow, sometimes called flow moss, are of 
 this description. Ket moss is similar to this j and 
 that called in Ireland old wives'* tow is of the same 
 kind. 
 
 In place of specifying any particular moss, I would 
 call the attention of the reader to this point. Let 
 him examine this spongy light coloured peat, in the 
 manner De Luc describes, and he will find, upon in- 
 spection, especially v/ith a microscope, that it consists 
 chiefly of a congeries of aquatic mosses. 
 
 I say mosses in general, for it were an endless and 
 idle task to specify the particular classes. All the 
 different species may be expected ; and I have no 
 doubt, but with proper care and minute attention in 
 making experiments, they may be discriminated from 
 each other. 
 
 There are some of these so bulky, that they can 
 easily be detected by the naked eye ; of this descrip- 
 tion, are the sphagnum, palustre, polytrichum com- 
 mune, &c. : others are so minute, and tlieir organiza- 
 tion is so delicate, that they require the application 
 of the finest microscope to detect their structure ; 
 of this description are the conferva, lemna, &c. &c. 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 177 
 
 I have only to observe, that Mr Aiton looks on 
 this as a species of peat tarely to be found : He says, 
 that it is only to be met v^ith in a few lochs, flanks, 
 or standing pools of water ; that it scarcely merits 
 notice. 
 
 From the most accurate and extensive researches 
 I have been able to make, I am disposed to think 
 otherwise. It seems to be the prevailing species over 
 all Ireland ; immense tracks of that country are cover- 
 ed with it. In Friezland, Brandebourg, Brunswic, 
 Shleswick, Holland, &c. &c. it appears from Degner 
 and De Luc to prevail. In many of the vallies of 
 Scotland it is to be found ; and perhaps no peat, of 
 any particular description, (that is, where a particular 
 species of plants abounds in it), is found in greater 
 quantity or extent. 
 
 It were an easy task to swell the list of aquatic 
 plants that have been detected in moss. I decline to 
 particularize these any farther, and dismiss this point 
 with one general remark^ that all the aquatics whi'cli 
 Jiourish in mosses^ marshes^ or lakes ^ may he expect- 
 ed to he found. Perhaps, by farther investigation of 
 this important subject, a collection niay be made from 
 mosses of different kingdoms, exhibiting all the va- 
 rieties of these plants ; and why should not such an 
 attempt be made ? The subject is surely of sufficient 
 importance ; and it were worthy of any university or 
 Society in the kingdom to undertake the task. The 
 expence aiid trouble of it is too much for any indi- 
 vidual \ to a society these would be trifling. I for 
 
 M 
 
178 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 my part undertake to furnish a collection of speci- 
 mens which deserve a place in any museum. 
 
 It may be useful to some of my readers to furnish 
 a list of those plants whose growth is most rapid : 
 De Luc says, that Mr Oeder is of opinion, that the 
 following, by the rapidity of their growth, soon bury 
 in our mosses the heath and other shrubs, and the 
 grasses, reeds, and rushes, of our meadows, viz. 
 The conferva, with its green clouds ; 
 The byssus and tremella ; and, above all. 
 The sphagnum palustre. 
 Among the grassy plants which grow in abundance, 
 he enumerates the eriophorum vaginatum, eriopho- 
 1-um polystachion, and carex casspitosa, 
 
 Dr Walker, in his Essay on Peat, gives the follow- 
 ing list of plants which generally occupy and cover 
 the surface of moss in Scotland : 
 
 1st Cla^s. Nojcioics. 
 
 1 . Pinguicula vulgaris ; white rot. 
 
 2. Hydrocotyle vulg. ; marsh pennywort. 
 
 S. Drosera rotundifol. 5 7 j 
 
 C red rot. 
 4. . longifol. ; y 
 
 5. Anthericum ossifragum ; Lancashire asphodel. 
 
 6. Ranunculus flammula -, spearword. 
 
 7. Caltha palustr. ; marsh marigold. 
 
 • 8. Oenanthe crocata ; hemlock drop- wort, 
 9. Pedicularis sylvatica -, louse- wort. 
 
 10. palustris 5 marsh louse- wort* 
 
 1 1. Myrica gale ; gale* 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 179 
 
 2d. Plants of no known use. 
 1. Schsenus nigricans; black bog-rush. 
 2. albus--, white bog-rush. 
 
 3. Scirpus palustr. ; club-rush. 
 
 4. Juncus campestres ; field-rush. 
 
 5. Cornus suecica. 
 
 6. Primula farinosa ; bird's eye. ' 
 
 7. Lysymachia tenella ; purple moneyworf; 
 
 8. Pyrola minor ; lesser wintergreen. 
 
 9. Lycopodium clavatum ; wolf's claw* 
 10. selago ; fir-moss. 
 
 11. Sphagn. palustr. ; bog-moss. 
 
 12. Polytrich. comm. *, goldclocks. 
 
 13. Marium palustre. 
 
 14. — fontanum* 
 
 15. Bryum paludosum. 
 
 16. scoparium. 
 
 17. csespitidum; 
 
 18. Lichen rangiferinus ; rein-deer moss. 
 With many lesser plants of the mossy tribe* 
 
 In Moss Watdr. 
 
 1 . Utricularia minor j hooded milfoil. 
 
 2. Potamogeton natans -, round leaved pond-weed. 
 S. Comarum palustre ; marsh cinquefoil. 
 
 4. Carex vesicaria ; bladder-grass* 
 
 5. — turgida. 
 
 6. Chara tomentosa. 
 
 7. Hypnum fluitans^ 
 
180 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 These, he observes, grow up in peat pits, and, by 
 their rapid growth and decay, fill them again with 
 new formed pe^t* 
 
 3d. Plants of some Economical^ Medical, or Me- 
 cha7iical use. 
 
 1. Vaccinium occycoccus ; cranberry. 
 
 2. Rubus chamaemorus ; cloudberry. 
 
 3. Menyanthes trifoliata ; marsh trefoil. 
 
 4. Schasnus mariscus ; prickly bog-rush. 
 3. Scirpus lacustris ; bulrush. 
 
 6. Arundo phragmites ; common reed. 
 
 7. Juncus conglomeratus ; common rush. 
 8. efFuscus ; hard rush. 
 
 9. Tormentilla erecta ; tormentil. 
 
 4th. Gramitieous Plants, affording Hay. 
 
 \ . Acra cserulea ; fly-bent. 
 
 2. Agrostis stolonifera ; marsh bent-grass. 
 
 3. Cynosurus casruleus ; blue dog-tail grass. 
 
 4. Juncus articulatus ; spret. 
 ^. Carex casspitosa. 
 
 limosa. 
 
 trigona. 
 
 6, Carex gigantea. 
 
 7. Holcus lanatus ; soft grass.. 
 
 8. mollis ; creeping soft grass. 
 
 9. Triglochin. palustr. ^ arrow-headed grass. 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 181 
 
 5th. Plants serving for Fasture. 
 
 1. Scirpus csespitosus ; deer's hair. 
 
 2. Eriophorum polystachion ; 1 bog cotton, or moss- 
 vaginatum ; j crops. 
 
 S, Nardus stricta ; bent. 
 
 4. Agrostis capillaris \ fine windstraw. 
 
 5. Aira flexuosa. 
 6. montana. 
 
 7. Juncus squarrosus ; wire-bent. 
 
 8. flexuosus. 
 
 9. Erica vulgaris ; heather. 
 
 10. cinerea O , „ , , 
 
 ,. > bell heather. 
 
 11. tetralix;3 
 
 1 2. incana ; downy heather. 
 
 13. Carex atrata, and many small species. 
 
 6th. Shrubby and Arboraceous Plants* 
 1 . Vaccinium myrtyllus ; blae-berry. 
 2. — uliginosum ; great ditto. 
 
 3. , vitis idea ; red ditto. 
 
 4. Andromeda polifolia ; marsh rosemary, 
 
 5. Arbutus uva ursi ; stone-berry. 
 
 6. Juniperus communis ; jumper. 
 
 7. Empetrum nigr. ; crow-berry. 
 
 8. Salix pentandra ; sweet willow. 
 
 9. glauca : and smaller species, 
 
 10. Betula alba ; birch. 
 11. alnus; alder. 
 
 12. Scorbus aucuparia ; rowan. 
 IS, Pinus sylvestris ; Scots pine. 
 
182 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 The conclusion from this is obvious. If thes^ 
 plants are found growing on mosses, it is natural to 
 expect that they may be traced in all their varieties, 
 and in all the various stages of decay ; and that such 
 plants, vi^hether in a state of organization or disor- 
 ganization, have contributed their part to the forma- 
 tion of those mosses in which they are found. 
 
 I may add, that it is perhaps possible to ascertain 
 the state in which any moss was when the several 
 strata of it were formed, by discriminating the plants 
 which prevail in it. 
 
 Sennebier observes, that the different species of 
 aquatics require different soils. The nympheae grow 
 up in lakes of a firm bottom j in loose bottoms the 
 chara abounds ; the carex delights in those marshes 
 which are dry in summer, but wet in winter ; in deep 
 waters, the sphagnum flourishes •, the hypnum abounds 
 in shady forests ; gentiana lutea, veratrum, epanula 
 drabaefolia, anchusa, stachys, fusca, prevail in mea- 
 dows. 
 
 If this account be correct, (and surely it proceeds 
 from high authority), we may, perhaps, make the 
 following conclusions : That, where a stratum of 
 moss abounds chiefly with the nymphea, the subsoil 
 is firm ; where the chara prevails, it is loose : That 
 v»^here the carex abounds, the moss, at the period in 
 which this stratum was formed, was flooded in win- 
 ter and dry in summer ; where the sphagnum pre* 
 vails, it was in the state of a lake : That where the 
 bj^pnum forms the chief materials, a shady forest once 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 183 
 
 grew: hence leaves of trees were detected by St 
 Fond in the lowest stratum he describes, p. 165 and 
 166. 
 
 And that where meadow grasses are chiefly to be 
 traced in moss, that moss was in the state of meadow 
 when this stratum was formed. 
 
 It may be proper to endeavour to ascertain some of 
 the distinguishing qualities of those plants which pro- 
 mote the formation or renovation of moss, or which 
 are detected in it. 
 
 This subject I reser\'e to 
 
 SECTION VIII. 
 
 Dr Anderson asserts, that moss produces few ve- 
 getables ; that these tend rapidly to decay ; that all 
 vegetable substances, when dead, decrease in bulk, so 
 that they do not occupy above one hundredth part 
 of the space they did ; that moss does not produce 
 one hundredth part of the crop of a fertile soil. 
 
 We are now, in some measure, prepared to meet 
 the Doctor ; I shall, therefore, consider each of the 
 iabove assertions. 
 
184 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 I. That moss produces few tegetables is not strict-- 
 ly true. The foregoing hst of plants that flourish 
 even on our Scottish mosses, shews the contrary. It 
 5s true that it produces only marshy and aquatic 
 plants, but a great variety of species of these may 
 be seen in every moss. Almost all the varieties that 
 flourish in marshes and lakes may be traced also in 
 moss, and have therefore contributed to the forma- 
 tion of it ; so that, with equal propriety, the Doctor 
 might have asserted that the former produce few ve- 
 getables as the latter. 
 
 On decaying or decayed woods, which I have 
 shewn lay the foundation of many mosses, a great 
 variety of the musci flourish : some of these are ra- 
 pid in their growth. De Luc mentions, that he has 
 sometimes seen a matting of these a foot thick at the 
 roots of rotten trees, or under their shade. Cordiner 
 says, that the fallen trees of Glenlin are deeply im- 
 mersed in these plants. The Earl of Cromarty also 
 observes that the ruined forest he describes was all 
 covered over with green moss. 
 
 It is of ho avail to the Doctor's argument to say 
 that this is no proof that these plants flourish in 
 tnosses. It is a proof of the point at issue, that they 
 may have contributed largely to the original forma- 
 tion of them : for, if these ruined forests have laid 
 the foundation of many of these mosses, the plants 
 above described must have mingled with the mass, 
 ^nd added to it. 
 
 « 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 185 
 
 Even though this were doubtful, it is certain that 
 many of the musci flourish in low marshy grounds > 
 the sphagnum, &c. flourishes even in moss pits. 
 
 It may also be observed, that many of these plants 
 are very rapid in their growth. I might have rested 
 the evidence of this on the testimony of Mr Findorf, 
 as stated in the 4th section of this essay. I may add, 
 however, that De Luc takes particular notice of the 
 rapidity with which aquatic plants rush up in the 
 mosses of Bremen. He says, that it is hardly cre- 
 dible how speedily one tier succeeds and buries ano- 
 ther, heaping thus layer upon layer of moss. 
 
 Some of the mosses in particular rush up and ar- 
 rive at maturity in a very short period. Hedwidg 
 sowed the seed of koelcreutera hygrometrica ; in 
 seven days the plant sprung ; the roots appeared 
 when the seed was placed in water in three days ; 
 in eight days the leaves were formed ; and the plant 
 was complete in twenty. 
 
 3. Some of these, too, flourish in the coldest 
 climates, and in the coldest seasons of the year. Dar- 
 win in his Phytologia says, that the rein-deer moss 
 vegetates under the snow, when the temperature is 
 as low as 40 Farenh. 
 
 Even on the highest mountains their growth is ra- 
 pid. De Iaic mentions that, on the hill of Broken, 
 near the Hartz mines, the vegetation of heath, myrtle, 
 and all the species of moss, is so vigorous as to ex- 
 cite his astonishment ; yet this mountain is ascertain- 
 ed to be upwards of 3000 feet above the level of the 
 
186 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 sea. Heath and mosses are found on the top of the 
 Andes and Mount Blanc. 
 
 Even though exposed to drought, the vegetation 
 of these mosses, though checked, is not destroyed. 
 Dillenius says, that he took a piece of moss from his 
 herbary, which had been there for ten years : that 
 this moss must, of course, have been completely 
 dried ; yet, when he left it in water for some days, 
 it began to vegetate as if it had been newly taken 
 from the earth. 
 
 Mosses, even when petrified at the roots, continue 
 still to flourish on the surface. In hke manner, 
 though their roots, which sink deep in moss, seem 
 to have decayed, the vegetation still advances over 
 their ruins. 
 
 The seeds, too, of these plants float in the air : by 
 this means they are universally diffused. When they 
 reach any moist soil they fix upon it, and speedily 
 rush up. The conferva is of this description. Dr 
 Watson filled a tube with water, and sealed it her- 
 metically at the top : that side which was next to the 
 sun was speedily covered with a green film, the other 
 side was not. Dr Priestly examined this, and found 
 it to be a vegetable. 
 
 The rapidity with which this plant rushes up may 
 be ascertained by a simple experiment. I have tried 
 it myself within these few days. In a low level in 
 this neighbourhood a ditch had been lately cut ; ten 
 days ago I made this ditch be stopped up so as to 
 stem the water j to my surprise it is filled with con- 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 187 
 
 ferva, even on the 20th January. Some of the plants 
 have already reached the surface in that short period, 
 although the ditch be two feet deep. 
 
 It is unnecessary to point out the rapidity with 
 which rushes, and reeds, and other aquatic plants 
 grow. 
 
 The Doctor's first assertion, then, may be dis- 
 puted, that moss produces few plants. If he mean 
 annual plants, such as corn and wheat, &c. his as- 
 sertion is well founded ; or, if he mean only that 
 mosses, when drained and laid dry, produce even 
 few perennials, this may likewise be allowed. 
 
 But, in level mosses, where water is allowed to 
 stagnate, the number of plants produced is great, and 
 the luxuriance of their grov/th unequalled, even by 
 the richest crop of wheat on the most fertile soil ; 
 and it is in such situations alone that moss is form- 
 ed or renovated (as I shall shew in my third essay) 
 to any considerable depth. 
 
 11. That the plants which grow on moss tend ra- 
 pidly to decay, is an assertion which requires to be 
 qualified. 
 
 In general, all vegetables tend rapidly to decay in 
 certain circumstances. When exposed, to the influ- 
 ences of the sun and air this is case. The alterna- 
 tion of moisture and drought, heat and cold, expe- 
 dite this change ; but it is not m.ore rapid, even in 
 these circumstances, in moss plants than other 
 vegetables j on the contrary, many of these may 
 
18S ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 be preserved for a longer period than any other 
 plants. All the varieties of heaths and mosses are of 
 this description. It is not strictly true, therefore, 
 that they tend rapidly to decay. 
 
 Far less can it be asserted, that these, or any other 
 plants that flourish on moss, tend rapidly to decay 
 when sunk in water, or shut up from the influences of 
 the sun and air, as they are in moss. 
 
 Some of them are no doubt more susceptible of 
 being preserved, even in this situation, than others. 
 
 I have already shewn, in the seventh section of this 
 essay, that the hypnum, the aquatic grasses, rushes, 
 and reeds, heath, and aquatic mosses, may be detect- 
 ed in a state of perfect preservation even in the deep- 
 est mosses, where they must have remained for ages. 
 
 The leaves and stems of these, which overtop the 
 ;water, decay and drop annually ; but the roots, and 
 what remains of them under water, do not rapidly 
 tend to decay ; they often retain, for ages, their ori- 
 ginal organic form, otherwise they could not be dis- 
 criminated in the lowest strata of the deepest mosses. 
 
 III. That all vegetable substances, when dead, de- 
 crease in bulk, so as not to occupy above the 100th 
 part of the space they did, is an assertion which also 
 requires qualification. If, by being dead, the Doctor 
 means their ceasing to vegetate, the assertion is un- 
 founded. The hypnum, the grasses, reeds, rushes, 
 heath, and mosses detected deeply imbedded in peat, 
 must have been dead for ages in this sense of the 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 189 
 
 word. It is inconceivable that they could continue 
 to vegetate at the depth of 10, 20, or 30 feet of com- 
 pact moss y yet these plants have not decreased in 
 bulk a hundred fold ; they have scarcely decreas- 
 ed at all ; they occupy nearly the same space as they 
 did when in a growing state ; in form and size they 
 can scarcely be distinguished from living plants of 
 the same species. 
 
 If, on the other hand, the Doctor means by dead, 
 their being disorganized, as they appear to exist in 
 some mosses, even on this supposition, they must have 
 occupied much more than 100th part of the space 
 they did. Ligneous plants generally contain nearly 
 one-fifth part of their bulk of carbon ; that is almost 
 an incorruptible substance ; under v^^ater, or deeply 
 imbedded in moss, it is entirely so. 
 
 Even those plants which are of a softer texture, 
 and have no coriaceous nor ligneous fibres, contain 
 jnuch more than 100th part of their bulk of carbon. 
 
 IV. His assertion, that moss does not produce 
 100th part of the crop of a fertile soil, is very loose 
 and incorrect. 
 
 Where moss is drained, its produce is indeed small j 
 perhaps the Doctor does not under-rate it. 
 
 But in low wet mosses and lakes, where alone 
 most grows to any perceptible degree, the crops it 
 yields is great. 
 
 Some of the plants which flourish in such situa- 
 - tions yield an ainnual produce, perhaps equal in bulk 
 
190 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 to 20 crops of wheat. The ranunculus aquatilis, de- 
 scribed by Rozier as rising from the bottom of a 
 lake 18, 20, or 24 feet high, is of this kind. The 
 produce of those moss plants which fill up the ditches 
 in the peat moors of Craneburg, twice or thrice in 
 one summer, are also of this description. 
 
 Besides, other considerations must be taken into 
 the account. Most of the mosses, and many of the 
 aquatics, which flourish on such soils, continue to 
 vegetate all the year round ; nay more, the vegeta- 
 tion of one, does not seem to check or retard that of 
 the other, though closely interwoven together. Reeds 
 and rushes may be seen on the surface of the water, 
 fresh and full of vigour ; while the conferva, the 
 lemna, the byssus, potamogeton, &c. are equally vi- 
 gorous below. Thus, innumerable crops of innu- 
 merable kinds are produced, not only annually, but 
 some of them conlimiallij . 
 
 . I need hardly mention, that as the temperature of 
 th^ water in moss is almost always equable a few feet 
 below the surface, and equal in all those regions 
 where moss is found at that depth, that similar plants 
 flourish in all these regions. In some, it would appear, 
 they reach a greater size than others. The Marquis 
 de Tourbillie mentions, that ^ species of rush grows 
 in Bretagne, as high as a man on horseback. Dr 
 King speaks of a coarse grass in the red bogs of Ire- 
 land, which rises as high as a man : the produce of 
 either of these plants must be equal to the riohest 
 (^op of wheat. 
 
X)RIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 191 
 
 It would appear, from the foregoing facts, that the 
 plants which promote the formation and renovation 
 of moss, are possessed of the following qualities : 
 They are, for the most part, extremely rapid in their 
 growth ; they do not rapidly decay ; they are not 
 much diminished in bulk ; and, on all these and other 
 accounts mentioned, they afford annually a much 
 more abundant supply of vegetable matter than the 
 most fertile soil. The rapidity with which moss is 
 renovated in the pits dug in it, and the rapidity, too, 
 with which it is formed in marshes and lakes, be- 
 comes less astonishing, because more easily account- 
 ed for. 
 
 There are other difEculdes that may be accounted 
 for upon the foregoing statement. 
 
 To obviate these shall be subject of 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 
 The great variety of mosses ; the immense depth 
 of some of these ; the situations in which they are 
 found ; and the arrangement of the different strata 
 of moss in different countries,^ have been considered 
 
192 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 by some as insurmountable difficulties, and unan- 
 swerable objections to the hypothesis I have support- 
 ed. It appears to me, that these may all be account- 
 ed for. 
 
 I. The varieties of moss may be easily account- 
 ed for from the foregoing facts. These varieties 
 are considerable ; many attempts have been made to 
 classify them ; some have distinguished them by their 
 different colours, others by their density, compact- 
 ness, or weight ; some by the prevailing plants of 
 which they are composed, and others by the appear- 
 ance they assume, or the qualities they are supposed 
 to possess. 
 
 Degner describes three kinds of moss in Holland : 
 He distinguishes these by their colour ; the upper- 
 most stratum as black and tenacious, the next redder, 
 and the lowest redder still. Ribaucourt makes a 
 similar distinction of colour in the French mosses, 
 into white, brown, and black. Dr Leigh says, that 
 the Lancashire mosses are either white, gray, or 
 black ; but they all agree, that there are many inter- 
 mediate gradations of colour. 
 
 Girard discriminates the moss of the valley of the 
 Somme by its density or compactness : He says, that 
 the uppermost tier is loose and friable ; that the roots 
 and branches of reeds and rushes niay be traced in it 
 distinctly. The second is more homof;enous and 
 solid, but still the fibrous parts of vegetables appear^ 
 though entirely converted into moss \ the woody peat 
 
ORtcm OF PEAT RiOSS. 198 
 
 Is undermost, and seems to consist of the trunks, 
 branches, &c. of trees. 
 
 Degner hkewise distinguishes the different kinds 
 by their weight : One species, he says, is light and 
 spongy, another is somewhat heavier, a third heavier 
 still, and he speaks of some species specifically heavier 
 than water. 
 
 Dr Walker, in describing the different kinds of 
 tnoss, disdnguishes them by the prevailing plants that 
 seem to compose them, into wood-peat, flow-peat, 
 heather-peat, gramineous-peat : he adds three more 
 classes, the inch-peat, consumed- peat, and water- 
 borne-peat. 
 
 Dr Anderson distinguishes moss into two Idnds, 
 living and dead : by the former, he means moss still 
 in a growing state. 
 
 Poiret makes only two kinds of moss, fibrous and 
 compact : by the former, he means all kinds of moss 
 where the organization of the vegetable matter may be 
 traced : under the latter class he includes all mosses 
 which have undergone a complete disorganization. 
 
 It is of little importance which of these modes of 
 classification be preferred. It appears to me, how- 
 ever, that the colour of moss is by no m^eans a cor- 
 rect mode of distinguishing the different kinds ; the 
 shades and gradations of colour are so different, and 
 so delicate, that it is difficult, if not impossible, to as- 
 certain the exact line of distinction between the dif- 
 ferent species by this means. In describing these, 
 however, it might be proper to attend to the colour* 
 
 N 
 
104; ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 The density, compactness, or comparative weight 
 of peat, is Hkewise a very uncertain standard ; these 
 depend so much upon circumstances, upon the pres- 
 sure to which the peat is subjected, and the degree 
 of moisture, &c. &c. to which it is exposed, that it is 
 impossible to make them a rule of discrimination. 
 
 The mode suggested by Dr Walker and others, of 
 distinguishing peat by the plants that prevail in it, 
 seems equally imperfect. Were this rule to be strict- 
 ly followed out, (as it ought to be, if it ever be adopt- 
 ed), we might find out many hundred species of peat, 
 as many as there are different species of plants in its 
 composition : to attempt this mode of classification 
 would only lead to confusion. 
 
 Dr Anderson's distinction, into living and dead, is 
 still much more exceptionable ; it is a distinction 
 which does not exist ; it originates either in an error 
 of judgment, as to the nature of that substance, or in 
 a misapplication of a vulgar distinction or metaphori- 
 cal expression. 
 
 Were I to give a preference to any, I would prefer 
 Poiret's distinction, into fibrous and compact : These 
 two classes include all kinds, excepting perhaps wood- 
 peat ; and, in describing the varieties of moss, it seems 
 to me unnecessary to be more minute. 
 
 Yet, upon the supposition that it is necessary to 
 distinguish all the varieties of moss, we may easily 
 account for this varietv from the above view of their 
 
-ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 193 
 
 1 . The different trees, as the oak, birch, fir, nay, 
 the different parts of the tree, as the bark, leaves, and 
 twigs, of which moss is composed, must constitute a 
 difference in the appearance of that substance : the 
 variety of aquatic plants which enter into its composi- 
 tion, must also occasion a variety of colour. 
 
 2. The age and consequent compression which 
 mosses undergo at different depths, must also occa- 
 sion a difference in their density, compactness, or 
 weight. 
 
 3. The situation in which mosses lie may contri- 
 bute to occasion a variety in their density. In low 
 warm situations vegetation is rapid ; in proportion to 
 this rapidity of their growth, plants are less compact : 
 hence in low sheltered spots wood and other plants 
 are more soft and spongy ; in high exposed situa- 
 tions, wliere vegetation is slow, they are more com- 
 pact. We may expect the same variety in moss, ac- 
 cording to the different situations in which it is found 5 
 hence in low vallies, moss is generally more porous j 
 in high exposed situations^ it is more compact. 
 
 4. The subsoil also may occasion a variety of colour 
 and consistency in moss ; salt, sulphur, or iron, may 
 be dissolved in the waters of the subsoil ; being dif- 
 fused through the moss, they must occasion a differ- 
 ence in the colour, qualities, and consistency of it. 
 
 As the same metallic veins assume different appear- 
 ances, and possess different qualities within a small 
 space, it is not surprising that the same should hap^ 
 pen in mosses. 
 
196 ON THK NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 5, Alluvion may also occasion a difFerence ; sand 
 or slime, or calcareous matter, may be carried down 
 from the adjacent hills into mossy vallies ; these, in- 
 corporating with the moss, may occasion a difFerence 
 in colour, consistency, and weight. 
 
 But there is a more formidable objection to the 
 foregoing hypothesis, — the immense depth of many of 
 these mosses : to ob\date this shall now be my object. 
 
 II. The depth of mosses may be accounted for. 
 The whole objections of Degner and Dr Ander- 
 son resolve themselves into this : that moss is often 
 found 20 or 30 feet deep : that the most abundant 
 crop, on the most fertile soil, would not cover the 
 earth, when fresh cut, half an inch deep : that, when 
 rotten, it will not cover the earth one hundredth part 
 of this ; and therefore, if moss be formed of decay- 
 ed vegetables, it must require many hundred thousand 
 years to produce 20 feet deep of that substance. 
 
 We are now better prepared to meet this objec- 
 tion. 
 
 It cannot be denied that moss is found upwards 
 of 20 feet deep. Girard says that in some places 
 of the valley of the Somme it is 30 ; Degner says, 
 that many of the Dutch mosses are as deep as this ; 
 De Luc says, that in some places Kedinger moor is 
 36 feet deep ; and Mr Alton says, that Moss Mulloch 
 in Strathaven is upwards of 40. The French mosses, 
 according to Ribaucourt, are from six inches to 20 
 feet deep at an average. The Dullatur bog in this 
 parish is upwards of 50 feet deep. The engineer of 
 
I 
 
 ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. l97 
 
 the great canal sounded it some years ago, and found 
 it like a liquid pulp till he reached the sand at the 
 above depth. 
 
 The following remarks may obviate this objection, 
 and account for the immense depth of many mosses. 
 
 Fiy^st^ It is a fact attested by many, I believe it is 
 denied by none, that all the deep mosses on the Con- 
 tinent of Europe, or the British Isles, lie either in 
 low vallies, or at least on a level. I have never seen 
 nor heard of any moss on a declivity that exceeded 
 four feet in depth ; on the contrary, all these mosses 
 which lie on such declivities, or even on a dry bot- 
 tom, are very shallow. The moors in Britain of 
 this description, and all the diy mosses called geest 
 on the Continent seldom exceed the half of this 
 depth. In the adjacent vallies or levels alone is 
 moss ever found of the immense depth above de- 
 scribed. If these shallow and deep mosses be coeval 
 in their origin, whence comes this vast difference ? 
 The most natural way of accounting for this is by al- 
 luvion. 
 
 Supposing the site of all these mosses to have been 
 originally covered with wood ; that this has laid the 
 foundation of them ; upon this supposition, alluvi9n 
 must have had a powerful and continual operation, 
 not only during all the period the forest stood, but 
 all that in which the moss was forming. The an- 
 nual crop of leaves, small seeds, and twigs, &c. to- 
 gether with the loose light earth formed by these on 
 the declivities, must naturally have been carried 
 
198 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 down to the vallles and level plains by the rains and 
 winter floods ; deposited there, they must have add- 
 ed to the depth of these low lying mosses, in the 
 j^ame proportion as they diminished that of those on 
 the declivities. tJpon the supposition that the forest 
 stood only for one or two generations of it, say 500 
 or 1000 years, the quantity thus carried down to 
 these levels, and the difference of depth that this 
 must have occasioned, must be great indeed ; and if 
 this cause continued to operate even after the final 
 ruin of the forest, and during all the period in which 
 the moss was forming on its ruins, and operates still, 
 that difference must still be greater. In the course 
 of ages, we may expect that the whole moss formed 
 on the declivities will eventually be washed down in- 
 to the vallies. Alluvion alone, therefore, may ac- 
 count for the depth of many mosses, aijd the shal- 
 lowness of others *. 
 
 * The effects of alluvion will be most easily conceived, by 
 stating a case in point. The river Elbe was suffered to over- 
 flow a plain of nearly two leagues extent ; in 23 years it formed 
 an alluvial soil on this surface o£ two feet deep. This soil was of 
 clay ; but had the river, in its course, passed over a loose moss 
 or lighter soil, it must have formed a much deeper stratum 
 in a shorter period. 
 
 Or if it had lain in the course of one of those liquid run- 
 T\ing mosses which burst their barriers, and one of these had 
 rested on this valley, a moss of immense depth might hay(? 
 been formed at once on the spot; and, unquestionably, many 
 messes now exist in such situations which originated else- 
 where, and have floated dov.Ti in the way above described. 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 199 
 
 'Secondly^ I have stated that, in these low levels, 
 all kinds of aquatic plants rush up with rapidity : 
 that, in 30 years, moss is renovated by this means 
 to the depth of seven or ten feet. The conclusion is 
 natural, that, by the same means, moss may have 
 been formed with equal rapidity in such situations. 
 
 Whereas on dry grounds, or on declivities where 
 no aquatics grow, and no other plants rush up with 
 such rapidity and in such abundance, the materials 
 for forming moss must be few, and its growth pro- 
 portionably slow. 
 
 Thirdly^ I have shewn that these aquatic plants 
 are not diminished in bulk to the degree that Dr 
 Anderson supposes : that they are detected in moss, 
 to the greatest depth, in their original organic form, 
 and occupying the same space they did when in a 
 growing state ; for, though these and every other 
 plant be diminished in size when they undergo de- 
 composition in open air, this is not the case when 
 sunk under water or buried in moss : even a crop of 
 hay or wheat, in such a situation, is not diminished in 
 bulk ; and if annually sunk in water or moss, it 
 would retain long its organic structure and original 
 size. This is still more the case with aquatic plants ; 
 they are preserved, at least the sphagna, and all the 
 other species of moss, for a much longer period. 
 
 I may add, 
 
 Fourthly^ That one half of the size of the most 
 compact moss consists of water. Take a cubic foot 
 of such moss, and squeeze it till dry, it will not qc- 
 
$00 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 CLipy one half of the space ; so that even in a moss 
 40 feet deep, even supposing it to be compact, though 
 none such exists, we have only to account for 20 feet, 
 the other 20 consisting of water. 
 
 Fifijily^ I have shewn, that many of the deepest 
 mosses on the Continent, and in the British Isles, are 
 in a semiliquid state ; and I believe there is not to 
 be found in the world any moss 20 feet deep of a 
 compact and solid consistency ; two-thirds, perhaps 
 three-fourths, of such liquid mosses consist of water. 
 
 SiJcthly^ I have shewn that some of these, when 
 drained, sink 10, 20, or more feet, which is a proof 
 that the greatest proportion by far of such deep 
 mosses is water. 
 
 Seventhly ^ I have shewTi, that many of these semi- 
 liquid mosses burst their original bounds ; by this 
 means alone a moss of 20, 30, or 40, feet deep, may 
 be lodged, in a single day^ in a low valley where no 
 moss formerly existed ; or if moss was formed there 
 before, this inundation of new matter must have add- 
 ed greatly to the depth. Accordingly, mosses are 
 found of considerable depth on low level grounds, 
 which were formed originally elsewhere, and after- 
 wards floated down, in the manner above described. 
 
 Eightly^ A moss 10 feet deep, if compact, con- 
 tains as much vegetable matter as one 30 feet deep 
 in a liquid state. They may, therefore, be coeval in 
 their origin, and be the remains of the same plants : 
 the difference of their depth may depend entirely on 
 tiie above circumstances. 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 201 
 
 * Tllus, even upon Dr Anderson's own data, there 
 IS no need to account for moss 20 or 30 feet deep, 
 as tliere is no instance I ever have heard of where 
 moss is found nearly of that depth, excepting in low 
 levels liable to the above operations of nature ; all, 
 or any of which, may account for the immense ac- 
 cumulation of that substance in such situations. Nor 
 have we any cause to conclude with him, that it would 
 require 900,000 years to form a moss 20 or 30 feet 
 deep ; on the contrary, if we take all the above con- 
 siderations into the account, we may conclude with 
 De Luc, that the rapidity with which moss is reno- 
 vated, and may be formed in such situations, is obvi- 
 ous ; and that the growth of moss, even 30 feet deep, 
 does not lead us back to a remote aera. By alluvion 
 and the rapid growth of aquatic plants, and especially 
 by an accession of moisture, such an accumulation of 
 liquid moss may be formed in a low level valley, in the 
 course of a few ages ; whereas on a declivity, by 
 the operation of alluvion, the moss which was origiiv 
 ally formed may be daily diminishing in depth ; and 
 on a dry bottom, where few aquatics can grow, and 
 no plants rush up with rapidity, the growth of moss 
 must be proportionally slow. 
 
 III. The situations in which moss is found may 
 be accounted for on the foregoing hypothesis. 
 
 Moss is very generally diffused over the north of 
 Jvjrope. Guicciardini enumerates the different dis- 
 tricts in Holland, Germany, and France, where it 
 
202 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 abounds : He says, in general terms, that it is found 
 at the mouths of all the rivers that empty themselves 
 into the Baltic or German ocean. In Iceland and 
 Russia it abounds, though it be little attended to, 
 as they have a sufficiency of wood to supply them 
 with fuel. 
 
 Ribaucourt says, there is scarcely a valley in France 
 where moss is not to be found ; that under the old 
 forests, and even under many cultivated fields, it forms 
 the subsoil. 
 
 Lamberville describes the mosses in France, and 
 the names of the rivers on which it is found : He 
 says, that it abounds most in the northern depart- 
 ments, especially on the Somme, and all its tributary 
 streams ; likewise along the rivers Esonne, Seine, 
 Aine and Oise, Ecluse, Bressle, and the various 
 streams that run into them. 
 
 In the East of France, he says, it is to be found in 
 abundance ; in Valois, on the rivers Mosselle, Meuse, 
 &c. 
 
 In the south, it is less abundant, but it is found 
 even there in the mountains : on the elevated plains 
 of mount Jura ; on mount Blanc ; on the mountains 
 of Cevennes, Pyrennees, and Auvergne, it is also 
 found. 
 
 In the wTst of France, immense tracks of moss are 
 to be found : on the right side of the Loire ; on the 
 banks of the Indie, Eure, and Iton, &c. it is also 
 found in abundance. 
 
 It appears, too, that moss has been discovered in 
 South America. Monardes describes a bituminous 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT M05S. 203 
 
 earth dug at Peru, that possesses all the qualities of 
 moss : He says, that they extract from it a liquid bi- 
 tumen, which they use as a medicine ; that they after- 
 wards dry this earth and burn it : it lies in a marsh, 
 and he says, that this marsh is bare of tree, shrub, 
 or plant, of any kind. Mons. De Luc, in his first 
 letter to me, mentions, that there are mosses on the 
 mountains of Portugal and Spain : He says, he was 
 informed of this by Professor Linck, who travelled 
 through these countries, and paid attention to the peat 
 grounds : He says, that, on the mountains where it 
 is chiefly to be found, the peat is much like to that 
 which abounds in the north of Europe ; that it con- 
 tains a great proportion of the scirpus caespitosus ; 
 but that it is seldom found on low lands, excepting 
 near the sea: This is of a different species ; it is chiefly 
 composed of the scirpus stolochasnus, juncus acutus, 
 and juncus maritimus, mixed with the roots of helodes 
 and myrica gale, forming an indifferent peat, though 
 tough. It is almost unnecessary for me to add, that 
 peat is to be found in almost every valley of the Bri- 
 tish Isles. 
 
 But it is proper to observe, that it is sometimes 
 found in the beds of rivers, — on a subsoil of bare 
 rock, — under a bed of solid marl ; and, even under 
 the level of the sea. 
 
 De Luc takes notice of this as a difficulty which is 
 not easily accounted for. ■ He says, that there is no 
 doubt moss is a vegetable substance ; that we need 
 only look to it to be convinced of this : That though 
 
$04f ON Ti^E NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 the compact moss at the bottom appear to be only a 
 black earth, yet, even in it we may trace the roots 
 and vestiges of the vegetables of which it is compo- 
 sed ; and, if we pass by degrees to the surface, the 
 organization of these vegetables becomes gradually 
 more visible, till it appears distinct at last. The dif- 
 ficulties with regard to this substance, he adds, ori- 
 ginate from two considerations : First, as to the cause 
 of its formation ; and, secondly, as to the situations 
 in which it is found. 
 
 1 . That it is sometimes found under the bed of ri- 
 vers, stumbled him at first ; but, as he had occasion 
 to see it often in this situation, it awakened his curi- 
 osity, and, after a general survey of the whole coast, 
 from the Elbe to the Meuse, he gives the following 
 solution of this difficulty. He says, in general that 
 one of two things must have happened in such cases, 
 either that the river must have, at some period, 
 changed its course, or that the moss found under its 
 bed must have been moved, for it could never have 
 been formed there. The following fact, which he 
 mentions, removed ail doubt upon this point : " On 
 f^ the coast of the Ems the mosses were frequently 
 ^' overfiow^n by the river ; they imbibed the water, 
 *' and swelled up, by this means, hke a sponge. In 
 ^ this state they often glided down as the river sub- 
 ^' sided ; there they remained in a semiliquid state. 
 *' An ingenious peasant seeing the cause of this, rer 
 *^ solved to prevent it. He therefore cut off all com- 
 ^' munication between the river and the moss, bv 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 205 
 
 " means of a bank made of solid materials : piling 
 *^ layer upon layer, as these sunk, they at last reach- 
 *' ed the bottom. From that time the moss wa6 
 " never gorged up ; what was within the bank re- 
 " mained under the bed of the river, as formerly." 
 
 By this, or similar means, mosses may have glid- 
 ed down in a semiliquid state, and thus been lodged 
 under the beds of rivers. Remaining there for ages, 
 they may have been thus covered with a stratum of 
 mud or clay ; and thus alternate layers of moss ^nd 
 mud may have been formed at the mouths, or under 
 the beds of rivers. 
 
 Accordingly, we find instances of this frequently 
 occur along the coasts of the Baltic Sea and Germaii 
 Ocean, especially at the mouths of rivers. In boring 
 to the depth of many feet, alternate layers of moss 
 and clay and sand and sHme are found. This can 
 only be accounted for on the above hypothesis. 
 
 2. Mosses are sometimes found on a subsoil of bare 
 solid rock. This is stated by Dr Anderson, with his 
 wonted confidence, as an insurmountable objection 
 against the hypothesis that is laid down in my first 
 essay. — His words are, " What I conceive to be ail 
 ■*' incontestible proof that moss may abound wher6 
 ^' no wood ever existed, is, that the soil on the hilly 
 " parts of South Uist, consisted entirely of moss, 
 *^ without one particle of earth intervening between 
 " it and the rock ; and that rock was everywhere 
 *' a bed of solid granite, without a fissure in almost 
 *' any part of it, so that, wherever it formed a cavity ,^ 
 
206 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 " great or small, it was perfectly water-tight, like a 
 " bason. I was at great pains to examine the hill 
 '' lakes which fell in my way, and these are nume- 
 *' rous, and I found no exception to this rule. In 
 *' these circumstances, I think it inconceivable, that 
 *' even wood of any Idnd could have existed before 
 *' the moss began to be formed." 
 
 He adds, " In the island of Lewis there is an ex- 
 " tensive plain of about 30 miles in length, which 
 " reaches nearly from sea to sea, and which is en- 
 *' tirely covered with moss. Its surface is very little 
 " elevated above the level of the sea ; and, in every 
 " respect, its situation is so unfavourable for the pro- 
 *' duction of wood, as to render it extremely probable 
 *' none could ever have grown there.'* 
 
 In reply to this, I observe, that it is even conceiv- 
 able that trees may have existed on the former of 
 these islands. It is well known, that even on a bare 
 rock, especially where there is a level or hollow, such 
 as the Doctor describes in the island of Uist, a varie- 
 ty of moss plants will grow. As they accumulate, 
 the moisture rises with them ; they retain it hke a 
 sponge ; and thus they form a soil fit for the growth 
 of trees. De Luc mentions, that he has seen a de*' 
 tached block of stone covered with moss plants, up^ 
 wards of a foot thick, and on this a large tree, grow- 
 ing as on its proper soil. That the island of Uist 
 may have, at one time, been covered with wood, 
 though originally a bare rock, is not inconceivable ^ 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 207 
 
 and that moss may have been formed on it, by a suc- 
 cession of aquatic plants, is equally conceivable. 
 
 As to the island of Lewis, it is certain that a forest 
 once existed upon it. Though now destitute of grow- 
 ing timber, as the Doctor asserts, Mr Headrick says 
 there are large trunks of oak, elder, birch, and espe- 
 cially of Scots fir, found in its extensive mosses. In 
 the year 1800, that gentleman observed a consider- 
 able number of small stunted firs on the higher parts 
 of that island, the remains of the antient and exten- 
 sive fir woods. 
 
 If trees may have existed in Lewis, and even in 
 Uist, and if aquatic plants may have flourished on 
 both, as a favourable soil, there is no difficulty in con- 
 ceiving how mosses may have been formed on these 
 islands ; nor is it unreasonable to suppose, that the 
 same ligneous and aquatic plants which promote the 
 growth of moss elsewhere, may have given origin to 
 it there. 
 
 Even on the supposition that there is not one trunk 
 or the smallest vestige of a tree in the above islands, 
 or in the mosses they contain, still the origin of these 
 mosses may be accounted for on the above hypotheses. 
 Mosses and other aquatic plants may have furnished 
 the materials ; and the situation of these islands seems 
 to be peculiarly favourable for the growth of these. 
 
 3. Mosses are found on the tops of high mountains, 
 where a tree cannot now be made to strike root, or 
 ■grow at all. Dr Anderson likewise takes notice of 
 this : He says, that most of the hills on the west coast 
 
20S ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 of Scotland and the Hebrides are covered with moss, 
 in situations so exposed to the winds and sea spray, 
 that no wood of any kind has been seen to grow on 
 such exposures. He might have added, that moss is 
 found Hkewise on the Alps and Appenines, though 
 now covered with perpetual snow ; that they are 
 found on the high mount:iins of Blocksburg, and 
 even in the cold region of Iceland, in all which situa- 
 tions no tree nor shrub can now be seen*. 
 
 Yet, in all these situations, trees have been dug up 
 out of these mosses ; and in all of them aquatic plants 
 have been found still in a growing state, even under 
 the snow. 
 
 Whatever change of climate these mountains may 
 have undergone, it is certain that the same ligneous 
 and aquatic plants that form moss elsewhere are to 
 be found there ; so that these situations furnish the 
 same materials, and (as I shall shew in the third es- 
 say), possesses the same advantages requisite to the 
 formation of moss, as others where that substance 
 abounds. 
 
 4. Moss is sometimes found in the bottom of the 
 sea and of salt lakes. In such situations it could not 
 be formed ; how then can we account for the forma- 
 tion of it by ligneous or aquatic plants in such situa- 
 tions ? Dr Anderson likewise takes notice of this : 
 
 * Villars mentions, tliat, in the canton of Oiseau, in the de- 
 partment of Isire, turf is fotind 7 or SOOO feet above the level 
 of tlie sea, and 3000 above the level where trees now grow* 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 209 
 
 He says that, in the harbour of Oban, peat moss 13 
 found at the bottom of the sea, at the depth of 20 
 fathoms. All along the Dutch coast, and the shores 
 of the Baltic Sea, the same phenomenon may be ob- 
 sen^ed, &c. &c. 
 
 Yet even this may be accounted for on two hypo* 
 theses ; either that the moss on the Continent has 
 been carried by the current of the rivers into the sea, 
 as often takes place with that particular species of 
 peat called darry in Holland ; or, that an inunda* 
 tion of the sea may have overwhelmed a part of the 
 Continent where moss was already formed. Instances 
 of both these events are recorded ; and either of thent 
 may account for this phenomenon. I have mention- 
 ed some of these in my first essay, p. 52, 5^ \ I shall 
 name a few more. 
 
 The Baltic Sea, for instance, has made great in- 
 roads on Pomerania ; it has overwhelmed in the deep 
 the iamous port of Vineto : the Norwegian Sea has 
 formed many islands in that country by inundations : 
 the German Ocean has buried under its waves the 
 ancient Roman citadel, near to Call, which was for- 
 merly a sea-port town. A similar inundation sepa- 
 rated Dodrecht from the mainland in 1 42 1 . . In 1 446, 
 upwards of 10,000 souls were overwhelmed by an 
 inundation in the territory of Dodrecht, and more 
 than 100,000 in Friezland and Zealand. 
 
 That mosses may have been formed in these ill- 
 fated districts before they were overwhelmed with the 
 deep, is highly probable. But there are instances re-* 
 
 f 
 
210 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 corded in which this certainly was the case ; and the 
 dates of these are known : In the year 1717, the 
 marsh of Wishhssen was buried in the deep, and the 
 ruins of the ancient village may yet be seen under 
 the waters. Fluiessen Meer was a wood in the year 
 489, when it was overwhelmed by the ocean. In 
 1 222, the Zuyder Sea had no existence ; it was form- 
 ed at that period ; till then it was a gulf. Yet it was 
 partly inhabited, and contained a number of villages ; 
 A high sea, accompanied with an impetuous storm, 
 overwhelmed all in the deep. 
 
 By similar inroads of the ocean, forests and mosses 
 already formed may have been overwhelmed in dif- 
 ferent kingdoms ; on the coast of Lincoln we have a 
 striking example of this. 
 
 The mosses of Merionethshire, in Wales, which 
 extend along the shore to Tomyn, reaching into the 
 sea to an unknown extent, have probably undergone 
 a similar fate. 
 
 5, Moss is often found under a deep bed of sand. 
 This can easily be accounted for : On the Continent the 
 dry hills called duyns consist of moving sands ; these 
 are often tossed by the winds, and thus flying about 
 in all directions may have overrun these mosses. On 
 the sea coast, where instances of this are often seen, 
 they can be accounted for from similar causes ; the 
 winds and waves combine to move these sands : by 
 their united operation, mosses may be buried deep in 
 sand. 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 211 
 
 6» Moss IS sometimes found under a bed of solid 
 marl. Duhamel, junior, mentions an instance of 
 this near the forest of Brotonne. It is 11 feet thick 
 under the marl ; it extends to upwards of 400 acres. 
 This may be accounted for : It is certain that calca- 
 reous earth is often held in solution in water ; the 
 numberless petrifying springs which exist in all parts 
 of the world are a sufficient proof of this ; it were 
 superfluous to enumerate these. 
 
 In general, I observe, that in Derbyshire, York- 
 shire, Somersetshire, &c. and most of the counties in 
 England, they abound. 
 
 These uniformly deposit the calcareous earth where- 
 ever they are allowed to stagnate. Some plants seem 
 to have a more powerful attraction to it than others, 
 or being more porous,, they- are more retentive of it. 
 Mosses and liverworts are thereby petrified, while 
 primroses and geraniums, which grow on the same 
 spot, escape. Almost every speci3s of vegetable, 
 however, has been found in a petrified state ; and 
 bones of animals and other substances have submit- 
 ted to the same change. 
 
 Some waters are so replete with this matter, that 
 they speedily clog up the channels in which they run. 
 An instance of this is mentioned at High Littleton, 
 in the county of Somerset : A pipe had been con- 
 structed of an elm-tree, to convey the waters from a 
 coal pit ; though this was placed in a perpendicular 
 direction in 1766, it was so obstructed by the sparry 
 incrustation formed in the cavity, that it was no long- 
 
^12 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY ANU 
 
 er useful. In less than three years the miners ware 
 obliged to take it up. This incrustation was some- 
 what softer than marble, but harder than alabaster. 
 
 In Italy this process goes on in a very extended 
 scale. The beds and banks of many rivers in that 
 kingdom, but especially the basons in which the wa- 
 ters stagnate, are frequently filled up by this means. 
 
 Now, if any rill or river, impregnated with calca- 
 reous earth, happened in its course to run over a 
 plane in which moss was formed, it is obvious that 
 it must leave a sediment ; this sediment being calca- 
 reous, would speedily be consolidated into marl or 
 lime- 
 
 An instance of this I shall name* Mercatus says, 
 that the river Velino, passing in its course the tovm 
 of Reate, belonging to the Umbri, spread over the 
 widely extended marshes, and formed the lake Ve- 
 lino. Overcoming its lofty banks, its waters were 
 precipitated ov^^ a precipice ; but the stony sedi- 
 ment it left so considerably filled up this cataract, asr 
 to shut up the waters, threatening to swallow up the 
 adjacent fields of the Reatines. If the cataract was 
 thus contracted, and at last shut up by the subsidence 
 of calcareous matter, it is reasonable to suppose, that 
 these extended marshes would be covered with a 
 thick stratum of it ; accordingly, it is said, similar 
 inconveniencies were felt by the inhabitants. Every 
 crevice was filled up with this matter, and all the 
 loose soil over which th^se waters run was rendered 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 213 
 
 Stony and barren, though formerly allotted for pas- 
 turage and com. 
 
 Thus a stratum of calcareous earth may have been 
 formed over a valley which was formerly a morass ; 
 and thus we may account for moss being sometime^ 
 found under a stratum of marl, or even of lime- 
 stone. 
 
 It is known, too, that shells and calcareous matter 
 are often found incorporated with the moss itself; 
 these probably owe their origin to the shell-fish which 
 existed in the marsh before it was converted into 
 moss. If this marsh was occasionally overflowed by 
 the sea, shell fish peculiar to that element may thus 
 be expected. If the waters were fresh, other species 
 may be looked for. 
 
 That innumerable shell fish may be found in many 
 marshes is certain. It even appears probable, that 
 they may exist and propagate after the marsh is part- 
 ly converted into moss. 
 
 The Earl of Cromarty mentions an instance which 
 renders this supposition less improbable. He says, 
 that in a moss near the town of Elgin in Murray, 
 though no river or water communicates with the 
 moss, yet, for three or four feet deep, there are 
 little shell fish resembling oysters, with living fish in 
 them, in great quantities, though no such fish are 
 found in the adjacent rivers, nor even in the water- 
 pits in the moss, but only in the solid substance of 
 the moss itself. * 
 
214 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 Dr Darwin justly considers this as a very curious 
 fact. He thinks that it may account for the shells 
 sometimes found on the surface of coal mines, and 
 in the clay that accompanies these ; and likewise for 
 the stratum of shells which sometimes exists over 
 iron ore. 
 
 At all events, it accounts for the shells and marl 
 that is sometimes found incorporated with moss. It 
 would be proper to search such mosses in order to 
 discover what is the food of these fish. It is very 
 improbable that the moss can furnish them any nour- 
 ishment ; and it appears that they do not live on the 
 moss water, for in the water-pits dug in the moss 
 no fish are found ; and I shall have occasion to shew, 
 that both moss and moss water are unfavourable to 
 animal life ; that few animals of any species exist in 
 either, at least after the moss is formed. Perhaps 
 .the moss described by the ingenious Earl may have 
 been, at that period, only a morass ; and probably 
 no living fish now exist in jt. The reader who lives 
 on the spot may examine this. 
 
 It is probable that the small shell-fish found in 
 moss were either washed down into the level where 
 such mosses now exist, or that they were formed 
 there before, or during the time that the moss itself 
 v/as growing. It is unnecessary to say that many 
 species of shell fish exist in marshes and lakes ; and 
 It is well known, that water impregnated with cal- 
 careous earth, or carbonic acid, when it subsides ii) 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 215 
 
 such Situations, consolidates these into marl, by en- 
 veloping and cementing them together. 
 
 Accordingly, marl found in such low levels al- 
 ways abounds with the same shell fish which are to 
 be found in the adjacent heights. This is particu- 
 larly the case in the Lake Constance, and along the 
 banks of the Rhine, where shells are buried. Mr 
 Coupe obsen^es, that the same is the case at Corbeil, 
 HIere, St Thebant, Lagny, Chille, Montfermeil, 
 Gagny, Montmorency, &c. &c. 
 
 Where marl is therefore found, either under 
 moss or incorporated with it, the probability is, that 
 it is formed of the shell-fish either washed down from 
 the adjacent height, or of such as existed in that si- 
 tuation before the moss was formed, or while it was 
 only a marsh or lake : it is not surprising, therefore, 
 that it should be found above or below the moss, or 
 incorporated with it. 
 
 7. Sometimes moss lies in alternate layers of coal. 
 Du Hamel, junior, mentions an instance of this : He 
 says that, in Provence, sometimes a foot or two of 
 moss is found between two of coal. From the ac- 
 count he gives of that moss, it seems rather to re- 
 semble Bovey coal. 
 
 Beroldinguen mentions a curious case in Messner, 
 one of the mountains of Hesse. The surturbrand 
 was found there below a bed of basalt ; yet the fibrous 
 form and annular rings of the wood were distinct : 
 Nay some logs were found cut into uniform lengths, 
 bearing the marks of the hatchet and saw. He sup- 
 
?I6 ON THE NATURAL HISTORy AND 
 
 poses that this had been once a forest ; that it had 
 been overwhelmed by a volcanic eruption ; that the 
 coal and surturbrand v^ere formed by this means. 
 I need scarcely mention, that, 
 
 8. Moss is sometimes found in Friezland and else- 
 where, without any trees or evidences of ligneous 
 plants. This is easily accounted for : Many mosses 
 may have been" formed entirely of aquatics j others 
 may be water-borne. In either case, they must con- 
 tain few or no trees. In the former case, none can 
 be expected j in the latter, if the moss was in a fluid 
 state, the trees, by their specific gravity, may have 
 sunk in it before it flowed ; the liquid loose mossr 
 alone being carried along the stream, no traces of its^ 
 ligneous origin can be expected in it, after it has been 
 deposited on its new base. 
 
 9. Dr Anderson takes notice of another fact, which 
 he thinks does not quadrate with the idea that foggy 
 peat consists of the sphagnum, &c. &c. " In most 
 '^ mosses, (he observes,) there are found different strata 
 *■ of different qualities. 'J'hese are universally disposed 
 *' in different layers, so that the black peat sometimes 
 " lies above the foggy peat, and vice versa* Now, if 
 ^' it be supposed that the foggy is produced by the 
 ^- sphagnum, &c. it must invariably have been found 
 ^* on the surface only, and could never have been 
 " formed below the good black peat." 
 
 In reply to this I observe, that it appears that it is 
 only in Holland where this is the case. Degner says, 
 that the best peat there is generally uppermost ; that 
 U is of a yellow brown cpipur ; the spongy reedy 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 217 
 
 turf found deep in the bottom is not good fuel. In 
 Groningen, he says, that the spongy peat is found on 
 the surface, and the best below it. 
 
 In the mosses in Britain and on the Continent this 
 is generally the case. De Luc states, indeed, that 
 in the mosses of Bremen, the good and bad is some- 
 times found in alternate layers. But Mr Findorf 
 gives a very plausible account of this : That, in dry 
 summers, the ligneous plants prevail ; in wet, the 
 aquatic. That the alternate layers of black hard 
 peat, the residuum of ligneous plants, and soft spongy 
 peat, the residuum of aquatic mosses, &c. may thus 
 te accounted for. 
 
 Nor is it unaccountable that, in the mosses of Hol- 
 land, the fibrous spongy peat should form the sub- 
 stratum. These mosses all lie on a low level, little 
 above that of the sea. In one stage of their forma* 
 tion, these may have been marshes. At that period 
 reeds and rushes, and other aquatic plants, such as 
 the sphagnum, may have flourished ; thus materials 
 mky have been formed for the fibrous spongy peat 
 called darry. At a future period, these mosses 
 may have been overflown and converted into lakes. 
 In this stage of their formation, the conferva, lemna, 
 byssus, and other soft tender aquatics, may have flou- 
 rished ; these, by their rapid growth, may have fur- 
 nished materials for the more compact and less fibrous 
 peat on the surface. 
 
 The account that Degner gives of the stratificatioa 
 of the Dutch mosses corresponds with this. 
 
218 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 " The surface of many of them is covered with 
 '' grass. After digging one or two feet through this; 
 " the turf is laid open ; the first tier of this is blacks 
 ** ish red, very tenacious ; it is, however, soft and 
 " pulpy, and yields the best fuel. It is only about 
 *' two feet d^ep. The second stratum is somewhat 
 '' redder, equally tenacious, but still full of fibres. 
 " The lowest stratum is much redder still ; it is so 
 *' fibrous and spongy, that it appears like rotten 
 " wood : this is the worst fuel. At the depth of 
 *' nine or ten feet, a sandy sHme is laid open ; this is 
 *' quite useless as a fuel.'* 
 
 If the reader consult what is stated in p. 128 and 
 1 29 of this essay, he will see how the above stratifica- 
 tion of moss may be accounted for. 
 • 10. It has been questioned by some, and denied by 
 t)thers, that there are any mosses on the Continent of 
 America. 
 
 Guicciardini says, that it is not known whethelr 
 Asia, Africa, or America, contain any mosses, as no 
 search has been made. Degner and Dr Anderson 
 deny that there are any in these regions. The latter 
 says that he has been assured, from very good autho- 
 rity, that there is not to be found on the whole con- 
 tinent of America a single particle of real and genuine 
 peat moss. The former argues upon this as a fact : 
 " If," says he, " forests are converted into moss, the 
 " greatest part of Moscovy, Tartary, America, and 
 *' other w^oody uncultivated regions would have, ere 
 
O.RIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 21 9 
 
 " now, undergone this change, which is not the 
 " case." 
 
 To this I reply, Ist^ That in woody regions, moss 
 is of little value ; it is never in request as a fuel, as 
 the abundance of wood supplies its place. No efforts 
 are made to search for it as a soil or a manure. The 
 former can be procured in abundance ^ the latter 
 is less requisite. Mosses, therefore, may exist in 
 these regions, though no notice be taken of them. 
 
 2. Accordingly, in Russia they abound; many 
 marshes and valleys in that empire are filled with it. 
 This I am assured of from unquestionable authority. 
 
 Tooke, in his View of the Russian Empire, says, 
 that in Siberia, there are abundance of morasses of 
 different magnitudes. Towards the shores of the 
 Frozen Ocean, for several hundred versts in width, 
 is one prodigious v/atery morass, grown over with 
 moss, and destitute of wood. 
 
 In the interior of the country are many smaller : 
 He specifies four different kinds: 1. Low watery 
 land ; 2. Swamps which yield turf; 3. Bottomless 
 morasses, which appear to be lakes overgrown ; 
 4. Moss morasses, the deep and useless moss of 
 which will permit neither grass nor shrub to grow. 
 
 3. In South America, at least on the Peruvian 
 mountains, it has been discovered. I have also been 
 informed by a gentleman who lived thirty years on the 
 banks of the Mississippi, and had occasionally visited 
 ail the United States, that moss is frequently found 
 in the vallies. He mentioned, that it is generally co- 
 
"220 ON *rHE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 vered "uath a green surface which conceals it from 
 view ; but below this many feet of moss is often 
 found. He said that the skeleton of the bergamot 
 in the possession of Mr Peel, was dug out of moss. 
 
 Till it be ascertained beyond a doubt that there is 
 not to be found a particle of genuine peat in these 
 regions, it would be superfluous to offer any reply to 
 this objection, or to attempt to obviate this difficulty. 
 
 Having attempted to shew that moss is renovated, 
 and pointed out the circumstances and time requisite, 
 and the aquatic plants which promote this process ; 
 having also endeavoured to prove, that the same 
 plants have contributed to the original formation of 
 moss in marshes and lakes, and that many lakes and 
 marshes have undergone this change ; having like- 
 wise shewn that these aquatic plants may still be tra-. 
 ced in their original orgariic form in many mosses, 
 and pointed out a few of the distinguishing qualities 
 of these plants, it only remains for me to shew to 
 what General Conclusions this naturally leads us. 
 
 SECTION X. 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 L Thejirst general conclusion is, that moss is cer- 
 tainly of vegetable origin. 
 
6RIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. ^2l 
 
 Some species may appear, at first sight, of doubt- 
 ful origin ; but the greatest part is obviously a cou- 
 geries of vegetables. To be convinced of this, we 
 need only to look at that substance. The organic 
 structure of the very plants of which it is composed 
 may be traced from the surface to the greatest depth. 
 As might be expected, we may mark a progressive 
 gradation from a state of perfect organization to an 
 evanescent state, where this organization is totally der 
 stroyed. 
 
 In this last stage the origin of moss may appear 
 dubious ; and if it were only found in this state, it 
 might be difficult to decide whether it was of vege- 
 table or mineral origin ; but, as the above gradation 
 can easily be traced in every moss, it is fair and 
 reasonable to explain the doubtful by the decisive, 
 and the obscure by the luminous ; and as most of 
 mosses on the surface are clearly composed of a mass 
 of vegetables, and as all moss, in all these gradations, 
 is possessed of similar qualities, the conclusion is na- 
 tural and irresistible, that they may all be traced to 
 the same source. 
 
 Degner accordingly observes, that all moss, even 
 the most compact, when diluted in water, and re- 
 duced to powder, if examined by the microscope, 
 seems to consist of nothing but a congeries of leaves^ 
 branches, and roots of vegetables. He adds, that 
 when the powder of peat is dried, it presents the 
 same appearance. He therefore concludes, that it 
 
222. ON THE NATURAL HISTOR\ AND 
 
 is impossible to doubt that it is a congeries of vege- 
 table matter. 
 
 IL Secondly^ We may conclude that all moss is 
 either composed of ligneous or aquatic plants ; and 
 that these furnish abundant materials for the purpose. 
 
 The leaves, the seeds, the tv^igs, the bark, and 
 rind, with the roots, trunks, and branches of the 
 former, lay the foundation of most mosses ; over this 
 the latter raises the superstructure. 
 
 On this supposition, it may be expected that 
 ligneous plants would chiefly compose the lower 
 strata ; and that aquatics would abound most in the 
 higher. This is accordingly the case wherever moss 
 exists ; even in those which seem chiefly to be com- 
 posed of aquatics, and are still in a semiliquid state, 
 wood is found at the depth of 10, 20, or 30 feet. 
 Nine-tenths of the mosses of Europe are of this de- 
 scription. 
 
 No doubt, therefore, can remain as to the mate- 
 rials of which these are composed. The only point 
 that may seem dubious is, v/hether these materials 
 are sufficient for the purpose. 
 
 To remove all doubt on this particular, I shall 
 give a rough calculation of the accumulation of these 
 materials. To some this may appear fanciful. I 
 may be condemned for building castles in the air. 
 Of this the impartial public must judge ) by their de- 
 cision I am willing to stand or fall. 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. S2a^ 
 
 Supposing the forest which furnished the first ma- 
 terials for the formation of moss had stood only 500 
 years before it fell into ruins, the follov/ing calcula- 
 tion will be found moderate. 
 
 1 . The leaves annually tossed by the winds, and 
 washed down by the rains into the hollows of the 
 woods, may have furnished, in that period, three feet 
 of materials. 
 
 2. The seeds and twigs that dropped annually one 
 foot. 
 
 3. The bark and rind, at the final ruin of the 
 forest, six inches. 
 
 4. The white wood six inches. 
 
 5. The carbon of the wood, supposing it to be bi- 
 tuminated, nine inches. 
 
 Even on the supposition that this forest only stood 
 one generation, five feet nine inches of materials are 
 thus furnished^ if it survived two or three genera- 
 tions, the account must be doubled or trebled, calL 
 it only ten feet, in round numbers. 
 
 Thus we have materials sufficient for a moss of 
 considerable depth. But this is only the foundation 
 of the building ; over this an almost endless Tariety, 
 of aquatics rush up with rapidity. Supposing these- 
 only to add, in a century, three feet more materials, 
 total 1 3 feet. By the continued operation of alluvion, 
 and the other operations I have mentioned in the 
 ninth section of this essay, and especially by an ac- 
 cumulation of moisture, equal in all moss to the 
 half of its materials, and in many to the double of 
 
224 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 them, we may safely suppose the above account to 
 be doubled, say 26 feet. 
 
 Thus abundant materials are provided. 
 
 III. Thvrdly^ From the above account we may 
 conclude, that many regions, now covered deep 
 with moss, were at one period arable lands, at 
 another forests, at a third lakes. 
 
 We may still trace these changes, and mark their 
 progress in many mosses. For instance, 
 
 1. Under some mosses the marks of the plough, 
 and even ears of corn and other grain, with various 
 utensils of husbandry, have been found. 
 
 These are clear evidences that, at one period, the 
 above surface was a ploughed field. 
 
 2. In these ridges a vast variety of trees are found, 
 some standing erect, others fallen prostrate, but all 
 with their roots fixed in this subsoil of arable land. 
 This is a proof that, at a second and subsequent pe- 
 riod, the surface was covered with a forest. 
 
 5. These trees are sometimes found immersed in 
 moss of a semiliquid state, to the depth of 10, 20, 
 or 30 feet ; and aquatic plants, such as flourish in 
 water, may be still traced through all its depth. 
 Nothing can be a clearer proof than that this, at a 
 third and subsequent period, has been a lake. 
 
 i^nd, in this stage, some lakes are still found. 
 Lough Neagh is an instance of this. Mr Smith, in 
 his account of it, mentions, that part of this loch 
 was formerly a forest : that diis is the common tr*- 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 22^ 
 
 dition among the inhabitants of that district : that it 
 is probable, for much wood is found in it : that this 
 wood is sunk in a kind of pulpy moss called mire, 
 black at the bottom of the lake. If so, it will natu- 
 rally be asked, why the whole loch has not beea 
 converted into moss ? It is impossible for me to as- 
 sign the reason. Perhaps the great extent of the 
 surface, and the agitation of the waters by the winds, 
 may be unfavourable for the growth of those aquatic 
 plants which contribute to form moss ; or, perhaps, 
 the petrifying quality of the waters may be unfavour- 
 able for this purpose. If the aquatic plants above 
 described grow in any sheltered bays of this loch, 
 and if they are there accumulated, they may ultimate- 
 ly be converted into moss. This I mention merely 
 to excite the attention of the intelligent part of the 
 inhabitants of that district to the subject. 
 
 4. It is certain that, in other places, many lakes 
 have been, by the above means, filled up and con- 
 verted into mosses. 
 
 5. And it is equally certain that, at a subsequent 
 period, these mosses, by consolidation, may have 
 been converted into meadows, and afterwards into 
 rich arable lands. Most of the fertile plains along 
 the banks of rivers, in the north of Europe, are of 
 this description ; they, of course, generally lie on a 
 subsoil of moss. 
 
 So that it is probable that many of these have, in 
 the course of ages, undergone all the above changes, 
 from arable lands to forests, from forests to lakes, 
 
 p 
 
226 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 irom lakes to mosses, from mosses to meadows, and 
 from meadows to their original state of arable land ; 
 I call it their original state ; but I think it probable 
 that, before they were first cleared and cultivated, 
 they were originally cavered with wood. 
 
 It is natural to suppose, that many low levels," 
 covered with wood, have been converted into mo- 
 rasses. The trees, by falling into decay, and stem- 
 ming the course of rivers, may have occasioned such 
 a stagnation of water as to cause this change. It is 
 equally natural to suppose, that such low levels may 
 have been converted into deep lakes. The mouths 
 of rivers may have been 'so stemmed, by accidents 
 such as I have described, p. 51 and 52 of my first 
 essay, as to raise the waters in the valley to a level 
 above all the plants and trees that originally sprung 
 up and flourished in it. If this valley was of small ex- 
 tent, and the lake formed in it favourable for the 
 growth of aquatic plants, the whole waters may hav6 
 been first covered over with a matting of these. By 
 consolidation, and the continual accession of vege- 
 table matter, the whole lake may have thus been 
 converted into a moss. 
 
 All those mosses which are deep, and contain trees, 
 some standing erect and others prostrate on the ori- 
 ginal subsoil, and especially those which contain a 
 rushy, reedy peat above these trees, and a black 
 compact moss above this, seem to me to have un- 
 dergone these changes ; and the vast extent of moss- 
 es of this description over Europe, probably origi- 
 
I 
 
 ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 227 
 
 Tiated in this way. It were superfluous to enumerate 
 instances of this. I shall only specify two ; the first 
 is Low Modena, which seems to have undergone all 
 these changes ; the second is the bog of Monela in 
 Ireland, which seems to have been subjected to a si- 
 milar succession. Ramazini describes the former ; 
 Carr, in his Stranger in Ireland, delineates the latter. 
 The stratification of the vicinity of Modena is 
 somewhat singular. " The surface of the valley is 
 ^' now a rich arable field. At the depth of 14 feet 
 " below this, it is said that the rubbish and ruins of 
 *' an ancient city were discovered. Paved streets and 
 " pieces of mosaic work were found at this depth : 
 ^' below this the earth is solid, and seems not to have 
 ^' been moved : lower down is a loose moist soil, mix* 
 ^^ ed with vegetables ; and, at the depth of 26 feet, 
 " entire trees, such as filberts, with nuts, and a great 
 ^' quantity of branches and leaves have been dug up. 
 " At 28 feet deep a stratum of soft chalk, mixed 
 *' with shells, was discovered. This stratum is 1 1 
 " feet thick. Below this, at the depth of 40 or 50 
 *' feet, there is to be found the soil of a low marshy 
 *^ country, full of sedge, reeds, shrubs, roots of 
 ^' trees, nuts, ears of corn, leaves of trees, branches, 
 *' and boughs." He even describes the species of 
 wood. He says, that oak, elm, walnut, ash, and 
 willow may be distinguished. ^' Some of these trees 
 *' are broken down, othere stand sdll upright as they 
 *• grew. Among these are found old Roman coins, 
 ^^ marbles, stones squared and cut by the hands of 
 
228 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 " men. Each tree is found on the soil most adapted 
 *' to its production. The fir roots are fastened in the 
 " sand, the oak in the clay." 
 
 The whole of this valley, he says, was a lake in the 
 reign of Julius Caesar. The surface is now drained 
 and consolidated, and converted into arable land. 
 
 It seems obvious to me, that this valley has under- 
 gone all the changes above described ; at one period 
 it has probably been arable land ; hence the ears of 
 corn, &c. which have been discovered : subsequent 
 to this it seems to have been overgrown with wood ; 
 hence the trunks and roots of trees : this wood seems 
 afterwards to have been converted into a morass; hence 
 the sedges and reeds, &c. which are found : this mo- 
 rass seems to have been after this consolidated by 
 alluvion ; hence the stratum of soft chalk and shells. 
 Above this, another generation of a forest seems 
 to have sprung up ; hence the other tier of branches 
 and leaves of trees. This second generation seems to 
 have undergone the same fate with the first; the 
 moist soil mixed with vegetables above it, seems to be 
 the remains of the marshy plants that must have 
 sprung up after this forest was also converted into a 
 morass. 
 
 This morass seems again to have been consolida- 
 ted, probably by alluvion ; hence the stratum of solid 
 eardi : on this the city seems to have been built ; 
 hence the paved streets, &c. : the 14 feet above this 
 seems to have been formed after the city was over- 
 whelmed with some inundation. 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 229 
 
 Whether the lake that existed on the spot at the 
 age of Julius Caesar was thus formed, it is impossible 
 to decide. If so, however, the 14 feet of solid soil 
 above this city, must have been formed since that 
 period. 
 
 That many low lying vallies in different parts of 
 the world have undergone similar changes, is not 
 only probable but certain. The mosses of Ireland 
 exhibit similar proofs of this : in digging deep into 
 these, recumbent forests upon forests are found, with 
 a layer of earth between. 
 
 This leads me to notice the other instance mention- 
 ed by Carr, in his Stranger in Ireland : He says^ 
 *' that the bog of Monela is not far from the bog of 
 *' Allan : stumps of trees are still visible on the sur- 
 *' face of the former ; under these lies a stratum of 
 " turf 10 or 15 feet deep: under this, a tier of 
 *' prostrate tress is discovered ; beneath these another 
 *' stratum of earth is found of considerable depth : 
 " and below this a great number of stumps of trees 
 *^ are found, standing erect as they grew. Thus, 
 ^' there is a succession of three distinct forests lying 
 " in ruins, one above the other." 
 
 He says, " Some of these mosses have been per- 
 *^ forated deeper than 50 feet : at the bottom of 
 *' many of them, he observes, arable land has been 
 ^* discovered, bearing the marks of the plough, and 
 ^' formed into regular ridges." 
 
 These fragments of the natural history of mosses, 
 may furnish us with some faint ideas of their origin 
 
"230 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 and formation. If we were to discover the hulk of 
 a ship, or even a few beams, sunk in the ocean, we 
 would be at no loss to say, that these were the re- 
 mains of a wreck. The size of these beams might 
 easily lead us to distinguish between the wreck of a 
 frigate and a first-rate man of war. The state of 
 preservation in which these are found, might give 
 us some idea of the period at which the wreck hap- 
 pened. 
 
 It is precisely so in examining the history and ori- 
 gin of peat mosses. The ruined forests found in 
 these leave us no doubt that they have been partly 
 formed of the wrecks of these. The size and species 
 of trees lead us to conclude what must have been the 
 age of the forest when it fell into ruins. The state of 
 preservation of these trees, and the depth of soil form- 
 ed above them, may give us some faint idea of the 
 period at which they fell. The remains of aquatic 
 plants, reeds, and rushes, &c. found above them, give 
 us likewise an idea of the cause of their ruin ; and, 
 the stratification of the soil, exhibits a view of the 
 changes it has undergone in the lapse of ages. 
 
 IV. It is obvious, from the above statement, that 
 moss, in favourable circumstances, is renovated with 
 rapidity ; it seems reasonable to conclude. 
 
 Fourthly^ T^at it may have been originally form- 
 ed with equal rapidity in similar circumstances. 
 
 The quantity of materials which a fallen forest may 
 yield, has been calculated. The rapidity with which 
 
ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 231 
 
 aquatic plants may contribute to its subsequent in- 
 crease, may be conceived from the following consi- 
 derations : 
 
 First, These plants are generally very rapid in their 
 growth ; this point is fully established in the forego- 
 ing pages. 
 
 Secondly, Most of them vegetate, and even flour- 
 ish, in the coldest climates, and some of them con- 
 tinue to grow all the year round. 
 
 Thirdly, While they are rapid in their growth^ 
 they are generally slow in decay, especially when im- 
 mersed in water. 
 
 Fourthly, In this medium they are not diminished 
 in bulk, but occupy nearly the same space that they 
 did while in a growing state. 
 
 In place, therefore, of yielding only 100th part of 
 the vegetable matter which a fertile soil produces, 
 they must contribute more than the richest crop of 
 wheat on the most fertile soil. 
 
 Mr De Luc says, that this is the case even on the 
 lofty mountains of Blocksberg. His words are, " the 
 *' plants which continue to grow by the moisture of 
 *' the air above, and of the moss below, heap up 
 *' twenty times more materials annually than an or- 
 *' dinary soil produces." 
 
 From all these considerations combined, it appears 
 reasonable to conclude, that moss may be formed 
 with great rapidity in such situations. 
 
 Lastly, We may conclude, that (in place of requir- 
 ing 900,000 years to form a moss 20 feet deep), the 
 
232 ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND 
 
 deepest mosses which exist may have been formed, 
 by the above natural process, in a much shorter 
 period ; and that the origin of these does not lead us 
 back to a very remote a^ra. 
 
 Hitherto I have only endeavoured to ascertain what 
 are the materials of which moss is composed, and to 
 shew how these have been accumulated together. 
 Were I to stop here, my object could not be attained ; 
 and, as all moss contains certain chemical qualities, 
 iiifferent from recent vegetables of the above descrip- 
 tion, some doubts might still remain as to the origin 
 of that singular substance. 
 
 It remains for me to shew, that these materials 
 must naturally undergo certain chemical changes in 
 the lapse of time ; to point out precisely what these 
 changes are ; to ascertain the causes of these changes, 
 and the consequences of them ; and to point out the 
 precise state in which these materials now appear; 
 in other words, to shew what moss really is ; — 
 
 This I reserve as the subject of the third and fourth 
 essay. 
 
 I cannot, however, take leave of the public at this 
 time, without pleading some apology ; the length of 
 these essays, and the loose style in which they appear, 
 require this. 
 
 My great object has been to collect facts ; and 
 every fact that seemed to elucidate the subject, I have 
 stated fully : this is the cause why these essays have 
 swelled to such a size, and why they appear to be so 
 
. ORIGIN OF PEAT MOSS. 233 
 
 prolix. I cannot but flatter myself, that they may be 
 valuable on account of this collection of facts, and on 
 this account alone. As to the conclusions I have drawn 
 from these, and the hypothesis I have stated, they may 
 be false and ill founded. Of this the impartial public 
 will now judge ; and I leave them at full liberty to 
 controvert every conclusion, and tear up every hypo- 
 thesis root and branch : in place of feeling mortifica- 
 tion, I shall rejoice to see the subject elucidated by 
 an abler pen. All the favour I ask, (and I solicit it 
 with importunity), is this, that if I have misrepresent- 
 ed any fact, or overlooked any thing of importance, 
 they will be pleased to signify this without delay. It 
 is on this account that I have resolved to publish these 
 essays first, as they lay the foundation of my work ; 
 and before the subsequent part of it be published, I 
 expect to receive much information, and many stric- 
 tures. 
 
 As to the style, I acknowledge it is loose and de- 
 sultory. In this shape it is not fit to meet the eye of 
 the judicious critic ; it claims the chastisement of the 
 public ; and all the apology I can plead, is, that ele- 
 gance of style has not been my aim : perspicuity and 
 precision is the utmost height of my ambition. 
 
 George Ramsay & Co. Printers> 
 Edinburgh, 1807. 
 
ERRATA. 
 
 P. 20. 1. 9. for Somana read S^nana 
 P. 77. 1. 8. for Woodhead, &c. Iffc. read and 
 P. 116. 1. 26. for may distinguished, read may be 
 P. 121, Note, foot, for transade, read transude 
 P. 140. 1. 9. for autum»2, read autum«. 
 
 ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 Speedily will be Published^ 
 
 ESSAY III. 
 
 ON THE CHANGES AND COMBINATIONS WHICH 
 
 VEGETABLE MATTER UNDERGOES WHEN 
 
 CONVERTED INTO MOSS. 
 
 ESSAY IV. 
 
 ON THE SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SUBSTANCES 
 
 WHICH MAY BE EXPECTED, AND ARE 
 
 REALLY FOUND IN MOSS. 
 
 ESSAY V. 
 
 i^N THE DISTINGUISHING QUALITIES OF PEAT 
 MOSS; AND THE CAUSES OF THEM, 
 
BOOKS 
 
 Published by 
 
 Archibald Constable & Company, Edinburgh^ 
 and John Murray, 3C, Fleet Street, London.- 
 
 And may he procured from any Bookseller^ or Newsman^ 
 throughout the Empire. 
 
 l.nnHE farmer's magazine, a Periodical Work, exclusively de- 
 X voted to Agriculture and Rural Affairs, for the Years 1800, 1801^ 
 1802, 1803, 1804, 1805, 1806, ISOl, {Published Quarterly y) 8 vol. price 
 3l 1 5s In boards, Sl 1 1 s in numbers. 
 
 *^* The design of tlie Farmer's Magazine Is to collect and disseminate 
 ingenious Theories, Important and well authenticated Facts, and accurate 
 Experiments, which relate to the different branches of Rural Economy. It 
 is well known, to those acquainted with the different parts of the United 
 Kingdom, that dicoverles and Improvements In Agriculture travel very slowly. 
 To remedy this, the Farmer's Magazine was first projected ; and, if the 
 Proprietors may judge from the almost unprecedented sale of more thai^ 
 4000 copies of each Number, the object of this publication is in agreat degree 
 answered. The work consists of — 1. Miscellaneous Communications of the 
 most important practical nature.— 2. The Review of Agricultural Publica- 
 tions — 3. Agricultural Intelligence from even/ district In Scotland and Eng- 
 land. The importance of this branch must be evident to every practical 
 Farmer, M-ho, at the moderate price of Two Shillings and Sixpence a quarter, 
 may learn the state of the crops, and the price of grain, cattle, &c. in the 
 different parts of thekingdom,beside3 being enabled to compare his own prac- 
 tice with that in otJier districts, and tlms to correct what is improper or de- 
 ficient. 
 
 *.^^ Communications for the ^vork nvill be most gratefully recervedy and. 
 :nay be addressed to A. Constabl£ iff Co. Edinburgh, or John Murray, 
 London. 
 
 2. The EDINBURGH REVIEW or CRITICAL JOURNAL, from 
 its commencement, in October 1802, to October 1807, 21 numbers, price 
 53 each, or the 20 numbers done up handsomely in 10 vol. boards, price 
 5\ 5s. 
 
 3. The EDINBURGH MEDICAL AND SURGICAL JOURNAL, 
 exhibiting a Concise view of the latest and most important discoveries in 
 JVIedlcine, Surgery, and Pharmacy, for 1805. 1806", 1807, {Published 
 Quarter! i/y) 12 numbers, price 3s each, or neatly done up in 3 vol. price ll 
 17s 6d boards. 
 
 %* The object of the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Jouii-. 
 - N AL Is the iniprovenient of Medicine, by collecting the scattered hints, and 
 registering the important facts, connected with Medical Science and Medical 
 Practice. 
 
 After the experience of three years, the Editors have the satisfaction to 
 find their kbours rewarded by the approbation of the Public. In the d»- 
 
4 Books published by Archibald Constable ifj C&. 
 
 verles ; to -u'hich is prefixed, a short Account of the General Principles of 
 Mechanics, and the Mechanical Powers. By Andrew Gray, Mill- 
 Wright. One Volume Imperial 4to. Second Edhion. 2l. 2s. boards. 
 
 14. The HISTORY of SCOTLAND, from the Union of the' Crowns 
 fin the Accession of James VI. to the throne of England, to the Union of 
 the Kingdoms in the Reign of Queen Anne : With a Historical and Cri- 
 tical Dissertation on the supposed authenticity of Ossian's Poems. Second 
 Edition, corrected. To which is prefixed, a Dissertation on the Parti- 
 cipation of Mary Queen of Scots in the Murder of Darnly. By Malcolm 
 Laing, Esq. 4 vol. 8vo. ll. 16s. boards. 
 
 15. The GAZETTEER of SCOTLAND, containing a particular and 
 <ioncise Description of the Counties, Parishes, Islands, Cities, Towns, 
 Villages, Lakes, Rivers, Mountains, Valleys, &c. of that Kingdom. With 
 an Account of the Political Constitution — History — Extent — Boundaries — 
 State of Agriculture — ^Population — Natural History — Buildings — Seats of ths 
 Nobility and Gentry — Roads, &c. Illustrated with an elegant Sheet Map. 
 Second Edition, much improved and enlarged. Price 1 2s. boards. 
 
 16. ThG POEMS of OSSIAN, containing the Poetical Works of James 
 Mac PHERSON, Esq. in Prose and Rhyme; with Notes and Illustrations. 
 By Malcolm Laing, Esq. 2 vol. 8vo. ll. lOs. boards. 
 
 17. PRIZE ESSAYS and TRANSACTIONS of the HIGHLAND 
 SOCIETY of SCOTLAND. 3 vol. 8vo. il 123 boards. 
 
 N, B. Volume II. and III. may be had seoarately. 
 
 18. OBSERVATIONS on the PRESENT STATE of the HIGH. 
 LANDS of SCOTLAND ; with a View of the Causes and probable Con- 
 sequences of Emigration. By the Earl of Selkirk. Second Edition, 8vo. 
 6s. boards. 
 
 19. STRICTURES and REMARKS on the Earl of Selkirk's Obser- 
 vations on the Present State of the Highlands of Scotland, with a View of 
 the Causes and probable consequence of Emigration. By Robert Brown, 
 Esq.Sheriff-substitutecfthe Western District of Argylcshire. 8vo. 23. 6d. 
 sew^ed. 
 
 20. POPULAR BALLADS and SONGS, from Tradition, MSS. and 
 scarce Editions, with Translations of similar pieces from tlie Ancient Da- 
 nish Language, and a few Originals by the Editor, R. Jamie son, A. M. 
 and F. A. S. 2 vol. Svo. price ll Is board?. 
 
 *^* This Work is similar in Plan and Arrangement to Mr Scott's 
 Minstrelsy of the Border, and particularly applicable to the Traditionary 
 Tales of the more Northern Counties of Scotland. 
 
 21. The MOUNTAIN BARD; consisting of SCOTTISH and ENG- 
 LISH BALLADS and SONGS, &c. founded on Facts and Legendary 
 Tales, by James Hogg, theEtterick Shepherd. 2d edit. 1 2mo. price 5g boards. 
 
 22. The SHEPHERD'S GUIDE, being a Practical TREATISE on the 
 DISEASES of SHEEP, their causes, and the best means of preventing them, 
 with observations on the most; suitable Farm stocking, by James Hogg, 
 the Etterick Shepherd. Svo. 7s 6d boards. 
 
 23. A VIEW of the MINERALOGY, FISHERIES, AGRICULTURE, 
 MANUFACTURES, &c. &c. of the ISLAND of ARRAN, interspersed 
 with Notices of Antiquities, Remarks on Genealogical Theories &c. c<cc. 
 and means suggested for Improving the Agriculture and Fisheries, and in- 
 troducing Manufactures into the Highlands and Island;? of 3cotlqnd. By thq 
 Kev. James HeAdrick. One Volume 8vo> 
 
 G. Ramsay & Co. Printers. 
 
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE 
 STAMPED BELOW 
 
 RENEWED BOOKS ARE SUBJECT TO IMMEDIATE 
 RECALL 
 
 LIBRARY, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, DAVIS 
 
 Book Slip-25m-6,'66(G3855s4)458 
 
N9 572860 
 
 Rennie, R. 
 
 Essays on the natural 
 history and origin of 
 peat moss. 
 
 TN837 
 R4 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 DAVIS