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 IMFROVED COURSE 
 OF STUDY 
 
 DAVISON 
 
 
the: possibility or an improved 
 
 COURSE or STUDY FOR THE IN- 
 TELLIGENT CHILDREN OF 
 CULTURED PARENTS 
 
 GEORGE: MILLARD DAVISON, A.B. 
 
 SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIRE- 
 MENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 
 INtTHE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF NEW YORK 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 JUNE, 1911 
 

THE, POSSIBILITY OF AN IMPROVED 
 
 COURSE OF STUDY FOR THE IN= 
 
 TELLIGE^NT CHILDREN OF 
 
 CULTURED PARE^NTS 
 
 GEORGE MILLARD DAVISON Principal, Public School 155. 
 Borough of Brooklyn, New YorK 
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE 
 
 Foreword 4 
 
 Statement of Purpose 4 
 
 Present Methods 5 
 
 Criticism of Our Present A^thods lo 
 
 Opinion of President Charles F. Thwing I2 
 
 Early Education of John Stuart Mill • • 13 
 
 Features in the Education of F. A. P. Barnard 13 
 
 Plan Followed by Henry Winthrop Hardon with His Son 14 
 
 Method Followed with a New Jersey Girl 14 
 
 Plan of Dr. Levi Clark of Dartmouth, N. H 15 
 
 Plan Followed with a Brooklyn Child 15 
 
 Plan Followed by Mrs. William E. Thayer of Weymouth, Mass 19 
 
 Work Done by Dr. Mary Putnam-Jacobi • • 21 
 
 Dr. John Dewey's Chicago School 26 
 
 Special Plan of Promotions in Santa Barbara, Cal 27 
 
 Special Promotions in a Brooklyn, N. Y., Public School 28 
 
 A Boston Experiment in Education 29 
 
 Public School Efforts at Solution 41 
 
 The Group System 42 
 
 Critique 47, 
 
 Cautions ^8 
 
 General View of a Course of Study c; r 
 
 Reading and Literature C2 
 
 Composition r^ 
 
 Grammar c-j 
 
 History • r^ 
 
 Nature and Science ca 
 
 Drawing c c 
 
 Manual Training c6 
 
 Physical Culture eg 
 
 iVrithmetic eg 
 
 Geography 5q 
 
 Music gQ 
 
 Religious Training gj 
 
 Age at Which the Various Studies Should Be Commenced 61 
 
 Appendix of Special Sources 5^ 
 
 Appendix Showing Type Story 53 
 
 Bibliography ^, 
 
 Copyright by George M. Davison, December, 1010. 
 
4 ■ • -SC^HOOL WORK 
 
 *' ' ' "'' Part I. 
 
 The need for such a course is evident in any class where the bright pupils 
 seize quickly the teacher's explanations and sit waiting for the others to 
 catch up. 
 
 The present courses are made for the multitude, not for the few whose 
 circumstances are such that they learn much unconsciously at home with their 
 parents and associates. 
 
 Part II. 
 Experiments showing that the work can profitably be done in less time 
 than is commonly demanded. 
 
 (a) John Stuart Mill's early education. 
 
 (b) Other attempts by parents. 
 
 (c) A private school in Boston. 
 
 (d) Special plans for rapid promotions. 
 
 Part III. 
 A suggested course of study. 
 
 Foreword 
 
 When the time comes for thoughtful parents to begin the education of 
 their oldest child, they are apt to scrutinize closely the neighboring schools. 
 A careful survey is not altogether reassuring. In the public schools (and 
 the private schools are but little, if any, better) hardly one child in four 
 graduates. Of this remnant, only about 20% complete their preparation for 
 college. Many children who enter full of enthusiasm lose this keen zest, and 
 find school a place of weariness. These facts appall those who regard the 
 little ones as their most priceless treasures. They feel that the best is none 
 too good for their children. Some of them search for improved methods. 
 "Can we not improve," they say, "upon the plan of education handed down 
 to us? Must all children be put into classes and be taught the same things 
 in the same way at the same time regardless of the personality of the pupil 
 or of his especial aptitudes and needs? Is there not some plan by which we 
 can preserve and nourish the ardent desire to learn, which we have watched 
 and studied in our offspring? Shall we not foster this by securing special 
 instructors who arc expert teachers? There must be a better way than any 
 laid down in the books, and it is our business to look for it. Perhaps, others 
 will carry forward our work." 
 
 The following pages are an alttnipt in this direction. The first contain 
 accounts of our present system and criticisms made by men and women who 
 have i)ractical knowledge on which to base their statements. The next give 
 in some detail descriptions of altcnipts to educate individuals rather than 
 masses. These are followed by a course of study intended to be suggestive. 
 Some of the material is old and familiar, but some of it is entirely new, and 
 the whole is offered as a contribution to the solution of the problem in hand. 
 
 Pestalozzi tried to interest Napoleon in his system of education. The 
 Corsican's only reply was that he had no time to waste on schoolmasters. 
 
IMPROVED COURSE OF STUDY 5 
 
 Within a century, Bismarck, whose people had followed up zealously the great 
 Swiss educator's plans, watched the German armies complete their lines about 
 the French at Sedan. When the last division was in position, and the sur- 
 render of the Gauls was but a few hours away, congratulations were showered 
 upon the German leader. His only reply was "Pestalozzi did it." The proof 
 that education gives a nation strength in war as well as honors in peace was 
 complete and the Iron Chancellor was the first to admit it. 
 
 America since her earliest days has fostered the common school, and the 
 opportunities for universal education offered in this country are without a 
 parallel. The native born child looks forward to his first school days. The 
 kindergarten in almost all cities and towns is ready to receive him at the age 
 of five years or younger. At six he is taught to read. This process requires 
 several months, even a term being insufficient to give the pupil the ability to 
 perform alone or with strange books. For four years the struggle is kept 
 up, and it is not till the child reaches the fifth year of his school life that 
 he is considered at all able to read his arithmetic examples instead of having 
 them doled out by the teacher. More rapid progress is made from this time 
 on and reading merely as a technical exercise in rendition gives way to critical 
 reading in which the story of a few masterpieces in English is gained from 
 the study of the original text ; and in addition the child is taught some very 
 elementary literary criticism, so that he can select a few of the more common 
 figures of speech, the telling passages, and the climaxes. This same work in 
 more intensive form is carried through the high school, and, when our boy 
 reaches college, he has some little acquaintance with English and American 
 authors that the boy of twenty-five years ago did not receive even in college 
 unless innate literary taste or environment gave it to him. 
 
 From his earliest days in school, he has opportunity to give oral expres- 
 sion to his thoughts, and, when he has learned to write, he has the chance 
 to supplement his oral statements with written ones. The untended waif who 
 wails because he "hain't got no book" or because some comrade "borrowed 
 a pencil ofifen on him" is given training which, in spite of the nineteen hours 
 spent out of school for about two-thirds of each year and twenty-four the 
 other third, really improves his language to a considerable degree. In the 
 second year, he is encouraged to tell about his pets or his toys. A little 
 later, stories are told him and he is expected to help reproduce them to the 
 teacher. Fairy stories and the simplest fables are the material chosen. In 
 the third year, he is drilled on the use of the various forms or "parts" of the 
 irregular verbs such as "is," "go," "do," "lie," and others. A little later he 
 is required to copy model letters and stanzas both from written copies and 
 from dictation. Model compositions of about a hundred words are then 
 studied and imitated. Thus by easy stages the child is carried along till at 
 the end of his course he is able to write a fair account of the school flower 
 show, the athletic meet, the comet, or any other subject that may be given 
 him. 
 
 After the pupil has finished the kindergarten and one year at school, he 
 begins formal spelling. As the spelling reforms are not yet agreed upon, 
 the problem of spelling is not an easy one. By earnest attention and unceas- 
 
6 SCHOOL WORK 
 
 ing toil with the laggards, the teachers are able to drill the average classes so 
 that they can spell correctly a list of common words that would surprise one. 
 Memorization of carefully chosen selections is carried along similarly, and the 
 pupils are also taught penmanship, with the result that many of them develop 
 style and character in that difficult art. 
 
 From the very beginning of the course of study, the child is taught to 
 count. The first term after the kindergarten sees the first of the addition 
 tables covered and these are finished the second term. There are 45 combina- 
 tions of 'single digits in addition. Some of these, like 2 + i, 8 + 8, and so 
 forth are comparatively easy. The harder ones are separated for the heavy 
 drill, and in this way the tables are thoroughly memorized. In similarly 
 graded fashion, the multiplication tables are presented, while applied mathe- 
 matics like telling time by the clock and the ordinary measures of volume 
 are kept along with the abstract work. Fractions are taken up in the first 
 year when the children are asked to divide the edge of their papers into 
 halves, thirds and fourths. Later, when the elementary knowledge of frac- 
 tions is thoroughly digested, the common forms are taught, and the work is 
 pushed forward to completion. The denominate number tables are learned 
 little by little, and constant reviews hold the child's attention. By carefully 
 graded steps and systematic reviews, the pupil is taken over the work in deci- 
 mals, percentage, interest, mensuration and other topics which are considered 
 desirable for a well regulated elementary school course. In the best schools, 
 notably the public schools of New York City, the last half year of the elemen- 
 tary course is spent in a searching review of all the arithmetic covered in the 
 course. This review serves the twofold purpose of bringing out any weakness 
 or omission in the child's work, and it also brings into the center of conscious- 
 ness those topics connected with business arithmetic which he may wish to use 
 at once after leaving school. 
 
 Geography begins in the fourth year. The first work is to impart some 
 elementary notions of locality, direction and geographical forms. The chief 
 streets of the neighborhood are taught, the boroughs or wards of small cities 
 are outlined and so-called home geography is given. From this the child is 
 taken over form and surface of the earth and is drilled on the grand divisions 
 of land and water, including the largest islands and gulfs. The same year, 
 elementary astronomical geography of the simplest form is brought in. Man 
 as the inhaljitant of the earth is introduced through his city homes and through 
 his food of plants and animals. The second year the continent of Xortli Am- 
 erica is studied somewhat in detail, attention being jiaid to its coast line, drain- 
 age, surface, extent, boundaries and location. The size is taken as a standard 
 of comparison in dealing with other continents. The industries included in 
 manufacturing, mining and agriculture are explained and taught by visits to 
 places where they can be seen, or pictures are used for this purpose, both in 
 stereoscopes and in books or clippings, and by the help of projection lanterns. 
 After this work is done, the various groups of states in the Union are 
 presented somewhat in detail, New York State and New York City being again 
 made the standard of comparison for states and cities respectively. From 
 the United States, the student goes to the other countries of North America, 
 and afterward to South America. In the second half of the sixth vear of 
 
IMPROVED COURSE OP STUDY 7 
 
 school, the child is introduced to the study of Europe. It and the other con- 
 tinents in turn are treated as North America was, but in less detail. Attention 
 is called to the location of places connected with important current events. 
 All through the first term, free hand outline maps are drawn, the aim being 
 to get the child to draw a recognizable outline map of any country with some 
 geographical detail of locality added. A complete map must be drawn in 
 less than five minutes and embellishment is not encouraged. The course is 
 closed in the eighth year with a review of physical and commercial geography, 
 showing the leading trade routes and the commodities that are largely dealt in 
 by the various nations. 
 
 Formal history is begun in the fifth year. From the first, however, the 
 child's mind has been fed with stories presenting in attractive form important 
 incidents in the lives of great men and women who have molded nations. 
 In the fifth year, there are presented more extended biographical and histor- 
 ical narratives bringing in discoverers, explorers, and adventurers. The early 
 inhabitants of North America are also studied briefly. These are followed 
 with similar narratives relative to the Colonial period, including persons, 
 events, and Colonial life. These are embellished with stories of New York 
 under the Dutch or New Orleans under the French, or the early rule of the 
 city in which the child lives. Visits to historical places, buildings, and monu- 
 mefits are also employed wherever possible. The Colonial period is brought 
 to a close and in the sixth year the leading events and great men down to 
 the present time are brought forward in the same narrative style. The aim 
 of the wise teacher in these two years of work is not so much to impart a 
 detailed knowledge of the period as it is to introduce the child to the subject 
 of history and rouse his interest in it. In actual practice, however, most 
 teachers are so desirous of having their children know the course of study 
 that they drill on facts and figures till interest is dead and the child is filled 
 with a dislike for history that seldom leaves him. 
 
 In most schools a more intensive study of United States history is pur- 
 sued in the last two years of the course. As a preparation for this, a course 
 is given in English history with the aim of showing the student the origin of 
 our American institutions in the development of the democratic idea on 
 English soil. Along with this is carried the study of the dominant part played 
 by England in exploring and settling this country. An exhaustive study of 
 English history is naturally not attempted, but as an introduction to American 
 history the study is found valuable. 
 
 Historical studies for boys and girls have been devided by ]\Iace into 
 Sense, Representative, and Reflective stages or phases. The Sense phase is 
 the one in which the narrative makes action dominant. The Representaative 
 phase is the one in which the imagination of the child is developed sufficiently 
 to picture to himself in detail the historical knowledge gained in the Sense 
 phase. The Reflective phase is that of the scholar who traces causes and 
 effects. The second or Representative phase is appropriate to the age of 
 children in the eighth year of the grammar school, and it is here that the 
 American history of that year belongs. The Sense phases of years five and 
 'six have supplied much material and this is worked over, details added, a 
 beginning made in studying causes and in classifying phenomena, and the child 
 
8 SCHOOL IVORK 
 
 goes out with a little idea of what history is, and if his teacher has been wise 
 and competent, he has a fondness for it. 
 
 Along with the study of history is carried the study of civics. In fact, it 
 begins before history does, where, in connection with local geography, the 
 duties of some minor public officials are taught. In the earlier years, the 
 duties of citizens, the nature and purpose of public institutions, and ethical 
 lessons are given. From this beginning, the departments of city and state 
 governments are explained with their functions and the laws controlling them. 
 These lessons are followed with an explanation of the national government, 
 methods of nominating and electing officers, the different branches of the gov- 
 ernment, and the relation of the state and national constitutions to the laws. 
 The plan is to give the children a working knowledge of the social organi- 
 zation of which they are a part, and also to teach them to respect this organi- 
 zation because of their knowledge of the ethical laws upon which it is based. 
 The things which the American citizen is expected to know and to do in the 
 exercise of his civic rights and in the discharge of his civic duties are in- 
 cluded here. 
 
 In addition to the work above described, the pupil is taken through care- 
 ful courses in nature, physical training, hygiene, cooking, carpentry, sewing, 
 drawing, and music. These things sometimes seem less needful than the other 
 subjects which have a plainer connection with the child's educational environ- 
 ment, but the motto, "mens sana in corpore sano," has been the guide, not, 
 however, to the exclusion of the aesthetic and artistic sides of education. It 
 is sometimes argued that the time thus given detracts from the thoroughness 
 of the work done in arithmetic and English. The validity of this argument is 
 stoutly attacked and may well be questioned. 
 
 Much is involved in a school besides teaching the subjects discussed in the 
 foregoing pages. A building on a suitable location must be provided. It must 
 l3e equipped with properly lighted rooms having exits leading through wide 
 corridors into the yards and the street. The building must have a good 
 heating plant and a system of artificial lighting so that on cold, dark days it 
 may be kept habitable. The stairs and the floors, which are subject to un- 
 usual wear from the daily use of thousands of feet, must be fireproof and of 
 some more durable material than wood. The rooms must be so arranged 
 that the pupils shall receive light at their desks only from behind or over the 
 left side. Each room must have its complement of blackboards, wardrobes, 
 desks, cabinets for the teacher's supplies and surplus books, and all the stock 
 of a well provisioned class room. There must be adequate sanitary accommo- 
 dations for both teachers and pupils, and a system of electric signals by which 
 communication may be maintained with the most distant parts of the build- 
 ing. Such a plant and equipment is now furnished for nearly all schools. 
 
 The next requirement is that of teachers to preside over the various 
 classes in the building, usually one class to each class room. When the 
 teachers are secured, they must have a director or head who is known as the 
 principal. When a school has grown so large that it has more than a certain 
 number of classes, usually twelve, a clerk is provided, and as soon as another 
 stage of development is reached, a more highly paid teacher is employed. The 
 
IMPROVED COURSE OF STUDY g 
 
 principal must see that the child is cared for and protected on his arrival in 
 the morning. Provision must be made whereby the pupils can go without 
 undue crowding to their class rooms at a set time from fifteen to twenty min- 
 utes before nine o'clock. The classes and the teachers must be assigned to 
 rooms whose equipment is suitable to the age and grade of the pupils. Each 
 teacher must be given a full set of books, pencils, pens, paper, crayons, globes, 
 maps, blackboard erasers, drawing materials, and other furnishings. All this 
 must be provided from the stock which has been previously secured by the 
 principal. Each teacher must be charged with the supplies furnished her, 
 so that those which are left over at the end of the term can be taken up and 
 handed to her successor. As fast as the stock in the stock room is depleted, 
 more must be ordered so that the requests of the teachers for additional 
 stock and supplies may be honored each week as they are made. Each 
 teacher must be supplied with a program of work for her grade. This pro- 
 gram must be so adjusted that the total amount of time allotted to each sub- 
 ject may be given to it. In addition to this, the day's work mus be so arranged 
 that the subjects will follow each other in the best way. 
 
 Regulations must be made by which the pupils may leave the room as 
 occasion may demand, but without allowing them opportunity to loiter and 
 play outside during school hours. In the lowest grades, recess periods must 
 be provided and arrangements must be made so that the pupils in large num- 
 bers may go from the class rooms into the open air and back again without 
 danger of molestation from the lawless ones who so commonly exist. The 
 re^juest for a drink must be met with a minimum of sacrifice of school time 
 and without injustice to the child. The dismissals at the close of the sessions 
 must be planned so that there will be no opportunity for crowding nor for 
 boisterous conduct which might entail personal injury to the weaker children. 
 During the recesses, the noon-time intermission, the half hour before school 
 in the morning, and the short period after school at night, the corridors, 
 stairs, exits, and yards must be carefully guarded by the teachers to prevent 
 any injury to the younger children. Furthermore, the entire school must be 
 so thoroughly drilled according to the best known fire regulations that the 
 building may be emptied in the shortest possible time at an instant's notice. 
 Whenever large numbers of children are assembled under one roof, there is 
 always some danger from panic and by careful drilling the children must be 
 guarded from this form of peril. 
 
 Now that the school has been assembled, equipped with working material, 
 and abundant provision has been made for entrance and exit, it is the duty 
 of the principal and his assistants to supervise the class room instruction 
 which is, after all, the sole purpose of the child's attendance. In each subject 
 in the curriculum, the best methods must be shown to the teachers, and the 
 work of the different grades must be so correlated that there will be no waste 
 of time when pupils pass from grade to grade, because of variety of methorl 
 or duplication of effort. 
 
 A system of reports must be devised so that the teacher can inform the 
 office each day of the attendance of her class. Roll books containing the 
 names of the pupils must be kept. At the end of each month the parents 
 must be notified of the standing of their children. A system of informal 
 
10 SCHOOL WORK 
 
 reports to the parents to cover the cases of disorderly and backward pupils 
 must also be devised. Parents and officials who visit the school must be 
 received by the principal or his deputies, and sent away satisfied with the 
 justice of the treatment accorded to the children, and of the efficiency of their 
 instruction. Examinations must be held throughout the school at regular in- 
 tervals to test the work that is being done. These must be supplemented by 
 daily inspections of classes, and every efifort must be made to overcome 
 tendencies to idleness. By means of public assemblies in which a dozen or 
 more classes unite, a feeling of co-operation and esprit de corps must be 
 created in the school. This is also the best opportunity for the principal to 
 second the efforts of the teachers in ethical instruction. 
 
 Criticism 
 
 This course as outlined above is practically what is given in New^ York 
 City and in the best schools of New York State. In general it represents the 
 most advanced school work in all parts of this country. The provision of 
 buildings is good. The teachers, however, are only fairly well equipped. We 
 have not escaped wholly from the thought prevalent two hundred years ago, 
 that anybody could teach school. Ichabod Crane was once the accepted 
 type of teacher in reality as he still is in fiction. It is therefore not to be 
 wondered at that high school pupils with a fifteen months' course at the 
 training school are the main reliance for recruiting the teaching staff' in this 
 city. It is a very common thing to hear a teacher discuss a "drawring lesson," 
 and to listen as she directs a pupil to "take this here seat." Another teacher, 
 who ought to have known better, was seriously teaching her class that the 
 reason why the summer is warmer than the winter is that the sun is nearer 
 the earth in the summer! These are but incidents of the day's w^ork, how- 
 ever, and we may be and we are thankful that the standard of attainment for 
 those who desire to teach is constantly rising. A small boy remarked to his 
 mother, "Ma, it will be so after a while that poor folks cannot teach school." 
 The wise mother promptly replied, "My boy, it will soon be so that poor 
 folks can get the best kind of an education." This is the goal, and we shall 
 press forward toward it. But in the meantime, we must not be blind to the 
 conditions which now obtain, and, if we can anticipate the development of 
 the next fifty years in educating some of our children, we must do so. 
 
 In addition to the drawback of indifferently prepared teachers, is the 
 serious one of large classes to which allusion has been made. A class of six 
 is all that one thoroughly equipped teacher can instruct. There are times 
 when even such a class must be subdivided. The writer once had a class 
 of two pupils in Xenophon's Anabasis in the high school. ^luch merriment 
 was roused when he divided it into two sections, giving each half the time 
 allotted to the subject. How much worse for the individuals concerned 
 would the conditions have been if the class had contained forty instead of 
 two! A poorly prepared teacher can while away the time with a large class 
 and truthfully comi)lain that the periods are too long, a statement by no 
 means unknown. But the facts are that a teacher who is full of her work 
 and bubbling over with enthusia.sm can save time for her pupils if she can 
 study the needs and abilities of each one. It would not seem possible that 
 
IMPROVED COURSE OF STUDY ii 
 
 any pupils could go through the schools and retain the ignorance cited in the 
 preceding paragraph. But this shows that when a class is too large for the 
 teacher to handle properly, much that is erroneous will get by instead of being 
 eradicated. 
 
 There is careless ignorance on the part of most public officials as to the 
 needs of school administration. An elementary school principal is put in 
 charge of a plant valued at $500,000. The annual payroll and expense of 
 maintenance is about $60,000, which on a 6% basis represents a capitalization 
 of $1,000,000 more. This magnificent outfit of $1,500,000 is put into the hands 
 of a competent man at a salary presumably adequate. A mother comes in to 
 inquire about her boy who is in a class room a block away. The principal's 
 time is worth to the city on its own estimate 6 cents a minute. On a business 
 basis, one would expect him to call the distant teacher by telephone, get the 
 information, and dispatch the case in five minutes. But he is not supplied 
 with a telephone, and he must send for a messenger, write a note of inquiry, 
 wait for it to be carried to its destination, and for the return of the reply 
 which the teacher writes. Often the information is incomplete and a longer 
 wait is involved while it is being completed by another inquiry. He is for- 
 tunate if he escapes in half an hour. The principal is often called from a 
 class room at a critical time by an insistent parent who brings a letter from the 
 District Superintendent to the principal and declines to see any one else. The 
 message is as a rule on some routine matter which could be referred to its 
 proper department over the telephone without requiring the principal to 
 abandon the work in which he is engaged. This illustrates one of the many 
 crude ways in which the school head is expected to administer his million 
 dollar plant with constant loss to the city, because of the pound wise and penny 
 foolish policy of seemingly shrewd business men who permit an annual loss 
 of efficiency of thousands of dollars in the principals' offices alone. 
 
 Public opinion supports our schools as they are to-day. Enlightened public 
 opinion will support them better to-morrow. But in view of this waste of 
 energy and loss of efficiency, no argument is needed to show that a system 
 which, even though revolutionized would be far short of perfect, is not the 
 best that can be devised. More individualism is desirable, and it must be 
 so applied that it will not deprive the child of the social effect needed and 
 given in perfect education. 
 
 When the time comes for the child to leave his home where his individu- 
 ality has received much consideration, he enters the school and finds himself 
 one of a class numbering from forty to seventy pupils under one teacher. His 
 own personal inclinations, his fancied desires, and even his needs must give 
 way to the best good of the entire number. Even his class, large as it is, is 
 but one of thirty, fifty, or even ninety classes, all under one roof. So bad is 
 the congestion at times, that two classes must often occupy the same room each 
 day, the first coming shortly after eight o'clock and leaving at half past 
 twelve, and the other entering immediately thereafter to work until the close 
 of the day. The personal relation maintained by the mother and her family 
 of even six or eight is impossible in such surroundings, and parents frequently 
 complain that their children's especial desires, aptitudes, and needs are not 
 consulted. Their complaints are valid enough and deserve attention. The 
 
12 SCHOOL WORK 
 
 teacher is powerless, however, and no one knows more clearly than she what 
 a change is wrought in the child's life by his admission to school, because of 
 the great difference between the school and the home as the former is at 
 present organized. 
 
 Children of five and six years usually enter school with the greatest eager- 
 ness. At ten years or even younger there is no way by which great enthus- 
 iasm can be so quickly roused as to announce that the pupils may go home an 
 hour earlier than the usual time. The eager inquisitive five-year old has be- 
 come a burden bearer who, without understanding it in the least, realizes some- 
 how the difference between school and home. Almost any class will furnish 
 at least one child who quickly grasps the teacher's explanations and must then 
 sit idly by while the slower pupils are being brought up to the line. This 
 process wastes time, breeds intellectual laziness, and is altogether unprofitable 
 for the gifted child. That our present methods are in advance of those of 
 past decades is doubtless true, but more flexibility is needed, and the require- 
 ments of the individual child should be better met. Fondness for mental 
 activity other than story reading is the child's birthright, and his education 
 should add to this rather than detract from it. He can, and in justice he 
 should, have more efficient instruction and spend fewer hours in the class 
 room. Criticism of our present system is general on the part of our leading 
 educators. Lack of proper gradation is pointed out as a serious fault.^ The 
 charts and books used with primary children do not express much that is new 
 to them. Combinations of symbols are used to express commonplace and 
 trivial ideas. 'T see the cat; the dog runs," are given children to read in- 
 stead of material which will interest because of its content. Object lessons 
 are given about thimbles and chairs, and these familiar things are presented 
 as laboriously and fully as though the child had never seen them. Seldom is 
 he led into new and inviting fields. Even on the few occasions when this is 
 done, the unimportant details are made prominent, while the essential and in- 
 teresting features are omitted altogether or are briefly touched. "For these 
 slight gains, the child gives his freshest years and exhausts in weariness of 
 spirit the fountains of intellectual interest and enthusiasm." 
 
 Another prominent educator- remarks on the lack of careful selection of 
 details in nature work, "A chaotic aggregation is left which can never be 
 covered. This makes the pupil despair. It has been observed^ that brisk, 
 healthy pupils disposed to work are brought into the schools. As a result 
 of their meal of chaff served daily, these same pupils go out at the end of the 
 course ignorant, impotent, cynical about intellectual realities." 
 
 Says President Charles F. Thwing,-* "The course of a class from the day 
 of its entering the public school tilj the day of its graduation is a course like 
 the march of an army in retreat — it is marked by what is lost. ***** 
 In every system of public schools, the slaughter of the innocents is great. 
 To think that three out of four of all the pupils who enter the primary 
 schools have dropped out before the last year of the grammar school, and 
 to think that nine out of every ten pupils who enter the primary schools. 
 
 >See Appendix la. 
 *See Appendix lb. 
 »See Appendix Ic. 
 •See Appendix Id. 
 
IMPROVED COURSE OF STUDY 13 
 
 do not survive till the close of the high school period, represents a tremen- 
 dous fact for not only the American school, but also and more for the Ameri- 
 can home and American civilization." 
 
 PART II. 
 
 Actual Experiments 
 
 John Stuart Mill's account^ of his early education is interesting, because it 
 shows on his own testimony how far he was in advance of other boys. There 
 were, however, two apparent defects in his course of training. His labored 
 English is shown by his long, involved sentences. By his own confession, the 
 lack of practicality in his education produced in daily life "inattention, inob- 
 servance, and general slackness of mind." That he had an unusually early 
 knowledge of books is evident, but his knowledge of men was acquired much 
 later. In his autobiography, he states that he began to learn Greek when he 
 was three years old. His education was under the direct care of his father 
 who spared no pains nor labor in helping the boy forward. The latter pre- 
 pared his Greek lessons at the same table where his father was writing history. 
 The patience of the elder Mill is shown in the fact that he was subjected to 
 constant interruption in vocabulary work because of the lack of lexicons. He 
 heard all the boy's lessons, planned all his work, and even took charge of his 
 holidays. The youngster was reading Plato and other philosophers in Greek at 
 the age of seven. At eight he began Latin. He comments on the fact that 
 in boyhood he covered a vast field of instruction which is usually done in 
 young manhood. He thus gained many precious years. The quarter of a 
 century start which he thereby received he did not attribute to any especial 
 ability, for he deemed himself rather below the ordinary in capacity. It was 
 all due to the careful, conscientious work of his father. He was not allowed 
 holidays lest they might breed laziness, but he was given a part of each day 
 for his own amusement. This was usually taken alone or with his father 
 and was of a bookish turn. Thus he did not get the benefit of association 
 with other boys. He also failed to develop the best use of his hands and 
 never acquired the manual dexterity which boys commonly have. 
 
 Hon. F. A. P. Barnard,- for many years president of Columbia Univer- 
 sity, attributes much of his success in life to his home reading which was 
 directed chiefly by his mother. He says that from his earliest years he had a 
 passion for books. Although his reading was unsystematic, it was beneficial. 
 His library ranged from Mother Goose to Robinson Crusoe and Pilgrim's 
 Progress. His father put Shakespeare into his hands before he was six 
 years old. His mother, who was well versed in literature, introduced him to 
 Cowper, Burns, Goldsmith, Campbell, Scott, Byron, among the poets ; and to 
 Addison, Johnson, Burke, Robertson among the prose writers. Voyages and 
 
 ^See Appendix le. 
 -See Appendix If. 
 
14 SCHOOL WORK 
 
 travels were his especial delight. Until his eleventh year, he profited more by 
 this general, though desultory, reading than by all his other instruction. 
 
 He also declares that the effect of hand training on his mind was pro- 
 nounced. So emphatic is he on this point that, were he now alive, he would 
 doubtless be an ardent advocate of vocational training. He early felt a pro- 
 pensity for constructing windmills, watermills, fanning mills, trip hammers, 
 sleds, barrows, kites, and crossbows. In the village of Saratoga, he learned 
 to set type. Boylike, he frequented the printing office where his common sense 
 and good nature made him a favorite. The work appealed to his imagination, 
 and the mysteries of the printer's stick gave him unalloyed delight. Here 
 he spent all his time out of school, and he became proficient in all the work 
 of the office. He declares that at any time in his life he could have earned 
 a living as a practical printer. He speaks of many advantages coming from 
 this experience, chief of which was the formation of habits of thought, con- 
 centration, and perservering industry. 
 
 A lawyer^ of New York City, formerly on the law faculties of Cornell 
 and Columbia Universities, had his attention especially drawn toward edu- 
 cation. European travel convinced him that there were more effective mean'^ 
 to impart a knowledge of modern languages than those offered by the schools. 
 He '.herefore planned for his son such courses in German and French that 
 the )ad was not only saved from months of hard labor but he was made 
 tmusuaPy proficient in those studies. The boy had a slight knowledge of 
 German, when, at the age of thirteen, he went to Germany. He spent a 
 year there in his uncle's home with a German tutor, studying and sp^eaking 
 the language. On his return to school in America, when fourteen years old, 
 he was so far ahead of all the high school classes in German that he did 
 not take their work. At the age of sixteen, he spent ten weeks of the summer 
 in a German family abroad, and in the fall he passed the preliminary and 
 advanced Harvard entrance examinations. His sister had a French nurse, and 
 he became slightly ear trained in French. In his thirteenth year he had a 
 tutor in this tongue, and he accjuired a good reading knowledge. The summer 
 before his entrance at Harvard, he had a tutor for ten weeks in France. He 
 then passed the Harvard entrance examinations in both preliminary and ad- 
 vanced French. During his freshman year in college, he took a course in 
 French literature conducted in that language. In both these languages he is 
 quite proficient and his college work has i)roducctl richer results because of 
 his excellent preparation. 
 
 An eight-year-old girl- who had the advantage of private instruction at 
 home was taught arithmetic, reading, local geography with its correlated 
 history, drawing, spelling, and writing. An abundance of stories, both original 
 and reproduced, were used. In arithmetic, when multiplication was the lead- 
 ing subject, the aim was to show her that addition, multiplication, subtraction, 
 and division cannot always be separated. Although this process seems long 
 and intricate, it has in her case been surer and less tiresome than the study 
 of separate tables. It resulted in giving her accuracy and ease in using simple 
 combinations. Legends, folklore and myths were used for her reading. Greek 
 
 'See Appendix Ig. 
 2.See Appendix Ih. 
 
IMPROVED COURSE OF STUDY 15 
 
 and Roman mythology were presented in a clear, well written form. In poetry, 
 for the classical Whittier, Longfellow, and Bryant, were substituted Dunbar, 
 Stevenson, Field, and Riley. She was far more interested in Riley's "Home- 
 made Fairy Tales," with "the little dude fairy who winked at me," than chil- 
 dren usually are in the Village Blacksmith, beautiful as it is. Her geography 
 included those land and water divisions which she saw or about which she 
 heard. Something of the oceans and the hemispheres were included. With 
 all these the teacher interwove personal observation, exeprience, and history. 
 In connection with the western hemisphere, the story of Columbus brought in 
 the new world. A trip from New Jersey to New York City fitly introduced 
 the story of Henry Hudson. Her geography was largely pictorial and his- 
 torical except when fine weather gave access to forest, field, and meadow, 
 and then it was merged into botany and geology. Her reproduced stories 
 were good, her original stories were logical and were presented even better. 
 In all subjects she was given the pith and point. Only essentials were 
 emphasized. 
 
 A physician' and his wife, of Dartmouth, Mass., prepared their son for 
 the high school in three years after the beginning of his formal alphabet 
 work at the age of four. They selected the work very carefully and gave 
 him close attention. Memorization was kept at the minimum and rules were 
 acquired by noting their application. During the high school course, he spent 
 only recitation hours with his class. His mother had been a teacher, and the 
 trained skill with which the boy was guided resulted in a marked saving of 
 time. 
 
 The theory that a child in an educated atmosphere does not need the 
 routine training of the school room during his early years, but that he acquires, 
 without conscious effort, a vast amount of information from his environment 
 was held by the parents of an only child with but few playmates, hence 
 naturally the constant companion of her father and mother. She was never left 
 with nurses, her mother giving personal care to her child who was never 
 thrown in contact with the careless English of the ordinary housemaid. The 
 temptation to indulge in baby talk was put aside. Although she was not 
 forward in talking, at two years she could pronounce distinctly and use per- 
 fectly over two hundred words. No formal teaching was given before she 
 was five years old, there bdng no desire to push her. An endeavor was made, 
 however, to answer her questions fully and satisfactorily even to an extent 
 ordinarily considered beyond the comprehension of one so young. She was 
 not burdened with useless commands, but an effort was made to train reason 
 and judgment by explaining the why and wherefore of each requirement. 
 This demanded patience and at one time seemed to interfere with prompt 
 obedience, especially if there was any reluctance to execute the command. 
 To overcome this instances were cited to her in which it was very evident 
 that prompt obedience was necessary. She was taught that she must obey 
 first, asking afterwards for the reason if it had not been given or was not 
 clear. In this way there was developed in her good sense and clear percep- 
 tion, that always stood her in good stead. The desire to "do things" was 
 encouraged, and her efforts, however crude, were praised, so that she gained 
 
 ^See Appendix li. 
 
i6 SCHOOL WORK 
 
 contidence and was willing and eager to try any new thing. This, together 
 with the fact that she was never threatened nor frightened nor allowed to hear 
 stories that tend to excite alarm, did much toward overcoming fear and 
 timidity. Darkness, thunderstorms, snakes, mice, or animals, as, for instance, 
 the wolf in Red Ridinghood, were dealt with in a way to attract and not 
 repel. Some results of this fearlessness and willingness to try were evident 
 at all times. She was not more than seven years old when she desired to 
 make a birthday cake for a little friend and wanted the gift to be her own 
 work. Although she had never attempted anything of the sort before, she was 
 given a recipe and left alone in the kitchen. She read the directions, measured 
 the ingredients, put them together, and baked the cake, without assistance 
 save in testing it before taking it from the oven. The result was a complete 
 success. Again, she learned to climb, row. swim, and shoot, fearlessly ani^. 
 well, not from association with boys who naturally do such things, but froui 
 a willingness to try what she saw others doing or what she was told >i'c 
 could do. 
 
 Bv the time she was three years old, she had learned several letters on her 
 blocks, but she was not taught to read till she was nearly six. She was early 
 introduced to Mother Goose and to Father Goose, which she thoroughly 
 enjoyed, not only for the jingles, but for the unique illustrations, and ere long 
 she could repeat by heart most of the verses on seeing the proper picture. 
 Later she enjoyed repeating them dialogue fashion, she giving a line or part 
 of one and her companion completing the couplet. Many walks along the 
 city streets were enlivened in this way. Good poetry was also read to her, 
 and by the time she had learned to read she had acquired a taste for the 
 beautiful and inspiring as well as for the truly humorous in literature. In all 
 her later reading the effort was made to so guide her that she would learn 
 to appreciate unconsciously the best. Her books were confined almost entirely 
 to mythological, historical, and biographical stories, with a judicious mixture 
 of fairy tales, Alice in Wonderland (which she read many times), Kingsley's 
 Waterbabies, and kindred books. She had a number of volumes of poetry, 
 all of which she seemed to enjoy, from the Adventures of Teddy B and 
 Teddy G to Browning's Childe Roland to the Dark Tower Came, and the 
 Nieblungenlied. Pictures of authors together with the events and scenes of 
 which they wrote were gathered from many sources and used extensively. 
 \'isits to the homes of famous men and women were taken whenever possible 
 and in connection therewith she was told something of their lives and works. 
 When she was seven years old, she visited Grand Pre. and the story of the 
 Acadians was related to her, after which she enjoyed the reading of Evange- 
 line. Travel was always utilized to stimulate interest in the geography, his- 
 tory, and literature pertaining to the locality. 
 
 The actual learning to read was accomplished in thirty lessons. She knew 
 possibly a dozen words and the entire alphabet, when at the age of five years 
 and nine months she began to have definite instruction in reading. Arnold's 
 Stepping Stones to Literature was used for the first few lessons. Then 
 Scribner's Eugene Field Primer was given her and proved to be just what 
 was needed. She quickly completed the lessons in the book, and she was then 
 
IMPROVED COURSE OF STUDY 17 
 
 able to go back and read any of the poems which formed the basis of the 
 lessons. Of course, these were read to her at the beginning of each lesson, 
 often two or three times, great care being taken to render them with good 
 expression. It was soon evident that she entered into the spirit of what she 
 read. On the completion of the Field Primer, an attempt was made to give 
 her a clue to the pronunciation of new words. Her large vocabulary and her 
 intuitive feeling as to the word that was probably in accord with the context 
 doubtless helped her and she frequently corrected herself if the first effort 
 was not successful. All the various ways of representing long a were called 
 to her attention, as a", ay, ai, ei, ey. The same was done with e> i, 0, u. Then 
 followed the letters or combinations that give the short sounds of the vowels 
 and the modified sounds were similarly taught. She constantly tried new 
 words on posters, in the street cars, and elsewhere. The word photograph 
 was too much for her when she first met it. On being told that ph was the 
 equivalent of /, she at once spoke the word correctly. The explanation was 
 then given that ph had come down to us from the Greek phi, and hence we had 
 two ways in which the sound / might be written. There was never any 
 further difficulty. A few days later she recognized the word laugh from its 
 context, and she at once called attention to the fact that there was a third way 
 of expressing the sound / and asked from what language that was derived. 
 At this point the summer vacation interrupted the work, and it was found 
 unnecessary to take it up again in the autumn. 
 
 Ability to spell has followed from her reading, but few spelling lessons 
 ever having been assigned and these based upon some reading. She 
 has always inquired the meaning of new words. In her fourth year she dis- 
 covered the existence of synonyms, after which the word was explained and 
 its use quite fully illustrated. The finding of synonyms for words that 
 occurred to her proved a source of amusement. The value of this habit was 
 evident when she began to compose letters and stories. She was encouraged to 
 write without paying much attention to penmanship or spelling in order that 
 she might learn to express her thought easily and freely. Having made a 
 rough draft, she was told to go over it and improve it, giving heed to the 
 details of spelling and punctuation, after which she copied it correctly. As 
 she had never had writing lessons, the process of copying acquired by her 
 was somewhat laborious. She was therefore given a typewi-iter which she 
 quickly learned to use with some degree of accuracy and speed. When nine 
 years old, she was given an edition-de-luxe of Webster's Collegiate Dictionary 
 — very attractive to eye and hand — and this proved a daily companion. It 
 always seemed a delight to look up the meaning and pronunciation of words 
 about which there was any doubt, and this habit grew to be almost instinctive. 
 
 No history lessons were assigned, but her bedtime stories and much 
 of her reading were tales of famous people and events. At the age of nine 
 she tegan to evince an interest in geography. A text-book and globe were, 
 therefore, provided, the latter evoking much enthusiasm. When her books 
 were accessible, she never failed to look up the location of any place men- 
 tioned in her reading. Picture trips were taken from her home to various 
 points, using maps as guides to the routes and places visited. Interest was 
 heightened by traveling in various imaginary ways, such as balloon and air- 
 
i8 SCHOOL WORK 
 
 ship, as well as by the more regular method of boat, train, driving, or motor- 
 ing. Stops were made at cities, lakes, and mountains, the highest points in 
 the latter being climbed in imagination, and all the pictures that could be 
 readily obtained were shown. Then from a balloon she looked down and sur- 
 mised in what occupations the people in various sections were engaged. Re- 
 lief maps were found interesting and helpful. Trips to various museums were 
 utilized as a means of imparting instruction as well as pleasure. After a visit 
 to the Museum of Natural History in New York City, she was asked to tell 
 what interested her the most. She replied that it was the model showing the 
 revolution of the earth on its axis and its relative position to the sun every 
 hour in the day and every day in the year. Second in interest was the rep- 
 resentation of the paths of some of the planets about the sun. This interest 
 had grown from some reference in her reading to the Ptolemaic system of 
 astronomy. That had been briefly explained to her and an attempt made to 
 give her some idea of our present system. She gained, however, only a crude 
 conception which the model corrected and made clear. The use of geograph- 
 ical games was found somewhat helpful. Best of all she enjoyed several 
 series of illustrated lectures on points of interest in the old world and the new. 
 After attending lectures on the capitals of Europe she read with interest Stod- 
 dard's lectures on the same subjects and continued to read others in the 
 series. This was in her tenth year. She probably could not answer ques- 
 tions on population, area, and boundaries of states that many school-trained 
 children can, but she gained, with apparently no efifort in the way of study a 
 fund of interesting information. The necessary details will be taken up with 
 her later. 
 
 Mathematics, as a study, was not approached until she was eight years 
 old, but this was by no means her first interest in the subject. Very early 
 she began to notice figures and quickly learned the Arabic numerals up to 
 9. Practising with numbers on houses or on street-cars she soon grew able 
 to read combinations of figures. The register of fares in street-cars was an 
 unending source of study, and she kept tab on conductors with a persistency 
 that would have done credit to a "spotter." The Roman numerals on a clock 
 possessed a fascination for her and by the time she was four and a half she 
 could tell time accurately. She could also play a game of flinch well. Before 
 she was five years old, she could read any combination of four figures, giving 
 it always as so many hundreds instead of thousands, which word she later 
 learned to use. Up to this time and for several years subsequently all informa- 
 tion was given only in response to questions on her part. When at the age of 
 eight, she began to study the tables, she also began the study of fractions but 
 without fractional forms. Lines and squares were divided into halves, thirds, 
 etc. She saw 2 thirds, 3 fourths ; never 2/3, 3/4. Subtracting 3 eighths from 
 7 eighths was no more difficult than subtracting 3 pears from 7 pears. By 
 subdividing squares and crossing out unused parts she was soon able to sub- 
 tract I third from i half, and 3 fourths from 7 eighths. She had reached 
 this point, when, at the close of her ninth year, she took up, during the sum- 
 mer vacation, the daily study of arithmetic and went through fractions, deci- 
 mals, and compound numbers to percentage, the obstruse and impractical being 
 culled from the course. She lacked logical reasoning power at first as applied 
 
IMPROVED COURSE OF STUDY 19 
 
 to problems, although in other ways her insight was acute. Oral and written 
 problems involving the various mathematical processes which she had been 
 taught were given. The new work was taken up no faster than she thoroughly- 
 understood it, but it needed additional repetition and review to fix it in mem- 
 ory. This was in the summer vacation, her time during the rest of the year 
 being devoted to other things which cannot be taken up so readily in the 
 summer. The next vacation she made a rapid review of the previous work 
 and then went on through the subject. She passed with credit in September 
 an arithmetic examination which was set for high school entrance the pre- 
 ceding June. 
 
 In order to give her an all-round development, the artistic side of her 
 education has not been neglected. She was always encouraged to make pic- 
 tures, and in her ninth year she was put under the instruction of a competent 
 teacher. The work during the first two years has been elementary, in crayon 
 and water color and also in construction, training the eye to observe and the 
 hand to execute. She had made some crude attempts in clay modeling. 
 
 Apparently, she had no love for music, though she learned to carry a tune 
 to the extent of singing lullabies when not three years old. Later, she seemed 
 to lose this ability, and, not knowing how to help her, her mother discouraged 
 her singing. When she was eight years. old a music teacher was found who 
 had a method that proved not only very successful but intensely interesting. 
 Piano, singing, writing, composing, transposing, memorizing, together with 
 playing and singing by ear as well as note were all a part of the system. 
 The lessons were made so attractive that she became enthusiastic and finished 
 a two years' course in one. This interest was kept up during the second year. 
 
 In her ninth year she also began work in the domestic department of a 
 well-known institute. Two hours a week were devoted to sewing, which was 
 taken up as a study — not in a careless, unsystematic way. By the end of the 
 year the large, uneven stitches of the first weeks had been transformed into 
 small, even ones that were quite creditable. Manual training of various kinds 
 will always be a part of her year's work. 
 
 Nor was the physical development overlooked. Circumstances tended to 
 attract her indoors during the fall and winter months, so she was sent to a 
 gymnasium where her activity and energy found an agreeable outlet. She 
 was taken to the country every summer where she could have perfect free- 
 dom and plenty of out-of-door sport. Her father devoted much of his time 
 to her and she learned to swim, row, shoot, ride, drive, climb, "chin,'' and 
 vault. Advantage was taken of these summer trips for some nature study, 
 and she attained quite a little familiarity with flowers and trees. 
 
 A child^ who is very fortunate in his home environment and training is 
 the son of Mr. and Mrs. William E. Thayer of Weymouth, Mass. The boy 
 is well developed, physically, and wide-awake, but has never been considered 
 a prodigy. That he is further advanced mentally than the average is due to 
 the skilful teaching of his college-trained father and mother, and to the fact 
 that his progress has been helped by devoted friends and not left to maids 
 or nurses. His multitudinous questions of why and where and when have 
 always received patient heed, and this has added to his logical ways of think- 
 
 iSee Appendix Ik. 
 
20 SCHOOL WORK 
 
 ing. He has a very retentive memory. His interest was taken as the guide 
 in the selection of material, for his earliest instruction and information was 
 only given in response to questions which indicated an evident desire to know. 
 He was two years old before he began to talk, an accomplishment which he 
 acquired with difficulty. A children's party seemed to be the turning point in 
 his endeavors at talking. In spite of this backwardness, his patient effort early 
 gave him an unusual vocabularly and excellent pronunciation. 
 
 Before he was two years old, he brought his mother a letter block. She 
 pointed to the bright letter, repeating several times, "That is A." Presently 
 he picked out another A and brought it to her with a shining face, saying, 
 "A." She was then curious to know if he could distinguish abstract form 
 and showed him B. He straightway selected other B's, never confusing the 
 letter with P or R. In this way he soon learned the entire alphabet, speaking 
 the names plainly, except F, S, P and T, which he only sounded. He greatly 
 enjoyed finding the letters in a newspaper or book and saying over those that 
 he recognized, an occupation which especially pleased him during the period 
 when he seemed afraid to try to speak words. After this he was given com- 
 binations of the letters in phonograms, sounding complete words like cat, hat, 
 man, etc., as soon as possible. As he began to talk, he began to read. He 
 gradually progressed with pencil and paper in printing letters, then words, 
 and finally sentences. After this he and his mother spent much happy time 
 in "writing letters to each other." At the age of four he could read in print 
 such sentences as, "Ask Papa not to go to Boston." He was then put in the 
 usual course of primers and first grade readers, including the Peter Rabbit 
 books. Up to this point, the work was all fun for him, being based upon his 
 own interest, his m.other following his lead and holding him back. At the age 
 of five he could read aloud with great spirit and expression anything placed in 
 his hands — either book or newspaper. 
 
 His literary training was begun with the good, old nursery rhymes. As 
 soon as he could talk, he and his mother repeated these in dialogue fashion, 
 she giving the first of the line and he the end; as for example: 
 
 Little Jack Horner 
 
 Sat in a corner, etc. 
 
 Then they had Stevenson's and Eugene Field's little poems, a great number of 
 which he memorized without any apparent efifort and wholly of his own 
 volition. Because of special interest in Paul Revere's home in Boston, they 
 studied Longfellow's Ride of Paul Revere, using numerous pictures of local- 
 ity and times, bringing in incidentally some of the geogfaphy. Beginning at 
 the age of four and a half, they took up chapters in the poem of Hiawatha, 
 commencing with his childhood. After the boy learned to paddle, the chapter 
 on canoe-building followed, and after his first experience fishing he was 
 delighted with the fishing and hunting chapters. Picture drawing accom- 
 panied the reading. 
 
 When he was four years old, his grandmother went to California, and this 
 furnished an opening for the presentation of geography. They drew a map 
 starting with the table in the study room, following grandma to the station 
 and by easy stages to the coast and back. A year and a half later he could 
 draw fair outline maps of the United States locating the oceans and placing 
 
IMPROVED COURSE OF STUDY 21 
 
 approximately the principal cities which came to their attention. Printed 
 maps were afterward used to follow any member of the family on a journey. 
 The aim was to teach him to outline the grand divisions freely from memory 
 and later add cities, rivers, and mountains as they were met. Interest was 
 stimulated by map games which rendered him familiar with general directions 
 and localities. He early learned the points of the compass and the use of the 
 globe. 
 
 When he was three years old, it was found that he could count through 
 ten, but always omitting "9." His mother taught him this digit, and he then 
 went on by himself, asking and listening, adding a few numbers each day. 
 "Fourteen, fiveteen" were heard. Later he went on with "sixteen, seventeen, 
 eighteen, nineteen, tenteen," when he stopped perplexed. The suggestion of 
 twenty for tenteen relieved his mind. Arithmetic games involving addition of 
 numbers up to twelve, together with a little elementary work each day, covered 
 his mathematics up to the age of five and one half years. At four, he learned 
 by observation and questions to tell the time of day from the clock. 
 
 At the age of five, he was given a sketch book like his mother's and was 
 encouraged to use it. He was taught the use of water-color, crayon, pencil, 
 and freehand scissor cutting. He was trained to observe the object carefully, 
 putting in the main outlines and omitting at least some of the details. He 
 pictured his dog in different attitudes, his toy animals, the tugs and launches 
 on the nearby river, and locomotives with their trains. At that age he under- 
 stood, in a general way, the working of steam valves, cylinders, piston rods, 
 and escape pipes, all of which went into his drawings. His imaginative draw- 
 ings were connected with his reading and other interests. His mother con- 
 stantly worked with him, drawing at his suggestion and allowing him to add 
 thereto at his desire. His sense of form, color, and fine was increased by 
 playing with picture puzzles. Penmanship was begun at about the same time 
 and was rapidly acquired on account of his familiarity with the pencil, gained 
 in drawing. 
 
 From the time he could walk he took a boy's delight in digging in the 
 garden and in using tools in his father's workshop. Manual training was made 
 an essential part of his play. The installation of a heating plant in the house 
 brought up the subject of water pressure. He and his mother experimented 
 with rubber tubes, high and low tanks, getting many a shower, but obtain- 
 ing some really practical knowledge. A careful course of Swedish movements 
 and dancing lessons was counted on to train him in rhythm and in the instant 
 following of directions in gymnastic work. 
 
 It may be worth while to note that in all her work with the boy, his 
 mother tried to follow out the theory that the best teacher is the one who 
 creates in the child a desire to know and to do, and then gives the widest oppor- 
 tunity for knowing and doing. 
 
 Dr. Mary Putnam-Jacobi has recorded^ a valuable educational experiment 
 upon a little girl, beginning when the child was not quite four years old. The 
 work commenced with the study of geometry. In six months, she had learned 
 to draw most of the combinations of straight lines, and she was well acquainted 
 with the forms of all the triangles. She also had a good knowledge of the 
 
 'See Appendix 11. 
 
22 SCHOOL WORK 
 
 various polygons having six or less sides, and she had studied the circle, the 
 semicircle, and cube. She not only knew the names of these magnitudes but 
 she constantly saw them in the natural forms about her. The railroad was 
 pointed out by her as an illustration of parallel straight lines. The curved 
 line was in her mind associated wath living things, while the straight line be- 
 longed wholly to man made objects. At dinner, her silver arranged itself 
 in pentagons, and she found out that by increasing the number of sides in a 
 triangle it gradually approached a circle. Consequently, when she first saw a 
 cylinder, she noted its resemblance to a circle "because it had ever and ever so 
 many sides.'' A more superficial view might have likened it to a prism instead. 
 This constant looking for form led her to a spontaneous study of the alphabet 
 which she learned by steadily copying the letters. At this point the practical 
 application of geometric forms was introduced. She readily saw that no 
 less than three lines could be used to fence in a mischievous pony so that he 
 could not destroy the garden. Thus, the connection was established between 
 the lines with which she had previously been concerned and the actual neces- 
 sities of life. 
 
 When she was five years old, the axiom, "things which are equal to the 
 same thing are equal to each other," was taken up. The question was raised 
 as to the relative height of her cousin, Jenny, who lived in Boston, and her 
 cousin, Fanny, who lived in Syracuse. These two cousins had never seen each 
 other, but she had visited them both and could compare their height wnth her 
 own. She thus became the common measure by which she could determine 
 that the two cousins were equal in height because that of each girl in turn was 
 equal to her own. Similarly, the floor and ceiling of the library were shown 
 to be of the same length because they respectively bordered the same wall. 
 Later on the device of colored sticks was employed, and the first algebraic 
 signs of equality and of inequality were taught without any knowledge of 
 writing. That the child thoroughly understood this axiom was shown by the 
 numerous illustrations which she herself brought forward. Some other axioms 
 were taught in like fashion. That the whole is equal to the sum of all its 
 parts seemed to the child merely descriptive of a large fungus numerously 
 cleft which she picked up during a walk. 
 
 At the age of four and a half the observation of the rainbow was cm- 
 ployed to introduce elementary colors. She distinguished the colors in theii 
 order and rc])roduccd them by means of colored sticks. This succession of the 
 seven colors in the rainbow order was reproduced in a variety of geometric 
 forms, using lines, rectangles, and solids. Later the Egyptian desert and the 
 pyramids were represented by a sand table. On this, fields of rainbow colors 
 were laid out and filled with appropriately colored flowers gathered from her 
 own garden. This entire exercise brought in concejitions of form and color 
 and introduced the subject of botany, showing again the relation of abstract 
 geometry and color to real life. Sustained attention was necessary and many 
 different ideas were wrought into a single complex concept. None of these 
 things were described in words, the endeavor being to give mental content and 
 capacity before introducing language. 
 
 The next step was the study of the points of the compass. She first 
 constructed figures which would serve to indicate the cardinal directions. She 
 
IMPROVED COURSE OF STUDY 
 
 23 
 
 then used these out of doors in connection with the sun at morning and at 
 nightfall. The compass was then shown her, and her country walks were 
 thereafter directed by it. This was her first introduction to the use of scientific 
 instruments, and was followed up by the ruler, spirit level, pulley, wedge, and 
 balance. The ruler and balance together with other measures greatly simplified 
 that portion of her arithmetic. The metric system was taught first, because of 
 its logical nature and because of the simple interrelation of its different sub- 
 divisions. Her mind was thus prepared for the idea of scientific correlation. 
 The common system of weights and measures was then taught, because it 
 was of some practical convenience. These were applied by errands to the 
 grocer and other merchants, and the mere memorization of tables was omitted. 
 
 The third cosmic notion introduced, in addition to color and direction, 
 was that of perspective. Passing ships, trains, and birds were seen to diminish 
 in size as they receded toward the horizon. This observation made a deep 
 impression upon her. It was her first personal knowledge of the discrepancy 
 between appearance and reality, and the necessity of correcting the informa- 
 tion given by the senses. When she was five years old, she was shown in 
 drawing a cube how a slanting line represents a retreat from the foreground. 
 This new discovery was full of interest and was speedily tested in a variety 
 of ways. The possibility of representing a solid object on a flat surface 
 seemed little short of marvelous and was at once introduced into all her draw- 
 ing. To this was added the effect of light and shade in perspective. 
 
 At about the age of five, she began the study of dissected maps of the 
 United States, in order to aid in the clearness of her space conceptions. 
 This plan was used because of its practical interest, instead of the usual 
 survey of familiar localities. The compass was used in this work and the map 
 was turned so that it faced the real north. Only a little information about 
 unknown territory could be given so young a child. Therefore, she established 
 imaginary associations. Virginia was a kneeling camel. Maine was a dog's 
 head. Tennessee was a sled. The study of one map was continued for six 
 months. At the end of this time, she could bound any state and tell the 
 adjoining states in any direction. The work was then continued with a relief 
 globe which gave effects and impressions that could have been obtained from 
 nothing else. She drew outline maps from the globe, revolving it somewhat 
 until she was able to copy all its larger outlines. This geographical study 
 led to four different lines of thought. The first was physical geography, un- 
 mixed with other details. The second was history, because the first map 
 drawn was of Africa on account of its simple outline. This brought in the 
 Mediterranean Valley, and, passing to the eastward, the Indian Ocean and 
 table-lands of northern India. The way was thus prepared for giving her 
 at a later date the descent of our Aryan ancestors and their successors toward 
 the west. The third was a clear presentation of the topography of the 
 earth. The fourth was an elementary philosophical training in the selection 
 of the various details presented by the globe and the arrangement of these 
 details in her own generalization. 
 
 During this year, the transition from plane to solid figures in geometry 
 involved the recognition of some words. She was given wooden models, and 
 from them she learned the names of the cube, sphere, ovoid, oblate, cylinder. 
 
24 SCHOOL WORK 
 
 prism, tetrahedron, etc. She then constructed in parallel columns plane and 
 solid figures with the same number of sides. Her attention was called 
 to the common prefixes, tetra-, penta-, hexa-, etc., which belonged to both 
 columns, and these were placed in the middle. It was then noted that the 
 suffix gon belonged to the plane figures and hedron to the solids. Movable 
 letters were used and the exercises were repeated until perfectly familiar. 
 The clearness of the impression upon the child's mind, as yet unoccupied by 
 other quality notions, was shown a few weeks later by her comment at din- 
 ner when she said that the small, stewed onions were "oblates." The cord 
 of the window shade another day formed two "scalene triangles." The light 
 on the ceiling above the lamp at night made "concentric circles." 
 
 The intrinsic meaning of words was pursued a little further in her study 
 of the ovary and ovule in a flower. Her attention was called to the analogy 
 between the vegetable ovule and the chicken's egg ovum, and the relation of 
 the ovum to the geometric ovoid. The four objects with their names were 
 placed before her and the common root "ov" was taken out. She was also 
 shown that this common root indicated a deep relation between objects which 
 had many superficial differences. When this idea had been clearly formulated 
 and understood, it was temporarily left. That the idea was fully grasped 
 was shown by the fact that the child remarked that a certain potato was 
 shaped like an egg and would therefore be called an ovoid. When asked why 
 she did not call it an ovum, she answered, "Because it is not an egg but, only 
 shaped like an egg." Only her childlike simplicity kept her from asking the 
 waiter for ovules instead of eggs. This precision in the use of terms was 
 followed by distinctions in natural history. For example, a piece of mica was 
 called isinglass in her presence. Procuring a piece of real isinglass, she was 
 privately shown the difference between the two. and cautioned to avoid the 
 slovenly language of the uneducated. After six months' study of the wooden 
 geometric models, a set of crystal models was secured. Sirice each face of 
 the crystal suggested the name of some plane figure, this and her knowledge 
 of the Greek numerals enabled her to recognize twenty-six crystals and even 
 devise their names, such as scalenehedron, rhombio, dedecahedron, etc. This 
 study was carried on until by means of clay models it included axes which 
 were shown to be the basis of classification. 
 
 Arithmetic followed the first studies of form and outline by a few months. 
 At first, by means of sticks of different colors and sizes, she studied the 
 numbers 4, 9, 12, 24, 36, which seem almost like natural entities. These she 
 divided into symmetrical groups of 3's, 4's, and 6's, placed in many a fan- 
 tastic combination. Thus was effected the transition from form to number, 
 by numerous vivid visual impressions. The child's destructive power obviously 
 precedes that of construction, and this tendency was employed in breaking 
 up the above mentioned numerical unities before trying to form them by 
 addition. On reaching the number 27, she was told inadvertently that it was 
 the smallest cube that could be constructed from smaller cubes. A year 
 previous, when four years old, she had learned to handle cubes and at once 
 she corrected the mistake by building a cube from eight blocks. Thus it is 
 seen that ideas given in the right way are tenacious. A child often meets 
 difficulties imsuspected by the teacher. It was found that if she were told 
 
IMPROVED COURSE OF STUDY 25 
 
 to inform Jenny how much money must be given her to buy a i6c. doll when 
 she had 13c., the problem was beyond her power, because, as she said, "You 
 cannot take 13c. from i6c., for Jenny does not have i6c." Her teacher then 
 told her to use sticks with the understanding that blue sticks should represent 
 the imaginary number and red sticks the number actually in hand. Thus 
 she made her first stride into the realm where the existent and the non- 
 existent are associated in practical affairs. At the age of six and a half, 
 she had thoroughly mastered the four operations through long division, and 
 had done considerable with fractions. 
 
 The last study, commenced during her fifth year, was that of organic 
 objects as represented by plants. She began by observing seven beans on a 
 saucer of cotton-wool. A specimen bean had first been dissected, and by 
 daily use the child was rendered quite familiar with the cotyledons, the embryo 
 with its radicle and plumule, and the episperm. She also knew thoroughly the 
 names themselves. The seven beans were given fanciful names when planted, 
 and the teacher wrote a daily journal which was dictated by the pupil. The 
 first appearance of the radicle was noted in the entire history of each bean, 
 and the growth of the plumule into a trailing vine was carefully observed. 
 Emphasis was laid on the succession of events rather than on mathematics. 
 On one occasion the child dictated the following entry: "The episperm or the 
 underside of Tertius is all black and has split, leaving a space, the shape of 
 an equilateral triangle with the apex pointing to the convex side of the cotyle- 
 dons." The second year, seven hyacinths were similarly studied, and she 
 wrote the journal herself. In this process, she first observed the new devel- 
 opment of the plant, and then accurately described it orally. This sentence 
 she then dictated in which process some knowledge of spelling was acquired 
 after which she copied it, concentrating her attention upon the force of the 
 letters. 
 
 As a concession to the prevailing fashion, she was now taught to read, 
 although the study was made quite subordinate. Led by the illustrations, 
 she would select a chapter, and she would generally tell the subject correctly. 
 To some extent she gave the words in each sentence from the context. If 
 the wrong word was offered, she was directed to spell it out by sounds. She 
 always sought the predominant sound and built up the word around it, instead 
 of taking the letters of the word in order. For example, in the word "scratch" 
 she began with the letters "at," placing before them in succession the sounds 
 of r, of c, and of s. To the complete sound scrat, was finally added ch. 
 Much rapid reading with its constant repetition and association of ideas fixed 
 the words in mind. Her teacher went on the principle that written and spoken 
 language should be the expression of thought rather than its object. Reading 
 treated in this way was regarded by the child as an easy and insignificant task. 
 
 The main lessons of the day, never more than one and one-half hours in 
 length, altogether, were arithmetic, map drawing, botany, and geometry, which 
 was taught by the help of Spencer's Inventional Geometry and Hill's First 
 Lessons. Throughout all her instruction, objects were constantly kept before 
 her. The underlying thought of the plan was to follow the course of nature. 
 We awake at birth to consciousness of motion, space, and time. Thus geom- 
 etry naturally precedes arithmetic The child was not rated as unusually bril- 
 
26 SCHOOL WORK 
 
 liant. Carefully arranged, systematic work, however, gave striking results, 
 because her power of composition was excellent, her reading was intelligent, 
 her knowledge of the arithmetic covered was thorough, her powers of obser- 
 vation were developed to a singular degree, and without forcing her at all 
 an extraordinary preparation for the balance of her education had been given. 
 
 No study of unusual educational methods could be considered com- 
 plete, unless it at least touched the private schools. Dr. John Dewey, formerly 
 of Chicago University, now of Columbia, established a school in Chicago in 
 which some good results were obtained. A typical day's work was described 
 by a visitor' somewhat as follows : The children came to school without books 
 and appeared to be more approximately equipped for an excursion than for 
 the ordinary school day. At the usual nine o'clock bell, the pupils assembled 
 in their various rooms with not more than ten to any one teacher. Instead 
 of absolute silence, they took their places in a recognized order and continued 
 their conversation while their attendance was marked. The leader, who car- 
 ried the program for the day, led the way to an assembly in the gymnasium 
 where the morning exercises were largely musical. Class songs were sung, 
 composed by the children who rendered them. The classes then separated to 
 their various rooms for work. One group of ten-year-olds was setting up 
 electric bells. Another group was taking the wool from a sheepskin. From 
 this they shook out the dirt, then spread the fibres straight and wound them 
 on a stick or distaff. From the full distaffs yarn was being made, using 
 spindles constructed in the school shop. Around the room were primitive 
 looms operated by the children who wove small blankets from their own 
 designs. In a nearby room some of the boys were setting up one of the large 
 old-fashioned looms. 
 
 It was the middle of the forenoon before a class was found which, with 
 its Latin recitation, suggested the ordinary school. Another class was dis- 
 cussing the comparative greatness of George Washington and John Smith. 
 Still another class, using a relief map, was trying to decide whether ions 
 would best protect the English colonies from French aggression on the north 
 and west. In all the classes the children talked with an unusual freedom of 
 expression and ability to stick to the point. Reading, writing, and arithmetic 
 were taught while the child was ostensibly doing other things. For example, 
 a class in primitive life had spent weeks with their teacher in finding out how 
 the earliest people had devised their simplest weapons, utensils, and skin 
 clothing in their cave homes. The i)upils had become so interested that they 
 begged to write a report. As none could write, they dictated the report 
 which, after being typewritten, became a reading lesson. Classes a little 
 farther advanced wrote individual reports. 
 
 Arithmetic was brought in by the necessity of preparing the group 
 luncherm. which was served at noon by different members of the class in 
 turn. In a well equipped kitchen, each child cooked one-third of a cup of 
 oatmeal in two-thirds of a cu]) of water. This done, he calculated how much 
 ♦vater he would need for half a cup, and then one child was delegated to find 
 
 ^See Appendix Im. 
 
IMPROVED COURSE OF STUDY 
 
 27 
 
 out and cook sufficient for the whole group, while others did similar tasks. 
 Thus fractions and denominate numbers were stepping stones and not objects 
 of themselves. 
 
 There was no thought of training cooks or factory hands. It 
 was believed that there was an educative value in handling raw materials and 
 mental training in reinventing each stage of their manufacture. One group 
 began by twisting wool in their fingers, forming threads as their ancestors 
 must have done. The stick on which the thread was wound slipped from the 
 fingers of one and. twirling about, suggested the idea of a spindle. In like 
 manner they had evolved spinning wheel and loom, the teacher always present- 
 ing in simplest form the exact difficulty and the solution was then worked 
 out by the pupils. These interesting operations necessitated reading, writing, 
 ciphering, and other more tedious work which they were led to do because 
 of the desire to accomplish what seemed to them of real value. Furthermore, 
 tiie child who reduced anything, such as cloth, to its first elements and then 
 reconstructed it, no longer thought of it as an abstract article, originating in a 
 store. It became to him something of new interest, bringing into his thought 
 many occupations and people. In this way he learned a method of investiga- 
 tion applicable anywhere. 
 
 President Charles F. Thwing took a peculiar interest in the education of 
 his son. He recognized* the fact that by associating himself with a score of 
 parents who had the same problem, they could employ great men and women 
 as tutors. He believed that education should include the promotion of health, 
 the combination of school and home, the best of teaching and the training 
 which prepares for a great life. As may be supposed from this declaration 
 of principles, the boys spent their time from the hours of eight in the morn- 
 ing till six at night under the best physical conditions in large, well warmed, 
 well ventilated school buildings or out of doors. Their play in the afternoon, 
 both outside and in the gymnasium, was under competent direction and always 
 ended with a shower bath or a plunge in the pool. The school was a home 
 school in the sense that it combined home life with independence. It also 
 furnished an atmosphere of parental affection without an excess of its 
 manifestation. 
 
 An important part of any course of study is its plan of progress through 
 the different studies offered or, in other words, its plan of promotions. The 
 so-called Cambridge plan, in which the course of study is arranged in four 
 sections of one year each and also in six sections of one year each, is notable. 
 All pupils start even at the beginning. Those who show evidence of ability 
 take the four years' course. The others take the six years' course. The latter, 
 at the end of three years, can finish in two more by going more rapidly and 
 the former, after two years of study, can go in with the pupils who have just 
 finished their third year at a slower rate. There is, therefore, sufficient 
 elasticity to accommodate all types of mind. 
 
 Another device somewhat similar was tried in California*. About ten 
 
 *See Appendix In. 
 *See Appendix lo. 
 
12 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 8 
 
 58 
 
 195 
 
 3^9 
 
 74 
 
 7S 
 
 30 
 
 I 5 
 
 28 SCHOOL WORK 
 
 years ago the various grades of the Santa Barbara schools were each divided 
 into three sections, known as sections A, B, C. The C sections did the work of 
 their respective grades in a general fashion. The B sections did it more 
 intensively and the A sections completed it. For example, in map geography 
 the beginners, known as the C sections, studied only the most important 
 rivers, cities, etc. The B sections did not need so much drill and would, there- 
 fore, cover the groimd in greater detail. The A section would complete the 
 work. In arithmetic, the C sections would work on the simplest presentation 
 of the topics. The other sections would each add their quota to this 
 knowledge. Only the 835 pupils, who attended the entire year, were con- 
 sidered in the statistics and careful records were kept of their individual 
 progress! The completion of three sections constituted a full year's work. 
 Children were promoted from section C to B and then to A in one grade, 
 and then to sections C of the next higher grade, and so on. In the year 
 covered by this report the slowest children did not complete the work of 
 one section. The brightest children finished as high as eight sections or 
 two and two-thirds years' work. The following table shows the distribution 
 of the 835 children according to the number of sections finished. 
 
 Sections o 
 
 Number of children in each section 28 
 
 The reader will observe that less than half the children came under the head- 
 ing 'three sections " If we combine under the heading "slow" the children 
 who completed less than three sections and call those "fast" who did more 
 than three, we may compare each section with the average as follows: 
 
 281 or 34 per cent, were slow 
 
 369 or 44 per cent, were average 
 
 185 or 22 per cent, were fast. 
 
 The common system of annual promotions would have done injustice to 
 over half, since they would have been retarded or unduly pushed Dy a course 
 of study as ordinarily prepared. Nearly one-third of the slow children (253 
 in all) were advanced at least part of a year's work instead of being obliged 
 to go over the whole again. The principle of promoting each child, when he 
 was fit, did justice to all. 
 
 The following study^ of a special plan of promotion, which is the result of 
 over two years' ol)servation, experiment and adjustment, is oflFered to em- 
 phasize the fact tliat the general rit;i(l plan of ]M-omotions can be profitably 
 modified. It also shows that some children would be vastly better off, \r grvcn 
 a course of study a(lai)ted to their especial needs. For some time it had been 
 the custom in one of the Brooklyn, N. Y., schools to j^romote. during the term, 
 the brightest pupils in certain grades, provided that their marks were high 
 enough to show that they distinctly belonged to the next grade. The 
 
 'See Appendix Ip. 
 
IMP ROT 'ED COURSE OP STUDY 29 
 
 plan worked well and the pupils thus promoted were so uniformly successful 
 in their studies that in September, 1907, it was determined to take the pupil 
 W'ho stood the highest on Oct. ist, in each class, from 2a to 8a and put him 
 into the grade above. The group system had just been introduced, and each 
 class was divided into three groups, known respectively as the poorest, the 
 medium, and the best. The teachers who received these specially promoted 
 pupils treated them at first just as they did the backward ones, giving them 
 the same assistance and personal attention and reporting frequently on the 
 standing of the sections and on the standing of the specially promoted pupils. 
 That some pupils can do the work of the course of study in less than 
 the prescribed time was shown by this experiment. Out of the 13 boys and 13 
 girls promoted Oct. i, 1907, 10 boys and 12 girls were promoted again in 
 February, 1908, at the end of the term. Of these pupils, who were not again 
 promoted at the term's close, one moved away and two failed. Attention is 
 called to the average age of the classes and of the specially promoted pupils. 
 Six boys and six girls were older than the average age of their own classes, 
 four boys were the same age, while three boys and seven girls were younger. 
 It is noteworthy that 46 per cent, of the entire number were older than their 
 classes and were, therefore, entitled to this opportunity, while the others were 
 fully competent to do the work of the advanced grade and thus gain a halt 
 year. One of the girls, after finishing six years in three, graduated nearly 
 at the head of her class and is now doing excellent work in the high school. 
 Of the entire number, not one left school. This is in striking contrast to the 
 large per cent, of pupils who leave school before graduation for various rea- 
 sons. The plan has the merit of stimulating to their best endeavor during 
 the first month of the term the great majority of the pupils, for each one 
 knows that he has a chance to win the promotion. The plan, on the large 
 scale here indicated, was so successful that it was regularly followed there- 
 after. 
 
 The following contribution describes an improved course of study in 
 concrete form. Such a course will preserve the child's interest and carry him 
 along over the work with no loss of time or efifort. It will acquaint him 
 with realities in nature, and not merely with the contents of books. What he 
 must have of conventional abstractions will be given incidentally with 
 activities of hand and eye. By thus utilizing native interests, the expert 
 teacher will gain in results. Miss Mary Ailing Aber gives an account of the 
 experiment which she tried in Boston, Mass. The aim was to introduce the 
 child at once to science, mathematics, literature, and history at the same time, 
 meeting the conventional requirements in the "Three R's." Her story is told 
 mainly in her own words.* 
 
 The experiment began with nine children between the ages of five and a 
 half and seven years. With scales and measuring rod each child was weighed 
 and measured, while such questions were asked as, "Have you ever been 
 weighed before? When? What did you weigh then? How does your weight 
 now compare with your weight then?" The shyest children forgot that they 
 
 *See Appendix Iq. 
 
30 SCHOOL WORK 
 
 were at school, and chatted freely while watching and comparing results. 
 By questions, as to why a present weight or measure was greater than a 
 former one, the statement "Children grow" was obtained. Questions about the 
 causes of growth led to the statements "Children eat," "Children sleep," 
 "Children play." A question, as to whether anything besides children grows, 
 started a talk about animals, in which were given the statement, "Animals 
 grow, Animals eat, Animals sleep. Animals play." In like manner similar 
 statements about plants were obtained. The children were easily led from 
 thinking of a particular child, animal, or plant, to the general conception and 
 the use of the general term. This was the first lesson in natural science. 
 
 Recalling the first general conception reached in this science lesson, a 
 child was asked, "Nina, what did you say children do?" "Children grow," 
 she replied. I said, "I will put on the blackboard something that means what 
 Nina said," and wrote in Spencerian script, "Children grow." In response to 
 invitation,, the children eagerly gave the general statements gained in the 
 science lesson. Each was written on the board and read by the child who gave 
 it. They were told that w'hat they had said and what I had written were sen- 
 tences. Each child read his own sentence again. This w^as the first reading 
 lesson. 
 
 One by one each child stood by me at the board, repeated his sentence 
 and watched while it was w^ritten. He was then taught to hold a crayon, and 
 left to write his sentence beneath the model. When a first attempt was 
 finished, the sentence was written in a new place, and thev:hild repeatd his 
 efforts at copying. In this manner each made from one to four efforts, each 
 time telling what his copy meant, and what he wished his effort to mean. 
 None of this work was erased before the children had gone. This was the 
 first writing lesson. 
 
 The children were led to count their classmates, their sentences on the 
 blackboards, the tables, the chairs, and the other objects in the schoolroom. 
 It was found that all could use accurately the terms one, two, three, and four 
 and the symbols i, 2, 3, 4 were put on the board as meaning what they said, 
 and their power to interpret these symbols with the ideas they represent was 
 tested in various ways. This was the first number lesson. 
 
 The children were shown a magnetic needle and led to note the direction 
 of its points when at rest, and the terms north and south were given. This 
 was the first geography lesson. 
 
 After recess each child read his sentence, wrote it once, and then the 
 subject of the science lesson was pursued further. After special answers to 
 the question, "What do children eat?" the general statement was obtained, 
 "Children eat plants and animals." Similarly, the children were led to give, 
 "Animals cat plants and animals." Then came the question, "What do 
 plants eat?" One suggested the sunshine, another the rain, another the air, 
 others the ground or dirt for which the term soil was given. It was con- 
 cluded that rain, air, and sunshine help ])lants to grow, and that some of their 
 food must come from the soil, and the general statement was given, "Plants 
 get food from the soil." Then I asked, "Where does the soil come from?" 
 Before wonder had given way to opinion, I said, "If you bring luncheons and 
 
IMPROVED COURSE OF STUDY 31 
 
 extra wraps to-morrow, we will go to the country and try to find out where 
 the soil comes from." A poem of Longfellow's was read and the children 
 were dismissed. 
 
 On the second morning the children came bounding in before nine 
 o'clock eager to find and read their sentences, which each did without hesi- 
 lation, and until nine o'clock they amused themselves finding and reading one 
 another's sentences, teaching and challenging in charming style. A few 
 minutes later we started on our first field lesson in science. An hour's street- 
 car ride brought us to the open country. We went into a small field where a 
 ledge of rock presented a bold front. "Children," I said, "the answer to our 
 question is in this field. I wash each of you to find the answer for himself, to 
 speak to no one till he thinks he has found it, and then to whisper it to me." 
 Soberly they turned away and I seated myself and waited. One child looked 
 up at the sky, another at the ground, one began to pull over some gravel, an- 
 other to dig in the soil, most to do some aimless thing because they knew 
 not what to do. After a while some began to climb the ledge and to feel of it. 
 Suddenly one of these darted to me and breathlessly whispered, "I think the 
 soil comes from the rock over there." "Well, don't you tell," I whispered 
 back. The sun climbed higher, but I waited until the last child brought me 
 that whispered reply. Calling them together, I said: "You have all brought 
 me the same answer. Why do you think soil comes from this rock?" They 
 turned to the ledge, picked ofif the loose exterior, and showed me the same in 
 masses at the base. A hammer was produced, with which they picked away 
 the rock until it became too hard for them to break. I then said, "We see 
 that a kind of soil comes from this rock, but what kind did we come to find?" 
 "The soil from which plants get food," they replied. "How do you know 
 that any plants get food from this soil ?" I asked. Instinctively they turned to 
 the cliff, where grasses and weeds were growing in the talus at its base and in 
 crevices all up its front and sides. These they pulled and showed me the 
 roots with the rock soil clinging to them. Referring to the work with the 
 hammer and comparing what they picked off with the hard mass underneath, 
 they were led to describe individually the process of passing from rock to 
 soil, and finally the statement was obtained, "Rock decays to make soil." 
 After luncheon and a bit of play, the children were led to speak of rocks and 
 soils seen elsewhere. Telling the children to shut their eyes and try to 
 picture what I said, I told them that the earth is round like a ball, and is a 
 mass of rock with a little soil on the outside of it; that if a giant could take 
 the earth in his hand, he might peel or scrape off the soil as we take a carpet 
 from the floor, only the soil would seem much thinner than the carpet, because 
 the earth is so big. All had traveled in railway trains, and had such im- 
 pressions of their swiftness that this illustration was used. Suppose we start 
 for the center of the earth in a train. Traveling day and night, it would 
 take nearly a week to reach the center, and another week to reach the sur- 
 face again; and all day while we watched and all night while we slept, we 
 should be rushing through the rock; and if we came out through the thickest 
 layer of soil it would take but a few seconds to pass through it. Then, telling 
 them to open their eyes, I took a peach whose rind was thin and peeled 
 
^2 SCHOOL WORK 
 
 smoothly from the pulp, spoke of the giant as I drew off the rind, and told 
 them that the soil is thinner on the rock ball of earth than the rind on a peach. 
 A few remaining minutes were spent in observing some pine trees and bar- 
 berry bushes growing near. 
 
 On the third day, after reading the sentences already on the board, of 
 which each child read one or more others besides his own, the following 
 sentences were easily elicited: "Children eat plants and animals. Animals eat 
 plants and animals Plants get food from the soil. The soil comes from the 
 rock. Rock decays to make soil." These were written on the blackboard, 
 read, copied by the children as on the first day. This was the natural science, 
 reading and writing of the third day. In number, the children added and sub- 
 tracted ones by making groups and joining and leaving one another. In 
 geography, the first lesson was recalled, and the terms east and west associated 
 with the appropriate points. 
 
 On the fourth day, after the children had retold what they had learned 
 in the science lessons, they were shown a globe, and asked to imagine one as 
 large as the room would hold, and how to represent the earth, they must 
 think it all rock, with only a thin layer of dust to represent the soil. In 
 geography they were shown a map of the school-room, and led to see its 
 relations to the room, and the relative positions of objects in the room and 
 on the map. The next day, on another map, they traced their route to the 
 country, and located the field and ledge of rock where their question was 
 answered. In the fifth day's science lesson, the children were led to speak of 
 rain and wind as washing and blowing off the decayed rock and exposing 
 fresh surfaces, and so increasing the decay, and to give the following sum- 
 mary : "Without decay of rocks there would be no soil ; if no soil, no plants, 
 no animals, no people." In reading they had seventeen sentences, which they 
 read without hesitation and wrote with some resemblance to the originals. 
 In number, none failed to count to ten and to add and subtract ones to ten. 
 Each day a passage of poetry was read at the opening and closing of the 
 session, little songs were taught, gentle gymnastic exercises were introduced 
 between the lessons, and the free arm movement in making long straight lines 
 was added to their lessons in writing. This work of the first week is given to 
 show how the experiment was begun. The classes entering the second and 
 third years were started with dift'erent sets of lessons, but on substantially 
 the same lines. 
 
 Throughout the three years reading was taught as in the first week. 
 When there were enough sentences to make a four-page leaflet of print, they 
 were printed and read in that form. The first transfer from script to 
 print was made at the end of six weeks. The printed leaflets were distributed, 
 the children merely glanced at them ; as yet they were of less interest than 
 the objects usually distributed, I said, "Look at your papers; see, if there is 
 anything on them that you have seen before." Soon one hand was raised, 
 then another, and another. "Rosamond, what have you found?" "I think 
 one of my sentences is here, but it doesn't look just like the one on the board." 
 In less than ten minutes, by comparison of script and print, they read the 
 whole leaflet, each pointing out "my sentences." After a few readings the 
 
IMPROJ^ED COURSE OF STUDY 
 
 33 
 
 children took the leaflets home, tlie sentences were erased from the boards 
 and the sanie process repeated with the new matter which was accumulating. 
 I expected the children to forget much of this reading and was surprised to 
 find that they did not. One morning in March, a visitor, who was looking 
 over the accumulated leaflets, asked to have them read. 1 told her that they 
 had been read when first printed only ; but she urged the test and I distributed 
 them as they happened to come. The first leaflet fell to the youngest girl, 
 and I think I was more amazed than our visitor when she read it without 
 faltering. The visitor asked her, "What does palmately veined mean, where 
 you read The leaf of the cotton plant is palmately veined'?" The child 
 replied, 'T can show what it means better than I can tell it." "Show us, then, 
 Marjorie," I said. The child drew on the board a fairly correct outline of a 
 cotton plant leaf, inserted its palmate veining, and turning to the visitor 
 pointed to that veining. All the leaflets were read without help, nothing was 
 forgotten, neither ideas nor words, as the visitor assured herself by question- 
 
 mp-. 
 
 No effort was made to use a special vocabulary, to repeat words, to avoid 
 scientific terms; there was no drill in phonics or spelling, no attention was 
 paid to isolated words as words, for a thought was the basis of expression. 
 In the science lessons the minds of the pupils were intent on getting ideas 
 and on expressing them. A direction to look or think again usually sufficed 
 to change vague, wordy expressions into clear, terse ones, by giving the child 
 clear and accurate conceptions. When his own vocabulary was exhausted, he 
 was promptly helped to words by classmates or teacher, the effort being to 
 use the speech of cultivated people. 
 
 At first the reading could, by no means, keep pace with the science 
 lessons; from the mass of expressions obtained some were selected for the 
 reading and writing matter. With increase of power to remember forms and 
 combinations of letters and words, the number of sentences was increased, 
 until what was gained in the science lessons was reproduced in the reading 
 lessons. This increase was rapid. From the first field lesson two sentences— 
 eleven words — only could be taken, while a field lesson near the close of the 
 second year, yielded ninety-seven sentencs — over eleven hundred words. In 
 the former the sentences were written on the board and read every day for 
 five weeks ; in the latter they were taken down in pencil, by the teacher, as the 
 children gave them, arranged according to topics, printed, and presented in 
 the printed form for the next reading. There was little hesitation in that 
 reading, so vivid were the impressions from such a day out-of-doors. 
 
 During the first year a little reading matter was drawn from lessons in 
 literature and history. This was gradually increased during the second and 
 third years. Still the sentences for reading were taken chiefly from the 
 science lessons, because there could be more certainty of the child's having 
 accurate and well-defined ideas as the basis of each expression, and the sen- 
 tences could be more completely their own. In March of the first year read- 
 ing-books were introduced. At the first trial they took Swinton's Easy Steps 
 for Little Feet, and in twelve minutes read a page-and-a-half story. Of their 
 own accord they sought and independently obtained from the context the 
 
34 SCHOOL WORK 
 
 meaning of all uut two of the unfamiliar words, and gave to express the 
 meanings either che exact words of the book or synonymoj.is ones, for which 
 those of the book were substituted. After this they read from books when- 
 ever such reading could be related to their other work — not much otherwise. 
 While the production by the children of the bulk of their reading matter was 
 a prominent feature, this w^as not the object of the experiment, but merely an 
 adjunct to the chief end in view-. Nor were the science topics selected with 
 reference to the reading matter, but on their own merits, mutual reflections, 
 and the capacities of the children. 
 
 As soon as a child's writing on the blackboard could be read by his 
 classmates? — copy being erased — he began to write at his desk with pencil on 
 unruled paper, the copy being still written on the board. When all had 
 reached this stage, concert arm and finger movements were taught. During 
 the second and third years, the forms of the letters and combining strokes 
 were analyzed, and each drawn on a large scale to accurate measurements. 
 
 They saw no misspelled words and were not asked to spell or write 
 isolated words. During the first and second years they usually had a copy 
 from which they w-rote, in the third year they wrote original exercises. They 
 were told to ask. when not sure how to write a word. The word was 
 written on the board ; no effort was made to have them think how a word 
 should look, no matter how many times they had seen it written and printed. 
 
 Work in the natural and physical sciences, starting with broad concep- 
 tions, was carried forward along various lines, care being taken to show 
 relations, and to lead the children to regard themselves as a part of nature. 
 In mineralogy and geology, the paving, building, and ornamental stones most 
 used in Boston ; the ores of the principal metals, and their products ; graphite 
 and the making of pencils ; gypsum and halite, were studied, each child getting 
 his knowledge from the specimens before him. Each was furnished with a 
 testing outfit, including what a field geologist commonly carries, except the 
 blowpipe and reagents to use with it ; and these children from six to ten soon 
 learned to use the outfit w^ith as much skill as any adults whom I have taught. 
 
 In physics, lessons were given on extension and gravity ; on the solid, 
 liquid, and gaseous states of matter ; on heat as the force producing expansion 
 and contraction ; on the evaporation, condensation, and freezing of water, 
 with results in dew, snow, and the disintegration of rocks ; on movements of 
 air as agents producing wind and storms ; on the thermometer ; on magnets 
 and two of their uses. In chemistry, lessons were given on air and its com- 
 position ; on combustion and its products on iron rust, as to formation and 
 effects on iron; on CO= as an ingredient of calcitc, and a product of breath- 
 ing; on acids as tests for lime rocks containing CO=; on the distinction between 
 physical and chemical changes. In astronomy, a few lessons were given on 
 the relations of sun and earth as causmg day and night and the seasons. 
 
 Botany was pursued in the fall and spring months. In the spring the 
 children planted a window^ garden, from which they drew plants for the 
 study of germination and growth. From garden and wild plants they studied 
 buds and their developments, and the forms, parts, and uses of some leaves, 
 flowers, and fruits. A series of lessons on plants yielding textile fabrics 
 
IMPROVED COURSE OF STUDY 35 
 
 and the manufactures from them was projected; but, owing to the difficulty of 
 getting- plants in proper condition, the only portion given was that on the 
 cotton plants. Fine specimens of these were received from Georgia, which 
 kept fresh nearly two weeks, and showed all stages, from flower bud to 
 open boll of cotton fiber. No work in' zoology was done, save the giving 
 of a few lessons on silkworms and sheep, as yielding silk and wool. In 
 physiology, lessons were given on the general parts of the body; on tlie 
 joints, skin, hair, nails, and teeth ; on the chest and the process of breathing 
 and its products; on food and digestion — all with reference to the care of the 
 body, keeping the lungs from disease, and the true object of taking food. 
 Geography was connected with science, history, and literature — the original 
 habitat and migrations of rocks and plants, and the location of events leading 
 to imaginary journeys. The forms of water and land, and a demonstration 
 of the shape of the earth by the positions and appearances of vessels at sea, 
 were gained in lessons to the country and seashore. Boston and its sur- 
 rounding townships were studied in connection with lessons in local history. 
 Maps, globes, compass, and modeling clay were used throughout the course. 
 
 While the w'ork in mathematics was not so fully developed on new lines 
 as in other subjects, some work done in the first year may be of interest to 
 the reader. In a field lesson of the second week, some distinguishing features 
 of the apple, beech, pitch and white pine trees were noted and branches ob- 
 tained. These branches furnished material for many days' number lessons. 
 Apple leaves with their two stipules, pitch-pine sheaths with their three 
 needles, beechnut exocarps with their four sections, and white pine sheaths 
 with their five needles, were used by the children in constructing concrete 
 number tables, which — picking up the objects — they recited as follows: "In 
 one sheath of white pine are five needles ; in two sheaths of white pine are two 
 times five needles," etc. When the concrete table was familiar, the same 
 number relations were written on the blackboard with figures and symbols. 
 In this manner the children learned the four classes of tables as far as sixes. 
 Meanwhile the study of geometrical forms and the plant lessons gave illustra- 
 tion and review. In January, work with money was begun, and continued 
 through the remainder of the year ; but other opportunities to give practice 
 in number were utilized — as, the six faces of the halite crystal, the six stamens 
 of the tulip, etc. To get unworn coins we sent to the Philadelphia mint. In 
 two lessons the children learned the names and values of one copper, two 
 nickel, four silver, and six gold pieces; in the third, by placing piles of coin 
 side by side, they constructed and learned the table : 
 
 Two silver half-dollars equal one gold or silver dollar. 
 
 Four silver quarter-dollars equal one gold or silver dollar. 
 
 Ten silver dimes equal one gold or silver dollar. 
 
 Twenty nickel pieces equal one gold or silver dollar. 
 
 One hundred copper pennies equal one gold or silver dollar. 
 
 On the following day a new concrete table was prepared, and the dollar 
 sign, figures, symbols, and decimal point were substituted for the words in 
 the written work. The relative values of the lower denominations to one 
 another were taught, and tables constructed and written. The different 
 
5^ SCHOOL WORK 
 
 denominations of paper money up to the fifty dollar bill were added to the 
 coins; and this money — about one hundred and fifty dollars — was used in 
 business transactions, which gave review of the number relations already 
 learned, and taught those necessary to the construction and comprehension of 
 the remaining tables. At the end of eight months the children could use and 
 write numbers to one hundred and fifty, and the signs +, — , x, -f-, =, $ and 
 . (decimal point) ; and understood the values of position in notation to three 
 places to the left and two to the right of a decimal point. Also, in the oral 
 work with money, they readily used the fractions one-half, one-fourth, one- 
 tenth, one-twentieth and one-hundredth ; and most of them could write 
 from memory the usual tables from one to twelve. In this first year no effort 
 was made to do a defined kind or amount of work. The children spent from 
 twenty to thirty minutes each day at some mathematical work, but progress 
 and variety depended on their interest and capacities. A visitor who had 
 spent forty years in teaching sat through one of these primary sessions. He 
 expressed pleasure and surprise at the work of the children in science, read- 
 ing, and other branches, but was incredulous, at first, about the work in 
 number with the money at their desks, and the written work in figures and 
 signs at the blackboards. He went around among the children, tested them, 
 and watched to see if there w^ere not some trick of parrot-like performance. 
 Finally, convinced of the genuine comprehension of what they were doing, by 
 these children of six and seven, he said, "I should not have believed it on the 
 statement of any man or woman whom I have known, but I have seen it with 
 my own eyes." 
 
 It is a matter of regret to me that growing burdens of care forbade the 
 development of the number work during the second and third years on the 
 lines laid down in the first year. To spend half an hour to an hour a day for 
 ten years at mathematics with no better results than the average boy and girl 
 of sixteen can show, looks like a great waste of time and energy. The cause 
 may be twofold : First, that the beginning work is made silly by its simplicity, 
 and insipid by being related to nothing interesting; second, that processes 
 like the subtraction of large numbers and long division are pressed upon 
 the child before his powers are equal to its comprehension. 
 
 The last fifteen minutes of each day were devoted to literature. Selec- 
 tions with biography and anecdote constituted the materials for these les- 
 sons. Advantage was taken of birthdays, anniversaries, and natural pheno- 
 mena. Storms furnished the accompaniments to Lowell's The First Snow 
 Fall, portions of Whittier's Snowbound, Longfellow's Rainy Day, Bryant's 
 Rain, Shelley's Cloud, etc. Flowers brought by the children were related 
 to readings from Burns, Wordsworth, Emerson, Lowell, Bryant, Whittier. and 
 Longfellow. Emerson's Rhodora was committed to memory and recited, a 
 cluster of the purple blossoms being in sight. Selections were made with 
 primary reference to their value. Biography was usually employed to heighten 
 interest in literature, for its own sake when embodying noble sentiments, as 
 Scott's struggle against debt. Sidney's gift of water to the soldier. By such 
 tales of heroic effort and action it was hoped to develop courage, honor, and 
 devotion to duty. 
 
IMPROVED COURSE OF STUDY 37 
 
 Aside from clear language in narration, accompanied by pictures of per- 
 sons and places, and such reading as expresses the rhythms and meaning, no 
 effort was made to have biography or literature understood. Many children 
 have such an appreciation of melody that a fine poem, well read, will hold 
 their attention. Just before Christmas in our first year, I read a portion of 
 ]\Iilton's Hymn on the Nativity, and said, "I hope you will, some day, read 
 the whole and like it." "Please read it all now," said several voices. So it 
 was all read and the children listened intently. Milton's picture was put away, 
 and nothing said of him for a year. When his picture was again put on the 
 easel, a hand was at once raised. ''What is it, Tracy?" "I know who that 
 is." ''Who?" "Mr. John Milton." "What do you remember about him?" 
 "He gave his eyes for liberty," an expression which, so far as my knowledge 
 of the child went, he had not heard from any one, but was his own terse sum- 
 ming up of the narrative he had heard a year before, when barely six years 
 old. Most children have such an appreciation of justice and heroism that 
 they will even walk more erectly after listening to a tale involving these quali- 
 ties. I shall not forget, how gravely and proudly fifty children withdrew from 
 the school room after listening to the story of Sidney's death. An unspoiled 
 child has usually a vivid imagination ; and it is as pernicious to meddle with 
 the formation of his mental pictures in literature as it is in science lessons to 
 keep telling him that which he can get from his specimens. The child's mind 
 should be brought into direct contact with the realities in history and litera- 
 ture, and left to work at them with the least possible interference and g'uid- 
 ance. If a child attempted to repeat a quotation or fact, accuracy was re- 
 quired, but he was not urged to remember. Much in the literature lessons was 
 above the child's comprehension; but it was thought well for each child to 
 feel a breath from the mountains above and beyond, a breath whose coolness 
 and fragrance he might feel without analysis or comprehension of its quali- 
 ties. To have felt was enough. So we paid no attention to ordinary poems 
 and tales for little children, but introduced the children at once to Long- 
 fellow and Emerson, Wordsworth and Scott, Milton and Shakespeare. 
 
 There was regular study of history for each year. Copies of early and 
 late maps of Boston w^ere given to each child. The older one was drawn on 
 transparent paper, so as to be laid over the later one and show directly the 
 changes and extensions into river and harbor. Colored crayon maps and 
 pictures were used to illustrate the historical narrative. These narratives 
 were drawn mostly from local events, as the settlement of Boston, with cer- 
 tain old Boston worthies as centers, about whom incidents were grouped, 
 the beginning of the Revolutionary war, with a visit to the Washington elm at 
 Cambridge ; some incidents of slavery and the Civil War connected with Gar- 
 rison. Extracts from diaries, letters, etc., were printed on leaflets and read 
 by the children, who drew their own inferences. These readings from original 
 sources were mostly confined to the third and fourth classes as the language 
 used was too dif=flcult for children of the first two years. Sometimes gratifying 
 volunteer work was done ; as when a boy of eight learned the whole of- Paul 
 Revere's Ride and recited it standing at the blackboard and tracing on a 
 colored map of Boston and surrounding townships the route taken by the 
 
38 SCHOOL WORK 
 
 rider. This work in history was done by ^Nliss Nina jMoore (Mrs. F. B. Tif- 
 fany) who developed it with such skill as to fascinate the children. (See 
 her books Pilgrims and Puritans, and From Colony to Commonwealth.) 
 
 The industrial part of the experiment was started at the beginning ot 
 the third year. Each child was provided with a bench and ten tools — ruler, 
 try square, scratch awl, saw, vise, plane, chisel, brad awl, hammer, nail set. 
 The children of the two younger classes made a box with the cover hinged on 
 with strips of leather; those of the two older, a case with shelves fitting into 
 grooves. The work was divided into steps, each of which was mastered be- 
 fore the next was tried. All the children began the use of a ruler in 
 measurements to an eighth of an inch. The try square came next. As soon as 
 a true line was drawn, the saw was used to divide the board. After the first 
 day, no tw^o children were together, each one's position depending upon his 
 own results. The third step (the cross cut saw) detained most of the children 
 several weeks; a true cut with its face at right angles to each face of the board 
 was required. This the children tested for themselves. Often during the first 
 work with saws, a child w^ould ask "Will that do?" "Test it," was the reply. 
 Reluctantly, the child applied the test and renewed his courage as best he 
 could. After a time the desire to use a new tool and to get on as some other 
 child did, gave way to desire for perfection. This brings me to the chief end 
 of the work, not skill in handicrafts nor any finished products, but to put be- 
 fore the children concrete examples of the true and the false, in such a 
 manner that the child himself should judge his own work by some unvarying 
 standard. As an instance of the moral effects : One of the older boys was 
 the first to finish the shelves and both sides of his case all but one groove. 
 The excitement of this eminence dizzied him, and that groove was a failure 
 for being too wide it left an ugly crack above the shelf. No one was more 
 sensitive to that ugliness than he ; but the struggle between his desire for 
 perfection and the fancied humiliation of making another side and letting 
 some other child be the first to complete a case went on for some time. Finally, 
 with a manly efifort to keep the tears from falling, he laid the faulty side 
 among the failures and began again. To give up the work of many days and 
 the prospect of coming out ahead was to win a great battle not for himself 
 alone, but for his comrades. For use, the rejected side was almost as good 
 as perfection itself, but the boy's mind yielded obedience to ideals of truth 
 and beauty. Such yielding of lower motives to higher ones, such discipline 
 of patience and judgment as these lessons gave, were not reached in any 
 other line of work. 
 
 In our experiment there was one session a day for eight months. Less 
 than five hours a week were given to the science lessons and the reading 
 drawn from them. The saving of time in other studies was almost equally 
 great; and besides the large body of superior knowledge opened to the 
 children, the ordinary proficiency in all subjects commonly taught in pri- 
 mary schools was generally reached. This demonstrates the fallacy of the 
 current opinion that children cannot be taught science, literature and history, 
 and at the same time master the usual three R's. 
 
IMPROVED COURSE OP STUDY 39 
 
 Among the effects may be mentioned : 
 
 1. The children learned to ask serious questions. In a lesson on clouds 
 and rain, Emma asked, "Why is the rain not salt, if most of the cloud vapor 
 comes from the ocean?" She was told to dissolve a certain amount of salt, 
 to evaporate the solution over a fire, and note the results. On the following 
 day she reported that the same amount of salt was left after the evaporation 
 as she had first used, and gave as her conclusion that ocean-water in evapo- 
 rating leaves all its salt behind ; and the youngest boy added, "Then only 
 pure water can float up into the blue sky." 
 
 2. They learned that opinion without knowledge is folly. In planting 
 a window garden, they put seeds in pots of earth; I, between wet blotting 
 papers. Their decided opinion was that my seeds would not grow. A week 
 later they were eager to give this sentence, "The seeds in Miss Alling's 
 garden did grow." 
 
 3. They became fond of mental activity. They were nor marked, for- 
 mally examined, hurried, nor required to do a certain amount of definite 
 work in a definite time. This freedom and leisure transformed their first 
 laborious, timid thinking into a delight, which they entered upon spontane- 
 ously and fearlessly as upon their outdoor physical games. 
 
 4. Their habits of thinking improved. At first they showed but a super- 
 ficial interest in the objects studied, and much questioning was needed to 
 direct and hold their attention ; later, they voluntarily seized upon the marked 
 features of objects and phenomena, and pursued them until practically ex- 
 hausted. We did not flit hither and thither, giving the children new objects 
 of study each day, but kept them at work upon one so long as it could yield 
 anything within their comprehension. As an instance, successive lessons on 
 the cotton plant were given for three weeks. 
 
 5. Their perceptions became almost unerring. At the Museum of the 
 Boston Society of Natural History, one day Katherine exclaimed, as we 
 rapidly passed a case of minerals, "There's some graphite." Turning and 
 seeing some whitish specimens, I said, "Oh, no; have you forgotten how 
 graphite looks?" The child insisted, and we turned back to the case. Sure 
 enough, on one shelf the white rocks contained grains and threads of graph- 
 ite, which fact the child had gathered in one rapid glance. 
 
 6. Memory became active and generally true. It was aimed to pursue 
 all things in order, with regard to natural relations and associations; beyond 
 this the cultivation of memory was committed to the qualities of the ideas 
 presented. The result seemed to prove that memory is retentive in propor- 
 tion to the activity and concentration of the whole consciousness, and that 
 this is proportioned to the interest of the subject matter. 
 
 7. Imagination was vivid and healthy, producing clear reproduction, apt 
 illustration, sometimes witty caricature, and occasionally thought and expres- 
 sion delicate and lovely enough to be worthy the envy of grown-up literati. 
 
 8. There was a beginning made in the habits of independent examination 
 of any matter, of honestly expressing the results of such examination, and 
 stoutly maintaining one's own ideas until convinced of error, and then of 
 readiness to adopt and defend the new, however opposed to the old. These 
 habits lead to mental rectitude, robustness, and magnanimity, which qualities 
 confer the power of discriminating values ; for pride of opinion gives blind- 
 
40 SCHOOL WORK 
 
 9. In waiting for nature to answer questions — sometimes they waited 
 three weeks or more — and in continual contact with her regularity and de- 
 pendence on conditions, they gained their first dim conceptions of what law 
 means, and of the values of patience and self-control, and of realities as 
 opposed to shams. Finding in Nature mysteries which the wisest have not 
 explained, a half-conscious reverence stole upon them — the beginnings ot 
 true spiritual growth. 
 
 At first the experiment called forth much criticism. At home the chil- 
 dren told about rocks and plants, and related stories from history and litera- 
 ture, but said little about reading and writing. Parents came to see, and 
 universally condemned the method. One mother said, "My daughter will 
 study geology and literature when the proper age comes ; I wish her now 
 to learn reading and writing, and have simple lessons in arithmetic and 
 geography." But she yielded to the child's entreaties, and allowed her to 
 be experimented upon. Later, this mother visited the department to express 
 her wonder and satisfaction at her daughter's progress in reading, writing, 
 and number. A father, after visiting the department, said, "My boy isn't 
 learning anything; he's having a twaddle of experiments." Three months 
 afterward he said, "My boy's whole attitude of mind is changed; he looks 
 at the world with new eyes, and is also progressing rapidly in the studies 
 common to children of his age." 
 
 A criticism frequently met was that the vocabulary was too difficult, 
 and, being largely scientific and technical, could not fit children to read 
 children's books. Experience proved the contrary. Reading for ideas, the 
 children were not deterred by a few unfamiliar words. In reading stories 
 in books, they could usually get the principal ideas ; and to infer the meaning 
 of the unknown forms had much novelty and interest. It was also objected 
 that the ideas themselves were too difficult, and could not possibly be com- 
 prehended by the children. In a language lesson of the second year, Frank 
 gave the sentence, "The soil is thin." A visitor asked, "Did you ever see a 
 well dug?" "Oh. yes; at my grandfather's, last summer." "Was the soil 
 there thick or thin?" "Thick," "How thick?" Looking from the floor to 
 the ceiling, "Thicker than from this floor to the ceiling." "Then what do 
 you mean by saying that the soil is thin?" was asked in a mocking, discon- 
 certing tone. Frank dropped his eyes in thought ; after a moment he said, "1 
 mean it is thin when you think of all the way down to the center of the 
 earth." This boy entered before he was six years old, and was at this time 
 barely seven. 
 
 Teachers who visited this department said. "You have a comparatively 
 small number of children from cultivated families ; even similar results could 
 not be obtained in the large, miscellaneous public-school classes." This could 
 be met, then, by the statement that mind has everywhere the same elemental 
 possibilities, and must yield similar results for the same influence, although 
 the time required might be much lengthened. This criticism has now been 
 answered in part by the results of a trial made in the public schools of 
 Englewood, 111., an account of which will appear in a subsequent paper. 
 
 The few scientists who knew of the experiment looked on with favor. 
 "It is the ideal way," said one. "A realization of my dreams." said another. 
 
IMPROVED COURSE OF STUDY 41' 
 
 An eminent leader in educational affairs in this country objected that the 
 great majority of our primary school teachers could not follow in the same 
 line, because lacking the requisite body of knowledge. When courses of 
 study for lower schools are made out by eminent specialists, with a view 
 to putting into the hands of children the beginnings of their own lines of 
 research, and when school authorities provide courses of lectures and other 
 means of furnishing to teachers the necessary body of knowledge, I think 
 teachers will, as a whole, be quick to respond to the demand and the oppor- 
 tunity—as a release from the belittling effects of their present monotonous 
 drudgery with trivial ideas, if for no higher motive. 
 
 In conclusion, the reader may wish to ask, "Was the experiment, after 
 all, a success?" I answer, "As a demonstration of the possibility and value 
 of introducing httle children to real learning, yes; as a realization of my 
 ideals, no." I was conscious that there was much that was superficial in 
 the work, and that, in striving to avoid shadows and to grasp the real sub- 
 stance of education, I often grasped but another and a finer sort of shadow. 
 ]\Iay some other teacher, having greater fitness for the work, and a longer 
 opportunity for effort, reach the goal for which I started. The instruction, 
 such an one could give about primary education, is needed all over our 
 beloved land. 
 
 The public school efforts at the solution of this problem have brought 
 out attempts and plans which can be classified under the following heads: 
 
 I. The Cambridge Plan.— In this scheme, the high-school course of study 
 IS laid out in two ways, one covering four years of time, and the other 
 covering six. Pupils about to enter the high school are divided into two 
 groups— the bright and the slow. The bright pupils are put into the four 
 years' course, and the slow ones into the six years' course. For a variety 
 of reasons, it often happens that so-called bright pupils at the end of two 
 years will find themselves overworked. These pupils are then put into the 
 longer course with pupils who are just finishing their third year. Many of 
 the slow pupils find that the time allowed for the six years' course is more 
 than they need, and they are very glad of the opportunity to finish their 
 course in two years instead of in three. Thus, the first-mentioned children 
 will finish in five years a course which they originally planned to finish in 
 four years. The others will complete in five years a course in which they 
 had expected to spend six. All types of physical vigor are thus cared for, 
 and no one is obliged to drop out of school from overwork. 
 
 2. The Elizabeth, N. J., Plan.— In this system, the classes are so graded 
 that instead of being a whole term or a year apart they are graded a month 
 apart, the most talented children being in the most advanced class. Pupils 
 who are competent to do the work of a grade in less than the time allotted, 
 which is usually a half year, are encouraged to work ahead of their class- 
 mates. As soon as they are two weeks ahead, they are put into the class 
 next above to which they speedily catch up. If they find themselves able, 
 they may again work on ahead and repeat the process of promotion as often 
 as they please. The advantage of this plan is that the pupil will at no time 
 find the new class more than two weeks ahead, and the hiatuses caused by 
 jumps that involve a half year or more are unknown. 
 
42 SCHOOL WORK 
 
 3. The Pueblo Plan. — Here the children receive individual attention from 
 their teachers instead of class instruction. This individual work presumably 
 enables the pupils to progress much more rapidly than they otherwise would, 
 and they are promoted at any time. 
 
 4. The Batavia Plan. — Under this plan large class rooms and very large 
 classes are the rule. Two teachers are put in charge of each room. One 
 teaches the class as a whole, while the other gives attention to the backward 
 pupils. The object of this plan is to promote more than the usual eighty 
 per cent., and the individual work with the backward children is said to 
 accomplish this result. 
 
 5. Departmental Teaching. — Each teacher is put in charge of certain 
 subjects of which she has made a special study, and which she is especially 
 well qualified to teach. The pupils pass from teacher to teacher, completing 
 the cycle once a week. This plan is largely followed in the seventh and the 
 eighth years of the elementary schools and in the high schools. 
 
 6. Group Teaching. — Each class is divided into two or three groups in 
 the leading subjects of the course. The foremost group is pushed ahead 
 at full speed, studying intensively the work of the grade. The others follow 
 as best they can, the smaller numbers giving the teacher time for more 
 personal attention. A fuller discussion is given later. 
 
 7. Preacademic Schools. — In this plant, all the seventh and eighth year 
 classes of all the schools in a given neighborhood are organized as one sepa- 
 rate school run on the departmental plan. The chief advantage herein is that 
 the smaller classes of the several schools are combined into fewer large classes 
 in the one school. The csprit-dc-corps which comes to a large school com- 
 posed wholly of rather mature pupils will hardly compensate for tlie loss 
 which comes from the increased numbers given to each teacher. Further- 
 more, such a division deprives the school of the services of the higher salaried, 
 better teachers of those grades. The example and the actual work of such 
 teachers always strengthens the whole school and has a beneficial effect on the 
 entire institution. Such a plan as this really is detrimental to the schools as 
 a whole, and is of doubtful advantage even to the children who are directly 
 concerned. 
 
 8. Extension Classes. — Short commercial or industrial courses are intro- 
 duced to supplement the regular elementary course. Many pupils drop out 
 of this course during the last two years of school and attend privately given 
 courses that fit them for minor clerkships. As a rule, business courses for 
 children of this age are only given in outside institutions. l)ut this plan con- 
 templates making them part of the public school and allowing the pupils 
 who so desire to take them without receiving credit toward graduation. 
 Pupils who stop school at the end of the sixth year are obliged to lake up 
 unskilled labor to gain a livelihood. Business courses fit them for clerical 
 positions, but that has the disadvantage of tending to place immature boys and 
 girls in a kind of work which makes manual labor distasteful, even though 
 there is a greater demand for and it is better paid. Such courses will help 
 keep the children in school, however, and during the last two years the shop- 
 work and domestic science courses will servo to instil more respect for 
 
IMPROVED COURSE OF STUDY 43, 
 
 manual labor, and, as the graduates are eligible for admission to the voca- 
 tional schools, the extension classes will not prove to be an unmixed evil. 
 
 9. Special Classes for Overage or Foreign-born Children. — Through ill 
 health or truancy it frequently happens that pupils who are old enough to 
 go to work legally are a long ways short of the required education. These 
 are put into special classes, whose membership is small, and the teachers are 
 instructed to present only the essentials and in that way to fit the children as 
 speedily as possible to meet the legal educational requirements for employ- 
 ment certificates. Similar classes are also formed for foreign-born children 
 who can neither read nor speak English. Such persons are frequently fairly 
 well educated in the country from which they came, and this opportunity 
 enables them to become self-supporting much sooner than would otherwise 
 be possible. In these classes, attention is confined to the study of English, 
 and the pupils are pushed as rapidly as possible into the grades for which 
 their other scholastic attainments fit them. 
 
 10. Promotion by Subjects. — Promotions are usually made because the 
 pupil has passed in all the work of his grade. They are often made because 
 the candidate has passed in a majority of. the subjects which he has studied 
 during the term. As a result, some few subjects in his course are practically 
 skipped, or if the child is not promoted, he is obliged to trudge painfully for 
 another term over subjects wdiich he knows quite well. As an alternative, 
 the child is promoted in the subjects in which he passed, and is kept back in 
 the others till he completes them. This results in a more thorough, fairer 
 course. 
 
 11. Ungraded Classes. — Throughout the city are scattered unfortunate 
 children whose mentality is obscured and wdio are, in consequence, either in- 
 corrigible, or are unable to learn except with the most careful personal atten- 
 tion. These classes are usually quite small, and receive the most skilful atten- 
 tion that the city can provide. 
 
 12. Chicago Plan. — An ambitious teacher with an unusual class is encour- 
 aged to carry her class over the term's work in the shortest possible time. As 
 soon as the work of the term is finished acceptably to the supervising officer, 
 the teacher is given permission to go on with the work of the next term, thus 
 sometimes finishing the work of three terms in two. 
 
 13. North Denver Plan. — It is well known that an effort to teach involves 
 one in more thorough study than any other method. Acting on this principle, 
 teachers who employ it pair off the dull pupils and the bright ones, asking the 
 latter to tutor the former carefully in the topics which are ordinarily found 
 difficult. 
 
 14. Brooklyn Plan.— Pupils are promoted on trial whose chances of stay- 
 ing in the higher grades are too slight to entitle them to the regular promotion. 
 In addition to this, at the beginning of the second month of the new term, the 
 most advanced pupil in each grade from 2A to 8A, inclusive, is placed on trial 
 in the grade above. As often as may seem necessary thereafter the class 
 teacher reports to the principal the studies in which the specially promoted 
 pupil is doing satisfactory work, the studies in which the work is passable and 
 those in which it is excellent. The report also includes the deportment mark. 
 the effort mark and the attendance. This report is made on a blank furnished 
 
44 SCHOOL WORK 
 
 to the teacher, and pupils who do not make satisfactory progress are sum- 
 moned to the office, where they must explain every portion of the report that 
 is unsatisfactory. After a warning they are sometimes given another trial, 
 and in nearly every case such students catch up with the new class. Full dis- 
 cussion of the results of this plan is given in a preceding section. 
 
 It will be observed that all these plans look toward a release from the 
 handicap caused by the large numbers which the teacher is obliged to have in 
 her class. There is very little effort made in these devices to push along the 
 brilliant pupils or to pay them any especial attention. It would seem, there- 
 fore, that the resources of the public school with its mass instruction furnishes 
 no panacea for the evils of retardation to which the most talented public school 
 pupils are subjected. If a remedy were demanded from the public school, the 
 case would be well-nigh hopeless. The testimony of the value of these experi- 
 ments is uniformly good so far as large numbers are concerned. There is insuf- 
 ficent advantage, however, to the individual child except the dubious one of 
 being pushed along more rapidly by the impulse of the throng whose pace has 
 been accelerated. 
 
 The plans referred to above as 8, 9, 11, deal with especial types of chil- 
 dren or with those who cannot remain in school long enough to secure an ad- 
 vanced education. These three plans will, therefore, be given no further place 
 in this discussion. Plan No. 13 smacks of the old Lancastrian scheme which 
 was devised to save the expense of employing more teachers. It was not a 
 success, for it substituted inferior instruction for that of skilled teachers, and 
 it was, in course of time, abandoned after a thorough trial. Such a plan would 
 be given no thought if the class were small enough so that the teacher could 
 do justice to each individual. This brings us at once to the fundamental reason 
 for the invention of all the plans described above, i. e., classes that are too large. 
 Until we reach the stage where parents are educated to a willingness to tax 
 themselves and their childless neighbors as heavily as may be necessary, the 
 classes in public schools will be larger than they ought to be. This is the cru- 
 cial point. In New York City, where the public schools are as good as any in 
 the country, the Board of Education has a by-law which prescribes that classes 
 in the primary department shall be limited to fifty members and from the 
 fifth to the eighth year they shall be limited to forty members, unless by spe- 
 cial permission of the Board of Superintendents. Following right on the 
 heels of this by-law is a ruling promulgated by the said Board of Superin- 
 tendents declaring that "no child of six years old or over shall be refused 
 admission to the public schools." As a result, there are classes in the pri- 
 mary department of our schools that contain 70 or more pupils and few 
 schools can show a clean record of 40 or below in school years 5 to 8. Were 
 it otherwise, the demands for more classes would be much greater than they 
 are now. It cannot be too strongly emphasized that parsimony is at the basis 
 of the overcrowding in our public schools and overcrowding makes impos- 
 sible the teaching that will give all pupils their just dues by paying each indi- 
 vidual the attention which he needs. "As schools usually go, it is ten times 
 harder for a pupil to gain a grade than to lose one; ten times harder for a 
 pupil to rise than to fall. Never until the school is built fundamentally for 
 the individual will this element of loss disappear."^ 
 
 'See Appendix Ix. 
 
IMPROVED COURSE OF STUDY 45 
 
 The graded system does not really grade. It has been pointed out that 
 in a room full of children who have just been promoted to the eighth year 
 of the elementary school, scarcely any two are alike in ability or in attain- 
 ments. Experiments have shown that if such a class is allowed to go on with 
 individual instruction, progressing just as fast as the work is finished, in 
 four months' time the slowest and the fastest will be a full term apart. 
 
 As any plan looking toward smaller classes and a consequent remedying 
 of these defects is desirable, a brief discussion of the group system men- 
 tioned above, is introduced here. In the old time district school where one 
 teacher gave instruction to all the grades, it was manifestly impossible to have 
 all the pupils recite at once, since their different attainments naturally forced 
 them into groups or classes, all of which studied while one was reciting. Ex- 
 periments in New York City with so-called ungraded classes brought the al- 
 ternation of study period and recitation period into such prominence that it 
 was tried in the regular classes with good effect in some cases. The plan 
 is to divide the class into two sections known as the A and the B sections. 
 These recite together in such subjects as music, physical culture, drawing, 
 and other subjects in which individual work is not prominent. They recite 
 separately, however, in arithmetic, composition, reading, spelling, and those 
 subjects in which more individual attention is needed. While one section is 
 reciting the other is studying and as the work is more closely adapted to the 
 attainments of the pupils, the recitation periods are shortened, and thus time 
 is gained for the two sections in some subjects. In a system of schools like 
 our own, where the teachers are familiar with no other form of manage- 
 ment than that in which the entire class is doing the same work directly 
 under the teacher's eye, there appear to be some genuine objections to the 
 plan. In the first place, the pupils are not in the habit of studying by them- 
 selves, and it is not easy to keep them at that sort of work and at the same 
 time keep the studying and the teaching up to a high standard. In the edu- 
 cational magazines are pages devoted to "busy" work and "seat" work. If 
 the teacher is not able to lay out something practical for the pupils, it will 
 be needful for her to take this work bodily from the printed pages and use 
 it. The other objection is on the score of discipline, but this is not heard 
 from the teachers who have tried the system and have found that it works. 
 These find that the group system breeds self-reliance and tendencies toward 
 self -"government. The occupation of mind, hand, and eye are advantageous 
 in holding a boy who might otherwise be troublesome. The following sum- 
 mary of advantages from the use of the group system has been set forth by 
 a recent writer ■} 
 
 1. It makes possible true individual teaching. 
 
 2. It fixes individual responsibility on the child, with resultant self- 
 reliance and ability to study independently. He knows a thing because he 
 LEARNED it. 
 
 3. It provides work in advance for the bright boy and brings the slow 
 one up to grade. 
 
 4. It includes attention to proper methods of teaching and at the same 
 time the absolutely indispensable advantage of study on the part of the 
 child. 
 
 ^See Appendix X. 
 
46 SCHOOL WORK 
 
 5. It insures drill, the weak point in our modern methods. 
 
 6. Its work is more thorough because it makes possible greater concen- 
 tration on the part of both teacher and child. 
 
 These reasons are undoubtedly those of an enthusiast whose expert work 
 in this field has secured better results than are likely to be obtained by any 
 other principal. Her ideas are very practical, however, and some of her 
 suggestions are offered herewith. She distinguishes three group methods 
 known as the constant, the shifting, and the grade groups respectively. The 
 first places two or three rather permanent groups in each class, the grouping 
 to be maintained in all subjects. In the shifting group scheme the groups 
 are temporary in formation and are formed only in English and arithmetic. 
 The membership of these groups is variable, the same child passing from 
 group to group, according to his ability to keep up. The third group is most 
 feasible where there is a large enough number of pupils in one grade to per- 
 mit the formation of three classes. The brightest pupils are put into one 
 class, the dullest into another, and all the others in a third. The shifting 
 group plan is then applied to each of these grade groups. This enables the 
 teacher to promote as rapidly as possible pupils whose inclination to study 
 and consequent power to advance carries them along more rapidly than the 
 mass. 
 
 The first of these plans is possible in any school, no matter how small 
 and is somewhat adapted for pushing ahead the brighter pupils. The grade 
 group plan in which the plan of shifting groups has been incorporated 
 assists in promoting more individuals than any other. A few words of detail 
 about the working out of the shifting group plan may not be out of place. 
 Imagine a 3B class ready to take up the subject of long division. The topic is 
 presented to the entire class. After a most careful presentation and ques- 
 tions, a brief test is given to find out how many pupils know the subject. It 
 will be found that, perhaps, a third of the class is able to solve the easy exam- 
 ples given. These are called group i. At the arithmetic period the next day, 
 after the mental work has been given, group i is given seat work in long 
 division, and the topic is again presented fully to the others. About half of 
 these will be found to have grasped the subject and they are put into group 2. 
 The third day, at the arithmetic period, a quiz is given to the entire class, 
 after which group i is set at some review topic and at some examples in 
 long division, group 2 is given a full set of long division examples, and 
 the lesson is again fully presented to the remainder of the class. The balance 
 of the hour is spent in drilling them, after which the whole class again goes 
 on with arithmetic in the same way. There are still some who have not even 
 yet grasped the subject, but they must take their chances of picking it up 
 from their fellows as they advance. 
 
 As was previously pointed out, one of the most serious difficulties in 
 the way of the successful employment of the group method is the proper 
 preparation and supervision of the seat work. When the system seemed to 
 fail, the failure can usually be traced to a lack of adequate preparation for 
 seat work. In the first place it must require real study on the part of the 
 pupil, and it must not degenerate into busy work. The seat work must be 
 closely and definitely related to the topics that are being taught. Avoid work 
 
IMPROVED COURSE OF STUDY 47 
 
 that demands constant writing. It must also interest the child and help to 
 hold his attention if disorder in the study group is to be avoided. The seat 
 work must be corrected if the children are to consider it of any value. In 
 order to do this, the work must be carefully laid out and planned in such a 
 way that large amount of written work will not accumulate. Frequently 
 group I can profitably correct the seat work of group 2. This insures the 
 most careful scrutiny of the papers by their owners who will endeavor to see 
 whether mistakes have been made in marking their work. 
 
 There can be no doubt that in the hands of an earnest teacher, the shift- 
 ing group method described above is of real value in making class-room 
 work more effective. The system has been tried quite generally in this city. 
 Although many teachers and supervisors have declared against it because 
 they were not successful, yet others have proved its worth and have shown 
 that it is applicable everywhere. But with the highest degree of success 
 granted to the group system at its best the fact remains that time is lost to 
 the individual child whose' innate ability to work effectively entitles him to be 
 in a group by himself. His time should be carefully arranged and made as 
 productive as the highest skill of the trained teacher can make it. If there 
 is any portion of the day when his need of the teacher's help is temporarily 
 satisfied, he should be out of the crowded class room at work or at play in 
 the open air with nature, or amid the pleasant surroundings of a pleasant 
 home stocked with books and pictures. For the child who is unusually capa- 
 ble, the system of grouping singly in the important subjects is the only one 
 that the parent will accept if he has the best interest of his child at heart 
 and if he also has the means to carry out his inclinations. 
 
 The foregoing is an attempt to summarize what has been done by the 
 private and public schools to lessen the handicap caused by the large numbers 
 which each teacher is obliged to have in her class. At first glance it would 
 seem as though the private school had attained better results in this partic- 
 ular, but the smaller classes are more often due to lack of applicants than 
 otherwise and any gain in this direction is offset by less adequate equipment 
 and, with some exceptions, by less capable teachers. There is no private 
 school in this city that can compare with the new million dollar public high 
 schools, nor with the latest and best elementary schools, while the necessary 
 economy in financial administration prevents the employment of the most 
 expert teachers. On the other hand, the public school with its generous finan- 
 cial backing by the taxpayers cannot possibly consider the especial need of 
 any individual child, and so the brilliant child can go out little if any faster 
 than his fellows. He must follow the course, even if it includes much that 
 he has already acquired from sources outside the school. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 Critique and a Suggested Course of Study. 
 
 In all the work described in the preceding section, the dominant thought 
 may be described under the following heads : 
 
 I. Give the child the best of instruction and equipment for study. 
 
48 SCHOOL WORK 
 
 2. Save his time by meeting his individual needs and by omitting nov 
 essential details. 
 
 3. Follow the leading of his interest awakened naturally (or in rare 
 instances artificially). 
 
 In the best of the work described the following features may also be rec- 
 ognized : 
 
 1. An attempt to follow with the individual the course of nature as 
 exemplified in the history of the race. 
 
 2. The introduction of hand training. 
 
 The time requisite for a special course of training is a thoroughly 
 equipped teacher. She may be the child's mother. If this is possible so much 
 the better. In the cases described in the previous sections, effective work was 
 done in each instance by the parents whenever they tried. If the mother's 
 help is not available for any reason, and if a teacher must therefore be em- 
 ployed, a college graduate who has fitted herself by a thorough going nor- 
 mal training course and experience in teaching children should be selected. 
 A wise parent will not allow expense to keep him from securing a satisfactory 
 teacher who is widely read, an earnest student of natural history, gifted in 
 conversation, winsome in personality, and fully w^orthy of imitation in man- 
 ners and character. She should be competent to be entrusted with full au- 
 thority to govern, authority which must never be questioned within the 
 child's observation. She should also have full power to work out the details 
 of the course so that it may be adapted to each pupil's needs. No matter 
 what course of study is adopted, the success of the plan depends upon the 
 teacher, and her equipment of room and appliances. The number of teachers 
 competent to do this work is very limited, but the number of parents who 
 desire their services is still more limited. 
 
 Just at this point a note of warning must be sounded. American parents 
 know too little about the teachers of their children. The writer once under- 
 took to train a Shetland pony for a fortnight. Daily interviews and consulta- 
 tions were sought by the owner, who watched the process closely and fol- 
 lowed every suggestion almost slavishly. Of the thousands of parents whose 
 children have been placed in his care for months and years, not more than 
 twenty have voluntarily sought his acquaintance and advice. It is perfectly 
 safe to assert that at least four-fifths of these parents would have insisted on 
 knowing him personally if he had entrusted the education of their colts, their 
 pigs, or even their puppies to him. That a child should be of so much less 
 consequence than a dog in a parent's eyes is startling. The fact is no doubt 
 due to the impression that has prevailed for centuries, that anybody can 
 teach. It is high time that this notion be destroyed and that the profound 
 difference between good and poor teaching be recognized. Know your child's 
 teachers and do not ask him to maintain the intimate relation of pupil with 
 anyone not good enough to sit at your talilc. 
 
 The equipment can also be improved. In several cases cited above we 
 saw children working in comfortable homes with well-stocked juvenile libra- 
 ries. In some instances where school rooms were used, birds, flowers, a print- 
 ing press, a typewriter and other needed implements were taken as a matter 
 
IMPROVED COURSE OF STUDY 4'j 
 
 of course. Mechanical appliances have their place in the primary class room 
 as well as in the college. Garfield's statement that a university is a log with 
 a boy on one end and Mark Hopkins on the other does not deny the advan- 
 tage of a three hundred thousand dollar equiprrient in the same building with 
 a boy and a master. "The world do move," and the best is similarly advan- 
 tageous for the primary child. 
 
 As has been intimated elsewhere, the environment of children is very 
 important. Vain attempts have been made to remove the glove industry 
 from the plateau of Fulton Co., N. Y. After repeated losses of capital from 
 such efforts the student of political economy pointed out to the manufactur- 
 ers that his employees do not learn their business after they are grown up. 
 The baby playing on the floor at home has gloves for playthings because 
 every farmhouse for miles about sews gloves. The growing boys and girls 
 hear their elders daily discuss glovecutting and grades of leather. Their 
 games are those which imitate glovemaking. They grow up in the atmos- 
 phere of the glove industry and with no thought of formal training or ap- 
 prenticeship they are ready to take their places in the factories when needed. 
 
 This illustration shows how the education of children is fostered uncon- 
 sciously. The children from our better class of homes learn correct forms 
 of speech as they learn good manners. The names of artists and literature 
 are familiar to them. Their very games give them drill in what must be con- 
 sciously taught less favored children. Not all homes are uniform, however, 
 and one child will excel in music, another in biology, another in poetry and 
 another in art. When these children start in school in one class to go over a 
 uniform course of study and to be run into a common mold, there cannot 
 but be serious loss. The child who can be treated as an individual and be 
 taught what he does not know, every advantage being taken of niche and 
 ledge in his climb up learning's height, has an immense advantage. No won- 
 der that President Barnard speaks so highly of the value of his home train- 
 ing. 
 
 Similarly, all that will not advance the child should be eliminated from 
 his field of endeavor. Dr. McMurry will be cited later as making some vital 
 recommendations as to omissions in arithmetic. Other paths as well can 
 be shortened and the journey can be simplified materially. Only the expert 
 teacher working under the best of conditions can accomplish this careful 
 planning of work for the child. 
 
 It is universally admitted to be sound theory that the child's interests 
 should be the guide in instruction. Spencer elaborated this idea in his essay 
 on 'Tntellectual Education." Inasmuch as the developing interests of no two 
 children are alike, no course of study can be so outlined beforehand as to fit 
 a given case. The best that can be done, therefore, is to lay out a general 
 course, and leave to the teacher the work of adapting it to the case in hand. 
 This requires great skill, knowledge and experience. Only the most highly 
 trained teacher can meet these demands without loss of time, or, what is 
 much more serious, loss of interest. As was pointed out in the account of 
 Dr. Dewey's school, it is quite possible to attach uninteresting arithmetic 
 and composition lessons to the intrinsically interesting work of a well planned 
 course and thus carry the pupil over many difficult places. We do not wish 
 
50 SCHOOL WORK 
 
 to spare the child all effort for the ability to put forth effort is an important 
 acquisition. But the false idea that the effort must be painful in order to be 
 valuable should be rejected. 
 
 It is contended by many educators that just as the embryo takes from 
 conception to maturity the various forms of animal life from the lowest to 
 the highest, so the true and most effective course of study will take the 
 child through the various stages in the historical development of the race. Dr. 
 Dewey's school work in Chicago was based in part at least on this idea. The 
 same thought guided Dr. Jacobi in planning her work. In the former we 
 see the children acquiring the first rude arts of primitive man such as spear- 
 making, spinning and w^eaving. The definite purpose here was to follow the 
 lines of least resistance by employing hereditary traits instead of carving new 
 paths in consciousness. The results were evident and the children so taught 
 found school a place of daily interest. Dr. Jacobi took the relation of space 
 and time which are the first to appeal to consciousness as the basis of her 
 work. These she followed with motion which made space and time necessary. 
 Thus she, too, followed up the natural course of intellectual development 
 that have been experienced by every child who has not been trammeled by 
 artificial work in school. Her results were little short of marvelous, although 
 the logical pursuit of her investigations carried her so far from the beaten 
 track as almost to terrify us with their strangeness. 
 
 Manual training is seen by these citations to be indispensable. Even Mill 
 laments his lack of it and thinks that in that part alone of his education his 
 father erred. Pres. Barnard declares unequivocally for it. Not only did he 
 learn other things while learning to set type, but he received training in obser- 
 vation and concentration that was of lasting benefit to him. Bodily activity is 
 inseparable from a healthy normal child, and the desire to imitate his elders 
 is his chief characteristic. The combination of these two, systematized and 
 arranged, gives the course of hand work we want our pupils to have. It does 
 not merely train the hand to skill, but it trains all the mental faculties of intel- 
 lect, imagination, and will. The man or woman who docs no work is a drone, 
 an excrescence. The normal child must be employed or he will be at variance 
 with his traditions, his inheritance, and his native tendencies. 
 
 Many parents have devised courses for their children independently of 
 those offered by the schools. Unfortunately, no effort has been made hitherto 
 to assist such work by collecting the experience of children who have been 
 successfully taught in this fashion for all or a part of their elementary course 
 or whose work has been lightened materially by improved methods. In this 
 volume definite accounts of actual work have been given. The following 
 course of study written in the light of these experiments may be suggestive 
 to parents who wish to adopt a similar ]ilan. By its flexibility it is more 
 adaptable to the needs of the child than the ordinary elementary course 
 planned for school from which it differs in recognizing the attainments of the 
 individual. It also eliminates needless material which usually appears for 
 conventional and symmetrical reasons. Spencer advises us to follow up the 
 child's interests as they awaken. 'J^iis course obeys his dictum instead of 
 presenting new topics and subjects by the calendar. 
 
IMPROVED COURSE OF STUDY 51 
 
 In preparing- for this course of study and in using it, some suggestions 
 in the form of cautions are offered. 
 
 1. Avoid baby talk. The child has much to learn. Do not compel him 
 to learn a jargon for which he must later substitute correct words. Give him 
 at once the words and phrases which you wish him to carry through life. 
 
 2. Do not hesitate sometimes to go beyond his understanding. Although 
 you will in general adapt your words and thoughts to his infantile intellect, 
 yet a beautiful poem will often appeal to him, because of its form. 
 
 3. In story telling, action appeals to the childish mind long before de- 
 scription. In narrative, make free use of gestures. 
 
 4. Ayoid bog-ies and stories that will bring up terrifying images. Fear 
 paralyzes. 
 
 5. Never threaten a child with punishment at the hands of mysterious 
 strangers whom you will summon. Do not allow him to get the idea that 
 there is danger in darkness or in lonely places. Explain clearly why he must 
 not touch the stove, but never display any surprise at his willingness to go 
 to the cellar, the garret, or the dark closet any more than at his going to other 
 parts of the house. 
 
 6. Always tell him the exact truth and keep your promise to the letter 
 whether you promise reward or punishment. ]\Iake no hasty or ill-advised 
 pledges or threats. 
 
 7. Do not force the child. Study his interests and be led by them. Pre- 
 sent the material that is uppermost in his thought. Drop it temporarily as 
 soon as he is sated. 
 
 8. Do not attempt this course of training unless the child is to associate 
 with his parents and absorb knowledge from their conversation about books 
 and men. 
 
 9. Do not isolate him from comrades of his own age. The work in phys- 
 ical culture, manual training, music, and possibly drawing can be done in 
 classes. There should be friends of his own age with whom some of his 
 leisure may be spent. 
 
 The following general view of an elementary course of study is adapted 
 from ]\Ir. Preston Search's "Ideal School"=^' because it can be used with the 
 individual child : 
 
 *See Appendix Ir. 
 
 Age. 
 0, 6, 7 
 
 (Stage of 
 [Growth 
 
 IKind of 
 [School. 
 
 iCharacferistic[ Socialogical 
 [ Purpose. [Principle. 
 
 Studies. 
 
 ■Rapid brain 
 I growth. 
 
 I Play 
 school. 
 
 [Freedom. 
 
 [Beauty of 
 (harmony. 
 
 [Nature 
 [Mother tons 
 [Picture readi 
 
 Drawing Play 
 
 ue Myth Song 
 
 ng Construction 
 
 S, 9, 10 [ Middle I Elementary or [Acquisition 
 
 childhood. I alphabetic [of tools, 
 school. 
 
 Self control, 
 
 [Nature 
 
 [Drawing 
 
 [Language 
 
 [Writing 
 
 [Reading 
 
 Historical Narrative 
 Literary Gems 
 Form and Numbers 
 Construction 
 Play Music 
 
 11. 12, 
 
 131 Full 
 'childhood. 
 
 Intermediate I General 
 or all round [survey and 
 school. I skill. 
 
 I 
 
 Helpfulness. 
 
 [Nature 
 'Geography 
 [Language 
 [Drawing 
 
 History 
 
 Literature 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Geometry 
 
 Mechanics 
 
 Invention 
 
 Industries 
 
 Gymnastic 
 
 Play 
 
 Music 
 
52 SCHOOL WORK 
 
 READING AND LITERATURE, INCLUDING HISTORY 
 Stories. — Bible and Folklore. — History, Biography, Narrative. — Fairy Tales. 
 
 Begin with Mother Goose rhymes and lullaby songs. Make them features 
 of the pre-bedtime hour. As soon as the ability to comprehend stories is 
 seen, tell the story of The ninety and nine, The little chicken who stayed out 
 all night, animal fables, etc. Use "How to Tell Stories to Children" and fol- 
 low it with ''Stories to Tell Children" (see Bibliography). 
 
 Mother Goose rhymes and other classic jingles will soon be stored in the 
 child's memory. He will then enjoy leafing the book whose pictures will sug- 
 gest the appropriate story which he will "read." 
 
 He is to be taught to read, because through this ability all knowledge 
 will come to him. He must be taught to read rapidly, as rapidly as possible. 
 The rapid reader is not necessarily a slovenly reader. In teaching reading, 
 bear in mind the aim in reading. The child can take in the idea through the 
 printed word, which should be only a medium, or he can be so mistaught 
 that he will get the idea only through the spoken word, which comes in its 
 turn from the printed word. The child who is thus afflicted is ear-minded. 
 The one who is free from this ear slavery is eye-minded. Avoid phonic and 
 word drills and all other devices which will lead him to hold the word form 
 in mind, while the idea escapes him. It is only by careful training that this 
 can be done, but it must be well done. 
 
 The material suggested for use after the primer is the Eugene Field 
 Primer (see Bibliography), Grimm's Fairy Tales, Weedon in Little Books 
 for Little People, Florence Holbrook's Hiawatha Primer, Cyr's Graded Art 
 Readers, The Eugene Field Book by Scribners, The Morse Readers, which 
 are superior to all others in many respects. 
 
 These can be followed by a wealth of material which will enable the 
 child to cover without especial effort the field of literature suggested in the 
 heading. Some of this must be read aloud to him, but if he is left to finish 
 orally what is thus started his interest will carry him along rapidly. 
 
 He w'ill be desirous at first of .reproducing his stories orally. If this is 
 encouraged by parents and friends, the habit will grow on him. Do not re- 
 quire him to do it, or he will soon weary. This repetition will strengthen 
 his ability to recall what he has read. Judicious conversational questioning 
 will systematize this knowledge and leave him with an ardent desire for more, 
 which is. after all, the most important end to be attained. 
 
 COMrOSITIOX 
 
 The child will do what he sees done, and has a natural tendency to imitate 
 letter-writing, which may therefore be started early. In order that he may 
 not be held back by the mechanical difficulties of penmanship, he should have 
 a typewriter at the age of six years. If he is praised for his eflforts, he will 
 soon turn out legible manuscript. It may be addressed to parents, who should 
 take as much notice of these letters as of any other mail. Suggestions as to 
 form and content will enable the pupil to write about his experience during 
 the day, and a little help will start him to writing stories for his friends. 
 These efforts in composition, both written and oral, are very desirable and 
 
IMPROVED COURSE OF STUDY 
 
 53 
 
 should be studiously encouraged. Do not try to have him learn penmanship 
 till he is ten years old, except as he picks it up. When penmanship is taught, 
 the muscular movement should be given. This requires greater muscular 
 co-ordination than should be required of a young child. 
 
 Oral composition is an essential feature of good English work. Experi- 
 ence shows that the child who has an abundance of it will progress faster in 
 his ability to write than one whose work is wholly written. The narration 
 of personal experiences and the reproduction of matter which he reads will 
 furnish plenty of material for this work. There are many times when the 
 child, trained to oral composition, will be in a position to continue it inci- 
 dentally in narrative to his friends, a practice which is none the less valuable, 
 even though unpremeditated. 
 
 After the first year of composition, he should see well-composed letters, 
 and should be shown printed copies of composition written by other children. 
 At the proper time, the function of the paragraph and the outline should be 
 explained to him, after which he should compose at frequent intervals, aver- 
 aging at least once a week three hundred word productions, either original 
 or in reproduction of some non-fiction material that he has read. The custom 
 of imitating the style of some well-chosen classic author in this way 
 is of proved value. His attention can early be called to synonyms and his use 
 of them encouraged. 
 
 GRAMMAR 
 
 Inasmuch as the child will speak correct English in all forms, includino- 
 moods and tenses, only the nomenclature of grammar will remain for him to 
 learn. This instruction prior to entering the high school should be limited to 
 the following tables, including inflection and syntax of words in sentences: 
 
 Nouns 
 
 Pronouns 
 
 Adjectives 
 
 Verbs 
 
 Adverbs 
 
 Prepositions 
 
 \ common 
 ( proper 
 
 (personal 
 interrogative 
 relative 
 adjective 
 f descriptive 
 ( definitive 
 
 ! Us 
 
 Form 
 
 f transitive 
 ■j intransitive 
 [copulative 
 regular 
 irregular 
 
 f active 
 ( passive 
 
 Phrases 
 and 
 
 Clauses 
 
 Tenses 
 
 Moods 
 
 Sentences - 
 
 present perfect 
 past perfect 
 future perfect 
 
 ^time 
 
 place 
 
 degree 
 
 manner 
 [interrogative 
 
 noun 
 
 adjective 
 
 adverbial 
 r present 
 \ past 
 I, future 
 r indicative 
 \ subjunctive 
 [ imperative 
 
 r simple 
 
 Form \ complex 
 [compound 
 
 {declarative 
 imperative 
 interrogative 
 exclamatory 
 
 Use 
 
 f copulative 
 _, . ^. (coordinate (disjunctive 
 Conjunctions | subordinate 
 Interjections 
 
 Infinitives should be treated as 
 nouns, adjectives or adverbs. 
 
 Participles should be taught as noun 
 or adjective participles. 
 
 Sentences should be analyzed by diagram. 
 
 HISTORY 
 
 From the very first of the story telling period, history should have an 
 important place. The bedtime hour, with its request, "Please tell me a story," 
 is invaluable. English and American history in stories about imaginary boys 
 and girls can supplement Bible stories here, and the child will call for more. 
 
54 SCHOOL WORK 
 
 Pass lightly over battles and bloodshed, and dwell on narratives that bring out 
 patriotism. King John and his barons, Columbus, the early English explorers, 
 and abundance of biography will cover the field, so that the child will be 
 ready for the high school, with a fondness for history as well as some little 
 knowledge of it. Do not attempt to do high school w^ork. Put it all in nar- 
 rative form, leaving out inconsequential details. These ideal narratives can 
 be followed by stories of real persons. It is of more importance that the 
 child should have a clear notion of the civic virtue displayed by the wealthy 
 patriots in the American Revolution than to be able to date and name all the 
 battles in that great struggle. The story of the lives of Washington, Franklin, 
 Madison, Jackson. Lincoln, Grant, Hayes, and Roosevelt will include all that 
 they need retain of our country's development, its foreign relations, the 
 growth and destruction of slavery and our genesis as a world power. Even 
 young as they are, they can be led to see in history not a mere succession of 
 events, but a series of causes and effects through which our greatness has 
 developed. This will enable them to see why we should rightly direct the 
 present so as to avoid future disaster. 
 
 NATURE AND SCIENCE 
 
 The study of nature and the study of elementary science as involved in 
 the observation and explanation of the conveniences of modern city life is 
 only practically possible to a profitable degree under the care and direction 
 of an enthusiast in science. At the first meeting with the pupil, attention can 
 be drawn to growth which results in different sizes in boys and girls. Growth 
 in plants can then be noted. Children are fed. Plants must be. An after- 
 noon or Saturday excursion to the nearest open country will give an oppor- 
 tunity for studying plant food and the rock erosion which gives soil. From 
 this beginning the teacher may go by degrees into very elementary geology, 
 physical geography, and botany. Stories should be employed to convey the 
 instruction. (See appendix 2, 'The Little Pebble.") Lead the child to 
 observe, ask questions, and answer some of his own questions. 
 
 The formation of soil and the development of plant life will lead natur- 
 ally to the study of home pets and other domesticated animals. Love for them 
 should be inspired by their helplessness. From this will come an inquiry 
 about their comfort necessitating some knowledge of their habits and char- 
 acteristics. Their usefulness to man will follow shortly after, and this will 
 form a basis for contrast with their relatives in the zoological gardens. 
 
 As the child's advancing age leads him, under the teacher's skilful guid- 
 ance, into further questions, he can be taken further afield into the observa- 
 tion of trees, glacial phenomena, birds and later into the study of air currents 
 and meteorology, particularly clouds, rain, frosts, snow, heat, and cold. As 
 soon as he is mature enough, the physical explanation of the delivery of 
 water, gas, and electricity can be undertaken. The familiar dumbwaiter, the 
 speaking tube, the telephone, the street car and related phenomena should re- 
 ceive explanation adapted to his understanding. 
 
 The study of science is especially important because it teaches observa- 
 tion and establishes a jiractical relation with his environment. 
 
IMPROVED COURSE OF STUDY 5^ 
 
 In order to restrict the work within proper elementary Hmits in natural 
 history, those plants and animals should be brought in, which in his experience 
 are helpful or hostile. Others may be disregarded at this time. In the class 
 of helpful ones we should ask how far they can help themselves and how far 
 they need our help. If hostile, we must ascertain the best way in which this 
 hostility can be neutralized, or averted. This standard of selection will 
 enable us to discard profitless details which consume time without addino- to 
 our interest. 
 
 DRAWING 
 
 The drawing should be taught by a special teacher who is known to be 
 in sympathy with children and with the best methods of instructing them in 
 this branch. Results will then be obtained that are impossible with the less 
 highly trained regular teacher. The drawing teacher should keep in mind the 
 fact that "the habit^ of seeing and imitating ready drawn representation of 
 objects blunts the edge of personal effort even in dealing with fresh objects." 
 The conventional man, horse, or house taught by careless nurse or parent 
 takes such complete possession of the child's mind that he experiences serious 
 difficulty in drawing from real life. 
 
 Mr. Rooper in his study quoted above says that the greatest source of 
 error in the child's drawing is the preconceived image which he reproduces 
 regardless of the object before him. From the very beginning the child 
 should draw from objects and imagination. The teacher may show how to 
 place the lines with pencil or brush, so that the difficult places may be over- 
 come, but the child should be urged to draw and paint what he sees rather 
 than allowed to imitate merely the teacher's lines. In the early years, free- 
 hand representation of familiar forms suggested by the other branches in the 
 course of study should be given and also pictorial illustration with water 
 colors. With the rise of the critical spirit, require the child to analyze his 
 work and persevere in practice that he may achieve results which meet with 
 his approval. Difficult muscular adjustments are to be made familiar through 
 repetition in order that habits of action and control may be fixed. With the 
 growth of the critical sense, there is an increased appreciation of beauty, and 
 in the drawing, design and picture study, elements are presented designed to 
 cultivate this appreciation. Toward all forms drawn or constructed, scrutiny 
 should be directed to determine how far each conforms to the laws of good 
 proportion, refinement of form and harmony of color. 
 
 "The study" of pictures presents a means of developing taste on the part 
 of the pupil, and in the higher grades it oft'ers an opportunity for further 
 illustration of the principles of design." Works of undoubted merit should 
 be used and the suggestion is offered that this work be associated with lan- 
 guage in the earlier years, but in the later years wath history, geography, and 
 literature. Perspective should be presented as need arises and this can be 
 followed by pictorial design. 
 
 ^See Appendix Is. 
 =See Appendix It. 
 
SCHOOL WORK 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING 
 
 The imitative tendency of the child will lead to early attempts to help 
 with the work in which he sees his elders engaged. These attempts should 
 invariably be encouraged because they furnish the readiest means to meet 
 his earliest desire to use his hands. There are other reasons but these need 
 not now concern us. Both girls and boys can be given work with cord and 
 raffia to develop the power of motor control and co-ordination. These mate- 
 rials are especially suited to the use of young children because they do not re- 
 quire minute muscular effort, but they render the fingers free and the touch 
 deft. By the use of coarse cord with round and flat laces single, double, and 
 triple knots with chain stitches can be taught at an early age. These can be 
 applied in picture frames, napkin rings, curtain chains, sponge bags, ham- 
 mocks and a variety of articles. This work can be done by both boys and 
 girls and they should be led to see the relation between this work and the later 
 textile weaving on a loom. 
 
 From this point a girl should be put through a carefully graded and 
 supervised course of sewing preferably in a class with other girls. Instruction 
 in sewing should continue till she is able to design, cut, and make at least 
 a plain skirt and repair her own wardrobe. She should have a carefully 
 planned course in cooking and serving plain meals. The care of the various 
 rooms of the house is included here and she will thus be fitted to supervise 
 her own household. 
 
 After a boy has completed the early cord and raffia worS, he should be 
 taken through a course of construction work with paper and strawboard 
 using simple tools. Accuracy in measurements is essential at this stage. 
 Boxes, portfolios, book covers, and other simple articles may be made from 
 these materials. As soon as he can safely use a sharp knife and other edged 
 tools he should be given a course in woodworking. If this develops any 
 especial taste for tools, the work can be profitably carried on throughout his 
 elementary and high school course. 
 
 There seems to be no good reason for depriving a girl of the pleasure to 
 be derived from working in wood, and a boy should learn to handle a needle 
 sufficiently to do emergency repairing of a simple kind. 
 
 GYMNASTICS 
 
 Children are fond of formal exercise. I'ancy steps, Indian clubs, dumb- 
 bells and wands appeal to them. A class in gymnastics in which are fostered 
 special exercises, like rope climbing, running, jumping, vaulting, swimming, 
 and shooting will prove of great value. The work can be profitably started 
 at the age of six years. Do not aim to have the child excel in one line but 
 try to secure an all-round development with work that appeals wholly through 
 its intrinsic interest. 
 
 aritiimi:tic 
 
 This work must begin informally, always a])])lic'(l to things. The child 
 will readily \)\c\< up counting and reading nunil)crs. lie will make some at- 
 
IMPROVED COURSE OF STUDY 
 
 37 
 
 tempts at adding in which he can be judiciously encouraged without pushing. 
 He will acquire in this way the combinations which form 9 or less. Sums can 
 be given within this range and examples in subtraction also. When he is 
 proficient in these he may be shown addition with carrying. He can then be 
 taught the remaining combinations of two figures, after w^hich subtraction 
 will follow in due course. 
 
 Fractions should be taken up at the very beginning of the study, utiliz- 
 ing the child's desire to "divide"' with his friends. He will quickly learn to 
 recognize a half slice of bread and a half of various objects. He may cut 
 a sheet of paper into two pieces and call each piece one half. From this can 
 be developed the smaller fractions, one at a time. Do not allow him to see 
 the ordinary fractional symbol. Always represent the fraction wath the 
 denominator ^yritten until the child is so well grounded in fractions that you 
 are sure that he cannot be confused. If this plan is strictly followed he will 
 be no more puzzled over 2 thirds or 5 eighths than he will over 2 pears or 5 
 apples. He will add fractions of the same kind just as he would any other 
 concrete numbers as long as the sum does not go beyond unity. When he is 
 perfectly at home in all the combinations less than unity he can be reminded 
 that 2 halves of an apple, 3 thirds of an apple, 4 fourths of an apple, each 
 make i whole apple. Then show him that 5 eighths of an apple and 6 eighths 
 of an apple make 11 eighths, which, when put together will make i whole ap- 
 ple, and 3 eighths over. Thereafter he should always reduce improper frac- 
 tions to mixed numbers. Subtraction can be carried along with addition. 
 Rectangles^ divided by parallel lines with unused portion marked out thus 
 are a very convenient form for representing fractions. By this means the 
 
 ^See Appendix lu. 
 
5S SCHOOL WORK ^ 
 
 equivalence between fractions of a higher and lower denominator can bt 
 readily shown and the way paved for reduction to a common denominator 
 later on. When the child is well grounded in fractions and in the change 
 from halves to twelfths, including the intermediate fractions, and when he 
 cannot be confused by any combination or subtraction of two fractions, he 
 may be shown the shorter form of representation 2/3, 6/7, etc. The work 
 even to this point in fractions should not be given in too large sections, but 
 should rather be carried along with the other daily work in arithmetic. 
 
 After addition is understood, the multiplication table is the only serious 
 obstacle to be overcome. Each table should be developed by means of ob- 
 jects. When this has been done the table of each integer should be carefully 
 memorized, taking each step in order going through the "twelves" as 2 x 12 
 = 24. Then each combination may be placed on a card with the result on 
 the back thus (2 x 6) on the face of the card and 12 on the back. Each com- 
 bination should be reversed as 6 x 2, 2 x 6, etc., on separate cards. The pupil 
 may then take the 2 x table and after shuffling the cards go over the set 
 making a separate pile of those which he does not know well. By learning 
 both 2x3 and 3x2, each succeeding table will have one less combination 
 than the preceeding and in the more difficult tables there will thus be less to 
 learn as the child advances. 
 
 =4"rom this point on the teacher must bear in mind that all arithmetic is 
 based on the four fundamental operations, addition, subtraction, multiplica- 
 tion and division. Seemingly new topics are these old friends newly dressed. 
 For this reason, arithmetic must be recognized as largely language work and 
 new terms must be frankly told with no effort to develop them. The develop- 
 ing process can easily be overdone and much time wasted. 
 
 The arrangement of topics found in any recent arithmetic can be profit- 
 ably followed, but care must be taken not to put in too many subdivisions. 
 For instance, the table of apothecaries' weight has no place in this plan. Troy 
 weight and surveyor's measure should also be omitted. The principle of 
 compound or denominate nunil)crs is the desideratum. At any time when the 
 individual needs any of the technical tables he can look them up just as he 
 would an interest table or a logarithm table which not even the most hide- 
 bound arithmetician woukl memorize. I1ie following practical suggestion as 
 to elimination in arithmetic has been made by Dr. Frank M. AIc]\Iurry. 
 
 ".Xpotliecaries" weight, Troy weight, examples in longitude and time, ex- 
 cept the very simplest involving the 15 degree unit, since standard time makes 
 others unnecessary ; the furlong in linear measure ; the rood in square meas- 
 ure ; the dram and quarter in avoirdupois weight, the surveyor's table, the 
 table for paper folding; all proljlcms in reduction ascending or descending 
 which involve more than two steps ; the greatest common di-.-isor as a separ- 
 ate j:opic, not practice in detecting divisibility by 2. 3. 5 and 10 all common 
 fractions, except those of a very low denomination and customary in busi- 
 ness ; all work with least common multiples, except of such very common 
 denominators as those just mentioned ; complex and compound fractions as 
 separate topics; compound proportion, jicrccntage as a separate study with 
 
 •For substance of this paragraph I am in debted to Dean Balliet, N. Y. Uulv. 
 
 4 
 
IMPROVED COURSE OF STUDY 59 
 
 its case3 ; true discount ; most problems in compound interest ; problems in 
 partial payments, except those of the very simplest kind ; all problems involv- 
 ing fractions of shares in commission and brokerage; equation of payments;, 
 partnership ; cube root ; all algebra, except such simple use of the equation' 
 as is helpful in arithmetic." 
 
 A fair allotment of the arithmetic time ought to be devoted daily to oral 
 recitation on problems and abstract work. The child should be encouraged' 
 to do as much work as possible mentally. Drill on the four fundamental 
 operations must be carried through to the end of the course for no part of the 
 subject is so important nor so easily forgotten. 
 
 In commercial arithmetic, which includes interest, taxes, stocks and 
 bonds, insurance, and kindred topics, Dean Balliet of New York University 
 makes the very wise suggestion that the emphasis should be laid more on the 
 pupil's practical knowledge of the topics as a branch of political economy than 
 as a subject in mathematics. The laws of values in stocks and bonds, when 
 one recalls the millions of money that are lost through unwise investments, 
 are of prime importance. The reason for taxes and the why of insurance will 
 be of more value to the child than the mere ability to compute taxes or add 
 up his insurance premiums. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY 
 
 The child who travels gets the best kind of an introduction to geography. 
 A trip to some point' of interest will rouse his interest in the map. A com- 
 paratively short journey will take him into another state, after which he 
 should be shown the map of it as well as that of his own state. Collect post- 
 card pictures for him. These will fix places in his mind and also refresh his 
 memory. Consult the map on all occasions when locality is in question,, 
 whether in literature, history, current news, or visits to friends, and trips irt 
 summer. Collect and preserve envelopes from other cities. The postmarks 
 on these* will give the names of towns which can be visited on the map and \n 
 books of travel. In this way the United States can be covered. Follow this 
 with a dissected map. Landscape features that have not been seen can be 
 studied in picture with a stereoscope. Show him the thing itself as soon as 
 possible, however. When the so-called sailor geography of the United States 
 has been covered, take up the physical features and show how they were 
 formed. "Home geography" can be wisely brought in here as it is needed. 
 This should be made to serve as a help to the regular work, however, and 
 should in no case become an end in itself. The work in nature has already 
 brought in erosion and land formation. Trade routes and the location of 
 cities may now be presented. Industries will follow and these must be accom- 
 panied by products and pictures showing the processes. Type forms, as of 
 irrigation in the valley of Great Salt Lake, or coal mining in Scranton, Pa., 
 will obviate the need of taking up these topics again elsewhere. Incidentally 
 foreign countries will have been brought up, but systematic study of them 
 should be deferred till the child knows his own land, its chief physical features, 
 cities, and leading industries with their casual relations. 
 
 This should be followed up by a briefer study of the continent of Europe, 
 
•6o SCHOOL WORK 
 
 with its subdivisions and principal races. The remaining continents with their 
 adjacent islands will follow in due order. As soon as the United States has 
 been completed, a collection of postage stamps may profitably be commenced. 
 A brief account of each country represented with pictures of the people and 
 their ways will naturally follow with interest keyed to a high pitch. A num- 
 ber of definite headings, such as "What are the chief occupations of the peo- 
 ple of Asia?" "How does the agriculture of Africa compare with that in the 
 western states?" will serve to furnish a standard of desirable material and the 
 rest may be discarded. 
 
 All through this work the child must patiently follow the map in all his 
 reading until the habit of picturing localities in history and literature is defi- 
 nitelv fixed. A good globe should be at hand for this purpose. Books of 
 travel should form part of the pupil's reading. 
 
 In order that a definite plan may be at hand after the study of the 
 United States is finished, the following outline is offered.^ 
 
 A 
 
 South America — Location, surface and climate ; leading countries and 
 chief cities ; industries, products and commerce ; people. 
 
 Canada, Mexico, Central America, and West Indies — Location of places 
 associated with important current events carried along through the course. 
 
 B 
 
 Europe — Location ; surface and climate ; leading countries and chief 
 cities ; industries ; products and commerce ; people. 
 
 C 
 Review of th-e United States and its dependencies. 
 
 D 
 
 Asia, Africa, Au.stralia and Island Groups — Relations, commercial and 
 political, with the United States and with European countries. — Location ; 
 surface and elements, climate; leading countries, and chief cities: industries, 
 products, and commerce, people. 
 
 E 
 
 Mathematical and ]ihysical geography ---Review of political and commer- 
 cial geography. 
 
 ML'SIC ' 
 
 Music appeals to the youngest child of impressionable age. It not only 
 secures universal response, but it is the most universal means for expressing 
 emotion. It uplifts the child, strengthens his higher faculties and elevates 
 
 'See Appendix Iv. 
 'See Appendix Iw. 
 
IMPROVED COURSE OF STUDY 6i 
 
 his whole nature. Music is commonly considered an accomplishment of 
 doubtful utility. This is a grave mistake. By its means, children who are 
 properly taught it have been rendered more efficient in school work, more 
 docile at home, more hopeful and helpful everywhere. Children often find 
 practising the greatest drudgery. Instead, they should love it. The child 
 who is slowest in grasping the subject needs it most. The tone deaf ears 
 should be unstopped. The latent love of music smothered by rebuffs and dis- 
 couragements should be fanned into flame. All should be inspired to claim 
 their birthright. 
 
 RELIGIOUS TRAINING 
 
 Owing to the varied beliefs which present themselves, no specific direc- 
 tions can be given here. In general, however, the truth, which is almost 
 axiomatic, must be borne in mind that Bible study at first hand is vital. Do 
 not be content with the often expressed notion that the ethical side is sufficient. 
 The present generation displays an ignorance of the foundation stone of our 
 liberties, which is at least alarming. Lay great emphasis on a good knowledge 
 of the content of the Holy Scriptures and add only that in theology, of whose 
 certainty and verity you have satisfied yourself. 
 
 The age at which the different branches should be taken up has been 
 indicated, subject to the general law laid down that the child's interests 
 should govern. Literature and history should be commenced at about the 
 age of three in oral conversation. He can be taught to read when he espe- 
 cially desires it. Arithmetic will come in naturally along with reading. 
 Penmanship can be profitably postponed till the child really feels a need for 
 it, provided that he has a typewriter with which to express himself. Formal 
 geography should be deferred till the age of nine. Drawing may be begun 
 at five. Manual instruction should be taken up as early as the age of six. 
 Music and physical training may be started from the fifth to the eighth year. 
 Nature study will be taken informally at the earliest springtime walks along 
 the seashore or in the country and may receive some formal attention in the 
 fifth year. 
 
 The constant aim in following this course is to study the interests of the 
 pupil and keep him in touch with the subjects thereby indicated. He can be 
 led and his interests can be wisely directed so that they, instead of being idly 
 dissipated through aimless motor impulses, will bring about his positive physi- 
 cal and intellectual advancement. Because of this possibility, it is distinctly to 
 the advantage of the child to be under the tutelage of his mother if she is well 
 educated. She, better than anyone else, can watch his intellectual unfoldment 
 and minister to it. The incessant questions of the normal child should be 
 answered, when asked, with definite information and never the vague gener- 
 ality of "You are too young to understand. You can find this out when you 
 are older." It is true that sometimes the questions of the child are due to a 
 passing whim rather than to genuine interest. But this can easily be tested 
 when the time for answering is not available by saying to him, "If you really 
 want to know about this, I shall be very glad to tell you if you will remind me 
 of it when we are alone. Just now there is not time to explain fully." / 
 
62 SCHOOL WORK 
 
 The course of study given in the preceding pages has been made in an 
 ■endeavor to indicate the general principles which should be borne in mind 
 when presenting the several topics together with some methods that have been 
 found profitable. 
 
 Lead the child into new paths. Waste no time upon the old and well- 
 known topics. Show him the vast realm of the unknown all about him in 
 science, literature, and art until he forms the habit of wide-open eyes that 
 bring him into intimate association with the great in heart everywhere. 
 
 APPENDIX 2 
 
 THE LITTLE PEOPLE 
 
 One day, before the Ice Age, thousands of years ago, the sun's rays were 
 beating down fiercely on a frost-bound cliff. The melting snows sent little 
 streams trickling down like tears on the face of a giant. Some of the \vater 
 reached the glacier below and found its way to the streams beneath the ice 
 field. Some of the drops were caught in crevices of the rock. That night 
 they froze and Jack Frost, using them as powerful wedges, split ofif many 
 pieces^of the clifT. One huge fragment clung tightly to the mother rock. "Do 
 not let me fall, Alother, dear!" he cried, and the two hung firmly to each 
 other. But the Frost King was too strong and the block soon followed the 
 others. He rolled far out on the ice beyond the edge of the terminal moraine, 
 as the pile of loose stones at the clifif's foot is called. There he lay dizzily 
 wondering what had happened. 
 
 He watched other pieces fall that whole day, but when he awoke the 
 following morning he found himself carried by the moving glacier some 
 distance away from his old clifT home. Each hot day, too, melted the ice 
 around him leaving a tiny pinnacle which at last gave way letting him down 
 little by little into the ice. Finally a heavy snow fall covered him completely. 
 Not long afterward, he heard the ice children talk about their work of grind- 
 ing and polishing. He did not connect this with himself, however, till he fell 
 through a hole in the ice and a big crack which suddenly opened beneath him 
 down to the glacier's under side. There he was rolled over and over with 
 the other stones, dropping his corners, loose particles, and sharp edges. The 
 process was very slow. Sometimes it would take him a week to roll partly 
 over and the pressure of the ice above upon the rock lioor beneatii was so 
 great that he thought he would be crushed to powder. But he was made of 
 good material from the granite ledges of the far north and he could endure 
 polisliing. Consequently, week after week, year after year, the ice which 
 constantly fitted itself about him ground, scoured, and finished him otY till he 
 was reduced to the size of a small hen's t^£[,. 
 
 After a -luuidrcd years of this troublous experience the pressure suddenly 
 relaxing, he tumbled out on a bed of sand and lay blinking at the sun which 
 he had not seen for over a century. How soft and warm his bed felt as he 
 went to sleep! He was quickly awakened, however, by the rippling waters 
 which tried to rouse him as they dashed by, telling him that he would be cov- 
 
IMPROVED COURSE OF STUDY 63 
 
 ered up if he lay there. But he was too tired to heed or else he did not believe 
 them because after the first rousing which they gave, he slept on dreamlessly. 
 The sand drifted over him and other pebbles were dropped into his bed. 
 Slowly a great weight accumulated and gradually the earth's crust sank until 
 sand and pebbles were buried under tons of drift. 
 
 We know but little of what happened then. The great furnaces inside the 
 earth burned hotly and the sand was somehow changed. Through it all, the 
 little pebble slept unconsciously, except that perhaps he shifted restlessly, as 
 we sometimes do on hot nights. At last, however, the fire and the great 
 pressure had done their work, and the sand bed, with its visitors, had become 
 solid rock, holding the pebbles in a grasp second only to that of the Ice King. 
 Then came the earthquake. Suddenly, without warning, the rock beds were 
 torn asunder. High up they were pushed, showing torn and flinty edges to 
 the air in great mountain piles, exposed to storms of wind and rain and snow. 
 Slowly the years went by. The rock ledges crumbled; the lofty peaks were 
 ground down. The mountain torrents carried the new-made soil to lower 
 levels, gradually making places for future meadows and flower beds. Our 
 little pebble was in a huge jagged rock that lay on an open hillside in eastern 
 Pennsylvania. Nearby, trees grew into forests. Wild animals and Indian 
 children played among them. The rock was a favorite resting-place for both 
 papooses and cubs, because from it one could see into the valley below. One 
 day a hunter passed that way, and others followed him. The Indians and the 
 bears fled silently westward. Only the foxes stayed, for they were wise and 
 had dreams of chickens and turkeys. The rock which held our little friend 
 was being steadily broken down by frost and snow and rain, till at last he 
 could see the sun again. Then a farmer came. He cut down some trees and 
 built them into a cabin near the rock. His children played where formerly the 
 red babies and the wild beasts had lived. The trees, one at a time, fell under 
 the woodman's axe while roads, fields and houses took their places. Visitors 
 in summer found the cool shade and distant views restful and inspiring. Two 
 students came by One of them, a little girl, spied the pebble peeping out. 
 Together the two broke it loose and the older one told this story. 
 
 Bibliography. 
 
 Advisable Omissions from the Course of Study (Educational Review), 
 
 McMurry 
 
 Applied Psychology (Educational Publishing Co.) McLellan 
 
 Broader Elementary Education, A. (Hinds & Noble) Gordy 
 
 Criticism (Educational Review, Vol. 40) McMurry 
 
 Day With the New Education, The (The Chautauquan, Vol. 30) Runyon 
 
 Drawing in Primary Schools (Kellogg) Rooper 
 
 Editorial, An (Education, Vol. 23). 
 
 Education (Burt) Spencer 
 
 Education, History of (Lippincott) Kemp 
 
 Education, History of (Scribners') Davidson 
 
 Education of the Central Nervous System (Macmillan) Halleck 
 
 Educative Process, The (Macmillan) Bagley 
 
 Emile (Appleton) Rousseau 
 
 Evano-eline CHoue^hton & Mifflin) Lono-fellow 
 
04 SCHOOL WORK 
 
 Experiment in Education, An (American Book Co.) ^^er 
 
 Experiment in Education, An (Popular Science Monthly) Jacobi 
 
 Fairy Tales ( Button) Grimm 
 
 Flower Fables (The Alershon Co.) Alcott 
 
 General :\Iethod (Public School Pub. Co.) McMurry . 
 
 Geographic Intiuences on American History (Ginn & Co.) Bridgham 
 
 Hiawatha (Houghton ]\Iifflin) Longfellow 
 
 How I Was Educated ( The Forum. \'ol. i ) Barnard 
 
 How Shall I Educate My Boy? (Harper's Weekly, Vol. 48) Thwing 
 
 How to Tell Stories to Children (Houghton Mifflin) Bryant 
 
 Interest in its Relation to Pedagogy (Barnes) Ostermann 
 
 Lectures in General and Special Method (Xew York University) Balliet 
 
 Lessons in Physical Geography (American Book Co.) Dryer 
 
 Little Books for Little People (Button). 
 
 Management of a City School, The (Macmillan) Perry 
 
 Methods in History (Ginn & Co.) Mace 
 
 Midnight Ride of Paul Revere. The (Houghton Mifflin) Longfellow 
 
 Mill, John Stuart, Autobiography (Henry Holt) Mill 
 
 Mother Goose (Jamieson Higgins Co.). 
 
 Philosophy of Education. The (Macmillan) Home 
 
 Philosophy of Teaching (Ginn & Co.) Tompkins 
 
 Phonetic Reading (Popular Science Monthly) Fernald 
 
 Physical Geography (Ginn & Co.) Bavis 
 
 Promotion of Bright and Slow Pupils (Educational Review) Bush 
 
 Psycholog}'. Introduction to. An (Macmillan) Calkins 
 
 Ps'ychoiog>' ( Hinds & Noble) Gordy 
 
 Psycholog}' ( Appleton) Herbart 
 
 Psycholog>' in the Schoolroom ( Longmans) Bexter and Garlick 
 
 School and Its Life (Silver Burdett) Gilbert 
 
 Stories to Tell to Children (Houghton Mifflin) Bryant 
 
 Teaching Children to Study (Macmillan) Tones 
 
 Teaching of Elementary Mathematics, The (Macmillan) Smith 
 
 Upton Letters, The (Putnam's Sons). 
 Readers, Cyr's Graded Art, The (Ginn & Co.). 
 Readers, Morse, The (Silver Burdett). 
 Reader. Eugene Field. The (Scribner's). 
 
 Appendix i, Specl\l Sources. 
 
 a. Condensed from Mary Ailing Aber, An Experiment in Education, Popular 
 Science Monthly. Vol. 40, page. 521. Cited by permission of B. Appleton & Co., 
 New York. 
 
 b. Cited from Br. Frank M. McMurry in Educational Review. \'ol. 40, page 
 489. by permission of the publisher. 
 
 c. From the Upton Letters by T. B.. page 159, G. P. Putnam's Sons, New 
 York. 1895. ^y courtesy of the publishers. 
 
 d. Quoted from Harper's Weekly. Vol. 48. page 97, by permission of Harper 
 & Brothers. New York. 
 
IMPROVED COURS']^ OF] ^TVDY ' 65 
 
 e. See Autobiography of John Stuart Mill, published by Henry Holt & Co., 
 New York. Cited by permission of the publishers. 
 
 f. The Forum, Vol. i, How I Was Educated, by F. A. Barnard. Cited by 
 permission of the publishers. 
 
 g-. Henry Winthrop Hardon, 62 Wall Street, New York, 
 h. Education, Vol. 23, page. 569. Cited by permission of the publishers. The 
 Palmer Co., Boston, Mass. 
 
 i. Dr. Levi Clark, formerly of Dartmouth, Mass. By courtesy of Edward 
 Clark. 
 
 j. Material furnished mainly by Mrs. George Millard Davison, Brooklyn, 
 N. Y. 
 
 1. Popular Science Monthly, Vol. 27, pages 472 and 614, An Experiment in 
 Education, by Dr. Mary-Putnam-Jacobi. Cited by permission of D. Appleton & 
 Co., New York. 
 
 m. Chautauquan, Vol. 30, March, 1900, A Day With the New Education, by 
 Laura L. Runyon. Cited by permission of the publishers. 
 
 n. Harper's Weekly, Vol. 48, page 96, How Shall I Educate My Boy? by 
 President Charles F. Thwing. Cited by permission of Harper & Brothers, New 
 York. 
 
 o. Educational Review, Vol. 19, page 296, Promotion of Bright and Slow 
 Pupils in Santa Barbara, Cal., by Caroline F. Bush. Cited by permission of the 
 publisher. 
 
 p. Condensed from a study of the topic of the rapid promotion of pupils 
 made in Public School y2, Brooklyn, N. Y., by George Millard Davison, as part 
 of course P 32 in the Graduate School of New York University, under the direc- 
 tion of Professor James E. Lough, Ph.D. 
 
 q. Popular Science Monthly, Vol. 40, pages ^77 and 517, An Experiment 
 m Education, by Mary Ailing Aber. Quoted by permission of D. Appleton & Co. 
 and of the American Book Co. 
 
 r. An Ideal School, by Preston W. Search. D. Appleton & Co. 
 • s. Drawing in Primary Schools, by T. G. Rooper. E. L. Kellogg & Co. 
 
 t. New York Course of Study, Drawing Syllabus, page 5. 
 
 u. Arithmetic Methods. By courtesy of Dean T. M. Balliet, New York 
 University, New York. 
 
 V. New York Course of Study, Geography Syllabus, pages 11-14. 
 
 w. By courtesy of Mrs. Harvey M. Ferris, 294 State Street, Brooklyn, N. Y., 
 whose most excellent and attractive courses in music for children are doing in- 
 estimable good. 
 
 X. Teaching Children to Study, by Olive M. Jones, Principal of Public School 
 120, Manhattan. The Macmillan Co. 
 
I 
 
 I 
 
AN INITIAL FI«E,OF f f S 
 
 OVERDUE. 
 
YD 22497 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY