JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO 
 THE UNITED STATES / 
 
 FROM 1881 TO 1910 
 
 BY 
 
 SAMUEL JOSEPH, A. B. 
 *u 
 
 Instructor in the Commercial High School, 
 Brooklyn, New York 
 
 SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS 
 
 FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 
 
 IN THE 
 
 FACULTY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE 
 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 
 
 NEW YORK 
 1914 
 
COPYRIGHT, 1914 
 
 BY 
 SAMUEL JOSEPH 
 
Co 
 MY FATHER AND MY MOTHER 
 
PREFACE 
 
 IN this survey of Jewish immigration to the United 
 States for the past thirty years, my purpose has been to 
 present the main features of a movement of population that 
 is one of the most striking of modern times. The causes) 
 of Jewish emigration from Eastern Europe, the course of 
 Jewish immigration to the United States and the most im- 
 portant social qualities of the Jewish immigrants are studied 
 for the light they throw upon the character of this move- 
 ment. The method employed in this investigation has been 
 largely statistical and comparative, a fact which is partly 1 
 due to the kind of material that was available and partly 
 to the point of view that has been taken. Certain eco- 
 nomic and social factors, having a close bearing upon the 
 past and present situation of the Jews in Eastern Europe 
 and frequently neglected in the discussion of the various 
 phases of this movement, have been emphasized in the ex- 
 amination into the causes of the emigration of the Jews 
 from Eastern Europe and have been found vital in deter- 
 mining the specific character of the Jewish immigration to 
 this country. 
 
 I desire gratefully to acknowledge my deep indebtedness 
 to Mr. A. S. Freidus, head of the Jewish department of 
 the New York Public Library, for his ever-ready assistance 
 in the preparation of this work. Thanks are due as well 
 to Dr. C. C. Williamson, head of the Economics depart- 
 ment of the library, and to his able and courteous staff; to 
 Professor Robert E. Chaddock for his many valuable sug- 
 423] 7 
 
8 PREFACE [424 
 
 gestions and aid in the making of the statistical tables and 
 in the reading of the proof; and to Professor Edwin R. A. 
 Seligman for his painstaking reading of the manuscript 
 
 SAMUEL JOSEPH. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. THE CAUSES OF JEWISH EMIGRATION. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 Introduction. 
 
 1. Character of Jewish immigration 21 
 
 2. Eastern Europe 22 
 
 3. Distribution of Jews in Eastern Europe 22 
 
 4. Uniform character of East-European Jews 22 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 EASTERN EUROPE: ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS. 
 I. Russia. 
 
 1. Medieval past 27 
 
 2. Agricultural character 28 
 
 3. Emancipation of serfs 29 
 
 4. Reminiscences of serfdom 29 
 
 5. Changes since the emancipation 30 
 
 6. Epoch of transition 31 
 
 7. Social orders: classes, the church 31 
 
 8. Political order: autocracy, bureaucracy 32 
 
 9. Political struggle: Russian liberalism 32 
 
 10. Reaction since Alexander III , 33 
 
 II. Roumania. 
 
 1. Social-economic classes 34 
 
 2. Emancipation of the serfs: results 35 
 
 3. Development of industry and commerce 36 
 
 4. Growth of a middle class 36 
 
 III. Austria- Hungary. 
 
 1. Reminiscences of medieval economy 37 
 
 2. Transitional nature of economic life 37 
 
 3. Organization of industry and commerce 37 
 
 4. Politico-economic struggles 38 
 
 5. Galicia: economic and social conditions 39 
 
 IV. Summary. 
 
 425] o 
 
10 CONTENTS [426 
 
 PAGE 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 THE JEWS IN EASTERN EUROPE: ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL POSITION 
 I. JRussia. 
 
 1. Economic characteristics . 42 
 
 a. Occupational distribution of the Jews ....... 42 
 
 b. Comparison with the non-Jews . 42 
 
 c. Participation of the Jews in principal occupational 
 
 groups 43 
 
 d. Comparison of occupational distribution of Jews and 
 
 non-Jews in the Pale 43 
 
 e. Economic activities of the Jews 44 
 
 2. Social characteristics 46 
 
 a. Urban distribution of the Jews 46 
 
 b. Comparison with the non-Jews 46 
 
 c. Literacy: comparison with the non-Jews 47 
 
 d. Liberal professions: comparison with the non-Jews. 48 
 
 II. Roumania. 
 
 1. Economic characteristics 48 
 
 a. The Jews as merchants and entrepreneurs 48 
 
 b. The Jewish artisans 49 
 
 c. Participation of the Jews in industry and commerce. 49 
 
 2. Social characteristics 49 
 
 a. Urban distribution of the Jews 49 
 
 b. Comparison with the non-Jews 49 
 
 c. Literacy: comparison with the non-Jews 50 
 
 III. Austria-Hungary. 
 
 i. Economic characteristics ..... 50 
 
 a. Occupational distribution of the Jews 50 
 
 b. Comparison with the non-Jews 51 
 
 c. Participation of the Jews in principal occupational 
 
 groups 51 
 
 Galicia 51 
 
 a. Occupational distribution of the Jews 51 
 
 b. Comparison with the non-Jews . 51 
 
 c. Participation of the Jews in principal occupational 
 
 groups 51 
 
 d. Industrial and commercial position of the Jews in 
 
 East and West Galicia 52 
 
427] CONTENTS u 
 
 PAGE 
 
 2. Social characteristics 52 
 
 a. Urban distribution of the Jews 52 
 
 b. Comparison with the non-Jews . 52 
 
 c. Liberal professions: comparison with the non-Jews. 52 
 
 IV. Summary. 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 THIRTY YEARS OF JEWISH HISTORY 
 
 I. Russia. 
 
 1 . Treatment of the Jews after the partitions of Poland ... 56 
 
 2. Pale of Jewish Settlement: special Jewish laws 57 
 
 3. Attitude of Russian government toward the Jews. .... 57 
 
 4. Alexander II and liberalism 58 
 
 5. Reaction: antagonism to the Jews 59 
 
 6. Economic attack: the May Laws 60 
 
 7. Effect of the May Laws 61 
 
 8. Educational restrictions: the " percentage rule " .... 62 
 
 9. Pogroms : pogroms of 1881-2 63 
 
 10. Expulsions from Moscow 64 
 
 11. Nicholas II: anti-Jewish agitation: KishinefT 64 
 
 12. War and revolution: effect upon the Jews 65 
 
 13. Pogroms as counter-revolution 66 
 
 14. Results: economic and social pressure 67 
 
 15. Jewish policy of reactionary regime 68 
 
 II. Roumania. 
 
 1. Early legal status of the Jews 69 
 
 2. Convention of Paris 69 
 
 3. Anti-Jewish activities of the government: Article VII . . 70 
 
 4. Berlin Congress 70 
 
 5. Article 44 of the Berlin Treaty 71 
 
 6. The revised Article VII 71 
 
 7. Legal status of the Jews fixed 72 
 
 8. Campaign of discrimination 73 
 
 9. Exclusion of Jews from economic activities 73 
 
 10. Educational restrictions: restrictions to professional ser- 
 
 vice 74 
 
 11. Political basis of anti-Jewish policy,. .......... 75 
 
 12. Results: economic and social pressure . 76 
 
 13. Jewish policy of Roumanian government: Hay's circular 
 
 note 76 
 
12 CONTENTS [428 
 
 PAGE 
 
 III. Austria-Hungary. 
 
 1. Early legal status of the Jews: emancipation 77 
 
 2. Jews attacked as liberals and capitalists 78 
 
 3. Rise of political antisemitism: its triumph: the clericals . 78 
 Galicia 78 
 
 1. Rise of a Polish middle class: displacement of Jews in in- 
 
 dustry and commerce . 79 
 
 2. Economic boycott of Jewish artisans and traders .... 79 
 
 3. Anti -Jewish activity of local authorities 79 
 
 4. Over-competition and surplus of Jews in industry and 
 
 commerce 80 
 
 5. Historical role of the Jews: antagonism of peasantry and 
 
 clergy 80 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 CONCLUSION 
 
 PART II. JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED 
 
 STATES 
 
 A. ITS MOVEMENT 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 DETERMINATION OF NUMBER OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS 
 
 1. Construction of table: difficulties 87 
 
 2. Sources utilized: reports of Jewish societies 87 
 
 3. Rearrangement of numbers from 1886 to 1898 . . 88 
 
 4. Determination of numbers by country of nativity: methods 
 
 used 88 
 
 5. Determination of numbers from 1881 to 1885: methods used . 90 
 
 6. Tendency to magnify numbers of Jewish immigrants .... 91 
 
 7. Results 92 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM EASTERN EUROPE 
 
 1. Jewish immigration East-European 95 
 
 2. Summary by decades of Jewish immigration from Russia, 
 
 Roumania and Austria- Hungary 95 
 
 3. Annual contributions of Jewish immigration from Russia, 
 
 Roumania and Austria-Hungary 96 
 
429] CONTENTS I3 
 
 PAGE 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM RUSSIA 
 
 1. Russian Jewish immigration a movement of steady growth . . 98 
 
 a. Summary by decades 98 
 
 b. Annual variations: effect of the Moscow expulsions . . 98 
 
 2. Participation of Jews in the immigration from Russia .... 101 
 
 a. Annual variations 101 
 
 b. Summary by decades 102 
 
 c. Relative predominance of Jewish in total 102 
 
 3. Intensity of Jewish immigration from Russia 103 
 
 a. Rate of immigration ... 103 
 
 b. Fluctuations of rate 104 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM ROUMANIA 
 
 1. Roumanian Jewish immigration a rising movement 105 
 
 a. Summary by decades 105 
 
 b. Annual variations 105 
 
 2. Participation of Jews in the immigration from Roumania . . 107 
 
 a. Jewish and total synonymous 107 
 
 b. Annual variations 107 
 
 3. Intensity of Jewish immigration from Roumania 108 
 
 a. Rate of immigration 108 
 
 b. Fluctuations of rate 108 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 
 
 1. Jewish immigration from Austria-Hungary a rising movement 109 
 
 a. Summary by decades 109 
 
 b. Annual variations 109 
 
 c. Comparison of Jewish with total no 
 
 2. Participation of Jews in the immigration from Austria- 
 
 Hungary no 
 
 a. Summary by decades no 
 
 b. Annual variations in 
 
 3. Comparison of immigration of Jews from Austria and 
 
 Hungary in 
 
 a. Numbers ill 
 
 b. Participation in total ill 
 
 4. Immigration of Jews and other peoples from Austria-Hungary. 1 12 
 
 5. Rate of Jewish immigration from Austria -Hungary 112 
 
I 4 CONTENTS [ 430 
 
 PAGE 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 JEWISH IMMIGRATION 
 
 1. Total movement one of geometrical progression ...... 113 
 
 a. Summary by decades 113 
 
 b. Summary by six-year periods 113 
 
 c. Annual variations 114 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 PARTICIPATION OF JEWS IN TOTAL IMMIGRATION 
 
 1. Rise in proportion of Jewish to total 117 
 
 2. Summary by decades 117 
 
 3. Annual variations 117 
 
 4. Comparison of annual variations of Jewish and total immigra- 
 
 tion . . . 118 
 
 5. Rank of Jewish in total immigration 119 
 
 6. Rate of immigration 120 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 B. ITS CHARACTERISTICS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 FAMILY MOVEMENT 
 
 1. Importance of sex and age distribution 127 
 
 2. Proportion of females in Jewish immigration 127 
 
 a. Tendency towards increase 127 
 
 3. Proportion of children in Jewish immigration 128 
 
 4. Proportion of sexes in total and Jewish immigration 129 
 
 5. Proportion of children in total and Jewish immigration . . . 129 
 
 6. Comparison of composition by sex of Jews and other immi- 
 
 grant peoples 130 
 
 7. Comparison of composition by age of Jews and other immi- 
 
 grant peoples 130 
 
 8. Comparison of composition by sex and age of Jews and the 
 
 Slavic races . . 131 
 
 9. Comparison of composition by sex and age of Jews from Rou- 
 
 mania and Roumanians 131 
 
 10. Comparison of composition by sex and age of Jewish and 
 
 " old" and " new" immigration 132 
 
 IT. Conclusion 132 
 
431] CONTENTS ! 5 
 
 PAGE 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 PERMANENT SETTLEMENT 
 
 1. Emigration of Jews compared with immigration of Jews . . . 133 
 
 2. Comparison of return movement of total and Jewish immi- 
 
 gration 134 
 
 3. Comparison of return movement of Jews and other immigrant 
 
 peoples 134 
 
 4. Emigration tendency of Jews from Russia, Roumania and 
 
 Austria-Hungary 135 
 
 5. Comparison of return movement of Jews and Poles from 
 
 Russia and Austria-Hungary 136 
 
 6. Comparison of return movement of Jewish and "old" and 
 
 "new" immigration 137 
 
 7. Comparison of return movement of Jews and other immigrant 
 
 peoples, 1908 137 
 
 8. Response of Jewish immigration to economic conditions in 
 
 the United States . . . 138 
 
 9. Comparison of Jews and other immigrant peoples who have 
 
 been previously in the United States 138 
 
 10. Conclusion 139 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 OCCUPATIONS 
 
 1. Occupational distribution of Jewish immigrants 140 
 
 2. Jewish immigrants reporting occupations 141 
 
 a. Number and percentage of occupational groups ... . 141 
 
 3. Skilled laborers 141 
 
 a. Garment workers 141 
 
 b. Other important groups 142 
 
 4. Participation of Jews in occupational distribution of total im- 
 
 migration 142 
 
 5. Comparison of occupational distribution of Jews and other im- 
 
 migrant peoples 143 
 
 6. Comparison of occupational distribution of Jews and Slavic 
 
 peoples 144 
 
 7. Comparison of occupational distribution of Jewish and "old " 
 
 and "new" immigration 144 
 
 8. Conclusion 145 
 
16 CONTENTS [432 
 
 PAGE 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 ILLITERACY 
 
 1. Illiteracy of Jewish immigrants 146 
 
 2. Influence of sex upon illiteracy of Jewish immigrants . . 146 
 
 3. Illiteracy of Jewish male and female immigrants . ...... 147 
 
 4. Comparison of rate of illiteracy of Jews and other immigrant 
 
 peoples 147 
 
 5. Comparison of rate of illiteracy of Jewish and "old" and 
 
 " new " immigration 147 
 
 6. Comparison of rate of illiteracy of Jews and East-European 
 
 peoples 148 
 
 7. Comparison of rate of illiteracy of each sex among Jews and 
 
 East-European peoples 148 
 
 8. Conclusion 148 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 DESTINATION 
 
 1. Factors influencing destination 149 
 
 2. Proportion of Jewish immigrants destined for divisions . . . 149 
 
 3. Proportion of Jewish immigrants destined for principal states. 149 
 
 4. Comparison of destination of Jews and other immigrant 
 
 peoples 150 
 
 5. Participation of Jews in the immigration destined for divisions. 150 
 
 6. Final disposition of Jewish immigrants 151 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 
 
433 ] CONTENTS ! 7 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLES 
 
 PAGE 
 
 IA. Participation of Jews in occupations in the Russian Em- 
 pire, 1897. 158 
 IAB. Participation of Jews in occupations in the Pale of Jewish 
 
 Settlement, 1897 159 
 
 II. Jewish immigration at the ports of New York, Philadel- 
 phia and Baltimore, July to June, 1886 to 1898 .... 159 
 III. Jewish immigration at the port of New York, July, 1885 
 
 to June, 1886, by month and country of nativity . . . 159 
 IVA. Jewish immigration at the port of Philadelphia, 1886 to 
 
 1898, by country of nativity 160 
 
 IVB. Jewish immigration at the port of Baltimore, 1891 to 1898, 
 
 by country of nativity 160 
 
 V. Jewish immigration at the ports of New York, Philadel- 
 phia and Baltimore, 1886 to 1898, by country of 
 
 nativity. ... 161 
 
 VI. Jewish immigration to the United States, 1881 to 1910 . . 93 
 VII. Percentage of annual Jewish immigration to the United 
 States, contributed by each country of nativity, 1881 
 to 1910 94 
 
 VIII. Jewish immigration to the United States, 1881 to 1910, ab- 
 solute numbers and percentages, by decade and country 
 
 of nativity 162 
 
 IX. Jewish immigration from Russia, 1881 to 1910, and per- 
 centage of total arriving each year 162 
 
 X. Jewish immigration from Russia, 1881 to 1910, by defade 
 
 and percentage of total arriving each decade 163 
 
 XI. Jewish immigration from Russia at the port of New York, 
 January i, 1891 to December 31, 1891, and January i, 
 
 1892 to December 31, 1892, by month 163 
 
 XII. Total immigration from Russia and Jewish immigration 
 from Russia, 1881 to 1910, and percentage Jewish of 
 total 164 
 
 XIII. Total immigration from Russia and Jewish immigration 
 
 from Russia, 1881 to 1910, by decade and percentage 
 Jewish of total. 164 
 
 XIV. Immigration to the United States from the Russian Em- 
 
 pire, 1899 to 1910, by annual percentage of contribu- 
 tion of principal peoples 165 
 
 XV. Rate of immigration of peoples predominant in the immi- 
 gration from Russia, 1899 to 1910 . 165 
 
 XVI. Rate of Jewish immigration from Russia per 10,000 of 
 
 Jewish population, 1899 to 1910 166 
 
i8 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 [434 
 
 FACE 
 
 XVII. Jewish immigration from Roumania, 1881 to 1910, by 
 
 decade and percentage of total arriving each decade. 166 
 XVIII. Jewish immigration from Roumania, 1881 to 1910, and 
 
 percentage of total arriving each year . . ... 167 
 
 XIX. Total immigration from Roumania and Jewish immi- 
 gration from Roumania, 1899 to 1910, and percentage 
 
 Jewish of total 168 
 
 XX. Rate of Jewish immigration from Roumania per 10.000 
 
 of Jewish population, 1899 to 1910 168 
 
 XXI. Jewish immigration from Austria Hungary, 1881 to 
 1910, by decade and percentage of total arriving each 
 
 decade ... 169. 
 
 XXII. Jewish immigration from Austria-Hungary, 1881 to 
 
 1910, and percentage of total arriving each year . . 169 
 
 XXIII. Total and Jewish immigration from Austria-Hungary, 
 
 1881 to 1910, by decade and percentage Jewish of 
 total 170 
 
 XXIV. Total and Jewish immigration from Austria-Hungary, 
 
 1881 to 1910, and percentage Jewish of total . . 170 
 
 XXV. Percentage of annual immigration from Austria-Hun- 
 gary contributed by principal peoples, 1899 to 1910 . 171 
 XXVI. Rate of Jewish immigration from Austria-Hungary per 
 
 10,000 of Jewish population, 1899 to 1910 . 171 
 
 XXVII. Jewish immigration, 1881 to 1910, by decade 172 
 
 XXVIII. Jewish immigration, 1881 to 1910, by six-year period . 172 
 XXIX. Jewish immigration to the United States, 1881 to 1910 173 
 XXX. Total immigration and Jewish immigration, 1881 to 
 
 1910, by decade and percentage Jewish of total . 174 
 
 XXXI. Total immigration and Jewish immigration, 1881 to 
 
 1910, by year and percentage Jewish of total .... 174 
 XXXII. Total and Jewish immigration, 1881 to 1910, by number 
 
 and percentage of increase or decrease 175 
 
 XXXIII. Sex of Jewish immigrants, 1899 to 1910 176 
 
 XXXIV. Sex of Jewish immigrant adults at the port of New 
 
 York, 1886 to 1898 176 
 
 XXXV. Age of Jewish immigrants, 1809 to 1910 ... . 177 
 
 XXXVI. Age of Jewish immigrants at the port of New York, 
 
 1886 to 1898 ... 177 
 
 XXXVII. Sex of total and Jewish immigrants, 1899 to 1910 . . 178 
 
 XXXVIII. Sex of European immigrants, 1899 to 1910 ... 179 
 
 XXXIX. Age of European immigrants, 1899 to 1909 180 
 
 XL. Sex, 1899 to 1910, and age, 1899 to 1909, of Slavic 
 
 immigrants 181 
 
435] 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 XLlA. Sex of Roumanian immigrants, 1899 to 1910, and of 
 
 immigrants from Roumania, 1900 to IQIO . . 181 
 
 XLlB. Age of Jewish and Roumanian immigrants, 1899 to 
 
 1909 ............... . ..... 181 
 
 XLII. Sex and age of " old" and " new " immigration (Jew- 
 ish excepted) and of Jewish immigration, 1899 to 
 
 1909 ............ . ..... 182 
 
 XLIII. Jewish immigration and emigration, 1908 to 1912. . . . 182 
 
 XLIV. Total and Jewish emigrant aliens and percentage Jewish 
 
 immigrant aliens of total immigrant aliens, 1908 to 1912 183 
 XLV. European immigrant aliens admitted, and European 
 
 emigrant aliens departed, 1908, 1909 and 1910 ..... 183 
 
 XLVI. Jewish immigration and emigration, Russia, Austria- 
 
 Hungary and Roumania, 1908 to 1912 ........ 184 
 
 XLVII. Polish immigration and emigration, Russia and Austria- 
 
 Hungary, 1908 to 1912 ....... ....... 184 
 
 XLVIII. "Old" and "new" (Jewish excepted) and Jewish im- 
 
 migration and emigration, 1908 to 1910 ....... 185 
 
 XLIX. European immigrant aliens, 1507, and European emi- 
 
 grant aliens, 1908 ......... ........ 185 
 
 L. Total European immigrants admitted and total of those 
 admitted during this period in the United States pre- 
 viously, 1899 to 1910 ....... ......... 186 
 
 LI. Occupational distribution of Jewish immigrants, 1899 to 
 
 1910 ........................ 186 
 
 LII. Jewish immigrants reporting occupations, 18^9 to 1910 - 187 
 
 LIII. Jewish immigrants engaged in professional occupations, 
 
 1859 to 1910. - ............... 187 
 
 LIV. Jewish immigrants reporting skilled occupations, 1899 to 
 
 1910 ...................... 188 
 
 LV. Occupations of total European and Jewish iirmigrants, 
 
 1899 to 1909, and percentage Jewish of total ..... 189 
 
 LVI. Total European immigrants and immigrants without 
 
 occupation, 1899 to 1910 ......... ...... 189 
 
 LVII. Occupations of European imm igrants reporting employ- 
 
 ment, 1899 to 1910. . . ............ ... 190 
 
 LVIII. Occupations of Slavic and Jewish immigrants reporting 
 
 employment, 1899 to 1910 .............. 191 
 
 LIX. Occupations of "old" and "new" immigration (Jew- 
 
 ish excepted) and of Jewish im migration, 1809 to 1509. 191 
 LX. Illiteracy of Jewish immigrants, 1899 to 1910 ...... 192 
 
 LXI. Sex of Jewish immigrant illiterates, igc8 to 1512 .... 102 
 
 LXII. Illiteracy of European immigrants, 1899 to 1910 *93 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 [436 
 
 PAGE 
 
 LXIII. Illiteracy of "old" and "new" immigration (Jewish 
 
 excepted) and of Jewish immigration, 1899 to 1509 . . 194 
 
 LXIV. Illiteracy of peoples from Eastern Europe, 1899 to 1910. 194 
 
 LXV. Sex of illiterates of peoples from Eastern Europe, 1908 . 194 
 LXVI. Destination of Jewish immigrants, 1899 to 1910, by 
 
 principal divisions 195 
 
 LXVI I. Destination of Jewish immigrants, 1899 to 1910, by 
 
 principal states 195 
 
 LXVIII. Percentage of Jewish and total immigrants destined for 
 
 each division, 1899 to 1910 196 
 
 LXIX. Participation of Jewish immigrants in destination of 
 
 total immigrants, 1899 to 1910, by principal divisions . 196 
 
 APPENDICES 
 
 A. President Harrison's Message, 1891 199 
 
 B. Article VII of the Constitution of Roumania 200 
 
 C. Secretary Hay's Note 201 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 207 
 
CHAPTER I 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 THIRTY years have elapsed since the Jews began to enter 
 J the United States in numbers sufficiently large to make 
 their immigration conspicuous in the general movement to 
 this country. A study of Jewish immigration, in itself and 
 in relation to the general movement, reveals an interesting 
 phase of this historic and many-sided social phenomenon 
 and throws light upon a number of important problems in- 
 cident to it. 
 
 Especially does it become clear that the Jewish immigra- 
 tion, although in part the result of the same forces as have 
 affected the general immigration and the separate groups! 
 composing it, differs, nevertheless, in certain marked re- 
 spects, from the typical immigration. Some of these dif- 
 ferences indeed are fundamental and far-reaching in their 
 effects and practically stamp the Jewish immigration as a 
 movement sui generis. 
 
 Generally speaking, in the forces which are behind the 
 emigration of the Jews from the countries of the Old World, 
 in the character of their immigration its movement and 
 its distinguishing qualities the Jewish immigration strikes 
 a distinctly individual note. 
 
 Three European countries Russifr, An. stria -Hungary 
 an4 Rourhania==f.urm'sh the vast majority. oJLlhe. Jewish 
 immigrant tn tbp TTnitpH fttafps- 1 It is to these countries, 
 therefore, that we must turn for light upon the causes of 
 this movement. 
 
 i Cf. infra, p. 95- 
 437] 21 
 
22 JEW IS PI IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES 
 
 Geographically, these countries are closely connected; 
 they form practically the whole of the division of Eastern 
 Europe. Here the Slavonic races so largely predominate 
 that the term Slavonic Europe has been applied to this sec- 
 tion of Europe. 
 
 Eastern or Slavonic Europe is a social as well as a geo- 
 graphical fact. In racial stratification, economic and 
 social institutions, cultural position and, in part, religious 
 traditions as well, these countries present strong similari- 
 ties to one another and equally strong differences in most 
 of these respects from the countries of Western Europe. 
 
 It is here that the Jews are found concentrated in the 
 greatest numbers. Nearly seven and a half-million Jews 
 ,J more than~Kalf of the Jews of the world live in these* 
 countries. Of this number more than five millions are in 
 Russia, more than two millions in Austria-Hungary, and 
 a quarter of a million in Roumania. The great majority 
 of these are massed on the contiguous borders, in a zone 
 which embraces Poland, and Western Russia, Galicia, and 
 Moldavia. This is the emigration zone. The relative den- 
 sity of the Jews is greatest in these parts. Every seventh 
 man in Poland, every ninth man in Western Russia and 
 in Galicia, and every tenth man in Moldavia, is a Jew. 
 Thus the center of gravity of the Jewish populations is 
 still the former kingdom of Poland, as it was constituted 
 before the partitions at the end of the eighteenth century. 
 
 United originally in Poland, the Jews of Eastern Europe 
 still retain the same general characteristics, in spite of the 
 changes that have been brought about by a century of rule 
 under different governments. Speaking a common lan- 
 guage, Yiddish, and possessing common religious tradi- 
 tions, as well as similar social and psychological traits, the 
 East-European Jews present on the whole a striking uni- 
 formity of character. 
 
439] 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Through the centuries they have become deeply rooted 
 in the East-European soil, their economic and social life 
 intimately connected with the. economic and social condi- 
 tions of these countries and their history deeply influ- 
 enced by the transformations that have been taking place 
 in them for half a century. 
 
 As these conditions and transformations furnish the 
 foundation of Jewish life in Eastern Europe, and contain 
 the explanation of the situation that has been largely re- 
 sponsible for the recent Jewish emigration to Western 
 Europe and the United States, a rapid review of the eco- 
 nomic, social and political conditions of Russia, Roumania 
 and Austria-Hungary will be made. 
 
PART I 
 THE CAUSES OF JEWISH EMIGRATION 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 EASTERN EUROPE : ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND POLITICAL 
 CONDITIONS 
 
 I. RUSSIA 
 
 THE difficulty of the average American to understand 
 the character of Russian life, some traits of which have 
 been so vividly brought home to him in recent years, may 
 be attributed to a general idea that a country rubbing elbows 
 as it were with Western civilization for several centuries 
 must perforce itself possess the characteristics of modern 
 civilization. A closer survey of the economic, social and 
 political conditions prevailing in Russia to-day, however, 
 reveals many points of difference from those of the coun- 
 tries of Western Europe, and presents a remarkable con- 
 trast with those prevailing in the United States. Russia 
 and the United States, indeed, stand, in Leroy-Beaulieu's 
 phrase, at the two poles of modern civilization. So far 
 apart are they in the character of their economic, social and 
 political structures, in the degree in which they utilize the 
 forms and institutions of modern life, and, in the difference* 
 in the mental make-up of their peoples, that there exist few, 
 if any, points of real contact. 
 
 Up to the middle of the iQth century, Russia was, in 
 nearly all respects, a medieval state. She was a society, 
 which, in the words of Kovalevsky, " preserved still of / 
 feudalism, not its political spirit but its economic structure, V 
 serfdom, monopoly and the privileges of the nobility, its 
 immunities in the matter of taxes, its exclusive right to 
 443] 27 
 
2 g JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [444 
 
 landed property, and its seignorial rights." * Her modern 
 era dates from the emancipation of the serfs in 1861, when 
 she became, at least in form, a European state. But, though 
 the Russia of our day has witnessed great transformations 
 in the direction of modernization, she still retains many 1 , 
 of the conditions and much of the spirit of her medieval! 
 past. 
 
 A rapid review of the economic, social and political con- 
 ditions of Russia will serve to make clearer this situation,, 
 which has an important bearing upon the exceptional posi- 
 tion, legal, economic, social, of the Jews in the Empire, 
 and upon the fateful events of their history for a third of 
 a century. 
 
 The most striking fact in the economic life of present- 
 day Russia is that it is overwhelmingly agricultural. More 
 than three-fourths of her population are engaged in some 
 form of agricultural labor. The vast majority are peas- 
 ants living in villages. Towns are relatively few and 
 sparsely populated. Agricultural products constitute 85 
 per cent of the annual exports. What a contrast does this 
 agricultural state, this " peasant empire ", present to the 
 industrially and commercially developed countries of West- 
 ern Europe and the United States ! 
 
 The Russian peasant still practices a primitive system of 
 agriculture. His method of extensive cultivation, the 
 three-field system in vogue, his primitive implements, his 
 domestic economy of half a century ago, with its home pro- 
 duction for home consumption, which is still maintained in 
 many parts of Russia to this day all these present condi- 
 tions not far removed from those of the middle ages of 
 Western Europe. 2 
 
 1 Kovalevsky, La crise russe (Paris, 1906), p. in. 
 
 2 Cf. Witte, Vorlesungen ilber Volks-und Staatswirtschaft (Stuttgart 
 and Berlin, 1913), p. 40. 
 
 MilyOukov, Russia and its Crisis (University of Chicago Press, 
 1905), p. 439. 
 
445] EASTERN EUROPE 29 
 
 The existence to our day of this almost primitive econ- 
 omy finds its explanation in the fact that serfdom existed 
 in Russia, in all its unmitigated cruelty, until comparatively 
 recent times. Its abolition through the Emancipation Act 
 of Alexander II antedating our own Emancipation Proc- 
 lamation by a few years struck off the chains that bound 
 twenty millions of peasants to the soil. The emancipation, 
 however, was not complete. The land the peasants received 
 was insufficient for their needs. Other conditions co-oper- 
 ated in the course of time with this primary one, to create 
 a situation of chronic starvation for the great mass of the 
 Russian peasants. Forced by the government to pay heavy 
 taxes, in addition to redemption dues for the land, which 
 they paid until recently, and receiving little help from either 
 government or the nobility for the improvement of their 
 position, they are virtually exploited almost as completely 
 as before the emancipation. 
 
 Thus, though freed in person, the peasants are to a great 
 extent bound by economic ties to their former masters, 
 the nobles. These two social-economic classes maintain 
 towards each other practically the same relative position 
 held by them before the emancipation. The manor still 
 controls the hut. 
 
 The former servile relations have persisted psychologi- 
 cally as well. The Russian peasant is still largely a serf 
 in his mentality, in his feeling of dependence, in his inertia 
 and lack of individual enterprise, and, above all, in the 
 smallness of his demands upon life. 1 This fact permeates, 
 as it serves to explain, many aspects of contemporary Rus- 
 sian life. 
 
 The industrial and commercial stage of Russian economy 
 began with the emancipation, which set free a great supply 
 
 1 Cf. Witte, op. tit., p. 52. 
 
3 o JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [446 
 
 of labor. The changes that have taken place have never- 
 theless not obliterated many of the landmarks of the feudal, 
 pre-reformation period. The economic activities of the last 
 half-century present a curious juxtaposition of old and new, 
 medieval and modern. Cottage and village industries but 
 little removed from the natural economy of the earlier 4 
 period exist by the side of great factories and industrial 
 establishments employing thousands of workmen. Fairs 
 and markets still play a large part in supplying the needs 
 of the peasants, rapidly as they are being supplanted by the 
 commercial activities of the towns. The industrial labor- 
 ers, recruited mainly from the country, retain largely their 
 peasant interests, relations and characteristics. The pay- 
 ment of wages in kind, which is still in vogue in many parts, 
 and the right of inflicting corporal punishment retained by 1 
 the employers, give evidence of the strong impress of the 
 servile conditions of the past. 
 
 Vast changes have nevertheless taken place since the 
 emancipation. Capitalism has made rapid, if uneven, prog- 
 ress. Under the fostering care of the government, indus-t 
 try and commerce have made immense strides. The fac- 
 tory system has taken firm root and has been developing 
 a specialized class of industrial laborers. Great industrial 
 centers have sprung up; towns have grown rapidly. The 
 middle class, hitherto insignificant, has increased in number, 
 wealth and influence. Among the peasants as well, free- 
 dom has given birth to the spirit of individualism. The 
 differentiation of the peasantry into wealthier peasants and 
 landless agricultural laborers, the great mass of the peas- 
 antry occupying the middle ground, and the gradual dis- 
 solution of the two great forces of Russian agricultural life 
 the ^patriarchal family and the village community have 
 been the most important results. 
 J. Russia is clearly in a state of transition from the agri- 
 
447] EASTERN EUROPE 3! 
 
 cultural or medieval to the industrial and commercial or 
 modern economic life. This transformation of the eco- 
 nomic structure is being effected under great difficulties and 
 the strong opposition of the ruling classes, whose privileges 
 are threatened by the new order of things. 
 
 The Russian social and political order reflects the medie- 
 val background which formed the setting for her entrance 
 upon the modern stage. The class distinctions, naturally 
 obtaining, are hardened into rigidity by the law, which di- 
 vides Russian society into a hierarchy of five classes or 
 orders the nobles, the clergy, the merchants, the towns- 
 men and the peasants each with separate legal status, 
 rights and obligations. 
 
 The individual is thus not an independent unit, as in the 
 legal codes of Western Europe or the United States. Ac- 
 companying the legal stratification there is an exceedingly 
 strong, almost caste-like, sense of difference between the 
 members of the different groups. 
 
 This emphasis on the person is characteristic of the medi- 
 eval social order. In Russia it finds additional expression 
 in the control of individual movement by means of the pass- 
 port, without which document a Russian may be said to 
 have no legal existence. 
 
 Even more striking is the position of the Russian Church, 
 as well as the religio-national conception which dominates 
 the Russian mind and according to which orthodoxy and 
 nationality are regarded as one. The Russian Orthodox 
 is the only true Russian; all others are foreigners. In the 
 alliance of church and state which in Russia reaches a 
 degree of strength not attained in any other European 
 state in the complete control exercised by the Church over 
 the lives of the faithful and the clergy, in secular as in relig- 
 ious matters, in its intolerant attitude towards other creeds 
 and its unceasing attempts to suppress them it presents 
 
3 2 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [44$ 
 
 characteristics strongly reminiscent of the position of the 
 medieval church in Western Europe. 
 
 The one great political fact of Russia has been the autoc- 
 racy. The degree of control which the autocratic Czars ex- 
 ercised unopposed over their subjects marks an important 
 difference between the political development of Russia and 
 that of the countries of Western Europe. At an early 
 period the Czars had transformed the nobility into a body 
 of state officials, thus at a blow depriving them of any real 
 powers, apart from the will of the Crown, and making them 
 serve the interests of the state. In this way the nobles, or 
 the landed aristocracy, became the main source from 
 which the members of the bureaucracy were recruited. The 
 lack of a middle class of any real size and influence, which 
 could play a part in the demand for political rights, explains 
 in a measure the strength of the autocratic powers. 1 The 
 autocracy in turn has been largely dependent upon its ser- 
 vant, the bureaucracy. To such an extent has the Russian 
 government been the expression of the will and interests of 
 this all-powerful body as to justify Leroy-Beaulieu's desig- 
 nation of Russia as the " Bureaucratic State ". 
 
 Thus the autocracy, the nobility-bureaucracy and the 
 - , church have been the dominating forces in the economic, 
 social and political life of Russia. 
 
 In the light of this analysis, the political struggles that 
 have been so conspicuous a feature of Russian life during 
 the last half of the iQth century become an accompaniment 
 as well as an expression of the progressive development of 
 Russia towards modern economic, social and political insti- 
 tutions. 
 
 Russian liberalism, largely revolutionary because of the 
 
 I denial of even elementary rights, such as the freedom of 
 
 ^ person, of speech, of the press and of meeting, rights 
 
 1 Cf. Milyoukov, op. cit., p. 246 et seq. 
 
449] EASTERN EUROPE 33 
 
 which were secured to Englishmen through the Magna 
 Charta has had the serious task not only of securing these 
 rights but at the same time of creating in Russia the con- 
 ditions of modern civilization. For the twenty years in 
 Which its spirit ruled, during the reign of Alexander II, the 
 reforms begun under its influence amounted to a veritable / 
 revolution. The economic, social, political and juridical re- \J 
 forms of this epoch generated new forces and began the 
 modernization of Russia. These reforms encountered the 
 formidable opposition of the nobility and the church and 
 finally of the autocracy, when the latter felt that its position 
 was gradually being undermined, especially by the demand 
 for a constitution. With the assassination of Alexander II, 
 the liberal era was brought to a close, and a reaction was 
 ushered in which has lasted to our day. 
 
 The classes that came into power with Alexander III and 
 Pobedonostseff were, from their economic interests, social 
 outlook and political ideals, essentially medieval and may 
 properly be termed the feudal party. Guided by its eco- 
 nomic interests which had been seriously threatened by 
 the emancipation and swayed by the Slavophilistic phil- y 
 osophy, 1 this party sought to nullify as far as possible the y 
 reforms of the epoch of emancipation and to carry through 
 a many-sided program for putting the order of things back- 
 ward to the medieval, pre-reform days. Autocracy, Greek 
 Orthodoxy and Russian Nationalism the famous Slavo- 
 philistic trinity were glorified, the first two as peculiarly 
 national institutions, the policy of russification and the re- 
 pression of non-orthodox faiths by force were proclaimed 
 as vital to the social health of Russia, the blind ignorance 
 and illiteracy of the peasants were extolled as a virtue and 
 the control over them by the nobility was strengthened in 
 
 1 An interesting statement of the principles of the Slavophiles may be 
 obtained from Simkhovitch (International Quarterly, Oct., 1904). 
 
J 
 
 34 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [450 
 
 many ways. Freedom of every form was condemned as an 
 aping of the " rotten " civilization of the West with its de- 
 caying institutions, and as false to the true Russian national, 
 historical development. 
 
 During this period of reaction, however, the liberal move- 
 ment was kept alive, largely as revolutionary propaganda. 
 The earlier movement had been directed by the educated 
 classes, the " Intelligenzia " of Russia. Lately, with the 
 growth of the middle class and a population of industrial 
 workers in the towns and the factories, and a wealthier class 
 of peasants, the cry for reform has become more insistent, 
 and only recently partly successful in results. 
 
 Summarizing his impressions of Russian life and insti- 
 tutions obtained while serving as Ambassador to Russia, 
 jr Andrew D. White remarked : " During two centuries Russia 
 has been coming slowly out of the middle ages indeed, 
 
 " 
 
 out of perhaps the most cruel phases of medieval life 
 One of the phases of this process has been the bitter 
 struggle between the feudal and the modern forces that has 
 occupied Russia for the last third of a century. 
 
 II. ROUMANIA 
 
 In Roumania, 2 in spite of a liberal constitution modeled 
 upon the Belgian, granting all rights enjoyed by citizens of 
 a free state, the underlying economic, social and, in a meas- 
 ure, political conditions point to a state of things little re- 
 moved from the medieval forms of life. The main social- 
 economic classes are the large landed proprietors, composed 
 chiefly of the old nobility or boyars, and the peasants, who 
 were formerly serfs. In the hands of the former are con- 
 
 1 White, Autobiography (New York, 1905), vol. ii, p. 35. 
 
 2 Owing to the similarity of conditions in Russia and Roumania, 
 particularly as regards the Jews, Roumania has been considered, 
 practically throughout, immediately after Russia. 
 
45 1 ] EASTERN EUROPE 35 
 
 centrated the greater part of the land. Five thousand large 
 landed proprietors together owned nearly half of the culti- 
 vable land. Nearly a million of peasants, on the other hand, 
 comprising with their dependents a great majority of the 
 population, together owned a little over two-fifths of the 
 cultivable land. 1 
 
 This situation is an inheritance from the servile system 
 which existed in Roumania until 1864, when it was legally 
 abolished. The freedom granted to the peasants was, how- 
 ever, more formal than real. The land given them being 
 insufficient for their needs, and pasture land especially hav- 
 ing been denied them, they were as a rule compelled to lease 
 land or pasture right from their former masters at ruinous 
 rates, often paying by labor on their former masters' es- 
 tates. Thus the essential feudal services were in the main 
 continued, especially as the lease and labor contracts, gen- 
 erally drawn up in the interests of the landed proprietor, 
 were often usurious and extremely oppressive. 2 In twenty 
 years there was little change from the previous condition 
 of serfdom, so that a law was necessary, in 1882, to permit 
 the peasants to work at least two days during the week on 
 their own land. 
 
 Since this period there has been practically little change 
 in this essentially feudal relation of the peasantry to the 
 landed proprietors. As the owners of the great estates are 
 a ruling power in the political life of the country, the 
 greater part of peasants being disqualified from voting 
 through property and educational requirements, the former 
 have been enabled to keep the peasantry in this condition 
 
 1 Kogalniceancu, " Die Agrarf rage in Rumanien " Archiv fur Sosial- 
 wissenschaft und Sozialpolitik, vol. xxxii, p. 804. 
 
 2 Ibid., p. 184. 
 
 Jorga, Geschichte des Rumdnischen Volkes (Gotha, 1905), vol. ii, 
 P- 374- 
 
36 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [452 
 
 of semi-servitude. The result is a state of ignorance, mis- 
 ery and degradation on the part of the peasantry that is 
 difficult to parallel in another European country. That the 
 peasants are not entirely passive under their wrongs is 
 shown in the repeated uprisings against their masters and 
 in the two great social revolutions of 1888 and 1907, both 
 of which were put down by military force. 
 
 Roumania's advent into industry and commerce may be 
 dated from the eighties of the last century, and was initiated 
 by the industrial law of 1887, which sought to create a 
 national industry by means of subsidies, land grants and 
 other favors to undertakers of large industrial enterprises. 
 Since then the growth has been sufficiently rapid to place 
 Roumania as the industrial and commercial leader of the 
 Balkan States. Relatively, however, it is still very back- 
 ward. Only 14 per cent of the population is urban. The 
 industrial laborers are estimated at no more than 40,000. 
 There are only a few cities. Only the largest Bucarest 
 has above 100,000 inhabitants, three other cities have be- 
 tween fifty and seventy-five thousand inhabitants. The 
 chief industrial establishments, such as saw mills, flour 
 mills and distilleries, are concerned mainly in the working 
 up of the raw materials produced in the country. Neverthe- 
 less, industrial progress has made for the growth of a small 
 but influential middle class, which divides the control of 
 affairs with the large landed proprietors. Its influence can 
 be traced in the electoral law, which gives the urban classes, 
 constituting the backbone of the liberal party, a majority 
 in the Chamber of Deputies. 
 
 III. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 
 
 Though relatively far advanced along the road of mod- 
 ern civilization, Austria-Hungary, through its prevailing 
 mode of economic and social life, and through its large 
 
453] EASTERN EUROPE 37 
 
 Slavic populations, belongs rather to Eastern than to West- 
 ern Europe. Historically, it began its modern career about 
 the same time as Russia, when it abolished, in 1867, the 
 feudal services and dues, survivals of the previous servile 
 institutions. Nevertheless, in its large agricultural popu- 
 lation, in the primitive system of cultivation generally in 
 vogue, in the scattered character of the peasant holdings, 
 in the strong contrast between the great landed estates or 
 Latifundia, held chiefly by the nobility, and the small, even 
 minute, estates of the majority of the peasant proprietors, 
 and in the natural economy prevailing in many parts of the 
 Dual Monarchy and constituting the main foundation upon 
 which the life of the peasants rests in all these character- 
 istics, is reflected the almost medieval economy which ex- 
 isted in the empire before 1848 and which is not yet entirely 
 outgrown. 
 
 Industrially and commercially, Austria, far more than 
 Hungary, has indeed made really remarkable progress. Yet 
 in this respect the greatest contrast exists between the var- 
 ious Austrian provinces. Certain of these Galicia and 
 Bukowina, for instance are not only the most backward 
 in these pursuits, but their agricultural population is even 
 relatively increasing. Even in the industrially advanced 
 provinces, such as Lower Austria and Bohemia, the transi- 
 tional nature of the industrial life is evident in the unspe- 
 cialized character of a larger portion of the town laborers, 
 many of whom are peasants temporarily employed in fac- 
 tories and mines. 
 
 The Austrian organization of industry and commerce is 
 a modernized version of the guilds and crafts of medieval 
 Western Europe. How these medieval economic forms 
 with their underlying psychologic forces still live and domi- 
 nate Austria, especially its Slavic nationalities, is shown by 
 the revival in 1859 of the Austrian guilds, the direct de- 
 
38 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [454 
 
 scendants of the. medieval Innungen. These were, in 1883, 
 developed in the form of Zwangsgenossenschaften or com- 
 pulsory trade-guilds, which, in their regulations concerning 
 the Befahigungsnachweis or certificate of capacity, the three 
 orders of master, journeyman and apprentice, the principle 
 of compulsory entrance into the local guild, the workman's 
 passport or Arbeitsbuch, unite the methods of regulating 
 and restricting industry and trade characteristic of the 
 Middle Ages, with modern methods of combination, arbitra- 
 tion, and assistance of members. By the side of these com- 
 pulsory guilds are to be found the Gewerkschaften, or the 
 modern voluntary trade-unions. 
 
 The transition to modern economic and social conditions 
 is, nevertheless, well advanced. This is seen in a decrease 
 of the agricultural classes and an increase of the industrial 
 and commercial classes in the thirty years from 1869 to 
 1900. Another sign is the fairly strong differentiation of 
 the economic-social classes, in both the agricultural and the 
 industrial groups, which has advanced quite rapidly. The 
 middle class, while neither as large nor as influential as in 
 the countries of Western Europe, has played an important 
 role towards hastening this transition. 
 
 Politically, the Dual Monarchy occupies a middle ground 
 between absolutist Russia and constitutional England. The 
 court, the nobility and the Roman Church with its strong 
 aristocratic leanings, represent the dominant power in Aus- 
 tria. The economic and social changes of the transitional 
 period have been accompanied by politico-economic strug- 
 gles which have played a vital part and have cut through 
 and across the racial, national and religious conflicts of this 
 much-distracted conglomeration of peoples. Amid the con- 
 fusion of parties, with their complexity of programs, may 
 be distinguished the German-Austrian liberals, representa- 
 tives of the middle class or industrialists, whose historic 
 
455] EASTERN EUROPE 39 
 
 mission was to create a modern state in Austria, and who 
 carried out, in large measure, their program of constitu- 
 tionalism, economic freedom and the secular state. Against 
 them were arrayed the powerful forces of the agrarian party 
 or the landed aristocracy the upholders of the feudal eco- 
 nomic-social order of privilege and class distinction, the 
 clericals the upholders of the idea of the Christian State 
 and the representatives of the lower middle class, composed 
 chiefly of petty artisans and traders, whose ideal was the 
 medieval industrial organization, largely co-operative and 
 regulated, as opposed to the individualistic and competitive 
 system of the modern era, with its great concentration of 
 wealth, capital and power in the hands of the middle class. 
 That the present structure of Austria is so much of a com- 
 promise and crosspatch between modern and medieval eco- 
 nomic, social and political forms, and contains so much 
 that is essentially incongruous, is due largely to the success- 
 ful struggle which the chief parties of the medieval order 
 the feudal-clericals the party of the upper classes, and 
 the Christian Socialists the party of the lower classes 
 have waged against the growing constitutionalization, in- 
 dustrialization and secularization of Austria in short, 
 against the transformation of Austria into a modern state. 
 It is in Galicia that the conditions obtaining in Russia are 
 largely duplicated. Geographically, racially and socially, 
 Galicia is a part of Russia. Galicia is a preponderatingly 
 agricultural land and possesses the densest agricultural 
 population in Europe. Modern industry is relatively little 
 developed, its place being held to a great extent by the 
 domestic system of industry. The contrast between the 
 large and small estates is sharper here than perhaps in any 
 other section of Europe. The Polish nobility, in whose 
 hands the large estates are mostly found, are the ruling 
 social and political, as well as economic, power in Galicia. 
 
40 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [456 
 
 The autonomous Galician Diet is practically the instrument 
 of their interests. A middle class has been gradually ris- 
 ing and contesting their supremacy. The peasantry is one 
 of the most illiterate, degraded, and oppressed in all Europe. 
 
 IV. SUMMARY 
 
 This brief review of the economic and social conditions 
 in Russia, Roumania and Austria-Hungary has shown that, 
 broadly speaking, these countries present points of simi- 
 larity in their situation and their recent movement. In all 
 of these countries, economic and social conditions closely 
 resembling those that obtained in the countries of Western 
 Europe several centuries ago were found until compara- 
 tively recent times. The abolition of serfdom in Russia 
 and in Roumania, and of feudal dues in Austria-Hungary, 
 paved the way for the entrance of these states into modern 
 European civilization. The succeeding period has been 
 marked by a rapid transition from the old domestic econ- 
 omy to a modern exchange economy, through the growth 
 of industry and commerce. The medieval conditions of the 
 earlier period have nevertheless not been entirely obliter- 
 ated. They exist, in Russia, in the privileges and powers of 
 the nobility, in the inferior status and oppressed condition 
 of the peasantry, in the strong class distinctions, in the re- 
 straints upon economic activity and upon movement. 
 Though in smaller measure, the same conditions are found 
 in Austria-Hungary, especially in Galicia. In Roumania, 
 so far as the peasantry is concerned, the pre-emanci- 
 pation conditions remain practically, if not legally, in 
 force. Owing to the increase of population, the minute 
 subdivision of the estates of the peasants, the back- 
 wardness of their agricultural methods, and their over- 
 taxation, the position of the peasants has been rendered 
 precarious. Revolutionary uprisings directed chiefly against 
 
457] EASTERN EUROPE 4! 
 
 the landed proprietors have been a recurring expression of 
 their discontent. 
 
 An important consequence has been the rapid evolution 
 of the industrial and commercial, or the middle class. 
 The growth of the middle class has been accompanied by a 
 struggle in each of these countries between the privileged 
 classes of the feudal state and the middle class, includ- 
 ing in the latter the educated classes and the industrial work- 
 ers of the towns. 
 
 It is in this middle class that the Jews are chiefly to be found. 
 Owing to this fact, as well as through the action of his- 
 torical conditions, the Jews occupy an exceptional position 
 in the economic activities and the social life of each of the 
 countries of Eastern Europe. A survey of their economic 
 and social position in each country will serve to clarify the 
 last thirty years of their history in Eastern Europe and to 
 give some of the causes underlying their vast movement 
 from these countries to Western Europe and particularly 
 to the United States. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 THE JEWS IN EASTERN EUROPE : ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL 
 
 POSITION 
 
 THE economic and social life of the Jews in Eastern 
 Europe has moved along the familiar channels of commerce, 
 industry and urban life characteristic of the Jews in all 
 countries during the middle ages. An examination of the 
 economic position and function and the principal social char- 
 acteristics of the Jews reveals the fact that they play an 
 important part in each of these countries. This we shall 
 see by tracing their principal economic activities and some 
 significant phases of their social life. 
 
 I. RUSSIA 
 
 A review of the occupations of the Jews in the Russian 
 Empire shows that those engaged in the manufacturing and 
 mechanical pursuits constituted 39 per cent of the total 
 Jewish population gainfully employed. This was the largest 
 occupational group. Commerce engaged 32 per cent To- 
 gether the industrial and commercial classes comprised 
 seven-tenths of all Jews engaged in gainful occupations. 
 On the other hand, only 3 per cent were employed in agri- 
 cultural pursuits. 
 
 It is in comparison with the occupations of the non- 
 Jewish population in Russia that the significance of this 
 distribution becomes evident. Of the non-Jews in Russia, 
 agricultural pursuits engaged 61 per cent, manufacturing' 
 and mechanical pursuits 15 per cent, and commerce only 
 3 per cent. The non-Jews engaged in industry and ccm- 
 42 [458 
 
459 ] THE JEWS IN EASTERN EUROPE 43 
 
 merce thus constituted somewhat less than one-fifth of the 
 total non- Jewish population gainfully employed. More 
 than twice as many Jews, relatively, as non-Jews were en- 
 gaged in industrial pursuits and practically twelve times as 
 many Jews as non-Jews in commercial pursuits. 1 
 
 This difference of occupational grouping makes itself felt 
 in the participation of the Jews in the principal occupa- 
 tional groups. Of the total Russian population gainfully 
 employed, the Jews were 5 per cent. They constituted, 
 however, n per cent of all engaged in industry, and 36 per 
 cent of all engaged in commerce. 2 Thus, in the Russian 
 Empire the Jews formed a considerable proportion of the 
 commercial classes and a large proportion of those engaged 
 in industrial pursuits. 
 
 Properly to gauge the economic function of the Jews 
 in Russia, comparison should be made not with the popu- 
 lation of the Russian Empire but rather with that of 
 the Pale of Settlement, where nearly 95 per cent of the 
 Jews live. There the contrast was even stronger. Of the 
 Jews, 70 per cent were employed in industry and commerce 
 as compared with 13 per cent on the part of the non-Jews. 
 Though the Jews are only 12 per cent of the total working 
 population of the Pale, they formed 32 per cent of all en- 
 gaged in industry and 77 per cent of all engaged in com- 
 merce. 3 This clearly shows that the Jews constituted the 
 commercial classes and a significant part of the industrial 
 classes of the Pale. In other words, what is true of the 
 place of the Jews in the occupational distribution of all 
 Russia is still more true of the Pale. The Jews are prepon- 
 
 1 Rubinow, Economic Condition of the Jews in Russia (Washington, 
 1907), P- Soo. 
 
 2 Cf. table IA, p. 158. 
 
 3 Cf. table IB, p. 158. 
 Rubinow, op. cit., p. 501. 
 
44 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [460 
 
 deratingly industrial and commercial, in striking contrast 
 to the rest of the population, which is preponderatingly agri- 
 cultural. 
 
 What is the nature of their activities and their function 
 in the industrial and commercial life of Russia? The great 
 majority of Jews engaged in manufacturing and mechanical 
 pursuits are artisans. In the present relatively backward 
 stage of Russian industrial development these are chiefly 
 handicraftsmen, who mainly supply the needs of local con- 
 sumers. These artisans, who number more than half a 
 million, 1 support nearly one-third of the Jewish population. 
 
 The most important industry is the manufacture of 
 clothing and wearing apparel, which employed more 
 than one-third of the Jewish working population and 
 supported more than one-seventh of the total Jewish 
 population. It is in effect a Jewish industry : prac- 
 tically all the tailors and shoemakers in the Pale are 
 Jews. They predominate as well in the preparation 
 of food products, in the building trades, in the metal, 
 wood and tobacco industries. 2 Hampered by legal re- 
 strictions, lack of technical education, and lack of capital, 
 they nevertheless have become an essential part of the eco- 
 nomic life of the Pale, supplying the needs for industrial 
 products not only of the Jews but of the entire Pale, and, 
 especially of the peasants. 
 
 In the development of large-scale industry, the Jews 
 have taken a smaller part than the Germans or foreigners, 
 owing to the conditions above referred to. Yet, in 1898, 
 in the fifteen provinces of the Pale, more than one-third 
 of the factories were in Jewish hands. 3 Jewish factory 
 
 1 Margolin puts the number at 600,000. 
 
 2 Ruppin, Die Sosialen Verhaltnisse der Juden in Russland (Berlin, 
 1906), p. 59- 
 
 8 Rubinow, op. cit., p. 537. 
 
4 6i] THE JEWS IN EASTERN EUROPE 45 
 
 workers were estimated at one-fifth of all the factory work- 
 ers in the Pale. 1 
 
 Trade and commerce engage Jews chiefly, supporting 
 nearly two-thirds of the total Jewish population. 2 
 
 As Russia is essentially an agricultural country, trade 
 in agricultural products, such as grain, cattle, furs and 
 hides, etc., is of prime importance. Nearly half of the 
 Jewish merchants in the Pale were dealers in these products. 
 Of the dealers in the principal grain products, Jews formed 
 an overwhelming majority. Relatively twenty-six times as 
 many Jews as Russians, in the Pale, were grain dealers. 3 
 Four-fifths of all the dealers in furs and hides, three-fourths 
 of all the dealers in cattle were Jews. 4 The Jewish traders 
 are agents in the movement of the crops, in the various 
 stages from the direct purchase of the grain from the peas- 
 ant to its export for the world markets. In view of the 
 lack of development in Russia of modern methods fo 
 marketing the agricultural produce, and in view of the fa 
 that the Russian peasant is ignorant of the most elementa 
 principles of trade, the Jewish merchants, with their know 
 edge of the market and their skillful use of credit, play 
 vital part in the organization of the Russian grain trad^,' 
 and control this trade in the Pale and on the Black Sea. 
 
 In other branches of commerce, the Jews are almost as 
 strongly represented. As sellers to the village and city 
 populations, they carry on the largest part of the retail 
 trade of the Pale. The great majority of the merchants, 
 however, are petty traders or store-keepers. The whole- 
 sale merchants enrolled in the guilds, on the other hand, 
 constitute a large proportion of all the guild merchants. 
 
 1 Rubinow, op. cit., p. 542. 
 
 2 Ibid., p. 553- 
 
 3 Ruppin, op. cit., p. 62. 
 
 4 Rubinow, op. cit., p. 556. 
 
46 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [462 
 
 Thus, through their activity as petty artisans, traders and 
 merchants, the Jews preponderate in the industrial and 
 ^commercial life of the Pale. As manufacturers and whole- 
 sale merchants they play a less important but nevertheless 
 significant part in all Russia. 
 
 In general the Jewish merchants are quite strongly dis- 
 tinguished from the Russian merchants in their employment 
 of the competitive principles and methods common to the 
 commercial operations of Western Europe and the United 
 States. Their principle of a quick turnover with a small 
 profit, and their use of credit, are not in vogue among 
 the Russian merchants who operate on the basis of cus- 
 tomary prices and long credits. 
 
 In their social characteristics as well, the Jews are 
 strongly set off from the rest of the population. The Jews 
 are essentially urban, the non-Jews are overwhelmingly 
 rural. In all Russia, 51 per cent of the Jews lived in incor- 
 "' porated towns, as against only 12 per cent of the non-Jews. 
 Though the Jews constituted 4 per cent of the total popu- 
 lation, they constituted 16 per cent of the town population. 1 
 In the Pale, where they constituted 12 per cent of the total 
 population, they comprised 38 per cent of the urban popu- 
 lation. 2 Their concentration in the cities of the Pale is 
 striking. In nine out of the fifteen provinces of the Pale, 
 they constituted a majority of the urban population. In 
 twenty-four towns, they were from two-fifths to seven- 
 tenths of the population. In the important cities of War- 
 saw and Odessa they were one-third of the population. 3 
 
 The urban and occupational distribution of the Jews 
 places them higher than the great majority of the non-Jews 
 
 1 Ruppin, op. cit., p. 100. 
 
 2 Rubinow, op. cit., p. 493. 
 8 Ruppin, op. cit., p. 19. 
 
463] THE JEWS IN EASTERN EUROPE 47 
 
 among the social classes into which the Russian people are 
 legally divided. Townsmen are of a higher rank than v 
 peasants. Nearly 95 per cent of the Jews belong to this 
 category and only 7 per cent of the Russians. The vast 
 majority of the Russians 86 per cent are peasants. Only 
 4 per cent of the Jews are of this class. Again, 2 per cent 
 of the Jews are merchants, as against only .2 per cent of 
 the Russians. Thus in these two classes of townsmen and 
 merchants there were twelve times as many Jews, rela- 
 tively, as Russians. 1 
 
 The higher cultural standing of the Jews may be partly 
 measured by the relative literacy of the Jews and of 
 the total population. According to the census of 1897, 
 in the Jewish population ten years of age or over there 
 were relatively one and a half times as many literates as 
 in the total population of the corresponding group. In 
 each of the age-groups there were relatively more liter- 
 ates among the Jews than among the total population. 
 In the highest age-group, that of sixty years of age and 
 over, the Jews had relatively more literates than any of the 
 age-groups of the total population, indicating that the edu- 
 cational standing of the Jews half a century ago was higher 
 than that of the Russian population of to-day. 2 
 
 The fact that the Jews dwell chiefly in towns has consid- 
 erably to do with their higher educational standing. If the 
 statistics of relative literacy of the Jewish and the non- 
 Jewish population in the towns were obtainable, the chances 
 are strong that they would not show a much higher rate of 
 literacy on the part of the Jews. At the same time the diffi- 
 culties that are put in the way of Jewish attendance in the 
 
 1 Ruppin, op. cit., p. 65. 
 
 s Rubinow, op. cit., pp. 577-578. 
 
4 8 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [464 
 
 elementary schools must be regarded as a considerable 
 factor in explaining this possibility. 1 
 
 The participation of the Jews in the liberal professions, 
 which implies the possession of a higher education, is also 
 very large, even with the great obstacles that have been 
 placed in the way of the entrance of the Jews into the uni- 
 versities, into the liberal professions and the state service. 
 Relatively seven times as many Jews as Russians are found 
 in the liberal professions. 2 
 
 II. ROUMANIA 
 
 The economic activities of the Jews in Roumanian in- 
 dustry and commerce closely resemble those of their Rus- 
 sian brethren. 3 The large part taken by the Jews in Rou- 
 manian commerce may be gathered from the fact that, in 
 1904, one-fifth of those who paid the merchant-license tax 
 were Jews. Equally great is their participation in large- 
 scale industry, where, as an inquiry in 1901-2 shows, nearly 
 one-fifth of the large industries were conducted by Jewish 
 entrepreneurs. In some of the most important ones the 
 glass industry, the clothing industry, the wood and furniture 
 industry and the textile industry from one-fourth to one- 
 half of the total number of entrepreneurs were Jews. 
 
 As in the case of Russia, it is in Klein-industrie 
 or handicraft, which is more nearly characteristic of the 
 
 1 In a personal communication to the writer, Dr. Rubinow gives it 
 as his opinion that the Jews as a group consisting primarily of artisans 
 and merchants will show a very much higher rate of literacy than a 
 group of factory employes, and, we may add, of unskilled laborers, to 
 which groups the majority of the non-Jews in the towns belong. 
 
 2 Ruppin, op. cit., p. 62. 
 
 8 On the economic activities and social characteristics of the Jews 
 in Roumania, cf. Ruppin, Die Juden in Rumanien, p. 27 et seq. 
 
465] THE }EWS IN EASTERN EUROPE 49 
 
 present form of Roumanian industrial economy, that 
 the Jews are mostly concentrated and where they par- 
 ticipate so largely as to constitute " the backbone of the 
 young Roumanian industry ". 
 
 The latest inquiry that of 1908 shows that the Jews 
 were one-fifth of all inscribed in the corporations as ar- 
 tisans. They formed more than one-fourth of the 
 master- workmen and nearly one-sixth of the laborers. 
 In the five principal industries Jewish master-workmen 
 formed from nearly one-tenth to nearly one-half. In the fol- 
 lowing trades Jews formed between one-fourth and nearly 
 two-thirds of the entire workers: watchmakers, tinners, 
 modistes, tailors, glazers, housepainters, coopers and book- 
 binders. In all the garment industries nearly one-third of 
 the workers were Jews. The principal trades of the Jews, in 
 which two-thirds of the Jewish industrial workers were 
 found, were, in order: tailors, shoemakers, tinners, joiners 
 and planers, and bakers. 1 The Jews in Roumania were thus 
 more strongly concentrated in industry and less in commerce 
 than their Russian brethren. 
 
 As masters and workmen they play a part in Roumanian 
 large-scale and small-scale industry nearly four and a half 
 times as large as their proportion in the total population. 
 Their participation in commerce is equally large. 
 
 The Jews in Roumania present the same social character- 
 istics, relatively to the surrounding population, as the Jews in 
 Russia. The Jews were overwhelmingly concentrated in the 
 towns. 80 per cent of the Jews dwelt in the towns ; 84 per 
 cent of the non-Jews dwelt in the villages. Of the popula- 
 tion in the department-capitals the Jews constituted one- 
 fifth. Of the population of the other towns they consti- 
 tuted more than one-tenth. In some of the department- 
 
 1 Enqucte sur les artisans (Bucarest, 1909) , P- J 57 et s e Q- 
 
JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [466 
 
 capitals, notably Jassi, the Jews were a majority of the total 
 population. In six other department-capitals they consti- 
 tuted from one-fourth to one-half of the population. 
 
 That the Jews are of a higher educational standing than 
 the Roumanians is seen in the fact that they possessed a 
 higher rate of literacy, having relatively twice as many 
 literates among the males and nearly twice as many among 
 the females. Confining this comparison to the cities, how- 
 ever, we find that the Jews had a higher literacy only in 
 the age-groups above fifteen. The Roumanian urban popu- 
 lation between the ages of seven and fifteen showed a 
 higher literacy than the corresponding group among the 
 Jews, indicating the influence of the special restrictions on 
 Jewish education which will later be discussed. 
 
 While the higher literacy of the Jews in Russia and Rou- 
 mania is due partly to residence in towns, the restrictions 
 -on the Jewish participation in the educational facilities af- 
 forded by the Russian and Roumanian governments have 
 been so great as to make the higher educational standing of 
 the Jews practically a product of their own efforts. 
 
 III. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 
 
 The economic position of the Jews in Austria-Hungary 
 presents a close parallel to that in Russia. The largest 
 proportion of the Jews 44 per cent were engaged in 
 commerce and in trade, and 29 per cent were engaged in in- 
 dustry. 1 A significantly large proportion were engaged in 
 public service and in the liberal professions. A surpris- 
 ingly large proportion 1 1 per cent were engaged in agri- 
 culture and allied occupations. Thus, a little over seven- 
 tenths of the Jews were concentrated in commerce and 
 trade, and industry. 
 
 1 Thon, Die Juden in Oesterreich (Berlin, 1908), p. 112. 
 
467] THE JEWS IN EASTERN EUROPE 51 
 
 The contrast between the Jewish and the non- Jewish 
 population is most striking in the relative proportions of 
 those engaged in agriculture, and commerce and trade. 54 
 per cent of the non-Jews were engaged in agriculture, or 
 five times as many, relatively, as Jews. On the other hand, 
 only 8 per cent were engaged in commerce and trade, or 
 relatively one-fifth as many as Jews. 
 
 Of the total population engaged in commerce and trade 
 the Jews constituted 21 per cent. They constituted, on the 
 other hand, 5 per cent of all engaged in industry. Thus, 
 the Jews in Austria-Hungary were concentrated in com- 
 merce and trade to a much larger extent than in all other 
 occupations, constituting an important part of all engaged 
 in this branch. 
 
 It is in Galicia, however, where conditions in general 
 most resemble those in Russia, that the Jews are seen to 
 occupy relatively the same position as their brethren in Rus- 
 sia. In Galicia, 29 per cent of the Jews were engaged in 
 commerce and trade, and 26 per cent in industry. Together 
 the Jews engaged in these two branches constituted more 
 than half of the total Jewish working population. 
 
 By far the largest part of the non- Jewish population 
 86 per cent were engaged in agriculture. In industry only 
 4 per cent of the non-Jews were engaged and in commerce 
 only i per cent. Thus the Jews were largely concentrated 
 in commerce and industry, the non-Jews preponderatingly 
 concentrated in agriculture. 
 
 As compared with the Jews in Russia and Roumania the 
 Galician Jews engaged in agriculture show a surprising pro- 
 portion 1 8 per cent being so engaged a larger proportion 
 than in any other country. 
 
 The Jews in East Galicia were 13 per cent of the total 
 
52 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [468 
 
 population. 1 Of all the " independents " engaged in com- 
 merce in East Galicia 92 per cent were Jews; of all the 
 " independents " engaged in industry 48 per cent were Jews. 
 The Jews in West Galicia were 8 per cent of the total popu- 
 lation. Of all " independents " engaged in commerce they 
 constituted 82 per cent; of all " independents " engaged in 
 industry they constituted 33 per cent. This gives the crux 
 of the economic position of the Jews in Galicia. They play 
 an overwhelming part in its commercial life, practically 
 monopolizing it. In industry their participation is very 
 significant. 
 
 Socially the Jews in Austria-Hungary and especially 
 in Galicia, present characteristics similar to those in 
 Russia and Roumania. In the forty cities in Galicia 
 with a population above five thousand there dwelt 34 
 per cent of the total Jewish population. Only 7 per 
 cent of the non-Jewish population lived in these cities. 
 Thus, relatively five times as many Jews as non-Jews 
 were urban. Though the Jews in Galicia were n per 
 cent of the total population, they constituted 37 per cent 
 of the population in these cities, thus being represented 
 in the cities by more than three times their proportion in 
 the total population. In nine of these towns they formed a 
 majority of the population. They were more than one- 
 third in twelve, and more than one-fourth in eleven other 
 towns. In the two chief cities in Galicia Lemberg and 
 Cracow they constituted a third of the total population. 
 
 The figures regarding literacy are not available for 
 Austria-Hungary or Galicia, but there is every reason to 
 believe that essentially the same situation exists as in Rus- 
 sia and Roumania. In the liberal professions in Austria- 
 Hungary there were 16 per cent of the Jews so engaged as 
 
 1 Thon, op. cit., p. 124. 
 
469] THE JEWS IN EASTERN EUROPE 53 
 
 compared with n per cent of the non-Jews. In Galicia 
 the contrast is much sharper. Relatively ten times as many 
 Jews as non-Jews were represented in the liberal profes- 
 
 IV. SUMMARY 
 
 A review of the occupations, economic function and social 
 characteristics of the Jews in the countries of Eastern 
 Europe reveals them in an important and essentially similar 
 role in each country. Pursuing mainly industrial and com- 
 mercial occupations, the Jews constitute by far the largest 
 part of the middle classes of each country. The historical 
 position which they held in the ancient kingdom of Poland 
 as the middle class has been practically maintained to this 
 day. 
 
 By virtue of their occupations, the Jews are possessed 
 of liquid wealth to a greater extent than the nobility or the 
 peasantry, and in the lack of proper credit facilities still 
 serve as bankers and money-lenders. The Jews have also 
 been conspicuous in Eastern Europe as stewards or admin- 
 istrators of the estates of the nobility, who are, as a rule, 
 absentee landlords, distinguished as a class by their serious 
 lack of interest or ability in the management of their es- 
 tates. The Jewish Hofjiiden, as they were known, were 
 particularly useful in the utilization of the products of the 
 soil, through distilleries, mills, trade with agricultural 
 products and exploitation of the forests. 2 In this way, 
 however, Jews often acted as intermediaries in the oppres- 
 sion of the peasantry by the nobles. They were often keep- 
 ers or lessees of the taverns, the ownership of which was 
 formerly vested in the nobles as one of their feudal privi- 
 leges. 
 
 It is, however, as artisans, industrial laborers and mer- 
 
 1 Thon, op. cit., p. 127. 
 
 2 Grenzboten: Galisische Wirtschaft, vol. Ixii, p. 402. 
 
54 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [470 
 
 chants, retail and wholesale, that Jews chiefly obtain their 
 living. Their monopoly of industry and commerce has 
 given them an influence far above their numerical propor- 
 tions. 
 
 In each of these countries, again, the Jews are essentially 
 town dwellers in the midst of preponderatingly rural popu- 
 lations. That the degree of the contrast is due to the arti- 
 ficial workings of restrictive laws is unquestioned. The 
 chief reason for this, however, is occupational. The Jews 
 as an industrial and commercial people constitute one of the 
 main elements out of which the town populations are re- 
 cruited. Towns are ordinarily the foci of all the cultural 
 forces and the movement and enterprise of a country. In 
 Eastern Europe, where the number of towns is so few, this 
 is much more the case than in Western Europe. The fact) 
 that the Jews are so largely concentrated in these compara- 
 tively few towns serves to give them a cultural position and 
 influence far out of proportion to their numbers. Their eco- 
 nomic activities and their relatively large participation in 
 the liberal professions strengthens this position considerably. 
 
 Amidst populations preponderatingly devoted to agricul- 
 tural occupations and dwelling in villages, the Jews repre- 
 sent an industrial and commercial people, strongly concen- 
 trated in towns. This economic and social position of the 
 Jews is of the greatest significance, especially in the present 
 period of transition in these countries. Possessed of the 
 characteristics of a modern people in their economic and 
 social life and in their mentality, they present a sharp con- 
 trast with the peoples among whom they dwell and whose 
 economic and social life are only now taking on modern 
 forms. It is this that makes the Jews personify in a large 
 degree the forces of economic enterprise and of social 
 progress in these countries. 
 
 On the other hand, the exceptional economic and social 
 
THE JEWS IN EASTERN EUROPE 55 
 
 position held by the Jews among the East-European peo- 
 ples has made them peculiarly susceptible to the changes 
 that have been taking place, as their inferior legal status 
 and sharp differentiation from the mass of the people have 
 made them favorable objects of attack in the politico-eco- 
 nomic struggles that have largely accompanied the transi- 
 tion. 
 
 A consideration of the legal status of the Jews in each 
 of the countries of Eastern Europe and of the chief forces 
 that have ruled their history for more than a third of a cen- 
 tury will enable us to see some of the dynamic aspects of 
 the recent history of the East-European Jews and the un- 
 derlying causes o their recent emigration. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 THIRTY YEARS OF JEWISH HISTORY IN EASTERN EUROPE 
 
 i. RUSSIA 
 
 RELIGIOUS intolerance had been the prime motive of Rus- 
 sia's policy of completely excluding the Jews from her 
 borders. Through the partitions of Poland from 1772 to 
 1795, she became the unwilling ruler over the destinies of 
 millions of Jews living in Lithuania, Western and South- 
 western Russia and Poland proper. The historic medie- 
 val principle by which the Jews were regarded as an alien 
 and heretic race living among the Christian peoples a prin- 
 ciple that had, with the growth of modern ideas, been 
 rapidly losing its hold upon the West-European nations- 
 expressed Russia's attitude towards the Jews and con- 
 formed to her strongly medieval outlook and organization 
 of this period. Thus, at the time when the emancipation of 
 the Jews had begun to be in Western Europe a concomitant 
 of social progress, Russia set to work to recreate almost 
 typically medieval conditions for a vaster Jewish population 
 than had ever before been assembled in any European 
 country. 
 
 The Jews were placed in the position practically of 
 
 aliens, whose activities were regulated by special laws. The 
 
 ' first and the most far-reaching of these laws limited their 
 
 right of residence to those provinces in which they lived at 
 
 the time of the Polish partitions. In this way originated! 
 
 that reproduction on a vast scale of the medieval Ghetto 
 
 56 [472 
 
473] THIRTY YEARS OF JEWISH HISTORY 57 
 
 the Pale of Jewish Settlement. The elementary right of 
 free movement and choice of residence, which was denied 
 to the Jews, has remained the principal restriction to which 
 they are subjected. 
 
 The Pale of Jewish Settlement, continued with but few 
 changes to our day, includes the fifteen provinces of West- 
 ern and Southwestern Russia Vilna, Kovno, Grodno, 
 Minsk, Vitebsk, Mohileff, Volhynia, Podolia, Kiev (except 
 the city of Kiev), Chernigov, Poltava, Bessarabia, Kher- 
 son, Jekaterinoslav, Taurida (except the city of Yalta), and 
 the ten provinces into which Poland is divided Warsaw, 
 Kalisz, Kielce, Lomza, Lublin, Petrikow, Plock, Radom, 
 Suvalk and Siedlec. From the rest of the eighty-nine pro- 
 vinces and territories constituting nearly 95 per cent of 
 the total territory of the Russian Empire the Jews were 
 excluded. 
 
 In the course of a century the special laws relating to the 
 Jews have multiplied greatly until they now consist of 
 more than a thousand articles, regulating their religious 
 and communal life, economic activities and occupations, 
 military service, property rights, education, etc., and mv 
 posing special taxes over and above those borne by all 
 other Russian subjects. The direct consequence of these 
 laws was to mark the status of the Jews as the lowest in the 
 Empire, placing them in the position of aliens as to rights 
 and citizens as to obligations. 1 
 
 The policy of the Russian government throughout the 
 iQth century has been full of contrasts and contradictions. 
 Attempts at forcible russification and assimilation, which 
 with Nicholas I practically spelled conversion, have alter- 
 nated with methods of repression which sought to prevent 
 
 1 Leroy-Beaulieu, The Empire of the Tsars (New York, 1894), vol. 
 Hi, p. 558. 
 
5 g JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [474 
 
 closer contact between the Jewish and the native popula- 
 tions. 
 
 It was the liberal epoch of Alexander II that gave the 
 first real promise of emancipation to Russian Jewry. The 
 great reforms of this era benefited the Jews along with the 
 other subjects of the Empire. With the influence of the 
 liberals over the government there came a new attitude re- 
 garding the Jews and their value as economic and cultural 
 forces. Partly to relieve the intense competition in the 
 Pale, harmful both to the Christian and the Jewish popu- 
 lations, but chiefly to give the provinces of interior Russia 
 the benefit of the superior industrial and commercial, and 
 professional abilities of the Jews, laws were enacted allow- 
 ing certain classes of Jews to live outside of the Pale. 
 These were, chiefly, master-artisans, merchants of the first 
 guild, students and graduates of universities and higher 
 educational institutions, and members of the liberal pro- 
 fessions. 
 
 With these laws and with the opening of the high schools 
 and universities to the Jews, the movement for Russianiza- 
 tion received a mighty impetus. Though these reforms, 
 hedged about and limited by onerous conditions, affected 
 comparatively few and hardly touched the life of the Jewish 
 masses in a radical way, nevertheless, the impulse which 
 even these relatively slight reforms gave to the current of 
 Jewish life in Russia was far out of proportion to the re- 
 lief they afforded. Jewish hopes for a final emancipation 
 soared high : it seemed as if the walls of the Pale needed 
 but little more to be broken down. 
 
 The reaction that followed the assassination of Alex- 
 
 ; ander II fell upon the Jews as a national calamity. To the 
 
 feudal party which now came into control, the Jews seemed 
 
 the very embodiment of the forces in the Empire whose 
 
 / progress they were seeking to stem. No other nationality 
 
475] THIRTY YEARS OF JEWISH HISTORY 
 
 in the Russian Empire concentrated in itself so many char- 
 acteristics and tendencies opposed to the ideals and inter- 
 ests of the Russian ruling classes. To the Church, domi- 
 nated by a religio-national point of view, they were the very 
 opposite of her ideal type of Russian orthodox, their very 
 existence in Russia being regarded as an anomaly and as an 
 actual and possible influence in disintegrating the religious 
 faith of the orthodox peasants. To the nationalists they 
 were an alien people racially and religiously, whose assimi- 
 lation with the Russian people was neither possible nor de- ' 
 sirable. To the autocracy and the bureaucracy there was s 
 the added fear from their intellectual superiority and their V 
 zeal for education of their playing a powerful part among 
 the liberal forces seeking political freedom. Indeed, the 
 Jews, whose economic and cultural activities and interests 
 bound them closely to Western Europe and were in them- 
 selves modernizing and liberalizing influences, growing all 
 the stronger through the greater freedom offered them dur- 
 ing the liberal epoch, excited the deep repugnance of the 
 feudal forces now directing the destinies of the state. To 
 them the Jews spelled anathema. Separated from the great 
 masses of the Russian people by race, nationality, religion, is 
 occupations and other social and psychological characteris- \JJ 
 tics, they offered an unusually favorable object of attack. * 
 
 It soon became clear that the new regime had determined 
 upon making the Jews a central feature in their policy of 
 reaction. At once a many-sided campaign against the Jews 
 was begun. A powerful machinery of persecution was at 
 hand in the existing Jewish laws. All that was necessary 
 was to revive them, to interpret them rigorously, to tighten 
 the legislative screws which had become loosened during the 
 preceding liberal regime. This, however, seemed insuffi- 
 cient. It was determined that a powerful and definitive 
 
(6p) JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [476 
 
 blow must be struck at the roots of their very existence in 
 Russia. 
 
 . The main attack was economic. The industrial and com- 
 Vmercial activities of the Jews, especially in the Pale, 
 make them, as we have seen, among the chief industrial 
 producers for the peasants, as well as the chief buyers of 
 their agricultural produce. This contact between the Jews 
 and the peasants was a vital need in the economic life of 
 both. The familiar charge that the Jews were exploiters of 
 the peasantry was revived. Behind this charge lay the medie- 
 val economic prejudice, which attributes no really useful 
 role to the merchant or trader. 1 In a custom-ridden eco- 
 nomic order, the competitive methods of the Jewish traders 
 smacked of commercial deceit. Principally, however, this 
 charge served for a convenient explanation of the change of 
 policy towards the Jews. 
 
 In this wise were introduced the " Temporary Regula- 
 tions " of May, 1882, or the May Laws, the main clauses 
 of which are the following : 
 
 1. As a temporary measure and until a general revision is 
 made of the legal status of the Jews, they are forbidden to 
 settle anew outside of towns and townlets (boroughs), an ex- 
 ception being made only in the case of existing Jewish agri- 
 cultural colonies. 
 
 2. Until further orders, the execution of deeds of sale and 
 mortgage in the names of Jews is forbidden, as well as the 
 registration of Jews as lessees of real estate situated outside 
 of towns and townlets, and also the issuing to Jews of powers 
 of stewardship or attorney to manage and dispose of such real 
 property. 
 
 1 For an example of typically medieval economic notions regarding 
 trade and commerce prevalent among the feudal classes of Eastern 
 Europe, cf. Carmen Sylva's criticism on the economic activities of 
 the Jews in Roumania in Century, March, 1906. 
 
477] THIRTY YEARS OF JEWISH HISTORY 6l 
 
 The May Laws may be regarded as an extension of the 
 general principle underlying the creation of the Pale. 
 Through the first clause they were now to be forbidden 
 free movement even within the Pale. As far as possible, 
 their contact with the peasantry was to be cut off. The 
 second clause aimed to put an end to the ownership by Jews 
 of land in rural districts and the employment of Jews as 
 stewards or managers of estates. A further construction 
 of this clause forbade Jews to be connected with any busi- 
 ness directly or indirectly depending upon the purchase of 
 landed property outside of the towns of the Pale, thus de- 
 barring them from the utilization of land for industrial 
 and commercial, as well as for agricultural purposes. 
 
 In the actual execution of these laws, and in the legal 
 interpretations given them by the highest courts, the effect 
 was far greater. A series of wholesale expulsions from the 
 villages into the towns of the Pale began, on the ground 
 of illegal residence. This was increased by the device, 
 which became normal, of renaming towns as villages 
 easily possible in Russia where towns are frequently only 
 administrative units the resident Jews then being expelled 
 as illegal settlers. Again, movement within the villages 
 even on the part of Jews who had the right to live in vil- 
 lages was prohibited. 
 
 A further effect of this change in policy was upon the posi- 
 tion of the Jews outside of the Pale, who enjoyed the right 
 of residence in the interior of Russia, through the laws of 
 the preceding regime. A stricter interpretation of these 
 laws, added to a change in the administrative policy, had 
 the effect not only of stopping the comparatively slight 
 current of Jewish artisans into the interior of Russia, but 
 also of starting a never-ending series of expulsions from 
 the interior to the Pale. These expulsions have since con- 
 tinued, with individuals, families and whole groups, until 
 
/ 
 
 62 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [478 
 
 they have become a constant phenomenon of Jewish life in 
 Russia and a familiar item of world news. 
 
 While the May Laws thus touched to the quick the eco- 
 nomic life of the Russian Jews, another series of laws 
 sought to break down their cultural life by barring them 
 from the higher educational and professional institutions. 
 The contrast with the policy of the preceding regime was 
 here as complete as possible. The principle of liberal assim- 
 ilation with regard to the Jews had dictated the policy of 
 opening wide to them the doors of the secondary schools 
 and universities, and the liberal professions. The new 
 regime, however, not only opposed education generally, and 
 higher education particularly, as the means by which the 
 reform and westernization of Russia was being accom- 
 plished, but it regarded the russification of the Jews as a 
 special evil. Culturally as well, the Jews were to be separ- 
 ated from the Russian people. 
 
 Hence the introduction of the " percentage rule " in 1886 
 and 1887, restricting the proportion of Jewish students ad- 
 mitted to the secondary and high schools, and universities, 
 within the Pale, to 10 per cent of the total number of stu- 
 dents admitted. Outside of the Pale, the proportion was 
 5 per cent, except in St. Petersburg and Moscow, where it 
 was placed at 3 per cent. In addition, the Jews were com- 
 pletely barred from a number of these institutions. As the 
 Jews constituted so large a part of the populations in the 
 towns of the Pale and had distinguished themselves in 
 Russia as elsewhere by the eagerness with which they 
 grasped the educational and professional opportunities of- 
 fered them, the introduction of the " percentage rule " 
 meant that the vast majority of the Jewish youth were 
 to be deprived of the normal chances for education. Thus 
 the " percentage rule ", which was extended to institutions 
 founded by the Jews themselves, was almost as great a blow 
 
479] THIRTY YEARS OF JEWISH HISTORY 63 
 
 as the May Laws. It threatened the cultural ruin of Rus- 
 sian Jewry. Bound up as the admission to these schools 
 was with the liberal professions and with the opportunity 
 of escaping from the limits of the Pale, it meant that one 
 of the main highways to freedom in Russia had been closed /' 
 to the Jews. * 
 
 The most striking method of repression introduced by 
 the new regime and its feudal supporters was that combina- 
 tion of murder, outrage and pillage the pogrom. The 
 revival of this characteristic expression of the antisemitism 
 of the middle ages was not the result of spontaneous out- 
 breaks of fury on the part of the Russian masses, but a 
 deliberate and calculated awakening of latent racial and 
 religious prejudices, evoked as powerful aids to inflame 
 against the Jews the Russian masses, who are, religiously 
 speaking, a tolerant people and whose relations to the Jews 
 had been marked, on the whole, with friendliness. 
 
 The first pogroms began a month after the accession of 
 Alexander III to the throne, and extended in the course of 
 a year to 160 places in Southern Russia. Though the con- 
 nivance of the local authorities was clearly established, the 
 originators of the pogroms were never found. 1 However, 
 moral support was lent by the government in the promul- 
 gation of the May Laws which closely followed. Thejioc- 
 trine that the misery of the peasants was due to their ex- 
 ploitation by the Jews, and that the pogroms were the 
 instinctive expression of the fury of the peasants, was 
 officially sanctioned. The pogroms of 1881-2 served as 
 notice "to all Russia and particularly to Russian Jewry, that 
 the old order had given place to the new. Apart from the 
 loss of life and damage to property they left the Russian 
 
 1 The part played by the authorities in these pogroms is discussed 
 by A. Linden in Die Judenpogromen, vol. i, pp. 12-96. 
 
64 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [480 
 
 Jews in a state of stupefaction and horror, with the sense of 
 living on the brink of a precipice. 
 
 The first decade of Alexander Ill's reign had opened 
 with these pogroms. The second decade opened with the 
 wholesale expulsions from Moscow. Within six months, 
 more than ten thousand Jews were expelled from the city 
 on the ground of illegal residence. So vast a number of 
 Jewish families was affected and so summary was the 
 manner of executing the decree of expulsion, that several 
 governments, among them our own, protested to the Rus- 
 sian government. President Harrison, discussing this pro- 
 test in his message to Congress, frankly stated that 
 
 the banishment, whether by direct decree or by not less certain 
 indirect methods, of so large a number of men and women is 
 not a local question. A decree to leave one country is in the 
 nature of things an order to enter another some other. This 
 consideration, as well as the suggestion of humanity, furnishes 
 ample ground for the remonstrances which we have presented 
 to Russia. 1 
 
 The expulsions were preceded by a year of ominous 
 rumors of a program of new restrictions beside which 
 the May Laws would pale into insignificance. An offer of 
 ten million dollars for the cause of Jewish education made 
 by Baron de Hirsch to the Russian government was re- 
 fused. His scheme, however, for the organization of a 
 mass-emigration of Jews to Argentine was sanctioned. All 
 these facts lent strength to the feeling of the Jews that they 
 had nothing to hope for under the existing regime. Thus 
 closed the reign of Alexander III and a memorable chapter 
 in Russian Jewish history. 
 
 The early years of Nicholas II were marked by a relax- 
 
 1 President Harrison's Message is given in Appendix A, page 199. 
 
481] THIRTY YEARS OF JEWISH HISTORY 65 
 
 ation in the strict administration and interpretation of the 
 existing restrictive laws. Hopes for the amelioration of 
 the Jewish situation began to be entertained. These hopes 
 were destined shortly to be shattered. 
 
 The first decade of the twentieth century opened with 
 threatening unrest. Economic depression began and was 
 accompanied by revolutionary attacks. For the Jews, the 
 most alarming symptom was the rise and uninterrupted 
 progress of a group of antisemitic agitators and Russian 
 loyalists, who sought to counteract the revolutionary move- 
 ment by denouncing the Jews as the leaders of the revolu- 
 tion and the enemies of the autocracy and the Orthodox: 
 religion. Thus was sown the seed of the Kishineff massacre 
 of April, 1903, which lasted three days. Before the echoes 
 of Kishineff had died away, the massacre at Gomel fol- 
 lowed. 
 
 But Kishineff proved to be merely a bloody prelude. The 
 air was surcharged with explosives. The outbreak of the 
 Russo-Japanese war and of the first organized revolution 
 created a dangerous combination of events for the Jews. 
 To the discontent of the peasants, forced to go to the front 
 in a war for which they had no enthusiasm, and sore with 
 the reverses of the Russian army, was added the increased 
 activity of the agitators who declared that the war with 
 Japan had been forced upon Russia by the Jews, eager to 
 profit through its ruin, and who called upon their followers 
 and the peasants through propaganda and proclamations 
 to revenge themselves upon the Jews. The government at 
 bay, on the verge of breakdown under the revolutionary at- 
 tacks, and anxious to excuse its incompetency and failure 
 in the conduct of the war, sought a means of diverting the 
 peasants .from the uprisings against the landed proprietors 
 spreading over the land, and, above all, of stifling the revo- 
 lution, which had met with such opportune and unlocked- 
 
66 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [482 
 
 for success among all classes. This was a situation alive 
 with danger for the Jews, whose proletarians in the cities 
 had taken an active part in the revolution. The organiza- 
 tion of Jewish massacres by responsible agents of the gov- 
 . ernment became the central feature of its program of coun- 
 ter-revolution. 1 A veritable holocaust ensued in nearly 
 every province of the Empire for two years, only the 
 climaxes of which became known to the world in Zhitomir, 
 Odessa, Bialystok, and Siedlec. 
 
 The role of the bureaucracy in the creation of the 
 pogroms, especially in 1906, in which year there took place 
 hundreds of pogroms, was made abundantly clear by the 
 Russian press, by Prince Urussov's disclosures in the 
 Duma, and by the report of the Duma Commission ap- 
 pointed to investigate the causes of the Bialystok pogrom 
 of 1906. As announced in their official report, an investi- 
 gation had shown that the relations between the Jews and 
 the Christians of Bialystok previous to the bloodshed had 
 been amicable, and that preparations for a pogrom had 
 been deliberately and carefully made by agents of the 
 bureaucracy and carried out with the aid of the local au- 
 thorities. 
 
 Both periods of pogroms in these thirty years were 
 periods of revolution. In both the government had felt 
 the ground shaking under its feet from terroristic attacks 
 and from peasant uprisings. In the first period Jews had 
 taken only slight part In the late revolution, however, the 
 participation of the Jews of the Pale, through the Jewish 
 labor organization, the Bund, was quite strong. The 
 earlier pogroms gave a hint as to the policy of the new 
 regime. The later ones occurred at the end of years of 
 
 1 Semenoff, The Russian Government and the Jewish Massacres 
 (London, 1907), pp. 147-167. 
 
THIRTY YEARS OF JEWISH HISTORY ty 
 
 repression and persecution, and were a culminating point 
 in the fury of the reactionary forces at their failure to stem 
 the tide of liberalism in the struggle for parliamentary in- 
 stitutions and for the rights of citizens in a modern state. ^__ 
 
 The results of these thirty years of reaction remain to be 
 considered. Though the effects of the pogroms upon the 
 Russian Jews can hardly be overestimated, the less evident, 
 because less spectacular, methods of restrictive law and ad- 
 ministrative action have in the long run left a far more 
 enduring impress. 
 
 The introduction of the May Laws at the very beginning 
 of the eighties awakened the Jews to the realization that 
 their future in Russia was threatened. The May Laws 
 and the laws that were developed from them, the obstacles 
 that were placed in the way of Jewish education and, in 
 general, the administrative difficulties that were created, 
 have affected every movement of their life. 
 
 Freedom of movement of the individual is the very es- 
 sence of the life of modern states and the basis of their 
 economic, social and political institutions. The lack of this 
 freedom, especially to the extent created by the May Laws, 
 bars the Jews from the possibilities of normal economic 
 growth and progress. The Jewish manufacturers and cap- 
 italists are prevented from participating in the industrial 
 and commercial development of Russia, which is so rapidly 
 proceeding and to which, owing to their economic position 
 and capacities, they could powerfully contribute. Legal in- 
 terference with economic activities, so frequently the rule 
 in Russia, is emphasized in the case of the Jews. 
 
 A far more serious situation confronts the great mass of 
 the Jewish artisans, petty merchants and factory workers, 
 to which the vast majority of the Jews belong. Largely 
 prevented access to their natural customers, the peasants, 
 by the prohibition of rural residence, and confined to the 
 
68 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [484 
 
 relatively few towns of the Pale, where over-crowding and 
 over-competition are the necessary and unavoidable results, 
 the Jewish artisans and petty merchants have a bitter strug- 
 gle to maintain a position of economic independence. 
 
 Added to this, there is the social pressure to which the 
 Jews have been subjected. Not until this period has the 
 century-long position of the Jews as the " pariahs of the 
 Empire " been so sharply emphasized. Enmeshed in a net 
 of special laws and regulations, at the mercy of ministerial 
 decree, secret circular, arbitrary administrative act, law 
 has lost all meaning for the Jews. In this atmosphere they 
 exist mainly through bribery, at once their bane and their 
 salvation. 
 
 The unusual economic and social pressure exerted by the 
 reactionary regime upon its Jewish subjects, through the 
 new restrictive laws that were put into operation during the 
 last thirty years, the administrative harrying that became 
 the order of the day and the introduction of the hitherto 
 unused method of physical repression, the pogrom, becomes 
 clear in the light of its policy. Beginning as a movement 
 to suppress the Jews in their economic and cultural activi- 
 ties, and to separate them as far as possible from their Rus- 
 sian neighbors, the anti-Jewish program became in its final 
 form the prpnlm'nn and extermination, of the Jews from Rus- 
 sia. The historic sentence of Count Ignatiev, author of the 
 May Laws, at the very beginning of this period, " the 
 Western borders are open to you Jews ", strikes the key- 
 note of this policy. And, in fact, for practically the first 
 time in its history, the Russian government relaxed in 
 1892 its rigorous rules forbidding emigration, and gave 
 its sanction to Baron de Hirsch's plan of organizing a vast 
 emigration- of Tews from Russia, which its author hoped 
 would, at the end of a quarter of a century, result in the 
 complete transplantation of the Jews from Russia. The 
 
4-85] THIRTY YEARS OF JEWISH HISTORY 69 
 
 famous principle of the Russian government, " once a Rus- 
 sian always a Russian ", was for once put aside in favor 
 of the Jews. They were given one right not enjoyed by 
 other Russians, that of leaving Russia under the obligation 
 of abandoning Russian citizenship forever. 1 
 
 II. ROUMANIA 
 
 Up to very recent years, the history of the Jews in Rou- 
 mania centers about those resident in Moldavia. Its prox- 
 imity to ancient Poland and close association with Bessar- 
 abia, naturally made for a back-and-forth movement of the 
 Polish and Russian Jews, whose settlement was invited by 
 the boyars or landed nobility because of resulting industrial 
 and commercial advantages. 
 
 The position of the Jews in Moldavia up to the middle 
 of the nineteenth century did not differ to any extent from 
 that of their brethren in Russia. Moldavia, as a Christian 
 state, denied civil and political rights to all non-Christians. 
 The Jews in Moldavia were regarded as aliens, whose 
 activities were subject to special regulation. The begin- 
 ning of the last century witnessed the first special Jewish 
 laws. The Jews were forbidden to buy the products of the 
 sdil, to acquire real property; non-resident Jews were de- 
 barred unless they could prove an occupation and show the 
 possession of property. Definite restrictions as to occupa- 
 tion, residence in the villages, the ownership, in villages, of 
 houses, land, vineyards, etc., existed. As vagabonds they 
 could be expelled from the country by administrative de- 
 cree. Thus was their legal status fixed. 
 
 The emancipation of Jews was first demanded by the 
 liberal party during the revolutionary days of 1848. But 
 no practical change resulted until the Convention of Paris 
 in 1856, which, in granting autonomy to the two provinces, 
 
 1 Immigration Commission : Emigration Conditions in Europe, pp. 
 261-262. 
 
70 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [486 
 
 guaranteed civil rights to all Moldavians, regardless of 
 creed. Though political rights were granted only to Chris- 
 tian Moldo-Wallachians, the provision was made that, by 
 legislative arrangements, the enjoyment of political rights 
 could be extended to other creeds. Thus was established 
 the possibility of a gradual emancipation of the Jews, fore- 
 shadowed in the communal law of 1864, which granted the 
 right of naturalization to certain classes of native Rou- 
 manian Jews. Those who had passed through college or 
 had a recognized foreign degree, or who had founded a 
 factory in the land employing at least fifty workmen were 
 among the favored classes. 
 
 Shortly afterwards, this section was abrogated, and, 
 with the abdication of the liberal Couza and the ac- 
 cession of Charles Hohenzollern, the present king, to the 
 throne, the situation changed. Article VII of the consti- 
 tution of the newly-created kingdom read that foreigners 
 not of the Christian faith could not be naturalized. As 
 within the term foreigner the great mass of the Jews 
 residing in the land was included, this was a de- 
 nial of the conditions laid down in the Treaty of Paris. 
 At the same time, old laws against the Jews which had 
 fallen into abeyance were revived, expulsions of the Jews 
 from the villages into the towns began to take place with 
 great frequency, laws requiring all sellers of liquor in rural 
 communes to be naturalized Roumanians deprived many 
 Jewish families of a livelihood in short, the usual symp- 
 toms of anti-Jewish activity became the order of the clay. 
 
 It was at the famous Berlin Congress, convened to decide 
 questions created by the Russo-Turkish war of 1877, that 
 the subject of the Jewish disabilities in Roumania was 
 brought up, in connection with the demand of Roumania 
 for recognition as an independent state. The chief objec- 
 tion made especially by the representatives of three of the 
 
487] THIRTY YEARS OF JEWISH HISTORY ji 
 
 European powers France, England and Germany was 
 Roumania's treatment of the Jews. It was finally decided 
 by the Congress to recognize her independence on the con- 
 dition that she grant civil and political equality to all her 
 citizens without distinction of race or creed. This was ex- 
 pressed in Article 44 of the historic Berlin Treaty, which 
 read as follows : 
 
 Article 44. In Roumania, difference in religious beliefs and 
 confessions shall not be brought against anyone as a ground 
 for exclusion or unfitness as regards the enjoyment of civil 
 and political rights, admission to public offices, functions, and 
 honors, or the exercise of various professions and industries 
 in any place whatever. Freedom in outward observance of 
 all creeds will be assured to all subjects of the Roumanian 
 state, as well as to strangers, and no obstacle will be raised 
 either to the ecclesiastical organization of different bodies, or 
 to their intercourse with their spiritual heads. 
 
 The citizens of all states, whether merchants or others, shall 
 be dealt with, in Roumania, without distinction of religion, on 
 the basis of perfect equality. 
 
 In the constituante which was convoked soon after to dis- 
 cuss the question of giving the Jews equal political rights, an 
 interesting picture is obtained of the sentiment of the upper 
 and middle classes of Roumania. 1 An overwhelming ma- 
 jority was opposed to the granting of political rights to 
 the Jew r s on the ground that Roumania was a Christian- 
 Latin State, or on the purely nationalistic ground that the 
 Jews were an alien and utterly unassimilable element of the 
 population. To meet the demands of the Powers the prin- 
 ciple of individual naturalization was adopted, by which 
 an alien could be granted naturalization individually and 
 only by a special vote of the Chamber of Deputies. Other 
 
 1 The discussions are presented in La question ju'vue. 
 
72 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [488 
 
 onerous conditions, such as the requirement of a ten years' 
 residence in the country for citizenship, and the prohibition 
 of the purchase by aliens of rural estates, showed conclu- 
 sively that Roumania was prepared to give only formal 
 assent to the demand of the Powers. 1 After a year of 
 negotiations, the three Powers agreed to the recognition of 
 her independence, expressing the hope that the Roumanian 
 government would recognize the inadequacy of the revised 
 article and especially of the principle of individual natur- 
 alization as meeting the conditions of the Berlin Treaty, 
 and would aim towards a complete emancipation of all her 
 subjects. 2 
 
 The situation at the beginning of the eighties presented 
 but little hope of improvement in the political condition of 
 the Jews. Eight hundred and eighty-three Jews who had 
 fought in the war for independence had been naturalized 
 en masse. With the exception of this small number, the 
 Jews were legally classed as foreigners. 3 Shortly after, 
 owing to the fact that Austria-Hungary had withdrawn its 
 protection from several thousands of its Jewish citizens 
 resident in Roumania, the entire body of Jews received a 
 new legal status, that of " foreigners not subject to any 
 foreign Power ". In other words, they were stateless, 
 though subject to all the obligations of Roumanian citi- 
 zens, including military service and the payment of taxes. 
 This legal status of the Jews has received the attention of 
 the world and marks a condition of things which according 
 to Bluntschli is " a denial of the entire development of 
 European states ". 4 
 
 1 Article VII is given in Appendix B, p. 200. 
 
 2 Cf. English Parliamentary Papers, 1880, vol. Ixxix, Correspondence 
 relative to the recognition of Roumania. 
 
 * In the following twenty years only 85 Jews were granted citizenship. 
 4 Bluntschli's pamphlet is a valuable statement of the situation. For 
 title cf. Bibliography. 
 
489] THIRTY YEARS OF JEWISH HISTORY 73 
 
 Freed from the control of the Powers, Roumania now 
 entered on a new campaign of discrimination against the 
 Jews. The first decade of the eighties saw this begun in a 
 series of laws which for completeness finds no parallel even 
 in Russia. At the very beginning, a law giving the police 
 the right of domiciliary visitation and of expelling under 
 the vagabond law anyone in the rural districts, was employed 
 against the Jews, resulting in their frequent expulsions into 
 the towns. The enforcement of the law against rural resi- 
 dence was so strict as to create practically the same situa- 
 tion as exists in the Russian Pale. The law of 1883, pro- 
 hibiting lotteries, and in the following year the law pro- 
 hibiting hawking or any form of sale from house to house 
 or on the streets deprived several thousands of Jewish 
 families of their livelihood. 
 
 It was in 1886 and 1887, however, when the laws which 
 were to create a national industry and commerce were in- 
 troduced, that a serious step was taken to exclude the Jews 
 from economic activity. On the assumption that occupa- 
 tions were a civil right to which aliens could or could not 
 be admitted, the Jews were systematically deprived even of 
 the civil rights which had been theirs, to a great extent, 
 before the Berlin Congress sought to make them politically 
 free. As foreigners, the Jews were prohibited the right of 
 choosing electors for the newly-created Chambers of Com- 
 merce and Trade, or of becoming members of these cham- 
 bers although they formed a large majority of the mer- 
 chants and manufacturers represented in these important 
 bodies. A still more serious provision was that which de- 
 creed that five years after the foundation of a factory 
 two-thirds of the workingmen employed therein must be 
 Roumanians. Jews were also partly excluded from the ad- 
 ministrative positions in joint-stock companies. They were 
 completely excluded from employment in the financial in- 
 
74 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [490 
 
 stitutions of the state, from the state railway service, and, 
 by a provision that two-thirds of the employes on private 
 railways must be Roumanians, were practically excluded 
 from these as well. The sharpest blow, however, was 
 struck in 1902, when a new law for the organization of 
 trades, popularly known as the Artisans' Bill, was passed. 
 In this law there is to be seen a revival of the guild organi- 
 zations of the Middle Ages. To pursue his occupation 
 every artisan was required to obtain a certificate from a 
 guild. Jewish master artisans and workmen were hit by 
 the requirement that aliens in order to have the right of 
 working in acordance with this law must prove that in their 
 own country reciprocal rights existed for Roumanians, or 
 obtain an authorization from a Chamber of Commerce or 
 Industry. Whatever value this requirement may have had 
 for the protection of Roumanian workmen in foreign coun- 
 tries, its chief effect was to place in a position of economic 
 helplessness the majority of the Jewish workmen as "aliens 
 not subject to any foreign Power ", and largely unable to 
 secure authorization from such chambers controlled by com- 
 petitors. Other clauses, requiring that all workingmen be- 
 long to a guild, and that fifty workmen possessing civil and 
 political rights are empowered to form a guild, put the con- 
 trol of trades into the hands of non-Jews, although the ma- 
 jority of the artisans in many of the trades were Jews. 
 
 A similar policy was pursued with reference to the cul- 
 tural activities of the Jews. A circular of the minister of 
 public instruction, issued in 1887, ordered that preference 
 should be given to Roumanian children, in cases where 
 there was not enough room in the elementary schools for 
 all. This began the gradual exclusion of Jewish children 
 from the Roumanian elementary schools. The formal treat- 
 ment of the Jews as aliens in the educational system was 
 introduced in 1893, when all aliens were required to pay 
 
491] THIRTY YEARS OF JEWISH HISTORY 75 
 
 fees for entrance into the public schools, and were admitted 
 only in case there was enough room for them. The ef- 
 fect of these laws was seen in the diminished proportion of 
 Jewish children in the elementay schools. Similar provi- 
 sions for the secondary and high schools and universities 
 largely closed the doors of these institutions to the Jews. 
 From schools of agriculture and forestry, and of commerce 
 they were completely excluded. 
 
 To the educational restrictions were added restrictions 
 to professional service. As aliens, they were forbidden to 
 be employed in the public sanitary service and health de- 
 partment as physicians, pharmacists, etc., from owning as 
 well as working in private pharmacies, and from entering 
 other professional fields. 
 
 The almost complete agreement of the two principal 
 parties liberal and conservative explains the thorough- 
 ness and uninterrupted progress of this process of piling 
 up disability upon disability. The explanation is partly to 
 be found in the constitution of Roumania, the electoral 
 law of which places the political powers in the hands of two 
 classes the landed aristocracy and the urban, or middle 
 class. The vast majority of the peasants are excluded by 
 educational and property qualifications, obtaining only in- 
 direct representation. Had the Jews been granted political 
 rights, they would have shared political power with the 
 other two classes. It is through the second electoral col- 
 lege, of both the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, that 
 the middle class is represented politically. As manufac- 
 turers and merchants, as urban dwellers, as members of 
 the liberal professions and as graduates of the elementary 
 schools, the Jews would have become the most important 
 part of this electoral college. 
 
 Again, the creation of an industry and commerce along 
 national lines was largely a course of action in the interests 
 
76 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [493 
 
 of this middle class of Roumanian merchants, artisans and 
 laborers. It was in favor of this class that the laws were 
 passed debarring Jews from various occupations and seek- 
 ing essentially to wrest the industrial and commercial 
 monopoly from their hands. 
 
 In this course of action, powerful aid was extended by the 
 bureaucracy, recruited mainly from the lower nobility and 
 the middle classes. Depending for their support upon the 
 urbans, and seeking to prevent the entrance of Jews into 
 state service, which would have resulted from the granting 
 of political rights to the Jews, the bureaucracy have acted 
 in harmony with the middle classes in the attempt to make 
 the Jews politically, economically, and culturally powerless. 
 
 Thus the situation that the Jews in Roumania have been 
 facing for thirty years is abnormal, from every standpoint. 
 At no time within thirty years has there been any 
 serious question of giving to the Jews the political rights, 
 the granting of which had been made the condition of the 
 recognition of Roumania' s independence by the Powers. 
 The history of the succeeding thirty years has been one 
 of gradual, steady and systematic deprivation of one civil 
 right after another. To the prohibition of freedom of 
 movement has been added that of work; one occupation 
 after another has been prohibited to Jews under the mask 
 of foreigners. From all the branches of state service Jews 
 have been almost completely debarred. Participation in 
 important private and public enterprises has similarly been 
 limited. The schools have been largely closed to them. 
 The effect has been partly registered in a rate of illiteracy 
 higher in the cities among the Jewish children between 
 seven and fifteen than among the non-Jewish children of 
 the same age. 
 
 Thus the conscious policy of Roumania has been that of 
 oppression, political, economic and social, with the delib- 
 
493] THIRTY YEARS OF JEWISH HISTORY 77 
 
 erate aim of making it impossible for the Jews to live in 
 Roumania. This method of indirect expulsion is the es- 
 sence of her policy of thirty years. As such it was recog- 
 nized and openly stated in the only formal protest against 
 her manner of fulfilling the conditions of the Berlin Treaty, 
 made by the United States, through its Secretary of State, 
 John Hay, whose circular to the Powers signatory to the 
 Treaty demanded that Roumania be called to account for 
 her treatment of the Jews, and her dishonesty in violating 
 the pledges given by her to the Powers. 1 
 
 III. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 
 
 Until the middle of the nineteenth century, the legal posi- 
 tion of the Jews in Austria-Hungary differed from that of 
 their brethren in Russia and Roumania only in degree. 
 Prohibited the free exercise of their religion, the right to 
 hold real property, and to enter certain occupations, and 
 burdened by special Jewish taxes, the Jews remained a 
 class apart and governed in all their activities by special 
 laws. Their legal emancipation, begun in 1848, was defi- 
 nitely established by the promulgation in each division of 
 the Empire of the Fundamental Law of 1867, declaring 
 that religion should not be a ground for discrimination in 
 civil and political rights. 
 
 The civil and political equality of the Jews was a car- 
 dinal principle of the creed of German- Austrian lib- 
 eralism and one of a number of its victories embod- 
 ied in the Constitution of 1867. Austrian economic 
 and social life at this period was, however, too satu- 
 rated with medievalism to allow for a complete revo- 
 lution in the attitude toward the Jews. On the other 
 hand, the influential part played by the Jews in the 
 liberal movement and the fact that a group of wealthy 
 
 1 The Hay note is given in Appendix C, pp. 201-206. 
 
78 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [494 
 
 Jews were powerful factors in the haute finance and in the 
 commercial life of the country were made the basis of an 
 attack by the feudal-clericals upon the Jews. 
 
 The great financial crash of 1873, in which several Jewish 
 financial houses were concerned, was the starting-point of 
 political antisemitism in Austria. The Jews were denounced 
 as the representatives of the capitalist order of society, with 
 its overwhelming concentration of wealth and its exploita- 
 tion of the industrial and the agricultural proletariat. The 
 Christian-Socialist movement began with antisemitism 
 as the corner-stone of its economic and social doctrines. 
 Its opposition to the Jews and to capitalism was largely due 
 to medieval prejudices in favor of the Christian-feudal 
 state and the medieval industrial organization. In the early 
 eighties it began to triumph when the " small man " or petty 
 industrialist received political power through an extension 
 of the suffrage. 
 
 It reached its height in the nineties, when, under the com- 
 bined influence of feudal-clerical nobles, the clergy and the 
 lower middle class, a period of reaction set in. In Vienna, 
 in 1895, the antisemite Lueger was elected mayor. Power- 
 less though they were to change the legal status of the Jews, 
 the antisemites succeeded in creating in both upper and 
 lower circles of Austrian society an atmosphere of antago- 
 nism to the Jews which has prevented the complete ful- 
 fillment of the principle of equality as set forth in the con- 
 stitution. 
 
 The clericals have fanned the flames of religious hatred 
 especially among the peasantry by ritual-murder accusa- 
 tions, which have been rife and have played a large part in 
 strengthening the sentiment of hostility toward the Jews. 
 
 In Galicia, the position of the Jews became unsettled, 
 owing to a variety of causes. 1 Although one of the 
 
 1 Jiiduche Statistik, p. 208 et seq. 
 
495] THIRTY YEARS OF JEWISH HISTORY 79 
 
 least advanced among the Austrian crown lands, Gali- 
 cia has experienced within the last half -century an in- 
 dustrial and commercial development along with the 
 rest of the Empire. This resulted in the growth of 
 a middle class particularly among the Poles, which began 
 to compete for supremacy with the Jews. The improve- 
 ments in transportation and communication, the organiza- 
 tion of agricultural syndicates, for the purpose of directly 
 purchasing and selling the produce of the peasants, and the 
 creation of rural credit societies, helped considerably to dis- 
 place the Jewish middlemen and traders as well as the 
 Jewish money-lenders, who dealt largely with the peasantry. 
 The movement to develop Galicia industrially was fostered 
 on national lines by these Polish organizations, which car- 
 ried on an extensive propaganda and systematically or- 
 ganized economic boycotts against the Jews. " Do not buy 
 of Jews ", " Do not patronize Jewish artisans ", became 
 familiar cries in Galicia as in other parts of Austria. 
 
 The process of wrestling the monopoly of industry, trade 
 and commerce from the Jews in favor of the Polish petty 
 merchants and artisans was considerably accelerated by the 
 official bodies, the autonomous Galician Diet and the muni- 
 cipal boards, controlled chiefly by the Polish-Catholic nobil- 
 ity, who saw in the national-industry movement a means of 
 capturing the votes of the middle class and of thus retaining 
 their position as leaders of the Polish people. Communal 
 funds were used to establish Poles in business. Attempts 
 were made to take away from the Jews the small-salt and 
 tobacco trades. The taxes on the taverns were increased. 
 In the public financial institutions organized for various 
 purposes Jews were not given representation. In nearly all 
 the activities designed to promote the interest of the urban 
 population and the peasantry, the Jews were systematically 
 excluded by the local authorities. 
 
go JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [496 
 
 Added to this, the increasing distress of the Galician peas- 
 ants has reacted strongly upon the Jews, who depend so 
 largely upon their buying power. The poverty of the peas- 
 antry, the competition for the control of the rural market 
 created by public and private agencies, added to the increas- 
 ing competition in the towns from other sections of the 
 population, have all co-operated to create a great surplus, 
 in proportion to the population, of petty merchants and ar- 
 tisans among the Jews. This had its effect in an over-com- 
 petition from the side of the Jews themselves. 
 
 The Jews have suffered as well from their historical role 
 of intermediaries between a most avaricious nobility and a 
 bitterly exploited peasantry. Acting as stewards and as 
 tavern keepers for the Polish nobles, who are mainly ab- 
 sentee landlords, and who, until very recently, enjoyed the 
 right of keeping taverns as one of their feudal privileges, 
 the Jews have become the buffers of the deep-seated antag- 
 onism between the two chief classes of Galicia. 
 
 Agrarian uprisings have been frequent of late, particu- 
 larly after the failure of the crops, which here as in Russia 
 and Roumania spells a crisis. These, chiefly directed 
 against the nobles, have frequently been diverted toward 
 the Jews, to whom the peasants are largely indebted, and in 
 whom they see the visible instruments of the oppression of 
 their lords. 
 
 Economic antagonism has been intensified by the relig- 
 ious hatred which has been fostered by the Polish clergy 
 and which has been the basis of numerous ritual -murder 
 charges. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 CONCLUSION 
 
 AN intimate connection has thus been established be- 
 tween the present state of economic and social transition 
 through which the countries of Eastern Europe are passing 
 and the situation which has confronted the Jews in each of 
 these countries and has profoundly influenced their position 
 and their history for the last third of a century. What the 
 forces are behind the emigration of the Jews from these 
 countries to Western Europe and the United States during 
 this period now become clear. 
 
 The industrial and commercial development of the recent 
 decades brought about changes in themselves unfavorable 
 to the economic activities of the Jews. The improvements 
 in communication and transportation through the exten- 
 sion of railroads, the building of roads, and the creation of 
 credit facilities especially for the peasantry served partly to 
 displace the Jews, whose economic position had been largely 
 based upon the services they rendered in a relatively back- 
 ward industrial and commercial civilization. The rise of a 
 middle class among the Christian populations, chiefly en- 
 gaged in industry, added an element of competition not be- 
 fore present. Not the least important in its effects was the 
 increasing poverty of the peasantry, which seriously af- 
 fected the Jews, as the principal buyers of their produce) 
 and sellers of finished products. Agricultural crises, so 
 frequent in recent years in Eastern Europe, have often in- 
 volved the Jews in financial ruin. 1 
 
 1 Cf. Hersch, chap. v. He gives to this factor far more importance 
 than it deserves. For criticism of his method, cf. p. 92, note i. 
 497] Bi 
 
 \ 
 
82 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES 
 
 These purely economic factors served to weaken the 
 position of the Jews and to cause an over-concentra- 
 tion in trade and industry, to their detriment. The gradual 
 readjustment that would have followed naturally was, how- 
 ever, prevented by the existence of other forces, in the action 
 of which we find the key to the situation faced by the Jew si 
 and the impelling forces of Jewish emigration. 
 
 One of these was the economic antisemitism that rose 
 partly from the competition of the middle classes of both 
 populations. This competitive jealousy awakened racial 
 and religious prejudices and found particularly in Galicia 
 an active expression in the organization of economic boy- 
 cotts, and in the co-operative agencies that were created to 
 foster the growth of the Christian artisans and merchants. 
 The sufferings of the agricultural population, again, were 
 charged to the Jews, with whom the peasants were in close 
 business relations and to whom they were deeply indebted. 
 Preached from platform, press and pulpit, the doctrine of 
 Jewish exploitation of the peasantry found a ready accept- 
 ance among all classes. 
 
 Economic and social hostility was furthered by the 
 feudal ruling classes whose antagonism to the Jews was 
 deep-seated and many-sided. As these formed the ruling 
 economic, social and political power in Eastern Europe, 
 they were the chief instrument in creating a situation that 
 was full of danger for the Jews. In the politico-economic! 
 struggles between these privileged classes and the liberal 
 middle classes that accompanied the transition, the Jews 
 were found, consciously or unconsciously, on the side of 
 the liberals, who sought to introduce the economic, social 
 and political conditions of modern civilization. Thus they 
 served as a convenient object of attack. In Russia, where, 
 since the reaction, the control of the feudal classes over the 
 government was complete, the new laws restricting resi- 
 
499 ] CONCLUSION 83 
 
 dence, movement, occupations and economic activity in gen- 
 eral, checked the economic growth of the Jews and put 
 them at a great disadvantage: in the struggle for existence. 
 This situation was created to an even greater degree in Rou- 
 mania, where the economic interests of the Roumanian 
 middle class were furthered at the expense of the Jews. 
 Economic helplessness was essentially the condition created 
 for the Jews, so narrow was the margin left for the exer- 
 cise of their powers. The social pressure that was added, 
 through laws limiting the entrance of Jews to the educa- 
 tional institutions and the liberal professions, seeking to 
 limit their cultural influence, was part and parcel of the 
 same policy. In the case of Russia, repression reached the 
 form of massacres of Jews, when these were found politi- 
 cally useful. 
 
 Governmental oppression was thus the chief force in un- 
 settling the economic and social position of the Jews, 
 Throughout the course of thirty years the leading motive 
 of the Russian and Roumanian governments was the re- 
 duction, through every possible means, of the number of 
 their Jewish populations. 
 
 This governmental pressure which began to be applied at 
 the beginning of the eighties became equivalent in the course 
 of time to an expulsive force. The only outlet to the intol- 
 erable conditions that had been created by the forces of 
 governmental repression and oppression was emigration. 
 This was sensed by the Jews at the very beginning of the 
 period. How eagerly it has been seized upon the following 
 pages will show. It is enough for the moment to point out 
 that the vast and steadily increasing stream of Russian Jew- 
 ish immigrants to the United States alone, has risen to such 
 proportions that its average for the past decade has ap- 
 proached the estimated annual increase of the Jews in Rus- 
 sia. In other words, emigration has begun to mean the de- 
 
84 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [500 
 
 cline, not only relatively, but even absolutely, of the Jewish 
 population in Russia. 
 
 The fact that the persecution of the Jews in the case of 
 Russia and Roumania amounts to a force of rejection has 
 been widely recognized during the course of the emigration 
 of the Jews from Eastern Europe. In England, where the 
 number of Jewish immigrants increased rapidly, it found 
 expression in the official reports, and in the United States, 
 it became a subject of direct diplomatic correspondence in 
 the formal protest to Russia in 1891 by President Harrison, 
 and in 1902 in the circular note to the Powers by Secretary 
 Hay, regarding Roumania's treatment of the Jews. 
 
 A still more significant recognition of the exceptional 
 forces behind the Jewish immigration was given by the Jews 
 of Western Europe and the United States, living in a state 
 i of freedom, security and comparative wealth, to whom the 
 "^ oncoming of thousands of Jewish refugees at all the critical 
 periods, and the steady stream of Jewish immigrants at 
 other times has meant a taking-up of onerous burdens and 
 a sharing of the hardships of the situation thus suddenly 
 thrust upon them. The attempt to organize and regulate 
 Jewish emigration from Eastern Europe was a task early 
 undertaken by the Alliance Israelite Universelle. The Jew- 
 ish Colonization Association was expressly founded by 
 Baron de Hirsch to open up, in various countries, new 
 paths for the Jewish emigrants. At all periods of excep- 
 tional emigration, national and international committees 
 met to consider the problems of the immigrants thrown 
 upon their responsibility. 
 
 The vast majority of the emigrants made the United 
 A States their goal. In their movement and their economid 
 and social characteristics we shall find a striking reflection 
 of the impelling forces of their emigration. 
 
PART II 
 
 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO THE 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 A. ITS MOVEMENT 
 
CHAPTER I 
 DETERMINATION OF NUMBER OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS 
 
 IN a study of Jewish immigration to the United States 
 the first problem is to determine the number o-f Jews who 
 entered this country during the thirty years from 1881 to 
 1910, and their nationality, or their countries of nativity. 
 The determination of these figures meets with the diffi- 
 culty that prior to 1899, immigrants were classified in the 
 official statistics by country of nativity or residence, and 
 not by race or nationality. Thus the figures regarding 
 Jewish immigration are obtainable from official sources 
 only from 1899. Those relating to previous years have to 
 be sought for elsewhere. 
 
 The main sources that have been used to obtain the fig- 
 ures before 1899 are the reports of three Jewish societies 
 which were concerned with the care of the Jewish immi- 
 grants arriving at the principal ports of New York, Phila- 
 delphia, and Baltimore. These were the United Hebrew 
 Charities, of New York; the Association for the Protec- 
 tion of Jewish Immigrants, of Philadelphia, and the He- 
 brew Benevolent Society, of Baltimore. Each of these 
 maintained an agent who, besides his other duties, collected 
 statistical information concerning the sex, age, country of 
 nativity, occupation, destination, etc., of the Jewish immi- 
 grants, partly from the ships' manifests and partly through 
 personal inquiry. The statistical information thus obtained 
 was regularly included in the annual reports of these socie- 
 ties. These records were begun by the New York and 
 
 87 
 
88 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [504 
 
 Philadelphia societies, in 1884, and by the Baltimore so- 
 ciety, in 1891. 
 
 As the yearly statistical tables of these reports were made 
 to correspond with the annual meeting of these societies, 1 
 it was found advisable to rearrange them from July to June, 
 in order to have them correspond with the fiscal year, and 
 thus allow for a proper comparison with the official data 
 furnished by the immigration authorities. 
 
 As rearranged, the tables presented the number of Jew- 
 ish immigrants entering the ports of New York and Phila- 
 delphia from July i, 1886, to June 30, 1898, and the num- 
 ber of Jewish immigrants entering the port of Baltimore 
 from July I, 1891, to June 30, i898. 2 As these three ports 
 were, up to recent years, the places of entry of all but a 
 very small number of Jewish immigrants, the figures thus 
 obtained represent practically the total Jewish immigration 
 to the United States from 1886 to 1898.^ 
 
 To ascertain the nationality or country of nativity of the 
 Jewish immigrants from 1886 to 1898, it was necessary to 
 redistribute in accordance with the fiscal year the monthly 
 arrivals found in the tables of the United Hebrew Charities, 
 which contain the figures for each nationality. 3 As the re- 
 ports of the Philadelphia society gave only the totals of ar- 
 rivals of each nationality for each year but not distributed 
 by months, the following method was employed. The per- 
 centage the immigration of each nativity constituted of the 
 total immigration from November to October (the society's 
 year) was used as the basis for calculating the annual im- 
 
 1 The year of the United Hebrew Chanties is from October to Sep- 
 tember, that of the Philadelphia society is from November to October, 
 that of the Baltimore society is from July to June. 
 
 2 Cf. table II, p. 159. The figures for Baltimore were furnished by 
 the Baron de Hirsch Fund. 
 
 8 For an example of this distribution cf. table III, p. 159. 
 
505] NUMBER OF Jl l-'ANTS 89 
 
 migration of each nativity ne. 1 There being 
 
 no essential difference betv Baltimore and Philadelphia, 
 so far as Jewish immigra each n ttionality are con- 
 
 cerned, the same percentag- were ised for Philadelphia. 2 
 The discrepancy betwee official iigures of the total 
 
 immigration from Rouma to 1898 and those 
 
 of the Jewish societies f Jewish immigrants from 
 
 Roumania for the same p worthy of note. In each 
 
 of four years the number immigrants from Rou- 
 
 mania as reported by the Jewish societies exceeded the 
 total immigration from Roumania as reported in the official 
 statistics. For two years, 1892 and 1893, the official sta- 
 tistics do not report any immigrants from Roumania, 
 whereas the Jewish societies report, 3 respectively, 740 and 
 555 Jewish immigrants from Roumania, which represented 
 a normal number from this country, as the other years indi- 
 cate. 4 
 
 1 Cf. table IVA, p. 160. Thus, from November 1885 to October 1886 
 there entered the port of Philadelphia 2165 Jews, of whom 1624 or 75 
 per cent were from Russia, 260 or 12 per cent were from Austria- 
 Hungary, 43 or 2 per cent were from Roumania, and 238 or n per 
 cent were from all other countries. From July I, 1885 to June 30, 
 1886, there entered the port of Philadelphia 1625 Jews. To ascertain 
 the numbers of each nationality for this fiscal year, we may use the 
 percentages given above for each nationality. Calculating these, 
 we find that in the fiscal year 1886 of the 1625 Jews entering the port 
 of Philadelphia, 1218 were from Russia, 196 were from Austria- 
 Hungary, 33 were from Roumania, and 178 were from all other coun- 
 tries. In like manner, the numbers of each nationality for the other 
 years were obtained. 
 
 2 Cf. table IVs, p. 160. 
 
 8 As corrected by the methods described. 
 
 4 For the four years mentioned, the figures are as follows, those re- 
 ported by the Jewish societies preceding those from official sources: 
 in 1886, 518, 494; in 1887, 2063, 2045; in 1888, 1653, 1188; in 1889, 
 1058, 893. For the official figures cf. Immigration Commission : Statis- 
 tical Review of Immigration, pp. 40-44. 
 
90 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [506 
 
 The total number of immigrants of each nationality ar- 
 riving from July i, 1886, to June 30, 1898, was thus ob- 
 tained. The total number of Jewish immigrants arriving 
 from Russia, Austria-Hungary and Roumania, at each of 
 the principal ports, for each year from 1886 to 1898, are 
 summarized in table V. 1 
 
 The figures of Jewish immigration before 1886 were not 
 obtainable either from the official or the Jewish sources, 
 there being only an estimate of the number of the Jewish 
 immigrants from 1881 to 1884 in the American Jewish Year 
 Book of 1899-1900 (as 74,310), and in the Jewish Ency- 
 clopedia (as 62,022), without any indications as to how 
 these were obtained. To secure a fairly accurate statement, 
 the proportion the Russian Jewish immigration from 1886 
 to 1898 bore to the total Russian immigration was used as 
 the basis for calculating the total number of Russian Jew- 
 ish immigrants from 1881 to 1885. 2 This was distributed 
 yearly according to the proportion of each year's contribu- 
 tion to the five years' total. By a similar calculation the 
 number of Jewish immigrants from Austria-Hungary was 
 obtained. 3 For Roumania, the proportion of Jews being 
 
 3 Cf. table V, p. 161. 
 
 1 Out of a total of 505,078 Russian immigrants from 1886 to 1898, 
 the Russian Jewish immigrants constituted 315,355, or 62 per cent. 
 
 * In calculating the number of Jewish immigrants from Austria- 
 Hungary the percentage the Jewish immigration was of the total 
 immigration from Austria-Hungary from 1886 to 1910 and not, as in 
 the case with the Jewish immigration from Russia, from 1886 to 
 1898, was used through an oversight as the basis for calculation. As 
 the immigration of Jews from Austria-Hungary for 1885 at the port 
 of New York alone constituted 14 per cent of the total immigration 
 from Austria-Hungary, this figure was put down in to to, being a higher 
 number than the one obtained by calculation. As the Jewish immigra- 
 tion from 1886 to 1910 constituted 9 per cent of the total immigration 
 from Austria-Hungary and the immigration from 1886 to 1898 con- 
 stituted 14 per cent of the total immigration, the difference is not 
 
507] NUMBER OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS 91 
 
 more than ninety per cent, and at this period practically 
 the entire Roumanian immigration being Jewish, the fig- 
 ures were taken in toto. The results for each year added! 
 together constituted the total Jewish immigration for the 
 year. 
 
 The general tendency among writers on the subject of 
 Jewish immigration has been to exaggerate the magnitude 
 of this movement. In a discussion in the Jewish Encyclo- 
 pedia regarding the dimensions of the Jewish immigration 
 before 1899, exact figures were given that are on their face 
 erroneous. 1 The inaccuracy of these figures is explained 
 by the fact that the writer committed a gross error in mak- 
 ing his table. The total Russian immigration to the United 
 States from 1880 to 1898 was designated as the Jewish im- 
 migration from Russia, though it should have been evi- 
 dent that the number of other peoples coming from Russia 
 and included in these figures must have been very large. 
 Another column gave as Jewish immigrants coming from 
 countries other than Russia, the totals of the Jewish im- 
 migrants entering the United States from 1885 to 1898, as 
 reported in the American Jewish Year Book of 1899 (the 
 
 large. Following is the table indicating the difference for each year 
 from 1881 to 1884. 
 
 Year. Total immigration. fewish immigration. Difference. 
 
 at 14 per cent at 9 per cent 
 
 1881 27935 3882 2537 1345 
 
 1882 29150 4051 2648 1403 
 
 1883 27625 3840 2510 1330 
 
 1884 36571 5083 3340 1743 
 
 The increased numbers from the higher percentage involve no 
 change in the relative position of Jewish immigration from the three 
 principal countries of emigration, except in 1881, when the Jewish im- 
 migration from Austria-Hungary would have exceeded that from 
 Russia. 
 
 1 Jewish Encyclopedia: "Migration," vol. viii, p. 584. 
 
 Ibid., " Russia " Emigration, vol. x, p. 547. 
 
9 2 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [508 
 
 latter figures of which included Russian Jews as well as 
 those of other nativities), thereby doubling the number of 
 Russian Jewish immigrants for this period. The result has 
 been to more than triple the numbers of the Jewish immi- 
 grants. These figures have been widely used and quoted, 
 and have generally created the impression of a Jewish im- 
 migration larger by several hundred thousands than is 
 really the case. 1 
 
 The results of the foregoing are summarized in Table 
 VI, which gives the number of Jewish immigrants arriving 
 in each of the thirty years from 1881 to 1910, and the prin- 
 cipal countries of nativity of these immigrants. We are 
 thus in a position closely to* study the movement of Jewish 
 immigration for practically the entire period since it became 
 a significant part of the recent immigration to the United 
 States, and thereby to throw light upon the character of 
 this movement, in itself and as a part of the general immi- 
 gration. 
 
 1 Ruppin uses these figures in Die Sozialen Verh'dltnisse der Juden 
 in Russland, p. n. 
 
 Hersch, (Le juif errant d'aujourd'hui}, subjects the figures given in 
 the Jewish Encyclopedia to a thorough analysis and shows their ab- 
 surdity. Unaware, however, of the nature of the error committed 
 by the writer and of the existence of authoritative sources for the 
 figures of Jewish immigration, he drew the conclusion that it is im- 
 possible to obtain any really accurate figures of Jewish immigration 
 before 1899. This leads him into serious errors owing to the fact that 
 he discusses the movement of Jewish immigration from the basis of 
 the twelve years from 1899 to 1910, representing the height of the 
 movement, instead of for the entire period of thirty years. This 
 vitiates his principal conclusions regarding the character of the Jewish 
 movement to this country. Particularly noticeable is his neglect of the 
 phenomena presented by the Russian and Roumanian movements and 
 his elevation of the movement from Austria-Hungary as the type of 
 Jewish immigration to this country. 
 
509] NUMBER OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS 
 
 TABLE VI 
 
 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES, l88l TO IQIO 
 
 93 
 
 Year 
 
 Russia 
 
 Hungary 
 
 mania 
 
 Kingdom 
 
 many N. A. 
 
 key 
 
 France 
 
 Others 
 
 Total 
 
 1881 
 
 3125 
 
 2537 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5692 
 
 1882 
 
 10489 
 
 2648 
 
 65 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13202 
 
 1883 
 
 6144 
 
 2510 
 
 77 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8731 
 
 1884 
 
 7867 
 
 3340 
 
 238 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H445 
 
 1885 
 
 10648 
 
 3938 
 
 803 
 
 
 1473 
 
 
 
 
 16862 
 
 1886 
 
 14092 
 
 5326 
 
 518 
 
 
 983 
 
 
 
 254 
 
 2II73 
 
 1887 
 
 23103 
 
 6898 
 
 2063 
 
 
 7 80 
 
 
 
 2OO 
 
 33044 
 
 1888 
 
 20216 
 
 5985 
 
 1653 
 
 
 727 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 28881 
 
 1889 
 
 18338 
 
 4998 
 
 1058 
 
 
 758 
 
 
 
 2OO 
 
 25352 
 
 1890 
 
 20981 
 
 6439 
 
 462 
 
 
 633 
 
 
 
 I2 4 
 
 28639 
 
 1891 
 
 43457 
 
 5890 
 
 854 
 
 
 636 
 
 
 
 56l 
 
 51398 
 
 1892 
 
 64253 
 
 8643 
 
 740 
 
 
 1787 
 
 
 
 950 
 
 76373 
 
 1893 
 
 25161 
 
 6363 
 
 555 
 
 
 1814 
 
 
 
 1429 
 
 35322 
 
 1894 
 
 20747 
 
 5916 
 
 616 
 
 
 IIO9 
 
 
 
 791 
 
 29179 
 
 1895 
 
 16727 
 
 6047 
 
 5i8 
 
 
 1028 
 
 
 
 1871 
 
 26191 
 
 1896 
 
 20168 
 
 9831 
 
 744 
 
 
 829 
 
 
 
 1276 
 
 32848 
 
 1897 
 
 13063 
 
 5672 
 
 5i6 
 
 
 586 
 
 
 
 535 
 
 20372 
 
 1898 
 
 14949 
 
 7367 
 
 720 
 
 
 296 
 
 
 
 322 
 
 23654 
 
 1899 
 
 24275 
 
 II07I 
 
 1343 
 
 174 
 
 405 5 
 
 8l 
 
 9 
 
 52 
 
 37415 
 
 1900 
 
 3701 1 
 
 16920 
 
 6183 
 
 133 
 
 337 
 
 114 
 
 17 
 
 49 
 
 60764 
 
 I9OI 
 
 3766o 
 
 13006 
 
 6827 
 
 1 10 
 
 272 
 
 154 
 
 20 
 
 49 
 
 58098 
 
 1902 
 
 37846 
 
 12848 
 
 6589 
 
 55 
 
 182 
 
 138 
 
 9 
 
 21 
 
 57688 
 
 1903 
 
 47689 
 
 18759 
 
 8562 
 
 420 
 
 477 
 
 211 
 
 ii 
 
 74 
 
 76203 
 
 1904 
 
 77544 
 
 2O2II 
 
 6446 
 
 817 
 
 669 8 
 
 313 
 
 32 
 
 196 
 
 106236 
 
 1905 
 
 92388 
 
 17352 
 
 3854 
 
 14299 
 
 734 ii 
 
 173 
 
 327 
 
 772 
 
 I299IO 
 
 1906 
 
 125234 
 
 14884 
 
 3872 
 
 6113 
 
 979 429 
 
 461 
 
 479 
 
 1297 
 
 153748 
 
 1907 
 
 H4937 
 
 18885 
 
 3605 
 
 7032 
 
 734 1818 
 
 918 
 
 306 
 
 952 
 
 149182 
 
 I008 
 
 71978 
 
 15293 
 
 4455 
 
 6260 
 
 869 2393 
 
 635 
 
 425 
 
 1079 
 
 I03387 1 
 
 1909 
 
 39150 
 
 8431 
 
 1390 
 
 3385 
 
 652 2780 
 
 690 
 
 325 
 
 748 
 
 5755I 1 
 
 I9IO 
 
 59824 
 
 I3I42 
 
 1701 
 
 4098 
 
 705 2262 
 
 1388 
 
 339 
 
 801 
 
 84260! 
 
 Total 1119059 281150 67057 42896 20454 97o6 5276 2299 14903 1562800 
 
 1 From 1908 immigrants were classified in the reports of the Commissioner- 
 General of Immigration as "immigrant aliens," those intending to reside 
 permanently in the United States and " non-immigrant aliens," those making 
 a temporary trip to the United States. In the figures of 1008, 1909 and 1910, 
 only the " immigrant aliens " are considered. 
 
94 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [$ lo 
 
 TABLE VII 
 
 PERCENTAGE OF ANNUAL JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES CONTRI- 
 BUTED BY EACH COUNTRY OF NATIVITY, l88l TO IpIO 
 
 
 
 Austria- 
 
 Ron- 
 
 United 
 
 Ger- Brit. 
 
 Tur- 
 
 All 
 
 
 Year 
 
 Russia 
 
 Hungary 
 
 mania 
 
 Kingdom 
 
 many N. A. 
 
 key 
 
 France Others 
 
 Total 
 
 1881 
 
 54.8 
 
 447 
 
 0-5 
 
 
 
 
 
 lOOiO 
 
 1882 
 
 79-5 
 
 20.1 
 
 0.4 
 
 
 
 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 1883 
 
 70.4 
 
 28.7 
 
 0.9 
 
 
 
 
 
 100.0 
 
 1884 
 
 68.7 
 
 29.2 
 
 2.1 
 
 
 
 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 1885 
 
 63,1 
 
 234 
 
 4.8 
 
 
 8.7 
 
 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 1886 
 
 66.6 
 
 25-2 
 
 2.4 
 
 
 4.6 
 
 
 1.2 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 1887 
 
 69.9 
 
 20.8 
 
 6-3 
 
 
 2.4 
 
 
 .6 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 1888 
 
 70.0 
 
 20.7 
 
 5-7 
 
 
 2.5 
 
 
 I.I 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 1889 
 
 72.3 
 
 19.7 
 
 4.2 
 
 
 3-0 
 
 
 .8 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 1890 
 
 73-3 
 
 22.5 
 
 1.6 
 
 
 2.2 
 
 
 -4 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 1891 
 
 84.6 
 
 II-5 
 
 1.6 
 
 
 1.2 
 
 
 i.i 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 1892 
 
 84.1 
 
 U.3 
 
 i.i 
 
 
 2.2 
 
 
 1.3 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 1893 
 
 71.2 
 
 18.0 
 
 1.6 
 
 
 5.i 
 
 
 4-1 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 1894 
 
 71.1 
 
 20.3 
 
 2.1 
 
 
 3-8 
 
 
 2.7 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 1895 
 
 63.9 
 
 23.1 
 
 2.O 
 
 
 3.9 
 
 
 7-1 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 1896 
 
 61.4 
 
 29.9' 
 
 2-3 
 
 
 2-5 
 
 
 3-9 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 1897 
 
 64.1 
 
 27.9 
 
 2-5 
 
 
 2.9 
 
 
 2.6 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 1898 
 
 63.2 
 
 3i.i 
 
 3-0 
 
 
 1.3 
 
 
 1.4 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 1899 
 
 64.9 
 
 29-5 
 
 3.6 
 
 5 
 
 i.i 
 
 
 4 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 1900 
 
 60.9 
 
 27.8 
 
 IO.2 
 
 .2 
 
 .6 
 
 
 .3 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 1901 
 
 64.8 
 
 22.4 
 
 11.8 
 
 .2 
 
 5 
 
 .2 
 
 .1 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 1902 
 
 65.6 
 
 22.3 
 
 11.4 
 
 .1 
 
 3 
 
 .2 
 
 .1 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 1903 
 
 62.6 
 
 24.6 
 
 II.2 
 
 .6 
 
 .6 
 
 3 
 
 .1 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 1904 
 
 73-0 
 
 19.0 
 
 6.1 
 
 .8 
 
 .6 
 
 3 
 
 .2 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 1905 
 
 71.1 
 
 13-4 
 
 3-0 
 
 II.O 
 
 .6 
 
 .1 
 
 .2 .6 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 1906 
 
 81.5 
 
 9-7 
 
 2.5 
 
 4.0 
 
 .6 .3 
 
 3 
 
 .3 .8 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 1907 
 
 77-1 
 
 12.7 
 
 2.4 
 
 4.7 
 
 .5 1.2 
 
 .6 
 
 .2 .6 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 1908 
 
 69.6 
 
 14.8 
 
 4-3 
 
 6.1 
 
 .8 2.3 
 
 .6 
 
 .4 i.i 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 1909 
 
 68.0 
 
 14.7 
 
 2.4 
 
 5-9 
 
 1.2 4.7 
 
 1.2 
 
 .6 1.3 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 1910 
 
 71.1 
 
 15-6 
 
 2.0 
 
 4.9 
 
 .8 2.7 
 
 1.6 
 
 4 .9 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 Total 71.6 17.9 4.3 2.8 1.3 0.6 0.3 0.2 i.o 100.0 
 
CHAPTER II 
 IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM EASTERN EUROPE 
 
 IN the thirty years between 1881 and 1910, 1,562,800 
 Jews entered the United States. An examination of Tables 
 VI and VII reveals the fact that the great majority of 
 the immigrants came from Russia, Austria-Hungary and 
 Roumania. Of the total number, Russia contributed 1,119,- 
 059 immigrants, or 71.6 per cent; Austria-Hungary 281,150 
 immigrants, or 17.9 per cent, and Roumania 67,057 immi- 
 grants, or 4.3 per cent. Together these three countries 
 contributed 93.8 per cent of the total for the thirty years. 
 The great majority of the Jewish immigrants from the 
 United Kingdom and British North America are not Eng- 
 lish or Canadian Jews but transmigrants or transient East- 
 European Jews, to whom England and Canada were a half- 
 way house from the countries of Eastern Europe to the 
 United States. 1 If we included these immigrants, the Jew- 
 ish immigration from these three countries of Eastern 
 Europe would be considerably above 95 per cent. The 
 Jewish immigration of the last third of a century is thus 
 practically wholly from Eastern Europe. 
 
 Summarizing the results for the three decades, 2 we find 
 that the Jewish immigrants from Russia maintained a 
 fairly constant proportion to the total Jewish immigration, 
 contributing 135,003, in the decade between 1881 and 1890 
 or 69.9 per cent of the total for the decade, 279,811 or 71.1 
 
 1 Landa, The Alien Problem and its Remedy, pp. 54-57- 
 
 2 Cf. table VIII, p. 162. 
 
 503] 95 
 
9 6 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [512 
 
 per cent in the decade between 1891 and 1900, and 704,245, 
 or 72.1 per cent, in the decade between 1901 and 1910. 
 
 Roumanian Jewish immigration was relatively smaller in 
 the earlier decades, numbering 6,967 in the first, 12,789 in 
 the second decade, comprising 3.2 per cent and 3.6 per cent, 
 respectively, of the total, and in the last decade, numbering 
 47,301 and constituting 4.8 per cent of the total immigra- 
 tion of the decade. 
 
 The Jewish immigration from Austria-Hungary bore a 
 proportion to the total higher in the first two decades, con- 
 tributing 44,619 immigrants in the first decade and 83,720 
 immigrants in the second decade, or 23.1 per cent and 21.3 
 per cent, respectively, of the total, and 152,810 immigrants, 
 or 15.7 per cent, in the last decade. 
 
 The Jewish immigrants from the United Kingdom and 
 British North America, which, in the first two decades con- 
 stituting less than one per cent of the total of each decade, 
 were included in the rubric " all others ", rose in the last 
 decade to 42,589, constituting 4.4 per cent, and to 9,701, 
 constituting one per cent, of the total of this decade. 
 
 An examination of the yearly contributions made by the 
 Jews of the principal countries * shows that the immigrants 
 from Russia formed the majority of the immigrants for 
 each year of the entire period, and as a rule, did not deviate) 
 far from the general proportion established for the thirty 
 years. The greatest increases occurred during the years 
 of maximum Jewish immigration, in 1882, 1891, 1892 and 
 1906, when the Russian Jewish immigrants constituted four- 
 fifths or more of the total for the year. 
 
 The immigrants from Roumania showed higher per- 
 centages than their average in 1887 and in 1888, and a re- 
 markable increase of their contribution from 1900 to 1903, 
 
 i Cf. tables VI and VII, pp. 93-94- 
 
513] JEWS FROM EASTERN EUROPE 97 
 
 in which years they constituted more than a tenth of the 
 total number of immigrants. 
 
 The immigrants from Austria-Hungary formed, on the 
 average, less than one-fifth of the total, but varied 
 considerably in their proportions. In general, they main- 
 tained a rate higher than their average during the earlier 
 years of their movement. In the later years they showed 
 a relative decline, especially during the last decade, owing 
 to the greater relative increase of the Jewish immigration 
 from Russia and Roumania, though their absolute num- 
 bers increased greatly during this period. Their highest 
 ratios of contribution were made from 1883 to Z 886 and 
 from 1896 to 1900, the latter period marking their maxi- 
 mum relative contributions. 
 
 The influence of the Russian Jewish immigration is thus 
 paramount. It dominates and controls the entire move- 
 ment, owing to its great preponderance of numbers. To a 
 closer consideration of its movement we shall now turn. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM RUSSIA 
 
 THE \nass-mo vement of the Russian Jews to the United 
 States began in the first year of Alexander Ill's reign. 
 Though in this year the number of Russian Jews entering 
 this country amounted to a little over three thousand, the 
 immigration grew so rapidly and in such proportions that 
 at the end of thirty years, more than a million Russian Jews 
 had been admitted to the United States. 
 
 An examination of the figures of the Russian Jewish 
 immigration for the thirty years 1 reveals that it is a 
 movement of steady growth. The Russian Jewish im- 
 migration falls practically into two periods; the first 
 culminating in 1892, the second culminating in 1906. Con- 
 sidering it by decades, 2 we find that the movement is 
 one of geometrical progression. In the first decade, from 
 1 88 1 to 1890, 135,003 Russian Jews entered the country, 
 1 2. i per cent of the total Russian Jewish immigrants. Be- 
 tween 1891 and 1900, 279,811 Russian Jews entered, con- 
 stituting 25.0 per cent of the total. In the last decade, from 
 1901 to 1910, there entered 704,245 Russian Jews, or 62.9 
 per cent of the total. 
 
 The annual variations are, nevertheless, considerable and 
 largely explainable by the special conditions in Russia that 
 have influenced the lives of the Jews throughout this period. 
 At the beginning of this period, in 1881, the immigration 
 of Russian Jews was small. The pogroms of 1881-2 were 
 
 i Cf. table IX, p. 162. 2 Cf. table X, p. 163. 
 
 98 [514 
 
515] IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM RUSSIA 99 
 
 reflected in the sudden rise in 1882 to 10,489 immigrants, 
 more than three times the number of the preceding year. 
 The immigration of this year was rather a flight than a 
 normal movement. The great majority of the immigrants 
 were refugees, fleeing from massacre and pillage. 1 
 
 In this year Russian Jewish immigration began its up- 
 ward course. Another high point was reached in 1887 with 
 23,103 immigrants, when the educational restrictions and 
 the expulsions that followed a strict application of the May 
 Laws indicated a renewal of the policy of the Russian gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 The rumors of new restrictions that marked the begin- 
 ning of the nineties, and the opening of the second decade 
 of Alexander Ill's reign, were followed by the wholesale 
 expulsions from Moscow. The immigration in 1891 of 
 43,457 and in 1892 of 64,253 Russian Jews the latter the 
 highest number reached in two decades reflects this situa- 
 tion. Nearly a tenth of the total immigration entered in 
 these two years. 
 
 The direct effect of the administrative activity of this 
 year and especially of the Moscow expulsions upon the) 
 Russian Jewish immigration is seen in the number of 
 Russian Jews who entered New York during the months 
 closely following these expulsions. 2 For the first five 
 months of 1891, the immigration averaged approximately 
 2,300, evidently a normal figure for this decade. It 
 reached its lowest in May, when 1,225 Jews entered the 
 country. In June, two months after the order of expul- 
 sion, the number of immigrants jumped to 8,667 a s ^ x ~ 
 fold increase which up to this year was the largest num- 
 ber of Russian Jews entering this country in one month. 
 
 1 Sulzberger, The Beginnings of Russo- Jewish Immigration to Phila- 
 delphia (Philadelphia, 1910), pp. 125-150. 
 
 2 Cf. table XI, p. 163. 
 
I0 o JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES 
 
 This figure was surpassed in the immigration of August 
 and September. Out of a total of 60,261 Russian Jews 
 who entered in 1891, 11,449 came the first five months 
 from January to May, and 40,706, or more than three 
 times the previous immigration, came the next five 
 months from June to October. The following five months 
 there came only 16,832, less than half the number of immi- 
 grants of the months of June to October. And, finally, tak- 
 ing the year as a whole, there came over 60,261 Russian 
 Jews in 1891, the year of the Moscow expulsions, as com- 
 pared with the 28,834 Russian Jews who entered in 1892, 
 when no exceptional circumstances occurred to affect their 
 immigration tendency. 
 
 The six years from 1893 to ^98 were relatively mild 
 years for the Russian Jews, The change of rulers in Russia 
 and the comparatively lenient attitude shown by Nicholas II 
 toward the Jews in the beginning of his reign resulted in a 
 less stringent administration of the special Jewish laws. 
 The financial depression in the United States which began 
 in 1893 an d embraced this period, was an additional influ- 
 ence in diminishing the flow of Russian Jewish immigrants. 
 The fall, however, was not as large as the existence of un- 
 favorable economic conditions in this country might lead 
 one to expect. For in spite of it, Russian Jewish immigra- 
 tion resumed the rate it maintained in the years before 1891. 
 From 1893 to I ^9^ there entered this country 110,815 Rus- 
 sian Jews as against the 107,378 Russian Jews who entered 
 in the six years from 1885 to 1890. 
 
 Another rise began in 1899. Economic depression, revo- 
 lutionary terrorism and anti-Jewish propaganda paved the 
 way for a great inpouring of Russian Jews to the United 
 States. The Kishineff massacre of 1903 sent thousands of 
 , Jews in veritable flight to the United States, a fact which is 
 reflected in an immigration of 77,544 Russian Jews in 1904, 
 
517] IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM RUSSIA IO I 
 
 the greatest number up to this year. With the beginning 
 of the Russo-Japanese war, the outbreak of the revo- 
 lution and, above all, of the Jewish massacres the im- 
 migration rose in 1905 to 92,388. In 1906, a year 
 of pogroms, it reached the number of 125,234, the 
 highest in the entire period and in 1907, 114,932, 
 the second largest immigration. The diminution in the 
 numbers in 1908 reflects largely the relative change for the 
 better that took place in the situation in Russia, with the 
 beginning of parliamentary government, as well as the 
 panic conditions in the United States of the preceding year. 
 How great still was the impulse to leave is shown by the 
 fact that in spite of the panic of 1907, the number of immi- 
 grants for 1908 was 71,978. The great rise of the immi- 
 gration from the United Kingdom during these years was 
 also due to the number of Russian Jews that came to the 
 United States by way of England. In all, during these five 
 years which form an epoch in contemporary Russian Jew- 
 ish history, there streamed into the United States half a 
 million Russian Jews, constituting more than two-fifths of 
 the total immigration for the entire thirty years. 
 
 Of special significance is the part the Jewish immigrants i 
 play in the total Russian immigration to the United States. 1 
 By far the largest group of immigrants coming from 
 Russia are Jews. For the entire thirty years they consti- 
 tuted 48.3 per cent of the total Russian immigration. 
 
 As a general rule, the proportion of the Jewish in the 
 total Russian immigration rises during the critical periods 
 of these thirty years. Thus in 1891, the year of the Mos- 
 cow expulsions, the Jewish immigrants constituted 91.6 per 
 cent of the total immigration from Russia, and in the fol- 
 lowing year, under the same influences, 78.8 per cent. The 
 
 i Cf. table XII, p. 164. 
 
102 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES 
 
 years 1886 and 1887 are also signalized by the great propor- 
 tion of the Jewish immigrants, who formed 79.2 per cent 
 and 75.1 per cent, respectively, of the total Russian immi- 
 gration for these years. In the last decade, when the Jew- 
 ish participation in the total immigration had become rela- 
 tively lessened, the three years which represented the climax 
 of the movement, 1904, 1905 and 1906, show a higher tela- 
 tive proportion, 53.4 per cent, 50 per cent and 58.1 per cent, 
 respectively, than the average for the decade or for the en- 
 tire period. 
 
 Considering the proportions by decades, 1 we find that 
 of the total of 213,282 Russian immigrants entering 
 in the decade from 1881 to 1890, the Jewish immi- 
 grants contributed 135,003', or 63.3 per cent. Of a 
 total of 505,280 Russian immigrants in the decade 
 from 1891 to 1900, the Jewish immigrants numbered 
 279,811, or 55.4 per cent. In the last decade, from 
 1901 to 1910, of a total of 1,597.306 Russian immi- 
 grants, the Jewish immigrants were 704,245, or 44.1 per 
 cent. The diminishing importance of the Jewish in the 
 total Russian immigration, in spite of the fact that the 
 former shows so great an increase, is due to the rapid 
 growth of the immigration tendency among the other races 
 in Russia, especially in the last decade. 
 
 Nevertheless, a closer examination of the relative partici- 
 pation by the various peoples of Russia in the immigration 
 from that country from 1899 to T 9 10 2 shows that the Jews 
 maintain their position of predominance, contributing a 
 larger proportion to the total Russian immigration than any 
 other people throughout this period, except in 1910, when 
 the Poles contributed a slightly higher proportion to the 
 immigration of that year. The Polish contribution is next 
 
 i Cf. table XIII, p. 164. 2 Cf. table XIV, p. 165. 
 
5 ! 9 ] IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM RUSSIA 103 
 
 to that of the Jews, attaining its maximum at a point where 
 the Jewish immigration is at its lowest, relatively, in the 
 twelve years. 
 
 The preceding sufficiently indicates the abnormal extent 
 of the Russian Jewish immigration but its intensity may be 
 judged further from the fact that though the Jews in Russia 
 were less than one-twentieth of the total Russian popula- 
 tion, they formed nearly half of the Russian immigrants to 
 the United States. In other words, they were represented 
 in the Russian immigration by more than eleven times their 
 proportion in the Russian population. As, however, the 
 emigration movement of the Russians proper is directed 
 chiefly to Siberia, we may limit the comparison to the Pale, 
 where the Jews are overwhelmingly concentrated, and where 
 they constitute more than a tenth of the total population. 
 Even with this limitation they were represented in the immi- 
 gration to the United States by more than four times their 
 proportion of the population. 
 
 Another method of judging the degree of intensity of the 
 Russian Jewish movement is to compare the proportion the 
 number of Jewish immigrants for a period bears to 
 the total Jewish population in Russia their rate of 
 immigration with that of the other Russian peoples 
 represented in the immigration to the United States. 
 The rate of immigration of the Jews is by far the highest 
 among the peoples of Russia. From 1899 to I 9 I tne J ew ~ 
 ism immigrants to the United States constituted on the aver- 
 age one out of every 79 of the Jewish population in Russia. 
 The Finnish immigrants constituted one out of every 191 
 Finns, the Polish immigrants one out of every 200 Poles, 
 and the Russian immigrants proper one out of every 11.552 
 of the Russian population. The relative position of the Jews 
 
 1 Cf. table XV, p. 165. 
 
JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [520 
 
 is thus strikingly indicated. The rate of immigration truly: 
 becomes an index of the economic and social pressure tov 
 which the Jews have been subjected for a third of a century. 1 
 This rate of immigration for the Jews, moreover, shows 
 large fluctuations in the twelve years from 1899 to I9IO. 1 
 Of every 10,000 Jews in Russia there came to this country 
 on the average for the twelve years from 1899 to 1910, 125 
 Jews. From 1899 to 1903 the annual rate of immigration 
 was much lower than the average. In 1904, with the begin- 
 ning of the critical years, the annual rate rose to 152, and 
 in 1905, to 181. It reached its climax in 1906, with 246, 
 almost twice as large as the average for the entire period. 
 It fell slightly below this in 1907 with 226. In 1908, there 
 was a great fall to 141, though the rate was still above the 
 average for the period. 
 
 The movement of the Russian Jews to this country in the 
 last thirty years is seen to be steadily rising and to reach 
 enormous dimensions in the last decade. The Jews are 
 more largely represented in the movement from Russia 
 than any other people, and predominate practically for the 
 entire thirty years. The rate of immigration is abnormally 
 high, as compared with that of any other of the immigrant 
 races from Russia. For the most part the Russian Jewish 
 immigration reflects the unusual situation confronting the 
 Jews in Russia. 
 
 1 Cf. table XVI, p. 166. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM ROUMANIA 
 
 THE immigration of Roumanian Jews to the United 
 States began as a small stream at the end of the sixties, and 
 assumed significant dimensions in the eighties. Two im- 
 portant periods of rising immigration are clearly distin- 
 guishable. The first period attains its maximum between 
 1885 and 1889. The second attains its maximum and that 
 of the entire movement between 1900 and 1904. 
 
 In the thirty years between 1881 and 1910, 67,057 immi- 
 grants entered the United States. 1 In the first decade, 6,967 
 immigrants, or 10.4 per cent of the total, arrived. In the 
 second decade, 12,789 immigrants arrived, or 19.1 per cent 
 of the total. The great majority, 47,301 immigrants, or 
 70.5 per cent of the total, arrived in the last decade, more 
 than twice as many as had arrived in the two preceding 
 decades. The Roumanian Jews thus began to take a signifi- 
 cant part in the Jewish movement only within the last 
 decade. 
 
 The annual variations are closely connected with the con- 
 ditions in Roumania which have been previously discussed. 8 
 The rise in 1885 to 803 immigrants, the first number of any 
 consequence, reflects the measures taken in Roumania to 
 restrict the economic activity of the Jews, chiefly through 
 the hawkers' law of 1884. The continuation of the admin- 
 istrative activities against the Jews, the expulsion of many 
 
 i Cf. table XVII, p. 166. 2 Cf. table XVIII, p. 167. 
 
 52i] 105 
 
I0 6 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [522 
 
 from the villages, and particularly the beginning in earnest 
 of the attempt to drive them from industry and commerce, 
 by the law of 1887, are responsible for the wholesale exodus 
 in that and the following two years. In these three years 
 more than 7 per cent of the total Roumanian Jewish immi- 
 gration entered the country. 
 
 After 1889 and for nearly a decade the immigration of 
 Jews from Roumania subsided, resuming the proportions 
 established before 1887. 
 
 Another rise began in 1899. In 1900, the Roumanian 
 Jewish immigration reached the relatively great number of 
 6,183, around which point it stood for the next two years. 
 In 1903, it reached its maximum with an immigration of 
 8,562 Jews, one-eighth of the entire Roumanian Jewish im- 
 migration for the thirty years. In the following year the 
 immigration still held to the high numbers reached before 
 1903. The years following 1904 show a fall to less than 
 4,000, which was interrupted in 1908, when the immigration 
 rose to 4,455. In 1909, a sharp fall ensued to 1,390, and 
 in 1910 to 1,701. 
 
 The great rise from 1900 to 1904, during which period 
 there came more than half of the total number of Jewish 
 immigrants from Roumania, was largely due to the resump- 
 tion of the government program against the Jews. The chief 
 form of restriction was the passing of the Artisans' Law 
 in 1902, preceded by some years of agitation and adminis- 
 trative activity directed against the Jews, which aimed to 
 make it impossible for the Jewish artisans to secure work. 
 The feeling that the Jews had nothing to hope from the 
 government, as much as the actual distress occasioned, was 
 largely responsible for the unprecedented immigration. 1 
 
 1 In the Century of Nov., 1913, Professor Ross, writing on "The 
 Old World in the New/' remarks (p. 28) that " the emigration of 
 50,000 Roumanian Jews between January and August, 1900, was 
 
523] IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM ROUMANIA 
 
 The Jewish forms so large a part of the Roumanian im- 
 migration as to be practically synonymous with it. As we 
 have before noted, the figures obtained from the Jewish 
 sources indicate a larger immigration from 1886 to 1898 
 on the part of the Jews alone than the official figures give 
 for the entire immigration from Roumania for this period. 
 Confining our attention to the figures of immigration from 
 1899 to 19 lo, 1 we find that, from 1899 to 1910, of the 
 61,073 immigrants from Roumania who entered the United 
 States, 54,827, or 89.8 per cent, were Jews. Thus prac- 
 tically nine-tenths of the immigrants from Roumania are 
 Jews. In the five years in which the Jewish movement was 
 at its height, the Jews constituted from 91 per cent to 95.7 
 per cent of the Roumanian immigration. The immigration 
 
 brought about by steamship agents who created great excitement in 
 Roumania by distributing glowing circulars about America." 
 
 It is remarkable that with so large an emigration of Roumanian 
 Jews during these eight months, ostensibly directed to America, only 
 6183 Roumanian Jews were recorded as arriving in the United States 
 in 1900, and only 6,827 in 1901. In the twelve years from 1899 to 
 1910, Professor Ross's figure is approached; for the entire period 
 54,827 Roumanian Jews are officially recorded as entering the United 
 States. 
 
 Even of the relatively large immigration of Jews from Roumania 
 in 1900, the cause clearly was not the activity of steamship agents. 
 Compare the report of the president of the United Hebrew Charities, 
 keenly alive to the problems presented to the American Jews by the 
 Jewish immigration : 
 
 " The last few months have been noteworthy in the history of the 
 Jewish race for an outbreak of Anti-Semitism in a far-away country, 
 the far-reaching effects of which have been keenly felt in this city. I 
 refer of course, to the persecutions of the Jews in Roumania. A small 
 group of Jewish philanthropists of this city (under the direction of the 
 IOOB) has taken up the task of providing for the newcomers." Such 
 a response is not usually given to immigrants lured to this country 
 by promises of gain. 
 
 United Hebrew Charities of New York City, Oct., 1900, p. 19. 
 
 i Cf. table XIX, p. 168. 
 
I0 g JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [524 
 
 of other peoples from Roumania is insignificant. The high- 
 est number entering in any of the twelve years amounted 
 to less than 800. 
 
 Still more significant is the intensity of immigration of 
 the Roumanian Jews, especially in view of the negligible 
 number of immigrants from Roumania other than Jews. 
 The rate of immigration of the Roumanian Jews is far 
 higher than that even of their Russian brethren. 1 The 
 average annual immigration of Roumanian Jews, for the 
 twelve years, from 1899 tc 1910, amounted to 4,569, which 
 represented an average rate of immigration for the Rou- 
 manian Jews of 175 per 10,000 of the Jewish population 
 in Roumania. In the five years of maximum immigration, 
 from 1900 to 1904, the rate was considerably higher, reach- 
 ing in 1903 the enormous proportion of 329 immigrants to 
 every 10,000 Jews in Roumania. The lowest rate during 
 this period, that of 1900, was only slightly smaller than the 
 maximum rate approached by the Jewish immigrants from 
 Russia. However, in the three years which represented the 
 highest point of the rate of immigration of the Jews from 
 Russia, from 1905 to 1907, the rate of immigration for the 
 corresponding years in Roumania was considerably smaller. 
 
 The Jewish immigration from Roumania is thus a pro- 
 duct chiefly of the last decade. The rise in the first decade 
 and the relatively tremendous rise in the last decade are a 
 result largely of the activities of the Roumanian govern- 
 ment. The vast majority of the immigrants from Rou- 
 mania are Jews, whose rate of immigration is unprece- 
 dented. 
 
 1 Cf. table XX, p. 168. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 
 
 THE immigration of Jews from Austria-Hungary began 
 before the eighties of the last century, becoming at the be- 
 ginning of the nineties a relatively strong and steady cur- 
 rent. Until recently, this immigration was almost exclu- 
 sively from Galicia. 1 
 
 Summarizing the movement by decades, 2 we find that 
 44,619 Jews, or 15.9 per cent of the total, came during the 
 decade from 1881 to 1890; 83,720 immigrants, or 29.8 per 
 cent of the total, came during the decade from 1891 to 1900. 
 In the last decade, from 1901 to 1910, there entered 152,811 
 immigrants, or 54.3 per cent of the total. Thus there is a 
 nearly steady rise of the movement, though it is not as great 
 as that found in the Jewish immigration from Russia. 
 
 The annual variations are also not as large as are found 
 in the Russian Jewish movement. 3 The greatest number 
 that came in any year in the first decade was in 1887, when 
 6,898 immigrants arrived, contributing 2.4 per cent of the 
 total for the year. The highest number that came in the 
 second decade was in 1899, when 11,071 immigrants ar- 
 rived, contributing 3.9 per cent of the total. From this year 
 there began a great rise which reached its maximum 
 in 1904 with an immigration of 20,211 Jews, consti- 
 
 1 Buzek, " Das Auswanderungsproblem in Oesterreich," Zeitschrift 
 fur Volkswirtschaft, Sozialpolitik und Verwaltung, p. 458. 
 
 2 Cf. table XXI, p. 169. 
 
 3 Cf. table XXII, p. 169. 
 
 525] 109 
 
IIO JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [526 
 
 tuting 7.2 per cent of the total the highest point attained 
 in the entire movement. 
 
 A comparison of the fluctuations of the Jewish with those 
 of the total Austro-Hungarian immigration shows that the 
 former follows the general movement quite closely, though 
 there are minor differences and the maximum periods of 
 both movements do not coincide. 1 
 
 An examination of the part the Jewish played in the gen- 
 eral immigration from Austria-Hungary shows that during 
 the entire period of thirty years there entered into the 
 United States from Austria-Hungary 3,091,692 immigrants, 
 to which the Jews contributed 281,150 immigrants, or 9.1 
 per cent 2 That the Jewish movement was relatively 
 stronger in the earlier period than the general movement 
 from Austria-Hungary is indicated by the fact that the Jews 
 participate to a much larger extent in the movement of the 
 first decades than in that of the last In the first decade, 
 from 1881 to 1890, of the 353,719 immigrants from Aus- 
 tria-Hungary, the Jews were 44,619, or 12.6 per cent of the 
 total for the decade. In the decade from 1891 to 1900, of 
 the 592,707 immigrants they were 83,720, or 14.1 per cent 
 of the total. In the last decade, of 2,145,266 immigrants, 
 they were 158,811, or 7.4 per cent of the entire movement 
 The Jewish movement is thus seen to be relatively the 
 strongest in the second decade. Its fall in the last decade to 
 almost half the proportion of the preceding decade was due 
 to the tremendous growth in the immigration of the other 
 races from Austria-Hungary. Whereas the general move- 
 ment nearly quadrupled its numbers in the last decade, the 
 Jewish movement did not quite double its numbers. 
 
 The largest part in the movement from Austria-Hungary 
 
 1 Cf. table XXIII, p. 170. 
 
 2 Cf. table XXIV, p. 170. 
 
527] IMMIGRATION FROM AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 1 1 1 
 
 was taken by the Jews during the earlier years. 1 The highest 
 point was reached in 1886, when the Jews constituted 18.6 
 per cent of the total movement. In the following year the 
 Jewish immigrants constituted 17.1 per cent. Other years in 
 which the Jews participated strongly were 1895, an< ^ from 
 1897 to 1899. In 1898 the second highest point was 
 reached, the Jews constituting 18.5 per cent of the move- 
 ment. From 1904 a great fall ensued. The lowest point 
 was reached in 1909, when the Jews constituted only 5 per 
 cent of the total movement. 
 
 A clearer idea of the situation would be obtained if the 
 figures for the years and decades could be ascertained for 
 Austria and Hungary separately, as the Jews in each of the 
 divisions of the Dual Monarchy differ considerably in their 
 immigration tendency. Austria and Hungary are distin- 
 guished in the immigration statistics only since 1910. 
 Nevertheless, the three years from 1910 to 1912 serve to 
 show that the Jews from Austria immigrate to the United 
 States in much larger numbers than their brethren in Hun- 
 gary. From 1910 to 1912, out of a total of 36,684 Jewish 
 immigrants from Austria-Hungary, 29,340, or fully four- 
 fifths, came from Austria. The participation of the Aus- 
 trian Jews in the general movement is also correspondingly 
 larger. From 1910 to 1912, the Jewish immigrants from 
 Austria numbered 29,340 out of a total of 303,776, consti- 
 tuting 9.7 per cent of the total Austrian immigration. For 
 the same period the Jewish immigrants from Hungary num- 
 bered only 7,344 out of a total of 292,900, constituting 2.5 
 per cent of the total. Thus the Jews participate in the 
 movement from Austria practically four times as much as 
 in the movement from Hungary. 
 
 The relative position of the Jews among the peoples im- 
 
 i Cf. table XXIV, p. 170. 
 
II2 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [528 
 
 migrating from Austria is of interest in this connection. 
 The peoples with which comparison must be maintained 
 are those concentrated in Galicia, the chief source of the 
 Jewish, Polish and Ruthenian immigration. 1 For the seven 
 years between 1899 and 1905, the Jewish immigrants con- 
 stituted the second largest group. From 1906, they fell into 
 the third position (excepting in 1908), owing to the rapid 
 increase of immigration among the Ruthenians. 
 
 The average rate of immigration of the Jews of Austria- 
 Hungary for the twelve-year period from 1899 t Z 9 IO > * s 
 74 for every 10,000 Jews in the Empire. 2 The maximum 
 rate was 97, which was reached in the immigration of 1904. 
 In comparison with the Russian and Roumanian Jewish im- 
 migrants, those from Austria-Hungary have a far lower 
 rate of immigration. This is true for the average as well 
 as for the single years. However, in the first two years, 
 1899 an d 1900, the rate of immigration was higher among 
 the Jewish immigrants from Austria-Hungary. In com- 
 parison with the rate of immigration of the Poles and the 
 Ruthenians, the Jews occupy an intermediate position, hav- 
 ing a lower rate than the Poles and a higher rate than the 
 Ruthenians. 3 
 
 The Jewish movement from Austria-Hungary thus shows 
 a fairly steady rise, but neither in its yearly variations nor 
 its rate of immigration does it give evidence of any excep^ 
 tional characteristics. 
 
 1 Cf. table XXV, p. 171. 
 
 2 Cf. table XXVI, p. 171. 
 
 3 Cf. Hersch, op. cit., p. 43. This comparison gives a lower rate of 
 immigration to the Jews than they really possess, owing to the fact 
 that it is based upon the total Jewish population of Austria-Hungary, 
 and not upon that of Galicia, from which province the great majority 
 -of the Jewish immigrants come. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 TOTAL JEWISH IMMIGRATION 
 
 THE movement of the total Jewish immigration for the 
 thirty years becomes clear in the light of the preceding 
 pages. It is a rising movement, divided into two parts, the 
 first culminating in 1892 and the second culminating in 
 1906. Like the Russian Jewish immigration which underlies 
 it, the movement is one of geometrical progression. 1 From 
 1 88 1 to 1890,193,021 Jewish immigrants entered this coun- 
 try, 12.3 per cent of the total Jewish immigration. From 
 1891 to 1900, 393,516 Jewish immigrants, or 25.2 per cent 
 entered. In the last decade there entered the enormous 
 number of 976,263 Jewish immigrants, representing 62.5 
 per cent of the total Jewish immigration for the thirty years. 
 This was more than twice as many as had entered the pre- 
 ceding decade, and more than five times the number of those 
 who had entered the first decade. The Jewish immigration 
 is in its largest part a product of the last decade. 
 
 The rise has not, however, been uniformly steady, as a 
 division of the entire period into five six-year periods 
 shows. 2 In the period from 1893 to 1898, there was a fall 
 in the Jewish immigration. This period coincides with the 
 years of depression in the United States following the panic 
 of 1893. The fall was chiefly due to that in the Russian 
 Jewish immigration. The Jewish immigration from Aus- 
 tria-Hungary on the contrary showed a relative rise. For 
 
 1 Cf. table XXVII, p. 172. 
 
 2 Cf. table XXVIII, p. 172. 
 
 529] H3 
 
II4 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [530 
 
 this period, as well as for a few years before, the Roumanian 
 Jewish immigration contributed smaller numbers than in 
 the previous decade. As in the case of the Russian Jewish 
 movement, if we compare the immigration of the six-year 
 period from 1885 to 1890, with that from 1893 to 1898, 
 omitting the years 1891 and 1892 which are influenced in 
 their great rise by the exceptional circumstances occurring 
 within these two years, we find that the Jewish immigration 
 was higher during the latter period of depression in the 
 United States than during the earlier period, the total num- 
 ber of immigrants being 167,567 for the latter period, and 
 I 53>95 1 f r the former. 
 
 In the period from 1899 to 1904 there was a great rise. 
 A quarter of the entire immigration came in this period. 
 The largest number of immigrants more than two-fifths 
 of the total of thirty years came in the period from 1905 
 to 1910. If we included the immigration of 1904, which 
 properly belongs to the later movement, we find that half 
 of the entire Jewish immigration came within the seven 
 years from 1904 to 1910. 
 
 The yearly variations of the total Jewish immigration 
 correspond closely in the main to those of the Russian Jew- 
 ish movement. 1 The influence of the other movements is, 
 however, felt, at times quite strongly. Before 1885 the 
 total Jewish immigration was quite small; less than 10,000 
 (except in 1882) or less than i per cent of the total, ar- 
 rived each year. The rise of the immigration in 1882 to 
 13,202 was wholly due to the increase in the number of 
 Russian Jewish immigrants. The second half of this 
 decade was marked by a rising tide in the Jewish immigra- 
 tion from all the countries of Eastern Europe, which 
 reached a height in 1887, with an immigration of 33,044, 
 
 i Cf. table XXIX, p. 173. 
 
53 1 ] TOTAL JEWISH IMMIGRATION 
 
 constituting more than 2 per cent of the total number. 
 This was but a prelude to the great rise at the opening of 
 the second decade which in 1892 reached the number of 
 76,373 Jewish immigrants, the highest number attained in 
 the first two decades. The immigration for this year alone 
 constituted nearly one-twentieth of the total Jewish immi- 
 gration. The increase of these years is due solely to the in- 
 crease in the Russian Jewish immigration. From this point 
 a fall ensued, which lasted until 1899. The fall was strong- 
 est in the Russian and the Roumanian movements. The 
 absolute numbers and the relative proportions in the Jewish 
 movement from Austria-Hungary increased. The tre- 
 mendous rise of the last decade began in 1899. In 1900 
 the number of Jewish arrivals rose to 60,764. This in- 
 crease was general, though it reached unusual proportions 
 in the immigration from Roumania. 
 
 The fall in the next two years was due to a decrease in 
 the number of immigrants from Austria-Hungary. That 
 from Russia remained the same as in 1900, and the Rou- 
 manian Jewish immigration maintained the high level es- 
 tablished in that year. 
 
 The immigration of 1903 surpassed the great numbers 
 attained in 1892. The rise of nearly 20,000 of this year 
 was general, though relatively greatest in the Jewish immi- 
 grants from Austria-Hungary. 
 
 The next three years marks the heights of the move- 
 ment. In 1904, the 30,000 immigrants which represented 
 the increase from the preceding year were Russian Jews. 
 This is equally true of the large increase of 1905. In this 
 year a fall took place both in the Austrian and Roumanian 
 Jewish immigration. The Jewish immigration from the 
 United Kingdom rose tremendously from 817 of the pre- 
 ceding year to 14,299,* an increase which reflects the influ- 
 
 1 Cf. table VI, p. 93. 
 
H6 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [532 
 
 ences of the Russian Jewish movement for this year, and 
 indicates that this movement from the United Kingdom 
 must be considered as largely Russian Jewish. 
 
 The year 1906 marked the high-water mark of Jewish 
 immigration for thirty years. 153,748 immigrants, prac- 
 tically one-tenth of the total movement, came in this year. 
 As in the preceding year, the increase in the immigration 
 from Russia (including the numbers from the United King- 
 dom) was the basis of the increase in the total. 
 
 From this point on we have a decline. The decline in 
 1907 to 149,182 immigrants reflected the decline in the 
 numbers of the Russian Jewish immigrants, those from 
 Austria-Hungary increasing. In this year the number of 
 immigrants from British North America became conspicu- 
 ous. In 1908 the immigration fell to 103,387, reflecting 
 almost wholly the fall in the numbers of the Russian Jewish 
 immigrants. The year 1909 marked a tremendous decline 
 of the Jewish immigration to 57,551 immigrants. This 
 decline was general, though relatively the greatest in the 
 Austro-Hungarian and the Roumanian immigration. 
 
 A speedy recovery in numbers was shown in 1910 when 
 the immigration rose to 84,260, recurring to the numbers 
 at the beginning of the recent great rise, and higher than 
 the immigration of any year before 1904. The rise was 
 felt equally in the Russian and Austro-Hungarian immi- 
 gration, relatively little in the Roumanian. 
 
 Thus by far the chief influence in the movement of the 
 Jewish immigration for these thirty years has been the 
 Russian Jewish immigration. In its growth of numbers, 
 and in its rise and fall, the total Jewish immigration of the 
 last thirty years is a reflection of the movement of the 
 Russian Jews to this country. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 PARTICIPATION OF JEWS IN TOTAL IMMIGRATION 
 
 WE turn now to a consideration of the part played by 
 the Jewish immigration in the total immigration to this 
 country for these thirty years, 1 A general rise is revealed 
 in the proportions the Jewish bore to the total immigration. 
 In the decade between 1881 and 1890, of the 5,246,613 
 immigrants, the Jewish immigrants were 193,021, or 3.7 
 per cent of the total. In the decade between 1891 and 
 1900, of the 3,687,564 immigrants, the Jewish immigrants 
 numbered 393,516. The Jewish proportion of the total 
 rose to 10.7 per cent. This really tremendous rise was due 
 to the fact that while the total number of immigrants fell 
 off one-third in this decade, the Jewish immigrants doubled 
 their numbers. It is from this decade that the Jewish im- 
 migrants become conspicuous in the immigration to the 
 United States. In the decade between 1901 and 1910, of 
 the 8,795,386 immigrants, the Jewish immigrants num- 
 bered 976,263. The proportion of the Jewish immigrants 
 to the total rose to n.i per cent. Even in this decade of 
 tremendous increase in the general immigration, the Jewish 
 immigration rose at a still greater rate. 
 
 For the entire period the Jewish immigration was 8.8 9 
 per cent of the total immigration. 2 This proportion was not 
 reached before 1891. The maximum in the first decade was 
 in 1887, when the Jewish immigration constituted 6.7 per 
 
 1 Cf. table XXX, p. 174. 
 
 2 Cf. table XXXI, p. 174. 
 
 533] 117 
 
Hg JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [534 
 
 cent of the total for the year. In 1891, this proportion rose 
 to 9.2 per cent. It reached its highest point during nineteen 
 years, in 1892, when the Jewish immigrants constituted 13.2 
 per cent of the total for the year. Throughout the period of 
 depression, from 1893 to 1898, the contribution of the Jew- 
 ish to the total immigration was, with two exceptions, 
 above its average for the thirty years. In 1893, when the 
 number of Jewish immigrants fell to half of that of the 
 preceding year, its contribution to the total was 8 per cent. 
 In 1897, a year of lowest Jewish as well as general immi- 
 gration, its proportion was the same as the average. In 
 the following years the contribution of the Jewish immi- 
 gration rose proportionately, and in 1900 it reached the 
 maximum for thirty years, constituting 13.5 per cent of the 
 total for the year. The next highest proportion was reached 
 in the year of maximum Jewish immigration, 1906, when 
 the Jewish immigrants represented 13.4 per cent of the 
 total for the year. Throughout the years from 1904 to 
 1908, the Jewish immigrants contributed above their aver- 
 age for the period. In 1908, when the numbers both of the 
 Jewish and the total immigration had been greatly reduced, 
 the Jewish immigrants contributed 13.2 per cent of the 
 total, one of the highest proportions in the entire period, a f 
 fact which indicates that the Jewish immigrant tide recedes/ 
 more slowly than that of the total immigration. In 1909, 
 the year in which the effect of the panic of 1907 was regis- 
 tered in the Jewish immigration, the proportion of the Jew- 
 ish immigrants to the total fell to 7.7 per cent. A slight 
 relative rise took place in 1910 to 8.1 per cent. 
 
 A comparison of the annual fluctuations of the Jewish 
 and the total immigration enables us to distinguish some 
 points of difference. 1 Though, on the whole, the Jewish 
 
 i Cf. table XXXII, p. 175. 
 
535] PARTICIPATION OF JEWS IN IMMIGRATION 
 
 corresponds with the total immigration in its rise and fall, 
 there are significant differences. Thus, 1882 represents a 
 year of high immigration in each, but the rise is in the case 
 of the total immigration one of 17.9 per cent over that of 
 the preceding year, but in the case of the Jewish, it repre- 
 sents a rise of 131.9 per cent over that of the preceding 
 year, proportionately more than seven times as great. An- 
 other period of rising movement is in 1891 and 1892. 
 Where, however, in 1891 the total immigration rose 20.9 
 per cent, the Jewish rose 79.5 per cent. In 1892, the total 
 rose 3.4 per cent, the Jewish rose 48.6 per cent. In all 
 these cases the difference is so great as to indicate the work- 
 ing of special influences in the Jewish movement. 
 
 The existence of these special influences is again evi- 
 dent in the last decade. In 1904, the total immi- 
 gration fell off 5.2 per cent, but the Jewish immigra- 
 tion rose 39.4 per cent. In 1906, in spite of the great 
 total immigration of that year, and its increase of 7.2 per 
 cent over the preceding year, the increase of the Jewish 
 was 1 8. 2 per cent more than double that of the total. 
 Again, the maximum periods of the two movements do- 
 not coincide. The total immigration reached its highest 
 point for the thirty years in 1907. The maximum of the 
 Jewish movement was in 1906. 
 
 The panic of 1907 also appears to have influenced the 
 Jewish immigration more slowly than the total. The great- 
 est fall in the latter took place in 1908, immediately after 
 the panic. The greatest fall of the Jewish immigration 
 took place in 1909. This is another indication of the slow- 
 ness of the response of the Jewish immigration to business 
 conditions in this country, as compared with the rapid re- 
 sponse of the general body of immigrants. 
 
 As the racial classification was introduced only in 
 1899, it is impossible to determine for the entire thirty 
 
I20 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [536 
 
 years the exact place the Jews occupy in the move- 
 ment of peoples from the Old World to the New. During 
 the twelve years from 1899 to 1910, there entered the 
 United States a total of 1,074,442 Jewish immigrants, an 
 annual average of nearly ninety thousand. This was the 
 second largest body of immigrants, constituting more than 
 a tenth of the total immigration for this period. In this 
 regard the Jews were surpassed only by the South Italians. 1 
 This is an immense volume of immigration, both rela- 
 tively and absolutely, and indicates to what an extent the 
 immigration tendency has seized the Jews. In this ten- 
 dency, however, the Jews from the different countries of 
 Europe differ very strongly. As practically only three 
 countries of Eastern Europe Russia, Roumania and Aus- 
 tria-Hungary are represented in the recent Jewish immi- 
 gration, a rate of immigration established for the Jews 
 should be based upon the population of these countries 
 rather than upon the total Jewish population in Europe. 
 Thus established, the Jews have the highest rate of immi- 
 gration of any immigrant peoples. In 1906, during the 
 maximum period of Jewish immigration, the rate of im- 
 migration of the East-European Jews was twenty out of 
 every thousand. In 1907, the rate of the Jewish immigra- 
 tion was nineteen out of every thousand. The Jews are 
 approached in this respect only by the Slovaks, who, in 
 1907, had a rate of immigration of eighteen per thousand. 
 In this respect, the Jewish immigration is seen to occupy 
 an exceptional position in the recent movement of peoples 
 from Europe to this country. 
 
 1 This average and the same relative position is maintained if we take 
 the fifteen years from 1899 to 1913, in which period there entered 
 i, .347,590 Jewish immigrants. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 SUMMARY 
 
 THE preceding analysis of the movement of the Jewish 
 immigration to the United States and that of its Russian, 
 Roumanian and Austro-Hungarian tributaries, from 1881 
 to 1910, has revealed certain facts of importance. 
 
 The progressive nature of the Jewish movement has been 
 disclosed. The greatest numbers have come within the last 
 decade. This is particularly true of the movement from 
 Roumania, and to a less extent of the movement from Rus- 
 sia. On the other hand, a larger relative proportion of the 
 Jews from Austria-Hungary came during the first two 
 decades. Throughout, the Jews from Russia have pre- 
 dominated in the total movement, governing its course for 
 practically the entire period. 
 
 In the total movement from the three countries of East- 
 ern Europe, the Jews have participated most strongly in 
 the Roumanian immigration, constituting nine-tenths of 
 this immigration. The Jews are nearly a half of the immi-* 
 grants from Russia. Their participation in the immigration 
 from Austria-Hungary is relatively much smaller, being less 
 than a tenth of the total immigration. In the immigration 
 of the two latter countries, the Jews show a lessening par- 
 ticipation, due to the great growth of the immigration of 
 the other peoples. In the movements from Russia and Rou- 
 mania, the participation of the Jewish immigrants rises 
 greatly in all periods significant in the situation of the Jews 
 in these countries. The influence of the unusual conditions 
 537] 121 
 
I2 2 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [538 
 
 facing the Jews in Russia and Roumania and of the prin- 
 cipal events in their history for these thirty years is re- 
 flected in the annual fluctuations of the Jewish immigration 
 of each of these countries to the United States. The eco- 
 nomic and social pressure exerted upon the Jews in Russia 
 and Roumania is reflected in the degree emigration is util- 
 ized by them. The Jews from Russia have a much higher 
 rate of immigration than any other people immigrating 
 from Russia. The rate of immigration of the Jews from 
 Roumania is the highest among the Jewish immigrants 
 from Eastern Europe. In both annual fluctuations and 
 rate of immigration the movement of the Jews from Aus- 
 tria-Hungary does not indicate the existence of special in- 
 fluences. 
 
 The participation of the Jews in the total immigra- 
 tion to the United States is large and increasing in im- 
 portance. For the last fifteen years they formed the second 
 largest body of immigrants. Their rate of immigration is 
 also higher than that of any other immigrant people. Of 
 note, too, is the slow response of their immigration 
 to unfavorable economic conditions in this country. 
 When these facts are joined to those which have shown 
 the striking relative participation of the Jews in the move- 
 ments from Russia and Roumania, and the existence of 
 special causes operating in these countries and indicating 
 their influence in the yearly variations and in an extraordi- 
 nary rate of immigration, it becomes clear that for the 
 largest part of this period of thirty years Jewish immigra- 
 tion is controlled mainly by the conditions and events af- 
 fecting the fate of the Jews in the countries of Eastern 
 Europe. 
 
 That the conditions in the United States exercise an in- 
 fluence, favorable or unfavorable, upon the immigration of 
 Jews is undoubted. The influences, however, exerted by the 
 
539 ] SUMMARY 
 
 conditions abroad are far stronger and steadier, and, on the 
 whole, override the latter. 
 
 The conclusion previously reached that the Jewish im- f . 
 migration is for the largest part the result of the expulsive f ' 
 and rejective forces of governmental persecution is thus * 
 strengthened by this examination into the situation as pre- 
 sented by the figures of the Jewish immigration to the 
 United States. With it as a guiding principle, some of the 
 main characteristics peculiar to the Jewish immigration are 
 explained. To these we now turn. 
 
PART II 
 
 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO THE 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 B. ITS CHARACTERISTICS 
 
CHAPTER I 
 FAMILY MOVEMENT 
 
 VITAL aspects of an immigrant people are revealed in 
 its sex and age distribution. Generally speaking, whether 
 an immigration is composed of individuals or of families 
 is shown in the relative proportion of males and females, 
 and of adults and children, of which it is composed. 
 
 That the Jewish movement is essentially a family move- 
 ment is shown by the great proportion of females 
 and children found in it. 1 From 1899 to 1910, out 
 of a total immigration of 1,074,442 Jews, 607,822, or 
 56.6 per cent were males, and 466,620, or 43.4 per 
 cent, were females. These proportions have varied but 
 slightly throughout the period. The greatest depart- 
 ures were in the years 1904 and 1905. The increase 
 of the immigration of males in these years is ex- 
 plained by the unusual conditions existing in Russia at this 
 time economic unrest, revolution which had the effect of 
 sending over the men as an avantgarde to prepare the way 
 for their families. Young men fleeing to escape conscrip- 
 tion also swelled the numbers. In 1906, however, the num- 
 ber of males decreased by 2,000, but that of females in- 
 creased by more than 25,000. In this tremendous increase 
 of females is registered the effect of the pogroms of 1905-6, 
 in which years the movement became a veritable flight. 
 
 The general tendency has been towards an increase in 
 the proportion of females. For the thirteen years pre- 
 
 1 Cf. table XXXIII, p. 176. 
 543] 127 
 
I2 g JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [544 
 
 ceding, from 1886 to 1898,* out of a total immigration at 
 the port of New York of 251,623 Jewish adults, 147,053, 
 or 58.4 per cent, were males, and 104,570, or 41.6 per 
 cent, were females. The proportion of males is here 
 somewhat higher than that for the period from 1899 
 to 1910. The difference is, however, relatively small. 
 The tendency, previously noted, towards the increase in 
 the proportion of females is found here. The greater rela- 
 tive diminution of the males in the later years in 1894 
 reaching the point where there were more females is even 
 striking. 
 
 Turning to a consideration of the ages of the Jewish 
 immigrants, we learn that, between 1899 and 1910, 267,656, 
 or practically one-fourth of all the Jewish immigrants, were 
 children under fourteen years. 2 The large part that is 
 taken in the Jewish immigration by the children is apparent. 
 
 Here, again, 1904 and 1905 represent periods of great 
 increase in the immigration of those between fourteen and 
 forty-four years. As was the case with the females, the 
 proportion of children in the immigration is at its greatest 
 in the year 1906, by far the largest part of the increase for 
 this year being children, thus giving a significant indication 
 of the extent and literalness of the flight from Russia in 
 this year of pogroms* In the thirteen years preceding, 
 from 1886 to 1898, of the 380,278 Jewish immigrants that 
 entered the port of New York for this period, 128,655, or 
 33.8 per cent, were children under sixteen years of age. 4 A 
 steady increase in the latter years is noted in the proportion 
 of children, which harmonizes with a similar tendency 
 noted of the females for the same period. 
 
 That these facts reveal a family movement of consider- 
 
 1 Cf. table XXXIV, p. 176. 2 C/. table XXXV, p. 177. 
 
 8 Cf. Hersch, op. cit., p. 76. *Cf. table XXXVI, p. 177- 
 
FAMILY MOVEMENT 129 
 
 able size, there is no question. They become truly signifi- 
 cant when comparison is made with the proportions of the 
 females and the children in the general immigration and 
 with those of the peoples of which it is composed. 
 
 A comparison of the proportion of males and females in 
 the total and the Jewish immigration from 1899 * 1910 
 shows that for the entire period the percentage of females 
 in the Jewish was much higher than in the total immigra- 
 tion, 43.4 per cent of the Jewish immigration being females 
 as compared with 30.5 per cent of the total. 1 The percent- 
 age of females in the Jewish immigration was higher for 
 every year from 1899 to 1910. 
 
 While the percentage of males in the total immigration 
 was above 70 per cent in five years, the percentage of 
 males in the Jewish immigration was less than 60 per cent 
 in all but two years, 1904 and 1905, when it rose to 61.2 
 per cent and 63.2 per cent. The latter, which represents 
 the highest point in the percentage of males in the Jewish 
 immigration, was smaller than the percentage of males in 
 the total immigration for every year but 1899. In other 
 words the maximum percentage of males in the Jewish and 
 the minimum percentage in the total immigration practi- 
 cally coincide. 
 
 In the period between 1899 an d 1909 the proportion of 
 children under fourteen years of age in the Jewish immi- 
 gration was 24.8 per cent, while that in the total immigra-- 
 tion was only 12.3 per cent. 2 The Jewish thus had pro- 
 portionately twice as many children as the total immi- 
 gration. 
 
 The exceptional position of the Jews in regard to their 
 family movement is most strikingly shown when the 
 
 l Cf. table XXXVII, p. 178. 
 
 2 G r . Abstract of Emigration Conditions in Europe, p. 14. See Bib- 
 liography. 
 
I3 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [546 
 
 composition of the Jewish immigration by sex and age 
 is compared with that of the other immigrant peoples. 1 
 In a comparison with immigrant races which contributed 
 more than 100,000 to the total immigration from 1899 to 
 1910, the Jews are seen to have a higher proportion of 
 females than any other people except the Irish. The Irish 
 present in this regard an anomaly, in that they have more 
 females than males in their immigration. That it is not 
 in the main a family movement is shown by reference to the 
 proportion of children under fourteen in the Irish immigra- 
 tion, which is only 5 per cent, one of the lowest in the entire 
 series. The anomaly is easily explained by the well-known 
 fact that their females for the most part are single, who 
 come to the United States to work as servants. 2 
 
 Only one other people, the Bohemian and Moravian, ap- 
 proached the Jewish in its high proportion of females. On 
 the other hand, the one people with a larger immigration 
 than the Jewish, the South Italian, presents a striking con- 
 trast to the Jewish immigration, in that its proportion of 
 females was about half that of the Jews. Although its 
 immigrants numbered twice as many as the Jewish, the 
 females in the Italian movement were* only 408,965, as com- 
 pared with 466,620 females in the Jewish immigration. 
 
 A comparison of the immigrant peoples with reference 
 to their composition by age shows that the Jewish move- 
 ment contains without any exception the largest propor- 
 tion of children. 3 Out of a total of 990,182 Jewish immi- 
 grants from 1899 to 1909, 245,787, or 24.8 per cent, 
 were children under fourteen. In this regard, again, 
 the Bohemian and Moravian approach the Jewish, though 
 
 *Cf. table XXXVIII, p. 179. 
 
 1 Cf. Abstract of Emigration Conditions in Europe, p. 15, for the high 
 proportion of servants among the Irish immigrants. 
 C/. table XXXIX, p. 180. 
 
547] FAMILY MOVEMENT 1^1 
 
 not as closely as in the proportion of females. The 
 contrast with the South Italians obtains here as well. 
 As the Jewish immigration, during the twelve years from 
 1899 to 1910, was the second highest in numbers, con- 
 tributing more than a million to the total, the number of 
 females and children found in its movement was higher 
 than that of any other immigrant race, not only relatively 
 but absolutely as well. 
 
 Most striking, indeed, is the contrast in these respects 
 between the Jewish immigrants and the other races coming 
 from the countries of Eastern Europe, particularly the 
 Slavic immigrant races with whom the Jews have been asso- 
 ciated in the official statistics. 1 An examination of the pro- 
 portion of females in the immigration of the eight races 
 composing the Slavic group, shows that, with the excep- 
 tion of the Bohemians and Moravians (whose movement 
 presents strong similarities to that of the Jews), the per- 
 centage of females was less than a third of the total immi- 
 gration of each race, the highest being that of the Poles, 
 which was 30.5 per cent. The contrast is even more strik- 
 ing in respect to children under fourteen. Here, again, 
 excluding the Bohemians and Moravians, the highest per- 
 centage in the group was that of the Poles, 9.5 per cent. In 
 this respect, therefore, the association of the Jewish immi- 
 grants with the other immigrants from Eastern Europe, 
 under the rubric " Slavic races ", is seen to be untenable. 
 
 Strongest of all is the contrast between the Jewish immi- 
 gration and that of the Roumanian people. 2 The Rou- 
 manian movement is seen to be composed practically wholly 
 of individuals, only 9 per cent being females, while that of 
 the people from Roumania (nine-tenths of whom are 
 
 l Cf. table XL, p. 181. 
 
 2 Cf. table XLI, p. 181. The Roumanian immigrants com eprincipally 
 from Austria-Hungary, and only slightly from Roumania. 
 
JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [548 
 
 Jews 1 ) is seen to have a proportion of females higher even 
 than that in the total Jewish immigration. Even greater is 
 the contrast with respect to age, only 2.2 per cent of the 
 Roumanians being children under fourteen. 
 
 The division of the peoples represented in the immigra- 
 tion to the United States into "old" and "new", the former 
 consisting of the peoples from Northern and Western 
 Europe, the latter of the peoples from Southern and Eastern 
 Europe, is a convenient classification essentially of two 
 periods of immigration coinciding largely with changes in 
 the economic conditions in the United States, 
 
 A comparison of the proportion of females and children 
 in the " old " and the " new " immigration with that in the 
 Jewish shows that the Jewish immigration has proportion- 
 ately almost twice as many females as the " new " immigra- 
 tion (Jews excepted), and surpasses even the " old " immi- 
 gration in this regard. 2 Of children under fourteen the 
 Jewish movement has proportionately more than two and 
 one-half times as many as the "new" immigration (Jews 
 excepted), and nearly twice as many as the "old" immi- 
 gration. 
 
 This analysis shows conclusively that the Jewish immi- 
 gration is essentially a family movement; that it is ap- 
 proached by no other immigrant people in this regard ; that 
 it not only cannot be classed with the " new " immigration, 
 but shows a tendency towards family movement far 
 stronger than that of the peoples composing the " old " im- 
 migration. 
 
 The significance of this characteristic of the Jewish im- 
 migration is obvious. Their unequaled family movement 
 gives one of the clearest indications that the Jewish im- 
 migrants are essentially composed of permanent settlers. 
 
 1 Cf. supra, p. 131, note 2. * Cf. table XLII, p. 182. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 PERMANENT SETTLEMENT 
 
 OUR studies of the sex and age distribution of the Jewish 
 immigrants have shown a family movement unsurpassed 
 in degree. This in itself is sufficient indication that the 
 Jews are essentially permanent settlers in this country and 
 not transients, " who have no intention of permanently 
 changing their residence and whose only purpose in coming 
 to America is temporarily to take advantage of greater 
 wages paid for industrial labor in this country." 
 
 Equally convincing evidence is afforded by a survey of 
 the facts regarding the outward movement of Jews from 
 this country. 2 The figures of Jewish immigration are ob- 
 tainable only from 1908, the law of 1907 having required 
 all steamship companies to furnish information regarding 
 their emigrant passengers. 
 
 The relative stability of an immigration may be deter- 
 mined by contrasting the departure of the aliens com- 
 posing the immigration with the arriving immigrants 
 of this group for the same period. From 1908 to 
 1912, 33,315 Jews left the United States an average 
 annual emigration of 6,660 Jews. This is a strikingly 
 low number, especially when compared with the large Jew- 
 ish immigration for the same period, which numbered 
 417,016, and averaged annually 83,400 Jewish immi- 
 grants. Thus, for every hundred Jews admitted, only eight 
 
 1 Immigration Commission : Conclusions and Recommendations, p. 16. 
 *Cf. table XLIII, p. 182. 
 
 54? 1 133 
 
 
JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [550 
 
 Jews left the country. This average proportion was largely 
 exceeded only in 1909, not, however, because of any great 
 increase in the absolute numbers of the Jewish emigrants, 
 but because of the great fall in the number of Jewish im- 
 migrants of this year. 
 
 The part that is taken by the Jewish emigrants in the 
 total emigration is insignificant and is in striking contrast 
 with the great part taken by the Jewish immigrants in the 
 total immigration. 1 From 1908 to 1912, the Jewish immi- 
 grants constituted 9.7 per cent of the total immigrants. In 
 the same period, the Jewish emigrants constituted only 2.3 
 per cent of the total emigrants. Moreover, while the pro- 
 portion that the Jewish immigrants constituted of the total 
 immigrants exhibited a considerable and significant varia- 
 tion, fluctuating from 7.7 per cent to 13.2 per cent, the 
 proportion the Jewish emigrants constituted of the total 
 emigrants remained around 2 per cent and showed practi- 
 cally no variation. Relatively both to the number of Jew- 
 ish immigrants and of total emigrants, therefore, the num- 
 ber of the Jewish emigrants is exceedingly small and prac- 
 tically negligible. 
 
 How great the relative stability of the Jewish immigra- 
 tion is may be seen when its return movement is compared 
 with that of the total immigration and of other peoples 
 conspicuous in the immigration to the United States. 2 
 Whereas, from 1908 to 1910, for every hundred ad- 
 mitted in the total immigration, thirty-two departed the 
 outward movement thus approximating one-third of the 
 inward in the case of the Jewish immigration, only eight 
 departed, an outward movement only one-quarter as large, 
 relatively, as the total. This was the smallest outward 
 movement, relatively to the inward, of any immigrant peo- 
 
 l Cf. table XLIV, p. 183. J Cf. table XLV, p. 183. 
 
i I ] PERMANENT SETTLEMENT 135 
 
 pie, except the Irish, whose outward movement was 6 per 
 cent of the inward. Relatively to the inward movement, 
 the Jews had an outward movement one-seventh as large 
 as the South Italians, almost one-fourth as large as the 
 Poles, and less than one-half as large as the Germans. 
 
 In the total immigration for these years, the Jews were 
 the third largest group with 236,100 immigrants, which con- 
 stituted 10.2 per cent of the total immigration. To the out- 
 ward movement for this period, however, they contributed 
 18,543 Jews, which constituted only 2.5 per cent of the 
 total number of emigrants, one of the smallest contribu- 
 tions. The Poles, who constituted 11.7 per cent of the im- 
 migration for the three years, contributed practically the 
 same proportion, 11.4 per cent, to the outward movement. 
 Even more striking is the contrast with the Italian move- 
 ment. The Italians contributed 19.8 per cent of the inward 
 movement for the period and 35.7 per cent of the outward 
 movement for the three years. Though their immigration 
 for these three years was only twice as large as that of the 
 Jews, their emigration was more than fourteen times that 
 of the Jews. In other words, no people combined in an 
 equal degree as the Jews so small a number of emigrants 
 with so large a number of immigrants. 
 
 It is interesting to determine what is the emigration ten- 
 dency of the Jews coming from Russia, Roumania and 
 Austria-Hungary. This may be gathered from the number 
 of emigrants returned for each of these countries, from 
 1908 to 1912, as compared with the number admitted. 1 
 From 1908 to 1912, 294,813 Jews from Russia entered 
 the United States and 20,546 Jews departed for Russia; 
 11,246 Jews from Roumania entered the United States and 
 546 Jews departed for Roumania; 60,408 Jews from Aus- 
 
 l Cf. table XLVI, p. 134. 
 
JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [552 
 
 tria-Hungary entered the United States, and 8,513 Jews de- 
 parted for Austria-Hungary. In other words, for every 
 hundred Jews entering from Russia seven departed, for 
 every hundred Jews entering from Roumania five Jews de- 
 parted, for every hundred Jews entering from Austria- 
 Hungary fourteen departed for their respective coun- 
 tries. The emigration tendency was thus smaller with 
 the Roumanian and the Russian Jews than with the 
 Austro-Hungarian Jews. This held true for each of the 
 five years. Relatively twice as many Jews from Austria- 
 Hungary as from Russia returned. The Roumanian Jews 
 showed the smallest tendency to return. 
 
 Of importance is the question of the relative stability of 
 the Jewish movement from Russia and Austria-Hungary 
 and that of their close neighbors in these countries, the 
 Poles, who contributed almost as large a current of immi- 
 grants to the United States as the Jews, and who, since 
 they constitute the most important Slavic group, may be 
 taken as the type of the Slavic movement to this country. 
 
 From 1908 to 1912, 265,964 Polish immigrants from 
 Russia were admitted to the United States and 60,290 
 Poles departed for Russia, this constituting an average 
 emigration of twenty-two per hundred admitted. 1 As, for 
 every hundred Russian Jews admitted in this period, only 
 seven departed, this constituted a relative emigration one- 
 third as large as that of the Poles. For the same period, 
 214,931 Poles were admitted from Austria-Hungary and 
 88,994 Poles left for that country, which constituted an 
 average emigration of forty-one per hundred admitted. The 
 average emigration of the Jews from Austria-Hungary was 
 fourteen per hundred admitted or practically one-third as 
 large as that of the Poles. Thus, the Jewish immigrants 
 
 l Cf. table XLVII, p. 184. 
 
PERMANENT SETTLEMENT 137 
 
 from Russia and Austria-Hungary present relatively three 
 times as stable a movement as the Polish immigrants from 
 these countries. 
 
 The fact that the Jewish emigration from Galicia was a 
 movement of families and was essentially a movement of 
 permanent settlement in their new home was noted by 
 Buzek as characteristic of this emigration even in the early 
 eighties, and as strongly contrasted with the emigration of 
 the Poles from Galicia. 1 
 
 A comparison of the return movement of the " old " and 
 the " new " immigration with that of the Jewish immigra- 
 tion gives similar results. 2 For every hundred admitted, there 
 were, in the "new" immigration, forty-two emigrants, rela- 
 tively more than five times as many as among the Jews. 
 Even in the " old " immigration, which is largely accepted 
 as the type of permanent immigration, for every hundred 
 admitted, there were thirteen emigrants, about one and 
 a half times as many relatively as among the Jews. 
 The Jewish immigration must thus be accorded the place 
 of distinction in American immigration for permanence of 
 settlement. 
 
 An unusual test of this conclusion was afforded by the 
 remarkable emigration following the crisis of iQO/. 3 The 
 general opinion that " the causes which retard emigration 
 from abroad also accelerate the exodus from the United 
 States ", was considerably strengthened by the great exodus 
 of 1908. To this rule the Jewish immigration forms, again, 
 a most striking exception. Although its number in 1907 
 149,182 immigrants was only slightly below its maximum 
 for thirty years, and constituted the second highest immi- 
 gration for the year, only 7,702 Jews left the country in 
 
 1 Buzek, op xit., p. 467- 2 Cf. table XLVIII, p. 185. 
 
 *Cf. table XLIX, p. 185. 
 
I3 8 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [554 
 
 1908. This constituted only two per cent of the total emi- 
 gration for that year. Relatively to the number admitted 
 the Jewish emigration was, without exception, the lowest, 
 being only five departed for every hundred admitted. The 
 remarkable disparity in this regard with the Poles and the 
 Italian was again shown here. For every hundred Poles 
 entering in 1907, thirty-three emigrated in 1908. For 
 every hundred South Italians entering in 1907, sixty emi- 
 grated in 1908. 
 
 That the business conditions of this country affect Jew- 
 ish immigration is unquestioned, but the difference in the 
 degree and the manner of the response puts it in a class 
 apart. A comparison of the total gain in population in 
 1908 and 1909 in the immigration of Italians and Jews 
 shows that whereas in the Italian inward and outward 
 movement in 1908 there was a net loss to this country of 
 79,966, but in 1909 a net gain of 94,806, in the Jewish in- 
 ward and outward movement in 1908 there was a net gain 
 of 95,685, and in 1909 a net gain of 50,705. x The Jewish 
 immigration responds in its inward movement much more 
 slowly and less completely to the pressure of unfavorable 
 conditions in this country. In its outward movement it 
 shows practically no response. 
 
 The conclusion that the Jewish immigrants constitute to 
 an unusual degree a body of permanent settlers is strength- 
 ened by an examination of the figures concerning immi- 
 grants who have been in the United States previously. 2 
 Of the total from 1899 to 1910 of 9,220,066 immigrants, 
 
 1 The number of Jewish emigrant aliens in 1908 was deducted from 
 the number of Jewish immigrant aliens : the combined number of Jew- 
 ish emigrant and non-emigrant aliens in 1909 was deducted from the 
 combined number of Jewish immigrant and non-immigrant aliens. Cf. 
 Fairchild, Immigration, 1913, p. 361. 
 
 9 Cf. table L, p. 186. 
 
555 ] PERMANENT SETTLEMENT ! 39 
 
 1,108,948, or 12 per cent, had been here before. Of the 
 1,074,442 Jews who entered the country during this period, 
 only 22,914, or 2.1 per cent, had been previously in the 
 United States. The proportion of Jews who have been in 
 this country before is by far the lowest of any immigrant 
 peoples. 
 
 As the total Jewish exodus is insignificant as compared 
 both with the total emigration and the proportion of the 
 Jewish immigration in the total inward movement; as the 
 Jewish outward movement shows practically no response! / 
 to unfavorable economic conditions in this country, and as I V 
 the Jewish inward movement presents the phenomenon of a I 
 practically new body of immigrants, we are led to con- 
 clude that the Jewish immigration exhibits a quality of per- 
 manence and stability to so great a degree as to render this 
 fact one of its distinguishing characteristics. 
 
\ 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 OCCUPATIONS 
 
 THE occupations of an immigrant people throw light 
 upon their industrial equipment and their probable future 
 occupations in this country. A study of the occupational 
 distribution of the Jewish immigrants from 1899 to 1910 
 will serve to illuminate some of the characteristics of their 
 movement. 1 
 
 The largest group is that classed as having " no 
 occupation". This group comprises 484,175 immi- 
 grants, and is 45.1 per cent of the total. In the 
 fact that it holds so large a place in the occupational 
 distribution, there is reflected the great number of 
 women and children among the Jewish immigrants. 
 The rise in the proportion of the " no occupation " group 
 in the second half of the twelve years follows a similar rise 
 in the proportion of women and children in the Jewish 
 movement, which has been previously noted. 2 These are, 
 in the main, economically dependent, a fact which is of the 
 highest importance with reference to the character of this 
 immigration, as well as in its influence upon the economic 
 and social problems facing the immigrant Jews in their new 
 home. 
 
 Skilled laborers were the second largest group, number- 
 ing 395,823 immigrants and comprising 36.8 per cent of 
 the total. Next in order was the group classed as " mis- 
 cellaneous ", with 186,989 immigrants, representing 17.4 
 
 l Cf. table LI, p. 186. a Cf. supra, pp. 127-128. 
 
 140 [556 
 
557] OCCUPATIONS I4I 
 
 per cent of the total. This group included common and 
 farm laborers, servants, merchants and dealers, etc. In 
 professional occupations there were 7,455 immigrants, com- 
 prising 7 per cent of the total. 
 
 Omitting the " no occupation " group, and considering 
 the 590,267 Jewish immigrants reporting occupations, we 
 find that of these the great majority 67.1 per cent were 
 skilled laborers. 1 Laborers numbered 69,444 and comprised 
 1 1. 8 per cent. Next in order of numbers were servants, 
 65,532, who comprised n.i per cent. A much smaller 
 group was that composed of merchants and dealers (chiefly 
 petty merchants, hucksters, and peddlers), who numbered 
 31,491 and were 5.3 per cent of the total. Of farm laborers 
 there were 11,460, comprising 1.9 per cent. The entire pro- 
 fessional class comprised 1.3 per cent of the total. There 
 were 1,000 farmers, who comprised .2 per cent. 
 
 In the professional classes the teachers were the largest 
 group, represented by 2,192, and comprising 29.4 per cent. 2 
 The next class were the musicians, who numbered 1,624, 
 comprising 21.8 per cent of the total. Together these two 
 groups were more than half of the total. 
 
 Thus, by far the most important occupational group was 
 that of the skilled laborers. 3 An examination of the dis- 
 tribution of this group shows that they were represented 
 in thirty-five trades. By far the largest group of the skilled 
 laborers were the tailors, numbering 145,272, and compris- 
 ing 36.6 per cent. The dressmakers and seamstresses num- 
 bered 39,482, and comprised one-tenth of the total. In- 
 cluding the closely allied trades such as hat and cap makers, 
 milliners, etc., the garment workers composed practically 
 one-half of the entire body of skilled laborers. Second in 
 rank were the carpenters and joiners, who, together with the 
 
 1 Cf. table LII, p. 187. * Cf. table LIII, p. 187. 
 
 3 Cf. table LIV, p. 188. 
 
JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [558 
 
 cabinet makers and woodworkers (not specified) numbered 
 40,901, and comprised more than one-tenth of the total. 
 The fourth highest group were the shoemakers, with 
 2 35 I 9> or 5-9 P er cen t f the total. Clerks and accountants, 
 and painters and glaziers contributed an almost equal num- 
 ber the former 17,066, the latter 16,387 representing 4.3 
 per cent and 4.1 per cent respectively of the total. Of 
 butchers there were 11,413, or 2.9 per cent, and of bakers 
 10,925, or 2.8 per cent. There were also 9,385 locksmiths, 
 or 2.4 per cent, and 8,517 blacksmiths, or 2.2 per cent. To- 
 gether, these ten groups comprised 318,104, or 80.4 per cent 
 of the Jews in skilled occupations. 
 
 Another skilled occupation represented by more than 
 5,000 was tinners. Trade groups of more than 3,000 were 
 watch and clock makers, tobacco workers, hat and cap 
 makers, barbers and hairdressers, weavers and spinners, tan- 
 ners and curriers, furriers and fur workers, and bookbind- 
 ers. More than a thousand skilled laborers were found in 
 the following trades : photographers and upholsterers, me- 
 chanics (not specified), masons, printers, saddlers and har- 
 ness makers, milliners, metal workers (other than iron, steel 
 and tin) , machinists, jewelers and millers. Less than a thou- 
 sand laborers were found in two groups: iron and steel 
 workers, and textile workers (not specified). 
 
 The Jewish immigrants were therefore concentrated in 
 the two groups of " no occupation " and " skilled laborers", 
 to which belonged more than four-fifths of the total 
 number. 
 
 In the part taken by the Jewish immigrants in the 
 occupational distribution of the total immigrants from 
 1899 to 1909, these two groups are prominent. 1 To 
 the 1,247,674 skilled laborers, the Jewish immigrants con- 
 
 1 Cf. table LV, p. 189. 
 
559 ] OCCUPATIONS 143 
 
 tributed 362,936, or 29.1 per cent. This was more than 
 twice the proportion of the Jewish immigrants in the total 
 number of immigrants. They were also represented in the 
 "no occupation" group by more than one and one-half times 
 their proportion of the total immigration, contributing to a 
 total of 2,165,287 immigrants, 445,728, or 20.6 per cent. 
 In striking contrast with the great contribution to these two 
 classes is their insignificant contributions to the groups of 
 common laborers and farmers, and farm laborers, to which 
 they contributed respectively 2.9 per cent, i.i per cent, and 
 o.i per cent. 
 
 It is, however, in comparison with the occupational 
 grouping of the other races that the peculiarities of the dis- 
 tribution of the Jewish immigrants are most clearly seen. 1 
 An examination of the number of those classed as having 
 " no occupation " of each European immigrant people and 
 the percentage this group comprised of the total immigra- 
 tion of each people, shows that the Jews have the highest 
 proportion, 45.1 per cent, of all immigrants belonging to 
 this group. The Bohemians and Moravians are next in 
 order, with. 39.5 per cent. The absolute numbers of the 
 Jews belonging to this group are also higher than those 
 of any other people. The Italians have only 440,274 im- 
 migrants in the " no occupation " group, as compared with 
 the 484,175 Jewish immigrants in this group. Even more 
 striking is the contrast with the Poles, who have only 
 200,634 immigrants belonging to this group. This corres- 
 ponds closely with similar facts as to the relative pro- 
 portions of females and children found in the Jewish 
 immigration and among the other immigrant races. 
 
 An even greater contrast exists in the proportions of 
 skilled laborers between the Jewish and the other immi- 
 
 l Cf. table LVI, p. 189. 
 
I44 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [560 
 
 grant peoples. 1 Of those reporting occupations the Jews 
 ,J have, by far, the highest proportion of those in skilled oc- 
 cupations. The nearest approach to their proportion of 
 skilled laborers is found among the Scotch, with 57.9 per 
 cent The next in order are the English, with 48.7 per cent. 
 A much smaller proportion is found among the Bohemians 
 and Moravians and the Germans. All these races 
 contribute not only much smaller proportions than the 
 Jews, but very much smaller absolute numbers to the total 
 body of skilled laborers. 
 
 Of laborers (including farm laborers), the Jews, on the 
 other hand, have a smaller proportion, 13.7 per cent, than 
 any people, except the Scotch (who resemble the Jews most 
 strongly in their high proportion of skilled laborers and 
 their low proportion of common laborers). 
 
 The most striking contrast, in occupational distribution, 
 however, is presented with the Slavic peoples. 2 Of those 
 reporting occupations, the Slavic peoples, with the exception 
 of the Bohemians and Moravians, are seen to be overwhelm- 
 ingly concentrated in the two related groups of common and 
 farm laborers, whereas the Jews are mostly to be found in 
 the group of skilled laborers. Relatively ten times as many 
 Jews as Poles, for instance, are in the skilled occupations. 
 
 That the Jews form a striking exception in their occu- 
 pational grouping is evident. A comparison of the occupa- 
 tional distribution of the " old " and the " new " immi- 
 grants with that of the Jewish immigrants, from 1899 to 
 1909, leads to the same conclusion. 3 The Jewish immi- 
 grants have twice as many in the " no occupation " group 
 as the " new " immigrants, and a much higher percentage 
 than the " old'" immigrants. They have relatively four 
 
 l Cf. table LVII, p. 190. 2 Cf. table LVIII, p. 191. 
 
 *Cf. table LIX, p. 191. 
 
5 6i] OCCUPATIONS 145 
 
 times as many skilled laborers as the " new " immigrants, 
 and more than one and one-half times as many as the "old" 
 immigrants. Most remarkable is the fact that in spite of 
 the relatively great proportion of women among the Jewish 
 immigrants, they have a smaller proportion of servants 
 than the " new " immigrants and one-third as large a pro- 
 portion as the " old " immigrants. This indicates that the 
 Jewish women are, as a rule, not servants, but either do not 
 engage in work, or, if they do, are employed in skilled oc- 
 cupations. The latter group is, however, relatively incon- 
 spicuous. 
 
 In professional occupations the Jews occupy an inter- 
 mediate position between the " old " and the " new " immi- 
 grants. In common and farm laborers, the Jews have an 
 exceedingly low proportion as compared with the " old " 
 and a strikingly low proportion as compared with the "new" 
 immigrants. 
 
 Some distinctive traits in the occupational grouping of 
 the Jewish immigrants have become evident. They are 
 apart from all the other immigrant peoples in the great 
 number of those having " no occupation ". In other words, 
 the Jewish immigrants are burdened with a far greater 
 number of dependents than any other immigrant people, 
 standing apart in this respect from the peoples of the "old" 
 immigration and to a far greater extent from the peoples 
 of the " new " immigration. Secondly, the Jewish immi- 
 grants are distinguished by a far greater proportion of 
 skilled laborers. In this respect again they exceed even the 
 peoples of the " old " immigration. The fact that the skilled 
 laborers are more largely represented among the Jewish im- 
 migrants than they are in the occupations of the Jews in the 
 countries of Eastern Europe is significant as showing an 
 unusual pressure upon these classes abroad. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 ILLITERACY 
 
 THE rate of illiteracy has been generally used as a rough 
 standard for estimating the mental equipment of the immi- 
 grants. A consideration of the rate of illiteracy among the 
 Jewish immigrants dispels the popular impression that prac- 
 tically every Jew is able to read and write. 1 Out of a total 
 tered this country from 1899 to I 9 IO > 2 9>57> or 2 6 per 
 of 806,786 Jews fourteen years of age and over who en- 
 cent, were unable to read and write. As the average rate of 
 illiteracy among all the immigrants, from 1899 to 1910, 
 was 26.7 per cent, the rate of Jewish illiteracy is seen to 
 be only slightly below the average. 
 
 A number of considerations enter. One of these is the 
 influence of sex. It is generally recognized that, as a rule, 
 females are more usually unlettered than males. This dif- 
 ference of illiteracy between the sexes is also more pro- 
 nounced in countries where popular education is less widely 
 spread than in those where it is the rule. Such is the case 
 with the countries of Eastern Europe, which are the source 
 of the recent Jewish immigration. The contrast between 
 male and female illiteracy is strongest among the East- 
 European Jews, who neglect the education of their 
 daughters as much as they strive to educate their sons. 
 This is reflected in the relative illiteracy of males 
 and females among the Jewish immigrants. 2 Of the 
 172,718 Jewish males fourteen years of age and over 
 
 1 Cf. table LX, p. 192. J Cf. table LXI, p. 192. 
 
 146 [562 
 
ILLITERACY 
 
 ! 47 
 
 entering this country from 1908 to 1912, 33,970, or 
 19.7 per cent, were illiterates. Of the 139,283 females 
 fourteen years of age and over, 51,303, or 36.8 per cent, 
 were illiterates. The illiteracy of Jewish females is thus 
 almost twice as high as that of Jewish males. As the pro- 
 portion of females in the Jewish immigration is so 
 large, the influence of the sex factor in increasing the 
 rate of illiteracy among the Jewish immigrants is consid- 
 erable. A tendency from a lower to a higher rate of illit- 
 eracy is discernible. The average rate for the first six years 
 was 23.8 per cent, that for the last six years was 27.2 per 
 cent. This corresponds with the increase in the latter years 
 in the proportion of females in the Jewish immigration, 
 which has been previously noted. 
 
 A comparison of the rate of illiteracy of the Jewish im- 
 migrants with that of the other immigrant peoples shows 
 that the Jews occupy an intermediate position. 1 They have 
 a relatively high rate of illiteracy, as compared with the 
 peoples from Northern and Western Europe. In compari- 
 son with the Slavs, their rate of illiteracy is also much 
 higher than that of the Bohemians and Moravians, and, 
 higher also, though to a far less degree, than that of the 
 Slovaks. 
 
 The relative position of the Jews is clearly shown in a 
 comparison of their rate of illiteracy from 1899 to 1910 with 
 that for the same period of the " old " and the " new " im- 
 migration (from the latter of which the Jews are ex- 
 cepted.) 2 The rate of illiteracy of the " old " immigration 
 is 2.5 per cent, that of the " new " immigration (Jews ex- 
 cepted) is 37.2 per cent, that of the Jews is 25.7 per cent. 
 The Jews occupy a middle ground, yet near enough to the 
 " new " immigration to be classed with it in this respect. 
 
 1 Cf. table LXII, p. 193. * Cf. table LXIII, p. 194. 
 
J 
 
 I4 8 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [564 
 
 The conclusion reached in the first part that the educa- 
 tional standing of the Jews is higher than that of the peoples 
 in Eastern Europe among whom they live is reflected in 
 the greater relative literacy of their immigrants. 1 The rate 
 of illiteracy of the Jewish immigrants is lower than that of 
 the peoples among whom the Jews are found. In the case 
 of the Lithuanians and the Ruthenians the difference is 
 considerable. This is seen to hold true for each sex. 2 The 
 illiterates among the Jewish males constituted 21.9 per cent 
 of the total number of Jewish males. The illiterates among 
 the Jewish females constituted 40.0 per cent of the total 
 number of Jewish females. In both sexes, the proportion of 
 illiterates was lower than that prevailing among the other 
 immigrant peoples. 
 
 Here, again, the fact is noticeable of a wider difference 
 in the case of the Jews between the illiteracy of their males 
 and females than exists among any of the other peoples. 
 Owing to the fact that the Jews have in their immigration a 
 notably higher proportion of females than any of these peo- 
 ples, the difference between their rate of illiteracy and that 
 of these peoples is lessened to some extent. 
 
 That the illiteracy of the Jews is due chiefly to their ex- 
 ceptional status in Russia and Roumania, our review of the 
 conditions affecting Jewish education in those countries has 
 shown. No more striking illustration exists of the fact 
 that the literacy of the Jews is conditioned by their free- 
 dom than the degree in which they are taking advantage of 
 the educational opportunities offered in this country, re- 
 markable testimony to which is presented in the reports of 
 the recent Immigration Commission. 
 
 1 Cf. table LXIV, p. 194. *Cf. table LXV, p. 194. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 DESTINATION 
 
 THE destination, or intended future residence, of immi- 
 grants is influenced by certain considerations, such as the 
 place of residence of friends or relatives, the port arrived 
 at, and the funds at the disposal of the immigrants. 
 
 The most important influence is that exercised by the 
 occupations of the immigrants. The preponderance of the / 
 industrially skilled and commercial groups among the Jew-*' 
 ish immigrants makes for residence in the industrial and 
 commercial centers. The great majority of the Jewish im- 
 migrants arriving from 1899 to 1910 were destined for the 
 eastern states. 1 Of the total number of Jewish immigrants 
 from 1889 to 1910, 923,549 immigrants, or 86 per cent, 
 gave the North Atlantic States as their destination and 
 110,998 immigrants, or 10.3 per cent, the North Central 
 States. Less than one-twentieth gave all the other divisions 
 as their destination. 
 
 A great proportion of the Jewish immigrants, numbering 
 690,296, or 64.2 per cent of the total, gave New York as 
 their destination. 2 Pennsylvania was the destination of the 
 next largest number of immigrants, 108,534, constituting 
 i o.i per cent of the total. For Massachusetts there were 
 destined 66,023 immigrants, or 6.1 per cent of the total. 
 Four-fifths of the total number of immigrants were des- 
 tined for these three states. Other eastern states receiving 
 a large number of immigrants were New Jersey, for which 
 
 1 Cf. table LXVI, p. 195. * Cf. table LXVII, p. 195. 
 
 565] 149 
 
!-0 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [566 
 
 34,279 were destined, and Connecticut, for which 16,254 
 immigrants were destined. Of the North Central States, 
 Illinois was the destination of the largest number, 50,931 
 immigrants, constituting 4.7 per cent of the total. Ohio 
 was the destination of the next largest number, 20,531 im- 
 migrants, or 1.9 per cent of the total. One state in the South 
 Central division, Maryland, was given as the destination of 
 18,700 immigrants, constituting 1.7 per cent o>f the total, 
 and the largest number of those destined for this division. 
 The tendency of the Jewish immigrants towards indus- 
 trial and commercial centers is here reflected. 
 
 The destination of the Jewish immigrants to the 
 eastern states agrees with that of the total immigration for 
 the same period. 1 A larger proportion of the Jewish im- 
 migrants than of the total immigrants was destined for the 
 North Atlantic States, which contain the commercial and 
 manufacturing centers. Less than one-half as many Jewish 
 immigrants as total immigrants were destined for the North 
 Central States. About an equal proportion of each was 
 destined for the South Atlantic States. A much smaller 
 proportion of the Jewish than of the total was destined for 
 the Western States. In view of the industrial equipment 
 of the Jewish immigrants discussed previously, this ten- 
 dency is explained. 
 
 The Jewish immigrants destined for the eastern states 
 play a correspondingly large part among the total number 
 destined for these states. 2 The Jewish immigrants destined 
 for the North Atlantic States were 14.5 per cent of all the 
 immigrants destined for this division. Their next highest 
 proportion was of those destined for the South Central 
 States, of which they constituted 9.9 per cent. They consti- 
 tuted an almost equal proportion of the immigrants des- 
 
 l Ct. table LXVIII, p. 196. * Cf. table LXIX, p. 196. 
 
567] DESTINATION ! 5 I 
 
 tined for the North Central and the South Central States, 
 5.2 per cent, and 5.0 per cent, respectively. Of the immi- 
 grants destined for the Western States they constituted only 
 1.2 per cent. 
 
 The final destination of the immigrants very frequently 
 is different from the destination stated at the time of land- 
 ing. An examination of the disposition of Jewish immi- 
 grants landing at the port of New York from 1886 to 1906 
 showed that a large part of the immigrants left within a 
 very short time for other parts. 1 Of the 918,388 immi- 
 grants that landed at the port of New York, from 1886 to 
 1906, 669,453, or 72.9 per cent, remained in New York, and 
 248,935, or 27.1 per cent, left for other points. 
 
 1 Cf. reports of the United Hebrew Charities of New York City, 1886 
 to 1906. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 
 
 SOME of the principal characteristics of the Jewish im- 
 migration to the United States have been presented in 
 the preceding pages. The Jewish immigration has been 
 shown to consist essentially of permanent settlers. Its 
 family movement is incomparable in degree, and con- 
 tains a larger relative proportion as well as absolute 
 number of women and children, than any other im- 
 migrant people. This in turn is reflected in the greater 
 relative proportion as well as absolute number of those 
 classified as having " no occupation ". The element of 
 dependency thus predicated is another indication of the fam- 
 ily composition of the Jewish immigration. Its return move- 
 ment is the smallest of any, as compared both with its large 
 immigration and the number of total emigrants. The Jew- 
 ish immigrants are distinguished as well by a larger rela- 
 tive proportion and absolute number of skilled laborers, 
 than any other immigrant people. In these four primary 
 characteristics the Jewish immigrants stand apart from all 
 the others. 
 
 It is with the neighboring Slavic races emigrating from 
 the countries of Eastern Europe and with whom the Jew- 
 ish immigrants are closely associated that the contrasts, in 
 all these respects, are strongest. The Slavic immigrants are 
 chiefly male adults. Their movement is largely composed 
 of transients, as evidenced by a relatively large outward 
 movement and emphasized by the fact that the vast majority 
 152 [568 
 
569] 
 
 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 
 
 of them are unskilled laborers. An exception, in large 
 measure, must be made of the Bohemian and Moravian 
 immigrants who present characteristics strongly similar to 
 those of the Jewish immigrants.- 
 
 The division into " old " and " new " immigration brings 
 out even more clearly the exceptional position of the Jews 
 in regard to these characteristics. Although the Jewish 
 immigration has been contemporaneous with the " new " 
 immigration from Eastern and Southeastern Europe, and is 
 furthermore essentially East-European in origin, its char- 
 acteristics place it altogether with the " old " immigration. 1 
 Most striking, however is the fact that in all of ihese 
 respects family composition, and small return movement 
 (both indicating permanent settlement) and in the propor- 
 tion of skilled laborers the Jewish immigration stands 
 apart even from the " old " immigration. 
 
 Further confirmation may be obtained, in the study of 
 the characteristics of the Jewish immigration, of the 
 principle established in the preceding sections that the 
 rejective forces of governmental 
 
 sible for the largest part of this immigration. The 
 large family movement of the Jewish immigration is 
 a symptom of abnormal conditions and amounts almost to a 
 reversal of the normal immigration, in which single or mar- 
 ried men without families predominate. Even the family 
 movement of the " old " immigrants may largely be at- 
 tributed to the longer residence of their peoples in the 
 United States as well as to their greater familiarity with 
 the conditions and customs of the United States. That so 
 large a part of the Jewish immigrants is composed of de- 
 
 J So strongly was this the case that the Immigration Commission in 
 discussing these characteristics was compelled to separate the Jewish 
 from the "new" immigration, in order to bring out the essential dif- 
 erences of the latter from the "old" immigration. 
 
JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [570 
 
 I pendent females and children creates a situation of economic 
 \J disadvantage for the Jewish immigrants, all the stronger 
 because of their relative un familiarity with the language or 
 the conditions facing them in this country. 
 
 Again, the Jews respond slowly and incompletely to the 
 pressure of unfavorable economic conditions in this coun- 
 try. This was emphasized by the almost complete lack of 
 response to the panic of 1907, as well as expressed in the 
 small, practically unchanging return movement of the Jews 
 to their European homes. 
 
 The pressure upon the Jewish artisans, or skilled labor- 
 >J ers, in Eastern Europe is reflected in the predominance of 
 this class among the Jewish immigrants to this country. 
 That so useful an element in Eastern Europe with its still 
 relatively backward industrial development a fact that 
 was given express recognition by the permission accorded 
 the Jewish artisans in Alexander IFs time to live in the in- 
 terior of Russia should have been compelled to emigrate 
 indicates that the voyage across the Atlantic was easier for 
 them than the trip into the interior of Russia, access to 
 which is still legally accorded to them. 
 
 That the oppressive conditions created particularly in 
 Russia and Roumania and operating as a pressure equiva- 
 I lent to an expulsive force does not explain the entire Jewish 
 ^ immigration to this country is evident from the preceding 
 pages. In a great measure, the immigration of Jews from 
 Austria-Hungary is an economic movement. The exist- 
 ence, however, of a certain degree of pressure created by 
 economic and political antisemitism has however been 
 recognized. The Jewish movement from Austria-Hungary 
 shares largely with the movement from Russia and Rou- 
 mania the social and economic characteristics of the Jew- 
 ish immigration which we have described. A strong family 
 movement and a relative permanence of settlement, espec- 
 
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 
 
 ially as compared with the Poles, and a movement of skilled 
 laborers must be predicated of the Jewish immigrants from 
 Austria-Hungary, though undoubtedly not to the same de- 
 gree as in the case of the Jewish movements from Russia 
 and Roumania. 
 
 It is also clear that the forces of economic attraction in ^ 
 the United States do not play an altogether passive part in 
 the Jewish immigration. The very fact of an immigrant- 
 nucleus formed in this country and serving as a center of 
 attraction to relatives and friends abroad a force which 
 increases in direct and multiple proportion to the growth 
 of immigration is an active and positive force in strength- 
 ening the immigration current. This was early understood 
 by the Alliance Israelite Universelle which had acted upon 
 this principle in the seventies and had prophetically > / 
 sought to direct a healthy movement of Jewish immi- 
 grants to this country in the hope of thereby laying a 
 foundation for future Jewish immigration to this country. 
 This current, however, once started and growing only by 
 the force of its increasing attraction, would reflect in its 
 movement almost wholly the economic conditions in this 
 country. That so large a part of the Jewish immigration, 
 and so many of the phenomena peculiar to it, find their ex- 
 planation, for the largest part of the thirty years, in the situ- 
 ation and the course of events in the countries of Eastern 
 Europe leads to the inevitable conclusion that the key to the 
 Jewish immigration is to be found not in the force of eco- 
 nomic attraction exercised in the United States but rather^ 
 in the exceptional economic, social and legal conditions in 
 Eastern Europe which have been created as a result of gov- 
 ernmental persecution. 
 
 Reviewing the various phases of the history of Jewish 
 immigration for these thirty years, we are enabled to see 
 more closely its nature. The study of the immigration, its 
 
! 5 6 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [572 
 
 movement and its social and economic characteristics, in 
 comparison with those of other immigrant peoples, has re- 
 vealed in it a number of distinguishing traits. In the causes 
 'of the emigration of the Jews, in the pressure exerted upon 
 their movement as reflected in their rate of immigration, in 
 their family movement, in the permanence of their settle- 
 ment, and in their occupational distribution have been found 
 characteristics which mark them off from the rest of the 
 immigrant peoples. The number of these characteristics 
 and the degree in which they are found in the Jewish immi- 
 gration, put it in a class by itself. 
 
 The facts of governmental pressure amounting to an ex- 
 pulsive force, and reflected in an extraordinary rate of immi- 
 gration, in a movement of families unsurpassed in the Amer- 
 ican immigration, the largest part economically dependent, 
 in an occupational grouping of skilled artisans, able to earn 
 their livelihood under normal conditions, and in a perma- 
 nence of settlement in this country incomparable in degree 
 and indicating that practically all who come stay all these 
 facts lead irresistibly to the conclusion that in the Jewish 
 movement we are dealing, not with an immigration, but with 
 a miration. What we are witnessing to-day and for these 
 thirty years, is a Jewish migration of a kind and degree 
 almost without a parallel in the history of the Jewish peo- 
 ple. When speaking of the beginnings of Russian Jewish 
 immigration to Philadelphia, David Sulzberger said : " In 
 thirty years the movement of Jews from Russia to the 
 United States has almost reached the dignity of the migra- 
 tion of a people," he used no literary phrase. In view of 
 the facts that have developed, this statement is true with- 
 out any qualification. 
 
 This migration-process explains the remarkable growth 
 of the Jewish population in the United States, within a rela- 
 tively short period of time. In this transplantation, the 
 
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 
 
 spirit of social solidarity and communal responsibility preva- 
 lent among the Jews has played a vital part. 
 
 The family rather than the individual thus becomes the 
 unit for the social life of the Jewish immigrant population 
 in the United States. In this respect the latter approaches * 
 more nearly the native American population than does the 
 foreign white or immigrant population. One of the great- 
 est evils incident to and characteristic of the general immi- 
 gration to this country is thereby minimized. 
 
 Again, the concentration of the Jewish immigrants in cer- 
 tain trades explains in great measure the peculiarities of the 
 occupational and the urban distribution of the Jews in the 
 United States. The development of the garment trades 
 through Jewish agencies is largely explained by the recruit- 
 ing of the material for this development through these 
 laborers. 
 
 These primary characteristics of the Jewish immigration 
 of the last thirty years will serve to explain some of the / 
 most important phases of the economic and social life of 
 the Jews in the United States, three-fourths of whom are 
 immigrants of this period. 
 
 Of all the features of this historic movement of the Jews 
 from Eastern Europe to the United States, not the least in- 
 teresting is their passing from civilizations whose bonds 
 with their medieval past are still strong to a civilization 
 which began its course unhampered by tradition and un- 
 yoked to the forms and institutions of the past. The con- 
 trast between the broad freedom of this democracy and the 
 intolerable despotism from whose yoke most of them fled, 
 has given them a sense of appreciation of American politi- 
 cal and social institutions that is felt in every movement of 
 their mental life. 
 
STATISTICAL TABLES 
 
 TABLE I A 
 
 PARTICIPATION OF JEWS IN OCCUPATIONS IN THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE, 1897 l 
 
 Group of occupation 
 
 Total 
 
 Jews 
 
 Per cent of total 
 
 Agricultural pursuits 
 
 1824*5287 
 
 4061 1 
 
 
 Professional service . . . . 
 
 988813 
 
 1 1Q^O 
 
 7e 
 
 Personal service* . 
 
 C T COO 1 2 
 
 277/166 
 
 O 
 
 5 A 
 
 Manufacturing and mechanical 
 pursuits . . . 
 
 C T6QQIO 
 
 C/12 ^67 
 
 4 
 IO C 
 
 Transportation 
 
 7ld.7d. C 
 
 
 1U.^) 
 
 6 A 
 
 Commerce * 
 
 I2C677O 
 
 AC2IQ7 
 
 
 
 **J W JJ W 
 
 f tj l yj 
 
 
 Total 
 
 3 J C2C. I O6 
 
 T/17O727 
 
 4e 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 1 Compiled from Rubinow, p. 500. 
 8 Cf. Rubinow, note, p. 500. 
 
 TABLE I B 
 
 PARTICIPATION OF JEWS IN OCCUPATIONS IN THE PALE OF JEWISH SETTLEMENT, 
 
 I8 97 l 
 
 Group of occupation 
 
 Total 
 
 Jews 
 
 Per cent of total 
 
 Agricultural pursuits 
 
 6o7 14.1 3 
 
 j8c-?8 
 
 6 
 
 Professional service . 
 
 71 77IO 
 
 6:>6 
 67278 
 
 21 I 
 
 Personal service * 
 
 21 "?Qo8l 
 
 2 CQO78 
 
 ii 6 
 
 Manufacturing and mechanical 
 pursuits 
 
 I C.73 ^ IQ 
 
 
 72 I 
 
 Transportation 
 
 2 1 IQ87 
 
 AA\ 77 
 
 ^ 
 
 20 8 
 
 Commerce a 
 
 cc6o86 
 
 426628 
 
 76 7 
 
 
 
 
 /u. / 
 
 Total , 
 
 10870602 
 
 I77K07 
 
 12.2 
 
 158 
 
 Compiled from Rubinow, p. 501. 
 3 Cf. Rubinow, note, p. 500. 
 
 [574 
 
575] 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLES 
 
 159 
 
 TABLE II 
 
 JEWISH IMMIGRATION AT THE PORTS OF NEW YORK, PHILADELPHIA AND BALTI- 
 MORE, JULY TO JUNE, 1886 to 1898 l 
 
 Year 
 
 New York 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Baltimore 
 
 Total 
 
 1886 
 1887 
 1888 . . 
 
 19548 
 30866 
 26946 
 
 1625 
 2178 
 19-21: 
 
 
 . 
 
 21173 
 
 33044 
 28881 
 
 1889 
 
 279158 
 
 I -2Q4 
 
 
 2S7S2 
 
 1800 . 
 
 26963 
 
 1676 
 
 
 28679 
 
 1891 
 1892 
 
 47098 
 66<\A4 
 
 2719 
 4.677 
 
 IS81 1 
 
 ci C2 
 
 51398 
 76777 
 
 1897 . 
 
 290 eg 
 
 4W/ 
 4722* 
 
 -> > 
 1941 
 
 35322 
 
 180.1 
 
 274.4.4. 
 
 7877 
 
 1902 
 
 291 79 
 
 igoc 
 
 21422 
 
 jojJ 
 7672 
 
 1097 
 
 26191 
 
 1896 
 1807 
 
 27846 
 
 171,62 
 
 y*l* 
 
 3 0l6 
 
 1617 
 
 1986 
 
 I7Q7 
 
 32848 
 20372 
 
 1808 
 
 19222 
 
 2121 
 
 2311 
 
 2;6t;4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total . 
 
 780278 
 
 74.781 
 
 17767 
 
 4.724.26 
 
 1 Table II and all succeeding tables are arranged from July ist to June 3Oth, 
 the fiscal year. 
 
 ' Baltimore statistics begin October. * Philadelphia figures for August missing. 
 
 TABLE III 
 
 JEWISH IMMIGRATION AT THE PORT OF NEW YORK, JULY, 1885, TO JUNE, 1 886, 
 BY MONTH AND COUNTRY OF NATIVITY 1 
 
 Month 
 
 Russia 
 
 Austria-Hungary 
 
 Roumania 
 
 Others 
 
 Total 
 
 July . 
 
 1 1 TO 
 
 7C4 
 
 58 
 
 107 
 
 1649 
 
 August 
 
 1512 
 
 448 
 
 33 
 
 121 
 
 2114 
 
 September . . . 
 
 945 
 
 185 
 
 20 
 
 H9 
 
 1269 
 
 October 
 
 785 
 
 236 
 
 12 
 
 216 
 
 1249 
 
 November .... 
 
 1347 
 
 589 
 
 21 
 
 80 
 
 2037 
 
 December .... 
 
 574 
 
 249 
 
 17 
 
 62 
 
 902 
 
 January 
 
 565 
 
 202 
 
 4 
 
 26 
 
 797 
 
 February .... 
 
 492 
 
 228 
 
 16 
 
 44 
 
 780 
 
 March 
 
 1077 
 
 444 
 
 3S 
 
 66 
 
 1622 
 
 April 
 
 639 
 
 309 
 
 28 
 
 55 
 
 1031 
 
 May 
 
 791 
 
 521 
 
 31 
 
 70 
 
 1413 
 
 June 
 
 3017 
 
 1365 
 
 210 
 
 93 
 
 4685 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 12874 
 
 5130 
 
 485 
 
 1059 
 
 19548 
 
 1 Compiled from reports of the United Hebrew Charities of New York. 
 
!6o JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [576 
 
 TABLE IV A 
 
 JEWISH IMMIGRATION AT THE PORT OF PHILADELPHIA, 1 886 TO 1898, 
 BY COUNTRY OF NATIVITY 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Year 
 
 d 
 
 '$ 
 
 c 
 
 8 
 
 sl 
 
 c 
 o 
 
 'c 
 
 rt 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 52 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 |gg 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1886 . 
 
 1218 
 
 75 
 
 196 
 
 12 
 
 33 
 
 2 
 
 178 
 
 n 
 
 1625 
 
 1887 . 
 
 1600 
 
 78 
 
 262 
 
 I 2 
 
 86 
 
 
 171 
 
 5 
 
 _ _Q 
 
 1888 
 
 1432 
 
 74 
 
 2 3 2 
 
 12 
 
 97 
 
 5 
 
 1 J 1 
 
 174 
 
 9 
 
 1935 
 
 1889 
 
 1129 
 
 81 
 
 125 
 
 9 
 
 42 
 
 
 98 
 
 7 
 
 1394 
 
 1800 
 
 1424 
 
 85 
 
 184 
 
 I T 
 
 "2/1 
 
 2 
 
 "2/1 
 
 2 
 
 1676 
 
 1801 . . 
 
 2447 
 
 oo 
 
 l 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 272 
 
 IO 
 
 07 * Q 
 
 1892 
 
 3929 
 
 84 
 
 561 
 
 12 
 
 47 
 
 I 
 
 140 
 
 3 
 
 /v 
 
 4677 
 
 1893 
 
 3025 
 
 70 
 
 519 
 
 12 
 
 43 
 
 I 
 
 735 
 
 17 
 
 4322 
 
 1804 
 
 2QCI 
 
 77 
 
 422 
 
 j j 
 
 77 
 
 2 
 
 
 IO 
 
 *2 X*3 *5 
 
 
 IQ87 
 
 14 
 
 624 
 
 I 7 
 
 77 
 
 2 
 
 002 
 
 27 
 
 6-7 
 
 1896 .... 
 
 1538 
 
 5 1 
 
 875 
 
 1 1 
 29 
 
 / j 
 60 
 
 2 
 
 543 
 
 18 
 
 3Ol6 
 
 1897 
 
 1049 
 
 65 
 
 355 
 
 22 
 
 32 
 
 2 
 
 177 
 
 ii 
 
 l6l3 
 
 1898 
 
 161 1 
 
 76 
 
 
 18 
 
 64. 
 
 
 
 
 2121 
 
 
 
 
 3 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 25435 
 
 73 
 
 4737 
 
 14 
 
 688 
 
 2 
 
 3921 
 
 ii 
 
 34781 
 
 1 Immigrants from Austria-Hungary and Roumania were this year grouped 
 under " all others" in the original tables. 
 
 TABLE IV B 
 
 JEWISH IMMIGRATION AT THE PORT OF BALTIMORE, 189! TO 1898, 
 BY COUNTRY OF NATIVITY 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Year 
 
 rt 
 
 q 
 
 0> 
 
 S 
 
 2 c 3 
 
 "c 
 
 .5 
 
 'c 
 
 rt 
 
 1 
 
 
 c 
 <u 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 p 
 
 "K ffi 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 (U 
 
 u 
 
 3 
 
 
 & 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 >3 
 
 aj 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 i 
 
 
 PH 
 
 
 
 PH 
 
 H 
 
 1891 
 
 1427 
 
 QO 
 
 j 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 158 
 
 IO 
 
 i 81 
 
 1892 .... 
 
 4728 
 
 84 
 
 618 
 
 1 2 
 
 C2 
 
 j 
 
 1 1\4 
 
 
 c i C2 
 
 1893 
 
 1388 
 
 70 
 
 232 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 I 
 
 3 02 
 
 17 
 
 1941 
 
 1804 ..... 
 
 1461 
 
 77 
 
 209 
 
 1 1 
 
 38 
 
 2 
 
 I9O 
 
 IO 
 
 I9O2 
 
 1895 
 
 592 
 
 11 
 54 
 
 187 
 
 17 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 2 9 6 
 
 27 
 
 1097 
 
 1896 
 
 1013 
 
 
 S76 
 
 29 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 357 
 
 18 
 
 1986 
 
 1897 
 
 908 
 
 65 
 
 307 
 
 22 
 
 28 
 
 2 
 
 154 
 
 u 
 
 1397 
 
 1898 . . 
 
 1757 
 
 76 
 
 416 
 
 ,8 
 
 6 9 
 
 3 
 
 69 
 
 3 
 
 2 3 II 
 
 Total. . . 
 
 12874 
 
 74 
 
 2545 
 
 15 
 
 268 
 
 2 
 
 1680 
 
 9 
 
 17367 
 
 Immigrants from Austria- Hungary and Roumania were this year grouped 
 under " all others " in the original tables. 
 
577] 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLES 
 
 TABLE V 1 
 
 161 
 
 JEWISH IMMIGRATION AT THE PORTS OF NEW YORK, PHILADELPHIA AND BALTI- 
 MORE, 1886 TO 1898, BY COUNTRY OF NATIVITY 
 
 
 
 
 Ports 
 
 
 
 Year 
 
 Country of nativity 
 
 New York 
 
 Phila- 
 delphia 
 
 Baltimore 
 
 Total 
 
 1886 
 
 Russia 
 
 12874 
 
 1218 
 
 
 
 14092 
 
 
 Austria- Hungary . . . 
 
 Roumania. . . 
 
 5 J 30 
 481; 
 
 196 
 33 
 
 
 5326 
 518 
 
 1887 . 
 
 Russia . 
 
 21404 
 
 1600 
 
 
 2310^ 
 
 1888 
 
 Austria- Hungary . . . 
 Roumania 
 
 6636 
 1977 
 18784 
 
 262 
 
 86 
 
 1432 
 
 - 
 
 6898 
 2063 
 20216 
 
 1880 
 
 Austria- Hungary . . . 
 Roumania. . . . . 
 Russia 
 
 5753 
 1556 
 
 I72OQ 
 
 232 
 97 
 
 1 1 2O 
 
 
 
 5985 
 1653 
 18338 
 
 
 Austria-Hungary . . . 
 Roumania 
 
 4873 
 
 1016 
 
 125 
 42 
 
 
 
 i<J OJ" 
 
 4998 
 iOs8 
 
 1800 . 
 
 Russia . . . 
 
 IQCC7 
 
 1424 
 
 
 20981 
 
 l8qi . 
 
 Austria-Hungary . . . 
 Roumania 
 Russia .... 
 
 6255 
 428 
 301:87 
 
 184 
 
 34 
 
 2447 
 
 1423 
 
 6439 
 462 
 434^7 
 
 
 Austria- Hungary . . . 
 Roumania 
 
 5890 
 854 
 
 ^ 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 5890 
 8 "54 
 
 1802 . 
 
 
 ccqo6 
 
 3Q20 
 
 4328 
 
 64253 
 
 1803 . 
 
 Austria-Hungary . . . 
 Roumania 
 Russia . 
 
 7464 
 641 
 20748 
 
 5 6l 
 
 47 
 302? 
 
 618 
 
 5 2 
 1388 
 
 8643 
 740 
 25161 
 
 1804 . 
 
 Austria-Hungary . . . 
 Roumania. . . . 
 Russia ..... 
 
 5612 
 
 493 
 163^1 
 
 519 
 43 
 
 2CKI 
 
 232 
 19 
 1461; 
 
 6363 
 555 
 
 2O747 
 
 
 Austria-Hungary . . . 
 Roumania 
 
 5285 
 CGI 
 
 422 
 
 77 
 
 209 
 ^8 
 
 59i6 
 616 
 
 i8oc . 
 
 Russia . . 
 
 14! Z2 
 
 1083 
 
 CQ2 
 
 16727 
 
 
 Austria-Hungary . . . 
 Roumania. 
 
 5236 
 
 423 
 
 624 
 73 
 
 I8 7 
 22 
 
 6047 
 518 
 
 1896 . 
 
 Russia . . . . 
 
 I76l 7 
 
 I<538 
 
 IOI3 
 
 20168 
 
 1807 . 
 
 Austria-Hungary . . . 
 Roumania 
 Russia 
 
 8380 
 644 
 1 1 1 06 
 
 8 1 5 
 60 
 
 I O4Q 
 
 57 6 
 40 
 908 
 
 9831 
 744 
 13063 
 
 1808 . 
 
 Austria-Hungary . . . 
 Roumania 
 Ru c sia 
 
 5010 
 456 
 11581 
 
 355 
 3 2 
 161 1 
 
 307 
 28 
 
 I7S7 
 
 5672 
 516 
 
 I4Q4Q 
 
 
 Austria- Hungary . . 
 Roumania 
 
 6569 
 587 
 
 382 
 64 
 
 416 
 6 9 
 
 7367 
 720 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 380278 
 
 3478i 
 
 17367 
 
 432426 
 
 ^ee note to Tables IVA and IVs. For Tables VI and VII, see pp. 
 93 and 94. 
 
JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES 
 
 [578 
 
 TABLE VIII 
 
 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES, l88l TO IpIO, ABSOLUTE NUMBERS 
 AND PERCENTAGES, BY DECADE AND COUNTRY OF NATIVITY 
 
 Country of nativity 
 
 Absolute numbers 
 
 Pe 
 
 1881- 
 1890 
 
 rcentages 
 
 Total 
 
 1881- 
 1890 
 
 1891-1 1901- 
 1900 I 1910 
 
 1891- 
 1900 
 
 I9OI- 
 I9IO 
 
 Russia 
 Austria-Hungary . . . 
 Roumania 
 
 1119059 
 281150 
 67057 
 42589 
 20454 
 9701 
 5081 
 2273 
 15436 
 
 135003 
 44619 
 6967 
 
 5354 
 
 . 
 
 1078 
 
 279811 
 83720 
 12789 
 
 8827 
 8369 
 
 704245 
 152811 
 47301 
 42589 
 6273 
 9701 
 5081 
 2273 
 5989 
 
 69.9 
 23.1 
 3-6 
 
 2.8 
 
 * 
 .6 
 
 71.1 
 21.3 
 3-2 
 
 2.3 
 
 2.1 
 
 72.1 
 
 15-7 
 
 4-8 
 4.4 
 7 
 
 I.O 
 
 5 
 
 .2 
 
 .6 
 
 United Kingdom . . . 
 Germany 
 
 British North America . 
 Turkey 
 
 France . 
 
 All others 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1562800 
 
 193021 
 
 393516976263 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 100.0 
 
 
 TABLE IX 
 
 JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM RUSSIA, l88l TO I9IO, BY YEAR AND PERCENTAGE OF 
 TOTAL ARRIVING EACH YEAR 
 
 Year 
 
 Jewish immigrants 
 
 Per cent of total 
 
 1881 
 
 5 12 C 
 
 O 3 
 
 1882 . 
 
 3 l *J 
 10489 
 
 "J 
 
 O Q 
 
 188^ 
 
 6 I 44 
 
 O C 
 
 1884 
 
 7867 
 
 W O 
 
 07 
 
 1885 
 
 10648 
 
 o 
 
 1886 
 
 I4OQ2 
 
 J 
 
 1887 
 
 21 IO3 
 
 J 
 1 
 
 1888 
 1889 
 
 2O2l6 
 
 l8ll8 
 
 .8 
 6 
 
 1890 
 
 20981 
 
 Q 
 
 1891 
 
 43457 
 
 3Q 
 
 1892 
 
 642 $1 
 
 57 
 
 1803 
 
 25161 
 
 2.2 
 
 1804 . 
 
 2O747 
 
 1.9 
 
 iSoc 
 
 l6727 
 
 I c 
 
 1896 
 
 2OI6& 
 
 I 8 
 
 1807 
 
 im 
 
 I 3OOT^ 
 
 1 2 
 
 1898 
 
 I4Q4.Q 
 
 I 3 
 
 1899 . 
 
 2427C 
 
 2.2 
 
 1900 
 
 IQOI 
 
 370II 
 3766O 
 
 3-3 
 3.4 
 
 IQO2 
 
 3784.6 
 
 3 4 
 
 IQO3 
 
 47680 
 
 4 3 
 
 IQO4 
 
 771:4.4. 
 
 69 
 
 IQQC 
 
 / / jf 
 Q2388 
 
 8.2 
 
 IQO6 
 
 1 2 <, 2 34. 
 
 II. 2 
 
 IQO7 
 
 1 14932 
 
 IO.3 
 
 1908 ... ... 
 
 7IQ78 
 
 6.4 
 
 IQOQ 
 
 391 ^O 
 
 3.c 
 
 1910 . . 
 
 1:0824 
 
 C.3 
 
 
 
 
 Total ... 
 
 UI9OC9 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 
 
 
579] 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLES 
 TABLE X 
 
 JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM RUSSIA, l88l to 1 9 1C, BY DECADE AND PERCENTAGE 
 OF TOTAL AKKIVINti EACH DECADE 
 
 Decade 
 
 Jewish immigrants 
 
 Per cent of total 
 
 1881-1890 . . ... 
 
 I7COO7 
 
 12. 1 
 
 I 80 I 19OO 
 
 270X1 i 
 
 2^O 
 
 I9OI I9IO 
 
 7O424. ? 
 
 62 Q 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1 1 IQO1Q 
 
 IOO O 
 
 
 
 
 TABLE XI 
 
 JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM RUSSIA AT THE PORT OF NEW YORK, JANUARY I, 189! 
 
 TO DECEMBER 31, 1891, AND JANUARY I, 1892 TO DECEMBER 31, 1892, 
 
 BY MONTH 
 
 (From reports of United Hebrew Charities of New York City, 1891 and 1892) 
 
 January . . 
 February . 
 March . . 
 April . . . 
 May . . . 
 June . . . 
 July . . . 
 Aupust . . 
 September 
 October . . 
 November . 
 December . 
 
 Total 
 
 Month 
 
 Jewish immigrants 
 
 1891 
 
 1892 
 
 2179 
 
 3276 
 
 2185 
 
 357 
 
 3 J 5Q 
 
 2307 
 
 2714 
 
 1468 
 
 1225 
 
 1620 
 
 8667 
 
 4028 
 
 8253 
 
 5673 
 
 9109 
 
 4842 
 
 9422 
 
 1729 
 
 5 2 .55 
 
 4.6 
 
 3792 
 
 121 
 
 43 10 
 
 198 
 
 60261 
 
 28834 
 
JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES 
 
 [580 
 
 TABLE XII 
 
 TOTAL IMMIGRATION FROM RUSSIA AND JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM RUSSIA, l88l 
 TO IQIO, AND PERCENTAGE JEWISH OF TOTAL 
 
 i88r 5041 
 
 J882 . . 16918 
 
 1883 9^09 
 
 1884 12689 
 
 1*85 17158 
 
 1886 17800 
 
 1887 30766 
 
 1888 33487 
 
 1889 339'6 
 
 '890 35598 
 
 1891 47426 
 
 1892 81511 
 
 1893 42310 
 
 1894 30278 
 
 i8 95 35907 
 
 1896 51435 
 
 1897 25816 
 
 1898 29828 
 
 1899 60982 
 
 1900 90787 
 
 1901 85257 
 
 1902 IC7347 
 
 1903 I3 6 93 
 
 1904 H5MI 
 
 1905 184897 
 
 1906 215665 
 
 1907 ... 258943 
 
 1908 156711 
 
 1909 120460 
 
 1910 186792 
 
 Total 2315868 
 
 Total 
 immigrants 
 
 Jewish 
 immigrants 
 
 3125 
 
 10489 
 
 6144 
 
 7867 
 
 10648 
 
 14092 
 
 23103 
 
 20316 
 
 I8 33 8 
 20981 
 
 43457 
 . 64253 
 25161 
 20747 
 16727 
 20168 
 
 13' 63 
 
 14049 
 
 24275 
 37011 
 
 37660 
 37846 
 47689 
 
 77544 
 92388 
 
 125234 
 
 114932 
 
 71978 
 
 30150 
 
 59824 
 
 ii 19059 
 
 Per cent of 
 total 
 
 Est. 
 at 
 
 62.0 
 79-2 
 
 75-i 
 60.4 
 
 54-1 
 58.9 
 
 91.6 
 
 78.8 
 
 5-5 
 52.8 
 
 43-2 
 
 30. 2 
 
 50.6 
 
 50.1 
 398 
 
 40.8 
 
 44.2 
 
 3^3 
 350 
 53-4 
 50.0 
 58-1 
 44-4 
 45-9 
 32-5 
 32.1 
 
 483 
 
 TABLE XIII 
 
 TOTAL IMMIGRATION FROM RUSSIA AND JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM RUSSIA, l88l 
 TO 1910, BY DECADE, AND PERCKNIAGE JEWISH OF TOTAL 
 
 Decade 
 
 Total 
 immigrants 
 
 Jewish 
 immigrants 
 
 Per cent of 
 total 
 
 1881-1890 
 1891-1900 
 1901-1910 
 
 Total. 
 
 213282 
 
 505280 
 
 1597306 
 
 135003 
 27981 i 
 704245 
 
 2315868 
 
 1119059 
 
 63.3 
 554 
 44.1 
 
 48.3 
 
STATISTICAL TABLES 
 
 165 
 
 TABLE XIV 
 
 IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES FROM THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE, 1899 TO I9IO, 
 BY ANNUAL PERCENTAGE OF CONTRIBUTION OF PRINCIPAL PFOPLtS 1 
 
 
 Finnish 
 
 German 
 
 Jewish 
 
 Lithuanian 
 
 Polish 
 
 Russian 
 
 1899 . . 
 
 9-9 
 
 8.8 
 
 39-8 
 
 II. 2 
 
 25-4 
 
 2.7 
 
 I 900 . . 
 
 13-8 
 
 5-9 
 
 40.8 
 
 "3 
 
 24.8 
 
 i-3 
 
 1901 . . 
 
 11.7 
 
 6.6 
 
 44.2 
 
 10. 
 
 25.2 
 
 .8 
 
 1902 . . 
 
 12.9 
 
 8.0 
 
 35-3 
 
 9-3 
 
 31-5 
 
 1.4 
 
 1903 . . 
 
 13-8 
 
 7-7 
 
 35-o 
 
 10.6 
 
 29.1 
 
 2.6 
 
 1904 . . 
 
 6.9 
 
 4-9 
 
 53 4 
 
 8.8 
 
 22.4 
 
 2.7 
 
 1905 . . 
 
 9.0 
 
 36 
 
 50.0 
 
 9-5 
 
 25-5 
 
 1.8 
 
 1906 . . 
 
 6 2 
 
 4.8 
 
 58.1 
 
 6.4 
 
 21.4 
 
 2.4 
 
 1907 . . 
 
 5-5 
 
 5-2 
 
 44-4 
 
 9.6 
 
 28.2 
 
 6.2 
 
 1908 . . 
 
 4.0 
 
 6.4 
 
 459 
 
 8-5 
 
 24.2 
 
 10.4 
 
 1909 . . 
 
 9-3 
 
 6-5 
 
 325 
 
 12. 1 
 
 31-4 
 
 7.6 
 
 1910 . . 
 
 8.0 
 
 5-4 
 
 32.1 
 
 11.6 
 
 34-1 
 
 7-9 
 
 Total . 
 
 8.5 
 
 5.8 
 
 43-8 
 
 , . 
 
 9.6 
 
 27.0 
 
 4-4 
 
 1 From Immigration Commission : Emigration Conditions in Europe, p. 338. 
 
 TABLE XV 
 
 RATE OF IMMIGRATION OF PEOPLES PREDOMINANT IN THE IMMIGRATION FROM 
 RUSSIA, 1899 TO I9I0 1 
 
 
 
 Average annual immi- 
 
 
 
 Population in Russia 
 
 gration to LJ. S. from 
 
 Ratio of 
 
 People 
 
 1807 and in Finland 
 
 Russia and Finland 
 
 immigration 
 
 
 1900 combined 
 
 1899-1910 
 
 to populatioi 
 
 Jewish 
 
 5082343 
 
 63-94 
 
 to 79 
 
 Finnish .... 
 
 2352990 
 
 12^48 
 
 to 191 
 
 Polish 
 
 7865437 
 
 39282 
 
 to 200 
 
 German .... 
 
 1721387 
 
 8401 
 
 to 205 
 
 Lithuanian . . . 
 
 3 77436 
 
 14062 
 
 to 212 
 
 Swedish .... 
 
 34P733 
 
 IT 35 
 
 to 308 
 
 Russian .... 
 
 75434753 
 
 6550 
 
 to 1155 
 
 l lhid., p. 339. 
 
 1 The figure for the Jewish population in Russia as given in Emigration Con~ 
 ditions in Europe, p. 339, is incorrect. See Goldberg, Judische Statistik, pages 
 266 and 270. 
 
Z 66 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [582 
 
 TABLE XVI 
 
 RATE OF JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM RUSSIA, PER IOOOO OF JEWISH POPULATION, 
 
 1899 TO I9IO 
 
 Year 
 
 Ratio of immigration 
 
 Year 
 
 Ratio of immigration 
 
 1899 .... 
 1900 .... 
 1901 .... 
 
 47 
 72 
 
 74 
 
 1906 . . . 
 1907 .... 
 1908 .... 
 
 246 
 226 
 141 
 
 1902 .... 
 
 74 
 
 1909 .... 
 
 77 
 
 1903 .... 
 
 93 
 
 1910 .... 
 
 117 
 
 1904 .... 
 1905 .... 
 
 152 
 181 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 125 
 
 TABLE XVII 
 
 JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM ROUMANIA, l88l TO 1910, BY DECADE AND 
 PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL ARRIVING EACH DECADE 
 
 Decade 
 
 Jewish immigrants 
 
 Per cent of total 
 
 1881-1890 . . . 
 
 6967 
 
 10.4. 
 
 1891-1900 ... ... . . 
 
 12780 
 
 IQ.I 
 
 
 A77QI 
 
 7O. < 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 670157 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 
 
 
583] 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLES 
 TABLE XVIII 
 
 167 
 
 JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM ROUMAMA, l88l TO I9IO,BY YEAR AND PERCENTAGE 
 OF TOTAL ARRIVING EACH YEAR 
 
 Year 
 
 Jewish immigrants 
 
 Per cent of total 
 
 1881 ... 
 
 7Q 
 
 i 
 
 1882 
 
 65 
 
 .1 
 
 1883 . .... 
 
 77 
 
 
 18X4 . 
 
 238 
 
 .3 
 
 188* 
 
 803 
 
 1.2 
 
 1886 
 
 ci8 
 
 .8 
 
 1887 
 
 2063 
 
 31 
 
 1888 
 
 i6ci 
 
 * 
 
 2 S 
 
 1889 
 
 locS 
 
 I 6 
 
 1890 
 
 462 
 
 7 
 
 1 80 1 . 
 
 8C4 
 
 I.-? 
 
 1802 . ... 
 
 740 
 
 I.I 
 
 1807 . 
 
 ccir 
 
 .8 
 
 i""* 
 
 1804 . 
 
 616 
 
 
 i8oc 
 
 <i8 
 
 
 
 1896 
 
 
 I.I 
 
 1807 
 
 <n6 
 
 8 
 
 180.8 
 
 720 
 
 i.i 
 
 1899 . . . 
 
 1343 
 6183 
 
 2.0 
 Q. 2 
 
 
 6827 
 
 IO 2 
 
 1902 ... . 
 
 6c8o 
 
 9 8 
 
 TOO 7 
 
 8;62 
 
 12.8 
 
 IQO4 
 
 6446 
 
 9 6 
 
 JQOC . . . 
 
 38<C4 
 
 C.7 
 
 
 ^872 
 
 5.8 
 
 
 ?6o? 
 
 c.4 
 
 iqo8 . 
 
 44 cc 
 
 6.6 
 
 IQOQ 
 
 I-JQO 
 
 2.1 
 
 1910 . . . . 
 
 I 7O I 
 
 2,t 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 670^7 
 
 ICO O 
 
 
 
 
 1 Below one-tenth per cent. 
 
j68 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [584 
 
 TABLE XIX 
 
 TOTAL IMMIGRATION FROM ROUMANIA AND JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM ROU- 
 MANIA, 1899 TO 1910, AND PERCENTAGE JEWISH OF TOTAL 
 
 Year 
 
 Total immigrants 
 
 Jewish immigrants 
 
 Per cent of total 
 
 1800 . 
 
 1606 
 
 1747 
 
 83.6 
 
 
 64 SO 
 
 6187 
 
 oc.7 
 
 IQOI 
 
 71 CC 
 
 6827 
 
 or 4 
 
 
 71Q6 
 
 6^89 
 
 QI.6 
 
 TOO 7 
 
 Q-3 TO 
 
 8562 
 
 QI Q 
 
 IQO4 
 
 7087 
 
 6446 
 
 QI O 
 
 
 44-77 
 
 ^Su 
 
 86.8 
 
 y > 
 IQOO 
 
 4476 
 
 0872 
 
 86.1; 
 
 
 4^84 
 
 7601; 
 
 r^'j 
 
 82.2 
 
 1 908 
 
 C228 
 
 44CC 
 
 8;. 2 
 
 
 $*..<*> 
 I CQO 
 
 I^QO 
 
 ~* 
 
 87.4 
 
 
 2I4C 
 
 I7OI 
 
 79.7 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total .... 
 
 61073 
 
 54827 
 
 89.8 
 
 TABLE XX 
 
 RATE OF JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM ROUMANIA, PER IOOOO OF JEWISH 
 POPULATION, 1899 TO I9IO 1 
 
 Year 
 
 Ratio of immigration 
 
 Year 
 
 Ratio of immigration 
 
 iXnn 
 
 C T 
 
 1906 .... .... 
 
 T4.Q 
 
 
 2.8 
 
 
 *s-v 
 1^8 
 
 
 262 
 
 igcS 
 
 171 
 
 
 2C7 
 
 
 e-j 
 
 
 ^jJ 
 72O 
 
 
 65 
 
 
 s*v 
 
 
 
 IQOC 
 
 4 o 
 
 148 
 
 Total 
 
 I7 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 For Jewish population in Roumania cf . Ruppin, The Jews of To-Day ', p. 30. 
 
585] 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLES 
 TABLE XXI 
 
 169 
 
 JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, l88l TO igiO, BY DECADE AND 
 PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL ARRIVING EACH DECADE 
 
 Decade 
 
 Jewish immigrants 
 
 Per cent of total 
 
 i 88 i 1890 . . 
 
 44.610 
 
 ICQ 
 
 18911900 
 
 83720 
 
 2Q 8 
 
 IOOII9IO . 
 
 152811 
 
 C.4 7. 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 281150 
 
 100. 
 
 TABLE XXII 
 
 JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, l88l TO IpIO, BY YEAR, AND 
 PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL ARRIVING EACH YEAR 
 
 Year 
 
 Jewish immigrants 
 
 Per cent of total 
 
 1881 
 
 2^77 
 
 .0 
 
 1882 
 
 2648 
 
 .0 
 
 1883 
 
 2C 10 
 
 Q 
 
 1884 
 
 774O 
 
 I 2 
 
 1885 
 
 w8 
 
 1.4 
 
 1886 . 
 
 $126 
 
 I Q 
 
 1887 
 
 6898 
 
 2 4 
 
 1888 . . 
 
 rqSc 
 
 2 I 
 
 1880 . 
 
 4.008 
 
 I 8 
 
 1890 . 
 
 6479 
 
 2.7 
 
 1801 . 
 
 c8oo 
 
 2 I 
 
 1802 . 
 
 8647 
 
 31 
 
 ivy*. ....... 
 
 1807 
 
 6163 
 
 2 7 
 
 * "j 
 
 1804 . 
 
 CQl6 
 
 2 I 
 
 iSoq . 
 
 2 y 
 6047 
 
 2 2 
 
 1896 
 
 98; i 
 
 7. C 
 
 1807 
 
 H672 
 
 2 O 
 
 1898 
 
 7l67 
 
 2 6 
 
 1899 . . ... 
 
 I IO7I 
 
 30 
 
 IQOO . 
 
 16920 
 
 6.0 
 
 I9OI .,. . ... 
 
 13006 
 
 4.6 
 
 IQO2 
 
 12848 
 
 4 6 
 
 I QO7 
 
 l87^O 
 
 6 7 
 
 IQO4 . 
 
 2Q2 I I 
 
 7 2 
 
 1905 
 
 1006 . 
 
 17352 
 14884 
 
 62 
 
 C -2 
 
 IQO7 . 
 
 18885 
 
 6.7 
 
 1908 
 
 I ^2Q7 
 
 5 A 
 
 IQOQ 
 
 8471 
 
 3O 
 
 IQIO . 
 
 1 7142 
 
 4 7 
 
 
 
 
 Total . . 
 
 28l 150 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 
 
 
I7 o JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [586 
 
 TABLE XXIII 
 
 TOTAL AND JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, l88l TO IQIO, BY 
 DECADE AND PERCENTAGE JEWISH OF TOTAL 
 
 Decade 
 
 Total immigrants 
 
 Jewish immigrants 
 
 Per cent of total 
 
 1881-1890 
 
 1,57719 
 
 44619 
 
 12.6 
 
 1891-1900 ...... 
 
 502707 
 
 83720 
 
 14.1 
 
 19011910 ..... 
 
 2145266 
 
 158811 
 
 7-4 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total .... 
 
 3091692 
 
 281150 
 
 9-i 
 
 TABLE XXIV 
 
 TOTAL AND JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, l88l TO I9IO, AND 
 PERCENTAGE JEWISH OF TOTAL 
 
 Year 
 
 Total immigrants 
 
 Jewish immigrants 
 
 Per cent of total 
 
 1881 
 
 27Q7C 
 
 25^7 
 
 Est. 
 
 1882 
 
 2QI ^O 
 
 2648 
 
 
 188? , 
 
 2762? 
 
 25IO 
 
 at 
 
 1884 .... 
 
 26571 
 
 -3-340 
 
 9.0 
 
 1881; 
 
 277OQ 
 
 3978 
 
 14.4 
 
 1886 . 
 
 28680 
 
 jyj 
 5^26 
 
 18.6 
 
 1887 
 1888 
 
 40265 
 4^811 
 
 6808 
 5985 
 
 17.1 
 13.1 
 
 1889 
 1800 . 
 
 34174 
 56100 
 
 6439 
 
 14.6 
 11.5 
 
 1801 
 
 71042 
 
 5890 
 
 8.3 
 
 1892 
 
 760^7 
 
 8643 
 
 II. 2 
 
 180-? . 
 
 {742O 
 
 6363 
 
 II. I 
 
 1894 
 1891; 
 
 38638 
 2-3401 
 
 f 
 5916 
 
 6047 
 
 15-3 
 
 18.1 
 
 1896 
 1807 . 
 
 65103 
 
 "33O7I 
 
 9831 
 5672 
 
 I5-I 
 17.2 
 
 1808 
 
 "3Q7Q7 
 
 7767 
 
 18.5 
 
 1800 . 
 
 O249I 
 
 IIO7I 
 
 17.7 
 
 1900 ... . 
 
 1 14847 
 
 16920 
 
 14.7 
 
 1901 
 
 II3390 
 I7IQ8Q 
 
 13006 
 12848 
 
 ii. 5 
 
 7.5 
 
 
 2O6OI I 
 
 18759 
 
 9.1 
 
 IQO4 . . . 
 
 1771 56 
 
 2O2II 
 
 11.4 
 
 
 27560"? 
 
 17352 
 
 6-3 
 
 
 265n8 
 
 14884 
 
 5.6 
 
 1907 
 
 1008 
 
 TQOQ 
 
 338452 
 168509 
 I 7OIQI 
 
 18885 
 
 I5 2 93 
 84-31 
 
 5.6 
 9.1 
 5 
 
 
 2587-37 
 
 I3I42 
 
 5-i 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total .... 
 
 3091692 
 
 28II50 
 
 9.1 
 
STATISTICAL TABLES 
 TABLE XXV 
 
 I/I 
 
 PERCENTAGE OF ANNUAL IMMIGRATION FROM AUSTRIA-HUNGARY CONTRIBUTED BY 
 PRINCIPAL PEOPLES, 1899 TO IpIO l 
 
 Year 
 
 Polish 
 
 Jewish 
 
 Ruthenian 
 
 1800 . 
 
 18.7 
 
 17.7 
 
 2.2 
 
 
 10. Q 
 
 14.7 
 
 2.5 
 
 
 17.9 
 
 11.5 
 
 4-7 
 
 IQO2 
 
 18 Q 
 
 7. c 
 
 4-4 
 
 1007 
 
 18 2 
 
 0. I 
 
 48 
 
 IQOd 
 
 17. 1 
 
 11.4 
 
 5-3 
 
 IQQC 
 
 18.4 
 
 6.3 
 
 5.2 
 
 IQO6 
 
 16.5 
 
 5.6 
 
 5.9 
 
 IOO7 . 
 
 17.6 
 
 5.6 
 
 7.0 
 
 1008 . 
 
 ic. 7 
 
 9.1 
 
 7 2 
 
 
 21.4 
 
 5.0 
 
 9.0 
 
 
 22.6 
 
 4.9 
 
 10.2 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 18.6 
 
 7-8 
 
 6.2 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 From Emigration Conditions in Europe, p. 373, 
 
 TABLE XXVI 
 
 RATE OF JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, PER IOOOO OF JEWISH 
 POPULATION, 1899 TO 1910 l 
 
 
 Ratio of immigration 
 
 
 Ratio of immigration 
 
 1899 .... 
 
 1900 .... 
 1901 .... 
 1902 .... 
 
 1903 .... 
 
 83 
 63 
 62 
 
 90 
 
 1906 .... 
 
 1907 ... 
 1908 .... 
 1909 . . . 
 1910 .... 
 
 72 
 91 
 74 
 41 
 63 
 
 1904 .... 
 
 1905 .... 
 
 97 
 84 
 
 Total . . 
 
 I 
 
 74 
 
 1 For Jewish population in Austria-Hungary cf. Ruppin, The Jews of To-Day , 
 PP- 3 8 -39- 
 
JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [588 
 TABLE XXVII 
 
 JEWISH IMMIGRATION, 1 88 1 TO igiO, BY DECADE 
 
 Decade 
 
 Jewish immigrants 
 
 Per cent of total 
 
 iSSl-lSQO 4 
 
 IQ7O2I 
 
 127 
 
 1 80 1 IQOO ................... 
 
 7QOC 1 6 
 
 *J 
 
 2C 2 
 
 
 0*76267 
 
 3** 
 
 62 c 
 
 
 
 U -*O 
 
 Xotal 
 
 I s 62800 
 
 IOO O 
 
 
 
 
 TABLE XXVIII 
 
 JEWISH IMMIGRATION, 1 88 1 TO IpIO, BY SIX-YEAR PERIOD 
 
 Period 
 
 Jewish immigrants 
 
 Per cent of total 
 
 
 > 7'7IOC 
 
 A. Q 
 
 1887 1892 
 
 //*'-'.> 
 24768? 
 
 ic 6 
 
 1893 1808 
 
 167566 
 
 I^.U 
 
 
 7Q64Od. 
 
 lO.y 
 2C 4 
 
 
 678038 
 
 *J^ 
 
 47 4 
 
 
 
 ^O'T- 
 
 Total.. 
 
 I U62800 
 
 IOO.O 
 
589] 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLES 
 TABLE XXIX 
 
 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES, l88l TO IQIO 
 
 173 
 
 Year 
 
 Jewish immigrants 
 
 Per cent of total 
 
 !88i 
 
 C6p2 
 
 
 j 882 
 
 1 3202 
 
 8 
 
 1881. . 
 
 87^1 
 
 e 
 
 !884 
 
 IT44.C 
 
 .7 
 
 1 885 
 
 16862 
 
 .1 
 
 j886 
 
 21 173 
 
 7 
 
 !887 
 
 37O44. 
 
 I 
 
 j888 
 
 OJ'-'^ 
 
 28< N 8i 
 
 8 
 
 1889 
 
 OC 2C2 
 
 6 
 
 
 *3j;)* 
 286^0 
 
 8 
 
 1801 . . 
 
 ci-?o8 
 
 3.1 
 
 
 76^7^ 
 
 d. Q 
 
 
 7C-222 
 
 2 3 
 
 i8od 
 
 2QI7Q 
 
 I.Q 
 
 iXoc . 
 
 26191 
 
 I 7 
 
 1 896 
 
 328d.8 
 
 */ 
 
 2 I 
 
 1807. . 
 
 2O 372 
 
 I 3 
 
 1898 
 
 226C4. 
 
 I.e 
 
 1800. . 
 
 77J. I C 
 
 2 4. 
 
 
 60764 
 
 3 Q 
 
 
 58008 
 
 J'7 
 
 37 
 
 I9O2 
 
 57688 
 
 37 
 
 
 5/v^oo 
 76203 
 
 / 
 
 4. Q 
 
 
 
 68 
 
 IQOC . ..... 
 
 1299 10 
 
 8 3 
 
 
 I C 374.8 
 
 -j 
 
 Q Q 
 
 
 I4.Q 182 
 
 Q 6 
 
 j Q08 
 
 IO3787 
 
 6 6 
 
 
 1W JO/ 
 rne e i 
 
 3 7 
 
 
 5755 1 
 84260 
 
 J'/ 
 
 r ^ 
 
 
 
 O'^ 
 
 Total 
 
 1562800 
 
 IOO O 
 
 
 
 
JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES 
 
 [590 
 
 TABLE XXX 
 
 TOTAL IMMIGRATION AND JEWISH IMMIGRATION, l83l TO IQIO, BY DECADE AND 
 PERCENTAGE JEWISH OF TOTAL 
 
 Decade 
 
 Total 
 immigrants 
 
 Jewish 
 immigrants 
 
 Per cent 
 of total 
 
 1881 1890 
 
 524661 3 
 
 IQ 3O2 I 
 
 7 7 
 
 
 3687^64 
 
 2Q9C l6 
 
 IO 1 
 
 
 870^386 
 
 0^0:5 IW 
 07626"? 
 
 v./ 
 
 Ill 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1 7720^63 
 
 i ^62800 
 
 88 
 
 
 
 
 
 TABLE XXXI 
 
 TOTAL IMMIGRATION AND JEWISH IMMIGRATION, l88l TO IQIO, BY YEAR AND 
 PERCENTAGE JEWISH OF TOTAL 
 
 Year 
 
 Total 
 immigrants 
 
 Jewish 
 immigrants 
 
 Per cent 
 of total 
 
 .* 
 
 6604*? i 
 
 c6Q2 
 
 Q 
 
 T Cx 2 
 
 788002 
 
 13202 
 
 I 7 
 
 lgg3 
 
 603322 
 
 8731 
 
 
 
 CI&CQ2 
 
 I I44H 
 
 2.2 
 
 ,gg 
 
 30 ^ ^4.6 
 
 16862 
 
 4.3 
 
 jgg6 
 
 3342C3 
 
 2II73 
 
 *J 
 
 6.3 
 
 ,OC 7 
 
 4.QO1 OQ 
 
 33O44 
 
 6? 
 
 icsa 
 
 ^46880 
 
 2888l 
 
 c -i 
 
 jggn 
 
 444427 
 
 2C3C2 
 
 D'O 
 
 c 7 
 
 
 AC C3O2 
 
 286^0 
 
 63 
 
 
 C6O3IO 
 
 CJ3Qg 
 
 9.2 
 
 
 ?7Q66'? 
 
 76^73 
 
 13.2 
 
 
 43Q73O 
 
 3C322 
 
 8.0 
 
 
 28q63I 
 
 2QI 7Q 
 
 IO.2 
 
 i gnr . 
 
 2^81:36 
 
 26191 
 
 IO.I 
 
 igo,6 
 
 7x^267 
 
 32848 
 
 Q 6 
 
 
 2 -0832 
 
 2O372 
 
 88 
 
 Jg 9 g 
 
 22Q2QQ 
 
 2361? 4 
 
 IO.7 
 
 
 tllTIC 
 
 374.1 e 
 
 12 O 
 
 
 4485,72 
 
 60764. 
 
 I3.r 
 
 
 487018 
 
 58098 
 
 12.1 
 
 IQO2 
 
 64874 "? 
 
 57688 
 
 go 
 
 TO0 1 
 
 gc 7046 
 
 "6203 
 
 C 
 0.9 
 
 
 812870 
 
 1 ; ^ 
 
 106236 
 
 1 1. 8 
 
 
 IC264QO 
 
 I2QQIO 
 
 126 
 
 
 I IOO73I; 
 
 I ^3748 
 
 13.4 
 
 
 I 28^ 74Q 
 
 140182 
 
 ii 6 
 
 
 782870 
 
 103387 
 
 13 2 
 
 
 7C |ng6 
 
 C7CCI 
 
 7.7 
 
 
 IO4I t;7O 
 
 84260 
 
 Li 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 I772QC63 
 
 1562800 
 
 8.8 
 
 
 
 
 
 Only immigrant aliens taken these years. 
 
STATISTICAL TABLES 
 TABLE XXXII 
 
 175 
 
 TOTAL AND JEWISH IMMIGRATION, 1 88 1 TO igiO, BY NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE 
 OF INCREASE OR DECREASE 
 
 Year 
 
 Total immigrants 
 
 Jewish 
 
 immigrants 
 
 Increase ( + ) or decrease ( ) 
 
 Increase ( + ) or decrease ( ) 
 
 Number 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Number 
 
 Per cent 
 
 jgg T 
 
 + 119561 
 185670 
 
 84730 
 123246 
 61143 
 + 155906 
 + 56780 
 102462 
 + 10875 
 
 + 105017 
 + 19344 
 139933 
 154099 
 27095 
 + 84731 
 112435 
 
 1533 
 + 82416 
 
 + 136857 
 
 + 39346 
 + 160825 
 + 208303 
 44176 
 + 213629 
 + 74236 
 + 184614 
 502479 
 31084 
 +289784 
 
 4-17-9 
 
 23-5 
 14.0 
 
 -23.8 
 
 15-5 
 
 +46.7 
 + 11.6 
 -18.7 
 + 2.4 
 
 + 20.9 
 
 + 34 
 24.1 
 
 35- 
 9-5 
 +32.8 
 -32.8 
 
 -7 
 + 36.0 
 
 +43-9 
 
 + 8.8 
 +330 
 
 +32- 1 
 
 + 26.3 
 + 7-2 
 + 16.8 
 
 39-1 
 4.0 
 
 -t-38.5 
 
 4- 759 
 447 * 
 + 2714 
 
 + 5417 
 4- 449i 
 + 11871 
 + 4163 
 3529 
 + 3287 
 
 +22759 
 4-24975 
 39051 
 6143 
 "988 
 
 i 
 .... 
 
 4-i3 T -9 
 33-9 
 + 31-1 
 
 t 4 1' 3 
 + 26.7 
 
 + 56.1 
 
 + 12.6 
 12.2 
 
 4- 13-0 
 
 + 79-5 
 + 48.6 
 
 5 1 - 1 
 
 17.4 
 
 10.2 
 + 254 
 38.0 
 
 + 16.1 
 + 58-2 
 + 62.4 
 
 - 4-4 
 -7 
 + 32-1 
 
 4- 39-4 
 
 + 22.1 
 + 1 8.2 
 
 3-o 
 -30.7 
 44-3 
 + 46.4 
 
 jgg 2 
 
 188? ., 
 
 igg^ 
 
 jggr 
 
 X g86 
 
 !ggy 
 
 1888 
 
 jggp 
 
 I goo 
 
 1891 . 
 
 jgQ2 
 
 l8Q7 . , 
 
 l8Q4 . 
 
 lJ?OC 
 
 r g 9 6 
 
 + 6657 
 12476 
 + 3282 
 + 13761 
 +23349 
 
 2666 
 410 
 
 + 18515 
 +3 C 033 
 + 23674 
 +23838 
 45 66 
 45795 
 -45836 
 + 26709 
 
 1807 
 
 10 97 
 
 l8q8 .. . 
 
 
 
 
 
 i yv* ; 
 
 IQOd. . 
 
 TQOC . 
 
 
 
 1908 .... ' 
 
 
 
 
JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [592 
 TABLE XXXIII 
 
 SEX OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS, 1899 TO X 9 IO * 
 
 Year 
 
 Total 
 
 Number 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 
 374^5 
 60764 
 58098 
 57688 
 76203 
 106236 
 129910 
 153748 
 149182 
 103387 
 5755' 
 84260 
 
 21153 
 36330 
 32345 
 32737 
 43985 
 65040 
 82076 
 8cc86 
 80530 
 56277 
 
 31057 
 46206 
 
 16262 
 24434 
 25753 
 24951 
 32218 
 41196 
 
 47 ^ 4 
 73662 
 
 58652 
 47110 
 26494 
 38054 
 
 56.5 
 59-8 
 55-7 
 5 6 -7 
 57-7 
 61.2 
 63.2 
 52.1 
 54-0 
 54-4 
 54-0 
 54-8 
 
 43-5 
 40.2 
 
 44-3 
 44-3 
 42-3 
 38.8 
 36.8 
 
 47-9 
 46.0 
 
 45-6 
 46.0 
 
 45.* 
 
 
 
 IQO2 
 
 IQO? 
 
 I QOA . . . i . . 
 
 TQOC . . 
 
 
 
 I9O8 .... 
 
 TQOQ 
 
 IQ1O ... .... 
 
 
 Total . 
 
 1074442 
 
 607822 
 
 466620 
 
 56.6 
 
 43-4 
 
 
 1 From Reports of Commissioner -General of Immigration. 
 TABLE XXXIV 
 
 SEX OF JEWISH IMMIGRANT ADULTS l AT THE PORT OF NEW YORK, 1 886 TO 1898 2 
 
 Year 
 
 Total 
 
 Number 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 1886 .. 
 
 14212 
 22223 
 19456 
 
 i7'55 
 19449 
 
 33343 
 43155 
 18314 
 13142 
 12366 
 17052 
 10226 
 11530 
 
 9598 
 13872 
 11691 
 9946 
 11524 
 20980 
 25338 
 
 9715 
 6404 
 6275 
 973 
 5447 
 6560 
 
 4614 
 8351 
 7765 
 7209 
 
 7925 
 12363 
 17817 
 8599 
 6738 
 6091 
 
 7349 
 4779 
 4970 
 
 67.5 
 62.4 
 60. i 
 58.0 
 
 59-3 
 62.9 
 
 58.7 
 53-o 
 48.7 
 5-7 
 5 6 -9 
 53-3 
 56.9 
 
 32.5 
 37-6 
 39-9 
 42.0 
 40.7 
 37- 1 
 41-3 
 47.0 
 5-3 
 49-3 
 43-1 
 46.7 
 
 43-i 
 
 lg87 
 
 jggg 
 
 jggg 
 
 l8QO. . 
 
 I g(j I 
 
 l892 
 
 I 80 7. . 
 
 tgn-i 
 
 
 2896 
 
 1807 . . 
 
 Ills.. 
 
 
 Total 
 
 251623 
 
 147053 
 
 104570 
 
 58.4 
 
 41.6 
 
 1 Sixteen years of age and over. 
 
 a From Reports of United Hebrew Charities of N. Y. City. 
 
593] 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLES 
 TABLE XXXV 
 
 AGE OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS, iSgg TO IQIO 1 
 
 177 
 
 
 
 Number 
 
 Percentage 
 
 Year 
 
 Total 
 
 Under 
 
 14 to 
 
 45 and 
 
 Under 
 
 14 to 
 
 45 and 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 44 
 
 over 
 
 14 
 
 44 
 
 over 
 
 1899 
 
 37415 
 
 8987 
 
 26019 
 
 2409 
 
 24.0 
 
 69.5 
 
 6.5 
 
 1900 
 
 60764 
 
 13092 
 
 44239 
 
 3433 
 
 21.6 
 
 72.8 
 
 5-6 
 
 1901 
 
 58098 
 
 I473I 
 
 39830 
 
 3537 
 
 25-4 
 
 68.6 
 
 6.0 
 
 1902-. 
 
 57688 
 
 I53I2 
 
 38937 
 
 3439 
 
 26.5 
 
 67.5 
 
 6.0 
 
 1903- 
 
 76203 
 
 i 9044! 53074 
 
 4085 
 
 25.0 
 
 69.6 
 
 5-4 
 
 1904.. 
 
 106236 23529! 772^4 
 
 5483 
 
 22.1 
 
 72.7 
 
 5-2 
 
 1905 
 
 129910 
 
 28553 95904 
 
 5393 
 
 22.0 
 
 73-9 
 
 4-1 
 
 1906-- 
 
 153748 
 
 43620! 101875 
 
 8253 
 
 28.4 
 
 66.2 
 
 5-4 
 
 1907 ' . 
 
 149182 
 
 37696 103779 7707 
 
 25-3 
 
 69.5 
 
 5-2 
 
 1908- 
 
 103387 
 
 26013' 71388 
 
 5986 
 
 25.1 
 
 69.1 
 
 5-8 
 
 1909-. 
 
 57551 
 
 15210 
 
 38465 
 
 3876 
 
 26.5 
 
 66.7 
 
 6.8 
 
 1910-. 
 
 84260 
 
 21869 
 
 57I9I 
 
 5200 
 
 26.0 
 
 67.9 
 
 6.1 
 
 Total. 
 
 1074442 
 
 267656 
 
 747985 
 
 58801 
 
 24.9 
 
 69.6 
 
 5-5 
 
 1 From Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration. 
 TABLE XXXVI 
 
 AGE OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS AT THE PORT OF NEW YORK, l886 TO 1898* 
 
 Year 
 
 Total 
 
 Number 
 
 Percentage 
 
 Adults 
 
 Children 2 
 
 Adults 
 
 Children* 
 
 T gg6 
 
 19548 
 
 26946 
 23958 
 26963 
 470Q8 
 
 66544 
 29059 
 
 23444 
 21422 
 27846 
 17362 
 19222 
 
 14212 
 22223 
 19456 
 I7I55 
 19449 
 33343 
 43155 
 18314 
 13142 
 12366 
 17052 
 10226 
 H530 
 
 7490 
 6803 
 75H 
 13755 
 2338} 
 10745 
 10302 
 9056 
 10794 
 7136 
 7692 
 
 72-7 
 72.0 
 72.2 
 71.6 
 72.1 
 70.8 
 64.8 
 63.0 
 56.1 
 57.7 
 61.2 
 
 58.9 
 60.0 
 
 27.3 
 28.0 
 27.8 
 28.4 
 27.9 
 29.2 
 35-2 
 37-0 
 43-9 
 42.3 
 38.8 
 41.1 
 40.0 
 
 
 1888 
 
 jggg 
 
 1890 
 
 iRni 
 
 i8n? 
 
 TJ3/-J-J . . 
 
 T 804 .... 
 
 T QQ C . . 
 
 rRn6 
 
 T 8n7 . . 
 
 T Q . . 
 
 
 Total--. 
 
 380278 
 
 251623 
 
 128655 
 
 66.2 
 
 33.8 
 
 1 From Reports of United Hebrew Charities of N. Y. City. 
 * Children under sixteen. 
 
JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [594 
 TABLE XXXVII 
 
 SEX OF TOTAL AND JEWISH IMMIGRANTS, 1899 TO 
 
 Year 
 
 Total immigrants 
 
 Jewish immigrants 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 1800 .. 
 
 62.6 
 67.8 
 
 67.9 
 71.9 
 
 H 
 
 70.6 
 69-5 
 72.4 
 64.8 
 69.2 
 70.7 
 
 37.4 
 32.2 
 32.1 
 28.1 
 28.5 
 32.4 
 29.4 
 
 30-5 
 27.6 
 35-2 
 30.8 
 29-3 
 
 56.5 
 59-8 
 55-7 
 56.7 
 57-7 
 61.2 
 63.2 
 52.1 
 54-0 
 54-4 
 54-0 
 54-8 
 
 43-5 
 40.2 
 
 44-3 
 43-3 
 42.3 
 38.8 
 36.8 
 
 47-9 
 46.0 
 45-6 
 46.0 
 45-2 
 
 1900 
 
 IQOI . 
 
 IQ02 . . 
 
 loo 1 ? . . 
 
 1004 . , 
 
 loot; . , 
 
 1906 
 
 1007 . . 
 
 I008 . . 
 
 1000 . . 
 
 1010 . . 
 
 
 Total 
 
 69.5 
 
 30-5 
 
 56.6 
 
 43-4 
 
 
 From Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration. 
 
595] STATISTICAL TABLES 
 
 TABLE XXXVIII 
 
 SEX 1 OF EUROPEAN IMMIGRANTS, 2 1899 TO I9IO : 
 
 179 
 
 People 
 
 Total 
 
 Number 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 Irish 
 
 43Q724 
 1074442 
 100189 
 i ' 5783 
 754375 
 408614 
 586306 
 136842 
 
 I5I774 
 949064 
 
 377527 
 175258 
 338i5i 
 147375 
 372668 
 I9H933 
 355543 
 216962 
 
 210686 
 607822 
 57HI 
 67217 
 448054 
 2 |i42i 
 362467 
 86938 
 100289 
 659267 
 266262 
 
 123777 
 244221 
 109614 
 291877 
 1512968 
 284866 
 206306 
 
 229038 
 406620 
 43078 
 48566 
 306321 
 
 I57I93 
 2238 '9 
 4^904 
 51485 
 289797 
 111265 
 51481 
 93930 
 3776i 
 
 80791 
 
 408965 
 50677 
 10656 
 
 47-9 
 56.6 
 57-0 
 58.1 
 59-4 
 61.5 
 61.8 
 
 63.5 
 66.1 
 
 69-5 
 70.5 
 70.6 
 72.2 
 74-4 
 783 
 78.6 
 
 84.9 
 95-1 
 
 52.1 - 
 43-4 . 
 43-0 
 41.9 
 40.6 
 
 3^.5 
 38.2 
 
 36.5 
 339 
 30 5 
 29-5 
 29.4 
 27.8 
 25.6 
 21.7 > 
 21.4 
 I5-I 
 4.9 
 
 30.5 
 
 Jewish 
 Bohemian and Moravian . 
 French 
 German 
 
 English . 
 Scandinavian 
 
 Scotch . 
 
 Finnish . 
 
 Polish 
 Slovak 
 
 Lithuanian 
 
 Magyar 
 Ruthenian 
 
 Italian North 
 Italian South 
 Croatian and Slovenian . . 
 Greek . . . . 
 
 
 Total* . . . 
 
 9555673 
 
 6641367 
 
 2914306 
 
 69.5 
 
 
 1 Arranged in order of percentage of females. 
 
 2 Excluding all races with an immigration below 100,000. 
 8 From Statistical Review of Immigration, p. 49. 
 
 4 Total includes all races. 
 
JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [596 
 TABLE XXXIX 
 
 AGE 1 OF EUROPEAN IMMIGRANTS, 2 1899 TO 1909. 
 
 People 
 
 Number 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Total 
 
 Under 14 
 
 14 to 44 
 
 45 and 
 over 
 
 Under 14 
 
 14 to 44 
 
 45 and 
 over 
 
 Jewish 
 Bohemian and 
 Moravian ... 
 German 
 
 990182 
 
 91727 
 682995 
 112230 
 355n6 
 1719260 
 534269 
 820716 
 
 3451" 
 
 i 36038 
 341888 
 310049 
 152544 
 401342 
 119468 
 
 295981 
 177827 
 
 245787 
 
 18965 
 116416 
 I7i57 
 52459 
 201492 
 51220 
 77963 
 
 32157 
 12623 
 30645 
 27312 
 12004 
 20247 
 5537 
 
 12711 
 7314 
 
 690794 
 
 67487 
 520437 
 85123 
 262334 
 1416075 
 457306 
 723226 
 302399 
 119771 
 297442 
 270376 
 I3788o 
 
 363797 
 110705 
 
 273685 
 168250 
 
 53601 
 
 5275 
 46142 
 9Q50 
 40323 
 101693 
 25743 
 19527 
 10555 
 3644 
 13801 
 12361 
 2660 
 17298 
 3226 
 
 9585 
 2263 
 
 412554 
 
 24.8 
 
 20.7 
 17.0 
 15.3 
 14.8 
 
 "7 
 
 9.6 
 
 9-5 
 9.3 
 9-3 
 9.0 
 
 7-9 
 5-0 
 
 4.6 
 
 4-3 
 4.1 
 
 69.8 
 
 73-6 
 
 76.2 
 75-8 
 73-9 
 
 11 
 
 87*6 
 88.0 
 87.0 
 87.2 
 90.4 
 90.6 
 92.7 
 
 92.5 
 94-6 
 
 5-4 
 
 5-8 
 6.8 
 8.9 
 11.4 
 
 C .Q 
 /d.O 
 
 2.4 
 
 3.1 
 2.7 
 4.0 
 4.0 
 
 1-7 
 
 4.3 
 2.7 
 
 3-2 
 1.3 
 
 Scotch 
 
 English 
 
 Italian, South. 
 Scandinavian . 
 Polish . . 
 
 Slovak . 
 
 Finnish 
 
 Italian, North. 
 Magyar 
 
 Lithuanian . . . 
 Irish 
 
 Ruthenian 
 Croatian and 
 Slovenian... 
 Greek 
 
 
 Total 3 .... 
 
 8213034 
 
 1013974 
 
 6786506 
 
 12.3 
 
 82.6 
 
 5-0 
 
 1 Arranged in order of highest percentage of children. 
 
 2 Excluding all races with an immigration below 100,000, except the Bohemian 
 and Moravian. 
 
 3 Total includes all European races. 
 
597] 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLES 
 
 181 
 
 TABLE XL 
 SEX,' 1899 TO 1910, AND AGE, 2 1899 TO 1909, OF SLAVIC AND JEWISH 
 
 IMMIGRANTS 
 
 Group 
 
 Sex per cent 
 
 Age per cent 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 Under 14 
 
 14 to 44 
 
 45 and over 
 
 Polish 
 
 69.5 
 74-4 
 85.0 
 
 70-5 
 84.9 
 
 5 l^ 
 56.6 
 
 30.5 
 25.6 
 15.0 
 29.5 
 
 I5-I 
 
 43-0 
 43-4 
 
 >i 
 ',', 
 
 9-3 
 4-3 
 
 20.7 
 24.8 
 
 88.1 
 92.7 
 90.0 
 87.6 
 
 92.5 
 
 73-6 
 69.8 
 
 2.4 
 2.7 
 2-5 
 3-1 
 
 3-2 
 
 5.8 
 
 5-4 
 
 Ruthenian ... . 
 
 C1 nv ob- 
 
 Croatian and 
 Slovenian 
 Bohemian and 
 Moravian .... 
 
 
 1 From Statistical Review of Immigration, p. 49. 
 'From Emigration Conditions in Europe, p. 25. 
 
 TABLE XLI 
 
 A. SEX OF ROUMANIAN IMMIGRANTS, 1 1899 TO 1910, AND OF IMMIGRANTS 
 FROM ROUMANIA, 2 1900 TO I9IO 
 
 Group 
 
 Total 
 
 Number 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 From Roumania 
 
 59467 
 82704 
 
 31968 
 75238 
 
 27499 
 7466 
 
 53-8 
 91.0 
 
 46.2 
 9.0 
 
 
 B. AGE OF JEWISH AND ROUMANIAN IMMIGRANTS 3 1899 TO 1909 
 
 Race 
 
 Total 
 number 
 
 Number 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Under 
 14 
 
 14 to 
 44 
 
 45 and 
 over 
 
 Under 
 
 14 
 
 14 to 
 44 
 
 45 and 
 over 
 
 Jewish 
 Roumanian 
 
 990182 
 68505 
 
 245787 
 1476 
 
 690794 
 63997 
 
 536oi 
 3032 
 
 24.8 
 
 2.2 
 
 69.8 
 93.4 
 
 5-4 
 4-4 
 
 1 From Statistical Review of Immigration, pp. 44-48. 
 
 2 From Emigration Conditions in Europe, p. 23. 
 8 Ibid., p. 25. 
 
JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [598 
 TABLE XLII 
 
 SEX AND AGE OF " OLD "AND " NEW " IMMIGRATION (JEWISH EXCEPTEO) , 
 AND OF JEWISH IMMIGRATION, 1899 TO IQOQ l 
 
 Group 
 
 Total 
 
 Sex per cent 
 
 Age per cent 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 Under 
 
 14 to 
 44 
 
 45 and 
 over 
 
 Old immigration . - 
 New immigration 
 (Jewish excepted) 
 Jewish immigration' 
 
 2273782 
 
 4949070 
 990182 
 
 58.5 
 
 76.3 
 56.7 
 
 41-5 
 
 23.7 
 43-3 
 
 12.8 
 
 9-7 
 24.8 
 
 80.4 
 
 86.2 
 69.8 
 
 6.8 
 
 4.1 
 5-4 
 
 From Emigration Conditions in Europe, pp. 23-26. 
 
 TABLE XLIII 
 
 JEWISH IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION, !C.c8 TO I9I2 : 
 
 Year 
 
 Jewish Jewish Number 
 
 immigrant 1 emigrant j departed per 100 
 aliens aliens 3 admitted 
 
 1908 . . .... 
 
 I0^?87 
 
 7702 
 
 7 
 
 
 c7ccj 
 
 610^ 
 
 IO 
 
 1910 .... 
 
 84260 
 
 5683 
 
 6 
 
 JQI J 
 
 QI22"? 
 
 6401 
 
 7 
 
 
 80 ^Q 1 ? 
 
 74l8 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tntal 
 
 4 I 70 I 6 
 
 J-IOT C 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 From Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration. 
 * See note, page 93. 
 
 'Emigrant aliens are aliens whose permanent residence has been in 
 the United States and who intend to reside permanently abroad. 
 
599] 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLES 
 TABLE XLIV 
 
 183 
 
 TOTAL AND JEWISH EMIGRANT ALIENS AND. PERCENTAGE JEWISH IMMI- 
 GRANT ALIENS OF TOTAL IMMIGRANT ALIENS, IQC8 TO IQI2 ' 
 
 
 Emigrant aliens 
 
 Immigrant aliens 
 
 
 -M 
 
 C 
 
 "c 
 
 *o 
 
 - 
 
 C 
 
 0} 
 
 G 
 n 
 
 "8 
 
 Year 
 
 t/> 
 
 2* 
 
 C*w 
 
 1. 
 
 - ?</> 
 
 C n 
 
 
 31! 
 
 j^^bfl C 
 
 ^11 
 
 ~'3 C 
 Sga 
 
 || 8 
 
 
 
 H* 
 
 A 
 
 PH 
 
 H'~ 
 
 o> -* rt 
 > 
 
 (X, 
 
 igo8 .... 
 
 381044 
 
 7702 
 
 2.0 
 
 782870 
 
 103387 
 
 13.2 
 
 1909 ... 
 
 225802 
 
 6105 
 
 2-7 
 
 751876 
 
 57551 
 
 7.7 
 
 1910 .... 
 1911 .... 
 
 202436 
 295666 
 
 5689 
 6401 
 
 2.8 
 2.1 
 
 1041570 
 878587 
 
 84260 
 91223 
 
 8.1 
 10.4 
 
 1912 .... 
 
 333262 
 
 7418 
 
 2.2 
 
 838172 
 
 80595 
 
 9-5 
 
 Total . . 
 
 1438210 
 
 33315 
 
 2-3 
 
 4293075 
 
 417016 
 
 9.7 
 
 1 From Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration. 
 TABLE XLV 
 
 EUROPEAN IMMIGRANT ALIENS ADMITTED ! AND EUROPEAN EMIGRANT 
 ALIENS DEPARTED, 1908, 1909 AND IQIO 2 
 
 Immigrant aliens 
 
 
 admitted 
 
 r.migrani anens ucpaneu 
 
 People 
 
 Number 
 
 Per cent 
 of total 
 
 Number 
 
 Per cent 
 of total 
 
 Number 
 departed 
 for every 
 
 
 
 admitted 
 
 
 departed 
 
 100 ad- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 mitted 
 
 Jewish 
 
 236100 
 
 10.2 
 
 i8 
 
 
 8 
 
 Creation and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Slovenian . . . 
 
 78658 
 
 3.4 
 
 44316 
 
 5-2 
 
 56 
 
 English . 
 
 101611 
 
 4.4 
 
 11152 
 
 T C 
 
 
 German 
 Greek 
 
 192644 
 862*7 
 
 8.3 
 a.7 
 
 35823 
 21196 
 
 5-0 
 
 19 
 25 
 
 Irish 
 
 0^000 
 
 4.0 
 
 5728 
 
 
 
 Italian, North. 
 
 77661 
 
 3-3 
 
 47870 
 
 6.7 
 
 62 
 
 Italian, South. 
 Lithuanian 
 
 457414 
 51129 
 
 19.8 
 
 2.2 
 
 255188 
 7185 
 
 35.7 
 
 I.O 
 
 56 
 14 
 
 Magyar . 
 
 78910 
 
 269646 
 
 3-4 
 
 II. 7 
 
 50597 
 82080 
 
 ii 4 
 
 64 
 
 Polish 
 
 Ruthenian 
 
 55106 
 
 2-3 
 
 6681 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 Scandinavian .. 
 Slovak 
 
 113786 
 
 70717 
 
 4.8 
 -j n 
 
 11193 
 
 si 
 
 10 
 
 CQ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 3 
 
 2297338 
 
 
 713356 
 
 
 32 
 
 1 All peoples with an inward movement of less than 50,000 excluded. 
 'From Emigration Conditions in Europe, p. 41. 
 'Total for all races, including Syrians. 
 
184 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [600 
 TABLE XLVI 
 
 JEWISH IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION, RUSSIA, AUSTRIA-HUNGARY AND 
 ROUMANIA, IQ08 TO IQI2 l 
 
 
 Russia 
 
 Austria-Hungary 
 
 Roumania 
 
 
 
 
 ^Ti 
 
 
 
 *0 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 Year 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 -M 
 
 c 
 
 
 -o .i 
 
 G 
 
 
 v o> ii 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 a 
 
 G 
 
 - 1 
 
 03 
 
 
 "P ^ G 
 
 
 
 rt en 
 
 T^ *3 
 
 <-i co 
 
 rt c/3 
 
 
 1- to 
 
 
 J-< C 
 
 
 ll 
 
 be <u 
 
 s'^ 
 
 0| S 
 
 3 03 O 
 
 be c 
 
 **.SJ 
 
 'B^ 
 
 111 
 
 11 
 
 II 
 
 ^'^^ 
 
 ti o 
 
 
 hH 
 
 w 
 
 x a 
 
 w 
 
 W 
 
 ^ 
 
 HH 
 
 W 
 
 ^u 
 
 1908 . . . 
 
 71978 
 
 5439 
 
 7 
 
 15293 
 
 1758 
 
 ii 
 
 4455 
 
 158 
 
 3 
 
 1909 . 
 
 39150 
 
 3989 
 
 10 
 
 8431 
 
 1398 
 
 16 
 
 1390 
 
 87 
 
 6 
 
 1910 . . . 
 
 59824 
 
 3295 
 
 5 
 
 I3I42 
 
 1409 
 
 10 
 
 1701 
 
 101 
 
 6 
 
 1911 . . . 
 
 65472 
 
 3375 
 
 5 
 
 1278.5 
 
 1827 
 
 M 
 
 2188 
 
 78 
 
 3 
 
 1912 . . . 
 
 58389 
 
 4448 
 
 7 
 
 10757 
 
 2121 
 
 19 
 
 1512 
 
 122 
 
 8 
 
 Total. . 
 
 294813 
 
 20546 
 
 7 
 
 60408 
 
 8513 
 
 14 
 
 11246! 546 
 
 5 
 
 1 From Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration. 
 TABLE XLVII 
 
 POLISH IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION, RUSSIA AND AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 
 
 1908 TO 1912 l 
 
 
 Russian Poles 
 
 Austro-Hungarian Poles 
 
 
 
 , ,_ 4) 
 
 
 
 -o 
 
 Year 
 
 G 
 
 M 
 
 o pV- 
 
 G 
 
 ^J 
 
 "U P|'"tli 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 w, S 
 
 2 co ' G - -~ 
 
 - S 
 
 
 s| 
 
 
 
 - S 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 w rt 
 
 |cx2 
 
 S 
 
 w rt 
 
 a2 
 
 1908 .... 
 
 73122 
 
 18187 
 
 25 
 
 59719 
 
 28048 
 
 47 
 
 1909 .... 
 
 37770 
 
 8421 
 
 22 
 
 336483 
 
 10292 
 
 28 
 
 1910 .... 
 
 63635 
 
 6705 
 
 10 
 
 ' 60565 
 
 9609 
 
 15 
 
 1911 . . . 
 
 40193 
 
 12276 
 
 30 
 
 27515 
 
 1 8/99 
 
 67 
 
 1912 .... 
 
 51244 
 
 14701 
 
 28 
 
 30649 
 
 22546 
 
 73 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 265964 
 
 60290 
 
 22 
 
 214931 
 
 88994 
 
 41 
 
 1 From Reports of Commissioner- General of Immigration. 
 
6oi] 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLES 
 
 TABLE XLVIII 
 "OLD" AND "NEW" (JEWISH EXCEPTED) AND JEWISH IMMIGRATION 
 
 AND EMIGRATION, IQOS TO IQIO 1 
 
 Class 
 
 Immigrant 
 aliens 
 
 Emigrant 
 aliens 
 
 Number 
 departed per 100 
 admitted 
 
 Old immigration. . . 
 New immigration (Jew sh 
 excepted) 
 Jewish immigration . 
 
 599732 
 
 1461506 
 236100 
 
 79664 
 
 6i5549 
 18543 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 Total 
 
 2297338 
 
 713356 
 
 32 
 
 1 From Emigration Conditions in Europe, p. 42. 
 TABLE XLIX 
 
 EUROPEAN IMMIGRANT ALIENS, 1 1907, AND EUROPEAN EMIGRANT 
 ALIENS, 1908 2 
 
 People 
 
 Immigrant aliens, 
 1907 
 
 Emigrant aliens, 1908 
 
 Number 
 
 Per cent, 
 of total 
 
 Number 
 
 Per cent, 
 of total 
 
 Number 
 departed 
 per 100 
 admitted 
 
 Jewish . . 
 
 149182 
 
 27174 
 
 47826 
 51126 
 92936 
 46283 
 38706 
 51564 
 242497 
 25884 
 60071 
 138033 
 53425 
 42041 
 
 12. 1 
 
 2.2 
 3-9 
 
 4.1 
 7-5 
 3-7 
 3-1 
 4.2 
 19.6 
 
 2.1 
 4.9 
 II. 2 
 
 4-3 
 3-4 
 
 7702 
 
 5965 
 
 28584 
 5320 
 14418 
 6763 
 2441 
 19507 
 147828 
 3388 
 29276 
 46727 
 5801 
 23573 
 
 2.0 
 
 1.6 
 
 7-5 
 i-4 
 
 ?! 
 
 .6 
 
 38.'8 
 9 
 7-7 
 12.3 
 
 :! 
 
 5 
 
 22 
 
 60 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 g 
 
 11 
 
 33 
 ii 
 56 
 
 Bulgarian, 
 Servian and 
 Montenegrin 
 Croatian and 
 Slovenian . . . 
 English 
 
 German . 
 
 Greek 
 
 Irish 
 
 Italian, North. 
 Italian, South . 
 Lithuanian 
 Masfvar . . 
 
 Polish 
 
 Scandinavian .. 
 Slovak 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1237341 3 
 
 
 381044 
 
 
 32 
 
 1 All peoples with an inward movement of less than 25,000 omitted, 
 
 2 From Emigration Conditions in Europe, pp. 39-40. 
 
 3 All European immigrants, including Syrians. 
 
!86 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [602 
 
 TABLE L 
 
 TOTAL EUROPEAN IMMIGRANTS ADMITTED 1 AND TOTAL OF THOSE 
 ADMITTED DURING THIS PERIOD IN THE UNITED STATES 
 PREVIOUSLY, l8Q9 TO 
 
 People 
 
 Number 
 admitted 
 
 In United States previously 
 
 Number 
 
 Per cent of 
 admitted 
 
 
 1074442 
 100189 
 355542 
 408614 
 I5I774 
 I 5783 
 754375 
 216962 
 
 439724 
 372668 
 
 I9H933 
 175258 
 337351 
 949064 
 
 147375 
 586.^06 
 136842 
 377527 
 
 22914 
 4066 
 
 43037 
 103828 
 17189 
 33859 
 86458 
 12283 
 80636 
 56738 
 262508 
 6186 
 39785 
 65155 
 18492 
 86700 
 27684 
 71889 
 
 2.1 
 
 4-1 
 
 12.8 
 
 25-4 
 ii.3 
 29.2 
 
 n. 5 
 
 5-7 
 18.3 
 15-2 
 13.7 
 3-5 
 11.8 
 
 6.9 
 12.5 
 14.8 
 
 20.2 
 
 19.0 
 
 Bohemian and Moravian.- 
 Croatian and Slovenian . . 
 
 
 
 
 Greek 
 
 Irish 
 
 
 
 
 
 Polish 
 
 
 
 
 Slovak 
 
 
 Total s 
 
 9220066 
 
 1108948 
 
 12.0 
 
 
 1 All peoples with an immigration below 100,000 omitted. 
 
 2 From Emigration Conditions in Europe, p. 51. 
 'Includes all European peoples entered and Syrians. 
 
 TABLE LI 
 
 OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS, 1899 TO I9I0 1 
 
 Group 
 
 Number 
 
 Per cent 
 
 
 4841 7 5 
 
 4C.I 
 
 Skilled laborers 
 
 / 3nc82'3 
 
 -*6 8 
 
 
 *JAZ. C 
 
 7 
 
 
 186989 
 
 17 4 
 
 
 
 
 Total . . .... 
 
 I 074442 
 
 100. 
 
 
 
 
 1 From Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration. 
 
603] 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLES 
 TABLE LII 
 
 JEWISH IMMIGRANTS REPORTING OCCUPATIONS, l8QQ TO IQIO 
 
 Group 
 
 Number 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Professional . 
 
 JA re 
 
 i 7 
 
 Skilled laborers 
 Laborers 
 
 /^OO 
 395823 
 
 fjQAAA 
 
 i 'O 
 
 67.1 t 
 ii 8 / 
 
 Servants 
 JMerchants and dealers 
 
 65532 
 3T4QT 
 
 ii. i 
 
 5-j 
 
 
 II460 
 
 I O 
 
 
 IOO8 
 
 2 
 
 
 ROCT 
 
 T 7 
 
 
 
 *o 
 
 Total . 
 
 CQ0267 
 
 IOO O 
 
 
 
 
 1 From Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration. 
 
 TABLE LIII 
 
 JEWISH IMMIGRANTS ENGAGED IN PROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS 
 
 Occupation 
 
 Number 
 
 Actors . 
 
 272 
 
 Architects. ... 
 
 108 
 
 Clergymen 
 
 3co 
 
 Editors 
 
 84 
 
 Electricians .... 
 
 7co 
 
 
 484 
 
 Lawyers .... . 
 
 74 
 
 Literary and scientific persons . 
 
 
 Musicians. . . 
 
 1624 
 
 Officials (gov.) 
 
 18 
 
 
 290 
 
 
 7C7 
 
 
 2192 
 
 Others . . 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 455 
 
 
 
 1 From Reports of Commissiomer-General of Immigration. 
 
188 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [604 
 
 TABLE LIV 
 
 JEWISH IMMIGRANTS REPORTING SKILLED OCCUPATIONS, l8QQ TO IQIO l 
 
 A . Principal skilled occupations 
 
 Occupation 
 
 Number 
 
 Per cent 
 of total 
 skilled 
 
 Tailors 
 
 14^272 
 
 -?6 6 
 
 Carpenters joiners etc 2 . . 
 
 40001 
 
 TO 7 
 
 Dressmakers and seamstresses ** . . 
 
 "30/182 
 
 iu.,5 
 10 
 
 Shoemakers . 
 
 0-3 CTQ 
 
 C O 
 
 Clerks and accountants . . . . . . 
 
 17066 
 
 ~ -y 
 
 40 
 
 Painters and glaziers .... - . . . 
 
 76087 
 
 6 
 4-r 
 
 Butchers '. . . . 
 
 1 141 "\ 
 
 - 1 
 2/-j 
 
 Bakers 
 
 TQQOC 
 
 2 8 
 
 
 n-3ge 
 
 2 4 
 
 Blacksmiths ... . . ... 
 
 8CT7 
 
 ** 
 
 2 2 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 722867 
 
 81 q 
 
 
 
 
 B . Other skilled occupations 
 
 Occupation 
 
 Number 
 
 
 Tinners .... 
 
 6067 
 
 
 
 4444 
 
 
 Tobacco workers . . 
 
 47^O 
 
 
 Hat and capmakers ... . 
 
 ttOjV 
 AO'/Cl 
 
 
 Barbers and hairdressers . 
 
 4O^4 
 
 
 \Veavers and spinners .... 
 
 -7Q77 
 
 
 Tanners and curriers 
 
 oy/ 1 
 
 77T ^ 
 
 
 Furriers and fur workers 
 
 O/ A O 
 
 o \AA 
 
 
 
 3(300 
 
 
 
 2^07 
 
 
 Plumbers . . 
 
 o/i ec 
 
 
 Saddlers and harness makers 
 
 ^4;>o 
 
 277 T 
 
 
 M illiners 
 
 22OI 
 
 
 Metal workers (other than iron, steel and tin) . 
 
 2231 
 IOO7 
 
 
 Jewelers . . 
 
 18^7 
 
 
 Millers . 
 
 TQQO 
 
 
 Mechanics (not specified) . 
 
 120"? 
 
 
 
 IIOQ 
 
 
 
 lOI'? 
 
 
 Iron and steel workers 
 
 604. 
 
 
 Textile workers (not specified) 
 Others 
 
 436 
 
 i ^0^8 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 72Q c6 
 
 
 
 ^0^82^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 From Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration. 
 
 2 Seamstresses are included with dressmakers; cabinetmakers and 
 woodworkers (not specified) with carpenters and joiners. 
 
6o 5 ] 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLES 
 TABLE LV 
 
 189 
 
 OCCUPATIONS OF TOTAL EUROPEAN AND JEWISH IMMIGRANTS, l8gp TO 
 
 IQOQ, AND PERCENTAGE JEWISH OF TOTAL 
 
 Group 
 
 Total 
 immigrants 
 
 Jewish 
 immigrants 
 
 Per cent 
 of total 
 
 
 8022? 
 
 68-36 
 
 Q C 
 
 
 12/476*7 A 
 
 
 0.5 
 
 
 I^/U/q. 
 T2OO2O^ 
 
 /-vA-3-J 
 
 ^y.i 
 
 Farmers 
 
 84146 
 
 y u oo 
 or>8 
 
 
 Common laborers 
 
 2282565 
 
 66311 
 
 2.Q 
 
 f\ n 
 
 
 oyuuy^ 
 ?i6c / ?87 
 
 
 u.g 
 
 
 
 44 o 7* 
 
 
 
 1 /^ u o^ 
 
 ju^siy 
 
 
 Total 
 
 821 ^0^4 
 
 990182 
 
 T2 T 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 From Emigration Conditions in Europe, p. 27. 
 TABLE LVI 
 
 TOTAL EUROPEAN IMMIGRANTS 1 AND IMMIGRANTS WITHOUT OCCUPATION, 
 
 TO IQIO 2 
 
 People 
 
 Jewish 
 
 Bohemian and Moravian 
 Croatian and Slovenian. 
 
 English 
 
 Finnish 
 
 French 
 
 German 
 
 Greek 
 
 Irish 
 
 Italian, North 
 
 Italian, South 
 
 Lithuanian 
 
 Magyar 
 
 Polish 
 
 Ruthenian 
 
 Scandinavian 
 
 Scotch 
 
 Slovak. 
 
 Total 
 
 1 All races with an immigration below 100,000 omitted. 
 
 2 From Statistical Review of Immigration, p. 52. 
 8 Total includes all races. 
 
 
 "Without occupation 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Immigrants 
 
 (including women 
 and children) 
 
 of 
 total 
 
 1074442 
 
 484175 
 
 45- 1 
 
 100189 
 
 39700 
 
 39-5 
 
 355542 
 
 37219 
 
 ii. i 
 
 408614 
 
 158616 
 
 38.8 
 
 151774 
 
 28766 
 
 18.9 
 
 "5783 
 
 45745 
 
 395 
 
 745375 
 
 296082 
 
 39-7 
 
 216962 
 
 19244 
 
 8.9 
 
 439724 
 
 63456 
 
 14.4 
 
 372668 
 
 76046 
 
 20.4 
 
 I9H933 
 
 440274 
 
 23.0 
 
 
 337 '8 
 
 19.2 
 
 33815 i 
 
 78875 
 
 23-3 r 
 
 949064 
 
 200634 
 
 21. 1 
 
 "47375 
 
 18915 
 
 I2 9 
 
 586306 
 
 II 1212 
 
 18 9 
 
 136842 
 
 47634 
 
 349 
 
 377527 
 
 87280 
 
 23.1 
 
 9555 6 73 3 
 
 2506713 
 
 26.2 
 
JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [606 
 TABLE LVII 
 
 OCCUPATIONS OF EUROPEAN IMMIGRANTS 1 REPORTING EMPLOYMENT, 
 1899 TO I9IO 2 
 
 
 
 
 Per 
 
 cent 
 
 
 People 
 
 Number reporting 
 employment 
 
 In professional 
 occupations 
 
 In skilled 
 occupations 
 
 Laborers, 
 including farm 
 laborers 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Jewish ... 
 
 500267 
 
 1.3 
 
 67.1 
 
 17.7 
 
 1 8.0 
 
 Bohemian and Moravian . . . 
 Bulgarian, Servian and Monte- 
 negrin 
 Croatian and Slovenian . . . 
 
 60489 
 
 90991 
 298324 
 
 24QQC 8 
 
 1-3 
 
 .1 
 .1 
 
 9.0 
 
 40.8 
 
 3-3 
 
 5 
 
 487 
 
 28.5 
 
 92.0 
 86.4 
 14.1 
 
 29.4 
 
 4.6 
 
 85 
 
 28.1 
 
 
 123008 
 
 .7 
 
 6.0 
 
 67.2 
 
 26.5 
 
 French 
 
 7OO78 
 
 93 
 
 34 5 
 
 26 o 
 
 30.2 
 
 German 
 Greek 
 
 458203 
 IQ77l8 
 
 3-5 
 
 .7 
 
 30.0 
 7-7 
 
 37-7 
 862 
 
 28.8 
 5.8 
 
 Irish ... 
 
 776268 
 
 I 7 
 
 126 
 
 7C. 2 
 
 5 9 
 
 
 296622 
 
 I.I 
 
 204 
 
 66C 
 
 120 
 
 
 147 l6CQ 
 
 4 
 
 14.6 
 
 77.O 
 
 7.9 
 
 
 14 I C4O 
 
 .1 
 
 67 
 
 76.1 
 
 17.2 
 
 
 2^0276 
 
 .c 
 
 8.6 
 
 77. c 
 
 134 
 
 Polish 
 
 7484 7O 
 
 .2 
 
 6.3 
 
 7C.7 
 
 1 8.1 
 
 Roumanian .... . . 
 
 7cr 71 
 
 .2 
 
 2.7 
 
 93.8 
 
 3 3 
 
 Russian 
 
 6og86 
 
 1.4. 
 
 9.1 
 
 82.7 
 
 6.8 
 
 Ruthenian ........ 
 
 128460 
 
 .1 
 
 20 
 
 80.6 
 
 17.4 
 
 Scandinavian ... 
 
 47COQ1 
 
 I 2 
 
 20-5 
 
 47.8 
 
 34.5 
 
 Scotch . . 
 
 89208 
 
 c 7 
 
 57 9 
 
 12. 1 
 
 24.3 
 
 Slovak 
 
 2QO247 
 
 j'l 
 I 
 
 4-4 
 
 80.0 
 
 15 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 7O48QC'? 3 
 
 1.4. 
 
 20. 2 
 
 7Q-3 
 
 19.1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 All races with an immigration below 50,000 omitted. 
 J From Statistical Review of Immigration, p. 53. 
 8 Total includes all races. 
 
6o 7 ] 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLES 
 TABLE LVIII 
 
 191 
 
 OCCUPATIONS OF SLAVIC AND JEWISH IMMIGRANTS REPORTING EMPLOYMENT, 1899 
 
 TO IQIO l 
 
 
 a 
 
 Per cent 
 
 
 & 
 
 o 
 
 
 People 
 
 u 
 o 
 
 bl 
 
 D 
 
 "73 f- 
 
 I 
 
 if! 
 
 I 
 
 
 I, 
 
 tr. a 
 
 it 
 
 Ill 
 
 a 
 ,5 
 
 
 
 
 t % 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 6'" 
 
 ~~ O 
 
 ^ o 
 
 s C s 
 
 CO 
 
 
 & 
 
 c 
 
 1 1 
 
 a 
 
 8* 
 
 53 
 
 Jewish .... 
 
 590267 
 
 i-3 
 
 67.1 
 
 I37 
 
 18.0 
 
 Bohemian and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Moravian . . 
 
 60489 
 
 1.3 
 
 40.8 
 
 28.5 
 
 29.4 
 
 Bulgarian, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Servian and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Montenegrin. 
 Croatian and 
 
 90991 
 
 - 1 
 
 3-3 
 
 92.0 
 
 4-6 
 
 Slovenian . . 
 
 298324 
 
 .1 
 
 5 
 
 86 4 
 
 85 
 
 Polish .... 
 
 748430 
 
 .2 
 
 6-3 
 
 75 3 
 
 
 Russian. . . . 
 
 69986 
 
 1.4 
 
 
 827 
 
 6.8 
 
 Ruthenian. . . 
 
 128460 
 
 .1 
 
 2.0 
 
 80.6 
 
 17.4 
 
 Slovak .... 
 
 290247 
 
 .1 
 
 4-4 
 
 80.0 
 
 
 1 From Statistical Review of Immigration, p. 53. 
 TABLE L1X 
 
 OCCUPATIONS OF " OLD " AND "NEW " IMMIGRATION (JEWISH EXCEPTED) AND OF 
 JEWISH IMMIGRATION, 1899 TO I5C9 1 
 
 
 "Old" immigration 
 
 " New" immigration 
 (Jewish excepted) 
 
 Jewish 
 immigration 
 
 Occupations 
 
 
 
 
 
 Number 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Number 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Number 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Professional 
 
 56406 
 
 25 
 
 17080 
 
 3 
 
 6836 
 
 7 
 
 Skilled laborers. . 
 
 442754 
 
 J 95 
 
 441984 
 
 8.9 
 
 362936 
 
 36.7 
 
 Farm laborers . . 
 
 13*59* 
 
 6.1 
 
 1142064 
 
 23.1 
 
 9*33 
 
 I.O 
 
 Farmers .... 
 
 40633 
 
 1.8 
 
 42605 
 
 9 
 
 908 
 
 i 
 
 Common laborers 
 
 402074 
 
 17.7 
 
 18141*0 
 
 36.7 
 
 66^1 1 
 
 67 
 
 Servants .... 
 
 424698 
 
 18.7 
 
 403784 
 
 8.2 
 
 6161 1 
 
 6.2 
 
 No occupation. 
 Miscellaneous. . . 
 
 6785 10 
 90109 
 
 29.8 
 4.0 
 
 1041049 
 46324 
 
 21.0 
 
 9 
 
 445728 
 36219 
 
 450 
 
 3-7 
 
 Total. . 
 
 2273782 
 
 ICO.O 
 
 4949070 
 
 ICO.O 
 
 990182 
 
 IOO.O 
 
 1 From Emigration Conditions in Europe, p. 29. 
 
192 
 
 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES 
 
 [608 
 
 TABLE LX 
 
 ILLITERACY OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS, iScjQ TO IQIO 
 
 Year 
 
 Jewish immigrants 
 14 years of age 
 and over 
 
 Jewish immigrant 
 illiterates 2 14 years 
 of age and over 
 
 Per cent 
 illiterate 
 
 igOO . 
 
 28428 
 
 c637 
 
 IQ 
 
 IQ~O . 
 
 47672 
 
 10607 
 
 yo 
 
 22 2 
 
 IQOI 
 
 43367 
 
 101 19 
 
 233 
 
 IQO2 . 
 
 42376 
 
 1 1921 
 
 28 I 
 
 1QO2 . 
 
 C7ICQ 
 
 14980 
 
 26 2 
 
 I QO4 . 
 
 82707 
 
 18763 
 
 22 6 
 
 loot; . 
 
 ioi3<;7 
 
 22770 
 
 22 4 
 
 IQGO . 
 
 110128 
 
 2Q444 
 
 26 7 
 
 IUO7 . 
 
 111486 
 
 7l88i; 
 
 28 6 
 
 1908 
 
 77-274 
 
 2^217 
 
 3O 3 
 
 1909 
 
 42341 
 
 I22OI 
 
 28 8 
 
 IQIO . 
 
 623QI 
 
 17963 
 
 28 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 806786 
 
 209507 
 
 26.0 
 
 1 From Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration. 
 
 2 Those who could neither read nor write. 
 
 TABLE LXI 
 
 SEX OF JEWISH IMMIGRANT ILLITERATES, IQ08 TO IQI2 1 
 
 Year 
 
 Jewish immigrants 
 14 years of age 
 and over 
 
 Jewish immigrant illiterates 
 14 years of age and over 
 
 Number 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 Male 
 
 9*55 
 4832 
 
 7593 
 6453 
 5 6 37 
 
 Female 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 1908 . , . . 
 
 1909 . - - . 
 1910 .... 
 1911 . . . 
 1912 . . . . 
 
 43 2 7 
 
 2345 2 
 35 2 72 
 38018 
 32706 
 
 34104 
 18889 
 27120 
 
 3*37 
 
 27799 
 
 13762 
 
 73 6 9 
 10370 
 10304 
 9498 
 
 21.9 
 
 20.6 
 
 2 '-5 
 16.9 
 17.2 
 
 40.4 
 39-0 
 38.2 
 32.8 
 34.2 
 
 Total . . 
 
 172718 
 
 139282 
 
 3397 
 
 5*33 
 
 19.7 
 
 36.8 
 
 1 In order to ascertain the number of males and females, 14 years of age and 
 over, the number of Jewish immigrants under 14 years of age were distributed 
 equally between the sexes. Subtracting these respectively from the number of 
 males and females, we obtain the above totals. Cf. Report of New York State 
 Commission on Immigration, 1908, p. 171. 
 
609] 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLES 
 TABLE LXII 
 
 ILLITERACY OF EUROPEAN IMMIGRANTS, 1 1899 TO I9IO 2 
 
 193 
 
 People 
 
 Immigrants 14 
 years of age 
 and over 
 
 Immigrant illiterates 14 
 years of age and over 
 
 Number 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Jewish 
 
 806786 
 79721 
 320977 
 347458 
 137916 
 625793 
 208608 
 416640 
 339301 
 1690376 
 161441 
 307082 
 861303 
 140775 
 530634 
 H5788 
 342583 
 
 209507 
 1322 
 115/85 
 3647 
 1745 
 32236 
 55089 
 10721 
 
 38897 
 911566 
 79001 
 35004 
 304675 
 75i65 
 
 2221 
 
 767 
 82216 
 
 26.0 
 
 *:? 
 
 I.O 
 
 i-3 
 
 5-2 
 
 26.4 
 
 2.6 
 
 ii. 5 
 53-9. 
 48.9 
 11.4 
 35-4 
 53-4 
 4 
 7 
 24.0 
 
 Bohemian and Moravian.. 
 Croatian and Slovenian. . . 
 English 
 
 Finnish 
 
 German 
 
 Greek 
 
 Irish 
 
 Italian North 
 
 Italian South 
 
 Lithuanian . - 
 
 ^Magyar 
 
 Polish 
 
 Ruthenian 
 
 Scandinavian , 
 
 Scotch 
 
 Slovak 
 
 
 Total 3 
 
 8398624 
 
 2238801 
 
 26.7 
 
 
 *A11 peoples with an immigration below 100,000 excluded, except the 
 Bohemian and Moravian. 
 
 3 From Statistical Review of Immigration, p. 51. 
 3 Total for all races. 
 
I94 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [610 
 
 TABLE LXtll 
 
 ILLITERACY OF "OLD " AND "NEW" IMMIGRATION (JEWISH EXCEPTED) AND OF 
 JEWISH IMMIGRATION, 1899 TO 1909 l 
 
 Classed 
 
 Immigrants 14 
 years of age 
 and over 
 
 Immigrant illiterates 14 
 years of age and over 
 
 Number 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Old immigration .... . . 
 
 1983618 
 
 4471047 
 
 744395 
 
 52833 
 
 1667754 
 19*544 
 
 2.7 
 
 37-3 
 
 2 5-7 
 
 New immigration (Jewish ex- 
 cepted) 
 
 Jewish immigration. . . . . 
 
 
 Total 
 
 7199060 
 
 1912131 
 
 26.6 
 
 
 1 From Emigration Conditions in Europe^ p. 30. 
 TABLE LXIV 
 
 ILLITERACY OF PEOPLES FROM EASTERN EUROPE, 1899 TO 1910 l 
 
 People 
 
 Immigrants 14 
 years of age and 
 over 
 
 Illiterates 
 
 Number 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Jewish 
 
 806786 
 161441 
 861303 
 77479 
 
 M0775 
 
 209507 
 79001 
 
 34<75 
 29777 
 75^5 
 
 26.0 
 48.9 
 
 P: 4 4 
 
 63 4 
 
 Lithuanian . . . . 
 
 Polish . .... 
 
 Russian .... . 4 . . 
 
 Ruthenian 
 
 
 1 From Statistical Rcvitiu of Immigration, p. 51. 
 TABLE LXV 
 
 SEX OF ILLITERATES OF PEOPLES FROM EASTERN EURCPF, 1908 
 
 Race 
 
 Number illiterates 14 years 
 and over 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 Male 
 
 Female 
 
 Jewish 
 
 9455 
 4215 
 J 4573 
 5820 
 4203 
 
 13762 
 
 2> V 97 
 88 n 
 828 
 1836 
 
 21.9 
 
 534 
 
 3 6 7 
 40 i 
 49.6 
 
 40.4 
 
 63-4 
 429 
 508 
 57-4 
 
 Polish 
 
 
 
 1 From Report of New York State Commission on Immigration, 1908, p. 171 
 
6ll] STATISTICAL TABLES 
 
 TABLE LXVI 
 
 DESTINATION OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS, 1899 TO 1910, BY DIVISION 1 
 
 195 
 
 Division 
 
 Jewish immigrants 
 
 Per cent 
 
 North Atlantic States 
 
 927C49 
 
 860 
 
 North Central States 
 
 110998 
 
 IO 7 
 
 South Atlantic States 
 
 25149 
 
 2 7 
 
 South Central States '. . 
 
 8124 
 
 .8 
 
 Western States 
 
 6384 
 
 .6 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1074404 2 
 
 IOO O 
 
 
 
 
 1 From Reports of Commissioner- General of Immigration. 
 
 1 27 were destined for Alaska, Hawaii, and Porto Rico, and n were tourists. 
 
 TABLE LXVII 
 
 DESTINATION OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS, 1899 to IQIO, 
 BY PRINCIPAL STATES 
 
 State 
 
 Jewish immigrants 
 
 Per cent of total 
 
 New York 
 
 690296 
 
 64 2 
 
 Pennsylvania , . . . ... 
 
 108574 
 
 IO I 
 
 
 *r~53* 
 
 66023 
 
 6 i 
 
 
 COQ7I 
 
 4 7 
 
 
 7127Q 
 
 7 2 
 
 Ohio 
 
 2OC7I 
 
 I q 
 
 Maryland . ... . 
 
 ^33 
 
 I87OO 
 
 I 7 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 162^4 
 
 I c 
 
 Missouri 
 
 1 2476 
 
 *.> 
 
 I 2 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 7O2Q 
 
 7 
 
 
 6769 
 
 6 
 
 
 CQ7O 
 
 6 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 CO27 
 
 c 
 
 All others 
 
 7IO8Q 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 Total 
 
 IO744O4 * 
 
 IOO O 
 
 
 
 
 1 Cf. note 2 of table LXVI. 
 
I9 6 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [612 
 TABLE LXVIII 
 
 PERCENTAGE OF JEWISH AND TOTAL IMMIGRANTS DESTINED FOR EACH 
 DIVISION, 1899 TO 1910 l 
 
 Division 
 
 Per cent, of total 
 immigrants 
 
 Per cent of Jewish 
 immigrants 
 
 North Atlantic States 
 
 67.5 
 
 86.0 
 
 North Central States 
 
 22 4. 
 
 IO 3 
 
 South Atlantic States . . . 
 
 2 7 
 
 2 1 
 
 South Central States 
 
 i 8 
 
 % 
 
 Western . ... 
 
 c 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 IOO O 
 
 ICO.O 
 
 
 
 
 From Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration. 
 
 TABLE LXIX 
 
 PARTICIPATION OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS IN DESTINATION OF TOTAL 
 IMMIGRANTS, 1899 TO I9IO, BY DIVISION 
 
 Division 
 
 Total immigrants 
 
 Jewish immigrants 
 
 Per cent Jewish 
 of total 
 
 North Atlantic . . 
 North Central . . 
 South Atlantic . . 
 North Central . . 
 Western 
 
 6368243 
 2116327 
 254936 
 167427 
 
 53 282 4 
 
 923549 
 110998 
 25149 
 8324 
 6384 
 
 "4-5 
 
 5-2 
 99 
 5-0 
 
 1.2 
 
 Total .... 
 
 9439757 
 
 1074404* 
 
 ii. 4 
 
 1 From Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration. 
 * Cf. note 2 of table LXVI. 
 
APPENDICES 
 
APPENDIX A. 
 
 PRESIDENT HARRISON'S MESSAGE TO CONGRESS, 
 DECEMBER g, 1891. l 
 
 This Government has found occasion to express in a friendly 
 spirit, but with much earnestness, to the Government of the 
 Czar its concern because of the harsh measures now being en- 
 forced against the Hebrews in Russia. By the revival of 
 antisemitic laws, long- in abeyance, great numbers of those 
 unfortunate people have been constrained to abandon their 
 homes and leave the Empire by reason of the impossibility of 
 finding subsistence within the pale to which it is sought to 
 confine them. The immigration of these people to the United 
 States many other countries being closed to them is largely 
 increasing and is likely to assume proportions which may 
 make it difficult to find homes and employment for them here 
 and to seriously affect the labor market. It is estimated that 
 over 1,000,000 will be forced from Russia in a few years. 
 The Hebrew is never a beggar ; he has always kept the law 
 life by toil often under severe and oppressive civil restrictions. 
 It is also true that no race, set or class has more fully cared 
 for its own than the Hebrew race. But the sudden transfer of 
 such a multitude under conditions that tend to strip them of 
 their small accumulations and to depress their energies and 
 courage is neither good for them nor for us. 
 
 The banishment, whether by direct decree or by not less 
 certain indirect methods, of so large a number of men and 
 women is not a local question. A decree to leave one country 
 is in the nature of things an order to enter another some 
 other. This consideration, as well as the suggestion of hu- 
 manity, furnishes ample ground for the remonstrances which 
 we have presented to Russia, while our historic friendship for 
 that government can not fail to give assurance that our repre- 
 sentations are those of a sincere wellwisher. 
 
 1 (Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789-1897, vol. ix, 1889-97, 
 p. 188. Washington, 1898). 
 
 615] 109 
 
APPENDIX B. 
 
 ARTICLE VII OF THE CONSTITUTION OF ROUMANIA. 
 Difference in religious beliefs and confessions does not con- 
 stitute in Roumania an obstacle to the obtainment of civil 
 and political rights, nor to the exercise of these rights. 
 
 1 i ) A foreigner without distinction of religion, and whether 
 a subject or not of a foreign government, can become natura- 
 lized under the following conditions : 
 
 (a) He shall address to the government an application for 
 naturalization, in which he shall indicate the capital he 
 possesses, the profession or craft which he follows, and his 
 abode in Roumania. 
 
 (b) He shall reside, after this application, ten years in the 
 country, and prove, by action, that he is of service to it. 
 
 (2) The following may be exempted from the intermediary 
 stages : 
 
 (a) Those who have brought into the country industries, 
 useful inventions, or talent, or who have founded large estab- 
 lishments of commerce or industry. 
 
 (b) Those who, born and bred in Roumania, of parents 
 established in the country, have never been subjected, either 
 themselves or their parents, to any protection by a foreign 
 power. 
 
 (c) Those who have served under the colors during the 
 war of independence ; these may be naturalized collectively 
 by government decree, by a single resolution, and without 
 any further formality. 
 
 (3) Naturalization can not be given except by law, and 
 individually. 
 
 (4) A special law shall determine the manner in which for- 
 eigners may establish their home on Roumanian territory. 
 
 (5) Only Roumanians, and those who have been naturalized 
 Roumanians, can buy rural estates in Roumania. 
 
 200 [616 
 
APPENDIX C, 
 
 SECRETARY HAY'S NOTE. 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF STATE, ) 
 WASHINGTON, August 11, 1902. J 
 
 " Excellency :-In the course of an instruction recently sent 
 to the Minister accredited to the Government of Roumania 
 in regard to the bases of negotiation begun with that govern- 
 ment looking to a convention of naturalization between the 
 United States and Roumania, certain considerations were set 
 forth for the Minister's guidance concerning- the character 
 of the emigration from that country, the causes which con- 
 strain it, and the consequences so far as they adversely affect 
 the United States. 
 
 " It has seemed to the President appropriate that these con- 
 siderations, relating as they do to the obligations entered into 
 by the signatories of the Treaty of Berlin, of July 13, 1878, 
 should be brought to the attention of the Governments con- 
 cerned, and commended to their consideration in the hope 
 that, if they are so fortunate as to meet the approval of the 
 several Powers, such measures as to them may seem wise may 
 be taken to persuade the Government of Roumania to recon- 
 sider the subject of the grievances in question. 
 
 'The United States welcomes now, as it has welcomed 
 from the foundation of its Government, the voluntary immi- 
 gration of all aliens coming hither under conditions fitting 
 them to become merged in the body politic of this land. Our 
 laws provide the means for them to become incorporated in- 
 distinguishably in the mass of citizens, and prescribe their ab- 
 solute equality with the native born, guaranteeing to them 
 equal civil rights at home and equal protection abroad. The 
 conditions are few, looking to their coming as free agents, so 
 617] 201 
 
202 APPENDIX C [618 
 
 circumstanced physically and morally as to supply the health- 
 ful and intelligent material of free citizenhood. The pauper, 
 the criminal, the contagiously or incurably diseased are ex- 
 cluded from the benefits of immigration only when they are 
 likely to become a source of danger or a burden upon the 
 community. The voluntary character of their coming is essen- 
 tial ; hence we shut out all immigration assisted or constrained 
 by foreign agencies. The purpose of our generous treatment 
 of the alien immigrant is to benefit us and him alike not to 
 afford to another state a field upon which to cast its own ob- 
 jectionable elements. The alien, coming hither voluntarily 
 and prepared to take upon himself the preparatory and in due 
 course the definitive obligations of citizenship, retains there- 
 after, in domestic and international relations, the initial 
 character of free agency, in the full enjoyment of which it is 
 incumbent upon his adoptive State to protect him. 
 
 *' The foregoing considerations, whilst pertinent to the exam- 
 ination of the purpose and scope of a naturalization treaty, 
 have a larger aim. It behooves the State to scrutinize most 
 jealously the character of the immigration from a foreign 
 land, and, if it be obnoxious to objection, to examine the 
 causes which render it so. Should those causes originate in 
 the act of another sovereign State, to the detriment of its 
 neighbors, it is the prerogative of an injured State, to point 
 out the evil and to make remonstrance : for with nations, as 
 with individuals the social law holds good, that the right of 
 each is bounded by the right of the neighbor. 
 
 "The condition of a large class of the inhabitants of Rou- 
 mania has for many years been a source of grave concern to 
 the United States. 1 refer to the Roumanian Jews, numbering 
 some 400,000. Long ago, while the Danubian principalities 
 labored under oppressive conditions, which only war and a 
 general action of European powers sufficed to end, the perse- 
 cution of the indigenous Jews under Turkish rule called forth 
 in 1872 the strong remonstrance of the United States. The 
 Treaty of Berlin was hailed as a cure for the wrong, in view 
 of the express provisions of its forty-fourth article, prescribing 
 
619] APPENDIX C 203 
 
 that "in Roumania, the difference of religious creeds and con- 
 fessions shall not be alleged against any person as ground for ex- 
 clusion or incapacity in matters relating to the enjoyment of 
 civil and political rights, admission to public employments, 
 functions, and honors, or the exercise of the various professions 
 and industries in any locality whatsoever," and stipulating 
 freedom in the exercise of all forms of worship to Roumanian 
 dependents and foreigners alike, as well as guaranteeing that 
 all foreigners in Roumania shall be treated, without distinction 
 of creed, on a footing of perfect equality. 
 
 ' With the lapse of time these just prescriptions have been 
 rendered nugatory in great part, as regards the native Jews, 
 by the legislation and municipal regulations of Roumania. 
 Starting from the arbitrary and controvertible premise that 
 the native Jews of Roumania domiciled there for centuries 
 are "aliens not subject to foreign protection," the ability of 
 the Jew to earn even the scanty means of existence that suf- 
 fice for a frugal race has been constricted by degrees, until 
 nearly every opportunity to win a livelihood is denied ; and 
 until the helpless poverty of the Jew has constrained an exo- 
 dus of such proportions as to cause general concern. 
 
 "The political disabilities of the Jews in Roumania, their 
 exclusion from the public service and the learned professions, 
 the limitations of their civil rights and the imposition upon 
 them of exceptional taxes, involving as they do wrongs repug- 
 nant to the moral sense of liberal modern peoples, are not so 
 directly in point for my present purpose as the public acts 
 which attack the inherent right of man as a breadwinner in 
 the ways of agriculture and trade. The Jews are prohibited 
 from owning land, or even from cultivating it as common 
 laborers. They are debarred from residing in the rural dis- 
 tricts. Many branches of petty trade and manual production 
 are closed to them in the overcrowded cities where they are 
 forced to dwell and engage, against fearful odds, in the des- 
 perate struggle for existence. Even as ordinary artisans or 
 hired laborers they may only find employment in proportion 
 of one "unprotected alien" to two "Roumanians" under 
 
20 4 APPENDIX C [620 
 
 any one employer. In short, by the cumulative effect of 
 successive restrictions, the Jews of Roumania have become 
 reduced to a state of wretched misery. Shut out from nearly 
 every avenue of self-support which is open to the poor of other 
 lands, and ground down by poverty as the natural result of 
 their discriminatory treatment, they are rendered incapable of 
 lifting- themselves from the enforced degradation they endure. 
 Even were the fields of education, of civil employment and of 
 commerce open to them as to " Roumanian citizens," their 
 penury would prevent their rising: by individual effort. Hu- 
 man beings so circumstanced have virtually no alternatives 
 but submissive suffering or flight to some land less unfavora- 
 ble to them. Removal under such conditions is not and can- 
 not be the healthy, intelligent emigration of a free and self- 
 reliant being. It must be, in most cases, the mere transplan- 
 tation of an artificially produced diseased growth to a new 
 place. 
 
 " Granting: that, in better and more healthful surroundings, 
 the morbid conditions will eventually change for good, such 
 emigration is necessarily for a time a burden to the community 
 upon which the fugitives may be cast. Self-reliance and the 
 knowledge and ability that evolve the power of self-support 
 must be developed, and, at the same time, avenues of employ- 
 ment must be opened in quarters where competition is already 
 keen and opportunities scarce. The teachings of history and 
 the experience of our own nation show that the Jews possess 
 in a high degree the mental and moral qualifications of con- 
 scientious citizenhood. No class of immigrants is more wel- 
 come to our shores, when coming equipped in mind and body 
 for entrance upon the struggle for bread, and inspired with the 
 high purpose to give the best service of heart and brain to the 
 land they adopt of their own free will. But when they come 
 as outcasts, made doubly paupers by physical and moral op- 
 pression in their native land, and thrown upon the long-suffer- 
 ing generosity of a more favored community, their migration 
 lacks the essential conditions which make alien immigration 
 either acceptable or beneficial. So well is this appreciated on 
 
621] APPENDIX C 205 
 
 the Continent that, even in the countries where anti-Semitism 
 has no foothold, it is difficult for these fleeing- Jews to obtain 
 any lodgment. America is their only goal. 
 
 "The United States offers asylum to the oppressed of all 
 lands. But its sympathy with them in no wise impairs its 
 just liberty and right to weigh the acts of the oppressor in 
 the light of their effects upon this country and to judge ac- 
 cordingly. 
 
 " Putting together the facts now plainly brought home to 
 this Government during the past few years, that many of the 
 inhabitants of Roumania are being forced, by artificially ad- 
 verse discriminations, to quit their native country ; that the 
 hospitable asylum offered by this country is almost the only 
 refuge left to them ; that they come hither unfitted, by the condi- 
 tions of their exile, to take part in the new life of this land under 
 circumstances either profitable to themselves or beneficial to 
 the community ; and that they are objects of charity from the 
 outset and for a long time the right of remonstrance against 
 the acts of the Roumanian Government is clearly established in 
 favor of this Government. Whether consciously and of purpose 
 or not, these helpless people, burdened and spurned by their 
 native land, are forced by the sovereign power of Roumania 
 upon the charity of the United States. This Government 
 cannot be a tacit party to such an international wrong. It is 
 constrained to protest against the treatment to which the Jews 
 of Roumania are subjected, not alone because it has unimpeach- 
 able ground to remonstrate against the resultant injury to 
 itself, but in the name of humanity. The United States may 
 not authoritatively appeal to the stipulations of the Treaty of 
 Berlin to which it was not and cannot become a signatory, 
 but it does earnestly appeal to the principles consigned therein 
 because they are the principles of international law and eternal 
 justice, advocating the broad toleration which that solemn 
 compact enjoins and standing ready to lend its moral support 
 to the fulfilment thereof by its co-signatories, for the act of 
 Roumania itself has effectively joined the United States to 
 them as an interested party in this regard. 
 
206 APPENDIX C [622 
 
 c< You will take an early occasion to read this instruction to 
 the Minister for Foreign Affairs and, should he request it,, 
 leave with him a copy. 
 
 " I have the honor to be, 
 
 "Your obedient servant, 
 
 "JOHN HAY "... 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 (All works referred to in the text are given below. A number of 
 other works that have been found useful are also included.) 
 
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 Sons, 1913. 
 
 Alliance Israelite Universelle, 1870 to 1900. 
 The American Jewish Year Book. Philadelphia, Jewish Publication 
 
 Society of America, 1900-1913. 
 
 - 1913. Jewish Immigration to the United States, pp. 283-4. 
 Association for the Protection of Jewish Immigrants of Philadelphia. 
 
 Annual Reports, 1885 to 1910. 
 Balch, Emily Greene. Our Slavic Fellow-Citizens. New York Charities 
 
 Publication Committee, 1910. 
 Bluntschli. Dr. Roumama and the Legal Status of the Jews in Rou- 
 
 mania. London, Anglo-Jewish Association, 1879. 
 Buzek, Dr. Joseph. " Das Auswanderungsproblem in Oesterreich," 
 
 Zeitschrift fur Volkswirtschaft, Sozialpoitik und Verwaltung, vol. 
 
 10, 1901. 
 Carmen Sylva. " Roumania and the Foreigners," Century, March, 
 
 1906. 
 Charmatz, Richard. Deutsch-Oesterreichische Politik. Leipzig, 
 
 Duncker und Humblot, 1907. 
 
 Demidoff San Donato, Prince. The Jewish Question in Russia. Lon- 
 don, Darling & Son, 1884. 
 
 Die Judenpogromen in Russland. 2 vols. Koln, Jiidischer Verlag, 1910. 
 English Royal Commission on Alien Immigration, 1904. 
 Enquete sur les Artisans premiere partie, Ministere de 1'Industrie et 
 
 du Commerce, Royaume de Roumanie, Bucarest 1909. 
 Fairchild. Immigration. New York, Macmillan Co., 1913. 
 Frederic, Harold. The New Exodus. New York, G. P. Putnam's 
 
 Sons, 1892. 
 Goldberg. " Die Juden unter der stadtischer Bevolkerung Russlands." 
 
 Zeitschrift fiir Demographie und Statistik der Juden. Bureau fur 
 
 Statistik der Juden, Berlin. 
 
 Grenzboten, vol. 62, 1003. (i) " Galizische Wirtschaft." (2) " Galizien." 
 Hersch, L. Le Juif errant d'aujourd'hui. Paris, M. Giard et E 
 
 Briere, 1913. 
 623] 207 
 
208 BIBLIOGRAPHY [624 
 
 Hillman, Anselm. Judisches Genossenschaftswesen in Russland, 
 Bureau fur Statistic der Juden, Berlin, 1911. 
 
 Immigration Commission. Emigration Conditions in Europe. Report 
 to 6ist Congress, 2nd Session, Senate Document No. 748, Washing- 
 ton, 1911. 
 
 Conclusions and Recommendations. 
 
 Abstract of Emigration Conditions in Europe. " 
 
 Abstract of Statistical Review of Immigration to the United 
 
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 Jewish Chronicle, 1875-1910. 
 
 Jewish Encyclopedia, i. " Antisemitism." 2. " Austria." 3. " Migra- 
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 Jorga, N. Geschichte des Rum'dnischen Volkes. 2 vols. Gotha, Fred- 
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 Jiidische Statistik, Berlin, Jiidischer Verlag, 1903. 
 
 Enquete uber die Lage der jiidischen Bevolkerung Galiziens, von 
 
 Dr. S. Fleischer. 
 
 Zur Bewegung der jiidischen Bevolkerung in Galizien, von Dr. A. 
 
 Korkis. 
 
 Kogalniceanu, Vasile M. " Die Agrarfrage in Rumanien." Archiv fur 
 
 Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik, vol. 32, 1911. 
 Kovalevsky, Maxim. La crise russe. V. Giard et E. Briere, Paris, 
 
 1906. 
 Russian Political Institutions. University of Chicago Press, 
 
 1902. 
 Landa, M. J. The Alien Problem and its Remedy. London, P. S. King 
 
 & Son, 1911. 
 La question juive dans les Chambres roumaines. Seconde edition. 
 
 Paris, Ch. Marechal, 1879. 
 Lazare, Bernard. Die Juden in Rumanien. H. S. Hermann, Berlin, 
 
 1902. 
 Leroy-Beaulieu, Anatole. The Empire of the Tsars. 3 vols. New 
 
 YTork, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1894. 
 Loeb, Isidore. La Situation des Israelites en Turquie, en Serbie et en 
 
 Roumanie. Paris, Joseph Baer et Cie, 1877. 
 Margolin, Salomon. " Die wirtschaftliche Lage der jiidischen arbeit- 
 
 enden Klassen in Russland." Archiv fiir S-osialwissenschaft und 
 
 Sozialpolitik. Band 26, Heft I. 
 Milyoukov, Paul. Russia and its Crisis. University of Chicago Press, 
 
 1905. 
 Palmer, Francis H. E. Austro-Hungarian Life in Town and Country. 
 
 New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1903. 
 Russian Life in Town and Country. New York> G. P. Putnam's 
 
 Sons, 1903. 
 
625] BIBLIOGRAPHY 209 
 
 Persecution of the Jews in Russia (issued by the Russo- Jewish com- 
 mittee of London). Philadelphia, Jewish Publication Society of 
 America, 1891. 
 
 Reports of the Commissioner-General of Immigration, 1881 to 1912. 
 
 Report on the Causes inciting Immigration to the United States, 1892. 
 
 Rubinow, I. M. Economic Condition of the Jews in Russia. Bulletin 
 of the Bureau of Labor, Department of Commerce and Labor, 
 Washington, 1907. 
 
 Ruppin, Dr. A. Die Sozialen Verhdltnisse der Juden in Russland. 
 Berlin, Jiidischer Verlag, 1906. 
 
 Die Juden in Rumdnien. Bureau fiir Statistik der Juden. Heft 5. 
 
 Louis Lamm, Berlin, 1908. 
 - The Jews of To-Day. New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1913. 
 
 Schulze-Gavernitz, Dr. G. von. Volkswirtschaftliche Studien aus Russ- 
 land. Leipzig, 1899. 
 
 Semenoff, E. The Russian Government and the Jewish Massacres. 
 London, John Murray, 1907. 
 
 Simkhovitch, Valdimir G. " An Interpretation of Russian Autocracy." 
 The Internationa! Quarterly, Oct., 1904. 
 
 Sincerus, Edmond. Les Juifs en Roumanie. New York, Macmillan & 
 Co., 1901. 
 
 Sturdza, A. A. C. La Terre et la Race roumaines. Paris, Lucien 
 Lavens, 1904. 
 
 Sulzberger, David. The Beginnings of Russo-Jewish Immigration to 
 Philadelphia. Publications of the American Jewish Historical So- 
 ciety, No. 19, 1910. 
 
 Thon, Dr. Jacob. Die Juden in Oesterreich. Bureau fiir Statistik der 
 Juden. Heft 4. Louis Lamm, Berlin, 1908. 
 
 United Hebrew Charities of New York, Annual Reports, 1884 to 1910. 
 
 UYussov, Prince Serge. Memoirs of a Russian Governor. New York, 
 Harper Bros., 1908. 
 
 Wallace, Sir Donald Mackenzie. Russia. 2nd edition. New York, 
 Henry Holt & Co., 1905, 
 
 White, Andrew D. Autobiography. 2 vols. New York, Century Co., 
 1905. 
 
 Witte, S. J. Vorlesungen iiber Volks und Staatswirtschaft. Stuttgart 
 and Berlin, 1913. 
 
 Wolf, Lucien. The Legal Sufferings of the Jews in Russia. London, 
 T. Fisher Unwin, 1912. 
 
 
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