JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES / FROM 1881 TO 1910 BY SAMUEL JOSEPH, A. B. *u Instructor in the Commercial High School, Brooklyn, New York SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE FACULTY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY NEW YORK 1914 COPYRIGHT, 1914 BY SAMUEL JOSEPH Co MY FATHER AND MY MOTHER PREFACE IN this survey of Jewish immigration to the United States for the past thirty years, my purpose has been to present the main features of a movement of population that is one of the most striking of modern times. The causes) of Jewish emigration from Eastern Europe, the course of Jewish immigration to the United States and the most im- portant social qualities of the Jewish immigrants are studied for the light they throw upon the character of this move- ment. The method employed in this investigation has been largely statistical and comparative, a fact which is partly 1 due to the kind of material that was available and partly to the point of view that has been taken. Certain eco- nomic and social factors, having a close bearing upon the past and present situation of the Jews in Eastern Europe and frequently neglected in the discussion of the various phases of this movement, have been emphasized in the ex- amination into the causes of the emigration of the Jews from Eastern Europe and have been found vital in deter- mining the specific character of the Jewish immigration to this country. I desire gratefully to acknowledge my deep indebtedness to Mr. A. S. Freidus, head of the Jewish department of the New York Public Library, for his ever-ready assistance in the preparation of this work. Thanks are due as well to Dr. C. C. Williamson, head of the Economics depart- ment of the library, and to his able and courteous staff; to Professor Robert E. Chaddock for his many valuable sug- 423] 7 8 PREFACE [424 gestions and aid in the making of the statistical tables and in the reading of the proof; and to Professor Edwin R. A. Seligman for his painstaking reading of the manuscript SAMUEL JOSEPH. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PART I. THE CAUSES OF JEWISH EMIGRATION. PAGE CHAPTER I Introduction. 1. Character of Jewish immigration 21 2. Eastern Europe 22 3. Distribution of Jews in Eastern Europe 22 4. Uniform character of East-European Jews 22 CHAPTER II EASTERN EUROPE: ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS. I. Russia. 1. Medieval past 27 2. Agricultural character 28 3. Emancipation of serfs 29 4. Reminiscences of serfdom 29 5. Changes since the emancipation 30 6. Epoch of transition 31 7. Social orders: classes, the church 31 8. Political order: autocracy, bureaucracy 32 9. Political struggle: Russian liberalism 32 10. Reaction since Alexander III , 33 II. Roumania. 1. Social-economic classes 34 2. Emancipation of the serfs: results 35 3. Development of industry and commerce 36 4. Growth of a middle class 36 III. Austria- Hungary. 1. Reminiscences of medieval economy 37 2. Transitional nature of economic life 37 3. Organization of industry and commerce 37 4. Politico-economic struggles 38 5. Galicia: economic and social conditions 39 IV. Summary. 425] o 10 CONTENTS [426 PAGE CHAPTER III THE JEWS IN EASTERN EUROPE: ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL POSITION I. JRussia. 1. Economic characteristics . 42 a. Occupational distribution of the Jews ....... 42 b. Comparison with the non-Jews . 42 c. Participation of the Jews in principal occupational groups 43 d. Comparison of occupational distribution of Jews and non-Jews in the Pale 43 e. Economic activities of the Jews 44 2. Social characteristics 46 a. Urban distribution of the Jews 46 b. Comparison with the non-Jews 46 c. Literacy: comparison with the non-Jews 47 d. Liberal professions: comparison with the non-Jews. 48 II. Roumania. 1. Economic characteristics 48 a. The Jews as merchants and entrepreneurs 48 b. The Jewish artisans 49 c. Participation of the Jews in industry and commerce. 49 2. Social characteristics 49 a. Urban distribution of the Jews 49 b. Comparison with the non-Jews 49 c. Literacy: comparison with the non-Jews 50 III. Austria-Hungary. i. Economic characteristics ..... 50 a. Occupational distribution of the Jews 50 b. Comparison with the non-Jews 51 c. Participation of the Jews in principal occupational groups 51 Galicia 51 a. Occupational distribution of the Jews 51 b. Comparison with the non-Jews . 51 c. Participation of the Jews in principal occupational groups 51 d. Industrial and commercial position of the Jews in East and West Galicia 52 427] CONTENTS u PAGE 2. Social characteristics 52 a. Urban distribution of the Jews 52 b. Comparison with the non-Jews . 52 c. Liberal professions: comparison with the non-Jews. 52 IV. Summary. CHAPTER IV THIRTY YEARS OF JEWISH HISTORY I. Russia. 1 . Treatment of the Jews after the partitions of Poland ... 56 2. Pale of Jewish Settlement: special Jewish laws 57 3. Attitude of Russian government toward the Jews. .... 57 4. Alexander II and liberalism 58 5. Reaction: antagonism to the Jews 59 6. Economic attack: the May Laws 60 7. Effect of the May Laws 61 8. Educational restrictions: the " percentage rule " .... 62 9. Pogroms : pogroms of 1881-2 63 10. Expulsions from Moscow 64 11. Nicholas II: anti-Jewish agitation: KishinefT 64 12. War and revolution: effect upon the Jews 65 13. Pogroms as counter-revolution 66 14. Results: economic and social pressure 67 15. Jewish policy of reactionary regime 68 II. Roumania. 1. Early legal status of the Jews 69 2. Convention of Paris 69 3. Anti-Jewish activities of the government: Article VII . . 70 4. Berlin Congress 70 5. Article 44 of the Berlin Treaty 71 6. The revised Article VII 71 7. Legal status of the Jews fixed 72 8. Campaign of discrimination 73 9. Exclusion of Jews from economic activities 73 10. Educational restrictions: restrictions to professional ser- vice 74 11. Political basis of anti-Jewish policy,. .......... 75 12. Results: economic and social pressure . 76 13. Jewish policy of Roumanian government: Hay's circular note 76 12 CONTENTS [428 PAGE III. Austria-Hungary. 1. Early legal status of the Jews: emancipation 77 2. Jews attacked as liberals and capitalists 78 3. Rise of political antisemitism: its triumph: the clericals . 78 Galicia 78 1. Rise of a Polish middle class: displacement of Jews in in- dustry and commerce . 79 2. Economic boycott of Jewish artisans and traders .... 79 3. Anti -Jewish activity of local authorities 79 4. Over-competition and surplus of Jews in industry and commerce 80 5. Historical role of the Jews: antagonism of peasantry and clergy 80 CHAPTER V CONCLUSION PART II. JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES A. ITS MOVEMENT CHAPTER I DETERMINATION OF NUMBER OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS 1. Construction of table: difficulties 87 2. Sources utilized: reports of Jewish societies 87 3. Rearrangement of numbers from 1886 to 1898 . . 88 4. Determination of numbers by country of nativity: methods used 88 5. Determination of numbers from 1881 to 1885: methods used . 90 6. Tendency to magnify numbers of Jewish immigrants .... 91 7. Results 92 CHAPTER II IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM EASTERN EUROPE 1. Jewish immigration East-European 95 2. Summary by decades of Jewish immigration from Russia, Roumania and Austria- Hungary 95 3. Annual contributions of Jewish immigration from Russia, Roumania and Austria-Hungary 96 429] CONTENTS I3 PAGE CHAPTER III IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM RUSSIA 1. Russian Jewish immigration a movement of steady growth . . 98 a. Summary by decades 98 b. Annual variations: effect of the Moscow expulsions . . 98 2. Participation of Jews in the immigration from Russia .... 101 a. Annual variations 101 b. Summary by decades 102 c. Relative predominance of Jewish in total 102 3. Intensity of Jewish immigration from Russia 103 a. Rate of immigration ... 103 b. Fluctuations of rate 104 CHAPTER IV IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM ROUMANIA 1. Roumanian Jewish immigration a rising movement 105 a. Summary by decades 105 b. Annual variations 105 2. Participation of Jews in the immigration from Roumania . . 107 a. Jewish and total synonymous 107 b. Annual variations 107 3. Intensity of Jewish immigration from Roumania 108 a. Rate of immigration 108 b. Fluctuations of rate 108 CHAPTER V IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 1. Jewish immigration from Austria-Hungary a rising movement 109 a. Summary by decades 109 b. Annual variations 109 c. Comparison of Jewish with total no 2. Participation of Jews in the immigration from Austria- Hungary no a. Summary by decades no b. Annual variations in 3. Comparison of immigration of Jews from Austria and Hungary in a. Numbers ill b. Participation in total ill 4. Immigration of Jews and other peoples from Austria-Hungary. 1 12 5. Rate of Jewish immigration from Austria -Hungary 112 I 4 CONTENTS [ 430 PAGE CHAPTER VI JEWISH IMMIGRATION 1. Total movement one of geometrical progression ...... 113 a. Summary by decades 113 b. Summary by six-year periods 113 c. Annual variations 114 CHAPTER VII PARTICIPATION OF JEWS IN TOTAL IMMIGRATION 1. Rise in proportion of Jewish to total 117 2. Summary by decades 117 3. Annual variations 117 4. Comparison of annual variations of Jewish and total immigra- tion . . . 118 5. Rank of Jewish in total immigration 119 6. Rate of immigration 120 CHAPTER VIII SUMMARY B. ITS CHARACTERISTICS CHAPTER I FAMILY MOVEMENT 1. Importance of sex and age distribution 127 2. Proportion of females in Jewish immigration 127 a. Tendency towards increase 127 3. Proportion of children in Jewish immigration 128 4. Proportion of sexes in total and Jewish immigration 129 5. Proportion of children in total and Jewish immigration . . . 129 6. Comparison of composition by sex of Jews and other immi- grant peoples 130 7. Comparison of composition by age of Jews and other immi- grant peoples 130 8. Comparison of composition by sex and age of Jews and the Slavic races . . 131 9. Comparison of composition by sex and age of Jews from Rou- mania and Roumanians 131 10. Comparison of composition by sex and age of Jewish and " old" and " new" immigration 132 IT. Conclusion 132 431] CONTENTS ! 5 PAGE CHAPTER II. PERMANENT SETTLEMENT 1. Emigration of Jews compared with immigration of Jews . . . 133 2. Comparison of return movement of total and Jewish immi- gration 134 3. Comparison of return movement of Jews and other immigrant peoples 134 4. Emigration tendency of Jews from Russia, Roumania and Austria-Hungary 135 5. Comparison of return movement of Jews and Poles from Russia and Austria-Hungary 136 6. Comparison of return movement of Jewish and "old" and "new" immigration 137 7. Comparison of return movement of Jews and other immigrant peoples, 1908 137 8. Response of Jewish immigration to economic conditions in the United States . . . 138 9. Comparison of Jews and other immigrant peoples who have been previously in the United States 138 10. Conclusion 139 CHAPTER III OCCUPATIONS 1. Occupational distribution of Jewish immigrants 140 2. Jewish immigrants reporting occupations 141 a. Number and percentage of occupational groups ... . 141 3. Skilled laborers 141 a. Garment workers 141 b. Other important groups 142 4. Participation of Jews in occupational distribution of total im- migration 142 5. Comparison of occupational distribution of Jews and other im- migrant peoples 143 6. Comparison of occupational distribution of Jews and Slavic peoples 144 7. Comparison of occupational distribution of Jewish and "old " and "new" immigration 144 8. Conclusion 145 16 CONTENTS [432 PAGE CHAPTER IV ILLITERACY 1. Illiteracy of Jewish immigrants 146 2. Influence of sex upon illiteracy of Jewish immigrants . . 146 3. Illiteracy of Jewish male and female immigrants . ...... 147 4. Comparison of rate of illiteracy of Jews and other immigrant peoples 147 5. Comparison of rate of illiteracy of Jewish and "old" and " new " immigration 147 6. Comparison of rate of illiteracy of Jews and East-European peoples 148 7. Comparison of rate of illiteracy of each sex among Jews and East-European peoples 148 8. Conclusion 148 CHAPTER V DESTINATION 1. Factors influencing destination 149 2. Proportion of Jewish immigrants destined for divisions . . . 149 3. Proportion of Jewish immigrants destined for principal states. 149 4. Comparison of destination of Jews and other immigrant peoples 150 5. Participation of Jews in the immigration destined for divisions. 150 6. Final disposition of Jewish immigrants 151 CHAPTER VI SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 433 ] CONTENTS ! 7 STATISTICAL TABLES PAGE IA. Participation of Jews in occupations in the Russian Em- pire, 1897. 158 IAB. Participation of Jews in occupations in the Pale of Jewish Settlement, 1897 159 II. Jewish immigration at the ports of New York, Philadel- phia and Baltimore, July to June, 1886 to 1898 .... 159 III. Jewish immigration at the port of New York, July, 1885 to June, 1886, by month and country of nativity . . . 159 IVA. Jewish immigration at the port of Philadelphia, 1886 to 1898, by country of nativity 160 IVB. Jewish immigration at the port of Baltimore, 1891 to 1898, by country of nativity 160 V. Jewish immigration at the ports of New York, Philadel- phia and Baltimore, 1886 to 1898, by country of nativity. ... 161 VI. Jewish immigration to the United States, 1881 to 1910 . . 93 VII. Percentage of annual Jewish immigration to the United States, contributed by each country of nativity, 1881 to 1910 94 VIII. Jewish immigration to the United States, 1881 to 1910, ab- solute numbers and percentages, by decade and country of nativity 162 IX. Jewish immigration from Russia, 1881 to 1910, and per- centage of total arriving each year 162 X. Jewish immigration from Russia, 1881 to 1910, by defade and percentage of total arriving each decade 163 XI. Jewish immigration from Russia at the port of New York, January i, 1891 to December 31, 1891, and January i, 1892 to December 31, 1892, by month 163 XII. Total immigration from Russia and Jewish immigration from Russia, 1881 to 1910, and percentage Jewish of total 164 XIII. Total immigration from Russia and Jewish immigration from Russia, 1881 to 1910, by decade and percentage Jewish of total. 164 XIV. Immigration to the United States from the Russian Em- pire, 1899 to 1910, by annual percentage of contribu- tion of principal peoples 165 XV. Rate of immigration of peoples predominant in the immi- gration from Russia, 1899 to 1910 . 165 XVI. Rate of Jewish immigration from Russia per 10,000 of Jewish population, 1899 to 1910 166 i8 CONTENTS [434 FACE XVII. Jewish immigration from Roumania, 1881 to 1910, by decade and percentage of total arriving each decade. 166 XVIII. Jewish immigration from Roumania, 1881 to 1910, and percentage of total arriving each year . . ... 167 XIX. Total immigration from Roumania and Jewish immi- gration from Roumania, 1899 to 1910, and percentage Jewish of total 168 XX. Rate of Jewish immigration from Roumania per 10.000 of Jewish population, 1899 to 1910 168 XXI. Jewish immigration from Austria Hungary, 1881 to 1910, by decade and percentage of total arriving each decade ... 169. XXII. Jewish immigration from Austria-Hungary, 1881 to 1910, and percentage of total arriving each year . . 169 XXIII. Total and Jewish immigration from Austria-Hungary, 1881 to 1910, by decade and percentage Jewish of total 170 XXIV. Total and Jewish immigration from Austria-Hungary, 1881 to 1910, and percentage Jewish of total . . 170 XXV. Percentage of annual immigration from Austria-Hun- gary contributed by principal peoples, 1899 to 1910 . 171 XXVI. Rate of Jewish immigration from Austria-Hungary per 10,000 of Jewish population, 1899 to 1910 . 171 XXVII. Jewish immigration, 1881 to 1910, by decade 172 XXVIII. Jewish immigration, 1881 to 1910, by six-year period . 172 XXIX. Jewish immigration to the United States, 1881 to 1910 173 XXX. Total immigration and Jewish immigration, 1881 to 1910, by decade and percentage Jewish of total . 174 XXXI. Total immigration and Jewish immigration, 1881 to 1910, by year and percentage Jewish of total .... 174 XXXII. Total and Jewish immigration, 1881 to 1910, by number and percentage of increase or decrease 175 XXXIII. Sex of Jewish immigrants, 1899 to 1910 176 XXXIV. Sex of Jewish immigrant adults at the port of New York, 1886 to 1898 176 XXXV. Age of Jewish immigrants, 1809 to 1910 ... . 177 XXXVI. Age of Jewish immigrants at the port of New York, 1886 to 1898 ... 177 XXXVII. Sex of total and Jewish immigrants, 1899 to 1910 . . 178 XXXVIII. Sex of European immigrants, 1899 to 1910 ... 179 XXXIX. Age of European immigrants, 1899 to 1909 180 XL. Sex, 1899 to 1910, and age, 1899 to 1909, of Slavic immigrants 181 435] CONTENTS PAGE XLlA. Sex of Roumanian immigrants, 1899 to 1910, and of immigrants from Roumania, 1900 to IQIO . . 181 XLlB. Age of Jewish and Roumanian immigrants, 1899 to 1909 ............... . ..... 181 XLII. Sex and age of " old" and " new " immigration (Jew- ish excepted) and of Jewish immigration, 1899 to 1909 ............ . ..... 182 XLIII. Jewish immigration and emigration, 1908 to 1912. . . . 182 XLIV. Total and Jewish emigrant aliens and percentage Jewish immigrant aliens of total immigrant aliens, 1908 to 1912 183 XLV. European immigrant aliens admitted, and European emigrant aliens departed, 1908, 1909 and 1910 ..... 183 XLVI. Jewish immigration and emigration, Russia, Austria- Hungary and Roumania, 1908 to 1912 ........ 184 XLVII. Polish immigration and emigration, Russia and Austria- Hungary, 1908 to 1912 ....... ....... 184 XLVIII. "Old" and "new" (Jewish excepted) and Jewish im- migration and emigration, 1908 to 1910 ....... 185 XLIX. European immigrant aliens, 1507, and European emi- grant aliens, 1908 ......... ........ 185 L. Total European immigrants admitted and total of those admitted during this period in the United States pre- viously, 1899 to 1910 ....... ......... 186 LI. Occupational distribution of Jewish immigrants, 1899 to 1910 ........................ 186 LII. Jewish immigrants reporting occupations, 18^9 to 1910 - 187 LIII. Jewish immigrants engaged in professional occupations, 1859 to 1910. - ............... 187 LIV. Jewish immigrants reporting skilled occupations, 1899 to 1910 ...................... 188 LV. Occupations of total European and Jewish iirmigrants, 1899 to 1909, and percentage Jewish of total ..... 189 LVI. Total European immigrants and immigrants without occupation, 1899 to 1910 ......... ...... 189 LVII. Occupations of European imm igrants reporting employ- ment, 1899 to 1910. . . ............ ... 190 LVIII. Occupations of Slavic and Jewish immigrants reporting employment, 1899 to 1910 .............. 191 LIX. Occupations of "old" and "new" immigration (Jew- ish excepted) and of Jewish im migration, 1809 to 1509. 191 LX. Illiteracy of Jewish immigrants, 1899 to 1910 ...... 192 LXI. Sex of Jewish immigrant illiterates, igc8 to 1512 .... 102 LXII. Illiteracy of European immigrants, 1899 to 1910 *93 CONTENTS [436 PAGE LXIII. Illiteracy of "old" and "new" immigration (Jewish excepted) and of Jewish immigration, 1899 to 1509 . . 194 LXIV. Illiteracy of peoples from Eastern Europe, 1899 to 1910. 194 LXV. Sex of illiterates of peoples from Eastern Europe, 1908 . 194 LXVI. Destination of Jewish immigrants, 1899 to 1910, by principal divisions 195 LXVI I. Destination of Jewish immigrants, 1899 to 1910, by principal states 195 LXVIII. Percentage of Jewish and total immigrants destined for each division, 1899 to 1910 196 LXIX. Participation of Jewish immigrants in destination of total immigrants, 1899 to 1910, by principal divisions . 196 APPENDICES A. President Harrison's Message, 1891 199 B. Article VII of the Constitution of Roumania 200 C. Secretary Hay's Note 201 BIBLIOGRAPHY 207 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION THIRTY years have elapsed since the Jews began to enter J the United States in numbers sufficiently large to make their immigration conspicuous in the general movement to this country. A study of Jewish immigration, in itself and in relation to the general movement, reveals an interesting phase of this historic and many-sided social phenomenon and throws light upon a number of important problems in- cident to it. Especially does it become clear that the Jewish immigra- tion, although in part the result of the same forces as have affected the general immigration and the separate groups! composing it, differs, nevertheless, in certain marked re- spects, from the typical immigration. Some of these dif- ferences indeed are fundamental and far-reaching in their effects and practically stamp the Jewish immigration as a movement sui generis. Generally speaking, in the forces which are behind the emigration of the Jews from the countries of the Old World, in the character of their immigration its movement and its distinguishing qualities the Jewish immigration strikes a distinctly individual note. Three European countries Russifr, An. stria -Hungary an4 Rourhania==f.urm'sh the vast majority. oJLlhe. Jewish immigrant tn tbp TTnitpH fttafps- 1 It is to these countries, therefore, that we must turn for light upon the causes of this movement. i Cf. infra, p. 95- 437] 21 22 JEW IS PI IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES Geographically, these countries are closely connected; they form practically the whole of the division of Eastern Europe. Here the Slavonic races so largely predominate that the term Slavonic Europe has been applied to this sec- tion of Europe. Eastern or Slavonic Europe is a social as well as a geo- graphical fact. In racial stratification, economic and social institutions, cultural position and, in part, religious traditions as well, these countries present strong similari- ties to one another and equally strong differences in most of these respects from the countries of Western Europe. It is here that the Jews are found concentrated in the greatest numbers. Nearly seven and a half-million Jews ,J more than~Kalf of the Jews of the world live in these* countries. Of this number more than five millions are in Russia, more than two millions in Austria-Hungary, and a quarter of a million in Roumania. The great majority of these are massed on the contiguous borders, in a zone which embraces Poland, and Western Russia, Galicia, and Moldavia. This is the emigration zone. The relative den- sity of the Jews is greatest in these parts. Every seventh man in Poland, every ninth man in Western Russia and in Galicia, and every tenth man in Moldavia, is a Jew. Thus the center of gravity of the Jewish populations is still the former kingdom of Poland, as it was constituted before the partitions at the end of the eighteenth century. United originally in Poland, the Jews of Eastern Europe still retain the same general characteristics, in spite of the changes that have been brought about by a century of rule under different governments. Speaking a common lan- guage, Yiddish, and possessing common religious tradi- tions, as well as similar social and psychological traits, the East-European Jews present on the whole a striking uni- formity of character. 439] INTRODUCTION Through the centuries they have become deeply rooted in the East-European soil, their economic and social life intimately connected with the. economic and social condi- tions of these countries and their history deeply influ- enced by the transformations that have been taking place in them for half a century. As these conditions and transformations furnish the foundation of Jewish life in Eastern Europe, and contain the explanation of the situation that has been largely re- sponsible for the recent Jewish emigration to Western Europe and the United States, a rapid review of the eco- nomic, social and political conditions of Russia, Roumania and Austria-Hungary will be made. PART I THE CAUSES OF JEWISH EMIGRATION CHAPTER II EASTERN EUROPE : ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS I. RUSSIA THE difficulty of the average American to understand the character of Russian life, some traits of which have been so vividly brought home to him in recent years, may be attributed to a general idea that a country rubbing elbows as it were with Western civilization for several centuries must perforce itself possess the characteristics of modern civilization. A closer survey of the economic, social and political conditions prevailing in Russia to-day, however, reveals many points of difference from those of the coun- tries of Western Europe, and presents a remarkable con- trast with those prevailing in the United States. Russia and the United States, indeed, stand, in Leroy-Beaulieu's phrase, at the two poles of modern civilization. So far apart are they in the character of their economic, social and political structures, in the degree in which they utilize the forms and institutions of modern life, and, in the difference* in the mental make-up of their peoples, that there exist few, if any, points of real contact. Up to the middle of the iQth century, Russia was, in nearly all respects, a medieval state. She was a society, which, in the words of Kovalevsky, " preserved still of / feudalism, not its political spirit but its economic structure, V serfdom, monopoly and the privileges of the nobility, its immunities in the matter of taxes, its exclusive right to 443] 27 2 g JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [444 landed property, and its seignorial rights." * Her modern era dates from the emancipation of the serfs in 1861, when she became, at least in form, a European state. But, though the Russia of our day has witnessed great transformations in the direction of modernization, she still retains many 1 , of the conditions and much of the spirit of her medieval! past. A rapid review of the economic, social and political con- ditions of Russia will serve to make clearer this situation,, which has an important bearing upon the exceptional posi- tion, legal, economic, social, of the Jews in the Empire, and upon the fateful events of their history for a third of a century. The most striking fact in the economic life of present- day Russia is that it is overwhelmingly agricultural. More than three-fourths of her population are engaged in some form of agricultural labor. The vast majority are peas- ants living in villages. Towns are relatively few and sparsely populated. Agricultural products constitute 85 per cent of the annual exports. What a contrast does this agricultural state, this " peasant empire ", present to the industrially and commercially developed countries of West- ern Europe and the United States ! The Russian peasant still practices a primitive system of agriculture. His method of extensive cultivation, the three-field system in vogue, his primitive implements, his domestic economy of half a century ago, with its home pro- duction for home consumption, which is still maintained in many parts of Russia to this day all these present condi- tions not far removed from those of the middle ages of Western Europe. 2 1 Kovalevsky, La crise russe (Paris, 1906), p. in. 2 Cf. Witte, Vorlesungen ilber Volks-und Staatswirtschaft (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1913), p. 40. MilyOukov, Russia and its Crisis (University of Chicago Press, 1905), p. 439. 445] EASTERN EUROPE 29 The existence to our day of this almost primitive econ- omy finds its explanation in the fact that serfdom existed in Russia, in all its unmitigated cruelty, until comparatively recent times. Its abolition through the Emancipation Act of Alexander II antedating our own Emancipation Proc- lamation by a few years struck off the chains that bound twenty millions of peasants to the soil. The emancipation, however, was not complete. The land the peasants received was insufficient for their needs. Other conditions co-oper- ated in the course of time with this primary one, to create a situation of chronic starvation for the great mass of the Russian peasants. Forced by the government to pay heavy taxes, in addition to redemption dues for the land, which they paid until recently, and receiving little help from either government or the nobility for the improvement of their position, they are virtually exploited almost as completely as before the emancipation. Thus, though freed in person, the peasants are to a great extent bound by economic ties to their former masters, the nobles. These two social-economic classes maintain towards each other practically the same relative position held by them before the emancipation. The manor still controls the hut. The former servile relations have persisted psychologi- cally as well. The Russian peasant is still largely a serf in his mentality, in his feeling of dependence, in his inertia and lack of individual enterprise, and, above all, in the smallness of his demands upon life. 1 This fact permeates, as it serves to explain, many aspects of contemporary Rus- sian life. The industrial and commercial stage of Russian economy began with the emancipation, which set free a great supply 1 Cf. Witte, op. tit., p. 52. 3 o JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [446 of labor. The changes that have taken place have never- theless not obliterated many of the landmarks of the feudal, pre-reformation period. The economic activities of the last half-century present a curious juxtaposition of old and new, medieval and modern. Cottage and village industries but little removed from the natural economy of the earlier 4 period exist by the side of great factories and industrial establishments employing thousands of workmen. Fairs and markets still play a large part in supplying the needs of the peasants, rapidly as they are being supplanted by the commercial activities of the towns. The industrial labor- ers, recruited mainly from the country, retain largely their peasant interests, relations and characteristics. The pay- ment of wages in kind, which is still in vogue in many parts, and the right of inflicting corporal punishment retained by 1 the employers, give evidence of the strong impress of the servile conditions of the past. Vast changes have nevertheless taken place since the emancipation. Capitalism has made rapid, if uneven, prog- ress. Under the fostering care of the government, indus-t try and commerce have made immense strides. The fac- tory system has taken firm root and has been developing a specialized class of industrial laborers. Great industrial centers have sprung up; towns have grown rapidly. The middle class, hitherto insignificant, has increased in number, wealth and influence. Among the peasants as well, free- dom has given birth to the spirit of individualism. The differentiation of the peasantry into wealthier peasants and landless agricultural laborers, the great mass of the peas- antry occupying the middle ground, and the gradual dis- solution of the two great forces of Russian agricultural life the ^patriarchal family and the village community have been the most important results. J. Russia is clearly in a state of transition from the agri- 447] EASTERN EUROPE 3! cultural or medieval to the industrial and commercial or modern economic life. This transformation of the eco- nomic structure is being effected under great difficulties and the strong opposition of the ruling classes, whose privileges are threatened by the new order of things. The Russian social and political order reflects the medie- val background which formed the setting for her entrance upon the modern stage. The class distinctions, naturally obtaining, are hardened into rigidity by the law, which di- vides Russian society into a hierarchy of five classes or orders the nobles, the clergy, the merchants, the towns- men and the peasants each with separate legal status, rights and obligations. The individual is thus not an independent unit, as in the legal codes of Western Europe or the United States. Ac- companying the legal stratification there is an exceedingly strong, almost caste-like, sense of difference between the members of the different groups. This emphasis on the person is characteristic of the medi- eval social order. In Russia it finds additional expression in the control of individual movement by means of the pass- port, without which document a Russian may be said to have no legal existence. Even more striking is the position of the Russian Church, as well as the religio-national conception which dominates the Russian mind and according to which orthodoxy and nationality are regarded as one. The Russian Orthodox is the only true Russian; all others are foreigners. In the alliance of church and state which in Russia reaches a degree of strength not attained in any other European state in the complete control exercised by the Church over the lives of the faithful and the clergy, in secular as in relig- ious matters, in its intolerant attitude towards other creeds and its unceasing attempts to suppress them it presents 3 2 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [44$ characteristics strongly reminiscent of the position of the medieval church in Western Europe. The one great political fact of Russia has been the autoc- racy. The degree of control which the autocratic Czars ex- ercised unopposed over their subjects marks an important difference between the political development of Russia and that of the countries of Western Europe. At an early period the Czars had transformed the nobility into a body of state officials, thus at a blow depriving them of any real powers, apart from the will of the Crown, and making them serve the interests of the state. In this way the nobles, or the landed aristocracy, became the main source from which the members of the bureaucracy were recruited. The lack of a middle class of any real size and influence, which could play a part in the demand for political rights, explains in a measure the strength of the autocratic powers. 1 The autocracy in turn has been largely dependent upon its ser- vant, the bureaucracy. To such an extent has the Russian government been the expression of the will and interests of this all-powerful body as to justify Leroy-Beaulieu's desig- nation of Russia as the " Bureaucratic State ". Thus the autocracy, the nobility-bureaucracy and the - , church have been the dominating forces in the economic, social and political life of Russia. In the light of this analysis, the political struggles that have been so conspicuous a feature of Russian life during the last half of the iQth century become an accompaniment as well as an expression of the progressive development of Russia towards modern economic, social and political insti- tutions. Russian liberalism, largely revolutionary because of the I denial of even elementary rights, such as the freedom of ^ person, of speech, of the press and of meeting, rights 1 Cf. Milyoukov, op. cit., p. 246 et seq. 449] EASTERN EUROPE 33 which were secured to Englishmen through the Magna Charta has had the serious task not only of securing these rights but at the same time of creating in Russia the con- ditions of modern civilization. For the twenty years in Which its spirit ruled, during the reign of Alexander II, the reforms begun under its influence amounted to a veritable / revolution. The economic, social, political and juridical re- \J forms of this epoch generated new forces and began the modernization of Russia. These reforms encountered the formidable opposition of the nobility and the church and finally of the autocracy, when the latter felt that its position was gradually being undermined, especially by the demand for a constitution. With the assassination of Alexander II, the liberal era was brought to a close, and a reaction was ushered in which has lasted to our day. The classes that came into power with Alexander III and Pobedonostseff were, from their economic interests, social outlook and political ideals, essentially medieval and may properly be termed the feudal party. Guided by its eco- nomic interests which had been seriously threatened by the emancipation and swayed by the Slavophilistic phil- y osophy, 1 this party sought to nullify as far as possible the y reforms of the epoch of emancipation and to carry through a many-sided program for putting the order of things back- ward to the medieval, pre-reform days. Autocracy, Greek Orthodoxy and Russian Nationalism the famous Slavo- philistic trinity were glorified, the first two as peculiarly national institutions, the policy of russification and the re- pression of non-orthodox faiths by force were proclaimed as vital to the social health of Russia, the blind ignorance and illiteracy of the peasants were extolled as a virtue and the control over them by the nobility was strengthened in 1 An interesting statement of the principles of the Slavophiles may be obtained from Simkhovitch (International Quarterly, Oct., 1904). J 34 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [450 many ways. Freedom of every form was condemned as an aping of the " rotten " civilization of the West with its de- caying institutions, and as false to the true Russian national, historical development. During this period of reaction, however, the liberal move- ment was kept alive, largely as revolutionary propaganda. The earlier movement had been directed by the educated classes, the " Intelligenzia " of Russia. Lately, with the growth of the middle class and a population of industrial workers in the towns and the factories, and a wealthier class of peasants, the cry for reform has become more insistent, and only recently partly successful in results. Summarizing his impressions of Russian life and insti- tutions obtained while serving as Ambassador to Russia, jr Andrew D. White remarked : " During two centuries Russia has been coming slowly out of the middle ages indeed, " out of perhaps the most cruel phases of medieval life One of the phases of this process has been the bitter struggle between the feudal and the modern forces that has occupied Russia for the last third of a century. II. ROUMANIA In Roumania, 2 in spite of a liberal constitution modeled upon the Belgian, granting all rights enjoyed by citizens of a free state, the underlying economic, social and, in a meas- ure, political conditions point to a state of things little re- moved from the medieval forms of life. The main social- economic classes are the large landed proprietors, composed chiefly of the old nobility or boyars, and the peasants, who were formerly serfs. In the hands of the former are con- 1 White, Autobiography (New York, 1905), vol. ii, p. 35. 2 Owing to the similarity of conditions in Russia and Roumania, particularly as regards the Jews, Roumania has been considered, practically throughout, immediately after Russia. 45 1 ] EASTERN EUROPE 35 centrated the greater part of the land. Five thousand large landed proprietors together owned nearly half of the culti- vable land. Nearly a million of peasants, on the other hand, comprising with their dependents a great majority of the population, together owned a little over two-fifths of the cultivable land. 1 This situation is an inheritance from the servile system which existed in Roumania until 1864, when it was legally abolished. The freedom granted to the peasants was, how- ever, more formal than real. The land given them being insufficient for their needs, and pasture land especially hav- ing been denied them, they were as a rule compelled to lease land or pasture right from their former masters at ruinous rates, often paying by labor on their former masters' es- tates. Thus the essential feudal services were in the main continued, especially as the lease and labor contracts, gen- erally drawn up in the interests of the landed proprietor, were often usurious and extremely oppressive. 2 In twenty years there was little change from the previous condition of serfdom, so that a law was necessary, in 1882, to permit the peasants to work at least two days during the week on their own land. Since this period there has been practically little change in this essentially feudal relation of the peasantry to the landed proprietors. As the owners of the great estates are a ruling power in the political life of the country, the greater part of peasants being disqualified from voting through property and educational requirements, the former have been enabled to keep the peasantry in this condition 1 Kogalniceancu, " Die Agrarf rage in Rumanien " Archiv fur Sosial- wissenschaft und Sozialpolitik, vol. xxxii, p. 804. 2 Ibid., p. 184. Jorga, Geschichte des Rumdnischen Volkes (Gotha, 1905), vol. ii, P- 374- 36 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [452 of semi-servitude. The result is a state of ignorance, mis- ery and degradation on the part of the peasantry that is difficult to parallel in another European country. That the peasants are not entirely passive under their wrongs is shown in the repeated uprisings against their masters and in the two great social revolutions of 1888 and 1907, both of which were put down by military force. Roumania's advent into industry and commerce may be dated from the eighties of the last century, and was initiated by the industrial law of 1887, which sought to create a national industry by means of subsidies, land grants and other favors to undertakers of large industrial enterprises. Since then the growth has been sufficiently rapid to place Roumania as the industrial and commercial leader of the Balkan States. Relatively, however, it is still very back- ward. Only 14 per cent of the population is urban. The industrial laborers are estimated at no more than 40,000. There are only a few cities. Only the largest Bucarest has above 100,000 inhabitants, three other cities have be- tween fifty and seventy-five thousand inhabitants. The chief industrial establishments, such as saw mills, flour mills and distilleries, are concerned mainly in the working up of the raw materials produced in the country. Neverthe- less, industrial progress has made for the growth of a small but influential middle class, which divides the control of affairs with the large landed proprietors. Its influence can be traced in the electoral law, which gives the urban classes, constituting the backbone of the liberal party, a majority in the Chamber of Deputies. III. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY Though relatively far advanced along the road of mod- ern civilization, Austria-Hungary, through its prevailing mode of economic and social life, and through its large 453] EASTERN EUROPE 37 Slavic populations, belongs rather to Eastern than to West- ern Europe. Historically, it began its modern career about the same time as Russia, when it abolished, in 1867, the feudal services and dues, survivals of the previous servile institutions. Nevertheless, in its large agricultural popu- lation, in the primitive system of cultivation generally in vogue, in the scattered character of the peasant holdings, in the strong contrast between the great landed estates or Latifundia, held chiefly by the nobility, and the small, even minute, estates of the majority of the peasant proprietors, and in the natural economy prevailing in many parts of the Dual Monarchy and constituting the main foundation upon which the life of the peasants rests in all these character- istics, is reflected the almost medieval economy which ex- isted in the empire before 1848 and which is not yet entirely outgrown. Industrially and commercially, Austria, far more than Hungary, has indeed made really remarkable progress. Yet in this respect the greatest contrast exists between the var- ious Austrian provinces. Certain of these Galicia and Bukowina, for instance are not only the most backward in these pursuits, but their agricultural population is even relatively increasing. Even in the industrially advanced provinces, such as Lower Austria and Bohemia, the transi- tional nature of the industrial life is evident in the unspe- cialized character of a larger portion of the town laborers, many of whom are peasants temporarily employed in fac- tories and mines. The Austrian organization of industry and commerce is a modernized version of the guilds and crafts of medieval Western Europe. How these medieval economic forms with their underlying psychologic forces still live and domi- nate Austria, especially its Slavic nationalities, is shown by the revival in 1859 of the Austrian guilds, the direct de- 38 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [454 scendants of the. medieval Innungen. These were, in 1883, developed in the form of Zwangsgenossenschaften or com- pulsory trade-guilds, which, in their regulations concerning the Befahigungsnachweis or certificate of capacity, the three orders of master, journeyman and apprentice, the principle of compulsory entrance into the local guild, the workman's passport or Arbeitsbuch, unite the methods of regulating and restricting industry and trade characteristic of the Middle Ages, with modern methods of combination, arbitra- tion, and assistance of members. By the side of these com- pulsory guilds are to be found the Gewerkschaften, or the modern voluntary trade-unions. The transition to modern economic and social conditions is, nevertheless, well advanced. This is seen in a decrease of the agricultural classes and an increase of the industrial and commercial classes in the thirty years from 1869 to 1900. Another sign is the fairly strong differentiation of the economic-social classes, in both the agricultural and the industrial groups, which has advanced quite rapidly. The middle class, while neither as large nor as influential as in the countries of Western Europe, has played an important role towards hastening this transition. Politically, the Dual Monarchy occupies a middle ground between absolutist Russia and constitutional England. The court, the nobility and the Roman Church with its strong aristocratic leanings, represent the dominant power in Aus- tria. The economic and social changes of the transitional period have been accompanied by politico-economic strug- gles which have played a vital part and have cut through and across the racial, national and religious conflicts of this much-distracted conglomeration of peoples. Amid the con- fusion of parties, with their complexity of programs, may be distinguished the German-Austrian liberals, representa- tives of the middle class or industrialists, whose historic 455] EASTERN EUROPE 39 mission was to create a modern state in Austria, and who carried out, in large measure, their program of constitu- tionalism, economic freedom and the secular state. Against them were arrayed the powerful forces of the agrarian party or the landed aristocracy the upholders of the feudal eco- nomic-social order of privilege and class distinction, the clericals the upholders of the idea of the Christian State and the representatives of the lower middle class, composed chiefly of petty artisans and traders, whose ideal was the medieval industrial organization, largely co-operative and regulated, as opposed to the individualistic and competitive system of the modern era, with its great concentration of wealth, capital and power in the hands of the middle class. That the present structure of Austria is so much of a com- promise and crosspatch between modern and medieval eco- nomic, social and political forms, and contains so much that is essentially incongruous, is due largely to the success- ful struggle which the chief parties of the medieval order the feudal-clericals the party of the upper classes, and the Christian Socialists the party of the lower classes have waged against the growing constitutionalization, in- dustrialization and secularization of Austria in short, against the transformation of Austria into a modern state. It is in Galicia that the conditions obtaining in Russia are largely duplicated. Geographically, racially and socially, Galicia is a part of Russia. Galicia is a preponderatingly agricultural land and possesses the densest agricultural population in Europe. Modern industry is relatively little developed, its place being held to a great extent by the domestic system of industry. The contrast between the large and small estates is sharper here than perhaps in any other section of Europe. The Polish nobility, in whose hands the large estates are mostly found, are the ruling social and political, as well as economic, power in Galicia. 40 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [456 The autonomous Galician Diet is practically the instrument of their interests. A middle class has been gradually ris- ing and contesting their supremacy. The peasantry is one of the most illiterate, degraded, and oppressed in all Europe. IV. SUMMARY This brief review of the economic and social conditions in Russia, Roumania and Austria-Hungary has shown that, broadly speaking, these countries present points of simi- larity in their situation and their recent movement. In all of these countries, economic and social conditions closely resembling those that obtained in the countries of Western Europe several centuries ago were found until compara- tively recent times. The abolition of serfdom in Russia and in Roumania, and of feudal dues in Austria-Hungary, paved the way for the entrance of these states into modern European civilization. The succeeding period has been marked by a rapid transition from the old domestic econ- omy to a modern exchange economy, through the growth of industry and commerce. The medieval conditions of the earlier period have nevertheless not been entirely obliter- ated. They exist, in Russia, in the privileges and powers of the nobility, in the inferior status and oppressed condition of the peasantry, in the strong class distinctions, in the re- straints upon economic activity and upon movement. Though in smaller measure, the same conditions are found in Austria-Hungary, especially in Galicia. In Roumania, so far as the peasantry is concerned, the pre-emanci- pation conditions remain practically, if not legally, in force. Owing to the increase of population, the minute subdivision of the estates of the peasants, the back- wardness of their agricultural methods, and their over- taxation, the position of the peasants has been rendered precarious. Revolutionary uprisings directed chiefly against 457] EASTERN EUROPE 4! the landed proprietors have been a recurring expression of their discontent. An important consequence has been the rapid evolution of the industrial and commercial, or the middle class. The growth of the middle class has been accompanied by a struggle in each of these countries between the privileged classes of the feudal state and the middle class, includ- ing in the latter the educated classes and the industrial work- ers of the towns. It is in this middle class that the Jews are chiefly to be found. Owing to this fact, as well as through the action of his- torical conditions, the Jews occupy an exceptional position in the economic activities and the social life of each of the countries of Eastern Europe. A survey of their economic and social position in each country will serve to clarify the last thirty years of their history in Eastern Europe and to give some of the causes underlying their vast movement from these countries to Western Europe and particularly to the United States. CHAPTER III THE JEWS IN EASTERN EUROPE : ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL POSITION THE economic and social life of the Jews in Eastern Europe has moved along the familiar channels of commerce, industry and urban life characteristic of the Jews in all countries during the middle ages. An examination of the economic position and function and the principal social char- acteristics of the Jews reveals the fact that they play an important part in each of these countries. This we shall see by tracing their principal economic activities and some significant phases of their social life. I. RUSSIA A review of the occupations of the Jews in the Russian Empire shows that those engaged in the manufacturing and mechanical pursuits constituted 39 per cent of the total Jewish population gainfully employed. This was the largest occupational group. Commerce engaged 32 per cent To- gether the industrial and commercial classes comprised seven-tenths of all Jews engaged in gainful occupations. On the other hand, only 3 per cent were employed in agri- cultural pursuits. It is in comparison with the occupations of the non- Jewish population in Russia that the significance of this distribution becomes evident. Of the non-Jews in Russia, agricultural pursuits engaged 61 per cent, manufacturing' and mechanical pursuits 15 per cent, and commerce only 3 per cent. The non-Jews engaged in industry and ccm- 42 [458 459 ] THE JEWS IN EASTERN EUROPE 43 merce thus constituted somewhat less than one-fifth of the total non- Jewish population gainfully employed. More than twice as many Jews, relatively, as non-Jews were en- gaged in industrial pursuits and practically twelve times as many Jews as non-Jews in commercial pursuits. 1 This difference of occupational grouping makes itself felt in the participation of the Jews in the principal occupa- tional groups. Of the total Russian population gainfully employed, the Jews were 5 per cent. They constituted, however, n per cent of all engaged in industry, and 36 per cent of all engaged in commerce. 2 Thus, in the Russian Empire the Jews formed a considerable proportion of the commercial classes and a large proportion of those engaged in industrial pursuits. Properly to gauge the economic function of the Jews in Russia, comparison should be made not with the popu- lation of the Russian Empire but rather with that of the Pale of Settlement, where nearly 95 per cent of the Jews live. There the contrast was even stronger. Of the Jews, 70 per cent were employed in industry and commerce as compared with 13 per cent on the part of the non-Jews. Though the Jews are only 12 per cent of the total working population of the Pale, they formed 32 per cent of all en- gaged in industry and 77 per cent of all engaged in com- merce. 3 This clearly shows that the Jews constituted the commercial classes and a significant part of the industrial classes of the Pale. In other words, what is true of the place of the Jews in the occupational distribution of all Russia is still more true of the Pale. The Jews are prepon- 1 Rubinow, Economic Condition of the Jews in Russia (Washington, 1907), P- Soo. 2 Cf. table IA, p. 158. 3 Cf. table IB, p. 158. Rubinow, op. cit., p. 501. 44 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [460 deratingly industrial and commercial, in striking contrast to the rest of the population, which is preponderatingly agri- cultural. What is the nature of their activities and their function in the industrial and commercial life of Russia? The great majority of Jews engaged in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits are artisans. In the present relatively backward stage of Russian industrial development these are chiefly handicraftsmen, who mainly supply the needs of local con- sumers. These artisans, who number more than half a million, 1 support nearly one-third of the Jewish population. The most important industry is the manufacture of clothing and wearing apparel, which employed more than one-third of the Jewish working population and supported more than one-seventh of the total Jewish population. It is in effect a Jewish industry : prac- tically all the tailors and shoemakers in the Pale are Jews. They predominate as well in the preparation of food products, in the building trades, in the metal, wood and tobacco industries. 2 Hampered by legal re- strictions, lack of technical education, and lack of capital, they nevertheless have become an essential part of the eco- nomic life of the Pale, supplying the needs for industrial products not only of the Jews but of the entire Pale, and, especially of the peasants. In the development of large-scale industry, the Jews have taken a smaller part than the Germans or foreigners, owing to the conditions above referred to. Yet, in 1898, in the fifteen provinces of the Pale, more than one-third of the factories were in Jewish hands. 3 Jewish factory 1 Margolin puts the number at 600,000. 2 Ruppin, Die Sosialen Verhaltnisse der Juden in Russland (Berlin, 1906), p. 59- 8 Rubinow, op. cit., p. 537. 4 6i] THE JEWS IN EASTERN EUROPE 45 workers were estimated at one-fifth of all the factory work- ers in the Pale. 1 Trade and commerce engage Jews chiefly, supporting nearly two-thirds of the total Jewish population. 2 As Russia is essentially an agricultural country, trade in agricultural products, such as grain, cattle, furs and hides, etc., is of prime importance. Nearly half of the Jewish merchants in the Pale were dealers in these products. Of the dealers in the principal grain products, Jews formed an overwhelming majority. Relatively twenty-six times as many Jews as Russians, in the Pale, were grain dealers. 3 Four-fifths of all the dealers in furs and hides, three-fourths of all the dealers in cattle were Jews. 4 The Jewish traders are agents in the movement of the crops, in the various stages from the direct purchase of the grain from the peas- ant to its export for the world markets. In view of the lack of development in Russia of modern methods fo marketing the agricultural produce, and in view of the fa that the Russian peasant is ignorant of the most elementa principles of trade, the Jewish merchants, with their know edge of the market and their skillful use of credit, play vital part in the organization of the Russian grain trad^,' and control this trade in the Pale and on the Black Sea. In other branches of commerce, the Jews are almost as strongly represented. As sellers to the village and city populations, they carry on the largest part of the retail trade of the Pale. The great majority of the merchants, however, are petty traders or store-keepers. The whole- sale merchants enrolled in the guilds, on the other hand, constitute a large proportion of all the guild merchants. 1 Rubinow, op. cit., p. 542. 2 Ibid., p. 553- 3 Ruppin, op. cit., p. 62. 4 Rubinow, op. cit., p. 556. 46 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [462 Thus, through their activity as petty artisans, traders and merchants, the Jews preponderate in the industrial and ^commercial life of the Pale. As manufacturers and whole- sale merchants they play a less important but nevertheless significant part in all Russia. In general the Jewish merchants are quite strongly dis- tinguished from the Russian merchants in their employment of the competitive principles and methods common to the commercial operations of Western Europe and the United States. Their principle of a quick turnover with a small profit, and their use of credit, are not in vogue among the Russian merchants who operate on the basis of cus- tomary prices and long credits. In their social characteristics as well, the Jews are strongly set off from the rest of the population. The Jews are essentially urban, the non-Jews are overwhelmingly rural. In all Russia, 51 per cent of the Jews lived in incor- "' porated towns, as against only 12 per cent of the non-Jews. Though the Jews constituted 4 per cent of the total popu- lation, they constituted 16 per cent of the town population. 1 In the Pale, where they constituted 12 per cent of the total population, they comprised 38 per cent of the urban popu- lation. 2 Their concentration in the cities of the Pale is striking. In nine out of the fifteen provinces of the Pale, they constituted a majority of the urban population. In twenty-four towns, they were from two-fifths to seven- tenths of the population. In the important cities of War- saw and Odessa they were one-third of the population. 3 The urban and occupational distribution of the Jews places them higher than the great majority of the non-Jews 1 Ruppin, op. cit., p. 100. 2 Rubinow, op. cit., p. 493. 8 Ruppin, op. cit., p. 19. 463] THE JEWS IN EASTERN EUROPE 47 among the social classes into which the Russian people are legally divided. Townsmen are of a higher rank than v peasants. Nearly 95 per cent of the Jews belong to this category and only 7 per cent of the Russians. The vast majority of the Russians 86 per cent are peasants. Only 4 per cent of the Jews are of this class. Again, 2 per cent of the Jews are merchants, as against only .2 per cent of the Russians. Thus in these two classes of townsmen and merchants there were twelve times as many Jews, rela- tively, as Russians. 1 The higher cultural standing of the Jews may be partly measured by the relative literacy of the Jews and of the total population. According to the census of 1897, in the Jewish population ten years of age or over there were relatively one and a half times as many literates as in the total population of the corresponding group. In each of the age-groups there were relatively more liter- ates among the Jews than among the total population. In the highest age-group, that of sixty years of age and over, the Jews had relatively more literates than any of the age-groups of the total population, indicating that the edu- cational standing of the Jews half a century ago was higher than that of the Russian population of to-day. 2 The fact that the Jews dwell chiefly in towns has consid- erably to do with their higher educational standing. If the statistics of relative literacy of the Jewish and the non- Jewish population in the towns were obtainable, the chances are strong that they would not show a much higher rate of literacy on the part of the Jews. At the same time the diffi- culties that are put in the way of Jewish attendance in the 1 Ruppin, op. cit., p. 65. s Rubinow, op. cit., pp. 577-578. 4 8 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [464 elementary schools must be regarded as a considerable factor in explaining this possibility. 1 The participation of the Jews in the liberal professions, which implies the possession of a higher education, is also very large, even with the great obstacles that have been placed in the way of the entrance of the Jews into the uni- versities, into the liberal professions and the state service. Relatively seven times as many Jews as Russians are found in the liberal professions. 2 II. ROUMANIA The economic activities of the Jews in Roumanian in- dustry and commerce closely resemble those of their Rus- sian brethren. 3 The large part taken by the Jews in Rou- manian commerce may be gathered from the fact that, in 1904, one-fifth of those who paid the merchant-license tax were Jews. Equally great is their participation in large- scale industry, where, as an inquiry in 1901-2 shows, nearly one-fifth of the large industries were conducted by Jewish entrepreneurs. In some of the most important ones the glass industry, the clothing industry, the wood and furniture industry and the textile industry from one-fourth to one- half of the total number of entrepreneurs were Jews. As in the case of Russia, it is in Klein-industrie or handicraft, which is more nearly characteristic of the 1 In a personal communication to the writer, Dr. Rubinow gives it as his opinion that the Jews as a group consisting primarily of artisans and merchants will show a very much higher rate of literacy than a group of factory employes, and, we may add, of unskilled laborers, to which groups the majority of the non-Jews in the towns belong. 2 Ruppin, op. cit., p. 62. 8 On the economic activities and social characteristics of the Jews in Roumania, cf. Ruppin, Die Juden in Rumanien, p. 27 et seq. 465] THE }EWS IN EASTERN EUROPE 49 present form of Roumanian industrial economy, that the Jews are mostly concentrated and where they par- ticipate so largely as to constitute " the backbone of the young Roumanian industry ". The latest inquiry that of 1908 shows that the Jews were one-fifth of all inscribed in the corporations as ar- tisans. They formed more than one-fourth of the master- workmen and nearly one-sixth of the laborers. In the five principal industries Jewish master-workmen formed from nearly one-tenth to nearly one-half. In the fol- lowing trades Jews formed between one-fourth and nearly two-thirds of the entire workers: watchmakers, tinners, modistes, tailors, glazers, housepainters, coopers and book- binders. In all the garment industries nearly one-third of the workers were Jews. The principal trades of the Jews, in which two-thirds of the Jewish industrial workers were found, were, in order: tailors, shoemakers, tinners, joiners and planers, and bakers. 1 The Jews in Roumania were thus more strongly concentrated in industry and less in commerce than their Russian brethren. As masters and workmen they play a part in Roumanian large-scale and small-scale industry nearly four and a half times as large as their proportion in the total population. Their participation in commerce is equally large. The Jews in Roumania present the same social character- istics, relatively to the surrounding population, as the Jews in Russia. The Jews were overwhelmingly concentrated in the towns. 80 per cent of the Jews dwelt in the towns ; 84 per cent of the non-Jews dwelt in the villages. Of the popula- tion in the department-capitals the Jews constituted one- fifth. Of the population of the other towns they consti- tuted more than one-tenth. In some of the department- 1 Enqucte sur les artisans (Bucarest, 1909) , P- J 57 et s e Q- JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [466 capitals, notably Jassi, the Jews were a majority of the total population. In six other department-capitals they consti- tuted from one-fourth to one-half of the population. That the Jews are of a higher educational standing than the Roumanians is seen in the fact that they possessed a higher rate of literacy, having relatively twice as many literates among the males and nearly twice as many among the females. Confining this comparison to the cities, how- ever, we find that the Jews had a higher literacy only in the age-groups above fifteen. The Roumanian urban popu- lation between the ages of seven and fifteen showed a higher literacy than the corresponding group among the Jews, indicating the influence of the special restrictions on Jewish education which will later be discussed. While the higher literacy of the Jews in Russia and Rou- mania is due partly to residence in towns, the restrictions -on the Jewish participation in the educational facilities af- forded by the Russian and Roumanian governments have been so great as to make the higher educational standing of the Jews practically a product of their own efforts. III. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY The economic position of the Jews in Austria-Hungary presents a close parallel to that in Russia. The largest proportion of the Jews 44 per cent were engaged in commerce and in trade, and 29 per cent were engaged in in- dustry. 1 A significantly large proportion were engaged in public service and in the liberal professions. A surpris- ingly large proportion 1 1 per cent were engaged in agri- culture and allied occupations. Thus, a little over seven- tenths of the Jews were concentrated in commerce and trade, and industry. 1 Thon, Die Juden in Oesterreich (Berlin, 1908), p. 112. 467] THE JEWS IN EASTERN EUROPE 51 The contrast between the Jewish and the non- Jewish population is most striking in the relative proportions of those engaged in agriculture, and commerce and trade. 54 per cent of the non-Jews were engaged in agriculture, or five times as many, relatively, as Jews. On the other hand, only 8 per cent were engaged in commerce and trade, or relatively one-fifth as many as Jews. Of the total population engaged in commerce and trade the Jews constituted 21 per cent. They constituted, on the other hand, 5 per cent of all engaged in industry. Thus, the Jews in Austria-Hungary were concentrated in com- merce and trade to a much larger extent than in all other occupations, constituting an important part of all engaged in this branch. It is in Galicia, however, where conditions in general most resemble those in Russia, that the Jews are seen to occupy relatively the same position as their brethren in Rus- sia. In Galicia, 29 per cent of the Jews were engaged in commerce and trade, and 26 per cent in industry. Together the Jews engaged in these two branches constituted more than half of the total Jewish working population. By far the largest part of the non- Jewish population 86 per cent were engaged in agriculture. In industry only 4 per cent of the non-Jews were engaged and in commerce only i per cent. Thus the Jews were largely concentrated in commerce and industry, the non-Jews preponderatingly concentrated in agriculture. As compared with the Jews in Russia and Roumania the Galician Jews engaged in agriculture show a surprising pro- portion 1 8 per cent being so engaged a larger proportion than in any other country. The Jews in East Galicia were 13 per cent of the total 52 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [468 population. 1 Of all the " independents " engaged in com- merce in East Galicia 92 per cent were Jews; of all the " independents " engaged in industry 48 per cent were Jews. The Jews in West Galicia were 8 per cent of the total popu- lation. Of all " independents " engaged in commerce they constituted 82 per cent; of all " independents " engaged in industry they constituted 33 per cent. This gives the crux of the economic position of the Jews in Galicia. They play an overwhelming part in its commercial life, practically monopolizing it. In industry their participation is very significant. Socially the Jews in Austria-Hungary and especially in Galicia, present characteristics similar to those in Russia and Roumania. In the forty cities in Galicia with a population above five thousand there dwelt 34 per cent of the total Jewish population. Only 7 per cent of the non-Jewish population lived in these cities. Thus, relatively five times as many Jews as non-Jews were urban. Though the Jews in Galicia were n per cent of the total population, they constituted 37 per cent of the population in these cities, thus being represented in the cities by more than three times their proportion in the total population. In nine of these towns they formed a majority of the population. They were more than one- third in twelve, and more than one-fourth in eleven other towns. In the two chief cities in Galicia Lemberg and Cracow they constituted a third of the total population. The figures regarding literacy are not available for Austria-Hungary or Galicia, but there is every reason to believe that essentially the same situation exists as in Rus- sia and Roumania. In the liberal professions in Austria- Hungary there were 16 per cent of the Jews so engaged as 1 Thon, op. cit., p. 124. 469] THE JEWS IN EASTERN EUROPE 53 compared with n per cent of the non-Jews. In Galicia the contrast is much sharper. Relatively ten times as many Jews as non-Jews were represented in the liberal profes- IV. SUMMARY A review of the occupations, economic function and social characteristics of the Jews in the countries of Eastern Europe reveals them in an important and essentially similar role in each country. Pursuing mainly industrial and com- mercial occupations, the Jews constitute by far the largest part of the middle classes of each country. The historical position which they held in the ancient kingdom of Poland as the middle class has been practically maintained to this day. By virtue of their occupations, the Jews are possessed of liquid wealth to a greater extent than the nobility or the peasantry, and in the lack of proper credit facilities still serve as bankers and money-lenders. The Jews have also been conspicuous in Eastern Europe as stewards or admin- istrators of the estates of the nobility, who are, as a rule, absentee landlords, distinguished as a class by their serious lack of interest or ability in the management of their es- tates. The Jewish Hofjiiden, as they were known, were particularly useful in the utilization of the products of the soil, through distilleries, mills, trade with agricultural products and exploitation of the forests. 2 In this way, however, Jews often acted as intermediaries in the oppres- sion of the peasantry by the nobles. They were often keep- ers or lessees of the taverns, the ownership of which was formerly vested in the nobles as one of their feudal privi- leges. It is, however, as artisans, industrial laborers and mer- 1 Thon, op. cit., p. 127. 2 Grenzboten: Galisische Wirtschaft, vol. Ixii, p. 402. 54 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [470 chants, retail and wholesale, that Jews chiefly obtain their living. Their monopoly of industry and commerce has given them an influence far above their numerical propor- tions. In each of these countries, again, the Jews are essentially town dwellers in the midst of preponderatingly rural popu- lations. That the degree of the contrast is due to the arti- ficial workings of restrictive laws is unquestioned. The chief reason for this, however, is occupational. The Jews as an industrial and commercial people constitute one of the main elements out of which the town populations are re- cruited. Towns are ordinarily the foci of all the cultural forces and the movement and enterprise of a country. In Eastern Europe, where the number of towns is so few, this is much more the case than in Western Europe. The fact) that the Jews are so largely concentrated in these compara- tively few towns serves to give them a cultural position and influence far out of proportion to their numbers. Their eco- nomic activities and their relatively large participation in the liberal professions strengthens this position considerably. Amidst populations preponderatingly devoted to agricul- tural occupations and dwelling in villages, the Jews repre- sent an industrial and commercial people, strongly concen- trated in towns. This economic and social position of the Jews is of the greatest significance, especially in the present period of transition in these countries. Possessed of the characteristics of a modern people in their economic and social life and in their mentality, they present a sharp con- trast with the peoples among whom they dwell and whose economic and social life are only now taking on modern forms. It is this that makes the Jews personify in a large degree the forces of economic enterprise and of social progress in these countries. On the other hand, the exceptional economic and social THE JEWS IN EASTERN EUROPE 55 position held by the Jews among the East-European peo- ples has made them peculiarly susceptible to the changes that have been taking place, as their inferior legal status and sharp differentiation from the mass of the people have made them favorable objects of attack in the politico-eco- nomic struggles that have largely accompanied the transi- tion. A consideration of the legal status of the Jews in each of the countries of Eastern Europe and of the chief forces that have ruled their history for more than a third of a cen- tury will enable us to see some of the dynamic aspects of the recent history of the East-European Jews and the un- derlying causes o their recent emigration. CHAPTER IV THIRTY YEARS OF JEWISH HISTORY IN EASTERN EUROPE i. RUSSIA RELIGIOUS intolerance had been the prime motive of Rus- sia's policy of completely excluding the Jews from her borders. Through the partitions of Poland from 1772 to 1795, she became the unwilling ruler over the destinies of millions of Jews living in Lithuania, Western and South- western Russia and Poland proper. The historic medie- val principle by which the Jews were regarded as an alien and heretic race living among the Christian peoples a prin- ciple that had, with the growth of modern ideas, been rapidly losing its hold upon the West-European nations- expressed Russia's attitude towards the Jews and con- formed to her strongly medieval outlook and organization of this period. Thus, at the time when the emancipation of the Jews had begun to be in Western Europe a concomitant of social progress, Russia set to work to recreate almost typically medieval conditions for a vaster Jewish population than had ever before been assembled in any European country. The Jews were placed in the position practically of aliens, whose activities were regulated by special laws. The ' first and the most far-reaching of these laws limited their right of residence to those provinces in which they lived at the time of the Polish partitions. In this way originated! that reproduction on a vast scale of the medieval Ghetto 56 [472 473] THIRTY YEARS OF JEWISH HISTORY 57 the Pale of Jewish Settlement. The elementary right of free movement and choice of residence, which was denied to the Jews, has remained the principal restriction to which they are subjected. The Pale of Jewish Settlement, continued with but few changes to our day, includes the fifteen provinces of West- ern and Southwestern Russia Vilna, Kovno, Grodno, Minsk, Vitebsk, Mohileff, Volhynia, Podolia, Kiev (except the city of Kiev), Chernigov, Poltava, Bessarabia, Kher- son, Jekaterinoslav, Taurida (except the city of Yalta), and the ten provinces into which Poland is divided Warsaw, Kalisz, Kielce, Lomza, Lublin, Petrikow, Plock, Radom, Suvalk and Siedlec. From the rest of the eighty-nine pro- vinces and territories constituting nearly 95 per cent of the total territory of the Russian Empire the Jews were excluded. In the course of a century the special laws relating to the Jews have multiplied greatly until they now consist of more than a thousand articles, regulating their religious and communal life, economic activities and occupations, military service, property rights, education, etc., and mv posing special taxes over and above those borne by all other Russian subjects. The direct consequence of these laws was to mark the status of the Jews as the lowest in the Empire, placing them in the position of aliens as to rights and citizens as to obligations. 1 The policy of the Russian government throughout the iQth century has been full of contrasts and contradictions. Attempts at forcible russification and assimilation, which with Nicholas I practically spelled conversion, have alter- nated with methods of repression which sought to prevent 1 Leroy-Beaulieu, The Empire of the Tsars (New York, 1894), vol. Hi, p. 558. 5 g JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [474 closer contact between the Jewish and the native popula- tions. It was the liberal epoch of Alexander II that gave the first real promise of emancipation to Russian Jewry. The great reforms of this era benefited the Jews along with the other subjects of the Empire. With the influence of the liberals over the government there came a new attitude re- garding the Jews and their value as economic and cultural forces. Partly to relieve the intense competition in the Pale, harmful both to the Christian and the Jewish popu- lations, but chiefly to give the provinces of interior Russia the benefit of the superior industrial and commercial, and professional abilities of the Jews, laws were enacted allow- ing certain classes of Jews to live outside of the Pale. These were, chiefly, master-artisans, merchants of the first guild, students and graduates of universities and higher educational institutions, and members of the liberal pro- fessions. With these laws and with the opening of the high schools and universities to the Jews, the movement for Russianiza- tion received a mighty impetus. Though these reforms, hedged about and limited by onerous conditions, affected comparatively few and hardly touched the life of the Jewish masses in a radical way, nevertheless, the impulse which even these relatively slight reforms gave to the current of Jewish life in Russia was far out of proportion to the re- lief they afforded. Jewish hopes for a final emancipation soared high : it seemed as if the walls of the Pale needed but little more to be broken down. The reaction that followed the assassination of Alex- ; ander II fell upon the Jews as a national calamity. To the feudal party which now came into control, the Jews seemed the very embodiment of the forces in the Empire whose / progress they were seeking to stem. No other nationality 475] THIRTY YEARS OF JEWISH HISTORY in the Russian Empire concentrated in itself so many char- acteristics and tendencies opposed to the ideals and inter- ests of the Russian ruling classes. To the Church, domi- nated by a religio-national point of view, they were the very opposite of her ideal type of Russian orthodox, their very existence in Russia being regarded as an anomaly and as an actual and possible influence in disintegrating the religious faith of the orthodox peasants. To the nationalists they were an alien people racially and religiously, whose assimi- lation with the Russian people was neither possible nor de- ' sirable. To the autocracy and the bureaucracy there was s the added fear from their intellectual superiority and their V zeal for education of their playing a powerful part among the liberal forces seeking political freedom. Indeed, the Jews, whose economic and cultural activities and interests bound them closely to Western Europe and were in them- selves modernizing and liberalizing influences, growing all the stronger through the greater freedom offered them dur- ing the liberal epoch, excited the deep repugnance of the feudal forces now directing the destinies of the state. To them the Jews spelled anathema. Separated from the great masses of the Russian people by race, nationality, religion, is occupations and other social and psychological characteris- \JJ tics, they offered an unusually favorable object of attack. * It soon became clear that the new regime had determined upon making the Jews a central feature in their policy of reaction. At once a many-sided campaign against the Jews was begun. A powerful machinery of persecution was at hand in the existing Jewish laws. All that was necessary was to revive them, to interpret them rigorously, to tighten the legislative screws which had become loosened during the preceding liberal regime. This, however, seemed insuffi- cient. It was determined that a powerful and definitive (6p) JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [476 blow must be struck at the roots of their very existence in Russia. . The main attack was economic. The industrial and com- Vmercial activities of the Jews, especially in the Pale, make them, as we have seen, among the chief industrial producers for the peasants, as well as the chief buyers of their agricultural produce. This contact between the Jews and the peasants was a vital need in the economic life of both. The familiar charge that the Jews were exploiters of the peasantry was revived. Behind this charge lay the medie- val economic prejudice, which attributes no really useful role to the merchant or trader. 1 In a custom-ridden eco- nomic order, the competitive methods of the Jewish traders smacked of commercial deceit. Principally, however, this charge served for a convenient explanation of the change of policy towards the Jews. In this wise were introduced the " Temporary Regula- tions " of May, 1882, or the May Laws, the main clauses of which are the following : 1. As a temporary measure and until a general revision is made of the legal status of the Jews, they are forbidden to settle anew outside of towns and townlets (boroughs), an ex- ception being made only in the case of existing Jewish agri- cultural colonies. 2. Until further orders, the execution of deeds of sale and mortgage in the names of Jews is forbidden, as well as the registration of Jews as lessees of real estate situated outside of towns and townlets, and also the issuing to Jews of powers of stewardship or attorney to manage and dispose of such real property. 1 For an example of typically medieval economic notions regarding trade and commerce prevalent among the feudal classes of Eastern Europe, cf. Carmen Sylva's criticism on the economic activities of the Jews in Roumania in Century, March, 1906. 477] THIRTY YEARS OF JEWISH HISTORY 6l The May Laws may be regarded as an extension of the general principle underlying the creation of the Pale. Through the first clause they were now to be forbidden free movement even within the Pale. As far as possible, their contact with the peasantry was to be cut off. The second clause aimed to put an end to the ownership by Jews of land in rural districts and the employment of Jews as stewards or managers of estates. A further construction of this clause forbade Jews to be connected with any busi- ness directly or indirectly depending upon the purchase of landed property outside of the towns of the Pale, thus de- barring them from the utilization of land for industrial and commercial, as well as for agricultural purposes. In the actual execution of these laws, and in the legal interpretations given them by the highest courts, the effect was far greater. A series of wholesale expulsions from the villages into the towns of the Pale began, on the ground of illegal residence. This was increased by the device, which became normal, of renaming towns as villages easily possible in Russia where towns are frequently only administrative units the resident Jews then being expelled as illegal settlers. Again, movement within the villages even on the part of Jews who had the right to live in vil- lages was prohibited. A further effect of this change in policy was upon the posi- tion of the Jews outside of the Pale, who enjoyed the right of residence in the interior of Russia, through the laws of the preceding regime. A stricter interpretation of these laws, added to a change in the administrative policy, had the effect not only of stopping the comparatively slight current of Jewish artisans into the interior of Russia, but also of starting a never-ending series of expulsions from the interior to the Pale. These expulsions have since con- tinued, with individuals, families and whole groups, until / 62 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [478 they have become a constant phenomenon of Jewish life in Russia and a familiar item of world news. While the May Laws thus touched to the quick the eco- nomic life of the Russian Jews, another series of laws sought to break down their cultural life by barring them from the higher educational and professional institutions. The contrast with the policy of the preceding regime was here as complete as possible. The principle of liberal assim- ilation with regard to the Jews had dictated the policy of opening wide to them the doors of the secondary schools and universities, and the liberal professions. The new regime, however, not only opposed education generally, and higher education particularly, as the means by which the reform and westernization of Russia was being accom- plished, but it regarded the russification of the Jews as a special evil. Culturally as well, the Jews were to be separ- ated from the Russian people. Hence the introduction of the " percentage rule " in 1886 and 1887, restricting the proportion of Jewish students ad- mitted to the secondary and high schools, and universities, within the Pale, to 10 per cent of the total number of stu- dents admitted. Outside of the Pale, the proportion was 5 per cent, except in St. Petersburg and Moscow, where it was placed at 3 per cent. In addition, the Jews were com- pletely barred from a number of these institutions. As the Jews constituted so large a part of the populations in the towns of the Pale and had distinguished themselves in Russia as elsewhere by the eagerness with which they grasped the educational and professional opportunities of- fered them, the introduction of the " percentage rule " meant that the vast majority of the Jewish youth were to be deprived of the normal chances for education. Thus the " percentage rule ", which was extended to institutions founded by the Jews themselves, was almost as great a blow 479] THIRTY YEARS OF JEWISH HISTORY 63 as the May Laws. It threatened the cultural ruin of Rus- sian Jewry. Bound up as the admission to these schools was with the liberal professions and with the opportunity of escaping from the limits of the Pale, it meant that one of the main highways to freedom in Russia had been closed /' to the Jews. * The most striking method of repression introduced by the new regime and its feudal supporters was that combina- tion of murder, outrage and pillage the pogrom. The revival of this characteristic expression of the antisemitism of the middle ages was not the result of spontaneous out- breaks of fury on the part of the Russian masses, but a deliberate and calculated awakening of latent racial and religious prejudices, evoked as powerful aids to inflame against the Jews the Russian masses, who are, religiously speaking, a tolerant people and whose relations to the Jews had been marked, on the whole, with friendliness. The first pogroms began a month after the accession of Alexander III to the throne, and extended in the course of a year to 160 places in Southern Russia. Though the con- nivance of the local authorities was clearly established, the originators of the pogroms were never found. 1 However, moral support was lent by the government in the promul- gation of the May Laws which closely followed. Thejioc- trine that the misery of the peasants was due to their ex- ploitation by the Jews, and that the pogroms were the instinctive expression of the fury of the peasants, was officially sanctioned. The pogroms of 1881-2 served as notice "to all Russia and particularly to Russian Jewry, that the old order had given place to the new. Apart from the loss of life and damage to property they left the Russian 1 The part played by the authorities in these pogroms is discussed by A. Linden in Die Judenpogromen, vol. i, pp. 12-96. 64 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [480 Jews in a state of stupefaction and horror, with the sense of living on the brink of a precipice. The first decade of Alexander Ill's reign had opened with these pogroms. The second decade opened with the wholesale expulsions from Moscow. Within six months, more than ten thousand Jews were expelled from the city on the ground of illegal residence. So vast a number of Jewish families was affected and so summary was the manner of executing the decree of expulsion, that several governments, among them our own, protested to the Rus- sian government. President Harrison, discussing this pro- test in his message to Congress, frankly stated that the banishment, whether by direct decree or by not less certain indirect methods, of so large a number of men and women is not a local question. A decree to leave one country is in the nature of things an order to enter another some other. This consideration, as well as the suggestion of humanity, furnishes ample ground for the remonstrances which we have presented to Russia. 1 The expulsions were preceded by a year of ominous rumors of a program of new restrictions beside which the May Laws would pale into insignificance. An offer of ten million dollars for the cause of Jewish education made by Baron de Hirsch to the Russian government was re- fused. His scheme, however, for the organization of a mass-emigration of Jews to Argentine was sanctioned. All these facts lent strength to the feeling of the Jews that they had nothing to hope for under the existing regime. Thus closed the reign of Alexander III and a memorable chapter in Russian Jewish history. The early years of Nicholas II were marked by a relax- 1 President Harrison's Message is given in Appendix A, page 199. 481] THIRTY YEARS OF JEWISH HISTORY 65 ation in the strict administration and interpretation of the existing restrictive laws. Hopes for the amelioration of the Jewish situation began to be entertained. These hopes were destined shortly to be shattered. The first decade of the twentieth century opened with threatening unrest. Economic depression began and was accompanied by revolutionary attacks. For the Jews, the most alarming symptom was the rise and uninterrupted progress of a group of antisemitic agitators and Russian loyalists, who sought to counteract the revolutionary move- ment by denouncing the Jews as the leaders of the revolu- tion and the enemies of the autocracy and the Orthodox: religion. Thus was sown the seed of the Kishineff massacre of April, 1903, which lasted three days. Before the echoes of Kishineff had died away, the massacre at Gomel fol- lowed. But Kishineff proved to be merely a bloody prelude. The air was surcharged with explosives. The outbreak of the Russo-Japanese war and of the first organized revolution created a dangerous combination of events for the Jews. To the discontent of the peasants, forced to go to the front in a war for which they had no enthusiasm, and sore with the reverses of the Russian army, was added the increased activity of the agitators who declared that the war with Japan had been forced upon Russia by the Jews, eager to profit through its ruin, and who called upon their followers and the peasants through propaganda and proclamations to revenge themselves upon the Jews. The government at bay, on the verge of breakdown under the revolutionary at- tacks, and anxious to excuse its incompetency and failure in the conduct of the war, sought a means of diverting the peasants .from the uprisings against the landed proprietors spreading over the land, and, above all, of stifling the revo- lution, which had met with such opportune and unlocked- 66 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [482 for success among all classes. This was a situation alive with danger for the Jews, whose proletarians in the cities had taken an active part in the revolution. The organiza- tion of Jewish massacres by responsible agents of the gov- . ernment became the central feature of its program of coun- ter-revolution. 1 A veritable holocaust ensued in nearly every province of the Empire for two years, only the climaxes of which became known to the world in Zhitomir, Odessa, Bialystok, and Siedlec. The role of the bureaucracy in the creation of the pogroms, especially in 1906, in which year there took place hundreds of pogroms, was made abundantly clear by the Russian press, by Prince Urussov's disclosures in the Duma, and by the report of the Duma Commission ap- pointed to investigate the causes of the Bialystok pogrom of 1906. As announced in their official report, an investi- gation had shown that the relations between the Jews and the Christians of Bialystok previous to the bloodshed had been amicable, and that preparations for a pogrom had been deliberately and carefully made by agents of the bureaucracy and carried out with the aid of the local au- thorities. Both periods of pogroms in these thirty years were periods of revolution. In both the government had felt the ground shaking under its feet from terroristic attacks and from peasant uprisings. In the first period Jews had taken only slight part In the late revolution, however, the participation of the Jews of the Pale, through the Jewish labor organization, the Bund, was quite strong. The earlier pogroms gave a hint as to the policy of the new regime. The later ones occurred at the end of years of 1 Semenoff, The Russian Government and the Jewish Massacres (London, 1907), pp. 147-167. THIRTY YEARS OF JEWISH HISTORY ty repression and persecution, and were a culminating point in the fury of the reactionary forces at their failure to stem the tide of liberalism in the struggle for parliamentary in- stitutions and for the rights of citizens in a modern state. ^__ The results of these thirty years of reaction remain to be considered. Though the effects of the pogroms upon the Russian Jews can hardly be overestimated, the less evident, because less spectacular, methods of restrictive law and ad- ministrative action have in the long run left a far more enduring impress. The introduction of the May Laws at the very beginning of the eighties awakened the Jews to the realization that their future in Russia was threatened. The May Laws and the laws that were developed from them, the obstacles that were placed in the way of Jewish education and, in general, the administrative difficulties that were created, have affected every movement of their life. Freedom of movement of the individual is the very es- sence of the life of modern states and the basis of their economic, social and political institutions. The lack of this freedom, especially to the extent created by the May Laws, bars the Jews from the possibilities of normal economic growth and progress. The Jewish manufacturers and cap- italists are prevented from participating in the industrial and commercial development of Russia, which is so rapidly proceeding and to which, owing to their economic position and capacities, they could powerfully contribute. Legal in- terference with economic activities, so frequently the rule in Russia, is emphasized in the case of the Jews. A far more serious situation confronts the great mass of the Jewish artisans, petty merchants and factory workers, to which the vast majority of the Jews belong. Largely prevented access to their natural customers, the peasants, by the prohibition of rural residence, and confined to the 68 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [484 relatively few towns of the Pale, where over-crowding and over-competition are the necessary and unavoidable results, the Jewish artisans and petty merchants have a bitter strug- gle to maintain a position of economic independence. Added to this, there is the social pressure to which the Jews have been subjected. Not until this period has the century-long position of the Jews as the " pariahs of the Empire " been so sharply emphasized. Enmeshed in a net of special laws and regulations, at the mercy of ministerial decree, secret circular, arbitrary administrative act, law has lost all meaning for the Jews. In this atmosphere they exist mainly through bribery, at once their bane and their salvation. The unusual economic and social pressure exerted by the reactionary regime upon its Jewish subjects, through the new restrictive laws that were put into operation during the last thirty years, the administrative harrying that became the order of the day and the introduction of the hitherto unused method of physical repression, the pogrom, becomes clear in the light of its policy. Beginning as a movement to suppress the Jews in their economic and cultural activi- ties, and to separate them as far as possible from their Rus- sian neighbors, the anti-Jewish program became in its final form the prpnlm'nn and extermination, of the Jews from Rus- sia. The historic sentence of Count Ignatiev, author of the May Laws, at the very beginning of this period, " the Western borders are open to you Jews ", strikes the key- note of this policy. And, in fact, for practically the first time in its history, the Russian government relaxed in 1892 its rigorous rules forbidding emigration, and gave its sanction to Baron de Hirsch's plan of organizing a vast emigration- of Tews from Russia, which its author hoped would, at the end of a quarter of a century, result in the complete transplantation of the Jews from Russia. The 4-85] THIRTY YEARS OF JEWISH HISTORY 69 famous principle of the Russian government, " once a Rus- sian always a Russian ", was for once put aside in favor of the Jews. They were given one right not enjoyed by other Russians, that of leaving Russia under the obligation of abandoning Russian citizenship forever. 1 II. ROUMANIA Up to very recent years, the history of the Jews in Rou- mania centers about those resident in Moldavia. Its prox- imity to ancient Poland and close association with Bessar- abia, naturally made for a back-and-forth movement of the Polish and Russian Jews, whose settlement was invited by the boyars or landed nobility because of resulting industrial and commercial advantages. The position of the Jews in Moldavia up to the middle of the nineteenth century did not differ to any extent from that of their brethren in Russia. Moldavia, as a Christian state, denied civil and political rights to all non-Christians. The Jews in Moldavia were regarded as aliens, whose activities were subject to special regulation. The begin- ning of the last century witnessed the first special Jewish laws. The Jews were forbidden to buy the products of the sdil, to acquire real property; non-resident Jews were de- barred unless they could prove an occupation and show the possession of property. Definite restrictions as to occupa- tion, residence in the villages, the ownership, in villages, of houses, land, vineyards, etc., existed. As vagabonds they could be expelled from the country by administrative de- cree. Thus was their legal status fixed. The emancipation of Jews was first demanded by the liberal party during the revolutionary days of 1848. But no practical change resulted until the Convention of Paris in 1856, which, in granting autonomy to the two provinces, 1 Immigration Commission : Emigration Conditions in Europe, pp. 261-262. 70 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [486 guaranteed civil rights to all Moldavians, regardless of creed. Though political rights were granted only to Chris- tian Moldo-Wallachians, the provision was made that, by legislative arrangements, the enjoyment of political rights could be extended to other creeds. Thus was established the possibility of a gradual emancipation of the Jews, fore- shadowed in the communal law of 1864, which granted the right of naturalization to certain classes of native Rou- manian Jews. Those who had passed through college or had a recognized foreign degree, or who had founded a factory in the land employing at least fifty workmen were among the favored classes. Shortly afterwards, this section was abrogated, and, with the abdication of the liberal Couza and the ac- cession of Charles Hohenzollern, the present king, to the throne, the situation changed. Article VII of the consti- tution of the newly-created kingdom read that foreigners not of the Christian faith could not be naturalized. As within the term foreigner the great mass of the Jews residing in the land was included, this was a de- nial of the conditions laid down in the Treaty of Paris. At the same time, old laws against the Jews which had fallen into abeyance were revived, expulsions of the Jews from the villages into the towns began to take place with great frequency, laws requiring all sellers of liquor in rural communes to be naturalized Roumanians deprived many Jewish families of a livelihood in short, the usual symp- toms of anti-Jewish activity became the order of the clay. It was at the famous Berlin Congress, convened to decide questions created by the Russo-Turkish war of 1877, that the subject of the Jewish disabilities in Roumania was brought up, in connection with the demand of Roumania for recognition as an independent state. The chief objec- tion made especially by the representatives of three of the 487] THIRTY YEARS OF JEWISH HISTORY ji European powers France, England and Germany was Roumania's treatment of the Jews. It was finally decided by the Congress to recognize her independence on the con- dition that she grant civil and political equality to all her citizens without distinction of race or creed. This was ex- pressed in Article 44 of the historic Berlin Treaty, which read as follows : Article 44. In Roumania, difference in religious beliefs and confessions shall not be brought against anyone as a ground for exclusion or unfitness as regards the enjoyment of civil and political rights, admission to public offices, functions, and honors, or the exercise of various professions and industries in any place whatever. Freedom in outward observance of all creeds will be assured to all subjects of the Roumanian state, as well as to strangers, and no obstacle will be raised either to the ecclesiastical organization of different bodies, or to their intercourse with their spiritual heads. The citizens of all states, whether merchants or others, shall be dealt with, in Roumania, without distinction of religion, on the basis of perfect equality. In the constituante which was convoked soon after to dis- cuss the question of giving the Jews equal political rights, an interesting picture is obtained of the sentiment of the upper and middle classes of Roumania. 1 An overwhelming ma- jority was opposed to the granting of political rights to the Jew r s on the ground that Roumania was a Christian- Latin State, or on the purely nationalistic ground that the Jews were an alien and utterly unassimilable element of the population. To meet the demands of the Powers the prin- ciple of individual naturalization was adopted, by which an alien could be granted naturalization individually and only by a special vote of the Chamber of Deputies. Other 1 The discussions are presented in La question ju'vue. 72 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [488 onerous conditions, such as the requirement of a ten years' residence in the country for citizenship, and the prohibition of the purchase by aliens of rural estates, showed conclu- sively that Roumania was prepared to give only formal assent to the demand of the Powers. 1 After a year of negotiations, the three Powers agreed to the recognition of her independence, expressing the hope that the Roumanian government would recognize the inadequacy of the revised article and especially of the principle of individual natur- alization as meeting the conditions of the Berlin Treaty, and would aim towards a complete emancipation of all her subjects. 2 The situation at the beginning of the eighties presented but little hope of improvement in the political condition of the Jews. Eight hundred and eighty-three Jews who had fought in the war for independence had been naturalized en masse. With the exception of this small number, the Jews were legally classed as foreigners. 3 Shortly after, owing to the fact that Austria-Hungary had withdrawn its protection from several thousands of its Jewish citizens resident in Roumania, the entire body of Jews received a new legal status, that of " foreigners not subject to any foreign Power ". In other words, they were stateless, though subject to all the obligations of Roumanian citi- zens, including military service and the payment of taxes. This legal status of the Jews has received the attention of the world and marks a condition of things which according to Bluntschli is " a denial of the entire development of European states ". 4 1 Article VII is given in Appendix B, p. 200. 2 Cf. English Parliamentary Papers, 1880, vol. Ixxix, Correspondence relative to the recognition of Roumania. * In the following twenty years only 85 Jews were granted citizenship. 4 Bluntschli's pamphlet is a valuable statement of the situation. For title cf. Bibliography. 489] THIRTY YEARS OF JEWISH HISTORY 73 Freed from the control of the Powers, Roumania now entered on a new campaign of discrimination against the Jews. The first decade of the eighties saw this begun in a series of laws which for completeness finds no parallel even in Russia. At the very beginning, a law giving the police the right of domiciliary visitation and of expelling under the vagabond law anyone in the rural districts, was employed against the Jews, resulting in their frequent expulsions into the towns. The enforcement of the law against rural resi- dence was so strict as to create practically the same situa- tion as exists in the Russian Pale. The law of 1883, pro- hibiting lotteries, and in the following year the law pro- hibiting hawking or any form of sale from house to house or on the streets deprived several thousands of Jewish families of their livelihood. It was in 1886 and 1887, however, when the laws which were to create a national industry and commerce were in- troduced, that a serious step was taken to exclude the Jews from economic activity. On the assumption that occupa- tions were a civil right to which aliens could or could not be admitted, the Jews were systematically deprived even of the civil rights which had been theirs, to a great extent, before the Berlin Congress sought to make them politically free. As foreigners, the Jews were prohibited the right of choosing electors for the newly-created Chambers of Com- merce and Trade, or of becoming members of these cham- bers although they formed a large majority of the mer- chants and manufacturers represented in these important bodies. A still more serious provision was that which de- creed that five years after the foundation of a factory two-thirds of the workingmen employed therein must be Roumanians. Jews were also partly excluded from the ad- ministrative positions in joint-stock companies. They were completely excluded from employment in the financial in- 74 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [490 stitutions of the state, from the state railway service, and, by a provision that two-thirds of the employes on private railways must be Roumanians, were practically excluded from these as well. The sharpest blow, however, was struck in 1902, when a new law for the organization of trades, popularly known as the Artisans' Bill, was passed. In this law there is to be seen a revival of the guild organi- zations of the Middle Ages. To pursue his occupation every artisan was required to obtain a certificate from a guild. Jewish master artisans and workmen were hit by the requirement that aliens in order to have the right of working in acordance with this law must prove that in their own country reciprocal rights existed for Roumanians, or obtain an authorization from a Chamber of Commerce or Industry. Whatever value this requirement may have had for the protection of Roumanian workmen in foreign coun- tries, its chief effect was to place in a position of economic helplessness the majority of the Jewish workmen as "aliens not subject to any foreign Power ", and largely unable to secure authorization from such chambers controlled by com- petitors. Other clauses, requiring that all workingmen be- long to a guild, and that fifty workmen possessing civil and political rights are empowered to form a guild, put the con- trol of trades into the hands of non-Jews, although the ma- jority of the artisans in many of the trades were Jews. A similar policy was pursued with reference to the cul- tural activities of the Jews. A circular of the minister of public instruction, issued in 1887, ordered that preference should be given to Roumanian children, in cases where there was not enough room in the elementary schools for all. This began the gradual exclusion of Jewish children from the Roumanian elementary schools. The formal treat- ment of the Jews as aliens in the educational system was introduced in 1893, when all aliens were required to pay 491] THIRTY YEARS OF JEWISH HISTORY 75 fees for entrance into the public schools, and were admitted only in case there was enough room for them. The ef- fect of these laws was seen in the diminished proportion of Jewish children in the elementay schools. Similar provi- sions for the secondary and high schools and universities largely closed the doors of these institutions to the Jews. From schools of agriculture and forestry, and of commerce they were completely excluded. To the educational restrictions were added restrictions to professional service. As aliens, they were forbidden to be employed in the public sanitary service and health de- partment as physicians, pharmacists, etc., from owning as well as working in private pharmacies, and from entering other professional fields. The almost complete agreement of the two principal parties liberal and conservative explains the thorough- ness and uninterrupted progress of this process of piling up disability upon disability. The explanation is partly to be found in the constitution of Roumania, the electoral law of which places the political powers in the hands of two classes the landed aristocracy and the urban, or middle class. The vast majority of the peasants are excluded by educational and property qualifications, obtaining only in- direct representation. Had the Jews been granted political rights, they would have shared political power with the other two classes. It is through the second electoral col- lege, of both the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, that the middle class is represented politically. As manufac- turers and merchants, as urban dwellers, as members of the liberal professions and as graduates of the elementary schools, the Jews would have become the most important part of this electoral college. Again, the creation of an industry and commerce along national lines was largely a course of action in the interests 76 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [493 of this middle class of Roumanian merchants, artisans and laborers. It was in favor of this class that the laws were passed debarring Jews from various occupations and seek- ing essentially to wrest the industrial and commercial monopoly from their hands. In this course of action, powerful aid was extended by the bureaucracy, recruited mainly from the lower nobility and the middle classes. Depending for their support upon the urbans, and seeking to prevent the entrance of Jews into state service, which would have resulted from the granting of political rights to the Jews, the bureaucracy have acted in harmony with the middle classes in the attempt to make the Jews politically, economically, and culturally powerless. Thus the situation that the Jews in Roumania have been facing for thirty years is abnormal, from every standpoint. At no time within thirty years has there been any serious question of giving to the Jews the political rights, the granting of which had been made the condition of the recognition of Roumania' s independence by the Powers. The history of the succeeding thirty years has been one of gradual, steady and systematic deprivation of one civil right after another. To the prohibition of freedom of movement has been added that of work; one occupation after another has been prohibited to Jews under the mask of foreigners. From all the branches of state service Jews have been almost completely debarred. Participation in important private and public enterprises has similarly been limited. The schools have been largely closed to them. The effect has been partly registered in a rate of illiteracy higher in the cities among the Jewish children between seven and fifteen than among the non-Jewish children of the same age. Thus the conscious policy of Roumania has been that of oppression, political, economic and social, with the delib- 493] THIRTY YEARS OF JEWISH HISTORY 77 erate aim of making it impossible for the Jews to live in Roumania. This method of indirect expulsion is the es- sence of her policy of thirty years. As such it was recog- nized and openly stated in the only formal protest against her manner of fulfilling the conditions of the Berlin Treaty, made by the United States, through its Secretary of State, John Hay, whose circular to the Powers signatory to the Treaty demanded that Roumania be called to account for her treatment of the Jews, and her dishonesty in violating the pledges given by her to the Powers. 1 III. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY Until the middle of the nineteenth century, the legal posi- tion of the Jews in Austria-Hungary differed from that of their brethren in Russia and Roumania only in degree. Prohibited the free exercise of their religion, the right to hold real property, and to enter certain occupations, and burdened by special Jewish taxes, the Jews remained a class apart and governed in all their activities by special laws. Their legal emancipation, begun in 1848, was defi- nitely established by the promulgation in each division of the Empire of the Fundamental Law of 1867, declaring that religion should not be a ground for discrimination in civil and political rights. The civil and political equality of the Jews was a car- dinal principle of the creed of German- Austrian lib- eralism and one of a number of its victories embod- ied in the Constitution of 1867. Austrian economic and social life at this period was, however, too satu- rated with medievalism to allow for a complete revo- lution in the attitude toward the Jews. On the other hand, the influential part played by the Jews in the liberal movement and the fact that a group of wealthy 1 The Hay note is given in Appendix C, pp. 201-206. 78 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [494 Jews were powerful factors in the haute finance and in the commercial life of the country were made the basis of an attack by the feudal-clericals upon the Jews. The great financial crash of 1873, in which several Jewish financial houses were concerned, was the starting-point of political antisemitism in Austria. The Jews were denounced as the representatives of the capitalist order of society, with its overwhelming concentration of wealth and its exploita- tion of the industrial and the agricultural proletariat. The Christian-Socialist movement began with antisemitism as the corner-stone of its economic and social doctrines. Its opposition to the Jews and to capitalism was largely due to medieval prejudices in favor of the Christian-feudal state and the medieval industrial organization. In the early eighties it began to triumph when the " small man " or petty industrialist received political power through an extension of the suffrage. It reached its height in the nineties, when, under the com- bined influence of feudal-clerical nobles, the clergy and the lower middle class, a period of reaction set in. In Vienna, in 1895, the antisemite Lueger was elected mayor. Power- less though they were to change the legal status of the Jews, the antisemites succeeded in creating in both upper and lower circles of Austrian society an atmosphere of antago- nism to the Jews which has prevented the complete ful- fillment of the principle of equality as set forth in the con- stitution. The clericals have fanned the flames of religious hatred especially among the peasantry by ritual-murder accusa- tions, which have been rife and have played a large part in strengthening the sentiment of hostility toward the Jews. In Galicia, the position of the Jews became unsettled, owing to a variety of causes. 1 Although one of the 1 Jiiduche Statistik, p. 208 et seq. 495] THIRTY YEARS OF JEWISH HISTORY 79 least advanced among the Austrian crown lands, Gali- cia has experienced within the last half -century an in- dustrial and commercial development along with the rest of the Empire. This resulted in the growth of a middle class particularly among the Poles, which began to compete for supremacy with the Jews. The improve- ments in transportation and communication, the organiza- tion of agricultural syndicates, for the purpose of directly purchasing and selling the produce of the peasants, and the creation of rural credit societies, helped considerably to dis- place the Jewish middlemen and traders as well as the Jewish money-lenders, who dealt largely with the peasantry. The movement to develop Galicia industrially was fostered on national lines by these Polish organizations, which car- ried on an extensive propaganda and systematically or- ganized economic boycotts against the Jews. " Do not buy of Jews ", " Do not patronize Jewish artisans ", became familiar cries in Galicia as in other parts of Austria. The process of wrestling the monopoly of industry, trade and commerce from the Jews in favor of the Polish petty merchants and artisans was considerably accelerated by the official bodies, the autonomous Galician Diet and the muni- cipal boards, controlled chiefly by the Polish-Catholic nobil- ity, who saw in the national-industry movement a means of capturing the votes of the middle class and of thus retaining their position as leaders of the Polish people. Communal funds were used to establish Poles in business. Attempts were made to take away from the Jews the small-salt and tobacco trades. The taxes on the taverns were increased. In the public financial institutions organized for various purposes Jews were not given representation. In nearly all the activities designed to promote the interest of the urban population and the peasantry, the Jews were systematically excluded by the local authorities. go JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [496 Added to this, the increasing distress of the Galician peas- ants has reacted strongly upon the Jews, who depend so largely upon their buying power. The poverty of the peas- antry, the competition for the control of the rural market created by public and private agencies, added to the increas- ing competition in the towns from other sections of the population, have all co-operated to create a great surplus, in proportion to the population, of petty merchants and ar- tisans among the Jews. This had its effect in an over-com- petition from the side of the Jews themselves. The Jews have suffered as well from their historical role of intermediaries between a most avaricious nobility and a bitterly exploited peasantry. Acting as stewards and as tavern keepers for the Polish nobles, who are mainly ab- sentee landlords, and who, until very recently, enjoyed the right of keeping taverns as one of their feudal privileges, the Jews have become the buffers of the deep-seated antag- onism between the two chief classes of Galicia. Agrarian uprisings have been frequent of late, particu- larly after the failure of the crops, which here as in Russia and Roumania spells a crisis. These, chiefly directed against the nobles, have frequently been diverted toward the Jews, to whom the peasants are largely indebted, and in whom they see the visible instruments of the oppression of their lords. Economic antagonism has been intensified by the relig- ious hatred which has been fostered by the Polish clergy and which has been the basis of numerous ritual -murder charges. CHAPTER V CONCLUSION AN intimate connection has thus been established be- tween the present state of economic and social transition through which the countries of Eastern Europe are passing and the situation which has confronted the Jews in each of these countries and has profoundly influenced their position and their history for the last third of a century. What the forces are behind the emigration of the Jews from these countries to Western Europe and the United States during this period now become clear. The industrial and commercial development of the recent decades brought about changes in themselves unfavorable to the economic activities of the Jews. The improvements in communication and transportation through the exten- sion of railroads, the building of roads, and the creation of credit facilities especially for the peasantry served partly to displace the Jews, whose economic position had been largely based upon the services they rendered in a relatively back- ward industrial and commercial civilization. The rise of a middle class among the Christian populations, chiefly en- gaged in industry, added an element of competition not be- fore present. Not the least important in its effects was the increasing poverty of the peasantry, which seriously af- fected the Jews, as the principal buyers of their produce) and sellers of finished products. Agricultural crises, so frequent in recent years in Eastern Europe, have often in- volved the Jews in financial ruin. 1 1 Cf. Hersch, chap. v. He gives to this factor far more importance than it deserves. For criticism of his method, cf. p. 92, note i. 497] Bi \ 82 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES These purely economic factors served to weaken the position of the Jews and to cause an over-concentra- tion in trade and industry, to their detriment. The gradual readjustment that would have followed naturally was, how- ever, prevented by the existence of other forces, in the action of which we find the key to the situation faced by the Jew si and the impelling forces of Jewish emigration. One of these was the economic antisemitism that rose partly from the competition of the middle classes of both populations. This competitive jealousy awakened racial and religious prejudices and found particularly in Galicia an active expression in the organization of economic boy- cotts, and in the co-operative agencies that were created to foster the growth of the Christian artisans and merchants. The sufferings of the agricultural population, again, were charged to the Jews, with whom the peasants were in close business relations and to whom they were deeply indebted. Preached from platform, press and pulpit, the doctrine of Jewish exploitation of the peasantry found a ready accept- ance among all classes. Economic and social hostility was furthered by the feudal ruling classes whose antagonism to the Jews was deep-seated and many-sided. As these formed the ruling economic, social and political power in Eastern Europe, they were the chief instrument in creating a situation that was full of danger for the Jews. In the politico-economic! struggles between these privileged classes and the liberal middle classes that accompanied the transition, the Jews were found, consciously or unconsciously, on the side of the liberals, who sought to introduce the economic, social and political conditions of modern civilization. Thus they served as a convenient object of attack. In Russia, where, since the reaction, the control of the feudal classes over the government was complete, the new laws restricting resi- 499 ] CONCLUSION 83 dence, movement, occupations and economic activity in gen- eral, checked the economic growth of the Jews and put them at a great disadvantage: in the struggle for existence. This situation was created to an even greater degree in Rou- mania, where the economic interests of the Roumanian middle class were furthered at the expense of the Jews. Economic helplessness was essentially the condition created for the Jews, so narrow was the margin left for the exer- cise of their powers. The social pressure that was added, through laws limiting the entrance of Jews to the educa- tional institutions and the liberal professions, seeking to limit their cultural influence, was part and parcel of the same policy. In the case of Russia, repression reached the form of massacres of Jews, when these were found politi- cally useful. Governmental oppression was thus the chief force in un- settling the economic and social position of the Jews, Throughout the course of thirty years the leading motive of the Russian and Roumanian governments was the re- duction, through every possible means, of the number of their Jewish populations. This governmental pressure which began to be applied at the beginning of the eighties became equivalent in the course of time to an expulsive force. The only outlet to the intol- erable conditions that had been created by the forces of governmental repression and oppression was emigration. This was sensed by the Jews at the very beginning of the period. How eagerly it has been seized upon the following pages will show. It is enough for the moment to point out that the vast and steadily increasing stream of Russian Jew- ish immigrants to the United States alone, has risen to such proportions that its average for the past decade has ap- proached the estimated annual increase of the Jews in Rus- sia. In other words, emigration has begun to mean the de- 84 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [500 cline, not only relatively, but even absolutely, of the Jewish population in Russia. The fact that the persecution of the Jews in the case of Russia and Roumania amounts to a force of rejection has been widely recognized during the course of the emigration of the Jews from Eastern Europe. In England, where the number of Jewish immigrants increased rapidly, it found expression in the official reports, and in the United States, it became a subject of direct diplomatic correspondence in the formal protest to Russia in 1891 by President Harrison, and in 1902 in the circular note to the Powers by Secretary Hay, regarding Roumania's treatment of the Jews. A still more significant recognition of the exceptional forces behind the Jewish immigration was given by the Jews of Western Europe and the United States, living in a state i of freedom, security and comparative wealth, to whom the "^ oncoming of thousands of Jewish refugees at all the critical periods, and the steady stream of Jewish immigrants at other times has meant a taking-up of onerous burdens and a sharing of the hardships of the situation thus suddenly thrust upon them. The attempt to organize and regulate Jewish emigration from Eastern Europe was a task early undertaken by the Alliance Israelite Universelle. The Jew- ish Colonization Association was expressly founded by Baron de Hirsch to open up, in various countries, new paths for the Jewish emigrants. At all periods of excep- tional emigration, national and international committees met to consider the problems of the immigrants thrown upon their responsibility. The vast majority of the emigrants made the United A States their goal. In their movement and their economid and social characteristics we shall find a striking reflection of the impelling forces of their emigration. PART II JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES A. ITS MOVEMENT CHAPTER I DETERMINATION OF NUMBER OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS IN a study of Jewish immigration to the United States the first problem is to determine the number o-f Jews who entered this country during the thirty years from 1881 to 1910, and their nationality, or their countries of nativity. The determination of these figures meets with the diffi- culty that prior to 1899, immigrants were classified in the official statistics by country of nativity or residence, and not by race or nationality. Thus the figures regarding Jewish immigration are obtainable from official sources only from 1899. Those relating to previous years have to be sought for elsewhere. The main sources that have been used to obtain the fig- ures before 1899 are the reports of three Jewish societies which were concerned with the care of the Jewish immi- grants arriving at the principal ports of New York, Phila- delphia, and Baltimore. These were the United Hebrew Charities, of New York; the Association for the Protec- tion of Jewish Immigrants, of Philadelphia, and the He- brew Benevolent Society, of Baltimore. Each of these maintained an agent who, besides his other duties, collected statistical information concerning the sex, age, country of nativity, occupation, destination, etc., of the Jewish immi- grants, partly from the ships' manifests and partly through personal inquiry. The statistical information thus obtained was regularly included in the annual reports of these socie- ties. These records were begun by the New York and 87 88 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [504 Philadelphia societies, in 1884, and by the Baltimore so- ciety, in 1891. As the yearly statistical tables of these reports were made to correspond with the annual meeting of these societies, 1 it was found advisable to rearrange them from July to June, in order to have them correspond with the fiscal year, and thus allow for a proper comparison with the official data furnished by the immigration authorities. As rearranged, the tables presented the number of Jew- ish immigrants entering the ports of New York and Phila- delphia from July i, 1886, to June 30, 1898, and the num- ber of Jewish immigrants entering the port of Baltimore from July I, 1891, to June 30, i898. 2 As these three ports were, up to recent years, the places of entry of all but a very small number of Jewish immigrants, the figures thus obtained represent practically the total Jewish immigration to the United States from 1886 to 1898.^ To ascertain the nationality or country of nativity of the Jewish immigrants from 1886 to 1898, it was necessary to redistribute in accordance with the fiscal year the monthly arrivals found in the tables of the United Hebrew Charities, which contain the figures for each nationality. 3 As the re- ports of the Philadelphia society gave only the totals of ar- rivals of each nationality for each year but not distributed by months, the following method was employed. The per- centage the immigration of each nativity constituted of the total immigration from November to October (the society's year) was used as the basis for calculating the annual im- 1 The year of the United Hebrew Chanties is from October to Sep- tember, that of the Philadelphia society is from November to October, that of the Baltimore society is from July to June. 2 Cf. table II, p. 159. The figures for Baltimore were furnished by the Baron de Hirsch Fund. 8 For an example of this distribution cf. table III, p. 159. 505] NUMBER OF Jl l-'ANTS 89 migration of each nativity ne. 1 There being no essential difference betv Baltimore and Philadelphia, so far as Jewish immigra each n ttionality are con- cerned, the same percentag- were ised for Philadelphia. 2 The discrepancy betwee official iigures of the total immigration from Rouma to 1898 and those of the Jewish societies f Jewish immigrants from Roumania for the same p worthy of note. In each of four years the number immigrants from Rou- mania as reported by the Jewish societies exceeded the total immigration from Roumania as reported in the official statistics. For two years, 1892 and 1893, the official sta- tistics do not report any immigrants from Roumania, whereas the Jewish societies report, 3 respectively, 740 and 555 Jewish immigrants from Roumania, which represented a normal number from this country, as the other years indi- cate. 4 1 Cf. table IVA, p. 160. Thus, from November 1885 to October 1886 there entered the port of Philadelphia 2165 Jews, of whom 1624 or 75 per cent were from Russia, 260 or 12 per cent were from Austria- Hungary, 43 or 2 per cent were from Roumania, and 238 or n per cent were from all other countries. From July I, 1885 to June 30, 1886, there entered the port of Philadelphia 1625 Jews. To ascertain the numbers of each nationality for this fiscal year, we may use the percentages given above for each nationality. Calculating these, we find that in the fiscal year 1886 of the 1625 Jews entering the port of Philadelphia, 1218 were from Russia, 196 were from Austria- Hungary, 33 were from Roumania, and 178 were from all other coun- tries. In like manner, the numbers of each nationality for the other years were obtained. 2 Cf. table IVs, p. 160. 8 As corrected by the methods described. 4 For the four years mentioned, the figures are as follows, those re- ported by the Jewish societies preceding those from official sources: in 1886, 518, 494; in 1887, 2063, 2045; in 1888, 1653, 1188; in 1889, 1058, 893. For the official figures cf. Immigration Commission : Statis- tical Review of Immigration, pp. 40-44. 90 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [506 The total number of immigrants of each nationality ar- riving from July i, 1886, to June 30, 1898, was thus ob- tained. The total number of Jewish immigrants arriving from Russia, Austria-Hungary and Roumania, at each of the principal ports, for each year from 1886 to 1898, are summarized in table V. 1 The figures of Jewish immigration before 1886 were not obtainable either from the official or the Jewish sources, there being only an estimate of the number of the Jewish immigrants from 1881 to 1884 in the American Jewish Year Book of 1899-1900 (as 74,310), and in the Jewish Ency- clopedia (as 62,022), without any indications as to how these were obtained. To secure a fairly accurate statement, the proportion the Russian Jewish immigration from 1886 to 1898 bore to the total Russian immigration was used as the basis for calculating the total number of Russian Jew- ish immigrants from 1881 to 1885. 2 This was distributed yearly according to the proportion of each year's contribu- tion to the five years' total. By a similar calculation the number of Jewish immigrants from Austria-Hungary was obtained. 3 For Roumania, the proportion of Jews being 3 Cf. table V, p. 161. 1 Out of a total of 505,078 Russian immigrants from 1886 to 1898, the Russian Jewish immigrants constituted 315,355, or 62 per cent. * In calculating the number of Jewish immigrants from Austria- Hungary the percentage the Jewish immigration was of the total immigration from Austria-Hungary from 1886 to 1910 and not, as in the case with the Jewish immigration from Russia, from 1886 to 1898, was used through an oversight as the basis for calculation. As the immigration of Jews from Austria-Hungary for 1885 at the port of New York alone constituted 14 per cent of the total immigration from Austria-Hungary, this figure was put down in to to, being a higher number than the one obtained by calculation. As the Jewish immigra- tion from 1886 to 1910 constituted 9 per cent of the total immigration from Austria-Hungary and the immigration from 1886 to 1898 con- stituted 14 per cent of the total immigration, the difference is not 507] NUMBER OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS 91 more than ninety per cent, and at this period practically the entire Roumanian immigration being Jewish, the fig- ures were taken in toto. The results for each year added! together constituted the total Jewish immigration for the year. The general tendency among writers on the subject of Jewish immigration has been to exaggerate the magnitude of this movement. In a discussion in the Jewish Encyclo- pedia regarding the dimensions of the Jewish immigration before 1899, exact figures were given that are on their face erroneous. 1 The inaccuracy of these figures is explained by the fact that the writer committed a gross error in mak- ing his table. The total Russian immigration to the United States from 1880 to 1898 was designated as the Jewish im- migration from Russia, though it should have been evi- dent that the number of other peoples coming from Russia and included in these figures must have been very large. Another column gave as Jewish immigrants coming from countries other than Russia, the totals of the Jewish im- migrants entering the United States from 1885 to 1898, as reported in the American Jewish Year Book of 1899 (the large. Following is the table indicating the difference for each year from 1881 to 1884. Year. Total immigration. fewish immigration. Difference. at 14 per cent at 9 per cent 1881 27935 3882 2537 1345 1882 29150 4051 2648 1403 1883 27625 3840 2510 1330 1884 36571 5083 3340 1743 The increased numbers from the higher percentage involve no change in the relative position of Jewish immigration from the three principal countries of emigration, except in 1881, when the Jewish im- migration from Austria-Hungary would have exceeded that from Russia. 1 Jewish Encyclopedia: "Migration," vol. viii, p. 584. Ibid., " Russia " Emigration, vol. x, p. 547. 9 2 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [508 latter figures of which included Russian Jews as well as those of other nativities), thereby doubling the number of Russian Jewish immigrants for this period. The result has been to more than triple the numbers of the Jewish immi- grants. These figures have been widely used and quoted, and have generally created the impression of a Jewish im- migration larger by several hundred thousands than is really the case. 1 The results of the foregoing are summarized in Table VI, which gives the number of Jewish immigrants arriving in each of the thirty years from 1881 to 1910, and the prin- cipal countries of nativity of these immigrants. We are thus in a position closely to* study the movement of Jewish immigration for practically the entire period since it became a significant part of the recent immigration to the United States, and thereby to throw light upon the character of this movement, in itself and as a part of the general immi- gration. 1 Ruppin uses these figures in Die Sozialen Verh'dltnisse der Juden in Russland, p. n. Hersch, (Le juif errant d'aujourd'hui}, subjects the figures given in the Jewish Encyclopedia to a thorough analysis and shows their ab- surdity. Unaware, however, of the nature of the error committed by the writer and of the existence of authoritative sources for the figures of Jewish immigration, he drew the conclusion that it is im- possible to obtain any really accurate figures of Jewish immigration before 1899. This leads him into serious errors owing to the fact that he discusses the movement of Jewish immigration from the basis of the twelve years from 1899 to 1910, representing the height of the movement, instead of for the entire period of thirty years. This vitiates his principal conclusions regarding the character of the Jewish movement to this country. Particularly noticeable is his neglect of the phenomena presented by the Russian and Roumanian movements and his elevation of the movement from Austria-Hungary as the type of Jewish immigration to this country. 509] NUMBER OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS TABLE VI JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES, l88l TO IQIO 93 Year Russia Hungary mania Kingdom many N. A. key France Others Total 1881 3125 2537 30 5692 1882 10489 2648 65 13202 1883 6144 2510 77 8731 1884 7867 3340 238 H445 1885 10648 3938 803 1473 16862 1886 14092 5326 518 983 254 2II73 1887 23103 6898 2063 7 80 2OO 33044 1888 20216 5985 1653 727 300 28881 1889 18338 4998 1058 758 2OO 25352 1890 20981 6439 462 633 I2 4 28639 1891 43457 5890 854 636 56l 51398 1892 64253 8643 740 1787 950 76373 1893 25161 6363 555 1814 1429 35322 1894 20747 5916 616 IIO9 791 29179 1895 16727 6047 5i8 1028 1871 26191 1896 20168 9831 744 829 1276 32848 1897 13063 5672 5i6 586 535 20372 1898 14949 7367 720 296 322 23654 1899 24275 II07I 1343 174 405 5 8l 9 52 37415 1900 3701 1 16920 6183 133 337 114 17 49 60764 I9OI 3766o 13006 6827 1 10 272 154 20 49 58098 1902 37846 12848 6589 55 182 138 9 21 57688 1903 47689 18759 8562 420 477 211 ii 74 76203 1904 77544 2O2II 6446 817 669 8 313 32 196 106236 1905 92388 17352 3854 14299 734 ii 173 327 772 I299IO 1906 125234 14884 3872 6113 979 429 461 479 1297 153748 1907 H4937 18885 3605 7032 734 1818 918 306 952 149182 I008 71978 15293 4455 6260 869 2393 635 425 1079 I03387 1 1909 39150 8431 1390 3385 652 2780 690 325 748 5755I 1 I9IO 59824 I3I42 1701 4098 705 2262 1388 339 801 84260! Total 1119059 281150 67057 42896 20454 97o6 5276 2299 14903 1562800 1 From 1908 immigrants were classified in the reports of the Commissioner- General of Immigration as "immigrant aliens," those intending to reside permanently in the United States and " non-immigrant aliens," those making a temporary trip to the United States. In the figures of 1008, 1909 and 1910, only the " immigrant aliens " are considered. 94 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [$ lo TABLE VII PERCENTAGE OF ANNUAL JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES CONTRI- BUTED BY EACH COUNTRY OF NATIVITY, l88l TO IpIO Austria- Ron- United Ger- Brit. Tur- All Year Russia Hungary mania Kingdom many N. A. key France Others Total 1881 54.8 447 0-5 lOOiO 1882 79-5 20.1 0.4 IOO.O 1883 70.4 28.7 0.9 100.0 1884 68.7 29.2 2.1 IOO.O 1885 63,1 234 4.8 8.7 IOO.O 1886 66.6 25-2 2.4 4.6 1.2 IOO.O 1887 69.9 20.8 6-3 2.4 .6 IOO.O 1888 70.0 20.7 5-7 2.5 I.I IOO.O 1889 72.3 19.7 4.2 3-0 .8 IOO.O 1890 73-3 22.5 1.6 2.2 -4 IOO.O 1891 84.6 II-5 1.6 1.2 i.i IOO.O 1892 84.1 U.3 i.i 2.2 1.3 IOO.O 1893 71.2 18.0 1.6 5.i 4-1 IOO.O 1894 71.1 20.3 2.1 3-8 2.7 IOO.O 1895 63.9 23.1 2.O 3.9 7-1 IOO.O 1896 61.4 29.9' 2-3 2-5 3-9 IOO.O 1897 64.1 27.9 2-5 2.9 2.6 IOO.O 1898 63.2 3i.i 3-0 1.3 1.4 IOO.O 1899 64.9 29-5 3.6 5 i.i 4 IOO.O 1900 60.9 27.8 IO.2 .2 .6 .3 IOO.O 1901 64.8 22.4 11.8 .2 5 .2 .1 IOO.O 1902 65.6 22.3 11.4 .1 3 .2 .1 IOO.O 1903 62.6 24.6 II.2 .6 .6 3 .1 IOO.O 1904 73-0 19.0 6.1 .8 .6 3 .2 IOO.O 1905 71.1 13-4 3-0 II.O .6 .1 .2 .6 IOO.O 1906 81.5 9-7 2.5 4.0 .6 .3 3 .3 .8 IOO.O 1907 77-1 12.7 2.4 4.7 .5 1.2 .6 .2 .6 IOO.O 1908 69.6 14.8 4-3 6.1 .8 2.3 .6 .4 i.i IOO.O 1909 68.0 14.7 2.4 5-9 1.2 4.7 1.2 .6 1.3 IOO.O 1910 71.1 15-6 2.0 4.9 .8 2.7 1.6 4 .9 IOO.O Total 71.6 17.9 4.3 2.8 1.3 0.6 0.3 0.2 i.o 100.0 CHAPTER II IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM EASTERN EUROPE IN the thirty years between 1881 and 1910, 1,562,800 Jews entered the United States. An examination of Tables VI and VII reveals the fact that the great majority of the immigrants came from Russia, Austria-Hungary and Roumania. Of the total number, Russia contributed 1,119,- 059 immigrants, or 71.6 per cent; Austria-Hungary 281,150 immigrants, or 17.9 per cent, and Roumania 67,057 immi- grants, or 4.3 per cent. Together these three countries contributed 93.8 per cent of the total for the thirty years. The great majority of the Jewish immigrants from the United Kingdom and British North America are not Eng- lish or Canadian Jews but transmigrants or transient East- European Jews, to whom England and Canada were a half- way house from the countries of Eastern Europe to the United States. 1 If we included these immigrants, the Jew- ish immigration from these three countries of Eastern Europe would be considerably above 95 per cent. The Jewish immigration of the last third of a century is thus practically wholly from Eastern Europe. Summarizing the results for the three decades, 2 we find that the Jewish immigrants from Russia maintained a fairly constant proportion to the total Jewish immigration, contributing 135,003, in the decade between 1881 and 1890 or 69.9 per cent of the total for the decade, 279,811 or 71.1 1 Landa, The Alien Problem and its Remedy, pp. 54-57- 2 Cf. table VIII, p. 162. 503] 95 9 6 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [512 per cent in the decade between 1891 and 1900, and 704,245, or 72.1 per cent, in the decade between 1901 and 1910. Roumanian Jewish immigration was relatively smaller in the earlier decades, numbering 6,967 in the first, 12,789 in the second decade, comprising 3.2 per cent and 3.6 per cent, respectively, of the total, and in the last decade, numbering 47,301 and constituting 4.8 per cent of the total immigra- tion of the decade. The Jewish immigration from Austria-Hungary bore a proportion to the total higher in the first two decades, con- tributing 44,619 immigrants in the first decade and 83,720 immigrants in the second decade, or 23.1 per cent and 21.3 per cent, respectively, of the total, and 152,810 immigrants, or 15.7 per cent, in the last decade. The Jewish immigrants from the United Kingdom and British North America, which, in the first two decades con- stituting less than one per cent of the total of each decade, were included in the rubric " all others ", rose in the last decade to 42,589, constituting 4.4 per cent, and to 9,701, constituting one per cent, of the total of this decade. An examination of the yearly contributions made by the Jews of the principal countries * shows that the immigrants from Russia formed the majority of the immigrants for each year of the entire period, and as a rule, did not deviate) far from the general proportion established for the thirty years. The greatest increases occurred during the years of maximum Jewish immigration, in 1882, 1891, 1892 and 1906, when the Russian Jewish immigrants constituted four- fifths or more of the total for the year. The immigrants from Roumania showed higher per- centages than their average in 1887 and in 1888, and a re- markable increase of their contribution from 1900 to 1903, i Cf. tables VI and VII, pp. 93-94- 513] JEWS FROM EASTERN EUROPE 97 in which years they constituted more than a tenth of the total number of immigrants. The immigrants from Austria-Hungary formed, on the average, less than one-fifth of the total, but varied considerably in their proportions. In general, they main- tained a rate higher than their average during the earlier years of their movement. In the later years they showed a relative decline, especially during the last decade, owing to the greater relative increase of the Jewish immigration from Russia and Roumania, though their absolute num- bers increased greatly during this period. Their highest ratios of contribution were made from 1883 to Z 886 and from 1896 to 1900, the latter period marking their maxi- mum relative contributions. The influence of the Russian Jewish immigration is thus paramount. It dominates and controls the entire move- ment, owing to its great preponderance of numbers. To a closer consideration of its movement we shall now turn. CHAPTER III IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM RUSSIA THE \nass-mo vement of the Russian Jews to the United States began in the first year of Alexander Ill's reign. Though in this year the number of Russian Jews entering this country amounted to a little over three thousand, the immigration grew so rapidly and in such proportions that at the end of thirty years, more than a million Russian Jews had been admitted to the United States. An examination of the figures of the Russian Jewish immigration for the thirty years 1 reveals that it is a movement of steady growth. The Russian Jewish im- migration falls practically into two periods; the first culminating in 1892, the second culminating in 1906. Con- sidering it by decades, 2 we find that the movement is one of geometrical progression. In the first decade, from 1 88 1 to 1890, 135,003 Russian Jews entered the country, 1 2. i per cent of the total Russian Jewish immigrants. Be- tween 1891 and 1900, 279,811 Russian Jews entered, con- stituting 25.0 per cent of the total. In the last decade, from 1901 to 1910, there entered 704,245 Russian Jews, or 62.9 per cent of the total. The annual variations are, nevertheless, considerable and largely explainable by the special conditions in Russia that have influenced the lives of the Jews throughout this period. At the beginning of this period, in 1881, the immigration of Russian Jews was small. The pogroms of 1881-2 were i Cf. table IX, p. 162. 2 Cf. table X, p. 163. 98 [514 515] IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM RUSSIA 99 reflected in the sudden rise in 1882 to 10,489 immigrants, more than three times the number of the preceding year. The immigration of this year was rather a flight than a normal movement. The great majority of the immigrants were refugees, fleeing from massacre and pillage. 1 In this year Russian Jewish immigration began its up- ward course. Another high point was reached in 1887 with 23,103 immigrants, when the educational restrictions and the expulsions that followed a strict application of the May Laws indicated a renewal of the policy of the Russian gov- ernment. The rumors of new restrictions that marked the begin- ning of the nineties, and the opening of the second decade of Alexander Ill's reign, were followed by the wholesale expulsions from Moscow. The immigration in 1891 of 43,457 and in 1892 of 64,253 Russian Jews the latter the highest number reached in two decades reflects this situa- tion. Nearly a tenth of the total immigration entered in these two years. The direct effect of the administrative activity of this year and especially of the Moscow expulsions upon the) Russian Jewish immigration is seen in the number of Russian Jews who entered New York during the months closely following these expulsions. 2 For the first five months of 1891, the immigration averaged approximately 2,300, evidently a normal figure for this decade. It reached its lowest in May, when 1,225 Jews entered the country. In June, two months after the order of expul- sion, the number of immigrants jumped to 8,667 a s ^ x ~ fold increase which up to this year was the largest num- ber of Russian Jews entering this country in one month. 1 Sulzberger, The Beginnings of Russo- Jewish Immigration to Phila- delphia (Philadelphia, 1910), pp. 125-150. 2 Cf. table XI, p. 163. I0 o JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES This figure was surpassed in the immigration of August and September. Out of a total of 60,261 Russian Jews who entered in 1891, 11,449 came the first five months from January to May, and 40,706, or more than three times the previous immigration, came the next five months from June to October. The following five months there came only 16,832, less than half the number of immi- grants of the months of June to October. And, finally, tak- ing the year as a whole, there came over 60,261 Russian Jews in 1891, the year of the Moscow expulsions, as com- pared with the 28,834 Russian Jews who entered in 1892, when no exceptional circumstances occurred to affect their immigration tendency. The six years from 1893 to ^98 were relatively mild years for the Russian Jews, The change of rulers in Russia and the comparatively lenient attitude shown by Nicholas II toward the Jews in the beginning of his reign resulted in a less stringent administration of the special Jewish laws. The financial depression in the United States which began in 1893 an d embraced this period, was an additional influ- ence in diminishing the flow of Russian Jewish immigrants. The fall, however, was not as large as the existence of un- favorable economic conditions in this country might lead one to expect. For in spite of it, Russian Jewish immigra- tion resumed the rate it maintained in the years before 1891. From 1893 to I ^9^ there entered this country 110,815 Rus- sian Jews as against the 107,378 Russian Jews who entered in the six years from 1885 to 1890. Another rise began in 1899. Economic depression, revo- lutionary terrorism and anti-Jewish propaganda paved the way for a great inpouring of Russian Jews to the United States. The Kishineff massacre of 1903 sent thousands of , Jews in veritable flight to the United States, a fact which is reflected in an immigration of 77,544 Russian Jews in 1904, 517] IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM RUSSIA IO I the greatest number up to this year. With the beginning of the Russo-Japanese war, the outbreak of the revo- lution and, above all, of the Jewish massacres the im- migration rose in 1905 to 92,388. In 1906, a year of pogroms, it reached the number of 125,234, the highest in the entire period and in 1907, 114,932, the second largest immigration. The diminution in the numbers in 1908 reflects largely the relative change for the better that took place in the situation in Russia, with the beginning of parliamentary government, as well as the panic conditions in the United States of the preceding year. How great still was the impulse to leave is shown by the fact that in spite of the panic of 1907, the number of immi- grants for 1908 was 71,978. The great rise of the immi- gration from the United Kingdom during these years was also due to the number of Russian Jews that came to the United States by way of England. In all, during these five years which form an epoch in contemporary Russian Jew- ish history, there streamed into the United States half a million Russian Jews, constituting more than two-fifths of the total immigration for the entire thirty years. Of special significance is the part the Jewish immigrants i play in the total Russian immigration to the United States. 1 By far the largest group of immigrants coming from Russia are Jews. For the entire thirty years they consti- tuted 48.3 per cent of the total Russian immigration. As a general rule, the proportion of the Jewish in the total Russian immigration rises during the critical periods of these thirty years. Thus in 1891, the year of the Mos- cow expulsions, the Jewish immigrants constituted 91.6 per cent of the total immigration from Russia, and in the fol- lowing year, under the same influences, 78.8 per cent. The i Cf. table XII, p. 164. 102 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES years 1886 and 1887 are also signalized by the great propor- tion of the Jewish immigrants, who formed 79.2 per cent and 75.1 per cent, respectively, of the total Russian immi- gration for these years. In the last decade, when the Jew- ish participation in the total immigration had become rela- tively lessened, the three years which represented the climax of the movement, 1904, 1905 and 1906, show a higher tela- tive proportion, 53.4 per cent, 50 per cent and 58.1 per cent, respectively, than the average for the decade or for the en- tire period. Considering the proportions by decades, 1 we find that of the total of 213,282 Russian immigrants entering in the decade from 1881 to 1890, the Jewish immi- grants contributed 135,003', or 63.3 per cent. Of a total of 505,280 Russian immigrants in the decade from 1891 to 1900, the Jewish immigrants numbered 279,811, or 55.4 per cent. In the last decade, from 1901 to 1910, of a total of 1,597.306 Russian immi- grants, the Jewish immigrants were 704,245, or 44.1 per cent. The diminishing importance of the Jewish in the total Russian immigration, in spite of the fact that the former shows so great an increase, is due to the rapid growth of the immigration tendency among the other races in Russia, especially in the last decade. Nevertheless, a closer examination of the relative partici- pation by the various peoples of Russia in the immigration from that country from 1899 to T 9 10 2 shows that the Jews maintain their position of predominance, contributing a larger proportion to the total Russian immigration than any other people throughout this period, except in 1910, when the Poles contributed a slightly higher proportion to the immigration of that year. The Polish contribution is next i Cf. table XIII, p. 164. 2 Cf. table XIV, p. 165. 5 ! 9 ] IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM RUSSIA 103 to that of the Jews, attaining its maximum at a point where the Jewish immigration is at its lowest, relatively, in the twelve years. The preceding sufficiently indicates the abnormal extent of the Russian Jewish immigration but its intensity may be judged further from the fact that though the Jews in Russia were less than one-twentieth of the total Russian popula- tion, they formed nearly half of the Russian immigrants to the United States. In other words, they were represented in the Russian immigration by more than eleven times their proportion in the Russian population. As, however, the emigration movement of the Russians proper is directed chiefly to Siberia, we may limit the comparison to the Pale, where the Jews are overwhelmingly concentrated, and where they constitute more than a tenth of the total population. Even with this limitation they were represented in the immi- gration to the United States by more than four times their proportion of the population. Another method of judging the degree of intensity of the Russian Jewish movement is to compare the proportion the number of Jewish immigrants for a period bears to the total Jewish population in Russia their rate of immigration with that of the other Russian peoples represented in the immigration to the United States. The rate of immigration of the Jews is by far the highest among the peoples of Russia. From 1899 to I 9 I tne J ew ~ ism immigrants to the United States constituted on the aver- age one out of every 79 of the Jewish population in Russia. The Finnish immigrants constituted one out of every 191 Finns, the Polish immigrants one out of every 200 Poles, and the Russian immigrants proper one out of every 11.552 of the Russian population. The relative position of the Jews 1 Cf. table XV, p. 165. JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [520 is thus strikingly indicated. The rate of immigration truly: becomes an index of the economic and social pressure tov which the Jews have been subjected for a third of a century. 1 This rate of immigration for the Jews, moreover, shows large fluctuations in the twelve years from 1899 to I9IO. 1 Of every 10,000 Jews in Russia there came to this country on the average for the twelve years from 1899 to 1910, 125 Jews. From 1899 to 1903 the annual rate of immigration was much lower than the average. In 1904, with the begin- ning of the critical years, the annual rate rose to 152, and in 1905, to 181. It reached its climax in 1906, with 246, almost twice as large as the average for the entire period. It fell slightly below this in 1907 with 226. In 1908, there was a great fall to 141, though the rate was still above the average for the period. The movement of the Russian Jews to this country in the last thirty years is seen to be steadily rising and to reach enormous dimensions in the last decade. The Jews are more largely represented in the movement from Russia than any other people, and predominate practically for the entire thirty years. The rate of immigration is abnormally high, as compared with that of any other of the immigrant races from Russia. For the most part the Russian Jewish immigration reflects the unusual situation confronting the Jews in Russia. 1 Cf. table XVI, p. 166. CHAPTER IV IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM ROUMANIA THE immigration of Roumanian Jews to the United States began as a small stream at the end of the sixties, and assumed significant dimensions in the eighties. Two im- portant periods of rising immigration are clearly distin- guishable. The first period attains its maximum between 1885 and 1889. The second attains its maximum and that of the entire movement between 1900 and 1904. In the thirty years between 1881 and 1910, 67,057 immi- grants entered the United States. 1 In the first decade, 6,967 immigrants, or 10.4 per cent of the total, arrived. In the second decade, 12,789 immigrants arrived, or 19.1 per cent of the total. The great majority, 47,301 immigrants, or 70.5 per cent of the total, arrived in the last decade, more than twice as many as had arrived in the two preceding decades. The Roumanian Jews thus began to take a signifi- cant part in the Jewish movement only within the last decade. The annual variations are closely connected with the con- ditions in Roumania which have been previously discussed. 8 The rise in 1885 to 803 immigrants, the first number of any consequence, reflects the measures taken in Roumania to restrict the economic activity of the Jews, chiefly through the hawkers' law of 1884. The continuation of the admin- istrative activities against the Jews, the expulsion of many i Cf. table XVII, p. 166. 2 Cf. table XVIII, p. 167. 52i] 105 I0 6 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [522 from the villages, and particularly the beginning in earnest of the attempt to drive them from industry and commerce, by the law of 1887, are responsible for the wholesale exodus in that and the following two years. In these three years more than 7 per cent of the total Roumanian Jewish immi- gration entered the country. After 1889 and for nearly a decade the immigration of Jews from Roumania subsided, resuming the proportions established before 1887. Another rise began in 1899. In 1900, the Roumanian Jewish immigration reached the relatively great number of 6,183, around which point it stood for the next two years. In 1903, it reached its maximum with an immigration of 8,562 Jews, one-eighth of the entire Roumanian Jewish im- migration for the thirty years. In the following year the immigration still held to the high numbers reached before 1903. The years following 1904 show a fall to less than 4,000, which was interrupted in 1908, when the immigration rose to 4,455. In 1909, a sharp fall ensued to 1,390, and in 1910 to 1,701. The great rise from 1900 to 1904, during which period there came more than half of the total number of Jewish immigrants from Roumania, was largely due to the resump- tion of the government program against the Jews. The chief form of restriction was the passing of the Artisans' Law in 1902, preceded by some years of agitation and adminis- trative activity directed against the Jews, which aimed to make it impossible for the Jewish artisans to secure work. The feeling that the Jews had nothing to hope from the government, as much as the actual distress occasioned, was largely responsible for the unprecedented immigration. 1 1 In the Century of Nov., 1913, Professor Ross, writing on "The Old World in the New/' remarks (p. 28) that " the emigration of 50,000 Roumanian Jews between January and August, 1900, was 523] IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM ROUMANIA The Jewish forms so large a part of the Roumanian im- migration as to be practically synonymous with it. As we have before noted, the figures obtained from the Jewish sources indicate a larger immigration from 1886 to 1898 on the part of the Jews alone than the official figures give for the entire immigration from Roumania for this period. Confining our attention to the figures of immigration from 1899 to 19 lo, 1 we find that, from 1899 to 1910, of the 61,073 immigrants from Roumania who entered the United States, 54,827, or 89.8 per cent, were Jews. Thus prac- tically nine-tenths of the immigrants from Roumania are Jews. In the five years in which the Jewish movement was at its height, the Jews constituted from 91 per cent to 95.7 per cent of the Roumanian immigration. The immigration brought about by steamship agents who created great excitement in Roumania by distributing glowing circulars about America." It is remarkable that with so large an emigration of Roumanian Jews during these eight months, ostensibly directed to America, only 6183 Roumanian Jews were recorded as arriving in the United States in 1900, and only 6,827 in 1901. In the twelve years from 1899 to 1910, Professor Ross's figure is approached; for the entire period 54,827 Roumanian Jews are officially recorded as entering the United States. Even of the relatively large immigration of Jews from Roumania in 1900, the cause clearly was not the activity of steamship agents. Compare the report of the president of the United Hebrew Charities, keenly alive to the problems presented to the American Jews by the Jewish immigration : " The last few months have been noteworthy in the history of the Jewish race for an outbreak of Anti-Semitism in a far-away country, the far-reaching effects of which have been keenly felt in this city. I refer of course, to the persecutions of the Jews in Roumania. A small group of Jewish philanthropists of this city (under the direction of the IOOB) has taken up the task of providing for the newcomers." Such a response is not usually given to immigrants lured to this country by promises of gain. United Hebrew Charities of New York City, Oct., 1900, p. 19. i Cf. table XIX, p. 168. I0 g JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [524 of other peoples from Roumania is insignificant. The high- est number entering in any of the twelve years amounted to less than 800. Still more significant is the intensity of immigration of the Roumanian Jews, especially in view of the negligible number of immigrants from Roumania other than Jews. The rate of immigration of the Roumanian Jews is far higher than that even of their Russian brethren. 1 The average annual immigration of Roumanian Jews, for the twelve years, from 1899 tc 1910, amounted to 4,569, which represented an average rate of immigration for the Rou- manian Jews of 175 per 10,000 of the Jewish population in Roumania. In the five years of maximum immigration, from 1900 to 1904, the rate was considerably higher, reach- ing in 1903 the enormous proportion of 329 immigrants to every 10,000 Jews in Roumania. The lowest rate during this period, that of 1900, was only slightly smaller than the maximum rate approached by the Jewish immigrants from Russia. However, in the three years which represented the highest point of the rate of immigration of the Jews from Russia, from 1905 to 1907, the rate of immigration for the corresponding years in Roumania was considerably smaller. The Jewish immigration from Roumania is thus a pro- duct chiefly of the last decade. The rise in the first decade and the relatively tremendous rise in the last decade are a result largely of the activities of the Roumanian govern- ment. The vast majority of the immigrants from Rou- mania are Jews, whose rate of immigration is unprece- dented. 1 Cf. table XX, p. 168. CHAPTER V IMMIGRATION OF JEWS FROM AUSTRIA-HUNGARY THE immigration of Jews from Austria-Hungary began before the eighties of the last century, becoming at the be- ginning of the nineties a relatively strong and steady cur- rent. Until recently, this immigration was almost exclu- sively from Galicia. 1 Summarizing the movement by decades, 2 we find that 44,619 Jews, or 15.9 per cent of the total, came during the decade from 1881 to 1890; 83,720 immigrants, or 29.8 per cent of the total, came during the decade from 1891 to 1900. In the last decade, from 1901 to 1910, there entered 152,811 immigrants, or 54.3 per cent of the total. Thus there is a nearly steady rise of the movement, though it is not as great as that found in the Jewish immigration from Russia. The annual variations are also not as large as are found in the Russian Jewish movement. 3 The greatest number that came in any year in the first decade was in 1887, when 6,898 immigrants arrived, contributing 2.4 per cent of the total for the year. The highest number that came in the second decade was in 1899, when 11,071 immigrants ar- rived, contributing 3.9 per cent of the total. From this year there began a great rise which reached its maximum in 1904 with an immigration of 20,211 Jews, consti- 1 Buzek, " Das Auswanderungsproblem in Oesterreich," Zeitschrift fur Volkswirtschaft, Sozialpolitik und Verwaltung, p. 458. 2 Cf. table XXI, p. 169. 3 Cf. table XXII, p. 169. 525] 109 IIO JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [526 tuting 7.2 per cent of the total the highest point attained in the entire movement. A comparison of the fluctuations of the Jewish with those of the total Austro-Hungarian immigration shows that the former follows the general movement quite closely, though there are minor differences and the maximum periods of both movements do not coincide. 1 An examination of the part the Jewish played in the gen- eral immigration from Austria-Hungary shows that during the entire period of thirty years there entered into the United States from Austria-Hungary 3,091,692 immigrants, to which the Jews contributed 281,150 immigrants, or 9.1 per cent 2 That the Jewish movement was relatively stronger in the earlier period than the general movement from Austria-Hungary is indicated by the fact that the Jews participate to a much larger extent in the movement of the first decades than in that of the last In the first decade, from 1881 to 1890, of the 353,719 immigrants from Aus- tria-Hungary, the Jews were 44,619, or 12.6 per cent of the total for the decade. In the decade from 1891 to 1900, of the 592,707 immigrants they were 83,720, or 14.1 per cent of the total. In the last decade, of 2,145,266 immigrants, they were 158,811, or 7.4 per cent of the entire movement The Jewish movement is thus seen to be relatively the strongest in the second decade. Its fall in the last decade to almost half the proportion of the preceding decade was due to the tremendous growth in the immigration of the other races from Austria-Hungary. Whereas the general move- ment nearly quadrupled its numbers in the last decade, the Jewish movement did not quite double its numbers. The largest part in the movement from Austria-Hungary 1 Cf. table XXIII, p. 170. 2 Cf. table XXIV, p. 170. 527] IMMIGRATION FROM AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 1 1 1 was taken by the Jews during the earlier years. 1 The highest point was reached in 1886, when the Jews constituted 18.6 per cent of the total movement. In the following year the Jewish immigrants constituted 17.1 per cent. Other years in which the Jews participated strongly were 1895, an< ^ from 1897 to 1899. In 1898 the second highest point was reached, the Jews constituting 18.5 per cent of the move- ment. From 1904 a great fall ensued. The lowest point was reached in 1909, when the Jews constituted only 5 per cent of the total movement. A clearer idea of the situation would be obtained if the figures for the years and decades could be ascertained for Austria and Hungary separately, as the Jews in each of the divisions of the Dual Monarchy differ considerably in their immigration tendency. Austria and Hungary are distin- guished in the immigration statistics only since 1910. Nevertheless, the three years from 1910 to 1912 serve to show that the Jews from Austria immigrate to the United States in much larger numbers than their brethren in Hun- gary. From 1910 to 1912, out of a total of 36,684 Jewish immigrants from Austria-Hungary, 29,340, or fully four- fifths, came from Austria. The participation of the Aus- trian Jews in the general movement is also correspondingly larger. From 1910 to 1912, the Jewish immigrants from Austria numbered 29,340 out of a total of 303,776, consti- tuting 9.7 per cent of the total Austrian immigration. For the same period the Jewish immigrants from Hungary num- bered only 7,344 out of a total of 292,900, constituting 2.5 per cent of the total. Thus the Jews participate in the movement from Austria practically four times as much as in the movement from Hungary. The relative position of the Jews among the peoples im- i Cf. table XXIV, p. 170. II2 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [528 migrating from Austria is of interest in this connection. The peoples with which comparison must be maintained are those concentrated in Galicia, the chief source of the Jewish, Polish and Ruthenian immigration. 1 For the seven years between 1899 and 1905, the Jewish immigrants con- stituted the second largest group. From 1906, they fell into the third position (excepting in 1908), owing to the rapid increase of immigration among the Ruthenians. The average rate of immigration of the Jews of Austria- Hungary for the twelve-year period from 1899 t Z 9 IO > * s 74 for every 10,000 Jews in the Empire. 2 The maximum rate was 97, which was reached in the immigration of 1904. In comparison with the Russian and Roumanian Jewish im- migrants, those from Austria-Hungary have a far lower rate of immigration. This is true for the average as well as for the single years. However, in the first two years, 1899 an d 1900, the rate of immigration was higher among the Jewish immigrants from Austria-Hungary. In com- parison with the rate of immigration of the Poles and the Ruthenians, the Jews occupy an intermediate position, hav- ing a lower rate than the Poles and a higher rate than the Ruthenians. 3 The Jewish movement from Austria-Hungary thus shows a fairly steady rise, but neither in its yearly variations nor its rate of immigration does it give evidence of any excep^ tional characteristics. 1 Cf. table XXV, p. 171. 2 Cf. table XXVI, p. 171. 3 Cf. Hersch, op. cit., p. 43. This comparison gives a lower rate of immigration to the Jews than they really possess, owing to the fact that it is based upon the total Jewish population of Austria-Hungary, and not upon that of Galicia, from which province the great majority -of the Jewish immigrants come. CHAPTER VI TOTAL JEWISH IMMIGRATION THE movement of the total Jewish immigration for the thirty years becomes clear in the light of the preceding pages. It is a rising movement, divided into two parts, the first culminating in 1892 and the second culminating in 1906. Like the Russian Jewish immigration which underlies it, the movement is one of geometrical progression. 1 From 1 88 1 to 1890,193,021 Jewish immigrants entered this coun- try, 12.3 per cent of the total Jewish immigration. From 1891 to 1900, 393,516 Jewish immigrants, or 25.2 per cent entered. In the last decade there entered the enormous number of 976,263 Jewish immigrants, representing 62.5 per cent of the total Jewish immigration for the thirty years. This was more than twice as many as had entered the pre- ceding decade, and more than five times the number of those who had entered the first decade. The Jewish immigration is in its largest part a product of the last decade. The rise has not, however, been uniformly steady, as a division of the entire period into five six-year periods shows. 2 In the period from 1893 to 1898, there was a fall in the Jewish immigration. This period coincides with the years of depression in the United States following the panic of 1893. The fall was chiefly due to that in the Russian Jewish immigration. The Jewish immigration from Aus- tria-Hungary on the contrary showed a relative rise. For 1 Cf. table XXVII, p. 172. 2 Cf. table XXVIII, p. 172. 529] H3 II4 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [530 this period, as well as for a few years before, the Roumanian Jewish immigration contributed smaller numbers than in the previous decade. As in the case of the Russian Jewish movement, if we compare the immigration of the six-year period from 1885 to 1890, with that from 1893 to 1898, omitting the years 1891 and 1892 which are influenced in their great rise by the exceptional circumstances occurring within these two years, we find that the Jewish immigration was higher during the latter period of depression in the United States than during the earlier period, the total num- ber of immigrants being 167,567 for the latter period, and I 53>95 1 f r the former. In the period from 1899 to 1904 there was a great rise. A quarter of the entire immigration came in this period. The largest number of immigrants more than two-fifths of the total of thirty years came in the period from 1905 to 1910. If we included the immigration of 1904, which properly belongs to the later movement, we find that half of the entire Jewish immigration came within the seven years from 1904 to 1910. The yearly variations of the total Jewish immigration correspond closely in the main to those of the Russian Jew- ish movement. 1 The influence of the other movements is, however, felt, at times quite strongly. Before 1885 the total Jewish immigration was quite small; less than 10,000 (except in 1882) or less than i per cent of the total, ar- rived each year. The rise of the immigration in 1882 to 13,202 was wholly due to the increase in the number of Russian Jewish immigrants. The second half of this decade was marked by a rising tide in the Jewish immigra- tion from all the countries of Eastern Europe, which reached a height in 1887, with an immigration of 33,044, i Cf. table XXIX, p. 173. 53 1 ] TOTAL JEWISH IMMIGRATION constituting more than 2 per cent of the total number. This was but a prelude to the great rise at the opening of the second decade which in 1892 reached the number of 76,373 Jewish immigrants, the highest number attained in the first two decades. The immigration for this year alone constituted nearly one-twentieth of the total Jewish immi- gration. The increase of these years is due solely to the in- crease in the Russian Jewish immigration. From this point a fall ensued, which lasted until 1899. The fall was strong- est in the Russian and the Roumanian movements. The absolute numbers and the relative proportions in the Jewish movement from Austria-Hungary increased. The tre- mendous rise of the last decade began in 1899. In 1900 the number of Jewish arrivals rose to 60,764. This in- crease was general, though it reached unusual proportions in the immigration from Roumania. The fall in the next two years was due to a decrease in the number of immigrants from Austria-Hungary. That from Russia remained the same as in 1900, and the Rou- manian Jewish immigration maintained the high level es- tablished in that year. The immigration of 1903 surpassed the great numbers attained in 1892. The rise of nearly 20,000 of this year was general, though relatively greatest in the Jewish immi- grants from Austria-Hungary. The next three years marks the heights of the move- ment. In 1904, the 30,000 immigrants which represented the increase from the preceding year were Russian Jews. This is equally true of the large increase of 1905. In this year a fall took place both in the Austrian and Roumanian Jewish immigration. The Jewish immigration from the United Kingdom rose tremendously from 817 of the pre- ceding year to 14,299,* an increase which reflects the influ- 1 Cf. table VI, p. 93. H6 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [532 ences of the Russian Jewish movement for this year, and indicates that this movement from the United Kingdom must be considered as largely Russian Jewish. The year 1906 marked the high-water mark of Jewish immigration for thirty years. 153,748 immigrants, prac- tically one-tenth of the total movement, came in this year. As in the preceding year, the increase in the immigration from Russia (including the numbers from the United King- dom) was the basis of the increase in the total. From this point on we have a decline. The decline in 1907 to 149,182 immigrants reflected the decline in the numbers of the Russian Jewish immigrants, those from Austria-Hungary increasing. In this year the number of immigrants from British North America became conspicu- ous. In 1908 the immigration fell to 103,387, reflecting almost wholly the fall in the numbers of the Russian Jewish immigrants. The year 1909 marked a tremendous decline of the Jewish immigration to 57,551 immigrants. This decline was general, though relatively the greatest in the Austro-Hungarian and the Roumanian immigration. A speedy recovery in numbers was shown in 1910 when the immigration rose to 84,260, recurring to the numbers at the beginning of the recent great rise, and higher than the immigration of any year before 1904. The rise was felt equally in the Russian and Austro-Hungarian immi- gration, relatively little in the Roumanian. Thus by far the chief influence in the movement of the Jewish immigration for these thirty years has been the Russian Jewish immigration. In its growth of numbers, and in its rise and fall, the total Jewish immigration of the last thirty years is a reflection of the movement of the Russian Jews to this country. CHAPTER VII PARTICIPATION OF JEWS IN TOTAL IMMIGRATION WE turn now to a consideration of the part played by the Jewish immigration in the total immigration to this country for these thirty years, 1 A general rise is revealed in the proportions the Jewish bore to the total immigration. In the decade between 1881 and 1890, of the 5,246,613 immigrants, the Jewish immigrants were 193,021, or 3.7 per cent of the total. In the decade between 1891 and 1900, of the 3,687,564 immigrants, the Jewish immigrants numbered 393,516. The Jewish proportion of the total rose to 10.7 per cent. This really tremendous rise was due to the fact that while the total number of immigrants fell off one-third in this decade, the Jewish immigrants doubled their numbers. It is from this decade that the Jewish im- migrants become conspicuous in the immigration to the United States. In the decade between 1901 and 1910, of the 8,795,386 immigrants, the Jewish immigrants num- bered 976,263. The proportion of the Jewish immigrants to the total rose to n.i per cent. Even in this decade of tremendous increase in the general immigration, the Jewish immigration rose at a still greater rate. For the entire period the Jewish immigration was 8.8 9 per cent of the total immigration. 2 This proportion was not reached before 1891. The maximum in the first decade was in 1887, when the Jewish immigration constituted 6.7 per 1 Cf. table XXX, p. 174. 2 Cf. table XXXI, p. 174. 533] 117 Hg JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [534 cent of the total for the year. In 1891, this proportion rose to 9.2 per cent. It reached its highest point during nineteen years, in 1892, when the Jewish immigrants constituted 13.2 per cent of the total for the year. Throughout the period of depression, from 1893 to 1898, the contribution of the Jew- ish to the total immigration was, with two exceptions, above its average for the thirty years. In 1893, when the number of Jewish immigrants fell to half of that of the preceding year, its contribution to the total was 8 per cent. In 1897, a year of lowest Jewish as well as general immi- gration, its proportion was the same as the average. In the following years the contribution of the Jewish immi- gration rose proportionately, and in 1900 it reached the maximum for thirty years, constituting 13.5 per cent of the total for the year. The next highest proportion was reached in the year of maximum Jewish immigration, 1906, when the Jewish immigrants represented 13.4 per cent of the total for the year. Throughout the years from 1904 to 1908, the Jewish immigrants contributed above their aver- age for the period. In 1908, when the numbers both of the Jewish and the total immigration had been greatly reduced, the Jewish immigrants contributed 13.2 per cent of the total, one of the highest proportions in the entire period, a f fact which indicates that the Jewish immigrant tide recedes/ more slowly than that of the total immigration. In 1909, the year in which the effect of the panic of 1907 was regis- tered in the Jewish immigration, the proportion of the Jew- ish immigrants to the total fell to 7.7 per cent. A slight relative rise took place in 1910 to 8.1 per cent. A comparison of the annual fluctuations of the Jewish and the total immigration enables us to distinguish some points of difference. 1 Though, on the whole, the Jewish i Cf. table XXXII, p. 175. 535] PARTICIPATION OF JEWS IN IMMIGRATION corresponds with the total immigration in its rise and fall, there are significant differences. Thus, 1882 represents a year of high immigration in each, but the rise is in the case of the total immigration one of 17.9 per cent over that of the preceding year, but in the case of the Jewish, it repre- sents a rise of 131.9 per cent over that of the preceding year, proportionately more than seven times as great. An- other period of rising movement is in 1891 and 1892. Where, however, in 1891 the total immigration rose 20.9 per cent, the Jewish rose 79.5 per cent. In 1892, the total rose 3.4 per cent, the Jewish rose 48.6 per cent. In all these cases the difference is so great as to indicate the work- ing of special influences in the Jewish movement. The existence of these special influences is again evi- dent in the last decade. In 1904, the total immi- gration fell off 5.2 per cent, but the Jewish immigra- tion rose 39.4 per cent. In 1906, in spite of the great total immigration of that year, and its increase of 7.2 per cent over the preceding year, the increase of the Jewish was 1 8. 2 per cent more than double that of the total. Again, the maximum periods of the two movements do- not coincide. The total immigration reached its highest point for the thirty years in 1907. The maximum of the Jewish movement was in 1906. The panic of 1907 also appears to have influenced the Jewish immigration more slowly than the total. The great- est fall in the latter took place in 1908, immediately after the panic. The greatest fall of the Jewish immigration took place in 1909. This is another indication of the slow- ness of the response of the Jewish immigration to business conditions in this country, as compared with the rapid re- sponse of the general body of immigrants. As the racial classification was introduced only in 1899, it is impossible to determine for the entire thirty I20 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [536 years the exact place the Jews occupy in the move- ment of peoples from the Old World to the New. During the twelve years from 1899 to 1910, there entered the United States a total of 1,074,442 Jewish immigrants, an annual average of nearly ninety thousand. This was the second largest body of immigrants, constituting more than a tenth of the total immigration for this period. In this regard the Jews were surpassed only by the South Italians. 1 This is an immense volume of immigration, both rela- tively and absolutely, and indicates to what an extent the immigration tendency has seized the Jews. In this ten- dency, however, the Jews from the different countries of Europe differ very strongly. As practically only three countries of Eastern Europe Russia, Roumania and Aus- tria-Hungary are represented in the recent Jewish immi- gration, a rate of immigration established for the Jews should be based upon the population of these countries rather than upon the total Jewish population in Europe. Thus established, the Jews have the highest rate of immi- gration of any immigrant peoples. In 1906, during the maximum period of Jewish immigration, the rate of im- migration of the East-European Jews was twenty out of every thousand. In 1907, the rate of the Jewish immigra- tion was nineteen out of every thousand. The Jews are approached in this respect only by the Slovaks, who, in 1907, had a rate of immigration of eighteen per thousand. In this respect, the Jewish immigration is seen to occupy an exceptional position in the recent movement of peoples from Europe to this country. 1 This average and the same relative position is maintained if we take the fifteen years from 1899 to 1913, in which period there entered i, .347,590 Jewish immigrants. CHAPTER VIII SUMMARY THE preceding analysis of the movement of the Jewish immigration to the United States and that of its Russian, Roumanian and Austro-Hungarian tributaries, from 1881 to 1910, has revealed certain facts of importance. The progressive nature of the Jewish movement has been disclosed. The greatest numbers have come within the last decade. This is particularly true of the movement from Roumania, and to a less extent of the movement from Rus- sia. On the other hand, a larger relative proportion of the Jews from Austria-Hungary came during the first two decades. Throughout, the Jews from Russia have pre- dominated in the total movement, governing its course for practically the entire period. In the total movement from the three countries of East- ern Europe, the Jews have participated most strongly in the Roumanian immigration, constituting nine-tenths of this immigration. The Jews are nearly a half of the immi-* grants from Russia. Their participation in the immigration from Austria-Hungary is relatively much smaller, being less than a tenth of the total immigration. In the immigration of the two latter countries, the Jews show a lessening par- ticipation, due to the great growth of the immigration of the other peoples. In the movements from Russia and Rou- mania, the participation of the Jewish immigrants rises greatly in all periods significant in the situation of the Jews in these countries. The influence of the unusual conditions 537] 121 I2 2 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [538 facing the Jews in Russia and Roumania and of the prin- cipal events in their history for these thirty years is re- flected in the annual fluctuations of the Jewish immigration of each of these countries to the United States. The eco- nomic and social pressure exerted upon the Jews in Russia and Roumania is reflected in the degree emigration is util- ized by them. The Jews from Russia have a much higher rate of immigration than any other people immigrating from Russia. The rate of immigration of the Jews from Roumania is the highest among the Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe. In both annual fluctuations and rate of immigration the movement of the Jews from Aus- tria-Hungary does not indicate the existence of special in- fluences. The participation of the Jews in the total immigra- tion to the United States is large and increasing in im- portance. For the last fifteen years they formed the second largest body of immigrants. Their rate of immigration is also higher than that of any other immigrant people. Of note, too, is the slow response of their immigration to unfavorable economic conditions in this country. When these facts are joined to those which have shown the striking relative participation of the Jews in the move- ments from Russia and Roumania, and the existence of special causes operating in these countries and indicating their influence in the yearly variations and in an extraordi- nary rate of immigration, it becomes clear that for the largest part of this period of thirty years Jewish immigra- tion is controlled mainly by the conditions and events af- fecting the fate of the Jews in the countries of Eastern Europe. That the conditions in the United States exercise an in- fluence, favorable or unfavorable, upon the immigration of Jews is undoubted. The influences, however, exerted by the 539 ] SUMMARY conditions abroad are far stronger and steadier, and, on the whole, override the latter. The conclusion previously reached that the Jewish im- f . migration is for the largest part the result of the expulsive f ' and rejective forces of governmental persecution is thus * strengthened by this examination into the situation as pre- sented by the figures of the Jewish immigration to the United States. With it as a guiding principle, some of the main characteristics peculiar to the Jewish immigration are explained. To these we now turn. PART II JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES B. ITS CHARACTERISTICS CHAPTER I FAMILY MOVEMENT VITAL aspects of an immigrant people are revealed in its sex and age distribution. Generally speaking, whether an immigration is composed of individuals or of families is shown in the relative proportion of males and females, and of adults and children, of which it is composed. That the Jewish movement is essentially a family move- ment is shown by the great proportion of females and children found in it. 1 From 1899 to 1910, out of a total immigration of 1,074,442 Jews, 607,822, or 56.6 per cent were males, and 466,620, or 43.4 per cent, were females. These proportions have varied but slightly throughout the period. The greatest depart- ures were in the years 1904 and 1905. The increase of the immigration of males in these years is ex- plained by the unusual conditions existing in Russia at this time economic unrest, revolution which had the effect of sending over the men as an avantgarde to prepare the way for their families. Young men fleeing to escape conscrip- tion also swelled the numbers. In 1906, however, the num- ber of males decreased by 2,000, but that of females in- creased by more than 25,000. In this tremendous increase of females is registered the effect of the pogroms of 1905-6, in which years the movement became a veritable flight. The general tendency has been towards an increase in the proportion of females. For the thirteen years pre- 1 Cf. table XXXIII, p. 176. 543] 127 I2 g JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [544 ceding, from 1886 to 1898,* out of a total immigration at the port of New York of 251,623 Jewish adults, 147,053, or 58.4 per cent, were males, and 104,570, or 41.6 per cent, were females. The proportion of males is here somewhat higher than that for the period from 1899 to 1910. The difference is, however, relatively small. The tendency, previously noted, towards the increase in the proportion of females is found here. The greater rela- tive diminution of the males in the later years in 1894 reaching the point where there were more females is even striking. Turning to a consideration of the ages of the Jewish immigrants, we learn that, between 1899 and 1910, 267,656, or practically one-fourth of all the Jewish immigrants, were children under fourteen years. 2 The large part that is taken in the Jewish immigration by the children is apparent. Here, again, 1904 and 1905 represent periods of great increase in the immigration of those between fourteen and forty-four years. As was the case with the females, the proportion of children in the immigration is at its greatest in the year 1906, by far the largest part of the increase for this year being children, thus giving a significant indication of the extent and literalness of the flight from Russia in this year of pogroms* In the thirteen years preceding, from 1886 to 1898, of the 380,278 Jewish immigrants that entered the port of New York for this period, 128,655, or 33.8 per cent, were children under sixteen years of age. 4 A steady increase in the latter years is noted in the proportion of children, which harmonizes with a similar tendency noted of the females for the same period. That these facts reveal a family movement of consider- 1 Cf. table XXXIV, p. 176. 2 C/. table XXXV, p. 177. 8 Cf. Hersch, op. cit., p. 76. *Cf. table XXXVI, p. 177- FAMILY MOVEMENT 129 able size, there is no question. They become truly signifi- cant when comparison is made with the proportions of the females and the children in the general immigration and with those of the peoples of which it is composed. A comparison of the proportion of males and females in the total and the Jewish immigration from 1899 * 1910 shows that for the entire period the percentage of females in the Jewish was much higher than in the total immigra- tion, 43.4 per cent of the Jewish immigration being females as compared with 30.5 per cent of the total. 1 The percent- age of females in the Jewish immigration was higher for every year from 1899 to 1910. While the percentage of males in the total immigration was above 70 per cent in five years, the percentage of males in the Jewish immigration was less than 60 per cent in all but two years, 1904 and 1905, when it rose to 61.2 per cent and 63.2 per cent. The latter, which represents the highest point in the percentage of males in the Jewish immigration, was smaller than the percentage of males in the total immigration for every year but 1899. In other words the maximum percentage of males in the Jewish and the minimum percentage in the total immigration practi- cally coincide. In the period between 1899 an d 1909 the proportion of children under fourteen years of age in the Jewish immi- gration was 24.8 per cent, while that in the total immigra-- tion was only 12.3 per cent. 2 The Jewish thus had pro- portionately twice as many children as the total immi- gration. The exceptional position of the Jews in regard to their family movement is most strikingly shown when the l Cf. table XXXVII, p. 178. 2 G r . Abstract of Emigration Conditions in Europe, p. 14. See Bib- liography. I3 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [546 composition of the Jewish immigration by sex and age is compared with that of the other immigrant peoples. 1 In a comparison with immigrant races which contributed more than 100,000 to the total immigration from 1899 to 1910, the Jews are seen to have a higher proportion of females than any other people except the Irish. The Irish present in this regard an anomaly, in that they have more females than males in their immigration. That it is not in the main a family movement is shown by reference to the proportion of children under fourteen in the Irish immigra- tion, which is only 5 per cent, one of the lowest in the entire series. The anomaly is easily explained by the well-known fact that their females for the most part are single, who come to the United States to work as servants. 2 Only one other people, the Bohemian and Moravian, ap- proached the Jewish in its high proportion of females. On the other hand, the one people with a larger immigration than the Jewish, the South Italian, presents a striking con- trast to the Jewish immigration, in that its proportion of females was about half that of the Jews. Although its immigrants numbered twice as many as the Jewish, the females in the Italian movement were* only 408,965, as com- pared with 466,620 females in the Jewish immigration. A comparison of the immigrant peoples with reference to their composition by age shows that the Jewish move- ment contains without any exception the largest propor- tion of children. 3 Out of a total of 990,182 Jewish immi- grants from 1899 to 1909, 245,787, or 24.8 per cent, were children under fourteen. In this regard, again, the Bohemian and Moravian approach the Jewish, though *Cf. table XXXVIII, p. 179. 1 Cf. Abstract of Emigration Conditions in Europe, p. 15, for the high proportion of servants among the Irish immigrants. C/. table XXXIX, p. 180. 547] FAMILY MOVEMENT 1^1 not as closely as in the proportion of females. The contrast with the South Italians obtains here as well. As the Jewish immigration, during the twelve years from 1899 to 1910, was the second highest in numbers, con- tributing more than a million to the total, the number of females and children found in its movement was higher than that of any other immigrant race, not only relatively but absolutely as well. Most striking, indeed, is the contrast in these respects between the Jewish immigrants and the other races coming from the countries of Eastern Europe, particularly the Slavic immigrant races with whom the Jews have been asso- ciated in the official statistics. 1 An examination of the pro- portion of females in the immigration of the eight races composing the Slavic group, shows that, with the excep- tion of the Bohemians and Moravians (whose movement presents strong similarities to that of the Jews), the per- centage of females was less than a third of the total immi- gration of each race, the highest being that of the Poles, which was 30.5 per cent. The contrast is even more strik- ing in respect to children under fourteen. Here, again, excluding the Bohemians and Moravians, the highest per- centage in the group was that of the Poles, 9.5 per cent. In this respect, therefore, the association of the Jewish immi- grants with the other immigrants from Eastern Europe, under the rubric " Slavic races ", is seen to be untenable. Strongest of all is the contrast between the Jewish immi- gration and that of the Roumanian people. 2 The Rou- manian movement is seen to be composed practically wholly of individuals, only 9 per cent being females, while that of the people from Roumania (nine-tenths of whom are l Cf. table XL, p. 181. 2 Cf. table XLI, p. 181. The Roumanian immigrants com eprincipally from Austria-Hungary, and only slightly from Roumania. JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [548 Jews 1 ) is seen to have a proportion of females higher even than that in the total Jewish immigration. Even greater is the contrast with respect to age, only 2.2 per cent of the Roumanians being children under fourteen. The division of the peoples represented in the immigra- tion to the United States into "old" and "new", the former consisting of the peoples from Northern and Western Europe, the latter of the peoples from Southern and Eastern Europe, is a convenient classification essentially of two periods of immigration coinciding largely with changes in the economic conditions in the United States, A comparison of the proportion of females and children in the " old " and the " new " immigration with that in the Jewish shows that the Jewish immigration has proportion- ately almost twice as many females as the " new " immigra- tion (Jews excepted), and surpasses even the " old " immi- gration in this regard. 2 Of children under fourteen the Jewish movement has proportionately more than two and one-half times as many as the "new" immigration (Jews excepted), and nearly twice as many as the "old" immi- gration. This analysis shows conclusively that the Jewish immi- gration is essentially a family movement; that it is ap- proached by no other immigrant people in this regard ; that it not only cannot be classed with the " new " immigration, but shows a tendency towards family movement far stronger than that of the peoples composing the " old " im- migration. The significance of this characteristic of the Jewish im- migration is obvious. Their unequaled family movement gives one of the clearest indications that the Jewish im- migrants are essentially composed of permanent settlers. 1 Cf. supra, p. 131, note 2. * Cf. table XLII, p. 182. CHAPTER II PERMANENT SETTLEMENT OUR studies of the sex and age distribution of the Jewish immigrants have shown a family movement unsurpassed in degree. This in itself is sufficient indication that the Jews are essentially permanent settlers in this country and not transients, " who have no intention of permanently changing their residence and whose only purpose in coming to America is temporarily to take advantage of greater wages paid for industrial labor in this country." Equally convincing evidence is afforded by a survey of the facts regarding the outward movement of Jews from this country. 2 The figures of Jewish immigration are ob- tainable only from 1908, the law of 1907 having required all steamship companies to furnish information regarding their emigrant passengers. The relative stability of an immigration may be deter- mined by contrasting the departure of the aliens com- posing the immigration with the arriving immigrants of this group for the same period. From 1908 to 1912, 33,315 Jews left the United States an average annual emigration of 6,660 Jews. This is a strikingly low number, especially when compared with the large Jew- ish immigration for the same period, which numbered 417,016, and averaged annually 83,400 Jewish immi- grants. Thus, for every hundred Jews admitted, only eight 1 Immigration Commission : Conclusions and Recommendations, p. 16. *Cf. table XLIII, p. 182. 54? 1 133 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [550 Jews left the country. This average proportion was largely exceeded only in 1909, not, however, because of any great increase in the absolute numbers of the Jewish emigrants, but because of the great fall in the number of Jewish im- migrants of this year. The part that is taken by the Jewish emigrants in the total emigration is insignificant and is in striking contrast with the great part taken by the Jewish immigrants in the total immigration. 1 From 1908 to 1912, the Jewish immi- grants constituted 9.7 per cent of the total immigrants. In the same period, the Jewish emigrants constituted only 2.3 per cent of the total emigrants. Moreover, while the pro- portion that the Jewish immigrants constituted of the total immigrants exhibited a considerable and significant varia- tion, fluctuating from 7.7 per cent to 13.2 per cent, the proportion the Jewish emigrants constituted of the total emigrants remained around 2 per cent and showed practi- cally no variation. Relatively both to the number of Jew- ish immigrants and of total emigrants, therefore, the num- ber of the Jewish emigrants is exceedingly small and prac- tically negligible. How great the relative stability of the Jewish immigra- tion is may be seen when its return movement is compared with that of the total immigration and of other peoples conspicuous in the immigration to the United States. 2 Whereas, from 1908 to 1910, for every hundred ad- mitted in the total immigration, thirty-two departed the outward movement thus approximating one-third of the inward in the case of the Jewish immigration, only eight departed, an outward movement only one-quarter as large, relatively, as the total. This was the smallest outward movement, relatively to the inward, of any immigrant peo- l Cf. table XLIV, p. 183. J Cf. table XLV, p. 183. i I ] PERMANENT SETTLEMENT 135 pie, except the Irish, whose outward movement was 6 per cent of the inward. Relatively to the inward movement, the Jews had an outward movement one-seventh as large as the South Italians, almost one-fourth as large as the Poles, and less than one-half as large as the Germans. In the total immigration for these years, the Jews were the third largest group with 236,100 immigrants, which con- stituted 10.2 per cent of the total immigration. To the out- ward movement for this period, however, they contributed 18,543 Jews, which constituted only 2.5 per cent of the total number of emigrants, one of the smallest contribu- tions. The Poles, who constituted 11.7 per cent of the im- migration for the three years, contributed practically the same proportion, 11.4 per cent, to the outward movement. Even more striking is the contrast with the Italian move- ment. The Italians contributed 19.8 per cent of the inward movement for the period and 35.7 per cent of the outward movement for the three years. Though their immigration for these three years was only twice as large as that of the Jews, their emigration was more than fourteen times that of the Jews. In other words, no people combined in an equal degree as the Jews so small a number of emigrants with so large a number of immigrants. It is interesting to determine what is the emigration ten- dency of the Jews coming from Russia, Roumania and Austria-Hungary. This may be gathered from the number of emigrants returned for each of these countries, from 1908 to 1912, as compared with the number admitted. 1 From 1908 to 1912, 294,813 Jews from Russia entered the United States and 20,546 Jews departed for Russia; 11,246 Jews from Roumania entered the United States and 546 Jews departed for Roumania; 60,408 Jews from Aus- l Cf. table XLVI, p. 134. JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [552 tria-Hungary entered the United States, and 8,513 Jews de- parted for Austria-Hungary. In other words, for every hundred Jews entering from Russia seven departed, for every hundred Jews entering from Roumania five Jews de- parted, for every hundred Jews entering from Austria- Hungary fourteen departed for their respective coun- tries. The emigration tendency was thus smaller with the Roumanian and the Russian Jews than with the Austro-Hungarian Jews. This held true for each of the five years. Relatively twice as many Jews from Austria- Hungary as from Russia returned. The Roumanian Jews showed the smallest tendency to return. Of importance is the question of the relative stability of the Jewish movement from Russia and Austria-Hungary and that of their close neighbors in these countries, the Poles, who contributed almost as large a current of immi- grants to the United States as the Jews, and who, since they constitute the most important Slavic group, may be taken as the type of the Slavic movement to this country. From 1908 to 1912, 265,964 Polish immigrants from Russia were admitted to the United States and 60,290 Poles departed for Russia, this constituting an average emigration of twenty-two per hundred admitted. 1 As, for every hundred Russian Jews admitted in this period, only seven departed, this constituted a relative emigration one- third as large as that of the Poles. For the same period, 214,931 Poles were admitted from Austria-Hungary and 88,994 Poles left for that country, which constituted an average emigration of forty-one per hundred admitted. The average emigration of the Jews from Austria-Hungary was fourteen per hundred admitted or practically one-third as large as that of the Poles. Thus, the Jewish immigrants l Cf. table XLVII, p. 184. PERMANENT SETTLEMENT 137 from Russia and Austria-Hungary present relatively three times as stable a movement as the Polish immigrants from these countries. The fact that the Jewish emigration from Galicia was a movement of families and was essentially a movement of permanent settlement in their new home was noted by Buzek as characteristic of this emigration even in the early eighties, and as strongly contrasted with the emigration of the Poles from Galicia. 1 A comparison of the return movement of the " old " and the " new " immigration with that of the Jewish immigra- tion gives similar results. 2 For every hundred admitted, there were, in the "new" immigration, forty-two emigrants, rela- tively more than five times as many as among the Jews. Even in the " old " immigration, which is largely accepted as the type of permanent immigration, for every hundred admitted, there were thirteen emigrants, about one and a half times as many relatively as among the Jews. The Jewish immigration must thus be accorded the place of distinction in American immigration for permanence of settlement. An unusual test of this conclusion was afforded by the remarkable emigration following the crisis of iQO/. 3 The general opinion that " the causes which retard emigration from abroad also accelerate the exodus from the United States ", was considerably strengthened by the great exodus of 1908. To this rule the Jewish immigration forms, again, a most striking exception. Although its number in 1907 149,182 immigrants was only slightly below its maximum for thirty years, and constituted the second highest immi- gration for the year, only 7,702 Jews left the country in 1 Buzek, op xit., p. 467- 2 Cf. table XLVIII, p. 185. *Cf. table XLIX, p. 185. I3 8 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [554 1908. This constituted only two per cent of the total emi- gration for that year. Relatively to the number admitted the Jewish emigration was, without exception, the lowest, being only five departed for every hundred admitted. The remarkable disparity in this regard with the Poles and the Italian was again shown here. For every hundred Poles entering in 1907, thirty-three emigrated in 1908. For every hundred South Italians entering in 1907, sixty emi- grated in 1908. That the business conditions of this country affect Jew- ish immigration is unquestioned, but the difference in the degree and the manner of the response puts it in a class apart. A comparison of the total gain in population in 1908 and 1909 in the immigration of Italians and Jews shows that whereas in the Italian inward and outward movement in 1908 there was a net loss to this country of 79,966, but in 1909 a net gain of 94,806, in the Jewish in- ward and outward movement in 1908 there was a net gain of 95,685, and in 1909 a net gain of 50,705. x The Jewish immigration responds in its inward movement much more slowly and less completely to the pressure of unfavorable conditions in this country. In its outward movement it shows practically no response. The conclusion that the Jewish immigrants constitute to an unusual degree a body of permanent settlers is strength- ened by an examination of the figures concerning immi- grants who have been in the United States previously. 2 Of the total from 1899 to 1910 of 9,220,066 immigrants, 1 The number of Jewish emigrant aliens in 1908 was deducted from the number of Jewish immigrant aliens : the combined number of Jew- ish emigrant and non-emigrant aliens in 1909 was deducted from the combined number of Jewish immigrant and non-immigrant aliens. Cf. Fairchild, Immigration, 1913, p. 361. 9 Cf. table L, p. 186. 555 ] PERMANENT SETTLEMENT ! 39 1,108,948, or 12 per cent, had been here before. Of the 1,074,442 Jews who entered the country during this period, only 22,914, or 2.1 per cent, had been previously in the United States. The proportion of Jews who have been in this country before is by far the lowest of any immigrant peoples. As the total Jewish exodus is insignificant as compared both with the total emigration and the proportion of the Jewish immigration in the total inward movement; as the Jewish outward movement shows practically no response! / to unfavorable economic conditions in this country, and as I V the Jewish inward movement presents the phenomenon of a I practically new body of immigrants, we are led to con- clude that the Jewish immigration exhibits a quality of per- manence and stability to so great a degree as to render this fact one of its distinguishing characteristics. \ CHAPTER III OCCUPATIONS THE occupations of an immigrant people throw light upon their industrial equipment and their probable future occupations in this country. A study of the occupational distribution of the Jewish immigrants from 1899 to 1910 will serve to illuminate some of the characteristics of their movement. 1 The largest group is that classed as having " no occupation". This group comprises 484,175 immi- grants, and is 45.1 per cent of the total. In the fact that it holds so large a place in the occupational distribution, there is reflected the great number of women and children among the Jewish immigrants. The rise in the proportion of the " no occupation " group in the second half of the twelve years follows a similar rise in the proportion of women and children in the Jewish movement, which has been previously noted. 2 These are, in the main, economically dependent, a fact which is of the highest importance with reference to the character of this immigration, as well as in its influence upon the economic and social problems facing the immigrant Jews in their new home. Skilled laborers were the second largest group, number- ing 395,823 immigrants and comprising 36.8 per cent of the total. Next in order was the group classed as " mis- cellaneous ", with 186,989 immigrants, representing 17.4 l Cf. table LI, p. 186. a Cf. supra, pp. 127-128. 140 [556 557] OCCUPATIONS I4I per cent of the total. This group included common and farm laborers, servants, merchants and dealers, etc. In professional occupations there were 7,455 immigrants, com- prising 7 per cent of the total. Omitting the " no occupation " group, and considering the 590,267 Jewish immigrants reporting occupations, we find that of these the great majority 67.1 per cent were skilled laborers. 1 Laborers numbered 69,444 and comprised 1 1. 8 per cent. Next in order of numbers were servants, 65,532, who comprised n.i per cent. A much smaller group was that composed of merchants and dealers (chiefly petty merchants, hucksters, and peddlers), who numbered 31,491 and were 5.3 per cent of the total. Of farm laborers there were 11,460, comprising 1.9 per cent. The entire pro- fessional class comprised 1.3 per cent of the total. There were 1,000 farmers, who comprised .2 per cent. In the professional classes the teachers were the largest group, represented by 2,192, and comprising 29.4 per cent. 2 The next class were the musicians, who numbered 1,624, comprising 21.8 per cent of the total. Together these two groups were more than half of the total. Thus, by far the most important occupational group was that of the skilled laborers. 3 An examination of the dis- tribution of this group shows that they were represented in thirty-five trades. By far the largest group of the skilled laborers were the tailors, numbering 145,272, and compris- ing 36.6 per cent. The dressmakers and seamstresses num- bered 39,482, and comprised one-tenth of the total. In- cluding the closely allied trades such as hat and cap makers, milliners, etc., the garment workers composed practically one-half of the entire body of skilled laborers. Second in rank were the carpenters and joiners, who, together with the 1 Cf. table LII, p. 187. * Cf. table LIII, p. 187. 3 Cf. table LIV, p. 188. JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [558 cabinet makers and woodworkers (not specified) numbered 40,901, and comprised more than one-tenth of the total. The fourth highest group were the shoemakers, with 2 35 I 9> or 5-9 P er cen t f the total. Clerks and accountants, and painters and glaziers contributed an almost equal num- ber the former 17,066, the latter 16,387 representing 4.3 per cent and 4.1 per cent respectively of the total. Of butchers there were 11,413, or 2.9 per cent, and of bakers 10,925, or 2.8 per cent. There were also 9,385 locksmiths, or 2.4 per cent, and 8,517 blacksmiths, or 2.2 per cent. To- gether, these ten groups comprised 318,104, or 80.4 per cent of the Jews in skilled occupations. Another skilled occupation represented by more than 5,000 was tinners. Trade groups of more than 3,000 were watch and clock makers, tobacco workers, hat and cap makers, barbers and hairdressers, weavers and spinners, tan- ners and curriers, furriers and fur workers, and bookbind- ers. More than a thousand skilled laborers were found in the following trades : photographers and upholsterers, me- chanics (not specified), masons, printers, saddlers and har- ness makers, milliners, metal workers (other than iron, steel and tin) , machinists, jewelers and millers. Less than a thou- sand laborers were found in two groups: iron and steel workers, and textile workers (not specified). The Jewish immigrants were therefore concentrated in the two groups of " no occupation " and " skilled laborers", to which belonged more than four-fifths of the total number. In the part taken by the Jewish immigrants in the occupational distribution of the total immigrants from 1899 to 1909, these two groups are prominent. 1 To the 1,247,674 skilled laborers, the Jewish immigrants con- 1 Cf. table LV, p. 189. 559 ] OCCUPATIONS 143 tributed 362,936, or 29.1 per cent. This was more than twice the proportion of the Jewish immigrants in the total number of immigrants. They were also represented in the "no occupation" group by more than one and one-half times their proportion of the total immigration, contributing to a total of 2,165,287 immigrants, 445,728, or 20.6 per cent. In striking contrast with the great contribution to these two classes is their insignificant contributions to the groups of common laborers and farmers, and farm laborers, to which they contributed respectively 2.9 per cent, i.i per cent, and o.i per cent. It is, however, in comparison with the occupational grouping of the other races that the peculiarities of the dis- tribution of the Jewish immigrants are most clearly seen. 1 An examination of the number of those classed as having " no occupation " of each European immigrant people and the percentage this group comprised of the total immigra- tion of each people, shows that the Jews have the highest proportion, 45.1 per cent, of all immigrants belonging to this group. The Bohemians and Moravians are next in order, with. 39.5 per cent. The absolute numbers of the Jews belonging to this group are also higher than those of any other people. The Italians have only 440,274 im- migrants in the " no occupation " group, as compared with the 484,175 Jewish immigrants in this group. Even more striking is the contrast with the Poles, who have only 200,634 immigrants belonging to this group. This corres- ponds closely with similar facts as to the relative pro- portions of females and children found in the Jewish immigration and among the other immigrant races. An even greater contrast exists in the proportions of skilled laborers between the Jewish and the other immi- l Cf. table LVI, p. 189. I44 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [560 grant peoples. 1 Of those reporting occupations the Jews ,J have, by far, the highest proportion of those in skilled oc- cupations. The nearest approach to their proportion of skilled laborers is found among the Scotch, with 57.9 per cent The next in order are the English, with 48.7 per cent. A much smaller proportion is found among the Bohemians and Moravians and the Germans. All these races contribute not only much smaller proportions than the Jews, but very much smaller absolute numbers to the total body of skilled laborers. Of laborers (including farm laborers), the Jews, on the other hand, have a smaller proportion, 13.7 per cent, than any people, except the Scotch (who resemble the Jews most strongly in their high proportion of skilled laborers and their low proportion of common laborers). The most striking contrast, in occupational distribution, however, is presented with the Slavic peoples. 2 Of those reporting occupations, the Slavic peoples, with the exception of the Bohemians and Moravians, are seen to be overwhelm- ingly concentrated in the two related groups of common and farm laborers, whereas the Jews are mostly to be found in the group of skilled laborers. Relatively ten times as many Jews as Poles, for instance, are in the skilled occupations. That the Jews form a striking exception in their occu- pational grouping is evident. A comparison of the occupa- tional distribution of the " old " and the " new " immi- grants with that of the Jewish immigrants, from 1899 to 1909, leads to the same conclusion. 3 The Jewish immi- grants have twice as many in the " no occupation " group as the " new " immigrants, and a much higher percentage than the " old'" immigrants. They have relatively four l Cf. table LVII, p. 190. 2 Cf. table LVIII, p. 191. *Cf. table LIX, p. 191. 5 6i] OCCUPATIONS 145 times as many skilled laborers as the " new " immigrants, and more than one and one-half times as many as the "old" immigrants. Most remarkable is the fact that in spite of the relatively great proportion of women among the Jewish immigrants, they have a smaller proportion of servants than the " new " immigrants and one-third as large a pro- portion as the " old " immigrants. This indicates that the Jewish women are, as a rule, not servants, but either do not engage in work, or, if they do, are employed in skilled oc- cupations. The latter group is, however, relatively incon- spicuous. In professional occupations the Jews occupy an inter- mediate position between the " old " and the " new " immi- grants. In common and farm laborers, the Jews have an exceedingly low proportion as compared with the " old " and a strikingly low proportion as compared with the "new" immigrants. Some distinctive traits in the occupational grouping of the Jewish immigrants have become evident. They are apart from all the other immigrant peoples in the great number of those having " no occupation ". In other words, the Jewish immigrants are burdened with a far greater number of dependents than any other immigrant people, standing apart in this respect from the peoples of the "old" immigration and to a far greater extent from the peoples of the " new " immigration. Secondly, the Jewish immi- grants are distinguished by a far greater proportion of skilled laborers. In this respect again they exceed even the peoples of the " old " immigration. The fact that the skilled laborers are more largely represented among the Jewish im- migrants than they are in the occupations of the Jews in the countries of Eastern Europe is significant as showing an unusual pressure upon these classes abroad. CHAPTER IV ILLITERACY THE rate of illiteracy has been generally used as a rough standard for estimating the mental equipment of the immi- grants. A consideration of the rate of illiteracy among the Jewish immigrants dispels the popular impression that prac- tically every Jew is able to read and write. 1 Out of a total tered this country from 1899 to I 9 IO > 2 9>57> or 2 6 per of 806,786 Jews fourteen years of age and over who en- cent, were unable to read and write. As the average rate of illiteracy among all the immigrants, from 1899 to 1910, was 26.7 per cent, the rate of Jewish illiteracy is seen to be only slightly below the average. A number of considerations enter. One of these is the influence of sex. It is generally recognized that, as a rule, females are more usually unlettered than males. This dif- ference of illiteracy between the sexes is also more pro- nounced in countries where popular education is less widely spread than in those where it is the rule. Such is the case with the countries of Eastern Europe, which are the source of the recent Jewish immigration. The contrast between male and female illiteracy is strongest among the East- European Jews, who neglect the education of their daughters as much as they strive to educate their sons. This is reflected in the relative illiteracy of males and females among the Jewish immigrants. 2 Of the 172,718 Jewish males fourteen years of age and over 1 Cf. table LX, p. 192. J Cf. table LXI, p. 192. 146 [562 ILLITERACY ! 47 entering this country from 1908 to 1912, 33,970, or 19.7 per cent, were illiterates. Of the 139,283 females fourteen years of age and over, 51,303, or 36.8 per cent, were illiterates. The illiteracy of Jewish females is thus almost twice as high as that of Jewish males. As the pro- portion of females in the Jewish immigration is so large, the influence of the sex factor in increasing the rate of illiteracy among the Jewish immigrants is consid- erable. A tendency from a lower to a higher rate of illit- eracy is discernible. The average rate for the first six years was 23.8 per cent, that for the last six years was 27.2 per cent. This corresponds with the increase in the latter years in the proportion of females in the Jewish immigration, which has been previously noted. A comparison of the rate of illiteracy of the Jewish im- migrants with that of the other immigrant peoples shows that the Jews occupy an intermediate position. 1 They have a relatively high rate of illiteracy, as compared with the peoples from Northern and Western Europe. In compari- son with the Slavs, their rate of illiteracy is also much higher than that of the Bohemians and Moravians, and, higher also, though to a far less degree, than that of the Slovaks. The relative position of the Jews is clearly shown in a comparison of their rate of illiteracy from 1899 to 1910 with that for the same period of the " old " and the " new " im- migration (from the latter of which the Jews are ex- cepted.) 2 The rate of illiteracy of the " old " immigration is 2.5 per cent, that of the " new " immigration (Jews ex- cepted) is 37.2 per cent, that of the Jews is 25.7 per cent. The Jews occupy a middle ground, yet near enough to the " new " immigration to be classed with it in this respect. 1 Cf. table LXII, p. 193. * Cf. table LXIII, p. 194. J I4 8 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [564 The conclusion reached in the first part that the educa- tional standing of the Jews is higher than that of the peoples in Eastern Europe among whom they live is reflected in the greater relative literacy of their immigrants. 1 The rate of illiteracy of the Jewish immigrants is lower than that of the peoples among whom the Jews are found. In the case of the Lithuanians and the Ruthenians the difference is considerable. This is seen to hold true for each sex. 2 The illiterates among the Jewish males constituted 21.9 per cent of the total number of Jewish males. The illiterates among the Jewish females constituted 40.0 per cent of the total number of Jewish females. In both sexes, the proportion of illiterates was lower than that prevailing among the other immigrant peoples. Here, again, the fact is noticeable of a wider difference in the case of the Jews between the illiteracy of their males and females than exists among any of the other peoples. Owing to the fact that the Jews have in their immigration a notably higher proportion of females than any of these peo- ples, the difference between their rate of illiteracy and that of these peoples is lessened to some extent. That the illiteracy of the Jews is due chiefly to their ex- ceptional status in Russia and Roumania, our review of the conditions affecting Jewish education in those countries has shown. No more striking illustration exists of the fact that the literacy of the Jews is conditioned by their free- dom than the degree in which they are taking advantage of the educational opportunities offered in this country, re- markable testimony to which is presented in the reports of the recent Immigration Commission. 1 Cf. table LXIV, p. 194. *Cf. table LXV, p. 194. CHAPTER V DESTINATION THE destination, or intended future residence, of immi- grants is influenced by certain considerations, such as the place of residence of friends or relatives, the port arrived at, and the funds at the disposal of the immigrants. The most important influence is that exercised by the occupations of the immigrants. The preponderance of the / industrially skilled and commercial groups among the Jew-*' ish immigrants makes for residence in the industrial and commercial centers. The great majority of the Jewish im- migrants arriving from 1899 to 1910 were destined for the eastern states. 1 Of the total number of Jewish immigrants from 1889 to 1910, 923,549 immigrants, or 86 per cent, gave the North Atlantic States as their destination and 110,998 immigrants, or 10.3 per cent, the North Central States. Less than one-twentieth gave all the other divisions as their destination. A great proportion of the Jewish immigrants, numbering 690,296, or 64.2 per cent of the total, gave New York as their destination. 2 Pennsylvania was the destination of the next largest number of immigrants, 108,534, constituting i o.i per cent of the total. For Massachusetts there were destined 66,023 immigrants, or 6.1 per cent of the total. Four-fifths of the total number of immigrants were des- tined for these three states. Other eastern states receiving a large number of immigrants were New Jersey, for which 1 Cf. table LXVI, p. 195. * Cf. table LXVII, p. 195. 565] 149 !-0 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [566 34,279 were destined, and Connecticut, for which 16,254 immigrants were destined. Of the North Central States, Illinois was the destination of the largest number, 50,931 immigrants, constituting 4.7 per cent of the total. Ohio was the destination of the next largest number, 20,531 im- migrants, or 1.9 per cent of the total. One state in the South Central division, Maryland, was given as the destination of 18,700 immigrants, constituting 1.7 per cent o>f the total, and the largest number of those destined for this division. The tendency of the Jewish immigrants towards indus- trial and commercial centers is here reflected. The destination of the Jewish immigrants to the eastern states agrees with that of the total immigration for the same period. 1 A larger proportion of the Jewish im- migrants than of the total immigrants was destined for the North Atlantic States, which contain the commercial and manufacturing centers. Less than one-half as many Jewish immigrants as total immigrants were destined for the North Central States. About an equal proportion of each was destined for the South Atlantic States. A much smaller proportion of the Jewish than of the total was destined for the Western States. In view of the industrial equipment of the Jewish immigrants discussed previously, this ten- dency is explained. The Jewish immigrants destined for the eastern states play a correspondingly large part among the total number destined for these states. 2 The Jewish immigrants destined for the North Atlantic States were 14.5 per cent of all the immigrants destined for this division. Their next highest proportion was of those destined for the South Central States, of which they constituted 9.9 per cent. They consti- tuted an almost equal proportion of the immigrants des- l Ct. table LXVIII, p. 196. * Cf. table LXIX, p. 196. 567] DESTINATION ! 5 I tined for the North Central and the South Central States, 5.2 per cent, and 5.0 per cent, respectively. Of the immi- grants destined for the Western States they constituted only 1.2 per cent. The final destination of the immigrants very frequently is different from the destination stated at the time of land- ing. An examination of the disposition of Jewish immi- grants landing at the port of New York from 1886 to 1906 showed that a large part of the immigrants left within a very short time for other parts. 1 Of the 918,388 immi- grants that landed at the port of New York, from 1886 to 1906, 669,453, or 72.9 per cent, remained in New York, and 248,935, or 27.1 per cent, left for other points. 1 Cf. reports of the United Hebrew Charities of New York City, 1886 to 1906. CHAPTER VI SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS SOME of the principal characteristics of the Jewish im- migration to the United States have been presented in the preceding pages. The Jewish immigration has been shown to consist essentially of permanent settlers. Its family movement is incomparable in degree, and con- tains a larger relative proportion as well as absolute number of women and children, than any other im- migrant people. This in turn is reflected in the greater relative proportion as well as absolute number of those classified as having " no occupation ". The element of dependency thus predicated is another indication of the fam- ily composition of the Jewish immigration. Its return move- ment is the smallest of any, as compared both with its large immigration and the number of total emigrants. The Jew- ish immigrants are distinguished as well by a larger rela- tive proportion and absolute number of skilled laborers, than any other immigrant people. In these four primary characteristics the Jewish immigrants stand apart from all the others. It is with the neighboring Slavic races emigrating from the countries of Eastern Europe and with whom the Jew- ish immigrants are closely associated that the contrasts, in all these respects, are strongest. The Slavic immigrants are chiefly male adults. Their movement is largely composed of transients, as evidenced by a relatively large outward movement and emphasized by the fact that the vast majority 152 [568 569] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS of them are unskilled laborers. An exception, in large measure, must be made of the Bohemian and Moravian immigrants who present characteristics strongly similar to those of the Jewish immigrants.- The division into " old " and " new " immigration brings out even more clearly the exceptional position of the Jews in regard to these characteristics. Although the Jewish immigration has been contemporaneous with the " new " immigration from Eastern and Southeastern Europe, and is furthermore essentially East-European in origin, its char- acteristics place it altogether with the " old " immigration. 1 Most striking, however is the fact that in all of ihese respects family composition, and small return movement (both indicating permanent settlement) and in the propor- tion of skilled laborers the Jewish immigration stands apart even from the " old " immigration. Further confirmation may be obtained, in the study of the characteristics of the Jewish immigration, of the principle established in the preceding sections that the rejective forces of governmental sible for the largest part of this immigration. The large family movement of the Jewish immigration is a symptom of abnormal conditions and amounts almost to a reversal of the normal immigration, in which single or mar- ried men without families predominate. Even the family movement of the " old " immigrants may largely be at- tributed to the longer residence of their peoples in the United States as well as to their greater familiarity with the conditions and customs of the United States. That so large a part of the Jewish immigrants is composed of de- J So strongly was this the case that the Immigration Commission in discussing these characteristics was compelled to separate the Jewish from the "new" immigration, in order to bring out the essential dif- erences of the latter from the "old" immigration. JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [570 I pendent females and children creates a situation of economic \J disadvantage for the Jewish immigrants, all the stronger because of their relative un familiarity with the language or the conditions facing them in this country. Again, the Jews respond slowly and incompletely to the pressure of unfavorable economic conditions in this coun- try. This was emphasized by the almost complete lack of response to the panic of 1907, as well as expressed in the small, practically unchanging return movement of the Jews to their European homes. The pressure upon the Jewish artisans, or skilled labor- >J ers, in Eastern Europe is reflected in the predominance of this class among the Jewish immigrants to this country. That so useful an element in Eastern Europe with its still relatively backward industrial development a fact that was given express recognition by the permission accorded the Jewish artisans in Alexander IFs time to live in the in- terior of Russia should have been compelled to emigrate indicates that the voyage across the Atlantic was easier for them than the trip into the interior of Russia, access to which is still legally accorded to them. That the oppressive conditions created particularly in Russia and Roumania and operating as a pressure equiva- I lent to an expulsive force does not explain the entire Jewish ^ immigration to this country is evident from the preceding pages. In a great measure, the immigration of Jews from Austria-Hungary is an economic movement. The exist- ence, however, of a certain degree of pressure created by economic and political antisemitism has however been recognized. The Jewish movement from Austria-Hungary shares largely with the movement from Russia and Rou- mania the social and economic characteristics of the Jew- ish immigration which we have described. A strong family movement and a relative permanence of settlement, espec- SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ially as compared with the Poles, and a movement of skilled laborers must be predicated of the Jewish immigrants from Austria-Hungary, though undoubtedly not to the same de- gree as in the case of the Jewish movements from Russia and Roumania. It is also clear that the forces of economic attraction in ^ the United States do not play an altogether passive part in the Jewish immigration. The very fact of an immigrant- nucleus formed in this country and serving as a center of attraction to relatives and friends abroad a force which increases in direct and multiple proportion to the growth of immigration is an active and positive force in strength- ening the immigration current. This was early understood by the Alliance Israelite Universelle which had acted upon this principle in the seventies and had prophetically > / sought to direct a healthy movement of Jewish immi- grants to this country in the hope of thereby laying a foundation for future Jewish immigration to this country. This current, however, once started and growing only by the force of its increasing attraction, would reflect in its movement almost wholly the economic conditions in this country. That so large a part of the Jewish immigration, and so many of the phenomena peculiar to it, find their ex- planation, for the largest part of the thirty years, in the situ- ation and the course of events in the countries of Eastern Europe leads to the inevitable conclusion that the key to the Jewish immigration is to be found not in the force of eco- nomic attraction exercised in the United States but rather^ in the exceptional economic, social and legal conditions in Eastern Europe which have been created as a result of gov- ernmental persecution. Reviewing the various phases of the history of Jewish immigration for these thirty years, we are enabled to see more closely its nature. The study of the immigration, its ! 5 6 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [572 movement and its social and economic characteristics, in comparison with those of other immigrant peoples, has re- vealed in it a number of distinguishing traits. In the causes 'of the emigration of the Jews, in the pressure exerted upon their movement as reflected in their rate of immigration, in their family movement, in the permanence of their settle- ment, and in their occupational distribution have been found characteristics which mark them off from the rest of the immigrant peoples. The number of these characteristics and the degree in which they are found in the Jewish immi- gration, put it in a class by itself. The facts of governmental pressure amounting to an ex- pulsive force, and reflected in an extraordinary rate of immi- gration, in a movement of families unsurpassed in the Amer- ican immigration, the largest part economically dependent, in an occupational grouping of skilled artisans, able to earn their livelihood under normal conditions, and in a perma- nence of settlement in this country incomparable in degree and indicating that practically all who come stay all these facts lead irresistibly to the conclusion that in the Jewish movement we are dealing, not with an immigration, but with a miration. What we are witnessing to-day and for these thirty years, is a Jewish migration of a kind and degree almost without a parallel in the history of the Jewish peo- ple. When speaking of the beginnings of Russian Jewish immigration to Philadelphia, David Sulzberger said : " In thirty years the movement of Jews from Russia to the United States has almost reached the dignity of the migra- tion of a people," he used no literary phrase. In view of the facts that have developed, this statement is true with- out any qualification. This migration-process explains the remarkable growth of the Jewish population in the United States, within a rela- tively short period of time. In this transplantation, the SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS spirit of social solidarity and communal responsibility preva- lent among the Jews has played a vital part. The family rather than the individual thus becomes the unit for the social life of the Jewish immigrant population in the United States. In this respect the latter approaches * more nearly the native American population than does the foreign white or immigrant population. One of the great- est evils incident to and characteristic of the general immi- gration to this country is thereby minimized. Again, the concentration of the Jewish immigrants in cer- tain trades explains in great measure the peculiarities of the occupational and the urban distribution of the Jews in the United States. The development of the garment trades through Jewish agencies is largely explained by the recruit- ing of the material for this development through these laborers. These primary characteristics of the Jewish immigration of the last thirty years will serve to explain some of the / most important phases of the economic and social life of the Jews in the United States, three-fourths of whom are immigrants of this period. Of all the features of this historic movement of the Jews from Eastern Europe to the United States, not the least in- teresting is their passing from civilizations whose bonds with their medieval past are still strong to a civilization which began its course unhampered by tradition and un- yoked to the forms and institutions of the past. The con- trast between the broad freedom of this democracy and the intolerable despotism from whose yoke most of them fled, has given them a sense of appreciation of American politi- cal and social institutions that is felt in every movement of their mental life. STATISTICAL TABLES TABLE I A PARTICIPATION OF JEWS IN OCCUPATIONS IN THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE, 1897 l Group of occupation Total Jews Per cent of total Agricultural pursuits 1824*5287 4061 1 Professional service . . . . 988813 1 1Q^O 7e Personal service* . C T COO 1 2 277/166 O 5 A Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits . . . C T6QQIO C/12 ^67 4 IO C Transportation 7ld.7d. C 1U.^) 6 A Commerce * I2C677O AC2IQ7 **J W JJ W f tj l yj Total 3 J C2C. I O6 T/17O727 4e O 1 Compiled from Rubinow, p. 500. 8 Cf. Rubinow, note, p. 500. TABLE I B PARTICIPATION OF JEWS IN OCCUPATIONS IN THE PALE OF JEWISH SETTLEMENT, I8 97 l Group of occupation Total Jews Per cent of total Agricultural pursuits 6o7 14.1 3 j8c-?8 6 Professional service . 71 77IO 6:>6 67278 21 I Personal service * 21 "?Qo8l 2 CQO78 ii 6 Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits I C.73 ^ IQ 72 I Transportation 2 1 IQ87 AA\ 77 ^ 20 8 Commerce a cc6o86 426628 76 7 /u. / Total , 10870602 I77K07 12.2 158 Compiled from Rubinow, p. 501. 3 Cf. Rubinow, note, p. 500. [574 575] STATISTICAL TABLES 159 TABLE II JEWISH IMMIGRATION AT THE PORTS OF NEW YORK, PHILADELPHIA AND BALTI- MORE, JULY TO JUNE, 1886 to 1898 l Year New York Philadelphia Baltimore Total 1886 1887 1888 . . 19548 30866 26946 1625 2178 19-21: . 21173 33044 28881 1889 279158 I -2Q4 2S7S2 1800 . 26963 1676 28679 1891 1892 47098 66<\A4 2719 4.677 IS81 1 ci C2 51398 76777 1897 . 290 eg 4W/ 4722* -> > 1941 35322 180.1 274.4.4. 7877 1902 291 79 igoc 21422 jojJ 7672 1097 26191 1896 1807 27846 171,62 y*l* 3 0l6 1617 1986 I7Q7 32848 20372 1808 19222 2121 2311 2;6t;4 Total . 780278 74.781 17767 4.724.26 1 Table II and all succeeding tables are arranged from July ist to June 3Oth, the fiscal year. ' Baltimore statistics begin October. * Philadelphia figures for August missing. TABLE III JEWISH IMMIGRATION AT THE PORT OF NEW YORK, JULY, 1885, TO JUNE, 1 886, BY MONTH AND COUNTRY OF NATIVITY 1 Month Russia Austria-Hungary Roumania Others Total July . 1 1 TO 7C4 58 107 1649 August 1512 448 33 121 2114 September . . . 945 185 20 H9 1269 October 785 236 12 216 1249 November .... 1347 589 21 80 2037 December .... 574 249 17 62 902 January 565 202 4 26 797 February .... 492 228 16 44 780 March 1077 444 3S 66 1622 April 639 309 28 55 1031 May 791 521 31 70 1413 June 3017 1365 210 93 4685 Total . . . 12874 5130 485 1059 19548 1 Compiled from reports of the United Hebrew Charities of New York. !6o JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [576 TABLE IV A JEWISH IMMIGRATION AT THE PORT OF PHILADELPHIA, 1 886 TO 1898, BY COUNTRY OF NATIVITY Year d '$ c 8 sl c o 'c rt S 52 1 3 3 |gg 1 1886 . 1218 75 196 12 33 2 178 n 1625 1887 . 1600 78 262 I 2 86 171 5 _ _Q 1888 1432 74 2 3 2 12 97 5 1 J 1 174 9 1935 1889 1129 81 125 9 42 98 7 1394 1800 1424 85 184 I T "2/1 2 "2/1 2 1676 1801 . . 2447 oo l i 272 IO 07 * Q 1892 3929 84 561 12 47 I 140 3 /v 4677 1893 3025 70 519 12 43 I 735 17 4322 1804 2QCI 77 422 j j 77 2 IO *2 X*3 *5 IQ87 14 624 I 7 77 2 002 27 6-7 1896 .... 1538 5 1 875 1 1 29 / j 60 2 543 18 3Ol6 1897 1049 65 355 22 32 2 177 ii l6l3 1898 161 1 76 18 64. 2121 3 2 Total. . . 25435 73 4737 14 688 2 3921 ii 34781 1 Immigrants from Austria-Hungary and Roumania were this year grouped under " all others" in the original tables. TABLE IV B JEWISH IMMIGRATION AT THE PORT OF BALTIMORE, 189! TO 1898, BY COUNTRY OF NATIVITY Year rt q 0> S 2 c 3 "c .5 'c rt 1 c <u i p "K ffi o o (U u 3 & ^ >3 aj o ^ i PH PH H 1891 1427 QO j 1 158 IO i 81 1892 .... 4728 84 618 1 2 C2 j 1 1\4 c i C2 1893 1388 70 232 12 19 I 3 02 17 1941 1804 ..... 1461 77 209 1 1 38 2 I9O IO I9O2 1895 592 11 54 187 17 22 2 2 9 6 27 1097 1896 1013 S76 29 4 2 357 18 1986 1897 908 65 307 22 28 2 154 u 1397 1898 . . 1757 76 416 ,8 6 9 3 69 3 2 3 II Total. . . 12874 74 2545 15 268 2 1680 9 17367 Immigrants from Austria- Hungary and Roumania were this year grouped under " all others " in the original tables. 577] STATISTICAL TABLES TABLE V 1 161 JEWISH IMMIGRATION AT THE PORTS OF NEW YORK, PHILADELPHIA AND BALTI- MORE, 1886 TO 1898, BY COUNTRY OF NATIVITY Ports Year Country of nativity New York Phila- delphia Baltimore Total 1886 Russia 12874 1218 14092 Austria- Hungary . . . Roumania. . . 5 J 30 481; 196 33 5326 518 1887 . Russia . 21404 1600 2310^ 1888 Austria- Hungary . . . Roumania 6636 1977 18784 262 86 1432 - 6898 2063 20216 1880 Austria- Hungary . . . Roumania. . . . . Russia 5753 1556 I72OQ 232 97 1 1 2O 5985 1653 18338 Austria-Hungary . . . Roumania 4873 1016 125 42 i<J OJ" 4998 iOs8 1800 . Russia . . . IQCC7 1424 20981 l8qi . Austria-Hungary . . . Roumania Russia .... 6255 428 301:87 184 34 2447 1423 6439 462 434^7 Austria- Hungary . . . Roumania 5890 854 ^ i i 5890 8 "54 1802 . ccqo6 3Q20 4328 64253 1803 . Austria-Hungary . . . Roumania Russia . 7464 641 20748 5 6l 47 302? 618 5 2 1388 8643 740 25161 1804 . Austria-Hungary . . . Roumania. . . . Russia ..... 5612 493 163^1 519 43 2CKI 232 19 1461; 6363 555 2O747 Austria-Hungary . . . Roumania 5285 CGI 422 77 209 ^8 59i6 616 i8oc . Russia . . 14! Z2 1083 CQ2 16727 Austria-Hungary . . . Roumania. 5236 423 624 73 I8 7 22 6047 518 1896 . Russia . . . . I76l 7 I<538 IOI3 20168 1807 . Austria-Hungary . . . Roumania Russia 8380 644 1 1 1 06 8 1 5 60 I O4Q 57 6 40 908 9831 744 13063 1808 . Austria-Hungary . . . Roumania Ru c sia 5010 456 11581 355 3 2 161 1 307 28 I7S7 5672 516 I4Q4Q Austria- Hungary . . Roumania 6569 587 382 64 416 6 9 7367 720 Total. 380278 3478i 17367 432426 ^ee note to Tables IVA and IVs. For Tables VI and VII, see pp. 93 and 94. JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [578 TABLE VIII JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES, l88l TO IpIO, ABSOLUTE NUMBERS AND PERCENTAGES, BY DECADE AND COUNTRY OF NATIVITY Country of nativity Absolute numbers Pe 1881- 1890 rcentages Total 1881- 1890 1891-1 1901- 1900 I 1910 1891- 1900 I9OI- I9IO Russia Austria-Hungary . . . Roumania 1119059 281150 67057 42589 20454 9701 5081 2273 15436 135003 44619 6967 5354 . 1078 279811 83720 12789 8827 8369 704245 152811 47301 42589 6273 9701 5081 2273 5989 69.9 23.1 3-6 2.8 * .6 71.1 21.3 3-2 2.3 2.1 72.1 15-7 4-8 4.4 7 I.O 5 .2 .6 United Kingdom . . . Germany British North America . Turkey France . All others Total 1562800 193021 393516976263 100.0 100.0 100.0 TABLE IX JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM RUSSIA, l88l TO I9IO, BY YEAR AND PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL ARRIVING EACH YEAR Year Jewish immigrants Per cent of total 1881 5 12 C O 3 1882 . 3 l *J 10489 "J O Q 188^ 6 I 44 O C 1884 7867 W O 07 1885 10648 o 1886 I4OQ2 J 1887 21 IO3 J 1 1888 1889 2O2l6 l8ll8 .8 6 1890 20981 Q 1891 43457 3Q 1892 642 $1 57 1803 25161 2.2 1804 . 2O747 1.9 iSoc l6727 I c 1896 2OI6& I 8 1807 im I 3OOT^ 1 2 1898 I4Q4.Q I 3 1899 . 2427C 2.2 1900 IQOI 370II 3766O 3-3 3.4 IQO2 3784.6 3 4 IQO3 47680 4 3 IQO4 771:4.4. 69 IQQC / / jf Q2388 8.2 IQO6 1 2 <, 2 34. II. 2 IQO7 1 14932 IO.3 1908 ... ... 7IQ78 6.4 IQOQ 391 ^O 3.c 1910 . . 1:0824 C.3 Total ... UI9OC9 IOO.O 579] STATISTICAL TABLES TABLE X JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM RUSSIA, l88l to 1 9 1C, BY DECADE AND PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL AKKIVINti EACH DECADE Decade Jewish immigrants Per cent of total 1881-1890 . . ... I7COO7 12. 1 I 80 I 19OO 270X1 i 2^O I9OI I9IO 7O424. ? 62 Q Total 1 1 IQO1Q IOO O TABLE XI JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM RUSSIA AT THE PORT OF NEW YORK, JANUARY I, 189! TO DECEMBER 31, 1891, AND JANUARY I, 1892 TO DECEMBER 31, 1892, BY MONTH (From reports of United Hebrew Charities of New York City, 1891 and 1892) January . . February . March . . April . . . May . . . June . . . July . . . Aupust . . September October . . November . December . Total Month Jewish immigrants 1891 1892 2179 3276 2185 357 3 J 5Q 2307 2714 1468 1225 1620 8667 4028 8253 5673 9109 4842 9422 1729 5 2 .55 4.6 3792 121 43 10 198 60261 28834 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [580 TABLE XII TOTAL IMMIGRATION FROM RUSSIA AND JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM RUSSIA, l88l TO IQIO, AND PERCENTAGE JEWISH OF TOTAL i88r 5041 J882 . . 16918 1883 9^09 1884 12689 1*85 17158 1886 17800 1887 30766 1888 33487 1889 339'6 '890 35598 1891 47426 1892 81511 1893 42310 1894 30278 i8 95 35907 1896 51435 1897 25816 1898 29828 1899 60982 1900 90787 1901 85257 1902 IC7347 1903 I3 6 93 1904 H5MI 1905 184897 1906 215665 1907 ... 258943 1908 156711 1909 120460 1910 186792 Total 2315868 Total immigrants Jewish immigrants 3125 10489 6144 7867 10648 14092 23103 20316 I8 33 8 20981 43457 . 64253 25161 20747 16727 20168 13' 63 14049 24275 37011 37660 37846 47689 77544 92388 125234 114932 71978 30150 59824 ii 19059 Per cent of total Est. at 62.0 79-2 75-i 60.4 54-1 58.9 91.6 78.8 5-5 52.8 43-2 30. 2 50.6 50.1 398 40.8 44.2 3^3 350 53-4 50.0 58-1 44-4 45-9 32-5 32.1 483 TABLE XIII TOTAL IMMIGRATION FROM RUSSIA AND JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM RUSSIA, l88l TO 1910, BY DECADE, AND PERCKNIAGE JEWISH OF TOTAL Decade Total immigrants Jewish immigrants Per cent of total 1881-1890 1891-1900 1901-1910 Total. 213282 505280 1597306 135003 27981 i 704245 2315868 1119059 63.3 554 44.1 48.3 STATISTICAL TABLES 165 TABLE XIV IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES FROM THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE, 1899 TO I9IO, BY ANNUAL PERCENTAGE OF CONTRIBUTION OF PRINCIPAL PFOPLtS 1 Finnish German Jewish Lithuanian Polish Russian 1899 . . 9-9 8.8 39-8 II. 2 25-4 2.7 I 900 . . 13-8 5-9 40.8 "3 24.8 i-3 1901 . . 11.7 6.6 44.2 10. 25.2 .8 1902 . . 12.9 8.0 35-3 9-3 31-5 1.4 1903 . . 13-8 7-7 35-o 10.6 29.1 2.6 1904 . . 6.9 4-9 53 4 8.8 22.4 2.7 1905 . . 9.0 36 50.0 9-5 25-5 1.8 1906 . . 6 2 4.8 58.1 6.4 21.4 2.4 1907 . . 5-5 5-2 44-4 9.6 28.2 6.2 1908 . . 4.0 6.4 459 8-5 24.2 10.4 1909 . . 9-3 6-5 325 12. 1 31-4 7.6 1910 . . 8.0 5-4 32.1 11.6 34-1 7-9 Total . 8.5 5.8 43-8 , . 9.6 27.0 4-4 1 From Immigration Commission : Emigration Conditions in Europe, p. 338. TABLE XV RATE OF IMMIGRATION OF PEOPLES PREDOMINANT IN THE IMMIGRATION FROM RUSSIA, 1899 TO I9I0 1 Average annual immi- Population in Russia gration to LJ. S. from Ratio of People 1807 and in Finland Russia and Finland immigration 1900 combined 1899-1910 to populatioi Jewish 5082343 63-94 to 79 Finnish .... 2352990 12^48 to 191 Polish 7865437 39282 to 200 German .... 1721387 8401 to 205 Lithuanian . . . 3 77436 14062 to 212 Swedish .... 34P733 IT 35 to 308 Russian .... 75434753 6550 to 1155 l lhid., p. 339. 1 The figure for the Jewish population in Russia as given in Emigration Con~ ditions in Europe, p. 339, is incorrect. See Goldberg, Judische Statistik, pages 266 and 270. Z 66 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [582 TABLE XVI RATE OF JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM RUSSIA, PER IOOOO OF JEWISH POPULATION, 1899 TO I9IO Year Ratio of immigration Year Ratio of immigration 1899 .... 1900 .... 1901 .... 47 72 74 1906 . . . 1907 .... 1908 .... 246 226 141 1902 .... 74 1909 .... 77 1903 .... 93 1910 .... 117 1904 .... 1905 .... 152 181 Total . . . 125 TABLE XVII JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM ROUMANIA, l88l TO 1910, BY DECADE AND PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL ARRIVING EACH DECADE Decade Jewish immigrants Per cent of total 1881-1890 . . . 6967 10.4. 1891-1900 ... ... . . 12780 IQ.I A77QI 7O. < Total 670157 IOO.O 583] STATISTICAL TABLES TABLE XVIII 167 JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM ROUMAMA, l88l TO I9IO,BY YEAR AND PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL ARRIVING EACH YEAR Year Jewish immigrants Per cent of total 1881 ... 7Q i 1882 65 .1 1883 . .... 77 18X4 . 238 .3 188* 803 1.2 1886 ci8 .8 1887 2063 31 1888 i6ci * 2 S 1889 locS I 6 1890 462 7 1 80 1 . 8C4 I.-? 1802 . ... 740 I.I 1807 . ccir .8 i""* 1804 . 616 i8oc <i8 1896 I.I 1807 <n6 8 180.8 720 i.i 1899 . . . 1343 6183 2.0 Q. 2 6827 IO 2 1902 ... . 6c8o 9 8 TOO 7 8;62 12.8 IQO4 6446 9 6 JQOC . . . 38<C4 C.7 ^872 5.8 ?6o? c.4 iqo8 . 44 cc 6.6 IQOQ I-JQO 2.1 1910 . . . . I 7O I 2,t Total 670^7 ICO O 1 Below one-tenth per cent. j68 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [584 TABLE XIX TOTAL IMMIGRATION FROM ROUMANIA AND JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM ROU- MANIA, 1899 TO 1910, AND PERCENTAGE JEWISH OF TOTAL Year Total immigrants Jewish immigrants Per cent of total 1800 . 1606 1747 83.6 64 SO 6187 oc.7 IQOI 71 CC 6827 or 4 71Q6 6^89 QI.6 TOO 7 Q-3 TO 8562 QI Q IQO4 7087 6446 QI O 44-77 ^Su 86.8 y > IQOO 4476 0872 86.1; 4^84 7601; r^'j 82.2 1 908 C228 44CC 8;. 2 $*..<*> I CQO I^QO ~* 87.4 2I4C I7OI 79.7 Total .... 61073 54827 89.8 TABLE XX RATE OF JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM ROUMANIA, PER IOOOO OF JEWISH POPULATION, 1899 TO I9IO 1 Year Ratio of immigration Year Ratio of immigration iXnn C T 1906 .... .... T4.Q 2.8 *s-v 1^8 262 igcS 171 2C7 e-j ^jJ 72O 65 s*v IQOC 4 o 148 Total I7 1 For Jewish population in Roumania cf . Ruppin, The Jews of To-Day ', p. 30. 585] STATISTICAL TABLES TABLE XXI 169 JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, l88l TO igiO, BY DECADE AND PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL ARRIVING EACH DECADE Decade Jewish immigrants Per cent of total i 88 i 1890 . . 44.610 ICQ 18911900 83720 2Q 8 IOOII9IO . 152811 C.4 7. Total 281150 100. TABLE XXII JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, l88l TO IpIO, BY YEAR, AND PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL ARRIVING EACH YEAR Year Jewish immigrants Per cent of total 1881 2^77 .0 1882 2648 .0 1883 2C 10 Q 1884 774O I 2 1885 w8 1.4 1886 . $126 I Q 1887 6898 2 4 1888 . . rqSc 2 I 1880 . 4.008 I 8 1890 . 6479 2.7 1801 . c8oo 2 I 1802 . 8647 31 ivy*. ....... 1807 6163 2 7 * "j 1804 . CQl6 2 I iSoq . 2 y 6047 2 2 1896 98; i 7. C 1807 H672 2 O 1898 7l67 2 6 1899 . . ... I IO7I 30 IQOO . 16920 6.0 I9OI .,. . ... 13006 4.6 IQO2 12848 4 6 I QO7 l87^O 6 7 IQO4 . 2Q2 I I 7 2 1905 1006 . 17352 14884 62 C -2 IQO7 . 18885 6.7 1908 I ^2Q7 5 A IQOQ 8471 3O IQIO . 1 7142 4 7 Total . . 28l 150 IOO.O I7 o JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [586 TABLE XXIII TOTAL AND JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, l88l TO IQIO, BY DECADE AND PERCENTAGE JEWISH OF TOTAL Decade Total immigrants Jewish immigrants Per cent of total 1881-1890 1,57719 44619 12.6 1891-1900 ...... 502707 83720 14.1 19011910 ..... 2145266 158811 7-4 Total .... 3091692 281150 9-i TABLE XXIV TOTAL AND JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, l88l TO I9IO, AND PERCENTAGE JEWISH OF TOTAL Year Total immigrants Jewish immigrants Per cent of total 1881 27Q7C 25^7 Est. 1882 2QI ^O 2648 188? , 2762? 25IO at 1884 .... 26571 -3-340 9.0 1881; 277OQ 3978 14.4 1886 . 28680 jyj 5^26 18.6 1887 1888 40265 4^811 6808 5985 17.1 13.1 1889 1800 . 34174 56100 6439 14.6 11.5 1801 71042 5890 8.3 1892 760^7 8643 II. 2 180-? . {742O 6363 II. I 1894 1891; 38638 2-3401 f 5916 6047 15-3 18.1 1896 1807 . 65103 "33O7I 9831 5672 I5-I 17.2 1808 "3Q7Q7 7767 18.5 1800 . O249I IIO7I 17.7 1900 ... . 1 14847 16920 14.7 1901 II3390 I7IQ8Q 13006 12848 ii. 5 7.5 2O6OI I 18759 9.1 IQO4 . . . 1771 56 2O2II 11.4 27560"? 17352 6-3 265n8 14884 5.6 1907 1008 TQOQ 338452 168509 I 7OIQI 18885 I5 2 93 84-31 5.6 9.1 5 2587-37 I3I42 5-i Total .... 3091692 28II50 9.1 STATISTICAL TABLES TABLE XXV I/I PERCENTAGE OF ANNUAL IMMIGRATION FROM AUSTRIA-HUNGARY CONTRIBUTED BY PRINCIPAL PEOPLES, 1899 TO IpIO l Year Polish Jewish Ruthenian 1800 . 18.7 17.7 2.2 10. Q 14.7 2.5 17.9 11.5 4-7 IQO2 18 Q 7. c 4-4 1007 18 2 0. I 48 IQOd 17. 1 11.4 5-3 IQQC 18.4 6.3 5.2 IQO6 16.5 5.6 5.9 IOO7 . 17.6 5.6 7.0 1008 . ic. 7 9.1 7 2 21.4 5.0 9.0 22.6 4.9 10.2 Total 18.6 7-8 6.2 1 From Emigration Conditions in Europe, p. 373, TABLE XXVI RATE OF JEWISH IMMIGRATION FROM AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, PER IOOOO OF JEWISH POPULATION, 1899 TO 1910 l Ratio of immigration Ratio of immigration 1899 .... 1900 .... 1901 .... 1902 .... 1903 .... 83 63 62 90 1906 .... 1907 ... 1908 .... 1909 . . . 1910 .... 72 91 74 41 63 1904 .... 1905 .... 97 84 Total . . I 74 1 For Jewish population in Austria-Hungary cf. Ruppin, The Jews of To-Day , PP- 3 8 -39- JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [588 TABLE XXVII JEWISH IMMIGRATION, 1 88 1 TO igiO, BY DECADE Decade Jewish immigrants Per cent of total iSSl-lSQO 4 IQ7O2I 127 1 80 1 IQOO ................... 7QOC 1 6 *J 2C 2 0*76267 3** 62 c U -*O Xotal I s 62800 IOO O TABLE XXVIII JEWISH IMMIGRATION, 1 88 1 TO IpIO, BY SIX-YEAR PERIOD Period Jewish immigrants Per cent of total > 7'7IOC A. Q 1887 1892 //*'-'.> 24768? ic 6 1893 1808 167566 I^.U 7Q64Od. lO.y 2C 4 678038 *J^ 47 4 ^O'T- Total.. I U62800 IOO.O 589] STATISTICAL TABLES TABLE XXIX JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES, l88l TO IQIO 173 Year Jewish immigrants Per cent of total !88i C6p2 j 882 1 3202 8 1881. . 87^1 e !884 IT44.C .7 1 885 16862 .1 j886 21 173 7 !887 37O44. I j888 OJ'-'^ 28< N 8i 8 1889 OC 2C2 6 *3j;)* 286^0 8 1801 . . ci-?o8 3.1 76^7^ d. Q 7C-222 2 3 i8od 2QI7Q I.Q iXoc . 26191 I 7 1 896 328d.8 */ 2 I 1807. . 2O 372 I 3 1898 226C4. I.e 1800. . 77J. I C 2 4. 60764 3 Q 58008 J'7 37 I9O2 57688 37 5/v^oo 76203 / 4. Q 68 IQOC . ..... 1299 10 8 3 I C 374.8 -j Q Q I4.Q 182 Q 6 j Q08 IO3787 6 6 1W JO/ rne e i 3 7 5755 1 84260 J'/ r ^ O'^ Total 1562800 IOO O JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [590 TABLE XXX TOTAL IMMIGRATION AND JEWISH IMMIGRATION, l83l TO IQIO, BY DECADE AND PERCENTAGE JEWISH OF TOTAL Decade Total immigrants Jewish immigrants Per cent of total 1881 1890 524661 3 IQ 3O2 I 7 7 3687^64 2Q9C l6 IO 1 870^386 0^0:5 IW 07626"? v./ Ill Total 1 7720^63 i ^62800 88 TABLE XXXI TOTAL IMMIGRATION AND JEWISH IMMIGRATION, l88l TO IQIO, BY YEAR AND PERCENTAGE JEWISH OF TOTAL Year Total immigrants Jewish immigrants Per cent of total .* 6604*? i c6Q2 Q T Cx 2 788002 13202 I 7 lgg3 603322 8731 CI&CQ2 I I44H 2.2 ,gg 30 ^ ^4.6 16862 4.3 jgg6 3342C3 2II73 *J 6.3 ,OC 7 4.QO1 OQ 33O44 6? icsa ^46880 2888l c -i jggn 444427 2C3C2 D'O c 7 AC C3O2 286^0 63 C6O3IO CJ3Qg 9.2 ?7Q66'? 76^73 13.2 43Q73O 3C322 8.0 28q63I 2QI 7Q IO.2 i gnr . 2^81:36 26191 IO.I igo,6 7x^267 32848 Q 6 2 -0832 2O372 88 Jg 9 g 22Q2QQ 2361? 4 IO.7 tllTIC 374.1 e 12 O 4485,72 60764. I3.r 487018 58098 12.1 IQO2 64874 "? 57688 go TO0 1 gc 7046 "6203 C 0.9 812870 1 ; ^ 106236 1 1. 8 IC264QO I2QQIO 126 I IOO73I; I ^3748 13.4 I 28^ 74Q 140182 ii 6 782870 103387 13 2 7C |ng6 C7CCI 7.7 IO4I t;7O 84260 Li Total I772QC63 1562800 8.8 Only immigrant aliens taken these years. STATISTICAL TABLES TABLE XXXII 175 TOTAL AND JEWISH IMMIGRATION, 1 88 1 TO igiO, BY NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF INCREASE OR DECREASE Year Total immigrants Jewish immigrants Increase ( + ) or decrease ( ) Increase ( + ) or decrease ( ) Number Per cent Number Per cent jgg T + 119561 185670 84730 123246 61143 + 155906 + 56780 102462 + 10875 + 105017 + 19344 139933 154099 27095 + 84731 112435 1533 + 82416 + 136857 + 39346 + 160825 + 208303 44176 + 213629 + 74236 + 184614 502479 31084 +289784 4-17-9 23-5 14.0 -23.8 15-5 +46.7 + 11.6 -18.7 + 2.4 + 20.9 + 34 24.1 35- 9-5 +32.8 -32.8 -7 + 36.0 +43-9 + 8.8 +330 +32- 1 + 26.3 + 7-2 + 16.8 39-1 4.0 -t-38.5 4- 759 447 * + 2714 + 5417 4- 449i + 11871 + 4163 3529 + 3287 +22759 4-24975 39051 6143 "988 i .... 4-i3 T -9 33-9 + 31-1 t 4 1' 3 + 26.7 + 56.1 + 12.6 12.2 4- 13-0 + 79-5 + 48.6 5 1 - 1 17.4 10.2 + 254 38.0 + 16.1 + 58-2 + 62.4 - 4-4 -7 + 32-1 4- 39-4 + 22.1 + 1 8.2 3-o -30.7 44-3 + 46.4 jgg 2 188? ., igg^ jggr X g86 !ggy 1888 jggp I goo 1891 . jgQ2 l8Q7 . , l8Q4 . lJ?OC r g 9 6 + 6657 12476 + 3282 + 13761 +23349 2666 410 + 18515 +3 C 033 + 23674 +23838 45 66 45795 -45836 + 26709 1807 10 97 l8q8 .. . i yv* ; IQOd. . TQOC . 1908 .... ' JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [592 TABLE XXXIII SEX OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS, 1899 TO X 9 IO * Year Total Number Per cent Male Female Male Female 374^5 60764 58098 57688 76203 106236 129910 153748 149182 103387 5755' 84260 21153 36330 32345 32737 43985 65040 82076 8cc86 80530 56277 31057 46206 16262 24434 25753 24951 32218 41196 47 ^ 4 73662 58652 47110 26494 38054 56.5 59-8 55-7 5 6 -7 57-7 61.2 63.2 52.1 54-0 54-4 54-0 54-8 43-5 40.2 44-3 44-3 42-3 38.8 36.8 47-9 46.0 45-6 46.0 45.* IQO2 IQO? I QOA . . . i . . TQOC . . I9O8 .... TQOQ IQ1O ... .... Total . 1074442 607822 466620 56.6 43-4 1 From Reports of Commissioner -General of Immigration. TABLE XXXIV SEX OF JEWISH IMMIGRANT ADULTS l AT THE PORT OF NEW YORK, 1 886 TO 1898 2 Year Total Number Per cent Male Female Male Female 1886 .. 14212 22223 19456 i7'55 19449 33343 43155 18314 13142 12366 17052 10226 11530 9598 13872 11691 9946 11524 20980 25338 9715 6404 6275 973 5447 6560 4614 8351 7765 7209 7925 12363 17817 8599 6738 6091 7349 4779 4970 67.5 62.4 60. i 58.0 59-3 62.9 58.7 53-o 48.7 5-7 5 6 -9 53-3 56.9 32.5 37-6 39-9 42.0 40.7 37- 1 41-3 47.0 5-3 49-3 43-1 46.7 43-i lg87 jggg jggg l8QO. . I g(j I l892 I 80 7. . tgn-i 2896 1807 . . Ills.. Total 251623 147053 104570 58.4 41.6 1 Sixteen years of age and over. a From Reports of United Hebrew Charities of N. Y. City. 593] STATISTICAL TABLES TABLE XXXV AGE OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS, iSgg TO IQIO 1 177 Number Percentage Year Total Under 14 to 45 and Under 14 to 45 and 14 44 over 14 44 over 1899 37415 8987 26019 2409 24.0 69.5 6.5 1900 60764 13092 44239 3433 21.6 72.8 5-6 1901 58098 I473I 39830 3537 25-4 68.6 6.0 1902-. 57688 I53I2 38937 3439 26.5 67.5 6.0 1903- 76203 i 9044! 53074 4085 25.0 69.6 5-4 1904.. 106236 23529! 772^4 5483 22.1 72.7 5-2 1905 129910 28553 95904 5393 22.0 73-9 4-1 1906-- 153748 43620! 101875 8253 28.4 66.2 5-4 1907 ' . 149182 37696 103779 7707 25-3 69.5 5-2 1908- 103387 26013' 71388 5986 25.1 69.1 5-8 1909-. 57551 15210 38465 3876 26.5 66.7 6.8 1910-. 84260 21869 57I9I 5200 26.0 67.9 6.1 Total. 1074442 267656 747985 58801 24.9 69.6 5-5 1 From Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration. TABLE XXXVI AGE OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS AT THE PORT OF NEW YORK, l886 TO 1898* Year Total Number Percentage Adults Children 2 Adults Children* T gg6 19548 26946 23958 26963 470Q8 66544 29059 23444 21422 27846 17362 19222 14212 22223 19456 I7I55 19449 33343 43155 18314 13142 12366 17052 10226 H530 7490 6803 75H 13755 2338} 10745 10302 9056 10794 7136 7692 72-7 72.0 72.2 71.6 72.1 70.8 64.8 63.0 56.1 57.7 61.2 58.9 60.0 27.3 28.0 27.8 28.4 27.9 29.2 35-2 37-0 43-9 42.3 38.8 41.1 40.0 1888 jggg 1890 iRni i8n? TJ3/-J-J . . T 804 .... T QQ C . . rRn6 T 8n7 . . T Q . . Total--. 380278 251623 128655 66.2 33.8 1 From Reports of United Hebrew Charities of N. Y. City. * Children under sixteen. JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [594 TABLE XXXVII SEX OF TOTAL AND JEWISH IMMIGRANTS, 1899 TO Year Total immigrants Jewish immigrants Per cent Per cent Male Female Male Female 1800 .. 62.6 67.8 67.9 71.9 H 70.6 69-5 72.4 64.8 69.2 70.7 37.4 32.2 32.1 28.1 28.5 32.4 29.4 30-5 27.6 35-2 30.8 29-3 56.5 59-8 55-7 56.7 57-7 61.2 63.2 52.1 54-0 54-4 54-0 54-8 43-5 40.2 44-3 43-3 42.3 38.8 36.8 47-9 46.0 45-6 46.0 45-2 1900 IQOI . IQ02 . . loo 1 ? . . 1004 . , loot; . , 1906 1007 . . I008 . . 1000 . . 1010 . . Total 69.5 30-5 56.6 43-4 From Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration. 595] STATISTICAL TABLES TABLE XXXVIII SEX 1 OF EUROPEAN IMMIGRANTS, 2 1899 TO I9IO : 179 People Total Number Per cent Male Female Male Female Irish 43Q724 1074442 100189 i ' 5783 754375 408614 586306 136842 I5I774 949064 377527 175258 338i5i 147375 372668 I9H933 355543 216962 210686 607822 57HI 67217 448054 2 |i42i 362467 86938 100289 659267 266262 123777 244221 109614 291877 1512968 284866 206306 229038 406620 43078 48566 306321 I57I93 2238 '9 4^904 51485 289797 111265 51481 93930 3776i 80791 408965 50677 10656 47-9 56.6 57-0 58.1 59-4 61.5 61.8 63.5 66.1 69-5 70.5 70.6 72.2 74-4 783 78.6 84.9 95-1 52.1 - 43-4 . 43-0 41.9 40.6 3^.5 38.2 36.5 339 30 5 29-5 29.4 27.8 25.6 21.7 > 21.4 I5-I 4.9 30.5 Jewish Bohemian and Moravian . French German English . Scandinavian Scotch . Finnish . Polish Slovak Lithuanian Magyar Ruthenian Italian North Italian South Croatian and Slovenian . . Greek . . . . Total* . . . 9555673 6641367 2914306 69.5 1 Arranged in order of percentage of females. 2 Excluding all races with an immigration below 100,000. 8 From Statistical Review of Immigration, p. 49. 4 Total includes all races. JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [596 TABLE XXXIX AGE 1 OF EUROPEAN IMMIGRANTS, 2 1899 TO 1909. People Number Per cent Total Under 14 14 to 44 45 and over Under 14 14 to 44 45 and over Jewish Bohemian and Moravian ... German 990182 91727 682995 112230 355n6 1719260 534269 820716 3451" i 36038 341888 310049 152544 401342 119468 295981 177827 245787 18965 116416 I7i57 52459 201492 51220 77963 32157 12623 30645 27312 12004 20247 5537 12711 7314 690794 67487 520437 85123 262334 1416075 457306 723226 302399 119771 297442 270376 I3788o 363797 110705 273685 168250 53601 5275 46142 9Q50 40323 101693 25743 19527 10555 3644 13801 12361 2660 17298 3226 9585 2263 412554 24.8 20.7 17.0 15.3 14.8 "7 9.6 9-5 9.3 9-3 9.0 7-9 5-0 4.6 4-3 4.1 69.8 73-6 76.2 75-8 73-9 11 87*6 88.0 87.0 87.2 90.4 90.6 92.7 92.5 94-6 5-4 5-8 6.8 8.9 11.4 C .Q /d.O 2.4 3.1 2.7 4.0 4.0 1-7 4.3 2.7 3-2 1.3 Scotch English Italian, South. Scandinavian . Polish . . Slovak . Finnish Italian, North. Magyar Lithuanian . . . Irish Ruthenian Croatian and Slovenian... Greek Total 3 .... 8213034 1013974 6786506 12.3 82.6 5-0 1 Arranged in order of highest percentage of children. 2 Excluding all races with an immigration below 100,000, except the Bohemian and Moravian. 3 Total includes all European races. 597] STATISTICAL TABLES 181 TABLE XL SEX,' 1899 TO 1910, AND AGE, 2 1899 TO 1909, OF SLAVIC AND JEWISH IMMIGRANTS Group Sex per cent Age per cent Male Female Under 14 14 to 44 45 and over Polish 69.5 74-4 85.0 70-5 84.9 5 l^ 56.6 30.5 25.6 15.0 29.5 I5-I 43-0 43-4 >i ',', 9-3 4-3 20.7 24.8 88.1 92.7 90.0 87.6 92.5 73-6 69.8 2.4 2.7 2-5 3-1 3-2 5.8 5-4 Ruthenian ... . C1 nv ob- Croatian and Slovenian Bohemian and Moravian .... 1 From Statistical Review of Immigration, p. 49. 'From Emigration Conditions in Europe, p. 25. TABLE XLI A. SEX OF ROUMANIAN IMMIGRANTS, 1 1899 TO 1910, AND OF IMMIGRANTS FROM ROUMANIA, 2 1900 TO I9IO Group Total Number Per cent Male Female Male Female From Roumania 59467 82704 31968 75238 27499 7466 53-8 91.0 46.2 9.0 B. AGE OF JEWISH AND ROUMANIAN IMMIGRANTS 3 1899 TO 1909 Race Total number Number Per cent Under 14 14 to 44 45 and over Under 14 14 to 44 45 and over Jewish Roumanian 990182 68505 245787 1476 690794 63997 536oi 3032 24.8 2.2 69.8 93.4 5-4 4-4 1 From Statistical Review of Immigration, pp. 44-48. 2 From Emigration Conditions in Europe, p. 23. 8 Ibid., p. 25. JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [598 TABLE XLII SEX AND AGE OF " OLD "AND " NEW " IMMIGRATION (JEWISH EXCEPTEO) , AND OF JEWISH IMMIGRATION, 1899 TO IQOQ l Group Total Sex per cent Age per cent Male Female Under 14 to 44 45 and over Old immigration . - New immigration (Jewish excepted) Jewish immigration' 2273782 4949070 990182 58.5 76.3 56.7 41-5 23.7 43-3 12.8 9-7 24.8 80.4 86.2 69.8 6.8 4.1 5-4 From Emigration Conditions in Europe, pp. 23-26. TABLE XLIII JEWISH IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION, !C.c8 TO I9I2 : Year Jewish Jewish Number immigrant 1 emigrant j departed per 100 aliens aliens 3 admitted 1908 . . .... I0^?87 7702 7 c7ccj 610^ IO 1910 .... 84260 5683 6 JQI J QI22"? 6401 7 80 ^Q 1 ? 74l8 Q Tntal 4 I 70 I 6 J-IOT C 8 1 From Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration. * See note, page 93. 'Emigrant aliens are aliens whose permanent residence has been in the United States and who intend to reside permanently abroad. 599] STATISTICAL TABLES TABLE XLIV 183 TOTAL AND JEWISH EMIGRANT ALIENS AND. PERCENTAGE JEWISH IMMI- GRANT ALIENS OF TOTAL IMMIGRANT ALIENS, IQC8 TO IQI2 ' Emigrant aliens Immigrant aliens -M C "c *o - C 0} G n "8 Year t/> 2* C*w 1. - ?</> C n 31! j^^bfl C ^11 ~'3 C Sga || 8 H* A PH H'~ o> -* rt > (X, igo8 .... 381044 7702 2.0 782870 103387 13.2 1909 ... 225802 6105 2-7 751876 57551 7.7 1910 .... 1911 .... 202436 295666 5689 6401 2.8 2.1 1041570 878587 84260 91223 8.1 10.4 1912 .... 333262 7418 2.2 838172 80595 9-5 Total . . 1438210 33315 2-3 4293075 417016 9.7 1 From Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration. TABLE XLV EUROPEAN IMMIGRANT ALIENS ADMITTED ! AND EUROPEAN EMIGRANT ALIENS DEPARTED, 1908, 1909 AND IQIO 2 Immigrant aliens admitted r.migrani anens ucpaneu People Number Per cent of total Number Per cent of total Number departed for every admitted departed 100 ad- mitted Jewish 236100 10.2 i8 8 Creation and Slovenian . . . 78658 3.4 44316 5-2 56 English . 101611 4.4 11152 T C German Greek 192644 862*7 8.3 a.7 35823 21196 5-0 19 25 Irish 0^000 4.0 5728 Italian, North. 77661 3-3 47870 6.7 62 Italian, South. Lithuanian 457414 51129 19.8 2.2 255188 7185 35.7 I.O 56 14 Magyar . 78910 269646 3-4 II. 7 50597 82080 ii 4 64 Polish Ruthenian 55106 2-3 6681 9 12 Scandinavian .. Slovak 113786 70717 4.8 -j n 11193 si 10 CQ Total 3 2297338 713356 32 1 All peoples with an inward movement of less than 50,000 excluded. 'From Emigration Conditions in Europe, p. 41. 'Total for all races, including Syrians. 184 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [600 TABLE XLVI JEWISH IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION, RUSSIA, AUSTRIA-HUNGARY AND ROUMANIA, IQ08 TO IQI2 l Russia Austria-Hungary Roumania ^Ti *0 o Year G -M c -o .i G v o> ii G a G - 1 03 "P ^ G rt en T^ *3 <-i co rt c/3 1- to J-< C ll be <u s'^ 0| S 3 03 O be c **.SJ 'B^ 111 11 II ^'^^ ti o hH w x a w W ^ HH W ^u 1908 . . . 71978 5439 7 15293 1758 ii 4455 158 3 1909 . 39150 3989 10 8431 1398 16 1390 87 6 1910 . . . 59824 3295 5 I3I42 1409 10 1701 101 6 1911 . . . 65472 3375 5 1278.5 1827 M 2188 78 3 1912 . . . 58389 4448 7 10757 2121 19 1512 122 8 Total. . 294813 20546 7 60408 8513 14 11246! 546 5 1 From Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration. TABLE XLVII POLISH IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION, RUSSIA AND AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 1908 TO 1912 l Russian Poles Austro-Hungarian Poles , ,_ 4) -o Year G M o pV- G ^J "U P|'"tli G w, S 2 co ' G - -~ - S s| - S S 1 1 w rt |cx2 S w rt a2 1908 .... 73122 18187 25 59719 28048 47 1909 .... 37770 8421 22 336483 10292 28 1910 .... 63635 6705 10 ' 60565 9609 15 1911 . . . 40193 12276 30 27515 1 8/99 67 1912 .... 51244 14701 28 30649 22546 73 Total . . . 265964 60290 22 214931 88994 41 1 From Reports of Commissioner- General of Immigration. 6oi] STATISTICAL TABLES TABLE XLVIII "OLD" AND "NEW" (JEWISH EXCEPTED) AND JEWISH IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION, IQOS TO IQIO 1 Class Immigrant aliens Emigrant aliens Number departed per 100 admitted Old immigration. . . New immigration (Jew sh excepted) Jewish immigration . 599732 1461506 236100 79664 6i5549 18543 13 1 Total 2297338 713356 32 1 From Emigration Conditions in Europe, p. 42. TABLE XLIX EUROPEAN IMMIGRANT ALIENS, 1 1907, AND EUROPEAN EMIGRANT ALIENS, 1908 2 People Immigrant aliens, 1907 Emigrant aliens, 1908 Number Per cent, of total Number Per cent, of total Number departed per 100 admitted Jewish . . 149182 27174 47826 51126 92936 46283 38706 51564 242497 25884 60071 138033 53425 42041 12. 1 2.2 3-9 4.1 7-5 3-7 3-1 4.2 19.6 2.1 4.9 II. 2 4-3 3-4 7702 5965 28584 5320 14418 6763 2441 19507 147828 3388 29276 46727 5801 23573 2.0 1.6 7-5 i-4 ?! .6 38.'8 9 7-7 12.3 :! 5 22 60 10 15 14 6 g 11 33 ii 56 Bulgarian, Servian and Montenegrin Croatian and Slovenian . . . English German . Greek Irish Italian, North. Italian, South . Lithuanian Masfvar . . Polish Scandinavian .. Slovak Total 1237341 3 381044 32 1 All peoples with an inward movement of less than 25,000 omitted, 2 From Emigration Conditions in Europe, pp. 39-40. 3 All European immigrants, including Syrians. !86 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [602 TABLE L TOTAL EUROPEAN IMMIGRANTS ADMITTED 1 AND TOTAL OF THOSE ADMITTED DURING THIS PERIOD IN THE UNITED STATES PREVIOUSLY, l8Q9 TO People Number admitted In United States previously Number Per cent of admitted 1074442 100189 355542 408614 I5I774 I 5783 754375 216962 439724 372668 I9H933 175258 337351 949064 147375 586.^06 136842 377527 22914 4066 43037 103828 17189 33859 86458 12283 80636 56738 262508 6186 39785 65155 18492 86700 27684 71889 2.1 4-1 12.8 25-4 ii.3 29.2 n. 5 5-7 18.3 15-2 13.7 3-5 11.8 6.9 12.5 14.8 20.2 19.0 Bohemian and Moravian.- Croatian and Slovenian . . Greek Irish Polish Slovak Total s 9220066 1108948 12.0 1 All peoples with an immigration below 100,000 omitted. 2 From Emigration Conditions in Europe, p. 51. 'Includes all European peoples entered and Syrians. TABLE LI OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS, 1899 TO I9I0 1 Group Number Per cent 4841 7 5 4C.I Skilled laborers / 3nc82'3 -*6 8 *JAZ. C 7 186989 17 4 Total . . .... I 074442 100. 1 From Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration. 603] STATISTICAL TABLES TABLE LII JEWISH IMMIGRANTS REPORTING OCCUPATIONS, l8QQ TO IQIO Group Number Per cent Professional . JA re i 7 Skilled laborers Laborers /^OO 395823 fjQAAA i 'O 67.1 t ii 8 / Servants JMerchants and dealers 65532 3T4QT ii. i 5-j II460 I O IOO8 2 ROCT T 7 *o Total . CQ0267 IOO O 1 From Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration. TABLE LIII JEWISH IMMIGRANTS ENGAGED IN PROFESSIONAL OCCUPATIONS Occupation Number Actors . 272 Architects. ... 108 Clergymen 3co Editors 84 Electricians .... 7co 484 Lawyers .... . 74 Literary and scientific persons . Musicians. . . 1624 Officials (gov.) 18 290 7C7 2192 Others . . Total. 455 1 From Reports of Commissiomer-General of Immigration. 188 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [604 TABLE LIV JEWISH IMMIGRANTS REPORTING SKILLED OCCUPATIONS, l8QQ TO IQIO l A . Principal skilled occupations Occupation Number Per cent of total skilled Tailors 14^272 -?6 6 Carpenters joiners etc 2 . . 40001 TO 7 Dressmakers and seamstresses ** . . "30/182 iu.,5 10 Shoemakers . 0-3 CTQ C O Clerks and accountants . . . . . . 17066 ~ -y 40 Painters and glaziers .... - . . . 76087 6 4-r Butchers '. . . . 1 141 "\ - 1 2/-j Bakers TQQOC 2 8 n-3ge 2 4 Blacksmiths ... . . ... 8CT7 ** 2 2 Total 722867 81 q B . Other skilled occupations Occupation Number Tinners .... 6067 4444 Tobacco workers . . 47^O Hat and capmakers ... . ttOjV AO'/Cl Barbers and hairdressers . 4O^4 \Veavers and spinners .... -7Q77 Tanners and curriers oy/ 1 77T ^ Furriers and fur workers O/ A O o \AA 3(300 2^07 Plumbers . . o/i ec Saddlers and harness makers ^4;>o 277 T M illiners 22OI Metal workers (other than iron, steel and tin) . 2231 IOO7 Jewelers . . 18^7 Millers . TQQO Mechanics (not specified) . 120"? IIOQ lOI'? Iron and steel workers 604. Textile workers (not specified) Others 436 i ^0^8 Total 72Q c6 ^0^82^ 1 From Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration. 2 Seamstresses are included with dressmakers; cabinetmakers and woodworkers (not specified) with carpenters and joiners. 6o 5 ] STATISTICAL TABLES TABLE LV 189 OCCUPATIONS OF TOTAL EUROPEAN AND JEWISH IMMIGRANTS, l8gp TO IQOQ, AND PERCENTAGE JEWISH OF TOTAL Group Total immigrants Jewish immigrants Per cent of total 8022? 68-36 Q C 12/476*7 A 0.5 I^/U/q. T2OO2O^ /-vA-3-J ^y.i Farmers 84146 y u oo or>8 Common laborers 2282565 66311 2.Q f\ n oyuuy^ ?i6c / ?87 u.g 44 o 7* 1 /^ u o^ ju^siy Total 821 ^0^4 990182 T2 T 1 From Emigration Conditions in Europe, p. 27. TABLE LVI TOTAL EUROPEAN IMMIGRANTS 1 AND IMMIGRANTS WITHOUT OCCUPATION, TO IQIO 2 People Jewish Bohemian and Moravian Croatian and Slovenian. English Finnish French German Greek Irish Italian, North Italian, South Lithuanian Magyar Polish Ruthenian Scandinavian Scotch Slovak. Total 1 All races with an immigration below 100,000 omitted. 2 From Statistical Review of Immigration, p. 52. 8 Total includes all races. "Without occupation Per cent Immigrants (including women and children) of total 1074442 484175 45- 1 100189 39700 39-5 355542 37219 ii. i 408614 158616 38.8 151774 28766 18.9 "5783 45745 395 745375 296082 39-7 216962 19244 8.9 439724 63456 14.4 372668 76046 20.4 I9H933 440274 23.0 337 '8 19.2 33815 i 78875 23-3 r 949064 200634 21. 1 "47375 18915 I2 9 586306 II 1212 18 9 136842 47634 349 377527 87280 23.1 9555 6 73 3 2506713 26.2 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [606 TABLE LVII OCCUPATIONS OF EUROPEAN IMMIGRANTS 1 REPORTING EMPLOYMENT, 1899 TO I9IO 2 Per cent People Number reporting employment In professional occupations In skilled occupations Laborers, including farm laborers Miscellaneous Jewish ... 500267 1.3 67.1 17.7 1 8.0 Bohemian and Moravian . . . Bulgarian, Servian and Monte- negrin Croatian and Slovenian . . . 60489 90991 298324 24QQC 8 1-3 .1 .1 9.0 40.8 3-3 5 487 28.5 92.0 86.4 14.1 29.4 4.6 85 28.1 123008 .7 6.0 67.2 26.5 French 7OO78 93 34 5 26 o 30.2 German Greek 458203 IQ77l8 3-5 .7 30.0 7-7 37-7 862 28.8 5.8 Irish ... 776268 I 7 126 7C. 2 5 9 296622 I.I 204 66C 120 147 l6CQ 4 14.6 77.O 7.9 14 I C4O .1 67 76.1 17.2 2^0276 .c 8.6 77. c 134 Polish 7484 7O .2 6.3 7C.7 1 8.1 Roumanian .... . . 7cr 71 .2 2.7 93.8 3 3 Russian 6og86 1.4. 9.1 82.7 6.8 Ruthenian ........ 128460 .1 20 80.6 17.4 Scandinavian ... 47COQ1 I 2 20-5 47.8 34.5 Scotch . . 89208 c 7 57 9 12. 1 24.3 Slovak 2QO247 j'l I 4-4 80.0 15 5 Total 7O48QC'? 3 1.4. 20. 2 7Q-3 19.1 1 All races with an immigration below 50,000 omitted. J From Statistical Review of Immigration, p. 53. 8 Total includes all races. 6o 7 ] STATISTICAL TABLES TABLE LVIII 191 OCCUPATIONS OF SLAVIC AND JEWISH IMMIGRANTS REPORTING EMPLOYMENT, 1899 TO IQIO l a Per cent & o People u o bl D "73 f- I if! I I, tr. a it Ill a ,5 t % I 6'" ~~ O ^ o s C s CO & c 1 1 a 8* 53 Jewish .... 590267 i-3 67.1 I37 18.0 Bohemian and Moravian . . 60489 1.3 40.8 28.5 29.4 Bulgarian, Servian and Montenegrin. Croatian and 90991 - 1 3-3 92.0 4-6 Slovenian . . 298324 .1 5 86 4 85 Polish .... 748430 .2 6-3 75 3 Russian. . . . 69986 1.4 827 6.8 Ruthenian. . . 128460 .1 2.0 80.6 17.4 Slovak .... 290247 .1 4-4 80.0 1 From Statistical Review of Immigration, p. 53. TABLE L1X OCCUPATIONS OF " OLD " AND "NEW " IMMIGRATION (JEWISH EXCEPTED) AND OF JEWISH IMMIGRATION, 1899 TO I5C9 1 "Old" immigration " New" immigration (Jewish excepted) Jewish immigration Occupations Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Professional 56406 25 17080 3 6836 7 Skilled laborers. . 442754 J 95 441984 8.9 362936 36.7 Farm laborers . . 13*59* 6.1 1142064 23.1 9*33 I.O Farmers .... 40633 1.8 42605 9 908 i Common laborers 402074 17.7 18141*0 36.7 66^1 1 67 Servants .... 424698 18.7 403784 8.2 6161 1 6.2 No occupation. Miscellaneous. . . 6785 10 90109 29.8 4.0 1041049 46324 21.0 9 445728 36219 450 3-7 Total. . 2273782 ICO.O 4949070 ICO.O 990182 IOO.O 1 From Emigration Conditions in Europe, p. 29. 192 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [608 TABLE LX ILLITERACY OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS, iScjQ TO IQIO Year Jewish immigrants 14 years of age and over Jewish immigrant illiterates 2 14 years of age and over Per cent illiterate igOO . 28428 c637 IQ IQ~O . 47672 10607 yo 22 2 IQOI 43367 101 19 233 IQO2 . 42376 1 1921 28 I 1QO2 . C7ICQ 14980 26 2 I QO4 . 82707 18763 22 6 loot; . ioi3<;7 22770 22 4 IQGO . 110128 2Q444 26 7 IUO7 . 111486 7l88i; 28 6 1908 77-274 2^217 3O 3 1909 42341 I22OI 28 8 IQIO . 623QI 17963 28 8 Total 806786 209507 26.0 1 From Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration. 2 Those who could neither read nor write. TABLE LXI SEX OF JEWISH IMMIGRANT ILLITERATES, IQ08 TO IQI2 1 Year Jewish immigrants 14 years of age and over Jewish immigrant illiterates 14 years of age and over Number Per cent Male Female Male 9*55 4832 7593 6453 5 6 37 Female Male Female 1908 . , . . 1909 . - - . 1910 .... 1911 . . . 1912 . . . . 43 2 7 2345 2 35 2 72 38018 32706 34104 18889 27120 3*37 27799 13762 73 6 9 10370 10304 9498 21.9 20.6 2 '-5 16.9 17.2 40.4 39-0 38.2 32.8 34.2 Total . . 172718 139282 3397 5*33 19.7 36.8 1 In order to ascertain the number of males and females, 14 years of age and over, the number of Jewish immigrants under 14 years of age were distributed equally between the sexes. Subtracting these respectively from the number of males and females, we obtain the above totals. Cf. Report of New York State Commission on Immigration, 1908, p. 171. 609] STATISTICAL TABLES TABLE LXII ILLITERACY OF EUROPEAN IMMIGRANTS, 1 1899 TO I9IO 2 193 People Immigrants 14 years of age and over Immigrant illiterates 14 years of age and over Number Per cent Jewish 806786 79721 320977 347458 137916 625793 208608 416640 339301 1690376 161441 307082 861303 140775 530634 H5788 342583 209507 1322 115/85 3647 1745 32236 55089 10721 38897 911566 79001 35004 304675 75i65 2221 767 82216 26.0 *:? I.O i-3 5-2 26.4 2.6 ii. 5 53-9. 48.9 11.4 35-4 53-4 4 7 24.0 Bohemian and Moravian.. Croatian and Slovenian. . . English Finnish German Greek Irish Italian North Italian South Lithuanian . - ^Magyar Polish Ruthenian Scandinavian , Scotch Slovak Total 3 8398624 2238801 26.7 *A11 peoples with an immigration below 100,000 excluded, except the Bohemian and Moravian. 3 From Statistical Review of Immigration, p. 51. 3 Total for all races. I94 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [610 TABLE LXtll ILLITERACY OF "OLD " AND "NEW" IMMIGRATION (JEWISH EXCEPTED) AND OF JEWISH IMMIGRATION, 1899 TO 1909 l Classed Immigrants 14 years of age and over Immigrant illiterates 14 years of age and over Number Per cent. Old immigration .... . . 1983618 4471047 744395 52833 1667754 19*544 2.7 37-3 2 5-7 New immigration (Jewish ex- cepted) Jewish immigration. . . . . Total 7199060 1912131 26.6 1 From Emigration Conditions in Europe^ p. 30. TABLE LXIV ILLITERACY OF PEOPLES FROM EASTERN EUROPE, 1899 TO 1910 l People Immigrants 14 years of age and over Illiterates Number Per cent. Jewish 806786 161441 861303 77479 M0775 209507 79001 34<75 29777 75^5 26.0 48.9 P: 4 4 63 4 Lithuanian . . . . Polish . .... Russian .... . 4 . . Ruthenian 1 From Statistical Rcvitiu of Immigration, p. 51. TABLE LXV SEX OF ILLITERATES OF PEOPLES FROM EASTERN EURCPF, 1908 Race Number illiterates 14 years and over Per cent. Male Female Male Female Jewish 9455 4215 J 4573 5820 4203 13762 2> V 97 88 n 828 1836 21.9 534 3 6 7 40 i 49.6 40.4 63-4 429 508 57-4 Polish 1 From Report of New York State Commission on Immigration, 1908, p. 171 6ll] STATISTICAL TABLES TABLE LXVI DESTINATION OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS, 1899 TO 1910, BY DIVISION 1 195 Division Jewish immigrants Per cent North Atlantic States 927C49 860 North Central States 110998 IO 7 South Atlantic States 25149 2 7 South Central States '. . 8124 .8 Western States 6384 .6 Total 1074404 2 IOO O 1 From Reports of Commissioner- General of Immigration. 1 27 were destined for Alaska, Hawaii, and Porto Rico, and n were tourists. TABLE LXVII DESTINATION OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS, 1899 to IQIO, BY PRINCIPAL STATES State Jewish immigrants Per cent of total New York 690296 64 2 Pennsylvania , . . . ... 108574 IO I *r~53* 66023 6 i COQ7I 4 7 7127Q 7 2 Ohio 2OC7I I q Maryland . ... . ^33 I87OO I 7 Connecticut 162^4 I c Missouri 1 2476 *.> I 2 Minnesota 7O2Q 7 6769 6 CQ7O 6 Rhode Island CO27 c All others 7IO8Q 30 w Total IO744O4 * IOO O 1 Cf. note 2 of table LXVI. I9 6 JEWISH IMMIGRATION TO UNITED STATES [612 TABLE LXVIII PERCENTAGE OF JEWISH AND TOTAL IMMIGRANTS DESTINED FOR EACH DIVISION, 1899 TO 1910 l Division Per cent, of total immigrants Per cent of Jewish immigrants North Atlantic States 67.5 86.0 North Central States 22 4. IO 3 South Atlantic States . . . 2 7 2 1 South Central States i 8 % Western . ... c 6 6 Total IOO O ICO.O From Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration. TABLE LXIX PARTICIPATION OF JEWISH IMMIGRANTS IN DESTINATION OF TOTAL IMMIGRANTS, 1899 TO I9IO, BY DIVISION Division Total immigrants Jewish immigrants Per cent Jewish of total North Atlantic . . North Central . . South Atlantic . . North Central . . Western 6368243 2116327 254936 167427 53 282 4 923549 110998 25149 8324 6384 "4-5 5-2 99 5-0 1.2 Total .... 9439757 1074404* ii. 4 1 From Reports of Commissioner-General of Immigration. * Cf. note 2 of table LXVI. APPENDICES APPENDIX A. PRESIDENT HARRISON'S MESSAGE TO CONGRESS, DECEMBER g, 1891. l This Government has found occasion to express in a friendly spirit, but with much earnestness, to the Government of the Czar its concern because of the harsh measures now being en- forced against the Hebrews in Russia. By the revival of antisemitic laws, long- in abeyance, great numbers of those unfortunate people have been constrained to abandon their homes and leave the Empire by reason of the impossibility of finding subsistence within the pale to which it is sought to confine them. The immigration of these people to the United States many other countries being closed to them is largely increasing and is likely to assume proportions which may make it difficult to find homes and employment for them here and to seriously affect the labor market. It is estimated that over 1,000,000 will be forced from Russia in a few years. The Hebrew is never a beggar ; he has always kept the law life by toil often under severe and oppressive civil restrictions. It is also true that no race, set or class has more fully cared for its own than the Hebrew race. But the sudden transfer of such a multitude under conditions that tend to strip them of their small accumulations and to depress their energies and courage is neither good for them nor for us. The banishment, whether by direct decree or by not less certain indirect methods, of so large a number of men and women is not a local question. A decree to leave one country is in the nature of things an order to enter another some other. This consideration, as well as the suggestion of hu- manity, furnishes ample ground for the remonstrances which we have presented to Russia, while our historic friendship for that government can not fail to give assurance that our repre- sentations are those of a sincere wellwisher. 1 (Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789-1897, vol. ix, 1889-97, p. 188. Washington, 1898). 615] 109 APPENDIX B. ARTICLE VII OF THE CONSTITUTION OF ROUMANIA. Difference in religious beliefs and confessions does not con- stitute in Roumania an obstacle to the obtainment of civil and political rights, nor to the exercise of these rights. 1 i ) A foreigner without distinction of religion, and whether a subject or not of a foreign government, can become natura- lized under the following conditions : (a) He shall address to the government an application for naturalization, in which he shall indicate the capital he possesses, the profession or craft which he follows, and his abode in Roumania. (b) He shall reside, after this application, ten years in the country, and prove, by action, that he is of service to it. (2) The following may be exempted from the intermediary stages : (a) Those who have brought into the country industries, useful inventions, or talent, or who have founded large estab- lishments of commerce or industry. (b) Those who, born and bred in Roumania, of parents established in the country, have never been subjected, either themselves or their parents, to any protection by a foreign power. (c) Those who have served under the colors during the war of independence ; these may be naturalized collectively by government decree, by a single resolution, and without any further formality. (3) Naturalization can not be given except by law, and individually. (4) A special law shall determine the manner in which for- eigners may establish their home on Roumanian territory. (5) Only Roumanians, and those who have been naturalized Roumanians, can buy rural estates in Roumania. 200 [616 APPENDIX C, SECRETARY HAY'S NOTE. DEPARTMENT OF STATE, ) WASHINGTON, August 11, 1902. J " Excellency :-In the course of an instruction recently sent to the Minister accredited to the Government of Roumania in regard to the bases of negotiation begun with that govern- ment looking to a convention of naturalization between the United States and Roumania, certain considerations were set forth for the Minister's guidance concerning- the character of the emigration from that country, the causes which con- strain it, and the consequences so far as they adversely affect the United States. " It has seemed to the President appropriate that these con- siderations, relating as they do to the obligations entered into by the signatories of the Treaty of Berlin, of July 13, 1878, should be brought to the attention of the Governments con- cerned, and commended to their consideration in the hope that, if they are so fortunate as to meet the approval of the several Powers, such measures as to them may seem wise may be taken to persuade the Government of Roumania to recon- sider the subject of the grievances in question. 'The United States welcomes now, as it has welcomed from the foundation of its Government, the voluntary immi- gration of all aliens coming hither under conditions fitting them to become merged in the body politic of this land. Our laws provide the means for them to become incorporated in- distinguishably in the mass of citizens, and prescribe their ab- solute equality with the native born, guaranteeing to them equal civil rights at home and equal protection abroad. The conditions are few, looking to their coming as free agents, so 617] 201 202 APPENDIX C [618 circumstanced physically and morally as to supply the health- ful and intelligent material of free citizenhood. The pauper, the criminal, the contagiously or incurably diseased are ex- cluded from the benefits of immigration only when they are likely to become a source of danger or a burden upon the community. The voluntary character of their coming is essen- tial ; hence we shut out all immigration assisted or constrained by foreign agencies. The purpose of our generous treatment of the alien immigrant is to benefit us and him alike not to afford to another state a field upon which to cast its own ob- jectionable elements. The alien, coming hither voluntarily and prepared to take upon himself the preparatory and in due course the definitive obligations of citizenship, retains there- after, in domestic and international relations, the initial character of free agency, in the full enjoyment of which it is incumbent upon his adoptive State to protect him. *' The foregoing considerations, whilst pertinent to the exam- ination of the purpose and scope of a naturalization treaty, have a larger aim. It behooves the State to scrutinize most jealously the character of the immigration from a foreign land, and, if it be obnoxious to objection, to examine the causes which render it so. Should those causes originate in the act of another sovereign State, to the detriment of its neighbors, it is the prerogative of an injured State, to point out the evil and to make remonstrance : for with nations, as with individuals the social law holds good, that the right of each is bounded by the right of the neighbor. "The condition of a large class of the inhabitants of Rou- mania has for many years been a source of grave concern to the United States. 1 refer to the Roumanian Jews, numbering some 400,000. Long ago, while the Danubian principalities labored under oppressive conditions, which only war and a general action of European powers sufficed to end, the perse- cution of the indigenous Jews under Turkish rule called forth in 1872 the strong remonstrance of the United States. The Treaty of Berlin was hailed as a cure for the wrong, in view of the express provisions of its forty-fourth article, prescribing 619] APPENDIX C 203 that "in Roumania, the difference of religious creeds and con- fessions shall not be alleged against any person as ground for ex- clusion or incapacity in matters relating to the enjoyment of civil and political rights, admission to public employments, functions, and honors, or the exercise of the various professions and industries in any locality whatsoever," and stipulating freedom in the exercise of all forms of worship to Roumanian dependents and foreigners alike, as well as guaranteeing that all foreigners in Roumania shall be treated, without distinction of creed, on a footing of perfect equality. ' With the lapse of time these just prescriptions have been rendered nugatory in great part, as regards the native Jews, by the legislation and municipal regulations of Roumania. Starting from the arbitrary and controvertible premise that the native Jews of Roumania domiciled there for centuries are "aliens not subject to foreign protection," the ability of the Jew to earn even the scanty means of existence that suf- fice for a frugal race has been constricted by degrees, until nearly every opportunity to win a livelihood is denied ; and until the helpless poverty of the Jew has constrained an exo- dus of such proportions as to cause general concern. "The political disabilities of the Jews in Roumania, their exclusion from the public service and the learned professions, the limitations of their civil rights and the imposition upon them of exceptional taxes, involving as they do wrongs repug- nant to the moral sense of liberal modern peoples, are not so directly in point for my present purpose as the public acts which attack the inherent right of man as a breadwinner in the ways of agriculture and trade. The Jews are prohibited from owning land, or even from cultivating it as common laborers. They are debarred from residing in the rural dis- tricts. Many branches of petty trade and manual production are closed to them in the overcrowded cities where they are forced to dwell and engage, against fearful odds, in the des- perate struggle for existence. Even as ordinary artisans or hired laborers they may only find employment in proportion of one "unprotected alien" to two "Roumanians" under 20 4 APPENDIX C [620 any one employer. In short, by the cumulative effect of successive restrictions, the Jews of Roumania have become reduced to a state of wretched misery. Shut out from nearly every avenue of self-support which is open to the poor of other lands, and ground down by poverty as the natural result of their discriminatory treatment, they are rendered incapable of lifting- themselves from the enforced degradation they endure. Even were the fields of education, of civil employment and of commerce open to them as to " Roumanian citizens," their penury would prevent their rising: by individual effort. Hu- man beings so circumstanced have virtually no alternatives but submissive suffering or flight to some land less unfavora- ble to them. Removal under such conditions is not and can- not be the healthy, intelligent emigration of a free and self- reliant being. It must be, in most cases, the mere transplan- tation of an artificially produced diseased growth to a new place. " Granting: that, in better and more healthful surroundings, the morbid conditions will eventually change for good, such emigration is necessarily for a time a burden to the community upon which the fugitives may be cast. Self-reliance and the knowledge and ability that evolve the power of self-support must be developed, and, at the same time, avenues of employ- ment must be opened in quarters where competition is already keen and opportunities scarce. The teachings of history and the experience of our own nation show that the Jews possess in a high degree the mental and moral qualifications of con- scientious citizenhood. No class of immigrants is more wel- come to our shores, when coming equipped in mind and body for entrance upon the struggle for bread, and inspired with the high purpose to give the best service of heart and brain to the land they adopt of their own free will. But when they come as outcasts, made doubly paupers by physical and moral op- pression in their native land, and thrown upon the long-suffer- ing generosity of a more favored community, their migration lacks the essential conditions which make alien immigration either acceptable or beneficial. So well is this appreciated on 621] APPENDIX C 205 the Continent that, even in the countries where anti-Semitism has no foothold, it is difficult for these fleeing- Jews to obtain any lodgment. America is their only goal. "The United States offers asylum to the oppressed of all lands. But its sympathy with them in no wise impairs its just liberty and right to weigh the acts of the oppressor in the light of their effects upon this country and to judge ac- cordingly. " Putting together the facts now plainly brought home to this Government during the past few years, that many of the inhabitants of Roumania are being forced, by artificially ad- verse discriminations, to quit their native country ; that the hospitable asylum offered by this country is almost the only refuge left to them ; that they come hither unfitted, by the condi- tions of their exile, to take part in the new life of this land under circumstances either profitable to themselves or beneficial to the community ; and that they are objects of charity from the outset and for a long time the right of remonstrance against the acts of the Roumanian Government is clearly established in favor of this Government. Whether consciously and of purpose or not, these helpless people, burdened and spurned by their native land, are forced by the sovereign power of Roumania upon the charity of the United States. This Government cannot be a tacit party to such an international wrong. It is constrained to protest against the treatment to which the Jews of Roumania are subjected, not alone because it has unimpeach- able ground to remonstrate against the resultant injury to itself, but in the name of humanity. The United States may not authoritatively appeal to the stipulations of the Treaty of Berlin to which it was not and cannot become a signatory, but it does earnestly appeal to the principles consigned therein because they are the principles of international law and eternal justice, advocating the broad toleration which that solemn compact enjoins and standing ready to lend its moral support to the fulfilment thereof by its co-signatories, for the act of Roumania itself has effectively joined the United States to them as an interested party in this regard. 206 APPENDIX C [622 c< You will take an early occasion to read this instruction to the Minister for Foreign Affairs and, should he request it,, leave with him a copy. " I have the honor to be, "Your obedient servant, "JOHN HAY "... BIBLIOGRAPHY (All works referred to in the text are given below. A number of other works that have been found useful are also included.) Alexinsky, Gregor. Modern Russia. New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1913. Alliance Israelite Universelle, 1870 to 1900. The American Jewish Year Book. Philadelphia, Jewish Publication Society of America, 1900-1913. - 1913. Jewish Immigration to the United States, pp. 283-4. Association for the Protection of Jewish Immigrants of Philadelphia. Annual Reports, 1885 to 1910. Balch, Emily Greene. Our Slavic Fellow-Citizens. New York Charities Publication Committee, 1910. Bluntschli. Dr. Roumama and the Legal Status of the Jews in Rou- mania. London, Anglo-Jewish Association, 1879. Buzek, Dr. Joseph. " Das Auswanderungsproblem in Oesterreich," Zeitschrift fur Volkswirtschaft, Sozialpoitik und Verwaltung, vol. 10, 1901. Carmen Sylva. " Roumania and the Foreigners," Century, March, 1906. Charmatz, Richard. Deutsch-Oesterreichische Politik. Leipzig, Duncker und Humblot, 1907. Demidoff San Donato, Prince. The Jewish Question in Russia. Lon- don, Darling & Son, 1884. Die Judenpogromen in Russland. 2 vols. Koln, Jiidischer Verlag, 1910. English Royal Commission on Alien Immigration, 1904. Enquete sur les Artisans premiere partie, Ministere de 1'Industrie et du Commerce, Royaume de Roumanie, Bucarest 1909. Fairchild. Immigration. New York, Macmillan Co., 1913. Frederic, Harold. The New Exodus. New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1892. Goldberg. " Die Juden unter der stadtischer Bevolkerung Russlands." Zeitschrift fiir Demographie und Statistik der Juden. Bureau fur Statistik der Juden, Berlin. Grenzboten, vol. 62, 1003. (i) " Galizische Wirtschaft." (2) " Galizien." Hersch, L. Le Juif errant d'aujourd'hui. Paris, M. Giard et E Briere, 1913. 623] 207 208 BIBLIOGRAPHY [624 Hillman, Anselm. Judisches Genossenschaftswesen in Russland, Bureau fur Statistic der Juden, Berlin, 1911. Immigration Commission. Emigration Conditions in Europe. Report to 6ist Congress, 2nd Session, Senate Document No. 748, Washing- ton, 1911. Conclusions and Recommendations. Abstract of Emigration Conditions in Europe. " Abstract of Statistical Review of Immigration to the United States, 1820-1910. Washington, 1911. Jewish Chronicle, 1875-1910. Jewish Encyclopedia, i. " Antisemitism." 2. " Austria." 3. " Migra- tion." 4. " Roumania." 5. " Russia." Jorga, N. Geschichte des Rum'dnischen Volkes. 2 vols. Gotha, Fred- rich Andreas Perthes, 1905. Jiidische Statistik, Berlin, Jiidischer Verlag, 1903. Enquete uber die Lage der jiidischen Bevolkerung Galiziens, von Dr. S. Fleischer. Zur Bewegung der jiidischen Bevolkerung in Galizien, von Dr. A. Korkis. Kogalniceanu, Vasile M. " Die Agrarfrage in Rumanien." Archiv fur Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik, vol. 32, 1911. Kovalevsky, Maxim. La crise russe. V. Giard et E. Briere, Paris, 1906. Russian Political Institutions. University of Chicago Press, 1902. Landa, M. J. The Alien Problem and its Remedy. London, P. S. King & Son, 1911. La question juive dans les Chambres roumaines. Seconde edition. Paris, Ch. Marechal, 1879. Lazare, Bernard. Die Juden in Rumanien. H. S. Hermann, Berlin, 1902. Leroy-Beaulieu, Anatole. The Empire of the Tsars. 3 vols. New YTork, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1894. Loeb, Isidore. La Situation des Israelites en Turquie, en Serbie et en Roumanie. Paris, Joseph Baer et Cie, 1877. Margolin, Salomon. " Die wirtschaftliche Lage der jiidischen arbeit- enden Klassen in Russland." Archiv fiir S-osialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik. Band 26, Heft I. Milyoukov, Paul. Russia and its Crisis. University of Chicago Press, 1905. Palmer, Francis H. E. Austro-Hungarian Life in Town and Country. New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1903. Russian Life in Town and Country. New York> G. P. 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