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Latham's Hand-Book of the English Language. Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon. Abridged. v«> \,.\ V °4A^t> < ^. HISTORY oir ENGLAND, INVASION OF JULIUS C^SAR 10 THE REIUN OF VICTORIA. j i k± * - : > A NEW EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED WITH QUESTIONS, ADAPTED TO SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STAT ISC?. BY ELIZA ROBBINS, AUTHOR OF " AMERICAN POPULAR LP.fiSONS," ETC., KTO NEW YORK: D. A PPL ETON AND COMPANY. 649 & 551 BROADWAY 1619. E °U&PSYCH Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1S4S, By ELIZA BOBBINS, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York. PREFACE ft ' fU- The History of England, entitled Mrs. Markham's. ;i as written by a mother for the instruction of her own children, and it has been, and still is, extensive- ly used in England. In its original form the con- struction is essentially domestic, and to the narrative portions are appended conversations between a mo- ther and children on that most important part of his- tory, the successive changes that have taken place in Britain, and other civilized countries, in manners, arts, and humanity. Agreeable as this form of instruction may be in a family, it is altogether inconvenient in a school. There is nothing more needed in our schools than good histories ; not the dry compends in present use, but elementary works that shall suggest the moral uses of history, and the Providence of God manifest in the affairs of men. Mrs. Markham's History was used by that mouei for all teachers, the late Dr. Arnold, master of the great English school at Rugb}', and agrees in its character with his enlightened and pious views oi leaching history. It is now several years since I adapted this His- tory to the form and the price acceptable in the 068 IV PREFACE. schools in the United States. I ha\ e recently re- vised it, and trust that it may be extensively service able in education. The principal alterations from the original are a new and more convenient division of paragraphs, and entire omission of the conversa- tions annexed to the chapters. In place of these I have affixed questions to every page, that may at once facilitate the work of the teacher and the pupil. The rational and moral features of this book first commended it to me, and I have used it successfully with my own scholars. The real author was Elizabeth, wife of the Rev. John Penrose, a native of England. Mrs. Penrose was a woman of rare gifts and accomplishments She died at Lincoln, January 241 h, 1837. Eliza Rcbbinq Nuvk Yobk, March 8, 1848. CONTENTS THE BRITISH EMPIRE. OHAl»TEB |. . . ..... e conqueror's sons — Death of William — State of society under the Nor- mans in England. Chapter VII 57 William II. — Injures his brother Robert — Robert goes to the Holy Land — William killed in the New Forest — Crusades. Chapter VIII. . . 65 Character of Henry I. — Robert returns to England—Succession o prince William disputed — Prince William drowned — The Empress M» tilda — Henry II. dies in Normandy — Arts, armor, and domestic man ners of the English — Chivalry. Chapter IX 78 Usurpation of Stephen — Civil war in England — Stephen taken prison er — Matilda abuses her own power — withdraws into Normandy- -The succession settled on Henry Matilda's son — Stephen dies. Chapter X. St! Henry II. — his education — his abilities — grants a charter to the peopk — Invades and conquers Ireland — Thomas a Becket — his exaltation— his death — Henry does «enance for the death of Becket — Henry's do mestic affairs — his death — Learning and customs in England. Chapter XI. ........ 94 Richard I. — His foreign enterprises — Richard at Acre — Ruturns to Eu rope — made a prisoner in Germany — Ransomed — returns to England - Killed at Chalus — Disorders in England. VI CONTENTS. Chapter XII . 105: John, a despicable prince — Authur of Bretagne — John loses Normandy — quarrels with the Pope — persecutes the Jews — John makes submis sion to the Pope — opposed by the barons — grants Magna Charta — De pressed condition of the English people in this reign — John's death. Chapter XIII. 109 Henry III. succeeds his fatner — attempts to recover Normandy — Civil war between the king and the barons — Prince Edward defends his fa- ther's cause — joins the last Crusade — Henry III. dies — Progress of so- ciety and of science in England. chapter XIV .118 Edward I. — His policy — makes war wiln the Welsh — Affairs of Soot land — Edward loses Guienne — Sir William Wallace — Edward I. dies — his character — Trade in England — the Tournament. Chapter XV. . i25 Edward II. — a weak prince — Robert Bruce — Battle of Bannockburn — Queen Isabella rebels against her husband — Edward II. deposed and murdered — Manners of the Scots and English in this reign. Chapter XVI. J32 Edward III. — an inexperienced youth, but soon manifests abdity — a warlike prince — punishes his mother — makes war with the king of Scot land — with the French — the Black Prince — Battle of Cressy — Siege o( Calais — War with France prolonged — King David Bruce — The Black Prince engages in the affairs of Spain — dies — Edward the III. dies — Amusements of the English. Chapter XVII . ... 147 Richard II. — son of the Black Prince — the people rebel against Richard — Wat Tyler — Richard's presence of mind — his deterioration — loses his popularity — Battle of Otterburne. between the English and Scots — Henry Bolingbroke banished — returns to England — assumes the Crown — Rich- ard II. dies at Pontefract castle — Reformation commences — Wickliffe — Manners of the age — Language and literature — Liberty of thought. Chapter XVIII 160 Henry IV. succeeds Richard II. — Owen Glendower — Battle of Homil- don Hill — The Percies rebel against the king — James I. of Scotland — a prisoner in England — his history and character interesting — Prince Henry — his good and bad qualities — The king dies — state of religion in England during this reign. Chapter XIX . . . . 169 Henry V. — abandons the follioj of his youth — his generosity — Lord Cobham — one of the earliest Reformers in England — Henry V. makes war with France— Battle of Azincourt — Duke of Burgundy assassinated — Henry V. marries the princess Catharine of France — he dies — Com- forts of life comparatively few in England in this age. Chapter XX. . ... 79 Henry VI. — Affairs in France — Joan of Arc — Henry marries Margaret of Anjou — The duke of York claims the crown — England thrown into a state of insurrection and tumult — The Yorkists prevail over the king's party — The Duke of York killed — his son proclaimed king — Parlia military power — sta*.c of the English navy, and of trade in thio reign CONTENT ■$. Vli Chapter XXI. W Edward IV.— a warlike prince — Margaret eudenvars to cblair the throne for her son — The battle of Hexham — Lancastrians suffer great distress — Henry VI. restored — Lancastrians finally defeated — Edwnrd IV. reinstated— dies — Printing introduced into England. Chapter XXII 20£ Edward V. — Richard, duke of Gloucester — his dissirnulati )n — LorG Hastings beheaded — young princes murdered — Gloucester crowned king — Popular amusements in England in this reign. Chapter XXIII 207 Richard III. — conspiracy formed against him — Earl of Richmond — collects an army — Richard encounters the earl of Richmond — killed at Bosworth Field — The Plantagenet kings. Chapter XXIV. ... . . 212 Henry VII. — His cnaracter — Simnel, an impostor, pretends to the crowr of England — Perkin Warbeck does the same — Formidable insurrection — Henry at last reigns in peace — He dies — Extraordinary changes in tenure of property, and the military service in England — Discovery un- do taken by the English. Chapter XXV . . 22, Henry VIII. succeeds his father — Cardinal Wolsey — Henry goes to France — his contemporaries Francis I. and Charles V. — Festivities in France — Catharine — Anne Boleyn — Cranmer — Henry quarrels with the Pope — Suppresses monasteries — makes war with Scotland — Hemy dies — Bible translated in this reign — the Reformation advanced. Chapter XXVI 239 Edward VI. — Somerset the protector — Religious disturbances — Ed- ward a Protestant — his health declines — He dies — Church of England — progress of Reformation. Chapter XXVII. . . . ... 245 Mary — Lady Jane Grey — Mary persecutes the Protestants — marries Philip of Spain — Gardiner and Bonner — persecutors of Protestants — Martyrs — Philip quits England — Mary dies — Manners in EngUnddu ring this reign. Ckafter XXVIII. 255 Queen Elizabeth — popular with the English nation — a Protestant- chooses wise ministers — refuses to marry — Mary, queen of Scots — hej follies and misfortunes — a prisoner in England — Mary beheaded — Span- ish invasion — Elizabeth conducts herself admirable in this juncture — Armada dispersed — Earl of Essex — Elizabeth dies — Condition of Eng- land. CHAPTER XXIX * . STJI James I. — Lady Arabella Stuart — Sir Walter Raleigh — James a peaco a.)le prince — Prince Charles marries Henrietta Maria of Franco- Prince Henry — death of the king. Chapter XXX. 260 Charles I. — a well disposed, not a wise man — The duke of Buckingham —Sir Thomas Wentworth — Archbishop Laud — Charles unpopular in Scotland — Lord Stafford executed — Rebellion in Ireland — Civil war ill England — Cromwell — war continued — religious Sects — Charles iuad«! Otiboncr by the parliament — Executed. vni - rn.v TENTS. Chapter XXXI. 31i The Commonwealth— Prince Charles — Cromwell maintains his p< wei — Charles withdraws to the continent — Cromwell abolishes the piuiiu- ment — His sons — Cromwell dies Chapter XXXII. . 225j Charles II. — The Restoration — The regicides — Chuich affairs— Navui battles with the Dutch — Plague in England — great fiie of London — Civil troubles — Charles dies — Profligacy of manners in England at thifc time. Chapter XXXIII 331 James II. — Monmouth's conspiracy — James a Catholic — William ol Nassau invited to England — James abdicates the throne — takes refuge in France — Mr. Boyle. Chapter XXXIV 337 William III. — not well suited to the English — Battle of Killikrankie — Jarnes lands in Ireland — Battle of the Boyne — Massacre of Glencoe — Queen Mary dies — William dies — National debt. Chapter XXXV . 315 Queen Anne — Whigs and Tories — Sir George Rooke — Marlborough — Lord Peterborough — The pretender — the Union with Scotland — death of Anne — Sir Isaac Newton Chapter XXX VI 351 George I. — Lewis XIV aids the pretender— He lands in Scotland — hia adherents punished — The South Sea Scheme — George I. visits Hano- ver — dies at Osnaburgh. Chapter XXXVII 354 George II. — engages in a continental war — Prince Charles, the young pretender kindles war in Scotland — advances into England — is forced back — defeated atCulloden — War in America with the French — Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle — George II. dies — The last of the Stuarts. Chapter XXXVIII 3GJ George III. — European warfare — American war of Independence — Lord Chatham — pretences for war — French Revolution — Bonaparte- Peninsular war — Sir John Moore — Lord Wellington — Bonaparte sent to Elba — Battle of Waterloo — General peace in Europe — George III dies. Chapter XXXIX 381 Conclusion— George IV.— William IV.— British India— Queen Victorio - Chinese war— War in Affghanistan— Sir Robert Peel— Prospects ol Britain. ENGLISH HISTORY THE BRITISH EMPIRE Of all countries upon the globe there is none of which the history is more interesting to the American than Greai Britain. To most of us it is the country of our ancestors, and is that from which our language and many of our institutions are derived. At the present time there is no nation upon earth of greater resources in learning and science, in wise men and useful arts ; no nation, in despite of some traits of character which are neither to be ad- mired or imitated, in which religion and literature, virtue and happiness, liberty of thought and freedom of speech, security of property and authority of law, are so generally enjoyed as in England. We have only to go back in past time, a little more than eighteen centuries, and we shall find the present highly cultivated, civilized, and wealthy country of Great Britain, the abode of savage and hostile tribes, sunk in heathenism and ignorance, without comfortable habitations or decent garments. ' Time was, when clothing sumptuous of for use Save their own painted skins, our sires had none." Cowper's Task. At the present time, (1848,) the country which was once so rude and poor, is not only a powerful and rich kingdom within itself, but its dominions extends to every sea, and every quarter of the globe. The following account of the British Empire is taken from Hale's Geography. 2 RXULISH HISTORY. THE KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AX D [R ELAND The kingdom of Great Britian consists of the ancieni Kingdoms of England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland Besides these, the British empire includes a great numbci of foreign possessions, viz : — In Europe, Gibraltar, the Island of Malta, in the Medi- terranean sea, and Heligoland, in the German Ocean. In America, Upper and Lower Canada, Nova Scotia, and New-Brunswick, Prince Edward's Island, and New- foundland. Besides these Colonies, British America embraces extensive tracts of unsettled country north of Canada. Jamaica and other islands in the West Indies, also belong to the British. Extensive possessions in India, New Holland, Van Diemen's Land, the Cape of Good Hope, and othe- parts of Africa, are subject to Britain. ENGLAND AND WALKS. This country is bounded north by Scotland, east by the German Ocean, south by the English channel, which separates it from France, and west by St. George's chan- nal, which separates it from Ireland. England consists of the southern part of the island of Great Britain, and Wales occupies the western part. England is divided into 40, and Wales into 12 counties. The principal rivers in England, are the Thames, Severn, Medway, Trent, Ouse, Mersey, and Avon. The present population of England and Wales, is 16,000,000 About one-third of the inhabitants are employed in agri culture, and nearly half in trade, manufactures, and tho mechanic arts. The nobility and great proprietors of land, being about one-sixth of the whole population, derive their subsistence from their estates. England is the most commercial country in the world. Of whaf does the kingdom of Great Britain and Ire.and consist? What are the British possessions in Europe ? — In An erica I — Aoiu J -and Africa? What are England and Wales, and how divided ? What is the population of England and Wales, 18331 How do the people subsist ? What is the commerce of England? ENGLISH HISTORV. 3 and by its commerce has become the richest. Her mer- chants trade with all parts of the world, and particularly with her colonies in the East and West Indies and hi America, with China, with South America, and with the United States. The people of Great Britain have acquired great skill in the manufacture of every description of goods, particu- larly cotton, woolen, and silk goods of all sorts, as well as earthen and glass ware, and all articles made of iron, and other metals. England is immensely rich in its mines of coal and iron, and its manufacturing operations are greatly aided by these treasures. The government is a limited monarchy. The title of the sovereign is, King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. On the death of the King he is suc- ceeded by his eldest son, if he have any, or by his eldest daughter in defect of sons, and, if he has no children, by the children of his father in the same order. The present sovereign of Great Britain is Queen Victoria, though Kings usually reign over this kingdom. The King is personally responsible for little else than ihe appointment of his ministers. He often appoints only the prime minister, who with his approbation, selects all the rest. All the executive acts of the government are performed in the name of the King, but the ministers are responsible for them. The King makes war and peace, negotiates treaties, raises armies, makes appointments to offices, civil and military, — in his name justice is administered — to him be- long the forts, arsenals, and ships of war — he convenes, prorogues, and dissolves the Parliament at pleasure, and his assent is necessary to the validity of a law. But the revenues are raised, and laws are passed only by act oi Parliament. Th.3 Parliament is a legislative body, consisting of two branches ; the House of Lords and the House of Com- mons. The House of Lords consists of peers of the realm What arc the manufactures ? What the mineral productions ? What is the present government of Great Britain? What is the King's function? What is the British Parliament . 4 ENGLISH HISTORY. ind the archbishops and bishops. The peers are a part of the hereditary nobility, who among other privileges which descend from the father to the eldest son, have the right of a seat in the House of Lords. The King has the power of raising any individual to the peerage. This promotion is generally granted as a reward for distin- guished services to the state. The House of Commons consists of 658 members, who are elected, part by the electors of the counties, part by certain cities and boroughs, and two members by each of the ancient universities. They may hold their seats for .seven years, unless the Parliament is sooner dissolved by the King, in which case a new election of all the mem- bers is necessary. But a small part of the people of Great Britain possess the right of voting. Votes are frequently purchased. The members of Parliament receive no pay for their attendance. There is an Established Church, of which the King is the nominal head, and in which there are two archbishops, twenty-four bishops, and a great number of inferior clergy. The number of the clergy of the Established Church is 11,600. The present effective force of the British anny is 88,000 men, exclusive of the forces employed by the East India Company. This force includes the troops which are stationed in Great Britain and Ireland, and those in the foreign possessions, except India. The East India Com- pany maintains in addition a force of 20,000 men. The British navy is much the largest in the world. The whole number of ships of war is 600. The number now in commission is 147, of which 14 are ships of the line. There are two ancient universities, one at the town of Cambridge, and the other at the city of Oxford. Cam- bridge University has thirteen colleges, several of which are superb buildings, and four halls. It has many rich endowments, and has eighteen professors, and many othei What is the House of Commons ? How are members of Parliament elected T What is the Established Church of Great Britain ! What is the British Army ? What is the Navy ? What are the Uncersities? ENGLISH HISTORY. officers. Oxfoid University has twenty colleges and five halls. Many of these are large and splendid buildings. The revenues of the University are very great. The number of members of the University is about 3,000. London is the capital of England, and of the British empire. It is the richest and most populous city in the world. It is situated on the River Thames, and embraces, besides what is strictly called the City of London, the City and Liberties of Westminster, and several out parishes in the counties of Middlesex and Surrey. It is seven miles in length, and from two to four miles in breadth, and con- tains nearly two millions of inhabitants. SCOTLAND I Scotland consists of all that part of the Island of Great Britain which lies north of the river Tweed, and is bound- ed north, east and west, by the sea, and south by England Scotland is divided into 33 counties or shires. Scotland is divided into the Highlands and LoAvlands. The Highlands, corsisting of the northern and central parts, are mountainous and sterile, and but a small pro- portion of the lands are fit for cultivation. The Lowlands, consisting of the southern and eastern parts, have a resem- blance to England, and abound in fertile plains. The population of Scotland is a little over two millions. Their general character is that of a frugal, industrious, and well-instructed people. A portion of the Highlanders have not adopted all the arts of civilized life. They re- tain their peculiar dress, manners, and language. Educa tion is much attended to. Scotland, forming apart of the United Kingdom of Greai Britain and Ireland, is under the same government, but its taws are in many respects different, and its courts and forms of judicial proceeding are entirely different. Scot- land chooses 45 members of the House of Commons, in each Parliament, and the Scotch Peers, who are not Peery What is the capital of Britain, and how described ? What is Scotland, and how divided? What is the population of Scotland, and its general chara- .ter : What is the government of Scotland ENGLISH H1ST0RV. of Great Britain, choose from their number 10 to sit in liu? House of Lords. The prevailing religion of Scotland is Calvinism, and the established form of church government is Presby terian. Edinburgh, the metrrpolis of Scotland, is a very hand- some city, and has a population of 140,000. It is situated on the Firth of Forth. IRELAND. Ireland is an Island in the Atlantic Ocean, situated west of England. It is divided into four provinces, viz ^ Lein- ster, Ulster, Connaught, and Minister, and into 32 counties. The population is estimated to be about 7,000,000. In consequence of the denseness of the population, and the difficulty of finding productive employments, a large pro- portion of the people are in abject poverty. About four-fifths of the people are Roman Catholics, and it has been a subject of perpetual complaint, that they were excluded by their religion from a seat in parliament, and from other offices. These disabilities were remov- ed (1729) removed by an act of the British parliament. Dublin is the capital. It is a large and handsome city, of 240,000 inhabitants, situated on a beautiful bay, at to? mouth of the river LilTey, BRITISH INDIA. The population of Hindostan is supposed to amount to 128,000,000. Of this immense population, 115,000,000 are subject directly or indirectly to the government of the EiUglish East India Company. There are in Hindostan a number of native princes What is the prevailing religion of Scotland 1 What is the capital of Scotland ? What is Ireland, and how divided 1 What is the population of Ireland, and its general condition What is the prevailing religion of Ireland 1 What is the government of Ireland 7 What is its capital ? What portion of the population of India, is subject lo Britain ? What Princes of Hindostan h?ve become tributary to Britain? ENGLISH HISTORY. » called Rajahs, or Nabobs, who have become tributary t ; i the government of the East India Company, and placed themselves under their protection. These tributary states have a population estimated at 33,000,000. The rest of the country, containing a population of 82,000,000, is under the immediate government of the officers of the Company. For the purposes of administra- tion the country is divided into three presidencies, in each of which there is a distinct government. These are the presidency of Bengal, which embraces the north-eastern provinces of India; that of Madras, which embraces the southern provinces ; and that of Bombay, embracing the western provinces. The East India Company, who are in fact the sovereigns of this country, is established in London, and the supreme government exists there, and consists of a Board of Com- missioners, and a Couit of Directors of twenty-four mem- bers. The government in India consists of a governor and council in each oresidency. The governor of the presidency of Bengal has the title of Governor- General, and he is, in the name of the East India Company, tht' Supreme Chief of Political and Military Affairs, the othei governors being subordinate to him. The army of the company consists of 20,000 European and 180,00*0 native troops. ^ What territories in India are subject to Britair ? What is the East India Company ? What is the army of the Rust India Company t ENGLISH HISTORY CHAPTER 1. Fifty five years before the birth of Christ, Julius Cifcbui the Roman general, was in Gaul. That country, now called France, is separated from the island of Great Britain by a channel so narrow in one place, between Dover and Calais, that the white cliffs of Dover are dis- cernible from the opposite coast. Cornwall, at the western extremity of the island, is still famous for its tin mines, and this metal was as useful to the ancients as it is to us. The merchants of the Mediterra- nean, from a period not exactly ascertained, had trafficked in tin with the Britons, and the features oi the country were become familiar to the mariners who went thither in the age of Caesar. By their means Britain was made known to the Romans, and when Caesar was in Gaul, he thought it desirable to get possession of that country. With the Romans, without regard to the rights and feelings of those they dispossessed, to desire and to seize was almost the same impulse, and without caring for the sufferings of the inoffensive inha- bitants of the long-neglected island, the Roman general invaded their shores. B C 55 ^ tn a f° rce which he deemed sufficient to conquer the island, Caesar sailed from Gav.1 to the British coast, but it is said that, on approaching Dover, the number and ferocious appearance of the nativen rather daunted the Romans, so that they landed at Deal where the shore is flat, and they could more easily cope What separates Gaul from Britain 1 By what circumstances were the people of Europe made acquainted v*ith Britain 1 Had the Romans just notions of the rights of men ? When and where did Cajsar land in Britain? ENGLISH HISTORY. 9 with the natives, who attempted to prevent theii landing which, however, the Romans effected. The Britons, though slightly clothed, appear to have had at that time some knowledge of the art of defence and the use of metal, for they had war-chariots drawn by horses, and sharp scythes fixed to the axletrees of their wheels, which were very destructive in battle, nor did they fly from the invincible Romans without a struggle against their encroachments. Caesar obtained little by the invasion ol Britain, but from his time it is probable that a Roman gar- rison was stationed there, and that the Latin language was introduced. Perhaps some of the customs and arts of civilized people were" also introduced and tribute may have been paid to the conquerors. It is related by the older historians of Britain that the Romans were at first opposed by a British general named Cassibelan, (sometimes written Cassivelaunus,) and that a nephew of this general, at enmity with Cassibelan, became such a favorite of the Romans that he was sent to Rome to be educated. This youth, named Cymbeline, says the story, was caressed by Augustus, and called the friend of the Roman people. In the early age of Roman conquests, the Romans were exceedingly cruel to their captives, but in later times they altered their policy. They liked to have hereditary princes of partially conquered countries come to their capital, and dwell there, that they might learn their language and laws, and respect their power ; and, when they should return to their own land, they might dispose their subjects to submit to their wiser conquerors. The invasion of the Romans was the first introduction of civilization among the Britons. The southern part of the island, since called Britain, was then Albion ; and its northern portion, the present Scotland, was Caledonia. The southern country was di vided among independent tribes of whom the chief w«»r*i 'he Ieeni, the Trinobantes, and the Silures. What were the means of defence used by the Britons ? What were the first results of Caesar's invasion ? Did the Romans show any favor to the Britons ? Was the Roman policy humanized as its power waa extended V What were the ancient divisions, of Uhtaiu ' 10 ENGLISH HISTORV. . n 4° '^ ne Roman emperors for near!}; a century paid little attention to Britain, but ninety- seven years .after the invasion of Caesar, an army of fifty thousand men was sent thither under the command oi Aldus Plautius. The Britons defended themselves and their country with great bravery ; but their imperfect skill in the art of war could not withstand the Roman power and discipline. The last of the British princes who resisted the Romans was Caractacus. After several battles he was defeated, taken prisoner, and carried to Rome. In Rome, Caracta- cus, with his captive wife and children, were compelled to walk in chains through the streets ; and the emperor and empress, and the inhabitants of that great city generally, being accustomed to such spectacles, were not probably much affected with this, which would so deeply grieve and offend us of the present more humane age of the world. Caractacus did not submit tamely to this indignity, and made such a moving speechto the emperor, that he ordered his fetters to be taken off, and ever afterwards treated him with kindness. The Romans, notwithstanding their vic- tories in Britain, advanced slowly in gaining possession of the island. They had only built a few castles, or forts, and established one military colony, when Suetonius Pau ■ £nus, a great general, resolved to finish the conquest >j ~g>- A To convey a proper notion of the enterprise of Suetonius, it is necessary here to describe briefly the religion of the ancient Britons, fork was connected with their government, and aided resistance to their foreign enemies. According to Goldsmith, " The religion of the Britons was one of the most considerable parts of their government ; and tho Druids, who were the guardians of it, possessed great au- -thority among them. No species of superstition was ever moi e terrible than theirs; besides the severe penalties which they were permitted to inflict in this world, they inculcated What happened in Britain, A. D. 43? Who was the British prince carried captive to Rome ? How was Caractacus finally treated by the Roman emperov ? Who were the Druids, and what were their doctrines ? ENGLISH HISTOKY 11 the doctrine of transmigration of souls, and thus extended their authority as far as the fears of their votaries. •■ They sacrificed human victims, which they burned iv large wicker idols, made so capacious as to contain a mul- titude of persons at once, who were thus consumed together To these rites, tendingto impress ignorance with awe, they added the austerity of their manners, and the simplicity of their lives. They lived in woods, caves, and hollow trees ; acorns and berries constituted their general food, and their usual beverage was water. By these arts they were not only respected, but almost adored by the people." The sacrifices of human victims implies a horrible reli gious faith, but it does not appear to be wholly inconsistent with fine qualities of mind and heart. The sacrifice of Jephtha's daughter, mentioned in the Hebrew scriptures, and that of Iphigenia by the Greeks, were induced by false notions of God. To give him the dearest of our posses- sions, may seem to ignorant men the most acceptable ser- vice, and those who were capable of such acts, often entertained sentiments of true devotion and humanity. The Druids worshipped in the open air ; and there still remain in England, circles of stones laid upon the surface of the ground, which, it is supposed, enclosed their sanctu- aries. The oak was their favourite tree, and the mistletoe a parasitic plant, or one which grows upon trees, was used in their rites, and respected as a symbol of their faith. Some of the English poets regard the character of the Druids as that of simple-hearted and uncorrupted men, fond of contemplating the works of God. Seutonius thought the most effectual way to establish the Roman power in Britain, was to extirpate the Druiis,and therefore attacked their chief seat, the island of Anglesea, and got possession of it, and scattered the Druids and theii attendants, and the bards or sacred poets, who assisted in their worship, and were highly reverenced by the native What were some of the practices of the Druids ? What could induce men to offer human sacrifices ? What was the druidical worship? W:iat was the end of the Druids in Britain? 12 ENGLISH HISTOR\. Britons. Prob.tbly many of the Druids arid Bards wen killed by the Roman soldiers. The Romans boasted that their law " gave license to all faiths," that is they permitted to all conquered people the exercise of their former worship, whatever it was ; and they may be vindicated in extirpating the religion of tin- Druids, contrary as the measure was to their accustomed policy, because it consisted partly of human sacrifices which humanity .abhors, and which no power on earth should tolerate. A D CO ^ ne k°^ spirit yet remained to be sub- dued, and then the last of the Britons yield- ed to the Roman power. Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, held cut against the enemy with a British army of 80,000 men under her command, and was opposed by the inferior force of 10,000 under Suetonius. But in this encounter the military skill of the foreign foe prevailed over the des- perate but undisciplined valor of the natives. Boadicea was overcome with anguish and despair when she saw her countrymen scattered, and murdered, and made prisoners. The Romans showed no respect to the unfortunate princess when she fell into their hands, but cruelly insulted her, and beat her with rods. Overwhelmed with her own misery, and the subjugation of her country, she put an end to her existence. ) Boadicea's heroism has often Tbeen admired, and her misfortunes pitied in succeeding times. That she had not firmness to live, and bear whatever calamity awaited her, was owing to her ignorance of Christianity, which enjoins? perfect submission to every evil however great or unde served. The Romans now easily established themselves aH over Britain, and built towns and castles, and were entire mas- ters of the country. Agricola, one of their generals, was a good, as well as a brave man, and prevailed with the natives to learn useful arts, and encouraged them to live in towns. Did the Romans respect the religion of conquered nations ge~.ei.iMy *nd what in some sort _ustifies their severity to the Druids ? In what battle did Suetonius finally overcome the Britons ? What was the death of Boadicea l What religion enjoins submission to misfortunes ? What was the character of Agricoia 7 ENGLISH HIS70* 13 Did to build comfortable houses, and did all he * ould tt civilize them. Agricola also marched into Scotland. The inhabitants fled into the mountains, thinking that when winter should come he would depart. Instead, however, of going away, he built a line of forts quite across Scotland from the Frith of Forth to the mouth of the Clyde. The Caledonians, when they found themselves thus shut in, came down from the mountains, and ventured a battle, but were defeated , and then, overvvhlemed with despair, many set fire to their dwellings, and killed their wives and children, for fear ol their being made slaves to the victors. During this expe- dition, the Roman ships sailed quite round Britain, and so ascertained it to be an island. For many years afterwards the country was in peace. During this period the Romans occupied themselves in making roads, of which some are still remaining, and in building castles, of which many vestiges are still left, and of which the ruins are so strong and massy, that they promise to outlast most of our modern buildings. In the year 207, the Emperor Severus, though an old and infirm man, came to Britain with the determination to conquer Caledonia. He could not, however, succeed, owing to the nature of the country, and the bravery of the people ; so he contented himself with employing his army to build an immense stone wall quite across from the Tyne to the Solway Frith, many parts of which are still to be seen. He soon after died at York. For seventy years after the death of Severus we are igno rant of the affairs of Britain. At length the emperor Con stantius came from Rome to take up his residence in the island. He did not live long, but died at York, in the year 309. His son, Constantine the Great, succeeded him ; and being in Britain at the time of his father's death, there assumed the rank of emperor. While he lived, the country was at peace. Constantine died in 337. The governors who came from Rome, by appointment Did Agricola subdue Caledonia? What were the public works of the Romans in Dritain f What was the principal work of Severus in Britain ? What happened from the death oFSeverus to A. D. 337 ? 14 ENGLISH HISTCRY. of the emperors to govern Britain, were called legates, aud sometimes vicars ol Britain. It does not appear that any considerable number of Ro- mans domesticated and settled themselves in Britain. The imposition of taxes, and traffic in some of the productions of the country, were the advantages obtained by the con- querors, and they became, in fact, the benefactors of the Britons, by improving their arts, and teaching them theij language, and introducing Christianity among them. The Romans preserved their conquests by the establish- ment of colonies in the conquered countries. The Roman colonies differed from colonies in later times ; because, though the Roman soldiers had lands given them to live on, vet, when they died, they could not leave them to their children ; for the lands were then given to be held by other soldiers. The Roman settlers, therefore, could never feel as if what they had really belonged to them ; which was the reason that, when they finally quitted Britain, the whole body of them went away together, and left none of their people settled in the island. A T) 414 ^ ars m I ta ly made it impossible to main- tain the Roman Colony in Britain, and the legions which had kept the islanders in subjection were re- called 475 years after the first landing of Caesar. The departure of the Romans was an occasion rather of grief than rejoicing to the Britons, for it exposed them to the i icursions of their northern neighbors the Scots and Picts. Those Caledonian nations were never subdued by the Romans, and retained the ferocity of their primitive bar- barism. The improved condition of the southern country, its flocks, and harvests, and the articles of use and com- fort which the houses contained, tempted the savage tribes, whose clothing was tne skin, and whose precarious food was mostly the flesh of the slain beast, and who thought rapine no robbery. In despite of the wall of Severus, which had been built What was the Roman policy in Britain ? What were Roman colonies ? Why were the Romans recalled from Britain ? How bug were they in the Island ? What was the conditior. of the Caledonians at mat f.jm»; / ENGLISH HISTORY 15 ft confine them within their own limits, the Scots and Picts after the departure of the Romans, made frequent and tic- -tractive inroads upon their neighbors, the Britons. Stonehenge. Before we proceed to the ensuingperiod of English his. lory, it may be interesting to describe some of the monu- ments of the Romans, in England. By a monument, we do not mean merely some object which shows that persons have lived, have been remarkable for something, and are dead ; but we also mean some work which they performed while living, which afterwards serves to show what they were capable of, and what were some of their customs. The monuments of the ancient Britons, which may be found at the present time in England, are Barrows, Cairns or Tumuli, Druidical Temples, or circles of stones, monu- mental stones, Cromlechs, and remains of Intrenchments. A Barrow, Cairn, or Tumulus, is a mound of earth, or a hillock of stones raised over the dead. Some of these are of great magnitude,, and to raise them must have required immense labor. Perfect skeletons of British warriors have been found by digging deeply into these tumuli, 01 barrows. Spears, lances, bows and arrows, are generally found with these skeletons, and sometimes pots and pans, The pots and pans probably at first contained food. Pa- What is understood by the phrase " monument of antiquity ?" What monuments of the ancient Britons exist now in England I What monuments of the ancient dead are found still in England? 16 ENGLISH IIISTOKV. gan and uncivilized nations seem to have believed that ti»t articles necessary to the living, were acceptable to the dead, and this custom of supplying such articles to ttu tenants of the tomb may be discovered among the savages of America, as well as those of ancient Europe. The skeletons in the British Tumuli have been found very entire. " Secure beneath his ancient hill The British warrior slumbers still ; There lie in order, still the same, The bones which reared his stately frame , Still at his side, his spear, his bow, As placed two thousand years ago.'* The Cromlech is nothing but a large flat stone placed horizontally upon other stones set upright in the ground. The whole forming a rude table which served, as is sup- posed, for the altar of Druidical worship. As all savages live in a state of warfare, many contrive the defences called fortifications. The defence of a modern house is its locked and barred gates and doors. The de- fence of an ancient city, before the invention of fire-arms, was its walls and towers — the defence of savages against a hostile neighbor, is sometimes an Intrenchment, or high bank of earth, behind which the endangered people conceal themselves, and avoid the arrows of an enemy without. An Intrenchment, called Wansdike in Wilt- shire, is eighty miles in length. The remains of the works above mentioned form what are called British antiquities. Roman antiquities also ex- ist in England. The Roman mode of interment resem- bled that of the Britons. Antiquaries, persons acquaint ed with the customs of ancient times, and the remains oi ancient art, can distinguish between the Roman and Brit- ish — the articles of Roman being of more elegant work- manship than those of British origin. What custom prevails among savages in all countries ? Aie the ancient dead well preserved in the Tumuli? What is a Cromlech? What is an Intrenchment ? .4.1 e Jhere Roman antiquities in Britain? ENGLISH HISTORY. 17 The principal Roman antiquities, besides tumuli, roads\ and intrenchments, are remains of walk, houses, pavements, baths, hypocausts or stoves, urns, altars, statues, stonen with inscriptions, coins, medals, and various small articles of use or ornament. The Roman roads in Britain were constructed by the soldiers with great art and labor, and so durable that they yetremain. Roman Intrenchments may still be seen. They show the spot where once was a Pretorium or Roman Camp. When these camps were permanently fixed to a certain place, they were carefully surrounded by Intrench- ments, and were called Roman Stations. When the Romans took possession of a town, or planted a colony in it, they generally took still greater care of themselves, and surrounded it with walls. These are so extremely hard and thick, that it is even now almost im- possible to destroy them. Their first colony in Britain was Camulodunum, now Colchester, and there is their wall now standing, though not so high as it once was. When it was wished to make a gap in it some years ago, it was necessary to blow it up with gunpowder. The most astonishing wall, built by the Romans in Britain, was that of Severus, which was continued from one side of Scotland to the other. Of their houses, or villas, there are few remains to be seen ; but in digging, and in ploughing, their beautiful floors, called tessellated pavements, are often discovered. They are made of a vast number of very small bricks, of different colours, which are placed in ornamental figures, somewhat like the arrangement of cloth which we call patch-work, or the more elegant ornamental work of Mo- saic. So fond were the Romans of this kind of ornament, that large sacks of these tessera often formed part of the baggage of their armies. The sepulchres of the Romans were vaults, built ibi their dead, distinct from their tumuli. In these are found, sometimes, skeletons ; in others, ashes, contained in urnfi What are the principal Roman antiquities ? What are the military antiquities ? Are there any Roman houses in Britain ? Are there any Roman remains of the dead besides tumuli 18 ENGLISH HISTORV The urns are, most of them, beautifully made of very fine clay, and covered with a lid. Altars, statues, and stones with inscriptions, are very scarce in England ; but enough have been found to show that the Romans had leisure, and considered themselves settled. Of their coins great numbers have been found of brass, copper, lead, silver, and gold. Wherever history tells us there was a Roman station, there are often dis- covered quantities of their money and medals, which were usually stamped with heads, or figures, in remembrance of important public events. Respecting these, it has been said by Mr. x\ddison, that, :i As soon as an emperor had done any thing remarkable, it was immediately stamped upon a coin, and became cur- rent through his dominions. It was a pretty contrivance to spead abroad the virtues of an emperor, and make his actions circulate. A fresh coin was a kind of gazette, that published the latest news of the empire." The ancient Britons, as has been mentioned, were divi- ded into tribes, and were governed by their own chiefs. These petty sovereigns, it appears, thought it expedient in any great emergency, such as invasion, like that of the Romans, or in thePictish ravages of the northern border, to choose one of their number to lead their united armies, and to preside in their councils. This supreme chief was the Pendragon, and his function resembled that of the R 3man Dictator. Arthur, prince of the Silures,the son of Uther, was made Pendragon when the Saxons usurped the sovereignty ot' Britain. Arthur's history, as it has come down to us, is partly true and partly false. In fact, he resisted the Saxons, and often prevailed against them, but Mordred, a powerful Pictish chief, went over to the Saxons, and by his treacher- ous assistance, they defeated Arthur in the battle of Cam- Ian. In another engagement, Mordred killed Prince Vrthur. The more doubtful part of Arthur's history, are certain What small and curious Roman antiquities stjll exist in England 1 What in some sort served for a gazette in the Rorqan empire / What was a British Pendragon ? What is the probable history of Prince Arthur? ENGI1SH HISTORY. 19 wonderful achievements which are related in lege ads and ballads ; among these are many stories of the Knights oi the Round Table, who were friends of Arthur, and were represented to assemble sometimes at festivals held at u Round Table, from which their appellation was taken. After the death of Arthur, the bards sung that Merlin, an enchanter, preserved and re-animated his dead body, and conveyed him to Fairyland. It became the common beliel of the Welsh,that King Arthur would re-appear ,would expel the Saxon conquerors of Britain, and reign again in the land. This fiction is often alluded to in English poetry. CHAPTER 11 During the occupation of Britain by the Romans, the natives lost much of their original hardihood. Their coun- try was improved by cultivation, and their fruitful fields, and more numerous cattle, tempted their predatory neigh- bors, but as they had long found defenders in their Roman masters, they were become incapable of defending their property without the assistance of the Romans. The ravages of the Scots and Picts not only impover- ished but discouraged the Britons ; and, in fear that they should not reap the harvest, they neglected their fields. In consequence of this neglect they suffered famine and disease. In their distress they called upon the Romans to return and protect them. A letter which w T as addressed by them at this time to the governor of Gaul is still exant. It is the following : " To JEtius, thrice Consul. The groans of the Britons The Barbarians drive us to the sea. The sea throws us back on the swords of the Barbarians : so we have nothing left but the wretched choice of being either drowned or butchered." What is the poetic history of Arthur ? What was the popular belief of the Welsh in respect to Prim e Arthur'' What effect had the protection afforded to the Britons by the Romans apon their character ? What wis the condition of the Britcns after the departure of th«t Romans ? 20 ENGLISH HISTORY The Romans were not in a condition to relieve tht Britons, and they next had recourse to a nation at that period becoming powerful in Europe. The Saxons were a people dwelling in the northern part of Germany, and may be called a tribe of the Northmen. These were properly the people of Scandinavia — the inhabitants of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. The dwellers on the south side of the Baltic resembled the Northmen in many particulars The Northmen were never subject to Rome. From lime immemorial they had been free and independent tribes, roaming over their own fields or deserts, without fear of, or subjection to, foreign enemies. They were the first na- tives of Europe who began to explore the open sea for subsistence, and when their vessels had penetrated to the inlets of Gaul, of Spain, and of Britain, the mild climate and cultivated soil of those countries allured their rapacity. A D 448 Vortigern, a British prince, advised his countrymen to entreat aid of the Saxons, who, on their part, gladly promised to assist them against their enemies. In compliance with the request of the Britons, there presently arrived three ships, under the conduct of Hengist and Horsa, two brothers, who landed their troops, and being joined by the Britons, marched against the Scots, who had reached Stamford, where they were met by the Saxons, and were defeated, and driven back. \ A T) 4P0 ^ e Faxons soon saw the value and agree- ableness of the country they had been in- vited to defend, and began to covet the possession of it for themselves. They were, in fact, a nation of pirates, and, without regarding the wickedness and cruelty of such con duct, they sent for more of their countrymen, and fell upon the unfortunate Britons, and defeated them in many bat- tles. In one of these Horsa was killed, and Hengist then took possession of Kent, and made, himself king of it, A.fter this success of the Saxons under Hengist, swarms Who were the Northmen ? What is the History of the Northmen ? Und?r what circumstances did the Saxons first, appear in Britain ? When did the Saxons first attempt hostilities against the Britons'? Who took possession of Britain, and how did they divide then- con '.est ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 21 al' them kept pouring in from time to time, and l>y degrees got possession of almost all South Britain ; and as each of their chiefs took possession of what he conquered, there thus at last arose seven different kingdoms, which are commonly called the Saxon Heptarchy — Kent, contained Kent and part of Sussex. — Sussex, Surrey and part of Sussex. — Wessex, included the coast from Sussex to the Land's End. — East Saxony, or Essex. — East Anglia,Nor folk, Suffolk, and Cambridgeshire. — Mercia, the midland part of the island. — Northumberland, from Mercia tc the borders of Scotland. It was now that Britain began to be called, from one of the Saxon tribes, Angle-land, and from thence England. Of the native Britons but few were left. Numbers had been slaughtered by the perfidious Saxons. Some fled to Gaul, where they settled in the north-western corner of that country, which has since, from them, being called Bre- tagne, or Brittany. The rest took refuge in the western side of the island, from the Land's End to the Frith of Clyde, which is, for the most part, hilly and mountainous. The present inhabitants of Wales, and of a part of Corn- wall, are descended from these ancient Britons. Scotland was then inhabited by the Scots and Picts. So that Britain must, at that time, have contained at least ten different nations or tribes. After the battle of Stamford, there is no account to be met with of the Scots or Picts, till the year 503 when there is some record of a king Fergus, who united the whole of the nothern part of the island into one kingdom, and is the first king of Scotland we hear of. From the year 600 a.fter Christ, to the year 800, there was little but fighting and disputing amongst the seven Saxon kings. During this time one of the kings of Wessex conquered Cornwall ; and then the Britons had nothing remaining to them but Cambria, now called Wales, which they kept possession of till the year 1300, when it was conquered by Edward I. king of England. What became of the native Britons ? What was the condition of Scotland A. D. 503 ? Who r eLreatcd to Wales, and who afterwards conquered Wulco i 22 ENGLISH HISTOKV. The Saxons, being pagans, persecuted the Chilstiuns. and seem at length to have nearly extirpated their religion. The people then became worshippers of the false gods oi the Saxons. When the Romans possessed Britain they doubtless brought the intelligence of Christianity with them, and Christian converts must have been made in Britain, but how much this Christianity prevailed is not now known. The Saxon masters of Britain brought with them the tyranny of ignorance and of physical power ; and Chris- tianity was so little regarded after the time of the Saxon domination, that the popes of Rome considered Britain among the waste places of heathenism, and sent thither one of the first Christian missions upon record. About the year 596 Pope Gregory I. sent St. Augustine, or Austin, with forty monks, to instruct the people of Bri- tain in the Christian religion. England and Wales were divided into different principalities at that time. Ethelred, king of Kent, was among the first proselytes of Augustine, and became an important aid to his purposes. Augustine was a spiritual governor as well as teacher, and he bap- tized converts, and established churches and minister? from Kent to Northumberland ; he also penetrated into Wales, where he found a form of Christianity more simple than the Romish faith. It had been learned in the second century after Christ from the Romans, and was still cher ished. Augustine expected to be acknowledged by all the in habitants of Britain, as head of the English church undei the pope. The Welsh, not comprehending the authority of the pope and Saint Austin, thought fit to reject it, and the saint denounced vengeance upon them. A king ol Northumberland took upon himself the accomplishment oi this prophecy, and without affording them time for defence, slaughtered about twelve hundred of the Welsh Christians Fear, as well as confidence, served to establish the Catholic "What was the state cf Christianity under the Saxons in Britain, axul .ho revived it? W ho was St. Augustine ? Did the Britons universally receive the Catholic d >rtrino8 ? ENGLISH HISTORY legion, and after the sixth century it was acknowledged in Britain, by the kings and the people. The heptarchy was at last put an end to by Egbert, who is commonly considered the first king of all England ; but, in fact, some 01" the kingdoms still remained, though he made them tributary. Towards the end of his reign, the Danes began to make irruptions into England ; and during the reigns of Ethelwolf, the son, and Ethelred, the grand- son, of Egbert, they came so frequently, and in such formi- dable numbers, that they nearly overran the whole king- dom. Ethelred was killed in a battle with them, and left his kingdom, in 871. to his brother Alfred, one of the besl and greatest kings mentioned in history, y 1 CHAPTER III Among the best examples of virtue recorded in history is the character of Alfred, one of the Saxon kings of Eng- land. This prince was born in 849, at a place called Wannating, which is supposed to have been that which at present bears the name of Wantage in Berkshire, England. Alfred had two brothers older than himself, the elder ol whom, according to the law and custom of that time in England, was entitled to become king on the death of his father ; but king Ethelwolf, for that was their father's name, disregarded the right of the eldest son, and deter- mined, when he was no more than four years old, that Alfred should be his successor. As he was not the heir to the crown according to the law, King Ethelwolf did an act of injustice to the brothers of young Alfred when ht$ allotted the crown to that prince. Ethelwolf could not have declared this arbitrary inten- tion, if there had not been another prince in Europe who How did the heptarchy terminate ? What sort of man was the Saxon king Alfred ? Did Alfred come to the crown of England by regular succession 1 Bv whose authority was Alfred made king ? 24 ENGLISH HISTORY. was above the laws of every country, gave king- doms to whom he pleased, and the people of all civilized Europe submitted to his will. This was the Pope. Ethel- wolf obtained the consent of the Pope to his project of setting aside the claim of his eldest son, and in order to engage the Pope's favor more particularly in Alfred's be- half, in 853, sent that prince to Rome, where his Holiness, as the Pope is called, resided. Alfred was anointed king of England by the Pope, and afterwards returned to his kingdom. Anointing is a cere- mony performed upon kings, at the season of introducing them to their great office. Two years after Alfred's first visit to Rome, he accom- panied his father, and went thither a second time. A sen- sible person, who has written the history of Alfred, sup- poses that the public buildings, and other splendid and curious objects which he saw at Rome in this second visit, were ever after remembered by him, and that the remem- brance of them inspired the designs which he afterwards in some measure effected, of improving his native country. When the Saxons conquered Britain, after the Romans had left it, they were too ignorant, ferocious and cruel, to regard the useful and comfortable arts of the Romans. They treated the Britons so ill, and kept them so con- stantly at war with one another, that, except roads and fortifications, they destroyed all which their predecessors had done ; so that when Alfred was young the country was in a ruined state. Alfred's mother died when he was a very little child. On the return of Ethelwolf from Italy, he married Judith daughter of Charles the Bald, then king of France. The Franks were originally a tribe of Germans, more improved and civilized than the other tribes ; they established them- selves in the ancient Gaul, and it received from them the modern name of France. Franks signifies freemen. Some of Ethelwolf 's subjects were offended by his injus rice in preferring the infant Alfred to the proper heir of tnt What is anointing ? Where did Alfred form notions of improving England ? What was the condition of England in Alfred's youth '.' Who was Alfred's step-mother, and who were the Franks ? Did the English people readily accept of Alfred for their king '( ENGLISH HISTORY. 25 throne. While Ethelwolf was absent in Italy, these Jisaf« iccted subjects proposed to make the prince Ethelbald king in his father's place ; but others formed a plan to divide the kingdom between the father and son. Ethelbald did not discourage these projects, and when the king became acquainted with the undutiful conduct of his son, it is said to have afflicted him so much that he died soon after Ethelbald survived his father but three years. Alfred was twelve years of age at the death of his bro- ther Ethelbald : his education had been so neglected that he did not know how to read ; but though unable to read, he loved Saxon poetry, to which he always listened with eager attention when others read or recited it. One day, when queen Judith was sitting in the midst of her family reading a Saxon poem, she observed that the young princes seemed greatly to enjoy it, and she offered to give the book to him who should soonest learn to read it. The older princes did not think the reward equal to the trouble, but Alfred, after examining the book, resolved to make an attempt to possess it. He found a competent in- structor, and applied himself to his work with such dili- gence, that he was soon able to read and recite the poem to the queen. She kept her promise, and Alfred no doubt valued her gift as it deserved. Alfred had no sooner acquired the inestimable ability to read, than he found it — what every rational and cultivated person finds it — a source of unfailing occupation and de- light, and he never again felt the fatigue of indolence. Alfred always continued to delight in the Saxon poetry, and made a collection of pslams and hymns for his own use He kept this book in his bosom. Soon after Queen Judith had disposed Alfred to improve himself she returned to France, and left him to advance in learning as well as he n is able. Alfred's brothers did not act with more justice towards him than theii father had done to themselves ; for they allowed the young prince but a small maintenance out of Was Alfred's education neglected I From wnat beginning did Alfred learn to read ? Did Alfred profit by the art of reading ? What made Alfred regardless of the negieot of his brothera? 26 ENGLISH HISTORY lliti ample property left by Ethel wolf ; however, Alfred was too deeply engaged in study to think with much pain oi any thing, even the unkindness of his brothers. In the course of his studies, Alfred learned that there was other and far more desirable knowledge than any to be found in the scanty Saxon literature : he discovered that the finest books then in the world were those written in the Greek and Latin languages. Before Alfred could read those teautiful and precious books, it was necessary for him to learn Greek and Latin. He earnestly desired to become acquainted with poets, phi- losophers, and historians, whose thoughts were to him locked up in unknown tongues — but his wishes were in vain. To the royal Alfred aids to learning that are now in every school -boy's hands were utterly denied. He not only wanted grammars and dictionaries, but a master ca- pable of teaching him, for not one could be found in the Kingdom. He afterwards lamented, as his greatest mis- fortune, that when he had youth and leisure, and permis- sion to learn, he could not find a teacher. From the time of his learning the art of reading to his nineteenth year, Alfred spent almost all his time at his studies. During this period, two of Alfred's elder brothers died, and Ethelred, the third brother, came to the throne Ethelred was not happy in his government, for large num bars of Danes crossed the North Sea, landed in England and destroyed much of the property, and many of the lives of the English. >l All the soldiers that Ethelred could command were not powerful enough to defeat these cruel enemies. In his dis- tress Ethelred called upon his brother Alfred to assist him Alfred was mild and peaceable like his father, but he was grieved for the sufferings of the poor English. He resolved if he could, to punish the Danes, and he fought many bat- tles with his brother. About this period he married Elswitha, the daughter of a British nobleman. Ethelred was wounded in battle, and died soon after, in the year 871 Was learning easily obtained in England in the age of Alfred ? When did the Danes invade England? When was Alfred called to defend England? ENGLISH HISTORY. 27 At the age of twenty-two Alfred became Ring. In tht first seven years of his reign he does not appear so great a man as he afterwards became. In a month after he suc- ceeded to the throne, the Danes attacked and defeated Alfred's troops, and he did not attempt to punish them : and twice afterwards he gave them money to quit the country, which they promised to do. The Danes afterwards called over great numbers ol their countrymen. They destroyed so much property, killed so many people, and so terrified others, that some of the English fled to France, and concealed themselves in secret places. The king, who had lost the confidence of Ins subjects, because he had not endeavored to prevent these misfortunes, was then forced to wander about alone in disguise ; so that at one time neither his friends or ene- mies could find him. Wise and good as Alfred really was his habits of study had not instructed him in the character of the Danes, nor in the duty he owed his subjects, who, before the Danes had committed their most violent acts, entreated him to protect them ; but he did not believe the danger to be so great as it was in fact. Alfred was twenty-eight years of age at the time when he was obliged to conceal himself, and to give up his king- dom to the Danes. An excellent trait in his character now appears — a resolution to reform his faults, to endea- vor to conquer the enemies of his country, and to do all in his power for the benefit of his subjects. Alfred escaped from court in the disguise of a soldier, and he was at first attended by a number of faithful follow- ers, but the company was too small to defend themselves, and large enough to excite the suspicions of the enemy. Alfred thought it prudent to seek his own safety alone ; and he wandered about in the woods and lonely places till ho reached a solitary spot in Somersetshire, where he found a secure retreat. When did Alfred begin to reign, and how did he govern ? Did the Danes persevere in invading England? Did Alfred repel the Danes vigorously ? Did Alfred reform his own errors ? Where d:d Alfred conceal Umself from his rnenriou? 28 ENGLISH HISTOUV. In this journey Alfred once entered the collate of it swine-herd, who, perceiving that he wished to hide him self, inquired who he was. Alfred dared not tell the man who he really was, lest he should inform the Danes ; there- tore he was obliged to deceive him by saying, that he was an attendant on king Alfred, who had lied from battle, and who wanted to be concealed. Alfred was doubtless unwilling to do this, for among his virtues a constant regard for truth distinguished him — so much was he celebrated for this excellent habit, that an historian who lived two cen- turies after him, called him " Alfred the truth teller." The good peasant feeling compassion for him, and little suspecting who if, was he was protecting, gave him shelter, and made him welcome to his own comforts, and Alfred in his turn endeavored to make himself useful to his bene- factor. One day, when the swine-herd was abroad with his charge, his wife put her cakes on the hearth to bake, and desired Alfred, who sat by the fire, trimming his bow and arrows, to take care of the cakes while she attended to her other business. But Alfred was just then thinking too much of his own affairs to watch the bread, and when his hostess returned, she found it so burnt that it could not be eaten. She was very angry with the soldier, and scolded him heartily, tell- ing him, that though he was very willing to eat her bread, he would not even turn it from the fire to prevent its being spoiled. This was very provoking tc Alfred, but he had the good sense to make no reply, and immediately offered to do better, if the angry woman would give him some more cakes, which she accordingly did, and he baked them to please her. Soon after his residence at the swine-herd's, Alfred dis- covered another asylum from his enemies. It was a few acres of firm ground near the confluence of two small rivers, the Thone and the Parret. This little island contained a wood, and abounded in stags and goats, and there was no approach to it but in small vessels. In the month of March, Who received Alfred m his disguise? How did Alfred employ himself in the swine-herd'3 cottage T What exercised the king's patience ? Where was Alfred's next asylum? ENGLISH 1IIST0RV. 29 Alfred heard of ilie death of Hubba, one of the most pow- erful and dreaded of the Danish chiefs. At the same time he found means to collect about him some of his faithful subjects, to whom he proposed to accompany him to the island, which he intended to fortify, and afterwards to reside in with his family. This place is now called Athelney. By the aid of his followers, Alfred completed this plan, and was soon joined by many of his dispersed friends When the number of this little band was sufficient, they began to make excursions against the Danes, and although they were not always successful, they were enough so to alarm the enemy. Alfred and his followers were furnished with provisions during their stay at the island, by the spoils taken from the Danes, and by hunting and fishing; but the stock thus obtained was not always abundant. After Alfred had meditated for some time an attempt to attack the Danes, he ventured in the disguise of a harper, to approach the tent of Guthrum, a Danish chief; he contrived to enter and to divert the Danes for several days with music and poetry. There he had an opportunity of learning that the Danes were not acquainted with the power of the Eng- lish, and that they were unprepared for battle with them. The carelessness of his enemies enabled Alfred to give information of his place of concealment, and of his plans, to many of his brave and afflicted subjects, who had for a long time been ignorant of their master's safety. They heard the news with gladness, readily flocked to Alfred, and joined him in his march against the Danes. This enterprise was conducted with so much discretion and expedition, thai Alfred surprised the Danes, who, in their surprise and terror, made some opposition, but after- wards fled before the king. Alfred, however, pursued, and surrounded his enemies ; they were thus deprived of provisions, and after fourteen days of fatigue and hunger, they implored the mercy of the conqueror. Some lives were lost in Alfred's attack upon the Danes Did Alfred's friends come to his aiJ? Did Alfred visit the Danish camp ? Did Alfred take advantage of the carelessness of the Danes ? Did the Danes finally submit to Alfred? How did Alfred treat the Danes ? <)0 ENGLISH HISTORV but when the army acknowledged themselves conquered Alfred formed a benevolent design to make them good and happy. He offered to become their protector and friend if they would become Christians, and would pro- mise to assist him against any other Danes who should attack his subjects, and he promised them a portion oi land to cultivate and live upon. Guthrum accepted Alfred's proposal, and he and his fol- loAvers were baptized. Guthrum remained with Alfred twelve days as a guest, and then, after receiving presents from the king, departed for the place allotted to him. Here he and his soldiers became peaceable and useful citizens : exchanging their swords for plough-shares, and leaving the business of destruction, they learned to promote their own and other's prosperity and happiness. V Alfred did not claim all England as his kingdom. Some parts of the country were governed by other princes, and the generous Alfred conferred a portion of the island which fell into his hands by the conquest of the Danes, on a prince named Ethelred, who married his daughter Ethelfleda. Athelstan, the grandson of Alfred, was the first Saxon monarch of all England. After Alfred had obtained peace, he employed himself in all the useful works in his power. He rebuilt towns and castles which had been destroyed, erected forts, and stationed a number of armed ships along the coast of Eng land, to prevent the landing of enemies from the neighbor- ing continent of Europe. These ships were the begin- ning of the British navy. Alfred had great need of armed ships, for the Danes, after the defeat of Guthrum, still persevered in their attempts upon England. Hastings, a daring and expe- rienced Danish chief, presumed that his countrymen in England would take part with him, if he should attack that country after the death of Guthrum, who always con- tinued faithful to his engagement with Alfred. Hastings sent 250 ships tc one place, and 80 to another Did the Danes become quiet sub vets of Alfred T Did Alfred govern all England ? Did Alfred improve his kingdom ? Who was Hastings ? What became of Hastings T ENGLISH HISTORY. 31 twenty railoa distant from the former, and he landed troops ill both without difficulty; and thus commence! a new war which tried the skill and patience of Alfred for thret; years. Hastings, at length, worn out by unfortunate at- tempts, retreated with all his army from England, and left the nation at peace. Alfred reigned prosperously fifteen years, from the first defeat to the last invasion of the Danes, and after their last expulsion he lived four years. On the 28th of Octo- ber, this excellent prince died, in the fifty-third year of his age, and the thirtieth of his reign. Alfred was so much pleased with Ids own acquirements that he wished all his people, who could, to possess the same knowledge. On this account he was anxious that the books written in Latin, which contained what it is desirable that all men should know, should be translated into English, "that all the youth in England, who are free, and those that have wealth, may be committed to learning, that they may apply to no other duty till they first learn to read English writing. Let them further learn the Latin language who will advance to a higher state." To promote this benevolent design he established schools in all parts of his kingdom, to which all freemen, possess- ing two acres of land, were enjoined bylaw to send their children. He gave places in the church, or under the government, to those only who had made some progress in learning. Engaged as he was in frequent wars, and in affairs of government, he gained more knowledge, and composed more books, than most men who have devoted their lives to study. Alfred was happy in being surrounded by intelligent and amiable children. Two sons and three daughters survived him. His son Edward succeeded him as king, and his daughter Ethelfleda was accounted the wisest woman in England. Alfred's last instructions to his son and suc- cessor, deserve to be remembered, and with them will be concluded this brief history of one of the best and wisest 'nen that ever lived. When did Alfred die ? Did Alfred honor learning ? How did Alfred promote learning ? Was Alfred happy in his domestic relutioua 32 ENGLISH HISTORY. " My dear sen, sit tliou now beside me, and I will deli ver thee true instruction. My son, 1 feel that my hour is coming. My days are almost done. We must now part I shall go to another world, and thou wilt be left in all my wealth. I pray thee, (for thou art my dear child,) strive to be a father and a lord to thypeople. Be thou the chil- dren's father and the widow's friend. Comfort thou the poor, and shelter the weak ; and with all thy might, righl that which is wrong. And, son, govern thyself, by law, then shall the Lord love thee, and God, above all things, be thy reward. Call thou upon him to counsel thee in thy need, and so shall he help thee the better to compas* what thou wouldst have." -V The state of society under the Saxons appears to have been extremely rude till the age of Alfred, who enlarged his views of the true happiness and glory of mankind by observation of the better condition of men at that time in France and Italy. The inhabitants of monasteries were the only persons who thought much of cultivating their minds, and many of them were unable to read and write, others, however, were better informed. The more intelligent of the monks recorded the history of the times, and from their histories, we obtain the facts which are related in modern history. Among the older British historians, was one called the venerable Bede, who is honored for his fidelity of description. Coined money was not in use among the English at that time. Things were bought and sold in the way of barter or exchange ; arid rents, till long afterwards, were paid in corn and cattle, instead of money. The Romans made use of money as we do ; and though it is so long since they left the island, people to this day find their coins, and the more frequently because they had a custom of burying money with the dead. What advice did Alfred give his son ? What was the state of society in England under the Savons ? Who wrote nistory in England ? What money was used by trfe Saxons and Romans ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 33 The houses of Alfred's time were very different from those of our age ; his palace was probably inferior to our common habitations. Most houses were in his time made of wood. There is an account of the chief palace of the king of Wales called the White Palace, which was made of peeled rods woven together. Houses were then never built of stone, which was only used in constructing castles and strong places for defence. Even the churches were commonly of wood. William of Malmesbury, an historian of the twelfth century, says, that the first Christian church in Britain, was made with wattles, which are stakes inter- laced, or interwoven with osiers. We are told that the first stone church was built at Lincoln, and that it wat thought a great curiosity. The first glass that was ever seen in England was at Hexham Abbey, in Northumberland, and was made by some workmen who came from France, and taught the English how to make it : but it was a long time before it became general. At first it was only used for the windows of churches. The windows of their houses were covered with cloth to keep out the wind, or else with lattice-work. Clocks were unknown, as is proved by a contrivance of the wise Alfred. One-third of his time he devoted to religious exercises and to study ; another third to sleep and necessary refreshment, and the other to the affairs of his kingdom. Thus every thing was attended to ; and he was so much afraid of losing a moment, that as .here were no clocks or watches, he contrived a sort of candle, by the burning of which he could measure time. These candles were painted in rings or belts of differeni breadths and colors, so many colors as he had things to attend to ; and thus he knew by the burning of these candles, when he had been employed long enough upon any one occupation. The Saxon nobles were not much better informed th^n the inferior orders, — they could neither write nor read Much of their time hung heavily upon their hands, namely What was the early architecture of England} When was glass first used in England J^^ Were clocks known in Alfred's timejj/ How did the Saxon nobles sometimes divert themselves t 34 ENGLISH HISTORY. the time when they were neither hunting ncr lighting ; and they were not fighting every day in the year, nor hunting every hour of the day. And in rainy weather and winter evenings when they had played with their dogs, and sharp- ened their arrows, and brightened their spears, (for to have bright arms was an essential part of a Saxon gentleman's appearance, )they often did not know what to do with them- selves. A man who could sing a song, or play on the harp, or tell an entertaining story, was consequently much courted and valued ; and this occasioned some persons to make it their business to learn all these accomplishments. These persons, whom the Saxons called glee-men, but usually known now under the name o£ minstrels, used to rove about the country from house to house, and from cas- tle to castle, singing their songs, and telling their stories, which were commonly in verse : and every body made them welcome, and was glad to see them. And even when the country was in a state of warfare, and other people could not travel without danger, they went every where without molestation, for nobody would hurt or molest the poor minstrelj who was always so acceptable and amusing a guest. The Danes were acquainted with the game of chess. Backgammon was also played in England, having been invented, it is said, by the Welsh, and called by them, from two words in their language, back cammon, or little battle. 1 What was the condition of the Saxcn minstrels ? "What were favorite games of the Fanes, Englisr, and Welsh, in the fmn of the Saxons, — and when naj that time? (Latter answ-r fit»io the pupils' judgment.) KNGLISH HISTORY CHAPTER IV SAXON KINGS AFTER ALFRED [Years after Christ, 901-9591 *J5 Alfred was succeeded by his son Edward, who had a turbulent reign of twenty-four years, the early part of which was disturbed by the attempts of his cousin Ethelwald to wrest the kingdom from him. This cousin Ethelwald was the son of Alfred's elder brother ; but, being an infant at the time of his father's death, the nobles passed him by, and made Alfred king. The nephew, now that his uncle was dead, naturally put in his claim to the crown. After much fighting ; and the loss of many of his adherents, he was killed, and then Edward's right remained undisputed. A "D 0.25 Edward was a man of great abilities, but more warlike than peaceable in his dispo- sit : on. He had also a sister named Ethelfleda, who assist- ed him in many of his enterprises. Athelstan, his eldest son, succeeded Edward. His reign' like that of his father, was a continual conflict with the Danes. One of their generals, a prince called Anlaff, dis- guised himself like a minstrel,, and went into ALhclstanV, Who was Alfred's successor? What was the history of Edward the Elder ? Who succeeoed Edward the Elder? What Danish prince entered Athe.stan's camp * 30 ENC.LISH HISTORV. camp. The king was much pleased with his music, and, dunking he was a poor boy, gave him a piece of money. Anlaff was „oo proud to keep it, and when he got out oi the king's tent, and thought nobody was in sight, he buried it in the ground. It happened that a soldier saw him, and thinking this very strange, examined the pretended min- strel's face, and knew Mm to be prince AnlafF, but did not prevent his departure. When the Danish prince had got some distance from the camp, the soldier informed Athelstan of the discover}'' he had made. The king reproved him for letting such a dangerous enemy escape. " I once served Anl iff," replied the man, " and gave him the same faith that I have now given to you ; and if I had betrayed him, what trust could you have reposed in my truth 1 Let him die, if such be his fate ; but not through my treachery. Yet now ho has escaped, secure yourself from danger, and remove your tent, lest he should assail you unawares." Athelstan was pleased with the honest soldier's answer, and took his advice, and it was well he did ; for an Eng- lish bishop, who came the next day, and pitched his tent in the same spot where the king's had stood, was in the night attacked by the Danes ; and both he and all his servants w r ere killed. The noise of this attack waked the Saxons, and the bat- tle became general between them and the Danes. It lasted all that night and all the following day, and is distinguished in Saxon history by the name of the long battle. It ended in Athelstan's gaining a complete victory, which secured to him the entire possession of the kingdom. But he did not enjoy it long ; for he died three years afterwards, in 941. Athelstan was succeeded by his brother Edmund, who was at first molested by the persevering Danes. They however, were soon subdued, and Edmund displayed so much bravery and wisdom, that there was every hope his reign would be a happy one ; when a sudden end waspuf What trait of honor was exhibited by one of Athelstan's soldiers t Was Athelstan's life saved by the faithful soldier ? What battle is called the long battle, and wher did Athelstan die? Wns the rei^n cf Edmund the Saxon long I ENGLISH HISfOH*. 3*7 to it. Ho was sitting at a feast with all his nobles about him, when a daring robber, named Leolf, came into the hall. The attendants tried in vain to turn him out ; and the king, getting very angry, rose from his seat, and seizing him by the hair, threw him down. The robbe? upon this drew his dagger, and stabbed the king to the heart ; and thus this hopeful young prince died, when he was only twenty-four years old, in the year 948. Edmund left two little sons, named Edwy and Edgar out they were so young, that Edred, his brother, was chosen king. The Northumberland Danes revolted in the beginning of the new reign ; but Edred soon subdued them ; and, no longer allowing them to have a prince ot their own, he appointed one of his own nobles to be their governor ; by which means he prevented them from any more disturbing the peace of the kingdom. This king would have led on the whole a quiet life, if he had not suffered himself to be governed by an ambi- tious priest, called St. Dunstan. It is now necessary to give some account of the state of the church at this period. There were then at the head of the English bishops, as there now are, two arch-bishops, those of York and Can- terbury. Of the body of the clergy, a large portion were monks, who took on themselves some particular vow of living by a certain system or rule. Their ordinary practice was to live in monasteries, under the government of some superior : and they are often called the regular clergy. Another portion of the clergy were seculars, who did not take on themselves any monkish vows, but professed to be priests, and prayed with the people, and performed other priestly offices. The way of life of the secular clergy has, in later periods, been altogether different from that of the monks or regulars. At first, however, both these classes lived chiefly in monasteries, in which they preached regularly, and established schools. The monasteries, having no soldiers in them, and brine Who succeeded Edmund, and how did he manage the Danes ? What was the state of the church in the tenth century in England] What were secular clergy ? Were the clergy particularly exposed to '.he ravages of any foreign arbamns wi o might enter their country ? 38 SNGLISH HISTORY. quite defenceless, were in general the first objects attacked by the Danes, who, after killing or driving out the inhabi- tants, carried off all the plunder they could find, and com- monly destroyed the monastery. Of those who escaped, many took refuge in the neighbouring villages ; and this occasioned a great increase of parish churches, almost all the churches till now having been either cathedrals^ or annexed to religious houses. 1 After a time many of the new parish priests became attached to the homes which they thus acquired, and married, and, in short, lived among their parishioners as clergymen do now. When Alfred rebuilt the monasteries, and wanted their former inhabitants to go back to them, many refused. to return, and he was, therefore, obliged to invite monks from other countries to come and live in his monasteries. Perpetual quarrels and jealousies ensued ; and the two parties did all they could to injure one another. Perhaps the unmarried clergy reproved the others because they were married. Celibacy of the clergy, or a single life is required by Catholics. St. Dunstan was an English monk, of good interest and connections. He had been at first abbot of Glastonbury ; and at last came to be Archbishop of Canterbury. He was a proud, meddling man, and very violent against the secular clergy, and persuaded king Edred, over whom he had great influence, to treat them in a very harsh manner. Edred, in the latter part of his life, which ended in 955, became indolent and helpless from bad health, and let St. Dunstan do whatever he pleased. Edwy, the eldest son of king Edmund, and nephew to Edred, then succeeded to the throne. He was only eighteen years old, and was naturally well-disposed; but the cruelty and hard-heartedness of this St. Dunstan de- stroyed not only the happiness of his life, but also his life, as shall be related. Edwy had a beautiful cousin, Elgiva, whom he loved very What is meant by celibacy of the clergy ? Who was St. Dunstan? Whose son wa s Edwy ? W T hat example of ecclesiastical abuse of power is afforded by the his tojy of Edwy ? Ex\GLISH HISTORF. 39 dearly, and whom he married. St. Dui.stan, and Odo, at that time archbishop of Canterbury, declared it to be sin- ful for a man to marry his cousin, and did all they could to disturb their mutual happiness. On this the king sent St Dunstan out of the kingdom ; but Odo contrived to seize on the poor queen, cruelly burned her face with hot irons, in order to destroy her beauty, and then had her carried away into Ireland, where she was kept a prisoner. Odo then instigated Edgar, who was stij a boy, to raise a rebellion against his brother. St. Dunstan also returned from his banishment, and joined in Edgar's rebellion. To complete Edwy's afflictions, Elgiva, having made her escape from Ireland, got as far as Gloucester in her way back to him ; but she was there discovered by her savage persecutors, who put her to death. Edwy, not able to support such an accumulation of misfortunes, died, of a broken heart, in 959. Edgar, the next king, was only sixteen years old when he succeeded his unfortunate brother Edwy. We are told thatjustice was so well and wisely administered in his time, that travelers had no longer any fear of robbers. It appears that he attended diligently to the maritime affairs of his kingdom ; and he had so large a fleet, that the Danes never ventured to molest him. A n 075 After having reigned seventeen years, Edgar died in 975. His reign was so free from wars and tumults, that he obtained the title of Edgar the Peaceable. He left two sons, Edward, the son of his first wife ; and Ethelred, whose mother, Elfrida, was still living. Elfrida was ambitious that her son should be king instead of his half-brother ; but the influence of St. Dunstan placed the crown on the head of Edward. This young man behaved kindly and gently to every body, and respectfully to his ambitious step-mother ; but this did not prevent her from contriving his death. Onr» day, when he was hunting near Corfe Castle, in Dorset ehire, where Elfrida lived, he rode to the Castle, unat- tended by any of his servants, and unsuspicious of any ill, What was one consequence of the cruelties of Odu and St Dunstan? Who succeeded Edwy ? When did Edgar die, and whc succeeded hira? Who killed k : ng Edward? 40 ENGLISH HISTORY to make the queen a visit. Elfrida received him Willi much pretended kindness ; and as he declined dismount- ing from his horse, she presented him with a cup of wine. While he was drinking it, she caused him to be stabbed in the back. — Edward, finding himself wounded, put spurs to his horse, and galloped off; but becoming weak from loss of blood, he fell from his horse, and was drag- ged in the stirrup till he died. \ Ethelred then succeeded to the throne ; but though his wicked mother had now obtained her utmost wish, she found it impossible to be happy. She founded monaste- ries, and performed penances, according to the supersti- tious notions of those times : but could never regain her peace of mind. Edward, whom she had murdered, was, *>n account of his tragical death, called Edward the Martyr. In those superstitious times, when any one had commit- ted a crime, instead of making amends for it in a proper way, by sincere repentance, and by repairing to the utmost the harm he had done, the monks used to persuade him to do penance, or inflict voluntary punishment upon himself. To do penance, was often to go barefoot, or to sleep on a hard board instead of a bed, or to do something else which should vex the body ; but which would not make the heart. or temper, from which the fault arose, at all the better. It was then common for priests to exhort rich sin ners to leave their money at their deaths to build churches and monasteries. Indigencies were privileges that were to be bought, allowing people to dc things which were forbid- den ; but which still they had a mind to do. For instance, it was against the rules of the church to eat butter during Lent ; but by paying a priest for liberty to eat butter, any person was permitted to eat it in Lent. Ethelred had the name of Ethelred the Unready : for when the Danes made an attack uponhis kingdom, instead of being prepared to drive them off, he bribed them with a large sum of money to go away. This, at that time, they How did the murdress of Edward console herself for her crime ? What amends for crimes did the Catholic Church sometimes enjoir:' What is Penance ? What are Indulgences in the Catholic Church ? liv what foolish policy did Ethelred keep off the Danes from Emda/.d ENGLISH HISTORY. 41 did , but it was only to return again the next year, in hopes of being again bribed. Ethelred, however, was now ready for them, and would have blocked up and destroyed theit fleet, had not Ealfric, one of his own commanders, desert ed to them, after having first given them notice of the in- tended attack. By this means they escaped with only the loss of one ship. A T) QQl ^ e countr y was a g am invaded. Sweyn, king of Denmark, and Olave, king ot Norway, commanded this expedition. They sailed up the Humber, landedin Lincolnshire, and remained nearly two years, overrunning and pillaging different parts of the country. At last Ethelred, by giving them a very large sum of money, prevailed on them to depart. But the kingdom had only one year's rest from these insatiable marauders. They again returned, and were again bribed to leave the country. Some years before, a body of Northmen, under the com- mand of a leader named Rollo,had made an incursion into France, and obtained possession of a fertile district, which has since been called Normandy. Richard II., duke of Normandy, a descendant of Rollo, was a very powerful prince ; and the improvident Ethelred, who had entirely exhausted the resources of his own kingdom by repeated bribes to the Danes, thought that the making a friend of this duke, would be his best protection against them in case they should return again. To cement this friendship, he prevailed on the duke to give him in marriage his daugh- ter Emma, who was accounted the most beautiful princess in Europe. This marriage might, through the duke of Normandy's influence with the Danes, have been some security to the English, but for an act of barbarity, not less unwise than wicked, of which they were guilty. In revenge for the repeated sufferings which the foreign Danes had brought upon them, they made, in the year 1002, a general massa- What occurred A. D. 993 ? What northern adventurer first established himself in France, and thy did the king of England seek, his friendship ? What tloody act of the English brought upon jhem the Fengeipot? * Svvevn ? i.54 ENGLISH HISTORi ere of the Danes settled in England. Amongst otltt m was killed a sister of the king of Norway, with her hus- band and children. When the news of this cruel mur- der reached Sweyn, he vowed to make a bloody retalia- tion ; and, accordingly, in the year 1 003, he brought a large army to England, where he established himself suc- cessfully. In the course of ten years, Sweyn got entire possession of the kingdom ; and Ethelred and his queen Emma, with their two young sons, fled into Normandy. But Sweyn, before he could be crowned, died at Gainsborough. As soon as Ethelred heard of his death, he came back into England, and conducted himself with such unexpected activity and courage, that he compelled the Danes, with their young king Canute, to return home. If Ethelred had been wise and prudent, he might now have reinstated himself in his kingdom: but he suffered himself to be governed and misguided by one of his traitor- ous nobles, and caused some of his more faithful adherents to be put to death unjustly. Canute now returned ; and Edmund, the eldest son of Ethelred, a brave and active youngprince, struggled hard to preserve his father's king- dom, amidst the many and great difficulties occasioned by the cruelties of the Danes, the weakness of his father, and the wickedness of the nobles. A n loir This prince, on the death of his father, became king ; and, from his hardihood and invincible valor, was called Edmund Ironsides. He fought no less than five pitched battles with the Danes. Canute and he then came to an agreement to divide the kingdom between them, and to live in peace. It was settled that Canute should have Mercia and Northumber- land, and that Edmund should keep all the rest of the king- dom. But, a few days after this agreement had been made between them, Edmund was murdered at Oxford by cme of his own nobles, and thus Canute became solo king of England in the year 1Q17. Why was not Sweyn crowned king of England ? What was the conduct of Ethelred, and his son Edmund ' How did Oiute become king of England ? ENGLISH HIST CRY 43 CHAPTER V. FIlflM CANUTE TO THE NORMAN CONQUEST. (Tears after Christ., 1017— 1006.] The English showed, at first, some repugnance to accept tor their king a foreigner and an enemy, in exclusion oi the sons of Edmund Ironsides. But Canute, who was a wise and powerful prince, reconciled all their differences, and peaceably ascended the throne. His first care was to endeavor to bring about a reconciliation between his English and Danish subjects ; in which difficult under- taking, it is said, he succeeded : and although he had profited by the wicked arts of those Saxons who had be- trayed their country to him, he nevertheless inflicted on f.hem the just punishment of their treachery, putting some :>f them to death, and banishing others. Canute's conduct towards the family of his predecessor. What was .he general character of Canute'* government? 44 ENGLISH HISTORY is the great stain on his character. He not only caused the. brother of Edmund to be murdered, but also sent away Edmund's two little sons to the king of Sweden, meaning it is supposed, that ne should put them to death. But the king of Sweden took compassion on them, and sent them to Solomon, king of Hungary, desiring him to take good cafe of them. Edwin, the elder, died young ; but the younger, who was called Edward, lived to grow up, and married Agatha, sister to the queen of Hungary. Canute, when he was thoroughly settled in England, being desirous to show his new subjects what confidence ht- had in them, sent almost all his Danish fleet and army back again to Denmark, keeping only forty ships. He next offered himself in marriage to Emma, the widowed queen of Ethelred, and she married him, although he had been her children's greatest enemy. It was, however, a very fortunate marriage for Canute, as it prevented the duke of Normandy from attempting to place on the throne of Eng- land his nephews, Alfred and Edward, the two sons of Emma and Ethelred. The conduct of Canute was so wise and prudent, that he nas been called by historians Canute the Great. In a voy- age to Denmark, to repel the Swedes, who were making an attack upon that country, he took with him some English under the command of earl Godwin ; and they attacked the Swedish army with so much bravery, that Canute was greatly pleased with their conduct ; and Godwin became one of his greatest favorites. Canute staid in Denmark about a year ; and when he returned to England he found the country in tranquility in which it continued for some years. During this time Canute employed himself in making new laws and regu- lations, and in building churches and monasteries. A T) in^ Excepting a dispute with the king <;{ * Scotland about the tribute called Dane gelt, which he demanded for a part of Cumberland that had at some former time been given up to the Scots, Canute preserved England in peace during the whole of his reipn How did Canute treat the sons of Edmund Ironsides ? Did Canute reign securely in England, and whom did he marry? Did Canute govern wisely ? Wy« England tranquil during Canute's life? ENGLISH HISTORY 45 a term of eighteen years. He died at Shaftsbury , and left three sons, Sweyn, Harold, and Hardicanute. The succession had been settled on Hardicanute, who was queen Emma's son ; but, he being in Denmark when his father died, Harold seized on the crown, and took possession of the late king's treasures. Earl Godwin and the greater part of the English, declared for Hardicanute ; and the country seemed on the verge of a civil war, when it was prevented by an arrangement entered into for di- viding the kingdom between the two brothers. Harold was to keep London, and the counties north of the Thames. All to the south of that river was to be Har- dicanute's ; and his mother, queen Emma, was to live at Winchester, and govern the country for him, till his return from Denmark. Emma then sent for her two sons, Alfred and Edward, whom she had had byEthelred, to come to England from Normandy, where they were living under their uncle's care. A D 1 03Q Alfred, on hi s arrival, fell into the hands of earl Godwin, who had been secretly gained to Harold's interest, and was carried to Ely, where he was either actually murdered, or died in consequence of the cruel treatment he suffered. As soon as Emma heard of his fate, she fled into Flanders, and Harold took posses- sion of the whole kingdom. He did not, however, long enjoy the fruits of his cruelty and ambition, for he died in 1039. He was remarkable for his swiftness in walking and running, which obtained for him the name of Harold Harefoof. A D 1 041 ^ s soon as Hardicanute, who had joined his mother in Flanders, heard of the death of Harold, he came to England, and was received by the people with the greatest joy. But their joy was of short duration, for the young king soon showed himself to be of a very ferocious and vindictive temper. Hardicanute le- vied heavy taxes on his English subjects, to pay his Danish fleet and army. His reign, however, did not last long ; for he died in 1041, having shortened his life by his ex cessive intemperance in eating and drinking. L When did Canute die? What prevented a civil war in England at that time ' When did Harold Hare foot die ? When did Hardinan'i f e die? 4(5 ENGLISH HISTORY. The violences of Harold and Hardicanute had so much disgusted the English with their Danish sovereigns, thai they now resolved to restore the line of their own Saxon princes, and they looked d>out amongst the descendants ol Ethelred for a successor to the vacant throne. They in- vited Edward, afterwards called the Confessor, the son oi Ethelred and Emma, to ascend the throne. Edwaid, being of a timorous and unambitious temper, did not de- sire to be king, and would have declined the oiler, had not earl Godwin, who was now become the most powerful person in the kingdom, prevailed on him to suffer himseli to be crowned. This restoration of the Saxon line caused great joy throughout the kingdom, and was long celebrated by an annual festival called Hokeday. Edward married Edgitha, daughter of earl Godwin, and began his reign by seizing on the treasures of queen Emma, who, he pretended, had treated him very unkindly during his adversity. He also revoked many grants the late king had made to the Danes ; and took oif the tax called Dane gelt, a tax which was particularly odious to the English, and which had been first levied by Ethelred, to obtain money to bribe the Danes to leave the country. This arbitrary seizure of property shows how little kings theii understood the rights of subjects, andhow imperfectly sub- jects understood their own rights when they submitted to it. Edward having been brought up amongst the Normans, had many friends and favorites of that nation, who came nocking over to him, and were loaded by him with favors and benefits. This gave gteat offence to the English no- des, particularly to earl Godwin, who considered himself as having a right to govern and direct the king, and who was indignant at the influence the Normans had over him. These jealouses became at length so violent, that the king banished earl Godwin, and gave his possessions to Norman favorites. Even the queen because she was the earl's daughter, was very harshly treated, and was obliged to go into a nunnery. After a time, Godwin and his sens returned with a greal What induced the British nation to restore the Saxon line of kingy 7 What were the principal measures of Edward's reign? VV hat first brought the Normans to England'/ ENGLISH HISTORY. 47 fleet, and boldly sailed up the Thames, towards London. The king was then persuaded by the rest of the English nobles to restore Godwin to his possessions, and to banish the Normans, who all left the country as secretly as they could, for fear of being torn to pieces by the populace. Soon after this, earl Godwin died suddenly, as he wae sitting at table with the king. Godwin had married o daughter of Canute the Great ; and Harold, his eldest son, who was quite as ambitious as his father, had set his heart on succeeding Edward, who had no children, in the throne of England. But the king, who was aware of his ambitious designs, and desirous of deafeating them, sent into Hungary, for the long-forgotten prince, Edward the Exile, son of Edmund Ironsides. The prince readily obeyed the summons ; but died a few months after his arrival, leaving a son named Edgar Atheling. The death of Edward the Exile strengthened Harold yet more in his hopes ; and on the death of Edward the Confessor, which took place in 1066, he was crowned king. He did not, however, find the throne a peaceable possession ; for William, duke of Normandy, immediately asserted his own claim to it, under pretence that Edward the Confessor had left him the kingdom in his will. Wil- liam, in aid of his own preparations, excited Halfager, king of Norway, and Tosti, the brother of Harold, to make a. descent in the north of England. Harold gained near York a great victory over these invaders ; but was then obliged to make a speedy march to the south coast, to oppose the duke of Normandy, who had landed, with a great army, in Pevensey Bay, in Sus- sex, on the 28th of September, 1066. On the 14th of October was fought the great battle of Hastings, a battle that completely changed the fate of England. Harold was killed by a wound in the eye from an arrow, and William gained a signal victory. \i Why were the Normans expelled from England ? What successor did Edward provide ? Whc succeeded Edward the Confesscr, and who claimed the cixw» Wlie-n v-as the battle o r Hasting? t 48 ENGLISH HISTORY. LIST OF SAXON KINGS. B'^gai to reigu. 827 . 836 . 857 . 871 . 901 . 925 . 941 . 948 . 955 . 959 . 975 . 979 . 916 . •017 10.35 1039 Reigned. . 9 . . . 21 . . . 14 . . . 30 . . . 24 . . . 16 . . . 7 . . 7 . . 4 . . . 16 . . . 4 . . . 37 . . . 1 . . THE SAXON LINE. . Egbert. . Ethel wolf, son of Egbert. ! Alfred^' }sonsof£lhelwolf. . Edward the Elder, son of Alfred. . Athelstan, } . Edmund, > sons of Edward. . Edred, \ . Edwy, . Edgar, . Edward the Martyr, I. sons of E( . Ethelred the Unready, )' . Edmund Ironsides. THE DANISH LINE. sons of Edmund. Canute the Great. Harold Harefoot, Hardicanute, sons of Canute. 1011 10G6 SAXON LINE RESTORED Edward the Confessor, son of Ethelred the Unready. Harold, son of earl Godwin, usurped the crown, though Edgar Atheling, grandson of Edmund Ironsides, was the natural heir. The Saxons continued in the country after the conquest, and were much more numerous than the Norman settlers : the present inhabitants of England, therefore, are chiefly of Saxon descent : and their language, and many of their habits and customs, sufficiently declare their origin. It does not appear that the social and moral character of England was much changed duringthe period of one hun- dred and sixty-five years, which elapsed from the death of Alfred to the battle of Hastings. Duringthe greater part of that time the English were in such a continual state of warfare with the Danes, that they did not make much pro- gress in anypeaceful arts. Books were so very scarce and dear, that they were only to be found in royal libraries. — Paper was not then invented, and it was not possible to pro« Are the present inhabitants of England chiefly of Saxon origin ? During 165 years what was the improvement of the English peoule \ ENGLISH H1ST0 IV. 49 cure parchment enough for a great supply of books Be- sides this, there were only manuscripts, (priiting not be- ing invented at that time,) and but few people could write. Some, however, of the few manuscripts remaining in the Saxon character, arc very beautifully and carefully written. The Saxons had also another difficulty in the way of their acquiring knowledge. They had not any signs, or characters, to express numbers, except the Roman letters M. D. C. V. I., which are at this time occasionally in use ; and till the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c, were brought into Europe by the Saracens, by whom, it is said, they were invented, there was great difficulty in learning and practising arithmetic. The Danish kings were not more friendly to learning than their Saxon predecessors. Some of both respected learned men. Edward the Confessor liked to have them about him. Canute was a pagan when he came to Eng- land, but he became a Christain. The Danes and Sax- ons resembled each other very much in dress and lan- guage : but the Saxons, though equally brave and warlike, appear to have been a less savage and more social peo- ple than the Danes. The style of dress among the Saxons was quite different from that in present fashion. The loose dress, called a carter's frock, very much resembles the tunic which was worn by the Saxons. These tunics were bound in round the waist with a belt, and usually came no lower than the knee ; only kings and nobles wore them down to the feet. People of rank wore, over the other, a short tunic, or sur~ -.oa , made of silk, and richly embroidered and ornament- ed . a linen shirt, also, shaped much like a modern shirt, was now an indispensable part of dress amongst the high- er ordeis of people. The poor people wore no shirt, and had only a tunic made of coarse materials. The slaves wore an iron collar round the neck, and were clad in tunics open at the sides. According to the pictures we have of the Saxons, they What prevented the Saxons from readily acquiring arithmetic ? Did the Danes and Saxons regard learning, and did they resemblo ."ach other? What was the Saxon style of dress generally ? What was t'le dress of the poor people ? 50 ENGLISH HISTORY. appear generally to have gone bareheaded ; though the}" occasionally wore fur caps. The hair was worn long, and parted on the forehead, and hung in straight locks on each side of the face. The beard was shaven on the upper lip and top of the chin : the rest grew long, and was kept very smooth and neat, and was usually divided* in the middle and hung down in two points. Their shoes came up high, and were more properly a sort of buskin. The Saxon women wore a linen under dress, with long tight sleeves ; and over that a wide robe, or gown, fastened round the waist by a belt, and long enough to conceal the feet. Their head-dress was a square piece of linen, or silk, so put on as to conceal the hair and neck, showing only the face. It ought to be remembered, to the hor or of the Saxon ladies, that, while the men were continually adopt- ing new fashions in their dress, there was, in 300 years, little or no change in that of the women. Both sexes wore mantles, more or less splendid, according to their rank, and i profusion of gold ornaments, fringes, and bracelets. Loose trowsers were worn by the men : but this, per- haps, was more a Norman fashion, being introduced, with many other changes, by Edward the Confessor, whose early education had made him much attached to the Nor- man dress and customs. Amongst other changes, he caused his nobles to be called barons, instead of by the old Saxon name of theyn, or thane. The title of Confessor has nearly the same meaning with that of Saint, and was conferred on Edward by pope Alexander III. about a century after his death. I CHAPTER VI. WILLIAM I. [Years after Christ, 10GG— 1087.] By the fatal termination of the battle of Hastings, in which Harold was killed, and William of Normandy com- How did the Saxon women dress ? What changes of fashion were brought into England by Edward the Confessor, and why was he called so ? Did the English bestow the crown without hesitation uocn William of Norman ly ? ENGLISH HlSTOftY. 51 iVietely victorious, the English were throve n ir to the utmosl consternation. Some of the nobles assembled in London to deliberate on placing Edgar Atheling on the throne ; but before they could come to any settled determination, the Conqueror was already at their gates. Some of the nobles fled into the north ; but the rest, and amongst them Edgar Atheling, came out to meet the duke of Normandy, and offered him the vacant throne ; which he, with a littie pretended hesitation, accepted. T) OCT WiUka* the Conqueror was crowned at A. LK . Westminster, on Christmas-day. During the ceremony, the English, to show their satisfaction in their new king, set up loud shouts of applause. The Nor- man guards, who were stationed on the outside of the ab- bey, hearing a great noise, and not understanding what it meant, thought the English were insulting their prince. In the sudden passion into which this notion betrayed them, they set fire to some neighboring houses, which, being of wood, burnt furiously. A violent tumult ensued which, though it arose only from a mistake, caused much ill-will between the two nations, and there was some difficulty in pacifying it. William, however, began his reign with so much pru- dence and moderation, that his new subjects thought they had great reason to be satisfied : but afterwards, when he built castles at Norwich, Winchester, Hereford, and Lon- don, and garrisoned them with Normans, they began to feel themselves oppressed. On an occasion offered by his going into Normandy, they broke out into open rebellion, but without success : and William, on his return, did what was right in his own eyes, without much regard for the feelings of his subjects, and compelled them to absolute submission. Many years passed in unavailing struggles on the part of the English to throw off the Norman yoke, and in reiterated acts ol oppression on the part of the Conqueror, who deprived *.he Saxon nobles of their estates to bestow them on his Norman followers. William deposed the English bishops, and filled theii Did the English proceed to open rebellion against William? When did the English become dissatisfied with William ? Did William act justly toward the Saxons ? How did William govern the church affairs ? b'l ENGLISH HISTORY. places with Normans or other foreigners , one of these, however, Lanfranc, an Italian, who was made archbishop of Canterbury, proved himself, by his wisdom and pru- dence, and by the influence he had with the king, which he used in trying to moderate the violence of his temper, one of the best friends the English had. During this time, Edgar Atheling had taken refuge with Malcolm, king of Scotland, who had given a kind recep- tion to him, and to several nobles who had fled out of Eng- land with him. Malcolm married one of Edgar's sisters ; and, assisted by the king of Denmark, made an attempt to drive out the Normans, and place Edgar on the throne of his ancestors. William soon obliged the Scots and Danes to retreat ; and with a view, as is said, to place- an impenetrable bar- rier between England and Scotland, he depopulated a tract of sixty miles north of the Humber, and made it quite a desert. The inhabitants, those who could, fled into Scot- land, where they were humanely received. The rest per- ished miserably from cold and hunger ; and the land, after this dreadful devastation, remained uncultivated for nine years. . r) if)7i Malcolm intending to make a fresh at- tempt in favor of Edgar, William marched against him with a large army. The two armies met on the borders of Scotland, and a battle was about to ensue; but the two kings made peace with each other • one of the conditions of which was, that Edgar Atheling should be given up to William, who promised, if he would re- nounce his pretensions to the throne of England, to give him a mark a day, which was considered a very handsome allowance in those days Edgar assented to these terms, and both he and William ever after continued true to their agreement. It seemed, however, as if William had been destined never to enjoy repose ; for now that he had no more dis- turbances to fear from either the English or Scots, his throne and life were endangered by a conspiracy amongst his own Gorman nobles, those very persons, to enrich whom he What became of Edgar Atheling? By what cruel measure did William repel the Scots and Danes ? How did William finally accommodate matters with Edgar Atheling Did the Norman subjects of William rebel agninst him? ENGLISH HISTORY. 53 had been so often guilty of injustice and cruelty. This conspiracy was, however, discovered to him by tha con- scientiousness of WaltheofT, the only Saxon whom he had retained in his favor, and the only one of the conspirators who was punished, though his voluntary confession had preserved the king. ^ Fresh vexations next awaited William in his own family, from the turbulent and ungovemed tempers of Ms sons ; particularly of the eldest two, Robert and William. These princes had been in a state of enmity with each other ; and it is said that a boyish frolic, in which one of them threw some water on his brother's head, was the beginning of the quarrel between them. At last, Robert, who was less malignant „han William, but more passionate and headstrong, proceeded, from this quarrel with his brother, to an open rebellion against his father, whom, in an encounter, not knowing who it was, he wounded, and struck off his horse. When he saw that it was the king with whom he had been engaged, his re- morse and horror, at the thought of having been so nearly guilty of killing his own father, subdued in a moment all his rebellious and proud feelings : and he sprung from his horse in an agony of grief, and threw himself on his knees at the king's feet. William was too much offended to forgive his son ; and, saying many bitter words to him, remounted and returned to his own army : and it was some time before he "would listen to Robert's contrite entreaties. At last, queen Ma- tilda, who was a very good and pious woman, and who was mad v :> /ery unhappy by the dissentions in her family, prevailed with the king to pardon his son. One would have thought that, after all these turmoils, William would have been glad of some repose ; but, on the contrary, on some trifling quarrel with Philip the First, king of France, he marched anarmy into that country,de- stroying and laying waste every thing : and as it was in the month of July, when the harvest was ripe, the devastation What was the character of Robert and William, the Conquerers 3011s ? To what occurrence did the rebellion of Robert against his fathei cad? By whose intercession was William reconciled to his son ? With what king had William a quarrel? 54 ENGLISH HISTORY. lie nude was very dreadful, particu.arly as he burnt every town and village he passed through. William's cruelty, at length brought on him its own punishment ; for after burning the town of Mantes, his horse, flinching from the smoking ashes, made a violent plunge ; and the king, being very corpulent, got a bruise, which in a few days caused his death. He died in 1087, at the abbey of St. Gervaise, near Rouen, and was buried at Caen. He was in the sixty-third year of his age, and had reigned twenty-one years in England. He married Matilda, daughter of the earl of Flanders, and had four sons and five daughters : Robert, to whom he left the dukedom of Normandy ; William, king of England ; Henry, to whom he left his mother Matilda's fortune ; Richard, who died young ; Adela married Ste- phen count de Blois, and five sons and daughters that died young. It is above 700 years since the death of William the Conqueror, and there are yet remaining two remarkable memorials of his reign and character. The one is the New Forest, in Hampshire ; to make which, for the sake of enjoying the pleasure of the chase, he depopulated a large district, destroyed thirty villages, and drove ou the inhabitants. The other memorial is a less painful one. It is a book which he caused to be made, called Doomsday Book, being a survey of the whole kingdom, giving an account of the extent of every parish, with all particulars respect- ing it. — This book is still preserved in the Tower ; and all possessors of estates, who are curious to know to whom their lands belonged at the Conquest, whether it was aia- ble or pasture, what was then its value, and, in some cases, what cattle it was stocked with, may there make themselves acquainted with these circumstances. - The national appellation of Britons, that of the primitive Inlanders, in time gave place to that of Anglo-Saxons- — the How and wnere did William die ? Who were William's wife and children ? What is the most memorable act of William ' What other memorial of William exists? Who were the Anglo-Saxons f ENGLISH HISTORY 55 - latter signifying Saxons born in England, so that a history of the Anglo-Saxons relates to the people who inhabited England from the Saxon to the Norman invasion. The Anglo-Saxons were divided into nobility and vas- sals ; that is, into great landholders and the cultivators of their estates. The conquest changed the owners of pro- perty in England, but it did not much change the order of rank in the king's subjects. There were several degrees, and more distinct than classes of people in the present age. The highest in rank, after the king, were the barons, who were made rich and powerful by the lands of the Anglo-Saxon nobles. Another class was composed of Norman and foreign soldiers, who had helped to achieve the conquest of the island, and who settled on the lands that had been given to their leaders, and became their vassals and tenants. With this class became blended gradually the Anglo- Saxon thanes, or nobles, who were all degraded from their former rank, and stripped of the greater part of their pos- sessions ; and also the Anglo-Saxon ceorls, or farmers, who if they had never taken up arms against the Conqueror, were allowed, on putting themselves under the protection of some Norman baron, to live without molestation. We may suppose, in general, that from this extensive class are chiefly derived the English gentlemen and farmers. Saxon and Norman are now melted together. But it *vas not tiL long after William and his followers were uo more, that the descendants of the two nations could endure each other ; the Normans holding in contempt the stupid ignorant Saxons ; and the Saxons detesting their tyrannical oppressors. The clergy also formed a distinct numerous body. At the time of the Norman invasion, nearly a third part of the land is said to have belonged to monasteries, nunneries, and the clergy ; and this is supposed to have been one great cause of the duke of Normandy's easy victory. William Who were the lords and tenants after the Conquest ? What became of the Anglo-Saxon lords ? Did the Saxons and Normans like each other? Were the cle*gy a numerous and wealthy class among the Angl'. Saxons ? 56 ENGLISH HIS1 )RY. suilered the laboring classes to remain very much in tlic condition in w hich he found them. The lowest rank 01 the people had few, if any, rights of their own. These were usually, like the Russian peasants of our own times, considered as annexed to the estate on which they lived, and were bought and sold together with it. Domestic slaves were numerous ; and these were the most misera- ble and degraded class of any. The children of these poor people were slaves equally with their parents : and thus the number of persons in the condition of slavery was very great ; though there were many ways by which emancipation might be obtained. Free laborers, then worked for hire, as the laborers of our own times do, though few, compared with the number of slaves. In towns there was another class of people called Burg- hers. These were tradesmen, or merchants, who joined together in little societies, called Gilds : but in this reign they had not become a numerous, or at least not a pow- erful body. William used every means in his power to introduce the Norman or French into England, and to eradicate the A.nglo-Saxon language. He altered many of the old Saxon laws, and established Norman instead ; which were all written in Norman-French ; and he ordered that law- business should be carried on in that language. William also required that French, instead of Saxon should be taught to the children in the schools : but it is easier to conquer a kingdom than to change a language : and after an ineffectual struggle, which lasted three cen- turies, the Saxon got the better at last; and, with some intermixture of the Norman, forms the basis of the lan- guage we now speak. The Saxons were masters of England from A.D. 460 to A.D. 1066. Six hundred years were time sufficient to establish their language in the country. \[ Were slaves numerous in England under the Norma i Conquest Who were the burghers ? Did William succeed in introducing the French into Englanu I How did he modify the Saxon tongue in England ? flow long did the Saxons rule in England ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 57 CHAPTER VIJ WILLIAM II. Tears after Christ, 1087—1100.] T St.. Michel. William, second son of William the Conqueror, was twenty-seven years old when he became king. Like his father, he had great bodily strength and activity, and he resembled him also in the sternness of his countenance. His complexion was ruddy, and his hair red, on which account he obtained the surname of Rufus. He was brave and active in war, like his father, and like him was ambi- tious and rapacious ; but had not any of his great or good qualities : for he was irreligious, a lover of low company, and of excessive drinking. He was very passionate, and had not high principles of honor or honesty. His father was scarcely dead when he set off for England to secure the inheritance which was left him, and to seize upon the royal treasures. It is but justice to say, that with Dart of them he paid his father's legacy to his brotr ei Henry. His fierce and imperious temper being well known What was the character of William II. ? Was William an acceptable king to the Anglo-Saxons ? 58 ENGLISH HISTORY. to the Anglo-Norman barons, they were sorry to have him fcr their king, and made a rebellion to place his eldei brother Robert, who was a much greater favorite with them, on the throne. William Rufus now found it convenient to make friends with the Anglo-Saxons, who composed the great mass oi the people ; and he promised to restore many of their rights and privileges. By their help, he speedily subdued the rebellion of the barons. The fair promises which he had made to the Anglo-Saxons he very soon forgot ; but he never forgot his resentment against Robert, on whom he retaliated by attacking his possessions in Normandy ; and this kept the two brothers in a continual state of emnity. The only occasion on which they ever agreed was when they joined to oppress their brother Henry. Henry's inhe- ritance had been left him in money. Robert, who was always extravagant and thriftless, had been glad to sell to him a part of Normandy, called Cotentin, and now, in concert with William, sought to deprive him of it. Henry, being both brave and determined, would not tamely give it up, and with a small number of men fortified himself in Mont St. Michel ; but, after enduring a very rigorous siege, he was at last obliged to surrender for want of pro- visions Having thus lost every tiring, he, with a few faithful followers, who would not forsake him in his dis- tress, wandered about, often in want of necessaries, and always in want of a home. Some time after this, Robert went on the crusade to the Holy Land ; and to procure money for this expedition, he lent or mortgaged his duchy for five years to his bro- ther William, for ten thousand marks. William extorted the money from his English subjects ; and then took pos- session of Normandy. He did not find it a very peaceable possession, for it involved him in continual quarrels and wars, with the kino; of France, in which sometimes the French, and sometimes the Normans had the advantage K In one of these encounters, Heli de la Fleche, a very brave baron, was taken prisoner by William. After some What was William's treatment to his subjects, and of his I roth' i .Robert ? Did Robert and William love their brother Henry? How aid William II. obtain possession of Normandy ENGLISH HISTORY. 59 time he regained his liberty, and then, coming to William made him an offer of his services. The king rejected hem ; on which Heli went out, saying he would be re- venged for the indignity. William called after him, in a very rude and haughty manner, " to be gone and do his worst." As soon as Heli arrived in France, he attacked William's territories there, and obtained possession of the town of Mans The news of this event was brought to William while lie was hunting in the New Forest. He instantly left the chase and galloped off to the sea coast, and embarked for Normandy. It blew so furious a storm, that the sailors at first refused to put to sea. The king's impatience, how- ever, was so great, that he would not listen to them. He insisted on their setting sail, and contrary to all expecta- tion, landed safely at Barfleur the next morning. Heli de la Fleche was soon driven oi t of Mans, and William returned to England to complete •, he preparations in which he had been engaged for takii g possession of Guienne, which the duke of Guienne, had mortgaged to him, as Robert had mortgaged Normandy. But a sudden end was put to all his ambitious projects : for going to hunt in the New Forest, during the time in which he was awaiting a fair wind to take his army over to France, he was shot by an arrow from the bow of sir Walter, TyrreJ, who was hunting with him. A D lino William was killed in the fortieth year oi his age. and the thirteenth of his reign. He Avas never married. William built Westminster Hail and the Tower of London. The remarkable circumstance of this reign was, that Magnus, king of Norway, made a descent on Anglesea in 1098. This was the last attempt on England by any )f the northern nations. Those restless people learned about this time the art of tillage, which piovided them What baron rebe'Ied against William ? Did William attack de la Fleche ? What prevented William from taking possession of Guienne ? When was William killed ? A r hen did the Northmen make their last descent upon England ? GO ENGLISH HISTORY. with food, and gave them occupation at home, and tlrnj- freed the rest of Europe from their predatory invasions \ To explain Robert of Normandy's expedition , U is neces*< sary the reader should know what is meant by Crusades. The crusades were religious wars. After his death, the Romans were masters of Jerusalem, and of the whole coun- try which had been the scene of the life and labors of Jesus. Near the middle of the fourth century, the Roman Empire became partially Christian, and Helena, the mo- ther of Constantine, took upon herself to identify the very spot at Jerusalem " where the Lord lay," and also to erect churches and other monuments on the places consecrated by his living actions. After the erection of these edifices, and the establish- ment of convents in the Holy Land, as Palestine began to be called, religious persons from different and distant countries of Europe thought it a duty to make journeys thither, in order to visit the shrines or sacred buildings, which had been raised in honor of Christ. These pious travelers were called pilgrims, and their journey was a pilgrimage. The pilgrims chiefly begged their way through the coun tries over which they traveled, and were regarded with universal respect by all Christians. They usually dressed it a plain garb, carried a scrip, or bag for their food, and sustained themselves upon a staff surmounted by a cross and had fastened to the front of their hats a scollop-shell When they returned from the Holy Land they frequently brought with them a branch of palm, a tree of that coun- try, whence they were called palmers. One of these pilgrims, named Peter the Hermit, though only a poor priest, has made himself more distinguished in history than the most potent monarch of his time. On hi? return from the Holy Land, inflamed by zeal for religion What were Crusades? What were pilgrimages ? What were the habits of the pilgrims ? Who was Peter the Herm'.t ? ENGLISH HIS'lORY. 61 and by resentment against the Mohammedans, he went about from country to country, exhorting the princes and nobles of Europe to go and fight against the pagans, and drive them from Jerusalem. The pope entered warmly into this cause. Vast armies were fitted out by different princes, and from A. D. 1097 to A. D. 1248, about one hundred and fiftj years, four different Crusades were undertaken. More than two millions of men from England and southern Eu- rope, are supposed to have marched into Asia upon these expeditions, and the greater number lost their li ^es. These wars were called Crusades, from the circumstance that a figure of the cross was a badge of the warriors — it was painted upon their banners, engraved on their shields, ana embroidered in their garments. Having endured hardships of every kind, and contended against numerous hosts of enemies, the crusaders, undei the command of Godfrey of Bouillon, possessed themselves of Jerusalem after a bloody siege. They elected Godfrey king ; and the city remained for about one hundred years in the possession of the Christians, when it was re-con- quered by Saladin, the sultan of Egypt. It was considered a religious duty to go to the Crusades, and it was thought that those who died in the Holy Land were sure to be received into heaven, let their lives have been ever so bad. Those who returned gained the ad- vantage of being much honored in their lives ; and at their deaths had the privilege of having their figures rep- resented on their tombs, to show to all succeeding gene- rations that they had served in the holy. wars. Out of so much that was bad in these enterprises, God permitted some good to arise. The people of Constan- tin 3ple, and some of the countries in the east through which the Crusaders traveled were much better informed than those in Western Europe. The Saracens also were ven superior to the Europeans in their knowledge of the sci ences,andinmanyof the arts and elegancies of life. Much of this knowledge was brought home by the crusaders How many Crusades were undertaken ? Did the Crusaders make any conquests ? What induced men to go to the Crusades ? Did any good arise f< om the Crusades ? 62 ENGLISH HISTORY. The pilvate misery which those wars occasioned is now over, but the knowledge remains, and seems transferred to us. Whilst Europeans, and their American descend- ants have been improving and gaining knowledge ever since, all the people of the East have been standing ab- solutely still. i CHAPTER VIII. henry: i. [Years after Christ, 1100- 1135.] Henry, the Conqueror's youngest son, who was huntir.g with William, in the New Forest, at the time when he was slain by Tyrrel, instead of showing any concern at his brother's death, or even waiting to see his body borne away from the spot where he fell, put spurs to his horse, and rode directly to Winchester, where he seized on the royal trea- sure. He then hastened to London ; and by gifts and promises, disposed the people so much in his favor, that they crowded him King, by the name of Henry I., in vio- lation of the right of his brother, Robert, who was still in Palestine. Henry's character was made up of an extraordinary mixture of good and engaging qualities, with many bad ones. Courage, intrepidity, political wisdom, impartial administration of justice to his people, love for his chil- dren, a fine understanding, and facetious humor are described of him by the historians of his time, and incline us to admire him. On the other hand, his ambition and avarice, his unjust usurpation, and his wicked conduct to his brother Robert, and to his nephew William, (Robert's Hon,) oblige us to acknowledge that, notwithstanding his dazzling qualities, he must have been a bad man. He had How did Henry, the brother of William II. act on the king's death * What sort c' a man was Henry I. ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 63 received, what was considered in those days, a learned education ; and from that circumstance, he acquired the surname of Beauclerc, or fine scholar. Henry began his reign by promising to redress all the evils his father and brother had inflicted on the Anglo- Saxons, and granted them a charter of privileges ; or, more properly speaking, restored Edward the Confessor's code of laws, to which the people were much attached. He ban- ished from his court all William's profligate associates, and recalled from exile Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury, who had been banished by Rufus for refusing to receive investiture from his hands. The more to endear himself to his English subjects, Henry married Matilda, daughter of Malcolm, king of Scotland. He also remitted many debts that were owing to the crown, and omitted nothing that could endear him to the people. In the mean time, duke Robert had returned from the Holy Land, and resumed the possession of Normandy. He lost no time in making preparations for invading Eng- land, and asserting his right to the crown. He was joined by some discontented barons, and landed with his army at Portsmouth, on the 1 9th of July, 1101. Henry now found the benefit of the conciliatory conduct which he had pur- sued towards the English, who remained firm to him, while the Normans chiefly adhered to Robert. Henry marched to Portsmouth, with a numerous army, to oppose his brother. The two armies stood facing each other several days, as if awe-struck, without coming to an engagement ; which gave Anselm, and some of the barons, who were desirous of peace, an opportunity of concluding a treaty between the two princes, in which it was stipulated that Robert should give up his pretentions to the crown of England, in consideration of Henry's granting him a pension of S000 marks, and promising to restore to their honors and estates in England, those Anglo-Normans, who had joined with him. By what measures did Henry commend himself to his sabjccU) V Did Robert acquiesce in the usurpation of Henry I On what conditions did the rival brothers make peace ? 64 ENGLISH HISTORk. It was further agreed, that, if eitner of the brothtu should die without children, the other should succeed to hit dominions. The two armies were then disbanded, and Robert spent two months with his brother in feasts and amusements, and then returned to Normandy. But as soon as Robert was gone, Henry took the first opportunity of degrading those barons who had taken his side. When Robert heard this, he returned to England, and remonstrated with Henry on this breach of the treaty ; but he soon found, that, instead of benefiting his friends by staying in his brother's dominions, he was endangering himself ; and he only escaped in safety by consenting to give up his pension. The Norman barons were now made discontented by Robert's imprudence, and mismanagement of his affairs. In 1104 they invited Henry to come over and settle their disagreements with their duke ; an invitation which Henry gladly accepted : and he acted so craftily, that he weak- ened and humbled his brother's party, and prepared the way for obtaining Normandy for himself. During the two following years, Robert entangled himself more and more in difficulties, and Henry gained every possible advantage over his inconsiderate brother, -f > A D nnfi Henry made a direct invasion of Nor- mandy, and in a battle fought on the 28th ^f September, he took Robert and many of his nobles prison- ers, amongst the latter was Edgar Atheling. Edgar, how- ever, was considered no formidable enemy, and was soon set atliberty and spent the rest of his life in harmless and envi- able obscurity. His Saxon blood, and his mild and amiable disposition, made him the idol of the English ; while his imbecility and want of enterprise, rendered him too insig nificant to be feared by the Normans. The only spirited thing we hear of Edgar is, that he had accompanied Robert to the Holy Land. Robert was brought prisoner to England ; and his cruel and unrelenting brother kept him in perpetual confinement till his death, twenty-eight years afterwards Was Henry faithful to the treaty which he made with Robert ? Did Henry ever avail himself of Robert's mismanagement? What became of Robert, and of Edgar Atheling ? Wluui did Robert die, and what became of his son? ENGLISH HISTORY. 65 The whole of Normandy now submitted to Henry. Ro- bert's son William, a child of six years old, was found in the castle of Falaise, and was committed by Henry to the care of Helie de St. Saen, who had married a daughtei of Robert Every thing had prospered with Henry, according to his ambitious wishes ; but while his brother's son lived, he stood in the way of his secure possession of the crown. Henry therefore sent Robert Beauchamp to surprise the castle of St. Saen, during the absence of its lord, and to seize on the young prince : but, by the vigilance, and fidelity of the people who were left in charge of him, the child was carried to a place of safety. Herry, enraged at his disappointment, confiscated all the property of Helie de St. Saen, who having no longer a home of his own, wandered about from court to court, claiming protection for his royal charge, who was every where pitied for his misfortunes, and admired for the beauty of his person. The earl of Anjou engaged to assist him, and promised him his daughter, Sibylla, in marriage. Henry no sooner heard that his nephew had acquired so powerful a friend, than he determined to prevent the in- tended match, and offered his own, and only son, William, in marriage to Matilda, another of the earl's daughters. The earl found this temptation so strong, that he broke off the contract with W T illiam the son of Robert, and concluded one with William the son of Henry. The faithful Helie, and the unfortunate prince, then retired from the court of Anjou to that of Baldwin, earl of Flanders, where they were recieved with great kindness. For the next five years, whatever conflicts the king might suffer in his own mind, the country, at least enjoyed tran- quillity. Henry was, however, still so suspicious of his son's righo to the crown being disputed, that he required all his earls and barons to swear fealty to him ; and he Did King Henry get possession of prince "William? Who befriended prince William ? By what selfish motive was the earl of Anjou alienated from the intev est of Prince William 1 If the earl of Anjou had been a just man would he have acted thus ? Ans. whatever the pupil thinks right.) 4 G6 KVOlJSH HISTORY endeavored, by great promises, to entice his nephew to his court. But William could not forget his unhappy fa- ther, still languishing in prison, and would not put himself in his uncle's power. In 1118, Louis le Gros, king of France, with the earls of Flanders and Anjou, formed an alliance against Henry, in favor of William, and were joined by several disaffected Norman barons. Henry was now surrounded by enemies, both secret and declared, and knew not whom to trust, nor whom to fear He slept in armor, and with a guard watching in his apart- ment. Nevertheless, his vigilance and prudence did not forsake him. He contrived to win over the Norman ba- rons ; and detached the earl of Anjou from the alliance with France, by solemnizing the marriage that had before been contracted forbetweenhissonandthe earl's daughter. The king of France and the barons confederated with him met Henry in the plain of Brenneville, not very far from Rouen, and a fierce battle ensued, in which the Eng- lish army was victorious, and the king of France and prince William escaped with some difficulty.] Henry spent the geater part of the year 1 120 in Nor- mandy, endeavoring to strengthen the certainty of his son's succession, who was now eighteen years old. But how useless was all this anxiety ! This beloved son, for whose aggrandisement he had done and sacrificed so mum, was suddenly snatched from him. He was returning to Eng- land with a numerous train, and many ships ; one of which, called the White Ship, was allotted to the prince and his retinue. The prince had ordered some wine to be given to the ship's crew, of which they drank so freely that many of them were intoxicated. The rest of the fleet had meanwhile sailed, and Fitzstephen, the commander of the White Ship, crowding all his sails, and plying all his oars, to overtake them, the vessel suddenly struck upon a rock. A. boat was immediately let down, into which the prince tind some of the young nobles were hurried ; and they might have reached'he shore in safety, had not the prince Did prince William come to his uncle's court,— and why uol Did Henry enjoy life without fear of enemies ? Where did Henry defeat the French king \ What happened to the king's eldest sonf ENGLISH HISTORY*. G7 insisted on going back to rescue his sister, the countess ol Perche, whose shrieks he heard from the ship, where all was terror and confusion. As soon as the boat approached the vess 3l, so many persons jumped into it, that it instantly sank, and every creature perished. Thus died the prince, with many of the young nobles, and several ladies of rank. Of three hundred persons who were on board, a butcher of Rouen, of the name oi Bertould, who by clinging to the mast contrived to keep his head above water till the next morning, when he was picked up by some fisherman, was the only one who escaped. The captain had also clung to the same mast, but when told by the butcher that the prince had perished, he would not survive so great a disaster, and thew himself headlong into the sea. The news of this misfortune reached England the next day ; but it was three days before any one had courage to tell the king of it. At last a boy was instructed to fall at his feet, and tell him that the prince and all on board the White Ship were lost. Henry immediately fainted, and it was a long time before the violence of his grief abated. He had now only one legitimate child left, his daughter Matilda, who was married to Henry V., emperor of Germany, but had no children. The death of the prince of England encouraged the friends of his cousin William to make fresh attempts in his favor ; but they were unattended with any permament success ; and William returned to the court of Louis, and married a sister of the queen of France, with whom he received a small domain as her dower, and thus at last became possessed of a spot of ground that he might call his own. A few years afterwards, the king of France put him in possession of a part of Flanders, to which he had a claim in right of his grandmother Matilda, wife of the Conqueror, who was the daughter of an earl of Flanders. But no By what generous action did the prince expose his own life f Who perished and who was saved in this shipwrecn ? Who communicated to Henry the death of his son, and who was his only remaining child ? What happened to prince William, Robert's son ? 68 ENGLISH HISTOJIT sooner did fortune seem to smile on this young princethrjn he died of wounds received in a skirmish with the land- grave of Alsace. Before his death he wrote a letter to king Henry, entreating his favor for Helie de St. Saen, and the other barons who had followed his fortunes. It is pleasing to be aole to add that this last request of the gallant and ill-fated son of Robert was kindly attended to. A D 11 26 Henry's daughter Matilda had become a widow. She then returned to live with her father, who made all his nobles swear fealty to her, as they had formerly done to her brother. The following year she was married to GeofTry, eldest son of the earl of A.njou ; and Henry who was devotedly fond of her, spent the latter part of his life in Normandy, that he might be near her. After living to see Matilda the mother of three sons, Henry died on the first of December, 11 35, at St. Denis, a little village in Normandy, in the 67th year of his age, and the 36th year of his reign, A. D. 1135. His body was brought to England, and was buried in the abbey he had founded at Reading. His first wife was daughter of Malcolm, king of Scot- land. Their children were William, who married a daughter of the earl of Flanders, and was drowned, and Matilda, married first to Henry V., emperor of Germany, and secondly, to GeofTry, son of the earl of Anjou. Henrv, by his will, left all his dominions to his daughter, to the exclusion of her husband GeofTry. , It is proper here to notice the state of society and man- ners in England in the 12th century, and subsequently for a considerable time. Anselm, archbishop of Canter- bury, (as was stated page 63) refused to receive investi- What affectionate and grateful act was the last of prince Williani's life ! Is gratitude Hue to benefactors ? (Ans. the pupiVs own judgmcrd , Where did Henry spend his last days, and when did he die ? Who were Henry's family ? Who refused investiture from William Rufus ? ENGLISH HISTORY. • 69 turc from William Rufus, and was banished. It has been related in what manner the Pope's power was estab- lished in England, but the Norman kings were only Ca- tholics in their religious worship ; they bestowedlands and other property upon churches and convents to support bishops and priests ; they paid nothing to the Pope, and did not admit that he could choose ministers for English churches, or lay taxes upon English property. Anselm maintained, when the archbishopric of Canter- bury was bestowed upon him, that the place, with the power the Archbishop exercised and the riches he en- joyed, must be given by the Pope. Authority to bestow these dignities, he called the right of investiture, and maintained that it belonged to the Pope ; and the Pope, Pascal II., claimed such authority. Henry I. disputed the Pope's right of investiture, and claimed it himself, but after a long struggle he acknowledged it. This authority of popes and priests is called ecclesiastical power, and from this time, for several centuries it increased in England. Anselm made another encroachment upon the liberties of the English. By his influence a regulation was made that the clergy should not marry, and that those who had wives should put them away forever, under pain of severe punishment ; and in his preaching he inveighed against the gay dress of females, who afterwards conformed to his regulations, m As gunpowder was unknown, the warfare of that age was different from that of later times. When the Ro- mans landed in England, the Britons had no kind of ar- mor, except a rude sort of shield ; nor does it appear that the Saxons or the Danes had any other defence except the shield and helmet, till a little before the time of the Conquest, when the nobles and leaders of their armies What power had the first Norman kings in the English church, and what the Pope ? What was the right of investiture, and was it established in the Pope or the king of Engiand ? What circumstance has changed Ine art if war and what w as the ooat c»t mail ? 70 ENGLISH HISTOKV. adopted armor, something like that of the Normans The whole dress "was made of little rings of iron, much smaller and slighter than the chain of a horse's bridle ; and these were all linked together so ingeniously, like net- work, that it fitted close to the limbs and body, and was at die same time as flexible as a stocking. Under this they wore a dress called a gambeso7i, which was like a shirt without sleeves or collar, and quilted or stuffed with wool ; sometimes this was worn over the hawberk which was the name of the coat of mail, or chain armor. This kind of armor was not found a sufficient defence against the point of a spear or arrow ; in the fourteenth century plate armor was introduced, so called from being made of plates of iron, which were often so heavy, that when a knight arrayed in it was overthrown, he lay on the ground immovable till he was helped up : and there were many instances, in hot weather, and in the press of an engagement, of persons being suflbcated with the heat and weight of their armor. There was also an interme- diate kind, called scale armor, formed of little pieces of iron laid one over another, in the manner of the scales of a fish. The knights fought with lances, spears, and swords , and the common soldiers with slings and bows, in the use of which the English excelled almost all other nations The French were more active, but the English possessed more bodily strength. Besides these arms, which they carried about them, they used various machines for throw- ing darts and stones to a great distance. <$~ The violence to which men were exposed in these rude ages from one another, obliged them to live in castles, — large stone houses, surrounded with walls, to keep ofl their enemies who were their neighbors. The Conqueror and his two sons built a great many castles. The barons lived like so many little kings, each in his own castle with his train of followeis ; and they even affected the ceremonial of kings ; for their servants and attendants Why was plate armor introduced, and what was sea e armor i What were the weapons used by the knights? What were castles, and who dwelt in them 1 ENGLISH HISTORY 71 instead of being called stewards, grooms, and footmen, were called treasurers, privy counsellors, heralds, and pages, and by other honorable titles. The mode of living in these castles was exceedingly dis- agreeable to the Saxons. Such haughty seclusion was entirely contrary to their own habits, which were remark- ably convivial and social. They did not care for the shab- biness of their dwellings, which were only built of wood, and thatched, if they could but eat and drink, and have merry-makings ; while the Normans, on the contra- ry, were frugal in their manner of living, but very costly in their buildings. The space within the wall was the court of the castle, and in all castles there was an enclosure called the innei bailey,' which contained the square tower, or keep, in which the baron, or governor, and his family dwelt, and in which all the stores, and arms, and valuable things were kept. Under the keep was the dungeon for prisoners The chapel also stood in the inner bailey. The servants lived between the walls of the outer and inner enclosures, which space was called the outer bailey, there was always room enough for the soldiers' lodgings, the stables, and workshops for the blacksmiths, carpenters, and other artificers — all the articles which were used by the great family within being manufactured by the retainers — that is by persons who belonged to the lord of the castle. The postern gate was a small private entrance in th ■ outer wall, through which the lord and his confidential servants might, pass and re-pass privately. The best apart- ments were always in the upper stories of the castle, be- cause the windows at the bottom part were only little slits in the walls, while those above were made the larger, the further they were from the ground. The upper parts of the castles were, of course, in less danger from the enemy. In those rooms, therefore, the inhabitants indulged them- eclves with air and daylight. Did the Saxons like the manners of the Norman lords ? What was the constructiou of an ancient castle ? Where did the soldiers, &c. live ? What was the postern gate and what were the accomrnodaticu^ of a family in an ancient castle * 72 ENGLISH HISTORY. The soldiers then were hardly a separate class. The king gave his barons lands and estates, on condition that they should always be ready to attend him in battle. The barons let out many or most of their estates to persons of inferior rank, on the same condition ; and these again had others under them, who held by a similar tenure — this is by the same rule — not to pay for the land, but to follow the lord to battle whenever he should require their services Whenever the baron marched to war, those tenants, who thus held their estates by the condition of military ser- vice, marched with him ; and though, after a time, it was allowable to compound, or for people to pay money to ex cuse themselves from actual service, yet the obligation still remained ; and this sort of bond between the king and his barons, and the barons and their retainers, was called the feudal system. X h Every great baron's dwelling in that age was a fortifi- cation, and every family lived in dread of some neighbor- ing chief. The cause of this principally was the unsettled state of property. In what are called the middle ages, from the tenth to the sixteenth century, wars in Europe deprived conquered nations of their lands, and the victo- rious military chiefs took whole provinces, as Rollo took Normandy, and William I. took England. The lands seiz- ed by these military chiefs were divided among the offi- cers of the chief; and the followers of that chief, and the former occupants of the soil, became the vassals of the great lord. These poor people were not acquainted with the use- ful arts 01 comforts of life that we enjoy, but they could take care of cattle, cultivate the soil in a rude and imperfect man- ner, could help to erect the castles and churches of their masters, and could follow him to battle. This later ser- vice, together with a great part of the cattleand corn which Who were the soldiers and what was the Feudal system ? What was every baron's dwelling in the middle-ages, and what war* llie cause of this state of society ? What was the cond : tion of vassals under this system ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 73 they could procure from the cultivation of the soil, they gave to their lords. The lords always kept many of their vassals in their houses or castles, and usually went out with a considerable number of them as attendants. This was partly for show, and partly for safety. These followers were called Re- tainers, and when they went abroad with their master formed his Retinue. The more people a great lord had about his person, the better was he guarded, and the more was he feared. In the present happier age of the world, when every man has his own business, and property, and leisure, and enjoyments, no great man has any right to the services of so many of his fellow-men ; nor has he any need of them, for he has nothing to fear from the violence of others — he is protected by the laws of his country, and what is better, by the humanity of all men, who have learned, in some measure, to respect one another's lives and property ; and to know, in order that all may be happy, all must be safe, and protected by each other. But a thousand years ago men lived very differently The lands had been seized by the great lords of Europe, and the owners of property which lay together often claimed the same. These rude men would not wait for courts of justice to inquire into and settle their rights, but they and their vassals fought about them. Many of the richer and more powerful lords, wanting to become still more rich and powerful, and having no sense of religion, of justice, or mercy — none of the fear of God or love of man — murdered their neighbors, set fire to their houses, carried off their property, and seized their lands : on these occasions the ladies were often treated ia a barbarous manner. A re'markable instance of this may be found in Shak- cpeare's Tragedy of Macbeth. Macbeth, a Scottish no- What was a great lord's retinue ? What is the reason why people in the presen. age do not live in this manner ? What was the moral character of the middle af es? What example of the insecurity of life and property does Shakspeare give T 74 ENGLISH HISTORY. bleman, invited Duncan, king of Scotland, to his castle, and there murdered him, that he might be king instead oi Duncan. On the murder of the king, his two sons fled from Scotland in fear of their lives. Macduff, a Scotch loid, followed Malcolm, one of the young princes, into England, upon which the usurper Macbeth was so enra- ged, that he vowed to revenge himself upon Macduff foi this desertion. In order to do this, Macbeth resolved upon killing Mac- duff's innocent family, which he had left behind, and he accordingly gave orders for this cruel act. It is described nearly thus ; — After the bloody work was done, Rosse, a friend of the unfortunate family, escaped into England to inform Macduff of it. He found him talking to Malcolm, and after preparing his mind, relates the event. " Rosse. Your castle is surprised, your wife and babe* Savagely slaughtered! Malcolm. Merciful heaven ! Macduff. My children too ? Rosse. Wife, children, servants, all That could be found. Macd. And I must be irom thence ! — My wife kill'd too ? Rosss. I have said. Mai. Let us make medicines of our great revenge, To cure this deadly grief. Macd. He has no children ! — All my pretty ones ? Did you say all ! Rosse. All. Macd. What, all my pretty chickens and their dam 1 ' Macbeth, Act IV. Scene 3. You will observe that Malcolm proposes to make amends for this cruel injury by some " great revenge," that is by some act of equal cruelty to the murderers of Macduff's *rife and children. This was the way in which people at .hat time usually endeavored to satisfy themselves, but they only continued a strife which the descendants of both parties felt bound never to forget nor forgive, and which How was the violence and cruelty of Macbeth related to Macduff ? How did people 'n that age regird injuries ? ENGLISH HISTORY". 75 many long years after the first offence was given, caused fresh quarrels, murders, and destruction of property. In this state of violence and danger, many people lived in constant and great fear, and were always prepared to expect, and to defend themselves against an enemy. The rich lived in strong castles, surrounded by walls and gates, a watch was kept to look out for the approach of their foes, and, before the discovery of gun-powder, and the use of fire-arms, the knights — that is, the gentlemen- soldiers — used generally to wear armor. Then, as at all times, there were good men — some who were not weak and timid, or ferocious and cruel, who could not see the acts of these barbarians without indigna- tion against them, and compassion for the unfortunate victims of their cruelty. The distress of the ladies, above all, inspired the just and the generous with a desire to serve them, and to save them from the dreadful calamities Ko which they were exposed. Many noblemen and brave soldiers devoted themselves to the redress of injuries in- flicted upon all good persons, and particularly upon the young and beautiful of the female sex. These formed what is called the order of Chivalry. /^ The young men who composed the order of Chivalry could not be admitted into it, unless they possessed strength and courage, and were distinguished by truth and honor ; and this being known, made ambitious youth desirous to be so distinguished, that they might be worthy to assert jus- tice, and to defend innocence, that they might become ob- jects of admiration and praise, and form at once the pro lectors and ornaments of society. To be all this, it was necessary that they should not only be fearless and power- ful, but that they should also be pleasing and interesting . that they should perfectly understand the use of arms to prevail over their enemies, and be masters of every grace- ful acomplishment to inspire the affection of their friends. Many arts of little use at this time were then necessary, and these arts exhibited much grace and skill. The man- agement of fiery horses, the throwing of the pike, (a sharp What were the domestic circumstances of the English in the 12tb century ? Who formed the order of Chivalry ? What education was bestowed on the knights of the middle ages 7 70 ENGLISH HISTORY. instrument used in ancient war,) and the exercise of the bow, were taught to young men with as much and more pains than dancing, fencing, and music now require. Horsemanship, archery, &c. require great presence of mind and strength of body, and show elegance of person and quickness of thought to the utmost advantage. For a long time Chivalry did much good, but at length it went out of use, because laws were made and enforced that compelled people to live peacefully together, so that the arts that belonged to Chivalry only served for amuse- ment, and Knights or Champions used to practice a sort of mock fighting, as a mere trial of strength and skill, not intending to kill one another, but to spare the life of him who should be proved the weakest ; and the • most beau- tiful lady present at the encounter, used to give a prize to the victorious knight. These public spectacles were at last given up, but not all at once, for so late as the year 1600, and afterwards, we read of young gentlemen who were taught all the exercises of Chivalry No nobleman, let his rank have been ever so great, could be considered a complete soldier till he was knighted, or acknowledged to be a knight — that is, a member of the order of Chivalry. There were many different orders of knighthood, in each of which different ceremonies and vows were used : but the chief formality was the kneeling down before some elder knight, who, giving a slight blow with his sword on the left shoulder, said : " In the name of God and St. George, rise up, Sir John !" or ^ Sir Thomas !" or whatever else the name mightbe. Amongst the different sorts of knights, were the knights-errant. This order was first introduced in England in the time of king Stephen, by some young men, who, abhorring the tyranny of the lawless barons, bound themselves by solemn vows to devote themselves to the protection of the injured and helpless. The Knights-errant were quite independent Why did Chivalry go out of ase ? How were knights created? When did Chivalry commence in England i ENGLISH H1ST0IIY. 77 of one another, and traveled about from place to place for the purpose of redressing grievances. This order o/ knight-errantry was of infinite service in softening the ferocious manners of the times. The spirit of chivalry seemed to belong wholly to the Norman character, no traces of it having been found amongst the plain and rustic Saxons. Females in that age had not the liberty they enjoy in our time, but they were beloved and cherished by their families, and honored extravagantly by the knights. The daughters of noblemen were commonly educated in nun- neries till they married : they then lived in their husband's castles, and were very often besieged, and taken prisoners, according to the chances of war. One of their occupations was that of surgery ; and it was their office to make salves, and attend on the wounded ; but their principal employ- ment was embroidery and needle-work ; and they used to sit in the great hall, surrounded by their damsels, work- ing with them, and setting them their tasks. When these ladies made a visit, they were furnished with a guard to protect them, lest they should be killed or carried off. But they had no want of society at home ; for, besides the menials belonging to the castle, every lady had a number of damsels attendant on herself, who were the daughters of inferior knights and barons, or perhaps her owe. relations. And every castle was a sort of school for young nobles, where, first in quality of pages, and as they grew older, in that of squires, they learned the arts of war and hunting, which were the chief requisites for a gentle- man, y What were the occupations of ladies in the middle ages? Who were the co-i paniors and attendants of ladies ? 78 ENGLISH HISTORY C II A P T E R 1 X STEPHEN [Years after Christ, 113G— I. 154 ] \ All the precautions which Henry had taken to secure the crown to his daughter were but vain. An usurpei sprang up where he would least have expected one, in his favorite nephew Stephen, who was the second son of his sister Adela and the count de Blois. To him Henry had invariably shown the utmost kindness, and a preference above all his other relations. He had given him a large estate in Normandy ; and had married him to the heiress of Boulogne, whose mother was Mary of Scotland, sister to his own queen, Matilda. But all these kindnesses could not inspire Stephen with gratitude. As soon as he heard i>( the king's death, he hastened to England ; and though he met with a little opposition at first, yet he soon pro- cured himself to be crowned at Westminster. Stephen's deportment was popular and engaging, and he had much pleasantry in his conversation. He was a great favorite with the people ; and to this, more than to any other cause, is attributed the success of his attempt on the crown. This usurpation had been so totally Who succeeded Henry I. ? What immediate effect had Stephen's usurpation ? ENGLISH HISTORY 70 unexpected, that no preparations had been made to guard against it ; and the empress Maude, as she is commonly called, and her friends ,\vere so unprepared for the event, that they knew not what to do. This gave Stephen time to strengthen himself, before any attempts were made to check his operations. The first person who took up arms against him was David, king of Scotland, who marched an army into Eng- land to vindicate the rights of his niece. But Stephen contrived to win him over by ceding to him the greater part of the four northern counties of England, and giving to his son the earldom of Huntingdon. The wisest and most powerful baron then in England was the earl of Glou- cester, a son of the late king. He was warmly attached to his sister ; but as the other nobles acknowledged Stephen, he also was obliged to submit. For the next three years Maude appears to have made no direct attempt; but to have been lying in wait for an opportunity to assert her rights. A T) 1 1 qq Stephen raised great discontents by his ' ' ' severity to some of his barons. This en- couraged Maude and the earl of Gloucester, who had joined his sister in Normandy, to come to England. They were received in an evil hour into Arundel Castle, by the dow- ager queen Adelais : and from this time, for several years, England was desolated by one of the most calamitous wars it ever knew. The barons sided with the two contending parties as their feelings, or rather as their interests, prompt- ed them, But, instead of an open war, it was a miserable vexatious kind of hostility, and displayed all the worst evils of the feudal system. Each baron, shut up in his own castle with his own retainers, kept up a sort of petty war with his nearest neighbor of the opposite party, to the destruc- tion of all domestic comfort and civil order. " All Eng- land," according to an old historian, " wore a face of deso- lation and misery ; multitudes abandoned their beloved country, and went into voluntary exile : others, forsaking their own houses, built wretched huts in church yards, Who vindicated Matilda's rights ? Why did Matilda come to England ? What sort of war was carried on in England in Stephen s reign ? 80 ENGLISH HISTORY. hoping for protection from the saeredness of the place Whole families, after sustaining life as long as they could by eating herbs, roots, and the flesh of dogs and horses, at last died of hunger ; and you might see many pleasant villages without a single inhabitant." A T) 1 141 After tn ^ s contest had gone on for some time, without any decided advantage to either party, the earl of Gloucester, who commanded the empress's army, appeared before Lincoln, where a fierce battle took place on the 2d of February, 1141, Stephen was taken, and carried prisoner to Bristol Castle./ Upon this great victory, Maude was acknowledged queen, and on the 1st of June entered London in triumph. But instead of acting with prudence, or even with grati- tude, despising the counsels of her uncle, the king of Scot- land, and of her brother, the earl of Gloucester, to whom she owed so much, she treated her friends ungraciously, and her enemies insolently. She insulted the citizens ot London, instead of granting any of their requests ; and disgusted all orders of people so entirely, that, even while she was making preparations for her coronation, she found herself compelled to leave London, and fly to Win- chester. Here she was soon besieged by Stephen's youngest brother, Henry, bishop of Winchester. With the utmost difficulty she escaped on a swift horse, to Devizes ; but the earl of Gloucester, in endeavoring to follow her, was taken prisoner, and carried to Rochester Castle. He, however, was soon after exchanged for Stephen. Thus, by both being taken prisoners, they both regained their liberty. Stephen, about this time, was seized with a fit of illness 5 and was disabled, for a time, from taking advantage of this turn of fortune in his favor. As soon, however, as he regained his health, he pursued the empress. She escaped, borne in a litter, like a corpse, to Oxford ; and took re- fuge there in the castle, during the absence of the ear oi Was Stephen defeated ? Hew did Matilda conduct herself after the battle of Lincoln ? How did Stephen obtain his liberty ? How did Matilda escape from Stephen ? ENGLL3H HISTORY 81 Gloucester, who had gone into Normandy bo bring prince Henry, Maude's eldest son, to England. Stephen continued before Oxford for three months, har« ing sworn not to raise the siege till he had taken the em- press prisoner. At last the garrison was reduced to extremity by famine ; but still Maude was too proud to surrender. The ground, it being now the middle of win- ter, was covered with snow. The empress, and three of her trusty knights, attiring themselves wholly in white, that they might be the less easily distinguished, opened by night a postern door, and got out of the castle ; and aftei crossing the frozen river, and walking six miles, they reached Abingdon in safety, where they procured horses to convey them to Wallingford. At Wallingford, Maude was met by the earl of Gloucester, on his return from Nor- mandy with prince Henry, a fine promising boy of eleven years of age ; and she soon forgot all her late fatigues and alarms in the joy of that happy meeting. The fatal and ruinous warfare between Maude and Ste- phen continued for some years longer, but in the year 1 1 47 the empress had a severe loss, in the death of her faithful friend the earl of Gloucester. On his death, feeling her- self, at length, wearied out with the struggle, she resigned her claims to her son Henry, who went into Normandy to collect an army which might enable him to renew the war. To that country Maude also retired, and spent there the remainder of her life ; never interfering in pub- lic affairs. \ T) 1 1 ^ r ^ ne ^ ames of civil war had latterly been subsiding, but they blazed up again on the arrival of prince Henry from Normandy. The two armies met at Wallingford, and faced each other for sev • eral days without coming to an engagement. Some of the barons, who deplored the miseries of the country had thus an opportunity of proposing an accommodation, to which Stephen the more willingly consented from having a short lime before lost his eldest son, Eustace. Did Matilda surrender to Stephen at. Oxford ? Did Mati'da ever make peace with Stephen? Was civil war revived in Ei.gland during Stephen's leigu ? 82 ENGLISH IIIST0R\ It was agreed that Stephen should keep the crown dur mg his life, and that. Henry should succeed to it at his death. The news of tl is treaty was received with the greatest joy all over the country, and the king and his people at last obtained some repose. But the following year, some disagreements ensuing between Stephen and Henry, the war seemed ready to burst forth again. Hap- pily for the country, the death of Stephen put an end to the contest. Stephen died at Dover, on the 25th of October, 1154 THE NORM AN LINE. Began to Reigned reign. Years. 10G6 .... 21 ... . William the Conqueror. Robert, ^ 1087 .... 13 ... . William Rufus, Children t.{ 1100 .... 35 ... . Henry the First, J> William the Adela, countess of Blois, J Conqueror. William, bon of Robert, ) William, > Children of Henry the Empress Matilda, J First. 1135 .... 19 ... . Stephen, son of Adela and the count de Blois grandson of William I. THE SAXON LINE RESTORED. 1154 ... 34 ... . Henry the second — son of the empress Matilda, and GeofFroy Plantagenet ; — grandson ci Henry the First and Matilda of Scotland, who was niece to Edgar Atheling, and de- scended from the Saxon kings. \ CHAPTER X. HENRY II. L i r ear3 after Christ, 1 1 51—1 1 89. J Henry Plantagenet was the eldest son of GeofTry, earl of Anjou and the empress Matilda. It was the custom before family surnames were adopted, to call each person What treaty was made between Stephen and prince Henry ? Who were the Norman princes, and how was the Saxon line r<- fctoied? Who succeeded Stephen ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 83 by a surname of his own ; as Harold Harefoot, W illiam Rufus. Thus Geoffry got the surname of Plantagenet, from wearing in his helmet a sprig of the plant genista, or broom ; and Henry, either because he liked the name, or from affection to his father's memory, retained it, and by this means it became established as the surname of his family. Henry had had the great advantage of receiving a part of his education at Bristol Castle, under the superinten- dence of the earl of Gloucester, who was the most learned and virtuous nobleman of his age. Henry "had posses- sion of Normandy given to him when he was only sixteen years old. By his father's death, in 1151, he became possessed of Anjou, Touraine, and Maine. The year fol- lowing he married Eleanor, heiress of Guienne and Poi- tou, who was many years older than himself, and had be- fore been married to, and divorced by the king of France Thus he already possessed a very large domain in France, when the death of Stephen put him in possession of Eng- land also. He was at this time twenty-one years of age ; of the middle size, and remarkably strong and active. Whilst under the earl of Gloucester's care, he not only acquired all the common military accomplishments of the times, but also that uncommon one, a taste for study. He delight- ed in the conversation of learned men. He had an affec- tionate heart and an excellent understanding, and inheri- ted all that was good and admirable in his grandfathei Henry, without the alloy of his bad qualities. The first act of Henry, on coming to the crown, was to send away all the foreign soldiers that Stephen had brought into Englan I ; and to order all the castles that had been ouilt during the civil wars to be demolished. He also con- firmed a charter of privileges to the people ; and to use the words of one of the best historians,* " no king in so short a time, had done so much good, and gained so much Who educated Henry IT. and what were his circumstances ? What was the character of Henry II. ? What were the first measures of Henry II. 1 •Henry 84 ENGLISH HISTORY Love, since Alfred." In 1 155, he recovered from the king of Scotland that part of the north of England which Ste- phen had ceded. Henry also carried his arms against the Welsh, who had been very troublesome neighbors ; and though his army was once in some danger of being defeated, he, in the end, made an advantageous peace with them, and compel- led them to give up some places which they had taken on the English border. From this time till the year, 1 1 63, he was chiefly engaged in a war with the king of France, in pursuance of a claim he considered himself to have, in right of his wife, on Toulouse, and some other territories. The fertile island of Ireland, was divided into five sepa- rate kingdoms. Very little mention is made of it by the English historians, till the year 1171, when Dermot, one of the five kings, being driven from the kingdom of Lein- ster, came over to England to implore the assistance oi Henry, who gave him some money from the royal trea- sury and permitted him to enlist in his cause any of tho English whom he could prevail on to join him. Accordingly the earl of Pembroke, surnamed Strongbow, and a few other noblemen, returned with Dermot to Ire- land, and with their assistance he soon recovered his king- dom. Not contented with this success, Dermot thought mat, by the help of his English friends, he might also pos- sess himself of the other four kingdoms. But Strongbow did not dare to engage in a plan for the conquest of the whole island without first soliciting Henry's consent. The king's answer was for some time delayed ; and the earl, meanwhile, hastening his preparations, collected in England an army of 1200 men ; but when he was on the point of conveying them to Ireland, he received Henry's positive commands not to proceed. He was, however, now too much bent on the enterprize to give it up ; so putting life and honor to the hazard, he set sail. At Waterford Strongbow was joined by Dermot, and there married his daughter Eva. He then proceeded to the in what wars did Henry engage ? What is the early history of Ireland ? What were the achievements of earl Strongbow ? Did Strongbow follow the king's orders ? Hch came Strongbow king of Ireland ? ENGLISH HISTO.IV . 85 attack of Mcath, which was soon conquered. The yeai following Dermot died, the earl Strongbow, m right of his wife, succeeded to his possessions, and thus became king of a great part of Ireland. Henry had been exceedingly displeased with the earl for having disobeyed him ; nor was he appeased till Strong- bow came over to England, and resigned to him all these great acquisitions. Henry allowed him to retain part ol Leinster, and went over himself in 1 172, with a fleet ol 400 vessels, to take possession of his new dominions. The petty princes, overawed by such a powerful force, imme- diately submitted ; and Roderick, the supreme king of the island, consented to become tributary ; and thus was this important conquest effected without bloodshed. — < Thomas a Becket,was at this time a very distinguished person, and his quarrels with king Henry were a subject of concern and interest even to many foreign potentates. Tho- mas a Becket was the son of a citizen of London, and was the first Anglo-Saxon who had arrived at any kind of eminence since the conquest. Becket had early been remarked for his great abilities, and for his attachment to the cause of the empress Maude. When Henry came to the throne, he selected Beckel as his favorite and companion ; and at length made him his chancellor, thus placing him in the highest dignity m the kingdom next to that of the archbishopric of Canter- bury. He also confided to him the education of prince Henry, his eldest son. Becket now indulged himself in every kind of luxury and magnificence. He never moved without a numerous train of servants ; his dress was splendid in the extreme ; he was profuse in his gifts ; the luxury of his table and of his furniture was greater than had ever been seen before ; and Fitzstephen, who was his secretary, and wrote the history of his life, states, as an instance of his extreme d« Did Strongbow surrender Ireland U* Henry II. ? Who was Thomas a Becket» What favor did Henry show Becket How did Becket live ? 86 ENGLISH HISTOfiY. licacy, " that in winter his apartirents were every day covered with clean hay and straw, and in summer with green rushes, or boughs, that the gentlemen who paid court to him, and who could not, by reason of their numbers, find a place at table, might not soil their rine clothes by sit- ting on a dirty floor." Though Becket had been ordained a deacon, he consi- dered himself more a layman than an ecclesiastic, and em- ployed his leisure in hunting and hawking, and similar diversions. He also engaged in military affairs, and con- ducted 700 knights, at his own charge, to attend the king in his war in France. His house was a place of education for the sons of the chief nobility, and the king was often present at the entertainments he gave. As an instance of the familiarity w T ith which the king treated Becket, Fitzstephen, an historian of that age, relates the following story : — One day, while they were riding together in the streets of London, they met a poor beggar shivering with cold. The king made the observa- tion, that it would be a good deed to give that poor man a warm coat. The chancellor agreed, and added, "You do well, sir, in thinking of such a good action." " Then he shall have one presently," said the king, and seizing on the chancellor's cloak, which was of scarlet lined with ermine, he tried to pull it off. The chancellor, not liking to part with it, held it fast, and the king and he were near pull- ing each other off their horses in the scuffle. At last, Becket letting the cloak go, the king gave it to the beg- gar, who, was much astonished at such a scene, and such a gift, from such a man. The bishops had, at this time, encroached so much upon the privileges of both the king and the people, that the king was hardly master of his kingdom, or the people masters of their own consciences. One great cause of this evil was, that the clergy were not amenable to the common laws oi the country, but were governed bylaws among themselves, called ecclesiastical laws. Henry, feeling the inconve- nience of this church tyranny, had long meditated the put- Had Becket the manners of an ecclesiastic ? What familiarity with tho king did Becket enjoy ? Did Hcniy encourage the tyranny of the clergy 1 ENGLISH HISTOID. 87 ting a check to it. And, on the death of the archbishop of Canterbury, he promoted Becket to that dignity, be- lieving that he would be ready to forward the design of lowering the pride and power of the clergy. But no sooner was Becket established in his new dig- nity than he seemed changed in character, as well as in condition. He renounced all his gay and active amuse- ments, and was always seen with a book in his hand, 01 else absorbed in deep meditation. He affected the greatest austerities ; he wore sackcloth next his skin, and never changed it till it was full of dirt and vermin ; he ate no- thing but bread, and drank water in which fennel had been steeped to make it nauseous ; he lacerated himself with continual scourging ; and he every day washed the feet of thirteen poor beggars. In short, the ostentation of affected sanctity made him take a satisfaction in inflicting on himself the severest penances. His conduct towards the king was not less changed than his personal deportment and way of living. He withdrew from the intimacy with which Henry had treated him, and resigned the office of chancellor, saying he must now de- vote himself wholly to his spiritual functions. And so far was he from giving any aid to the king's plans of reform, that he set himself up as a strenuous supporter of the usur- pations of the clergy. In all this conduct he was encou- raged by the pope ; and Henry was thus kept in a conti- nual ferment for eight years. Henry was so much disappointed and exasperated by the conduct of Becket, that forgetful of all his former regard for him, he certainly treated him both unjustly, and, on some occasions, severely. At last, in a moment of great irritation, he unhappily exclaimed, " Is there nobody that will rid me of this turbulent priest V* Henry probably had no sooner said these words, than he forgot them. But they were not forgotten by some of those who heard them, and who thought they should do the king an acceptable service by executing what they imagined to be his wishes. Did Becket resist the encroachments of the clergy ? Did Becket aid the king's purposes I How did Henry regard the priestcraft and disloyalty of Beokei ? 88 ENGLISH HISTORY. Four gentlenven of his household set out immediately with the utmost speed from Bayeux in Normandy, where the king then was, to England. When they, arrived at Canterbury, they demanded admittance into the arch- bishop's palace. The servants, apprehensive of some evil design, obliged their master to fly into the cathedral, think- ing the sanctity of the place would protect him. But the assassins followed him ; and, because he would not submit to be their prisoner, they slew him on the steps of the altar, as he knelt before it. When Henry heard of this murder, he was so much shocked and concerned, that he shut himself up for three days, and refused to let any body come near him. At last nis attendants forced open the door of his room, and per suaded him to take some refreshment. The king after- wards, caused a magnificent tomb to be erected for Bec- ket in Canterbury cathedral, he walked barefoot to the shrine, and permitted himself to be lashed by scourges as he knelt before it ; and thus considered himself as fully absolved from all guilt he^ might have incurred by being accessory to his death. \ A D 117? Henry was sovereign of England, Ireland, and of a third part of France. All his dominions were in a state of tranquility. But it seems as if princes were destined to pay for their royalty the high price of that domestic happiness which their subjects often enjoy. The Queen, whom he had married for the sake of her rich dower, was of an unamiable and jealous temper, and not only gave him much vexation by her own conduct, but also encouraged her children to behave undutifully to him. Henry, the eldest of them, had been crowned by his father, when he was about fifteen years old ; it being not uncommon at that time for the heir to be crowned in his father's lifetime. He soon became impatient to reign in reality, and entered into a conspiracy with the kings of Fiance and Scotland, and other princes who were jealous of king Henry's power, to dethrone him. Who killed Becket 1 How did Henry receive the intelligence of Becket's death ? Whi.t were the king's domestic circumstances ? What was the conduct of Prince Henry ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 89 The king perceived that his son was less dutiful and lespectful than formerly, and therefore removed from about him some persons who gave him bad advice. On this the prince, and his brothers Richard and Geoffry, whom he had persuaded to join him, fled to the court of the king of France ; and even queen Eleanor, in the disguise of a man, tried to escape there also, to the very same king from whom she had formerly been divorced, on account of her ill-conduct. She was, however, discovered, and brought back to Henry, who shut her up in strict confinement. The rebellion which had been preparing now broke out. On the side of Normandy, Henry was beset by the king of France and the earl of Flanders, while William king of Scotland marched into Cumberland, where he was joined by all the discontented barons of England, But in no part of his reign did Henry act with more wisdom and vigoi than in this great emergency The united forces of so many enemies were unable to do him any serious injury , and in the following year, 1 175, all their schemes were frustrated by the capture of William king of Scotland, who was taken prisoner at Alnwick Castle. When the news of this event was brought to Henry, he was in bed ; but he instantly rose, and called his attend- ants about him, that he might tell them the happy tidings. The king of France was now glad to make peace. Hen- ry's generosity to his defeated enemies is much to be ad- mired. He gave liberty without ransom to above nine hundred noblemen who were made prisoners: and he gave the king of Scotland his liberty, on condition that ho and his successors should thenceforward swear fealty to the king of England. He pardoned his sons, on the score of their youth ; and to keep his son Henry for the future out of the way of bad advisers, he made him accompany nim in a tour round the kingdom. But though Henry behaved to his son in the kindest and most paternal manner, the young prince who seemed Did the imtner, and brothers of Henry conspire against the king? Who were the king's foreign enemies, and did they prevail against him ? Was Henry a generous man, and to whom did he show generosity l Did Henry reform his undutiful son's heart? 90 ENGLISH HISTORY. to be quite de\oid both of affection and gratitude, grew weary of the constraint he was kept in, and importuned his lather, under different pretences, to let him quit Eng- land. This at .last the king very unwi'lingly agreed to, and the prince returned immediately to his former com- panions, and spent his time in all kinds of idle amuse- ments, and gave the king continual vexation by his head- strong and obstinate conduct. At last, the prince having a quarrel with his brother Richard, and the king seeming to take Richard's part, the prince, in the violence of his passion, broke through all restraints, and was actually leading an army against his father, when the tumult of his mind threw him into a fever Finding himself dying, he sent a repentant message to his father, entreating forgiveness for all his undutiful beha- viour, and beseeching that he would come and see him. This the king would not do, apprehending his illness to be only pretended ; but he sent him his ring in token of forgiveness. The prince received it with thankfulness, and a little before his death desired to be laid on a heap of ashes with a halter about his neck, to testify his deep hu- miliation and contrition. This was done, and in this state he died. Henry's grief when he heard that his son was dead, was very great indeed. He bitterly reproached him- self for having refused to go to him, and forgot, in sorrow for his death, all his faults and misconduct. Prince Henry died in the twenty-ninth year of his age, and as he left no children, his next brother, Richard, be- came heir to the throne. Richard also was of a turbulent disposition, and on many occasions behaved very ill to his father. In the year 1186, Henry's third son, Geoffry, was killed in a tournament at Paris. He left one daugh- ter, called the Damsel of Bretagne ; and soon after his ileath, a posthumous son was born, who was named Arthur. \ T) 1 1 ftfi r ^^ ie news arrlvef l m Europe of the taking ' of Jerusalem and the defeat of the Chris* Did this unworthy prince ever repent 7 Did pr nee Henry die in a hardened state ? Who became heir to the crown of England on the death qf Pnncv ITeiiry? What primes of Europe engaged in a nrusadr, A. D. 1188. ENGLISH HISTORY. 91 tian army by Saladin, sultan of Egypt. The consternation this news occasioned flew from country to country, and fired all the warriors of Europe with a desire of driving the infidels from the holy city. Philip, king of France, and Richard Plantagenet were among the first to take up the cross. Richard, jealous of the favor which John, his youngest, and now only surviving brother, had with his father, want- ed to take him with him to the Holy Land ; but this his father would not consent to ; and Richard, whose fiery temper could not brook the least contradiction, then joined Philip, who indeed had probably drawn him on, in making war upon Henry ; instead of carrying his troops to Pales- tine. Henry, being totally unprepared for such an attack, was obliged to subscribe to a humiliating treaty ; but what afflicted him most of all was the conduct of John, his favorite son, who forgetting every tie of duty and gratitude, had joined in the rebellion. This seemed to weigh down the king's heart more than any other affliction of his life; and he fell ill of a fever, occasioned by anxiety of mind. Feelinghimself dying, he desired to be carried to a church. He was laid at the foot of the altar, and there expired, on the 9th of July, 1189, in the 57th year of his age, and 35th of his reign. He married Eleanor, the heiress of Guienne. Their children were — William, who died when a child ; Henry who married Marguerite of France, and died in 1182 : Richard, surnamed Cceur de Lion : GeofTroy married Con- stance of Bretagne, died in 1186, leaving a son, I amed Arthur, and a daughter ; John, surnamed Lackland ; Maud, married Alphonso of Castile ; Joan, married Wil- liam, king of Sicily. One of Henry's institutions, which still remains, is the division of the kingdom into circuits, in which justices appointed by the king travel round to decide causes and Why did not prince John accompany his brother Richard to Pales- tine, and what fol'owed the king's refusal ? What event hastened the death of Henry, and when did he die ? Who were Henry's children ? 92 ENGLISH HISTORY. administer justice. This at that time was a most neces- sary protection against the tyranny of the barons, who often took the administration of the laws into their own hands. It was during this reign that the distinction be- tween Saxons and Normans began to wear away, and that they learned to consider themselves as one people. Learning advanced considerably in England during the reign of Henry II. His grandfather, Henry the First, was a great encourager of learning ; and in the reigns of Ste- phen and Henry II. there were many learned men, both poets and historians, to whom we are much indebted for the knowledge of the events of their times, and of the times before them. Of these the most eminent are, Wil- liam of Malmsbury, Henry of Huntingdon, and Giraldus Cambrensis ; the last of whom wrote an account of a journey through Wales, and also a description of Ireland, with the history of the conquest of that island. All the writers of this time were monks and priests. Few of the laity could write ; it was remarkable if they could read. The invention of paper, the art of making which was discovered in the 12th century, was of infinite advantage to the progress of learning. Books could now be multi- plied at less expense, and a library was become essential in every monastery. Every monastery had also a room called the writing room, where the younger monks were employed in transcribing books : for printing was yet unknown. About the time of Henry II. many Jews came over and settled in England : but they were treated with great in- dignity, and to distinguish them from Christians, were obliged to wear a square yellow cap. Family surnames were unknown before the Conquest and appear to have been then introduced from the cir ■ Dumstance of many of the Normans who came over to England being called by the names of the places they came from in Normandy. Their children, willing to What existing institution may be traced to the wisdom of Henry II. t What was the state of learning in England in the reign of Henry II ? What invention facilitated learning ? When were the Jews first settled in England ? When did surnames first become common in England ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 93 preserve the remembrance of their Norman origin, also called themselves by the same names. The present noble families of Seymour (anciently St. Maur,) and Sackville,and many others, derive their names in this manner from places in Normandy. It was soon "bund that family names were not only honorable, but also convenient. Family names have now become universal ; but they were once only assumed by distinguished fami- lies ; and it was a long time before thay were adopted by (lie lower orders of people. It was related in the preceding chapter that Ireland was conquered by the Earl of Pembroke, and that little was known previously by the English concerning Ireland. This much, however, is generally admitted, that in the fifth century, St. Patrick, who was a native of Cornwall, or as some say of Wales, was carried by pirates to Ire- land, and that he converted the inhabitants, who till then professed the religion of the Druids, to Christianity. From that time Ireland was a place of refuge for learned men of all countries ; and religion and science flourished there till the eight century, when the country was overrun by the Danes, who destroyed most of the churches and mon- asteries. When the Danes were expelled, the Irish not having an Alfred to govern them, sank into great barbarism, and it was not till many years after earl Strongbow's time that they assimilated themselves in any degree to the manners and habits of other civilized nations. Have surnames become general ? Wha* Irish tiau'ition is generally believed? Why i3 it presumed that the Irish degenerated 94 ENGLISH HISTORT. CHAPTER XI RICHARD I Years after Christ, 1189-1199.1 Monument. Richard, surnamed Cceur de Lion, from his undaunted courage, had received from nature a very generous dispo- Bition. His faults were those of a lofty spirit, and were, perhaps, too suitable to the unruly temper of the time he lived in, to be then considered reprehensible or dangerous For his father's death he felt extreme sorrow ; and on seeing his dead body, expressed an agony of remose for his own undutiful conduct towards him. One of the first acts of Richard's reign, was to release his mother from her long confinement. He bestowed many kind but ill-judged gifts on his brother John, which, instead of inspiring him with any affectionate feeling, only put it the more in his power to show his ingratitude. Richard soon turned his whole mind to the crusade. He sold the royal castles and demesnes, in order to raise money, and had recourse to many unjust and unworthy methods of ex- torting it from his subjects. He also, for the sum of ten thousand marks, absolved the king of Scotland from his oath of doing homage to the kings of England. A D 11 90 ^ ^ en & tn tne armament was ready ; and Richard, accompanied by a number of the What sort of man was Richard Cceur de Lion ? What were the first acts of Richard's reign ? When did Richard go to Palestine, and with whom did he go ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 95 English baions, all as eager in the cause as himself, ar- rived at Messina on the 14th of September, 1180. Here he was joined by Philip, king of France ; and the season being too far advanced for them to proceed immediately to Palestine, it was agreed that they should pass the winter in Sicily. There could not be a greater difference of cha- racter than that which existed between these two kings. — Richard, though proud and domineering, was brave and generous. Philip was equally proud, but was sly and de- ceitful. It will not appear surprising that two such opposite cha- racters should quarrel before their six months' residence ic Sicily was over; and it must be acknowledged that the first aggression came from Richard. He had long been con- tracted to Adelais, sister of the French king ; but Henry, his father, had repented of the engagement, and Avould not permit it to be fulfilled while he lived: and now Richard, having become enamored of Berengaria, daughter of the king of Navarre, broke off his engagement to Adelais. . p. -.q. King Richard prevailed with his mo- ' * * ther, queen Eleanor, to bring the princess Berengaria to Messina. They arrived the day before he was obliged to sail ; but, itbeing Lent, the marriage, accord- ing to a regulation in the Roman Catholic Church, could not then take place. Eleanor returnedto England, and the princess, accompaniedby the queenof Sicily, Richard's sis- ter, embarked for the Holy Land. During the voyage the ship the two princesses were in was in great danger from a violent storm ; and the king of Cyprus refusing to admit the ship into his harbors, Richard laid siege to that island, and in a short time obtained entire possession of it. Here he and Berengaria were married ; and after leaving a go- vernor in the island he sailed for Acre, where the king of France, who had some time before left Sicily in great, dis- pleasure with Richard, was already arrived. Acre was a town on the coast of Palestine, in pos- session of the Saracens, and had been besieged for the hast two years by an army of Christians collected from all What caws*: of offence was given by Richard to Philip of France ? Where, and to whom was Richard I. married? Where was Acre, and when did that town surrender to Richard ? 90 ENGLISH HISTORY. parts of Europe. The Christians were now in their turn surrounded and besieged by a large army of infidels, under the famous Saladin. The arrival of Richard, whose valor was well known, revived the courage of the Christians ; and the town, being attacked night and day, was obliged to surrender on the 12th of July. Soon after the capture of Acre, the king of France return- ed home, pretending that the climate disagreed with him ; but in reality because he was jealous of Richard, and had not forgot his quarrel with him at Messina. Before he went lie solemnly engaged not to make any attempt on the terri- tories of Richard, though at this very time he entertained the full intention of attacking them as soon as he got back. He also gave secret orders to the duke of Burgundy, the commander of the troops he left behind, to omit no oppor- tunity of thwarting and mortifying the English king. In the meantime, Richard, unsuspicious of these designs, thought only of his open and declared enemies. He dis- played extraordinary bravery and skill ; and in a battle near Joppa, which lasted from morning till night, gained a great victory over Saladin. The victorious Christians then entered Joppa, or rather the ruins, which were all that was left of the town, which had been wholly dismantled by the Turks. Richard's intention was immediately to have pursued Saladin, who had re-assembled his scattered forces at As- calon ; and had he done so, his success would in all prob- ability have been complete : but the duke of Burgundy, agreeably to the instructions he had received, insisted on staying to rebuild the walls of Joppa. Richard was unwill- ingly obliged to submit, and a delay of seven weeks was caused by that useless work. When they at last set forth again, the rains and natural impediments, to which were added those that the duke of Burgundy still threw in the way, prevented their getting to Jerusalem till the end of the year 1191: and,when at last they had arrived in sight of it, the French troops, and some Did Philip of France act with generosity towards Richard ? What victory over Saladin was achieved by Richard ? Who retarded Richard's designs in Palestine ? What compelled Richard to retire from Jerusalem? ENGLISH HISTORY. 97 others, refused to advance to the siege; and Richard, to his bitter mortification, was obliged to retreat to Ascalon This march is described as the most painful of all that the army made ; and when, at last, worn out by fatigue and famine, it arrived at Ascalon, the place was found such an entire ruin, that it became necessary to set to work imme- diately to repair it. Richard set the example by working with more ardor than any common laborer. Soon after, the duke of Burgundy, and all whom he could entice to tollow him, separated from the army, and went to Tyre. In the meantime the affairs of England had gone on very ill. Prince John, and the bishop of Ely, to whom the chief authority had been given, soon disagreed, and the whole kingdom was in a state of disturbance. At last the bishop was obliged to abandon the country ; and del- egates were appointed, who acted more prudently. When the king of France got home, he lost no time in inviting John to unite with him in seizing on Richard's territories. A D 1 1 qo John was only prevented from doing so by .' queen Eleanor, who appears to have act- ed like a wise and good woman at this juncture. Philip then would have invaded Normandy with his own for- ces ; but he was obliged to give up this design, all his barons refusing to accompany him in so unjust and un- generous an attempt. The news of these transactions reached Ascalon about the middle of April, and Richard then resolved to return to Europe. But while Richard was preparing for his return, he heard that Saladin was besieging Joppa, and that the Christians there were reduced to the last extremity. Giv- ing up, therefore, his design of immediately embarking, he went directly to Joppa, and defeated the Pagans in a furious battle, in which he performed prodigies of valor. Soon after this he fell ill, and, being unable to pursue his advantages, concluded atruce with Saladin for three years, three months, three weeks, three days, and three hours. Amongst the many causes that had from the first impeded How did Richard conduct himself at Ascalon ? What was the state of affairs in England during he absence of Rich- ard? What determined Richard to return to Eirope? What, ('ircumstance detained Richard in Asia ? 98 ENGLISH HISTORY. the progress of the Christian army in the East was the di- vision that arose in it from the rival interests of Conrad, marquis of Montferrat, and Guy of Lusignan, who each contended for the empty title of king of Jerusalem ; while the substantial part, the kingdom itself, was in the posses- sion of the Turks. The kings df France and England had taken opposite sides in this contest, Philip taking the part of Conrad, and Richard that of Lusignan. Richard, be- fore he quitted Palestine, was called on by the whole army, to decide this question. Richard decided in favor of Conrad; but, to compensate the disappointment to Lusignan, bestowed on him the king- dom of Cyprus, afar more substantial gift than that which his rival obtained ; for Cyprus remained in the family of Lusignan during a period of three hundred years. In the year 1 47 1 , Cyprus was annexed to the Venetian dominions, and long remained the only territory that was gained to Christendom by all the devastation and bloodshed of the crusades. It is now again subject to the Turks. • On the 9th of October, the two queens having sailed for England previously, Richard commenced his disastrous voyage. After many storms at sea, he was shipwrecked near Aquileia. He then attempted to pass though Ger- many in the disguise of a pilgrim. Unfortunately he had made the duke of Austria his bitter enemy by some per- sonal affront at the siege of Acre ; and having betrayed himself by a profuseness more suitable to the king he was, than to the pilgrim he wished to appear, he was discov- ered and made prisoner by his unforgiving enemy, whe, afterwards, on condition of receiving a share of the ran- som, gave him up to the emperor of Germany. The news of his imprisonment caused the greatest sor- row to all his subjects, who had been anxiously watching for the return of their brave king. John alone rejoiced at his misfortune • and by spreading a report of his death, endeavored tc obtain the crown for himself. The king of France also made an attack on Normandy ; but the barons remained faithful to Richard, and successfully de fended their country. On whom did Richard bestow the island of Cyprus ? What happened to Richard in his voyage to England * Did Richard's subjects adhere to him faithfully ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 99 Richard, meanwhile, was treated by the emperor with every possible indignity, was confined in a dungeon, and Loaded with chains. His cheerfulness and gay humor did not, even under these circumstances, forsake him, and aftej a time he was taken to the town of Worms, where a meet- ing of the princes of Germany, called a Diet of the empire was to be held. When Richard arrived at Worms, the emperor, by way of justifying his own ungenerous behavior, accused him before the diet of having driven away the king of France from Palestine, of having affronted the duke of Austria, and of having made peace on too easy terms with Saladin, and added many other equally unfounded charges. But Richard defended himself so eloquently and pathetically, that many persons shed tears on hearing him, and all were convinced of the malice of his accusers. After this, the emperor agreed to set him at liberty on the payment of 1 00,000 marks of silver, and on his giving hostages for the future payment of 50,000 marks more. When this treaty was made known in France, it threw Philip into the greatest consternation, and he sent a mes- sage to prince John, bidding him" take care of himself." Philip and John then tried to bribe the emperor to keep Richard a year longer in prison. The emperor, who was exceedingly avaricious, longed to accept their offer; but he dared not do so, for the pope, Celestine the Third, con- sidering Richard as the champion of Christendom, threat- ened the emperor with excommunication, if he refused to fulfil his engagement. Queen Eleanor, and all Richard's friends in England, used every means to raise the sum required for his ransom A general tax was levied to procure it ; but, this not being found sufficient, the nobles voluntarily contributed a quar- ter of their yearly incomes, and the silver that was in the churches and monasteries was melted down. W T hen the nnney was collected, queen Eleanor took it herself to Ger- How did Richard support adversity ? How did the emperor of Germany justify his treatmmt to Richard ? "Who persuaded the emperor to detain Richard a pris >ner, and who prevented him ? Who procured Richanl's ransom ? 100 ENGLISH HISTOUY. many, and had the happiness of receiving her son, arid bringing him to England. A D 1194 Richard landed at Sandwich on the 20th day of March, after an absence of fom years, fifteen months of which he had been a prisoner. He was received with overflowings of joy ; and in London with such a display of wealth, that the Germans who had ac- companied him exclaimed, " If our emperor had known the riches of England, your ransom, king, would have been much greater." After Richard had settled some affairs in England, and been a second time crowned, that he might wipe off the stain of his captivity, he embarked for France to defend Normandy against an attack which Philip was preparing to make. The morning after his landing at Harfleur, prince John suddenly rushed into his apartment, and, throwing himself at his feet, implored his forgiveness, which the king immediately granted, though he could not feel any cordial affection for such a brother. Indeed, he soon after said to some of his attendants : " I wish I may forget my brother John's injuries, as soon as he will forget my pardon of them." The four following years were passed uy Richard in a succession of wars and truces with the king of France. At last, by the meditation of the pope, a truce for five years was agreed upon, to enable the kings to undertake another crusade. But the death of Richard prevented. It had been rumored that a considerable treasure had been found on the lands of the viscount of Limoges. Richard claim- ed this, as of his right as sovereign ; and, on the viscount's refusing to give up more than a part, declared positively that he would have the whole, and immediately laid siege to the castle of Chalus, where the treasure was supposed to be lodged. A D 1 QQ ^ ie g arr i son offered to surrender the castle, and all that was in it, provided they might march out with their arms. Richard vindictively refused their offer, protesting he would take their castle by How was Richard received in England ? How did Richa.d and Prince John meet ? What transaction was Richard engagea in during four yeara ? When and where was Richard fatally wounded ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 101 force, and put them all to death. On the 28th of March,, 1 199, as he was taking a survey of the castle, and giving directions for the assault, he was wounded by an arrow from the cross bow of Bertrame de Gourdon. The wound appeared trifling at first, but it soon turned to a gangrene, and in a few days his life was despaired of. Before Richard died, the castle was taken, and all tho garrison were instantly hanged, excepting Betrame, whom .he king ordered to be brought into his presence. "What Harm have I done to you ?" said he to him, " that you should thus have attempted my death?" "You killed my father and brother with your own hands," replied the man • " and intended to have killed me, and lam ready to suffer any torments you can invent with joy, since I have been so happy as to kill one who has brought so many miser ies on mankind." Richard, conscious of the truth of this bold reply, bore it with patience, and ordered the man to be set at liberty : but this command was not obeyed, and Bertrame was put to death as soon as the king had expired. A D 11 0Q Ri cnar( l died on the 6th of April, 1 1 99, ' in the forty-second year of his age, and tenth of his reign. He left all his dominions to his brother John. He had at one time appointed Arthur of Brittany his heir ; but on his death-bed he altered his will. When he was dying, he remembered with bitter anguish his un- dutiful conduct to his father, and desired to be buried near him. He had no children. During this reign (only four months of which the king passed in England) the disorders of that country arrived at a pitch that had been before unknown. No man's life or property was secure ; and there was at one time a regu- lar band of robbers, which, till their leader, William Fitz- osbert, was taken and hanged, threatened London itsel! with destruction. How was Richard reproved on his death-bed 1 Were Richard's last commands obeyed ? Who was Richard's successor ? What was the condition of England in this reign ? 102 ENuLISH HISTORY. CHAPTER XI t. JOHN [Years after Christ, 1199— 1216. J John came tc the crown of England without baring one heart in his favor. His perfidiousness, cruelty, and rapa- city were already well known; and he had neither personal bravery, nor mental ability, to make up for his faults. He had early shown his incapacity for government. For his father, Henry the Second, intending that Ireland should be his inheritance, sent him there, to accustom the people to him. But he insulted the Irish chiefs, ridiculed their cus- toms and habits, and behaved with so much folly and levity, that his father thought fit to alter his purpose. At the time of king Richard's death, Arthur of Bretagne was of an age and temper to feel the disappointment of being excluded from his inheritance. His mother was a woman of violent temper ; and by her advice he placed his cause in the hands of the king of France, who was glad enough to have an opportunity of interfering with the af- fairs of England. John, however, found means to per- suade Philip that it would be more to his advantage to abandon Arthur ; and the two kings entered into a treaty, in which it was settled that Philip's son Louis should marry Blanche of Castile, John's niece ; and that Arthur should be given up to John, who would have immediately put him to death, had he not found means to escape. A D 1 202 Three years afterwards, Arthur married a daughter of Philip, who then undertook his cause, and assisted him to besiege the castle of Mirabel, in Poitou, where his grandmother ,queen Eleanor, who had always been his enemy, lived. He had nearly got posses- sion of the castle, when John, acting with a vigor quite unusual to him, came suddenly to his mother's rescue, and took the unfortunate Arthur prisoner, with his sister the Was John prepared to be a good king ? What was John's treatment of his nephew, prince Authur '/ What misfortune overtook Arthur ' ENGLISH HISTOR\. 103 damsel of Bretagne, who was carried to England, and kept in perpetual imprisonment in Bristol castle. Arthur was taken to the castle of Falaise, where the king gave orders to Hubert de Burgh, the governor, to put him to death. Hubert, desirous to save the unhappy young prince, placed him in concealment ; and, pretending that he was dead, had the funeral service publicly performed for him. But the Bretons were so much exasperated at the supposed murder of their prince, that Hubert found it necessary to inform them of his being alive. But no sooner did John hear of it, than he had Arthur removed to Rouen, where ne himself resided ; and it is generally believed that he murdered his unfortunate nephew with his own hands This barbarity filled every mind with horror, and Jc hn became an object of universal detestation. And, partly because his barons refused him assistance, and partly from his own sloth and cowardice, he made but little opposition to the wily Philip, who drove him step by step out of Nor- mandy, and severed that province from the crown of Eng- land, after it had been for three hundred years in the pos- session of the descendants of the Norman Rollo. His mother's inheritance also, and nearly all the rest of John's territories in France, yielded themselves up to Philip. A T) 190ft J° nn na ^ a quarrel with the Pope, Inno- cent III., about the choice of an arch- bishop of Canterbury. Innocent insisted on the election of Stephen Langton, an Englishman, whose superior abilities had raised him to the dignity of cardinal ; and John refus- ing to confirm his choice, the pope laid the kingdom under an interdict. This, however, John did not much regard. John occupied himself during the next two years in ex- peditions against the Irish and Welsh, and in extorting money from his own subjects, and from the Jews espe- cially, by many unjust and cruel methods. One of his contrivances was to assemble all the abbots and abbesses of the religious houses in London ; and when he had col- What was the death of Arthur? Who separated Normandy from the dominions of the king of Eng land t . ■ • What quarrel between king John and the pope broke out A. D 1208 ? How did Johr treat the Jews and the religious houses? 104 ENGLISH HISTORY \ected them together, he kept them prisoners till the) had paid him a large sum of money. The pope, finding that his interdict was of no avail, now resolved on a more effectual way of bringing John to obe- dience. He excommunicated him, absolved his subjects from their oath of allegiance, and published a sort of cru- sade against him, exhorting all Christian princes and barons to unite in jnaking war upon and dethroning him. To the king of France the pope applied particularly ; and Philip, who was not slow in availing himself of the oppor- tunity thus offered, assembled a numerous fleet and army at Boulogne for the invasion of England. The dread of being conquered by the French overpow eredthe dislike the English had to John. They flocked to him in great numbers on this emergency and a large army was soon collected at Dover. While affairs were in this state, the pope, who only wished to humble John, and not to increase the power of Philip, sent his legate Pandull to England, and promised John that if he would receive Langton as archbishop of Canterbury, he would recal the sentence of excommunication. When John had agreed to this, the legate required him to resign his crown to the pope, and promised that the pope would restore it to him again, on condition of receiving a yearly tribute; and would forbid Philip to invade the realm of England. John agreed to these ignominious terms ; and it is said that when he took his crown, and laid it at the feet of the legate, the pope's representative, that haughty cardinal spurned it with his foot, and that it was some time before he consented to replace it on the king's head. Philip, when he heard of these arrangements, and was ordered by Pandulf to withdraw his forces from the coast, was enraged beyond measure. But, as he did not dare to make the pope his enemy, he found himself obliged to sub init. Unwilling, however, that his great j reparations Did the Pope persevere in nis Hostility to John, and whu aided. bun Did the Pope offer conditions of reconciliation to John ? Did John disgracefully submit „o these terms ? What caused a battle between the French aid English? ENGLISH HISTORY. 105 should be thrown away, he determined to attack the terri tories of Ferrand, earl of Fknders. In this extremity Ferrand applied to John, who sent to his assistance the fleet that had been collected for the de- fence of England. A battle ensued between the English and French fleets, and the English were completely victo- rious. Philip, on the loss of his fleet, returned home with his army in disorder. John was so much elated by this victory, that he wanted to follow it up by the invasion of France ; but his barons refused to accompany him. He therefore entered into an alliance with Otho, emperor of Germany, and some other princes, who engaged to enter France on one side, while John, with some foreign troops that he had collected, at- tacked it on the other. Otho accordingly entered the Netherlands ; and John landed an army at Poitou, and penetrated into Anjou and Bretagne. The army of the emperor being completely defeated at Bouvines, John made a five years truce with Philip, ano hastily returned to England. There a most unwelcome reception awaited him. His barons, tired out by his weak- ness and wickedness, had been long conspiring togethei against him. They were now joined by Stephen Langton, the new archbishop, who, having discovered a concealed copy of the charter granted by Henry I., drew up from it a bill of rights and privileges, which the barons, in full assembly, approved of. \ d ioifi This the king, on his return from France, was called on to sign : but he refused to do so. At last, finding himself abandoned by every body, and in a most desolate condition, he sent the earl of Pern broke, a nobleman distinguished for virtue and ability, to propose a conference wLh the barons. A meeting accord- ingly took place on Friday, the 15th of June, 1215, in a large meadow, between Windsor and Staines, called Runi- mede, which means the meadow of council, and which was no called because it had been used by the Saxons as a Pid John continue the wai with France, and how did the war ter- minate ? Who opposed the arb'trary measures of king John ? What measure was proposed by the English barons to Uing John ? When and where was the great charter signed ? 106 ENGLISH HISTORY. place for public meetings. At this meeting was signed the famous Ma^na Charta. Under the feudal system, the power of the kings was very oppressive, and had become more and more so, till no subject could act in the commonest affairs of life without the king's consent, which could be obtained only for money. No person among the higher classes could marry with- out the king's consent ; and he could oblige heiresses to marry whom he liked. Widows often paid fines, to sa jo themselves from being compelled to marry again. We read of a countess of Chester, who paid king Stephen five hundred marks, that she might not be obliged to mar- ry again for five years ; and of a countess of Warwick, who paid king John five hundred marks that she might not be obliged to many till she pleased. The Magna Charta was a writing declaring the people of England exempted from certain oppressions, and entitled to certain privileges ; and it contained sixty-three different clauses : only the most vexatious tyranny which kings could exercise over the people, could make such clauses necessary. These, for instance : that the goods of every free man shall be disposed of, after his death, according to his will : that if he die without making a will, his children shall succeed to his property : that no officer of the crown shall take horses, carts, or wood, without the consent of the owner: that no free man shall be imprisoned, outlawed, or banished, unless by the judgment of his peers, or the law of the land : that even a rustic shall not, by any fine, be deprived of his carts, ploughs, and implements of hus- bandry. This last was the only article in that great char- ter for -the protection of the laboring people. Laws there were before this time, but they were very ill kept. Till men are civilized, the will of the strongest is the law, to which the weakest must submit. While the Did the first kings of England interfere in the private concerns of their subjects ? Did the Magna Charta improve the condition of the English people ? Were aws of much efficacy previously to the grant of Magna Charta » ENGLISH HISTORY. 10T Romans were in Britain, the island was governed by the Roman law ; but when they departed, every vestige oi government and their language departed with them. The Saxons brought in their own laws, or rather customs ; for there were no written laws till the time of Ethelred, who was the first Christian king of Kent. The code of Ethelred still exists, and strongly shows the simplicity of manners in those ancient times. Alfred, and after him Edward the Confessor, also made codes of laws, many of which are still in force. From the number oi laws for the preservation of the peace, which are to be found in those ancient codes, it would appear that the Saxons were a most quarrelsome race. Indeed, scarcely any meetings were held in those rude ages, either for busi- ness or pleasure, without ending in rioting and bloodshed. King John, as soon as he quitted Runimede, retired sul- len and out of humor to the Isle of Wight, where he spent three months in planning schemes for revenging himself on the barons. He sent agents to raise an army of Bra- banters, promising them the plunder of the barons' estates. Meanwhile the barons, too much despising the king to be- lieve him capable of any vigorous measures, had made no preparations against him, and were amusing themselves with feastings, tournaments, and bear-baitings, the usual diversions of the times ; when John, starting from his con- cealment, appsared before Rochester castle at the head of an army of foreign soldiers. A T) I9ir The barons were now reduced to great extremities ; and in their distress resorted to the worst and weakest measure that could have been thought of. They invited Louis, eldest son of the king ol France, to come to their aid, promising him the crown of England, in right of his wife, who was the king's niece. Louis landed with his army at Sandwich, on the 23d of May ; he thenretookRochester castle, and entered London What sort of people do ihe old codes show the Saxons to havo heea I Did a civil war follow the grant of Magna Charta? W lat king of France entered Londjn in triumph? 108 ENGLISH HISTORY'. in a sort of triumph, the citizens doing homage to him ab their proper sovereign. It was now king John's turn to fly, and the baron's turn to pursue. Every place submitted to them till they came to Dover. Hubert de Burgh was governor there, and de fended the castle so well, that Louis swore a solemn oath that he would not quit its walls till he had taken it, and hanged all the garrison. This oath was the preservation of England ; for the delay of the French prince before Dover castle, gave the barons time to reflect on their error in having called in his aid ; and many of ihem abandon- ed his party, and joined the king. A D I9lfi John by this means mustered once ajrain a considerable army ; but meeting with some disasters in his march into Lincolnshire, fatigue and anxiety threw him into a fever. With great difficulty he reached Newark, where he died on the 19th of October, ] 2 1 6, in the forty -ninth year of his age, and the eighteenth of his reign, John was twice married. By his first wife he had no children. He had two sons and three daughters by his second wife : Henry, who succeeded him ; Richard ; Jane, married to Alexander, king of Scotland ; Eleanor, married first to the earl of Pembroke, secondly, to the earl of Leicester ; Isabella, married to Frederick II., emperor of Germany. I . is extraordinary that the reign of the worst king and the worst man that ever wore the crown of England should be the one that has brought the most lasting good to the nation The Magna Charta has consecrated the reign of king John to all succeeding ages. Besides this great charter, he had, in the early part of his reign, granted one to the citizens of London, conferring on them many ol the privileges they at this day enjoy. An interdict, was forbidding, or interdicting, divine ser What circumstance disposed the English barons to abandon the French king ? What was the death of John ? Who were John's family ? What great benefit to the English nation derived from John? Was John generous, or selfish — superstitious, or religious — piwillliJ raous. or courageous? (Ans. the pupil's judgment.) WliSt was an inte diet 1 ENGLISH HISTORY. 109 rice to be publicly performed. When a nation was under an interdict, the churches were shut ; the bells were not rung ; the dead were buried in ditches and holes, without the performance of the funeral service; diversions of al. kinds were forbidden ; and every thing wore an appear- ance of mourning and gloom. Excommunication was a worse sentence still, and wa^ levelled at persons, as an interdict generally was at nations. Apersonwhowas excommunicated, was considered as un- holy and polluted ; everyone was forbidden to come ne:n him, or to render him any friendly offices. Thus, if the sentence could have been fully enforced, it was possible for the most potent monarch to become, by a single man- date of the pope, a miserable outcast. In this age, robbery was common. Robin Hood lived in the reigns of John and his successor. He died in the year 1247. He is said to have been a man of birth and fortune, and to have squandered his patrimony. He then, as the story goes, betook himself to the woods and forests, and became, if such a phrase be proper, a sort of gentle- man robber ; and pacified his conscience by robbing only the rich, and by being beneficent to the poor. But hr? fame is more owing to the ballads that have been made C n hin', than to any of his own good or bad deeds CHAPTER XIII. HENRY III. [Years after Christ, 1216— 1272. J When King John died, his eldest son Henry, called Henry of Winchester, from the place of his birth, was only eight years old. The Earl of Pembroke, who was a wise and good man, was made protector of the kingdom, What was excommunication ? Who was a famous rebber in king Jahn's time ? Who succeeded John, and who was the protector? 110 ENGLISH HISTORY. and governor of the young king; and while he lived, the youth and incapacity of Henry were of no material disad- vantage to the country. Pembroke, by renewing the great charter, and seeing that the articles of it were duly execu- ted, brought back most of the rebellious barons to tho royal cause. A "n 1917 Louis continued in England some months ' after the death of John, but without being able to increase the number of his partisans ; and on the 1 9th day of May, he encountered the royal army at Lin- coln, and was so completely beaten in a battle which was fought in the streets of that town, that he was glad to make peace with the protector, and to withdraw with the remnant of his army into France. The earl of Pembroke governed the kingdom with honor, wisdom, and success, till 1219, when, to the mis- fortune of England and its king, he died. Hubert de Burgh, and Peter de Roches, a native of Poitou, were ap- pointed to succeed him. \ T) 12oq When the king was sixteen years old, he was declared of age to govern by himself, [n 1224, Philip, king of France, died, and his son Louis succeeded him ; but he also died soon after, and left an infant son, Louis the Ninth, under the guardianship of his mother, Blanche of Castile. Henry thought this would be a good opportunity to attempt the recovery of Norman- dy, and led an army there in 1230 ; but he so misconduct- ed the expedition, that, instead of obtaining any advanta- ges, he returned in a few months to England, covered with disgrace. A D 123R Henry married Eleanor, daughter of the earl of Provence, and immediately raised her friends and relations to some of the highest offices of the state, which gave great offence to the English no- bles. This king's most hurtful folly was the weakness with which he attached himself to strangers, particularly to foreigners, and the fickleness and caprice with which be cast off old favorites to set up new ones. On what account did the French king make peace with England When did the earl of Pembroke die, and who succeeded him 7 What happened to Henry in Normandy ? Wuat was the principal folly of Henry's government? ENGLISH HISTOHV. Ill And he was also so profuse to his favorites, that his treasures were soon exhausted, and he was often obliged to apply to parliament (as the great council of the nation be gan about this time to be called) for a supply of money. By these proceedings he made himself every year more and more despised, and many plans were formed for depo- sing him. The pope, profiting by Henry's imbecility, made many and great encroachments on *he rights of the church of England. The benefices were by his means filled with Italians, and he contrived to intermeddle on all occasions. In 1255 he led the king into much expense, by conferring on his second son Edmund the title of king of Sicily, which he did in the hope of revenging a quarrel of his own with Mainfroy, king of Sicily, by drawing on Henry to invade that island. All the English barons refused to give the least assistance to this project. The king, finding every method fail of extorting money from his subjects for this expedition, resorted to one that was till then unknown. He gave to Italian merchants bills of exchange to a great amount, for money pretended to be advanced by them for the Sicilian war. These bills were drawn on the prelates of England, who at first re- fused to pay the demands thus made on them : but through the remonstrances of the pope they at length submitted. A T) 19^8 ^ e a ^ sence °f tne king's brother, who went to Germany, and of many nobles who were attached to the royal cause, gave an opportunity to the disaffected barons of bringing about the rebellion they had planned. Simon De Montfort, earl of Leicester, who had once been one of the king's favorites, took the lead in this rebellion. The barons assembled at Oxford on the 11th June, 1258, and obliged the king, and his eldest son, then eighteen years of age, to agree to a treaty, by Which twenty-four of their own body, at the head ol whom was De Montfort, had authority given them to re- form all abuses. Did the Pope continue to meddle in the affairs of England ? Did the English barons engage in an expedition planned Ly tht» Pope? When were bills of exchange invented ? DiJ tlie imbe< ility of Henry induce a rebellion in 12.^8 ': 112 ENGLISH HISTORY The barons, under this pretext, assumed a light to gcn- ern the kingdom : but the people scarcely acknowledging such rulers, or not knowing whom they were to obey, paid no respect to the laws, and it seemed as if all government was dissolved. This state of things lasted for six years. The king and the barons were continually making treaties the conditions which w r ere broken as soon as made. The king of France, Louis the Ninth, with a very dif ferent policy from that which had actuated his grandfathei Philip, tried to make peace between Henry and his barons, but Henry was too weak, and De Montfort too ambitious, to listen to reason, and all Louis's endeavors were una- vailing. A D 12f4 ^ ^ ast P rmce Edward, who inherited more of the capacity and courage of the Plantagenets than either his father or grandfather had pos- sessed, became old enough to stand forward and assert his own and his father's rights ; and many barons, disgusted with the conduct of the twenty-four self-appointed rulers, joined the royal standard. The armies of the king and of the earl of Leicester met at Lewes, in Sussex, on the 14lh of May, 1264. The result of this encounter was the complete discom- fiture of the prince. Edward, finding himself surrounded by Leicester's troops, without the possibility of escaping, was obliged to submit to any terms that might be imposed : and he and his cousin prince Henry were detained, and sent strongly guarded to Dover castle, under the color of being hostages for their two fathers, who were still, in effect, kept prisoners. Leicester now could do whatever he liked. He used the king's name for his own purposes, seized on the pro- perty of many of the royal barons, and took possession, in the king's name, of some of the royal castles. He also formed plans of raising himself to the throne. But his ambition caused his ruin. The earl of Gloucester, hi* Did the usurpation of the barons produce confusion in England ? Did Louis of France promote peace in England ? Did prince Edward maintain ine rights of the crown ? How did Leicester treat the king and prince Edward 1 How did the earl of Leicester c ndurt himself? ENGLISH HISTORY. 113 former associate, and now his rival, seeinghimself eclipsed by Leicester's greatness, secretly planned his ruin. Leicester, perceiving himself an object of suspicion, tried to regain the good opinion of the people, by pretending to set Edward at liberty, and restore him to his father; but as Henry was in reality a prisoner also, the prince only changed his place of confinement, and Leicester became the more hated for this deceit. In the meantime Glouces- ter had retired to his estates on the borders of Wale?, and put his castles in a state of defence. He was proclaimed a traitor in the king's name by Leicester, w T ho came to Hereford, bringing the king and the prince with him. The earl of Gloucester, being anxious for an opportu- nity of getting the prince out of Leicester's hands, was very much pleased at this. He formed a plan which he contrived to communicate to him for his escape, and sent him a horse of extraordinary fleetness. The prince, ac- cording to Gloucester's plan, pretended to be very ill, and in a few days, appearing a little better, he obtained Leices- ter's permission to ride out for the benefit of his health Riding slowly, the prince after some little time,persuad ed the gentlemen who were his guards to ride races with one another. When he thought that their horses were sufficiently tired with this exercise, he raised himself erect in his saddle, and telling his guards "he had long enough enjoyed the pleasure of their company, and that he now bade them adieu," he put spurs to his horse, and was soon beyond the reach of pursuit. He was joined immediately by the earl of Gloucester ; and, as soon as his escape was known, all the loyal barons flocked to him, and he was thus at the head of a considerable army. Leicester, ha vingthe old king still in his power, obliged him to issue a proclamation, declaring the prince a traitor. He also sent for his own eldest son Simon from London, who accordingly set out to join him with a great reinforce- ment. But the prince intercepted and defeated Simon at Kenil worth ; and, before Leicester could hear of his son's Kow did Leicester endeavor to gain the favor of the people • Who assisted prince Edward to escape from the custody of feT? How did the prince make his escape ? Did prince Edward gain iny advantage over the harons f 6 114 ENGLISH HISTORY defeat, Edward's ai my appeared in sight, bearing in front the bankers taken from young De Montfort at KeniU worth. This made the earl at first suppose that the reinforce- ment he was expecting had arrived ; but, when the prince advanced near enough for him to find out his mistake, he exclaimed, "Now r God have mercy on our souls, for our bodies are prince Edward's !" The battle soon began, and king Henry was dragged into the midst of it by Lei- cester, and was near being killed by one of prince Ed- ward's soldiers ; but he called out, as the soldier, not know ing him, was going to strike him down, "I am Henry of Winchester, thy king ; don't kill me." A "D 12fi5 ^ e so ^ er tnen ^ e ^ Henry out of the battle ; and the prince, being informed where to find him, flew to puthimin a place of safety,and then returned to the fight, which ended in his gaining a complete victory. Leicester and his son Henry were killed. This important battle was fought at Evesham, on the 4th of May, 1265, and put an end to the con- federacy of the barons. Simon, De Montforfs eldest son, and a few others, still made, indeed, some ineffectual struggles ; but these w T ere only like the subsiding of a storm. On the 4th of May, 1270, prince Edward embarked at Portsmouth for the Holy Land, meaning to join the king of France (who had set out on a crusade, the sixth and the last,) at Tunis ; but, on his arrival there, he found that Louis, who has acquired the surname of Saint, had died of the plague. On his death, the French troops returned to Europe ; but Edward resolved still to pursue the en- terprise with his own little army. Edward conducted himself with great skill and valor ; and the Saracens, who found him a very powerful enemy, employed an assassin to murder him. Edward wrenched thf; dagger from the man's hand, and killed him in his at- tempt, not however before he had himself been wounded Was the king's life in imminent danger in a battle between hid eon' jnd Leicester's loops? When were the barons finally defeated ? Did prince Edward engage in the last crusade ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 115 ;n the arm with the poisoned weapon. The wound, we are told, might have proved fatal, had not his affectionate wife Eleanora, who had accompanied him to Palestine, pre- vented the effect of the poison by sucking the wound. He set out on his return to Europe soon afterwards. A T) \ c T fC l ^ m * st tne P rmce "was tnus exposing him- ' * ' ' self to unnecessary perils abroad, the royal family was suffering great affliction at home. Prince Henry, son of the king of the Romans, (as prince Rich- ard, the king's brother, was entitled,) was basely murdered in Italy by the exiled sons of the earl of Leicester, and his father died of grief at Berkhamstead. King Henry was become old and feeble ; and his government, never much respected, was now totally despised ; and riots, robberies, and excesses of all kinds, were perpetually committed. Henry III., worn out by infirmities, died at Westminster on the ] 6th of November, 1272, in the sixty-fourth year of his age, and the fifty-seventh of his reign. The longest reign in British annals, with the exception of that of George III. He married Eleanor of Provence. His children were, Edward ; Edmund, titular king of Sicily ; Margaret, mar- ried Alexander III., king of Scotland ; and Beatrix, mar- ried to the duke of Bretagne. The state of society in England during the long reign of Henry III., deserves some notice. It has been men- tioned that under the feudal system, the whole territory ol the country, except a certain portion reserved to the king for his own uses, and the church property, was bestowed by the kingupon the nobles ; and that they held their im- mense estates upon condition of supporting the king, and affording him assistance to fight his battles, no other army existing, than that afforded by the nobles or barons of their dependents. The nobles held courts and administered justice, each in What remarkable circumstance happened to Edward in Palestine * What was the condition of England in the last days of Henry' III ? Whose was the longest reign in England ? How did the feudal system divide the territory of England ? What wye thekins's council ? 116 £NGLISH HISTORy. his own domain ; though Henry II. had divided the king' dom into circuits, and judges were appointed to travel through the circuits, to see the laws enforced. When the king required advice, the barons were called from theii castles to the capital to give him counsel. The assem- bly of the barons was called the " King's Council." In the course of time, certain free men, left the baron's estates and carried on arts and commerce in towns, and formed what were called corporations — that is, companies with certain privileges. The barons, pel haps sold or gave estates to some of their favorite retainers, so thft besides, barons and vassals, tradesmen and merchants, there came to be in England, Franklins or freemen — independent possessors of small estates. The richer and more intelligent of these last-mentioned classes formed what is called the gentry of England, that is the gentlemen and ladies distinguished from the nobility, and the inferior classes. The latter were the mechanics, laborers, and house servants. This order of gentry was, perhaps, a longtime in forming, but it came to be acknow ledged as very respectable in the reign of Henry III. It appears that when the barons resisted the despotism of the king of England, and proposed to restrain the abuses of power, they thought it expedient that the gentry as well as the nobility should have some share in the govern- ment, and therefore they proposed that besides the king's Council to deliberate upon public affairs, another body should be summoned to legislate or make laws for the country. The first certain information we have of a parliament, like the parliaments of the present time, is in 1265, when the earl of Leicester, in the king's name, sent writs, or written orders, to the sheriffs, to send "two discreet, knights from each county" to serve in parliament. Every city and borough was also ordered to send " two of its wisest citizens and burgesses." At first the nobles and the representatives of the counties Who became independent orders in England? Who formed the gentry, and who the lower classes ? Were the middle classes admitted to the legislature of England ? What is the first information we p( bsess of the origin of the Enpliih parliament \ Do the lords and commons assemble together? English /iistouy. 117 and towns assembled in one house ; but afterwards they divided themselves into two : and hence arose the House of Lords, and the House of Commons ; the one composed of noblemen who attend there in right of birth, and the other of gentlemen who are elected by the people. Before laws were written, and lawyers contended for law to be enforced, and judges were appointed to explain the law and what it demanded, it has been stated, that nobles settled disputes, or wars decided them; but besides those modes of deciding the right, trials by combat and ordeals were admitted. The trial by combat was a duel, or trial of arms. Two angry persons fought together and the disabled person was pronounced the ofFender, and the conqueror the justified man. The ordeal required an accused person to walk over burning ploughshares, or hot irons blindfold, and if he escaped burning he was pronounced innocent, and dis- charged from punishment of the imputed crime. In the reign of Henry III. trials by ordeal were abolished. A license was granted in this reign to the people of Newcastle, allowing them to dig for coals, the first men- tion we find of that useful mineral. In this reign, though the class of gentry arose, the condition of the lower orders remained unchanged ; and slaves were bought and sold like brute animals at the fairs. There were no regular shops, and the merchants and traders travelled from place to place to dispose of their goods. Roger Bacon was the -most eminent man of the age ol Henry III. This extraordinary person was a monk at Oxford, and was the most learned man of his age. He ap- plied his learning to the discovery of useful knowledge. He invented tele scopes, reading glasses, microscopes, and many other astronomical and mathematical instruments. He discovered gunpowder, though he considered it as an jbject of mere curiosity, rather than as an invention that could be applied to the destruction of human life. How were disputes settled before laws were written, and courts o< law established ? What was the trial by combat, and what the ordeal ? What circumstances are memorable in the reign of Henry 1/1. ' Who was the most eminent man of 'this age in England, and for what* 118 ENGLISH H1ST0KY Bacon's genius soared so far above all his contempora- ries, that he was looked upon as a magician, and thrown into prison, where he was kept for many years. He at length returned to Oxford and 3ied there, a very old man in 1292 CHAPTER XIV EDWARD I. [Years after Christ, 1272—1307.] A D 1274 ^ n rece * vm g news of his father's death, Prince Edward set out for England, but he delayed so long on the road, that he did not arrive there till the 2d of May, 1274. His first business was to restore the police of the kingdom, and he made many excellent laws and regulations. His expedient to fill his coffers was not so commendable. He employed commissioners to exa- mine into the titles by which all persons held their es- tates ; and if any one had not a legal title, that is, a writ- ing which recorded that the estate was given or sold to the proprietor, or his ancestors, he was compelled eitheT to pay a great fine, or to forfeit his land to the king. When the commissioners came to earl Warrenne, and desired him to produce the title by which he held his estate, he drew an old rusty sword out of the scabbard, and said, "This is the instrument by which my ancestors gain- ed their estate, and by which I will keep it as long as I live " When this answer was reported to Edward, he became sensible of the hazard he was incurring, and put an end to the commission. When did Edward I. come to the throne, and what was his policy ? How did Earl Warrenne assert the title of his estate and what is a title to landed property ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 119 A D T>fi2 ^ ie ^ e ^ s ^' un( ^ er tHeir Prince Llewei- " lyri, had long been ve*y troublesome neighbors to the English. They had joined in Leicester's rebellions, and did not keep the terms of peace which Edward made with them on coming to the throne. Per- haps Edward was not sorry to have this pretext for making war on them ; and they, presuming too much on their own strength, attacked his army on the 11th of December, ] 282, and were totally defeated. The Welsh king, Llewellyn, was killed in the battle, and his brother David was taken prisoner, and beheaded like a common traitor. His head was put on the walls of the tower of London, and his limbs were quartered, ac- cording to the barbarous custom of those times, and were hung up in four different places, at York, Winchester Bristol, and Northampton. David being the last branch of that family of ancient kings, Edward took undisputed possession of Wales, and promising the people a prince of their own country, who could speak no English, presented to them his own eldest son, born a few days before in Carnarvon castle, who was thence called prince of Wales, as all the eldest sons of the English kings have been called since. The kings of England and Scotland had lived in singu- lar harmony, during the last two reigns, in which the in- termarriages between the royal families of Scotland and England had made a family as well as a national union. Alexander the Third had married king Edward's sister who died leaving only one child, Margaret, who after- wards married the king of Norway, and died, leaving a little daughter about three years old. Alexander himself died in 1286, and his infant grand-child became heiress of his dominions. Edward proposed to the king of Norway that the prince of Wales should marry his daughter, the little queen of On what pretext did Edward make war with the Wels h T How did Edward treat the Welsh princes ? Whom did Edward offer the Welsh for a king ? Was the royal family of Scotland connected with that of England ? What hiulered the marriage of the prince of Wales with the queen ci Gotland f 120 ENGLISH HISTORY. Scotland. Such early marriages were then not uncom- mon. Indeed Alexander and his queen had been betrothed, or promised to each other, when neither of them was a year old. The king of Norway and the parliament of Scotland having consented to this match, the young queen was on her way to Scotland, when, being taken ill, she was obliged to be landed at the Orkneys, and there she died. The death of a little girl of three years old was never before so much lamented, nor has ever since produced such disastrous consequences. But her death prevented the union between the two nations, and plunged Scotland into long and bloody private feuds and public wars. No fewer than thirteen competitors for the throne sprung up. Robert Bruce and John Baliol were the two whose claims were the strongest ; and they agreed to refer the decision to Edward, who was so much looked up to by the princes of Europe, that he had before been applied to, to deter- mine a competition for the crown of Sicily. In that case, where his interest was not concerned, he had given a wise and equitable decision. Happy had it been for both Eng- land and Scotland, would he have done so now : but the temptation offered was too great for him to resist. Edward came to Norham, on the border of Scotland, with a numerous army ; and first insisted that his supre- macy over Scotland should be admitted ; which the Scots agreed to after much hesitation. He then required that the royal castles, and places of strength should be put into his hands ; and, when this was done, he gave judgment in favor of Baliol, who was proclaimed king of Scotland. But the mere name of king was all that he obtained, for being of a weak capacity, he could make no resistance to the encroachments and exactions of Edward, who treated him like a child, and was disposed to treat the Scots like slaves. On their refusing to submit tamely, he marched into Scotland, and defeated at. Dunbar the army of Baliol. What event threw the Scots into a state of civil warfare ? Why did Edward I. interfere in the affairs of Scotland 1 How did Edward treat the Scots ? What was the end of John Baliol ? ENGLISH HIS TOR V. 121 Baliul then threw himself into the hands of the king of England, who obliged him to make a solemn renunciation of his crown, and detained him a prisoner for three years. He was then allowed to retire to France, where he died at an advanced age, having been nominally a king for four years. While Edward was thus endeavoring to increase his dominions in one quarter by injustice and violence, he lost part of them in another by an artifice more contemptible, but not more unjust, than those he himself practised. Guienne, the inheritance of the old queen Eleanor, had still remained to her posterity, when almost every thing ebe they had possessed in France was gone. Some disputes arising with Philip the Fair, king of France, about the ceremony of doing homage for that duchy, Edward, by way of a form of acknowledgment of the feudal superiority of the king of France, was persuaded to surrender the duchy to Philip, who promised, on the word of a king, to restore it immediately ; but when that wily monarch had got possession, he would not resign it, and Edward was too deeply engaged in the affairs of Scotland to be able at that time to avenge himself. In 1291 Edward had the affliction of losing his queen. She died at Harby, in Nottinghamshire, and Edward accompanied her body from thence to its burial place at Westminster, and, to commemorate her worth, and his own grief, he caused a stone cross to be erected at every place where the body stopped in this melancholy journey. A T) 12Qf* After the imprisonment of Baliol, Edward treated Scotland like a conquered coun- try. Earl Warrenne was appointed governor of the king- dom, and all the offices of state were given to Englishmen. The Scots groaned bitterly under this degradation ; and, m 1297, William Wallace, whose name will never be for- gotten, stood forth, though only a private gentleman o{ small estate, to rescue his fallen country. By wnat right was Guienne retained by the English ( How did the king deceive Edward I. ? How did Edward express his grief for the death of his queen ? Wj.f t Scots gertleraan resisted the aggressions of Edward I, t 122 ENGLISH HISTORY Wallace was soon joined by several cf the nobility ; and, notwithstanding the many impediments he met with from the jealousies of some of the nobles, he maintained the struggle for eight years, but with various success. At one time he pushed his victorious arms into England ; but at another his cause was nearly ruined at Falkirk, where Edward obtained a complete victory. At last, in 1305, he was betrayed into the hands of the English, who put him to death. A T) "1 305 J° nn Baliol had died in France the year before, and Robert Bruce, son of the for- mer competitor, now stood alone as claimant of the throne of Scotland. He collected a small army ; and the countess of Buchan, in whose family the right of crowning the king had been hereditary, placed the crown upon his head ; her brother, who ought to have done it, being in the English interest. When Edward heard of this, he was enragevl beyond measure, and vowed the destruction of The Bruce, whose escapes and adventures were very extraordinary ; and are related in an interesting manner by Sir Walter Scott in his Tales of a Grandfather. Edward's next and last expedition began with a solemn oath, that he would march into Scotland, and never return till he had brought it into entire subjection. And he kept his vow ; but not in the way he had intended, for he did not subjugafe Scotland, and he never returned. He spent many months in a vain pursuit of Bruce and his adherents, who contrived to conceal themselves in the fastnesses amongst the mountains, watching for favorable opportu- nities of coming forth from their hiding-places, and annoy- ing the English. A D 1307 ^ * ast -Edward, exasperated by disap- pointment, sent for all the forces in his dominions to meet him at Carlisle. Before the army could arrive, the king became so ill as to be confined to his cham- ber. It was reported that he was dead, and to show the falsehood of the report he set out from Carlisle : but wher Whut became of Wallace ? Who laid claim to the crown of Scotland A. D, 1306 I What was the king's last expedition ? Where did Edward I. die ? ENGLISH HISTORY 123 fte had advanced a few miles, to a place called Burgh on the Sands, he was obliged to stop. He there expired in rt tent by the road-side, on the 7th of July, 1307. Edward was seventy years old, and had reigned thirty- five years. He was twice married ; first to Eleanor of Castile, by whom he had fifteen children; and, secondly, to Marguerite, sister of the king of France, by whom he had two sons. Edward, before he died, charged his eld- est son to send his heart to the Holy Land : to carry his tody with the army into Scotland, and not to bury it, till he had made a complete conquest of that country ; and never to recall Piers Gaveston, a wicked favorite of the son, whom the father had banished. In the relations of son, husband, and father, Edward I. was exemplary : and yet this man, with all these fine and noble qualities, was the occasion of infinite misery to many thousands of people. The desire of possessing himself ot the whole island had so beset his mind, that every other consideration gave way to it. To attain this end, he turned courage into mad ferocity, and prudence into de- ceit and craft, and instead of doing good to his subjects, and mankind, inflicted the evils of war to the utmost ex- tent of his power. Amongst the many violent acts of Edward was the banishment of the Jews. He drove them out of the coun- try, and leaving them only money enough to enable tlient to reach some foreign land, seized on all the rest of their property. The first commercial treaty to which England was a party, was made between Henry the Third and the king of Norway. The trade of England was chiefly carried on by Germans. The principal commodities were wool, lead, and tin. These were brought to certain towns in different What was the king's age, &c ? How did Edward I. treat the Jews ? What was the state of commerce in England during the reign cf Edwwd I. ? fly whom was the most considerable trade of England carried on? 124 ENGLISH HISTORY. parts called the staple towns, where the collectors of the king's customs were appointed to receive the duty, which is a tax paid to the custom-house for the use of government on all articles brought from foreign countries. The goods were then sold to the German traders, who were called the merchants of the staple ; and these people exported them abroad, and imported gold, silver, and va- rious goods in return. The Lombards also were foreign- eis -who settled in England. Their business was chiefly to lend money on interest. Lombard-street in London, was so named from them. In respect to their pleasures the people of England im- bibed something of the spirit of their monarch. Their very amusements were all of a martial sort ; and the learn- ing the use of arms was a necessary, perhaps may be added, a principal part of the education of a gentlemen. To every castle belonged a paled court called the tilt-yard, where the young men used to practise all the exercises and ma- noeuvres requisite to make them good warriors. These exercises, and the mock combats in which they engaged, were always practised with blunt spears, and it was thought very dishonorable for them to wound each other. They had also many games in these tilt-yards which were excellently calculated to improve their strength and agility. Riding at the ring was one of these ; the ob- ject of which was, while riding at full speed, to run the point of a spear through a small ring that hung suspended from a high post. The Tournament was a favorite spectacle of the Eng- lish nation. A tournament was a public meeting of knights, to display their skill and courage in mock com- bats. These meetings were commonly proclaimed for a long time before hand, that knights from a distance might be able to attend. They were in general held by kings and princes ; and queens, and the wives and daughters of the nobles, were among the spectators ; and the most beau- What were the favorite amusements of the English people at this time ? Were mock combats safe, and what other games were practised by the English of the 14th century ? "What was a Tournament ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 125 tiful lady, or die one of highest, rank, commonly bestowed a scarf, or some such prize, on the knight who acquitted himself best CHAPTER XV EDWARD II. {Years after Christ, 1307—1327. Q uccn Isabella going to Paris, 1325. The reign of Edward the Second, is nothing but a do tail of follies on the part of the king, and of violences ou that of the nobles. The king began his reign with dis- obeying all the dying commands of his father. He re- called Gaveston from banishment ; and, abandoning the invasion of Scotland, gave himself up to frivolous and idie amusements. He resembled his father in the beauty of his person, but not in the qualities of his mind. He was weak, passionate, and irresolute, fond of trifling diversions, and, if we may believe historians, was addicted to the ig- "Wab Eilwaid II. a weak or a wise man ? I'iO ENGLISH HISTORY. noble vice of drinking to excess. He was devotedly at cached to his favorites, who were with no exception, ill chosen and unworthy persons. A D 1 307 Edward married Isabella, daughter of Philip the Fair, king of France ; a most unfortunate marriage for him, though at first the queen had the greater cause for complaint, as the king neglected her society, and spent all his time with his favorite Gaveston. Piers Gaveston v/as a native of Gascony ; and his eleva- tion to riches and honors above the old nobility of Eng- land made him an object of general dislike ; a dislike which was greatly increased by his own conduct ; for he treated the nobles with the utmost insolence, and used to divert hirrself and his royal master by turning them into ridicule, and giving them contemptuous nicknames. 'I his treatment they so highly resented, that they entered into a confederacy against him, at the head of which was the king's cousin, the earl of Lancaster, a very rich and powerful baron. The demand of the confederate nobles was, that Gaveston should besentout of the country. Ed- ward affected to comply with their demand ; but instead of Bending him back to Gascony, as they had meant, he made him lord deputy of Ireland, and the year after recalled him. A T) l^io The nobles, and indeed the whole nation, were so completely exasperated against the king and Gaveston, that a civil Avar broke out. The earl of Lancester, who was the leader of the barons' ar- my, hearing that Gaveston was in Scarborough castle, despatched the earl of Pembroke against that place, who took Gaveston prisoner, and brought him to his own cas- tle of Deddington in Oxfordshire. One day when the earl of Pembroke was absent from his castle, it was beset by a party of troops, headed by Guy, earl of Warwick, who took Gavestc n to Warwick, where Lancaster and the other confederate nobles were as- sembled. The nex'.day they carried hirr to a neighbor- Whom did Edward II. marry ? Who was Piers Gaveston ? How did the English nobles regard Gavetton ? Who Wok Gaveston prisoner ? In what CTUtf) roamier was Gaveston killed? ENGLISH HISTORY 127 ing hill, called Blacklow Hill, and there they put him to ieath, satiating their savage hatred by looking on while his head was severed from his body. When the king heard of the murder of his favorite, he was thrown into agonies of grief, and made unwonted ex- ertions to revenge his death; but he had so completely lost the affections of his people that he had not the power to make his resentment felt, and was obliged to smother it und accept of peace on the terms the barons chose to offer. A T) nid While England was thus distracted by itM ' * own internal broils, Robert Bruce by his courage and intrepidity, had established himself on the throne of Scotland. He drove the English out of that country step by step, till nothing remained to them but the castles of Stirling, Dunbar, and Berwick. At last Edward resolved to rouse himself and his people, and to reduce Scotland to the English yoke by a single blow. He en- tered Scotland at the head of the largest army that had ever marched out of England ; and, arriving on the 24th of June within three miles of Stirling, he there saw the Scottish army drawn up on the banks of the little river Bannock. Bruce had only been able to muster about 30,000 men to oppose the immense host of the king of England, but he chose his position with great judgment, and neglected nothing that could facilitate his success. He placed his army on a rising ground, with the river in front, and a bog 3ii one side ; and to make the approach still more difficult, lie caused pits to be dug, and filled with sharp stakes, and .he tops covered over and concealed by turf and leaves. The English halted for the night ; and, confident in their numbers, and despising the little army opposed to them, spent the night in feasting and merriment ; while the Scots whose very existence as a nation depended on the result of the coming day, passed their time in devotion, and in mutual exhortations to conquer nobly, or to die. The young earl of Gloucester the king's nephew, who corn- Did Edward II. resent Gaveston's death ? Did Robert Bruce attack the English in Scotland t How did Bruce encounter the English at Bannockburn ? Did the Scots imitate the insecurity of the English at Bannockburn ? 1'28 ENGLISH HISTORX manded the cavalry, was the first to advance from the English army, and falling into one of the covered pita, was the first to die on that disastrous field. The cavalry, having lost its leader, was thrown into con- fusion; and being attacked by sir James Douglas was put to the rout. The infantry astonished by the defeat of the cavalry, and mistaking some boys and wagoners of the Scottish army, who were furnished with banners, for unother army, fled without striking a single blow. So great was the panic of the flying multitude, that Edward found it impossible to rally his forces, and was himself obliged to fly to avoid being taken prisoner. The number of the slain was very great, and would have been still greater, had not the Scots been more intent on plundering the English camp than on pursuing the fugitives, who had eighty miles to go before they could reach a place of security. And thus ended the battle oi Bannockburn, a battle which established Bruce on the throne of Scotland, and which is remembered by the Eng- lish as the most signal overthow they have sustained since the Conquest. When Edward returned to England after this discom- fiture, he found his power more curtailed than ever. The country was torn in pieces between two parties, the royal- ists, and the partizans of the earl of Lancaster. The king, whose infirm mind was unable to support itself without the prop of an exclusive favorite, weakened his own cause, and drove from him many loyal hearts, by the injudicious choice he made of a new favorite, a Welsh gentleman called Hugh Spenser, a man of an insolent temper and a rapacious disposition. The king loaded Spenser and his father with honors and riches, which soon made them as much objects of jealousy and hatred as Gaveston had been. A D 1 322 ^ n March tne ear l °f Lancaster was ta- ken prisoner at Boroughbridge, and car- lied to Pontefract. After a short trial he was condemned What ivas the success of the Scots in the engagement at Bannook turn? Was Brnce established on the Scottish throne I Who became the favorite of the king of England 1 What was the end of the earl of 1 ancaster ? ENGLISH HIST0R1 . 129 to death ; and on the 22d of March this once powerful nobleman, placed on a miserable horse, and clothed in a shabby dress, was led out of Pontefract, which had been his own chief place of residence, and taken to a hill near (he town, and there beheaded with the same circumstances of savage cruelty which had taken place when he himseli put Gaveston to death. Eighteen other noblemen were also beheaded, and many estates were forfeited to the king most of which he bestowed on his avaricious favorite. A n iqo^ * n *^ s y ear a c l uarre ^ arose between the ' two kings of France and of England, about doing homage for Guienne, which had been restored t'o the English king. Queen Isabella was sent to accom modate matters between her husband and brother. But she cared little for the interest of her husband, and at length conspired with his enemies. Isabella collected all the nobles who had been exiled on account of Lancaster's rebellion ; and placing one of them. Roger Mortimer, a man of infamous character, at the head of her councils, set herself up in rebellion against Edward The Spensers were so much detested, that, out of hatred to them, many nobles joined the queen, and set out with a numerous army in pursuit of the king. The king, abandoned by every body, fled into Wales, in hopes of raising in army there. In this hope he was dis- appointed ; and he next embarked for Ireland, in the belief that he should there find a place of refuge : but being driven about by adverse winds he was obliged to re-land. He then sought to conceal himself and a few followers in the monastery of Neath ; but his retreat was soon discovered ; and Henry, earl of Lancaster, (son to the earl who was exe- cuted at Pontefract,) made him a prisoner, and carried him to Kenilworth. Both the Spensers were taken with the king, and fell sacrifices to the hatred of the people. In the meantime, the King's eldest son, Edward, prince of Wales, a boy of fourteen years old, had been placed by his On what pretence was a quarrel excited between Trance and Eng land in 1325 1 Who joined queen Isabella in rebellion against the king '(' Under what circumstance was Edward II. taken prisoner ? After the imprisonment of Edward what was the condition ot Eng- land? 130 ENGLISH HISTORV mother and Mortimer at the head of the rebel army, and had been declared regent. But as the authority he pos- sessed was a mere name, the kingdom was in a deplorable state. There was nc government, the courts of justice were shut, and the people committed all kinds of violence without control. The mobs of London and other cities committed robberies and murders with impunity, and were called by the name of the Riflers. The queen and Mortimer having got the king into theii power, declared him incapable of governing, deposed him and proclaimed the prince king in his stead. But the prince refused to be king in his father's lifetime without his consent. To remove this scruple, the parliament sent a deputation to Kenil worth, to intimate to the king the sen- tence of his deposition, and to procure his consent to the coronation of his son. As soon as the miserable king saw the deputies, he fainted ; and when he recovered, and was told their errand, he said to them that he was in their power, and must submit to their will. Judge Trussel, one of the party, then, in the name of the people of England, renounced all fealty to Ed- ward of Carnarvon ; and sir Thomas Blount, high stew- ard, broke his staff, and declared all the king's officers discharged from their service. Thus ended the reign of Edward the Second, a period of nearly twenty years of public disgrace and private ca- lamity. But his own miseries did not end with it. After his deposit! 3n he was put under the care of the earl of Lancaster : but the queen and Mortimer, thinking that Lancaster treated the king too humanely, removed him to the custody of Lord Berkeley, John de Maltravers, and sir Thomas Gournay, who were to keep him each a month by turns. Lord Berkeley behaved kindly to the unfortunate Ed- ward ; but it seems as if the other two were desirous to kill him by ill-usage. They hurried him about from castle to castle, in the middle of the night, and but half clothed. Who demanded the coronation of the prince of Wales ? Did the king submit patiently to his enemies 1 Did king Edward's miseries terminate with the loss of the ciown What indignities were offered to Edward II. during his imprisonment! ElNGLlSH filSTOU*. 131 One day Maltra\ r ers ordered him to lie shaved with water out of a dirty ditch, and refused to let him have any other The king shed tears at this usage. These varied insults and cruelties did not satisfy the savage hearts of the queen and Mortimer, who, therefore, ordered Gournay and Maltravers to despatch him without delay. And they, taking the opportunity of Lord Berkeley's absence, murdered the king at Berkeley castle, with cir- cumstances of great cruelty. He was murdered on th»> 21st of September, 1327, in the forty-third year of his age. He was called Edward of Carnarvon, from having bctea born there It appears from the historians of this age that little of the present refinement of the English nation was then known. Froissart, a French historian, tells us in his Chronicles, that " the English were so proud and haughty, that they could not behave to the people of other nations with civility." Nor does he give a more favorable account of the Scots ; for he says of them, " they are naturally fierce and unpolished, and in Scotland there is little or no politeness, the people being a herd of savages, envying the riches of others, and tenacious of their own posses- sions." Erse or Gaelic was the original language of the Scots ; but great part of the Lowlands of Scotland being conquer- ed by the Saxons, about the time when they made them- selves masters of England, the Saxon became the language of that part of the country. The Saxon, so introduced into Scotland, continuing afterwards unmixed with the Norman, remained much purer there than in England. In England there arose, in different districts, so great a dif ference of' dialect and pronunciation, that one half of tin. kingdom did not understand the other. The domestic manners of the English were very differ exit in the fourteenth century from those of our ago At whose instigation was Edward II. murdered? What says the historian Froissart of the English and Scots of tho \it\\ oentury ? What was the language of the British at that time ? 132 ENGLISH HIxTORV Though famine sometimes followed war, and the neglect of agriculture, the nobles lived gluttonously and wastefully This extravagance was checked at one time by interfer- ence of the king. Edward the Second issued a proclamation forbidding (he people of his realm to have at dinner more than two courses. 4 Whereas, by the outrageous arid excessive multitude of meats and dishes which the great men of our kingdom have used, and still use in their castles, many great evils have come upon our kingdom, the health of our subjects has been injured, their goods consumed," &c. &c. The usual hour of dinner amongst the higher classes was eleven o'clock in the morning. They had no meal equivalent to our tea ; but early in the evening had a sup- per. And, in great houses, before the company retired to bed, cakes and spiced wines were handed round. The houses of the nobility had commonly some sort of garden or " pleasance" attached to them ; and all the monasteries had orchards and gardens, including a " her- berie," or physic garden, the chief medicinal nostrums of the times being preparations from herbs. We do not hear of ornamental gardening till many years afterwards ; and the list of culinary vegatables at this time cultivated was very scanty, there being few besides carrots, parsnips, and cabbages, in general use There was then, not such a thing as a potato in Europe. CHAPTER XVI. EDWARD III. [Years after Christ, 1327— 1377. J Edward III., at the commencement of his reign, nd bemg more than fifteen years old, was only a tool in the Was luxury known in England in Edward the second's time ? How were mea.s regu.ated in England ? What was the horticulture of England in the 14th century ? What was the conduct of Isabella and Mortimer after the death of Ed wi.rd II. ? ENGLISH HISTORV. J 33 nands of the queen and Mortimer, who confiscated the pro- perty of the Spensers, and appropriated it to their own pur- poses. They caused the late king's brother, the earl of Kent, to be executed under a false charge of treason; and by their revengeful and rapacious conduct made themselves so much hated by the people, that the nation would soon have been thrown into internal confusion, had not a foreign foe appeared, and drawn the public attention to a more pressing danger. Robert Bruce thought this a favorable tirne to retaliate on the English the sufferings they had brought on Scot land, and began hostilities on the border. Edward im- mediately took the field against him, and though no impor- tant action was performed on either side, showed Bruce that he had roused a far more formidable antagonist than the late king had been. Bruce was glad to put a stop to the war by entering into a negotiation with the queen foi the marriage of his infant son with her daughter Jane. A D 1 328 Edward married Philippa of Hainault, a queen of the highest and most irreproach- able character, and no less distinguished for her sense and intrepidity, when the occasion called these qualities forth, than for her benevolence and gentleness to all whom she could benefit by her kindness. Edward also is esteemed one of the greatest of English kings, though he has been more commonly admired for his bravery and military skill than for his better qualities. He was majestic in his figure, and his countenance bore a very noble expression. His address was pleasing ; he was well versed in the learning of his time, and had an excellent understanding ; but, unfortunately for his country, all the powers of his mind were early engrossed by one ruinous desire, that of making conquests. His mother had had three brothers, who were all kings of France one after the other, and who all died leaving only daughters. There is a law in France, called the Salique law, which excludes daughters from inheritirg tht srowii. Consequently, when Charles, the last of the three What disposed Edward and Robert Bruce to make peace? What was the character of Philippa of Hainault .' What was the character of Edward III. 1 Upon what account did Edward III. claim the throne of Franc*'? I '34 ENGLISH HISTORV. brothers, died, Philip of Valois, his uncle's s hi, became king, as being the next male heir. But Edward affirmed himself to be the next male heir, being nephew to the late king, and contended that though his mother, according to the French law, could not be queen, still he might be king as inheriting through her. But before Edward could be master of France, it was necessary for him to shake off the bondage in which his mother and Mortimer still kept him. He had soon an op- portunity of doing this. Isabella and Mortimer (now earl of March) resided at Nottingham castle. Edward, by the assistance of the governor, contrived to get through some subterranean passages into an apartment where Mortimer and the queen were ; and in spite of the entreaties of the queen, who called upon her son " to have pity on the gentle Mortimer," he seized, and had him carried away prisoner to Westminster. Mortimer was soon after hanged on a gibbet at Tyburn. The queen-mother was deprived of all her ill-gotten riches, and was confined during the remainder of her life a sort of state prisoner at Rising. A D 1131 The king now took the administration of affairs into his own hands, and by his wise regulations gave early proof (for he was very young) of his great capacity: but unhappily his love of war soon call- ed him off from the arts of peace. He renewed hostilities with Scotland, where David, son of the brave Robert Bruce, was now king, a child of only seven years old. David in less than a year was driven from the throne his father had so hardly won, and was conveyed into France ; and the son of John Baliol was recalled from Lis retirement and made king of Scotland, if king he could be called, who was only a tool in the hands of Edward, and who was placed on the throne and displaced from it, as the party of the English or of The Bruce prevailed. At last, Edward, tired of this unprofitable war, determin- ed to abandon it, and to apply all his strength to a project How did Edward punish his mother and Mortimer ? How did Edward manifest his disposition for wai '{ What happened to young David Bruce ? When did Edward prosecute his pretensions to cne dominion ol France ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 135 he had long harbored against France. He was occupied during two years in raising money and making prepara- tions. In 1338 he landed with an army at Antwerp, bul found himself unable then to proceed. In 1340 he sailed again, and encountering the French fleet off Sluys, com pletely defeated it, after a most bloody and obstinate fight. This defeat was so entirely unexpected on the part ol die French, that no one dared to tell Philip of it, till at last !t was hinted to him by his jester, who said in his hearing, " Oh ! what dastardly cowards those English are !" — " How so ?" said the king. " Because," rejoined the jester, "they did not jump into the sea, as our brave men have done." The king then demanded an explanation, and heard from his courtiers the whole disastrous story. \ F) 1 "MO ^ ter l ^ e vlctor Y °f Sluys, Edward dis- " ' ' embarked his men, and advanced as far as Tournay : but here he found himself obliged to make a truce with Philip. He returned to England, where his absence had produced many inconveniences. He was at this time involved in great difficulties. All his allies de- serted him : he had drained the country of money, and was obliged to pawn the crown, and even the queen's jewels. A D 134fi Nothing could divert this warlike prince ' ' ' from his inordinate ambition to possess himself of the crown of France ; and he continued to make many unavailing attempts on that country. At last, suc- cess seemed likely to crown his efforts. He landed at La Hogue in Normandy on the 12th of July, with an army of thirty-two thousand men, in which was his eldest son, who has been called the Black Prince ; so called, it is supposed from the color of his armor. Philip, hearing of this invasion of the English, assembled a large army to oppose them, and, breaking down all the bridges as he passed, came in sight of them on the banks •)f the Seine, near Rouen. The two armies marched foT Who inf nmed the king of France of the defeat of his fleet ? Did any misfortunes result from Edward's attempt on France ? When did the king of England renew the war with France ? What hindered the king of Enr'and from coming to battle with tht French tioops on the Seine ? 130 ENGLISH HISTORY some time on opposite sides of the river ; the English on the left or western, the French on the right or eastern side. Edward wished to crossover, but could not, on account of the bridges being broken. At last he contrived to cross by means of a stratagem. He made preparations for repair- ing the bridge at Poissy, and then suddenly decamped a* if to inarch further up the river. The French also set off in the same direction, which Edward no sooner perceived, than he hastily turned back to Poissy, and repairing the bridge with the utmost expe- dition, crossed over it, and turned off towards Flanders, while the French were keeping along the side of the river. But when he reached the banks of the Somme he found himself in a still worse dilemma. Here also the bridges had been destroyed, and Gondemar de Faye was on the op- posite side to prevent his crossing, and the king of France was behind him with 100,000 men. Edward offered a hundred marks to any one who would show him a ford, and a peasant was tempted by the pro- mised reward to point out a place atBlanchetaque, between Abbeville and the sea, where it was possible to cross at low water. Edward first plunged into the water, calling out, " Let him who loves me follow." The whole army instantly followed, and before Philip could arrive at the same place, the rising of the tide made it impossible for him to cross over, and obliged him to go round by Abbe ville. Edward, after he had crossed the ford, surprised Gon- demar and defeated him ; and the next day, the 5th of Au- gust, had time to post himself in an advantageous position on the plain of Cressy, before Philip and his army came up with him. It was about three o'clock in the afternoon when Philip's advanced troops came up with the English, and the battle soon became general. At the first onset, the part where the Prince of Wales was posted, was furiously beset: and What retarded the English troops at the passage of the Somme ? How were the English enabled to cross the Somme 'I Where did the English king finally post his army ? How did the king of England regard the Black Prince a' tht hattlo oi Cressy * ENGLISH HISTORY. 137 ihe king, who had taken his station on the top of a wind mill, from whence he could overlook the whole field, was importuned to go to his succor ; but he refused, saying " He would not deprive his son, and those who were with him, of the honor of the victory." These words being repeated to the prince and his com- panions, inspired them with extraordinary courage. After righting till the close of the evening, the French army was completely discomfited. The king fled, accompanied by only five knights and about sixty soldiers, leaving on that bloody field eighty bannerets, and forty thousand dead and dying men. When the battle was over, Edward rushed io his son, and embraced him with great affection, while the prince fell on his knees before his father, and craved his blessing Edward stayed three days at Cressy to bury the dead, and then marched to Calais, with the intention of laying siege to it ; but, finding it too strong to take by storm, he deter- mined to subdue it by famine. He stationed his fleet di- rectly opposite the harbor, and built huts for his soldiers all around the town, so as completely to invest it, and pre- vent it from getting assistance either by land or sea. He ihen sat down patiently waiting the result. John de Vienne, the governor, seeing himself shut out from all succor, determined to hold out to the utmost, in hopes that Edward's patience would be tired, and that he would raise the siege. And, to make the provisions that were in the town last the longer, he turned seventeen hun- dred old people, women, and children out of it. When Ed- ward saw all these forlorn wretches thrust out from Calais, and the gates locked upon them, he had compassion on them, and gave them food and money, and let them pass through his army in safety. After the siege had lasted eleven months, the garrison were in so much distress for want of food, that they were induced to eat horses, dogs, and cats, till even this failed. How did the battle of Cressy terminate? In what manner did the English attack Calais ? Did the hard-hearted Edward ever manifest compassion ? On what unworthy conditions did the king of England cfti'-r saocor 'li the citizens of Calais ( 133 ENGLISH HISTORY. and John de Vienne found himself obliged to capitulate Edward agreed, after some hesitation, that on condition that six of their principal citizens should come to him barefooted, with ropes about their necks, and bring him the keys of the town, he would spare the lives of the rest The people of Calais were greatly distressed, when they heard the terms the king of England insisted on. While they were deliberating on what was to be done, Eustace de Pierre, one of the richest merchants of the town, offered himself as the first of the six victims. His example in- spired five others with equal courage, and after a sorrowful parting with their friends (for they all expected to be hung) they appeared before Edward. The king affected, for it is supposed he was not in ear- nest, to be so much enraged against the people of Calais for holding out so long against him, that he ordered these six men to be executed. Queen Philippa then fell on her knees before him, and besought him to pardon them. A T) I'M 7 ^ ne king granted the queen's request and she had the citizens of Calias con- ducted to her apartment, where she entertained them hon- orably, and sent back to the town, bestowing on them rich presents. Edward took possession of Calais on the 4th of August, and turning out all the old inhabitants, peopled it entirely with his own subjects. The extreme cruelty of Edward's conductto the people of Calais, and the folly and selfishness of his invasion of France, demonstrate the inhumanity and vain glory of mil- itary renown, and the superior wisdom of those who aim at the improvement, and not the aggrandizement of a coun- try. Edward would have shown himself more wise and virtuous, had he remained in England, and promoted the welfare of his subjects at home. What example of greatness of soul was exhibited by Eustace de Pierre , the surrender of Calais ? Who interposed in behalf of the citizens of Calais ? How did Edwaid HI. eventually treat the inhabitants of Calais ? Which is the wiser policy of statesmen, to promote the improvement? of a nation within itself, o> to extend its physical power by foreign con jueats? ENGLISH HISTORY. 139 While these things had been going on in France, David Biuce had been recalled to Scotland, and took the opportu- nity of Edward's absence to invade England. But queen Philippa acted with such vigor, that an army was speedily raised, and he was taken prisoner near Durham, and after- wards brought to the Tower of London. The queen has tened over to France to carry this good news to Edward, and had arrived just before the surrender of Calais. Edward's successes in France were suspended for the next six years by a pestilence ; so terrible as to be called the Black death, which raged throughout Europe, and proved a greater scourge to the people than even the ca- lamities of war. A r> iQ*n Philip de Valois died, and was succeeded A. U. uou. by hig gon John> And in 1352 the ani- mosity between the French and English revived with such fury, "that neither the pestilence, nor the truces which had been made (but ill kept,) could restrain them from renew- ing hostilities. The English had generally the advantage, and during the next four years greatly extended their ter- ritories in France. Of those who distinguished themselves in these wars none surpassed the Black Prince. On the 6th of July, 1356, he marched from Bordeaux with an army of 12,000 men, and after taking and burning many towns and vil- lages, he encamped on the 17th of September within two leagues of Poitiers. The same eveningthe king of France with an army of 60,000 men, encamped within a mile of the prince, who, when he saw the French army advance thus unexpectedly upon him, exclaimed, " God help us ! it only remains for us to fight bravely." The cardinal of Perigord, who was with the French ar- my, was very desirous to prevent an engagement, and rode baokwards and forwards several times between John and By whose energetic and useful interference was David Bru^e made prisoner ? What greater calamity than war afflicted Europe in the middle of the 1 4th century. When did the war between England and France break out ? With what army did the king of France meet the English forces ? What instance of moderation was exhibited by the Black Prince liefon- he battle of Po" tiers ? 140 ENGLISH HISTOK*. the prince, in hopes of being able to make peace. The prince said to him, " Save my honor, and the honor of my army, and I will readily listen to any reasonable condi- tions." John would consent to nothing, unless the prince and a hundred of his knights would surrender themselves pris- oners of war. The reply of the prince to this was, that "he would never be made a prisoner but with sword in hand." The cardinal, finding his endeavors unavailing, retired to Poitiers, and the two armies made themselves ready for battle. The next day, Monday, the 19th of Sep- tember, the prince drew up his army in excellent order, and riding along the lines, exhorted his men to fight va- liantly ; saying that he himself was resolved that England should never have to pay a ranson for him. The king of France formed his army in three divisions, but after engaging with the English and suffering great toss, the commanders of two divisions, misapprehending their danger, fled precipitately from the field of battle. Thus were two-thirds of the French army conquered more by their own fears than by the arms of the enemy. The king's division, meanwhile, which was alone much superior in numbers to the whole English army, resolutely maintained its ground. The English, encouraged by see- ing victory within their grasp, and the French, perceiving that it was now necessary for them to exert their utmost valor, fought desperately ; but at length, three of the French generals being killed, the cavalry gave way, and the king, who had shown great personal bravery, was left towards the end of the day with a few followers on the field of battle ; and being surrounded by English and Gas- cons, he and his youngest son were taken prisoners. The Black Prince, being overpowered by excessive fa tigue, had at this time been persuaded to take some rest in a little tent On being informed that John had been tak- How did the Bla ;k Prince prepare his army for the encounter with the ■"rench ? What happened to two divisions of the French army ? What misfortune overtor k the king of France ? Didlhe Black Prince bear his victory with moderation ? ENGLISH IIISTOK.V. 141 en prisoner, lie sent the earl of Warwick to conduct the royal prisoner to his tent. The king was surrounded by soldiers who were clamorously disputing for the possession of him, when the earl arrived, and rescuing him from their turbulence, led him to the prince, who received him with every mark of respect and sympathy. The prince soon ordered a magnificent supper to be served up, and would not sit in king John's presence, but stood behind his chair, trying to soothe and comfort him. The king, much affected by this generous treatment, burst into tears, and declared, that though it was his fate to be a captive he rejoiced that he had fallen into the hands of '.he most generous and valiant prince alive. \ T) 1 ^fi '"^ ie ^ oss °^ ^ ie French in this battle was very great. Besides those who were tak- en prisoners, there were above 6000 men at arms left dead on the field. The prince, after returning thanks to God for the victory, praised his troops for their conduct, and gave rewards and dignities to those who had more particularly distinguished themselves. He remained at Bordeaux till the 24th of the following April, when he sail- ed with his royal prisoners to England. On the approach of the victorious prince and his distin guished prisoners to London, they were met by a train of a thousand citizens in their best array, who conducted them with great state to Westminster. The Black Prince, in a plain dress, and on a little palfrey, rode by the side of the king of France, who was clad in royal robes, and mounted on a beautiful horse. When they arrived at Westminster, king Edward met them, and embraced the captive king with every mark of respect and affection. The French king and his son were treated, during the three years they remained in England, more like visiters than prisoners. Edward had now two captive monarchs in his lungdDm : but on the 3d of October David Bruce regained his liberty, and returned to Scotland, after a cap- tivity of eleven years How did the Black Prince treat king John ? How did the Black Prince conduct himself towards his army, aril when ji,l he return to England ? What was the reception of the Black Prince in England ' Whiiih two kings were prisoners in England ? 142 ENGLISH HISTORY. France was thrown into the greatest confusio 1 by the misfortune of her king. The dauphin was appointed re- gent; and the necessities of the country were so great that he was obliged to enter into a treaty with Edward, by which he gave up to him in full sovereignty a large tract, containing several provinces, to which Edward's town of Bordeaux formed a sort of capital. John's ranson was fixed at three millions of gold crowns, and forty noblemen were to be sent over to England ap hostages till the money should be paid. This treaty, aftei many tedious negotiations, was at last completed. Edward accompanied John to Calais, and the two kings, with many expressions of affection and regard, parted on the 24th of October, 1360. Edward then returned to England, after bestowing all his newly acquired French provinces on the Black Prince, who went to hold his court at Bordeaux with the Princess Joan his wife, the beautiful daughter and heiress of the sari of Kent. She had before been married to Sir John Holland, by w r hom she had two sons. A D 1 "364 ^ e ^ u ^ e °^ ^njou, one °f t ^ le hostages for the payment of John's ranson, having escaped, and the dauphin making some difficulty in fulfill- ing the articles of the late treaty," John, who felt that by this breach of faith his own honor was impeached, return- ed to England to put himself again in Edward's hands ; and, falling ill of a fever, he died at the palace of the Sa- voy early in the year 1364. The Black Phi ce is among the chief favorites of tho English nation. His warlike qualities and achievements are accounted the glory of his times. But the wars in which he engaged were not just, therefore we can only admire the qualities of his heart. These would have adorned any con- dition of life, and would have induced good and great enter- prises if he had lived in a better age, and had he been brul "What became the capital of the English possessions in France ? When did John return to France '( When did king Edward return to England? Where did the king of France die ? How ought the character of the Black Prince to be regarded ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 143 to the services of peace instead of the unhappy profession of arms. After having made himself lord of a considerable por- tion of France, the Black Prince engaged in the affairs of Spain. Pedro the Cruel, and his half-brother, Henry 01 Trastamare, contended for the throne of Spain. Pedro's was the hereditary right, and Henry was the better man, and more desirable king. Pedro implored the assistance of the Black Pnnce and he heartily engaged in the cause of the dethroned monarch, and, accompanied by his broth- er John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, marched an army of 30,000 men into Spain. Henry of Trastamare met them with a force of more than 100,000 men; and the battle of Najara was fought between these two unequal armies on the 3d of April, 1 367. In this battle the skill and valor of the prince and his well-disciplined troops overthrew the immense host of Spain ; and, against the wishes and endeavors of the whole nation, replaced a hated tyrant on the throne. Pedro no sooner found himself thus re-established, than he forgot his obligations to the Black Prince, and treated him with great ingratitude. Many of the English soldiers fell victims to the unhealthiness of the climate : the health of the prince also suffered exceedingly, and, in great dis- gust at the conduct of Pedro, he returned with the shat- tered remains of his army to Bordeaux. Henry of Trastamare, as soon as he knew that the Eng- lish had withdrawn from Spain, returned there, and, by the assistance of the king of France, attacked and defeat- ed Pedro in a pitched battle, and slew him with his own hand. Henry then peaceably ascended the throne, and the two daughters of Pedro fled to Bordeaux, and again claimed the protection of the Prince of Wales. These two princesses soon after married two of the Eng- lish princes, the third and fourth sons of king Edward Constantia, the eldest, married John of Gaunt, whose first In the cause of what Spanish prince did the Black Prince engage ? Did the Black Prince serve a good or a bad cause in Spain 1 W hat were the unhappy consequences of the Spanish enterprise tc f English army ? What was the end of Pedro the cruel ? Who Tiarried the laughters of Pedro ? 144 ENGLISH HISTORY wife had been daughter and heiress of the eail of Lancas- ter. Isabella, the other sister, married Edward, duke of York. The duke of Lancaster immediately on his mar- riage assumed, in right of his wife, the title of king of Castile. The Black Prince, from the time of his return from Spain, became subject to continual ill health. After some months of constant suffering, he became unable from weak- ness, to mount his horse, and was obliged to give up the command of his army. From this time the power of Eng- land on the continent declined; every expedition was unsuc- cessful, and the fleet suffered a signal defeat off Rochfort. The prince returned to England, as a last hope, for the recovery of his health ; but after lingering some time, he died on the 8th of June, 1376, in the forty-seventh year of his age. His death was felt throughout England, both as a private and as a public loss. And though the parlia- ment was at thattime much displeased with the king on the subject of raising subsidies, it expressed the utmost sympa- thy in his grief at his son's death, and showed its respect for the memory of the prince by attending his remains to Canterbury, where his monument is still to be seen. The loss of his son, broke the heart of the old king, who did not long survive him, and died at his palace at Shene, June 1, 1377, in the sixty-fifth year of his age, and the fifty- first of his reign. Queen Philippa is mentioned by all historians in the highest terms of praise. She and Edward lived together in uninterrupted harmony forty-two years. Their sons were : Edward the Black Prince ; Lionel, duke of Clarence, who died in 1368, leaving an only daugh- ter, married to Edmund Mortimer, earl of March ; John of Gaunt ; Edmund, duke of York, married Isabella of Castile, by whom he had Richard, who married his cousin Arme Mortimer, and was the father of Richard duke of York ; Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester ; and Fiom what time did the Black Prince decline in health, and what v\ as the state of the English power abroad ? When did the Black Prince die, and what effect was produced ty hia death ? Did Edward III. long survive his son, and how long did he live aftt-r his marriage ? Who were the children of Edward III. ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 145 three other sens, who died young, and four daughters "The five sons of Edward HI. were all made dukes by their father. They were the first persons who bore that title in England. The Black Prince was the first d ike of Cornwall. Edward III. founded the order of the Knights of the Garter. He rebuilt and enlarged the castle of Windsor. He also rebuilt St. Stephen's chapel at Westminster, where the house of commons held its assemblies till 1 834, when it was consumed by fire. Its first assemblies were held in the chapter-house at Westminster. The di\ ision of the house of parliament into lords and commons, the exact commencement of w r hich is not known, was thoroughly established in this reign. The laws and statutes were in this reign commanded to be written in English, having been written in Norman French ever since the Conquest. It has been supposed that Edward owed the first of his victories to he use of gunpowder, which was first used, What order of knights was founded by Edward III. ? What edifices were built in this reign ? What was thoroughly established in this reign ? When were English laws first written in the English language ? When was gunpowder first used ly he English, and by whom was it \ u ented T 146 ENGLISH HI8T0RV. it is said, in war, in the battle of Cressy. Gunpowdci was first invented by Friar, Bacon, as some; say, though Schwartz, a German, also claims the merit of the dis covery Among the customs of European courts and great fam- ilies was that of keeping a professed jester. Kings ard nobles amongst the number of their attendants, had one whose business it was to play the fool, and who was pri- vileged to say or do any thing that was ridiculous for the sake of diverting those about him. The fool's dress was motley; that is, made of different colors. He also wore a cap made with two great ears, to resemble asses' ears, and he had little sheep-bells fastened to different parts of his dress. All the diversions of the English, whatever they may be now, were formerly of a noisy and tumultuous kind. When a nobleman opened his castle to his guests, on occa- sions of public festivity, the courts and halls were crowded with minstrels, mimics, jugglers, and tumblers : and there was a confusion and mixture of feasting, drinking, dancing, singing, tumbling, and buffoonery, which would appear very disreputable now in any nobleman's mansion. There was not at that time a playhouse in the whole kingdom. Jugglers, &c. used to travel about the country, and, when they were not received into private houses, they exhibited their tricks in carts in the open streets. The streets used then to be scenes of great gaiety; for we are told that the servants of the citizens of London were ac- customed on summer evenings to dance before their mas- ters' doors. Queens and persons of high rank were occasionally con- veyed in horse-litters. These litters were like a bedstead fastened by shafts before and behind to two horses. Over the litter there was a canopy held, supported on four long poles, each pole carried by a man on foot ; so that this mole nf travelling was not a very expeditious one. Who were professed jesters and how did they dress ? How did the English divert themselves in the 14th century? Were there houses for jugglers, &c. to exhibit in? What carriages were ased by people of rank in the reign of Edward HI.? F.NCUsH HISTORY. 147 CIJAPTER XVII. RICHARD H. [Years after Christ, 1377 1399.] Uichard of Bordeaux was the only surviving child of lulward the Black Prince, and was proclaimed king on the death of his grandfather. There was no regent appointed ; but the young king's three uncles took the direction of af- fairs upon themselves. John of Gaunt, the eldest of the three had a high spirit, and great ambition. Being a man of activity and exertion, he had had, even in his father's lifetime, great authority in the state. The duke of York was well meaning but indolent, and of slender capacity. The duke of Gloucester was turbulent, bold and meddling; but John being the oldest, had the chief sway in their coun- cils. Yet he soon showed himself ill qualified to be the leader of affairs, and plunged the country into great dis- tresses by several unprofitable expeditions both into France and Scotland. A D l*}ftl ^ poll-tax of a shilling a head, levied on all persons throughout the kingdom above the age of fifteen, raised the discontents of the lower orders of the people to the greatest pitch. This tax was very oppressive in that age, when a shilling would buy ten times as much food as it will now buy, and was therefore equal to ten shillings at present, and very few poor people could earn a shilling. One of the persons employed to collect this tax having been killed in a quarrel with a tyler at Deptford, called Walter, a crowd collected ; and from this small beginning a serious disturbance broke forth. Wat Tyler, as he is called, took upon himself the command of the insurgents and sent messages into the neighboring counties, inviting Who was Richard II., ami who were directors of English affairs dur ing his minority ? What tax was levied upon lie English people in 1381, and why wts it very oppressive ? Who instigated the opprosseJ : eople to rebellion 7 148 ENGLISH HISTJRY. the common people to join together, to shake off the yoke of servitude, and to take vengeance on their oppressive masters. . The people willingly obeyed the summons, and leaving their employments, hastened to Blackheath, the place o( rendezvous, burning the houses and plundering the estates of the nobility and gentry as they passed. The mob, when assembled at Blackheath amounted to 300,000 men. Wat Tyler and another man, called from his business as a thresher, Jack Straw, were appointed leaders, and they all set off towards London. The king's uncles were absent from the kingdom ; and this insurrection was so sudden, that no preparations had been made for checking it. The king, with his mother, and a small number of the nobility, took refuge in the Tower of London, It is needless to repeat all the violences of this mob, but it is but justice to the courage of the young king to relate that he determined to meet these enraged people and hear their grievances. The next day, June the 14th, the king, with a few unarmed attendants, left the tower, and pro- ceeded to the appointed place, where he found about 60,000 persons assembled. The king, in a gentle manner, asked them what they wanted. They replied, " they wanted the freedom of themselves and children." The king promised that their desire should be granted, and that, if they would return to their homes, he would give them charters for their freedom. Immediately thirty clerks were set to work to write these charters, which were given to all who demanded them, and immediately the mob dispersed, and every one returned peaceably and contentedly to his home. The freedom for which they asked was, probably, ex- emption from certain services to the superior classes, and from the slavery from which the people of England were not then entirely exempted. In the meantime Wat Tyler, with Jack Straw, and the most desperate of the party, instead of gcing with the How did the insurants proceed ? Did Richard manfully meet the insurgents ? Did the king satisfy the insurgents ? What was the freedom which the English people demanded I Did all the insurgents meet Richard II. ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 149 others to meet the king at Mile-End, had broken in;o the Tower of London, and murdered the archbishop of Can terbury, the lord chancellor, and many other persons whom they found there. Their design was to seize on the voung king, to murder all the nobility, and to plunder and then burn London. On the following day, June 15, these desperate men were stopped in their mad career. The king was passing through Smithfield, attended by the lord mayor and about sixty horsemen. Wat Tyler met them with 20,000 of the insurgents, and, riding up to the king, behaved with so much audacity, that Walworth, the mayor, unable to endure the sight of this clown's insolence to his sovereign, drew his sword, and felled him to the ground with a blow- The rioters seemed for a moment stunned with surprise by the loss of their leader ; and before they had time to recover themselves, the young king, with astonishing pre- sence of mind, rode up to them, and said : " My friends, be not concerned for the loss of your unworthy leader •[ will be your leader." And turning his horse, he rode into the open fields at the head of the multitude, who seemed to follow him unconciously, and without knowing why. A cry, meanwhile, had arisen in the city, that the king had fallen into the hands of the rebels, and instantly some thousands of brave men flew to his rescue. When they appeared, the mob, seized with a panic, fell on their knees before him, imploring his pardon, which he granted them, on condition that they dispersed and returned to their homes. This they all did : and thus the insurrection melted away, like snow in a sudden thaw. Richard's conduct during this disturbance naturally led his people to imagine that he had inherited the courage and vigor of mind of the Plantagenets : but the fair pro- mise which he had thu's given was soon blighted. He be- trayed, as he advanced in age, a weakness and frivolity which made him totally unfit for the government of a kingdom. What happened at Smithfield, June 15th, 1381 ? What admirable presence of mind was exhibited by Richard II. f What was the end of the insurrection ? Did Richard II. sustain the character he manifested in his youth ? 150 ENGLISH HISTORT. Richard's person was extraordinarily beautiful : he taved pomp and show, hated business, and was very fie kie When the ferment of the insurrection was over, and the country was restored to tranquillity, he revoked all tin- charters of freedom which he had given, and compelled the bond-tenants to return to their state of villainage, and perform all their accustomed services to their lords. During the next five years nothing material occurred, and the chief business of the parliament was to keep a check on the duke of Lancaster who wanted to drain Eng- land of men and money to prosecute the claim on the crown of Castile which he possessed in right of his wife, the daughter of Pedro the Cruel. It was long before he could prevail on the parliament to grant the necessary supplies. AD 1 *3Sf Lancaster raised a large army, and. taking the duchess and his three daugh- ters with him, sailed for Spain. He landed at Corunna, and his troops were suffered to overrun the province of Gailicia without much opposition ; for the king of Castile, who was son of Henry of Trastamare, trusting that the same causes would destroy the forces of the duke of Lan- caster which had formerly been so fatal to those of the Black Prince, avoided meeting him in the field. This enterprise did not obtain the crown of Castile, but after much fruitless fighting, Lancaster withdrew his claim, and married one of his daughters to the king of Portugal, and another to the prince royal of Castile, the son of Henry Trastamare. The duke was well pleased at having thus secured the crown to his posterity, and re- turned to England in 1389. During the three years of Lancaster's absence, Richard, by his abuse of the royal power in displacing the officers of the government, and putting in their places his own idle favorites, had made himself exceedingly unpopular. The parliament had also made great stretches of power ; had From 1381 to 1386, whai occurred in England ? What army, for the conquest of Castiie, was raised by John ol Gaunt ? What was the result of Lancaster's expedition ? Did Richard II. lose kis popularity with the English nation 7 ENGLISH HISTORY. 161 condemned and imprisoned one of the king's chief favor- ites, Michael de la Pole, earl of Suffolk, and obliged the king to sign a commission of regency to fourteen noble- men, thus divesting himself of all authority. The duke of Gloucester was at the head of the party against his nephew, and, not contented with reducing him to be a mere cypher, determined to destroy every friend that remained to him. Richard, though he had assem- bled around him so many vicious characters, still preser- ved his respect for sir Simon Burleigh, a good and venera- ble old man, who had been appointed his tutor by the Black Prince by whom he had been greatly esteemed. Neither that circumstance, nor Burleigh's age and vir- tue, could preserve him from the malice of Gloucester, who procured his condemnation on a pretended charge of high treason. And though the queen, Anne of Bohemia, re- mained on her knees three hours before the inexorable Gloucester, entreating for his life, he was executed as a common traitor. De la Pole and a few others saved their lives by a timely flight. The rest of the king's favorites were put to death. A "D 1 3R8 ^ n ^ s ^ ear was f° ll o nt tne Datt ^ e °f Ot- terburn, between the English and Scots, in which Lord Douglas was killed, and Henry Percy, bet- ter known as Harry Hotspur, was taken prisoner. It was an engagement of no material consequence, but Shaks- peare has made it celebrated. After a quiet submission of about a year and a half to his uncle's tyranny, Richard suddenly roused himself into ex- ertion, and asserted his own right to hold the reins of go- vernment. Pie took the great seal from archbishop Arundel, a creature of the duke of Gloucester, and gave it. to William of Wykeham, and acted with so much sense and vigor, that Gloucester, and his party were thunder- struck, and relinquished their assumed authority. The duke, however, was not of a character to submit patiently: Who plotted the destruction of Richard, and who was Kia biMt friend ? How was sir Simon Burleigh treated 1 What battle was fought by the English in 1388 ? Oid Richard ever act with energy ? 152 EN3LISH HISTORY. ind though the king conferred on him grants of immense value, in hopes to purchase his friendship, was continual- ly engaged in factious schemes. Gloucester at length retired to his castle of Pleshy, in Essex, where frequent meetings were held by the discon- tented nobles. The king hearing that his uncle had a de- sign of seizing his person, determined to be beforehand with him, and caused him to be seized by surprise, and conveyed to Calais. His chief associates, the earls of Warwick and Arundel, were committed prisoners to the Tower. The duke of Gloucester was then accused of high treason, and a parliament was summoned at West- minster, Sept. 17th, 1397, to proceed on his trial. When the day of trial arrived, the governor of Calais was summoned to produce his prison : but instead of producing him, he sent word that Gloucester had died in prison. The exact particulars of his death were never known ; but there is every reason to believe that he was murdered by the king's orders. The king is supposed to have acted on this occasion by the advice, advice he lived bitterly to rue, of the earl of St. Paul, a French gentle- man. The following year a quarrel arose between Henry Bo- lingbroke, John of Gaunt's only son, and the duke of Nor- folk. It seems that the duke had spoken of the king as having instigated the murder of Gloucester ; and that Bo- lingbroke, indignant at the charge, took it up as a person- al offence. Richard, whose guilty conscience did not dare to have the matter openly discussed in a court of jus- tice, adjudged it to be determined by a single combat, which was to be fought between Norfolk and Bolingbroke, on Sept. 16th, 1398, at Coventry. The nobles and the parliament were already assembled to see the fight, and the combatants had entered the lists, when the king forbade them to engage, and banished Hen- How did the king proceed against the duke of Gloucester? What became of the duke of Gloucester ? What dispute arose between Henry Bolingbroke and the duie of Nor folk? How was the quarrel of Bclingbroke ordered to be settled I How was the quarrel of Bolingoroke conc.uded 1 ENGLISH HISTORY. 153 ry Bolingbroke for ten years, and the duke of Norfolk for life ; who both left the kingdom highly dissatisfied with the sentence. It is apparent by this arbitrary sentence of banishment, without any offence against the laws being proved, by the trial by combat, and many executions upon frivolous pre- tences, that life was held cheap, and that the will of the prince was superior to law in England in this rude age. A T) 1 *399 **°k n °f Gaunt died, and Richard seized on all his great estates. Bolingbroke was at the court of France when he was informed of this injustice done to him. He resolved immediately to reclaim his rights ; anl oeing assisted with ships and soldiers by the duke of Bretagne, he came over to England, and land- ed July 4, 1399, at Ravensburgh, a town in Yorkshire, near the mouth of the H umber, which has been long washed away by the encroachments of the sea. The king was at that time in Ireland, where he had taken a considerable force, for the purpose of quelling an insurrection, and his uncle the duke of York, was left regent during his absence It is probable that when Bolingbroke first landed, he had no view beyond that of getting back his inheritance : but finding himself joined by the earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland, and by other powerful noblemen, he soon began to entertain designs upon the throne itself. The duke of York was preparing on the king's part to make resistance ; but he too being persuaded by Bolingbroke, in an interview which he had with him at Bristol, that he was only come to claim his own inheritance, joined him with the forces under his command. Richard himself soon after landed at Milford Haven, and finding that his uncle, instead of having an army ready for his service, had gone over to the party of Bolingbroke retired with a few friends to Conway. After some short negotiations, he imprudently agreed to a personal confer- ence with his cousin at Flint Castle : but as he was on hiss Was law or the will of princes more powerful in the fourteenth cen cury 1 When did John of Gaunt die, and what course was taken by his *cn ? What part did the duke of York take in regard to his nephew* ? How did Henry Bolingbroke treat Richard IJ ? 154 ENGLISH HISTORY. way theie with a few attendants, he was met by Doling broke, who conveyed him to London, and sent him pris oner to the Tower. Bolingbroke at first told the king he only intended to assist him to the government of the kingdom ; but as soon as he found him completely in his power, he openly de- clared his own design upon the crown, and obliged him to sign a paper containing his resignation of the kingdom. This paper was read before the parliament, and approved of by them. A list of crimes and errors of which the king had been guilty was read, and he was then declared sol- emnly deposed ; and the archbishops of York and Canter- bury led Bolingbroke to the empty throne, and placed him on it. Richard was conveyed a prisoner to Pontefract Castle, and there, it is supposed, was put to death in the begin- ning of the year 1400. in the thirty-fifth year of his age and the twenty-fourth of his reign. He married, first, A.nne of Bohemia; and, secondly, Isabella of France, and loft no children. In this reign the reformation of religion made seme ad- vances. It has already been told that the Catholic reli- gion was the Christianity of England. It continued to be so till what is called the Reformation took place in the sixteenth century. John Wickliffe, a priest who held the living of Lutterworth, in Leicestershire, became known, in the latter end of Edward the Third's reign, by a con- troversy with the begging friars. He afterwards attacked the corruptions of the whole body of the monastic clergy ; and though he might not, perhaps, be the first who discov- ered the fallacy of many of the doctrines of the church ol Rome, he was the first who dared to invegh against them publicly. Did the English parliament repose Richard II. ? Where did Richard die . Whit was the state of religion in England during the reign of fiief ard 11 ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 155 During WicklifTe's life no positive step was taken to bring about the reformation of the church ; yet he pre- pared the way for that which afterwards followed, by awakening the people to the conviction that the Romish church had gone far astray from the purity of the Chris- tian religion. Till the time of Wickliffe, there were none but Latin bibles, which were only to be found in posses- sion of the priests ; so that the mass of the people were kept in total ignorance of the scriptures. A D "nRO Wickliffe undertook and completed* a translation of the bible into English This, though highly acceptable to the laity in general, was universally disapproved of by the bishops, and all who were attached to the Roman church; and a bill was brought into the house of lords to suppress the English translation. But the bill was rejected, in consequence of the warm remonstrance of John of Gaunt, who concluded by saying, " We will not be the dregs of all, seeing that other nations have the law of God, which is the law of our faith, written in their own language." Wickliffe was not the first who crave the English a trans- lation of the bible. The old Saxon bishop Adhelm trans- lated the book of Psalms into Saxon in the year 706. The venerable Bede also made a translation of the whole Bible ; but when the popes began to rule the affairs of the Eng- lish church, none but Latin bibles were allowed to be used, in order to keep the people in ignorance, and that the priests and monks might make them believe what they pleased. The followers of Wickliffe were called Lollards, a name given them by their adversaries out of derision. It was mentioned that the mob in the time of Richard II. destroyed the Temple. The Temple is the name of a build- ing that was once a monastic house, belonging to the Knights Templars, an order of monkish knights, who instead of living in monasteries, and wearing cowls, put on armor, and devoted themselves to the protection of those who went on pilgrimages to the Holy Land. They also What influence had Wickli.Te upon the people of England ? How was WicklifTe's translation of the bible regarded ? Was WicklifTe's transition the first English bible? What was the Temple and who were the Knights Templarn 156 ENGLISH HISTORY. look on themselves the vow of celibacy, and observed other monastic rules. This order was after a time dissolved ; and Edward the Third granted their house, which from them was called the Temple, to the students of the common law, by whom it is still inhabited. The Temple church, built by the Templars, after the model of that of the Holy Sepulchre, is one of the most curious in London, as well on account ol its antiquity and architecture, as for the monuments it contains of the old knights. The begging friars were people who, because our Sa- viour and the apostles avoided worldly riches and honors, pretended to imitate them by going about begging ; and who seemed to think that poverty and beggary were the essence of religion. The exceedingly ferocious manners of the age are strik- ingly exemplified in the following anecdote. King Richard marched into the north in 1385 to check an incursion of the Scots, and halted some days at Beverley by the way. His army was too numerous to be lodged in the town, and part was, therefore, dispersed in the neighboring villages. A poor German knight who was one of those who were so dispersed, was looking for a lodging, and trying, in very bad English, to make himself understood. A squire belonging to the king's half brother, Sir John Holland, began to abuse the poor German, and laughed at him ; but an archer of sir Ralph Stafford's took part with the German, and shot the squire. When sir John Hol- land heard of his squire's death, he made a vow that he would neither eat nor drink till he had killed the German knight, the innocent cause of the affray ; and riding fu- riously about the lanes in search of him, till it was dark, he met sir Ralph Stafford in a narrow lane, and struck at him with his sword as he passed. The blow was fatal ; but sir John Holland rode on, without knowing perhaps at '.he moment whom he had killed. What building in London is now called the Temple ? Who were the begging friars ? What disregard of life, and rudeness, are illustrated in a circunistar ■■>* which or.curred in 1385 ? By whom was sir Ralph Stafford killed ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 157 "When men in that age had committed crimes ihey fled to a church, and there they could not be taken, because the law forbade to violate the sanctuary. This afforded impunity to many violent acts. Sir John Holland would have been hanged for the murder, had he not taken refuge in the sanctuary of St. John of Beverley. The kingwa.« exceedingly angry with him, and refused to pardon him ; and his mother, the widow of the Black Prince, was so miserable that she died of grief. Holland afterwards ob- tained the king's pardon, and was made duke of Exeter, and married John of G aunt's youngest daughter. Though the preceding instance exhibits lawless and in- human manners, the history of that age will show that vir- tuous men manifested themselves in the midst of crime. The following example of self-discipline is extraordinary, and is a proper sequel to the anecdote of sir John Holland : Sir Ralph was a very accomplished young man, and the only son of an old lord Stafford, who was then with the royal army. Lord Stafford, as soon as he had recovered from the first burst of grief at his son's shocking murder, went to the king and told him, that as he was on his road to fight the Scots, he would not let his grief prevent him from serving his country in the hour of need. " And," added he, " during this expedition, I shall not think of my affliction : for I like not that the Scots be rejoiced at the misery of the earl of Stafford." The afflicted old man accordingly accompanied the army into Scotland, and performed all the duties of a sol- dier and commander, as if he had had a heart free from sorrow : but as soon as the expedition had ended, he went to the Holy Land, on account of his son's death, and did not live to return The fourteenth century, in relation to England, was h Why was not sir John Holland punished for killing sir R. Sta/ »rd? Did many virtues flourish among the crimes of the fourteenth ccn tury? How did lord Stafford bear his son's murder, and where did he die ? What was the intellectual character of the fourteenth centurv in Ei)£- had ? 158 ENGLISH HISTORY. period of ignorance, slavery, and superstition ; but igno- rance in tnis period obviously gave way to progressive knowledge ; slavery to political liberty ; and superstition to the influences of true religion. A great improvement in the English language was at- tained in this century. The language used under the Saxons in England was the Anglo-Saxon ; that introduced by the Normans and afterwards extensively written and spoken, was the Norman French ; and that used in the prayers of the churches was the Latin. Anglo-Saxon, Norman, and Latin make up the present English. The first histories and poems known in England were written in these primitive languages, but in the latter end of the fourteenth century there had been formed a proper English language. The laws were written in it, the scrip- tures were also translated into it, and poetry was written m English. Liberty of thought is a right which all men have, to ex- amine, each for himself, what is right and wrong, and what is true or false. Most persons believe what those who are older than themselves say ; but when we are grown to be men and women, it is proper to inquire what is right and wrong, true and false, as if we had never been inform- ed, and then each man will gain wisdom for himself. In mde ages, poor and very ignorant people are not al- lowed to determine what is right and wrong, and what is true and ialse — the powerful determine for them. Thus it was in the fourteenth century. The barons told their vas- sals they had no rights of their own, and the priests told all people they could not understand the scriptures without their explanations, and the vassals and people submitted. But in that very age, liberty of thought began to assert itself ; the poor people said, We are men and not brutes— we ought not to be bought and sold like cattle ; and Wick- KfFe and his followers said to the people, The Roman Ca What was the progress of language in England ? What was first written in English ? What is liberty of thought, and how should it be used ! Who restrained the poor people of England from improving their Tiinds ? How are the poor gradually enlightened ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 159 iholic priests deceive you — you can understand the Scrip- tures if you will read them. You must be taught to read. Here is the bible in your own English language. Those who claimed freedom from Richard II. only de- manded their natural rights. They exerted natural and political liberty not knowu before in England. WicklilTe demanded a still more valuable liberty — the liberty to seek and to declare truth, which makes men free from igno- rance and prejudice. The poets of this age were reformers, and enlightened men. The first poem of any considerable length in the English language was written by Robert Langlande, a priest. It describes the Christain life, and the abuses of religion under the popes. Geoffrey Chaucer was another poet of that age who reproved the vices of the clergy. John of Gaunt, though he undertook some unjust wars, was a great man, a lover of religious freedom, and a com- panion of wise men : he honored Wickliffe, and was the friend of Chaucer. He married for his last wife, Catha- rine Swynford, the sister-in-law of Chaucer. Chaucer is called the father of English poetry — he died in 1400. What were the just demands of the English people during the reipn of itichard II. ? Who were he English poets ? Wo;) John of Gaunt an enlightened man ? 160 ENGLISH HISTORY. CHAPTER XTI1I HENRY IV. [Years after Christ, 1399—1413. Rustics of the Ibth century. .Henry IV., only a few months before lie obtained the crown, was wandering about, a banished man, in a for- eign land. His success was the more surprising, because lie had no personal qualities, except the kingly quality of courage, to attach the people to him. Nor had he, even after Richard, the next right of inheritance ; for the undoubted heir was Edmund Mortimer, earl of March, whose grandmother was daughter of Lionel, duke of Clar- ence, elder brother of John of Gaunt. Mortimer was at this time a child of seven years old : and though the par- liament passed him by, and settled the crown on Boling- broke and his heirs, yet Henry thought him too dangerous a rival to be at large, and kept him a prisoner at Windsor. The king himself was in no enviable condition. His life was made miserable by continual apprehensions of plots Was Henry IV. the hereditary successor to the crown of England ? "Wlnt disturbed the tranquility of Henry IV., and how did his rcigi; commence 1 ENGLISH HISTORY. 1G1 and conspiracies, apprehensions not without cause. He had possessed the crown only a few months, when a dan- gerous conspiracy against him was entered into by sonir; nobles attached to Richard, which soon after broke out into an open war , but a division ensuing between the leaders of the party, it was soon and easily crushed. All the nobles who were taken in arms were beheaded, and thus a bloody beginning was made to this distracted reign. In the year 1401, the king had a very narrow escape. One night he perceived concealed in his bead, just as he was stepping into it, a steel instrument with three sharp points, which would either have killed him, or wounded him severely, had he lain down on it. The author of this attempt was never discovered. Besides his secret enemies, Henry had a formidable open foe in Owen Glendower, a Welsh gentleman of high spirit and courage. Glendower proclaimed himself prince of Wales, and his countrymen crowded to his standard. Favored by the mountainous nature of the country, he was able to maintain himself for seven years against all the endeavors of Henry to subdue him, and frequently made incursions into the English border, and plundered and killed the inhabitants. a D 1 4flr> T ne Scots commanded by earl Douglas, A. u. i4U,,. entere( i England with 10,000 men. They were defeated at Homildon Hill by the earl of Northum- berland and his son, Henry Hotspur. Douglas, with many others, was taken. Immediately on the news of this victory, Henry sent to prohibit Northumberland from ransoming any of the prisoners ; a command the Percies resented violently, and the more to, as it was chiefly by their means that Henry had been enabled to ascend the throne. Northumberland, with his brother the earl of Westmore- land, and his son Hotspur, in talking over this business together, more and more inflamed their mutual resent- ments ; and Hotspur, who had that name from his fiery temper, — urged on Ms father and uncle till they resolved Were any attempts made to kill Henry IV. ? Who rebelled against Henry in Wales ? What occurred in 1402 ? With vhom did the Percies conspire against Henry IV. ? 162 ENGXSH HISTORY. to dethrone Henry. To strengthen their cause, they gar«? Doughs his liberty, and engaged him to assist their enter- prise. They also admitted Glendower into their confed- eracy who undertook to join them on the borders of Wales, with 1 0,000 men. A D 1403 Douglas and Hotspur, leaving Northum- berland to follow him with the main army, reached Shrewsbury early in July, but before they could be joined by Glendower the king's army approached; and on the morning of July 21, the great battle of Shrews- bury was fought. The king commanded the main body of his army, and displayed the utmost prudence as a gen- eral, and courage as a soldier. Prince Henry, the king's eldest son, began on this day his career of military glory ; and, though he was wounded by an arrow in the face, would not quit the field. On the other side, young Hotspur and the earl of Douglas per- formed prodigies of valor. The two armies were nearly equal in numbers, each consisting of about 14,000 men, and the victory remained some hours undecided. The king had caused several of his attendants to wear armor resembling his own, and Douglas, who ardently desired to engage with him personally, sought him over the field of battle, and often thought he had fought with him, and slain him ; but he as often found himself deceived, and was at last himself taken prisoner. Hotspur was killed, and the royal army at length remained master oi the field, on which six thousand men lay dead. When Northumberland heard of his son's death, he dis- banded his army, and retired, almost broken-hearted, to Warkworth. But when Henry proclaimed a pardon to ail the rebels who would return to their allegiance, the earl, encouraged by these gentle measures, came to York, where the king then was, and threw himself at his feet, to implore his mercy and forgiveness. At first the king received him with a frown ; but, remembering how much he owed to hie former services, and pitying the poor old man's bereaved When was the battle of Shrewsbury fought ? What courage was displayed in the field of Shrewsbury ? What happened to Douglas and Hotspur at Shrewsbury f What a;en crudity to Northumberland did Henry IV manifest? ENGLISH HISTORY. 1G3 condition, he granted him his life, and soon after restored to him almost all his honors and estates. A T) l 4 0^ Notwithstanding the attempts Henry had made to conciliate the people, they be- came more and more discontented ; and another formida- ble insurrection broke out, of which Scroop, archbishop of York, and Thomas Mowbray, earl marshal, were the ac- tive movers. They soon assembled a body of 15,000 men, and encamped on Skipton Moor, expecting to be joined by the earl of Northumberland, who had again ta- ken arms against the king. To suppress this sudden and formidable rising, the king sent Ralph Nevil, earl of Westmoreland, into the north. Nevil, finding the insurgents more numerous than he had expected, had recourse to stratagem. He sent to inquire of them what were their grievances, that if reason- able, they might be redressed. Nevil next invited the archbishop and the other leaders of the party to a conference, in which they stated their demands. To all of these Nevil agreed, and solemnly pledged himself to procure the king's ratification. When he had thus completely lulled into security, Nevil persuad- ed them to send messengers to their troops, to tell them that peace was made, and that they might return to their own homes ; promising, on his own part to do the same. But while the archbishop, unsuspicious of any fraud, sent orders to his men to disband, the wily Nevil gave his own message to a person whom he had previously ordered not to deliver it : and, as soon as he had perceived that the insurgents' camp was broken up, and the men dis- persing, he caused a body of his own soldiers to come suddenly to the place of conference, and carry off the archbishop, and all those who had accompanied him, prisoners to Pontefract. They were every one beheaded even Scroop himself, which was the first instance in Eng land of a capital punishment being inflicted on a bishop The deceitful conduct of Nevil cannot be too much de ested. Did Northumberland show gratitude to his king ? By what deceitful transaction did the eail of Westmoreland mislead ;ne archbishop of York, &c. ? What terms did Nevil offer the insurgents? How were Scroop and his aonerents betrayed ! 1C4 ENGLISH HISTORY. A I) H08 Northumberland, on helping of the death of his friends, fled first into Scotland, and afterwards into Wales, where he wandered about for some time. He afterwards returned into the north, and made a last attempt to overthrow the power of Henry: but his party was defeated, and himself slain, in a battle on Bram- ham Moor, in Yorkshire. The repeated ill-success of these rebellions at length subdued all the king's enemies. Even the Welsh, des- pairing to establish their independence, abandoned Glen- dower, who wandered about in various disguises, till he died at his daughter's house at Mornington, in Hereford- shire, in 1415 \ D 1 4 1 ^ ^ most unex P ecte( l chance threw into the hands of Henry, the only son of Robert III., king of Scotland. David Bruce, having no children, had been succeeded by his sister's son, Robert Stuart, who died in 1390, leaving two sons. The eldest, Robert III., succeeded his father, and was a prince of a very feeble character ; the other son was duke of Albany, a restless and ambitious man, who got the affairs of the nation into his hands, and ruled them imperiously, and even imprison- ed and starved to death the elder of his brother's two sons. Robert, anxious to save his other son, James, (afterwards king James I. of Scotland,) from falling into the hands ot his cruel uncle, was desirous to send him to France, and committed him to the care of the earl of Orkney, whom he directed to conduct him to that country. They embarked secretly, and set sail, but their vessel was taken off Flam- borough head by an English privateer; and the prince and his attendants were conveyed to Henry who, on being told oy the earl of Orkney that tl e yourg prince was going to What became of Northumberland 1 How did the rebellion terminate in this reign 1 Who reigned in Scotland in 1415 ? How did Prince James of Scotland fall into the cusUdv cf Hcr^.y rv ? ENGLISH HISTORY ) 05 France to ltarn French, said, " I understa; d French, and therefore ought to be entrusted with his education." Henry then committed James and his attendants close prisoners to the Tower. When the poor old father heard the news, it threw him into such agonies of grief that he died in three days. James remained a prisoner till he was twenty-eight years old, the duke of Albany being in the meantime regent in Scotland ; but Henry made some amends for his unjust conduct towards the young prince, by giving him the best education the times afforded, so that he proved, when restored to his kingdom, the most accomplished monarch that ever sat upon the Scottish throne. This prince's history is very affecting. He remained in England eighteen years, but he was not kept in close con- finement all that time. He had an excellent tutor appointed to superintend his education ; he learnt titling, wrestling, archery, and all the exercises then usually practised by young men of rank ; and excelled in these exercises, as well as in the more refined studies of oratory, jurispru- dence, and the philosophy of those times. James had an extraordinary talent for music and poetry. Indeed some say that he was the inventor of that sweet and plaintive style of music which is peculiar to Scotland ; but others assert with more probability, that he merely reduced the wildness of Scottish melody to the rules of composition. His poetry is extraordinary, considering the time and cir- cumstance, in which it was written. When the duke of Albany died, the people of Scotland paid their king's ransom, and he returned home. After reigning fifteen years he was assassinated. His whole life was not, however, unfortunate, for he lived to do much good to his native country. He made excellent laws, and re- formed many abuses ; and conducted himself with so much firmness, justice, and good policy, that the name of James the First of Scotland is still held in reverence. While 9\ What effect had the capture of the prince upon his father, and how -as the former treated in England? How was prince James educated? Was prince James possessed of extraordinary genius ? What is the se army fled without having struck a blow. Henry, after a conflict which lasted omy three hours, obtained a complete victory in circumstances that scarcely seemed to allow him any hope of escape from his enemies. The loss oi the French, both in killed and prisoners, was immense. Amongst the killed were the dukes of Orleans and Bour- boi ; and it is remarkable that the principal loss fell upon the nobles of the two factions ; and that comparatively few of the common men were slain. Henry returned to Eng- land in great triumph with his prisoners ; and the people were in such ecstacies of joy, that when he approached Dover, many of them plunged into the sea to meet his barge. The circumstances of the battles of Cressy, Poitiers, and Azincourt, have a singular resemblance to each other. In each we see a powerful prince plunging, without any ade- quate object, into the midst of an enemy's country, and surrounded and in danger of being destroyed. And in each we see, at the head of an immense host of French, a commander who commits the same error of despising, through vain glory, a handful of desperate men : and that these handfuls of desperate men should each time obtain a complete victory, is, doubtless, very extraordinary. The cabals amongst the nobles of France, instead of being checked by the late national calamity, only became the more violent. The king of France, Charles the Sixth, was mad •, the dukes of Orleans and Burgundy, contended for the kingdom ; and the queen took part with the Bur- gundians. The Orleans party were called the Armagnacs. Such was the state of things, when Henry landed with a considerable army in Normandy, on the ] st of August, 1417. No preparations had been made for opposing him ; and he marched forwards, taking possession of all the towns in his way ; little resistance being attempted, except --it Rouen, which sustained a siege of nearly six months, and was at last only reduced by famine. Who were slain at Azincourt, and how was Henry received in EtiL land ? What battles were much alike ? What was the state of the French nut. on ht this time f What reception awaited Henry in France 1417 I EXGLISH HISTORY. 175 In the meantime the factions of France, as on Henry's f ormer invasion, were too much occupied in their mutual contests to observe the progress of the English king. The queen and duke of Burgundy had sent secret orders to their friends in Paris to put every one who was known to be an Armagnac to death. It is said that in consequence of this bloody mandate 14,000 persons were massacred : and v. hile the streets were actually streaming with blood, the queen and duke made their triumphant entry into Paris ! When Henry at last had conquered the whole of Nor- mandy, the contending parties began to look about them, and to consider, when too late, what was to be done. The queen and the duke of Burgundy, invited Henry to a per- sonal interview, where many points were discussed, but nothing finally concluded. The dauphin, alarmed by the duke of Burgundy's alliance with Henry, contrived to de- tach him from it, and to induce him to make peace with himself. This apparent reconciliation was celebrated throughout France with every demonstration of joy ; joy, however, which was but of short continuance, for the reconciliation was only pretended on the side of the dauphin, who in- citing the duke to a personal conference on the bridge of Montereau sur Yonne, caused him to be assassinated, and even stood by and witnessed the murder. Nothing could exceed the fury of the Burgundians at this areadful tragedy : and Philip, the son and successor of die murdered duke, forgetting every other consideration in the desire of vengeance, entered into a treaty with Henry, which went to confer on him the regency of France during the life of the present king, and, at his death, the succession to the crown, in exclusion of the dauphin, against whom England and Burgundy agreed to unite their forces. The king of France was ai this time in the power of the Bur gundians, and was made a party to their treaty. A T) 1420 ^ ne °^ ^ e art ^ c ^ es was > tnat Henry was to many the princess Catharine, the king's What attrocities were committed tl this time in France ? What was Henry's success in France '{ What alliance did Henry make, and how was it ooserved on the part ut tho Dauphin of France ? What subsequent treaty was made between the French and English? When was Henry V. married ? 176 ENGLISH HISTORY. youngest daughter This marriage was accordingly so lemnized ; and the two kings and their queens made a tri umphant entry into Paris. The title of the new regeni was ratified by the states general, (a kind of parliament,) and the union of the two crowns was celebrated with great outward demonstrations of joy. The duke of Burgundy presented himself to the assem- bly of the three estates, — the nobles, the clergy, and re- presentatives of the other orders, — clothed in the deepest mourning, to deman I justice on the murderers of his father ; and a sentence of excommunication was pronounced on the dauphin and his accomplices, who were declared incapa- ble of succeeding to any honor or dignity. The dauphin did not submit tamely to be thus disinherited ; but appeal- ing to God and his sword for the maintenance of his title, he assumed the title of regent, and vigorously defended himself and the few places that still adhered to him. Early in the following year, Henry, with his young queen, came to England, leaving his brother, the duke of Clarence, behind him as his lieutenant ; but after a few months' absence, he returned hastily to France, on hearing >hat the duke of Clarence had been killed in an engagement with some Scottish soldiers in the dauphin's service. Henry took with him the captive king of Scotland, in tho nope that the presence of their king would detach the Scots from the dauphin. This project did not succeed, for the Scots remained steady to the side they had taken. In May, 1422, Henry with the queen and his son, who had been born a few months before, made a triumphant entry into Paris, to show the people their future king. But though the magnificence of the show might amuse the Parisians for a moment, it could not stifle the discontent they in secret felt at the hu- miliation of their country. After this, Henry rejoined his army, andreduced several towns which had adhered to the dauphin : but, while be- sieging Cosne he was taken ill, and was obliged to give up (lie commard of his army to his brother, the duke of Bed- Did the Duke of Burgundy demand redress for the murder ol his father'i Why did Henry V. return to England in 1421 ? Did the French nation regard Henry V. with cordiality ? When was Henry V. taken violently ill? ENGLISH HISTORY. 1?7 ford. He then retired to Bois de Vincennes, near Paris where lie grew rapidly worse. He soon felt himself at the point of death, and sent for the duke of Bedford and the earl of Warwick, to come to him, and receive his last directions. Henry appointed the duke of Bedford regent of France, and the duke of Gloucester regent of England ; and his in- fant son he committed to the care of the earl of Warwick, lie also gave a particular charge that the prisoners taken at Azincourt should not be set at liberty till his son was of age. After he had given his final directions, he asked his physicians " how long they thought he might live I" And when they told him, " about two hours," he shut oui from his thoughts every earthly care, and spent his remaining moments in devotion. A D 142^ Henry V ' died Au 2* 31 ' in the thirt y _ fourth year of his age, and the tenth of his reign. His death is said to have been hastened by the unskilfulness of his physicians. His funeral procession was conducted with prodigious pomp through France, an* 1 afterwards from Dover to Westminster, where he was buried. Tapers were kept burning day and night on his tomb for nearly 100 years, and might be burning still, per- haps; if all customs of that kind had not been abolished at the Reformation. Henry married Catharine of France, and left one son, Henry, born at Westminster, December 6, 1421. The queen afterwards married Owen Tudor, a Welsh gentle- man, by whom she had three sons : Edmund, earl of Rich- mond, married Margaret, daughter of John Beaufort, duke of Somerset, and was the father of Henry Tudor, afterwards king Henry VII. ; Jasper, earl of Pembroke ; and Owen. Manners and customs of the reign of Henry V. were improving in England, but the conveniences of life were still far behind ours of the present age. The nobility at What were the last appointments of Henry V. ? What were the obsequies of Henry V. '( Who were the family of Henry V. ? What was tl e domestic trchiteeture of Henry the Fifth's timo i 178 ENGLISH HISTORY that time no longe: lived shut up in gloomy caslles ; but began to inhabit large mansions, built of timber, and co- vered with plaster. The outside wood work was ferj much carved, and the windows were large and wide The principal apartment was the hall, which was two 01 three stories high, and commonly had an entrance porch. The floor of the upper half of the hall was raised about a foot higher than the rest, and called the dais, and there the lord of the mansion sat with his guests. The lowei part was common to the menials of the family, of whom there were in every house a great number. The furniture of these halls was not very sumptuous, and ususlly con- sisted of only a long table fastened to the floor, three 01 four wooden benches for the gentlemen, with some low stools for the ladies, and perhaps a corner cupboard. The walls were covered with large pieces of tapestry, nung on tenter-hooks, and taken down in summer. Some houses had chimneys ; but in many the fire-place was in the middle of the floor, and, unless when a hole in the rool was made for it, the smoke found its way out through the rafters. In the halls, while the nobles and their guests sat at taole, they were entertained by singers, minstrels, and dancers Over their heads were the perches for theii hawks, and at their feet the pavement was crowded with dogs, gnawing the bones that were thrown to them : and besides all this, was the bustle and confusion of the nume- rous and noisy attendants, who, it should appear, were al- lowed to bawl and shout, and talk to each other. When the master of the house and his guests had eaten what they chose, the serving men took their share, and what remained was given to the poor, who, at the hour of dinner, stood in crowds about the gate to receive it. Accommodations for sleeping were not very comfortable In the reign of Henry V. a flock bed, and a chaff bolster were considered extraordinary luxuries, and pillows were only made for sick people. Feather beds, however, were used by kings and princes. The beds of the middle classes of people, were straw pallets covered with a sheet, and a log Describe the hall, the dais, the furniture, the chimneys? What were the manners of the old barons in their country houses ? What sort of beuding was used in this age in England ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 179 of wood for a bolster, with a blanket and coverlet, like what is now used for horse-cloths. Servants had very seldom any sheets at all, and the sleeping in night-clothes was an extravagance they did not indulge in. And in war even such accommodations as these were sometimes denied to princes themselves. CHAPTER XX. HENRY VI. [Years after Christ, 1122— 14GL] The duke of Bedford, who was appointed to the regency of France by the late king, was not his inferior either in valor or wisdom, and was much superior to him in the excellent virtues of clemency and command of temper. The earls of Warwick, Salisbury, Arundel, and lord Tal- bot, who held high offices in the state and army, were all men of distinguished abilities ; so that the death of Henry made no immediate change in the situation of affairs in France. Charles VI. ended his unhappy reign a few months af- ter the death of Henry. The dauphin, Charles VII., im mediately assumed the name of king, and lost no oppor- tunity of trying to regain his kingdom : but Bedford did all that a wise and politic man could do to support the in- terests 2( his nephew. He agreed to the ransom of the king of Scotland, and made a seventeen years' truce with that country which prevented Charles from obtaining any farther assistance from it. A T) 1 42ft r ^ ie ear * °** Salisbury, with a powerful army, laid siege to Orleans, which still idhered to Charles. At the second assault a small towei which defended the bridge was taken. At the top of thif Who were the chief men in England at the tiiAe of Henry the Fiflfc ? leuth ? What was the state of affairs in France ? Where was the earl of Sa'isbury killed ? ISO ENGLISH HISTORF. tower was a grated window, which overlooked the town . and while the earl of Salisbury was taking a survey from it, he was perceived by the master gunner of the enemy who aimed a gun at the window, which shivered the iron bars of the grate and wounded the earl so desparately that he died a few days afterwards. The siege was continued under the direction of the earl of Suffolk and lord Talbot, who completely defeated the army which had been sent to the relief of the town, and Charles now thought it impossible to save it ; when one of the most extraordinary circumstances that has ever been recorded in history occurred, and not only preserved Orleans from the English, but also greatly contributed to their being deprived soon after of all their late conquests in France. There was a young woman of the name of Joan d'Arc. who was servant at an inn at Neufchatel in Lorraine, The accounts she was continually hearing from the trav- ellers who came to the inn, of the distress the people oi Orleans were reduced to, and of the little probability there was that Charles would be able to preserve that town, or any other that remained to him, worked up her mind to such a pitch of sympathy for the sufferers, and of enthu siasm for the cause of her king, that she fancied herself delegated by God to raise the siege of Orleans, and restore to Charles the kingdom of his ancestors. Joan imparted what she considered her high commis- sion to the governor of a neighboring town, and desired him to send her to the king. At first the governor treated her as an insane enthusiast ; but at last, being overcome by her importunities, he allowed some of his attendants to conduct her to the royal presence. It was two days be- fore she could gain admittance ; but when she appeared before the king, and announced her errand, he and his courtiers were so much astonished by her appearance and manner, that they declared themselves convinced of her being commissioned by Heaven to expe* the English from Did an extraordinary circumstance preserve tho city of Orleans i Who was Joan of Arc '! How did the French king and his nobles regard Joan of Arc ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 181 France, and an escort was ordered to cor duel her to Orleans. A T) 1490 The hardships to which Joan had been inured had qualified her to bear the fa- tigue of a soldier's life. It having been part of her busi- ness at the inn to tend the horses, she was already an ex- pert rider : and when she got admitted into the town, she headed the troops, and made several sallies against the English, in which she was always victorkus. The belief of her sacred mission, while it revived the low spirits of her countrymen, depressed those of th«* English soldiers, who joining in the general superstition imagined, when they were combatting with her, that the} were fighting against Heaven : and Suffolk was obliged to raise the siege of Orleans, May 8, 1429. The French, improving this advantage, laid siege to several of the towns which were held by the English ; and in all these sieges the Maid of Orleans, as Joan was now called, behaved with the intrepidity of an experienced sol- dier. On one occasion, when scaling a wall, she was wounded in the head, and fell from the top of the ladder into the ditch ; but without regarding the hurt, she ex- claimed with a loud voice, " Advance, advance my coun- trymen ! the Lord hath doomed the English to destruction." — Another time she was wounded in the neck by an arrow, and drawing out the arrow herself, she retired to have the wound dressed, and then returned to lead on the troops. In the month of June, the French and English armies met. So much discord and confusion prevailed among the English, that the French obtained an easy victory. These successes greatly increased the fame and influence of Joan : and now, having raised the siege of Orleans, she insisted on being allowed to attempt the object which she had next at heart, that of crowning Charles at Rheims ; and in this attempt also she succeeded, although the country aboul Rheims was for the most part in possession of the eremy What har 1 . been the occupation of Joan of Arc ? What weie the achievements of Joan of Arc ? Were the French armies victorious under the inrluence of Joan, and r.nv- did she crown her enterprise ? 182 ENGLISH HISTORY. When the ceremony of the ccronation was over, Joan announced that she had fulfilled her mission : and falling at the king's feet, besought him to permit her to return to her former station. The king denied her request, and constrained her to remain with the troops ; but as a re- ward for what she had done (being too poor to give her a more substantial one,) he ennobled her and her family by the name of " Des Lys." During these events the duke of Bedford was not idle: out his military skill and policy could do little to stem the torrent that was now rapidly leading back the French from their foreign conquerors to their rightful king. He hop ed, by having the young Henry also crowned, to counter act the effect of Charles' coronation: but, though the ceremony took place at Paris with great parade and pomp, it had no effect upon the hearts of the French people, who were only drawn the more towards their own king by seeing another assume those honors that ought to have been his. On the first unexpected turn of fortune, the French com- manders had been willing to give all the honor of their success to Joan ; but after a time they became jealous of her fame : and ore day, when some troops under her com- mand were repulsed near Compeigne, and obliged to re- treat into the town, the governor admitted all the party except poor Joan, who, it is said, w T as purposely shut out. Being thus left alone amidst a host of enemies, she was pulled from her horse and taken prisoner. It is with sorrow that we retrace the short remainder of this heroic woman's life. The treatment she received from the duke of Bedford and his council is a lasting stain upon the memories of men, who, as soldiers, Englishmen, and Christians, should have shown humanity and justice rowards her. She was burnt alive in the market-place at Rouen ; and Charles, wno owed s:> much to her services r.ade no effort to save her. How lid Charles VII. recompense Joan ? How did the duke of Bedford concert measures on the pait cf the Knglish ? Did Joan of Arc fall into the hands of the English ? Did the duke of Bedford treat Joan with humanity ? ENGLISH HlS'iOKY. 3 83 \ 1") l4T r ^ e duke of Burgundy withdrew from his alliance with the English, and a solemn peace was ratified between him and Charles ut Arras ; an event that was celebrated througl out France with transports of joy, but which caused such deep vexa- tion in the duke of Bedford as to occasion his death. His death was a serious loss to the English, and not only in regard to their affairs in France, but also in regard to the government at home ; as he had often quelled, by his influence and authority, the disagreements between the duke of Gloucester, who was the regent of England, and the cardinal Beaufort, who had now the principal care of the young king. The duke of Bedford's death opened a fresh subject ot contention, in the choice to be made a new regent of France , and while the English council was disputing who should be appointed to that office, Charles got possession of Paris, and of many other important places. The duke of York was at last appointed to the regency. The duke, when he arrived in France, found affairs there in a very declining state, and only supported by the bravery and exertions of lord Talbot, who was now the sole survivor of Henry the Fifth's brave band of warriors. In 1438, a dreadful famine and pestilence raged at Eng- land and France, and almost occasioned a cessation of hostilities : and a negotiation for peace was entered into, which the duchess of Burgundy, from truly Christian mo- tives, labored heartily to promote. This good princess was daughter of the king of Portu- gal, and grand-daughter of John of Gaunt : but some trifling difference on the subject of doing homage, made her good offices of no effect, and prevented an end being yet put to a war, which had desolated France and ex- hausted England for twenty-five. years. * D -Man After some little interval the war was re- newed with vigor on both sides, but the When did the duke of Bedford die ? Was the death of Bedford a loss to the English nation, and why t Who was made regent of France ? What circumstances led to overtures of reconciliation between Franco. and England I What pi evented peace at this time ? 184 ENGLISH HISTORY. duke of Orleans, after a tedious and melancholy captivity, which had lasted ever since the battle of Azincourt, ro gained his liberty and returned home; and, in 1444, he and the duchess of Burgundy procured a truce for six years between the two countries. Hitherto Henry VI. has been almost entirely out of sight. In fact he would have been very glad to have re- mained so: for, being of a timid and quiet disposition, he was unfit for the cares of royalty. He was of a gentle and humane disposition, but from the inferiority of his under- standing was only fit to be a passive instrument in the hands of others. Henry was in his twenty-fourth year, when cardinal Beaufort, chiefly for the sake of thwarting the duke ol Gloucester, who wished the king to make some more ad- vantageous alliance, contrived his marriage with Marga- ret of Anjou. Gloucester, as if he had forseenthe mise- ries w r hich this fatal union was to bring upon the country, did all in his power to prevent it. But his efforts only made Beaufort and his party the more eager to bring it about, and the marriage took place in 1445. Instead ol the king's receiving any dower with his bride, he agreed to give up a large tract of Maine and Anjou to her father. Margaret was a woman of a high spirit and a vindictive temper. She never forgave the duke of Gloucester for the opposition he had made to her marriage, and came to Eng- land vowing vengeance against him in her heart. She found willing associates in cardinal Beaufort and the duke of Suffolk, who had already, by their machinations, involved Gloucester's wife, Eleanor Cobham, in a charge of witch- craft, and caused her to be sentenced to perpetual impri- sonment in the Isle of Man. Beaufort and Suffolk entered with the }ueen into a wicked confederacy to accuse Gloucester of high treason but found it impossible to substantiate any actual charge against him. He was, notwithstanding, imprisoned, and rioon afterwards was found dead in his bed. What was the character of Henry VI. ? Who promoted Henry's marriage — with whom, and with what retsnU? What were the disposition and conduct of the ted? How was Lord Hastings treated ? 204 ENGLISH HISTORY manded to be immediately put to death. He was only per mitted a few moments' delay to confess himself to a priest, and his head was cut off on a log of wood which happened to be on the spot. On the same day, sir Thomas RatclifTe, one of Richard's chief confidants, entered Pontefract with 5,000 men, and without any trial, beheaded lord Rivers and lord Grey, and their two fellow prisoners. The death of lord Rivers caused much lamentation, for he was the most accom plished nobleman of his time. Gloucester, while committing these acts of violence, still kept on his mask of loyalty. He declared in council that it would be highly indecent to suffer the duke of York, dur ing the ceremony of his brother's coronation, to remain in the Sanctuary, a place where thieves and murderers found refuge. The archbishop of Canterbury was in consequence sent to require the queen to surrender her young son. Having now got both the young princes into his power Gloucester declared to the people, that the late king had been married to another lady previously to his marriage with lady Elizabeth Wydville, therefore her son was not the legitimate king ; and the citizens of London were thus persuaded to offer him the crown. Richard at first affected to decline it, and said "his love of his brother's children was greater than his love of a crown :" but when the duke of Buckingham urged the suit, Richard pretended to overcome his reluctance, and accepted the offered gift. He was the same day pro- claimed king, and was soon after crowned. The same preparations that had been made for the coronation ol Edward V. served for that of Richard III. It was long before the fate of the two unfortunate young princes was known with certainty, but they never appeared more. Some years afterwards two people owned them- selves to have been concerned in their murder, and said that Wha; were the next violent measures of Richard's adherents ? Upon what pretence did Gloucester get the young king into his poe- yession ? By what falsehood did Gloucester lay claim to thi crown v Dil Richard pretend to refuse the crown, and when was he crovvatd J What became of the young princes ENGLISH HISTORY. 205 the two princes had been suffocated in their ted, and bu- ried at the foot of a staircase in the Tower. Edward was in his thirteenth year when his father died, and reigned not quite three months Mummeries. From a MS. of Edward the Thvrd's reign. The troubled times of England it seems, did not much interrupt the popular amusements. It has been mentioned that the English nation were fond of noisy sports. We have seen the early Saxons entertained with the bards and minstrels ; and the Normans with jousts and tournaments and we have heard that the baronial halls and courts abounded with the tricks of jugglers and buffoons. Dramatic entertiinments, representations of stories by assumed characters, came slowly into fashion in England, and did not take the form of an elegant and moral enter ainment till the age of Shakspeare (1580,) or thereabouts. There were theatrical entertainments long before there were theatres. The first public representation that was '•my thing like a play was exhibited as early as 1378, and was called a miracle. It was the history of St. Catharine and was performed by the priests of Dunstable. The ac- tors were attired in the holy vestments belonging to the ab- bey of St. Alban's. In Richard the Second's reign the clergy of St. Paul's enacted a miracle before the king and What were the amusements of the English people at different tin* 1 3 f What was the progress of the drama in England? VYl at was a dramatic miracle ? 206 ENGLISH HISTORY. queen which lasted eight days, and in which was repre- sented the greater part of the history of the Bible. These miracles were succeeded by mysteries, in which sacred subjects were strangely jumbled with mimicry and buffoonery. By degrees, some little moral allegory crept into these entertainments, and miracles and mysteries gave way to moralities, which consisted of long elaborate speech es from allegorical personages, as Theology, Adulation, Admonition, &c. These plays were all performed in churches and chapels, and the actors were almost always ecclesiastics. Besides these church plays there were secu lar plays and interludes performed in private houses and in the streets, by jugglers, tumblers, and jesters, whose business it was to rove about and exhibit their talents. In the time of popery there were so many saints' days, and holidays, the lower orders of people had a great deal of time for their amusements. Christmas was the chief time of sports ; and in the king's courts, and probably also in private families, a leader of the sports was elected, who had for the time the pleasant title of lord of misrule. When there was so much play, of course there was less work. The country was miserably cultivated : there were frequent famines ; the dirt and wretchedness of the poor was extreme : hunger and idleness made them always ready to raise tumults and disturbances. Their condition is now better, though poor laborers of England do not dance and sing so much as their ancestors did, they enjoy more comforts, and fewer of them are killed in broils, or Jie of .hunger. What were Mysteries and Allegories ? Wh^t effect had the Catholic religion upon popular air.useme uX» ia England ? Is toomnr.li d version conducive to the well being cf a people? ENGLISH HISTORY. 20? CHAPTER XXIII RICHARD III. [Years after Christ, -1483—1485.] iU'.HARD, DUKE OF GLOUCESTER, AFTERWAHDB KlftO. From a MS. in the Royal Library. L must not be supposed that the citizens of London soli- cited Richard to accept the crown entirely from the love they bore to him. He had caused the city to be surrounded by numerous bodies of troops, and would have proceeded to violent measures, had not the citizens acted as they did. The new king, soon after the coronation set out with his queen, and only son, then about eight years old, on a royal progress through the kingdom. When the court arrived at York, the king, to gain popularity amongst the people, who flocked there in great numbers to see him, entertain- ed them with the ceremony of a coronation, and was crowned in the cathedral at that city a second time. But while Richard was thus making a parade of his How were the citizens of London constrained to offer Richard the crown ? Where was Richard III. crowned ? What conspiracy was formed against Richard? 208 ENGLISH HISTORY. loyalty, a plot was already brewing to deprive him of it Morton, bishop, of Ely,had been committed to the custody of the duke of Buckingham. That shrewd prelate soor, saw that though the duke had received great rewards from die king, he yet wanted more, and that resentment and dis- content were rankling in his mind. Morton accordingly found no difficulty in persuading him, notwithstanding he had so greatly contributed to the exalting of Richard, to join in a conspiracy formed for deposing him, and for pla- cing Henry Tudor, earl of Richmond, on the throne. The friends of Richmond were desirous of supplying the defects of his title by marrying him to Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., who certainly, now that her brothers were gone, seemed to have the best right to the crown. Having formed their plan, they sent messengers to the young earl, entreating him to come to England immediately ; and they made preparations at the same time for a general rising on the 18th of October. But Richard, whose vigilance had not let this tempest gather unperceived, assembled anarmv rapidly at Northampton, to be ready to march to that part of the country where the storm should burst. Buckingham was prevented from acting against Richard being betrayed to him for a reward of a thousand pounds He was taken to London, and begged earnestly to see the king, and plead his cause before him; but Richard refused his request, and ordered him to be immediately executed. The other conspirators, discouraged by this disastrous be- ginning, dispersed, but were many of them taken, and the execution of some of the ringleaders terminated this formi- dable insurrection. A D 1483 Ri cnar d made a triumphant entry into London, and all things now seemed to prosper to his wishes. But he, whose heart was too hard to feel for the affliction of others, was himself vulnerable in his paternal affection. Edward, his only child, died April 9 14S4; and we are told that the king's grief was so excessive that he almost " run mad." The grief of the queen wab What plan was formed for the exclusion of Richard, and how did h* urepare to frustrate that plan ? What happened to the conspirators against Richard ! ft'hat domestic misfortunes happened to R'chard? ENGLISH HISTORY. 209 not less violent ; and her death a few months afterwards is generally ascribed to it. Richard, notwithstanding all his spies, and the secret in- telligence he kept up in the country, does not seem to have been aware that, while Richmond was supposed to be in France, soliciting aid from foreign princes, he in fact passed great part of the time in Wales, making himself friends among his countrymen ; for the Tudors were a Welsh fa- mily. Once, when at Tremostyn, in Flintshire, he was so near being discovered by one of Richard's spies, that he only escaped by jumping out of a back window, and getting through a hole, which is still called the king's hole. Richmond, on his return to France, heard a repoit ol Richard's marriage with the princes Elizabeth. On this, hastily collecting all the English exiles, and a few French soldiers, he mustered a body of 3000 men, and with this small army he landed at Milford Haven, August 7, 1485, trusting to the co-operation of his friends in England. When Richard heard how small a number of persons accompanied the earl, he despised so weak an enemy. But when he found that enemy to be presently joined by some Welsh troops that had been sent against him, and that his numbers were fast increasing, he began to think the dan- ger more urgent. His spies either could not or would not give him true information ; and he began to suspect and distrust all about him. Richard at this juncture adopted the only measure he could devise, to prevent the defection of the army m hi*) cause. Lord Stanley, to whom Richard had given the chief command in his army, was in secret league with Richmond, whose mother he had married. Richard though he knew not exactly what to apprehend, seized on Stanley's son, and kept him as a hostage for the fidelity of his father, who was thus pre\ ented from openly appear- ing in Richmond's cause. Richard being desperate, at length roused himself, and collecting what troops he could, marched from Notting. Where -was the earl of Richmond 1485 ? When and where did the army of Richmond land in England ? How did Rbhard prepare for his adversary ? What measure did Richard take in respect tolortl Stanley ' Where did Richard encounter Richmond's army ! 10 210 ENGLISH HISTORY. ham, where he was keeping his court, to Leicester. An gust 22d, he left Leicester with great pomp, wearing a crown on his helmet, but with a countenance indicating a troubled mind, and encamped at the abbey of Merivalle, not far from Bosworth, where Richmond had arrived the night before. The two armies were placed so near to- gether, that during the night many deserted from the royal army and joined Richmond. The next morning the forces on both sides were drawn OLt in line of battle. The battle began, but no yigor or spirit was displayed in the royal army ; and, when lord Stanley suddenly turned and attacked it, Richard saw that all was lost, and exclaiming "Treason ! treason! treason!" rushed in the madness of rage and desperation into the midst of the enemy, and made his way to the earl of Rich- mond, hewing down all before him. The earl rather shrunk back at the approach of such a desperate antagonist ; but his attendants gathered round Richard, who fought like a wild beast at bay, till at last he fell covered with wounds. His helmet was so beaten in by the blows it had received, that its form was quite de- stroyed. Scarcely any persons of note fell on this memo- rable field. Richard reigned little more than two years, and was slain in the thirty-fifth year of his age. He fell near a brook which runs through Bosworth field. The dead body of the king was treated like that of a malefactor, and thrown neck and heels across a horse, and carried to Leicester, where it was buried in the church of the Grey Friars. But his bones were not permitted to rest in this humble bed ; for at the destruction of the religious houses by Henry VIII. , they were torn from their burying-place. His coffin was afterwards used as a drinking trough for horses at an inn in Leicester. The consequences of the battle of Bosworth were of qrreat importance, not on ] y to the individuals who were en- gaged in it, but to the whole nation. Indeed, no battle How did Richard demean himself in the battle of Bosworth field ? How did Richmond meet Richard, and how fell Richard ? How long did Richard III. reign, and how was his dead body treated ? What were the consequences to the English nation of the battle of Bosworth ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 211 since that of Hastings, had been productive of such mate- rial changes. The battle of Hastings brought in the feudal system in its most oppressive form ; and the battle of Bos- worth put an end to it, and also to the long line of Planta genet kings, who had governed England for 330 years. There were fourteen Plantagenet kings: Henry the Second, and thirteen descendants. Four of these, John, Henry III., Richard II., and Henry VI., were feeble monarchs. The rest inherited all the abilities and bravery oi their great ancestor: but they were one and all of them ignorant of what may be called a Christian policy, — igno- rant that it is the duty of princes to seek the improvement and happiness of their subjects, rather than the increase of territory, or the triumph of arms. But, in despite of the false notions of their kings, the English nation was gradually becoming more free, intelligent, and virtuous, during these successive reigns. THE PLANTAGENET LINE Henry II. Plantagenet. Richard I. Coeurde Lion, > „,„rrr„„„-TT John Lackland, £ sons of Henn, H. Henry III. son of John. Edward I. son of Henry III. Edward, II. of Carnarvon, son of Edward I. Edward III. son of Edward II. Richard II. of Bordeaux, grandson of Edward III, Henry IV. of Lancaster, cousin to Richard II. grandson of Edward III. Henry V. of Monmouth, son of Henry IV. Henry VI. of Westminster, son of Henry V. Edwird IV. of York, third cousin to Henry VI, great great grandson of Edward III. Edward V. son of Edward IV. Richard III. Crookback, uncle of Edward Y.aml the last of the Plantagenets. Began to r.eigned reign Years. 1154 . . 35 . . 1189 . . 10 . . 1199 . . 17 . , 1216 . . 56 1272 . . 34 . . 1307 . . 20 . . 1327 . . 50 . . 1377 . . 22 . . 1399 . . 14 . . 1413 . . 9 . . 1422 . . 19 . . 1461 . . ^2 . . 1483 . . 3m. . 148 J . . 2 . . Who ve-e the Plantagenet kings and v Sat their general chatactot ? 212 ENGLISH K'-STOilV CHAPTER XXIV. HENRY VIT. [Years aftei Christ, 1485—1509.] HENRY VI. AND HIS QUEEN. From an old picture by Mabush King Richard was the last man slain on the field of Bosworth, and his death was the signal victory to Hen- ry of Richmond. The soldiers who had engaged in pur- suit of the fugitives were recalled by hearing the shouts of " Long live King Henry !" and, returning to the field of battle, they saw sir William Stanley placing on Henry's head the battered crown that had been struck off from the helmet of Richard. Henry was at this time thirty }~ears old, and two ruling passions, swayed his conduct from the first hour of his reign, to the end of his life. These were his avarice, and his hatred to the house of York. The first command he issued, even before he had left the bloody field where he had been proclaimed king, was that persons should he sent into Yorkshire, to seize young Edward Plantagene^ When was Henry of Richmcnd crowned king of England ? What were the ruling passions of Henry VII. ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 213 earl of Warwick, the son of the duke of Claience, and to convey him to the Tower. But, notwithstanding Henry's rooted dislike to the house of York, he soon found he could not maintain himself on ihe throne without allying himself to it He therefore renewed an agreement he had formerly made to marry the princess Elizabeth ; but his reluctance to the marriage was so great, that he put it off till the following year. He had so much jealousy of its being supposed that he derived through her his right to the crown, that he would not per- mit the queen's name to be mentioned in the act of parlia- ment that was passed for settling the succession. AD 1487 H enr y' s conduct towards all those who had been connected with the late royal family naturally irritated them against him, and a scheme was contrived, which, though it failed in the end, had many abettors, and gave him for a time much trouble and vexa- tion. Lambert Simnel, the son of a baker of Oxford, was instructed to personate the young earl of Warwick, who, it was pretended, had made his escape from the tower. Richard Simon, a priest, had the chief management of this plot. He took Simnel into Ireland, where the house of York had many friends ; and there, the credulity of the people coinciding with their wishes, he was proclaimed at Dublin by the title of Edward VI. When Henry heard of this pretended earl of Warwick, he caused the real earl to be taken from his prison, and carried in procession hrough London. This measure, though it satisfied the people of England, did not convince those of Ireland, who asserted that Henry had exhibited an impostor, while they were in possession of the true Plantagenet. Whether the duchess of Burgun- dy was really of the same opinion, or whether she was glad of an opportunity to disturb Henry, does not appear; but she certainly assisted Simnel with a body of troops un- der the command of Martin Swartz, an experienced leadei Whom did Henry marry, and how did he regard the queen ? What impostor appeared in England 1487 ? What measures did Henry take to expose this irnpostoi ? Who assisted Simnel ? 214 ENGLISH HISTORY. The earl of Lincoln, son of the counters de la Polo eldest sister to the duchess, also joined Simnei in Ireland Leaving Ireland with a force of eight thousand men, they landed in Lancashire, expecting to be joined by the inha- bitants. But they were mistaken in this expectation, and penetrated as far as Stoke, near Newark, without receiving any addition to their numbers. Here they were met, June 16, 1487, by Henry, with a considerable force, and defeat ed after a fierce engagement. Lord Lincoln and Swartz were slain. Simnei, and his protector Simon, were taken prisoners, and received better treatment than they could have expected ; for Henry con- tented himself with imprisoning the priest for life, and with degrading the new-made king to be one of the scul- lions of his kitchen. A D 14Q3 Anqjher impostor started up, in a youth called Perkin Warbeck, who had been secretly instructed to personate Richard duke of York, the young brother of Edward V., who, it was pretended, had escaped from the Tower, by the connivance of the ruffians who had murdered his brother. This youth had a strong resemblance to the Plantagenets, and acted his part so well that many persons were actually convinced that he was the prince. Warbeck presented himself at the duchess of Burgundy's court at Brussels, and claimed her protection, as being hei brother's son. The duchess appeared at first to doubt hi.s story., and then, as if suddenly convinced by his answers to her questions, she embraced him with a transport of joy, exclaiming that he was indeed her long lost nephew. She then appointed a guard of soldiers to attend him, and treated him as the head of the house of York. The news of this extraordinary circumstance brought numbers of people to Brussels : and the answers of War* beck were so extraordinary, that all who saw and convers ed with him were persuaded of the truth of his stoty Where was Simnei defeated ? What became of Simnei and his chio abettors ? Who pretended to be the duke of York ? "What princess encouraged Warbeck? How did Henry prove the imposture of Warbeck ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 215 Ilerjy now became! anxious to publish lo the world the certainty that the real duke of York had beon murdered, and he obtained the confession of two persons who owned themselves to have been accessary to the death of the two young princes. Amongst those who flocked to see Perkin Warbeck were two men sent by Henry, who were commissioned to insinuate themselves into his confidence. In this they suc- ceeded so well that they became acquainted with his se- crets, and sent regular information of his plans to the king, who was thus enabled to know what persons in England were in correspondence with him. These persons were all seized in one day, and were immediately tried, con- demned, and executed. Sir William Stanley was behead- ed for having been heard to say, that " if he was sure Per- kiii Warbeck was the real duke of York, he would never ocar arms against him." These sanguinary measures deterred people from ven- turing to own themselves friends or favorers of Warbeck, who made two unsuccessful attempts to land in the realms which he claimed for his own. His first attempt was in Kent, and his second in Ireland. He then tried his for- tune in Scotland, and having convinced the king, James IV., that he was a true Plantagenet, that young monarch received him with the utmost kindness. James entered into Warbeck's cause with all the warmth of a generous mind, regardless of the danger of making an enemy of so powerful a monarch as the king of England, with whom it was greatly his interest to remain at peace. He gave Warbeck in marriage to the lady Catharine Doug- las, one of the most noble and accomplished ladies in Scot land, and published a manifesto, inviting the English to re pair to the standard of theirrightful sovereign, Richard IV. A D 14QB James also raised an army, and, in Octo- ber, invaded England. The Scots imme- diately began to plunder, as was their custom ; and War- Did Henry punish the friends of Warbeck ? Where did Warbeck successively try to advance his cause? How did James IV. of Scotland assist Warbeck ? What regard for human life and the right of property was niani'r**:, od by Warbeck ? 21G ENT.LISH HISTORY. beck expostulated with James on this barbarous manner of carrying on the war, declaring that he had rather lose a crown than obtain it by the ruin of his subjects. While Henry was preparing to repel the Scots, a still more pressing danger assailed him in an insurrection of the men of Cornwall, who came in a numerous body to- wards London. They got to Blackheath, but were there defeated by the king's troops. Their leaders were taken and executed. The rest, on paying two or three shillings each into the king's coffer, received a pardon, and return- ed home. Warbeck was soon deprived of the assistance which the king of Scotland had for a time afforded him. Henry, who was at all times a better negotiater than a soldier, pre- ferred entering into a treaty with James to the meeting him in the field ; and a truce was made between the two monarchs. Upon this Warbeck, after thanking James for the protection and kindness he had shown him, went to Ireland with about 120 followers, and his amiable wife, who would not forsake him. Warbeck remained in Ireland some months, and on receiving an invitation from the Cornish men, who were still in an unsettled state, he landed at Whitsand Bay in that country. Warbeck was joined at Bodmin by 3000 men, with whom he marched forward and laid siege to Exeter. A large body of the king's forces marched against him, and Warbeck left his companions to take care of them- selves, and fled in the night to the abbey of Beauley. The Abbey was soon surrounded by the royal troops, and Henry would gladly have forced open the gates and seized on his victim, but was persuaded to try to entice him out of his sanctuary by the promise of his life. Warbeck on receiving this promise, yielded himself up, and w r as carried prisoner to the Tower. He contrived to elude the vigilance of his keeper, and made his escape • but being soon taken, and brought back again, he was com- What insurrection was quelled in 1495 ? How did James of Scotland and WarDec* part ? Did Warbeck abandon his enterprise ? Where was Warbeck taken ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 217 pelled to mount a scaffold at Westminster, and to read a paper by which he confessed himself to be an impostor. Warbeck afterwards contrived to have some communica- tion with the earl of Warwick, his fellow prisoner, and a plan was concerted between them for their escape ; but the plan being discovered, they were both executed. Perkin Warbeck was hanged at Tyburn, Nov. 23, 1499, and the earl of Warwick was beheaded on Tower-Hill three days after. Henry, from this time till his death, was undisturbed either by tumults at home or by wars abroad. He made many treaties of alliance and commerce with foreign coun- tries, but he chiefly employed himself in amassing wealth which he did in every possible way. He made many arbitrary and vexatious laws, and obliged those who in- fringed them in the slightest degree to pay heavy fines, or suffer imprisonment. These rapacious schemes Henry carried on chiefly by the assistance of two lawyers, of the names of Empson and Dudley, whom he employed to entrap the rich and un- wary. By these means, as well as by taxes, and benevo- lences, he acquired immense wealth, not only in money, but also in plate and jewels. He kept it with the most anxious care, under his own lock and key, in secret apart ments in the palace at Richmond. A "D 1 500 ^^ e king's eldest daughter, Margaret, married James IV. of Scotland ; and, iu 1501, prince Arthur, his eldest son, married Catharine of Arragon, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, the king and queen of Spain ; but in the following spring the young prince died, and Henry, unwilling to lose the marriage portion of the Spanish princess, married her to his other son, Henry, a boy of eleven years old. In 1503, the queen, Elizabeth of York, died. A D 1506 Th e arc h^uke Philip of Austria, who had married the eldest sister of Catharine of Arragon, being on his way to Spain with his duchess, wae Did Warbeck escape from the Tower ? For what was Warbeck hanged ? What was the character of Henry's administration? 218 ENGLISH HISTORY. driven by contrary winds to land in England : and Heiuy under pretext of showing him and the duchess extraordi- nary honor, detained them till he had extorted from Philip a promise to give him in marriage his sister, the duchess dowager of Savoy, with an enormous dower. Henry also obliged Philip to make a commercial treaty, exceedingly advantageous to England, and prevailed with him to give up Edmund de la Pole a distressed nobleman of the house of York, who had taken refuge in the Aus- trian dominions. Philip complied most reluctantly with this last demand : and Henry, when he had got all he want ed, suffered him and his duchess to depart. Henry had scarcely got de la Pole in his power, when he became sensible that all his schemes of revenge, ava^ rice, and ambition, were drawing to a close. A violent attack of the gout gave him warning of his approaching end. He now devoted the remnant of his life to make preparations for the awful change he had to expect ; but even his dying acts were tinctured by that money-loving spirit, which had governed his life. Amongst other things he ordered that two thousand masses should be said for him at sixpence a piece. One or two of his bequests, however, exhibited some- thing like a conscience. He ordered that restitution should be made to those persons from whom his agents, Dudley and Empson, had extorted more than the law could warrant. Pie also ordered the debts to be paid of all per- sons in London and Westminster who were imprisoned for 40s. or under. Having thus done every thing that fear and superstition suggested, he died at his palace at Richmond, April 21, 1509, in the 24th year of his reign, and the 54th 3f his age. He married Elizabeth of York, and had two sons, and Cwo daughters : — Arthur, married Catharine of Arragon. and died young ; Henry, his successor ; — Margaret, mar- tied, first, James IV. of Scotland, and, secondly Douglas, What marriage did Henry propose to make ? Whom did Philip of Austria give up to Henry VII. ? What put a stop to all Henry's plans '( By what means did Henry amass wealth, and when did he die 1 W ho were Henry the Seventh's children ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 219 earl of Angus ; — Mary married, first, Louis XII. of France, and secondly, Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. The reign of Henry VII. was the dawn of what may properly be called English liberty ; for though the Magna Charta had fenced in the nobles from the tyranny of the king, yet the great mass of the people were for a long time after exposed to the oppressions of the nobles : but now, the power of the nobility being much diminished by the long civil wars, the people began gradually to emerge from slavery. Henry's policy also was to depress the nobles. He re- stricted the number of their retainers ; and thus that idle race of people who had before passed their lives in follow- ing some great lord to the wars, or in hanging about his gates in time of peace, were driven to apply themselves to more industrious modes of life, and from helpless depend- ants became useful subjects. Commerce too began to make a great alteration in the condition of persons in middle life ; and Henry greatly facilitated their rise into consequence by lessening the strictness of entails, and so enabling the nobles to sell their estates, many of which thus came into the possession of rich commoners. With the change of property came a great change in the condition of all classes of people. The land-owners found it advantageous to commute the service of their villeins for money, and made them pay renl for their lands and cottages ; and thus from villeins they became tenants. It is difficult to trace every step of the lowest orders of the people from villeinage, which at some periods was a mere state of slavery, to freedom. The progress was so various and so gradual, that the state of villeinage seemed to decline insensibly, and after this time we find no more mention made of it. Military service to the great lords being abolished, the Was civil liberty advanced in England during the reign o{ Henry VII. i How did Henry diminish the power of the nobles ? Did Henry change the tenure of property in Englanc ? How was service changed to rent 1 Was the army estab.ishment of England changed 1 220 ENGLISH HISTORY. army of England became from this time an independent body. The officers and soldiers serving by their own consent, and being paid by the nation. In this reign the S:ar Chamber was first instituted ; an arbitrary court of law, in which the king used to attend in person as judge, and which was called the Star Chamber, from the decorations of the room in which the sittings were held. Though Henry was a very unamiable man, yet in some respects his conduct as a king was beneficial to his country. His dislike to the nobles made him considerate of the lower orders, and his love of money made him encourage com- merce, and the navy. He built some four-masted ships, of a larger size than had ever been seen before. Intelligence of the discoveries made by Columbus in the western hemisphere, disposed Henry to similar enter- prises, and he fitted out a small fleet of ships, and sent them on a voyage of discovery, under the command of John Cabot, a Venetian merchant. Cabot sailed in a north-west direction, and the first land he saw was what we now call Newfoundland, but which he called Prima Vista (first seen :) he next saw the island of St. John's and sailed to the south as far as Virginia, and ihen returned to England, where the king received him with great honor, and knighted him. What was the court of Star Chamber ? Were the English navy and commerce ber.ofitted by Ht:nry VJL? Did Kenry encourage maritime d ecovery . Hoiv did Hcn , y treat John Oabo; '( ENGLISH HIST011V. CHAPTER XXV. HENRY VIII. [Years after Christ, 1509—1547 221 A soldier in Henry the Eighth's reign. Henry VIII. was in his nineteenth year when he as- cended the throne. His understanding was shrewd and clear ; he had received what was then thought a good edu- cation, and had more learning than most princes of his time. The pretensions of the two rival families of York and Lancaster were united in his person, and he was the first king since Richard II. who had ascended the throne with an undisputed title to it. He enjoyed great populari- ty, his father had left him an ample treasure, and the country was free from both foreign and from domestic wars. In short, no king of England had ever begun to reign under more prosperous circumstances. For the first two years of his reign the political affaira of England prospered. Henry appointed a council of men of approved wisdom. He brought Dudley and Empson When and under what circumstances did Henry VIII. succeed to the liirone of England ? What were the first measures of Henry's reign, and who became hia ohief counsellor l 222 ENGLISH HISTORY. to punishment for their exactions in his father's reign, and he made advantageous treaties with France and Scotland At the same time he was extravagant in his amusements, and soon squandered much of his father's hoarded wealth in tournaments and other expensive pastimes, to the great grief of his careful counsellor Fox, bishop of Winches- ter, who, finding his remonstrances unavailing, intro duced at court the afterwards highly celebrated cardinal Wolsey, a man of inferior birth, but very shrewd and dex- terous, by whose assistance he hoped to be better able to restrain the follies of the youthful king. Wolsey soon acquired an unbounded influence over Henry, but he only employed it to flatter the king's follies and to promote his own advancement. He was soon made archbishop of York and chancellor ; but his ambition did not rest satisfied with this ; he even aspired to be pope of Rome. A D 1513 Henry was drawn in by his father-in-law, Ferdinand king of Spain, the most artful man of his time, to make war on France. He landed at Calais with a numerous army, and defeated the French troops under the duke de Longueville. This engagement has been called the Battle of the Spurs, from the haste with which the French cavalry took to flight. Henry after- wards took Tournay, and thinking he had now done enough to establish his fame as a conqueror, amused him self with tournaments and splendid entertainments. On the same day on which Tournay was taken, a battle was fought at Flodden, at the foot of the Cheviot Hills, between James the Fourth of Scotland, and the English army under lord Surrey, afterwards duke of Norfolk. In this battle the king of Scotland was killed. Henry soon after made peace with France, one of the conditions of which was that Louis should marry Henry's young sister Mary. Henry then, after placing a garrison in Tournay, returned to England ; and the princess Mary his sister was sent in the following August } with a splen To what dignities did Wolsey attain, and to what did he aspire ? What were Henry's enterprises in 1513? What happened at Flodden Field f On what conditions did Henry make peace with France ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 223 Jid train of ladies and nobles to France, where her stay however, was very short, for Louis soon dying, she returned to England, and, after a widowhood of a few weeks, mar- ried Brandon, duke of Suffolk. Louis was succeeded by Francis I., one of the most gal- lant princes of his age. Ferdinand of Spain died in 1517, and was succeeded by his grandson, Charles V., who soon after became also emperor of Germany. Thus were the principal countries in Europe governed by three young monarchs, all equally emulous of fame and power. Charles and Francis were decided rivals, and they each courted and cajoled Henry, whose blunt and open charac- ter was no match for either of them. Henry and Francis had agreed to have a personal inter- view ; and Charles, in hopes of preventing its taking place, came to England. He could not succeed in prevent- ing the interview ; but he nattered Henry, and bribed his chancellor Wolsey, till he had sufficiently detached them from the interests of France. The projected meeting between Henry and Francis took place in June, 1520. Both monarchs arrived within the English pale near Calais. The French king and his court took up their quarters at Ardres, and the English king was lodged in a magnificent palace which Francis had caused to be erected for him at Guines. Two thousand eight hundred tents, many of- them covered with silk and cloth of gold, were pitched in the surrounding plain ; but even this number was insufficient for the multitude who flocked to this splendid festival ; and many ladies and persons of rank were glad to obtain a lodging in barns and to sleep upon hay and straw. The French and English vied with each other in the splendor of their dresses, and this meeting is celebrated by the name of " The field of the cloth of gold." It con- tinued a fortnight, and was a succession of entertainments. Wolsey, who was now made cardinal, took upon himself Who were the three greatest monarchs of Europe m 1517? H)w did Char.es V. interfere between the kings of France and Eng .and? What occurred at Guines in 1520? What was done at ' The field of the cloth of gold ?" 224 ENGLISH HISTORY. to regulate all the ceremonials, and at first .he two kings only met, attended by their trains, and passed the day to- gether, according to the formal etiquette prescribed by the cardinal. But such dull parade did not suit the frank and ardent spirit of Francis, and after two or three of these interviews had taken place, he mounted his horse early one morning, and, attended by two gentlemen and a page, rode off towards Guines. The English, who were on guard at the palace, were as- tonished to see the king of France at that hour, and so at- tended ; but Francis desired to be conducted to Henry's apartment, and undrawing the curtains of his bed, awoke him out of his sleep. Henry was as much amazed as his guards had been ; and from that time the intercourse between the two kings was conducted in a more free and confidential manner. On June 25th the two kings separated, and Henry and the emperor exchanged visits at Gravelines and Calais. This occasioned a renewal of tournaments and splendid entertainments ; but amidst them all, Charles never lost sight of his own interests, and sought to counteract the effect of the treaties of friendship and alliance that had been made between the two kings at the " field of the cloth of gold." Soon after Henry's return to England, the duke of Buck- ingham was accused of some treasonable expressions against the king and was beheaded ; but his real crime was the having offended cardinal Wolsey, whose haughty and overbearing conduct had raised a host of secret enemies around him. Wolsey's power over the king was so abso- lute, that Henry, without perceiving it, was merely his tool ; and making himself agreeable as Avell as useful, he ruled for ten years with absolute sway one of the most ca pricious and passionate of men. Did the kings on this occasion depart from the pomp of ma)esty ? Did Charles V. manifest any real friendship for Henry of EnglanI I W.'is Wolsey's influence upon Henry of great importance? ENGLISH HISTORY. 225 A , . _ . Henry distinguished himself as un author, ' * and wrote a Latin book against the here- sies of Luther, an eminent reformer of religion in Germa- ny. This book was presented with great ceremony to pope Leo X., who rewarded the royal author with the title of " Defender of the Faith ;" and sent him a letter praising his " wisdom, learning, zeal, charity, gravity, gentleness, and meekness ;" most of which epithets few people could have less deserved. — The following year Leo died, and Adrian VI. was elected pope, to the great mortification of VVolsey. \ D ^99 ^ ne em P eror Charles visited England a second time, and was entertained with a variety of splendid shows. Charles, as usual, mixed poli- tics with his festivities, and applied himself to win the favor of the English nobles. By his artifices Charles effectually dissolved the bonds of amity between France and England ; and Francis declared of his late dear friend the king of England, " that he held him for his mortal enemy from that day forth." War was soon after declared, but nothing very material was done. Henry was no great warrior, and Francis was more intent on prosecuting a war in Italy with the emperor than on making any attack on Henry. At length Fran- cis was taken prisoner by Charles at the battle of Puvia and remained in captivity nearly a year. Charles, having now gained all he wanted, treated Henry with little ceremony, neglected to repay some money he had borrowed of him, and refused to ratify a treaty he had made to marry his daughter, the princess Mary. Wolsey also, who found the popedom a second time vacant, and himself still forgotten, had reason to complain of the em- peror's breach of faith. He therefore easily persuaded his already irritated master to break with Charles, and make peace with France. But Wolsey's fall was near at hand. It must not be forgotten that Catharine of Arragon, when she married the Why was Henry VIII. called ' Defender of the faith ?" When, and with what effect did Charles V. make a 6e?oi!d TlHt to England ? What misfortune happened to Francis I. f Did Henry anc* tho emperor Charles quarrel? 226 ENGLISH HISTORY. king, was the widow of his elder brother Arthur Henry, after the arrival of many years, pretended it was a crime and contrary to the laws, for a man to marry his brother's widow ; and that consequently Catharine was not his law- ful wife. These scruples were increased by the arrival at court of Anne Boleyn, who had accompanied the king's sister, Mary, when she went to France, and had been edu- cated in the French court, and returned to England with all her English beauty adorned by French grace and viva- city. The king was so much captivated by Anne BoleynV charms, that in order to be able to marry her, he formed the project of divorcing the queen. In this project he was encouraged by Wolsey, and he sent to Clement VII. who was now pope, stating his scruples about his marriage, and suing for a divorce. A T) 1528 Clement unwilling to displease the empe ror, who was nephew to the queen of England, declined giving a decided answer, and after keeping Henry in suspense for more than a year, sent cardinal Campeggio to England, to determine, in concert with Wolsey, the validity of the king's marriage. Campeggio exhorted the king in private to give up the thoughts of a divorce ; and finding his exhortations una- vailing, he next applied to the queen, advising her to sub- mit to the king's will, and retire into a nunnery ; but with her also he was unsuccessful. After another year spent in delays and negotiations, the two cardinals proceeded to the important trial ; but they both seemed unwilling to come to any decision, and the king's patience was nearly exhausted. It was now visible to all the courtiers that Wolsey's favor was declining. It happened about this time that Gardiner and Fox, the king's secretary and almoner, acci- dentally fell in company with Thomas Cranmer, a young Under what pretence aid Henry VIII. seek a divorce from Catharine Df Arragon ? Whom did Henry wish to marry, and to whom did he sue for a di vorce ? Did the pope immediately satisfy the king of England ? How was the king's divorce procrastinated 1 Who was Thomas Cranmer and what did he propose ? ENGLISH HISTORY 227 priest of Cambridge. The conversation fell on trie subject of the king's divorce. Cranmer at first declined giving any opinion upon it, but being pressed, he said that, were he king, he would spend no more time in fruitless negotia tions with Rome, but would apply to the universities, and to the most learned men of Europe, proposing to them this plain question, " Can a man marry his brother's widow V The two doctors were much struck with this hint, and mentioned it to the king. Cranmer was immediately sent for to court, and the king was so much pleased with him, that he retained him in his service, and engaged him to write a book in favor of a divorce. From this time Wolsey's influence greatly decreased. Anne Boleyn, who suspected that he opposed her elevation (o the throne, joined with Wolsey's enemies in plotting his downfall : but their schemes were so secret, that when the king was prevailed on to permit an indictment to be brought against him for having unlawfully procured himself to be appointed the pope's legate in England, Wolsey was quite stunned at the unexpected blow. The great seal was taken from him, and given to sir Thomas More, and he was ordered to retire to Esher, near Hampton Court. Wolsey's house at York-place in London, which was furnished like a royal palace, was taken possession of by the king, who also seized on the remainder of his proper- ty, even on his clothes, and on a magnificent tomb which he had prepared for himself at Windsor. Wolsey on this immediately dismissed his train of attendants; but as he had always been a most indulgent master, some of his servants, amongst whom was his secretary, Thomas Crom- well, refused to leave him. The king's resentment against his former favorite seemed to subside after he had stripped him of his wealth. tie sent him a general pardon, and allowing him to retain a part of his revenues, sent him to reside in his diocese ol York. He there conducted himself with tte greatest kindness towards his clergy, telling them he was come to In what was Cranmer employed by the kii g of England ? What happened to Wolsey 1530?" Was Wolsey entirely dispossessed of his wealth ? Did Henrj ever relent in his displeasure against Wolsey f 228 ENGLISH HISTORY. live amongst them as a friend and brother. Still, hew ever, adversity did not cure him of his love of magnifi- cence and expense, which again drew on him the king's displeasure. By Henry's order, Wolsey was at last arrested of high treason, and was hist taken to lord Shrewsbury's house at Sheffield Park, where he was to remain till the king's fur- ther pleasure should be known. While he was there, anxiety of mind threw him into a violent illness ; and when sir William Kingston arrived to conduct him to the Tower, he was little able to bear the journey. Wolsey, though in a dying condition, set out. On the evening of the third day, they reached Leicester Abbey, and Wolsey said to the abbot, who came to the gate to receive him, " My father, I am come to lay my bones amongst you." He was lifted from his mule and carried to his bed, from which he never rose. He died Nov. 29, 1530. A T) i rqo Henry and Francis had another mtei- view near Boulogne, and amidst the masques and entertainments which took place on this oc- casion, made new treaties of alliance with one another. At one of these masques, Anne Boleyn danced with the king of France, who presented her with a valuable jewel, and promised to do all in his power to promote the king's divorce and her marriage. Soon after the English court returned home, and she and Henry were privately married. A D l *m Cranmer was promoted to the see of Can- terbury, and proceeded to try the validity of the king's marriage with Catharine. A sort of tribunal was assembled at Dunstable, and after a fortnight spent in hearing arguments, and reading opinions, sentence of di- vorce was pronounced, declaring the king's marriage with Catharine of Arragon null and void from the beginning, tmd her daughter illegitimate. What effect had his misfortunes upon Wolsey ? Where did Wolsey die ? What occurred to Henry VIII. in 1532 ? When and where was the question of Henry's diverge settled ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 229 Henry's marriage with Anne Boleyn was declared a alid, and she was three days afterwards crowned, and received as queen. The divorced queen firmly refused to allow the legality of the sentence against her. She led a melan- choly and secluded life at Ampthill, near Wobu'rn, til] 1536, when she died. The news of the sentence passed against Catharine ex* cited the most violent commotion at the court of Rome. Clement could not at first determine what part to take At last he made an angry decree confirming the legality of the king's first marriage. Henry, in a violent passion at the pope's decree, imme- diately upon it called a parliament, which declared the king's supremacy over the church of England and denying all authority of the pope in England, bestowed upon the king all the emoluments and revenues that had hitherto been paid to the see of Rome out of theecclessiastical benefices in England. Two years afterwards another parliament passed an act to dissolve 376 of the small monasteries and nunneries, and bestow all their possessions on the king. Commissioners were sent all over the kingdom requiring every one to subscribe to the act that had declared the king to be the head of the church. Sir Thomas More, who had resigned the chancellorship some time before, refused to take the oath required. Fisher, bishop of Rochester, refused also ; and both these men, whose learning and wis- dom had made them ornaments of their country, were be- headed. Anne Boleyn's enjoyment of a crown was of short du- ration. Her French manners and vivacity, though they had pleased the king on their first acquaintance, displeased him after she became queen; and soon after the birth of a daughter (afterwards queen Elizabeth,) he seems to have 'ost all his affection for her. He either believed, or affected to believe, that she had conducted herself with great irnrro* Where did Catharine of Arragon end her days ? How did the pope receive the news of the king's divorce ? Did Henry assert the independence of the English church ' Did all persons in England admit the king's supremacy 1 Did queen Anne Boleyn retain the king's affections .' 230 EN.LISH HISTORY. priely ; and on the 2d of May, 1536, she was committed *o the Tower. It would be a melancholy task to go through the history of this unhappy young creature. Accused of a crime ol which she was innocent, denied the sight of her parents, and surrounded by her bitterest enemies, she paid very dearly for her temporary exaltation. She was tried with- out being allowed an advocate to plead her cause. Her marriage was pronounced void, and her child declared il- legitimate. She was beheaded, and the king the next day was married to Jane Seymour, daughter of sir Thoma? Seymour of Wiltshire. The new queen's disposition was a happy medium be- tween the gravity of Catharine and the volatility of Anne ; and she might perhaps have retained the king's affections longer than either of her predecessors had done, if her death, soon after the birth of a son, had not dissolved her union with him in less than a year. Henry now looked about in foreign courts for a suitable partner. On the death of Wolsey, Cromwell, his faithful friend and servant, had entered into the service of the king, and had risen in favor till he was at last made chancellor. He, being a zealous friend to the Reformation, was desirous that Henry should ally himself to one of the Protestant princes of Germany, and procured a portrait, painted by Holbein, of the princess, Anne of Cleves, to show to the king. Henry was so much pleased with the portrait, that he sent to demand the lady in marriage. When she arrived in England, the king found her so unlike the picture, that he was with difficulty persuaded to marry her ; and when he discovered that she was stupid and ignorant, and could speak no language but Dutch, he disliked her more than before, and resolved on being divorced from her. But, as a first step, he beheaded Cromwell, because he Lad been the adviser of this unlucky marriage. He then summoned a parliament which pronounced the marriage How was Anne Boleyn treated ? How long did Jane Seymour live after marriage ? Who commended Anne of Cleves to Henry VIII ? Ifnvdid Henry divorce Anne of Cleves ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 231 void, and !hat each party was at liberty to marry again. Anne, however did not avail herself of this permission. She had an ample income assigned her, and the palace at Richmond, and spent the remainder of her life in England, to all appearance very contentedly ; glad, perhaps, to have got rid of her capricious husband without losing her head. A fortnight after this divorce had been passed, Catharine Howard, niece of the duke of Norfolk, was presented to the court as queen ; the kinghaving already been privately married to her. Henry was so much charmed with the wit and agreeableness of his new wife that he caused a thanksgiving prayer to be made for his happy marriage. But his happiness was soon overcast. He discovered her conduct to have been very abandoned, and she was be headed Feb. 12, 1542. A T) 1 ^43 H enr y seemed now tired of marrying for ' beauty, and he looked out in his next wife for sense and discretion, which he happily found in Catha- rine Parr, the widow of lord Latimer. To her he was married, and this lady by her extraordinary good sense and prudence, contrived to preserve the good opinion of the king till his death The demolition of the monasteries and the dispersion of the monks and nuns was too violent a measure to be taken quietly. In 1534 a disturbance was excited in Kent by a woman who pretended to have revelations from heaven. Her name was Elizabeth Barton, but she is better known by that of the Maid of Kent. The imposition was soon discovered, and the insurrection quelled. A more formida- ble one broke out two years after in Yorkshire and Lin- colnshire, but the rioters were soon dispersed. The spirit of discontent was, however, still in the country, How did Anne of Cleves spend her life ? On wnat account was Catharine Howard beheaded ? Who was the last wife of Henry VIII ? Did the English nation willingly submit to the change in church affairs ! How did Henry VIII. attempt to suppress populai discontent in Eng land? 232 ENGLISH HISTORY. and the king sought to crush it by severe punishments and numerous executions. In 1538 he entered into a friendly alliance with the protestant princes in Germany : but as their object was to promote the reformed religion, and Henry's only to spite and annoy the pope and the empe- ror, the king of England and his new allies could not act together with any real cordiality. The pope on his side lost no opportunity of injuring Henry, and employed the cardinal de la Pole to foment disturbances in England. Pole was the king's second cousin. He had been educated at Henry's expense, and long experienced his favor, but forfeited it by joining warmly with the pope in condemning the king's divorce. Clement made Pole a cardinal, and sent him as a legate into Flanders, that he might with the more facility corre- spond with his friends in England, and carry on his plots against the progress of reformation in England. These conspiracies were not carried on so secretly but that Henry obtained some hint of them ; and the cardi- nal's two brothers were executed in consequence. Even Pole's -aged mother, the countess of Salisbury, was not spared. This venerable and last remaining Plantagenet was beheaded for having received a letter from her son. The rich spoils the king had got by dissolving the small- er monasteries had made him greedy of more ; and in 1539 his obsequious parliament passed an act for putting at his disposal all the remaining religious houses, which either had been or should be surrendered to him. The king was not backward in forcing them, by all sorts of means, to surrender. In 1545 another act was passed, which even empowered him to seize the revenues of the universities. But these were spared (as some have said) by the inter- cession of queen Catharine Parr. A D TU1 Henry, who was very fond of royal in- terviews, was now desirous of having on« with his nephew the king of Scotland (James V. ;) and a meeting was to have taken place at York. Henry and hia court kept the appointment, and waited for some days ; but Did the pope endeavor to recover aia authority in England ? By what cruel measures did Henry oppose Cardinal Pole ? Did Henry persevere in his dissolution of monasteries? On what pretence did Henry VIII. make war with Scotland ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 233 the king of Scots, having been prevented by his clergy never came, and Henry was so much enraged at this in- sult that he declared war against him. The English army obtained an important victory at Solway Moss, and James was so much overwhelmed when he heard of it that he sunk into a settled melancholy, and died December 14, 1542, leaving an infant princess only seven days old. This princes wna the celebrated Mary queen of Scots, whose unhappy life and death will be related in its proper place. Henry was desirous to procure a marriage between the young queen of Scotland and his son, Edward prince of Wales, andused both force and artifice to bring it about. He wanted also to be made protector of Scotland during the queen's minority ; but the Scots were too bold to be frightened, and too wary to be ensnared. After Henry and the emperor had been at open enmity many years a reconciliation took place between them ; and Henry, who with all his violence of temper and self-con- ceit was generally the dupe of others, was drawn in to make war on Francis. Charles and Henry, at the head of their armies, joined each other near Calais ; and though the latter was now grown fat and unwieldy, he appeared in person in the field and laid siege to Boulogne, which was soon taken. The king of France now pretended to negotiate a peace with the two potentates. But while the ambassadors were going through their formal ceremonials, a Dominican friar who was in their train, and had secret instructions from Francis, concluded a separate peace with the empe- ror, who withdrew his army, and left his friend and ally to take care of himself. Henry returned to England, after leaving a garrison at Boulogne. A T) 1 ^dfi P eacewasma de between France and Eng- land ; and it was agreed that Boulogne, which had been bravely defended against all attempts Francis had made to regain it, should remain in the pos- session of the English for eight years, after which time il Who was the only daughter of James V. of Scot and, and what inter Eft did the king of England take in her affairs ? Did Henry engage in a new war with France ? Did Francis I. deal deceitfully with Henry ? Did Heniy make peace with France and Scotland ? II 234 ENGLISH HISTORY. was to be given up to France on the payment of a certain bum of money. Peace was also about this time made with Scotland; and Henry, being no longer troubled with for eign enemies, had the more time to torment his own sub- jects. Henry required the people to make his opinion the standard of their faith, and was continually changing that opinion, and making contradictory laws, so it was scarcely possible for his subjects to steer a safe course among the difficulties which his tyrannical caprice laid in their way. Many were put to death for denying his supremacy. To- wards the end of his life he became dropsical, which being added to his unwieldy corpulence, disabled him from walk mg, and made him " more furious than a chained lion. ■ These infirmities, indeed, so greatly increased the natu ral violence and irritability of his temper, that every body was afraid to come near him. Even the queen, though she was his most attentive nurse, with all her patience and dis- cretion, very narrowly escaped being impeached for high treason, in consequence of having one day displeased him by expressing herself warmly in a religious argument. Indeed, his tyranny and caprice were such that none could feel themselves secure. A D 154fi Among the instances of Henry's injustice and cruelty, the death of lord Surrey is tis mucn as any to be detested. The duke of Norfolk and his son, lord Surrey, were committed to the Tower. The duke had been one of the king's earliest favorites, and lord Surrey was one of the m:*st accomplished noble- men in England, and had by his talents and acquirements retained the king's regard for many years. Both these noblemen were supporters of the Roman Catholic cause How did Henry manifest exceeding fickleness of purpose and violence if temper ? Was the king's violence ever expressed towards -jueen Catharine P«nr ? "Upon what pretence were the duke of Norfolk and sent his sou to tht< Towot 1 ENGLISH HISTORY. 235 and some people thought that a fear lest they shoi Id dis- turb the peace of the young Edward's reign, when he should come to the throne, was the real cause of their ruin. Whatever the cause was, the charges actually brought against them were frivolous. The chief charges against lord Surrey were that he had quartered in his coat ol arms the aims of Edward the Confessor, which had been done by all his ancestors ; and that he studied Italian, and was fond of conversing with foreigners, which made it pro- bable that he corresponded with cardinal de la Pole. He was declared guilty of high treason, and was beheaded Jan. 19, 1547. The duke of Norfolk seemed to cling to life with more solicitude than his accomplished son had done. He tried every concession that he could think of to soften the king : but Henry, as if he thirsted for his blood, hurried on the proceedings of parliament, and his death-warrant was signed Jan. 27, but before it could be executed the king expired, and thus his victim escaped. Henry died in the 56th year of his age, and the 38th oi his reign. He had been six times married, and left three children — Edward, by Jane Seymour, who succeeded him ; Mary, by Catharine of Arragon, Elizabeth, by Anne Boleyn, who both were afterwards queens of England. Though Henry had declared both his daughters illegiti- mate, he appointed them in his will, after their brother, to the succession of the crown. In case they all died without children, he left the succession after them to the children and heirs of his youngest sister, the duchess of Brandon, to the entire exclusion of his eldest sister Margaret, who after the death of her first husband, the king of Scotland, had married the earl of Angus, and had one daughter, wife of the earl of Lenox, and mother of Henry Darnley, of whom we shall hear more. WickliflVs opinions notwithstanding the early persecu- tions of his followers, had never been eradicated. During Upon what charges was lord Surrey executed ? How did the duke of Norfolk escape ? At what age did Henry VIII. die, and who were 1 is family ? How did Henry VIII. order the sucession ? Had tie Lollards been eradicated in England? 236 ENGLISH HISTORY. the long civil wars the government had so many carts, that it attended but little to any affairs of religion. Ci nse- quently the Lollards increased in number ; and in the early part of this reign their opinions gathered strength from the success of their protestant brothers in Germany, where Luther, a new reformer, had arisen, and drew people more and more from popery. Henry VIII. at first treated the Lollards with the utmost rigor, but relaxed towards them at the time of his quarrel with the pope. This reign is generally considered as the era of the Re- formation in England, and much certainly was at this time done towards it. The country was freed from subjection to the pope : the clergy were made amenable to the same laws with the laity. But the same caprice and violence of temper that had made the king do thus much prevented him from completing the great work he had begun. He abolished the religious houses with all their rules and ob- servances, and yet appointed priests to say masses for his own soul. He forbade the worship of images, and com- manded the church service to be read in English : and yet he burnt many persons for heresy. Henry permitted the Bible to be translated, and then for- bade it to be read except by particular persons. But not- withstanding all the impediments the king's inconsistencies put in the way of the Reformation, and the steadier oppo- sition of the Romish clergy, the pure light of the new re- ligion was still kept burning, chiefly through the firm per- severance of Cranmer, till in time it cleared away the darkness of superstition and popery. Tb e great men of this reign demand some consideration. Few characters known in history deserve more commen- dation than Cranmer. He was the only one of Henry's favorites who had no little selfish views of his own. His whole soul was placed on one great object — the reforma- tion of religion ; and to that all the powers of his mind were applied. Wolsey's great abilities were chiefly em- ployed m raising himself to the highest worldly dignity. Cromwell, thovgh a zealous reformer, was intent onenrich- Pid Henry VIII. promote tht Reformation of Christianity f By whose influence was the reformation advanced ? Who were tie cHe. r men of Henry's reign ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 237 ing himself from the pillage of the religious houses. And the other courtiers, one and all, had their own narrow sel- fish ends to serve. Such is the power of virtue over vice, that the overbear- ing Henry stood in awe of the gentle-tempered Cranmer. The king's regard for him was at all times sincere ; and at one time, when Gardiner and the duke of Norfolk thought they had got the king's consent to have him sent to the Tower, Henry privately warned the archbishop of the plot, and advised him how to defeat the malice of his enemies, who were the chief supporters of the popish party. Cranmer was very anxious that the public service of the church should be in English instead of Latin, but he knew that the king would violently oppose such a change. He therefore thought best to lead to it by degrees ; and when a prayer was to be composed for the king's preservation in the expedition to France in 1544, Cranmer besought him that it might be composed in English, that the people might pray with more fervor from understanding what they uttered. By degrees Cranmer gained permission to have the Lord's prayer also, the creed, and the commandments, read in English in the churches ; and the year before the king's death the liturgy was added. Some few copies remained of WicklifTe's translation of the Bible, but Cranmer was desirous of obtaining a better translation. At last he got the king's permission to have one made, but it was four years before the work was com- pleted. These Bibles, when they at length appeared, were received with thankfulness all over the kingdom : they were placed in churches, and secured by a chain to the reading desk. The people flocked to the places where ihey could hear the Bible read, and many persons learned to read, for the sole purpose of perusing it. But Henry, in the latter part of hs life, withdrew this general privi- lege, and would not permit the Bible to be read by the lower orders of the people. What influence had Cranmer over the mind of Henry T What services did Cranmer render to religion ? Did Cranmer procure the scriptures to be translated, ana dVi rnlkien .ispose the English to improve in learning ? 238 ENGLISH HISTORY. It was cruel to deprive them of their Bibles yet by learning to read, they had gained something that the king could not take away from them. The increase of books, through the invention of printing, had already made the English much greater readers than formerly ; but in re- gard to writing they do not seem to have been much ad- vanced. In that art but a small number was then in- structed. Not all the learned men of that time were reformers. Two of the greatest ornaments of this reign were zealous papists, sir Thomas More, and lord Surrey. The latter, was a poet, and a man of elegant literature. The former, besides his learning, possessed a sarcastic wit which he could not help indulging even when on the scaffold. Eras- mus also, though a native of Holland, greatly aided the progress of learning in this country. He taught Greek at Oxford, till he was driven thence by the violence of the popish party, who, alarmed at the appearance of any thing new, thought the study of Greek a dangerous innovation- Cardinal Wolsey, also a Catholic, was a great man. He began the building of Hampton Court, intending it for his own residence. He began also the building of Christ Church, in Oxford, meaning to call it Cardinal College • but after his disgrace Henry seized on the revenues with which Wolsey had endowed it, and completing the build- ing, took upon himself the credit of founding it. On his death-bed he uttered these affecting words : — " Had I but served my God as diligently as I have served my king, he *vould not have left me in my grey hairs." The trade in African slaves was first practised by tne English nation in this reign. Were the people of England generally able to write m the reign of Henry VIII. ? Who were sir Thomas More, lord Surrey, ami Erasmus ? Had Cardinal Wolsey any loyalty and public spirit? What inhuman traffic commenced in the reign of Henry VII i. 2 ENGLISH HISTORY 239 CHAPTER XXVI. EDWARD VI. [Years after Christ, 1547—1553.] Edward was in his tenth year when his father died. He had already displayed a gentleness of character that en- deared him to those about him. Henry had appointed sixteen executors and twelve counsellors, to whom he en trusted the care of the king and kingdom. But at the first meeting of the executors, they deviated from Henry s will, by makinglord Hertford, Edward's eldest uncle, whom the\ created duke of Somerset, protector of the kingdom. The protector, who was a favorer of the Protestants, war? careful to entrust the education of the king to men of the reformed religion. Edward's young mind readily imbibed their opinions ; and he showed a knowledge, zeal, and early piety, that was quite extraordinary in a boy of hi? age. The completion of the Reformation itself, which had been left in a very unfinished state at the death of Henry was Somerset's next care. A commission was formed for drawing up a book of offices ; that is, a prayer book, to be used in churches, for the general use of the church. Cranmer, and Ridley afterwards bishop of London, were at the head of this com- mission. They agreed to make every thing as near as they could to the practice of the pine and early ages of the Gospel. They retained many of the prayers that had been used in the service of the Romish church, and fixed the Liturgy nearly as it is now. A considerable portion of the lower orders of the people were won over to the reformed religion ; and many of the higher orders, some from conviction, and some for the sake of doing as others did, abjured popery. Those who had obtained grants of abbey lands, warmly supported the views of the protector. Thus the nation was in a great measure Whom did the executors of Henry VIII. appoint protector during the minority of his son ? Did the protector regard the young king's education, and the interests oi religion generally ? What commission was appointed to regulate the public worship ? Was the nation brought to conformity in religion ? 240 ENGLISH HISTCAY. brought to a seeming conformity in religion. Bishop Gar- diner, however, still stood out, and opposed every new re gulation that was made. It appears that the Scottish nation did not consent to the marriage of their infant queen with the king of England. Perhaps they wished to preserve themselves a separate kingdom ; andbeing generally Catholics, many did notlike a king of the reformed religion. But Henry was prepared for opposition to his will in this matter, and left an injunc- tion to his executors to compel the Scots to this marriage. The protector, to fulfil the injunction of Henry, fitted out a fleet of sixty sail ; and marched with an army ot 1 8,000 men into Scotland, and advanced within four miles of Edinburgh ; and the governor of Scotland summoned the whole force of the kingdom to repel this formidable inva- sion. The English gained considerable advantage in their encounter with the Scots ; and had Somerset pursued his advantage, he might have conquered Scotland : but he had received intelligence of some cabals that were going on at home, which made him eager to return to England. The Scots, having recovered from the consternation which this defeat had caused, were more than ever irritated against the English, and firmly resolved not to give their queen to Edward. Some declared, that, " though they liked the match, they liked not the manner of wooing :' and to place Mary beyond the power of the English, they sent her, when six years old, to be educated in the court of France, and betrothed her to the dauphin. When Somerset returned to Westminster, he summoned a parliament, and repealed many oppressive laws, and passed others which were wise and moderate, and for which he is entitled to the respect of posterity. But, though he was well-intentioned, he was unfit to contend with the malice of those who were envious of his high station. Amongst his enemies, his own brother, lord Seymour, was the most inveterate. Why did the Scottish nation object to the marriage of their young queer with Edward VI. T How did Somerset attempt to accomplish the late king's will X Did Somerset effect his purpose 1 Was the administration of Somerset wise and beneficial, and who wm bis inveterate enemy ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 241 Seymour had been appointed lord high admiral, but as- pired to supplant his brother, whose superior in abilities be knew himself to be. Seymour was indeed a man of great powers of /lattery and addiess, and had won so much on the good opinion of the dowager queen, Catharine Parr, that she married him very soon after Henry's death. After living with him one year she died ; and his ambition then aspired to the princess Elizabeth, who, it is supposed, would have listened to his suit, had it not been opposed by the other officers of the state. Dudley, earl of Warwick, son of that wicked Dudley who was a judge in Henry the Seventh's reign, used every means to increase the disagreements between the protector and his brother, hoping to raise his own greatness on the ruin of theirs. He led on the admiral to commit many rash and violent actions, and persuaded Somerset to com- mit him for high treason. His condemnation and execu- tion soon followed. Somerset never lost sight of the affairs of the church, and many important changes were made. The law forbidding the clergy to marry, was repealed ; and a law was passed which inflicted severe penalties on those who persevered in the old worship, and rejected the service which was now appointed. The princess Mary, who was a rigid papist, alone refused to conform to this law. On this Mary's chaplains were imprisoned, and she her- self threatened with punishment : but when she appealed to her cousin the emperor, and made an attempt to escape from England, it was deemed prudent to allow of her hav- ing mass performed privately in her house. But this con- cession cost the young king many tears, so criminal did he esteem the popish faith in which she persevered. Although the destruction of the religious houses has pro bably been a great benefit to us who live in after ages, it must have been a very bad measure at ihe time. Many thousand people were reduced at once from wealth or com- Wlv.) persuaded Somerset to prosecute his brother ? Did Somerset persecute the Catholics ? Was the princess Mary a papist ? What became of the monks and nuns who were expelled from the icli gious house"? 242 ENGLISH HISTORY petence to. absolute want. Some of the heads of the sup pressed houses had small pittances allowed thtm for then lives ; but the monks and nuns were turned adrift, a help- less race of creatures, who could do little towards their own maintenance. It was a hard measure to those countrymen and farmers who had enjoyed the church lands at easy rents ; and there remained also a still more numerous body of sufferers, the idle poor, who had be en daily fed at the convent gates, and scarcely knew how to work. All these were now reduced to want and obliged to seek their bread by labor. These causes, with others, made the year 1549 a period of insurrections and tumults all over England. The pro- tector, who really compassionated the poor, did all in his power to relieve their distresses. But, while he was be- friending them, he gave offence to the rich, by the great state and almost royal dignity which he assumed. A confederacy, headed by the earl of Warwick, was formed against him. He soon saw himself deserted by all except Cranmer, and by Paget, his secretary ; and, sink- ing into despondency, he resigned the protectorship. He was then committed to the Tower; and after a few weeks' imprisonment, was heavily fined, deprived of all his offices, and then restored to liberty. A new council of regency was appointed, and the earl of Warwick placed at the head of it. Warwick, not satisfied with the degradation of Somer- set, determined on his death, and accused him, inl551, of a plot to raise a rebellion, and to assassinate himself and other pnvy counsellors. On these charges he was tried, condemned, and executed, to the sincere grief of the peo- ple, to whom his goodness of heart had much endeared him. The work of the Reformation was still continued, but with more intemperance, under Warwick, than had been ever visible while the affairs of the nation were conducted What effect had the destruction of the religious houses upon the condi- tion of the poor in England 1 How did Somerset regard the poor ? By whom was Somerset deprived of the regency . By what false charge was Somerset degraded and destroyed ? Did the stformers commit any a;ts if injustice in the reign of Edward VI? ENGLISH HISTORY. 243 by the milder counsels of Somerset. Gard.nei was de- prived of his bishopric, and thrown into prison. Bonner, bishop of London, was also committed to the Tower ; and many of the clergy were obliged to have recourse to trader for a maintenance, being reduced to poverty by the greedy courtiers, who seized on a large portion of the revenues of the church. The earldom of Northumberland having some years since become extinct, Warwick, a short time before the death of Somerset, had prevailed with Edward to make him duke of Northumberland, and to bestow on him the estates which had belonged to the earldom, and which had been forfeited to the crown. The young king was now entirely in the power of Northumberland, who placed his son, Robert Dudley, about his person. Edward.'s health declined from that time, and Northumberland formed the project of raising one of his own sons to the throne. He began by persuad- ing Edward, that as both his sisters had been declared illegitimate, they could not possibly succeed to the crown, and that, therefore, by virtue of his father's will, the suc- cession devolved on the children of Mary, the dowager queen of France, by her second husband the duke of Suffolk, whore eldest daughter, the duchess of Dorset, was the undoubted heir to the crown. The duchess, who had no son, was willing to resign her claim to her eldest daughter, lady Jane Grey, and NorLhumberland married her to his son, Guildford Dudley. Edward felt n3 scruple about depriving his sister Mary of her birthright, fearing that her bigotry would be hurtful to the Protestant cause. But he foit many regrets in re- gard to the princess Elizabeth, whom he affectionately loved. He however, consented to settle the succession on lady Jane Grey ; and the patent of settlement was signed by all the great officers of state. The king, who had been for many months in a very de- licate state of health, grew rapidly worse ; and soon aftei How was the earl ofWarwick rendered more powerful than ever ? How did Northumberland overrule the succession, and what waa Lad} Jane Grey's title to the crown of England ? Upon whom was the succession settled ? Where did Edward IV. die? 244 ENGLISH HISTORY. died, on the 6th of July, 1553, in the sixteenth y at ease for having made this atonemert, his countenance became full of peaceful serenity, and he appeared insensi- ble to ail worldly suffering. The next day the cardinal de la Pole was made arch- bishop of Canterbury ; and he showed so much lenity to- wards the Protestants, as to excite the displeasure of the pope. Philip, who had soon became weary of England, went, in 1555, to Flanders ; and the queen, seeing herself treated by him with iudinerence and neglect, spent her time in tears and lamentations, and in writing long letters to him, which he never answered, and, perhaps, never read. The more he slighted her, the more she doted on him ; and to procure money, in the hope of winning him back by sup- plying him with it, she loaded the people with taxes. A D Ti^fi e ein P eror Charles V., wearied with the toils of royalty, which his intriguing and ambitious spirit had made a greater burden to him than to the generality of monarchs, took the extraordinary reso- lution of retiring from the bustle of the world to the retire- ment of a monastery, and resigned all his dominions to his son. Philip, who had his father's ambition, but not his talents, immediately declared war against France, and he expected England should do the same; but, the Spanish yoke beinp Was the constancy of Cranmer shaken at the prospect of death Who succeeded to Cranmer as Archbishop 1 When did Philip of Spain leave England i When did Charles V. resign his dominions to his son ? Did Philip induce the English to declare war against Prince ? 252 ENGLISH HISTORY. more than ever disliked, the queen could not preA-ail with her council to give their consent to infringe the peace. When Philip, however, came to London, and protested that he would never again set foot in England, unless wai was declared with France, the queen, almost frantic pressed the matter so urgently, as to overcome the reluc- tance of the council. War was declared. Mary, who had already exhausted her resources in furnishing Philip with money, resorted to the most unjust and violent measures to extort the means of fitting out a fleet and raising an army. A fleet and an army were at last provided ; and the lat- ter, under the command of the earl of Pembroke, joined Philip's army in Flanders, in time to take a part in the battle of St. Quintin, in which the duke of Savoy, the Spanish general, gained a victory over the French ; but, while Mary was triumphing at this success, the French were preparing for her a severe mortification. Though every thing else in France had long been 1» »st to the English, they still preserved Calais, which had been guarded as the chief jewel of the crown by every English king since Edward III., who had won it. It was so strongly fortified, and had always been so well garrisoned, that the French had never even attempted to recover it. In Mary's feeble reign, the monks and bigots who com posed her ministry, thought more of burning heretics, than of any other concern of state. They had neglected to keep the fortifications in repair ; and, to save the charge of what they supposed an unnecessary garrison, withdrew the greater part of it during the winter months. The gover- nor had remonstrated seriously, but in vain, against this unwise economy. The duke of Guise, general of the French army, being well informed of these circumstances, determined to at- tempt the recovery of the town. It was surrounded by Did queen Mary overrule her council in the question cf war wit} France l What was gained at the battle of St. Quintin ? What then remained to the English in France ? Did the religious policy of queen Mary's reign preserve the foreign power of the British ? What French general attempted the recovery of Calais ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 253 marshes which, during the winter 3 were totally impassa ble, and could be approached on the land side only by two raised roads, defended by two castles. The duke made an attack on these castles, and soon took them, and, in the meantime, the French fleet besieged the forti- fications of the town, next the sea, and thus lord Went- worth, the governor, saw himself enclosed on every side. Though Wentworth had only a few hundred men with him, he made a brave resistance ; but the town being un- provided with every thing necessary for sustaining a siege, he was obliged to surrender ; and thus the duke oi Guise made himself master, in eight days, of a fortress that had been deemed impregnable. The news of this event struck a universal dismay all over England ; and the queen declared that when she died, the word Calais would be found engraved upon her heart. Mary's health visibly declined from this time. The neglect of Philip, and her own disappointment at having no chil- dren, a blessing she vehemently desired, all preyed upon her health. She dragged on a few miserable months, and died Nov. 17, 1558, in the 43d year of her age, and the 6th of her reign. The cardinal de la Pole died on the same day with the queen, and left an unsullied name behind him. Arts and commerce did not flourish in the brief and troubled reign of the bigoted Mary. The czar of Muscovy first sent an ambassador to England in this reign. Drink- ing-glasses were not made in England till the time oi queen Mary, and were at first considered more precnus chan silver. Some few looking-glasses were used at the ioilet ; but they were probably very small, and were com- monly either carried about by the ladies in their pockets, or hung to their girdles. A French priest who visited England in the middle of Who surrendered Calais to the French ? Under what circumstances, and at what time did queen Mary die ? Did commerce, &c. flourish in Mary's reign? How did a Fi?nch priest describe the English I 254 ENGLISH HISTORY. the sixteenth century, thus describes the English of that age : — " The people of this country have a mortal hatred 10 the French ; and in common call us France knave, 01 France dog. The people of this land make good cheer, and dearly love junketing. The men are large, handsome, and ruddy, with flaxen hair. Their women are the great- est beauties in the world, and as fair as alabaster. The English in general are cheerful, and love music. " In this land they commonly make use of silver vessels, when they drink wine. The servants wait on their masters bare-headed, andleave their caps on the buffet (sideboard.) fn the windows of the houses are plenty of flowers, and at che taverns a plenty of rushes on their wooden floors, and many cushions of tapestry on which travelers seat them- selves. " The English consume a great quantity of beer ; the poor people drink it out of wooden cups. They eat much whiter bread than is commonly made in France. With their beer they have a custom of eating very soft saffron cakes, in which there are likewise raisins. It is likewise to be noted that the servants carry pointed bucklers, even those of bishops. And the husbandmen, when they till the ground, commonly leave their bucklers, swords, or sometimes their bows, in the corner of the field." This loquacious traveler visited Scotland also, and de- scribes it as a barren and wild country. Some of the Scotch, he says, applied themselves to letters, and became good philosophers and authors, but the people in general were rude and churlish. How did the same priest describe domestic arrangements in England? Whnt were the habits of the poorer sort of people f What did the same writer say of the Scotch of tnat age ? ENGLISH HISTORY 255 CHAPTER XXV11I ELIZABETH. [Years after Christ, 1558— 1G03.] "When Mary's death was announced to the parliament, which happened to be assembled at the time, the members all sprang from their seats ; and shouts of joy, and the words " God save Queen Elizabeth!" were heard to re- sound on every side. When the news was spread abroad, the transport of the people was so great, that they hurried in crowds towards Hatfield, where Elizabeth was then re- siding, and escorted her into London. Elizabeth was then twenty-five years old. The new queen, from her first coming to the throne, seemed anxious to show an entire forgetfulness of all her former sufferings, and never testified any resentment to- wards those who had been instrumental to them. Even Bir Henry Benefield, in whose custody she had been for a time, and whom she had found a seveie gaoler, experi- enced from her no other punishment or rebuke, but that of What demonstrations of joy distinguished the accession of queen Eliz- abeth? Did Klizal eth manifest a generous disposition to those who had injured uort 256 ENGLISH HISTORY her telling him that he should have the custody of any state prisoner whom she wished to be treated with peculiar se- verity. The cruel Bonner was the only one of her sis- ter's ministers to whom she showed a marked dislike. She turned from him with horror, and would never speak to him nor look at him. The first great anxiety of all the Protestant part of the nation was to have a settlement of the affairs of the church. In this important business Elizabeth proceeded with great prudence and caution, and yet with so much determination and steadiness, that she soon replaced every thing in the state it had been at her brother's death; and all without one drop of blood being spilt, or a single estate confiscated Bonner alone, for refusingto acknowledge her supremacy was punished by being imprisoned for life. Philip, as soon as he heard of queen Mary's death, pro posed himself to her sister in marriage. Elizabeth nevei for a moment thought of consenting to such a union ; but, perhaps, for fear of making him her enemy, or perhaps, from her accustomed caution, she delayed to give a deci- sive answer as long as she could ; and when she sent hei refusal, she took the opportunity of declaring to the par- liament a determination to lead a single life. Notwithstanding this declaration, Elizabeth some years afterwards admitted the addresses of the duke of Anjou, the brother of the king of France. But partly through hex fear of lessening her own authority, if she admitted anothei to share it, and partly, perhaps, from love to her people, which made her unwilling to give them a foreign king, she broke off the match, after keeping the duke long in suspense. The pretensions of Mary, the young queen of Scotland were an early source of disquiet to Elizabeth. Mary was great niece of Henry VIII., and on the plea that Elizabeth had been declared illegitimate, she asserted her own right to the crown, and took upon her the arms and title of queen of England. And though this empty boast was not f< >1« lowed by any active attempt, it yet laid the foundation ii Elizabeth's mind of a deadly hatred towards her. How did Elizabeth settle the affairs if the Church ? Who made Elizabeth an offer of marriage ? What French nobleman made proposals of marriage to Elizabeth f Who. and on what pretence, claimed to be queen of England ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 257 Mary had been married to the dauphin, who, on his fa- her's death, became king of France, by the title of Francis II. ; and she had thus been, for a brief season, the queen of the most splendid court in Europe, into all the dissipa- tions of which she entered eagerly. When, on the early death of Francis, she was obliged to return to Scotland the contrast between the country she left, and that which she was now come to inhabit, struck her with melancholy; and the rude manners of the Scots filled her with disgust This disgust was increased by difference of religion Mary had been brought up a bigoted Catholic ; and the Reformation, which had now made great progress in Scot- land, was not marked there with a mild and conciliatory spirit. The Scotch reformers were men of rigid zeal, and condemned all gaiety and amusements as sinful. They were as much shocked at the queen's levities, as she was displeased by their austerity. While these discontents were growing in Scotland, the queen of England was busily employed in putting the af- fairs of her kingdom in order. She called in the old coin, which had been shamefully debased in the last three reigns, and replaced it by a coinage of the standard weight. She filled her arsenals with arms ; she introduced the manufacturing of gunpowder into England ; she frequently reviewed her militia, and put the country into a complete state of defence ; she encouraged agriculture, trade, and navigation, and increased her navy so much that she has been called " the queen of the northern seas." Elizabeth's wise government was respected abroad and prosperous at home. She was exceedingly fortunate in the choice of her ministers ; particularly in her treasurer, lord Burleigh, and her secretary Walsingl^ am, who were men of extraordinary abilities and integrity. While affairs were managed with so much vigor and success, the people were scarcely aware in how great a degree their queen kepi gradually enlarging her prerogative, nor how much thcii o ;vn liberties were infringed. Hdw did Mary of Scotland regard her own subjects ? What was the state of religion in Scotland, A. D 1559 What were the first measures of queen Elizabeth's reign i Who weie Elizabeth's ministers 1 12 258 ENGLISH HISTORY. In all cases in which her own authority was concerned, Elizabeth was always decided and peremptory: and as she had generally good reason for what she did, and, above all, was frugal of expense, the mass of the people, though kept in great subjection, regarded her with enthusiastic attachment. In regard to her private friendships Elizabeth exhibited less wisdom than in political affairs. Her chief favorite was Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester, a man wholly unde- serving of moral respect. He was the son of that unprin- cipled duke of Northumberland who was beheaded in th j reign of Mary. The great rival of Leicester in Elizabeth's favor was RatclifTe, earl of Sussex, a plain rough soldier, who loved and honored his mistress in sincerity, while Leicester only used her favor as the ladder to his own ambition. The queen valued Sussex, and employed him in many affairs of importance : but the assiduities of Leicester were more pleasing to her vanity, and she was fond of keeping him about her court. He continued to retain his place in her favor till his death, in 1588. Early in the year 1563 Elizabeth caught the small-pox, and for some days her life was considered to be in danger. The prospect of her death, joined to the probability of the queen of Scotland's succession, encouraged the popish party ; and when she recovered, the parliament besought her either to change her resolution, of living unmarried, or else to name her successor. Both these requests were very displeasing to Elizabeth. Elizabeth was afterwards beset with princely suitors ; but she always avoided as long as possible the giving them a decisive answer, and kept all persons, both friends and enemies, who were anxiously watching her conduct, in entire suspense as to her real intentions. How did the English nation regard then queen ? Who was the favorite of Elizabeth ? Did the English desire their queen to marry ? Did queen Elizabeth act openij and sincerely as to her purport of ■narriage ? ENGLISH HISTOkr. 259 Mary of Scotland, in the hope of being named by Eliz- betb. as her successor, affected to treat her with great re- spect. Both queens indeed pretended extraordinaiy regard for one another, and styled themselves in their letters" lov- ing sisters." Mary having been urged by her council to a second marriage, thought proper to apply to Elizabeth to choose a suitable match for her. Elizabeth's wish was that her " loving sister" should continue a widow. It was one of the weaknesses of this great queen to have the utmost dislike of any person's marrying, and she persecuted many of her own subjects for no other reason than because they did not choose to live single like herself. At length, having proposed two or three matches for Mary, which she knew she would not accept, Elizabeth pretended to be exceedingly displeased with her, when she at last chose for herself, and married her cousin Hen- ry Stuart, Lord Darnley. Darnley was the son of Margaret Douglas, daughter of Margaret, sister of Henry VIII., by her second husband lord Angus. Thus, after Mary, he was the next in succes- sion to the crown of England. But this union, which ap- ueared so suitable, proved most unfortunate in the end. Darnley was a man of inferior capacity, and soon be- came the object of Mary's dislike and contempt ; and she on her part gave him just cause for displeasure by making a favorite and a confidant of an Italian musician of the name of David Rizzio. One evening, when the queen was at supper with Riz- zio and some of the ladies of her court, Darnley, with a band of armed men, rushed into the room, and one of them stabbed Rizzio, as he clung to the queen's knees for pro- tection. As one crime usually gives occasion for another, so Mary, by this barbarous murder, was provoked into the commission, if possible, of a greater crime. She admitted the earl of Bothwell, a man of infamous character, into her With what mutuaj hypocrisy d'.d the queens of England and ScotlatuJ treat each other '( Why did Elizabeth affect to be displeased with Mary of Scotland 7 Who was Lord Darnley ? By what foolish conduct did Mary displease her husband? Of what outrage was Darnley guilty, and what became of him f 260 ENGLISH HISTORY councils, and in concert with him contrived and tflecteJ the death of Darnley. With Bothwell's consent to the scheme, the queen per- suaded Darnley, for the benefit of his health, to sleep in a lone house near Edinburgh, called the Kirk of the field This house, at a time when the queen was absent, attend- ing the wedding of one of her women, was blown up by gun-powder; and the unfortunate Henry Darnley perished, leaving a son by the queen seven months old. Soon after the death of Darnley, Bothwell contrived to carry off the queen (probably by her own consent,) and detained her for some little time in a sort of imprisonment, To the astonishment of all persons, she was so far from re- senting this outrage, that though Bothwell was universally believed to have been Darnley's murderer, she did not scru- ple to marry him. This marriage increased the suspicions that she also was concerned in that atrocious deed. A T) 1 ^fi7 Nearly the whole country, in just ab- horrence of this crime, headed by the lords Morton and Murray, rose in arms against her ; and Mary, finding that even her own troops were unwilling to fight in her cause, gave herself up into the hands of her enemies, who imprisoned her in Lochleven castle, and compelled her to sign a resignation of her kingdom to her son. This infant was accordingly crowned king by the title of James VI. ; and Murray, who was half-brother to the queen, though not a legitimate heir of the crown of Scot- land, was appointed regent to the kingdom. Bothwell meantime had fled the country; and, after leading a wan- dering and wretched life, supporting himself by piracy he was at last thrown into a prison in Denmark. He fell into a state of insanity, and lingered ten miserable years in that condition. Mary, after a short time, found means to escape from prison ; and, raising an army, she encountered Murray at Where did Darnley perish ? Whom did Mary of Scotland take for a second husband ? What circumstances compelled Mary to resign her kingdom ? Who was crowned king of Scotland, and what became of Bothwell ? Did Mary attempt to recover *.he ttame of Scotland, and with whnl effect ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 261 Langside ; but her troops were completely defeated ; and she having watched the battle from a neighboring emi- nence, put spurs to her horse, and never stopped till she got to the bank of a little river on the boundary between Scotland and England. There the bishop of St. Andrews, who had accompanied her flight, caught hold of the bridle of her horse, and on his knees besought her to turn back : but she, preferring to trust Elizabeth's generosity, rather than again to en- counter the insults of her own subjects, rushed tm-oughthe stream to the opposite side. She soon arrived at Working- ton in Cumberland, from whence she sent a messenger to inform Elizabeth of the step she had taken, and then pro- ceeded to Carlisle to await the answer. Elizabeth, on receiving the news of this extraordinary event, was in the greatest perplexity how to act. Her whole conduct to Mary was so capricious and unreasonable in the beginning, and so tyrannical and cruel in the end. that historians have found it difficult to account for it. Whatever her thoughts were on receiving Mary's letter, she concealed them with great dissimulation, and pretended the utmost friendship for that unhappy queen. Elizabeth's conduct to Mary exhibited none of her avowed friendship. She declared, that before Mary could be received at the English court, it was necessary, both for her honor, that she should be cleared from the heavy char- ges which had been brought against her by the Scots. She returned an answer to this effect to the queen of Scots, and sent lady Scrope under pretence of attending on her, but in reality to detain her in a sort of imprisonment : and she had he/ soon removed from Carlisle to Bolton-hall in Yorkshire. Mary consented to an investigation of her conduct, and despatched the bishop of Ross, and eight other persons, to meet at York the commissioners sent by Elizabeth. The regent Murray also attended there ; and after a tedious suc- cessoin of letters and protestations, in which both parties Did Mary go to England ? How did Elizabeth treatMary? Why did Elizabeth refuse to receive Mary at couif ' Was Mary brought to a legal trial ? 2G2 ENGLISH HISTORY. acted with great duplicity, and seemed equally afraid of arriving at truth, nothing was proved. When the conferences, which Jasted some months, were over, Elizabeth persisted that as Mary was by no means cleared by the investigation which had taken place, she was herself justified not only in refusing to see her, but even in detaining her still a prisoner : and she now placed her in the custody of the earl of Shrewsbury, a nobleman who had large possessions in the North of England. Shrewsbury had the care of her for sixteen years at one or other of his country houses. At first the unfortunate queen was allowed to receive visiters, and her eloquence and insinuating manners made every one who conversed with her believe her to be inno cent, however they might have been prepossessed of her guilt. The Papists all took her part, and thought that the jealousy of Elizabeth towards her was more on account oi her religion than from any other cause. The duke of Norfolk was one of those who were most devoted to her ; and he offered to contrive her escape, and to place her on the English throne, on condition that she would consent to marry him. Mary, glad to catch at any hope of escape, promised to do so, if she could ob- tain a divorce from Bothwell. In this plot most of the English Papists joined. It was soon discovered, and gave Elizabeth a pretext for holding Mary with a harder grasp, and for preventing her from having any future intercourse with all persons but those of lord Shrewsbury's household. The duke of Norfolk was committed to the Tower, and was afterwards liberated on hJ3 promise to give up all correspondence with Mary ; but he broke his promise, and again sent letters to her, though so secretly that even the vigilant Cecil did not for some time find it out. A T) 1*571 ^ * ast ' M ai 7 wishing to send some money to her partizans in Scotland, Bannister, a confidential servant of the duke, was the person fixed on Under whose custody was Mary imprisoned? Who befriended Mary ? What conspiracy was planned for Mary's deliverance ? Did the duke of Norfolk act honestly in regard to Mary How was Norfolk's treachery discovered ? ENGLISH HISTORY 263 to take it. This money, and a letter which was to accom« pany it, were sent to Bannister by a person not in the secret ; and he, perceiving there was some mystery, took the letter to lord. Burleigh, who thus discovered that the duke of Norfolk and the Scottish queen were again con- spiring to dethrone Elizabeth. Norfolk was brought to trial, and believing that some papers had been destroyed which he had ordered his sec- retary to burn, boldly denied the being concerned in the plot: but these papers, instead of being destroyed, had been hid by the secretary under the mats of the duke's chamber, and under the tiles of the house, and were produced on the trial, and so fully confirmed his guilt, that he was condemned to die. Elizabeth always declared that she would have forgiven him, if, instead of persisting in falsehood, he had made a free confession. He was be- headed in 1572. The queen was strongly importuned by the parliament to put her rival also to death ; but though she saw that so long as Mary remained a prisoner in England she herself should never be secure from plots and conspiracies, yet she could not at once bring herself to consent to so violent and unprecedented an act. She would gladly have sent her out of the kingdom, and probably heartily repented of her own policy, in detaining her a prisoner. Elizabeth had gone too far to recede : and since she could not with safety to herself now restore the queen of Scots to liberty, she determined to keep her even more strictly guarded than before ; and removed her from the care of l ord Shrewsbury, who, she apprehended, was too indulgent to his prisoner, to that of sir Amais Paulet and sir Drue Drury. Philip of Spain, and the queen dowager of France, Ca- tharine de Medici, had for many years past been forming schemes for restoring the Romish religion in England, by dispossessing Elizabeth, and raising Mary to the throne. Mary herself was in all their secrets ; and as she received o jointure from France, on account of her being widow oi How did Norfolk conduct himself on his trial ? Why did Elizabeth refuse to put Mary to death ? On what account did Elizabeth put a more strict guard upon Mnry ? Who conspired to dethrone queen Elizabeth ? 204 £x\ULISH HISTORY. a French king, she had means of getting from thenec pri- vate intelligence, and had money at her command to dis- tribute amongst her partizans in England and Scotland. Elizabeth, meanwhile, was well informed of all that was going on : out she felt such entire confidence in the affec tion of her people, that she did not express any fears at the machinations of her enemies, till the discovery of a scheme to assassinate her privately gave her some alarm. This plot, which was contrived by a Catholic priest, one John Ballard, when ripe for execution, was communicated to many Catholic gentlemen, who readily joined in it, though not so secretly but that Walsingham had information of the whole. When Walsingham had obtained all the information he wanted, he thought it was time to secure the conspirators ; and fourteen of them were taken up, condemned, and exe- cuted, before Mary had any knowledge' that the plot wad detected. One day, as Mary was taking the air on horseback, she was met by a messenger from the queen, who informed her of the detection and death of her friends, and that she was to be removed immediately to Fotheringay castle in North- amptonshire. She was accordingly compelled to set out for that place instantly, with the messenger who brought these unwelcome tidings, without being suffered to return to make any preparations for the sudden journey. In a few days, Mary's arrival at Fotheringay was follow ed by that of commissioners from Elizabeth, who were ap- pointed to try her for the part she had taken in the late conspiracy, of which it was believed she approved, and in which she connived. The proofs against her were but too strong. The commissioners returned to London after the trial, and pronounced sentence against her in the Star chamber, Oct. 25, 1586. Elizabeth affected the utmost reluctance to consent to Mary's death ; and sir Robert Cary, in his account of tho What served to tranquilize the queen's mind, and what plot against hei life was contrived ? What happened to the conspirators ? How was Mary removed to Fotheringay Castle ? On account of what charge did Mary receive sentence of death f Did Elizabeth readily consent to the death of Mary J ENGLISH HISTORY. 205 i>cene« to which he was an eye-witness, certainly thought that her sighs and tears on this occasion were sincere. When Mary's condemnation was known in Scotland, the young king sent an urgent remonstrance to Elizabeth on the unjustifiable conduct she was pursuing towards his mother ; but one of James's ambassadors secretly advised Elizabeth not to spare Mary, and undertook to pacify his master. At length, after some months of apparent indecision on the part of the queen, who kept her ministers uncertain as to her intentions, she signed the death warrant. But when she found it had been despatched to Fotheringay, she ex- pressed the most violent displeasure at the hasty ofhcious- ness of her servants, in hopesby suchan artifice to trans- fer to them the blame of Mary's death. A D if)«7 ^n ^ e s i xtn °f February, the warrant was brought to Fotheringay by the earls of Shrewsbury and Kent, who informed Mary that she must prepare for death the next morning. Mary received their message with composure, and employed herself during the remainder of the day in writing letters, in dividing the few valuables she had amongst her servants, andin taking leave of them. She rehired to rest at her usual time, but arose after a few hours s^eep. and spent the rest of the night in prayer. Towards morning she attired herself in the only rich dress she still possessed. A white lawn veil was thrown over her head * and when whe was summoned to the hall where she was to die, she took a crucifix and a prayer- book in her hand, and leaning on sir Amias Paulet, she walked with a serene and composed countenance. She was met by the way by her faithful servant, Andrew Mel- vil, who flung himself on his knees before her, and burst into an agony of grief- Mary endeavored to console him with the utmost firm- less ; but on charging him with her last message to fad Did the king of Scotland interfere in his mother's behalf? What paper did Elizabeth sign, and what is a death war-nut ? How did Mary receive sentence of c'ealh? How did Mary prepare lor execution? What firmness did the last moments of Mary ezhibit ? 266 ENGLISH HISTORY. son, she melted into tears. She then enter ea the hall in which the scaffold had been raised, and saw, with an un- dismayed countenance, the two executioners, standing there, and all the preparations for her death. The place was crowded with spectators who seemed to forget hei former faults, in compassion for her present calamitous condition. After some time spent in prayer, she began, with the aid of her women, to unrobe herself ; and seeing them ieady to break forth into tears and lamentations, she made them, by putting her finger to her lips, a sign to forbear She then gave them her blessing : a handkerchief was bound round her eyes, and without any visible trepidation she laid her head upon the block, and with two strokes it was severed from her body. Thus perished this unfor- tunate princess, in the 45th year of her age. Mary had been a queen almost from her birth. From the age of six to that of nineteen she had been trained to levity and dissipation in the French court. From her nineteenth to her twenty-seventh year she had lived in Scotland, in a succession of crimes, follies, and sorrows. The nineteen remaining years of her life she had passed in a melancholy captivity, a prey to all the miseries ol restraint, suspense and impatience. But time and afflic- tion had neither subdued her spirit, nor wholly destroyed her extraordinary beauty. In a letter written to Lord Burleigh, by a person who was present at the execution of this unhappy lady it was said, that when the executioner held up Mary's head, after it was cut off, her " borrowed auburn locks" fell off, and the same face that had appeared but a few minutes before .so beautiful in life, now was seen so much altered m death, that the spectators could scarcely believe it to be the same : the hair was quite gray, and the face appeared to be that of a woman of seventy. After her death it was found, by one of the executioners, that the queen's favorite little dog had concealed itself amongst the folds of hei dress, and the poor little animal could with difficulty be removed from his dead mistress. How did Mary comport herself at the »ime of her execution ? What were the leading circumstances of Mary's life i What was Mary s appearance after death? SNGLISII HISTORY 207 AJinc lady of the age of Elizabeth. When the news of the execution of the queen of Scots v* as brought to Elizabeth, she thought it necessary to as- sume the appearance of excessive grief; she wore mourn- ing, and for some days shut herself up with only her wo- men. The king of Scotland expressed great resentment at the murder of his mother, and threatened Elizabeth with a war : but it was so much the interest of both sov- ereigns to keep at peace, that James, who was not of a warlike disposition, suffered his indignation to subside. A T) l ^89 Philip of Spain had long been meditating an invasion of England; and, having com- pleted his preparations, and collected his forces, he felt so certain of conquest, that he called his fleet which was now- assembled in the Tagus, the Invincible Armada. His land forces, to the number of fifty thousand men, under the duke of Parma, were marched to the coast of the Netherlands, where a sufficient number of transports were prepared. This whole armament, by land and sea, was so very pow erful, both in the size and number of ships, in the strength and discipline of the Spanish soldiery, and the gallantry pjid spirit of the numerous volunteers who nocked to serve- Did Elizabeth manifest grief for the death of Mory Who invaded England in 1588? 2C8 ENGLISH HISTORY. in it, thai it seemed much more than s.nTicien! to conquer England. Elizabeth, meanwhile, sure of the affection of her peo- ple, at least of all who were Protestants, was undismayed. She made every necessary preparation for defence : but the English fleet, when collected altogether, was so small in comparison with that of the Spaniards, that her chief reliance was in the superior skill and bravery of her sea men and officers. The fleet was commanded by lord Howard of Effing- ham. Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher served under him. The land forces, which were very inferior to Philip's, both in number and experience, were divided into several bodies. One, commanded by lord Hunsdon, was appoirted to guard the queen's person. Another, under Lord Leicester, was stationed at Tilbury Fort. The rest were placed wherever it seemed most likely that the Spaniards would attempt i landing. The chief support of the kingdom was the vigor and prudence of the queen herself, who, showing no alarms at the dangers that threatened her, gave her orders with de- cision, and omitted nothing that could infuse courage into her people, and increase the general security. This heroic woman appeared on horseback at the camp at Tilbury, and, riding through the ranks, made so animating a speech to the soldiers, that every one felt roused to an enthusiastic attachment to her person. Amongst other things, Elizabeth said on this occasion : " I know I have but the body of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart of a king, and of a king of England too : and think foul scorn that Parma of Spain, or any prince of Europe, should dare to invade the borders of my realms : to which, rather than any dishonor shall grow by me, I myself will take up arms ; I myself will be your general, judge, and re warder of every one of your virtues in the field." How did Elizabeth meet this emergency ? Who commanded the sea and land forces at this juncture ? Did Elizabeth encourage the army ? In what speech did Elizabeth remaikably manifest her spirit and ca- pacity ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 269 While these preparations were making in England, the Armada was on the point of sailing, but was a little de layed by the death of the admiral, whose place was sup^ plied by the duke of Medina Sidonia, a man utterly inex- perienced in sea affairs. At length on May 29, 1588, this mighty armament issued from the mouth of the Tagus ; but a violent storm coming on the next day, so many of the ships were disabled that it was obliged to return into har- bor to refit. It again sailed with orders to proceed directly to the coast of Flanders, thence to convey the duke of Parma and his troops to the Thames. But the Spanish t jmiral learning from a fisherman that the English fleet was as- sembled at Plymouth, ventured, in the hope of annihilating it at one blow, to disobey his orders, and made for that port. The Armada, as it approached the Lizard Point, was descried by a Scotch pirate, who was cruising in those seas, and he, hoisting every sail, hastened to give notice of the enemy's approach. Effingham had just time to get out of port, when he saw the invincible Armada coming full sail towards him in the form of a cresent, and stretch- ing over a distance of seven miles. Lord Effingham soon perceived how heavily the Spanish ships sailed, and that they were very ill-built and unman- ageable ; and his confidence in his own little fleet became much strengthened. He was at first fearful of advancing too near, lest the weight of the Spanish ships should run down his own. Effingham, however, soon saw that the bulk of the ships was an advantage to him, as presenting a larger broadside for his guns to act upon, and that their cannon were placed so high that they shot over the heads of the English. A huge ship of Biscay, laden with money, took fire, and When did t'le Spanish Armada sail from the mouth of the Tagus ? Whither did the Armada proceed ? Where did the English admiral first perceive the Armada ? What was the construction of the Spanish ships ? What was the achievement of sir Francis Drake in the first engagement ?ith the Spanish ? 270 LNGLISH HISTORY another large vessel sprung her mast, and these twj, (all in£ behind the rest, were taken by sir Francis Drake. The Armada, however, still sailed heavily up the Chan nel ; and the English vessels, many of them fitted out bv private individuals, poured forth from every port, and joined lord Effingham, who followed in the rear of th<- Spanish, and took many of the stragglers. At last the enemy cast anchor off Calais, in expectation of being there joined by the duke of Parma. Effingham now filled with combustibles eight jf hiy smaller vessels, and sent them into the midst of the enemy, who, fearful of being set on fire by them, cut their cables, and dispersed themselves in the greatest alarm. Daring this confusion the English fell upon them, and took twelve of their ships. The duke of Parma, on seeing these disasters of the Armada, and the superiority which the English had gained refused to hazard his army by sea ; and the duke de Me- dina, finding his fleet nearly disabled, while the English had only lost one small vessel, thought it best to return homewards. The winds being contrary, obliged him to sail to the north, to make the circuit of Scotland ; but the English still pursued, and, had not their ammunition fallen short, would probably have taken every ship. The tempestuous weather nearly completed the destruc- tion of this vast armament. Many of the remaining ships, after beating about at the mercy of the winds, were wrecked on the coasts of Ireland and Scotland ; and those Spaniards who lived to return home, gave their countrymen such for- midable accounts of the bravery of the English, ard the tremendous dangers of their coasts, as effectually repressed all inclination to attempt another invasion. A D I'fifi '^ e ear * °^ Leicester died, and the young earl of Essex succeeded him in the queen's "What was the progress of the Spanish invasion ? How did Effingham proceed against the Spanish ? How did the Spanish commanders encounter the English ? What was the end of the Spanish enterprise ? Who were the queen's distinguished favorites ENGLISH HlaTORY. 271 favor. Essex was in many respects more Reserving than Leicester had ever been. He and sir Walter Raleigh, who was a distinguished navigator, as well as an accomplished courtier, soon became deadly enemies. The queen, how- ever, who did not perplex herself with any of their quarrels, delighted in the lofty and impetuous spirit of Essex, and permitted him, even when quite a youth, to speak to her with more freedom than she would allow to any of her old md faithful servants. A "H ^Q<3 Essex was appointed governor of Ireland, under the title of lord lieutenant, — a very difficult post, for the Irish had been in an unsettled state during the whole of Elizabeth's reign ; and it was with difficulty that sir Henry Sidney, and other wise and expe- rienced governors, could keep them in subjection. At this time an insurrection had broken out in Ireland, headed by a powerful chief, who had formerly, as a mark of royal favor, received from Elizabeth the title of earl of Tyrone. Many of his people had formerly served in the wars of Philip of Spain, and were very effective soldiers ; so that the insurrection assumed a formidable appearance and required a steadier hand to stem it than that of the im- petuous Essex, who nothing doubting of his own abilities, hastened to take possession of his government. But he soon found greater difficulties than he had anticipated. After some months of harrassing warfare, in which his men suffered greatly from fatigue and sickness, Essex, in defiance of the queen's commands, entered into a truce with Tyrone. Elizabeth sent a sharp remonstrance on this and other points in which her general had been guilty of disobedience, and commanded him to remain in Ireland till further orders. Essex, instantly on the receipt of this letter, set out for England, and arrived at court before it could be known that he had left Ireland. As soon as he reached the end of his journey, Essex rushed into the queen's presence Whom did Elizabeth appoint governor of Ireland 1 Was the government of" Ireland at that time difficult ? Did Essex obey the queen's orders in respect to the government of Ireland ? How did Essex afterwards displease the queen I 272 EN01ISH HISTORY without changing his dress, which seriously offended lid , and her displeasure so affected him as to make him very ill. The queen was, moreover, offended with Essex because he had disobeyed her orders by returning to England and commanded him to retire to his own house, where he was to remain under a sort of custody, and sequestered from all company. Lord Montjoy was then promoted to the government of Ireland, and, being a man of capacity and vigor, he soon retrieved the queen's affairs in that country. Montjoy's prudent government made the inconsiderate conduct of Essex appear by comparison the more blama- ble ; and Elizabeth, after a severe struggle between her affection for her favorite and her sense of justice, at last consented that he should be brought before the privy coun- cil to answer for his mismanagement of the Irish affairs. Essex did not attempt to excuse himself, but made a hum- ble submission to the queen, by which he hoped to restore himself to her favor. Elizabeth received his contrite messages with great complacency ; but when he applied to her for a renewal of a grant she had formerly given him, she refused him with some contemptuous expressions. These contemptous ex- pressions so stung the proud heart of Essex, that the vio- lence of temper, which he had with difficulty restrained, now broke loose. He declared in his rage, "that the queen, now that she was an old woman, was as crooked in her mind as in her person :" which words being repeat- ed to Elizabeth, incensed her more against him than any former part of his conduct had done. Essex, indeed, was so completely driven mad by his pas- sion, that he thought he could overturn the government. He entered into a treasonable correspondence with the king of Scotland ; but his want of secrecy and caution made him a bad conductor of a plot. His scheme was discovered, and on this, furious with rage, he rushed into the streets, and made a wild attempt to raise a mob What punishment did Elizabeth inflict upon Essex ? Why did Elizabeth bring Essex to a public trial ? How did Essex regard U.0 queen's treatment of him ? To what extravagant conduct did Essex proceed ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 273 amongst the populace. But, though the citizens were much attached to him, they were afraid or unwilling to join him. Hearing himself proclaimed a traitor, and the streets being presently harricadoed against him, so that he could not advance, Essex fled towards the river, and getting into a boat, went back by water to Essex House. There he was seized and conveyed to the Tower. His trial soon followed, and his guilt was too clear to give the queen the least pretex for granting him a pardon. Still her former tenderness, and her late resentment, kept her in a most pitiable state during the painful interval which elapsed be- tween sighing his death-warrant and his execution. It appears that the queen, aware of his impetuous tem- per, and how little guard he had over himself, had for- merly given him a ring, telling him that whatever disgrace he might afterwards fall into, she would promise him, on receiving again that ring, to give him a favorable hearing This pledge she had fully expected to receive at this junc- ture of his fate, and she attributed it to obstinacy his not sending it. And when she had given him as she thought ample time for repentance, and yet there came not the important ring, she no longer delayed his execution, which took place February 25, 1601. For a time her feelings of resentment supported her un- der the loss of her favorite. But this consolation, such as it was, was taken from her when, about two years after the death of Essex, the countess of Nottingham being on her death-bed, besought the queen to come to her, as she had something to reveal. She then confessed that Essex had entrusted her with the ring to restore it to her majesty, but that she had been prevailed on by her husband to with hold it. Elizabeth, in an agony of grief at this disclosure, shook the dying countess in her bed, and said that "God might forgive her, but she never could." She then broke from her, and when she regained her own apartments, threw Did the queen cordially consent to the the execution of Essex ? Did the queen ever give Essex a ring, and on what condition ? Who intercepted from the queen the ring hebnging to Essex ? Did Elizabeth forgive the countess of Nottingham ? 274 ENGLISH HISTORV. herself on the floor, and gave herself up to the most incu rable melancholy. For ten days and nights she lay on the ground, support ed by cushions. She refused to go to bed, or to take any thing that her physicians prescribed. Her end visibly approaching, her attendants requested her to appoint her successor. Some authors say she actually named the king of Scotland. Others say that when he was named to her, she raised her hand to her head, which her ministers were willing to interpret into a sign of consent. • When she grew too weak to make resistance, she was laid in her bed. In the evening of the last day of her life, the archbishop of Canterbury came to pray by her : and when, after some hours, he left off from weariness, she made a sign to him to go on, and did so every time he ceased to speak. This lasted till towards four o'clock in the morning, when her attendants perceived she had ceased to breathe. She died March 24, 1603, in the 70th year of her age, and the 45th of her reign. Although Elizabeth preserved the internal tranquility of the kingdom unbroken during the whole of her long reign, yet the perpetual warfare she carried on with Philip, to- gether with the occasional assistance she gave to the Pro- testants in France, kept up a military spirit among her subjects. She chose her admirals far more fortunately and more judiciously than she did her generals, and conse- quently her expeditions by sea were in general much more successful than those she attempted by land. In an expedition to the Low Countries, sir Philip Sidney was killed at the siege at Zutphen. He was considered the most accomplished gentleman in England ; and the sorrow for his death was so great, that both the court and the city went into mourning. Did Elizabeth name a successor ? How, and when did Elizabeth die ? Was the military spirit kept up in England during the reigu of Eluia teth X Where was sir Sidney Philip killed 7 ENGLISH HISTORY. 275 Elizabeth outlived her great enemy the king of Spain two years. The trade of England would have increased Greatly in this reign had not the activity and industry of the merchants been fettered by the patents and monopolies which Elizabeth granted to her courtiers and favorites. The Protestants, though their religion was now estab- lished, were yet unfortunately divided amongst themselves. Many who had been exiled in the reign of Mary had found refuge at Geneva, and had there learned the doctrine of Calvin, the Swiss reformer. These persons, when they returned to England on the accession of Elizabeth, were much shocked to find that she retained, not cnly many of the prayers, but also many of the outward observances of the Romish church. The Puritans, for so they were called onaccount of their way of life, scrupled, amongst other things, to perform the service of the church in a surplice, and many of the Puritan clergy refused benefices rather than be guilty of what they considered so great an impiety. A benefice is a living in the established, that is, the Episcopal church of England. The queen, during her whole reign, was constantly on the watch to keep down the Puritans ; and they, on their side, were as constantly seizing every opportunity to ad- vance their cause. Their public preaching and private exhortations had a visible effect on the manners of the age, particularly in regard to the employment of the Sunday, which, by their example, began universally to be observed with seriousness, instead of being made as heretofore, a day of pastime, and often of excess. In the fifth year of this reign was enacted the first com pulsory law for the relief of the poor, which is the founda- tion of the present poor laws in England, and by another act of parliament passed in 1601, the system as it now exists was nearly completed. A trade between England and Turkey was begun about Did trade flourish in Eng and during the reign of Elizabeth ? Were the Protestants united 1 Who were the Puritans? Did the queen favor the Puritans, and did they influence the msnnt-rt? uf the time ? When were the present poor laws of England first enacted ? Wteu was the English trade with Turkey commenced » 276 ENGLISH HISTORY. !he year 1583. The fame of the English queen (hen fi: st readied the ears of the Grand Signor, who till then had believed that England was a dependent province tu France. The character of Elizabeth is a very difficult one to comprehend. She had the courage and understanding of a man, with more than a woman's vanity and weakness. She was attached to her people, and imposed few taxes, and inflicted few punishments ; but nevertheless, she was one of the most arbitrary of monarchs. She treated the house of commons with the utmost haughtiness, and more than once sent her commands to the members " to avoid Long speeches." CHAPTER XXIX. JAMES I. [Years after Christ, 1602—1625.] James was thirty seven years old when by the death ot Elizabeth he was raised to the English throne, and thus united the whole island under one sovereign. His charac ter was an odd mixture of sense and folly. He posses- sed a natural shrewdness and sagacity, with a great share of vanity and conceit ; and he made even his learning, which was considerable, appear ridiculous by his pedantry and pomposity. With all this he had a great deal of childish simplicity ; and there was an openness of temper about him, which, the ugh it may be reckoned a virtue yel made him quite unfit io control the jealousies which arose botween his English and Scotch subjects. His person was awkward, and his manners uncouth, and without, dignity ; and these defects, together with his broad Scotch accent, soon made him an object of contempt Is the character of Elizabeth easily comprehended .' "What was the character of James J. ? Did J^nies command the resDect of the English ? ENGLISH HI&T0RY. ' 27? to those who had been accustomed to the stately majesty of Elizabeth. James had married Anne, daughter of the king of Den- mark, whose person and deportment are described as hav- ing been very homely and unprepossessing. They had three children at the time of James's accession. The eld- est, Henry, was a promising boy of nine years old ; the second child was named Elizabeth ; and Charles, the youngest, was a boy of four years old. James, though surrounded on his arr'val in England by Scotch nobles, all greedy of English honors, still re- tained many of Elizabeth's ministers in their places. The most distinguished of these was Cecil lord Salisbury, son of the great lord Burleigh, who possessed much of his father's capacity, but without his integrity. One of the first acts of the king was to restore the family of Howard, and some others who had suffered in his mother's cause, to their estates and honors. A conspiracy was soon afterwards formed to place on the throne the lady Arabella Stuart. This lady was the daughter of a brother of lord Darnley, the king's father ; consequently she was his first cousin, and equally de- scended with himself from Henry VII. Her mother was an English lady of the Cavendish family, and she had been brought up amongst her mother's relations in great privacy. Lady Arabella was neither qualified nor desirous to be a queen, and was totally ignorant of the conspiracy. The plot was soon discovered, and three persons were executed. Sir Walter Raleigh who had been accused of sharing in it, but whose guilt was not proved, was condemned to death, but reprieved, and afterwards remained in prison many years. The Roman Catholics had expected great indulgence trom James for his motor's sake ; but they found, to then What was James's family ? What were the first acts of James's government ? What were lady Arrabella Stuart's pretensions to the throne of Eng land ? Who were engaged-in the conspiracy in behalf of lady Arabella ! V/mt plot was concerted by the Catholics ? 278 ENGLISH HISTORY. gieat disappointment, that he was no less steady than Eli- zabeth had been to the cause of the Protestants ; and to this disappointment was owing the well-known Gunpow- der Plot, which had its first rise in 1604. Catesby and Percy, two Catholic gentlemen, being in conversation on public affairs, Percy in great heat, said something about assassinating the king. Tho other re- plied that his single death would do them little good, and that they also must get rid of the lords and commons : he then suggested the possibility of laying a train of gunpow- der under the parliament house, which would blow them up altogether. Percy approved of the project : it was also agreed to communicate it to a few other persons ; and they sent into Flanders in quest of Guy Fawkes, a man of known cour- age and zeal, then serving in the Spanish army, who they knew would be actively useful in the execution of their scheme. This plot was in agitation all the spring. In the sum- mer, the conspirators hired, in Percy's name, a house ad- joining the house of lords, and began to undermine the wall between the two. After they had carried on their work some time, they learnt that a vault which had been used as a coal vault, and which was immediately under the house of lords, was to be let. Percy hired it, and secreth placed in it thirty-six barrels of gunpowder, and concealed them with faggots and billets of wood. Every thing being ready, it was resolved that some o\ the conspirators should seize and kill the little prince Charles ; and that others should get possession of the prin- cess Elizabeth, and proclaim her queen, on the same day on which the king and queen, and their eldest son, were to be present at the opening of the parliament. Thus confident were they of destroying their victims. This secret, though entrusted to above twenty persons, had been faithfully kept for near a year and a half ; during What was the Gun-powder PV>t ? Who was Guy Fawkes ? What active measures were taften by the conspirators ? Did the conspirators intend to destroy the royal family 1 Was the secret of the conspirators faithfully kept ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 279 which period the execution was delayed from time to time by the repealed adjournments of parliament. The bigotry of the conspirators stifled all compunction at the thoughts of destroying so many of their fellow-creatures. A few days before the meeting of parliament, lord Mont- eagle received a letter, very ambiguously expressed, which however, warned him of danger, and admonished him to go into the country instead of attending parliament. Monteagle knew not what to think of this letter, and showed it to loid Salisbury, who was no inclined to pay much attention \o it , but who nevertheless, laid it before the king. The king had sagaciiy enough to perceive, from its serious, earnest style, that something important was meant ; and this forewarning of a sudden and terrible blow, yet with the authors concealed, made his suspicions come very near the truth. The day before the meeting of par- liament, he sent the earl of SurTolk to examine all the vaults under the houses of pailiament. In that which was under the house of lords, Suffolk was surprised to see so, many piles of wood and faggots, and was also struck with the daikand mysterious counte- nance of Guy Fawkes, who was found there, and who called himself Percy's servant. It was then resolved to make a more thorough inspection, and about midnight a magistrate was sent with proper attendance for that pur- pose. On turning over the faggots, the barrels of gun- powder were discovered. Fawkes had been seized near the door, and matches, and every thing required for setting the train on fire, were found upon him. He at first appeared quite undaunted, but his courage afterwards failed him, and he made a fill 1 discovery of the plot, and all the conspirators. Catesby Percy and some others, hurried into Warwickshire, where one of their confederates, sir Everard Digby, not doubting but that the expected catastrophe in London had taken place, was already in arms. What intimation of danger was sent to lord Monteagle ? What opinion did the king form of the letter to lord Mcnteaglo ? What discoveries in relation to the plot were made by the earl of Suf- folk T Jlcm did the conspirators meet detection ? 280 ENGLISH HISTORY. The country was soon roused against these wretches who took refuge in one of those fortified houses which were common at that period, and resolved to defend them- selves to the last. But the same fate awaited them which they had designed for so many others. Their gun-powder caught fire, and blew up, maiming and destroying several of them. The rest rushed out upon the multitude, and were literally cut to pieces, except a few who were taken alive, and afterwards executed. The king showed more moderation on. this occasion than was approved of by his subjects in general, who were wound up to such a pitch of horror at the greatness of the crime which had been attempted, that they would gladly have had every Paptist in the kingdom put to death; and they were much displeased that James punished those only who were more immediately concerned in the plot Soon after his accession, James employed himself in an unsuccessful attempt to bring about a union between his two kingdoms : but the parliament of England was so much swayed by old prejudices and antipathies against the Scots, that it would agree to nothing, except to annul the hostile laws that had formerly subsisted between the two kingdoms. The union of the kingdoms, meant the bringing the parliaments of both into one assembly, and making the same legislation serve for England and Scot- land. James's bad management of the finances, and his pro fuse generosity to his favorites, involved him in great dif- ficulties. Amongst other ways of procuring money, he sold titles and dignities. The title of baronet, which might be purchased by any bidder for a thousand pounds, was now first created to supply his necessities. One of James's greatest follies was an exclusive regard for some one favorite, who was generally chosen for his How were the conspirators treated ? How did the English generally regard the papists at this timo ? Did the English and Scots form a union ? Was James improvident ? Whom did the king c v eate earl of Somerset ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 281 agreeable exterior. One of these was Robert Can', a youth of a good Scotch family, but of a neglected educa- tion. James undertook to be his tutor, and to teach him Latin. As he grew older, the king loaded him with digni- ties, and finally created him earl of Somerset. This favorite had a sincere and wise friend, sir Thomas Overbuiy, who, on his wishing to marry the countess ot Essex, strongly advised him against it. The countess, irritated at Overbury on this account, persuaded Somerset to have him put into the Tower, where he was soon after wards poisonc d. Somerset and the countess, the guilty contrivers of his death, then married : but he, being les? hardened in wickedness, sank into a settled melancholy, and became so dull a companion, that the king, who liked gaiety and cheerfulness, grew weary of him. Some time afterwards, the apothecary's apprentice, who had mixed the poison for Overbury, betrayed the secret. The guilt of Somerset and his wife was discovered, and they, and all who had been accessary to the murder, were tried ; the accomplices, were hanged, but Somerset and the countess were only banished. They lived many years together, dragging on a miserable life ; their former attachment, which had led them into guilt, being turned to the most deadly hate. A T) 1fil"3 The earl of Salisbury died. He had been trained in the school of Elizabeth, and was by far the ablest of all James's ministers. Some months before, the king had lost his eldest son, a prince of the highest promise. He was only in the eighteenth year of his age ; but had already shown a spirit and nobleness of character, which had greatly endeaicd him to the English, particularly to many restless and ar- dent men, who, tired of the peace and inactivity of his father's reign, hoped to signalize themselves by military exploits under a prince of such a martial genius. What is the history of sir Thomas Overbury ? What was the end of Somerset and hi3 wife 't "Was the carl of Salisbury an able minister ? What was the character of Prince Henry, son of James LV 13 282 ENGLISH HISTORY. Thirteen years of imprisonment had sublued Raleigh's p-ide and haughtiness. The people, admiring his accom- plishments, and loving him for the fine qualities of his heart, were exceedingly desirous of his liberation. James, induced perhaps by the hope of obtaining a certain gold mine in Guiana, which Raleigh said he knew to be in ex- istence, gave him leave to go and try his fortune ; but still would not reverse the sentence of death which hung ovei his head. Raleigh set sail with several ships, and directed hid course to the river Oronooko ; but the adventurers who had embarked with him in the hope of sharing in the ex- pected gold mine were disappointed, and nothing was effected but the destroying of a small Spanish town, in the attack on which Raleigh's son was killed. The object of the expedition having failed, great murmurs arose against the commander, and he found himself obliged to return to England. A particular inquiry into Raleigh's late conduct was in- stituted, and the king at length ordered the sentence of death which had been formerly passed on him to be put in force : he was beheaded, Oct. 20, 1618. This act of deliberate cruelty is the greatest blot in James's (in other respects) lenient reign, and caused at the time strong indignation amongst the people, who felt that they had lost the only man in the kingdom who had any reputation for valor, or any military experience. Of all those men of brilliant talents who had encom- passed the throne of Elizabeth, there was now only one left. This was lord Bacon, whose advancement had in the late reign been always opposed by lord Burleigh, who hjssured Elizabeth that, though he was a man of extraor dinary genius, his head was filled with philosophy, and not with political knowledge. James raised Bacon to the chancellorship, and his mis- conduct in that high post fully justified the sagacious Bur Why did king James liberate Sir Walter Raleigh ? Did Raleigh's last voyage procure any advantage to the English nu liament ? What particular advantage had the parliament over the king ? 304 RNGL1SH HISTORY. the field. But it was not till the summer 1044 that ilie} gained any decisive victory. It happened that the marquis of Newcastle was ther besieged in York by sir Thomas Fairfax. Prince Rupert came to the relief of the town, and, rejecting the advice oi the marquis to wait for a more advantageous time, rashly led his forces against the besiegers. The two armies met at Marston Moor, about nine miles from York. Each party by turns had the advantage ; but in the end, after a hard-fought battle, victory declared for the side of the par- liament. In the west of England, where Charles himself conducted his army in person, the campaign proved more favorable to him. He pursued Essex into Cornwall, where the peo- ple were highly zealous for the royal cause, and obliged nearly his whole army to capitulate. But this success availed but little to counterbalance the defeat at Marston Moor. Meanwhile, the queen, who had returned to England, and had been with the king for some time at Oxford, be- lieved herself in danger from the great dislike with which she knew herself to be regarded by the people. She there- fore retired to Exeter, where her younges", child, the princess Henrietta, was born ; and leaving her there, es- caped into France. A T) 1 644. During the winter, Chailes remained at Oxford. Though there was not peace, there was at least a cessation of arms, and the country had rest for some months. In this interval a treaty was begun between the king and the parliament, called the treaty ol Uxb ridge ; bU as the parliament was rigid in its demands, and the king, perhaps, not altogether sincere in his con cessions, it only ended in making both parties more dis- trustful, and more inveterate against each other. A growing diversity of opinion, both in matters of poli tics and of religion, had for some time shown itself in the parliament ; and a religious party now arose of men who Which army was victorious at the battle of Marston Moor Was Charles as unfortunate as his generals? What became of the queen during the war ? What were the events of the winter of 1644 ? ENGLISH HISTORY 305 called themselves Independants, who rejected all qualifying measures that were proposed for the establishment of a limited monarchy, and declared themselves openly for a republic. Cromwell was the chief leader of the Independents : he had greatly distinguished himself as a soldier and a gene- ral, and it was chiefly owing to him that the parliament's army had been at last so well disciplined and organized. Lord Essex, and many others, who had originally joined the parliament from an honest wish to redress grievances, and had been insensibly led on farther than they had in- tended were now anxious to make an accommodation with the king. These men were overruled by the Independents ; and Cromwell contrived by an act of parliament called the self- denying ordinance, to make Essex and many other generals resign their commissions. Cromwell also obtained that sir Thomas, now lord Fairfax, should be appointed gene- ral of the army, and himself his lieutenant-general. On the return of spring, the two armies were again in motion, and many gallant deeds were performed on both sides. Scotland also had a share in the contest. A body of royalists was raised in that country by a young and gal- lant hero, the earl, afterwards marquis of Montrose, who performed many brave actions, but was defeated, after a short and brilliant career, and obliged to retire amongst his native mountains. The king's affairs went now fast to ruin ; and he lost, one after the other, almost all the towns he had garrisoned. He himself fled into Wales, and afterwards to Oxford, where he passed the winter. Seeing his condition desperate, and dreading above all ihings to be made prisoner by the now triumphant parli.v What party division showed itself in the parliament ? Who was the chief leader of the Independents ? By what measures did Cromwell obtain the chief command of the army 1 What part did Montrose take in Scotland ? Where did Charles spr-nd the winter of 1045 1 u S06 F.NGLISH HISTORY. ment, formed the unfortunate resolution of throwing him self into the hands of the Scots. A D Itf4f -^ e accor ^ n o^y set out fr° m Oxford, and arrived on May the 5th at the Scottish camp before Newark. The Scottish generals were much surprised at the appearance of the king ; and though they affected to treat him with respect, they put a guard upon dim, and made him in reality their prisoner. The Scots having now the king in their hands, required of him to send orders to the governors of Newark, Oxford, and all his other garrisons, to surrender. This he did, and the soldiers and officers all received honorable treat- ment from Fairfax. As soon as the parliament knew that Charles was in the hands of the Scots, it began to treat with them for the pos- session of his person. The Scots, after some delays and hesitation, agreed, on condition of receiving 400,000/., the arrears of their pay due from the parliament, to give up the king. A T^ fi47 -^ P r i yate l etter j communicating the in- ' formation 01 tms disgraceful bargain, was brought to Charles while he was playing at chess ; and his self-command was so great that he continued his game, without betraying by his countenance or manner that he had received any distressing news. In a few days he was given up to the English commissioners, who were sent by the parliament to take him into their custody ; and he was conveyed, in the month of February, to Holmby, in North- amptonshire, one of his own royal residences. After the king had been at Holmby some weeks, Crom well formed the design of carrying him thence by force, and sent comet Joyce, with 500 men, to seize him. Joyce came armed witn pistols into the king's presence, and told him he must come along with him. What disposed Charles to trust himself to the Scots ? Where did Charles surrender himself to the Scot3 ? What did the Scots demand of Charles ? What conditions did the Scots make with the parliament ? Was the conduct honorable ? (Ans. the pupils own judgment. How did Charleq receive the intilligence that he v as s;iven r.n to his enemies? Who removed Char*es from Hoimby ? ENGLISH HIST0R1 307 The king asked Joyce what warrant he acted, he an- swered by pointing to his soldiers, who were a fine body of men, drawn up in the court-yard. The king said, smi- ling, " Your warrant is indeed written in fair characters and legible ;" and, knowing that resistance would be in vain, immediately consented to accompany him, and was carried to the head- quarters of the army at Triplo Heath, in Cambridgeshire. The breach between the army an 1 the parliament now came to an open rupture, and colonel Rainsborough march- ed to London, and completely reduced both the parliament and the city under the authority of Cromwell, who wa3 become the acknowledged chief of his party. The king, meanwhile, remained with the army, and was far more comfortably situated than he had before been when under the rigorous confinement to which he had been subjected by the parliament, or under the insincere protection of the Scots. He was allowed to correspond with the queen ; his friends and his chaplains were suffered to return to him and he was permitted the use of the Liturgy and the service of the church. A D 1P47 I" l ^ e autumn the king was brought to " Hampton Court, and was allowed to live there with some appearance of freedom. Having been at all times much beloved by his friends, he now, in his ad- versity became an object of respect even to his enemies. He retained all his former grace and dignity of manner, and had acquired a very winning gentleness and cheerfulness. His temper, instead of being ruined by affliction, was calmed and moderated It seemed as if he had ceased to struggle with misfortunes, and piously resigned himself to the will of God. While Charles was with the army, he was allowed to see two of his children, Henry and Elizabeth, who were under the care of lord Northumberland. At one time they were brought to him at Caversham : another time he was permitted to spend a day with them at Sion House, where lord Northumberland lived. Did Cnaries resist Joyce ? Was Charles treated with humanity oy the army ? How did Charles sustain adversity ? Was Charles perrritted to see his ch'Ydreu 1 308 ENGLISH HISTORY. The king had also during this year the satisfaction of seeing his second son, the duke of York. The duke soon after made his escape to Holland, where his elder brothei, the prince of Wales, had been sent some time before. Mary, the king's eldest daughter, had been married to the prince of Orange before the breaking out of the civil war, and the little princess Henrietta was still at Exeter. An attempt was made, while the king was at Hampton Court, to renew the firmer treaties which had been set on foot between him and the parliament : but the terms of ac- commodation insisted on were such as the king would not accept, the Puritans strenuously insisting on the abolition of episcopacy, and the king as firmly contending for its support. The Puritans were divided into a multitude of sects, and in the present interval of quiet, the soldiers employed them- selves in religious discussions ; and many of them set up as preachers and expounders of Scripture. Charles, hav- ing been told that some of these entertained designs against him, took a sudden alarm, and privately, with three attendants, left Hampton Court, with the intention ol flying abroad. Charles reached the coast of Hampshire ; but not finding there the vessel he expected, he concealed himself for a short time at Tichfield, the house of the dowager lady Southampton. Here one of his attendants persuaded him to put himself in the hands of colonel Hammond, the gov- ernor of the Isle of Wight. Thus he prepared for himself a closer prison than any that his enemies had yet found foT him A T) 1 r»47 '^ ie k* n S entere d the Isle of Wight, Nov 13 For a. short time he was persuaded by Cromwell into & icnewal of the former treaty; but on Where were four of the king's children at this time ? Did church affairs prevent any reconciliation between the king and the parliament ? What disposed Cha.;les to fly from Hampton court ? Into whose hands did the k'ng commit himself I ENGLISH HISTORY. 309 refusing to accede to the terms demanded, he Mas place J in close ounnnement in Cariebrook Castle. His situation was now very melancholy. All his attendants were dis- missed, except Herbert and Harrington, men who had formerly been greatly prejudiced against him ; but whc now had become faithfully attached to him, and would willingly have sacrificed their lives in his service. Colonel Hammond oehaved with great compassion to wards his royal prisoner, and allowed him every indul- gence in his power. A part of the day the king constantly set aside for his devotions, and he spent much of his time alone writing in his bed chamber. The rest of the day he employed in reading, in exercise, and in conversing with his two attendants, who were both of them accomplished men, particularly Mr. Herbert, who had travelled much in Persia, and other countnes of the East. A D If 48 * n ^ ie monta °f September, Charles en- tered into a new treaty with commission- ers sent by the parliament, which had, for a time, regained some of its authority. Newport was chosen for the place of conference ; and Charles left his prison, where he had now passed ten dismal months, and took up his residence m Newport, at the house of a private gentleman. When the king met the commissioners, an affecting change was perceived to have taken place in his aspect since the preceding year. His countenance was pale and dejected ; his hair wa3 turned white, and it brought tears into the eyes of the spectators to see his " grey and dis- crowned head." While the conference was going on, the king had per- mission to take the exercise of riding. He gave his word of honor not to quit the island, but he was so slenderly guarded, that it almost appeared as if the parliament wish- ed him to seize some opportunity of making his escape. This he was importuned to do by his friends, who were now allowed to have access to him ; but he rejected theii What was Charles's situation at C&risbrook Castle ? How did Charles employ himself? On what account was Charles removed to Newport? D'd confinement produce upon Charles some of the efTectn of age ? Did Charles scrupulously keep his word ? 310 ENGLISH HISTORV. advice, saying, he would not break the piomise he had p;iven. The treaty consisted of several articles, to all of which, though tending to the abridgment of his prerogatives, the King agreed, two only excepted, one of which was for the abolition of episcopacy, and the other that all who had taken up arms in his cause should be declared traitors. After further debate, the king agreed to some modification in regard to episcopacy ; but nothing could induce him to consent to the last article. While the treaty between the king and the parliament seemed thus drawing towards a favorable conclusion, Cromwell, by one daring act, annihilated the whole power of the parliament, and destroyed all Charles's hopes of peace and security. He sent colonel Pride, with a body of troops to surround the parliament-house, a little before the time when the members were to assemble, with orders to permit those only to enter who belonged to the inde- pendent and republican party, and to exclude all the rest: and this he called " purging the parliament." The mem- bers admitted, who were between fifty and sixty in num- ber, immediately elected themselves governors of the king- dom, and declared the treaty then pending with the king null and illegal. The king, two days before this attack upon the house of commons by colonel Pride, had been once more seized by Cromwell's orders, and was removed from the Isle of VVight to a dreary fortress called Hurst Castle, which was situated on the coast of Hampshire and was nearly sur- rounded by the sea at high tide. One night in the month of December, the king was waked out of his sleep by hearing the draw-bridge of the castle let down ; and soon after he heard the clatter oi horsemen in the court. At first he was much agitated ; and when Mr. Herbert, whom he sent to inquire the cause of this noise, told him that major Harrison had To what articles of treaty did the king refuse consent ? Who annihilated parliament for the time, and who usurped its po\* ers ? Why was Charles removed to Hurst Castle ? What circumstance alarmed the king, one night at Hurst Castle ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 31 t arrived, he was the more alarmed, because no had some time before been warned that this Harrison was one ol those who harbored the design to assassinate him. At length, however, after spending some time in prayer he recovered his composure ; and, having risen and dress- ed, he tranquilly awaited the event. He was soon inform- ed that the purport of the major's coming was to convey him to Windsor ; and he was glad to leave Hurst Castle even under such an escort. Charles was four days on the road to Windsor, and du- ring the journey received from all ranks of people many proofs of sympathy and respect, which greatly cheered him, but which were very displeasing to the governing faction. At Windsor, the king, though kept under great restraint, and though but few people were permitted to have access to him, was treated with civility. A D 1649 All things being now prepared for the fatal catastrophe, the king, on the 6th ol January, was impeached of high treason for having pre- sumed to appear in arms against the parliament. When he was informed that he must prepare for his trial, he said little, but was heard uttering to himself — " God is every where alike in wisdom, power, and goodness." He then retired to his apartment, and spent some time alone and in prayer. On the 1 8th of January, Charles was removed from Windsor to St. James's palace ; and his guards and atten- dants were ordered to treat him as no longer possessed of royal dignity, and to call him merely Charles Stuart. His own attendants were forbidden to wait on him at table, and the common soldiers were appointed to bring him his meals. Charles was much shocked at this mark of disre- spect ; but soon recovering his composure, he merely said, •• Nothir g is so contemptible ss a despised king." The preparations for the trial were soon made. Crom Who conveyed Charles to Windsor ? How was Charles treated on his passage to Windsor, and after his ar l ivr\\ there ? Upon what charge was Charlos impeached Jan. 6th, 1049? What indignities were put upon Charles at St James's ? Was this treatment honorable and htimane ? (Ans. pupils own jiid% /Kilt.) 312 ENGLISH HISTOI? i. well declared in a speech in parliament, that had any man voluntarily proposed to bring the king to punishment, he should have regarded that man as the greatest traitor ; but, added he, " Providence and necessity hath cast i\ upon us." On the 20th of January the king's judges, who were the persons called governors of the kingdom, assembled !n Westminster Hall. Charles was brought three several days before the court which his accusers had created to try him, and each time refused to acknowledge its jurisdic- tion. On the last of these days, January 27th, he was pro nounced guilty of having appeared in arms against the parliament, and was condemned to be beheaded on the third day after. When he had returned to his apartment at St. James's he retired into his room with Dr. Juxon, and told Mr. Her- bert to refuse admittance to all persons coming to take leave of him ; adding, " My time is short and precious, and I am desirous to improve it the best I may in prepara- tion. I hope those who love me will not take it ill that they have not access to me. The best office they can now do me is to pray for me " A D 1 f 49 ^ scofTold was erected in front of the pa- lace at Whitehall, and on January 30, he was brought there, attended by Juxon and Herbert ; but tne latter was so much overwhelmed with grief, that the whole melancholy office of assisting the king in his last moments devolved on the aged bishop. On the scaffold, the king spoke a few words : he de- clared himself innocent towards his people, doubtless he thought himself so — but acknowledged himself guilty in the sight of God ; and that the consent which he had once given to the execution of an unjust sentence was now deservedly punished by an unjust sentence inflicted on himself. — So heavily did the death of Strafford still press upon his heart. When and where was sentence of death pronounced upon Charles ? How did Charles sustain himself in his last hours ? Under what circumstances was Charles beneaded ? Though Charles w*is not a politic prince, does it appear that ho wm a pood man in other relations ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 313 Juxon then assisted him to unrobe. An executioner whose face was concealed by a mask, then struck off his head, and holding it up, said, " This is the head of a traitor !" This bloody spectacle seemed to cause a sud- len revulsion in the minds of all the spectators, who felt as much surprised and shocked as if the catastrophe they witnessed had been unexpected. Charles was in the forty-ninth year of his age, and the twenty-fifth of his reign. He married HenrieUa Maria, daughter of Henry IV., king of France. Their children were three sons and three daughters CHAPTER XXXI THE COMMONWEALTH. [Years after Christ, 1649—1660.] The first act of that small body of men who chose to call themselves a parliament, was to abolish the house of peers as being useless and dangerous. A new great seal of England was made, the legend or inscription, round which was, " The first year of freedom by God's blessing restored 1648." All loyalists were treated with great se- verity, and it was made high treason to call the prince of Wales by any name but that of Charles Stuart. The forms of all public business were altered, and the new legislators gave to their government the name of The Commonwealth of England. A D 1 f 49 Cromwell went as lord lieutenant to Ire- land, where he found every thing in a very distracted state: but in a few months he restored or der in the island. He then left his son-in-law, general Ir 2ton, as his deputy, the affairs of Scotland calling for his presence in that country. Did the spectacle of Charles s execution distress those who witness- ed it ? What was Charles's family ? What were the first measures of the Commonwealth 1 How did Croa well administer affaits in Ireland? 314 ENGLISH H.STORI. The Scottish Presbyterians had refused to acknowledge the English republic ; and, resolving to adhere to the mo- narchy, had proclaimed prince Charles their king ; and sent to invite him to come and take possession of the throne ; but on such hard conditions, that those who were his best friends counselled him not to make such sacrifices for the empty title of king. Charles, who entertained, probably, the dishonest inten- xion of breaking through these conditions whenever he should be able, agreed to them, and returned with the commissioners. He was not suffered to set his foot on Scottish ground till he had signed the covenant : and the moment he was on shore, he was beset by the Covenanters, who strove to convert him to their own opinions. He now found himself in a very comfortless situation. The Presbyterians kept the entire administration both of church and state in their own hands, and though they al- lowed him the name of king, they did not treat him even with the respect due to a superior. They paid so little re- gard to his feelings, that they obliged him to pass undei the gates of Aberdeen, over which was hung one of the limbs of his faithful friend and servant, the marquis cf Montrose, who had a little before been put to death for appearing in arms in his cause. Under these circumstances, Charles secretly rejoiced on finding that Cromwell was on his march to Scotland with a powerful army for the purpose of driving him from his uneasy throne. The Scottish army, commanded by gene- ral Leslie, attacked Cromwell near Dunbar, and was completely beaten, with great loss ; and Cromwell would soon have been entire master of the kingdom, had he not been attacked with a fit of illness, and been obliged to r 3turn to England. * A D 1651 Cromwell again entered Scotland, and marched so far into the country as to get behind 'he army of the Covenanters. Charles, who was with the army, which consisted of 14,000 men, seeing the Did the Scots proclaim prince Charles king ? Who received Charles In Scotland ? How was Charles treated in Scotland ? TilC Cromwell lead an army against Charles ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 315 road to the English border thus opened to him, formed the bold resolution of marching forwards into England, falsely presuming, that all who were discontented with the Corn mon wealth would flock to his standard. Charles marched forwards, in hopes at last to gathei strength ; but he arrived at Worcester with only his 14,000 Scots. Here he halted, and had a few days' rest after his iong and fatiguing march. In the meantime, Cromwell, when he found that the king had slipped by him, left the command of the Scottish war to general Monk, and fol- lowed Charles with all possible expedition. Cromwell raising the militia of the several counties as he passed, so that by the time he reached Worcester he mustered a considerable force. The n'.xt day, Sept. 4, 1651, he surrounded the town with his 'toops, and, falling on the royal army, soon destroyed it, the very streets be- ing filled with dead bodies. Charles after making a desperate resistance, was at last obliged to fly with fifty or sixty gentlemen in his com- pany. They rode about twenty-six miles without stop- ping. It was then thought advisable for them to separate. Charles, by the advice of lord Derby, went to a lone house on the borders of Staffordshire, inhabited by a man of the name of Penderell, who with five brothers, were wood-cut ters in the neighboring wood of Boscobel. Charles committed himself to the care of these men, who showed themselves worthy of the confidence placed in them ; for, though a high reward was offered to any one who would deliver up the prince, and it was declared certain death to conceal him, these honest rustics would not betray him. On one occasion, fearing to be discovered by a party oi soldiers who were searching the wood, Charles hid himseli in a large oak tree ; from amongst the branches of which he could hear the soldiers say, they wondered where he What army adhered to Charles, and what expectations were forrr>f>t! In Charles? p \ Where did Charles halt in his march to England ? What was the result of the battle of Worcester ? Where did Charles take refuge in his flight from Worcester ? Did the protectois of Charles exhibit integrity and generosity ? How dil Charles once conceal himself from h s enemies ? 316 ENGLISH H STORY. could be, for they were sure lie was son.ewhele in the wood. Charles was wandering about not less than six weeks, from the time of the battle of Worcester without being able to get out of the country ; and the risks he ran of dis- covery were very great. At last he arrived at a lone house, between Shoreham and Brighthelmstone, and found means to cross the water. While Charles was thus wandering about, the party in power had been going on triumphantly. Tl.e victory at Worcester they chose to call their " crowning mercy." Monk had been successful in Scotland ; Ireton kept every thing quiet in Ireland ; and the government, elated by suc- cess, soon showed a desire to lord it over foreign states ; and in 1652, declared war against the Dutch. Holland was at that time regarded as the most consider- able maritime power in Europe, and was supposed to excel all other states in the art of ship-building, and in the skill of her seamen. But now the English navy, which the late king had paid great attention to, and which was manned by sailors whom the circumstances of the time had made bold and hardy, was found a match for that 01 Holland ; and admiral Blake was several times the victor in engagements with the Dutch admirals, Van Tromp, de Ruyter, and de Witt. In the midst of all this success an ignominious fall was preparing for that comparatively inconsiderable band 01 men, who still called themselves a parliament. Cromwell, who now thought it time to drive them from the high sta- tion which he had suffered them to occupy, went, on April 20, 1653, to the parliament house, while the mem- bers were assembled, and placing a file of soldiers at each door, entered the hall, saying, " that he was come with a purpose of doing what grieved him to the very soul, and what he had earnestly besought the Lord not to impose upon him ; but that there was a necessity for it." Ho next sat down and heard the debates, and then Did Charles escape to the continent ? How did the existing government of England proceed ? What was the naval power of Holland and of England 1052 Did Cromwell disperse the republican parliament ( ENGLISH HISTORY. SI 7 suddenly starting up, he exclaimed : " This is the time, I must do it." Turning to the members he loaded them with every term of reproach, and called them tyrants, oppres- sors, and public robbers. At last he stamped with his foot, on which signal the soldiers entering the hall, he ordered them to drive all the members out. As the members took their compulsory departure, Crom- well said to them, " "You are no longer a parliament * the Lord has done with you ; he has chosen other instruments for carrying on his work." He then staid till the hall was empty ; then ordering the doors to be locked, he put the keys into his pocket, and returned to the palace at White- hall, where he and his family had taken up their residence. Cromwell was now the sole head of the government, and no one attempted to dispute his power. To keep up the appearance of a Commonwealth, he summoned a parlia- ment who set themselves to work to settle the affairs of the state. They considered the clerical office as being alto- gether a remnant of popery, and proposed that there should be no more clergy. The common law they deemed a badge of Norman slavery, and were desirous to set it aside They also voted that learning was heathenish, and the universities unnecessary. This parliament had the name given it of Barebone's parliament, from the name of one of its chief orators. At last, the measures of the parliament became so utterly ab- surd, that Cromwell became ashamed of it, and suffered one only of their many proposed changes and regulations to be carried into effect. This one was in regard to the marriage ceremony, which was declared to be a mere civil contract, and was appointed to be performed for the future in private rooms, before a magistrate, instead of being sol- emnized in churches. Cromwell had at this time the title of Protector confei- red on him. The mass of the people were so tired of the tyranny and oppression of the parliament, that they were How did Cromwell attack the parliament '( How did Cromwell justify this proceeding ? What absurd practices and notions were urged by Cromwell's par- liament ? Did Cromwell fall in with the measures of this parliament ? SI 8 2.NGLISH HISTORY thankful to get rid of their many masters, and to cnjo} anything like a settled government. And Cromwell, though he trampled on the laws of the country, would suffer no other person but himself to do so. He enforced justice and civil order, and made his government respected at home and feared abroad. Cromwell kept up the power of the navy, and soon obliged the Dutch to sue /or peace. He attacked the Spa- niards because they interrupted the English in their traffic with Spanish America, and took from them the island of Jamaica in the West Indies, which is still retained by the English. The protectorship was not only confirmed to Cromwell for life, but was also settled on whomsoever he should choose to appoint after his death. This proceeding alarmed both the republicans and the royalists, who began to fear that a power so well esta- blished would become permament, to the destruction of their different hopes. In 1655, a plan was formed for a general rising amongst the royalists. But Cromwell and his sec- retary, Thurloe, had full information of their designs, and before the appointed day of insurrection, many of the roy- alists were taken up ; some were punished with death, and several others were sold for slaves, and sent to Barbadoes. This despotic act struck terror throughout the whole na- tion ; and no other considerable attempt was made to overturn the protector's power. Cromwell's government of Ireland was equally vigor- ous. Fleetwood, who had married his eldest daughter (Iretou's widow,) was his deputy, and carried many of his arbitrary measures into effect. Fleetwood was succeeded by the protector's second son, Henry, a young man of great abilities, and extraordinary goodness, who, pitying the con- dition of the Irish, did all he could to improve it. Cromwell, in the latter part of his life, was under a con- tinual dread of being secretly murdered. And though he had often braved danger in battle with intrepidity, he now betrayed a more than common fear of death ; and every How did Cromwell make himself acceptable to the nation 7 Was Cromwell an able politician? How did Cromwell treat the royalists who plotted against him ? Did Fleetwood and Henry Cromwell govern Ireland ? What disturbed the tranquility of Cromwell ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 319 moment of his life was made miserable by the sppiehen* sion of losing it. In addition to these terrors, he had many causes of mortification in his own family. Richard, Cromwell's eldest son, whom he meant for his successor, was a man of inferior talents and of no ambi- tion. Henry Cromwell was a man of abilities, but had too much virtue to be willing to follow his father's footsteps. Cromwell's other daughters were zealous royalists ; and Mrs. Claypole, the one whom he loved best of all his chil- dren, represented to him, when on her death-bed, and in terms which filled him with grief, her disapprobation jf the conduct which he had pursued. From that time he was never seen to smile. Cromwell's exertions and agitations were too great for his bodily frame to support. He found the exalted state tc which he had attained, a burden too heavy to be borne , and died, a worn out old man, on September 3, 1658, in the 59th year of his age. He was buried with royal pomp in Westminster Abbey. Cromwell's character is one of the most extraordinary in history. His talents were, in some respects, of the very highest order. In others, he was strikingly defi- cient. His government of Ireland; the manner in which he treated Holland and Spain, thus vindicating the inde- pendence and naval power of England, are undoubted proofs of the energy of his mind, and the wisdom of his policy. Richard Cromwell was proclaimed protector in his fa- ther's place. But the nation soon found the difference be- tween the strong hand of Oliver Cromwell, and the feeble- ness of his son, and showed a disposition to cast oil his authority. But Richard quietly resigning a dignity which lie had neither the power nor the inclination to keep, wisely saved himself from being dispossessed by violence He held the protectorship only a few months. Henry Cromwell also resigned his command in Ireland Pid Cromwell's children resemble their father ? When did Cromwell die? What was Cromwell's character ? Did Richard Cromwell succeed to his father? Dii 1 Henry Cromwell enjoy a public station ? 320 ENGLISH HISTORY though his popularity in that country was very great, and he might have retained his power there if he had chosen to do so ; but like his brother he preferred the tranquility of a private station to all the dangerous and uncertain en« joyments of ambition. The country was now without any apparent ruler, and was split into a variety of factions. The republicans hoped to establish their long desired form of popular government and the royalists in their turn were full of expectations and projects. Charles, meantime, on hearing of what was passing in England, left the Low Countries, where he had for some time past taken refuge, and came to Calais, where he staid, awaiting the event. For some time their seemed little chance of any turn in his favor ; but, at last, what the efforts of his friends could not do, the rivalry of his ene- mies brought about. Lambert and Monk had long hated each other ; and Monk, partly perhaps to disappoint Lambert, who was se- cretly ambitious of the protectorship, formed the design of cringing back the king, and entered into a correspondence with him. But he kept his intentions so well concealed that he appeared to be only acting for the restoration of the parliament. Monk collected several scattered regiments in Scotland, and marched directly into England. Lambert set forward to meet him, but found himself deserted by his own sol- diers ; and the parliament, being no longer held in terror by the troops, assumed once more the reigns of government arrested Lambert, and committed him to the Tower. Monk and his army soon reached London. He appeared at first to acknowledge the authority of the parliament ; but in a few days he openly avowed his contempt of that obtrusive body of men, and declared for a free parliament, he called together all the surviving members of tho old or long parliament, who had hp.*».n expel" ed by colon* I Pride Was England divided into factions aftei th* death of Cromwell ? How did Charles regard the death of Cromwell { Who formed a project to restore the monarchy ? How did Monk proceed to effect the restoration T What measures were taken in r3SDect of parliament ' ENGLISH HISTORY 321 in 1648. They met on February 21, 1660, and m ^ few days formally dissolved themselves, and issued writs for a new parliament, which assembled April 25. On the 1st of May, Monk, having every thing ripe f3i his project, ventured to propose to parliament the restora- tion of the king. It is impossible to describe the joy with which this proposal was heard — a joy which soon spread from the house to the city, and from thence through the whole country. The peers, from all parts of the kingdom, hastened to reinstate themselves in their parliamentary rights : and on the 8th of May, Charles II. was proclaimed king, and a committee of gentlemen was sent to invite ftirn to return and take possession of his dominions. The king sailed from Scheveling, a small village on the coast of Holland, and was met at Dover by general Monk who conducted him to London, which he entered, amidst the joyful acclamations of the people, May 29, 1660. In the time of the Commonwealth the business ol bank ing was first practised. Before the civil war, the Mint in the Tower was the usual place of deposit for money ; but after the commencement of the disturbances, the pri vate property of individuals was no longer thought safe in the Mint, and the goldsmiths were employed by the rich merchants and tradesmen to take care of their money foi them, and thus the goldsmiths became the first bankers. Episcopacy had been abolished by the parliament du- ring the war. In the time of the Commonwealth, most of the loyal and orthodox clergy were dispossessed of their livings, and allowed small pensions ; and, instead of regu- lar clergy, itinerant preachers were employed, who rode about the country to teach the people doctrines. Charles ihe First appointed a post to carry letters once a week between London and Edinburgh. The system Was the return of Charles to England acceptab e to tne nation I "When did Charles enter London 1 When was banking first practised in England ? What was the state of the English church during the existence of the rommonwealth 1 When were mails first put in operation in Britain? 322 ENGLISH HISIORY was afterwards much extended and improved during t he- Common wealth : and the privilege of franking was then first allowed to the members of the house of commons. This was confirmed to them by Charles II., who extended the privilege to the peers also. Franking is the privilege of certain persons to send letters by mail, free of expense. Newspapers were first circulated in England in the reign of queen Elizabeth, in order to apprize the country of the defeat of the Spanish armada. After this occasion had passed by, they were discontinued for many years. The date commonly assigned to their first publication in Engl md is that of the year 1642 CHAPTER XXXII. CHARLES II. fYea;^ after Christ, 1060—1685.1 CIIARLES II. AND HIS QUEEN. Charles was thirty years old, when, after sixteen years exile, he was so unexpectedly placed on the throne of his ancestors. He rr^d a good figure, and though his features When were newspapers first circulated in England ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 323 were harsh, there was something agreeable ir his counte- nance ; and his cheerful, easy, and graceful deportment, made him altogether a very engaging person. He had a great deal of shrewdness and wit ; and with common ap- plication, might have been any thing he pleased. But he loved amusement, and hated business, and to live idly and merrilv was all he cared for. The king began his reign by forming a ministry from amongst the best and wisest men of all parties, and he gave general satisfaction by the choice he made. An act of indemnity, or of general pardon, was then passed towards all those who had taken part against the crown, excepting only the judges who had sat on the late king's trial, and all those w r ho had in any other way been immediately ac- cessary to his death. About sixty persons had been con- cerned in that act. Of these many were dead, and others had left the kingdom. Of those who could be brought to trial, ten only were executed : the rest were reprieved and placed in different prisons. Harrison, who had conducted Charles I. from Hurst Castle, was amongst those who suffered. He died justifying his conduct to the last. Hugh Peters also was executed. He had been one of Cromwell's fanatical preachers, and had not only been very active in stirring up the minds of the people against the king ; but also, it was supposed, was one of the masked executioners who beheaded him. General Lambert, and sir Henry Vane, though they were not absolutely regicides, were yet thought too guilty to be included in the act of indemnity. Vane was exe- cuted : Lambert was reprieved, and exiled to the island 01 Guernsey, where he lived thirty years, and from being a rigid Puritan, became a Roman Catholic. This act of retribution being performed, the ministry ap- plied themselves to the business of the state. The chancel- lor, lord Clarendon, who had attended the king during his exile, had the chief weight in the council, and by his inte- What were the personal qualities of Charles II. ? How did Charles begin his reign ? Who of the late king's enemies were punished 1 What became of Lambert and Vane ? 324 ENGLISH H1ST011Y. grity and wisdc.m the government was carried on for a time with justice and moderation. The old standing army of the republicans was disbanded : the king retained only a few guards and garrisons ; and most of the fortified places that had not oeen destroyed in the civil wars were die- mantled. Episcopacy was restored ; nine of the old bishops, who still survived, were replaced in their sees, and all the ejected clergy returned to their livings. The Presbyterians saw these measures with dissatisfaction ; but ?.n insurrection of one of the sects among the repulicans give the ministry a pretext to insist on the restoration of the church without any modifications. An act of uniformity was passed, which required the assent of all the clergy to several articles very obnoxious to the Presbyterians. Those who refused to sign these articles were disabled from holding their livings , and, in consequence, two thousand of them were deprived. The Scots had joyfully seen the restoration of the kingly authority ; but when Charles proceeded to settle the affairs of that country, he found the people altogether averse to re- ceive the hierarchy, which he was exceedingly desirous to establish amongst them, perhaps the more desirous, be- cause, in spite of his naturally careless temper, he could not have forgotten the indignities and insults which the spiritual pride of the Scotch Presbyterians had made him suffer when he had formerly been amongst them. Charles won over Sharp, a Presbyterian leader, to ac- cept the archbishopric of St. Andrews. Sharp was a vin- dictive and bigoted man, whose conduct only exasperated the people more against episcopacy. He w T as at last assas- sinated by a zealous fanatic of the name of Balfour of Bur- ley ; who, with a small party of men, chanced to meet him, as he was traveling with his daughter, dragged him out of his carriage and murdered him. This brutal assas- sination put an entire stop to the attempt to introduce epis- copacy into the Scotch church. Who was made Chancellor, and how was the army regulated 1 How were church affairs regulated ? Were Charles's measures in regard to religion acceptable in Scotland ? How did Charles become unpopular in Scotland ? What stopped the introduction of episcopacy in Scotland \ KNOLISH HISTORY. 325 r» irro Cha/les married Catharine of JJragmza, A. D. lt>t>3, daU ghter of the king of Portugal. The new queen had been educated in a convent, and was very formal and grave : she rejected the company of the Eng- lish ladies, and would only have about her a set of old solemn Spanish duennas. The king found her and hei court so dull, that he neglected her society, and spent most of his time with idle and dissolute companions, and unprincipled women. A D lfiPd Charles entered into a war with Holland, ' which afterwards led to a rupture with France and Denmark. This war was carrieel on wholly oy sea ; and the king's brother, James, duke of York, an active, enterprising man, commanded the fleet. Many well- contested actions were fought, and many fruitless victories gained. One of these engagements lasted four days, and is among the mos' memorable which are recorded in his- tory. The Dutch fleet consisted of seventy-six ships, and was commanded by the famous De Ruyter, and by Van Tromp, son of the great Van Tromp. The English fleet was commanded by prince Rupert, and by Monk, then duke of Albemarle, and altogether was nearly equal to the Dutch. The detail of the different engagements of the four days, would be little instructive. On the last day neither party had gained the victory. The two fleets then retired to their harbors, but met again June 25th, at the mouth of the Thames, when the English obtained a decisive victory. De Ruyter, indignant at being obliged to fly, frequently exclaimed, "O God, amongst so many thousand bullets, is there not one to put an end to my miserable life !" The English were now incontestably masters of the sea ; but they had been visited at home dur- ing this year ly so many calamities, that they had no spi- rits to rejoice in any triumphs over a foreign foe. In the preceding autumn a most violent plague hud broken out, particularly in London. There, in a short time, ninety thousand persons are said to have died cf that Whu was Charles's que^n, -\rul what was his domestic character? "What circumstances culled for'h ihe talent? of Jarr^s, duke of York ? VV'Ur weie the commanders in the naval battle of 1666 ? 326 ENGLISH HISTORY. malady. W'jLg London was still suffering under this ca- lamity, it was assailed also by another. On the 3d of Sep- tember, 1666, a fire broke out near London Bridge, which spread with such rapidity that thirteen thousand houses were burnt down. These dreadful scenes were not withont some good effect on the king's disposition, and detached him for a while from the idle and dissolute habits he had sunk into ; but his vicious companions soon got about him, and rallied him out of all his good resolutions ; and he relapsed into his former way of life. These vicious companions, the chief of whom was the duke of Buckingham, had long meditated the overthrow ol lord Clarendon, whose integrity made him the particular object of their dislike. It happened that the Dutch fleet sailed up the Medway, and destroyed some ships in the harbor at Chatham. A peace was made with Holland soon afterwards. Buckingham and his party found means of turning both this peace itself, and also the disgrace at Chatham, to the panicular discredit of Clarendon, insinu- ating that the latter could not have taken place, unless he had been negligent of the public security. Charles, who had little gratitude in his nature, forgetting how faithfully this great statesman had served him in all his wanderings and necessities, and how much his wisdom had contributed to strengthen him on the throne, was not sorry to have a pretext for removing a man who was some check upon his vices. Clarendon was, therefore, im- peached on various frivolous pretences, and was sentenced to banishment. Clarendon retired into France, and employed tne re mainder of his life chiefly in composing his History of the Rebellion, and also in writing an account of his own life His youngest daughter, Anne Hyde, married the duke ol York soon after the restoration. She died young, leaving two children, the princesses Mary and Anne. Were the plague and the fire of London great calamities ? Did the public calamities at all affect the king ? Who assailed the reputation of lord Clarendon ? How did Charles treat Clarendon ? Where did Clarendon end his days ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 327 After Clarendon's disgrace, prince Rupert, the duke of Ormond, sir Orlando Bridgman, and other men of expe- rience and high character, had for a time the chief weight in the council. But in 1670 their influence declined, and the king, whose carelessness about public affairs daily in- creased, committed the entire management of the stale to five of the most unprincipled men in the kingdom, Clifford., Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale, who were called the Cabal, from the first letters of their names. One of the nefarious measures of this administration was to shut up the exchequer, and to take possession of the mo- ney which private individuals had placed in it. Another and a still more generally unpopular measure, was that oi entering into a new war with the Dutch, in order to gra- tify Louis XIV., one of the most ambitious, vain-glorit us, and unprincipled kings that ever reigned. Charles at first hesitated to take such an unpopular step : but he was, at length, persuaded into it by his sister Henrietta, duchess of Orleans, who was sent on a visit to him by the French king. It is even said that the restora- tion of popery in England, was made an article of a secret treaty between the two kings. Charles, if he had any re- ligion at. all, was in his heart a Papist ; and the duke oi York was a professed one. The French and English fleets now joined each other. As they were at anchor in Solebay, De Ruyter came unex- pectedly upon them. The duke of York commanded in chief, in the action between the Dutch and the combined fleets, and had his ship so shattered that he was obliged to remove his flag on board another. The battle lasted the whole day, and De Ruyter declared that, of the thirty-two actions he had been in, this was the hardest fought. The English and Dutch lost many ships and neither party gained any thing. The French took care to keep aloof luring the engagement. Another memorable naval action was fought on Augimt Who were the Cabal ? Did the English government at this time engage in the interest* of Fiance t What was the influence of the king's brother and sister over him f How did the naval battle of Solebay terminate 1 328 ENGLISH HISTORY 11, 1673. The English fleet was commanded by prince Rupert, the Dutch by Do Ruyter. In this battle too, as in many of the former, nothing was gained by either party. A Ti 1 fi74 ^y tne °^ eatn °f Clifford, and the disgrace of Ashley, who had been created lord Shaftesbury, the cabal was broken up. More honest min- isters came into place, and wiser measures were pursued One of these measures was to make peace with Holland- but Charles still kept up with France a secret alliance on the most dishonorable terms. He received privately from Louis XIV. an annual pension of two millions of livres, as the price of his supporting the French interest in hits own court. Charles and his parliament were generally on bad terms. In 1678 the parliament, which had sat seventeen years, was dissolved. It had assembled in all the intoxication of joy, loyalty, and hope, which it was natural to feel on the king's restoration ; and it separated with feelings of severe disappointment at his utter want of principle. The following year another parliament was summoned, in which great struggles were made to exclude the duke of York, on account of his religion, from the succession, and to settle the crown, after the death of Charles, who had no legitimate children, on the duke's eldest daughter Mary who was now married to the prince of Orange. But this bill of exclusion could not be carried. In this parliament the liberty of the subject was mate- rially secured by the passing of what is called the Habeas Corpus bill, by which it is rendered illegal to detain in prison any individual who claims to be tried, and which thus affords a complete protection against all kinds of ar- bitrary imprisonment. The people were now becoming more and more dissat- isfied both with the king and his brother ; and the quiet of the country was greatly disturbed by tumultuous meetings. One plot was formed in favor of the duke of Monmouth u What was the result of the battle fought August 11th, 1673 ? What was the state of public affairs in England, 1674 ? What was the public feeling in 1678? Was the duke of York excluded from the succession ? What is the act of Habpas Corpus ? What disturbed the public tranquility in England, A. D H51 ENGLISH HISTORY. 329 son of the king, whom some of the more violent opposers of the Popish party were desirous to declare heir to the crown. The papists, in their turn, had also a plot of their own to secure the duke of York's succession : and both parties were thus agitated by turns with various hopes and schemes. It was at this time that the names of Whig and Tory, names so often since used and abused, were made the appellations of two opposite factions. While the country was thus filled on all sides with dis- content and apprehension, the king was urged by the vin- dictive temper of the duke to exercise severities foreign to his nature ; aud many persons were taken up and executed on suspicion of being engaged in plots. One of these persons was lord William Russell, a noble- man of high character, who was accused of being privy to what was called the Ryehouse plot, from the name of ahouse near Newmarket, where the conspirators held their meet- ings. The witnesses against him were men of infamous character ; but, notwithstanding the want of proper evi- dence, he was condemned and executed. Algernon Sidney, son of the earl of Leicester, was also tried and executed with as little show of justice. Nothing was proved against him, but he was known to be attached to republican principles, and for this reason was the more easily suspected of harboring designs against the king. The king, though he permitted these things to be done, does not appear to have approved of them, and often op- posed his brother's violent counsels. In the midst of a life of vicious indulgence, Charles was attacked by an apoplexy, and died, after a few days illness, February 6th, 1685, in the fifty-fifth year of his age, and the twenty- fifth of his reign. Charles II. married Catharine of Bra- ganza, daughter of the king of Portugal. They had no children. When were the terms Whig and Tory applied first to political par aes ? What disposed Charles II. to severe measures ? On what charge was lord William Russell executed 1 For what was Algernon Sydney executed ? Did Charles approve of these arbitrary measures, and when did \m die ? 15 330 ENGLISH HISTOr.V Charles was a man of exceeding proflig icy of maimcrn ; and the influence of his example, and that of his associates, was eminently corrupting to the nation. This infection spread from the court through the country ; and the peo- ple, flying from one extreme to the other, gave up the appearances of gravity and saintliness to assume the oppo- site character of licentiousness. Even the public taste was corrupted. Many of the books written at that timo were polluted with the same vicious spirit that so general- ly prevailed in society. There were, however, some worthy exceptions to this degraded literature. Paradise Lost, a poem which for sublimity and purity has never been excelled, was pub- lished in this reign. Milton, the admirable author, was a man of great learning, and had been Latin secretary to Oliver Cromwell. He wrote many prose works, which are almost all political, and in favor of independent and republican principles. Charles II. was not without sentiments of humanity. In the great fire of London, the people at first seemed to lose their senses in the greatness of the calamity. The king was the first to regain his recollection. He himself attended late and early to encourage and reward the work- men, and showed great, presence of mind and activity. Charles possessed talents, but made no good use of them. There was a lively epigram made on him by one of the wits of his court : — Here lies our sovereign lord the king, Whose word no man relies on ; Who never said a foolish thing, And never did a wise one. This was shown to Charles, and he said, in his pleasant way, that it was very true ; for his words were his own, but his actions were his ministeis . What were the manneis of Charles and his court, and what were the effects of these manners ? Who was tr"; great poet of Charles's age ? "Was Charts II. naturally humane I "VVliat epigram was made upon Charles ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 331 CHAPTER XXXIII JAMES U. [Years after Christ, 1G85— 1688.] James was in the fifty-third year of his age when he succeeded to the throne of England. He had not his bro- ther's talent and brilliancy, but he was a man of much perseverance and steady application to business. He had been by his mother brought up a Papist, and had acquired from his religion a harshness and bigotry which does not appear to have belonged naturally to his character. He meant to act rightly, and to be, according to his own ideas, a good king. But he mistook, or to speak more properly, he did not regard the feelings, opinion, or character of the people he had to govern. As he was very young when the civil war broke out, he received no regular education. When James was about fourteen years of age, he was secretly removed from the charge of the parliament, and conveyed by one of thr royalists into Holland, and afterwards to Brussels. James was always glad to be with his brother, but to- wards the end of the year 1659, Charles was reduced to Jhe utmost distress ; and James was on the point of ac- cepting an offer made to him by the king of Spain to take the c )mmand of the Spanish fleet, when his brother's re- storation placed him at the head of the English navy ; a situation that suited him well, for he was a man of great personal courage, and naturally inclined to an enterprising and active life. James, as soon as he came to the throne, professed an intention to maintain the laws of the country both in church and state ; and this declaration served greatly to tranquilize the minds of the populace, who were well dis- posed to rely on it, because James, notwithstanding his known bigotry, had hitherto preserved a high character What was the character of James II. ? What was James's education? Who placed the duke of York a! the head of the Fnglial navy ( 332 ENGLISH HISTORY. for sincerity. Yet he sooe after despatched a Cathulic I riest to Rome to negotiate a re-union with the papal see. The pope, Innocent XL, had more prudence than the king, and advised him to attempt nothing rashly. The duke of Monmouth had found it necessary to leave England during the ferment of the real or pretended plots in the late king's time ; but now, encouraged by the dread the people had of popery, and relying on his own popu- larity, be returned and landed at Lyme, in Dorsetshire, June 11,1 685, with only a hundred followers. He pre- tended that his mother had been privately married to Charles, and that he was the legitimate heir to the crown. Monmouth soon assembled 6000 men, and was pre- vented only by want of arms, from raising a much greater number Had he marched immediately to London he might, perhaps, have had some chance of succeeding ; but instead of doing so, he wasted his time by staying to be proclaimed in the different towns he passed through. On July 5th, he encountered the king's army at Sedgemoor near Bridgewater, and was totally defeated. Monmouth himself fled from the field of battle without stopping, till his horse dropped from fatigue. He then changed clothes with a peasant, and endeavored to con- ceal himself in the most sequestered places. At last he was found lying down in a wet ditch, hiding himself under the fern leaves that grew on the bank. Monmouth was taken to London, and besought an interview with the king, that he might try to move him to pity the favorite son of a brother whom he had tenderly loved. But Monmouth's crime was too dangerous to be for- given ; and he neither had had no abettors, or was too honorable to betray them. He was beheaded in the 36th year of his age. Though this execution was seen by erowds of people, they could not bring themselves to believe, that their favorite was actually dead. They fondly imagined Did James favor the Catholic religion ? Upon what pretence did the duke of Monmouth claim the cro\Vn of England ? Was Monmouth successful ? Did Monmouth receive pardon ? Did ihe witnesses of Monmouth's e*eoution doubt that he was livhfc? ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 333 that some other person had, from friendship, sulTued in his stead, and that they should see him emerge from some concealment. The punishment of those who had taken part in Mon- mouth's rebellion was very severe; and the cruelties perpetrated in the king's name by judge Jeffreys and colonel Kirk, in the west of England, have left a stain on their memories, and on that of James II., that can never be wiped away. In the same year, 1685, the duke of A r gyle was executed in Scotland for heading a rebellion in ihat country. James, having now, as he supposed, suppressed the dis- contents of the people, thought that he had sufficiently cleared the way for the restoration of popery. Being led on by the vehemence of the queen, and the rash counsels of his confessor, father Peters, he introduced Papists into the army and navy, suspended the bishop of London, and issued a declaration of indulgence to the Roman Catho- lics and to the other dissenters. He also committed many acts oppressive to the Protestants, and favorable to the Papists. The measures now taken in favor of the Catholics in duced the primate and six of the bishops to present a re- monstrance. For this presumption they were committed to the Tower ; but on being brought to trial they were ac- quitted, to the great satisfaction of the people at large, though to the bitter mortification of the king. One great check on the king's ardent zeal for the resto- ration of popery, was the knowledge that should his eldest daughter, the wife of the prince of Orange, succeed him on the throne, the whole work would be undone, both the princess and her husband being Protestants, and the prince being universally looked up to as the great support of the reformed religion in Europe. James, therefore, ardently desired a son : and when, on June, 1688, a sor wa*i born to him, he thought every thing would prosper „o his Were Monmouth's adherents punished ? Did James attempt, the restoration of popery ? Did the English clergy take alarm at these proceeding ? Foi what did James desire a son ? 334 ENGLISH HISTORY. That event, however, in fact hastened James's expulsion from the throne. For the people, who had been chee/ed by the hope of a Protestant sovereign after James's death, now seeing themselves cut off, according to the ordinary course of events, from any further indulgence of that hope became anxious for the king's dethronement ; and man) persons of rank and consideration entered into secret ne gotiations with the prince of Orange. Meanwhile James's conduct seemed nothing but a course of blind infatuation. He looked but at one object, the restoration of popery, and saw neither the rising dis- contents of the people, nor the increased intercourse which was held with the prince of Orange. At last his minister at the Hague sent to warn him that he might soon expect an invasion from Holland. On receiving this information James was completely stunned ; the letter fell from his hands, and it was some- time before he recovered the power of thinking and act- ing. When at last he roused himself from this state 01 consternation and surprise, the only means that occurred to him of averting the coming storm, was to retract some of his late obnoxious measures. But these concessions gained him no credit, and were attributed rather to fear than repentance. A D If 88 ^ ^ s t * me a declaration fr° m the prince of Orange, assuring the people oi England that he was coming over to redress their griev- ances, was gladly received throughout the kingdom. O.i Octooer 31, he sailed from Helvoetsluys with a numerous army and fleet, and landed in Torbay November 5th. The disastrous issue of Monmouth's invasion was still ho fresh in the memories of the inhabitants of the west ol England, that at first they dared not join the prince ot Orange. In a few days, however, the gentry of Devon- shire and Somersetshire flocked to his standard. All Eng- land was presently in commotion, and the people combined What was the effect of the birth of a prince of Wales ? Was James blind to the consequences of his own actions? Was James alarmed at the determination of the prince of Orange' When did the prince of Orange sail for England ? Were the English rejoiced at the coming of the prince of Orange ? ENGLISH HISTORY 335 almost universally against their misjudging and ill-advised monarch. James's dismay and perplexity were at this time very great. The Jesuits who were about him were unable to give him any assistance, and only advised him to abandon the country. The same advice was also strongly urged by the queen : and thus, overruled by the fears and cla- mor of those around him, he forbore to make even a single effort to preserve his throne. He sent the queen and her infant son secretly away and on December 12th, he himself left London in the middle of the night, attended only by sir Edward Hales. His intention was to get onboard a ship at Sheerness, and to escape to France. When it was known that the king was gone, and had left no one in charge of the administration, the mob of Lon- don rose, and seemed to consider themselves as masters, and set about executing summary justice in the usual man- ner of mobs. They destroyed all the mass-houses ; and rinding judge Jeffreys, disguised, and intending to fly the country, they vented their rage on him so unmercifully that he died in consequence. To add to the general confusion, lord Feversham, com- mander of the king's forces, disbanded them, and with- out disarming or giving the pay due to them, turned the men loose on the country. In this extremity, those peers and bishops who happened to ba in London assembled, and sent an invitation to the prince of Orange, who now assumed almost all the functions of royalty. Meanwhile the fugitive king had been discovered at Fe- versham. He was brought back to London much to the dissatisfaction of the prince of Orange, who had promised his wife that no personal violence should be offered to her father. William, therefore, not only winked at, but even secretly assisted James to make his escape a second time. On the 25th December, this unfortunate monarch landed a« How did James meet the prince, &c. ? How did the king and his family escape ? WKat was the first effect of the abdication ? What happened in London upon the king's abdication ? Did the prince of Orange easily assume the function of royalty T Did William treat James II. renerously ? 336 ENGLISH HISTORY Ambleteus in Picardy, from whence he proceeded to St. Germains, near Paris, where Louis XIV. received him w ith great generosity and commiseration. He had reigned about three years. By his first wife, Anne Hyde, James II. had two daugh- ters ; Mary, married William of Nassau, prince of Orange ; Anne, married George, son of Frederick III., king 01 Denmark. By his second wife, Maria Beatrice of Este, lie had James Francis Edward, afterwards called the pre- tender ; Mary Louisa, who was to have been a nun, but died before she took the veil. One of the most virtuous men, and profound philosophers of the time of James II. was the celebrated Robert Boyle, an extraordinary able and good man, who withdrew himself from all the tumults of the unhappy times he lived in, and devoted his life to science and religion. Charles II., after his restoration, pressed Mr. Boyle to become a clergyman, and to accept of some church preferment ; but he declined, saying that what he could do for the service of religion he thought would have more effect as coming from a layman. Sir Christopher Wren was an architect. He was em- ployed to furnish designs for rebuilding the churches that were destroyed by the fire of London. Fifty-eight churches were built by him. Of these St. Paul's is his greatest work. Indeed it is considered to be the finest church in Europe, with the exception only of St. Peter's at Rome. St. Peter's was above a hundred years in building. The first stone of St. Paul's was laid in 1675, and the whole building was completed in thirty-five years, though some of the decorations were not finished till 1723. It seemed as if the life of the venerable architect was lengthened, that he might enjoy the pleasure of seeing the completion of his great work. He died the year it was finished, aged ninety-one. Who was Mr. Boyle? Who was sir Christopher Wren ? Which is the greatest work, St. Peter's or St Paul's churchee, roJ "where are loth ? ENGLISH HlSTOilY. 337 CHAPTER XXXIV. WILLIAM III. [Years after Christ, 1689— 1702. J William ol Nassau was son of William prince of Orange, and Mary, the eldest daughter of Charles I. He was in the thirty-nintn year of his age, when the general voice ol 'he people of England called upon him to ascend the throne Some years before he had been chosen stadthol- der of Holland, and had long been accustomed to an active life, and had shown much firmness and military skill in the wars between Louis XIV. and the Dutch. William married the princess Mary, daughter of James U. This princess had a fine person, with an engaging countenance, accompanied by an air of great dignity. She was a truly good woman, and little ambitious of governing After a long debate in both houses of parliament, it was settled that the prince and princess of Orange should be made king and queen of England, and that the adminis- tration of government should be placed in the hands of the prince only. The two houses at the same time made a declaration, called the Bill of Rights, by which the pre- rogatives of the crown were limited and defined, and the liberty of the subject placed in greater security. At first all was harmony and satisfaction : but William had not long been king of England before he and his new subjects became mutually discontented with each other. William, a thorough soldier, found the management of a free people extremely troublesome. The English on their side, were little pleased with a monarch who, instead of living amongst his people in that sort of social way to which their former kings had accus- fomed them, spent most of his time either alone in his clo- set, or at a camp which he had formed at Honnslow-. And Whc was William of Nassau ? Whom did William III. marry .' What was the bill of rights? . Did William and his English subjects suit each other ? Did the English like a military monarch ? 338 ENOLfbll HISTORY when he did show himself in his court, which was very seldom, he did not. appear gracious and amiable. After a time, finding that this secluded way of life made him very unpopular, William tried to rouse himseli, and, on various public occasions, exerted himself so far a.^ to conduct himself with affability to those about him, but still the whole bent of his mind was fixed on humbling tlw power of France, and this more for the sake of revenging the quarrels of his native country, than from any motive in which England was concerned- Soon after the settlement of the crown of England, tin; Scots declared the crown of Scotland vacant, and offered it to William and Mary. Thus the title of the new sove- reign became established in both kingdoms. Lord Dun- dee alone collected a body of Highlanders. With a f e w hundred men he defeated a large body of William's troops at the pass of Killicrankie. Dundee himself was, however, mortally wounded in the action, and died on the day fol- lowing. His death so broke down the spirit of the High- land clans, that they, after a short time, accepted the par- don offered them by William, and acknowledged his au- thority. A D 1 f RQ A few months before the battle of Killi- crankie, James himself, being assisted by Loids XIV. with arms and money, landed at Kinsale in Ireland. That island, in which the greater part of the people were Papists, still adhered to him. In March, he made a public entry into Dublin, where he was joyfully received. He afterwards laid siege to Londonderry ; but the besieged, though reduced by famine to the last extre- mity, made a most vigorous and obstinate defence, and were at last relieved. In the month of August in the same year, the duke oi Schomberg, William's favorite general, landed in Ireland with ten thousand men, and immediately commenced ope rations against the Jacobites, the name which was giver to James's party. The duke, however, met with unnx- Did William accommodate his deportment to the Engli&n chararMei Did the Scots cordially receive Wl jam for their king ? Did James II. attempt to recover the crown of England ? Did William himseli take up arms against his father-in-law T ENGLISH IIISTORV. . 339 pectel difficulties ; and after James had been above a year in Ireland, William resolved to undertake the war against him in person. A D IfQO ^ une 14 > William landed at Carrickfer- ' gus with a large* body of troops, who, when joined to those already in Ireland under the com- mand of the duke of Schomberg, composed an army of thirty-six thousand well-appointed and disciplined men. James wa3 able to bring nearly as many men into the field ; and the two armies came in sight of each other on the opposite sides of the river Boyne, not far from Slane Bridge. The battle that ensued was decisive, and William re- mained master of the field. During the heat of the ac- tion, the duke of Schomberg was killed by some mistake of his own regiment, who being foreigners, and not know- ing the English from the Irish, had levelled their pieces against their own party. The duke was in the 82d year of his age, and had passed the greatest part of his life in campaigning. When James, from the neighboring hill of Dunmore saw his troops give way, it seems he relinquished the en- terprize of recovering his kingdom. He immediately pro- ceeded to Dublin, where he called the magistrates toge- ther, and signified to them his intention of leaving the kingdom. In a few days he sailed for France and there lived the rest of his days under the protection of the French king. In the latter part of his life he practised all the austerities of a monk, and died in 1701. Some few places, after James had quitted Ireland, still held out against William : William, however, soon returned to England, and committed the management of the Irish war, first to the earl, afterwards duke, of Marlborough, and then to the earl of Athlone, who, before the conclu- sion of the year 1691, reduced the towns that had held out for James, and completely subdued his party. Those who chose still to follow his fortunes had permis What was the English force at the battle of the Boyus I What was the result of the battle of the Boyne ? Whither did James retreat and when did he die ? VVho completed the war in Ireland ? 340 ENGLISH HISTORY siou given them to leave the is .and, and consequently 12,000 of the Irish Catholics retired to France, whore tney were hospitably received by Louis XIV., and formed into a corps which was long afterwards kept up under the title of he Irish brigade. Thus was Ireland rendered completely tranquil. In Scotland, after the battle of Killicrankie no resistance had been opposed to the establishment jf William's authority, but the Highlanders could not thoroughly reconcile them- selves to the loss of their ancient race of kings ; and the Presbyterians, though they were no friends to the Stuarts, yet thought themselves highly aggrieved by William. William had attempted to introduce episcopacy into Scotland, and this was a cause of dislike to them. A few slight tumults, which these discontents excited, had been soon quelled, and a general pardon was promised to all who on or before a particular day should take the oath of allegiance to William. It happened that a certain Highland chief, Macdonald of Glencoe, had mistaken the day of taking the oath, and his enemy, the earl of Breadalbane, represented to the king, that Macdonald's misapprehension was a defiance of the royal authority. William accordingly granted a warrant of military execution both against Macdonald himself and his whole clan. A party of the Campbells was sent to Glencoe, and there fell like butchers on the unarmed and unsuspecting Macdonalds. Nearly forty persons were massacred at Glencoe. r I he rest made their escape, but many who escaped for the present perished afterwards from the inclemency of the season, or by famine, or died of grief. This horrible out- rage caused a general detestation of William's govern- ment, and was the beginning of a long series of troubles and sorrows in Scotland. The king tried to exculpate nimself by saying that he had signed the fatal warrant in Did any Irish quit their country ? Were the Scots well affected to the government of Wil iarn III. ? What occasion for pardon of the Scots occurred ? Who misunderstood the condition of pardon, and v in misrepresented hi-3 motive ? Who executed the massacre of G encoc ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 341 tno hurry of business, without being aware of its full pur- port. A n ifiQl William, who had gone to the continent soon after his return from Ireland, now actively engaged in a war with France. Many of the Protestant states of Germany had joined Holland in a war against France. William took on himself the command of the allied army ; and, only making occasion il visits to England, spent nearly the whole of the next three years on the continent. Flanders was the chief seat of the war; and in the conduct of it prince Eugene of Savoy, the earl of Marlborough, and the duke of Schomberg (son of the veteran who was killed in Ireland,) greatly distinguished themselves. A D f Q9 Louis XIV. made another attempt to ef- ' feet the restoration of James II. He pre- pared a numerous fleet for the invasion of England ; but it was completely defeated off La Hogue by the combined fleets of the English and Dutch. Queen Mary, who during her husband's absences from England had the chief conduct of the government, endeared herself much to the nation, acting on many occasions with great firmness and judgment, and at the same time with great mildness. She died of the small-pox, Dec. 28, 1 694, and was very sincerely lamented. William was in England at the time of the queen's death, an event which greatly grieved him. He soon after went again to the continent, and passed there another year in fighting the battles of the allies. The Jacobites at home were still constantly on the watch for any opportunity to disturb the government, and many plots were laid for as- sassinating him ; but the mass of the people were steady to their allegiance. A T) 1 fiQ7 ^ & enera l P Pace was made, called the ' peace of Ry-swick, by which the conti- nent of Europe was lor a short time restored to tranquillity, Did William justify himself for the massacre 01 Gler.coe ? Who carried on a continental war in 1C9), and for sonio years fol- lowing ? When did queen Mary die ? Did William wholly possess the love of his subjects ? 342 ENGLISH HISTORY". but tuwards the conclusio 1 of William's reign an alliance was agreed upon between the emperor, the king of Eng- land, and the Dutch, which led soon afterwards to a re- newal of the war WilLam was engaged in making ac- tive preparations, when an accident put a sudden end to his life. On the 21st of February, 1702, as the king was riding to Hampton Court, from Kensington, his horse fell with him, and he was thrown with so much violence that he broke his collar-bone. From the consequences of this ac- cident he never recovered, but on March the 8th, he ex- pired, in the 52d year of his age, and the fourteenth of h:» reign. After his death, a ring containing some of the late queen's hair was found fastened by a black ribbon round his arm. He married Mary, eldest daughter of James II., nnd left no children. King James II. died at St. Germains a few months be- fore William ; and his son James Francis was proclaimed king of England by Louis. At William's accession the English parliament had set the claims of James totally aside, and had settled the succession, after William and Mary, and in the event of their leaving no children, on the princess Anne and her children. William and Mary having no children, and the duke of Gloucester, the only surviving child of the princess Anne having died in the latter part of William's reign, a new act was passed in 1701, settling the crown, on failure of the direct line, on the electress Sophia and her Protestant descendants. Sophia was daughter of the queen of Bohemia, electress- palatine and was grand-daughter of James I. She mar- ried the duke, afterwards elector of Hanover, a Protestant prince of the house of Brunswick. The duchess of Savoy who was daughter of Henrietta, youngest daughter ol Charles I., protested, as being in a nearer line of succet-- Did the peace «. Ryswick effectually preserve peace in Europe ? By what accident did William lose his life ? Whom did the parliament pronounce successor to William III. ? fn failure of the direct ine, who wa3 to succeed the princess Anne Who protested againsi tie succession of the house of Brunswick to the throne of En^lanl ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 343 sion, against this settlement ; but her claims were unat- tended to, both she and her children being Catholics. William appropriated the park and palace at Greenwich ns a hospital for disabled seamen. The bank of England was established in this reign. The expenses of the king's Jbreign wars had occasioned a continual drain for money, and he first burdened the country with a national debt, (he foundation of what is called the public funds. The national debt is an exceeding large sum of monty, amounting at the present lime in England, to many hun- dred millions of pounds sterling — a debt which has been incurred at different times by government, which has bor- rowed money from private persons to pay the army and defray other expenses, and that money, still unpaid, is due to the lenders or their heirs. These receive in return per- petual annuities ; or else payment is due to persons who have acquired a portion of those annuities from those who actually lent the money ; for these annuities have been di- vided and subdivided, sometimes into very small portions and have been sold and resold over and over again. The most famous military man of William's time was John, duke of Marlborough. His family name was Churchill ; and his father had some inferior place in the court of Cha les II. Young Churchill entered the army at twelve years old, and was engaged in active service nearly the whole of his life, which proved a long one. Churchill was made earl of Marlborough by William, who had a high value for him, and appreciated his great abilities. Indeed, he was a man of such an extraordinary military genius, that it is said so skilful a commander had not been seen ill England since the days of the Black Prince. Who founded Greenwich hospital T When was the Bank of England established ? What is the national debt of a country ? Who wap the great warrior of William and Anr e's reign ? Was Maryborough's genius compared with that ol any other wurrior 'I ;44 «"\ T GLISH HISTORY. CHAPTER XXXV ANNE. [Years after Christ, 1702 — 1714-1 The house in which sir Isaac Newton v;as horn. On the death of William, Anne succeeded peaceably tc the crown. She was then in the thirty-ninth year of hei age : she had married, in 1683, George, son of Frederick III., king of Denmark, and had many children, who all died in their infancy, except one son, prince George. This young prince lived to be eleven years old. His death caused the most bitter grief of his parents, especially to his mother, who after that event never regained her former vivacity. Anne had a good natural capacity, but it had been very little cultivated. Her temper was mild and obliging. The undivided administration of government was vested in the queen, prince George having no greater dignities in the state than those of generalissimo of the queen's forces and of lord high admiral. He was a man, indeed, who What were Queen Anne's domestic circumstances, and her personal character ? Had prince George of Denmark any royal function in England 7 ENGUSH HISTORY. 345 had no wish to interfere in the management of public af fairs. The political animosities between the Whigs and the Tories ran very high during the whole of this reign. The leading difference in the views of the two parties was on the subject of the succession to the crown, in cane Anne should die without children. The Tories were in favor of the pretender and of the house of Stuart, while the Whigs were friends of ihe house of Hanover and the Protestant succession, as established by the act of parlia- ment in the latter end of William's reign. Louis XIV. was now become more than ever formida- ble to all the other states of Europe. The curbing of this exorbitant power, and the placing the archduke Charles, son of the emperor of Austria, on the throne of Spain, were the great objects of the alliance which had been made, towards the close of William's reign, between the Dutch, the king of England, and the emperor. Anne, on her accession, declared herself resolved to pursue the same line of policy in which her predecessor had engaged so warmly : and she sent Marlborough to conduct the war on the continent, at the same time ap- pointing him ambassador to the Dutch ; whose confidence Reacquired so thoroughly, that they also invested him with the chief command of their own army. A D 1703 Marlborough, on account of his military talents and his achievements on the con- tinent of Europe was created a duke, and the nation be- stowed upon him the manor of Woodstock, and a splen- did palace called Blenheim House in commemoration of one of his victories on the banks of the Danube near the village of Blenheim. After the archduke Charles had applied for the assist- ance of England in asserting his claim to the crown of Spain ; a fleet was sent under Sir George Rooke, to con- vey the archduke to Lisbon, where he landed. From thence he marched into Spain, with a considerable body af troops, but was unable to make any progress. Sir George Rooke proceeded into the Mediterranean, What was the matter of contention between the Whigs and Tories o/ queen Anne's reign ? What appointments did the Queen bestow upon Marlborough ? Who united to restrain the power of Louis XIV. ? What national honors were bestowed on the duke of Marlborough ? Who conveyed the Archduke to Lisbon ? 346 ENGLISH HISTORY. and, after an unsuccessful attempt on Barcelona, attacked and took the fortress of Gibraltar, which has since proved one of the most valuable possessions to England, and has resisted every endeavor to retake it. A D 170" ^ ^ eet was sent > im( ^ er sir Cloudesly Shovel, having on board five thousand soldiers, commanded by the earl of Peterborough, to the assistance of the archduke. The fleet, taking the arch- duke on board at Lisbon, sailed for the coast of Catalonia, where he was supposed to have many friends. Barcelona, though defended by a large garrison, was now forced to surrender, chiefly through the extraordinary vigor and ability with which Peterborough pressed the siege. The English under command of earl Gal way were afterwards defeated in Spain, and the cause of the arch- duke was abandoned, and the Bourbons retained the throne. At the head of very inconsiderable forces, Peterborough at one time nearly gained Spain for the archduke, whom he caused to be proclaimed as Charles III., and he almost drove Philip V. out of Spain. But in the midst of his vic- torious career he was recalled to England, and the com- mand of the army in Spain was given to the earl of Gal way. In 1707, sir Cloudesly Shovel's ship, with three others were wrecked on the rocks of Scilly. Sir Cloudesly pe- rished : and out of the four ships' crews only one captain and twenty-four seamen were saved. In the following year prince George of Denmark died. The duke Marlborough meanwhile increased his re- nown abroad, and gained many splendid victories ; ol which the most celebrated are those of Ramillies, which was fought on the 23d of May, 1706 ; of Oudenarde, fought July 11th, 1708; and of Malplaquet, Sept. 11th, 1709. The war was carried on till 1712, and is marked by the adventurous career of Lord Peterborough in Spain as well Who took Gibraltar ? Who conveyed the Archduke to Catalonia? Was the Archduke established on the throne of Spain : What were the achievements of Lord Peterborough ? What became of sir Cloudesly Shovel ? What were Marlborough's great victories ? How long did the continental war in which Marlborough engaged l&stf ENGLISH HISTORY 347 w the achievements of the duke of Marlborough but not- withstanding the genius of both, neither of these distin- guished men seem to have fulfilled very desirable objects. Marlborough, from some defect of generosity, could not engage the affections of his countrymen. He was dis- missed from all his employments, 1711, and chose rather to live on the continent than in England. Lord Peterbo- rough's enterprises were more splendid th£.:i useful. The talent of great warriors in the present age, commands less admiration than it once did. Great men are now dis- covered to be good men, and to love peace better than war. In January, 1712, a treaty for a ger.eral peace was opened at Utrecht ; but it was so difficult to adjust the claims of the many different states who had taken part in the war, that the negotiations could not be brought to an end till April, 1713, when the treaty of Utrecht was signed The chief articles of this treaty which concerned Eng land were, that Louis should resign Newfoundland, Hud son's Bay, and the island of St. Christopher's to the Eng lish, that he should abandon the cause of the Pretender, and acknowledge Anne and the Protestant succession. The Pretender, who had now assumed the name of the Chevalier St. George, protested ineffectually against this article of the treaty. Louis, however, still afforded him protection. He had married a daughter of John Sobieski, king of Poland ; a princess of very exalted character, and far superior to her husband both in capacity and merit. The Pretender had two sons, Charles Edward, anj Henry. The eldest was afterwards known as the young Pretender, to distinguish him from his father, who is often termed the old Pretender. Henry took orders in the Romish church, and was afterwards cardinal of York. A n 1710 The electress Sophia died, in her 84th year ; and her son, George, became the head of the Protestant succession. A few months after Were the enterprises of Marlborough and Peterborough very iropoitant to the English nation ? When was the peace of Utrecht made ? What were the chief articles of the treaty of Utrecht ? How did the Pretender regard the treaty of Utrecht ? Who were the Pretender's sons 1 Who was appointed successor of Queen Ai:nf ? 348 ENGLISH HISTOKY the death of Sophia, the queen fell into a "bad stale of health ; occasioned, it is said, by the intolerable dissen- sions amongst her ministers. The Whig party proved in the end the stronger ; and at length the queen's death visibly approaching, a letter was sent to the elector of Hanover, desiring him to come immediately to Holland, where a squadron should be in waiting to bring him to England. Heralds were kept in readiness to proclaim king George, the instant the queen should expire. Care was also taken to secure the seaports, and many other precautions were adopted to prevent the Tories and Jacobites from attempting the res- toration of the Stuarts. The queen died August 1, 1714, in the 51st year of net age, and in the 13th of her reign. She married George son of Frederick III., king of Denmark, and h*vd nine children ; only one of whom, George, Duke of Gloucester lived beyond the age of infancy. He died July 23, 1700. aged eleven years. Though Anne was a woman of no very brilliant quali- ties, yet many lasting benefits were in her reign conferred on the country. Among these was the union with Scot- land, a measure which James I. had vainly attempted to accomplish, and which succeeding kings had thought im- practicable, and which at last was not effected without much opposition from those whose private interests or pre judices made them adverse to it. By the terms of the Union the two kingdoms were in future to be considered as one country. The Scots were to retain their own Presbyterian form of church govern- ment, their established laws for the administration of jus tice, and in all matters of property ; but it was settled that instead of retaining their parliament, they should send forty-five commoners and sixteen peers to represent then] iii the English parliament. Wh ch proved the stronger party, the Whigs or Tories T "When did the queen die, and what was her family ? "What was the most important event of queen Anne's reign? Whrrt were the articles of the Union ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 349 TABLE. James I. Cheries 1. gssm^l—rfotaH-i < William III. ( Mary, daughter of James II. Anne, daughter of James II. George I. son of the electress Sophia of Hanover, who was daughter of James l.'s daughter, the electress palatine. The old Pretender, James Francis, was the son of king James II. The young Pretender, Charles Edward, and Henry, cardinal of York, were sons of the Pretender James Francis. The reign of Anne is certainly a brilliant period of Eng- lish history, and very few other periods can be named in which so many men of genius nourished together. Of the military and naval achievements of the reign a brief sketch has been given. This period is also regarded as an epoch in the history of taste and literature. Dryden had died in 1701, one year before the accession of Anne. Locke died only two years after. Pope, Steele, and Addison nourished during her reign, and perhaps did more towards the improvement of the general style of thinking and writing than was done by any other writer. The Tatler and Spectator, which were chiefly written by Steele and Addison, were the first periodical works that appeared in England, and were read with the greatest avidity by all classes of persons. Dr. Swift, who wrote many political and satirical works, was also one of the greatest geniuses of this age. Sir Isaac Newton, whose genius towered above that of all his contemporaries, lived all through the reign of Anne;, and did not die till 1727. His great work on the system of the universe was published in the time of William III Newton was not only one of the profoundest philoso pliers, but also one of the most sincere and humble Chris Was the reign cf Anne remarkable fo the manifestation of mind '( Who were the more eminent writers of Anne's reign ? What were the remarkable literary productions of this reign ? Who was the most eminent philosopher of this reign 1 350 ENGLISH HISTORY. lians that ever lived. His father was a gentleman of small estate at Woolstrop, in Lincolnshire, and died when he was very young. His mother married again, and sir Isaac was employed by his father-in-law as a shepherd boy. One day, while Isaac was keeping the sheep, a gentle- mar passing by observed that he was deeply occupied in some book, and had the curiosity to ask him what it was. To his surprise he found it was a book of practical geo- metry. This circumstance was mentioned to some of his mother's relations, who rescued him from his humble em- ployment, and placed him at a school at Grantham. Newton's progress there was quite astonishing, and he was " noted for his strange inventions and extraordinary inclination for mechanics. He had a little shop of tools, as little saws, hatchets, and hammers, with which he amus- ed himself in making models in wood of various things." Newton's extreme modesty and gentleness of temper were more extraordinary than even his talents and acquire- ments. He retained the full use of his powers of mind to the last day of a long life, and was never guilty of any one excess, unless it might be that of an excess of study. Marlborough was a man of extreme calmness and tran- quility. Nothing Hurried, nothing disconcerted him. His judgment and presence of mind were ready for all occa- sions. Commanding an army composed of officers and men of dirTerent states and nations, whose interests were perpetually clashing, he listened to no cabals or jealousies, but acted in a straight forward manner for the public cause. Of his command of temper one very striking in- stance is recorded. It has been mentioned that the duke of Marlborough was not beloved by the English, but he possessed some qualities worthy of respect and imitation. Prince Eugene had proposed, at a council of war, that Was Newton distinguished when a child ? Did Newton ever exhibit a taste for mechanics ? Were the moral qualities of Newton admirable ? Was the example of Marlborough worthy of imitation 'f f>ij Marlborough decline a challenge ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 351 no aitack should be made the next day on the enemy Though nothing evidently could be more judicious than this proposal, the duke positively refused to consent to it. The prince called him a coward, and challenged him ; but Marlborough kept his temper, and declined the challenge On this the prince, being violently enraged, left the council Early the following morning prince Eugene was awoke by Marlborough, who, coming to his bedside, desired him to rise, as he was preparing to make the attack, and added, " I could not tell you my determination last night, because there was a person present who I knew was in the enemy's interest, and would betray us. I have no doubt we shall conquer, and when the battle is over, I will be ready to ac- cept your challenge." Prince Eugene was overpowered by Marlborough's greatness of mind, and asked his pardon for his own in- temperate conduct. The duke accepted his apologies, saying, " I thought, my dear prince, you would in time be satisfied." CHAPTER XXXVI. GEORGE I. [Years after Christ, 1714— 1727. J Anne died, as has been said, August 1, 1714, and »he elector of Hanover was immediately proclaimed. He arrived in England Sept. 16, and was met at Greenwich, where he landed, by many persons of high office and rank Amongst these was the duke of Marlborough, who had lately returned to England, and whom, both at this time, and ever after, the king treated with great distinction. George, at his accession, was in the fifty-fifth year of his age- George was a man of plain steady understanding, grave in his mannei, and simple in his habits, and had the repu What reasons did Marlborough offer for his conduct ? Was prince Eugene reconciled to the duke of Marlborough? Under what circumstances did George I. arrive in England ' 352 ENGLISH HISTORY. tation of being a sagacious politician. He spoke English very imperfectly, and was too much of a German in all hid notions and habits to be very popular in England. George I. had one son and a daughter. The son had married Caroline, daughter of the margravine of Anspach, and at the time of his father's coming to the throne had three young daughters. He was created prince of Wales, and came with his family to England ; as did also one oi the king's brothers, the bishop of Osnaburg, who was cre- ated duke of York. A -pv .„,, The spirit of party still ran very high in England. The king showed a decided preference for the Whigs. At this the Tories were much exasperated, and they soon began to show a spirit of dis- affection to the house of Hanover. Lord Oxford, the great Tory leader, was sent to the Tower, where he remained two years ; but the two houses of parliament disagreed so violently as to the proceedings to be taken in regard to him, that he was at last acquitted without a trial. The duke of Ormond and lord Bolingbroke were impeached, but escaped to France. They were then attainted, and their names were erased from the list of English peer.*. These severities towards the leaders of the Tories ex- cited great murmurs ; and the Jacobites, who had been very active ever since the queen's death, made a strong party in Scotland. The earl of Mar proclaimed prinre James Stuart, Sept. 6, 1715, and set up his stand?rd. James, however, was not then in a condition to come />nd take the crown that was proffered him. Louis XIV., who had given the Pretender a small sup- ply of arms and ammunition, with the promise of more, died on the first of September this year, and the duke of Orleans, who was regent of France during the minoritv of Louis XV., (the infant great-grandson of the late king.) was not a friend to the Pretender's cause. The earl of Mar, nevertheless, continued in arms, and at Who were the king's family ? What was the state of parties in England m the first years of George's reign? Who proclaimed James Stuart king of England ? How did Louis XIV. and his successor regard James Stuart's en- terprise ? Wha f . Scottish noOies befriended and opposed the Pretender ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 353 length assembled a body of ten thousand men, which wae farther increased by some English Jacobites. On the other hand, the duke of Argyle, who was appointed commander of the king's forces in Scotland, advanced against the rebels at the head of his own clans, assisted by some troops from Ireland. In the meantime the Pretender's party in the north of England organized themselves in battle array : but they were encountered by the militia and other troops sent against them, and were punished for their attempt. Some were hanged at Tyburn ; twenty-two persons were execu- ted in Lancashire, and about one thousand were sent to the North American colonies. On December 22, the Pretender, after having been long expected, at last arrived in Scotland. He came attended only by six gentlemen. The earl of Mar soon joined him, and he was proclaimed king ; and in the expectation that all Scotland would rise in his cause as one man, he fixed Jan. 16, 1716, for his coronation at Scone. But before that day arrived, he was so closely pursued by the duke of Argyle, that he was glad to abandon his rash enterprise, and to get back again to France. A D 1 720 e atten ^ on °f tne nation was chiefly occupied by a scheme called the South Sea Scheme. It was principally contrived by sir John Blunt, a busy, speculating man ; and the object of it was to enable a company of merchants, called the South Sea Company, to buy up all the national debts and concentrate them into one fund. Many persons, in the expectation of receiving a high interest, advanced large sums of money towards this pur- chase ; but in a few months the whole was discovered to be a fraudulent scheme. The principal actors in it were punished by parliament, and measures were adopted to give some redress to the injured parties ; but a very large number of the imprudent speculators suffered severely. A T) 1 727 ^ G king, wn o was much attached to Hanover, and had visited it several times How did the English government treat the Pretender's adherents f When did the Pretender land in Scotland ? What speculation engaged the English natior, A. D. 1720 ? When and where did George I. die ? 16 354 ENGL SH HISTORY set (tut with the intention of going there once mere. He had got as far as Delden, a small town near the frontiers of Germany, when he was taken extremely ill. He had set his mind on reaching his brother's palace at Osnaburg, and ordered his people to hasten forwards. But he did not live to get there. It was found, when the carriage stopped at the gate of the palace, that he had already breathed his last. He died June 11, 1727, in the sixty-eighth year oi his age, and the thirteenth of his reign. George Augustus, prince of Wales, succeeded his father. CHAPTER XXXYTT GEORGE II. [Y;ars after Christ, 1727— 1700.) An officer and sergeant %n the reign of George the First. The news of the sudden death of George I. reached Lon don June 1 4, and George II. was proclaimed the next day. He was in the forty-fifth year of his age. His abilities were inferior to those of his father, and his temper hasty He was simple in all his tastes and habits, and singularly Wlut wap the character, and who composed the family of George II. ENGLISH HISTORY. 355 methodical. His strongest feeling, and that which more than any other governed his conduct, was his preference of Hanover to England. Queen Caroline united brilliant beauty to a strong un- derstanding, and great goodness of heart. When George II. came to the throne, he had two sons : Frederick, the eldest, was twenty years old ; Willism, afterwards duke of Cumberland, was only six years old. He had also four daughters. A T) 1 7^fi ^^ e P rnice °f Wales married the prin- A. U. I7db. cess f s axe _Gotha. In 1737 the queen died, and the king's grief for her loss was sincere and ex- cessive. In the same year a war broke out between Eng- land and Spain ; and admiral Vernon took Portobello a Spanish settlement on the isthmus of Darien. A D 1 74^ About this time the peace of the continent was disturbed by a contest for the impe- r ial throne. The emperor Charles VI. died, leaving an only daughter, Maria Theresa, married to prince Francis of Lorraine. The claim of Maria Theresa was disputed by the elector of Bavaria ; and nearly all Europe entered into the quarrel. The king of France took the part of elector of Bavaria. The king of England engaged on the side of Maria Theresa, and sent to the continent an army of 16,000 men, under lord Stair, which was afterwards increased by an equal number of Hanoverians. In the cause of Maria Theresa, the king and his son, the duke of Cumberland, displayed considerable military talent ; but England, in the meantime, was suffering by the projects of the Pretender. In the beginning of 1744, an invasion of England had been attempted by a French force of 15,000 men, under the convoy of twenty ships of the line. James himself, not having sufficient activity to engage personally in this expe- dition, deputed prince Charles Edward, his eldest son, to loin in it. But though this expedition was rendered abor- What took place in 173G and 1737 . The imperial throne, that is, the empirs of Germany, was congested for oy whom ? What part was taken by Engfand in this war? Did the Stuarts, aided by F ance, renew their attempt-.) to reinstate themselves in England "* 356 ENGLISH HISTORY. live, prince Charles ventured in the following year to try his fortune in the northern part of the island. Having procured a sum of money, and a small suppty of arms, on his own credit, prince Charles sent to inform hie friends in Scotland that he hoped soon to be with them. In June, 1745, he embarked with a few Scotch and Irish gentlemen in a small frigate ; but the vessel which carried a supply of arms for the expedition, was disabled in the passage. Meanwhile the frigate pursued her destined course. On the 16th of July Charles landed at Borodale, in Lochaber, and was soon joined by a considerable num- ber of Highlanders. A moment more favorable for this enterprise could not have been chosen. The king of England was in Hanover ; the duke of Cumberland, with the most serviceable part of the army, was in Flanders ; and the ministers and parlia- ment were divided by political disputes : but Charles could not make the most of these advantages ; his want of arms, and the loss of the officers who were to have come, but were prevented, disabling him from making any attack on the strong English garrisons, which were in the heart of the country, at Fort William and Fort Augustus. The news of the Pretender's arrival in Scotland, threw all England into commotion. The lords regent, to whom the conduct of affairs had been left during the king's ab- sence, sent to hasten his return ; and in the meantime issued a proclamation, offering-a reward of 30,000/. to any one who would seize Charles Stuart. Charles, in retaliation, set the same price on the head of the elector of Hanover. The prince, advancing to Perth, proclaimed his father king. His army stir, kept gathering numbers ; and, Sept. 16, he took possession of the town of Edinburgh. The castle, however, still held out. General Guest, an expe- rienced officer, commanded there ; and, having a strong garrison, was determined to stand a siege. Sir John Cope, meanwhile, who commanded the king's When did prince Charles Edward land in Scotland ? What circumstances favored or retarded Edward's project? What effect was produced by the appearance of the Prett?ndci England ? Did the Pretender take Edinburgh ? What was the result of the battle w» Preston-pans T ENGLISH HISTORY. 357 forces in Scotland, approached Edinburgh w ith all the troops he could muster ; and, Sept. 20th, he encamped about nine miles from the town, at Preston pans. The next morning Charles marched to meet him ; and the half-armed Highlanders attacked the king's troops with so much fury, that the cavalry fled with precipitation. The total defeat of the infantry soon followed. They fled, leaving on the field all their baggage, and, what the prince wanted most of all, their arms, ammunition, and a train of field artillery. By this victory the rebels acquired possession of a con- siderable part of Scotland. The castle of Edinburgh still held out, and was blockaded by the rebels. Charles, how- ever, at the earnest entreaty of the inhabitants whom general Guest had alarmed by the threat of destroying the town, and indeed by actually beginning to fire on it, raised the blockade ; that is, he ceased the attempt to take the castle — he withdrew his troops. The popularity at this time of the Pretender's cause was greatly increased by the good conduct of the prince him- self, who showed himself both vigorous in action and pru- dent in council, and bore his success with moderation. The king of France, seeing that his affairs were prosper- ous, sent him a supply of small arms, cannon and officers, and promised him that a large body of French should be landed in the south of England. On this assurance Charles passed the borders of Scot- land. He entered Carlisle Nov. 6th. Leaving a garri- son there, he marched onwards ; and on November 29th fixed his head-quarters at Manchester. He was there jomed bv about two hundred English Jacobites, and then poceeded to Derby. The rebel army was now within four days' march of London. Indescribable alarm and consternation prevailed m that city. Those who were in London fled into the country, while those in the country flew to London, every person thinking the place he was in the place of danger. The king, who had returned from Germany on the flrsf Di 1 prince Charles take Edinburgh castle ? Did the French nation afford further aid to the Pretender's cause T How far did prince Charles advance into England ? How were the people of London affected, and how did Goorgf II. moel thid emergency ? 353 ENGLISH HISTORY summons, was all activity, and intended to have taken the field in person. Prince Charles's army was sometimes successful ; bul a final battle between his adherents and the English army took place at Culloden, in Scotland, April, 1746. The fatal action of Culloden over, Charles, seeing that all was lost, rode off the field with a few followers These he soon dismissed, and led a wandering life for nearly five months, concealing himself in different parts of the Highlands, and owing his preservation to the fidelity ol the poor inhabitants, who could not be tempted to betray him by the great reward which was offered for his appre- hension, and who concealed him in their huts and caves, at the risk of their own lives. At last Charles, with a few faithful friends, found means to get on board a French privateer. Under the shelter of a thick fog he passed through the midst of a British squad- ron ; and at last, after many difficulties and dangers, landed safely at Morlaix, in Bretagne ; but so worn out by the fatigues and hardships he had undergone, that he was scarcely to be known as the same handsome sprightly youth who had left France full of animation and hope the year before. Frightful scenes followed in Scotland after the decisive victory at Culloden. It is deeply afflicting that the reputa- tion of a brave man should be sullied by such dreadful cruelties as must ever stain the memory of the duke of Cumberland, who commanded the king's forces. It is said that, in a district of nearly fifty miles round Lochiel, there was, in the course of a few days, neither house nor cottage, neither men nor cattle to be seen ; so complete was the ruin, silence, and desolation. The jails in England were filled with rebels, whose trials now followed. Many were executed^ — many were trans- ported to the plantations in America, and some few were What action finished the enterprise of prince Charles ? Whither did Charles go, after the battle of Culloden, and what a£miru bio integrity and fidelity was shown by some of his adherents ? How did Charles appear when he returned to France ? Did the English government treat the rebels with generosity and 'mmanity ? What punishments were inflicted upon the leaders ot the rebellion ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 35$ pardoned. Lords Balmerino, Kilmarnock, and Lovat, and Mr. RatclilTe, who were among the principal persons con cerned in the rebellion, were conveyed to London and executed. The rebellion being subdued, the duke of Cumberland returned to the allied army in Flanders, where the war continued a short time longer. At length a general peace was signed at Aix-la-Chapelle, October 7th, 1748. A series of encroachments made by France on the British colonies in North America, gave rise, a few years afterwards, to a new war with that country, which broke out in the year 1755. This war involved eventually the whole of Europe, and is often entitled the seven years war. In its commencement it proved unfavorable to Eng- land. The English colonies, those which are now entitled the United States of America, were on their western side greatly exposed to the French, who possessed both Lou- isiana and Canada, and were attempting to connect them by a chain of forts, stretching in the rear of the English settlements. The French had instigated also many of the native tribes of the Americans to join in attacks on the English provinces. In the commencement of these disputes in America, general Washington, who afterwards gained so much dis- tinction in the war which ended in releasing the United States from their dependency on England, first, signalized himself though then a very young officer, by his conduct of an expedition sent from Virginia to watch the motions of the French on the river Ohio. In 1756 several expeditions were undertaken by the English commanders in America, but the more consider able of them failed of success. The operations of the year 1757 were also unfavorable in that quarter to the British arms : but in the year following the fortunes of the war appeared to take a decisive turn ; and in 1759 and 1700 the whole province of Canada was subdued, and the When was the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle signed? "What war broke out in 1755 ? Were the English colonists in America disturbed by the Frenob ? When did Washington first distinguish himself ? Was the French power in America .incited by the English ? UGO ENGLISH HISTORY. French power was annihilated in that part of llit Ameri- can continent. This great object, however, was not achieved without the loss of one of the most popular and distinguished com manders whom the English army has ever had to boast of; namely, general Wolfe, who was Killed in the moment of victory at the siege of Quebec, in 1759. In the meantime the war was carried on in Eurcpe with great animosity. France attacked and took possession of Hanover. The northern European powers, except Prus- sia, and its king, Frederick the Great, were combined against the king of England. But Frederick's sagacity and military skill finally extricated him from the hazard- ous situation in which he was placed by the combination of so many enemies. Frederick was assisted both with money and troops from England, where the energy of a very able minister, Mr. Pitt, afterwards earl of Chatham, infused great spirit into the conduct of affairs. In the battle of Minden, which was fought in 1759, the English forces had a considera- ble share. Lord Clive was very successful in the East Indies ; and at sea the English flag was triumphant over the French. The king was now become an old man ; but he enjoyed a degree of health and bodily vigor very unusual at his advanced age, and which seemed to give the promise of a much longer life. But, October 25, 1760, George II. died suddenly Political parties ran very high in this reign. Sir Robert Walpole, sir William Pulteney, Mr. Pelham, the duke of Newcastle, and Mr. Pitt, afterwards earl of Chatham, were successively leaders of the administration The names of Anson, Hawke, and Boscawen, arc the most distinguished in the naval history of this reign. The sequel of the history of the misguided andunfomi- Where was general Wolfe killed ? Was the continental warfare of Europe still in operation ? What were the successes in England in 1759 ? When did George II. die ? Who were the principal ministers of George II. ? Who were the principal naval commanders of the rc!gn of George U ENGLISH HISTORY 361 riate prince Charles, may properly be added in this place. Soon after his return to France, Louis, in consequence ol one of the conditions of peace in the treaty of Aix-la-Cha- pelle in 1748, withdrew his protection from him. He then retired into the territories of the pope. He for a long time kept up a secret correspondence with the English Jacob- ites ; and once, if not oftener, he came privately to London. After a time, prince Charles disgusted his friends by his misconduct, and they totally abandoned his cause. This prince, who excited so much sympathy in his youth, and seemed then to possess many hopeful qualities, degenera- ted afterwards into a vicious character. He assumed the name of count D' Albany, and died in 1784, unpitied and unlamented. Prince Charles had an only brother, the cardinal of York, who, after his brother's death, sometimes assumed the name of Henry IX. He lived to be an old man, and died at Rome in 1807. In him the unfortunate family of Stuart became extinct. CHAPTER XXXVIII. GEORGE III. [Years after Christ, 17G0— 1789.] George III. had completed his twenty-second year, when the death of his grandfather placed him on the throne. He had resided with his mother, the princess dowager of YWes, between whom and George II. there existed no cordiality ; and having thus been in a manner excluded from court, and not interfering in any of the political par- ties of the day, he had led what might be called a retired life, associating only with the small but select circle which was collected round the princess. What became of prince Charles Edward ? What was the termination of Charles's life ? Who was the last of the Stuarts? Under what circumstances did George III. succeed to the throne of Britain ? 362 ENGLISH HISl^RY This was in some respects a disadvantage to him, as it gave him an awkward manner, which an earlier introduc tion to general society might have remedied. His usual way of speaking was hurried and confused ; but when he was called on to speak in public, his delivery was grace ful and impressive. The ruling principle of his mind was religion. George III. found his greatest happiness in the tranquility of do- mestic life, and it has been said of him that a better father, husband, son, and brother, never existed. His heart wae open not only to kindly affections towards his own family, but also to a general good will towards mankind. His charities were extensive and judicious, and there is not one cruel or unfeeling action recorded of him during the course of his long life. George III. married August 7, 1761, Charlotte, prin- cess of Mechlenburgh Strelitz. The last public service which the veteran admiral lord Anson performed was that of bringing the new queen to England. The war was for sometime continued with vigor, though the nation was become weary at the great expense at which it was carried on, particularly of the expenses which were lavished in Germany. Proposals were made for a general peace ; but these were overruled, and Spain taking part with France against England, engaged that nation against the Spaniards. Some British forces were sent to the de- fence of Portugal, and the Spaniards, who made an inva- sion of that country were repulsed. Amongst the events of this busy time, it is difficult to select the most important. It must suffice now to say that the British arms were every where successful. Several valuable islands in the West Indies were taken from France. The rich town of the Havana, in Cuba, Ma nilla, in ffie East Indies, and the rest of the Philippine, islands, were taken from Spain ; and many considerable prizes were made at sea. Was George III. a good man ? Who was the queen of George III. f Was the continental war popular in England, and how wm it extended to Spain ? "Were the British successful in the war? ENGLISH HISTORY. 3G3 France and Spain became at last anxious to put an end to a war which had proved so disastrous to them, particu- larly to the latter, and a general peace was concluded at Paris on the 10th of February, 1763. By this peace, the island of Minorca, several islands in the West Indies, and Goree, in Africa, were restored to France. The river Senegal was given up to England. In the East Indies all the forts and factories taken from tike French were restored. The Havana was restored to Spain, and the Spaniards in return ceded Florida to the English, and agreed also to make peace with Portugal. The history of political parties in Britain cannot be in- telligible to young readers ; and the history of the war of England with the American colonies belongs to American history — to that we refer the student. The country now called the United States of America, was originally peopled by English and other Europeans, and was governed by the laws of England. The first emi- gration began in 1607, and in 1764, the country had be- come populous and wealthy. The English government levied taxes on the Americans, which the latter deemed oppressive and refused to pay. From this dispute arose a war of seven years duration. Hostilities commenced in 1775, and continued till the 17th of October, 1781, when lord Cornwallis, the British com- mander, surrendered to general Lincoln, an officer com- manding under Washington, the American commander-in- chief. France took part with the colonies duriug the war. The success of the Americans in this contest was due to the justice of their cause ; to an indomitable spirit of civil liberty which grew primarily from the sense of their own moral dignity, and inherent power ; and also, When was a general peace concluded 1 How were colonial possessions apportioned by the peace of 17G3 i Is the history of political parties intelligible to the young ? What was the cause of hostility between Britain and tho American Oolonies ? What was the duration of the war of independence, and what part in it waa taken by the French nation ? 361 *N«LISH III3TCRY. in great measure, to the extraordinary character of Gen- eral Washington, a true patriot, who thought nc thing of his own aggrandisement, and every thing of acheiving and establishing American Independence. After the conclu- sion of the war, he was twice elected President of the United States. In Jhis station his constant policy was to maintain peace, with foreign nations and to promote the best interests of his own country. He died December 13th, 1799. The war with America, although very popular in Eng- land at its commencement, had not been undertaken or carried on without opposition from many able men in par- liament. One of the most distinguished of its opponents was the famous William Pitt, earl of Chatham. He strongly resisted the taxing of America in the first in- stance, and afterwards expressed satisfaction that the Americans refused submission to the tax. Lord Chatham with a wise foresight always predicted that the colonies would succeed in their resistance to the oppressive measures of the parent country. He assumed the principle that the moral energy of a whole nation is stronger than the physical power of an invading army and that, of course, the attempt to compel the Americans to abandon their fixed determination would ultimately fail, as the event proved. Lord Chatham was seventy years old, when he appear- ed for the last time in the House of Lords, April 1778, and spoke with great eloquence and solemnity upon the question of the American war ; but while the words of remonstrance rose to his lips, he fell back in convulsions and was immediately surrounded by the awe-struck and astonished members. He was soon conveyed to his own house, but never recovered from this fatal attack. He died a few weeks after. The people of England took a less enlightened view of the American war ; generally they were in favor of it, and the result was neither expec- ted by them, nor agreeable to their wishes. To what causes may the success of the Americans be attribtucd ? Did the wisest men in England approve of the war? What was lord Chatham's opinion of this war . How did lord Chatham die, and how did ths English nation regard the uonclusion of the war ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 365 France, during the American war, had contrived to en- list both Spain and Holland as her allies in the war. Rus- sia, also, Sweden and Denmark, though they did not actu- ally take part in the war, yet were manifestly indirect ene- mies of England, and united to form what was called an armed neutrality. England, nevertheless, anid all these disadvantages, maintained the contest with the European powers, upon at least equal terms. At sea, not to make mention of other indecisive or less important engagements, her fleets, under the command of lord Rodney, gained great victories, one over the Spaniards on the 16th January, 1780 ; anotuer over the French fleet in the West Indies. Some islands were taken in the West Indies ; but on the other hand some were lost. In the East Indies the British arms were successful. A Ti 1 7fiS ^ n ^ e De o mnm o °f ^ s y ear P ea ce was concluded between the belligerent pow- ers. England acknowledged the Independence of the United States ; gave up to France the islands of St. Lucia and Tobago, in the West Indies ; the river Senegal and a few forts in Africa ; and made some cessions also to the same power in the East Indies. Minorca and Florida were surrendered to Spain. The United States, after the ratification of the treaty, sent Mr. Adams, one of the most eminent statesmen, and afterwards president of the United States, in the capacity of envoy to the English court. The king, who had pre- viously declared to some of his attendants that he looked forward to his first interview with this new minister as to the most critical moment of his life, received him very graciously, and said to him, " I was the last man in the kingdom, sir, to consent to the Independence of America : but, now it is granted, I shall be the last man in the king- lom to sanction a violation of it." In the beginning of this reig^h there was a continual change of ministers. Lord Chatham, the duke of New- HDwdid England maintain her power against her enemies ? What were the important transactions of 1783 ? What was the reception of Mr. Adams at the court of Great Br! tain ? 366 ENGLISH HISTORY. castle„ lord Bute, Mr. G. Grenville, the marquis of Rock ingham, the duke of Grafton, lord North, Mr. Fox, and lord Shelburne, held successively the chief offices in the administration. In 1783, Mr. Pitt, second son of lord Chatham, was made prime minister, and with only onr short interval retained that nigh office twenty-two years. In the study of history, the young reader will often in- quire, Why do governments make war 1 Why is the his- tory of nations the history of wars ? A true history would rather describe the religion and manners of a people — the arts which increase their comforts, and the sciences which improve their minds, than limit itself to the quarrels and violences of nations. The great men of an age are they who think most pro- foundly, and act most worthily, and leave behind them something to instruct those who may live after them. Ba- con is the great man of James's reign ; Milton is more glorious than his contemporary Cromwell ; and Newton ten thousand times superior to the duke of Marlborough. In the progress of this history we have come to the pe- riod of the French revolution, a change in the French go- vernment into which the English nation largely entered, and it would bring into view the character and actions of Napoleon Bonaparte. The events of the revolution and the genius of the French Emperor, are themes too ample for a few pages — they belong to the history of France and of modern Europe, and to those histories the student will be referred. It remains to say a few words upon modern warfare. In ancient times, the desire of property, of taking from others, instead of toiling for the fruits of the earth — and, the lust of dominion, that is, the desire of the restless and ambi- tious, like Alexander and Caesar, to be called master and monarch by millions of men, instigated military leaders to What does true history describe ? Who are great men ? To what does the history of the French revolution belong ? What were the occasions of ancient warfare? ENGLISH HISTORY. 367 invade distant and extensive territories, and to make sub jects and slaves of the proper owners of those territories. In modern times the love of wealth still urges plans of dominion, as is shown in the British conquest of India ; but often, modern wars have been made to preserve what has been gained before ; to establish certain principles ; to re- pel encroachments of other powers, and to preserve the balance of power. I The revolutionary war of America was mutually carried on by the British and Americans, that the latter might be- come an independent state and govern themselves ; and that the former might preserve the power already possess- ed, and increase their wealth from the growing resources of their American subjects. Providence overruled the contest by favoring the just cause, and frustrating the selfish policy of the adverse power. Of wars to establish principles, the part taken by the English government in the French revolutionary war is an example. A principle is a rule intended to regulate ac- tions, or it is a truth that belongs to something. The prin- ciple assumed by the English government was, hereditary princes shall reign, and their subjects shall not depose them. Princes must be protected by other princes, or all munarchs will be in danger. The balance of power is a sort of equality of princes and nations, so that the government of each nation acts by its own will, having power to do so, without fear of another great power, or danger from any such power. If the mon- archy of all continental Europe should declare against Eng- land, should seize the English colonies, and could by their combined fleets drive English ships from every sea, the balance of power in Europe would be destroyed, and Eng- land would be insignificant. When the English have seen governments uniting against them, they have declared war and humbled the powers that would humble them, and thus prevented for any longtime, the existence of an over- whelming dominion in Europe. What are the occasions of modem wars ? What were the respective motives of the English and Amci'cans in the levolutionary war ? Why did the British take part in the French revolution ? V, hat is intended by the phrase balance of powei * 3G8 ENGLISH HISTORY. France is one of the most populous and highly oivLized countries of all Europe, but the state of the nation towards the close of the last century was truly unhappy. The wealth of the country, that is, the soil and the money, chief- ly belonged to two classes of persons — the nobility and the ecclesiastics. The nobles owned very extensive estates, and the convents, that is, communities of monks and nunfi, possessed also great tracts of land and large revenues. There were indeed merchants, mechanics, and laborers, but all these were enormously taxed to maintain an extra- vagant court, to make roads and fortifications, and to pay other public expenses ; while the nobles and the clergy were, as much as possible, exempted from all burdens, and lived for the most part in idleness and luxury ; the poor people, moreover, were left in extreme ignorance. The sufferings of the poor, and the want of money to carry on the government, made it necessary to change the laws, in order to relieve, if practicable, the distresses of the nation. A convention of deputies was called from the different provinces of the kingdom for this purpose. This convention, and that party in the country who preferred the established order of things, could not agree in the means of redress, and a frightful state of anarchy and bloodshed followed. The party opposed to the ancient regime, or established rule, became so exasperated against the king, Louis XVI., his family, and all their adherents, that, after a trial before the convention, they pronounced sentence of death upon Louis. Afterwards the queen, and great numbers of per- sons of high rank and great worth, were beheaded foi what was called political offences, which signified that they were attached to old institutions, or wished to restrain the violences of the revolutionists. This period of the revolu- tion has been aptly termed the reign of terror. The English government assumed the principle, that it What was the condition of the French people towards the close of Xhe 18th century ? What were the relative advantages of the higher and lower clusste ~f France ? Who inflamed the passions of the French people ? What is signified by the phrase — Reign of Terror ? What part v as taken by the English towards the French 1 ENGLISH liiSTOKY 309 way the cause of humanity, and of all just government, not to acknowledge the authority of the French Republic, and to take up arms to reinstate the monarchy, and punish the usurpation. There were many persons in England who thought their government had no proper concern in French affairs. Mr. Pitt, the son of lord Chatham, and prime minister in England promoted the war with France, and Mr. Fox a very able and distinguished statesman waa among the chief leaders of the opposite party. A D 17Q9 Some of the continental powers also took part in the French contest. Prussia and Austria united to restore the authority of Louis while that unfortunate monarch was a prisoner. Louis was executed Jan. 1st, 1793. Such was the commencement of a most unparalled con- test, which, with little intermission, distracted Europe for above twenty years, and was attended with a series oi more signal events than any other, perhaps, in the history, of the world. Holland was among the countries that opposed the French revolution, but the French took Amsterdam on the 16th of January, 1795. The rest of Holland, and the other provinces, then submitted, and taking the title of the Batavian republic, entered into an alliance with France. Before that time the duke of York, the king of Eng- land's second son, was sent from England to the assistance of the Dutch, with a considerable army under his com- mand. In this campaign he had some partial success ; but in 1794 he was compelled to retire. From the commencement of the revolution the French arms were eminently successful. From the year 1796 to 1815 the history of France is connected with the great talent, and extraordinary fortunes of Napoleon Bonaparte, whose history is itself a study, and cannot be detailed here Bonaparte's vigilance was actively engaged against the enlargement of English power. What part was taken by the continental powers, &c. T What happened in Hollnnd 1~94— 95 ? What eminent individual distinguished himself in Europe from 17yt> till 1615? 370 ENGLISH HIS10RY. A D 1797 J3 urm g this year, however, two great n* val victories were gained : one over the Spaniards, who had been prevailed on to declare wai against England ; the other over the Batavian republic The first of these actions was fought off Cape St. Vincent on the 14th of February. The Spanish fleet, amounting to twenty-seven sail of the line, was attempting to join a French armament, but was attacked and completely de- feated by sir John Jervis, afterwards created earl St. Vin- cent. The battle with the Dutch was fought on the 1 1th of October. Admiral Duncan, who commanded the Eng- lish fleet on this occasion, was also raised to the peerage. On October 17th a definitive treaty of peace between France and Austria was signed at Campo Formio, in Ita- ly : and thus England was left alone in the great contest which she was carrying on against her powerful enemy. A D 1 7QR ^ n ^ e meetm g °f parliament in January, the king intimated that he had received intelligence of a design entertained by the French govern- ment to attempt the invasion of England. Whether this danger was real or only imaginary, it had the effect of uniting men of all parties in England in one common bond for the public safety. In the summer of the same year a serious rebellion broke out in Ireland, which raged chiefly in the counties of Wicklow and Wexford. This rebellion was, however, soon suppressed ; chiefly by the prudence of marquis Corn- wallis, who on this occasion was appointed lord lieute- nant ; and a body of about one thousand French troops, who disembarked at Killala on the 12th August, surren- dered on the 8th of September. A D 1 70S Bonaparte sailed from Toulon with an armament, consisting of thirteen ships of the line, six frigates, and transports, containing, an army of 30,000 men. He took Malta, and thence proceeded to Egyp^ with the view of fcrming a settlement there, whir.h What memorable naval battles took place 1797 ? When was England left alone in the war with Franc What alarmeo the English nation in 1798 ? When did reDellion break out m Ireland? Wbtit motive induced Bonaparte to gu to Egypt? ENGLISH HISTORY. 371 might afford means for making some future attack, by way either of the Red Sea or of the Persian Gulf, on the Bri- tish dominions in India. He was pursued to Egypt by admiral Nelson ; who, on his arrival, found the French fleet at anchor in Aboukir Bay. An engagement followed, in which the English obtained a signal victory. The battle lasted through the night. T/Orient, the French admiral's ship, a vessel of 120 guns, was blown up at midnight with a terrible explosion ; and when the morning arrived, only two ships of the line and two frigates remained of the whole French fleet. All the rest were either taken or destroyed. On the occasion of this achievement, Admiral Nelson was created a peer, by the title of Baron Nelson of the Nile. The war on the continent was renewed in 1799, and in the autumn of that year an English army, under the com- mand of sir Ralph Abercrombie, was disembarked at the Helder Point in Holland. The duke of York afterwards took the command ; but the enterprise finally miscarried, and the troops re-embarked and returned to England. The French government, at the close of this campaign, underwent a new and remarkable change, the more re- markable from its direct connection with the extraordinary fortunes of Bonaparte. That general, though the fleet which conveyed him to Egypt was entirely destroyed by lord Nelson, had conquered Egypt, and had invaded Sy- ria ; but found his career stopped at Acre by Ghezar, the Turkish pasha, assisted by some English troops, under sir Sidney Smith, who distinguished himself greatly in the defence o that town. Bonaparte, repulsed from Acre, returned to Egypt, and then ventured on a step, the singular success of which must always be ranked among the most extraordinary parts of his history. Having received intelligence of great dis- contents in France, he resolved even to forsake the army fie commanded, in order to try his fortune at home in this troubled state of public affairs. Who was defeated at the bat'le of the Nile ? Were ths English troops successful in 1799 ? Was Bonaparte successfnl in Egypt, and who repulsed hirn in Turkey f Why did Bonapartt leave the army in Egypt ? 372 ENGLISH HISTORY. Bonaparte escaped from Egypt in August, 1799 ; mil immediately on his arrival in Paris, was able to effect a dissolution of the government. The directory was abolish ed, and the executive administration was committed to three consuls, of whom he procured himself to be made the chief. A D 1 ROO ^ n *^ s y ear was accomplished a legisla tive union between Great Britain and Ire- land ; nearly on the same principles on which in the reign of qaeen Anne, the union had been framed between Eng- land and Scotland. Twenty-eight peers, and one hundred commoners, were admitted from Ireland into the English parliament ; or rather into the parliament of the united kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland ; the title which was now formally adopted as the proper designation of the British isles. A T) 1 R01 ^° ^ s y ear Denmark, Sweden, and Rus- sh, were suspected by the English go- vernment of a combination to restrain the maritime power of Britain. To counteract this confederacy, an armament under admiral sir Hyde Parker, but of which lord Nelson was the efficient commander, was despatched against Co- penhagen in the month of March, 1801. Lord Nelson, on arriving before that capital, instantly made the attack After an exceedingly severe engagement, several Danish ships were destroyed or captured, and the town itself was thought in the utmost danger. At this moment lord Nelson offered terms of an armis- tice, which were accepted by the prince of Denmark The English fleet then proceeded to Carlscroon ; but its farther operations in the Baltic were interrupted by the death of the emperor (Paul) of Russia. His son and successor, Alexander, immediately disclaimed all hostile intentions, and entered into an amicable convention with England. The French still kept possession of Egypt. A. British force, which was sent to drive them out of that countrj When did Bonaparte become first consul ? When was the union with Ireland accomplished ? Upon what pretext did the English attack Copenhagen i What checked the English operations in the BalliOi When were the French expelled from Egypt I ENGLISH HISTORY 373 about this time effected its purpose, though not without the loss of its brave commander, sir Ralph Abercrombie, who was mortally wounded in the first engagement. While these events were taking place, the public atten- tion was excited in England by the sudden and unexpect- ed resignation of Mr. Pitt, who had been prime ministeT tw r enty-one years. He was succeeded by the duke oi Portland and Mr. Addington, afterwards created viscount Sidmouth. These ministers opened a negotiation with France, which was at length concluded by a definitive treaty, signed at Amiens, March 27, 1802. Hostilities were lenewed in 1803. A D ififU Bonaparte was proclaimed emperor of France. He had now acquired an unlim- ited sway, not only in that country, but also over a great part of Europe. Holland, Italy, Spain, and Portugal, crouched before him. England alone stood independent On the 21st of October, 1804, lord Nelson, with a fleet of 27 ships of the line, encountered the combined fleets of France and Spain, amounting to 33 sail, off Cape Trafal- gar. Nelson received, during the action, a mortal wound by a ball fired from the mizen-top of a French ship. When he found himself wounded, he covered his face with his handkerchief, and concealed the stars and orders that deco- rated the breast of his coat. He took this precaution that he might no* be known, fearing lest his crew should be disheartened by knowing that their admiral had fallen. He was carried down to the surgeon's room, where he lived three hours ; long enough to know that his fleet was victorious. Twenty of the enemy's ships had struck, or surrendered during the engagement. But most of the prizes were wrecked *n a gale that sprung up in the night. Four only were saved and brought to England. By this victory the navy of France was destroyed, and Britain established more completely than ever her decisive superiority at sea. What change was made in the English ministry in 1801, and when Wd£ U.c peace of Amiens signed ? What was the position of Bonaparte in 1804? Who fell at the battle of Trafalgar ? Wtnt was the consequence of the battle of Trafalgar 1 374 ENGLISH HISTORY. Mr. Pitt, who had come again into administration m the year 1804, died on the 23d of January, 1806, and was suc- ceeded as prime minister by his great political rival, Mr Fox. But the new administration did not last long. Mr Fox died on the 13th of September; and on the 25th ot March, in the year following, another ministry was formed, of which Mr. Percival was usually considered the head. A D 1807 Expeditions were sent to the Dardanelles, to Egypt, and against the Spanish settle- ments on the river Plate, in South America ; but none of them were attended with any advantage. Another expedi- tion was despatched against Copenhagen, which succeeded, after bombarding the town, in gaining possession of the whole Danish fleet, which was safely brought to England A D 1 80S Nearly the whole continent of Europe was under the control of Bonaparte. Russia was alienated from England. The emperor of Germany had been compelled to surrender a large portion of his territories. Many of the German princes retained their dominions only as tributaries of the French emperor. The king of Prussia had felt his power, and had seen him make a triumphant entry into Berlin. Bonaparte reigned over all the north of Italy. He drove the king of Naples from his throne, on which he placed Murat, one of his own generals. He made the king of Spain a prisoner in France, and placed his brother, Jo- seph Bonaparte, on the throne of Madrid. Portugal was also reduced under the dominion of this great conqueror, and the royal family of that country had emigrated to their South American territories. Holland was erected into a monarchy, and bestowed on Louis Bonaparte. The papal power was also overthrown, and the pope became an unwilling resident in France. Louis XVIII. the brother of the late king of France, who (on the death of the dauphin in a prison in Paris) had become the repre- sentative of the Bourbon family, had at this time but little prospect of hsing ever restored to his rank. He was liv- Wlen did Mr. Ktt and Mr. Fox die ? What expeditions were undertaken by the English in 1807 ? What was the state of northern Europe in 1808 X What was the state of Italy, &c. ? Where v ere tne Pope and Louis XVIII. in 1803? ENGLISH HISTORY. 375 ing in great retirement in England, and called mmseii the count de Lille. In the spring of this year, the Spanish nation, exaspe- rated by the cruelties committed by the French in Madrid, roused themselvesto exertion, declared war against France, and sent deputies to England to implore assistance. An expedition of about ten thousand men was sent to their assistance, under the command of sir Arthur Wellesley, and arrived at Corunna on the 20th of July. On communication with the Spanish leaders in that dis- trict, it was thought best to proceed in the first instance to Portugal, for the purpose of expelling general Junot, who had the command of a French army in that country, and was in possession of Lisbon. The English landed at Mondego Bay, and defeated the French in a battle at Vimeira, which was fought on the 21st of August; after which the French army retired to the strong, position which covered Lisbon ; and a convention was in consequence entered into by sir Hew Dalrymple, who had subsequently taken the command of the army for the evacuation of Portugal by the French troops. In the month of November, sir John Moore, who had arrived with a reinforcement of 12,000 men, led the British army into Spain. General Moore was, however, compelled to retreat ; and, after a most severe and calamitous march, through a difficult country, and in most inclement weather, he arrived at Corunna, Jan. 16, 1809. Soult, the French general, overtook and attacked Moore when on the point of embarking. The British, though suffering under extreme fatigue and anxiety, beat off the French, .hough with great loss. Sir John Moore was amongst those who fell. His friends were able to spare a few moments, amidst the confusion of the night succeeding the battle, through the whole of which the troops were embarking, to inter the body of their lamented commanded on the ramparts of Corunna. Why was the peninsular war commenced ? Why was the English army sent to Lisbon ? How did the English proceed in Portugal ? Who led the English army into Spain ? Under what circumstances was sir John Moore killed 1 37G ENGLISH HISTORY. A T) lftOQ In the month of April, sir Arthur Wellfit- ley, having been again appointed to the command of the British army in the Peninsula, landed with rGinforcements in PDrtugal. He obliged the French to abandon Oporto, and soon afterwards entered Spain : but he was compelled eventually to withdraw into Portugal. A d ia|2 ^ n tms y eartne United States of America declared war against England. The chief events of this war properly belong to American his- tory. It was occasioned by disputes concerning the com- mercial and maritime privileges of the Americans, and ended honorably to our country The tide of success on the continent of Europe was now beginning to turn. Bonaparte on arriving at the pinnacle of greatness, alienated all his allies, and at length under- took to invade Russia. There nothing but disaster and defeat overtook his hitherto invincible armies. It has been calculated that of the 400,000 men who had composed the invading army, not more than 50,000 re-crossed the Russian boundary on its return. On the 4th of December, Bonaparte himself left the army, and set out on a rapid journey to Paris. These reverses of the French army in Russia roused the other nations of Europe from their state of subjection to the power of Bonaparte. Prussia was the first to shake oil the yoke, and to join the advancing armies of Russia. Bernadotte, the crown prince of Sweden, allied himself to the same cause. Austria also declared war against France • and in the month of November, in the same year, the prince of Orange was recalled by the Dutch from his long exile, and entered the Hague amidst the acclamations of the people Denmark joined the allies in the following January. Several great battles were fought in this campaign. That of Leipzig, on the 18th of October, was completely decisive against the French, who were rapidly driven back to their own country, pursuedby the immense armies of the allie?. What did sir Arthur Wellesley accomplish in 1809 ? Under what circumstances did the war with America terminate ? "What was the end of Bonaparte's invasion of Russia ? How did the eoversigns of Europe regard Bonaparte in 1813 1 What victory wa.» gained by the allies in 1814 1 vU ENGLISH HISTORY 377 who had now no fear for the success of the wai, and were eagerly contemplating he invasion of France. Early in tne winter the allies crossed the Rhine. On the 30th of March, 1814, they gained a victory before Paris, and the next day entered that city in triumph. The contest in Spain in the meantime was not concluded In the years 1811 and 1812 there had been much hard fighting in that country, and the English gained many vic- tories. But the French army was so superior in number, that lord Wellington, after having advanced to Madrid, was obliged, in November, 1812, to retreat to the Portu- guese frontier. In the following year, however, 1813, his success wa-j complete. Lord Wellington drove the French entirely out of the Peninsula, and on the 7th of October entered France. The concluding achievements of this army, in the spring of 1814, were to enter Bordeaux, which had declared its at« tachment to the Bourbon cause, while the great contest in the neighbourhood of Paris was still undecided, and where the British troops were welcomed as deliverers ; and final- ly the defeat of marshal Soult, in a severe battle at Tou- louse, on the 11th of April. On the 2d of April, the French senate declared that Bonaparte had forfeited his throne : on the 4th, he signed an act of abdication : on the 28th he embarked at Frejus, on board an English frigate, and was conveyed to Elba, a little island on the coast of Italy, which was assigned to him by the allied powers. The empress, Maria Louisa, and her infant son, to whom Bonaparte had given the title of king of Rome, had previously gone to Vienna. On the 6th of April, a decree of the senate had been passed for the recall of the Bourbon princes ; and Louis XVIII. made on the 3d of May a solemn entry into Paris. All these extraordinary events passed so rapidly, that they Beemed more like the winding up of a romance than like realilies. What was done by Lord Wellington in 1812 and 1813 ? What was done by the English army on the continent in l?Ji ? When did Bonaparte go to Elba ? Whim did Louis XY r III. enter Paris ? 17 378 tNULISH HISTORY. May 30th, peace was concluded between the allied pow ers and France. The limits of France were reduced b} this treaty nearly to those which she had possessed in 1792 Her colonies, with a few exceptions, were restored. Eng- land retained Malta, and the Cape of Good Hope, and the small island of .Heligoland. The adjustment of many com- plicated questions, which remained to be settled between the continental powers, was reserved for a congress ap pointed to meet at Vienna. In the beginning of June, the emperor of Russia, and the king of Pussia, paid a visit to England. They were accompanied by Blucher, a veteran Prussian general, and by Platoff, betman of the Cossacks, men who had borne a distinguished part in the late achievements of the allied army. The visit of these distinguished strangers was cele- brated in London, and other parts of the kingdom, with extraordinary rejoicing and festivity. Peace with America was soon afterwards restored. Early in 1815, a general alarm was spread throughout Europe by the escape of Bonaparte from Elba. He landed March 1st in the south of France. He was everywhere received with joy by the soldiery. Louis XVIII. fled from Paris early in the morning of the 20th of the same month, and Bonaparte entered that capital in the evening of the same day, and resumed the government without opposition His first attempt was to conciliate the allies, to whom he proposed to maintain the peace, on the terms which had been lately settled with Louis. But the allies unanimously rejected the proposition, and began immediately to put their armies in motion, with the reso'ution of once more dis- placing this unprincipled disturber of the world. The English and Prussians were first in motion. To prevent their entrance into France, Bonaparte, at the head of 150,000 men, marched to the Netherlands. June 15th, the French and Prussians had the first rencontre at Char- leroi. The engagement was renewed on the 16th, ard on What limits were assigned to France by the allied powers f What distinguished persons visited London in 1815 ! When did Bonaparte re-enter Paris ? Did the allies refuse all terms with Bonaparte ? Where did Bonaparte encounter the allied anmen? ENGLISH HISTORY. 379 the same day another division of the French army had a severe conflict with the English at Quatre Bras. On the 17th, the British army retreated to an advantageous post near the viliage of Waterloo. About ten o'clock, June 18th, began one of the hardest fought battles recorded in history. It raged furiously dur- ing the whole day, and terminated in the defeat of the French army. Bonaparte, when he saw his guards give way, exclaimed, " It is all over ; we must save ourselves." And, so saying, he quitted the field of battle, attended by five or six officers, and arrived at Paris on the night of the 20th of June. Seeingno prospect of being able to retrieve his ruined fortunes, he proceeded a few days afterwards, to Rochefort, with the intention of making his escape to America. Bonaparte actually embarked with that intention ; but the Bellerophon, an English man of war, being in sight, from which it would have been impossible to escape, he resolv- ed to surrender himself to the English captain. The Bel- lerophon, as soon as he arrived on board, sailed for Torbay, where he continued on board that vessel, till it could be con- certed between the English government and the allies what would be the best and securest place of confinement for so very important a prisoner. The island of St. Helena was at last determined upon. In this island he continued a prisoner till his death, which took place May 5th, 1821. The English and Prussian armies advanced rapidly after the battle of Waleiloo, and invested Paris on the 29th and 30th June. A few days afterwards the city capitulated. The Austrians and Russians had now crossed the Rhine. On the 8th Louis XVIII. re-entered his capital ; but the English and Prussians retained military possession ot it till the final restoration of peace. The terms of the peace were settled in October. Thus finally terminated that long contest in which Europe was involved by the French revolution, a comesi What was the catastrophe of Waterloo ? Whither did Bonaparte escape from Waterloo ? What happened to Bonaparte subsequently to his escape ? Whither did the allied armies proceed after the victory of Waterloo ? Did the peace of 1815 conclude the war in Europe ? .380 ENGLISH HISTORY which had raged with unexampled fury, and with few and brief intermissions, for a period of more than twenty years The prince of Wales (since George IV.) had married in 1795, his cousin, the princess Caroline of Brunswick They had an only daughter, the princess Charlotte, born January 7, 1796 ; who, on May 2, 1816, married prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg. To the unspeakable grief of the whole nation, this young princess, who possessed man> popular qualities, died, November 7, 1817. A I) 1818 '^^ ie ( l ueen died a ^ ter a lingering illness The duke of Kent, the king's fourth son, died January 23, 1820. He had married the sister of prince Leopold, and left an only child, the princess Vic- toria, then not a year old, the present queen of England. George III. having at intervals of his life been subject to insanity, sunk at length into complete derangement of intellect. He died January 29, 1820, in the 82d year of his age, and the 60th of his reign ; during the last nine years of which he had been in a melancholy state of blind- ness, deafness, and mental incapacity. He married, Sept. 8, 1761, Sophia Charlotte, princess of Mechlenburg-S».re- litz, and had nine sons and six daughters. The expenditure of life and money by the English nacion in the var with France, has been of doubtful benefit to the country • but the destruction, by lord Exmouth, of the Alge- rine tyranny over the sea was of great importance to the in- terests of humanity and of commerce. The Algerines, and the other Barbary states, had for many centuries been ac- customed to treat as slaves all the unhappy persons whom they took as prisoners. After the conclusion of peace in 1814 when the hostilities which had so long raged in Eu- rope no longer disturbed the navigation of the Mediterra- nean, their depredations on ihe trading vessels of some cf Who was the princess Charlotte, and when did she lie? When did the queen and the duke of Kent die ? When did George III. die ? What naval achievement in the reign of George III. was favojable tc h i raan happ ine =s ? L'NGLISH HISTORY. , 381 "he Italian states increased, anil became seriously alarming They captured the vessels, and made slaves of the crews In the spring of 181G, lord Exmouth was sent from England to remonstrate with the dey of Algiers on these depredations : and the dey in consequence released some Christian slaves, and made fair promises for the future. Soon after this, and, as it is said, without the permission 01 even knowledge of the dey, a body of Algerines attacked some Italians who. were engaged in fishing for pearls a! Bona. When this news reached England, the people were much exasperated at the apparent want of faith of the dey, and lord Exmouth was again sent out, with orders to compel the Algerines to keep their promises. On the 27th of May, 1816, lord Exmouth came in sight of Algiers, with a large armament and sent to demand ot the dey to set all his Christain slaves at liberty. Receiving no answer, after having waited some hours, he began to fire upon the town. The dey's magazines, arsenals, and shipping, were destroyed before his eyes, and great dam- age done to the town. The next morning the dey sent to inform lord Exmouth that he would agree to the terms demanded ; and before noon most of the Christian slaves were released, and the English fleet in a Hew days sailed from Algiers. The victory of lord Exmouth was not the only service rendered to humanity in this reign. During the short pe- riod of Mr. Fox's administration, an act was passed for the abolition of the negro slave trade between Africa and the West Indies. CHAPTER XXXIX CONCLUSION GEORGE IV- [Years after Christ, 1820—1830.] George III. not only reigned the longest, but also lived to a greater age than any other English king. He was Who was sent from England to remonstrate with the dey ot* Algiers ? When did lord Exmouth compel the dey of Algiers to suhn.it to his df» mauds ? When was the slave trade abolished t 3b'2 ENGLISH HISTORY. more distinguished by the domestic virtues, and for sin- cere piety, than for political wisdom ; but, during his lon£ reign, English mind was advancing, and English powei and prosperity, were increasing. George III., for many years of his life a maniac, from October, 1788, to April, 1789, was prevented from exer- cising the duties of a sovereign ; and from October, 1810. to January, 1820, he lived under entire deprivation of rea- son. These ten years were the period of the regency. The prince of Wales, afterwards George IV., was appo.iri:- ed to the royal function and dignity ; and, till his fathei s death, was styled the Prince Regent. George IV. was crowned king, July 19th, 1821. He died at the age of sixty-eight, June 26th, 1830. George IV. received an excellent classical, and a neglected moral and religious education. He might have been instructed in the duties of a man and a sovereign prince ; but he was never made to feel that his example might sanction vice, or recommend virtue, and that his natural abilities made him eminently capable to do good to the great kingdom over which he was set. The dissipated and frivolous life of George IV. while a young man, made him unpopular in England ; but the first time that he ever spoke in the House of Lords, he declared : " I exist by the love, the friendship, and the benevolence of the people ; and their cause I will never forsake as long as I live." This expression of just sentiment awakened in the public mind all the feelings of love and trust due to a patriot prince. A D l^Q^ George IV was married to his cousin " • Caroline of Brunswick, whom he never loved, and from whom he was afterwards separated. They had but one child, the princess Charlotte, who died in 1817 Queen Caroline was accused of many crimes, and was brought to a trial on account of them. Whether or not sac was guilty, the public opinion is not determined. She died, 1821, and was relieved from the misery and disgrace of doubtful innocence. Was George III. a good man ? Why -was the Prince of Wales made regent ? What was the character of George IV. ? How did the prince of Wales con- mend himself to the En^libh pooplo ENGLISH HISTORY. 383 George IV. visited different parts of his dominions, and was greeted with enthusiasm in Ireland, Scotland, and Hanover. The latter years of George IV. were passed in retirement. A secluded cottage in Windsor Park, was his favorite residence : he caused royal palaces to be repaired and built, but of the latter he never took possession. George IV. seldom met his parliament in person — very rarely held courts, that is, he rarely received the great no- bility, foreign ministers, and distinguished strangers, and he seldom appeared in any public place. He died of dropsy in the summer of 1830, and was committed to the earth with splendid ceremonies, but without the regrets of the grateful and the good. Much might be said of the progress of arts, literature, and science, in these latter reigns of the English kings ; but the history of arts and artists, of literature and scho- lars, of science and philosophers, is too ample to find room in these pages. A list of the names of men of genius would afford no just notion what they were, and what they have done. There also remains much to be told concerning the va- rious discoveries and improvements that have been made during the last sixty years in almost every branch of art and science : balloons, steamboats, telegraphs, machines for spinning and weaving, &c. There never was any for- mer period in which human talent and ingenuity were ex- ercised so much or so well. Maritime discovery in this age has done wonders, and English travelers have made important discoveries. The expeditions of Cook and Burney, Franklin, Parry, and Ross, have greatly increased human knowledge ; and the What were the circumstances of George's domestic life ? Did George IV. visit his dominions 1 What were the habits of George IV., and when did he die ? Can a proper history be given here of English literature 1 What was the state of arts, &c. during the reign of George IV ? What are the greal enterprises of the reigns of Gee rge III. and Ii .sou ? 384 ENGLISH HIS WRY. great enterprises of humanity, the abolition of the slave trade, the Bible Society, and missionary advei ture to every neglected portion of the earth, may be traced to British origin. The reign of George IV, is marked by Catholic Emancipation. It was mentioned in another part of this history, that no office of government could be exercised by a Roman Catholic ; and on this account the Stuarts were expelled from the throne of Britain. An act of parliament, 1 829, removed many disabilities from the Catholics, and admitted them to privileges not previously allowed them ; this is Catholic Emancipation. WILLIAM IV. [Years after Christ, 1830—1837.1 William Henry, duke of Clarence, succeeded to the throne on the decease of his brother George IV. On the accession of William IV., the English nation manifested a general consciousness of suffering from injustice and mis- government, and they insisted moreover their own right to redress their grievances. The kingdom was indeed wealthy and prosperous. The face of the country was covered with roads, canals, bridges, and public and private buildings of unsurpassed magnifi- cence. The soil was under skilful cultivation. England was at the head of the maritime powers of Europe. Its manufactures, commerce, and foreign colonies, were im- mense sources of industry and wealth. The other side of the picture was frightful : the national debt was augmented beyond the means of the country to pay ; the poor rates were quadrupled ; one-sixth of the population were paupers. The taxation, since the accession of George III., was more than quadrupled ; and the state was burthened by the extravagant salaries of government functionaries, and tie payment of numerous pensions. Who possesses the great wealth of England 1 The no- What is Catholic Emancipation ? Is England highly prosperous ? What were the causes of popular discontent in England ? Who possess wealth, and who are very poor in England? ENGLISH HISTORY 385 bility, the aristocratic commoners, the merchants, banker,^ and great manufacturers, have a superabundance ; but the laboring classes, — they who cultivate the soil, and who work for the rich in sundry ways, and multitudes who can obtain no work, who people the almshouses and hospitals, are the hungry poor, — and their ignorance and want de- mand redress. All these evils the people believe a wise government might remedy. The people demand this remedy. They have insisted that a better representation in parliament should be granted, and a reformed parliament was ob- tained, (1832.) William IV. conceded every thing that he could. It may be hoped that a system of reform then commenced will be progressive, and misery may be mitigated, and na- tional virtue be strengthened in that dominion of earth, of which it may be said, " that the world never before saw so vast an amount of wealth and power under one head, as that under the control of the British government." It would be doing injustice to English history, to afford no information of the British empire in India. The trade of Europe with India, has been more or less extensive from time immemorial. From the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, (1496,) this trade became easy by means of navigation. An English East India Company, that is, an English company to carry on traffic with India, was formed in 1600. This company quarrelled with the French, Dutch, and Portuguese, who also traded to India. The English built a factory at Calcutta, 1736. They required troops to defend them there, and a proper force was employed. The native princes of the country quarrelled : the Eng- lish aided some, and invaded others, and gradually sub- dued them, till the revenues derived from the India trade, and British possessions in India, amounted (1728) to <%851,424Z. The history of British India is very intei- Whut may be supposed to be a remedy for these national grievances / What may be the result of better government in Britain ? When was the India trade commenced ? When were the Engiisn first established in India ? What i^ 'he present extent of British power in India? 386 ENGLISH HISTORY. esting, and is very extensive in its details — too mucli sc to be further related in this place. William IV. reigned seven years, and died June, 1837. He was succeeded by the princess Victoria, daughter of his brother, Edward duke of Kent. This young lady, born 1819, had been carefully educated, and the English people, not averse to female rule, looked for a prosperous and happy reign. In the present age of the world the influence of a British sovereign is much less than in former times : — public opinion, general morals, the diffusion of knowledge, and a just representation of the nation in Parliament set limits to the use3 and abuses of prerogative ; still, an enlightened mind, a firm spirit, and a virtuous example shed lustre upon the throne, and wisdom and goodness so exalted give a tone to public counsels, and political measures, that exert a salu- tary and ennobling power upon a free people. CHAPTER XL. REIGN OF QUEEN VICTORIA. PART I. [Years after Christ, 1837— 1856.] The young princess was at her accession almost exactly eighteen years old. Even at this early age she was seen to enter with remarkable dignity and propriety on the high station which had fallen to her lot. She retained the late king's ministers in office, and went in person, July 17th, to dissolve the Parliament, and read her speech on this occasion from the throne. She also opened in per- son, in the November following, the first session of the new Parliament. The elections of the members of the House of Commons were found to support the choice of ministers which she had made. In the following year her coronation was celebrated, June 28th, and was accom- panied by numerous indications of her great and general How long did "William IV. reign, and when did he die ? In what manner did Queen Victoria enter upon her duties ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 381 popularity. A rebellion had broken out in Canada in the preceding November, but peace was restored after a short struggle ; and in 1838 the Earl of Durham was sent out as Governor-General of the British possessions in North America. The two provinces of Upper and Lower Canada were consolidated, and the seat of government transferred from Toronto and Quebec to Montreal. Various changes were also introduced into the political constitution of this colony. At the close of the year 1839 a political association of men who entitled themselves Chartists broke out into open riot at Newport, in Monmouthshire. A body of these confederates, aided by the secrecy with which the use of the Welsh language enabled them to clothe their proceedings, collected in the neighboring hills, and marched down at night, and by surprise got pos- session of the town. This disturbance was immediately quelled, by the courage of a small body of soldiers, headed by a spirited magistrate, and three of its leaders were apprehended, and tried, and condemned to death, but their sentence was commuted to transportation for life. The Chartist principles, however, have become too prev- alent among working miners and manufacturers, and also among large bodies of laborers, not to render it desirable to state them particularly. The Charter, as it was called, in which these principles were embodied, proposed five points. The first of these was the grant of universal suf- frage in the election of members of Parliament ; the second was that of voting by ballot, a system of secret voting by which a man may avoid the declaring openly for whom he votes ; the third point is to have annual parliaments ; the fourth, that the members be paid for their services ; and the fifth, the abolition of that qualification in respect of property which all members of Parliament are now re- quired by law to possess, namely, £600 a year if member for a county, and £300 if member for a city or borough. Hardly any person of knowledge or observation can ima- gine that the extreme changes thus proposed could be pro- What rebellion broke out f Who were the Chartists ? What were their demands of reform? 388 ENGLISH HISTORY. ductive of real benefit to any rank or order of men. But still this Charter has been espoused, as has been said, very extensively among the working classes, and, as will be seen hereafter, has been brought the more before the pub- lic eye by the example of the revolution in France of 1848. It has much resemblance also to the constitution which has been adopted, though in a very different state of so- ciety from our own, in the United States of America. On the 10th of February, 1840, the Queen married her first-cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg, a nephew of the Duchess of Kent, and of Leopold, king of the Belgians. The prince-consort, while lie kept himself wise- ly aloof from all political parties in the state, was studious to promote by every means in his power our most useful charities and national institutions. Both his own habits, and those of the Queen, were of a highly English character. They often retired from the fatigues of their public life to the comparative quiet of a villa at Osborne, in the Isle of Wight, in sight of the great arsenal of Portsmouth and the roadstead of Spithead, and they had an occasional resi- dence also at Balmoral in Scotland. It was among their relaxations to make sea excursions in the royal yacht, in which they visited both Ireland and Scotland more than once. In September, 1843, they crossed the Channel, and paid a short visit to the King of the French at the Chateau d'Eu, near Treport, in Normandy ; the first visit of any English sovereign to France since Henry VIII. In the October of the following year Louis Philippe returned this visit to the Queen at Windsor; and in August and Sep- tember, 1845, the Queen and Prince Albert made a tour in Germany, and on their return passed another day or two at the Chateau d'Eu. They then doubtless little thought that before three more years should expire, the King of the French would once again need that hospitality in England which he had sought amid the misfortunes of his early life, and which was renewed after the loss of his crown in 1848. Among what classes do Chartist opinions prevail? When, and to whom, was the Queen married ? »Yhat are the domestic hahits of the Prince and Queen ? ENGLISH HISTCRY. 389 In April, 1840, war was declared by England against China. Canton was blockaded, and the island of Chusan taken possession of, in the same year ; and an invading array, under the command of Lord Gough, afterward (in Angust, 1842) penetrated to the very walls of Nankin, and dictated a peace. By this peace, the island of Hong Kong was ceded to England, and a large sum of money paid by way of an indemnity for the expenses of the war ; and, besides Canton, the only port to which foreign traders had previ- ously been admitted, four other Chinese ports were opened to commerce with the rest of the world. The terms of this treaty have, on the whole, been faithfully observed. Keying, the Chinese commissioner who was employed to adjust the treaty with the barbarians, as the English and other Europeans are called in China, expresses himself as follows in the report which he presented to his own gov- ernment on this occasion: "I, your servant, have ex- amined and found what are the unwarrantable demands of the said barbarians, and they are deserving of the ut- most hatred." He then, however, proceeds to argue that, as they have taken and kept possession of various places, which are not given up, and have not retired, it will be a difficult matter to get them back. " It is a difficult mat- ter," he adds, "to contend with them on the waters. Should it not therefore be allowed them to return to us our territory, and allow them to trade, since they are willing respectfully to pay the duties ? Just now they are sensible, and repent of their errors, and are as obedient as if driven by the wind ; and when again in mutual friend- ship, benevolence, and truth, all things will go on well." While this war was thus carrying on in China, anothei was also entered into with the Pacha, 01 viceroy, of Egypt, Mehemet Ali. This war arose out of a long contest be- tween the Pasha and his titular sovereign, the Sultan of Constantinople, in which all the greater powers of Europe at length interfered in the Sultan's behalf. In 1840 an English squadron, under the command of Commodore Against what country did England declare war? and when ? What was the object of this war ? What was Keying's opinion of the harbarians and their demands ? With whom was another war commenced ? 300 ENGLISH HISTORY. Napier, joined tlie Turkish fleet, and took Beyrout, ami afterward destroyed Acre, both which places, together with the whole coast of Syria, had been for some time in the possession of Mehemet. From Acre the Commodore proceeded to Alexandria, and prepared for an attack on that city. But. a treaty was then agreed on, by which Syria was restored to the Turks, and the government of Egypt secured to the Pacha, and made hereditary in his family. The intercourse and commerce of Egypt with Europe, and especially with England, has, since this period, greatly increased. The Upper Nile, and the relics of high antiquity to be found on its banks, have been ex- plored with success ; and Cairo, where the climate is al- ways serene and delicious during the winter months, has become a place of frequent residence for invalids. Me- hemet himself fell at length into a state of imbecility. His son, Ibrahim, was nominated viceroy in his place, Septem- ber 1, 1848, but died November 10th in the same year, and was succeeded by his nephew, Abbas, the eldest grand- son of Mehemet. Mehemet himself died August 2., 1849. Ibrahim had visited both France and England in the au- tumn of 1845 and the spring and summer of 1846. The events which have taken place, during the present reign, in the British dominions in India, are far too intri- cate to be here detailed, and yet some brief notice of them must not be omitted. The vast surface of that great pen- insula has been in general tranquil. But, on the western frontier, the British forces which had invaded Afghanistan, a large territory to the west of the Indus, were compelled by a rising of the people to retreat from Cabool in Janu- ary, 1842, under the most distressing circumstances, and were cut off in the passes of the mountains while on their retreat ; one person only escaping at the time to tell the tale. In the following year another war broke out in Scinde, a district at the mouth of the same great river, the free navigation and command of which is of the first im- portance, both to the commerce and the security of the upper provinces. General Sir Charles Napier gained here What is said of Cairo ? What events took place in India ? In what country did another war occur ? ENGLISH HISTORY, 391 A great victory at Meanee, February 17, 1843, and after- ward took Hyderabad; and, on March 24th, gained an- other victory at Dubba. The tranquillity of Scinde has beeu, since that time, undisturbed. Another war, how- ever, broke out subsequently in the district entitled the Punjab, an Indian name derived from five rivers by which it is watered. These rivers take their rise on the western side of the Himalaya mountains, the highest in the world, which bound Hindostan on the north, and, after flowing through the Punjab, run into the Indus. This fine country was inhabited by the Sikhs, a hardy and warlike race, who, on the 12th December, 1845, and the following days, crossed the Sutlej, the river by which they were bounded on the south, thus invading the British territory, and on the 18th made an attack on a British army at Moodkee. In this attack they were repulsed, and they were subse- quently compelled to retreat, and were afterward defeated at Ferozeshah on the 21st and 22d of the same month; and again, at Aliwal, January 28th, and at Sobraon, Feb- ruary 10, 1846, when they were driven back across the Sutlej with immense slaughter. In 1848 the war was re- newed. A bloody but indecisive action was fought at Chillianwallah, January 13, 1849, in which the British army was commanded by Lord Gough. This indecisive battle, though called a victory, was, in England, at first regarded as almost a defeat; and Sir Charles Napier, whose great success, a few years before, in the war in Scinde, had acquired for him an exceedingly high reputa- tion, was appointed to succeed Lord Gough as commander- in-chief. The disappointment, however, which arose from the battle of Chillianwallah* was soon relieved by the in- telligence of the capture of Mooltan, and of a decisive victory obtained by Lord Gough at Goojerat, February 21st. The result of this victory was an unconditional surrender of the Sikhs, and the annexation of the Punjab to the British dominions. * Nearly the spot, as is supposed, where Alexander the Great Did a war break out in the Punjab ? Who commanded the British troops ? -3-02 ENGLISH HISTORY. During the course of these events in distant lands, the domestic peace of England had happily not been inter- rupted by any hostility with either the powers of the Con- tinent of Europe, or with the United States of America. The strong feeling of the desirableness of universal peace, and especially of peace with this great country, which took its origin from our own shores, appears to acquire, every day, a more and more powerful influence in subduing those occasional asperities and jealousies which, in the inter- course of nations, are apt to arise. The changes, however, in the commercial and manu- facturing policy of our country have not been less, or less important, during these peaceful years, than the changes might have been from war to peace, or from peace to war. The Parliament which had been elected on the Queen's accession was dissolved in June, 1841, and the new elec- tions appeared to show that- the administration of Lord Melbourne had lost much of its hold on public opinion. Consequently Lord Melbourne resigned, and Sir Robert Peel came into office at the head of a new ministry, Sep- tember 1st, in that year. The study to remove, as far a? possible, all legislative fetters on both commerce and manu- factures was among the first principles of tho new govern- ment. Almost all the import duties on foreign goods were greatly diminished — a measure which has been fol- lowed by a great increase in the export of the British manufactures, which are sent abroad in exchange for these goods, and by which, in fact, they are purchased. Tho most important bearing of this policy was on- the heavy duties which, for the sake of protecting the British agri- culturist, had been now levied, ever since the peace of 1815, on the importation of foreign corn. An act for modifying these laws was passed in the session of 1842 ; and in order to compensate the loss of revenue, neces- sarily consequent on these changes, a new property or in- come tax of sevenpence in the pound was imposed on all incomes above £150 a year. A subsequent act for the Was the peace of England disturbed? Were changes made in the policy of the country ? Who came into office ? What is said of import duties ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 393 nearly absolute repeal of tLe corn-laws was carried through Parliament in 1846, and received the royal assent June 26th in that year. The contest which arose on that occa- sion was unusually bitter and vehement. Most of the county members in particular, who had previously been among the minister's chief supporters, now took part against him, and accused him of deserting the conserva- tive principles on which he had come forward in public life. Hence another change of ministry. Sir Robert Peel resigned, and a new administration was formed under Lord John Russell, July 4th. Amid the agitations arising from these causes in Eng- land, the failure of the crop of the potato in 1845 and 1846, plunged the Irish, who have long been greatly de- pendent on this plant for food, into the deepest distress. This distress was also aggravated by a deficiency of the corn crop of 1846, not in Ireland only, but also through- out England and almost the whole of Europe. It was partially relieved in 1847, by an abundant harvest, by a grant of ten millions from Parliament, by a vast private subscription, and by emigrations to America and other countries. It has also been attempted, by the enactment of a Poor-law for Ireland, and by measures intended to promote the agriculture and encourage the industry of this fertile island, to render its great natural resources available to the support of its inhabitants. But the benefit to be derived from these attempts has as yet been very imper- fect, and has been, moreover, seriously impeded by various tumults and even insurrections. These have been headed by vehement orators, who clamored for a repeal of the union with England, and thought, or pretended to think, that they might look to political changes for remedies only to be found in soocial tranquillity, and in promoting the sympathies of all ranks with one another. Mr. Smith O'Brien, a man of one of the families of highest rank in Ireland, took the lead in a riot in Tipperary, in which two or three lives were lost, in June, 1848; but this riot was Who next became prime minister ? What crop failed in Ireland ? did other crops fail ? Did tumults arise in Ireland ? Vho was Smith O'Brien ? 394 ENGLISH HISTORY. instantly suppressed; and he and some of his followers were subsequently arrested and tried for high treason, and found guilty, but their lives were spared, and they were transported for life. In the following year, 1849, Queen Victoria visited Ireland, and was received with the greatest demonstrations of respect and regard. It appears to be probable that the royal visits to Ireland will be frequently repeated in future ; and the more probable, inasmuch as the Lord Lieutenancy of that island is likely to be abolished — an office which, though never better filled than of late, by Lord Clarendon, is thought both to be of needless expense, and also to in- troduce a complexity in the relations with the government in London, which it is wise to remove. The reasons which operated for the retention of the office at the period of the union have long ceased to exist: and the rapidity and cer- tainty of those methods of communication which recent years have introduced, bring now the remotest parts not of England and Scotland only, but of Ireland also, into al- most immediate contact with each other. There is not any thing for which we have to be more thankful than that neither those most painful calamities which have taken place in Ireland, nor*yet a great distress which has pre- vailed in the Highlands of Scotland, nor any agitation of parties, or opposing interests, in any other parts of the empire, have appeared to blind any considerable number of the inhabitants of our own island to that wisdom which seeks its good in tranquillity ; or, it may be hoped, to that spirit of religion which submits in hope and faith to the Supreme Disposer of events. Far happier in this respect has been the fortune of England than that of France, Italy, Austria, Prussia, Portu- gal, or Spain. In France, where an under-current of vehe- ment democracy had subsisted all through the seventeen years of the reign of Louis Philippe, a new and sudden revolution broke out February 22, 1848. On the 24th the prisons were thrown open, the palace of the Tuilcries How was the Queen received in Ireland f For what should England be thankful ? Compare the fortune of England and that of other countries. What new revolution broke out in France ? ENGLISH HISTORY. ' 396 was taken possession of and plundered by the mob, and the King and Queen forced to fly to England, where they found an asylum at Claremont — a place still the property of their son-in-law, Leopold, king of the Belgians, whose first wife had been the short-lived Princess Charlotte of Wales. In this new revolution in France, which was followed immediately by the proclamation of a Republic, many of the watchwords and theories of the Revolution of 1789 were brought forward over again by the actors in it. Liberty, equality, and fraternity were proclaimed in every street and by all its orators, as their maxims or principles; and many declarations put forth that an organization, as it was called, of labor might be formed which should abolish poverty, and that it Was the business of the State to find work for all who could labor, as well as to support the old and infirm. These doctrines and this example could not be w r ithout some effect in England and Ireland. March 13th, a numer- ous meeting of the Chdrtists was held on Kennington Com- mon. A convention of Chartist delegates met in London, April 4th ; and on the 10th a great body of their delegates and partisans, w r earing rosettes of white, green, and red, assembled in John Street, Fitzroy-square, and adjourned in procession to another meeting on Kennington Common. The crowd thus assembled was supposed to amount alto- gether to the number of 23,000 or 25,000, and the leaders had intended to proceed to the House of Commons to present their petition. Much apprehension was enter- tained that some serious disturbance, similar to those which at Paris, Vienna, Berlin, and other capitals, had produced such bloody and disastrous events, might on this occasion take place. Intimation was consequently given that the procession, if attempted, would be stopped by force. The shops were shut in all the great thorough- fares. Bodies of horse and foot police were posted at the approaches of the several bridges over the Thames. A large force of regular troops were stationed, by the saga- cious provision of the Duke of Wellington, out of sight in What the effect in England ? What measures were taken by the Duke of Wellington ? J96 ENGLISH HISTORY. various places. The great commander watched in person on this day over the safety of London, and ordered the measures taken for its security. Also a very large body of special constables volunteered their services in all parts of the town. Under these circumstances the meeting on the common passed off quietly ; the crowds which had assem- bled and paraded through the streets in other parts of London dispersed without tumult ; and the general feeling that the principle of order and respect for property is far too strong in England to be assailed with success, or with any possible advantage to any rank or class of society, is thought to have received a very strong and useful con- firmation from these events. The riot in Ireland, which was headed by Mr. Smith O'Brien in the month of June in this year, has been mentioned already. A meeting, in which the same Mr. O'Brien had taken part, and in which /cry inflammatory speeches were made, and an address voted to the French Republic, had previously been held in Dublin, March 20th. This address was presented in Paris, April 3d. The example of France, or rather the great explosion which had taken place in that country, had at this time communicated itself, or was in progress of a rapid communi- cation to almost all the other countries of Europe, in most of which the seeds of revolution, or, at least, of discontent with their governments, were already sown. In Tuscany, the Grand Duke had, on February 11th in this year, granted a representative constitution to that great and flourishing duchy. On the 18th of the same month the inhabitants of Milan expelled the Austrian viceroy, and on the follow- ing day the flag of Italian independence was hoisted in all the towns of Northern Italy. The King of Sardinia, in the vain expectation of uniting Lombardy to Piedmont, afterward joined in the same cause, and a long series of fierce hostilities followed. The Austrian power, however, at length resumed its ascendency. Milan capitulated to the imperial general, August 4th, and Venice, after a mosi Were the seeds of revolution in any of the countries of Europe ? What occurred jn Italy ? Did reforms result from these disturbances ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 397 determined resistance, August 22, 1849. Vehement and oloody contests took place also both at Naples and in Sicily. In Rome Pius IX., who had been elected Pope on the death of Gregory XVI. in June, 1846, granted to his States, March 14, 1848, a Legislature, consisting of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. These reforms, how- ever, were either inadequate to the ocoasion, or gave an impulse to demand further concessions. The Pope, unable or irresolute to face the opposition thus excited, fled in disguise on December 24th of this same eventful year, and escaped to Gaeta, in the kingdom of Naples. France sub- sequently embraced his cause, and by sending an over- whelming force, took Rome, after a most brave resistance, July 3, 1849. A comparative tranquillity was then re- stored, and the Pope has since (April 12, 1850) returned to his capital. Germany, in the mean time, was not less disturbed than Italy. An insurrection took place at Vienna, March 13, 1848. The Emperor of Austria fled to Innspruck, May 18th, but returned to Vienna August 15. In the latter end of May a Congress assembled at Frankfort, in which it was proposed to consolidate all the German states under some new constitution ; and in the following March the Archduke John, brother of the Emperor of Austria, was elected Lieuten ant-General of Germany, and accepted the office. But these proceedings failed to effect any permanent good. In the end of October new conflicts took place in Vienna, and the popular party, consisting of the lowest dregs of society, became ascendant for a time. At length the Emperor's authority was again estab- lished, and an army of Hungarians was defeated, which had come to aid his opponents. A war in Hungary fol- lowed, in which the Austrians, though met by the bravest and most determined resistance, were at length victorious. In this war with Hungary Russia lent her powerful aid to the Austrians. To conclude as briefly as possible what remains to be said of the convulsions of Europe during the year 1848, Was Germany agitated by insurrections J Any war in Hungary t 398 ENGLISH HISTORY. Fierce and bloody tumults took place iu Berlin in March of this year, and were renewed in June. The Danish provinces of Schleswig and Holstein, desirous to annex themselves to Germany, revolted against Denmark, and the King of Prussia espoused their cause. Switzerland also, and both Spain and Portugal, were full of conflict and animosity. The Dowager Queen Adelaide died, after a long de- cline, at the age of fifty-seven, December 2, 1849. No person in any rank of life ever died either more loved for her quiet virtues or more conspicuous for her kindly and liberal charities. No one ever felt more sincerely that worldly greatness is as nothing in the sight of God ; and she had desired, a short time before her death, that the ceremony of embalming, and much of that state which is ordinary at royal funerals, should be set aside at her own. Under the head of the preceding reign, a brief account has already been given of the commencement of that great system of Railways which has since produced most im- portant changes throughout our whole land. The greedi- ness of gain and the extravagant expenditure into which adventurers, who thought that they were about to obtain enormous profits, imprudently plunged, brought on at length in some cases ruinous losses, and in others an alarming panic, which appeared to reach their crisis in 1847, and by which many of these undertakings have been overwhelmed, others suspended, and all depressed. But still these railway communications, throughout almost our whole island, subsist, and indeed, on the whole, in- crease, and daily ripen into some new benefit or commer- cial advantage. And yet even the metamorphosis of the railway, although it has changed almost the whole aspect of England to the traveller's eye, is a less marvel than that of the Electric Telegraphs, which are constructed on al- most all the more considerable railway lines, and by which messages may be sent and answers received, and inforina* The character of Queen Adelaide ? What great public improvements were undertaken ? The railways ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 399 lion of eveiy kind transmitted, from one end of England to another, with the speed of thought. The whole system of the Post-Office has also been sub- jected during the present reign to great alterations, and received essential improvements, introduced chiefly at the suggestion of Mr. Rowland Hill. The charges for the postage of letters had long been felt to be much too high, and were known to check in an injurious and unkindly de- gree the communications both of the middling and the poorer classes with one another. The postage of a letter from London to Oxford was eightpence, and to Edinburgh a shilling, and so in proportion for other distances. In- stead of this expensive scale we have now had, ever since January 10, 1840, the daily gratification of receiving our letters, and from any part either of Great Britain or Ire- land, at the cost of one penny if not of more than half an ounce weight. Many other alterations also have been made of the former system. Franking has been abolished ; the mails are now dispatched from London by the rail- ways, and not by mail-coaches, and twice instead of once a day, and to some places oftener. Besides these changes, a cheap money-order office has also been established, by which all but the mere village postmasters may transmit to each other orders for the payment of any sums not exceed- ing five pounds. The effect of a transition from a very dear system of the same sort to this cheap system is highly remarkable. In the quarter ending January 5, 1840, which was before the alteration, 40,763 money-orders were is- sued in England and Wales, for sums amounting alto- gether to £67,411. The number issued in the quarter ending January 5, 1849, was 4,203,727, and for an amount of £8,151.295. The number of letters which passed through the post-office in the week ending December 22, 1839, was 1,585,973, and in the week ending February 2, 1849, 6,849,196. It was observed, in the account of the last reign, that the Houses of Parliament were destroyed by fire in the What improvements in the dost-offlce ? Who was the author of the law or change ? What are chea pmoney-orders ? Were the numbers of letters increased ? 400 ENGLISH HISTORY. year 1834, and that designs were subsequently made by Mr. Barry, and approved of, for rebuilding them. The more important portions of the new buildings are at length nearly completed, and the House of Peers was opened in 1 847. The Custom-House, also the Royal Exchange, which were destroyed by fire, the one in 1837 and the other in 1838, have been rebuilt : and the new Exchange was opened by the Queen in state in October, 1843. The Tunnel under the Thames, begun in the preceding reign, was completed in March of the same year. The British Mu- seum, which has been constantly increasing its treasures of antiquity, art, and science, and attracting a larger number both of readers and visitors, has been almost re- built at great expense, and on a most extensive scale. The Xanthian marbles, brought from Lycia by Sir Charles Fellows, were opened to public view, February 6, 1843. The still more remarkable sculptures discovered at Nim- roud, the supposed site of ancient Nineveh, by Mr. Layard, were placed in the Museum June 21, 1847. Many more, and not less successful researches, have since been made in the same region by this intelligent and enterprising traveller, which will supply eventually additional illustra- tions of the oldest histories in existence, and of the sacred history in particular. Neither yet have the improvements in this vast metrop- olis been confined to the restoration and enlargement of public buildings, or to the accumulation of new stores in the Museum. Almost a new city has sprung up to the north of Hyde Park ; and a new park on the northeast of London, to which the name of Victoria Park has been as- signed in honor of the Queen, affords a breathing-place to the inhabitants of that part of the town, of which they had long been in want. Many more improvements both in London and in many provincial towns might be pointed out, but must be here passed by. It ought not, however, to be omitted that a commencement has been made of ex- tensive efforts to remedy the want of suitable dwellings What buildings were erected ? What ancient sculptures were brought to England ? The tunnel under the Thames ? Where is the Victoria Park ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 40J for the poorer classes, and to supply them with bettei means of comfort and cleanliness than are attainable in the narrow courts and unhealthy neighborhoods in which they are commonly crowded. To this end many model lodging- houses, and baths and wash-houses, some of them on a very large scale, have been constructed in London and other places. A bill also was introduced, in April, 1850, into Parliament, by which the burial of all persons who die in London must be transferred to cemeteries at some distance from town. The reasonableness of these provisions, or rather the urgent necessity by which they are dictated, has been brought the more forcibly before the public mind by the reappearance, in the autumn of 1848, of that alarming dis- ease the Asiatic cholera, of which the previous ravages in 1831 and 1832 are not forgotten. This disease, which lasted nearly a year, has been even more fatal on this recent visitation than on the former. It is aggravated by nothing more than by want of cleanliness ; and the great majority of its victims has always been found among the ill-drained and ill-ventilated habitations of the poor. The pacific and commercial intercourse of England with her colonies, and with foreign nations, during the period here spoken of, has steadily increased, and the re- sources of emigration and colonization have every year ap- peared to become the more necessary to furnish the means of employment and support for the increased multitudes of our countrymen. Upper Canada, notwithstanding the distractions of which that colony has been the scene, has attracted a perpetually augmenting number of settlers. The United States, and especially its immense western terri- tory, has absorbed many more. Australia, though with some reverses, has yet on the whole rapidly increased both in population and wealth; and the islands of New Zealand have not taken the less hold of English enterprise and in dustry because placed at the very opposite extremity of the globe. At the same time our means of communication with What hae been the intercourse of England with her colonies ? To what countries have emigrants gone ? 18 402 ENGLISH HISTORY. both America and our Indian empire have been almost a.t much facilitated by the increase and improvement of steam navigation, as our intercourse with the different parts of our own island by the introduction of railways. Steam navigation, though brought very generally into use between the several ports of the United Kingdom, and many of those of the continent of Europe, in the reign of George IV., was opened to America in 1838; the "Great West- em," steamship to New York, reaching that port June l'/th in that year, after a passage of fifteen days. The com- munication with India, which used to occupy, in the long voyage round the Cape of Good Hope, a period of from four to five months, and often more, is now effected, and almost with certainty, in five or six weeks. Or, to speak more particularly, what is called the overland passage to India is now commonly made by steam navigation to Malta and Alexandria, and then again by Cairo and across the desert to Suez, and thence by the Red Sea. By this route the transit from England to Bombay is ordinarily accomplished in from thirty to thirty-five days, and that to Calcutta in ten days more. To these events thus more peculiarly appertaining to our own history it remains to be added, that in the course of the last few years discoveries of gold have been made in California, which carry back the mind to the early his- tory of the settlement of the Spaniards in Mexico, and which have excited scarcely less cupidity. It may also be added, that it appears to be likely that the system of rail- roads will be extended across the vast continent of America, and that a ship-canal, which had long seemed to be among the day-dreams of geographers, is at length about to be constructed across the Isthmus of Panama, by which the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans will be joined. To these great results both of skill and of enterprise in almost all the accessible portions of the globe, it was, for a time, hoped and wished — but we must now at length fear vainly wished — that the arctic regions of the western nemisphere might furnish gratifying addition. These re- What has been the effect of steam navigation ? Of the discovery of gold in California f ENGLISH HISTORY. 403 gions, although bound up in a chain of ice, which has as yet proved impassable, have provoked, even by the diffi- culties which they present to the navigator, and by past failures, the desire to penetrate them, and to accomplish the problem of the northwest passage from Hudson's Bay to Beh ring's Straits. Among the attempts to attain -this object, that of Sir John Ross, who sailed from England in 1829, is one of the most memorable. But he was unable to proceed farther than to Repulse Bay, where he was blocked up by the ice, and long remained unheard of; and was almost despaired of, when, after not less than four years' absence, he returned, to the great joy of his friends and the public. Sir John Franklin, who had previously explored these icy regions in 1819-22, and reached in 1825-27 the coast of the northern sea by a land journey from Canada, undeter- red by the failures of the many previous attempts to effect the passage by sea, sailed on another trial in May, 1845. But no tidings have been yet received of him, although many efforts have been already made to send him assist ance, or to ascertain his fate. CHAPTER XLI. REIGN OF QUEEN VICTORIA. PART II. [Years after Christ, 1851— 1858.] The year 1851 will be long remembered as the year of the Great Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations. The design of this Exhibition, if not suggested, was at least supported from the first, and energetically and successfully carried through, by Prince Albert. The building in which it was held was remarkable as well for the novelty of its design as for its great extent. It was erected in Hyde Park, and covered nineteen acres of ground. This vast The northwest passage ? The great exhibition ? -104 ENGLISH HISTORY. building was constructed of glass and iron, and was found admirably suited for the display of the immense variety of objects of every description of interest which were there brought together from all parts of the world. The con- tents of this fragile edifice were valued at more than two millions sterling, and this open display cf so great wealth was a proof of the security which England enjoyed. The undertaking was completely successful. The Exhibition was kept open for twenty-three weeks, and the number of persons admitted to it during that time was more than six millions. Thousands of visitors were con- veyed from all parts of the country by cheap excursion trains on the various railroads ; and altogether it may be safely said that never before was an equal amount of grati- fication and instruction so widely diffused. This splendid work has since been copied in other buildings of great extent raised for purposes of exhibition at Paris, New York, Dublin, and Manchester, and the original materials have been bought by a company, and removed and reerected at Sydenham, with some alterations 1 of design, as a permanent structure, which still retains the fanciful title, popularly bestowed on its predecessor, of the Crystal Palace. In the year 1851 a discovery was made of extensive gold fields in Australia, and this has led to a great increase of emigration to that colony. The close of the following year, 1852, was marked by the death (September 14) and public funeral of the Duke of Wellington. The funeral took place in St. Paul's Cathedral (November 18) with every demonstration of na- tional sorrow and respect. Not many days later (Decem- ber 1) the reestablishment of the French Empire under Prince Louis Napoleon, the nephew of the first Napoleon, the Duke's old antagonist, was proclaimed by the Legisla- tive Assembly of France. The new Emperor was imme- diately acknowledged and congratulated on his accession How long kept open ? To what country was there a great emigration ? Whose death is mentioned ? What empire was re-established ? Who was the emperor? ENGLISH HISTORY. 40b by the English ambassador at Paris. lie has ever since steadily maintained the closest alliance with England Friendly visits have been exchanged between the monarch* of these two great countries ; and we may trust that the two nations are fully avake to the benefits of mutual peace, and that all unchristian feelings of national jealousy and dis- like have passed away. The increase of commerce and the improvement in communications have scarcely ever flagged during the whole period of which we are now speaking. New lines of railway have been opened, not in our own islands only, but also in our principal dependencies, Canada, India, and even Australia. But the most remarkable application of science to the uses of life in modern times has been in the Electric Telegraph. This discovery enables intelligible signs to be transmitted instantaneously by electricity from one end of a wire to the other, however distant. This principle has rapidly been reduced, to a system. Lines of wires have been extended in a few years over a great part of the civilized world, and means have been found for carrying these wires under the sea, imbedded in a cable ingeniously contrived, which protects them from injury. The first Submarine Telegraph, crossing the Straits of Dover, was successfully laid September 27, 1851. In less than seven years from that date, after great difficulties and several failures, the signal triumph was accomplished (August 5, 1858) of laying a cable across the Atlantic from Valentia on the Irish coast to the shores of New- foundland. We cannot deny ourselves the pleasure of re- cording the words and adopting the prayer, first carried from the New World to the Old by this, the greatest work of modern days : " Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace, good-will toward men." * We must now recur to the mention made in a former page of the point which had been reached by Arctic dis- * Another cable was successfully laid between the same placce in ihe summer of 1866. What means of communication have increased ? Where was laid the first aubmarine telegraph ? 406 ENGLISH HISTORY. covery in the year 1850. Since that time the long-sought Northwest passage has been at length found to exist, though for the purposes of commerce it can never be of any real service. The Investigator, commanded by Cap- tain McClure, entered the Arctic seas by Behring's Straits in the summer of 1850. After taking up his winter quarters on the shore of Baring Island, he proceeded to explore the neighboring regions by parties travelling over the frozen sea. On the 26th of October he discovered a passage leading into Barrow's Strait, and thus communi- cating through Davis's Strait with the Atlantic Ocean. During the whole of the next season (that of 1851) the ice never broke up sufficiently to enable the voyagers to extricate themselves from their position ; but eventually, though compelled to abandon their vessel, and to seek a different route for their return, and after encountering dif- ficulties too long to be here detailed, they returned to England. Meanwhile no trace of Sir John Franklin and his brave companions was discovered. Every year, however, added to the conviction that it was impossible that they could still survive, and in 1854 evidence was obtained which sets the melancholy fate beyond all doubt. An enterprising traveller, Dr. Rae, while engaged in making a survey of the shores of Boothia, fell in with some Esquimaux who told him of the death by famine in the year 1850 of a company of white men about forty in number. Dr. Rae was unable to attempt to reach the spot at which this event occurred; but he obtained from the Esquimaux, in con- firmation of their story, many articles known to have be- longed to the lost voyagers, which had been found on the scene of the sad tragedy, near the mouth of the river Back. Extensive discoveries, in a very different region, and it is hoped of much more practical utility, have been recently made in the interior of Africa. Dr. David Livingstone, an adventurous missionary traveller, returned to England in the winter of 1856, after a period of more than sixteen years spent in the heart of that great continent. In thai What is said of Captain McClure and Sir John Franklin ? By whom were discoveries made ir Africa ? ENGLISH HISTORY. 407 Lime he traversed about 11,000 miles, the greater portion of that long distance through a country never before visited by any European. In the vast tracts of Africa so nth of the equator, Dr. Livingstone found flourishing kingdoms and an intelligent population, inhabiting a fertile country situated in a not unfavorable climate. This territory is traversed by a fine navigable river, the Zambesi, flowing into the Mozambique channel. In the year 1853 a war broke out between Kussia and Turkey, in which England and France were speedily called upon, as allies of Turkey, to take a principal share. This memorable and important war arose out of an attempt on the part of the Russian Emperor Nicholas I. to take ad- vantage of the weakness of Turkey for the purpose of ex- tending his own influence and dominions in the direction of Constantinople. His whole design extended to a com- plete dismemberment of the Turkish empire. He even ventured to propose to Sir Hamilton Seymour, the British ambassador at St. Petersburg, that our own country should connive at his project, seizing Egypt, or some other im- portant possession, as our share of the spoil. In pursuance of these ambitious projects, the Emperor Nicholas ordered Prince Menzikoff, his ambassador at Constantinople, to make various demands which the Sultan could not possibly grant, and, in short, to pick a quarrel with him. On the refusal of these demands the ambassa- dor left Constantinople, May 22d. On the 2d of July the Russian army crossed the Pruth, the boundary between Russia and Turkey, and took possession of Wallachia and Moldavia, these being the whole of the Turkish territories north of the Danube. This was the real beginning of the war, which was formally declared against Russia by the Porte in September, 1853, and by France and England in the March following. The first heavy blow was struck by Russia. A power- nil fleet from Sebastopol surprised a small and unde- fended Turkish squadron in the harbor of Sinope, and What war broke out in 1853 ? What was the cause ? What were the designs of Russia 1 408 ENGLISH HISTORY. totally destroyed it. This disaster occurred November 30th. The early spring of the following year was occupied by a campaign on the Danube, in which the Turks under Omar Pacha displayed unexpected steadiness : with very inferior numbers they repulsed the Russians in many en- gagements, and concluded a successful campaign by the brilliant defence of Silistria, from which the Turks, aided by two British officers, drove back the enemy with great loss. Shortly afterward the. Principalities in which the war had broken out were occupied, at the request of the Turkish government, and with the acquiescence of Russia, by Austrian troops ; and these provinces thus became for the time neutral, and the war was removed to another scene. For many years the Russians had been engaged in forti- fying the harbor of Sebastopol in the Crimea, in building extensive docks and arsenals, and in collecting a large fleet and warlike stores of every kind. The whole of the Crimean peninsula was a comparatively recent acquisition of this great power, having been taken from Turkey in 1783, and this military establishment on its shores was now manifestly designed for aggression upon the Turkish dominions. Accordingly, the English and French generals, who had arrived at Yarna, resolved to attempt its destruc- tion, and an allied army of 56,000 men was transported across the Black Sea, and safely landed on the 14th of September, 1854, on the shore of the Crimea, a few miles south of the small town of Eupatoria. The British were commanded by Lord Raglan, a division being under the orders of the Duke of Cambridge, and the French by Marshal St. Arnaud. The united army immediately began its march toward Sebastopol. On September the 20th they came in presence of the Russians under Prince Men- zikoff, who had taken up a strong position on a range of heights on the southern bank of the river Alma. After p. short but bloody contest the English and French stormed What occurred on the Danube ? What place was strongly fortified ? What was the number of the allied army ? Who commanded the English ? who the French ? EXGLISH HISTORY. 409 the heights, and the enemy retreated in confusion to Se- bastopol. The victor? continued their inarch, and by a detour to the left arrived on the 25th at the village of Balaklava, of which they took possession, together with the small but safe harbor of the same name. A few days later commenced the siege of Sebastopol, a siege memora- ble for its length, for the endurance and pertinacity shown both in the attack and in the defence, for many acts of heroism on both sides, for the great scale on w T hich the operations were conducted, and it must be added, for the unparalleled sufferings of nearly all who took part in it The first grand attack took place on the 17th of October, with a general bombardment both by sea and land. This attack produced little impression, but the fire of the Rus- sian forts and of the newly-raised intrenchments inflicted considerable loss on the allies, especially on tlie English