LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. Deceived Hxrtr. ....! .Q , i Accessions No. H& 74 I . Class No. ' METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY FOR THE USE OF TEACHERS AND NORMAL SCHOOLS BY CHARLES F. KING PRESIDENT OF NATIONAL SUMMER SCHOOL OF METHODS MASTER OF DEARBORN SCHOOL BOSTON FORMERLY SUB-MASTER OF LEWIS SCHOOL BOSTON WITH NUMJgfag&lJL }^TRA TJONS UHIYERSIT7 BOSTON 1889 LEE AND SHEPARD PUBLISHERS 10 MILK STREET NEXT " THE OLD SOUTH MEETING-HOUSE " NEW YORK CHARLES T. DILLINGHAM 718 AND 720 BROADWAY COPYRIGHT, 1888, BY LEE AND SHEPARD. All rights reserved. WHEN GEOGRAPHY ceases to be a lifeless aggre- of unorganized facts, and deals with the earth true organization, -a world capable of constant development, carrying in its bosom the seeds of the future, to germinate andl&tt^^e after age, -it first ns the unity and wholeness of a science, and shows that it grows from a living root; it becomes capable of systematic exposition, and takes its true place in the circle of sister sciences - THE POWER OF TEACHING A LITTLE, depends upon the power of knowing a great deal. GOOD METHODS OF TEACHING are important, but they cannot* supply the want of ability in the teacher. The Socratic method is good ; but a Socrates behind the teacher's desk, to ask the questions, is better. BALOET. PREFACE THE greatest enterprises of the present day are the result of accurate geographical knowledge. The finest exhibitions of heroism and bravery and suffering have been endured amid frigid cold or tropic heat, in order to enlarge the world's geographical information ; and the most exqui- site pleasure enjoyed by educated people is found in real geographical study while travelling. In the different German universities, there are to-day twelve regular professors of geography. France has twenty- five geographical societies, with a membership of over twenty thousand. England has five societies ; Germany, two ; and America, one. At the annual meetings of these numerous societies, and in the one hundred and twenty periodicals published by them, the growing importance of geographical study has been eloquently discussed,\ and the strongest criticisms expressed in reference to the methods and text-books so universally employed in teaching the subject. Geography is the most fascinating, or the least attractive, study in the common-school curriculum, according to the method and books employed in teaching it. The inferior instruction given in this subject when the author attended the district school, and his own failures in the same line VI PREFACE when he began his life-work in New Bedford in 1867, nave led, by a deep-felt necessity, to long and earnest study, and to continued efforts for better methods and more satisfactory results. The object of this book is to give the teaching fraternity the results of these twenty years of experience in the school- room. Ideas and facts have been gathered, by much patient research, from many available sources. Most of the books thus freely consulted are mentioned at the beginning of the chapters. Teachers are urged to purchase these books as fast as means will allow, that they may have the satisfaction of more extended information, and consequently greater teaching power. It gives the author great pleasure to acknowledge here special assistance and suggestion from Misses O'Neil and Murphy, Lewis School, Roxbury ; from Professor Charles F. Adams, Massachusetts State Normal School, Worcester ; from Professor Thomas M. Balliet, superintendent of schools, Springfield ; from Dr. S. T. Button, superintendent of schools, New Haven ; and from many of the officials in the Boston Public Library, among whom particular mention should be made of Mr. A. P. C. Griffin, whose accurate memory, and wonderful knowledge of books, have frequently been of the greatest assistance. To my friend and fellow- worker, Mr. M. T. Pritchard, master of the Comins School, Boston, Mass., I am greatly indebted for many valuable suggestions, and for the careful reading of both the manuscript and the proofs. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY ... i II. AIMS AND RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF GEOGRAPHY ... 21 III. WRONG METHODS vs. THE TOPICAL METHOD 37 IV. ADVANTAGES OF THE TOPICAL METHOD 53 V. APPARATUS < . . 75 VI. MAP LANGUAGE 89 VII. . MAPS 99 VIII. PICTURES AND OBJECTS 121 IX. MISCELLANEOUS DEVICES 137 X. MODEL LESSONS 189 XI. Six YEARS' COURSE OF STUDY 221 XII. Six YEARS' COURSE OF STUDY (concluded) 235 XIII. WHAT TO TEACH ON NORTH AMERICA 255 XIV. WHAT TO TEACH ON NORTH AMERICA (continued) . . 285 XV. WHAT TO TEACH ON NORTH AMERICA (concluded} . . 321 XVI. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY 341 XVII. COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY (concluded} 361 XVIII. MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY 385 XIX. SOURCES OF INFORMATION AND ILLUSTRATION .... 425 XX. LIST OF A THOUSAND BOOKS 453 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PRINCIPAL CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES Frontispiece, FIGURE PAGE 1. PORTRAIT OF RITTER 27 2. PORTRAIT OF HUMBOLDT 29 3. OUTLINE OF THE WORLD. Opposite 70 4. SAME OUTLINE FILLED IN BY PUPIL. Opposite 70 5. RUBBER PEN 84 6. DISHES AND BRUSHES USED IN SAND MAP 103 7. BEGINNING OF THE SAND MAP , 104 8. SAND MAP, SECOND STEP 105 9 SAND MAP, COMPLETED 106 10. CONTOUR LINES 109 n. DIAGRAM FOR NORTH AMERICA 112 12. PROGRESSIVE MAP, NORTH AMERICA 115 13. PROGRESSIVE MAP, NORTH AMERICA 115 14. PROGRESSIVE MAP, NORTH AMERICA 115 15. PROGRESSIVE MAP, NORTH AMERICA . , .115 16. HEATH'S OUTLINE MAP 118 17. THE SAME FILLED IN 119 18. OLD-FASHIONED PICTURE 125 19. NEW-STYLE PICTURE 126 20. SIZE OF CONTINENTS AND WATER 139 21. CONTINENTS COMPARED WITH EACH OTHER 139 22. COMPARATIVE SIZE OF STATES AND OTHER COUNTRIES ... 141 23. A PART OF THE UNITED STATES COMPARED WITH ARGENTINE REPUBLIC AND BRITISH INDIA 142 ix X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURE PAGE 24. BRAZIL AND THE UNITED STATES 143 25. ALASKA AND THE UNITED STATES 144 26. LENGTH OF CALIFORNIA ON THE ATLANTIC COAST .... 145 27. AREA OF FRANCE AND GERMANY ........... 146 28. AREA OF ENGLAND, BELGIUM, ETC 146 29. COMPARATIVE SIZE OF MOUNTAINS 146 30. COMPARATIVE SIZE IN POPULATION OF VARIOUS CITIES, ETC. 147 31. LONDON COMPARED WITH NEW ENGLAND AND NEW JERSEY . 148 32. STARTLING STATISTICS 149 33. MANUFACTURING AND AGRICULTURE COMPARED 149 34. DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE UNITED STATES COMPARED . . . 151 35. DIFFERENT GRAND DIVISIONS COMPARED 151 36. DIFFERENT CREEDS COMPARED 151 37. SHAPES OF COUNTRIES 153 38. MOUTHS OF^THE Po 155 39. SKETCH-MAP OF FLODDEN FIELD . . 162 40. SKETCH-MAP OF OCEANICA 162 41. INDUSTRIES OF THE MEDITERRANEAN . 164 42. DIAGRAM OF THE RAIN FROM THE OCEAN . 167 43. CURRENTS PRODUCED 168 44. HOW TO REPRESENT ELEVATIONS 170 45. SKETCH-MAP OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY 171 46. NUMBER OF INHABITANTS IN WET AND DRY CLIMATES. . . 172 47. NUMBER OF INHABITANTS IN WARM AND COLD TEMPERATURES, 174 48. COAL-FlELDS OF THE UNITED STATES 179 49. MAP OF MAUCH CHUNK 180 50. A FALLING ROOF 180 51. COAL BREAKER 180 52. PEN-PICTURE OF MAUCH CHUNK 181 53. ANOTHER TITLE-PAGE DRAWN WITH PEN 182 54. ILLUSTRATION FROM FRINK'S COMPOSITION 186 55. BELTS OF FORESTS AND DESERTS. Opposite 187 56. THE UPHEAVALS AND DEPRESSIONS. Opposite 187 57. COMPARISONS OF THE GRAND DIVISIONS IN AREA. Opposite . 260 58. ELEVATIONS OK EASTERN UNITED STATES 269 59. THE GREAT LAKES 274 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xi FIGURE PAGE 60. THE GREAT BEND IN THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER 275 61. PROFILE OF NIAGARA FALLS 278 62. ANNUAL INDUSTRIES 371 63. ANNUAL INDUSTRIES OF THE WORLD . 371 64. ANNUAL INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES 371 65. PERPENDICULAR AND SLOPING RAYS , 399 66. SIMPLE APPARATUS FOR MEASURING LATITUDE 405 67. GREAT DIPPER AND CASSIOPEIA 407 68. YEARLY MOTION OF THE EARTH 417 UNIVERSITY INTRODUCTION A WORD or two, at this point, in reference to the wisest use of the book, may not be amiss. The different chapters may be classified under the following heads : 1. How to teach geography. 2. What to teach in geography. 3. Where to find valuable geographical knowledge. In order to obtain the greatest benefits possible from the contents, it is well not to attempt to follow with blind confidence all the methods recommended in the first part. Although these methods have been employed in my own school, or by trusted teachers in other schools, and all have been found to be excellent where used, yet your circum- stances may be very different. It is your privilege, as well as your duty, to select, or find out by experiment, the methods best adapted to your own schoolroom. Modify these methods, if necessary, so as to make them really your own, and then success will invariably follow. If your school is not well graded, or if your committee, superintendent, or principal requires certain results, you may need to modify your use of the book to correspond. It is believed, however, that nearly all the methods, slightly changed to meet different conditions, will be found to be most helpful to any teacher of geography. XIV INTRODUCTION Under the head of What to teach, extensive statistical information has been given, NOT TO BE MEMORIZED, but simply as material with which teacher and pupil can form comparisons, from which they can draw conclusions, and with which they can construct a better geography than the ordinary text-book provides. In this way pupils will un- consciously learn and remember all the necessary facts. In Chap. XVIII. , on Commercial Geography, and in Chaps. XIX. and XX., devoted to Sources of Information and Illustration, a large amount of varied information, not easily accessible, has been presented, in order to give a wide range of selection. The wise teacher will daily choose from these chapters such additional information as will make the lesson more interesting and profitable. Many of the books mentioned in the volume ought to be found in your own town-library, under each author's name ; or they can prob- ably be purchased at the nearest bookstore ; or, if you prefer, the publishers of this volume will cheerfully furnish information, and fill orders for any book mentioned. The headings to the chapters wilt frequently be service- able in review work, and the table of contents and index can be used in a similar manner with normal classes. In addition to. the usual style, the publishers have bound the book in flexible covers, so that it will easily lie open upon the teacher's desk, and be more readily used. The illustra- tions are of a practical, rather than an artistic, nature, and are such as can be readily reproduced in crayon on the blackboard. Most of them have been drawn by my own pupils, and reproduced by photography. Many of the historical and descriptive references in this book apply to New England; but they are merely sug- INTRODUCTION. XV gestive, and the wise teacher can readily adapt them to suit other localities. The word "geography" is a comprehensive term, and admits of many subdivisions, physical, political, historical, descriptive, ethnographical, mathematical, etc. Each of these parts is a science in itself, and has its special field for investigation and development. In all schools for primary and secondary instruction, there need be but little done in any one of the particular subdivisions. What is required is a judicious blending of all into an harmonious whole, in which no subordination, no prominence, is given to any part of the all-embracing science. In some recently published manuals, undue and for practical purposes unwise prominence has been given to physical geography, seemingly founded on the definition that " geography is a description of the earth's surface ; " whereas the educational spirit of the age requires the addi- tion of the words, " and its inhabitants," to the trite and much-abused definition. In the following pages, the endeavor has been made to suggest some methods for teaching geography comprehen- sively but not exhaustively. Hence only a few of the simple and interesting facts of physical geography are mentioned in the Six Years' Course laid out in Chapters XL and XII. In this matter our experience, as set forth in this volume, happily agrees with Ritter, Guyot, Reclus, Geikie, Crocker, and Carver. METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY CHAPTER I PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY A KNOWLEDGE of the laws of mental operations, in other words, of their conditions, is a matter of the greatest practical utility to the educator. Sully. BOOKS FOR REFERENCE CALDERWOOD'S TEACHING. CURRIE'S COMMON SCHOOL EDUCATION. COMPAYRE'S HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY. FITCH'S LECTURES ON TEACHING. FROEBEL'S EDUCATION OF MAN. GILL'S SYSTEMS OF EDUCATION. HEWITTS PEDAGOGY. KRUN'S LIFE OF PESTALOZZI. JOHNSON'S EDUCATION BY DOING. JOHONNOT'S PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE. LAURIE'S COMENIUS. LOCKE ON EDUCATION. PAGE'S THEORY AND PRACTICE. PARKER'S TALKS ON EDUCATION. Jos. PAYNE'S LECTURES ON EDUCATION. W. H. PAYNE'S SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. ROSENKRANZ'S PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION. QUICK'S EDUCATIONAL REFORMERS. SPENCER'S EDUCATION. SULLY'S PSYCHOLOGY. THRING'S THEORY AND PRACTICE OF EDUCATION, TATE'S PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION. WHITE'S ELEMENTS OF PEDAGOGY. METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY CHAPTER I PART I -PRINCIPLES PERTAINING TO THE TEACHER EXACT KNOWLEDGE CAREFUL PREPARATION FREE INTERCOURSE BETWEEN TEACHER AND PUPIL INSTRUCTION ADAPTED TO THE CHILD-MIND CHILDREN NOT TO BE TOLD EVERY THING THE RIGHT ORDER OF PRESENTING A SUBJECT PART II PRINCIPLES PERTAINING TO THE PUPIL PUPILS' OBSERVING POWERS SENSATION AND ATTENTION BEFORE PERCEPTION HABIT OF ATTENTION, HOW CULTIVATED THE ACTIVITY OF THE EAR, THE EYE, AND THE HAND PROFESSOR CALDERWOOD AND OTHERS INTELLIGENT OBSERVATION SHOULD BE CULTIVATED "ALCAZAR" NOT EASY TO CLASSIFY, ETC. TO MIS- TAKE THE SIGN REVIEW AND REPETITION PART I PRINCIPLES PERTAINING TO THE TEACHER 1. The Necessity of Ample and Exact Knowledge of the Subject taught. OLD ROGER ASCHAM in his "Schoolmaster" de- scribes his ideal student and teacher as " Philoponos, that one who hath lust to labor; and Zetetikos, one that is always desirous to search out any doubt, not ashamed to learn of the meanest, nor afraid to go to the greatest, till he be perfectly taught and fully satisfied." 3 4 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY "A teacher," said Edward Everett, "ought to know, of every thing, much more than the learner can be expected to acquire. The teacher must know things in a masterly way, curiously and nicely and in their reasons. He must see truth under all its aspects, with its antecedents and consequents, or he cannot present it in just that shape in which the young mind can apprehend it. He must, as he holds the diamond up to the sun, turn its facets round and round, till the pupil catches the lustre." Education is both an art and a science. The art of edu- cation deals with the methods ; the science of education explains the principles. Daily work in the schoolroom gives experience in the art of teaching ; reading Sully, or listening to some of the great lecturers on psychology or pedagogics, increases one's knowledge of the science of teaching. The main object and purpose of this book is practical : to help the teacher directly in his work, to deal with the methods of teaching geography, the art of the subject, rather than to study and consider the principles underlying those methods. Yet to save repetition and constant refer- ence to numerous educational books, some of which may not be in the reader's library at the present time, it may be well to recall and emphasize a few well-known and generally accepted principles of education, now believed in and prac- tised by the best instructors of the world. It was a remark of Professor Henry, that "The laws which govern the growth and operations of the human mind are as definite and as general in their application as those which apply to the material universe ; and it is evident that the true system of education must be based upon a knowledge and application of those laws." If a stranger should to-day visit a dozen schools in Boston or any large city in this country, and report the five teachers CAREFUL PREPARATION 5 who seemed to possess the greatest teaching capacity, he would without doubt select sien of whom the superintendent of the city would laughingly say, " Of course they did well on those subjects, for they are experts in those departments." And further study of the five cases by the stranger would reveal the fact that these men possessed fine memories, that they were great readers, that they had been studying those particular branches for years and years, that they possessed large libraries on their favorite subjects, that they were never satisfied with their present knowledge, but were ever trying to increase their acquaintance with these studies. The old adage, Knowledge is power, is never truer than in the work of teaching. Alas ! how often have teachers tried to deny the truth of this saying in reference to geogra- phy ; and how often have their dismal and cruel failures testified to the general correctness of the adage ! Exact, full, complete knowledge of the subject gives the teacher that self-confidence necessary to the best presentation of information, makes him court questions, independent of one little text-book, broad-minded, able to make comparisons, to express decided opinions if necessary, and, best of all, confers the power to stimulate by unconscious example the desire in the students to learn more on the subject. 2. This Exact Knowledge requiring Careful Daily Preparation. Fitch truly says, " The moment any man ceases to be a systematic student, he ceases to be an effective teacher.'* Constant study keeps the teacher in sympathy with the pupils, makes him more patient and more willing to explain. His example encourages them to work faithfully as nothing else will. 6 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY Geography is not an exact science, like arithmetic, which may perhaps be once learned, ajid learned forever. Geog- raphy is constantly enlarging its scope and changing its facts as the world progresses. Hence the live teacher must make fresh preparation, or teach a legendary geography, as is really being done all about us by the servile users of most text-books. Compare the productions and exports given for various countries, in many geographies, with the facts stated in the United States Consular Reports, and notice the wonderful differences. 3. Free Intercourse to be encouraged between Teacher and Pupils. If the teacher has made the careful preparation men- tioned above, he will be ready to encourage a certain dig- nified, and, at the same time, free, intercourse between himself and his class, such as will lead them to ask all kinds of questions upon the subjects under consideration, and also to impart information acquired at home, on their travels, by extra reading, even to present opinions of authors and books, and to give reasons for the same. No greater mistake can be made by a teacher than to hold himself so far above his pupils that they do not dare to be familiar enough with him to seek explanations of things misunder- stood. All proper questions should be welcome, for nothing shows more conclusively good attention than the asking of a pertinent question at the right moment. The proper reply to the question may be, "Look in the dictionary," " in the gazetteer," or " in the geography." Teachers can in a short time educate a class to exhibit this feeling of confidence, by refusing ever to laugh at mis- takes, or to allow members of the class to do so, by refrain- THE AVERAGE CHILD 7 ing from sarcastic remarks, and by approving all efforts made by the pupils in the direction recommended. When- ever a pupil gives some fact unknown to teacher as well as pupil, the teacher will wisely acknowledge his ignorance, and commend the pupil who taught him something. This course pleases the pupil, and makes him think all the more of his teacher. 4. The Method of Instruction adapted to the Mind of the Average Child in the Class. As long as the present foolish and expensive method of teaching pupils in large classes of fifty-six members is adhered to by school-boards, under false ideas of economy, the teacher is practically prevented from giving much indi- vidual instruction in the regular time for school work. He must work with the class as a unit, and adapt his instruc- tion and methods, not to the brightest ten, not to the dullest ten, but to the ability and understanding of the middle section of the class. Some teachers make the mistake of spending most of their time and energy with the slow and dull pupils. Such a course is entirely wrong, because so unjust to the bright members of the class. The teacher must not undertake to supply deficiencies of brain ; that is the work of the Creator, In every class there will be some who can never understand, never remember, never be as accurate, as ordinary children. Such pupils can never be made perfect, even if they were placed under the most favorable circumstances of having a teacher all by themselves. After the teacher has adapted his rate of progress and simplicity of explanation to the ability of the average child, and made him understand, he 5 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY should advance for the sake of the middle part and the best part of his class, which together constitute the majority. As classes differ year by year, a teacher's progress will vary in different years, and his methods change, in detail, at least. Hence the wise teacher studies his class as well as the subject to be taught. Thring says, " The teacher's subject is not books, but mind. On the other hand, the lecturer's subject, in the first instance, is not mind, but books. This distinction is vital, and the most important results follow." 5. Children not to be told what they can find out for themselves. Sir William Hamilton says, "The primary principle of education is the determination of the pupil to self-activity, the doing nothing for him which he is able to do for himself." Payne says, " One of the most important principles in education is, that what a child does for and by himself, educates him. The highest form of teaching consists, then, in setting a child to gain knowledge for him- self by the exercise of his own native powers." These men do not mean that the teacher is never, to render help to the pupil : he is ; but that help will be the best which aims to encourage pupils to help themselves. The teacher who awakens enthusiasm, guides and satisfies it when awakened, does much more for the pupil than the teacher who simply imparts information. The teacher should never forestall the delight which every mind has in finding out truth for itself. PROFESSOR JACOTOT 9 How does Nature teach? She makes her pupils teach themselves. She gives no explanation, no discourse. She does not tell the difference between hard and soft things : she says, " Feel them ; " between this animal and that, she says, " Place them side by side, and find out the difference yourself." Perhaps no teacher ever followed nature's methods more closely than Jacotot, professor at Louvain, Belgium, and who died in Paris in 1840. Instead of pouring forth a flood of information on the subject under consideration, from his own ample stores, and explaining the whole matter, he would make a few simple statements, and then invite his pupils to raise questions, make observations, suggest answers, ask for facts. His object was to excite and direct the intellectual energies of his pupils, to train them to t/iink. His fundamental principle was : Learn something, and refer all the rest to it. His system is condensed into four words : Learn, repeat, reflect, and verify. 1 Rousseau says in his " Emile : " " I do not at all admire explanatory discourses ; young people give little attention to them, and never retain them. Things! things ! I can never enough repeat it, that we make words of too much consequence." There is need at the present time, for teachers to heed the warning sounded in the above extracts. Just as soon as a teacher begins to depart from text-book instruction in geography, for instance, he is apt to substitute his own tongue for the book, and pour into the empty air useless words which disappear like dew in the morning. Instead of the teacher reading to the children frequently 1 For an interesting account of Jacotot's method, see Jos. Payne's Education; English edition, p. 79. 10 METHODS AND ATDS IN GEOGRAPHY on geographical subjects, he should help them to read to him ; instead of telling them geographical facts, direct them where and when to find these facts, and how to present them to the class as new knowledge. Instead of interpret- ing the map to the children, teach them to read it as they do a book, and to relate what it tells to one another. The great object of this book is to suggest to teachers, how to make the child learn geography for himself under the guid- ance of his teacher. 6. The Necessity of being Orderly in giving Instruction : of proceeding from Particular Facts to General Truths ; from the Simple to the Complex ; from the Known to the Unknown. Jos. Payne says : * The mind, in gaining knowledge for itself, proceeds from the concrete to the abstract, from particular facts to general facts or principles, and from principles to laws, rules, and definitions ; and not in the inverse order." There should be an orderly arrangement of what is taught, if for no other reason, because the memory retains facts more readily if presented in a natural order. The laws of mind, in this respect, are in harmony with the laws of nature. All well-written scientific articles, the best stones and poems, are developed in logical order. The impossibility of remembering what violates this natu- ral order of arrangement is well illustrated by the following example. Foote, the comedian, once won a wager by betting that a certain man of a powerful memory could not memorize in ten minutes the following : *' So she went into the garden to cut a cabbage-leaf to make an apple-pie . and at the same time a she-bear coming up the street, pops THE CHILD'S MIND I I its head into the shop. What, no soap? So he died, and she very imprudently married a barber. And there were present the Picinin- nies, the elegant, and the Joblillies, and the Gargulies, and the grand Panjandrum himself; with a little round bonnet at the top; and they all fell to playing catch as catch again; till the gunpowder ran out of the heels of their boots." There is a great deal of teaching which presents the sub- ject to the young mind in about as jumbled-up a mess as the above nonsensical extract. Every teacher knows how easy it is to remember certain lectures and sermons, how difficult to recall others. Every teacher should study out the reason, and apply the deductions to his own teaching. 1 This leads to the second part of this chapter, the im- portance of understanding a child's mind in order to teach to the best advantage. PART II PRINCIPLES PERTAINING TO THE PUPIL THE nature of a child's mind usually shows 1. His Observing Powers to be Keener and more Actire than his Reasoning Powers. Thring wisely says, "The complete absence of the reasoning faculty, so far as learning by means of it goes, determines at once the whole character of good teaching at the beginning. There must be simple statements and simple explanations. The early stages require the new ideas and facts to be put like pictures before the pupil. Rigid, formulated, 1 Professor W. W. White's System of Training the Memory will greatly benefit iachers who possess poor memories. [U1TI7EESIT7] 12 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY square statements cannot find their way with their corners into the little tortuous windings of the little mind with all its blind mazes, passages that lead to nothing, obstructions of previous ideas, mobs of small idolatries, idolatries of play, idolatries of day-dreams, com- bined with absolute incapacity to bar the unyielding thrust of logic in its fine tissues." In children the senses and the observing powers are keen and active, the mind being principally directed to the per- ception of the qualities of objects and their simple rela- tions. Notice how readily boys and girls learn new games. How . much two boys will see in riding or walking on a new road ! How minutely they will describe a fire or an accident ! What good observers they frequently are of the habits and actions of animals I As the mind develops, more obscure and complex rela- tions of objects are considered. Finally at maturity (from twenty-five to forty years of age) the reflective powers are most active. But the perceptive and conceptive faculties are not at this period thrown aside. The man of science bases his generalizations on his observations. Darwin, Agassiz, and Asa Gray could both see and think better than ordinary men. Their greatness is due to the complete development of both powers. The observation of the child is different from that of the man. The child's observation is largely that of perception ; that of the man, of reason. 2. Childhood the Best Time to cultiTate Intelligent Obserration. For the teacher to cultivate intelligent observation, to a Urge extent even in the grammar grade, is more rational than to cram the memory with words without meaning. The teacher can do this by teaching geography and history, INTELLIGENT OBSERVATION 13 as far as practical, through pictures, maps, charts, and specimens, and by encouraging observations of nature. These observations should be planned and directed, and reports called for, either in writing or by oral recitation. Side by side with this observation through the eye, should be cultivated by the teacher the observation of the. meaning of words and their proper employment, in order to describe accurately and intelligently. No study affords better opportunities for developing the observing powers than geography. If a teacher make the most of his opportunities, he will not only secure grand results, but have the pleasure of knowing that he is teaching philosophically, and developing the mind of the child in accordance with metaphysical laws. Teachers need constantly to study the child-mind so as not to attempt to convey ideas belonging to one sense through another. Ideas of form, height, length, color, and the like, come through sight and touch alone. Forgetting this, teachers frequently try to convey to the minds of little children correct ideas of localities, through mere verbal descriptions, addressed to the ear, and wonder why the minds of the pupils are so listless, and why the children do not make good recitation thereupon. If a child has never seen a mountain, never seen a number of pictures of mountains and mountain scenery, how can he understand a finely given description of the Andes? and if he does not understand, why should he be interested? If the description given recalls no concept in his mind of the thing described, time and energy are wasted. But descriptions with illustrations are always interesting and valuable. A vivid illustration of how new ideas come into the mind 14 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY was recently afforded the author while reading Dr. Hale's interesting book, " The Seven Cities of Spain." In one chap- ter he refers to the " Alcazar : " this he calls in another chapter " an imposing pile ; " on another page it is spoken of as a " palace ; " again as u a building ; " then in another place he speaks of " the gardens of the Alcazar." No clear conception was given the reader by these expressions ; and little idea was realized of what an Alcazar was, till the pic- ture was accidentally found several days later under the word Toledo, in Appleton's Encyclopaedia. If the readers of this chapter will try to form an idea of an Alcazar from what has been said, and then look at the picture in the encyclo- paedia, and compare the former concept with the latter, they will perhaps realize the value of pictures in teaching children. 3. That Sensation and Attention precede Perception. By this is meant, knowledge must be Stained before it can be retained ; it must be both obtained and retained before it can be used. In obtaining knowledge of things, sensation must be experienced before attention can be given, and both the sensation and attention must precede perception. These fundamental truths are constantly violated in teach- ing, by some teachers who fret, fume, and scold because their pupils do not remember operations in arithmetic which they, the pupils, never understood, for they never were explained and illustrated. These same teachers wonder why children forget the names of capes, the length of rivers, the locality of towns that have no earthly interest to these children, for nothing has ever been told them about CURIOSITY, SYMPATHY, AND ACTIVITY 15 these places to create an interest, not even the beautiful meaning of the geographical names. Adult minds usually act in the same way. If the lecture or sermon was be- yond the comprehension, it did not interest ; then it was not remembered. 4. His Habit of Attention cultivated by appealing to Curiosity, Sympathy, anil Love of Activity. There are very few children who do not have a natural curiosity to see what is in the closed box, to hear the end of the story, to know more about the subject. A little information in reference to the camel creates a curiosity, or desire, to learn more about the "ship of the desert." By this information, the skilful teacher creates a curiosity to learn about the desert, and that knowledge of the desert creates a curiosity to know something of Africa, the home of the camel and of the desert. If the teacher uses pictures, maps, and charts which appeal to the eye in impart- ing this information in a way understood by the child, the curiosity never flags, and the attention is satisfactory. Sympathy is another great help in securing attention. Hearty interest in the subject manifested by the teacher secures the attention of the pupil almost unconsciously. This was one secret of Agassiz' power as a teacher. Madame Necker says, "The idea that we are constantly occupied about him may excite his gratitude, but it will not determine the direction of his inclina- tions. But if children see that our interest is awakened, and our curiosity excited, by the idea of making some new observation, or ascertaining some new fact, they will soon try to anticipate our discoveries." 1 6 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY It has been our custom for years to study with the children in geography, history, etc. The results have been most gratifying. In giving out the lesson, do not say, " You may take," but "We will take climate for the next lesson." When the hour for recitation comes, ask first, '" Now what have we learned?" Be sure to give due credit for new facts. Be sure also to have some interesting facts to relate, not generally known, to show that you, the teacher, have been studying with your pupils. The well-known activity of children can be much more easily directed than repressed ; and when directed it becomes a source of great pleasure, and helps to fix the attention in the closest manner. This activity may be classified as that of the Ear, of the Eye, of tJie Hand. The teacher can always direct that of the ear by asking questions. The topical study of a subject does not mean the use only of topical recitation. The topical recitation should be freely used in review, used more in upper classes than in lower, used somewhat in all grades ; but the child's mental activity requires also short, sharp, direct, quickly given questions, so that every one in the class can think out the correct answer. The question must be asked before the pupil is called to answer, in order that all may think the answer. Teachers very commonly violate this order, and wonder why the pupils are not more interested. These questions should be of two kinds, first, those in relation to the bare facts of the lesson ; second, those in reference to the relation of these facts to cause and effect, in reference to the why, in reference to comparison by similarity and by contrast. ACTIVITY OF EYE AND HAND 17 Some children will answer well the first kind of questions, and utterly fail on the second. Girls frequently answer the first better than boys, while boys usually reason and think better than they remember the book. The why questions should be interspersed with the fact questions, . and not bunched at the end or beginning of the recitation. The activity of the eye is readily directed by the teacher's use of pictures, charts, and the blackboard. The success of kindergarten schools is largely due to directing this activity of the eye and hand. Grammar-school teachers make a serious mistake in teaching, and show their com- plete ignorance of the child-mind, when they suppose this activity of the eye and hand ceases at the age of nine or ten years. It will be much safer to place the limit at twenty. In fact, it never wJiolly ceases. The methods of directing the activity of the eye are fully given in the chapter on Pictures and Objects. In passing we only need quote a few authorities. Professor Calderwood says, " Children are most susceptible of what comes through the senses. It is therefore a great point gained, when the eyes as well as the ears of the pupils can be kept in exercise during the lesson. To reach the mind by do'uble avenues at the same moment, is to increase the chance of success." Pestalozzi says, "There are scarcely any circumstances in which the want of application in children does not proceed from the want of interest. ... To change all this, we must adopt a better mode of instruction, by which the children are less left to themselves, less thrown upon unwelcome employments of passive listening, but more aroused by questions, animated by illustrations, interested and won by kindness." 1 8 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY Fitch says, "No amount of care, inventiveness, and forethought which you are able to devote to illustration will be wasted." Teachers should remember, all psychologists agree that sight takes the lead as the channel of perception. Sully says, " Since sight is the most important and the most discriminating of the senses, we find that visual percepts are better recalled than any others. The capability of representing an object or event some time after it has been perceived, depends on the force with which the impression was stamped upon the mind. A bright object distinctly seen will be recalled better than a dull one obscurely seen. We recall the appearance of a place we have actually seen, better than one shown to us in a picture, and we recall the picture more easily than the words describing the same place.'* Spencer says, "The child's restless observation, instead of being ignored or checked, should be diligently ministered to, and made as accurate as possible." Comenius was perhaps one of the first, two hundred years ago, to announce the idea of directing the activity of the hands in children, in order to secure attention, awaken interest, and so lead to learning. In his " Orbis Pictus " he says, " Let things which have to be done be learned by doing them." Both Pestalozzi and Froebel insisted upon self-activity on the part of the pupil. A harmonious devel- opment of the human powers requires not only assimilation, but also production. The development of the expressive faculties includes the power of giving utterance with the organs of speech, and also with the hands. tH SIGN FOR TH THING I<) This hand energy can be utilized by the children in writing, drawing, moulding, and sewing. How these acquire- ments (except the last) are to be employed in geography, will be shown in various portions of this book. 5. Not Easy for the Child to classify, analyze, combine, or deduce. To refer our knowledge to general principles, is to classify it. Unless our knowledge is classified, it will not be easily remembered, any more than, among papers thrown promis- cuously together, the desired one can be readily found when needed by lawyer, teacher, or merchant. Children easily observe, perceive, and remember single facts. A large part of the teacher's work is to help the child arrange and classify in proper logical order these facts, and then deduct general principles therefrom, make comparisons, or seek for causes and results. 6. A Child apt to mistake the Sign of the Thing for the Thing itself; the Word, for the Idea. The map of Africa he thinks is Africa ; the crooked line on the map is the Niger River. The sign of the fraction is the fraction. Even adults make this mistake. Speak the word Lena, and ask for the concept formed. In nine cases out of ten it will be that of a crooked black mark running from south to north on a map. The best way to lead children to form the correct concept is by frequently using pictures, and by frequently asking for the meaning of words employed in recitation. 7. Re?ie>v and Repetition necessary in teaching Children. This follows as a corollary from the preceding statements. Review work should be conducted very differently from 20 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY advance work. The time is quickened ; only the great facts are touched upon ; comparisons are frequent ; the pupil must now do the work, instead of the teacher. Topical recitation may become frequent. Interest is created by new ways of conducting the recitation, competition, allowing the children to ask questions, etc. OUTLINE 1. The Teacher. PRINCIPLES. APPLICATION. AUTHORITY. SOURCES OR MEANS. i. Ample knowl- edge. Gives confidence. Ascham, Everett. Of the world. 2. Careful prepa- ration. The teacher's ex- ample in studying. Free exchange. The average child. Thring. From books and nature. 3. Self -activity. The teacher to direct. Hamilton, Payne, Jacotot, Rous- seau. Landscape, products, specimens. 4. The right order. From the particular to the general, simple to complex, etc. Joseph Payne. Memory. 2. The Child. i. Observation natural and Cultivated in child- hood. Thring. The intelligent teacher. strong. 2. Attention. Cultivated by appeal- ing to curiosity, sympathy, and ac- tivity. Necker. Ear, eye, and hand. 3 Reasoning pow- ers weak. The child does not easily classify, etc. Experience. Review, repeti- tion. CHAPTER II AIMS AND EELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF GEOGRAPHY THE elevation of geography to the place which it ought to hold in the school curriculum appears to me a matter of vital moment: first, from the value of the subject as a branch of knowledge ; and secondly, because it offers a cure for what I conceive to be a radical defect in our educational method, namely, the want of any effective disci- pline in habits of observation. ... It may be begun on the very threshold of school life, and may be pursued in ever-increasing fulness of detail and breadth of view up to the end of that time. No other subject can for a moment be compared with it in this respect. It serves as common ground, on which the claims of literature, history, and science may be reconciled. Archibald Geikie. 21 BOOKS FOR CONSULTATION CKOCKER'S METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. GAGE'S LIFE OF RITTER. GUYOT'S EARTH AND MAN. HUXLEY'S PHYSIOGRAPHY. JOHONNOT'S PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. MARSH'S MAN AND NATURE. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHIES, SUCH AS THOSE BY GEIKIE, GUYOT, JOHNSON, MAURY. RECLUS' THE OCEAN; THE EARTH. HITTER'S COMPARATIVE GEOGRAPHY. RITTER'S GEOGRAPHICAL STUDIES. SCIENCE PRIMERS. TYNDALL'S FORMS OF WATER. 22 CHAPTER II PART I ITS AIMS TWO PURPOSES QUESTIONS IN TEXT-BOOKS MISTAKES CARL FITTER SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE DEFINITION OF GEOGRAPHY PART II -ITS IMPORTANCE TWO VIEWS WORTHY OF CAREFUL CONSIDERATION VAST PROPORTIONS OF PRESENT KNOWLEDGE FORMER KNOWLEDGE THE HUMBLEST I'UPIL AND HUMBOLDT GROWTH OF COMMERCE GENERAL CULTURE GROWTH OF INTELLIGENCE TIME WHICH SHOULD BE GIVEN TO GEOGRAPHY PART I ITS AIMS BEFORE we can intelligently discuss methods of teaching geography, it will be necessary to consider what geog- raphy is, its real aims, the objects to be constantly sought in teaching it, and its relative importance to other studies.- In teaching languages and mathematics there are two distinct purposes always in mind, the practical applica- tion of these studies, and the indirect mental discipline afforded in studying them ; the second being more important than the first. Since geography deals so largely with facts, and since it is not so much a science in itself as it is a collection of facts and principles taken from various other sciences, the main object in teaching it has apparently been, in the past, simply to impart, in the shortest possible time, 2 3 24 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY a knowledge of the two least important facts, namely, locality and bare statistics. Most of the text-books in geography denominated " brief," or "-shorter courses," seem to be merely combinations of atlases and dictionaries, making the height of mountains, the length of rivers, the population of towns, and the locality of insignificant capes, more prominent than their real value demands; while descriptions of the greatest nations upon the earth, and the grandest phenomena of nature, have been condensed or generalized until they are as interesting for young minds to read as an old-fashioned spelling-book. The sale of these " shorter courses " has been immense, because, in the mind of many school-officials, a geography is a geography, and the smaller and cheaper the better for his latitude. In thus making geography noth- ing more than an ill-sorted collection of dry, unimportant, uninteresting facts to be memorized, several serious mistakes have been made. It is a very serious mistake to suppose that these bare facts of geography, such as are contained in the answers to nine-tenths of the questions asked in nine-tenths of the present text-books, and demanded in nine-tenths of the ex- amination-papers, are of any importance after they are memorized. Taking the first geography at hand, we open at the Conti- nent of Europe, and, selecting almost at random, find in Les- son 78 two paragraphs containing the following questions : III. How is Elberfeld situated? For what is it noted? For Ms manufactures. How is Hanover situated ? Potsdam ? Stettin ? Colberg ? Name three Prussian cities on the Oder. On what river is there another Frankfort in Prussia ? Jlf, TEXT-BOOKS 25 VI. What was the capital of the former kingdom of Poland? Warsaw, On what river is Warsaw ? What other place is situated on the Vistula? Cracow (kra'ko}. In what country is Cracow? What is the principal branch of the Vistula ? What place in Austria is on the river Bug ? This is a fair specimen of the seven hundred and ninety questions asked in this geography upon Europe. How many of the answers to those questions are worth remem- bering after they are learned ? In another geography, some of the most interesting portions in the descriptive chapter on Africa are the following : 24. Abyssinia lies south-east of Nubia. It is a mountainous plateau of great height. The Abyssinians are Christians. 25. The Sahara is very sparsely inhabited, and contains no States. The various tribes of Moors, Tuaregs, and Tebus, who inhabit the oases, or roam over the country without fixed habitations, are gov- erned by chiefs. 27. Cape Colony, a British possession, lies south of the Orange River. The climate is mild. Wheat, wool, and wine are the chief products. Cape Town is the capital. How useless, nay worse, how cruel, it is to place before young, imaginative, active, sight-and-picture-loving children, such stupid, good-for-nothing, and uninteresting facts as the above, when on every hand can be found so much of story, incident, personal adventure, travel, description, physical and political information, comparison, and science, capable of both interesting and benefiting these same wide- awake children ! Yet, in a large number of our text-books on geography, similar jejune, unimportant, copula-and-attribute statements of the different countries will be found to com- pose a great part of the book. 26 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY It is a mistake to believe that pupils possessing a fair degree of common-sense will be especially interested in the acquisition of such encyclopaedic information, or will re- tain such facts even if once memorized. Scholars who have been crammed with such statistical food are usually heard to say, " I have been through the geography several times ; but I never liked it, and I cannot remember it." Another mistake arising from this narrow view of the purposes of geography is that it affords to the mind no mental discipline. In the memorizing of dry facts there is no appeal to the imagination, to the judgment ; no stimu- lating active inquiry ; no presentation of cause and effect ; little, if any, growth of the mind produced. Yet geography, rightly defined, rightly comprehended, and rightly taught, may be made one of the most effective educational instru- ments within the reach of grammar-school teachers. Geography, although professing to be a description of the earth and its inhabitants, has too frequently been treated as though it was only the science of the where, map-draw- ing its chief glory, and the memory of words its only means of acquisition. In contrast with this narrow and bigoted idea of geography, let us consider the view of Carl Ritter, the greatest of modern geographers. He boldly discarded all arbitrary geographical systems, and started with Nature herself. By Nature he meant the entire creation, hence he commences with a simple study of the universe and the 'solar system. He calls attention, in this brief resume, to the fact that the earth, when compared with the other planets, is equally removed from every extreme.. It is neither the largest nor the smallest, neither the swiftest nor the slowest, neither the RITTER'S IDEAS 27 warmest nor the coldest. This medium character brings the earth into harmony with the system of which it forms a part, and indicates, perhaps, that it is the only one in the system which could possibly be inhabited by man. It is thus especially worthy of being studied in all its features. In a geographical point of view, the world becomes the common home of our race ; not merely the theatre of the Fig. 1. Carl Hitter. operations of Nature, but the arena for the development of human life and history. Here the forces and laws of Nature are displayed in their variety and independence. It is the field of human effort, and the scene of Divine revelation. Geography, then, is something more than mere description. It should teach the most important relations, and thus be considered a science. The earth should be studied in a threefold relation, to the universe, to nature, to history. Geography may, then, very properly be defined " as the department of science that deals with the globe in all its 28 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY features, phenomena, and relations, as an independent unit, and shows the connection of this unified whole with man, and with man's Creator." In studying geography we should look upon the world as almost a living thing, having an individuality of its own. We should think of it as a seed sown from the hand of God, filled with a germinant power of life, transforming and making the earth more and more worthy of the noblest inhabitants. The science of geography becomes then more important than the knowledge of facts, relations more valu- able than descriptions. The sources of this geographical knowledge are twofold, written accounts of scientific travellers, and continued investigations. Personal investigations are necessary to understand the investigations of others. "Wherever our home is, there lie all the materials which we need for a study of the entire globe." Humboldt corroborates this view of his friend Ritter when he says, in his " Kosmos," " Every little nook and shaded corner is but a reflection of the whole of Nature." The roaring brook is a type of the thundering cataract, the outlines of a little island suggest the coast-lines of a continent, a range of hills reveals the structure of the loftiest chain of mountains. The study of the district about our home also helps us to understand foreign lands, by furnishing us with types and units of comparison. Herodotus, Polybius, Strabo, Ptolemy, Hum- boldt, and Ritter all studied geography in the world of nature rather than that of books. But no one person can now, as formerly, visit in a lifetime all parts of the known world ; hence he must accept, to a great extent, the narratives and maps of scientific travellers HUMBOLDT, THE TRAVELLER 2 9 as authoritative. To read the many excellent books recently published in English, French, and German, referred to and classified in this treatise, will occupy the leisure time of most persons for several years. Besides these books of travel, the well-informed teacher of geography must know something of the various sciences, the history and growth Fig. 2. Humboldt. of nations, commerce, and the laws of interchange of the commodities of all climes. To perceive more clearly and fully how broad, compre- hensive, and inspiring Ritter's idea of geography was, the reader is urged carefully to read the Life of Ritter, his "Geographical Studies,'.' and "Comparative Geography," as well as all the works of Professor Guyot, once the pupil, 30 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY always the friend and admirer, of the great German geog- rapher. Ritter's definition of geography given above would not he adapted to grammar school use ; but its essence can be expressed in the following brief statement : Geography is a Description of the Surface of the Earth as the Home of Man. In depicting to children this home of man, so wondrously beautiful, so marvellously fitted to supply all of man's wants and administer so perfectly to his happiness, geography should describe in simple language the remarkable laws by which the earth is governed ; it should show the peculiari- ties of its surface, and explain the simple facts of daily occurrence, such as winds, rain, ice, and snow, in order that children may have better conceptions of man's surroundings and characteristics as affected thereby. It should associate towns, rivers, mountains, and natural divisions, with the different races of men, with their industries, commerce, and occupations. It should enter into the spirit of the present' age, and make prominent, instead of long lists of names and localities, the characteristics of each country, the flora and fauna, the architecture, the business enterprises, some of the principles of commerce, routes of travel, the growth of cities, varieties of scenery and climate, the distribution of the three forms of life, the education of the people, and the manners and customs of other lands as compared with our own. In brief, the principal object to be sought in teaching geography is to teach humanity instead of locality. When scholars leave the grammar schools they should have acquired, in addition to a knowledge of the essential THE IMPORTANCE OF GEOGRAPHY 31 facts of geography, the ability to compare one country, one zone, one river, with another ; to classify and arrange addi- tional facts ; and above all, they should have acquired a taste for good reading, a love for travel, some knowledge of the best books of travel, and of the world's wonders and beauties ; in short, what we may appropriately call geo- graphical culture. PART II ITS RELATIVE IMPORTANCE Upon this subject there are two extreme views. Many look upon geography as worthy of very little regard, atten- tion, or time ; while a few give it so much prominence that it overshadows all the other studies. Neither view is in accordance with a true harmony of grammar-school studies. These enthusiastic lovers of this study are so rare that there is no need of taking time and space to discuss their posi- tion. The former, more numerous and more tenacious of their views, lost all respect for geography, in many cases, through the wretched methods employed in teaching the subject by their early instructors. Persons holding such views are not likely to succeed in, or to enjoy, the teaching of this study. To them we especially address ourselves in this chapter. Many of our ideas of geography have come down to us direct from the Middle Ages. 1 Whatever the true relation of this study to the other studies may have been in early 1 The description of the grand divisions, given in most geographies to-day, follows the same order in which Strabo (24 A.D.) set the pattern. 32 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY times, geography to-day is certainly worthy of the most careful consideration on the part of teachers and school authorities, being itself a peer among the other studies. We place geography in this position for the following reasons : 1. Because our Present Knowledge of the World, i.e., Modern Geog- raphy, has at Length grown to such Vast Proportions. To realize this, we must glance at the history of geo- graphical development. Geography is a comparatively mod- ern study. It began in ancient times with the world of nature rather than books. There was no geographical lit- erature when the Phoenicians held undisputed sway over the known world, then bordering the Mediterranean Sea. Phoenician boys were not greatly troubled about this study. From Himilco, about 700 B.C., to Stanley, is twenty-five hundred years in time, but an immeasurable epoch in advancement. For our purpose, this time may be properly divided into three unequal epochs. Herodotus, on account of his brief wanderings, became, 444 B.C., the first critical geographer of the Greeks. Strabo travelled from the Caucasus to the Rhone, and from the Alps to Ethiopia, and for this was looked upon as a modern Humboldt. His wonderful knowledge enabled him to write a book, and that book was the first geography of which we have any account. In it he expresses his firm conviction that the Caspian Sea was the limit of the earth to the north. When Ptolemy lived at Alexandria, about the middle of the second century, he possessed, with all his knowledge, fewer correct ideas of the outlines of Scotland and the real posi- tion of Ireland than a child does to-day in a Boston primary school. The world was then divided into two parts, tfie HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE 33 known and the unknown. The equator was not crossed till 1471. Marco Polo was the Bayard Taylor of the Mid- dle Ages. Prince Henry, the Navigator (d. 1460), greatly enlarged the knowledge of the world, and appropriately closed this epoch. Columbus, with his brilliant discoveries, opened the second epoch. His grand contributions to geographical knowledge were supplemented by Vasco da Gama, the Cabots, Cabral, Ponce de Leon, Balboa, Cartier, Davis, Frobisher, Magellan, and a host of others ; and yet none of these men could have passed a Boston diploma- examination upon geography, because so much of the world was then still unknown. In the seventeenth century, Hudson's discoveries carried geo- graphical knowledge still farther from the Mediterranean. Australia was added to the list of continents. New Zealand and Van Diemen's Land were discovered and named. At the close of this century, La Salle descended the Mississippi. In the eighteenth century new portions of the world were made known by Cook's three celebrated voyages, and the labors in Africa of Bruce and Mungo Park. At the end of this second epoch, geographical knowledge embraced a large part of the inhabited world, but there remained por- tions of continents and more distant regions still largely unknown , These unknown regions were situated principally in trop- ical Africa and the frigid zones. Through the noble and heroic efforts of Livingstone, Burton, Grant, Speke, Baker, Miss Tinne, Cameron, Stanley, and many others, the long- debated problems of the hydrographic systems of Central Africa have been forever settled. The Mountains of the Moon no longer cross the continent from east to west, as 34 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY in our boyish days. The Nile, Zambesi, and Congo have each a source and a course as well as a mouth. All we need to know about the polar regions has been revealed to us in the explorations and expeditions during the last forty years under Kane, Ross, Belcher, McClintock, McClure, Dr. Hayes, Capt. Hall, Capt. Nares, Professor Nordenskjold, De Long's party, and Lieut. Greely. The humblest pupil in our common schools is now taught more facts connected with these regions than the great Humboldt knew at the time of his death. The surface of the land and water masses have been now so thoroughly explored that there remains only the bottoms of the oceans for men to investi- gate, and these sections are now being carefully studied. (See " Voyage of the Challenger.") Is not a study with such an historical growth as this, and with so extensive a field for consideration, an important one ? 2. Because of the Recent Rapid Growth of Commerce. Steamships and railroads have brought the nations into closer relations with each other. The inventions of the telegraph and telephone have made business world-wide. At the beginning of this century there was little international communication or commercial enterprise. Nations lived by themselves and for themselves. The improvements in travel, the reduction of postage, the laying of cables, the opening of the ports in China and Japan, have so stimulated and enlarged business enterprises, that many firms now have branch houses in half a dozen cities belting the world. Steamships plough all seas, and the productions and the manufactures of the antipodes are quickly and regularly brought to our markets. A trip round the world is no GENERAL CULTURE 35 longer a wonderful feat. The United States is so situated, from its position, its natural products, and its skilled labor, as to become, of a certainty, deeply interested financially in this world-wide commerce between the civilized and the savage and half-civilized nations of the world. Hence, for a child to graduate from our schools, and not to carry away a good geographical training, will be every year more and more a disgrace and a lifelong regret. 3. Because it affords such a Splendid Opportunity for General Culture. Not even history can claim for itself a wider field of thought and investigation, or one more useful, than geog- raphy when taught in the proper spirit and with the proper purpose in vie\v. Geography thus taught will introduce the child in a pleasant way to many elementary facts in history, astronomy, physics, physical geography, geology, mineralogy, botany, meteorology, zoology, and ethnography, although the names of these studies may possibly remain unknown to the young student. Other studies are more or less special and restrictive ; this study is all-embracing, universal, and it is very properly called " the all-science." Geography, taught topically, will give at the same time instruction to pupils in spelling, dictation, writing, oral lessons, composition, drawing, and reading. 4. Lastly, Because of the Present Growth of General Intelligence. General intelligence is the result of travel and reading. Geography is a necessary auxiliary to both. Hundreds of men and women travel for pleasure and business to-day, where ten travelled fifty years ago. Thousands of books are published and read to-day, where twenty were read half a century ago. But the growth in circulation of the modern 36 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY magazine and newspaper is the best evidence of the growth of general intelligence among the masses. These magazines and newspapers not only constantly refer to the most inter- esting facts of geography, and the most distant parts of the world, but they have a special department devoted to this subject, so great is the demand of the public for correct information on these subjects. The Americans are the greatest readers in the world. The ever-increasing influence of -the magazine and newspaper among us demands that more and more shall be accomplished in our schools in geography. Any study with such a history, so closely con- nected with the great commercial enterprises and business spirit of the age, capable of administering so largely to the general culture of the pupils, so practically useful, is exceed- ingly important, and it is doubtful if arithmetic even can more than hold its own by its side. Yet there are educationists who believe that " less time should be given to geography." Since the introduction of oral lessons, drawing, and music into our schools, the amount of time given to some of the studies has, of a necessity, been reduced. The special study usually selected for this curtailment has been geography. In Boston the time given to geography, according to the supervisor's course of studies, 1 is half the amount given to arithmetic, two-thirds of what is given to language, and nearly the same as is devoted to oral instruction. In many schools the amount of time is rel- atively less than this. But if the study is to-day as important as we have attempted to show, does it not follow, without further argument, as a corollary, that geography should re- ceive in the grammar-school course as much time and atten- tion as any other one study, excepting perhaps arithmetic ? CHAPTER III WRONG METHODS vs, THE TOPICAL METHOD THERE was an undeniable gain when exact method was made an essential part of a teacher's professional preparation. Prof. W. H. Payne. 37 BOOKS FOR CONSULTATION BROOKS'S NORMAL METHODS OF TEACHING. CURRIE'S COMMON SCHOOL EDUCATION. FITCH'S LECTURES ON TEACHING. GEOGRAPHICAL TEXT-BOOKS. KIDDLE'S How TO TEACH. SWETT'S METHODS OF TEACHING. 38 CHAPTER III PART I WRONG METHODS THE TEXT-BOOK METHOD USELESS QUESTIONS UNNECESSARY MEMORIZING MIS- TAKES THE CRAMMING METHOD NO-STUDY METHOD PART II BETTER METHODS THE TOPICAL METHOD TOPICS FOR THE FIRST TWO YEARS TOPICS FOR THE THIRD AND FOURTH YEARS TOPICS FOR THE FIFTH AND SIXTH YEARS PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS PART I WKONG METHODS IT is customary to pnll down the old house before building up the new one. Following the same order, we design to point out, first, some of the most faulty methods of teach- ing geography, in order to prepare the way for a better understanding and appreciation of the right method subse- quently recommended. To call attention to a poor method, is, in many cases, sufficient to lead to its abandonment. Some of the most prominent of these wrong methods will now be referred to, and their weaknesses pointed out. 1. The Text-Book Method. The poor teaching of geography, and the wretched results so frequently obtained, can, in nine cases out of ten, be traced to the exclusive employment of the text-book. This slavish following of the book, both in precise order of sub- 39 40 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY jects and in its entirety, was perhaps more common twenty- five years ago than to-day. Some teachers have emancipated themselves, and are happy in their freedom. This method made it very easy for the teacher, as far as instruction went, and very hard for the children. Result, most scholars .came to dislike geography more than any other study. Since then text-books have improved, and pupils using the better books are so much the better taught. Methods of teaching, however, have improved more than text-books ; and still hundreds of teachers are assigning lessons on the old plan, and reaping the harvest of unsatisfactory results. The principal of a large grammar school in this State recently assigned to his graduating class for a home-lesson three pages of the text-book, containing descriptions and map-questions in reference to nine of the Central States. The scholars were told " to learn carefully the entire lesson." To do so required them to learn the answers to two hundred and eighty-seven questions. Many of the statements were no more interesting to a Massachusetts boy than the following, which is one of the two hundred and eighty-seven answers : " Fond du Lac, Oshkosh, Racine, and Jonesville are thriving towns." These are some of the questions : " Keweenaw Bay is a part of what lake?" "Where is Kaskaskia situated ?" We are afraid such extreme foolishness and such cruelty are not uncommon. In Germany we understand the only text-book used in geography is the atlas, the teacher supplying orally all the necessary information. With superior teachers such a method has many advantages, but in most schools a good text-book is a great blessing to teachers and scholars. A fact stated in a text-book is just as important and useful as PROMINENT MISTAKES 41 if stated orally by the teacher, and much time and strength have been saved to both parties. But geographical facts seem dead to an ordinary child when met with for the first time on the printed page, unless the living teacher breathes into them the breath of life by related incident, explanation, anecdote, comparison, or topical arrangement. The judi- cious use of a good text-book we believe to be better than the German method. Teachers, in following the text-book method, invariably fall into three prominent mistakes, viz., (a) Unnecessary Memorizing. When scholars are asked to commit to memory page after page of dry, uninteresting descriptions, bare statistics, and the locality of thousands of places not associated with events or persons, the work is exceedingly irksome. It is about as pleasant and profit- able as it would be for a teacher to memorize consecutive pages of Webster's Dictionary. No teacher ever asked scholars to learn the dictionary by heart ; and yet our geographies are to the young mind what a dictionary is to an adult mind, a collection of empty facts, some- times bound up with pictures, valuable for reference, but neither attractive to read nor to memorize. When the scholar has committed to memory all these facts found in most geographies, of what use will two-thirds of them ever be to him ? The main facts of geography must be learned, but there is a vast saving of time and force when the teacher bears in mind that two associated facts are much more easily remembered than one isolated fact. (b) The second mistake consists in requiring scholars to learn largely from the questions given in the text-book, Scholars taught in this way do not learn to observe and 42 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY think for themselves. Ask these scholars some practical, common-sense question, as, Why New Orleans is situated near the mouth of the Mississippi River? or, How bananas grow? and they are dumbfounded. A class taught by this method was recently asked if there was any current in a river. Only one boy knew, and he said, "No." In following the printed questions, the scholars rely upon them, and do not learn to talk or write connectedly about a subject. (c) The third mistake is in making maps and map-ques- tions too prominent. In some schools the chief end of geographical study seems to be to acquire facility in drawing maps. This is making a means an end. Scholars are to be taught through the map, and m&forthe sake of the map. Asking too many map-questions is a more frequent mistake. One geography (medium size) in our possession contains seven hundred and ninety map-questions upon Europe, and only two hundred and twenty-seven questions on the descriptive part. Another, by a different author, a revised edition, contains six hundred and eighty map-questions on Europe. A teacher near Boston recently asked his second class, in the course of four monthly examinations upon Europe, four hundred and fifty map-questions. Few of these locali- ties remain fixed in the child's rnind. How much wiser for the teacher to spend one-sixth as much time on locality, and more on surface, climate, commerce, routes of travel, manners and customs, works of art, education, and litera- ture ! Locality must.be taught to some extent by itself; but, as far as possible, it should be taught through association. When pupils become interested in an event, a person, or a WRONG METHODS 43 remarkable phenomenon, they easily remember the locality mentioned. The narrative of the "Jeannette" fixes in mind the locality of the New Siberia Islands and the Lena Delta. Another vicious and frequently employed method is 2. The Cramming Method. Whenever examinations become too prominent, or teachers are judged by results alone, as in some of our largest cities, there is a temptation to cram ; but it is just as detrimental to pupil and teacher in geography as in any other study, and for the same reasons. Isolated, disconnected facts are taught without regard to cause and effect, or order of arrangement. The teacher, instead of studying Guyot and Ritter, studies old examination-papers. The end and ob- ject" of study seems to the scholar to be, not to learn for the sake of knowledge, but for the sake of passing certain examinations. The after pleasures, benefits, and advantages, as well as present mental growth, are all made subordinate to a temporary success. The moral effect upon the pupils is far from elevating. They soon learn from the teacher to spend more thought and time in guessing what the questions will be in the coming examination, than in learning a great law of nature, or the facts in the climate of a great country. The two methods already mentioned are very apt to go hand in hand. But a worse method even than these is what may be called 3. The No-Study Method. It affects both teachers and pupils, but not always both classes at the same time. Many teachers believe that 44 METHODS AND AIDS itf GEOGRAPHY geography (and spelling) can be taught without preparation on the part of the teacher.* The usual results obtained in this way are its condemnation. Let a teacher make a thorough study of some country like Australia, and then notice what a difference it will make in the pleasure of teaching, and the interest awakened among the pupils. No teacher can awaken an interest among his pupils if he possess none himself; he cannot be interested in a subject or a country, if he knows little or nothing about it, any more than he could in a person of whom he was ignorant. On the other hand, it is equally bad for the teacher to make great preparation for the lesson, recite it to the pupils, and ask and expect them to do nothing but listen. All should be required to study. Even beginners in this study, who are taught orally, shown pictures, and taken on imaginary journeys, should also have something to learn, to remember, and to recite. This may be written on the blackboard, if text-books are wanting, and learned therefrom by the pupils. PART II BETTER METHODS According to the classification given by Professor Brooks in his excellent book entitled " Normal Methods of Teach- ing," there are four correct methods of teaching the noble science of geography, (i) The Analytic Method, which begins with the world as a whole, and passes by successive divisions down to the State, county, town, or city in which VARIOUS METHODS 45 we reside; (2) The Synthetic, which begins at the smaller division, as a schoolhouse, yard, town, county, etc., and passes by successive enlargements to the surface of the world ; (3) The Inductive, which begins with the particular facts of science, and passes to their classification into sys- tems ; and (4) The Deductive, which seizes upon the laws or general characteristics of a group of facts, and passes to the particulars embraced under these laws. This last method is more than analytic. It not only goes from the whole to its parts, but from the general to the particular'. It is not our purpose to discuss now the relative value, or the proper employment, of these methods. We seek the more practical. Whether the method of teaching the whole subject of geography be analytic, synthetic, or inductive, we recom- mend, in place of following the text-book, THE TOPICAL METHOD OF STUDY We do this with much confidence, after years of experi- ment and diligent search for light on this subject, because it is the best method thus far found by which to create un- bounded interest among pupils in this study, and because it enables the teacher to instruct with satisfaction and pleasure. When the carpenter builds a house he finds it necessary to have the architect furnish him with certain plans for his guidance and constant inspection. In like manner the teacher and his pupils, in following through the delightful paths of the topical study of geography, will require a care- fully and properly arranged list of topics for direction and help, and also to prevent wandering and loss of time. Excellent sets of topics for geographical study are given 4 6 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY in numerous educational works. One of the best and most comprehensive has been arranged by Professor Guyot, and can be obtained from his publishers. Classes just commencing the study need a very simple and short arrangement of topics. The following will prob- ably be found difficult and extended enough for beginners. SCHEDULE OF TOPICS. No. I. (For" the first two years of study.} 1. Position on Globe. 2. Names, Capitals, and Principal Towns. 3. Mountains. 4. Rivers, and other Bodies of Water. 5. Climate. [ Vegetable. 6. Life. { Animal. (. Human. 7. Productions. 8. Journeys. . . . Comparison throughout. Such a list as the above is well adapted to the pupils during their first two years of geographical study. As they advance, a more extended list of topics will be needed, and the next schedule may be employed. SCHEDULE OF TOPICS. No. II. (For the third and fourth years of study.) i. Position, Outline, Progressive Map, etc. f i. Highlands, j 2. Lowlands. 2. Surface 3. Drainage. 4. Political Divisions. 5. Natural Divisions \ 3. Profile, t 4. Progressive Map. 1. Border Waters. 2. Projections. 3. Isthmuses. 4. Islands. SCHEDULES OF TOPICS 47 f i. Causes. Climate S 2. Peculiarities. t 3. Healthfulness. ( i. Vegetable. 7. Life \ 2. Animal. t 3. Human. 8. Productions. 9. Exports. 10. Imports. 11. Prominent Cities. 12. Journeys. 13. Comparisons. Throughout on every topic. In teaching by topics, the globe and the map are in constant requisition. Teachers and pupils frequently work together with open books. The young scholars, with a little help, can find the position of the country on the globe ; its direction from our own ; its comparative size ; the political divisions ; principal towns, mountains, rivers, and various bodies of water. If the children learn to name the various political divisions, towns, mountains, etc., in some particular order, as, for instance, the countries of South America thus : Colombia, Venezuela, Guiana, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentine Republic (Patagonia), Chili, Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador, it will greatly assist them in remembering the locality of the places, and turn the acqui- sition of these facts from drudgery to pleasure. In the last four topics, more assistance from the teacher will be needed. Nothing will give greater zest to the work than to have the scholars make a progressive map as they proceed with their study, gradually filling it up. As fast as facts are learned, they are written or printed upon the map. (See p. 114.) This is a most effective and delightful way to impress the lesson upon the memory. If the scholars are too small and inexperienced in drawing, to sketch a fair 4 8 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY outline of the country, the teacher should supply them with prepared outlines, or models of the outline cut from paste- board. (See p. 87.) We have used for years, with pupils averaging from thirteen to fourteen years of age, the following list of topics ; and we have never found it too > complicated or too long for our purpose. SCHEDULE OF TOPICS. No. III. (For the fifth and sixth years of sttidy.} 1. Brief History. 1 2. Striking Characteristics. 1 1. Hemispheres. 2. Zones. 3. Latitude and Longitude. ; 4. Shape. 5. Absolute and Comparative Size. . 6. Diagram, Outline Progressive Map. f i. Ranges. | 2. Separating. 3. Slope. f i. Mountain ] 4. Direction. Systems. I 5. Peaks. I 6. Heights. I 7. Volcanoes, t 8. Analogies. I 2. Plateaus. [. 3. Deserts. f i. Plains. ] 2. Lowlands on Coast. 3. Position, etc. i. Highlands. 4. Surface 2. Lowlands. 5. Drainage . 3. Draw Profile. I 4. Draw and Print on Progressive Map. f i. Water Partings. f i. Source. 2. Course. I 3. Length. 2. River Systems. \ ... . , , i 4. Navigable. I 5. Branches, t 6. Peculiarities. 3. Lakes. 4. Draw and Print Names on Map. 1 If the pupils have never studied the country before, topics No. i and 2 may be used at the end, as a review, the pupils to do most of the work. SCHEDULE OF TOPICS. NO. III. 49 6. Political Divisions . 7. Natural Divisions , 1. Named in Order. 2. Capitals. 3. Principal Towns. 4. Print Names on Map. 1. Oceans. 2. Seas, i. Border Waters. ;M.,. ,- v ^ u ^ ** 4 l ^ Fig. 40. Sketch-Map of Fig. 39. Map of Flodden Field. Oceanica. rough a representation of the battle of Flodden Field as that given in Fig. 39. The little map of the battle-ground of Gettsyburg, given in Barnes's History, drawn upon the board on a larger scale, has helped many boys to remember that decisive event. We remember once seeing excellent sketch-maps of Africa drawn on the blackboard by the pupils of the Worcester Normal School, in one and a half, two, and two and a half minutes. All normal-school students should be trained to do such work in a quick, off-hand manner. SKETCH-MAPS, ETC. 163 To illustrate still further our meaning, the attention is called to one form of a sketch-map of Oceanica, which any teacher can draw upon the board in three or four minutes. First, draw three horizontal lines representing the equator and tropics. In the upper left hand corner sketch the south-eastern part of Asia. (See Fig. 40.) Then, to save time, draw the large islands as rectangles, and add a few of the principal groups of islands, all of which are on or near the three horizontal lines. Following the German method, the class can name these islands as rapidly as they are drawn ; their names may be written on or near them, towns located, productions and exports printed, etc. The one chief object of the sketch-map is to aid the memory. Children of other Climes. A very interesting exercise for young children can be made by a talk upon the child Esquimau, Hottentot, or Indian. Let the children use their imaginations freely ; encourage them to ask and answer questions, using ideas already learned. The teacher should make ample use of pictures, specimens, and stories, to make the lesson as real as possible. It is not difficult to get illustrations for this purpose. Industries of the Mediterranean. Draw upon the board a large outline map of this sea. Have the children turn to the best map of the Mediterra- nean to be found in the text-book. Explain to them that a very small fish, called the tunny, in enormous numbers, enters this inland sea from the Atlantic Ocean through the Straits of Gibraltar ; in spring passes eastward through the entire length of the sea, makes the tour of the Black Sea, 164 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY and returns in autumn to the Atlantic, making a journey of fifty-six hundred miles. Dolphins and other fish prey upon them, but man pursues them with the greatest destruction. In the bays of Sicily, Sardinia, Naples, and Provence, the little tunny is enticed into nets, and caught by the million. Where the tunny is caught, is indicated on the map by black lines. (See Fig. 41.) Sardines and anchovies are next in importance. Fig. 41. Industries of the Mediterranean. Coral is found most abundantly in the western portion of the Mediterranean at great depths. The best places for finding it are indicated by a broken line. Sponges are found in the eastern part of the Mediterra- nean, at a depth of from twelve to one hundred and fifty feet, on the coasts of Syria and Asia Minor ; those of a poorer quality, in the Gulf of Cabes. They are gathered by divers. The annual production of the fisheries in this sea is said to be ^3,000,000 ; the coral, ^640,000 ; the sponges, ^40,000. DISTANCES SAVED 165 Panama Canal. A very interesting general review exercise for upper classes can be made by writing on the board the names of the ports in the " Panama Canal " selection given below, and the distances given in the first and second column, and ask the class to find the distance saved as given in the third column. Consider briefly the importance of the canal for the commerce of the world in general. The following table shows, in round numbers, the distance in miles saved between various ports : Distance by Dist. by Pan- Distance Names of ports. Cape Horn, ama Canal. saved. London or Liverpool to San Francisco, 16,900 8,200 8,700 Havre to San Francisco . . . 16,100 7,900 8,200 London to Sydney .... 16,400 10,900 5>5OO Havre to Sydney . . . .16,100 10,600 5>5 Bordeaux or Havre to Valparaiso . 10,900 7>45o 345 London to Sandwich Islands .' . 14,900 7,900 7,000 New York to Valparaiso . . . 10,600 3,900 6,700 New York to Callao .... 11,200 3,000 8,200 New York to Guayaquil . . . 12,000 2,400 9,600 New York to San Diego . . . 15,400 3,700 11,700 New York to San Francisco . . 15,900 4,200 11,700 New York to Vancouver . . . 16,600 4,600 12,000 Odds and Ends. In many of the recitations in geography, a pupil or the teacher should be at the outline map or blackboard a large part of the time. There must be a constant appeal to the eye. The teacher who sits continually, generally has a slug- gish class, we have noticed. 1 66 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY Sometimes ask a bright pupil to represent the Mississippi River, or the eastern coast of South America, with a string on the desk. The drawing of all the States of this country, or learning their boundaries, is about as profitable a way of spending time as to learn the names of the mountains in the moon. Geography is one of the best studies for cultivating the IMAGINATION. Teacher and pupils should take imaginary journeys about once a month. Make in the yard or on the roadside a rough elevation out of sand or earth, to represent the surface of the town or city or county ; also to represent the natural divisions. One or two children can help profitably in the work, if the teacher has the concept well matured in her mind. Explain to the children with a globe how a telegram dated Boston might be received in San Francisco at an earlier hour than it was sent. Also the advantage the New York and Boston papers have in receiving news over the London papers, as whatever is important in the London dailies can be cabled here, and used in our dailies, without costing our papers much for collecting the news. Paint upon the floor in beginners' classes the cardinal points as determined before the children with the help of a compass. Representations of valleys, hills, mountains, lakes, rivers, capes, islands, etc., can be easily made upon a board with coarse sawdust, putty, dry sand, or moulders' sand. Friday night, ask the children to learn all they can from father, mother, older brothers or sisters, books or maps, about the home geography of the town or city or county. RAIN AND CURRENTS 167 The next Monday, call upon volunteers to recite what has been learned. Let the children find from the statistics of population the number of cities in the country containing fifty thousand or more people, and arrange them in order of size or locality. Ask the children to open to a map of the United States, and see if the State of California would reach from Boston to Charleston. \VIHD MOUNTAIN LAINDN^ RIVER Fig, 42. From. Ocean to Ocean. Illustration in Physical Geography. When the teacher is giving a lesson on Rain, to young pupils, it will help them to remember what has been said, if a large oval be drawn on the board, and the important words used be placed at certain points around the oval, as shown in Fig. 42. Currents. The action of heat and cold in producing the oceanic currents can be very easily shown to a class with a glass tank three-fourths full of water, if a piece of ice is placed at one end, and the heat of a lamp applied below the tank at the i68 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY other end. (See Fig. 43.) If a little sawdust is placed in the water, the currents will soon be seen to move in the direction indicated by the arrows. A long tin dish or a glass sauce-dish will answer all the requirements. Fig. 43. Currents Produced by Heat and Cold. Historical Geography. 1. 1300 B. C. The world consisted of the ^Egean Sea and its border-lands (see Keith Johnston's Geography, p. 21). 2. 300 B. C. The world has grown bigger; it now embraces the Mediterranean Sea and its border-lands (see Keith Johnston's Geog- raphy, p. 23). 3. 800 A. D. The Indian Ocean may now be added to the Medi- terranean Sea, and two centres are made, although discovery had not encircled the Indian Ocean (see K. Johnston's Geography, p. 29). 4. 1500 A. D. Besides the Mediterranean Sea and Indian Ocean with their borders, the eastern border of the Atlantic is well known ' (see K. Johnston's Geography, p. 38). 5. 1700 A. D. Now the known world is found about the Medi- terranean Sea, the Indian and Atlantic Oceans with their completed border-lands (see K. Johnston's Geography, p. 56). 6. 1888 A. D. Now the Pacific Ocean and its border-lands are added to the above, and the known world embraces almost the entire surface of the globe (see K. Johnston's Geography, p. 75. Draw six maps of these six worlds). It is interesting to remember, that in many respects the known world, No. i, called the ^gean Sea, was just as ELEVATIONS AND REVIEW CHARTS 169 large as No. 6, called the Pacific Ocean : i. e., it took as long to go from one side of it to the other side ; it was as dangerous and as difficult to cross. Representing Elevations. Elevations may be represented on the blackboard in different colors, or by using a variety of marks as in Fig. 44. A Review Chart can be readily made on paper with the rubber pen, or on the board, by copying some such set of topical words and phrases as the following : North America. i. Position. 2. Manitoba. 3. Charleston. 4. Central Plain. 5. Sponges. 6. Mount Mitchell. 7. Upernavik. 8. Indian. 9. Pineapples. 10. Japan Current, n. The Grand Canon. 12. Musk-ox. 13. Grazing region. 14. White-fish. 15. New Orleans. 16. Prairies. 17. Pike's Peak. 18. Central Belt of climate. 19. Mining region. 20. Sugar. 21. City of Elms. 22. Exports of Boston. 23. Saratoga. 24. Scranton. 25. Cotton. 26. Great railroad centre. 27. Sandy Hook. 28. Seal. 29, Denver. 30. Commerce. 31. Characteristics. Or the longest blackboard in the room, or all the black- boards, may be ruled in a dozen columns as below : 1 7 o METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY ffoo-tooa -rooo-acao sooo-booo OI/E-R 10,000 Fig. 44. A Simple Way to represent Elevations. THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY 171 and some bright pupil be placed at the board to write words descriptive of what simple statement the first pupil gives in reference to position. Two or three pupils may be called in reference to surface. The beauty of this review exercise consists in its snap and rapidity. View of the Mississippi Valley. If a person in June were stationed in a fastened balloon over New Orleans, sufficiently high in the air, he would Fig. 45. Sketch-Map of the Mississippi Valley. have a fine panoramic view of the United States. Directly north would stretch out the beautiful Mississippi River and valley, to the great lakes in the distance. [Teacher sketches the same as he describes ; or, better, have a pupil sketch at blackboard, and class do the same at their seats.] On each side are many parallel streams constantly pouring their muddy waters into the main and central channel. 172 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY To the left of this great valley or plain, rise the sharp peaks of the Rocky Mountains, white with snow, like a silver frame to an oil landscape-painting ; to the right are the Appalachian Mountains, rounded and black with forests, near by compact in three parallel ranges, then breaking up into separate groups such as the Adirondacks, Green, and White Mountains. When finished, the sketch will have the appearance indicated in Fig. 45. \ V \ Fig. 46. From Last Census Report. Showing the number of inhabitants in the United States who live in wet or dry climates. Papers and News. Bring into the class a number of daily papers, same issue, in which the telegrams of importance have been marked, and pass them out among the pupils in the geography-class, asking them to look up the locality and importance of the places mentioned. A lively exercise will surely follow. Appoint a committee from the class to report all impor- tant news items each Friday ; the class to locate on an outline-map the places mentioned. RULERS OF DIFFERENT COUNTRIES 173 The Present Rulers of Several Important Countries. [Make a review exercise from the list.] 1888. COUNTRY. RULER. Argentine Republic President Celman. Austria-Hungary Emperor Franz Josef I. Belgium King Leopold II. """ Brazil Emperor Dom Pedro II. Chili President Balmaceda. China Emperor Kwang Su. Denmark King Christian IX. '**"" France President Carnot. Germany Emperor William II. Great Britain Queen Victoria. British India Viceroy Lord Lansdowne. Canada Gov.-Gen. Lord Stanley. Italy King Humbert I. " Japan Mikado Mutsu Hi to. Mexico President Diaz. Netherlands King William. *"*" Portugal King Luis I. -^ Rome Pope Leo XIII. Russia Emperor Alexander III. Spain King Alfonso XIII. (child). Sweden and Norway .... King Oscar II. **~~ Switzerland President Droz. Turkey Sultan Abdul Hamid II. United States President Cleveland. Charts from Census Reports. The census report of the United States for 1880 contains many interesting tables in reference to the industries, popu- lation, and habits of the people. To illustrate, we reproduce two tables in reference to the population. In Fig. 46 is shown how the population is '74 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY distributed in reference to the annual average rainfall. The figures at the top give the amount in inches ; those at the left, the millions of inhabitants. It will be seen at once that eight million people live where the downpour reaches about forty inches on the average for the year. Fig. 47 shows, in a similar way, that much the larger part of the people prefer to live where the average temperature ranges from forty- five to fifty degrees above zero. * f \ \ Fig. 47. From Last Census Report. Showing the number of inhabitants who live in warm or cold temperatures. The Geographical Scrap- Hook. To paste selections in a blank-book, takes considerable time, and prevents using them afterwards individually. It is much better to purchase a standard letter-file (fifty cents), and place the scraps in the pockets alphabetically. With the help of the class a rich collection of material soon accumulates, and no teacher is so poor that he cannot soon own a valuable geographical encyclopaedia. To show what is meant, a few selections are given below, taken from our own pocket scrap-book : FROM THE SCRAP-BOOK 175 " In Corea the women are kept in the greatest seclusion. Every evening, however, at a certain hour, the city gates of the towns are closed at a given signal, upon which all men are bound to leave the streets, which are given up to the women for promenading and recrea- tion. It is deemed a great offence against modesty to look at a woman then in the public streets.'' " In the Tyrol they have a pretty custom of taking special notice of grandma's birthday. Young people, of course, expect many happy returns of their natal day ; but the old can have only a few more at the best, so the object is to make these few just as sunshiny as possible. In the morning, the Tyrolese children gather in groups under grandma's window, and awaken her with music from flutes and violins. The house is decorated with garlands, and all day long the old lady sits in state in a high chair to receive the simple gifts which are brought her. On each one is pinned some little message of love. A large cake, from which grandma cuts a slice for each new-comer, forms a part of the ceremony." "London is vast, but Paris is splendid. London is a city of roads ; Paris, a city of streets. London is a growth ; Paris is a crea- tion. London is a workingman in his overalls and hob-nailed shoes; Paris is a lady of fashion in silk and jewels. The face of London is an earnest face, with a soul behind it, a face full of character, inten- tion, resolution. The face of Paris wears the smile of one who drives dull care away; there are wrinkles on it, but they are dexterously disguised with cosmetic arts. The face of London is seamed and scarred, and is not ashamed. London, like its name, is full of a deep reverberation ; Paris, like its name, is a flash. Paris is a bunch of summer flowers, with short stems, that must fade and perish to-morrow ; London is a basket of autumn-fruits that hold within matter for future ripening and usefulness." " The sugar-cane belongs to the family of grasses, and, when growing, looks not unlike our Indian corn. It is raised from cuttings fifteen or twenty inches long, taken from the top of the plant just below the leaves. The remaining part is then cut off near the root. From the root spring a number of shoots called ratoons. These, 176 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY with the cuttings, furnish the plants for the next year's crop. The part between the cuttings and the root is filled with a pith that contains the juice from which sugar is made. The sugar-cane is now culti- vated in almost all warm climates; but in Java, Mauritius, and Cuba, the manufacture of sugar reaches its highest degree of perfection, owing, perhaps, to the great extent of the cane-plantations." "Henry C. Rowe, of Connecticut, has eighteen thousand acres planted to oysters, from which he reaps over a million bushels of oysters in a year. The work is thus carried on by him : "The oyster- farmer, having secured his ground, next cuts it up into smaller lots, in order to till it systematically. This is done, of course, by buoys in deep water, and by stakes in shallow. Oysters cast their spawn at various times between March and November, but mostly in July and August. Each female contains from ten to sixty million eggs. Few of them, proportionally, mature. The young oysters are for a few days free floaters, and then they are ready to be attached to any clean substance that may offer. The plan has been tried in the vicinity of Groton, in the Pequonnock River, of thrusting down small trees, white birch being preferred, letting them lean at an angle of forty-five degrees, sloping with the current. The young oysters set on these very readily. They are harvested when mature by the simple process of pulling up the bushes, and stripping off their singular fruit. As many as one thousand bushels of superior oysters have been gathered from an acre in a single season ! Oysters will set on almost any object that they come in contact with. Clean gravel is preferable to any thing else, where it can be had. Old, dry shells are generally used for the purpose." " In countries where earthquakes are common, it is said that ani- mals give warning of the coming danger. Some minutes before the shock is felt, oxen and cows begin to bellow, sheep and goats bleat loudly, and dogs howl. Horses in the stalls leap up and down, try- ing to break their halters, while those on the road stop suddenly, and snort in a strange way. Rabbits and moles have been seen to leave their holes, and fishes approach the shore. When the great earth- quake occurred in the island of Ischia, a few years ago, some people who were asleep were enabled to save their lives by being pulled by their dogs, who barked wildly just before the shock took place." FROM THE SCRAP-BOOK 177 "Bamboo. Perhaps nothing in the vegetable kingdom is put to such a variety of uses as bamboo. It is said that the Chinese use it in over five hundred different ways, and with them it takes the place of both iron and steel. The farmer builds his houses and fences with it, his furniture is made from it, while the tender shoots furnish a delicious food for his table. The roots are carved into images; the tapering stalks are used for ribs of sails, for every sort of frames, coops, and cages, for handles and ribs of umbrellas and fans ; while the leaves are sewed into rain-cloaks and thatches. The shavings are good for stuffing pillows. Chop-sticks for eating, the pipe for smoking, the broom for sweeping, the mattress to lie upon, the book to study from, the skewer to pin the hair, the hat to screen the head, the paper to write on, and the pencil to write with, are a few of the ways in which a Chinaman uses bamboo. With five dollars, he can build quite a decent hut." " Chinese Opposites. The Chinese mariner's compass points south ; i.e., the index is placed on the opposite end of the needle. The Chinese shake their own hands when they meet. The men wear skirts, and the women pants. The men wear their hair as long as it will grow , the women bind theirs up as snug as possible. The dress- makers are men, not women. The spoken language is never written, and the written language is never spoken. In reading a book the Chinaman begins at the end, and reads backwards/' All notes in the book appear at the top of the page in place of the bottom, as with us. White is the mourning color, not black. Surnames precede the given names. Vessels are launched sideways, not endways. In mounting a horse, the Chinese do so from the off side. At dinner we commence the meal with soup and fish : they reverse the order, and begin with the dessert. Grown-up men fly kites, and the boys look on. Our bridesmaids are young, and dress in white; theirs are old women clad in black." Due West, by BALLOU. Fancy Names. Ask the children to learn all the nicknames for cities they can find ; such as Spindle City, Quaker City, Crescent City, City of Churches, City of Elms, etc. i 7 S METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY Soubriquets of States. Make an exercise from the following facts : STATES. Maine New Hampshire Vermont . Massachusetts . Rhode Island . Connecticut New York New Jersey Pennsylvania Delaware . Virginia . West Virginia . North Carolina South Carolina . Georgia Florida Mississippi Louisiana . Texas ? Arkansas . Tennessee . Kentucky . Ohio . Indiana Illinois Michigan . Wisconsin. Iowa . Minnesota. Kansas Colorado . Nevada California . SOUBRIQUETS. . Pine-tree State. . Granite State. . Green-mountain State. . Old Bay State. . Little Rhody. . Nutmeg State. . Empire State. . Jersey Blue. . Keystone State. . The Diamond State. . Old Dominion. . Pan-handle State. . Tar State. . Palmetto State. . Empire State of the South. . Peninsula State. . The Bayou State. . Creole State. . The Lone Star State, . Bear State. . Big Bend State. ' . Corn Cracker State. . Buckeye State. . Hoosier State. . Prairie or Sucker State. . Wolverine or Lake State. . Badger State. . Hawkeye State. . Gopher State. . Garden of the West. , Centennial State. . Sage Hen State. . The Golden State. SOUBRIQUETS OF CITIES 179 Soubriquets of Cities. CITIES. Baltimore . Boston Brussels Brooklyn . Buffalo Chicago Cincinnati . Detroit Indianapolis Leipsic Lowell Nashville . New Haven New Orleans New York . Pittsburg . Portland, Me. Rome San Francisco St. Louis . Venice Washington SOUBRIQUETS. Monumental City. Hub of the Universe. Little Paris. City of Churches. Queen City of the Lakes. Garden City. Queen City. City of the Straits.' Railroad City. Town of the Lime-Trees. City of Spindles. City of Rocks. City of Elms. Crescent City. Empire City. Smoky City. Forest City. Eternal City. Frisco. Mound City. Queen City of the World. City of Magnificent Distances. Fig. 48. Important Coal Fields of the United States. i8o METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY '^Imwm^'-"^ ' Fig. 49. Map of Mauch Chunk. Fig. 50. A Falling Roof. ILLUSTRATED COMPOSITIONS 181 Geographical Compositions. As soon as the class begin to be interested in geography, they are ready to express their new ideas in writing. The best of compositions can be written upon some interesting town, like Washington or Rome ; or upon some discoverer, like Stanley or Greely. The common productions, such Fig. 52. Pen- Picture of Mauch Chunk. as cotton, wheat, petroleum, gold, or coal, form capital sub- jects for compositions. Children are all the more interested if encouraged to illustrate their compositions with pen-and- ink sketches, and make it seem like a book. The writer has in his possession a set of such illustrated compositions prepared by a recent class in his room, on the subject of coai A few of the pen-and-ink pictures are reproduced in Figs. 48-54. Fig-. 53. Another Title-Page. (Drawn with pen by Master L. A. Frink, Graduating Class, Lewis School, Boston.) FUN IN GEOGRAPHY 183 Such topics as the following are profitable for composi- tions : Fisheries in Massachusetts. Cotton in Mississippi. Rice in South Carolina. Salt in New York. Oysters in Mary- land. Silver in Nevada. Coal in Pennsylvania. Railroads in New England ; in the West. The Indians ; The Esqui- maux; The Negroes. New-England Weather. Western Farming. A Letter from California to a Cousin in Maine. A Trip to Alaska. Mining. How Shoes are made. The Life of a Linen Collar. The Seal; Grizzly Bear; Deer. Salmon- Fishing. A Funny Lesson in Geography. Children enjoy a bit of fun now and then. They will appreciate the reading of the following from the " Railway Journal : " " Dear teacher, will you tell me what the inhabitants of America are called ? " 44 They are called Americans, my boy." " And are the people of Mexico called Mexicones ? " " No, my boy ; they are called Mexicans." " Ah ! and the people of Greece, for instance, are called Greecycans ? " " No, my boy; they are called Greeks." " Then, teacher, are the people of Spain called Speaks?" " No, dear boy ; they are called Spaniards." " Indeed ! and the people of Portugal, are they Portugards ?" " No, my boy; they are called Portuguese." " Ah ! then the people of Germany are Germangeese ? " No, my boy ; they are Germans." "Oh! and the people of Norway, are they Normans?" " No, my boy ; they are Norwegians." 184 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY " And the people of Sweden, are they Skowhegans ? " " No, dear boy ; they are Swedes." " And are the people of Sardinia Sardines ? " " No, my boy ; they are Sardinians." " And in Japan are they Japanians ? " " No, my boy ; they are Japanese." " And in Morocco, are they Moroccoese ? " " No, my boy ; they are Moors." " And are the people of Patagonia Pats ? " " No, my boy ; they are Patagonians." "And in Hindoostan, are they called Hindoostanians ? " " No, my boy; they are Hindoos." "And in Holland, are they Holloos ? " "No, my boy ; they are Dutch." " And in Belgium they are Belch ? " " No, dear boy ; they are Belgians." " And in Poland are they Polians ? " " No, dear boy; they are Poles/' " Oh, yes ! and in Russia they are Rushes ? " "No, no; they are Russians.'' " And in Wales, they are Wallians ? " " No, indeed ; they are Welch." " And in Scotland, they are Sculch ? " " Not at all ; they are Scotch." " And in Ireland, they are Itch ? " " No ; they are Irish." " And in France, they are Fish ? " "No; French." " Oh ! and in England, they are Inch ? J "No ; they are English." " And are the people of Switzerland called Switch ? " " No ; they are Swiss." "Oh, yes! and the people of Sicily are Siss or are they Sissys?" DEVOTIONAL EXERCISES 185 " They are Sicilians." " And in Turkey, are they Turkeyans or Turkeys ? " " Neither ; they are Turks." <( Oh ! and in Italy, they are Its ? " " No ; they are Italians." " And the people of Denmark, dear teacher ? " " My boy, the people of Denmark may go to Copenhagen. I think we have had all the geography we need for one day." Geography and Devotional Exercises. If the teacher make his selections from the Bible, remem- bering the child nature^his class will be deeply interested ; e.g., if Africa is the country they are studying, then begin to read selections in the last part of Genesis and in Exodus about Joseph and Moses. The plagues of Egypt, Exod. vii.-xii., are usually enjoyed by the class. If Asia is the grand division, then selections from the first part of Genesis should be made, about Noah and the ark, Abraham and the three angels, Sodom and Lot, Abraham and Isaac, Isaac's courtship, Esau and Jacob, Jacob serving for Rachel, Jacob meeting Esau. Joshua's adventures as related in the first part of Joshua are always interesting. Samson, Daniel, and Samuel are also great favorites. The girls generally enjoy such characters as Ruth and Esther. If a map of the world hang behind the desk, the teacher can easily add a word of geographical explanation which will create much interest in the subject. We recently saw a class of rough boys listening with the most intense eager- ness for ten minutes as the teacher read, making about ten words of geographical comment, the story of Jacob obtain- ing the blessing (Gen. xxvii.). g-. 5 4. Full- Page Illustration from Frink's Composition on Coal. Fig. 55. Belts o, rests and Deserts. (UNI7ERSITT] 03T UNIVERSITY UPHEAVALS DEPRESS ro/VS Fig. 56. The Upheavals and Def swns in Different Parts of the World. OP THE UNIVERSITY CONTRASTED BELTS 187 Forests and Deserts. A large part of the surface of the earth is covered by one of these contrasted belts, depending upon the amount of moisture. By glancing at Fig. 55, it will be seen at once that the belts of desert plains are on or near the tropics ; while the forest belts are mostly on or near the equator and sixty degrees north parallel. If the teacher is provided with an oil-painted outline map of the world on Mercator's projection, he can readily reproduce Fig. 55 before the class in contrasted colors. Upheavals and Depressions. A " bit of geology " always pleases an intelligent class. Many simple facts and good illustrations will be found in such books as Shaler's First Book in Geology, and Dana's Geological Story Briefly Told. In Fig. 56, the upheavals and depressions so quietly going on about the coast of the Atlan- tic Ocean, and on the western side of South America, are plainly indicated. If these are shown on the blackboard with colored crayon, and briefly explained by the teacher, the class will be intensely interested, and led to study the matter more fully. (For facts, consult the above books and Reclus' Earth.} CHAPTER X MODEL LESSONS THE teacher's part, then, in the process of instruction, is that of a guide, director, or superintendent of the operation by which the pupil teaches himself. Payne. 189 BOOKS FOR CONSULTATION FRYE'S GEOGRAPHY, WITH SAND MODELLING. GEIKIE'S TEACHING OF GEOGRAPHY. GOODISON'S ARTICLES IN POPULAR EDUCATOR, 1887 AND 1888. PATRIDGE'S QUINCY METHODS. PEAVEY'S MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. NOTE. Teachers who wish to study model lessons for lower classes will do well to consult the books mentioned above. 190 CHAFFER X MODEL LESSONS PART I -SURFACE OF NORTH AMERICA OBJECT OF THE RECITATION PREPARATION MADE BY PUPIL PREPARATION MADE BY TEACHER APPARATUS USED REVIEW ROCKY MOUNTAIN HIGHLANDS ADVANCED LESSON PLATEAUS VALLEYS DIFFERENT MOUNTAINS VISITING MOUNTAINS SLOPES PART II CLIMATE OF NORTH AMERICA. OBJECT OF RECITATION, ETC. BELTS OF CLIMATE CAUSES AFFECTING THE CLIMATE FACTS ABOUT THE ARCTIC CLIMATE CENTRAL BELT COMPARISONS FACTS ABOUT THE TEMPERATE CLIMATE SHORT DESCRIPTIONS PART I RECITATION IN GEOGRAPHY, IN A FIFTH-YEAR CLASS Subject Surface of North America Object of the Recitation. i. A review of previous lesson. 2. To ascertain how much preparation had been made by the class on the advanced part of the lesson. Plains and Eastern highlands, which had been assigned as a home lesson. 3. To show, by comparison with what was taught on p. 263, that the recitation is not confined to just what was taught, but it may be somewhat elastic. Preparation made by Pupils. Study of notes made at end of previous lesson, when many facts, not in the text-books, were given by teacher. Examination of twenty pictures shown by solar camera, and a few photo- graphs, and several pictures in 'the ordinary geographies. Reading numerous books from library in preparation for reading hour. 191 192 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY Preparation on the Part of the Teacher. Studying raised map, Guyot's maps, stereoscope and lantern pictures of the region. The making of a sand map the night before. Examination of such illus- trated books as " North America " by Manning, " Rocky Mountains " by Miss Bird, "Yosemite" by Kneeland, " United States Geological Sur- vey" by Hayden ; reading "Qn. Horseback" in "Atlantic Monthly," " Rocky Mountains" by Bird, "The Round Trip" by Codman, "From Fifth Avenue to Alaska " by Ed. Pierrepont, " Across the Continent '' by Bowles. Consulting several times " Mission of the North-American People " by Gilpin, " Glimpses of the Earth " by Blakiston, Appleton's Cyclopaedia, Lippincott's Gazetteer, maps, etc. Apparatus Used. Globe, blackboard, outline map on cloth blackboard, raised atlas, sand map, putty map, charts, Guyot's large wall Physical Map of North America, Hughes's Political Map of same, Warren's Political and Guyot's Physical Maps in geographies. THE RECITATION (Written from a report made by a pupil. New matter brought out is printed in Italics.} I REVIEW Surface in General, and Rocky Mountain Highlands. Teacher. Miss Foss may point out on the globe the general trend of North America. (She examines, and reports "north and south.") T. How does North America compare in size with the other grand divisions ? Hands. (There are forty hands raised, and Master Brooks is selected to answer. He comes forward to the desk, takes up a pasteboard outline of North America, goes to the comparative chart on which all the grand divisions are drawn upon the same scale, and places his outline of North America over several of the other grand divisions so as to answer the question.) T. Tell the class from the sand map what you learned yesterday about the surface of North America, Miss Hope. Miss H. The surface of North America is easily divided into two highlands and two plains. Here are represented the SEA ALPS 193 Western Highlands (pointing); here, the Central Plain. The Western Cordilleras are subdivided into the Cascade Range at the north, the largest range, and the Sierra Nevada in California, and the Sierra Madre in Mexico. The plateau is T. That will do. Very good. Well, Miss Forbes? Miss Forbes. I think she made a mistake. T. What was it ? Miss F. She omitted to say that the Eastern Cordilleras is usually called the Rocky Mountains, and differing from the Western Cordilleras in being higher, and having only one name for its entire length. T. Very good. What appropriate name is sometimes given to the Cascade Range north of Vancoiiver Island? (After a pause only one hand is raised.) T. What is it, Master Pinkham ? P. The Sea Alps. T. Well done, Pinkham. Where did you learn that? P. From a book I am reading. T. Class, please notice the advantage of reading good books. Will the next please describe the surface of North America, from Guyot's Physical Map ? (Master Ryan takes the pointer, and repeats what had been given before, only he used the physical map instead of the sand map.) T. Master Riley, please read from this book, called the "Essentials of Geography" by Fisher, a different name for what Master Ryan called the Cordilleras. Master Riley reads : In the western part of North A merica are an inner t ''id an outer mountain system, walling in a vast plateau. T. Which name do you like better ? R. Cordilleras. T. Why ? R. Because it is shorter. 194 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY T. How many prefer Cordilleras ? (The class is divided in opinion^ T. What does the word Cordilleras mean ? (No one knew except Miss Hicks, who is a good thinker. She thought it meant mountain, because it was applied to a range of mountains. The teacher then writes the word on the board, using yellow, for the first four letters, and white for the others?} This is a Spanish word, and meaning Class ? (and the teacher points to the first four letters, Cord.) T. Or? Hands. Miss Hicks. Miss H. A cord, or chain, or string. T. Do we ever use any of those English words for a moun- tain ? Class. Cl. Yes: chain. T. So you see the Spanish word means the same as the English word. Mr. Fisher's term is excellent. You can use either. (This short diversion increasetf the manifested interest in the class. The eyes began to brighten, and the hands to be raised with greater eagerness to indicate a desire to recite.) T. Who will describe the Rocky- Mountain Plateau from the sand map? (About thirty hands are raised. Miss Forbes is selected. She quickly steps to the sand-map, and takes the pointer.) Miss F. The Rocky-Mountain Plateau lies between the Eastern and Western Cordilleras. A person in travelling over it from north to south would pass various sections of moun- tains, would go up and down constantly ; but he would gradually rise higher and higher above the level of the sea. The distance from north to south is five thousand miles. This plateau is divided into seven great basins. The most northern one is called the Yukon Basin*. The land here [point- ing to it] averages about one thousand feet above the level of the sea. The next is the basin of the Frazer River ; and very ROCKY-MOUNTAIN PLATEAU 195 near this is the much larger Columbia Basin, where the land averages four thousand feet above sea-level. All these basins drain into the Pacific Ocean. The widest and largest of these basins is the next one, called the Interior Basin. The rivers here drain toward the Great Salt Lake, and not into any ocean. This* is about six thousand feet high. South of this is the Colorado Basin, containing the Colorado River, the Colorado Canon, pictures of which we saw yesterday. This slopes toward the Gulf of California. Then comes, east and south of the last-named basin, the basin of the Rio Grande, draining into the Gulf of Mexico. The last and most southern of these basins is that of Mexico. It is also the smallest and highest, being about eight thousand feet above the level of the sea. It is, like Utah, an interior basin. T. Very good. Now, who will represent all that Miss Forbes has told us so well, upon this cloth blackboard outline ? Miss Maloney. (Miss M. steps to the board ; and in a few moments with colored crayon she has drawn the Cordilleras, marked off and numbered the basins, and indicated their elevations.) T. Any criticisms ? Master Riley. R. She didn't indicate the basin of the MacKenzie. T. Miss Maloney, did I ask you to indicate that? Miss M. No, sir. T. Why not ? Miss M. Because it is not on the Rocky-Mountain Plateau. (Still Master Riley has his hand up, and also some other pupils.) T. Master Riley, have you any other criticisms ? R. Yes, sir. She has placed the basin of Mexico too far north. (Miss M. corrects this mistake to the satisfaction of the now wide-awake class.) 196 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY Rocky-Mountain Highlands. Teacher. Miss Forbes spoke, in her well-given description of the Rocky- Mountain Plateau, in reference to certain pictures of the Colorado Canon. Tell us about them. (A large number of hands is raised, and Master Vincent is given the floor.) V. You showed us the other day, with the solar camera, four pictures of the canon. One was called the Marble Canon. In this picture the walls of rock rise very steep on each side to the height of four thousand feet, and seem to be composed of different layers of stone, which you said were of various colors. In the foreground we saw a very large Spanish bayonet and different varieties of cactus. The finest picture of the four is called the Grand Canon, looking east. Here the river runs a long distance in almost a straight line ; and so great are the distances, that the river looks like a silver thread at the bottom of the canon. Here the walls rise almost perpendicularly seven thousand feet. Many side canons are noticeable, and places looking like alcoves. T. What places among the Rocky Mountains are celebrated for scenery? Master Hatch. //. The Colorado Canon, Yosemite Valley and Big Trees, and the National Park. T. Where is the Yosemite Valley? Point it out. (Master Hatch steps to the cloth blackboard outline, and indi- cates the position east of San Francisco, in the Sierra Nevada range.) T. What would you see in this valley, if you visited it? //. I should see a long, narrow valley, through which a river flows : the sides are very steep, rising in some places perpen- dicularly to the height of three thousand feet. There are several waterfalls, the largest and most beautiful being the Yosemite Falls. T. Have you seen pictures of these falls ? GROVES AND GEYSERS 197 H. Yes, sir. There is a photograph of these fells hanging on the wall of the room, near my seat. T. Tell us about the big trees, Miss Dary. Miss D. There are two groves of these trees, called the Calaveras Grove and the Mariposa Grove. They are both situated in the Sierra Nevada range, not far from the Yosemite Valley. One grove has over a thousand trees in it. Some of the largest are thirty feet in diameter and over three hundred and fifty feet high. The bark is over a foot in thickness. Bunker-Hill Monument could be placed inside such a tree, and it would re'ach only two-thirds of the way to the top. T. What pictures give you the best idea of the size of these trees ? Miss D. The one representing a coach driving through the trunk of the tree. T. What would you see if you travelled in the National Park? //. Geysers and hot springs. T. How do you know you would ? You have never trav- elled there, have you ? H. No; but I saw the pictures you showed of the park, and in them were many pictures of geysers and hot springs. One geyser was called " Old Faithful." T. That will do. What other pictures have you seen ? Hands. (Hands are shown from nearly every part of the class. Miss Adams is v equested to reply.) Miss A. I saw a picture of Pike's Peak and Long's Peak. T. What did I tell you about them ? Miss A. You said Major Pike, after whom the peak was named, tried to climb it in 1803, but failed. He said, "Nothing but a bird could reach its summit." Now ladies, and even children, ride on horseback to the top. The United-States Signal Bureau has a station there, and men stay on the mountain all the year round. 198 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY T. Did I say any thing about Long's Peak ? (Miss Adams hesitates, and hands are raised with great eagerness by nearly every pupil.) T. Well, Master Langdon. L. You read to us about Miss Bird ascending the mountain with " Mountain Jim." T. Did /read it? L. No, sir. Miss Foss read it from your book. T. In these pictures, do you remember how the trees ap- peared, Miss Foss ? Miss Foss. They seemed to stand alone in clumps, instead of close together as in Massachusetts. T. How high are the peaks in the Rocky Mountains ? Master Peters. P. The two highest peaks are the volcanoes Mount St. Elias in Alaska, and Popocatapetl in Mexico, both of which are about eighteen thousand feet above the level of the sea. Pike's Peak and Long's Peak are about fourteen thousand feet. T. The children of Mexico always call the mountain " Popo." From the chart of comparative heights, show how high eighteen thousand feet is. (Peters places before the class the above chart, and shows that Mount St. Elias is three times as high as Mount Washington, which has been seen by several pupils, and eighteen times as high as any hills near the school?) T. What is peculiar about the highest peaks ? Class. They stand at the extreme ends of the Rocky Mountain chain. T. Are there glaciers in the Rocky Mountain chain ? Class. Yes. T. Where ? Class. In Alaska. T. Well, Master Golden. HIGHLANDS AND PLAINS 199 G. I read the other day in the supplement to the Boston "Traveller" that on Mount Tacomas, Washington 7^erritory,a large glacier has just been discovered, equal in size and beauty to those seen in Switzerland. T. Very good, Golden. I saw that account the other day, and was about to mention it. Railroads and steamers now connect this mountain with Portland and all the country, so we need no longer cross the Atlantic in order to enjoy the view of a river of ice. Master Vincent must enclose that glacier in his putty map. II ADVANCED LESSON T. We have lingered too long, I see, on this part of the lesson, and must proceed immediately to the home lesson, the Atlantic Highlands and the Plains of North America. Miss Porter, please step to the board, and indicate by two lines the general direction of the two highlands. (Miss Porter has not thought of that, but bravely goes to the indicated board, takes the crayon, and, after thinking a few moments, draws two lines in the right direction.) T. Those who approve, raise their hands. (The class are satisfied.) How do the mountains of North America compare with those of South America, Miss Doyle? D. They run in the same direction, but those in South America are higher. T. With those in Europe, Corcoran? C. The mountains in Europe run mostly from west to east. 71 What name does Guyot give to these Atlantic high- lands ? Class. C. Appalachian. 71 Describe their position, Master Wood. W. Near the Atlantic and T. Miss McClellan. 200 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY M. The Appalachian Highlands are situated between the Central Plain and the Atlantic Plain, and run parallel to the Atlantic coast. T. Are they similar in all parts ? Class. C. No. T. What is peculiar about the southern half, Miss Guierrier ? G> There are several parallel ranges in this part. T. What different arrangement did you notice in reference to the northern half? G. The mountains seem to be in groups. 71 Yes, or detached, you might say. How many noticed, in studying this subject last night, that there are noted valleys between these parallel ranges in the southern part? (Only a few hands are raised, showing that the question went beyond the observation of most in the class.) You may open your geographies, p. 37, and see how many valleys you can discover. (The class do so, and soon hands are raised by pupils eager to tell what they have discovered.) T. Master Batcheldor ? B. There is a valley between the Cumberland and Alleghany . Mountains, in which the Holston River flows. T. That you can call the Valley of East Tennessee. B. Farther north there is a valley between the Alleghany and the Blue Ridge, through which the Shenandoah River flows. 71 Yes ; and you can call it what ? B. Valley of the Shenandoah ? 71 I asked you a question. Please answer it. B. Valley of the Shenandoah. 71 The land between the Alleghany and Blue Ridge is some- times called the " Great Valley.' 1 ' 1 Do you find any more ? B. The Hudson Valley in New York. T. Has any one found another ? Master Corcoran. C. The Mohawk Valley. VALLEYS AND MOUNTAINS 2OI T. Yes, that would do, perhaps; but notice, it runs at right angles to the other valleys, and it is much smaller. It is men- tioned more frequently in what study ? C. In history. T. What persons were often seen there then? C. Indians. T. What modern highway passes through it? (Master Cor- coran does not read the papers, and so has not heard. But several boys are so anxious to tell, they leave their seats, and come with uplifted hands towards the teacher, who is stand- ing in one corner of the room. He selects Master Vincent, the smallest, to reply.) V. New York Central Railroad. (This does not satisfy some of the others, who prefer the Erie Cana/j and the teacher is obliged to tell them that both answers are correct.) T. There is another noted valley in Pennsylvania. Who will find it? (Several are mentioned, such as the Susquehanna and Juniata Valleys ; but these do not satisfy, and the teacher adds the Cumberland Valley.} Begin at the southern part of the highlands, and name in order the different ranges and groups of mountains. Miss Wallis, you may locate them at the same time on this outline map. (Miss Wallis points out and locates as follows : ) Cumberland Mountains in Tennessee, Alleghany in Virginia, Blue Ridge in Virginia and Pennsylvania, Catskill and Adiron- dack in New York, Hoosacin Massachusetts, Green in Vermont, White in New Hampshire, and (A score of hands are raised, and half a dozen crowd about the desk, eager for the opportunity to supplement deficiencies in Miss Wallis's recitation. The teacher chooses Master CVBrion.) Master O. She omitted the mountains in Maine, and the Wotchish in Canada, and the Taconic between Massachusetts and New York. 2O2 METHODS AND AIDS TN GEOGRAPHY (Master O'Brion sits down feeling well satisfied, and wonders why so many hands are still eagerly raised.) F. What else, Miss Lowe? Miss L. Miss Wallis omitted to say that the Cumberland separate Virginia and Kentucky; that the Alleghany separate Virginia and West Virginia, and are found in West Virginia and Pennsylvania. 7~. Master Wood. Master W. How can the Alleghany separate Virginia and West Virginia, and then be found in West Virginia also? T. Miss Lowe, defend your statement. Miss L. Why, the Alleghany Mountains consist of three or more parallel ranges. The middle range is on the State line, and the western range is in West Virginia. Farther north the line separating the States runs farther east, and nearly the whole range is in West Virginia. T. Master Wood, do you see the advantage of forming a perfect mental picture of the map ? Master Wood (very quietly). Yes, sir. T. Miss Long still has her hand up, and she is asked to speak. .Miss L. Miss Wallis did not speak of the peaks. Miss Wallis. I was not asked to do that, but I know them. T. Miss Wallis was not expected to speak of them. Miss Long may tell us about the important peaks. (Miss Long is not prepared for this sudden call, and makes a poor recitation. The teacher then called on Master Edmunds.) Master E. Mount Washington, the highest peak in the White Mountains, is the best known of any of the peaks, because it is so frequently visited. I went to the top of this mountain last summer with my father. We left Boston at six o'clock in the morning, and reached the foot of the mountain about one o'clock. In about an hour we were at the Summit House, on top of Mount Washington. The day was very fine, PERSONAL VISITS TO MOUNTAINS 203 and we could see a long distance. I enjoyed very much the two hours spent on the summit. We ate our luncheon on the rocks looking down towards the Glen House, which appeared very small and directly below us. At three o'clock we took the train to descend. Reached Boston about ten o'clock in the evening. T. Very good. I like to hear of these personal travels. How many in the class ever visited the top of Mount Washing- ton ? (Six boys and two girls raise their hands.) How many have ever seen the mountain ? (Fifteen pupils respond.) (Miss Gage gives her experience of waiting a week at the Fabyan House for a good day in which to make the ascent. Master Parker was at North Conway last summer when the Appalachian Club stopped there, and he wanted to go with them on some of their excursions, but his father would not let him. He saw some lady teachers -who were members of the club and climbed the high mountains, and a little girl only four- teen years old, the daughter of a professor in New York, went everywhere her father did, and took all the hard tramps. Several other accounts were given about Mount Washington. Miss Perry brought about twenty stereoscopic pictures and her stereoscope, which were passed round. Several boys had been to the top of Mount Mansfield ; one had spent a summer near Mount Monadnock in Jaffrey, N.H., etc., etc.) T. Master Jenks may tell us about the peaks in the Black Mountains now. Master J. Several peaks among the Black Mountains are higher than Mount Washington, such as Mitchell's and Cling- man's. According to our geography, the latter is about four hundred feet higher than Washington. This peak was named after Gen. Clingman, who measured several mountain-peaks among the Balsams, Smokies, and Blacks in North Carolina. Mitchell's Peak was named after Professor Mitchell of the 204 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY State University, who made barometrical measurements of these mountains, and was the first to announce their superior height to the White Mountains. In the summer of 1857 he lost his life by falling down a perpendicular precipice, while crossing the Black range. He is now buried on the top of the mountain which bears his name. My father has spent several summers in this region. He says there is a good deal of timber there, much of it very valuable, the trees extending to the summits of the mountains. The fishing and hunting are excellent. I have an older brother who is hunting and camping out among these mountains now. My father brought home from North Carolina many specimens of valuable gems. He also found there a large emery-mine. T. Very good. It is said that fifty-seven peaks in North Carolina are over six thousand feet in height. The Blue Ridge is the water-shed of this system, as no stream severs it. According to geology, as set forth in Shaler's First Book, on the desk, the mountains of North Carolina were the first lifted above the sea, so they are the oldest; hence one high peak is appropriately called the " Grandfather." (See " Heart of the Alleghanies," p. 261.) There is a section of North Carolina situated in Macon County, in the south-western part of the State, which is an elevated plateau over four thousand feet high. Owing to its altitude, nearness to the ocean and Gulf Stream, and the great abundance of vegetable life and pure moving water, it is rapidly becoming known as a health resort. Per- haps in the future it will be visited more than the White Mountains for this purpose. What have I just told you ? Miss Webster repeats it with commendable accuracy. T. Those who have lived there all their lives thus describe this country : "The entire region is mantled with forests to the summit of every peak ; the valleys are cleared, and inhabited by a happy, SLOPES 205 healthy, and hospitable people. It is rich in picturesque scenery, romantic rivers, luxuriant forests, majestic mountain heights, valleys of exquisite beauty, quaint villages, cliffs, and waterfalls. It is rich in a life-giving climate, brilliant skies, fertile lands, pastured steeps, and timber and mineral wealth." l After two boys had recited the gist of the above, the teacher said: I made no mistake in calling on Master Jenks, you see, class. I hope every one of you will be as ready as he to learn various facts from your parents, uncles, and aunts. The next may talk about the Central Plain. Miss Atwood. According to Guyot, the eastern or main slope of North America descends gradually from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic, interrupted only by the Appalachian system, or secondary highlands. The long interior slope be- tween these two highlands is called, very properly, the Central Plain. As shown on this sand-relief map, it extends from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean, bordered on each side by the two highlands. It is triangular in shape, narrow at the south, and very broad at the north. It is divided into two slopes by the height of land just north of the Great Lakes. These slopes are very gradual. T. What slopes ? Miss A. The slope towards the north, the one towards the south. T. Master Jones. y. The one towards the west is very gradual also. I was talking with a neighbor who went to Denver last summer, and he said the ascent was not noticed at all as you rode along through Kansas and Colorado. T. How high is Denver ? Master Jones. I think, about five thousand feet. 7\ Who knows how high it is ? Miss Thomas. The Gazetteer says it is fifty-two hundred feet above the sea. 1 Zeigler's Heart of the Alleghanies, p. 12. 206 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY T. How does the approach to the Rocky Mountains at this point differ from the approach to the White Mountains? (Sev- eral incorrect answers are given.) What can you see from Denver? Class. The two lofty peaks, Long's Peak and Pike's Peak. T. What does that show ? Master Mulligan. It shows a clear atmosphere. T. Yes. If you remember the solar-camera pictures, or if you have ever seen stereoscopic pictures of the Rocky Moun- tains near Denver, you can see in these pictures, by looking carefully, that the great western slope of the Mississippi Valley continues to the very foot of these lofty mountains, without the interruption of any outflanking hills. The Black Hills of Dakota are an exception to this statement. How does the gradual slope affect commerce ? Master Ryan. Makes the rivers large. T. Not necessarily. Master Hatch. Prevents cascades, and so makes them navigable. T. Yes. One other point. (After several thoughtful replies have been given, the teacher speaks of the many rivers flowing from the Rocky Mountains parallel to one another.) 7\ What advantages do the farmers living in this country have over those in New England ? Miss Forbes. It is easier to cultivate a farm which is level. Master Pinkham. They can use machines better, such as the mowing and reaping machines. I have read in the papers that some of the farmers had engines which will move on the prairies. Master Pike. They can build railroads easier. (After Miss Hayden gave the main facts in reference to the Atlantic Plain, the teacher read from the August, 1885, " Atlantic Monthly," Mr. Warner's account of " The Lost Pocket-Book in the Mica Mining Regions of Roan Mountain, North Carolina.") CLIMATE OF NORTH AMERICA 207 PART II A RECITATION IN A SIXTH-YEAE CLASS Subject Climate of North America Object of the Recitation. i. To ascertain if the pupils had learned the facts given them on the charts hung up the day before, which facts had been copied into their blank-books at the end of the previous lesson. (See p. 291.) 2. To ascertain how fully they understood and remembered the explanation given by their teacher in the previous lesson in reference to these facts. 3. To hear their extra facts learned from outside sources. Preparation made by Pupils. Study of their blank-books, contain- ing the epitome of the climate of North America given on p. 296. Study of the short paragraphs on climate in their text-book. Consultation of the following books, etc. : Guyot r s, Harper's, Swinton's, and various other geographies; Chambers's Encyclopaedia; Lippincott's Gazetteer ; " A Tour in the United States and Canada ; " Jackson's " Alaska ; " " Across the Continent," by Bowles ; " Glimpses of the Earth," by Blakiston ; "Arctic Explorations," by Kane; " Mission of the North-American People," by Gilpin ; the Malte Brim Geography ; " Iowa Handbook," by Parker ; " The Resources of California," by Hittel ; " Life in the Rocky Mountains," by Miss Bird ; " Three Years in Mexico," by Stephens ; " Newfoundland," by Hatton ; Geographical Readers by Johonnot, Philips, Blakie, and the Standard Geo- graphical Reader ; physical geographies, newspapers, magazines, letters from friends, etc. Preparation made by Teacher. Consultation of Johnson's Physi- cal Geography; Johonnot's Geographical Reader; Dr. Kane's "Arctic Ex- plorations;" ''North America," by Hayden; "Picturesque America;" " American Explorations," by Nourse ; " The Round Trip," by Codman ; Hayden's " Geographical Surveys ; " " California," by Hittel ; " Appalachia ;" " The Golden State," by McClellan ; " Mexico," by Ober ; " Alaska," by Ball ; " California," by Mrs. Ball ; " Santo Bomingo," by Hazard ; and " Greenland," by Rink. THE RECITATION. (Reported by Miss Melissa Dornbach, one of the pupils-. Pupils called by card after the question was asked.) Teacher. What causes affect climate ? 208 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY Master Woodsum. The latitude, winds, elevation, slope, currents, moisture, and surface. T. Into what belts of climate would you divide North America? Miss Barnes. Into three belts, the northern, central, and southern. T. Draw lines to show these belts upon this outline cloth blackboard. (Miss White draws the lines, and they are slightly changed by the criticisms of the class.) T. Name the countries in the northern belt. Master Lane. Iceland, Greenland, most of British America, and northern part of Alaska. T. Name the countries in the central belt. Miss Hussey. Canada, the United States, British Columbia, and T. Miss Whiton. Miss Whiton. Southern part of Alaska. T. What countries in the southern belt? Master Kearns. Mexico, West Indies, Florida, and Texas. (Many hands are raised the moment the last word is uttered, and forty pupils are eager to substitute Central America for the unfortunate Texas.) T. What causes affect the climate in the northern belt? Miss Way. Latitude, exposure to north winds, and currents. 71 What currents ? Miss W. The current from the Arctic, and the Japanese current. T. The next may represent those currents on the outline of North America. (Master Dove draws arrows with red crayon to show the direction of the Arctic Current, from Baffin Bay, through Davis Strait, and along the coast of Labrador; and with green crayon represents in a similar manner the direction of the Japanese Current along the coast of Alaska.) ICE AND ICEBERGS 209 T. Have all the causes been given? Hands. Miss Colton. Miss Colton. No, sir; snow and ice. T. Is snow found here the year round, Master Huse? Master Huse. Yes, sir, in many places. T. Miss Way? Miss W. I think more ice is seen there than snow. Kane in his book has a great deal to say about the ice. T. Miss Hatch? Miss Hatch. The ice is in the form of icebergs. T. Do you think most of it is in that form ? Miss H. Yes, sir. (Many hands are raised, especially on the boys' side.) T. What do you say, Master Bedford ? Master Bedford. Dr. Hayes, in his book, " The Land of Desolation," has much to say about the formation of an iceberg; but he speaks of seeing miles and miles of ice on the land and on the sea, and only now and then of seeing an iceberg. I think there is more ice there in glaciers and in fields of ice than in icebergs. T. Yes, you are right. Are the fields of ice smooth ? Master B. No ; they are usually very rough. T. Have you seen any pictures of icebergs? Master Merrill. Yes, sir ; you showed us several pictures with the solar camera. T. How high were the icebergs ? Master M. They were in some cases two hundred and fifty feet, and in one three hundred and fifty feet high. T. Is most of the ice in sight in these bergs? Master M. No, sir; three-fourths is below the surface of the water. T. Three-fourths ? Master Bedford ? Master B. Dr. Hayes says seven-eighths is below the water. T. Huxley says ice usually floats so that only one-tenth is above the water. The pupils had better experiment, and report to me in two days from now. 210 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY The next may tell me what the climate is in the northern belt. Miss Willey. Frigid ; ground frozen during the year ; Hud- son Bay can be entered during only six weeks ; in some places the sun is not seen for several days ; snow falls every month. T. Do you think, Miss Willey, the ground never thaws out? Miss W. I don't know. T. Does any vegetation grow there ? Miss W. I suppose so. 7 1 . How can it grow if the ground remains frozen during the year ? Master Dove ? Master Dove. It thaws out on top during the summer. T. And it remains constantly frozen below. The pupils who have learned from their reading additional facts may now present them. Master Houghton. The average temperature in summer is fifty-nine degrees above zero ; in winter it is forty-two degrees below. It is ten degrees colder on the west side of the Atlantic Ocean on the sixtieth parallel than in the Baltic Sea. T. Why? Master PL On account of the Arctic Current and the Gulf Stream. Miss P helps. Dr. Kane says in his book that no natural cold can arrest travel. He says he has walked sixty miles over the roughest ice, when the thermometer was fifty degrees below zero. T. Very good. In which one of his books did you see that fact? Miss P. In " Arctic Explorations," vol. 2. Master Burns. The snow in winter sometimes falls nineteen feet in a day. T. Such a statement hardly seems possible. Miss Phelps. Dr. Kane says, in his " Land of Desolation," CLIMATE IN DIFFERENT BELTS 211 that at one time about midnight the sun moved round to the north, gradually sunk lower and lower till its upper part was just above the horizon, and then the sky became uniformly golden. Miss Smith. " The lands are there sun-gilded at the hour When other lands are silvered by the moon : The midnight hour, when down the sun doth pour A blaze of light, as elsewhere at the noon." T. Where did you learn that ? It is very appropriate. Miss S. In "The Land of Desolation." Master Hinckley. In the Arctic regions, sixty degrees above in the shade seems very sultry. (The teacher then read a short extract from Hall's " Voyage in the Polaris," giving an account of the joy experienced by his men when the sun returned after an absence of one hundred and thirty-two days; and Miss Hayden read De Long's graphic description of " An Arctic Winter Night.' 1 ) T. What causes affect the climate in the central belt ? Miss Dornbach. The latitude. Mountains. Elevations. T. Very well. Miss Hicks. Miss Hicks. Moist south winds from the Gulf and Atlantic Ocean. Different currents, such as the Gulf Stream and Japan Current. West winds from Pacific. T. Master McLane may go to the board, and write some of t\\t facts about the climate. Master McLane wrote the following: Four Seasons Atlantic coast Moist Central Plane less moist Pacific coast very dry (Two-thirds of the room were now on their feet, with hands raised, eager for a chance to correct. The teacher waved his hand, and all was quiet. He called the next card, Master 212 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY Thomas. Master Thomas arose, looked at the blackboard, but said nothing.) T. I am surprised ! Miss White. Miss White. He has no periods. He has misspelled "plain." And he has omitted several things: as, temperate should stand first, and be underlined because so important. After " Atlantic coast" should be given "lower half Mississippi Valley." Before u very dry " should be given " (except west of Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range)." T. Very good. You may write it all out on paper, and bring to desk. Who can correct the board ? (A dozen hands are raised. Miss Evers is chosen. Master Darling was then called upon to give the facts of climate orally, which he did, as Miss Evers was writing.) T. Explain " Pacific coast very dry." Master Holt. Would not the expression Pacific highlands be better than Pacific coast? T. How many agree with Master Holt ? (Most of the hands are raised in favor of the change.) You are right, Master Holt. Go on. Master H. The Pacific highlands are elevated, and so sur- rounded by lofty mountains, that the moist winds from the sea are prevented from reaching them. This region is cut off from the west winds of the Pacific by the Coast Range and the Sierra Nevada. It is hemmed in by the great Rocky-Mountain chain ori the east. The west winds, full of moisture at the shore, strike against the mountain barrier, and give up their moisture in the form of rain or snow. So it is with the east winds, and hence this section is very dry. (After the causes and facts in reference to the climate of the southern belt were briefly given, the teacher called Miss Nann to go to the blackboard.) T. Please draw, with red crayon, a perpendicular line near middle of board. Now write near top left column, with yellow COMPARISONS 213 crayon, " Northern Belt." Above right column, " Southern Belt." Class do the same on paper. Compare the two belts. (Miss Nann, unaided, made the following comparisons :) NORTHERN BELT. SOUTHERN BELT. Colder. Warmer. . Abundance of ice and snow. Ice and snow rarely seen. Cold winds. Calms. Ground frozen constantly. Frost rarely heard of. Heavy snowstorms. Heavy thunder-storms. Not enough sunshine. Too much sunshine. (The following different comparisons were contributed by various members of the class, and written .on the blackboard by the teacher :) NORTHERN BELT. SOUTHERN BELT. Days and nights very unequal. Days and nights equal. Sun's rays oblique. Sun's rays perpendicular. People live in close huts. People live out doors. People wear furs. People wear little clothing. People eat meat and fat. People eat fruit and rice. Unambitious. Lazy and contented. T. It is now the 6th of January. Tell me, Master Dorsey, what the climate is in Southern California to-day. Master Dorsey. I don't know. T. Master Mooar. Master Mooar. If we should leave Boston to-day with the thermometer at zero, and the ground covered with six inches of snow, and visit Los Angeles in the southern part of California, we should see the people wearing, instead of overcoats and seal- skin caps, and furs, thin summer clothes ; instead of sitting about a stove or register in the house, sitting out doors on the piazza, or under the shade, or gathering roses and heliotrope from the garden ; while the boys would be picking oranges or bananas. 214 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY T. That is not quite true about the thin clothing, as the nights are cold. The climate is like ours in September. The average winter temperature is about sixty degrees. 71 Compare the climate in the central belt, Atlantic side, with the countries exactly east across the ocean. Miss Peters. Shall I write it on the board ? T. Yes. CLIMATE OF Europe, 40 N. United States, 40 5. Naples. New York. Equable. Changeable. Mild winters. Cold winters. Warm summers. Very hot summers. North and south winds. East and west winds. Sky cloudless for months. Clouds and rain frequent. Trees in leaf in March. Trees in leaf in May. Malaria common. Very healthy. T. What was told you about the climate of Sitka ? Miss Porter. Miss Porter. The climate there is moist and warm. In most winters the thermometer does not register below zero; only four times, I believe you said, in forty years. In one winter the ice only formed once, and then it froze only about as thick as a knife-blade. Sitka is warmer than Boston. It is about as warm as Kentucky. T. Give the cause. Miss P. This mild climate so far north is due to the Japan Current, the Gulf Stream of the Pacific Ocean. T. What was said about "jerking meat" ? Master Jenks. The climate in Nevada is so dry that fresh meat dries by hanging it up, so as to keep sweet for months. The same is true of Southern Dakota. You also said the snow is evaporated without turning to water. It disappears into the DESCRIPTIONS OF CLIMATE 215 T. How many remember what I read you yesterday from " Appalachia" about the climate of Cuba? (A dozen hands are raised.) Master Tufts. In the morning there is a land-breeze. The sea-breeze or trade-wind sets in about ten o'clock. Soon clouds begin to appear, and usually a local shower begins about one o'clock. By three o'clock it is generally fair again. T. I am pleased to notice your interest in the subject ; but the time is nearly gone, and we will try to finish the lesson to-morrow. Meanwhile review the facts in the blank-book, make notes of the new facts learned to-day, and bring in as much additional matter as each can find on the climate of North America. THE NEXT DAY. Teacher. (After five minutes in review.) All listen carefully, now, to my story. Imagine it to be Feb. I. I am sailing southward up a river. The land along the banks is covered with the richest vegeta- tion ; flowers in bloom on every side. The people are busy in gathering large crops of large-sized oranges. In what belt is it? Class. Class. Southern belt. T. Who can tell exactly where? (A dozen hands are raised. After one or two failures, Master Forbes answers correctly : The St. John's River, Florida.) T. Miss Peters may give a description. Miss Peters. It is the last of May. Few clouds are in the sky. The thermometer stands at eighty in the shade. Thick clothes are uncomfortable. The warm sun has caused the grass to grow. Birds are building their nests, and flowers are abundant. In what belt ? T. Master Holt? Master Holt. In the central belt. It may be in New England. 2l6 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY (The teacher reads : " It is June. The temperature has slowly risen from thirty-five degrees below zero to thirty-five degrees above. The whiteness which has so long clothed the hills and valleys is giving way under the influence of the sun's warm rays. The torrents of the melted snow are dashing wildly down the rugged gorges, or bounding in cascades from the lofty cliffs, and the air is everywhere filled with the pleasing roar of falling water. The sap has started in the willow stems, while ice and snow yet lie around the roots. The air is filled with the cry of birds ; flocks of eider-ducks sweep over the harbor in rapid flight. The seals lie basking in the warm sun. Crowds of icebergs are sailing out of the sound towards the south, their crystals tumbling from them as they go." J ) What place does the author describe ? (Many hands are raised.) Master Pike? Master Pike. Alaska. T. It is possible. Master Darling? Master Darling. I think it is near Greenland. T. Why ? Master Darling. Eider-ducks are found there. T. You are right. Hayes was then in Smith Sound. Miss Dornbach may give a description. Miss Dornbach. Can I read it ? T. Yes. D. It is summer. The nights are oppressively warm ; the days so hot, no one ventures to go out in the sun. Every thing is drying up. The cocoa-palms wave their long leaves wildly in the wind. The bananas and mangoes are crying for rain. Fear- ing the dangerous fever common to the country, I arise at four o'clock A.M., take the morning train at five, and soon begin to rise higher and higher as I go away from the coast. In a few hours I am twenty-five hundred feet above the sea, in a new climatic zone, and dare to breathe the pure air without fear of 1 Altered from Hayes's Open Polar Sea. CLIMATE IN MEXICO 21 7 the yellow fever. The breezes here are cool. Oranges, apples, and peaches abound, instead of palms. The houses are more substantial. Higher and higher I ascend, through tunnels, over gorges, winding about. The air by and by is decidedly chilly, almost frigid. I put on my wraps. The hills are covered with oak woods, the pastures covered with green grass. It is eight thousand feet in height. Then I descended into a valley where the temperature is about seventy-five degrees. The mornings and nights are cool ; the climate, temperate. Where did I make the journey ? T. Hands. (A score are eagerly raised.) Class. In Mexico. T. When did you prepare that ? Miss D. Last night. 7". From what books did you get your facts ? Miss D. Ober's " Mexico," and " Three Years in Mexico " by Stephens, and what you have told us. T. Very well done. The class should imitate Miss Dorn- bach. We are ready now for facts in reference to either the central or southern belt. (Many facts were given. The most interesting were: Gilpin says the climate of the Rocky Mountain plateau is so healthy and pleasant, houses are not necessary. For six years he slept most of the time under the open sky. The valley of the Mississippi would be a rainless desert, if the trade-winds were not deflected northwards by the mountains in the eastern part of Mexico. The moisture from the Gulf of Mexico is easily carried northward because the shores of the Gulf are everywhere so low, scarcely above the sea level. Miss Bird says the climate of Colorado is considered the finest in the world. The air is very dry ; the rainfall below the average. Dews are rare, and fogs unknown. The sunshine is bright, and three-fourths of the days are cloudless. People sleep out doors six months of the year. 2l8 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY Barnes's Geography says that the storms passing over the North Central States originate in the Rocky Mountains, and travel eastward. Harper's Geography says that the intense heat of the West Indies is modified by the trade-winds.) T. The pupils who have selections may read as far as there is time. (One pupil read about a sudden storm, which Dr. Hayes describes in " Land of Desolation." Another read N. P. Willis's contrast between the climate of Europe and America, as given in Johonnot's Geographical Reader. Master Jones read an account from some newspaper, of a family buried for three days under the snow in Nevada. Another pupil read about " The Black Man's Paradise m Jamaica." Master Jenks read part of a letter from his father in the mountains of North Carolina, describing the healthfulness of that region. The teacher read from Jackson's " Alaska " Joseph Cook's account of the two great oceanic currents. 1 He also read the following extract from a friend's letter : '* HALF- WAY HOUSE ; JAMAICA, Nov. 30. " It is interesting to notice the nonchalance with which these people are preparing for winter. They have not stopped a crack in their houses, and their houses are nearly all cracks ; they have not harvested a potato, nor put a ton of hay in the barn, of course not ; they have no barns to put it in, and do not appear to be inclined to build any ; they do not know what barns are. There is nothing in the cellar for winter, they have no cellars, don't know any thing about them; and, strangest of all, they have precious little in their houses. They do have houses, some of them ; others have only little bamboo huts, that keep off a little sunshine and rain. " It is rarely that you can find food enough in a house for a lunch, at any time except lunch-time. They live * from hand to mouth,' i Page 293. EXTRACT FROM A LETTER 219 some one might say. No, not so much as that even ; for it is easier to leave the food in the ground, or on the tree, till it is wanted, than to find houseroom for it. " In the ground are yams, potatoes in variety, cassava, arrowroot, etc. On the trees are cocoanuts, bread-fruit, I had some for dinner, chirimoyas, sweet sops, sour sops, avocato pears (some- times called alligator pears), bananas, plantains, pineapples, oranges, limes, mammees, granadillas, coffee, chocolate, nutmegs, cinnamon, vanilla, well, a whole pantry outfit ; every thing good for man or beast, to be had almost for the taking, at any hour, all the " delicacies of all the seasons." CHAPTER XI SIX YEARS' COURSE OF STUDY THE proper object of the teacher's most profound study is not, then, the course of study, or the text-book, but the child himself. S. T. Dutlon. BOOKS FOR CONSULTATION CROCKER'S METHODS OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. GEIKIE'S METHODS OF GEOGRAPHY. How TO TEACH, BY KIDDLE AND OTHERS. JOHNSON'S PHYSICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. HUGHES'S CLASS-BOOK OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY. PEAVEY'S MANUAL OF GEOGRAPHY. RECLUS'S THE EARTH AND ITS INHABITANTS. RICHARDSON'S SCHOOL MANUAL OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY. STANFORD'S COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. CHAPTER XI SIX YEARS' COURSE OF STUDY IMPORTANCE OF PROPER CLASSIFICATION OF TOPICS FIRST YEAR: WHAT TO STUDY TALKING AND READING HELPS PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. SECOND YEAR: SAME SUB-TOPICS AS FIRST YEAR. THE proper arrangement of topics for the different classes is one of the most important matters connected with the topical study of geography. In many schools such an arrangement is never attempted ; in only a few is it wisely done by practical teachers who desire to carry out their own theories in real teaching. Wherever this arrangement is neglected, a vast amount of time is wasted through foolish repetitions, the teaching of useless details, and the present- ing of subjects in an unphilosophical order. Time is also wasted because the work of the lower teacher does not fit into and prepare the way for that of the upper. The proper arrangement of topics for each class is just as important and beneficial for the school as the programme of studies is for the city. The latter is quite general in its character, and is usually prepared by the superintendent of schools ; the former enters largely into details, and can best be pre- pared by inspectors, assistant superintendents, or the prin- cipal of the school. Each arrangement should be more or less individual, and adapted to the requirements of the particular school in which it is to be used. -23 224 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY In the preparation of such an arrangement, much assist- ance can be obtained from consulting such a valuable work as Methods of Teaching Geography, by Miss Lucretia Crocker, late supervisor of Boston schools. This little book, costing only sixty cents (School Supply Co., Bromfield Street, Boston), is the result of a life-work of enthusiastic study, and is crowded with the most valuable suggestions and condensed information. A Manual of Geography, by Frank Peavy, Tappan School, Detroit, will not only help teachers in arranging topics correctly, but also assist them in teaching these topics. How to Teach, by H. Kiddle and others, New York, is also recommended. The arrangement of subject matter for study presented below is founded upon the requirements in geography in a large city, where the schools are well graded. Its practical working is only possible under such circumstances. Each teacher must contract or enlarge it to suit his own school. The attempt is made in this and the following chapter to arrange subjects according to the mental capacity of the pupils, to present them in a natural order, and to give each class some advance work to do. It is believed, if such an assignment of geographical work were carefully followed in a school, it would save a large amount of time now wasted by repetition and drill on non-essentials. The pupils the first year are supposed to be about nine years of age. FIRST YEAR OF STUDY I. Study. a. Study distance, direction, points of the compass. b. Study map language. Test the pupils in measuring distances and length, with the eye and with a ruler. FIRST YEAR OF STUDY 225 Make a plan of the desk ; then with objects upon it ; schoolroom, ground- floor, school-yard. Explain and draw to different scales, as one foot to an inch. Read map symbols on wall maps. Study the surface of the town, boundary-lines, then draw maps of immediate vicinity from pupil's own observation. Study maps of vicinity. c. Lessons on natural features from observation ; from the moulding-board, pictures, maps. The pupils, with a little help from the teacher, make the definitions from their observations. Mould the town, representing a mile by an inch. d. Study the world as a whole. Form of the world illustrated. The two motions stated, but not fully explained. Show from globe hot parts, cold parts ; zones, four hemi- spheres, two continents, six grand divisions, seven oceans (North Atlantic, South Atlantic, etc.). Direction and com- parative size, as Asia, largest ; Europe, smallest ; Africa, second ; Australia, south of Africa, etc. Two of the grand divisions (North and South America) compared in reference to climate, animals, a few productions, and some striking characteristics of the .people. II. Talking and Reading. TALKING. Tell an imaginary journey ; as, to New Hamp- shire for hay, to New- York State for salt, or to New- York City to see the Brooklyn Bridge, to Pennsylvania for coal, to California for gold, etc. Talk about school district, parish, ward, villages, native town ; about San Francisco ; post-office, express business, divisions of time.. 226 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY Surface of the town or city. Local animals. Characteristic animals in each grand division. Occupations and habits, dress and mode of life, of people far away, as Chinese, Japanese, Bedouins, Esquimaux, exiles in Siberia, Hottentots, etc. READING. Read from Scribner's Geographical Reader, Guyot's Introductory Geography, or Our World No. i ; Seven Little Sisters, Each and All, Miss Andrews ; Under- foot, Miss Nichols ; Animal Life, Miss Marwood. HISTORY. Stories of voyages, of discoveries, of settle- ments of New England, of the Revolution, of progress and inventions. III. Helps. Globes, hemispheres, maps, colored crayons, pasteboard outlines of the grand divisions, plans, charts, outline map on blackboard cloth, Frye's relief maps, moulding-board, magnifying-glass, etc. OBJECTS. Fur, leather, spices, nests, eggs, stones, shells, toys ; any kind of articles, obtainable by loan or otherwise, referring to foreign countries. Pictures of animals, Prang's Natural' History Series in six small books. Pictures of places, of cities, mountains, rivers, costumes, etc., such as are found in geographies and books of travel, if stereoscopic and photographic pictures are not accessible. BOOKS (in addition to those given under Reading) for consultation : Science Primers, Physical Geography, Astron- omy ; Aunt Martha's Corner Cupboard, Miss Kirby ; Little Lucy^s Wonderful Globe, Miss Yonge ; Life and her Children, Miss Buckley ; Little Folks in Feather and Fur ; Rollo Books. FIRST AND SECOND YEAR OF STUDY 227 PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS Each class should have its advance work, its outside or extra work, and its review work. The advance and review work is placed under "I. Study." The extra work comes under " II. Talking and Reading." It can be called " Special Oral Geography." Great freedom and latitude should be allowed the teacher under this head. It may be wise for the teacher to omit or change much herein arranged. Each topic should be touched upon in the most simple and element- ary way. Frequent repetitions will be necessary. Allow the scholars to tell all they know first. No especial order is necessary in taking up the topics under " II." The more "Study" and "Talking" can be mingled together, the better. It is desirable to take these topics together, instead of consecutively. The reading exercises from the books given, or their equivalents, will furnish excellent opportuni- ties for language and talking lessons. In Sixth Class, " I. Study, b" be careful and not spend too much time. Many interesting pictures to illustrate work can be obtained from the different geographies, illustrated papers, etc. Frye's relief maps are made, and sold at reasonable prices, by the Bay State Publishing Company, Hyde Park, Mass. SECOND YEAR OF STUDY I. Study. Finish grand divisions (see d, Class Six). Study North America topically according to schedule i, Chap. III. 228 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY II. Talking and Reading. a. TALKING. Characteristic/;-^// of each grand division. Races, occupations, vegetation, the weather, atmosphere, forms of water. Population of the district, ward, town, or city, as a help in comparison. Coast-line ; difference between maps and globes. Plants used for food, clothing, fuel, medicine, building-material. Industries of the town ; the railroads. Useful plants, vine, palm, rice, sugar-cane, dye-woods, cotton. What is found under the surface of the earth, building- stones, coal, metals, gold, silver, etc. What is found in water, fish, whales, salt, corals, sponges, etc. b. READING. Finish books in Class Six. Little People of Asia, Miller ; Bodley Family Abroad ; Zig-Zag Journeys ; Hunting Adventures, Knox ; Adrift in the Ice Fields, Hall. HISTORY. More stories on the same subjects mentioned in First Year's Work. Also stories of the Presidents, of social and industrial life, of the civil war. III. Helps. (See Sixth Class.) OBJECTS. Minerals, ores, coal, whalebone, cotton, indigo, oranges, bananas, lemons, articles on breakfast-table, etc. PICTURES. Vegetable life (see Swinton's Grammar School Geography), fruit-trees, mining, hunting, fishing, and other industries (see Appletons' Geography), Indians, Esquimaux, etc. Twelve series of Geographical Readers. . BOOKS FOR CONSULTATION. Those of Class Six. Also, How Plants Grow, Gray ; Science Ladders, Nos. i and 3 ; Boys of Other Countries, Taylor ; Round the World, by a SECOND YEAR OF STUDY 229 Boy, Smiles; Spectacles for Young Eyes, Landor ; Rocky Mountains, Miss Bird ; Santo Domingo, Hazard. Arctic Regions, by Hayes, Hall, Kane, Markham, etc. PICTURES. Pictures of cities in the geographies ; bird's- eye views (see Swinton's, Harper's, and McNally's) ; mining- operations, whaling, cotton - field, cotton-mill, rice - fields (Harper's, p. 46), sugar-cane field (McNally's, p. 85) ; Niagara Falls (see Warren's, and fourth volume of any geo- graphical series) ; public buildings, as Capitol at Washington, at Albany, Old South Church, Independence Hall, New City Hall San Francisco {New Eclectic Geography), etc. Excel- lent pictures will be found in any of the sets of Geographical Readers, such as Blackie's, Whitehall's, Philip's, etc. Cood pictures of the canons of the Colorado, of Pueblo restored and a room inside, big trees, wonderland of the Yellowstone, etc., can be found in Zig-Zag Journey to the Occident ; 27ie Atlantic Islands, Benjamin; Niagara; American Scenery; Homes of America, Lamb ; American Pictures, Manning. BOOKS FOR CONSULTATION. (See Sixth and Fifth Classes.) Florida, Mrs. Robbins ; Heart of the White Mountains, Drake ; The Great South, King ; Rocky Mountains, Miss Ball ; Indian Traits, Thatcher ; Greenland, Hayes ; Races cf Mankind, Brown (vol. i.) ; Underfoot, Miss Nichols; Physical Geography, Geikie ; Science Primers, Natural Resources of the United States ; Mines and Mining, Jones ; Erom Eifth Avenue to Alaska. PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS In taking up North America in this class, very little time should be spent on position, on the names of places, mountains, or rivers, as such and unassociated with some 230 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY interesting fact. But human and animal life, productions, commerce, imaginary journeys, all that is wonderful, grand, and marvellous, should receive all the time circumstances will allow. Remember, children learn indirectly and by asso- ciation. North America is not to be studied now with the care and detail it will be in the fourth year of study. Try to get the children to talk, to tell a continuous story about the subject. Let the first maps be drawn on the north side of the room. No piece of apparatus is more valuable than the outline map painted on the blackboard in oil, for it can be used in such a variety of ways, both in teaching and in recitation. The helps mentioned above, or their equivalents, are easily obtained in most cities in this country, by a little effort on the part of the teacher. The pupils themselves will gladly help. Get one new piece of apparatus at a time, one speci- men, one picture, one book. Splendid pictures are found in the various sets of geographical readers. The children will become intensely interested if the teacher will spend half an hour a week in talking about and asking questions in reference to subjects they know some- thing about already : such as the post-office ; express busi- ness ; any leading industry near the school, in which some of the parents are engaged ; the common animals and insects that are found near the school; the inequalities of the surface near by. In developing any of these topics, the teacher should at first, by questions, call out all the infor- mation possessed by the pupils. The blackboard should be used for illustration, and to record the points made from simple illustrations used ; as, postage-stamp, envelope, etc., when the post-office is the subject. STUDY, TALKING AND READING 23! THIRD YEAR OF STUDY I. Study. a. United States as a whole, topically (using topics similar to those given for previous class, in previous article). Mould the country. Trace outline of United States, and fill up the map as the study proceeds. Commer.ce of United States. b. Then the following sections, using same topics : New England (if not taken) ; Middle States ; Atlantic States ; Gulf States. One section moulded. c. Some of the following representative States : Massa- chusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Florida, Texas. d. Mathematical geography reviewed and enlarged. Form, size, motions ; zones, parallels, meridians. (Illustrated, talked about, and drawn.) Latitude, longitude, circles, etc. (not from book). e. Review the work of previous classes. II. Talking and Reading. TALKING. (Any omitted subjects given in previous class.) Boston, trade, wealth, money ; roads, stage-coaches, street- railroads, canals, railroads. More practice on map-reading. Occupations in eastern and southern parts of United States made prominent : as, Mining for coal and iron in Pennsylvania ; cotton-raising, cotton manufacturing ; fishing for cod, for whales ; other manufacturing (especially any in the vicinity). Show how occupations are influenced by climate, surface, etc. Air, necessary to life ; in motion (wind). Moisture in the air, clouds, rain, dew (familiar illustrations). 232 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY Prominent cities in eastern and southern part ; as New York, Philadelphia, Washington, New Orleans. Government and religion (not from book). READING to the class as time permits : The Sunny South, Ingraham ; Wild Life in Florida, Townshend ; Eastward Ho ! Rangeley Lakes, Farrar ; A Trip Eastward, E. Abbott ; A Summer Cruise; Adrift in the Ice Fields, Hall; Cast Away in the Cold, Hayes. HISTORY. The more interesting and vital topics of the United States history should now be read from some good text-book, such as Barnes's, Scudder's, Johnson's, or Higginson's. III. Helps. (See Same in Fifth Class.) Sonnenschein and Allen's atlas of raised maps ; putty or plaster- Paris raised map large enough for the class to see ; or Frye's raised maps. Outline map on blackboard cloth ; review charts ; physical charts ; scrap-book. OBJECTS. Iron from Pennsylvania ; soft, hard, and irides- cent coal ; silver ore from New Hampshire or Massachusetts ; granite from Concord, Cape Ann, Quincy ; sandstone from Portland, Connecticut ; coral and sponges from Florida ; cotton-plant from the South, etc. PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS There is no greater waste of time than in studying each State separately by itself, as is usually done in most text- books. The topical method obviates all this loss of time and energy, by collating and comparing facts. For exam- ple, instead of teaching what are the productions of each separate State, the topical method tries to lead the child to PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS ' 233 learn where are the noted corn, wheat, rice, cotton, and sugar tracts or sections. Questions should be used with the^topical method. What railroad leads from your town across the country? What are the four largest trunk lines in your vicinity? What kind of business does each one do ? Where is the nearest port ? What are the leading industries of your town, State, sec- tion? A class at this stage of geographical study should be ready to answer hundreds of just such practical questions. In some towns, teachers have spent much time upon locality in Asia or Greenland, and neglected the places near home. Home locality should be carefully studied. Chil- dren ought to know all the towns lying about the home town for a radius of ten or more miles. Do not neglect the progressive map as a means of aiding the memory. Remember the reviews. A review chart will create much interest, and save time and strength. The largest blackboard in the room may be divided into six or more columns, and each column headed by some important topic, such as surface, drainage, climate, the people, etc. Then the pupils are called to write by single words facts learned during the study. The putty necessary to make a large raised map costs from five to ten cents. Putty can now be purchased of al- most any color, and kept moist by the addition of a little oil. In all attempts to trace, use the best tracing-paper pro- curable ; but if the regular quality is not easily obtained, or is too costly, thin manilla paper will make a good substitute. A practical scrap-book can be made at any time, with little labor or cost, by cutting out every other leaf from some large book, like an old disused " record-book of attendance." CHAPTER XII SIX YEARS' COURSE OF STUDY, Concluded No drearier task can be set for the worst of criminals than that of studying a set of geographical text-books such as the children in our schools are doomed to use. Pages of " tables," " tables " of heights, and " tables " of areas; " tables " of mountains, and " tables " of tablelands ; " tables " of numerals, which look like arithmetical problems, but are really statements of population : these, arranged in an alphabetical order, or disorder, form the only breaks in a chaotic mass of what are amusingly styled "geographical" facts, but which turn out to be simply names, names of rivers, and names of hills ; names of countries, and names of towns. Books such as these are simply appeals to memory ; they are handbooks of mnemonics, in- stead of handbooks of geography. Professor J. R. Green, England. 235 BOOKS FOR CONSULTATION [Consult the list of books given at beginning of Chapter XL] 236 CHAPTER XII SIX YEARS' COURSE OF STUDY, Concluded FOURTH YEAR OF STUDY I. Study. ATORTH AMERICA and Europe : Central States, Pacific 1M States, Territories. Representative States and Territories : Illinois, California, Nevada, Alaska. United States reviewed as a whole. Study from the following topics : It. Hemispheres. 2. Zone. 3. Shape. 4. Comparative size. 5. Progressive map, diagram and outline. It. Ranges. {2. Peaks. 3. Heights. ir I 4. Volcanoes. 2. Surface s l\ < ,i.o< ,k \l>l[ Y millions, with that of Pennsylvania, four millions. Consider the increase in the United States during the last ten years, of thirty per cent, compared with that of Great Britain in the same period, of nine per cent. Remember the United States now manufacture more in value in a year than Great Britain. Comparisons of this nature should not be carried so far as to become tedious. One country should, during the year, be neatly written out in a blank-book by each member of the class. These books should be repeatedly examined by the teacher, and carefully criticised in reference to neatness, exactness, and completeness. This blank-book will be valuable in propor- tion to the amount of work done in it by the pupil rather than the teacher. A teacher can make good colored inks for his class by purchasing five-cents' worth of aniline dyes at the nearest drug store, and mixing with water. FIFTH YEAR OF STUDY I. Study. South America, Africa, and Asia, by full schedule of topics. As time permits, study details of one or more countries, as Brazil in South America, Egypt In Africa, China in Asia. Progressive maps of the grand divisions in advance, begun with the study of the outline, and continued as the study progresses. Comparisons should be constantly made between the natural features, climate, manners, and customs, etc., of the country under consideration, and other countries already studied in this or previous classes. FIFTH YEAR OF STUDY 243 Work of third class reviewed as far as possible, especially North America and Kurope. Memory-maps of South America, Africa, and Asia. (See physical maps in Appletons', Swinton's, and 1 : and commercial map in McNally's.) Mountain ranges, rivers, natural divisions, etc., learned in same order ; as, Obi, Ycni ' i, I>ena, Arnoor, Hoang Ho, Yangtse-Kiang, etc. HISTORY. The conflict between the English and French. The union of the Kn^li,h Colonies. The war for inde- \>< -ndence. Growth of slavery. II. Talking and Beading. TALKING. Drainage, glaciers, icebergs, ocean-currents. Forms of water. Causes affecting climate. Our wants, food, clothing, shelter. Vegetation (see Peavy's Manual of Georgraphy, pp. 38 and 68). Races, forms of government, religion (taught more fully than in Class Four). Proofs of the form of the earth ; size, latitude and longitude, meridians, parallels, great and small circles, equa- tor, poles, prime meridian, standard time, variation in 1< of degrees of longitude, zenith, nadir. Motions of the earth; effect of the same. (See Miss Crocker's Notes, p. 24.) Prominent cities in South America, Rio Janeiro, Buenos Ayres, Valparaiso, Quito. In Africa, Cairo, Cape Town, Algiers. In Asia, Peking, Canton, Tokio, Calcutta, Jerusalem. READING to the class as time permits : 244 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY A Thousand Miles' Walk across South America, Bishop ; On the Banks of the Amazon, Kingston ; The Naturalists on the Amazon, Bates ; Brazil and the Brazilians, Fletcher ; Family Flight, Hale (Part II.) ; Great Thirst Land, Gill- more ; Boy Travellers, Knox (5 vols.) ; Gorilla Hunters, Ballantyne ; Rip Van Winkle's Travels in Asia and Africa, Van Wert ; Child Life in Japan, Ayrton ; The Wonderful City of Tokio, Greey ; Our Boys in India, French ; Our Young Folks in Africa, McCabe ; China, Japan, India, Eden ; Rob Roy on the Jordan, McGregor Land of the White Elephant, Vincent ; Rifle and Hound in Ceylon, Baker. III. Helps. (See Third Class.) Blackboard globe ; outline-maps of each grand division on blackboard cloth ; printed schedules of topics for the pupils, review charts, etc. Reynolds's physical and astro- nomical charts. OBJECTS. Caoutchouc, cinchona bark, tapioca, cocoa from Para, coffee-berry, coffee, dye-woods, Brazil-nuts from Brazil, etc. Lima beans, native woods, cochineal, cocoa, vanilla-beanpod, vegetable wax, etc., from South America. Olives, dates, ebony, ostrich-feathers, ivory, indigo, acacia, red pepper, cloves, gum-arabic, etc., from Africa. Raw silk, opium, jute, indigo, gutta-percha, camphor, gamboge, tamarinds, bamboo, tea, palm-wood, olive-wood, joss-sticks, chop-sticks, fans, boxes, Chinese and Japanese ornamental work, etc., from Asia. (Many of these and other objects will be brought by the pupils, if encouraged by the teacher.) PICTURES. Helpful pictures will be found in Guyofs FIFTH YEAR OF STUDY 245 Physical Geography, pp. 47, 48, 53, 56, 58, 93, 94; in most geographies, especially Harper's, Svvintpn's, Apple- tons', McNally's, Maury's, and New Eclectic. Egypt (Land of the Pharaohs), Boy Travellers, No. 4; People of Africa (Uncivilized Races, Wood ; Baker's, Stan- ley's, and Livingstone's works) ; Africa (McCabe, Van Wert ; Stanford's Compendium, Africa). Peru and Amazon (Marcoy's) ; Peru (Squier). Brazil (Agassiz and Smith). Northern Coast of Asia ( Voyage of the Vega). China (Thomson and Eden). Japan (Knox's Boy Travellers, No. i, and Greey's books) ; India (Knox's Boy Travellers, No. 3, French and Eden). Cocoa-nut palms, grand pagoda, fakirs, howdahs, shops, Taj Mahal, and many cities, etc., in Indian Pictures. Asia, general (Stanford's Compendium of Geography, Asia ; Prime's Around the World ; Wanderings in Four Continents). BOOKS FOR. CONSULTATION. South America, Marcoy; Brazil, Smith ; Across Patagonia, Dixie ; Peru, Squier ; A Thousand Miles up the Nile, Edwards ; Nile Tributaries, Baker ; Modern Egyptians, Lane ; Across Africa, Cameron ; Through the Dark Continent, Stanley ; Last Journals, Liv- ingstone ; The Heart of Africa, Schweinfurth ; Boat Life in Egypt and Nubia, Prime ; Arabia, Palgrave, Taylor ; Japan, Bird ; Ten Years'* Travels, Thomson ; Land of the Veda, Butler ; Indian Alps, Lady Pioneer ; Voyage of the Vega, Nordenskibld ; Siberia, Atkinson ; Through Persia by Caravan, Arnold. 246 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY Practical Suggestions. It is better for the pupils to read to the class than for the teacher. The appointment of a " reading-hour " will help to carry into practice this idea. If there is a public library accessible, then the teacher should help the pupils in finding the best books on each country. One of the most practical ways of doing this is to give them the library num- bers for the books. There are now plenty of good and very interesting books on the above grand divisions. Most of these books are beautifully illustrated. If the teacher will appoint some day in the course of the study of a country like Asia, when articles from that coun- try are requested to be brought for a loan collection, she will be surprised at the results and the interest. The writer has known over three hundred different articles brought by a single class to illustrate a grand division, ranging from a five-cent Japan fan up to a three-hundred-dollar India shawl. In some of the large cities, illustrated papers, with privi- lege of selection, are sold for five cents each, which contain several good pictures for school purposes. Sometimes a single magazine will have scores of good available illustra- tions. See Harper's Magazine for July, 1885, and the Century for March, 1885. SIXTH YEAR OF STUDY I. Study. Oceanica, West Indies, Mexico, Canada, and Greenland, by selected topics. Review the grand divisions by full schedule of topics. In this review, progressive maps of the grand divisions should be made prominent. SIXTH YEAR OF STUDY 247 Comparisons and classifications should be constantly required. (See Harper's Geography, note. p. 75 ; and Guyot's Geographies.) As far as possible, study the world as a whole, making general comparisons of the different countries in reference to physical features, political conditions, productions, man- ufactures, manners and customs, commercial relations, etc. Let the pupil study the kind, locality, and extent of the mining industries of each grand division ; railroads, education, condition of women, etc. As time permits, study topically such representative coun- tries of the world as United States, Brazil, England, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, China, Japan, India, Egypt. Such representative cities of the world as New York, Boston, London, Paris, Venice, Rome, Pekin, Tokio, Benares, Cairo, Rio Janeiro, Batavia, etc. Motions of the earth. Apparent motions of the sun. Changes of the seasons. Variation in the length of day and night. " Standard Time." Observations in reference to all these subjects. Constant, periodical, and variable winds. Ocean cur- rents, polar and equatorial. Return currents, Gulf Stream, Japan Current. Forms of water, invisible vapor, rain, fog, glaciers, icebergs, rivers, etc. Coral islands, volcanoes, earthquakes, etc. HISTORY. Review history previously studied. Admin- istrations. War with Mexico. Civil war. Reconstruction. 248 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY II. Talking and Beading. TALKING. Commercial trip round the world. Pleasure -trip round the world. Places visited for scenery ; for health. Manners and customs of the Chinese, Japanese, Hindoos, Negroes, Indians, Esquimaux, French, Germans, Spanish, etc. Education in England, France, Germany, Spain, Sweden, Russia, China, Japan, India, etc. Noted buildings in the world, such as Taj Mahal in Acra, India ; Pyramids in Egypt ; St. Peter's in Rome ; Notre Dame in Paris ; Parliament Houses in London ; cathedrals in Milan, Cologne, Salisbury, etc. ; Capitol in Washington, etc. Talks about, and reviews of, books of travel read by pupils. Railroad routes, railroad centres, steamship routes. Foreign and domestic commerce, etc. Prominent cities in- the advance: In Oceanica, Auck- land, Batavia, Honolulu, Manilla, Melbourne, Sydney, and Wellington. In West Indies, Havana, St. Domingo. In Mexico, Mexico, Vera Cruz. In Canada, Montreal, Ottawa, Quebec. In Greenland, Lichtenfels. READING to the class, or by the class, as time permits : Voyage of the Yacht Sunbeam, Brassey ; Boys of Other Countries, Taylor ; Round the World by a Boy, Smiles ; Australia, Eden ; At Home in Fiji, Cumming ; Through and Through the Tropics, Vincent ; Island Life, Wallace ; Adventures of the Young Naturalist, Gillmore ; Camps in SIXTH YEAR OF STUDY 249 the Caribbees, Ober ; A Geographical Reader, Johonnot ; Around the World, Prime; Island of Fire (Iceland), Head- ley ; Arctic Adventures, Sargent ; physical geographies, Guyot, Johnson, Maury, Ansted, etc. ; The Subterranean World, Aerial World, Polar World, Hartwig ; The Bottom of the Sea, Sonrel ; Countries of the World, Brown ; Ocean Wonders, Damon ; Ice-Pack and Tundra, Gilder, etc. III. Helps. (See Previous Classes.) Globes of various kinds, such as hemisphere globes, black- board globes, large and small globes, magnetic globes, Jos- lin's " Solar Telluric Globe " (globe mounted at an angle of forty-one and one-half degrees). Maps of every variety, such as simple outline-maps of the grand divisions, drawn on one piece of manilla paper, upon same scale, to show comparative size ; outline-maps of the grand divisions on blackboard cloth ; Guyot's large physical maps ; same, small size, on cardboard ; Warren's physical maps, with Apgar's method of map-drawing ; Hughes's political maps ; Son- nenschein and Allen's atlas, containing thirty-one raised maps ; Frye's relief maps. Reynolds's physical and astronomical charts ; review charts, chart giving comparative heights of mountains ; picture album, scrap-book ; printed schedules of topics ; enamelled colored crayons ; two picture- frames, large and small, with movable board for showing pictures to pupils. School solar camera (invented and made by Charles F. Adams, Normal School, Worcester, Mass.). OBJECTS. Coral, jute, manilla-hemp, pumice-stone, san- dal-wood, shells, spices, etc., from Oceanica. 250 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY Banana, citron, cocoa-nut, hard woods, ginger, lemons, logwood, pineapple, sugar-cane, tamarinds, etc., from the West Indies. Cochineal, jalap, mahogany, quicksilver, sarsaparilla, va- nilla, etc., from Mexico. Cannel-coal, codfish, gypsum, various woods, etc., from Canada. Cryolite, eider-down, seal's skin, spermaceti, whalebone, whale's tooth, etc., from Greenland. Alum, brass, cinnabar, coal, cocoa-nut and husk, coke, coral, cotton-plant, flint, furs, glue, graphite, hops, leather, brimstone, marble, mica, mercury, nickel ; ores such as copper, gold, iron, lead, silver, zinc ; parchment, pewter, quartz, rice, rock-salt, sandstone, slate, soda, sponges, starch, sugar, vellum, woods, wool, various kinds of manufactured articles from the vicinity of the school, etc., to represent North America. Allspice, Brazilian diamonds, Brazil-nuts, caoutchouc, cloves, coffee-berry, cocoa-nut, indigo, Lima bean, mahogany, palm-nuts, tapioca, vanilla-bean, vegetable-ivory-nut, etc., to represent South America. Cloves, dates, ebony, gums, ivory, olives, ostrich-feathers, red-pepper, spices, etc., to represent Africa. Assafoetida, attar of roses, bamboo, Chinese book, chop- sticks, camel's-hair scarf or shawl, camphor, dates, fans, ginger-root, gum-arabic, gutta-percha, idols, India-ink, lac, lacquered ware, malachite, Mocha coffee, manilla-hemp, musk-sac, opium, olive-wood, porcelain, platinum, preserved ginger, raw silk, rice-paper, rhubarb, sago, sandal-wood, shellac, tea, teak- wood, tortoise-shell, etc., to represent Asia. Agate, alabaster, amber, borax, chalk, citron, coral, cork, SIXTH YEAR OF STUDY 251 eider-down, emery, ermine, hemp, lapis lazuli, lava, lemons, licorice, limes, linen, macaroni, madder, model of Swiss cottage, mosaics, nutgalls, opal, oranges, otter, prunes, raisins, sable, sponges, sulphur, tin, topaz, toys, Venetian glass, various kinds of manufactured articles, etc., to repre- sent Europe. (Pupils, after a little encouragement, will bring to the school a large proportion of these articles as a " loan col- lection." Most of the articles named above, and many others, have been thus exhibited by the different classes in the Lewis School in a single year.) PICTURES. (See previous classes.) Helpful pictures will be found in all the geographies ; in Harper's publications of travel ; in Harper's Magazine and Weekly ; in TJie Century, etc. For pictures of Oceanica, see New Guinea by D'Albertis ; New Zealand, by Taine ; The Malay Archipelago, by Wallace ; etc. Mexico : See Mexico To-day, by Brocklehurst ; Old Mexico, by Bishop ; Summerland Sketches, by Oswald ; etc. West Indies : See Santa Domingo, by Hazard ; Camps in the Caribbees, by Ober. Greenland : See Rink's book on Greenland ' ; The Coun- tries of the World, Brown, Vol. I. In addition to books above : North America, See Pic- turesque America ; America Illustrated, by Williams ; The Great South, by Ed. King; The White Hills, by Thomas Starr King ; Arctic. Researches, by Hall ; Polar Reconnais- sance, by Markham ; History of the Northern Pacific Rail- road, by Smalley ; Arctic Explorations, by Kane ; Alaska^ by Whymper, etc. 252 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY South America : See South America, by Marcoy, 2 vols. ; Brazil, by Fletcher, by Smith, by Agassiz ; Peru, by Squier ; Venezuela, by Paez, etc. Africa : See Land of the Pharaohs, by Manning ; Pyra- mids, Temples, and Tombs, by Belzoni ; Thebes, by Abney ; Nile Gleanings, by Stuart ; Family Flight through Egypt and Syria, by Hale ; Algeria, by Herbert ; Our Young Folks in Africa, by McCabe ; Boy Travellers, Parts IV. and V., by Knox ; all of Baker's and Stanley's works, etc. Asia : See Little People of Asia, by Miller ; China and its People, by Thomson ; Indian Alps, by a Lady Pioneer ; Indian Pictures, Urwick ; Pathways of Palestine, by Tries- tram ; Those Holy Hills, by Manning ; India and its Native Princes, by Rousselet ; Japan and the Japanese, by Humbert ; Through Siberia, by Lansdell ; Voyage of tJie Jeannette, by Mrs. DeLong ; The Voyage of the Vega, by Nordenskiold, etc. Europe : Land of the Midnight Sun, Du Chaillu ; In the East, Mrs. Brassey ; Scrambles among the Alps, Whymper ; English Pictures, Manning ; French Pictures, Green ; Italian Pictures, Manning ; Spanish Pictures, Manning ; Spain, Davillier ; Swiss Pictures, Manning ; Spanish Vistas, La- throp ; Spain, Dore" ; Pyrenees, Dor ; Scottish Pictures, Manning ; Land of Lome, Through Cyprus, Thomson ; Rome, Hall, Taine, Wey. For the world in general : See Le Tour du Monde. BOOKS FOR CONSULTATION. Schwatka's Search, Gilder ; High Latitudes, Lord Dufferin ; Notes on the Northern Atlantic, Brown ; Hindoos as They are, Bose ; Pen Pictures of Europe, Peakes ; To the Cape for Diamonds, Travels round the World, Coffin, Seward ; Malay Archipelago, Wal- lace ; Andes and Amazon, Orton ; Voyage of Challenger, SIXTH YEAR OF STUDY 253 Thomson ; Nile Gleanings, Stuart ; On the Desert, Field ; Corea, Griffis ; East of the Jordan, Merrill ; Turkestan, Schuyler ; Across America and Asia, Pumpelly ; A Flight to Mexico, Aubertin ; Explorations and Discoveries, Jones ; The Indian Empire, Hunter ; Cuban Sketches, Steele ; The West, 1880, Porter; Due West, Ballou ; Wild Tribes of the Soudan, James ; Methods of Teaching Geography, Miss Crocker; Comparative Geography, Ritter ; Physiography, Huxley ; Forms of Water, Tyndall ; Man and Nature, Marsh ; The Ocean, Tides, Currents, Jordan ; Uncivilized Races, Wood ; Commercial Products of the Sea, Simmonds ; The Surface Zones of the Globe, Johnston ; The Earth, Reclus ; Compendium of Geography and Travel (6 vols.), Stanford ; Mission of the North- American People, Gilpin ; Journal of the American, and of the Royal Geographical Society ; Reports of the Smithsonian Institute. A more complete list of books will be found in Chap. XX. PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS The progressive map in this class should be made entirely with ink. Do not allow the class to do careless work ; at the same time do 'not spend too much time on perfection of outline, or on shading the mountains or coast-line, so as to resemble too exactly the book. The printed outlines pub- lished by Heath & Co., Bcfston, save to this class much time, and should be used freely. Allow this class to use colored inks ; red for the produc- tions, blue for the animals, etc. By means of arrows, lines, and various marks, indicate upon these progressive maps the prevailing winds, currents, countries, east and west, important parallels and meridians, time, voyages, etc. 254 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY In this class certainly, if not earlier in the course, a cabi- net should be begun to illustrate geography. If the first season only six specimens are brought together to illustrate each grand division, a good and encouraging commence- ment has been made. These six, carefully kept till the next class appears, will soon multiply to twenty-five apiece. In several schools in and near Boston, valuable collections have grown out of such small beginnings. Comparisons should frequently be called for in this review recitation work. Children of this age are delighted with them. They should be made in a variety of ways, and be- tween not only countries, but rivers, mountains, people, and climates ; as, for example, CHINESE WOMEN. Small in size. Deformed feet. Never educated. Kept in seclusion, Looked upon as slaves. Daughters are considered burdens, and of* little value. Have to work very hard. Wear trousers like the men, etc. AMERICAN WOMEN. Medium size. Natural feet. Usually educated. Allowed to go into public. Looked upon as helpmeets. Daughters treated just the same as sons. Have hard work done for them. Wear skirts and dresses, etc. CHAPTER XIII WHAT TO TEACH ON NOETH AMERICA THE simplicity and the grandeur of North America, the extent of the spaces over which it rules, seem to have prepared it to become the abode of the most vast and powerful association of men that has ever existed on the surface of the globe. A. Guyot. To understand this simple grandeur is not an extravagance, but a matter-of-fact duty. The Author. AMERICA is another name for Opportunity. Our whole history appears like a last effort of the Divine Providence in behalf of the human race. Emerson* BOOKS FOR CONSULTATION BIRD'S LIFE IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. BODDAM-WHETHAM'S WESTERN WANDERINGS. BISHOP'S FOUR MONTHS IN A SNEAK-BOX. BALL'S ALASKA. GILPIN'S MISSION OF THE NORTH-AMERICAN PEOPLE. HEART OF THE ALLEGHANIES. INGERSOLL'S KNOCKING 'ROUND THE ROCKIES. KING'S WHITE HILLS. LAWSON'S COAST-LINES. MARSHALL'S THROUGH AMERICA/' PIERREPONT'S FIFTH AVENUE TO ALASKA. POWELL'S REPORTS. STANLEY'S YELLOWSTONE. STANFORD'S COMPENDIUM OF NORTH AMERICA. ZIGZAG JOURNEY TO THE OCCIDENT. 256 CHAPTER XIII WHAT TO TEACH ON NORTH AMERICA DIRECTIONS BRIEF HISTORY POSITION SIZE A TRIP AROUND THE COAST SURFACE DIVISIONS ROCKY MOUNTAINS ATLANTIC HIGHLANDS " ON HORSEBACK" MOUNTAINS OF NORTH CAROLINA COMPARISONS PLAINS DRAINAGE NAMES OF RIVERS SYSTEMS THE GREAT LAKES DESCRIPTION OF FOUR RIVERS MISSISSIPPI ST. LAWRENCE COMPARISONS COLUMBIA K1VER COLORADO ON THE FRAZER [Directions tO the teacher. The matter published in this and the two following chapters has been given to several classes, by about one hour's work each day for five or six weeks, and these classes examined at the end of the time. The average of the examination has varied from eighty to eighty-seven per cent. The reason so long a time has been taken, is because each year this happened to be the continent taken up first by the topical method; and the class wrote out the matter, as we proceeded, in large blank-books. In the topical method very little time is given directly to location and names. These are thoroughly learned by association. About half of what is here given on North Ameiica will be acquired with sufficient accuracy by reading or telling to the class once or twice. The parts which may be appropriately read are indicated by smaller type.] I. BRIEF HISTORY * THE New World \*2& discovered in 1492, at San Salva- dor, by Columbus, an Italian, sailing under the Spanish flag ; but it was named after his friend, Amerigo Vespucci. The Continent of North America was first discovered at Labrador, by an Englishman, named John Cabot. De Soto was the first to discover the Mississippi River ; Cartier, the St. Lawrence ; and Balboa, the Pacific Ocean. The Red Man owned and occupied the whole country 1 Nos* I. and II may be dictated to the pupils, or written on the board. In younger classes I. and II. should be taken up at the end. of North America.' ' "'257 258 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY when these discoveries were made. These Indians were divided into two classes, - those of the North, and those of the South. The Southern Indians, occupying Mexico and Central America, were highly civilized, and entirely different from the Indians who lived in the present limits of the United States. History affords no sadder story, than the record of their cruel conquest by Cortez. Gradually the Spaniards settled in the southern part of the new country ; the English along the Atlantic Coast ; the French about the St. Lawrence, the Lakes, and the Upper Mississippi. Each claimed land indefinitely from their settlements, hence their claims overlapped. The Spanish nation decreased in power, and soon only occupied St. Augustine and Santa Fe\ The French and English increased in numbers and wealth. They quarrelled about the land ; war was declared ; the English were victorious, driving out the French, and getting possession of all the land east of the Mississippi, excepting Florida. Then came 1775 tne Revolution, and, later, inde- pendence, and the establishment of the Republic of the United States. Eighty years of growth and prosperity fol- lowed. Then came the secession of the Slave States, and the civil war, which destroyed slavery, and restored the Union. The three heroes of this history are Washington, Lincoln, and Grant. ' II. STRIKING CHARACTERISTICS North America is the larger grand division in the Western Hemisphere. It is a new country. It is the land of plains, in contrast to the continents of the Eastern Hemisphere, which are the lands of plateaus. POSITION OF NORTH AMERICA 259 North America is noted for its great fresh-water lakes, its extensive river -s, unsurpassed falls, valleys, canons, geysers, great prairies, valuable timber-land, wide expanse of remark- able fertility, unlimited extent of its grain-fields, variety and abundance of its precious and useful metals, and the great area of its coal-fields^ It is also noted for its rapid growth. in population and wealth ; for ^surpassing all other countries in the extent of its railroads and telegraphs ; for being first in the amount of its manufactures and industrial products. In a still more remarkable degree it is noted for the harmonious commingling of so many widely different nation- alities , -/as the land Q{ freedom in thought and speech ; free schools, free press, and perfect religious toleration. III. POSITION If a person looks down upon a globe placed on the floor, he sees the outlines of the grand divisions stretching away from the North Pole, arranged in three groups. In like manner, a person looking from a great height, as, for instance, the North Star, upon the earth, would see the land- masses grouped in three pairs, North and South America forming one of the pairs. (See globe.) The two grand divisions stretch from pole to pole (9,000 miles). North America lies opposite the great land-masses of the Old World. [Consult the maps in your text-books, and learn in what ZOU6S and hemi- spheres it is, its direction from Europe, South America, etc.] Most of the land in North America lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle. In Latitude North America extends from about 8 N, which is near the Isthmus of Panama, to Cape Washington, 260 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 84 N., the northern point of Greenland, which point was seen and nearly reached by Messrs. Lockwood and Brainard of Greely's expedition, 1882. (See Three Years of Arctic Service, vol. i. p. 335.) ( In respect to Longitude North America extends from >4 W., found in the eastern point of Iceland, as far west as one can go, 180 W., and then turning east, to the most distant Aleutian Islands ; almost half way round the world, if measured on the Arctic Circle. [The longitudinal centre of the United States is said to be two hundred miles west of San Francisco. Can this be true, on account of the Aleutian Islands ?] [A progressive map of North America should now be commenced according to the directions given in chap. vii. To save time, and to help the pupils make a better- looking map, supply them with the cheap progressive outline-maps, published by Heath & Co., Boston.] f The shape of North America, as seen on the map, is triangular, like South America and Africa, the apex pointing southward ; the widest part toward the north. It has greater diversity of form than the other triangular grand divisions. There are several inland and bordering seas. The mountain systems are more varied] All this makes it better fitted for the use of man. Comparisons. The Arctic and Atlantic coasts are nearly equal ; each has one great, and many small, indentations : Hudson Bay on the north, Gulf of Mexico on the south, peninsulas of Alaska and California on the west, and Labrador and Florida on the east. The peninsula of Florida points south, and Yucatan points north. Fig. 57. The Grand Divisions drawn 01 ? same Scale, to show Comparative Size. SIZE A TRIP 26l [Make other similar comparisons.] The coast-line of North America is the most irregular of the triangular grand divisions. Its numerous border-waters, great inland rivers, and fresh-water lakes, give it great com- mercial advantages over South America or Africa. Size. North America, as seen from the chart of comparative sizes, isf third in extent of the grand divisions.} It is larger than South America, more than twice as large as Europe, and more than half as large as Asia. (See Fig. 5 7 on next page.) It is five thousand miles from north to south, and about three thousand miles in width on the 5Oth parallel. North America contains about eight million five hundred thousand square miles, which equals one- sixth of all the land in the world. Alaska equals in size the United States east of the Missis- sippi River and north of Alabama. [This matter of size is easily remembered by writing the names of countries of equal size over the States and sections with which the comparison is made, as given in Fig. 22, p. 141.] A Trip Around the Coast. * (In Commodore B 's private yacht.) [Length of coastline of North America is 24,500 miles; of South America, 15,700 miles; of Africa, 16,200 miles.] Eastern coast of Greenland is ice-bound and inaccessible. Western coast of Greenland high, steep, rocky, islands, fjords, icebergs. Hudson Bay contains many shoals and reefs. There is ice there a greater part of the year. 1 The pupils should have their books open to the map of North America, and the teacher or a pupil write the facts on the blackboard. 262 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY Labrador is rocky and desolate. Newfoundland contains deep bays and inlets like Scotland. The coast is often hidden by fogs. Bay of Fundy, noted for its high tides. Maine coast is high and rocky. The northern part of the Atlantic coast is noted for good harbors, such as Portland, Boston, New York, etc. Farther south : coast low, extensive swamps, poor harbors. Carolinas have low coast, and low, sandy islands on which grow sea-island cotton. Florida : low and sandy ; navigation round about quite dan- gerous, owing to the numerous currents, banks, and coral reefs. Mississippi delta : a low and unhealthy swamp, covered with reeds, and affording shelter to numerous alli- gators. Texas is lined with long, narrow islands, which form many large bays and lagoons. Mexico has a low, flat, and sandy coast, with no good har- bors. The shore is unapproachable during the preva- lence of Northers. The lofty mountains west of Vera Cruz are seen many leagues seaward, Balize* is skirted with coral rocks, on which cocoanut-trees grow in abundance. Central America produces on her eastern shores tortoise- shell of the best quality : this part is usually called " Mosquito Coast." The western shores of Central America and Mexico are generally low, but diversi- fied somewhat with spurs of the mountains running down towards the sea. Good harbors abound, Acapulco being one of the best. SURFACE OF NOu/li AMERICA 263 California has a dangerous, rock-bound coast. The Coast Range is usually visible from vessels sailing north or south to, or from, the Golden Gate. Alaska : southern part has rocky and bold shores, with high, snow-capped mountains visible ; but north and east of Behring Strait the coast is low and swampy. The interior of the United States is thus seen to be easily accessible to persons approaching from the Atlantic Ocean, but to be shut out from the Pacific Ocean. The country has always had its doors wide open, politically and physically, for immigrants. IV. SURFACE Both North and South America are the continents of plains. The Old World is the continent of mountains and plateaus. The plains occupy the greater and better part of North America. The general elevation of the plains is favorable to man. A large portion of the fertile soil lies be- tween five hundred and fifteen hundred feet above sea-level. [Surface shown by looking at the different wall-maps hanging about the room, or by the Atlas of raised maps, or by the sand map or putty map prepared beforehand by the teacher. See p. 105.] In looking at any of these maps, it is easily seen that the mountain ranges run nearly north and south. In the Eastern Hemisphere they run [Children look and tell.] The Surface of North America is conveniently divided, for the purpose of study, into four parts : The Pacific Highlands, The Central Plain, The Atlantic Highlands, The Atlantic Plain. 264 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY / The highest and longest range of mountains is near the western coast. It is often called the main axis. [Look on the map, and learn its name.] The next range in importance is near the eastern coast. [What name?] The Central Plain, shaped like the inside of a trough or bath-tub, lies between the two highlands. The Atlantic Plain, still farther east, is situated between what mountains and what ocean ? [From the various maps the teacher asks the pupils to learn the extent and direction of these different highlands and plains.] THE HIGHLANDS, OR MOUNTAINS The Pacific Highlands may be divided into an inner and an outer system. These, in turn, may be sub-divided into the f Rocky Mountains, I Rocky Mountain Plateau (a part of which is called the Great Basin), Inner. < Mexican Plateau, Cascade Range, I Sierra Navada. Outer. | Pacific Slope, called in California the Coast Range. These mountains are the eastern edge of a great tableland, varying in width from four hundred to nine hundred miles. [Pupils notice where widest.] The Rocky Mountains may be called the Primary Cordilleras. , The Secondary Cordilleras westward consist of the outer system, extending northward, even to the peninusula of Alaska and the Aleutian Isles, which form a ring of stepping-stones between North America and Asia. The Rocky Mountains contain many of the highest peaks in the country, such as Long's Peak, named after Col. Long, THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS 265 who made an expedition to this section in 1819-20; Pike's Peak, a hundred miles south, named after Major Pike. In the winter cf 1803 Major Pike made an effort to reach the summit, but was obliged to turn back, sadly remarking, " Nothing but a bird could reach its snowy summit." Now ladies and children ride on horseback to the top ; and the United-States Signal Bureau has a station there, in which men live the year round. Both of these peaks can be seen in a clear day from Denver. At the foot of these mountains, in Colorado, are several beautiful basins, or very broad valleys, called in Western language pares. The most beautiful, near Long's Peak, is called Estes Pare. [See picture and description in Miss Bird's book, The Rocky Mountains. For a complete de- scription of these pares, and the whole area of the Pacific Highlands, consult Mission of the North-American People by Gilpin, ex-governor of Colorado.] [Read selections of Miss Bird's ascent of Long's Peak from her book, Life in the Reeky Mountains^ p. 97, and Codman's ascent of Pike's Peak given in The Round Trip, p. 297.] Along the 4Oth parallel, twenty-five peaks of this range exceed fourteen thousand feet in height. At the extreme ends of the range, rise still higher such peaks as the volca- noes of St. Elias on the north, in Alaska, and Popocatepetl, on the south (nearly three miles and a half above the level of the sea). The latter, meaning the smoking mountain, is constantly seen by the children in the City of Mexico, and called by them "Popo." [For interesting accounts of ascents of this remarkable volcano, see Adventures of Rob Rcy by J. Grout, published by the World Publishing House, p. 258; or, better, Ober's Travels in Mexico^ p. 373. For a good picture, see Harper's Geography, P- 7*-] 266 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY The Atlantic Highlands are far inferior in height, (grandeur, and extent, to the Pacific Highlands. Confronting the Rocky Mountains at a distance of some twelve hundred to fourteen hundred miles, these richly wooded ranges, often called when taken together " the Appalachian Range," form the eastern rim of the great basin of the Mississippi. Beginning at the south, the most important ranges named in order are the following : I. Cumberland. 2. Alleghany. 3. Blue Ridge. 4. Catskill. 5. Adirondacks. 6. Taconic. 7 Hoosac. 8. Green. 9. White. 10. Mountains of Maine, n. Wotchish in Canada. [Examine map, learn location, and why the names were thus arranged in five lines in the above list ] The Alleghany may be remembered for its rich iron and coal mines ; the Blue Ridge, for the Natural Bridge (picture in Guyot's Common School, p. in, and Maury's, p. 40) ; the Adirondacks, for the great number of small lakes lying among the mountains ; the Hoosac, for its tunnel ; the Green, for the beautiful sugar-maple so abundant in that region, and for the marble quarries ; the White, for its grand mountain scenery, giving it the name of " the Alps of America." Mount Washington is the highest among the White Moun- tains. [A mile and a quarter above the level of the sea. How many Washingtons to equal St. Elias?] But Mitchell's or Clingman's Peak in North Carolina is now known to be from three hundred to four hundred feet higher than Mount Washington. The railroad up the latter mountain carries THE MOUNTAINS OF NORTH AMERICA 267 every summer, in perfect safety, thousands of travellers to the summit of this peak, on which stands a commodious hotel called the Summit House. Parties frequently leave Boston at 7 o'clock P.M., ride in a " sleeper," reach the top of Mount Washington early the next morning, spend several hours "among the clouds," and return to Boston in the afternoon and evening. From the town of Jefferson a splendid view of the high mountains on each side of Wash- ington, called the " Presidential Range," is obtained. [See pictures in Harper's, Swin ton's, and Warren's.] Charles D. Warner in his article " On Horseback," in the August Atlantic, 1885, says in reference to the Roan Moun- tains, a part of the Black Mountains, in the north-western part of North Carolina : "The surface of Roan is uneven, and has no culminating peak like Mount Washington. The surface of the mountains is pebbly, but few* rocks crop out ; no ledges of any size are seen except at a dis- tance from the hotel, and the mountains lack that savage, unsubdu- able aspect which the White Hills of New Hampshire have. It was difficult to realize that we were six thousand feet above the level of the sea. These mountains are tree-covered. They get the name Black from the balsams which cover the summits. The black bal- sam is neither a cheerful nor picturesque tree. The naked granite rocks in sun and shower are more cheerful ; but, to many, this clothing of verdure .is most restful and pleasing. The rock here is a sort of sand or pudding stone. There are none of the great gorges and awful abysses of the White Mountains, few precipices and jutting crags. Mica and iron are taken out." i . Mountains of North Carolina. Alleghany means "endless." The name Appalachian was first applied by De Soto. Fifty-seven peaks in the western part of North Carolina are over six thousand feet high. The Blue Ridge is the water-shed of this system in this 268 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY State, as not a river severs it. This statement is not true in reference to the same range of mountains in other States. [Tell the pupils to consult their map ] According to most geologies, the mountains of North Carolina were the first to appear above the water, therefore the oldest ; hence one of the high peaks of the Blue Ridge is called " The Grandfather." On the top of Mitchell's Peak is the solitary grave of Professor Elisha Mitchell, piled round with stones, without further monument. " The entire region is mantled with forests to the summit of every peak; the valleys and many of the adjacent coves are cleared, and inhabited by a happy, healthy, and hospitable people. It is rich in picturesque scenery, romantic rivers, luxuriant forests, majestic mountain heights, and valleys of exquisite beauty." Heart of the Alleghanies, p. 12. The comparative elevations of the eastern half of the United States are plainly indicated by a contour map such as is shown in Fig. 58. Comparisons. ROCKY MOUNTAINS. Long. Wide. Continuous. Very high. 18,000 feet. Plateaus and parks between. Snow twelve months. Dry. Sharp, pointed, jagged tops. Generally bare or snow-capped. APPALACHIAN. Short. Narrow. Broken. Less high. 6,000 feet (about J). Valleys between. Snow eight months. Moist. Round, smooth tops. Usually forest-clothed. Usefulness of American Mountains. All are useful in condensing the moisture in the air, and in producing rain. In the West they are storehouses of the precious and useful metals (the Rocky Mountains ELEVATIONS IN EASTERN UNITED STATES 269 Fig 58. Elevations Shown by Contour Lines, Census Report, 1880* 270 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY being said to contain more precious minerals than any other range in the world) : . in the east they are covered with forests. The Alleghanies are both covered with forests, and filled with coal and iron. PLAINS 1. The Central Plain. [Examine the maps, and see if this plain extends from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean, bordered on each side by the two highlands already described, thus forming one of the largest valleys in the world. ] Some one has said, " In this Central Plain is rolled out, in one uniform expanse of 2,800,000 square miles, an area of arable land equal in surface to all the valleys of all the other grand divisions." It is triangular in shape, narrow at the south, and very broad at the north. Formerly it was part of a great inland sea. \ It is crossed in the middle by a low water-parting called the Height of Land, dividing the valley into two slopes. So gradual are these slopes, a person might travel from the mouth of the Mississippi to the mouth of the Mackenzie River, and not realize he had experienced any difference of elevation. The slope westward from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains is also very gradual. Hence all the rivers in this plain are navigable for long distances. In the valley of the Red River of the North, the land is so level that a person crossing it sees first the tops of the trees and the houses, just as ships are seen at sea, showing the sphericity of the earth. PLAINS AND DRAINAGE 271 2. The Atlantic Plain. This plain lies between the Atlantic Ocean and the Appa- lachian Mountains, and stretches from the Gulf of Mexico to Labrador. It may be divided into the hilly and the level country. South of New York the level country lies near the coast, and is separated from the hilly country by the falls at the head of tide-water, thus indicating the distance these Atlantic rivers are navigable. At the head of navigation on each river is situated a large city. [Pupils notice location of Newark, Trenton, Baltimore, Washington, Fredericksburg, Richmond, Petersburg, and Weldon.] [The pupils now should draw the important ranges of mountains on the progressive map, and print or write their names in the proper places, as they are on the text- book map. An excellent selection to read the class at this point will be found in W. G. Marshall's Through America, in the chapter devoted to the Yosemite Valley.] V. DRAINAGE North America is richer in navigable rivers than Asia, or any of the grand divisions of the Old World. 1. Water-Partings. .There are three plainly marked water-partings indicated on any map of North America. 1. The Pacific Highlands. 2. The Atlantic Highlands. 3. The Height of land. [The teacher should call attention of class to flow of rivers from these water* partings.] The South Pass in the Rocky Mountains is the one great continental divide. From this vicinity, the land 2 7 2 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY descends towards the Gulf of California, the Pacific Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, the Mississippi Valley, the North Atlantic and the Arctic seas. [Look on the raap, and see how the rivers flow from the South Pass in various directions.] Thus towards the Mexican Gulf run the Rio Grande and its companion rivers of Texas. Down the " Great Prairie Plains " descend the Red River, Arkansas, Missouri, etc. All of these run due east, parallel to one another, very straight, and with few rapids, and they flow into the 'great central trough, the Mississippi, which runs from north to south across their general direction. From the map, learn the order in which these, the impor- tant rivers of this country, are named, and their respective locations : 1. Yukon. 2. Mackenzie (named after Sir A. Mackenzie). 3. Saskatchewan (swift current). 4. Nelson. 5. St. Lawrence (given by Cartier, 1535)- 6. Mississippi (father of current). 7. Missouri (mud water). 8. Nebraska (flat water). 9. Arkansas (a bow of smoky water). 10. Ohio (beautiful river). 11. Rio Grande (great river). 12. Colorado (red). 13. Columbia (named by Capt. Gray, 1792). 14. Frazer. Do the four bordering waters of the country receive the drainage of these fourteen rivers? If so, the systems might properly be named after them. RIVERS AND LAKES 273 2. River Systems. [Let the pupils find the other rivers from the map.] SYSTEM. RIVERS. r. Mackenzie, Saskatchewan, etc. 1. ARCTIC .... ( 2. Nelson, etc. 2. ATLANTIC ... St. Lawrence, Connecticut, etc. i. Mississippi, Missouri, etc. 7 GULF ( 2. Rio Grande, etc. !r. Yukon. 2. Frazer. 3. Columbia. 4. Colorado. [The teacher caif make a pleasant exercise by writing a part of the above, and asking the pupils to fill in the remainder.] The Great Lakes. These lakes are situated in the central part of the great Central Plain, just south of the height of land, in a depression which drains towards the Atlantic Ocean. They have a shore-line more than three thousand (3,450) miles in length. They are connected with one another, thus affording an immense system of inland commerce. It is thought that they contain one-half of all the fresh water in the world. Each one is so large, it seems like a sea, and greatly affects the climate of the country around it. Lake Superior is three hundred and fifty miles long, and as large in area as all the New-England States except Maine. The surface of this lake is six hundred feet above the sea, and its bottom as many feet below the sea. The shores of Lake Superior are everywhere rocky and bluff, and rich in mineral wealth and timber. Native copper abounds on both the northern and southern shores, and on Isle Royale. Here are found beautiful specimens of this ore. The celebrated pictured rocks are along the south shore. They are of various colors, as if painted by Indian artists, and in the distance resemble castles. Lake Michigan is next in size ; twenty feet lower in level, and its average depth about the same. Huron is nearly as large and 2 7.4 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY deep, and it is on the same level. The shores of both are low and heavily timbered. Erie is very shallow, and much disturbed by storms. Ontario means beautiful. This lake, though farther north, has much less ice in it than Erie. Like. Superior, its bottom is as far below the level of the sea as its surface is above it. The water in passing from Lake Superior to Lake Ontario descends three hundred and seventy feet, and only two hundred and thirty feet more to reach tide-water. [The teacher, by putting the following simple illustration on the blackboard, will greatly interest the class in these lakes. See Fig. 59.] Fig 59. The Great Lakes. Showing heights above and below sea-level, and with one another. Description of Four Characteristic Rivers. [Let the pupil by the list of sub-divisions under river-systems, p. 48, learn and describe most of the points in reference to each river.] Mississippi River. The Mississippi River, with its longest branch (Missouri-Mississippi), rises in the ROCKY MOUNTAINS, and drains the southern slope of the Central Plain. It flows in a SOUTH- ERLY direction through the United States, measuring from the source of the Missouri to the mouth of the Mississippi, in the Gulf, FORTY- TWO HUNDRED MILES, thus making it the LONGEST river in the WORLD. Its main branch is navigable to the Falls of St. Anthony, near St. Paul. Its course throughout is very winding, and some of the turns are called ox-bows. (See Fig, 60.) In the upper part it is bordered THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER 275 by high, steep bluffs, being the margins of the flat prairie level, which stretch back to a limitless distance on each side. Between the bluffs the great river meanders from side to side, in a broad bottom- land of inexhaustible fertility. Farther south the bluffs disappear, and the banks become low. If the Mississippi were left to itself, it would overflow its natural banks for hundreds of miles above the mouth. The planters have built continuous lines of earth-embankments, called levees, to keep the river in its proper channel. The river is not only constantly Fig. 6O. The Great Bend in the Mississippi River. changing its course, but it deposits sediment upon the banks, so that, as a person goes inland from the river, he descends at least four feet to a mile. The water in the river is often as high as the second-story windows of the planter's house. In springtime these levees fre- quently break away, causing dismay to the inhabitants, and destroying immense property. In the great crevasse of 1874, steamers sailed over the streets of villages. At New Orleans the river is one and a half miles wide. Below the city are many large sugar-plantations near the river, the dwelling- 276 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY houses of which are hidden by magnificent trees. Farther down, the banks are called the " coast," along which are found the " gardens " that supply the " Crescent City " with its vegetables. Owing to the muddy character of the water, the river now loses all its beauty and picturesqueness. The scenery is very monotonous. Twenty miles from the Gulf the great river divides into many branches, called passes. The four largest are known as the South-west, South, North-east and A Loutre passes. Capt. Eads, in behalf of the United-States Government, with great skill and at great expense, built in the South Pass "jetties," or artificial banks, by which the current is made to deepen its own channel. Had not this been done, the commerce of the river would have been seriously impaired by the yearly deposits of mud. The river now admits the largest cotton-ships. Instead of one grand current pouring into the ocean its mighty flood of fresh waters, as is the case at the mouths of the St. Lawrence and Amazon, the mouth of the Mississippi consists of numerous arms, the principal of which are the four passes mentioned above, flowing through low swamps, and forming, from the great quantities of mud in the water, numerous islands. This network of creeks, bayous, and passes, makes the delta of the Mississippi, which is gradually extending itself into the Gulf of Mexico. La Salle was the first to pass down the river and into the Gulf (1682). But, when he returned from Spain with a large expedition to find the mouth of the same river from the sea, he searched for many weary months without success ; and his men, incensed by his repeated failures, assassinated him. Foster, in his Mississippi Valley \ says, " The Mississippi River, when we consider its great length, the number and character of its tributaries, often exceeding the first-class rivers of Europe, the area of country which it drains, the vast system of internal navigation which it affords, and the populous towns which have been founded on its banks, may be regarded as one of the most striking topographical features of the earth." This river has fifty-seven branches, the most important of which are the Missouri, Ohio, etc. A distinguished French writer once said of it, "Upon the whole, the most magnificent dwelling-place prepared by God for man's abode." THE MISSOURI AND ST. LAWRENCE 277 What Douglas Jerrold said of Australia is true of this valley : " Just tickle her with a hoe, and she laughs with a harvest." [Let the teacher read to the class a few selections from Bishop's Four Months in a Sneak-Box J\ "The Missouri River, opposite Bismarck, Da., is very swift, six miles an hour; and it is impossible for the strongest swimmer to save himself if once he falls in. The mud will settle on him, clog his movements, and bear him under. . 1 C '*"' X o s lit JT ^ cj *S "i g 1 i 1 ^ ' ^ tJ * > 3 o jj a > E 15 o W5 - O C . o c o* "* w . -H ^ .s w i *."i * w 5 (i O w> W) rt o O p"| C fa *- w 0) 2 ' S 1 g 1 .s A ^ U> 'o .8 H * O C -S K g n - 1 s i -i -'M D u s s g S I i .5 h ~o 5 , ^ > O fa tJ H u H &N s 1 1 |ll o I *o S a o 1 B g | fe *? .& 04) f. 3 J | s I- o 1 11 . O T3 c ^ u c c C < U ^0 w 3 o S Is H I is 1 5 ' -*2 ^ 1 1 | n 'B' M ^ ^ S, H <5 g 1 g S -o ^ 43 .2 S H ^ -5 11*1 B A * 3 8 ff (i o - b" 3' I * 1 rf 1 8 c 5 ' it 3 5 c >. * a rt C 2 J* r; > P ^ o "S ,S "a, o < w < ^ w . g a a " 3 ^ ^ J CJ H* W 43 .2 ^ ^ .1 6 U 2 ^ . "H -5 S, ^ 1 c I '-0 g 1 | 1 'g * 3 |J 1 1 1 1 1,1 13 3 rt Mil '* "c c ^ 5 < S U g c "w 1 i 1 I . 5 1 VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL LIFE 2 97 C/2 O ^ C e 2 o nT g 1-1 . 3 rr P en ;$ 3 3 P - en 7 o o o o p O " P sr O ;r* 3 2 -^ "d ^ 3 rT ^* P T* | S * 1 3 | > OQ 3 . ' 3- P 3 en C- " N o P* ~ 2 SUMMARY I - s 1 1 7 P _ T3 3 n crq 2. o ^-. B- 2- J^" en o o ~ P . p o v; 3- ^Q fi l^r 3 i Q 8- 8- P 3 S <^ 1 1 D-^^O H-i o en p'^fll 1 5 1 i i' ^ o - w 5 "2. - 3* r 3 P. o fT ^ o CD O ?r en ^ J C w 3 3 P cr o s* . Cfq & W 0- 3 P P ^ C S I 3 8^*" ^en H 1 en P > *"d <* W W -, ^ ^ Q ^ n ^ ^ I > ; P g* P^ p en rn ^ en" ^ p 2. 2- H <' 3 g- ifi III 3 ^ 3 c < O N" o ^ P n> j 3 Ei. -:ip^?i^ oo- -X g S S | ^ .- & i X I- ^ P 2 n cr s - 5 2 - c 3 ^ 3 r^ c ^ i i i . p ^ 3 en o ^. ^_- ^ - o o ^ ^ r> ^. o S" rt 4 > w Vi w &- * p 2 3 ? " ^ tz{ 1 6- i s- S* 5! ,33 o c o o 2 n Op 3 c^ ^T .3 S 2. S* Cu ' o" # g ? 3 7 j rj ^ 2^ ^ ^P o ^ C* w * j^ ^ n ta_ < ^ E P 3: ^ I- j^ p - H |cn S 2 ^ 8 C d- en P i^ S. o " 1' 3 ^ ? -< en r? D- -t C o ^T 8- en P H s* 298 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY ~ 3. HUMAN LIFE Interesting and wonderful as this topic always is in study- ing various countries, the subject is never more fascinating than in reference to the development of Human Life in North America. Iceland may boast of an authenticated history running back one thousand years, but how slow its progress in human growth and development ! The rest of North America pre- sents an illustration of rapid growth in population, wealth, and refinement, such as no other country ever enjoyed. Races. This country is the old home of one well-defined race, and the new home of nearly all the other races. The four races are named below, in the order of their number. 1. CAUCASIAN. Descended from different colonies, which came from Europe and settled here in the seventeenth century. This source has .been constantly increased by immigration. Found all over the country. Numbers fifty-six million. 2. ETHIOPIAN. Descended from slaves introduced into the United States and Spanish America. First cargo brought over in 1619. Found principally in southern part of United States, and in West Indies. Now numbers ten million. Rapidly increasing. 3. AMERICAN. Called Indians, aborigines, or original inhabitants. America is their natural home. Columbus first introduced this race to the learned men of Europe in 1493. Indians then owned all the land. Now an Indian is not a citizen, and can- not vote, even if he owns property. Two-thirds of the Indians are settled on separate reservations, under government protec- tion and aid, with a view to civilization. Some of them are RACES 299 wealthy: some are being educated at Hampton and other schools. Now found principally in British America, western part United States, and Mexico. They number five million in all, of which less than three hundred thousand are in the United States. 4. MONGOLIAN. Esquimaux and Chinese. The former are superior to the Patagonians, living in the same latitude. They are skil- ful in making their dress, habitations, and tools; but they are indolent, dirty, homely, and ignorant. They are widely scat- tered throughout Greenland and British America. As guides, they have been of great service to Arctic travellers. The Chinese have only recently come to this country from the vicinity of Hong Kong. They are not a fair representation of the Chinese people, being smaller and less intelligent than the more northern people. In the East they are engaged mostly in the laundry business ; on the Pacific shore, in various kinds of work. They are peaceful, industrious, and economical, but have aroused much hatred among their fellow-workmen. The American people, as a whole, are no smaller in size than the people of other grand divisions : they are as long- lived, and their beauty is as great. Dr. Brown -Sequard says, "The American man or beast is more enduring of wounds than the European." The face of the Americans is as intelligent as that of Teutonic peoples. Americans are good fighters, as was shown in the civil war. Population. No country in the world has grown, in the number of its inhabitants, so rapidly as North America. In order that this may be better understood, the population of the United States for the last forty years is contrasted with that of Great Britain. 300 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY United States. 1850 23,000,000 I860 31,OOO,OOO 1870 39, OOP, OOP 1880 50,000,000 Great Britain. 1851 28,000,000 1861 29,OQO,OQO 1871 32, OOP, OOP 1881 3 5, O, O O O The average increase is thus seen to be, in the United States, more in any one decade than it has been in Great Britain during the forty years. What is the reason of this? The population of North America in 1880 was, In Danish America, about . In Central America " In British America " In West Indies " . In Mexico " In United States " 80,000 3,000,000 5,000,000 5,000,000 10,000,000 50,000,000 Total, about 73,080,000 which is more than twice that of South America, and less than one-fourth that of Europe. What proportion is in the United States? [Mexico has the same as and ?] Of the fifty millions in the United States, one-fifth are black, one-fourth are voters, one-seventh are foreign born, and one-eighth cannot write. There are one million more males than females in the United States ; but in Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, and Pennsylvania, where the denser population is found, the females number many thousands POPULATION AND OCCUPATION 301 more than the males. The United States has ten million families, making an average of five persons to a family. Males are in excess west of the Mississippi River, and north of the Ohio ; females, east and south of these rivers. The foreign population is mostly north of the Missouri, Ohio, and Potomac rivers ; the colored population, south of the same rivers. The population in the United States is the densest in the three states of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island, where the average is two hundred to a square mile. In the United States as a whole, the population averages only seventeen to a square mile ; in North America, eight to a square mile ; in the little island of Barbadoes, West Indies, the population equals one thousand persons to the square mile. Only one other country in the world is denser, namely, Malta. In Australia the population averages only one to a square mile. One-fifth of the population live below 100 feet above the sea-level. Two-fifths of the population live below 500 feet above the sea-level. Three-fourths of the population live below 1,000 feet above the sea- level. Ninety-seven per cent live below 2,000 feet above the sea-level. Occupation. / [What does your geography say the occupations of North America are ? Name them in the order of their importance.] The five leading occupations, named in order of their importance, are the following : Agriculture, manufacturing, mining, fisheries, and grazing. f Atlantic Plain. Agriculture abounds in the .... J Central Plain. California Basin 302 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY It is carried on more or less in nearly all parts of the country. In the East, in small farms ; in the South, upon large plantations ; in the West, upon immense farms. The prairie- lands of the West were prepared by nature all ready for ploughing, and the immediate production of grain. They now fill the markets of the world with flour at the cheapest possible rates. Almost a revolution in the world's agriculture has thus been produced. The great difference between farm operations in the East and the West can only be understood by describing two great farms in the West. For that purpose we have selected one in California, and one in Dakota, one a fruit farm ; the other a grain farm. A Not 3d California Farm. Norato ranch, owned by Mr. De Long, is one of the most flourishing in California. It is located twenty-five miles north of San Francisco, on the Northern Pacific Railroad. The property comprises a fertile valley, and the hills or mountains which surround it. The size of the ranch is sixteen thou- sand acres, equal to a tract of land seven or eight miles long, and two or three wide, or to two-thirds of an ordinary town. It takes over one hundred and fifty men to run such a farm, with the help of fifty horses and mules and several engines. From twelve hundred to fourteen hundred cattle are kept, and seven hundred hogs, five hundred hens, three hundred pigeons, and plenty of dogs to hunt the wild game, which, including deer, abounds in this vicinity. One thousand acres are devoted to raising grain, one thousand acres are kept for raising grass for the dairies and horses, and two thousand tons of hay are annually gathered. The ten dairies yield from five thousand to ten thousand pounds of butter each week. Horse-power is used for churning. But this ranch is particularly famous for the quantity, quality, and elegance of the fruit grown thereon. There are at least forty thousand fruit-trees now growing on it. The visitor who should come to this NOTED FARMS 303 charming spot in the early springtime, when the hills are green in their new coat of verdure, and this mammoth orchard is in bloom, would be excusable in indulging in the most extravagant expression of rapture at the beautiful sight. Almost the entire valley seems turned into a magnificent bank of flowers ; while the air is fairly heavy with their sweet perfume, reminding the delighted spectator of the " Vale of Cashmere," so eloquently described by Tom Moore. This large orchard is divided as follows: one hundred and sixty acres of apple-trees, fifty acres of apricots, ten acres of Bartlett pears, fifteen acres of peaches, besides many acres of plums, crab- apples, figs, cherries, nectarines, English walnuts, almonds, etc. ; while eighty acres are planted to vineyards of delicious grapes. A Bonanza Farm. Mr. Oliver Dalrymple has been at the head of the largest grain-farm in this country, containing seventy five thousand acres, twenty-seven thousand of which were under cultiva- tion in 1882. This huge farm is situated near Casselton in the eastern part of Dakota, in the valley of the Red River of the North. A farm of this size is divided into- smaller farms of about six thousand acres each, and placed under a superintendent, with book- keeper, headquarter's building, a storehouse for supplies, etc. The six thousand acres is sub-divided into three divisions of two thousand acres each, under the charge of a foreman. Each of these smaller farms has its own set of buildings, stables, granary, boarding-house, machine and blacksmith shop, all connected with the superintendent's office by telephone. Supplies, tools, and machinery are purchased at whole- sale, and shipped by the carload. The profits in 1882 on the twenty- seven thousand acres of wheat were not less than two hundred and sixteen thousand dollars. The name "bonanza farming" seems to have been \vell given. On this great farm four hundred men are employed in harvesting, six hundred in threshing; two hundred and fifty pairs of horses or mules are used, two hundred gang-ploughs, a hundred and fifteen self-binding reapers, and twenty steam-threshers. The sight of the immense wheat-fields, stretching away farther than the eye can reach, in one unbroken sea of golden waves, is grand beyond description. About the ist of August 'the harvester is heard throughout the 304 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY length and breadth of the land. Each machine is drawn by three horses ; and with each gang there is a superintendent, who rides along on horseback, and directs the work of the drivers. The long procession of reaping-machines move, one after the other, like so many batteries of artillery; a hundred of them cutting a swath one- fifth of a mile in width. There are also mounted repairers, who carry with them the tools for repairing any break in the machines. " Carleton " thus describes the scene, "Just think of a sea of wheat, containing twenty square miles, thirteen thousand acres, rich, ripe, golden, the winds rippling over it. As far as the eye can see, there is the same russet hue. Far away on the horizon you behold an army sweeping along in grand procession. Riding on to meet it, you see a major-general on horse- back, the superintendent; two brigadiers on horseback, repairers, No swords flash in the sunlight, but their weapons are monkey- wrenches and hammers. No brass band, no drum-beat, nor shrill note of the fife; but the army moves on, a solid phalanx of twenty-four self-binding reapers, to the music of its own machinery. At one sweep, in a twinkling, a* swath of a hundred and ninety-two feet has been cut and bound, the reapers tossing the bundles almost disdain- fully into the air, each binder doing the work of six men." p. 98, Northern Pacific Railroad, by H. J. WIN son. Facts in Reference to Agriculture. There are said to be over four million farmers and planters in the United States of America, or nearly one- third of the adult males. The United States produces FOUR- FIFTHS of all the cotton raised in the world. The chief agricultural productions, in the order of latitude, beginning at the north : GRAINS. Barley. Oats. Rye. Wheat. Maize. Rice. OTHER PLANTS. Potatoes. Hay. Hemp. Tobacco. Cotton. Sugar. AGRICULTURAL COMPARISONS 305 Comparisons. (1880.) Illinois raised more corn and oats. New York raised more hay and potatoes. California raised more barley, wine, and wheat. Kentucky raised the most tobacco. Alabama raised the most cotton. Louisiana raised the most sugar. South Carolina raised the most rice. Texas raised the most stock. Notice the sections giving the above facts in the maps in Warren's Geography. [The teacher can make these more effective by showing the sections on the board with colored crayons.] There were raised in the United States in 1884, 2,571,- 300,000 pounds of cotton. If each bale weigh 450 pounds, how many bales were there ? Let the teacher'give the size of a bale of cotton, and see how large a fortification so much cotton would make. Manufacturing. [Where carried on?] In the East. North of the Potomac and Ohio, because of the abundant water-power. The leading manufacturing States in the United States, and north of these two rivers, are : (i) New York, (2). Pennsylvania, (3) Massachusetts, (4) Illinois, (5) Ohio, (6) New Jersey. 306 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY The following comprise the articles of greatest value manufactured in North America : Flouring and grist mill products, iron and steel, clothing, machinery, leather, boots and shoes, woollen goods. In order to make all these and other articles, it requires in the UNITED STATES alone, TWO HUNDRED AND FIFTY THOU- SAND manufacturing establishments, employing nearly THREE MILLION hands, and making each year material worth over FIVE BILLION DOLLARS. Eight Principal Manufacturing Cities. (1880.) 1. Philadelphia. Machinery, woollen goods, cotton goods, clothing, mixed textiles. 2. New York. Printing, men's clothing, tobacco, liquor, foundery. 3. Chicago. Slaughtering, clothing, foundery, iron and steel. 4. Brooklyn. Sugar refinery, foundery, drugs. 5. Pittsburg. Iron and steel. 6. St. Louis. Iron and steel. 7. Boston. Sugar refined, men's clothing, foundery and machine shop, printing and publishing. 8. Cincinnati. Men's clothing, slaughtering and meat-packing, foun- dery, boots and shoes. (The above cities are named in the order of the value of their manufactured goods. Further facts about manufactures are given under Productions, p. 325) Mining. [Where? What?] Location. Mostly in the Highland Region. In the Eastern Highlands are found extensive mines of coal and iron. In Eastern Pennsylvania abound mines of hard coal (Mauch Chunk and Scranton) ; Western Pemv sylvania, soft coal and iron (Pittsburg). : MINING 307 [From what city would you ship a cargo of hard coal to Boston ?] In the Western Highlands are found numerous mines of silver and gold. Silver-mines are frequently seen in the plateau-region of the United States, as in Colorado, Nevada, and Arizona, and in Mexico, north of the capital. Gold is found all through the Western Highlands, but especially in the Sierra Nevada. Gold. The placers which contain gold in its native state, mixed with sand and gravel, are the richest and most profitable sources of the metal The first discoveries of a gold-mining region are naturally of this class, but they are rapidly exhausted. Alder Gulch, in Mon- tana, has produced more than $30,000,000. In Colorado, the gold is found with copper and iron pyrites;" in Nevada, with silver. In California the gold is free, and at first it was separated from the dirt by a pan and rocker. Then a trough was used, and then a sluice, through which a stream of water was constantly running. In time came hydraulic mining, by which an enormous and powerful stream of water was directed, under great pressure, against a bank or hillside containing placer-gold. The earth thus torn down was car- ried by the water into the sluice, and the expense of shovelling saved. This method of mining destroyed the beauty of the country, and filled up the rivers to such an extent that the Legislature has forbid- den it. Now quartz-mining is the one usually employed. The rock is pulverized by heavy machinery, and the gold separated by the help of mercury or sulphurets. This method of mining requires capital and education, and reduces gold and silver mining to regular business enterprises. The rush, excitement, and lawlessness which followed the acci- dental discovery of gold in California, in 1848, by James Marshal!, have been repeated in the Black Hills and in Leadville. Silver. Silver is as widely distributed in the Western Highlands as gold. Colorado, Montana, Nevada, Utah, and Arizona are at present the principal silver- producing States. The first named pro- 308 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY duces about one-half. The Comstock Lode at Virginia City, Nev., is the richest deposit of silver in the world. In one year, $23,000,000 in gold and silver were taken from this lode. A tunnel twenty thou- sand feet long, and costing nearly $5,000,000, has been carried into the side of the mountain containing this silver deposit, in order to drain and ventilate the mine better, and also as an easier exit for the ore than the shaft. [See Compendium of North America^ p. 154.] Lead and copper are found in the largest quantities in the valley of the upper Mississippi. Copper-mines abound in and about Lake Superior., [What island celebrated for copper-mines ?] Many valuable metals and minerals are found in the mountains of North Carolina. ' Nearly every metal of any value has been found in great abundance in this country except tin. [Where do we get our tin?] Grazing. ^ This business is now carried on in New Mexico, Colorado, Texas, Kansas, and Oregon. Many of the large ranches are owned by great cattle-companies of the East or Europe. Millions of dollars from England and Scotland have been invested in these Western cattle-companies. Some com- panies own as many as a hundred thousand cattle. ( In these high latitudes, the grass cures on the stem, so very little feeding is necessary. Shelter is rarely provided. When a blizzard rages, the cattle huddle close together : the strongest push to the centre, and the weakest are crowded to the outside, where many of them freeze to death. . Most of these great ranches are on Government land, and some of them have been " run " by New-England young GRAZING 309 men. In Kansas the cattle-men are obliged to own their own land. A ranch near Emporia contains thirty thousand acres, well fenced with wire, and divided into convenient sections. The cattle are kept in " bunches " of about one hundred and twenty-five, for better care and health. When the cattle are ready for market, they are driven to the nearest railroad, and loaded on the cars, about eighteen being put into a car. The railroads are now obliged by law to water them, and at long intervals to take them out, and rest and feed them. The trains move as much as possible in the night. Many of these cattle are slaughtered in Chicago, and the beef sent farther east in refrigerator-cars. From that interesting book on this subject, entitled " Ranch Notes," by R. Aldridge, London, the following extract is taken : " The work of taking care of cattle was not severe. We got up generally about sunrise, and, after a hasty breakfast, saddled our horses, and went round the cattle, counting them as we passed along. If any had wandered too far, we drove them back. At four P.M. we rode out again, and quietly worked the cattle towards home. After sundown we rounded them up close to the shanty, and held them there till they began to lie down ; after which we went in to supper, and ' turned-in ' pretty early." "Sometimes a few of our cattle would stray away, and give us some trouble to discover them. When this happened, we usually found them in one of the neighboring herds, of which there were three within a radius of five miles. [In the above book will be found interesting accounts of " round-ups," "brand- ing," and the pleasant side of a cowboy's life See, also, finely illustrated article in Century Magazine, February, 1888. J 310 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY Fishing. Cold-water seas are necessary to the life of the three leading commercial food-fishes ; viz., the cod, herring, and the mackerel. The Arctic Current, which washes the coast of Labrador, Newfoundland, Canada, and a part of the United States, is the source of the vast fishing wealth of this part of the world. As the farmer depends upon the rain and sun for his crops, so do the fishermen depend upon this Arctic Current for a never-failing supply of fish. This Arctic, or Labrador, Current brings with it, to these fishing and spawning grounds, the food on which the fish thrive ; and the supply never fails. This food consists of a kind of slime, made up of minute marine life, " diatoms " as they are called, found most abundant in the coldest water, or near the neighborhood of icebergs. Minute creatures (crustaceans, such as the crab, cray- fish, shrimp, etc.) feed upon this slime, and become, in turn, food for the herring; which are devoured by the cod. The Great Banks, directly south of Newfoundland, form a regular sub-marine plateau. Here the water varies from fifty feet to three hundred and fifty feet. At the west end of the Banks the water suddenly becomes about nine thousand feet deep. These fishing-grounds extend two hundred miles in length, and about seventy in breadth. Ever since Cabot discovered this coast, these " cod meadows " have been fished by all the nations of the world, without showing any decrease in productiveness. The sections of North America engaged in the fishing business are named in order, Canada, New- England States, FISHING 311 South- Atlantic States, Middle States, Pacific States and Terri- tories, and the Great Lakes. f The different kinds of fishing are, whale-fishing in Arctic seas ; cod, herring, and mackerel, on the Banks ; oyster- fishing on the coast of Maryland, Virginia, New Jersey, and Rhode Island ; lobster-fishing along the New-England coast ; seal-fishing on the St. Paul Islands, Alaska ; salmon-fishing, Columbia River, Oregon ; white-fishing in the Great Lakes. Canada caught, in 1883, four million five hundred thousand dollars' worth of cod. The amount caught in a year in the United States, of the different kinds of fish, is estimated to be worth a hundred million dollars. To do this business requires a hundred and forty thousand men, and about seven thousand vessels. The New-England States employ forty thousand men and twenty-two hundred vessels, and they obtain about fifteen million dollars' worth of fish in a single year. The principal places engaged in the work in this part of the country are the following, named according to the value of the "catch : " Gloucester, New Bedford, Eastport, Boston, Provincetown, and Portland. The South-Atlantic States employ more men, but do not obtain so much fish by one-third. Language. The largest proportion of the people in this country speak the English language. There is, however, considerable difference between the pronunciation and use of words in the various sections. The standard is found in Webster's and Worcester's dictionaries. 312 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY Lippincott's Gazetteer is considered the standard for geographical names. Teachers ought not to expect children to be very critical about the pronunciation of difficult geo- graphical names. There are many Germans in the West, and in some cities the German language has been taught in the public schools. In parts of Canada and Louisiana a kind of French pre- vails. In Mexico and the West Indies, Spanish is the prevailing tongue. The ten million American Indians in North and South America are said to speak two thousand dialects, as many dialects as there are in the nine hundred million in Asia and Europe. Although Alaska belongs to the United States, only one- eighteenth of the people speak English ; and these are all found in three settlements. Manners and Customs. [Manners and customs must be gathered largely from travel, and books on travel. A pleasant way to develop this with a class is to divide the blackboard into four spaces. Head two adjacent columns with some nations or peoples as different as possi- ble, the pupils to do the same on paper; and then fill in the peculiarities as fast as facts are gathered. The teacher to help only when the class are exhausted. Illustra- tions of this method follow.] INDIANS. Their manners differ in different tribes. They receive such names as Big Crow, Whirlwind, Arrow Head, Laughing Water, etc. They have much imagination. They bury in trees, sitting post- ure. They frequently move. The women do the hard work. The ESQUIMAUX. Not numerous in North America. Houses small, built of stone and turf. Lighted and heated by a lamp. The house is cleaned in spring by removing the roof, and moving away while the rains of summer wash it. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 313 older and uglier the woman, the more work laid upon her. Dress in skins ; children naked. Indians eat meat raw ; like the marrow. Very superstitious. Easily surprised, yet often stolid. Indifferent to pain. YANKEES. Live in New England. Descended from the Puritans. Sharp-faced, angular, tall, and thin. Hard-working, close, economi- cal, self-possessed. Believe in the common school and college. Generally intelli- gent. Very inventive, mechanical, shrewd. They have good roads ; build houses ot wood, and keep them painted. Cities clean ; streets crooked. Thanksgiving turkey and baked beans. Keep Sunday. Small farms. ALASKA. Natives are Indians and Esqui- maux. Indians on the Yukon River called Innuits. Natives on the western islands called Aleuts. Houses low, square hole in top. Enter on hands and knees. Clothes made of dressed deerskin. Travel with dogs and sleds. Can make birch canoes twelve feet long. He t still catches the seal with harpoon and bladder. The women do most of the domestic work. Men and women dress very nearly alike. He calls his long boat a kyak. Keeps many dogs. WESTERNERS. Descended from New England and Europe by immigration. Large, pleasant face, open, fair, generous. They are social, good-natured, patriotic. Boastful sometimes. Have large ideas. Full of busi- ness. Carry it on in a large way. Not so particular about little things. Cities laid out with wide and straight streets. " Rushing " in their business. Always pushing and active. Continental Sunday. Ranches. Large farms. MEXICO. People consist of Indians, Creoles, Mestizo (white father and Indian mother). Indians of me- dium height, stout ; wear simple dress, no shoes. House, adobe; mats of rushes or palm-leaves for seats. Food, vegetables and fruits. Great gamblers, and very lazy. 3*4 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY Place before their houses the " totem pole." Indians are dirty and lazy. Live largely on fish, berries. They are treacherous, untruth- ful. Do not farm, because there is no level land. They are not acquainted with domestic animals. There are only four horses in the country. CANADA. People mostly English or French. The Canadians are fine, tall, handsome, powerful men. The girls are robust, strong, with red cheeks. All enjoy winter sports, such as tobogganing, skating, sleighing, curling, lacrosse, etc. At Montreal there is a week of these sports called the Carnival. Men and women dress in furs, and costumes of bright colors, and thick flannels. When a servant is hired, the rest of the family live with him. Assassinations are common. Nearly all the men and women smoke. WEST INDIES. Negroes, Creoles, and Span- iards are the principal people. Labor cheap. Food cheap. Land and rent cheap. Houses small and poor. Ham- mocks instead of beds. Walls of houses gayly colored; sometimes made of glutinous earth, which hardens. People rise at six, take a cup of chocolate and fruit; breakfast at twelve, then the siesta. Work from two to four ; dinner at six. Sunday is a fete day. ("The teacher can now read with profit to the class, or have them read to him, from Frances Parkman's Oregon Trail, chap, xviii. p. 251, A Mountain Hunt.] Education. In considering this subject, we only need to speak of Canada and the United States, as little attention is paid to education in other parts of the continent. EDUCATION 315 Canada. There is a complete system of elementary education here, free to all, and supported by, and under the control of, each separate province. Ontario is said to have the best schools. One-third of the teachers ^are men. The average .attend- ance of the pupils is poor, and the pay of the teachers low. United States. In the United States, as in Canada, the separate States control the public-school systems. The United States has only two schools ; viz., the military academy at West Point, and the naval academy at Annapolis. The systems in the different States differ mostly in details. In every State, instruction is provided free of cost to all children during school age. ' The State has some general oversight ; but the cities and towns look after the expenses for education, and have control of the teachers, through superintendents and boards of education. Not only are there many primary and grammar schools, but the high schools and colleges are well patronized. In these high schools the poor boy can prepare for college, and in some States he can go through college without paying any tuition. Many States also provide text-books and stationery free of cost. If a boy or girl wishes to become a teacher, he can attend the State or city Normal School, and learn the business of education. Numerous conventions and associations of teachers and educators, county institutes, and summer schools are held, especially during the summer vacation, for the purpose of improving the education of the youth. At these meetings 316 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY experienced teachers lecture and read papers on this subject. At one of these meetings recently held in Chicago, fifteen thousand teachers are said to have been present. The United States Commissioner of Education reports in the country twelve million children enrolled in the different schools, taught by three hundred and twenty thousand teachers, at a total expense for salaries, fuel, and official service, of one hundred and fourteen million dollars. Some of the noted colleges are Harvard, Yale, Dartmouth, Amherst, Williams, Brown, Bowdoin, Columbia, Cornell, Johns Hopkins, Boston University, Princeton, Wesleyan University, University of Michigan, University of Ohio, University of Minnesota, Washington University, etc. Most of these are for men. Vassar, Wellesley, Smith, Harvard Annex, are some of the colleges for women. [Where are these colleges situated ?] The people of the United States are great readers of papers, magazines, and books. This is shown by the fact that about ten thousand papers are now published in this country, some of them printing three hundred thousand copies a day ; and some magazines run off a single edition \ of two hundred thousand numbers. The noted poets, historians, critics, and novelists of this country are now read the world over. Reference is made to such men as Longfellow, Lowell, Whittier, Holmes, and Bryant; Bancroft, Motley, and Prescott ; Emerson, Irving, Whipple, and Stedman ; Cooper, Hawthorne, Mrs. Stowe, and Mrs. Jackson. To show the interest taken here in science and invention, it is only necessary to mention such names as Franklin, RELIGION \ND GOVERNMENT 317 Agassiz, Silliman, Dana, Henry, Youmans, Young, Morse, Fulton, Whitney, Hoe, Bell, and Edison. [What ideas are suggested by these names?] Religion. In Mexico, Central America, West Indies, and some parts of Canada, the Catholic religion prevails. In the United States perfect religious toleration is allowed, and hence various denominations are found side by side. One-eighth of the population is said to be Catholic. The leading denominations are sometimes thus given : 1 Methodist. 2 Baptist. 3 Catholic. 4 Lutheran. 5 Presbyterian. 6 Christian. 7 Congregational. 8 Episcopal. 15 Mormon. 25 Universalist. 27 Unitarian. There are fourteen thousand Jews, members of two hun- dred and two synagogues : Jewish population, two hundred and thirty thousand. There are over forty different denominations in the United States. (See Dr. Dorchester's Recent Statistics.} Government. Most of the different forms of government are representa- tive in North America (and in South America also), rather than hereditary. Danish America consists of Greenland and Iceland, both colonies of Denmark, and under the control of Danish governors. One of the governors lives in simplicity at 318 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY Lichtenfels ; the other at Reikiavik, the principal town in Iceland. In the Dominion of Canada, the executive authority is vested in the Governor-General, appointed by the British sovereign. A Parliament, composed of a Senate and House of Commons, makes the laws. The senators are appointed instead of elected. Each province has a legislature. [See picture of Parliament House, Ottawa, in Apple ton's Geography, p. 26.] The Government of the United States is a Federal Repub- lic, deriving its power from the Constitution adopted one hundred years ago, in 1 788. There are, according to this document, three branches of the Government : the Legislative, which makes the laws ; the Judicial, which interprets the laws ; the Executive, which sees that the laws are obeyed. The laws of the country are made by Congress, which meets in Washington every December. The senators are chosen by the State Legislature for a term of six years. There are seventy-six senators in the Senate. The Vice- President of the United States is the presiding officer. The representatives are elected directly by the people for two years. Each State is entitled to one for every one hundred and fifty-four thousand of its inhabitants, so there are now three hundred and twenty-five representatives ; New York having thirty-four, the largest number of any one State. Then come in order, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, and Missouri. The President is the highest officer in the country, often called the "Chief Executive." He is elected every four years, by electors chosen by the people. He resides in the White House at Washington. / GOVERNMENT 319 His salary is fifty thousand dollars a year. The V ice- President receives eight thousand dollars ; each senator and representative five thousand dollars each, and twenty per cent mileage. For a more extended consideration of this subject, see Harper's Geography, p. 35 ; Analysis of Civil Government, by Townsend ; Civil Government, by Martin ; by Mowry. Mexico is a republic of twenty-seven States, and the territory of Lower California. The form of government was modelled after that of the United States. Cuba is governed by a Captain-General, appointed by the Spanish Crown. CHAPTER XV WHAT TO TEACH ON NORTH AMEEICA, Concluded THE original source of wealth is the bounty of God in nature. Dr. Francis Wayland. THE fertility of the soil of North America; its position, in the midst of the oceans, between the extremes of Europe and Asia, facil- itating commerce with these worlds ; the proximity of the rich tropical countries of Central and South America, towards which, as by a natural descent, it is borne by the waters of the Misissippi, and of its thousand tributaries' streams, all these advantages seem to promise its labor and activity a prosperity without example A. Guyot. 321 BOOKS FOR CONSULTATION BENJAMIN'S ATLANTIC ISLANDS. Illustrated. CENSUS REPORTS, 1880. DODGE'S INDIAN TRAITS. HAZARD'S SANTO DOMINGO. KING'S GREAT SOUTH. Illustrated. LAMB'S HOMES OF AMERICA. Illustrated. LORNE'S CANADIAN PICTURES. Illustrated. MANNING'S AMERICAN PICTURES. Illustrated. MARSHALL'S THROUGH AMERICA. Illustrated. MOWRY'S STUDIES IN CIVIL GOVERNMENT. NIAGARA. Illustrated. NASH'S OREGON. PARKMAN'S OREGON TRAIL. PICTURESQUE AMERICA. Illustrated SMALLEY'S NORTHERN PACIFIC. WILLIAMS'S AMERICA. Illustrated. 322 CHAPTER XV WHAT TO TEACH ON NOETH AMERICA, Concluded PRODUCTIONS: IN GREENLAND IN ICELAND IN CANADA IN THE UNITED STATES. AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS MANUFACTURING PRODUCTIONS MINING PRO- DUCTIONS IN MEXICO IN THE WEST INDIES COMMERCE EXPORTS CAN- ADA EXPORTS AND IMPORTS THE UNITED-STATES EXPORTS THE UNITED- STATES IMPORTS MEXICO THE WEST INDIES REPRESENTATIVE CITIES: UPERNAVIK SITKA CHICAGO WASHINGTON NEW ORLEANS MEXICO. JOURNEYS COMPARISONS X. PRODUCTIONS NORTH AMERICA As North America stretches through every zone, and has, on account of its variety of latitude, its elevations, surround- ing currents, and the directions of its great mountain ranges, all possible varieties of climate, and as here man is found of every degree of civilization and savageness, so the pro- ductions of the country are equally varied and wonderful. The word " productions " is used in a broad sense, mean- ing to include whatever is produced by the different leading occupations. [The productions should be mentioned, as far as possible, in some order, as according to value or locality. These productions are easily learned by printing them on the progressive map in red ink (if an upper class), placing the names in the localities where they are most abundant. (See p. 119.) Such maps are found in Warren's, Swinton's, Harper's, and McNally's geographies. Heath & Co. of Boston publish outline-maps of North America, United States, and sections of the same, which save much time and trouble in preparing progressive or production maps. Many facts are here given which would only be read or given orally to the class. A few of the bright minds will readily remember the statements. Do not require your children to learn, or commit to memory, all herein stated. j 3 2 3 324 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY Productions in Greenland. The people are able in the southern part of this land to raise, during the very short summer, a little corn, potatoes, and kitchen-sauce. A few berries also grow. Seal- furs, reindeer-skins, and whalebone and whale-products, are the principal productions ; also cryolite, used in making por- celain. In Iceland. Wool, eider-down, Iceland moss, oats, garden-vegetables, and fish. There are no trees of any size, nor any reptiles, found at present on the island. In Canada, or British America. Gold is found along the banks of the Frazer River, in Columbia. Lumber abounds in the great forests stretching across the country on both sides of the 5oth parallel. Cereals grow on the alluvial valleys by the Red River of the North, and the level plains of the St. Lawrence. Soft coal comes from Nova Scotia. The fur- trade gives occupation to many men in the far North. One of the most valuable productions is fish, caught near the shores, and on the Grand Banks. Cod ($4, 500,000 worth in one year), herring ($2,000,000 worth yearly), lobster, salmon, mackerel, trout, in order of value. In the United States. In this country, the variety of climate, the richness of the soil, and the energies of the people, all combine to develop such a variety of productions, it is well to speak of them under different headings, according to value, as, IN THE UNITED STATES 325 I. Agricultural Productions. Cotton. Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana. Wheat. California, Minnesota, Iowa. Corn and Oats. Illinois. Hay and Potatoes. New York. Tobacco. Kentucky, Virginia. Sugar. Louisiana. Rice. South Carolina. Wine. California. Live Stock. Texas. Peaches. New Jersey. Oranges. Florida. Peanuts. Virginia, Tennessee. Virginia produces 1,250,000 bushels, and Tennessee 600,000 bushels, of peanuts in a year. The average price is one dollar per bushel. The United States raises four-fifths of all the cotton raised in the world. She raised, in 1884, 1,500,000,000 bushels of corn, nearly one-third as much wheat, and more than one-third as much oats. If a freight- train could carry 100,000 bushels at one time, 'how many trains would it take to move all this grain? 2. Manufactured Products. These are taken from the last census report, and the States are arranged according to the value of the products. It will be readily noticed that most of the manufacturing is carried on north of the Potomac and Ohio rivers. [Require the pupils to learn only seven or eight of these, taking those of greatest importance or nearest your residence.] Boots and Shoes. Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania. Clothing (men's). New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio,: Illinois, Massa- chusetts. * ' - ' ' 326 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY Clothing (women's). New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts. Cotton Goods. Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Maine, Pennsylvania, New York, Georgia. Foundery and Machine-shop Products. New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Illinois, Connecticut. Hardware. Connecticut. Jewelry. Rhode Island, New York, Massachusetts, New Jersey. Leather. Pennsylvania, New York, Massachusetts, Delaware. Linen. New York, Maine, Pennsylvania, Illinois. Liquors (distilled). Illinois, Kentucky, Ohio. Liquors (malt). New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Massachusetts. Liquors (vinous). California, Ohio. Lumber (planed). New York, Illinois, Pennsylvania. Lumber (sawed). Michigan, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, New York. Marble. New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Ohio. Mixed Textiles. Pennsylvania, New York, Massachusetts. Printing and Publishing. New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Illinois. Rubber Goods. Massachusetts. Salt. Michigan, New York. Ship-building. New York, Pennsylvania. Silk. New Jersey, New York, Connecticut. Slaughtering. New York, Illinois, Massachusetts. Woollen Goods. Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Connecticut, Rhode Island. 3. Mining Products. The precious metals are mined in the Pacific Highlands; iron and coal, in the Atlantic Highlands, and between the two highlands mentioned, especially in the northern half of the Central Plain. For methods of mining, see p. 307. [Teachers can easily show the locality to the eye, by writing or printing these names upon the outline-map. Pupils learn the same by printing them. ] Silver. Colorado ($16,000,000), Nevada, ($12,000,000), Utah, Arizona. Gold. California ($17,000,000), Nevada ($5,000,000), Dakota, Colo- rado, Montana. MEXICO 327 Coal (hard). Pennsylvania. Coal (soft). Pennsylvania, Illinois, Ohio, Maryland. Iron. Michigan, Pennsylvania, New York, Missouri. Copper. Michigan, Arizona, Vermont, North Carolina, Montana, Lead. Missouri, Virginia, Kansas. Quicksilver. California. Zinc. New Jersey, Missouri, Pennsylvania, Virginia. Nickel. Pennsylvania, Michigan. In Mexico the people live at all elevations, from the level of the sea to that of the plains of Orizaba, from seven thousand to eight thousand feet. This fact, and the latitude of the country, give it a great variety of climate, and a remarkable range of productions. In a trip from Vera Cruz to the City of Mexico, the traveller would begin his journey in the hot lands, where grow such tropical fruits as bananas, oranges, and mangoes and cocoa-palms wave their long leaves in the wind. Rising higher, he would soon enter the Temperate Region, where, at the height of three or four thousand feet, sugar- cane, rice, tobacco, plaintain, and coffee are grown with ease and abundance. Corn, apples, and peaches abound in this belt. In the cold country, or Plains of Mexico, wheat, barley, and aloes are raised. As we approach the capital we find the cactus, argave, and maguey, from which pulque, the famous Mexican drink, is obtained. Cotton, wheat, and the argave grow abundantly about the capital. Grains flourish best in the southern and eastern part of the state. Sugar is produced principally about Vera Cruz ; various kinds of hemp, in Yucatan. Spanish pepper is largely raised and used. 328 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY The noted silver-mines are situated in the central part, from fifty to a hundred miles north of the City of Mexico, and in Sonoro, a section in the extreme north-west. The productions, in order of value, are as follows : corn, silver, 1 wheat, sugar, frijoles (beans), gold, cotton, barley, pepper, woods, coffee, rice, hides, vanilla, tobacco, rubber, orchil, copper, sulphur, honey, horsehair, sarsaparilla. > In the West Indies. The climate is favorable for every variety of tropical growth ; the soil rich ; and man alone is lazy, and inefficient, and easily satisfied. Little exertion is necessary to keep from starving to death, and hence little enterprise is shown in any of these beautiful islands. Few minerals are found : and the productions are almost entirely vegetable, such as sugar, molasses, tobacco, cigars, coffee ; tropical fruits, such as cocoanuts, bananas, pine- apples, oranges, and breadfruit; mahogany (Bahamas), indigo, logwood (Hayti) ; a few spices, sponges, honey. Sixteen million cigars are sometimes made in Havana in one year. Three million are sent to United States, and the same number to England. Two million go to Germany, and half as many to France. The tobacco raised in a single year is valued at twenty million dollars. The tobacco-plant is shaded by the banana- plant, and the coffee-tree by the cocoa-palm. One-fifth of the sugar consumed in the world is raised in Cuba, but only one-tenth of the land is cultivated. [These productions can be dictated to the class, put on the board, or, better, lists made by the pupils, corrected in the classroom, and then printed on the progressive map as 1 Hemf should come next. COMMERCE 329 given in the Progressive Map, Fig. 1 7. The productions have been given according to value, but it is important that a few comparisons be made to impress these facts upon the mem- ory of the children. This' can be easily done by putting on the board a few circles divided into different sized sectors, such as follow.] XI. COMMERCE The great commercial grand divisions of the world are Europe and North America. If the important countries are arranged according to the amount of shipping, both sailing and steam, the countries appear in the following order : Great Britain. United States. Norway. Germany. France. Italy. [The subject of commerce has been so fully illustrated, and so much space already given to the commerce of the United States, the reader is referred for interesting facts to chaps, xvi. and xvii.J Exports of North America. The exports are principally from agriculture. We export considerable manufactured goods, but we import still more. Most articles imported into the United States pay high duties, excepting coffee, tea, fruit, hides, India-rubber, rags, raw silk, and raw sugar. The exports and imports are here given, in order of their value, according to the latest United-States Government statistics. This order will vary slightly from year to year, but the last mentioned will never become the first mentioned 33^ METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY without many years intervening. Such changes have, how- ever, taken place during a period of twenty-five years in India and Mexico. Canada Exports From Montreal, to England and United States, lumber, grain, and furs. From Quebec, to England and United States, lumber. From Halifax and St. John's, to England and United States, fish* From Halifax and British Columbia, to United States, soft coal. Canada Imports From England, cotton and woollen goods. From the United States, flour and coal. The United States Exports Cotton (raw) to England, Germany, France, Russia, and Spain, from New Orleans, New York, Savannah, Charleston, Norfolk, Baltimore, and Boston. Gold and silver to England, Hong Kong, Italy, Canada, and France, from New York and San Francisco. (Two-thirds of this is carried in American steamers, and the rest in foreign steamers.) Breadstuff* to England, France, Belgium, Canada, Portugal, and Cuba, from Chicago via New York, San Francisco, Boston, Philadelphia, New Orleans, and Baltimore. Petroleum to Germany, England, East Indies, Belgium, Japan, and Australia, from New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Boston. Pork to England, Germany, Belgium, and Canada, from Chicago and Cincinnati, via New York, Boston, and Philadelphia. Lard to England, Germany, France, Cuba, Belgium, and Canada, from New York and Boston. Animals to England and Mexico from New York, Boston, Corpus Christi, and Saluria (Tex.). Tobacco to Italy, France, Germany, and England, from New York, Baltimore, Boston, New Orleans, and Galveston. UNITED-STATES EXPORTS 33! Timber to England, Canada, Australia, Cuba, from New York, Puget Sound, Minnesota (Minn.), Pensacola (Fla.), and Brunswick (Ga.). Agricultural Implements to Australia, England, Argentine Republic, Canada, and France, from New York and Boston. Cars to Mexico, Canada, and United States of Colombia, from New York. Manufactures of iron and steel to Mexico, Australia, Canada, Cuba, England, and United States of Colombia, from New York, Philadelphia, and Boston. Leather to England and Germany, from New York and Boston. Beef to England, from New York and Boston. The value of the domestic merchandise exported in one year, amounts to nearly one billion dollars, one-half of which goes to Great Britain. New-York City exports more than one-half of this amount. [The teacher should not expect the child to learn all the following statistics; but rather let the teacher write on the board selections therefrom, omitting some facts, such as the right order of value, the locality, etc , and allow the children to try to fill in the missing fact, restore the order, etc. The teacher, for instance, places on the board the facts in reference to the United States importing sugar, and asks the class to trace the probable route by which the cargoes were brought. Or the teacher asks, " By what route is cotton carried from the United States to England? " " Under what flag would agricultural implements be exported from New York to Australia? "] The United States Imports Sugar from Cuba, other parts of West Indies, Spanish possessions, Guiana, and Brazil, through New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Portland, and San Francisco. Textiles (cotton and woollen), from Great Britain, France, Germany, through New York, Boston, and Philadelphia. Coffee trom Brazil, Venezuela, Central America, Java, Hayti, Colom- bia, Mexico, and West Indies. Silk (manufactured) from France, Great Britain, and Belgium, through New York, Philadelphia, and Boston. Silk (raw) from Japan, China, and France, through San Francisco and New York. Hides from England, Argentine Republic, Uruguay, East Indies, Mexico, Colombia, Brazil, and France, through New York, Bos- ton, and San Francisco. 33 2 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY Tea from China, Japan, through New York, San Francisco. India Rubber from Brazil, England, Central America, Colombia, and Southern Africa, through New York and Boston. Linen (manufactured) from Great Britain and Germany, through New York and Boston. Tobacco from Cuba and Netherlands, through New York and Key West. Tin from England, through New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and San Francisco. Spices from East Indies, England, and Africa, through New York, Boston, and San Francisco. Wine from France, England, and Netherlands, through New York and Boston. Rice from England, China, and East Indies, through San Francisco and New York. Salt from England, West Indies, and Canada, through New York and Boston. Mexico Exports From Vera Cruz and other seaports, to England, silver > mahogany. From Vera Cruz, to United States, coffee, goat-skins, dry hides, India rubber, and vanilla-beans, From Paso del Norte, to United States, silver, goat-skins, and animals. From Merida, Yucatan, to United States, hennequen Jibre. Other exports to United S.tates are vanilla, tobacco, sugar, honey, beans, orchil, copper, horsehair, sarsaparilla. Mexico Imports From the United States and England, textiles, liquors, machinery, glass, and iron wares. The West Indies Export From Havana, to United States and England, sugar, cigars, molasses, cocoa, logwood, fruit, sponges. From Matanzas, Cardenas, and Cienfugos, Cuba, to United States, sugar, molasses, and honey. From Kingston (Jamaica) and Cape Haytien (Hayti), to United States, coffee and logwood. CITIES IN NORTH AMERICA 333 XII. A FEW REPRESENTATIVE CITIES OF NORTH AMERICA [Let the children prepare, in upper class, a little description of the characteristic places in the country, which description may be considered as a composition. Below we give a few illustrative accounts, to show our meaning. Facts briefly stated should here be required, rather than fine writing.] Upernavik, Grsenland. Latitude, 72 N. Population, in 1870, was 88. Name means " Place of Spring." Most northern place in North America. Situated on an island, facing the sea ; exposed to icy winds and fogs. It has a very desolate and dreary appearance. Large heaps of snow near by, even in July. A little vegetation grows in the gardens near the houses. There is a small church, twenty-five feet by sixteen feet, also a comfortable house for the missionary. In winter the sun for seventy-nine days is below the horizon. For thirty-nine days it is very dark. Sitka, Alaska. Latitude, 57 N. Population, 1,000. Situated on Baranoff Islands. It has a small harbor. Mountains rise near by. The place has a custom-house, a hospital, saw-mills, also a Greco- Russian church. A steamboat plies every two weeks between this place and Portland, Ore. The business is the catchfng and curing of salmon. It is garrisoned by a hundred and eighty United-States troops. More rain falls here than in any other place outside of the tropics. Warmer than Boston on account of the Japan Current. Chicago. Population in 1888, 750,000. Almost as large as Philadelphia, twice as large as St. Louis. Twice the population of Boston. Situated on the Great Lakes, thus connecting with the St. Lawrence River and Erie Canal, and near the Mississippi River. Largest com- mercial city, for these reasons, in the interior. Greatest railroad centre in this country, if not in the world. Twenty-two railroads enter the city. 334 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY Greatest grain and lumber market. Immense " cattle-yards," where beeves, hogs, and lambs are slaughtered in the most scientific manner. Much of this meat is sent in refrigerator-cars to New York, Philadelphia, Boston, and other places. Excellent water-supply brought by a tunnel several miles long, from the bottom of Lake Michigan. Chicago is a commercial emporium with the North- West. It has wide and straight streets, miles and miles of business blocks ; many buildings from eleven to fourteen stories high. A large number of elevators are seen in the city. There are several large depots, a fine post-office and custom-house, court-house, board of trade, im- mense hotels, many churches, schools, etc. There is a system of public parks connected, with boulevards, which will be magnificent when completed. Lincoln Park already shows some fine efforts in English landscape-gardening. Chicago has had an unparalleled growth. In 1837 it contained four thousand people; in 1850, thirty thousand; in 1860, a hundred and twelve thousand; 1870, three hundred thousand. The next year (1871) it had a fire, which proved to be the greatest in modern times. Two thousand acres on both sides of the river, along the lake, were burned over, destroying over seventeen thousand buildings, rendering homeless a hundred thousand people. In three years this was all rebuilt. Chicago has now the largest rolling-mill in the world, the largest steel-mill, and makes nearly all of its own boots and shoes. Comparisons. BOSTON. CHICAGO. Two hundred and fifty years old. 360,000. Twice as slow. Situated on salt water. Seaport. Narrow but clean streets. Crooked streets. Not level. Culture and business. Charitable. Boasts of its ancestors and learn- ing. Fifty years old. 700,000. Twice as large. On fresh water. Inland port. Wide but dirty streets. Straight streets. Perfectly level. Business, business. Generous. Boasts of its growth and enter- prise. WASHINGTON AND NEW ORLEANS 335 Washington, D.C. Population (1880), 150,000. Half as large as Baltimore ; about the size of Buffalo. On the left bank of the Potomac, one hundred miles from its mouth. The " City of Magnificent Distances." Finest and healthiest of American cities ; resembles Paris ; streets very wide ; many parks and open squares. Washington is the capital of the United States, and contains the Capitol, standing on grounds containing fifty-two acres. The Capitol is built of white marble and freestone : it consists of a central building surmounted by a dome two hundred and eighty- five feet high, and two wings. The north wing is for the Senate, and the south wing for the House of Representatives, the largest legis- lative room in the world, seating eight hundred members: the gal- leries will seat fifteen hundred spectators. The Supreme Court has rooms in the central building. The Treasury building contains a hundred and ninety-five rooms, the marble room being the finest. This building cost the Government six million dollars. Other large and costly buildings are the State, Navy, and War Departments, the Interior Department, Post-Office Department, Smithsonian Institute, Naval Observatory, Soldiers' Home, etc. The President's residence is called the White House, and is surrounded by grounds containing twenty acres. The Washington Monument is an obelisk of marble five hundred and fifty-five feet high, and fifty-five feet square at the base. Washington society is cosmopolitan. Congress meets the first Monday in December. There is no commerce, and little business except making laws, in this city. New Orleans. Population, 216,000. Twice as large as Provi- dence ; two-thirds as large as St. Louis or Boston ; about the size of San Francisco. Situated on the left bank of the Mississippi River, seven hundred miles south of St. Louis, one hundred miles above delta of river. Called " Crescent City " because of the shape in the bend of the river. It has grown so lately, the city is now in the form of the letter S. METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY The city is several feet below the river. The levee to protect the city from the river extends two hundred miles above the city, and fifty miles below the city. It is fifteen feet wide on top, and it makes a good promenade. There are several fine buildings, such as the Custom House, built of Quincy granite, the largest edifice in the country, except the Capitol at Washington ; also City Hall, Branch Mint, State House (once the famous St. Louis Hotel), St. Patrick's Hall, St. Charles Hotel, etc. Canal is the main business-street. There is some difficulty in draining the city. In summer afflicted with yellow-fever. Twenty-eight epidemics from 1797 to 1889; three epidemics from 1858 to 1879. Commerce greatly increased since the jetties, have been finished at the mouth of the river. Exports cotton and sugar. One-third of all the cotton exported from United States. Sugar is here piled up in sheds like coal. Between Christmas and Lent the greatest carnival in the United States is held. This takes place every year on Mardi Gras, or Shrove Tuesday. Then the people dress to resemble animals, goblins, and such creatures, and march through the streets with music and torches, setting off fire-works as they proceed. Mexico Population (1878), 250,000. Larger than New Orleans. Finest and most brilliant city in Spanish America. The observer is far more impressed by the natural scenery surrounding the city, than by its buildings and monuments Lies in the centre of the Anahuac tableland, midway between two oceans, in a zone of perennial spring ; 7,465 feet above the sea-level. It is a handsome city, tolerably clean ; forms a perfect square ; streets spacious, perfectly straight, and level ; finest open place -in America. A splendid sight presented by the Plaza, one thousand feet square. Wonderful cathedral, overlaid with gold, silver, and precious stones. Arcades where all kinds ot business are carried on. Five miles to the south-west is situated the castle of Chapultepec, standing on a hill over two hundred feet high. Maximilian made it his home. CITIES AND JOURNEYS 337 Alameda is a public park containing forty acres. The Tivoli Gardens are very beautiful ; the tables for eating are arranged in the trees, in boxes, etc. The gentry breakfast about 12 M. in this garden. The floating gardens are not common now. Principal Cities of the United States. The important cities of the United States, and also of North America, are nearly all commercial cities situated on the water. In the frontispiece the water-situation of many of these cities is shown, and one city contrasted with another. A city situated on an island like New York, or on a peninsula like Boston, well surrounded with water, having plenty of wharves, has a great advantage over Chicago and Philadel- phia, which possess much less water-communication. [Are most of the large cities of the country on the north or the south, the west or the east, of the rivers and bodies of water nearest them ?] XIII. JOURNEYS [Assign as a home lesson proposed journeys across the country from different points, such as are suggested below.] 1. Down the Mississippi. (Consult Four Months in a Sneak- Box, by Bishop.) 2. From Boston to Chicago, via Philadelphia and Pittsburg. 3. From Chicago to San Francisco, via Union Pacific. (Consult Fifth Avenue to Alaska, by Pierrepoint.) 4. From St. Louis to San Francisco, via Southern Pacific. (Consult Codman's Round Trip.) 5. From New York to Mexico in eight days. (Consult Ober's Mexico.) 6. From Boston to Smith Sound. (Consult Hayes's Open Polar Sea.) 7. From east to west on the fortieth parallel. (Consult the imagination and memory.) 8. From north to south on the ninety-seventh meridian. 338 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY From the Dearborn School, Boston, to Chicago. A happy party of boys ad girls from the graduating class, and their two teachers, boarded the Western Express in the Boston and Albany Depot, June 3, for a trip to Chicago. I was selected secretary of this travelling club of ramblers, and now present my official report of our proceedings. We had, of course, two special Pullman drawing-room cars provided for our accommodation. Leaving Boston at 8.30, we were, in about six hours, crossing the Hudson and rolling into Albany, the capital of New York. There was no time to stop and examine the costly State House, decorated by our neighbor, the great painter and artist ; for the train in a few minutes left for the West, over the New York Central Railroad. We passed too rapidly for careful description, through the charm- ing Mohawk Valley, in sight of the Erie Canal, and along this rich agricultural portion of the Empire State. Niagara Falls was reached about 12 P.M., and we retired at the Cataract House before seeing, but not before hearing, the great cascade. In the morning we caught, from the piazza of this hotel, our first glimpse of the moving water. What exclamations of wonder escaped from the lips of the sightseers ! Most of this day was spent in viewing the falls from different points. It is difficult to realize what a mass of water is constantly descending the one hundred and sixty feet of the fall, till the observer stands at the foot of the moving avalanche and looks upward. Our party were especially delighted with the views from Goat Island. I noticed that the rumble of the falls is not a harsh, unpleasant sound, but rather sweet and musical, although loud enough to be heard thirty miles away. As the ride onward to Chicago was passed by us in a state of unconsciousness in a sleeper, I refrain from comment. The great business-life of Chicago is easily seen in the vicinity of the Palmer House where we stopped, in such streets as Clark, Dear- born, State, and Monroe. Boston knows little of such rush and push. In our rambles about the city, several of us visited the stockyards, which are covered with sheds and pens, capable of keeping two JOURNEY TO CHICAGO 339 hundred and forty thousand head of cattle at once. Near by are many slaughtering and packing establishments, and a hundred miles of railroad- tracks. On many of the streets cable-cars are used, run in trains of three cars. This system secures greater speed, and is espe- cially adapted to such straight and long streets. One morning the party rode in barouches through Michigan Avenue, one of the most complete boulezards connecting the different parks. This grand avenue is two hundred and fifty feet wide, and lined on each side with beautifully arranged plots of flowers, graceful elms, and superb residences, owned and occupied by the city princes of wealth. We then inspected several new buildings, such as the Board of Trade, where the grain-speculators are said to meet and "gamble;" the County Court House and City Hall, towering in majestic propor- tions, and reminding one of the photographs of buildings in Paris. We also rode by the Post-Office and Custom House, and the Pullman Building, the last noted for being only fourteen stories high. The upper story is a kitchen ; the thirteenth story, a restaurant. In the afternoon we rode out to Lincoln Park, on the north side, the oldest, as well as the most beautiful, park in the city. It covers two hundred and fifty acres, has an infinite variety of drives and elevations, from which grand views of the lake are obtained, in some respects reminding the writer of Franklin Park at home; and yet a few years ago this spot was a flat, unattractive prairie. In the zoological garden were to be seen some unusually fine specimens of the grizzly bear, buffaloes, prairie-wolf, and California seal. In the centre of the park two or three acres are laid out in an immense flower-garden, such as to make our boasted efforts in that line sink into insignificance. XIV. COMPARISONS [Write on the board, for comparison by the class for review, such topics as the following.] Compare the Yosemite Valley with the Wisconsin Dalles. The Colorado Canon and the Connecticut Valley. Mount St. Elias and Mount Washington. The Merrimac River and the Potomac. 340 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY The fiftieth parallel and the thirty-fifth parallel. The climate of New York and Southern California. Compare Georgia and Nevada. The cultivation of rice and maize. Newfoundland and Cuba. The fruits of Massachusetts and those of Florida. The Indian and the Negro. [Each pupil at the board, or on paper, is directed by the teacher to] Contrast the NEW WORLD WITH THE OLD WORLD. Two grand divisions. One-half as large. Long and narrow. Mountains extending north and south. Plains equal to two-thirds of the surface. Plateaus cover one-third of the surface. Greater amount of moisture. Vegetable life abundant. 100,000,000 inhabitants. Republics. Growing and improving. Four grand divisions. Twice as large. Length and breadth nearly equal. Mountains extending east and west. Plains equal one-third of the sur- face. Plateaus cover two-thirds of the surface. Less amount of moisture. Animal life abundant. 1,300,000,000 inhabitants. Monarchies. Standing still. CHAPTER XVI COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY ONE country exchanges its surplus produce for the surplus produce, respectively, of other countries. Yeats. BOOKS FOR CONSULTATION AMERICAN ALMANAC (annual, March). BEVAN'S SHIP-BUILDING AND RAILWAYS. BARKER'S TRADE AND FINANCE (annual). COMMERCIAL RELATIONS 1884-85, parts i and 2. GREAT INDUSTRIES OF GREAT BRITAIN. ROMAN'S CYCLOPAEDIA OF COMMERCE. KALE'S CONDITION OF NATIONS. MALEAUX- WONDERLAND OF WORK. MARTIN'S STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK. McCuLLocH's DICTIONARY OF COMMERCE. MULHALL'S DICTIONARY OF STATISTICS. RESOURCES OF MODERN COUNTRIES. SCRIBNER'S MAGAZINE for 1888. SPON'S ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF MANUFACTURING. STATISTICS OF COMMERCE, 1880. YEATS'S COMMERCE, RECENT AND EXISTING, 18 YEATS'S GROWTH OF COMMERCE, 1888. YEATS'S RAW MATERIALS OF COMMERCE, 1888. WEBSTER'S TRADE OF THE WORLD. 342 CHAPTER XVI COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY HISTORY AND GROWTH OF COMMERCE KINDS OF COMMERCE IMPORTANT COM- MERCIAL COUNTRIES HOW CARRIED ON NOTED TRADE ROUTES GREAT RAILROAD ROUTES TRUNK LINES COSTLY BRIDGES BOSTON TO MEXICO IMPORTANT WATER ROUTES ARTIFICIAL WATER ROUTES TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE COMMERCIAL CENTRES " THK THREES OF COMMERCE " COM- MERCIAL TRIP ROUND THE WORLD IN the Saxon age, neither commerce nor productive indus- try existed. Each family was self-contained, like a savage Indian. There was then no division of labor, no interchange of movable property in the modern sense, no communication worthy of the name. Commerce was once confined to the Mediterranean Sea, but even then it was active ; and Venice grew rich in its service, till Vasco de Gama doubled the Cape of Good Hope, and turned the trade to England. The discovery of America opened new possibilities for commercial activity, but the invention of the steam-engine created new developments in both manufacturing and com- merce. Commerce then becomes indirectly a mighty agent of production, since it stimulates the industry of every country. Commerce, on the other hand, grows with the growth of productive industry. " Every new raw material brought within the range of manufac- ture, every increase in the yield of the soil from improved husbandry, every appliance to make labor-saving machinery more effective, every 343 344 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY new process of service to lessen the cost of production, every wise legislative act that clears the path of labor and interchange, every geographical discovery and settlement, every new market in distant ports, and every advance of the laborer in the exercise of the indus- trial virtues, swells, by so much, the dimensions of the national commerce." The interchange of the products of one country with another, has had great influence on the human race. The potato was carried to Europe ; maize, to Asia. The search for gold, ivory, and diamonds, has opened up new parts of the world, and secured their early settle- ment. The search for platina disclosed the most guarded recesses of the Cordilleras and the Ural Mountains. The need of copper led to our acquaintance with the Great Lakes. The demand for whale-oil and rich furs has opened to all people the indispensable riches of the polar world. The remarkable growth of commerce and wealth during the last fifty years is vividly shown by such a table as the following, taken from English Parliamentary Reports : Per- capita Consumption of Different Articles imported largely by the People of Great Britain. ARTICLES. 1840. 1886. Bacon and hams . . . . . Ibs. o.oi 11.95 Butter " 1.05 7.17 Cheese . . " 0.92 5.14 Currants and Raisins 1.45 4* 2 Rice " 0.90 10.75 Wheat and wheat flour .... "4247 185.76 Sugar (raw) " 15.20 47.21 Sugar (refined) , " none 18.75 Tea . " 1.22 4.87 Eggs ........ no. 363 28.12 Tobacco Ibs. 0.86 1.42 Coffee " 1.08 0.86 COMMERCIAL COUNTRIES 345 A full year's supply of meat and bread for an adult person in the United States can now be transported from the places where most abundant, a thousand miles, to where most needed, for the cost of a mechanic's single day's wages. Commerce is the exchange of productions, on a large scale, between different places. It is readily divided into two kinds ; viz., Domestic and Foreign. The principal articles exchanged are grouped under the following three heads : i. Food ; 2. Clothing ; 3. Metals. Or, by another grouping : 1. Raw Material ; 2. Manufactured Goods. COMMERCIAL COUNTRIES AND CENTRES Commerce is greatly facilitated by the contour of the country. A grand division with many projections and indentations, like Europe, is likely to have good harbors ; and it is easy for ships to go from one point to another, as many of the water-routes are within sight of land. South America and Africa are illustrations of the opposite con- dition, and their history has little to do with commerce. The three navigable rivers in South America make up for the lack of projections. The great commercial countries to-day are, according to value, Great Britain, United States, France, Germany, Belgium, Holland, Russia, Austria. The commerce of the British Empire, including India, Canada, and Australia, is greater than the united trade of France, Germany, and the United States. The commerce of England to-day is about nine times as great as it was in 1800. The commerce of France in the same time has increased still more rapidly. Great Britain has the most trade with India, of all her possessions ; next comes Australia, 346 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY and then Canada. The United States imports only about half as much from Great Britain now as in 1870, but she exports to Great Britain nearly twice as much now as in 1870. The noted commmercial centres of the world are, for General Commerce. Liverpool and London In England. New York, Boston, and Philadelphia . . ' . United States. Hamburg and Bremen . . . . Germany. Antwerp Belgium. Marseilles and Havre France. Alexandria Africa. Calcutta Asia. Melbourne Australia. Rio Janeiro South America. Liverpool and London are at the end of two great commercial water-routes. [Ask the children to mention the cities at the other end. Boston and New York are at the end of a great commercial land-route. What city is at the other end?] " England is anchored in the side of Europe, and right in the heart of the modern world. It has the best commercial position on the whole planet. " Every natural deficiency is compensated by wonderful energy. The country, though foggy and rainy, has furnished the world with astronomical observations. Its short rivers do not afford water- power, but the land shakes under the thunder of the mills. With no gold mines, there is more gold in England than in all other countries. Too far north for the vine, the wines of all countries are in its docks. 'No fruit ripens in England but a baked apple,' says a French critic, but oranges and pine-apples are cheaper there than in the Mediterranean." Ralph Waldo Emerson. ENGLAND'S COMMERCE 347 " A power," says Webster, " that has clotted over the surface of the globe with her possessions and military posts, whose nlorning drum-beat, following the sun, and keeping company with the hours, circles the earth daily with one continuous and unbroken strain of the martial airs of England." " Between two seas, France has the next best position for com- merce. Humboldt pronounced its climate the finest in the world. But its rare resources are in the character of its people. The French seldom emigrate. They have peculiar skill in providing for luxury abroad, and in practising economy at home. The rich of every land are buyers of their high-priced products. Great Britain and the United States alone pay yearly to France $400,000,000, mostly for luxuries of food and dress." England has over twenty-two thousand merchant vessels, manned by over two hundred thousand seamen. Her commerce is protected by the largest navy in the world. She has established fortified naval depots for coal and provisions along all the great routes of commerce. For example, in the Mediterranean are Gibraltar, Malta, and Cyprus ; on the South-African route, St. Helena, Cape Town, and Mauritius ; on the East-India route, Aden, Bombay, Calcutta, Singapore, and Hong Kong ; Melbourne, etc., in Australia ; Jamaica and Balize in the West Indies ; Halifax and Quebec in Canada. The sun never sets on her The United States, in contrast, has, at present, very few vessels engaged in foreign commerce. [WHY?] The United States produces nearly four-fifths of the cot- ton crop of the world. More is produced now in the South by free labor, than was formerly done under slave labor. India cannot compete with the United States in raising cotton. 348 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY India now raises more tea than Japan. It all goes to England. China raises three-fourths of all the tea. The United States imports its tea from Shanghai, Amoy, and Chefoo, Kanagowa and Hiogo ; its fire-crackers from Can- ton ; its rattans from Singapore and Batavia ; its bananas l from Kingston and Truxillo ; its cocoanuts from Trinidad and Porto Rico ; its raisins from Malaga, Barcelona, and Denia. HOW CARRIED ON Commerce is carried on in a variety of ways. ON LAND (In Savage and Semi-civilized Countries.) 1. By porters, as the negro carriers in Africa. 2. By dogs, as the dog- trains in Greenland and Siberia. 3. By llamas, as in the Andes of South America. 4. By camels (caravans), as across the deserts of Africa and Asia. 5. By horses (sleighing on snow or ice), as in Russia. (In Civilized Countries.) 6. By railroads. ON WATER 1. By boats on canals. 2. By sailing-ships. 3. By steamers. Steamers are now rapidly taking the place of sailing- vessels. 1 An average bunch of bananas in Kingston, Jamaica, is worth forty cents; the same in Boston is worth two dollars and fifty cents. GREAT TRADE ROUTES 349 NOTED TRADE ROUTES 1 OVERLAND Through Siberia. From Pekin to Kiachta, Irkutsk, Tomsk, Nijni-Novgorod, to Moscow. Across Sahara. 1. From Morocco and Fez to Timbuctoo. 2. From Tunis to Sackatoo. 3. From Tripoli to Mourzouk and Kouka. 4. From the lower cataract of the Nile to Central Africa. GREAT RAILROAD ROUTES EUROPE 1. Liverpool to London. 2. Glasgow to London. 3. Edinburgh to London. 4. London to Dover. 5. London to New Haven. 6. Lisbon to Reggio, via Madrid and Marseilles. 7. Brest to Otranto, via Paris and Turin. 8. Brest to Bucharest, via Paris and Vienna. 9. Brest to Berlin, Moscow, and to Orenburg, Ural River, three thousand'two hundred and sixty-six miles. Before many years this road will be completed to China. 10. Cadiz to St. Petersburg, three thousand miles. These lines are crossed by six north to south lines. AFRICA Alexandria to Cairo and Suez. ASIA Bombay to Madras. Bombay to Calcutta. 1 In all cases the route is to be traced on the maps: afterwards \t should be drawn on the large blackboard outline map by the pupils. 35 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY NORTH AMERICA The grand trunk lines in this country run mostly from the east to the west, passing through the valleys and passes of the intersecting mountains. [Why do they run in this direction?] British America. CANADIAN PACIFIC. From Quebec, via Montreal, the St. Law- rence Valley, north of Lake Superior, Winnipeg, the valleys of the Saskatchewan and Eraser rivers, over the Rocky Mountains, to Victoria. In the United States. 1 Eastern Half. The most important routes between the Atlantic coast and the Mississippi Valley are the following : 1. The Grand Trunk Line, from Portland, Me., through the White Mountains to Montreal, the St. Lawrence Valley, Canada, north of Lakes Ontario and Erie, to Chicago. 2. The Boston and Albany, and the Hoosac Tunnel routes, across Massachusetts by parallel routes to Albany, through the Mohawk Valley, and the centre of New- York State, to Buffalo, Chicago, and St. Louis. 3. The New York and Erie Road, from New- York City via the Delaware, Susquehanna, and Chemung valleys, to Buffalo, Cleveland, and Chicago. 4. The Pennsylvania Central, from New York to Philadelphia, via the Susquehanna and Juniata valleys, to Pittsburg; thence to Chicago or St. Louis. 5. Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, from Baltimore to Washington, through the Potomac Valley to Wheeling and Chicago, or to Cincin- nati and St. Louis. 6. Norfolk and Western Railroad, from Norfolk or Richmond, 1 Trace these routes on the commercial map. Draw on blackboard. TRUNK LINES 351 through Lynchburg and the valley of the Tennessee, to Chattanooga and Memphis ; or from Chattanooga by way of Birmingham, Ala., to New Orleans. 7. Central Georgia Railroad, from Savannah and Charleston, by way of Macon, Montgomery, and Jackson, to Vicksburg or New Orleans. These great trunk lines are connected with one another by numerous lines running north and south, 1 so that all places of any importance can be reached now by railroad. Western Half. The Mississippi Valley is connected with the Pacific coast by four trunk lines : 1. The Northern Pacific \ from St. Paul and Duluth, by the valleys of the Missouri, Clarke's Fork, Columbia River, to Portland and Olympia on Puget Sound. 2. Union Pacific, from Chicago by Council Bluffs, and west via the Platte Valley, or St. Louis, by Kansas City and Denver, .Cheyenne, Ogdcn, to San Francisco. 3. The Atlantic and Pacific, from Kansas City, by the Arkansas Valley, Pueblo, Santa Fe, to San Francisco. 4. Southern Pacific, from New Orleans, by Austin, El Paso, and Gila valleys, to Los Angeles and San Francisco. Mexico. 1. The Central Mexican, from El Paso via Chihuahua to City of Mexico. 2. Mexican Railway, from Vera Cruz to Mexico. 3. Mexican National, from Laredo on the Rio Grande, by Monterey and Satillo, to City of Mexico. Narrow Gauge, two thousand miles long, three hundred miles not finished (1886). The trade of the sparse population west of the looth meridian has not yet required so many cross-roads from north to south as in the eastern part of the country. 1 From the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence, to the Gulf and Atlantic coasts. 352 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY Narrow-gauge roads are now being built in the Pacific Highlands region. The United States has more miles of railroad than any other country in the world ; the amount being now about a hundred and fifty thousand miles, eight thousand of which were built and completed in 1886 ; one million persons are employed to run them. This would equal three hundred thousand miles of rails, enough in length to make twelve steel girdles for the earth's circumference, or to reach thousands of miles beyond the moon. Europe has about a hundred and ten thousand miles of railroad, and two hundred thousand miles of telegraph, including the lines through Siberia. The Isthmus of Panama is crossed by a railroad, which is one of the most costly routes known to modern civilization. It is said that a hundred thousand people died from the unhealthiness of the climate while it was being con- structed. Some of the noted iron bridges for railroads are the Britannia over Menai Straits, built by Stephenson in 1850, 1,511 feet long; the Victoria over the St. Lawrence, built by Stephenson in 1859, 7,200 feet long; the St. Louis over the Mississippi, built by Eads in 1874, 1,524 feet long; the Wuzerabad over the Punjaub, 9,300 feet long, finished in 1875 ; the Cantilever over the Niagara below the Falls, built by the Michigan Central Railroad, 910 feet; the Brooklyn over the Hudson, 3,455 feet long, 210 feet high, built by Roebling, aided by his wife (begun in 1870, finished in 1883). Poughkeepsie Bridge is to be 2,694 feet long. The St.- Gothard railway starts from the Lake of Lucerne in Switzerland, passes through the nine-mile mountain tunnel, ST. GOTHARD RAILWAY 353 three thousand feet above the sea-level, and descends to Lugano on Lake Maggiore, Italy, a distance of a hundred miles, which is pursued in spirals and curves along the mountain-sides, and through tunnels and galleries of greater or less extent. Besides the great tunnel, with its length of nine and a quarter miles, there are fifty-two smaller ones, with an aggregate length of fifteen miles. The nature of the valley requires that several of these tunnels should be constructed in a spiral, instead of making, as is usual, long curves. In the narrow valley of the Reuss the road is doubled on itself, like a winding-stair ; and the difference in grade is surmounted within a tunnel. In one place the railroad rises thus over four hundred and fifty feet by means of three tunnels. Between Airolo and Lugano on the Italian side of the Alps, there are four other spiral tunnels, each of which is about a mile in length. The cost of this railroad was $47,600,000, contributed by the Italian and Swiss governments. The railroad bridges of the United States would reach from New York to Liverpool. 1 Some well-managed railroads are the Austrian Govern- ment road from Trieste, over the Austrian Alps, to Vienna ; the London and North Western road . in England ; the Boston and Albany Railroad in Massachusetts ; and the Pennsylvania Railroad, from Philadelphia to Pittsburg. Some railroads which reach high elevations are the Union Pacific, United States ; the railroad from Callao to Oroya in South America. This road crosses the Andes through a tunnel which is three miles above the sea, and it passes a mountain gorge on the highest bridge in the world. 1 For pictures of noted railroad bridges, see Scribner's Magazine for July, 1888. 354 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY Specimen Time-Table. BOSTON TO CITY OF MEXICO. Leave Boston about 6 P.M. . . Arrive New York 7 A.M., 233 miles. Leave New York (Pennsylvania Railroad) 8 A.M . . . Arrive St. Louis 7.30 P.M. second day, 1,298 miles. Leave St. Louis 9 P.M. . . Arrive Kansas City 9 A.M. third day, 1,6 1 o miles. Leave Kansas City at 10 A.M. . Arrive El Paso 4.30 P.M. fifth day, 2,456 miles. Leave El Paso 6.30 P.M. . . Arrive City of Mexico 7.30 A.M. eighth day, 3,883 miles. IMPORTANT WATER-ROUTES Natural Routes for Foreign Commerce. I. Liverpool to New York; to Quebec; to Bombay via Suez Canal, or round Cape of Good Hope; to Point de Golle, Madras, and Calcutta; to Singapore; to Hong Kong; to Melbourne; to Aspinwall ; to Para ; to Rio Janeiro. 2. New York to Liverpool: to Havana; to New Orleans; to Aspinwall ; to Para ; to Rio Janeiro ; to Valparaiso; to San Francisco ; to Cape Town. [The route across the Atlantic, from New York to Liver- pool, is one of the most dangerous in the world. Why? Give two or more reasons.] 3. San Francisco to Panama; to Callao; to Yokohama; to Hong Kong; to Honolulu; to Auckland and Melbourne; to Portland, Ore.; to Sitka. 4. Marseilles or Havre to ports in the Mediterranean; through the Suez Canal to Bombay,' etc. ; to Buenos Ayres; to Aspinwall; to Martinique; to New York. 5. The rivers Mersey,- Thames, Danube, Elbe, and Weser. WATER-ROUTES IN COMMERCE Natural Water-Routes for Domestic Commerce. 355 1. From the vicinity of Chicago, by the Mississippi River and its branches, to New Orleans. 2. From the Great Lakes, by the St. Lawrence River, to the ocean. 3. Down the Hudson River to New York. There are over fifty thousand miles of navigable rivers in North America, besides the Great Lakes witty their thou- sands of miles of fresh-water shores. Artificial Wat or- Routes for Domestic Commerce. United-States and Canadian Canals. 1. The Erie Canal connects the Hudson River and Lake Erie at Buffalo, 352 miles. It is used largely for transporting grain to the sea-board. 2. Three canals connect Lake Erie with the Ohio River, and are used for general merchandise. 3. Numerous canals are used in the valleys of Pennsylvania, and the Potomac Valley in Maryland, for transporting coal and iron ore from the mountains where they have been mined, to the cities where they are used. 4. The Welland Canal, from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, 27 miles, to avoid the Niagara River and Fails. 5. Several canals around rapids in the St. Lawrence River, near Montreal, such as the Lachine and Beauharnois canals. 6. The Rideau Canal, from Ottawa to Kingston, Lake Ontario. 7. A canal around the rapids in the St. Mary's River, between Lake Superior and Lake Huron. There are about four thousand miles of canal in the Middle and Central States. 356 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY Other Countries. Suez Canal, 92 miles; finished 1869; cost $85,000,000. Canals are numerous in England, France, Germany, Russia, India, Holland, and Austria. There are many in China; the most important is the Imperial Canal, from Pekin to Shanghai, the longest in the world, 2,100 miles, and the most used. The Vishney, in Russia, connects St. Petersburg with the Caspian Sea, 1,434 miles. Proposed Artificial Routes. 1. Panama Canal. 2. Cape-Cod Canal. These are now being constructed. [When finished, how will they affect trade ?] The assistance of the postal service, and lines of telegraph and telephone, is employed to direct all this commerce. Over one hundred and fifty thousand miles of telegraph are now daily used in the United States, and nearly three hundred thousand miles in Europe. Five ocean cables are in use now between the United States and Europe, and the traffic over them amounts to as much as fifty thousand words in a day. There is a line between England and India, China and Japan, France and West Indies, East Indies and Australia, Lisbon and Brazil. The facts of commerce may be presented in a variety of ways. Perhaps the most interesting are the three fol- lowing : 1. Emphasize the Great Commercial Centres of Trade. 2. Take a commercial trip round the world, starting near home, and gathering up the exports. CENTRES FOR RAW MATERIALS 357 3. Make out a list of the three leading exports from the three greatest exporting towns in each continent. This makes a pretty review lesson. The following were SPECIAL COMMERCIAL CENTRES IN 1888 [ The largest centres are generally mentioned first^\ RAW MATERIALS Caoutchouc. Para, Tamatav. Coffee. Rio Janeiro, Maracaibo, Santos, Batavia (Java), Vera Cruz, Padang. Coal. Philadelphia, Newcastle, Halifax. Copper. Lake Superior, Cornwall, Valparaiso, Sydney. Cotton. New Orleans, Mobile, Galveston, Savannah, Charleston, Calcutta, Alexandria. Fruits. Havana, Kingston, Malaga, Madeira Islands, Smyrna, Jack- sonville, Azores. Furs. London, Yakutsk, Victoria, Okhotsk, St. Petersburg, Sitka. Hides. Montevideo, Rio Janeiro, Cape Town, Vera Cruz. Gold. Melbourne, San Francisco, Russia, Auckland. Iron. Liverpool, Philadelphia, Pittsburg. Petroleum. Philadelphia, New York, Pittsburg, Baltimore. Rice. Charleston, Calcutta, Rangoon, Yokohama, Batavia. Salt. Saginaw, Syracuse, Turk's Island, Lisbon, Cracow (Poland). Silk. Canton, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Yokohama, Marseilles, Genoa, Leghorn. Silver. San Francisco, Acapulco (Mexico), Valparaiso. Spices. Batavia, Amboyna, Hong Kong, Singapore, Cayenne, Rio Janeiro. Sugar. Havana, Mauritius, Rio Janeiro, New Orleans, Batavia, Manilla, Honolulu. Sulphur. Messina (Sicily). Tea. Canton, Hankow, Foochow, Shanghai, Calcutta, Yokohama. Tin. Cornwall (England), Singapore. Tobacco. Virginia, Baltimore, Havana, Constantinople, New York, Manilla. 358 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY Wine. Marseilles, Bordeaux, Bremen, Oporto, Madeira Islands, Melbourne, Cape Town, Lisbon, San Francisco. Wheat. Chicago, New York, San Francisco, Dantzic, Odessa. Wool. Melbourne, San Francisco, Cape Town, Auckland, Valparaiso. OTHER ARTICLES Art. Paris, Rome, London. Fancy Goods. Paris, England, Philadelphia, New York, Boston. Iron. England; Pittsburg, Penn. Machinery. England. Ships. Glasgow. MANUFACTURED GOODS CLOTHING Cotton Goods. In England; Manchester, Glasgow, Preston: in United States : Lowell, Manchester, Lawrence, Fall River, New . Bedford, Atlanta ; Germany, Russia, France. Linen Goods. Belfast, Bremen, Hamburg. Silk Goods. Lyons, Avignon, Tours (France), Amsterdam, China, Japan. Woollen Goods. Leeds, Bradford, Bremen, Hamburg. In the United States. The New England States supply such manufactures as cotton cloth, boots, shoes, and " notions." The Middle States supply similar manufactures, and coal, iron, and petroleum. The Central States supply grain and meat. The North-Western States supply grain, lumber, copper, and iron ore. The Sotithern States supply cotton, rice, and sugar. The Rocky Mountain States and J^erritories supply gold and silver. California and Oregon supply gold, wheat, and wool. Commercial Trip round the World for Exports. [ The class will enjoy this all the more, if the teacher suggest that they imagine themselves on board of a great steamer like a " Cunarder".] Boston. Grain, cotton manufactures, bacon and hams, lard, leather, tobacco. A COMMERCIAL TRIP 359 New York. Breadstuff's, petroleum, pork, and lard. Philadelphia Wheat and flour, cotton manufactures, bacon and hams, petroleum. Charleston. Sea-Island cotton. New Orleans. Cotton, breadstuffs, oilcake. Vera Cruz. Silver, hennequen (or sisal hemp), coffee. Havana. Sugar, cigars, molasses. Para. India-rubber, Peruvian-bark. Rio Janeiro. Coffee, sugar, diamonds, hides, cotton. Buenos Ayres. Animal products, grain, wool. Valparaiso. Wheat, copper, wool, nitrate, sugar. San Francisco. Wheat, precious metals, cotton cloth, gunpowder, wine. Yokohama. Silk, tea, rice, cuttle fish, copper, camphor. Hong Kong. Tea, silk, sugar, straw-braid, hides, cotton, fire-crackers. Singapore. Spices, sugar, tin, indigo, and rattan. Batavia. Spices, tin. Melbourne. Gold, wool, live-stock, tin, sugar, coal. Calcutta. Grain, cotton, seeds, opium, jute, tea, rice, wool, indigo. Odessa. Grain, wool, hemp. Trieste. Sugar, wood, grain, clockwork, woollen manufactures. Marseilles. Wine, silk, woollen manufactures. Malaga. Fruits, wine, and raisins. Havre. Articles of taste and fashion made in Paris ; brandy. Amsterdam. Drugs, butter, iron, sugar. Riga. Flax, hemp, timber, cattle products, furs. Liverpool. Cotton manufactures, woollen manufactures, iron, and machinery. THE THREES OF COMMERCE First Set of Threes. \The largest in value mentioned first] i. EUROPE. a. Liverpool exports: I. Cotton manufactures. 2. Woollen manufactures. 3. Iron and machinery. b. Marseilles exports: I. Wine. 2. Silk. 3. Woollen manufac- tures. c. Hamburg exports : I. Woollen manufactures. 2. Sugar. 3. Silk manufactures. 360 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 2. NORTH AMERICA. a. New-York exports: i. Breadstuffs. 2. Petroleum. 3. Pork and lard. b. New-Orleans exports : i. Cotton. 2. Breadstuffs. 3. Oilcake. c. San Francisco exports: i. Wheat. 2. Precious metals. 3. Cotton cloth. 3. ASIA. a. Hong- Kong exports : I. Tea. 2. Silk. 3. Chinese wares. b. Yokohama exports : i. Silk. 2. Tea. 3. Rice. c. Calcutta exports : i. Grain. 2. Cotton. 3. Opium. Second Set of Threes. 1. SOUTH AMERICA. a. Rio Janeiro exports : i. Coffee. 2. Sugar. 3. Diamonds. b. Buenos Ayres exports : I. Animal products. 2. Wool. 3. Grain. c. Valparaiso exports : I. Wheat. 2. Copper. 3. Wool. 2. AUSTRALIA. a. Melbourne exports : i. Gold. 2. Wool. 3. Live-stock. b. Sydney exports : i. Wool. 2. Wheat. 3. Tin. c. Auckland exports : i. Wool. 2. Gold. 3. Lumber. 3. AFRICA. a. Alexandria exports : i. Cotton. 2. Cotton-seed. 3. Beans. b. Cape- Town exports: I. Diamonds. 2. Wool. 3. Ostrich feathers. c. Algiers exports : i. Grain. 2. Cattle. 3. Cork. CHAPTER XVII COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY -PRODUCTIONS, EXPORTS, AND IMPORTS THOSE who command the sea, command the trade of the world ; those who command the trade of the world, command the riches of the world, and thus command the world itself. Raleigh. BOOKS FOR CONSULTATION BROWN'S MANUAL OF COMMERCE. MARTIN'S STATESMAN'S YEAR BOOK. PARLIAMENT'S ANNUAL TRADE AND SHIPPING STATEMENT. SPOFFORD'S AMERICAN ALMANAC. (Published every March.) UNITED-STATES CONSULAR REPORTS. YEATS'S RECENT AND EXISTING COMMERCE. 362 CHAPTER XVII COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY -PRODUCTIONS, EXPORTS, AND IMPORTS FACTS TRADITIONARY GEOGRAPHY MODERN COMMERCE SPENDS MONEY GOODS CARRIED GREAT DISTANCES DIAMONDS OSTRICH -FEATHERS HOW TO TEACH COMMERCE THE WORLD'S PRODUCTIONS LEADING PRODUCTIONS OF LEADING COUNTRIES LEADING EXPORTS OF LEADING COUNTRIES LEADING IMPORTS OF LEADING COUNTRIES EXPORTS OF GREAT BRITAIN IMPORTS OF GREAT BRITAIN facts which follow, in reference to productions, -L exports, and imports, have been collected with the greatest care and labor, and are presented with confidence, coming, as most of them do, from the United-States Con- sular Reports, and from the Trade, Navigation, and Ship- ping Annual Statements presented to Parliament, England, in 1886. The statements herein made differ widely from some of our geographical text-books, because the text-books are giving traditionary geography, or teach commerce from a different standpoint than the real business of the present day. In all cases, in this book, the most important articles, according to value, are mentioned, rather than the peculiar articles of the country. For example : some of the best geographies teach that the exports of Mexico are " gold, silver, cattle, hides, and cochineal." The recent consular reports show that the exports from Mexico are, according to value, " silver, henne- 363 364 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY quen, woods, coffee, hides and skins, and vanilla." The geography referred to has only two right out of six. Very little gold is exported from Mexico at the present time ; and over twenty articles are mentioned in the consular report before cochineal is reached, by value of exports. The exports of Egpyt and India, as usually given, are not much nearer the facts in consular reports. If the faith of teacher and pupil in text-books is some- what shaken by the facts given below, taken from the highest and most recent authorities, no great harm will be done. The author asks that teacher and pupil may together search for the truth, and correct all errors stated in the following pages, remembering that " To err is human." Facts about Modern Commerce. The foreign commerce of the United States amounts to about $1,600,000,000 annually. Almost one-half of this commerce is with Great Britain, one-tenth with France, and about the same with Germany and with the West Indies. Fifty-five per cent, or over one-half of our foreign com- merce, passes through the port of New York. [Why is New York favorably situated to manage this commerce ?] Seventy-seven per cent of these exports are derived from agriculture, such as cotton and grain. Fourteen per cent come from manufactures, and seven per cent from mining. The value of the manufactured exports in 1880 was more than twice as much as it was in 1860. The most important imports of the United States are the following, named in order of value : Sugar and molasses, wool and woollen manufactures, silk MODERN COMMERCE 365 and silk manufactures ; chemicals, drugs, dyes, and medi- cines ; coffee, iron and steel, cotton goods. Two-thirds of the exports from the United States are now carried in steam-vessels. Four-fifths of the grain and flour from the West to the Atlantic seaboard is transported by rail, and only one-fifth by the Lakes, Erie Canal, and Hudson River. Much of the Southern cotton is now moved by rail. Great Britain has the most commerce with her various colonies ; then come, in order, the United States, France, Germany, Holland, Russia, and Belgium. The United States imports the most from Great Britain ; and then, in order, come Cuba, France, Germany, and Brazil. The United States exports the most to Great Britain ; then follow, in order, Germany, France, Cuba, and Brazil. One- fifth of the commerce of France is with the United States. Modern commerce and travel have built many great iron bridges ; steamers, costing millions of dollars apiece, which can cross the Atlantic Ocean in six days ; laid thousands of miles of cable ; tunnelled twice the Alps, once the Pyrenees ; crossed the Isthmus of Suez with railroad and canal, and made the Red Sea again a place of busy life, opening old harbors choked for a thousand years with mud and sand. The number of ships passing through the Suez Canal in 1886 was over three thousand, mostly English steamers. The canal now pays dividends of seven per cent on total cost. The canal shortens the voyage between England and the East by one-third ; that is, it enables two vessels to do the work that would require three by the Cape of Good Hope. 366 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY Modern commerce has greatly cheapened the cost of food ; so that flour can be made in the West (Minneapolis), and sold in Boston at an advance per barrel of only seventy- five cents. In 1815, in London, no one believed wheat would ever reach only eighty shillings a quarter; but wheat, in 1886, was raised in Minnesota, and carried to London, and sold for thirty shillings a quarter, at a fair profit. New Zealand now sends in one ship twenty thousand frozen carcasses of sheep to feed the millions of hungry mouths in London. Australia sends millions of tins of preserved fresh meats; and America sends cargoes of cattle, alive or dead. A merchant in Liverpool can send his order by cablegram to Chicago, four thousand miles away, for a thousand barrels of flour, and in twenty-one days receive the same at his store. In many a peaceful village nestling beneath the glaciers of the Alps, myriads of hands are at work on shoes for British feet, or clocks for American housekeepers, compen- sated for the distance from the market by the cheap transit. England pays out annually two hundred million dollars for foreign produce, which Professor Tanner and others think she could raise at home. Eggs from Copenhagen and Rotterdam are brought to New- York City, much to the disgust of the " Ohio Butter and Egg Packers' Association." The Express Business. Express companies in this country are now doing an immense business. These companies and the post -office department carry, at cheap rates, great quantities of goods, DIAMONDS AND OSTRICH-FEATHERS 367 not merely short, but long, distances. Some of the well- known express companies are Adams, United States, American, and National. Diamonds Are now exported from Port Elizabeth and Cape Town, from Rio Janeiro and Sydney. The United States imports mostly rough stones from Cape Town. The Brazilian fields are now almost abandoned. The new Rush mine of Kimberly, near the Vaal River, South Africa, has fur- nished so many diamonds during the last five years that the price is now only one-fourth of what it formerly was. Diamonds are irregular in shape, and unattractive in appear- ance, when first found. The cutting and polishing of the stones, is done principally at Amsterdam and Antwerp. Ostrich-Feathers Are brought to the United States from Port Elizabeth and Cape Town, Africa. Flocks of ostriches are found all over Cape Colony, and the Cape farmers buy and sell them as they do sheep ; fence the flocks in, grow crops for them, study their habits, and cut their feathers, as matters of business. The value of the feathers exported in 1882 was over five million dollars. The farmers became infatuated with the business when the feathers sold readily for two hundred and fifty dollars per pound, and they gave up wool-growing as too slow a way of making money. The number of ostriches has recently become so great, that the markets are overstocked with feathers, and the price has gone down to fifty dollars per pound ; so the farmers in some places are turning their birds loose upon the plains. 368 METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY Directions to Teachers. Do not ask the children to learn this mass of facts, but to use such of these facts as you recommend for reference and composition. Select some of the most important, write them on the board, and let the children compare one country with another in reference to amount and kind of leading productions or exports. Ask on the board such questions as these : What countries probably send hides to England? ivory? apples? meat? cotton? silk? rice? timber? England, France, and Germany export woollen -goods : what countries import these same goods ? If a ship from the United States sail for Liverpool, what will it carry out, and what bring back? What articles were probably carried in the following steamers? Steamers Sailing from New York. City of Richmond For Liverpool, March 25. Ethiopia . " Glasgow, March 26. Saale " Bremen, March 28. Wieland " Hamburg, March 29. Rotterdam ......... " Rotterdam, March 31. La Bretagne ...?..... " Havre, March 31. Zeeland .......... " Antwerp, March 31. Chateau Margaux '' Bordeaux, April 3. Geiser " Copenhagen, April 7. Zaandam ......... " Amsterdam, April 7. The daily imports and exports of Boston may be brought to the attention of the class by some selected member, who will perhaps read from the morning " Advertiser " extracts from the 3 2 3, 33*. 333, 3 68 > 379, 382, 388. Discoveries, 33. Dull Pupils, 7. Ear, 1 6. Earth's Daily Motion, 412. Rotation, 413. Yearly Motion, 414. Education, North America, 314-317. Egypt, Books on, 474. Elevations, 170. North America, 269. Emile, 9. Enthusiasm, 59 Europe, Books on, 441, 484. Poems on, 449. Exact Knowledge, 5. Exact Science, 6. Examination, 66. Experiment, 398. Exports, 330, 332, 369, 375-379, 3 82 - Foreign, 369 Leading, 375-379- Express Business, 366. Eye, 17. Feeling of Confidence, 6. Fishing, North America, 310. Fitch, 18. Foreign Mails, 150. Forests and Deserts, 187. Free Intercourse, 6. French Works, 503. Froebel, 18. Funny Lesson, 183. General Commerce, 346. General Culture. 35. General Intelligence, 35, Geographical Books, 453-507. Geographical Composition, 181. Geographical Grammar, 124. Geographical Readers, 4; 7. Geographical Scrap-Book, 174. Geographical Societies, 431. Geographical Stories, 498. Germany, Books on, 485. German Books, 505. Giant Trees, 290. Government, North America, 317. Grazing, North America, 308. Great Britain, Imports of, 382-384. Great Britain, Books on, 486. Great Dipper, 407. Great Lakes, North America, 273. Great Railroad Routes, 349-354. Greenland, 288. Habit of Attention, 15. Male's Book, 14. Hamilton, 8. Harper's Magazine, 427, 428. Heath's Progressive Maps, 118. Helps, 226, 228, 232, 239, 244, 249. Hemisphere, Northern, Southern, 157. Herodotus, 32. Highlands, North America, 264. Historical Geography, 168. History. 226, 228, 232, 238, 243, 247, Humboldt, 29. Ideas, 13. Illustrated Composition, 179, 181. Illustrated Works, 132. Imagination, 166. Importance, 31. Important Water-Routes, 354. Imports, 331, 332, 368, 380, 383. India, Books on, 479. Indians, Books on, 467. Industries, 371. Industries, Mediterranean, 163, 164. Inhabitants who live in a Wet or Dry Climate, 172. in a Warm or Cold, 174. Italy, Books on, 487. Japan, Books on, 481. Journeys, North America, 337. Knowledge, 5. Lakes, North America, 273. Language, North America, 311. Large Maps, 120. I Leading Exports, 375-379. ; Leading Imports, 380-382. j Leading Productions, 372-375. I Legendary Geography, 6. i Lena, 19. Life, North America, 295, 297. List of One Thousand Books, 456. Loan Collection, 134. London, 175. Mails, 150. , Manners and Customs North Amer- ica, 312-314. Manufactured Goods, 358. INDEX. 517 Manufacturing, N. America, 305, 306. Map-Drawing, 110-113 Map-Language, 91. Map-Questions, 25, 42. Map-Reading, 93. Maps, 92, 99-120, 154. Mariner's Compass, 394. Mathematical Geography, 385-424. Memorizing, 41. Mental Discipline, 26. Mexico, 290. Books on, 466. Mining, North America, 306. Miscellaneous Devices, 137, 139, 187. Miscellaneous Books, 443, 470, 472, 476, 482, 492, 494. Mississippi Valley, 171. Mitchell's Geography, 125. Model Lessons, 94, 189. Modern Geography, 32. Mont Blanc, Poem on, 445. Moon, 398, 420-422. Mouth of the Po, 155. Natural Divisions, North America, 291. Natural Water-Routes, 355. Nature Teaching, 9. Necker, 15. New England. Books on, 466. North America, 255-340, 433. Agriculture, 301, 304. Books on, 433, 464, 499. Brief History, 257. Climate, 291, 294. Commerce, 329-332. Comparative Size, 261. . Comparisons, 339, 340. Customs, 312-314. Education, 314-317. Elevations, 269. Fishing, 310. Government, 317. Great Lakes, 273. Grazing, 308. Highlands, 264. Journeys, 336. Language, 311. Life, 295, 297. Manners, 312-314. Map-Drawing, 112. Natural Divisions, 291. Manufacturing, 305, 306. Mining, 306. Occupation, 301. Plains, 270 Poems for Illustrations, 447. N. America, Political Divisions, 287. Population, 299. Position, 259. Productions, 323-329. Races, 298. Representative Cities, 333. River Systems, 273. Size, 261. Striking Characteristics, 258. Surface. 263. Trip round the Coast, 261. North Star, 395. No-study Method, 43. Noted California Farm, 302. Noted Trade Routes, 349. Objects, 78, 121, 123, 133-136, 249. Observations, 388, 395, 404, 409. Observing Powers, 13. Occupations, North America, 301. Ocean Currents, 293. Oceanica : Books on, 494. Poems on. 45 1. Odds and Ends, 165. Orbis Pictus, 124. Orderly Instruction, 10. Ostrich-Feathers, 367. Outline of Principles, 20. Outline of the World, 70. Oyster Farmer, 176. Panama Canal, 165. Papers and News, 172. Paris, 175. Payne, 8, 10. People of the Atlantic Coast, 290. Pestalozzi, 17. Physical Geography, 167. Physical Maps, 108. Pictures, 121, 123-132, 239, 244, 251- 2 53- Place Names, 451. Plains, North America, 269, 270. Plant Distribution, 154. Poems of Places, 443. Polar Discoveries, 34. Polar Regions, 289. Political Divisions, N. America, 287. Population, 147, 148. North America, 299. Position, North America, 259. Practical Object ot the Book, 4. Practical Suggestions, 50, 70, 227, 232, 241, 246, 253. Principles Involved, I Products, 149. 5 i8 INDEX. Productions, 369, 372. Leading, 372-375. World's, 369. Productions, North America, 323-329. Productions, in Color, 155. Progressive Maps, 1 14-1 19 Progressive Outline Maps, 116. Putty Maps, 107. Races, North America, 298. Railroad Routes, 349. Rainfall, 158. Raised Maps, 102. Raw Materials, 357. Rays. 399. Reading Hour, 71-73. Reading and Talking, 392, 403, 423. Recitation, 191, 207. Recreation Questions, 508. Reference Books, 68, 506. Relative Importance, 31. Repetition, 19. Representative Cities, N. America, 333. Reviews, 19, 158. Ritter, 27. River Systems, North America, 273. Rocky-Mountain Highlands, 196. Rocky Mountains, Books on, 468. Rousseau, 9. Routes, 349, 355. Rubber Pen, 84. Rulers, 173. Russia, Books on, 489. Sand Maps, 103-106. Schedule of Topics, 46, 48. Science of the Where, 26. Science for Children, 457. Science for Adults, 461. Sensation and Attention, 14. Shape of the Earth, 403. Shapes of Countries, 153. Siberia, Books on, 482. Poem on, 444. Sight, 18. Sign for the Thing, 19. Six Years Course, 221-254. Size of Continents, 139. of the Earth, {93. North America, 261. of other Countries, 140, 146, 151. Comparative, of Cities, 146, 147 Comparative, of Mountains, 140, 146 Comparative, ot United States, 741, 151. Sketch Maps, 162, 171. Solar Camera, 86, 87. Song of the Directions, 394. Soubriquets, 178, 179. Sources of Pictures, 129. of Information, 427. of Illustration, 427, 443. of Knowledge, 28. South America, 61, 67, 436. South, the, Books on, 469. Spain, Books on, 490. Spare, Miss, 135. Special Commercial Centres, 357. Special Information, 429. Spencer, 18. Statistics, 148, 149, 371. Steamers, 368. Stencil Maps, 82. Striking Characteristics. N. Am , 258. Study, 224, 227, 231, 237, 242, 246, 390, 400, 410. Study with Children, 16. Sugar-Cane, 175. Summer Saunterings, 79. Sun, 420. and Earth, 402. Surface, North America, 263. Surface Zones, 156. Switzerland, Books on, 491. Teaching Capacity, 5. Text-book Method, 39, 40. Threes of Commerce, 359. Thring, 8, 11. Tides, 422. Topical Method, 16, 45, 55, 64, 65. Topics, 46, 48, 237. for Reading Hour, 72. Trade Routes, 349. Transfer Maps, 82. Trans-Pacific Mails 152. Travels for Children, Books of, 459. for Adults, Books of. 46}. Trip round North America, 261. Turkey, Books on, 491. Tyrol, 175. | Upheavals and Depressions, 187. Vegetable Life, North America, 297. Water-Routes, 354, 355. West Indies, Books on, 469. White's Memory, n. World, Outline of, 70. Books on, 495. Wrong Methods, 39. r 00L2 S FOR THE WORKSHOP METHODS AND AIDS IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY By CHARLES F KING A.M. Head-master of the Dearborn School Boston Price $1.60 net " This is a work independent of any geography, and maybe used by teachers equally well with any of the authorized text-books. 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PUBLISHED BY LEE AND SHEPARD, 1O Milk Street, Boston. 'WHAT INTERESTS IS REMEMBERED." YOUNG FOLKS' History of the United States. BY THOMAS WENTWORTH HIGGINSON. Small quarto, fully illustrated. Price $1.20 net tfl From J. V. JACKMAN, Master of West Schools, Marlborough, Mass. " I have used Higginson's ' Young Folks' History ol the United States' ever since its first appearance, and I am satisfied that it is the best text-book on the subject that has ever been printed. " 1 have never yet seen a pupil that found it tiresome, nor has any pupil asked to be allowed to drop the study of history since we began to use it. Could more be said in favor of a text- book? " "a From B. B. RUSSELL, Master of Grammar School, Law- JS-- * re nee, Mass. > ~'j2 "We have used Higginsoh's 'Young Folks' History' for w. " ;j some time with satisfaction. The style is so interesting that c o H the study becomes a pleasure, and pupils are led to read the o'o-o heavier works by the thirst engendered by the study of this >^ 8 book." * c | 2 From L. F. WARREN, Master of Grammar School, Neivton, 8 re $ Mass. '5iP "We have used Higginson's 'Young Folks' History of the ^ v *2 United States' in our grammar schools for some time, and with K ver y satisfactory results. " .- MOTHERHOOD. Cloth. Full Gilt 1.50 LEE & SHEPARD Publishers Boston TEXT * ROOKS FOR THE KINDERGARTEN ARITHMETIC FOR YOUNG CHILDREN By HORACE GRANT American edition edited by Willard Small 50 cents "This little book belongs to the best class of agencies which are being brought forward by the new ideas and natural methods of education. The author understands young children, their need of simplicity, repetition, variety, and concrete or picture-like presentation; and he believes in making mental exertion a pleasure. We commend this book to all primary teachers and to mothers who would like to give the little people a play-spell while in the very act of training them to * easy reckoning.' " Christian Register. EXERCISES FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE SENSES FOR YOUNG CHILDREN By HORACE GRANT 50 cents " This excellent little work has been prepared for the amusement in instruction of the younger children, who are too young to learn to read and write. Its special object is to excite them to examine surrounding objects correctly, so that valuable knowledge may be obtained, while the attention, memory, judgment, and invention are duly exercised. It instructs while it pleases, and the acquiring of knowledge by the little one is closely connected with many pleasant bits of memory, always likely to be retained." Salem Observer. THE CHILD'S BOOK OF HEALTH By ALBERT F. BLAISDELL M.D. Boards 30 cents net By mail 35 cents " This book presents, in a manner interesting and intelligible to the youngest reader, the simplest physiological facts, the aim being to stimulate the little ones to learn and practise things which will promote their bodily health. The matter is arranged in easy lessons for schools. The print is large, and words simple and easily understood. Special reference is made to the effects of stimulants on the bodily health. The book is . useful in what it suggests as well as what it contains." Norwich Bulletin. NATURAL HISTORY PLAYS DIALOGUES AND RECITA- TIONS FOR SCHOOL EXHIBITIONS By LOUISA P. HOPKINS supervisor in Boston public schools Boards 30 cents net By mail 35 cents These are written for a class of pupils of from seven to twelve years of age, and are designed for concerts or part-recitation and reading. The " move- ment plays " combine with the text many imitations of the natural movements of animals represented, after the manner of the Froebel kindergarten plays. Incidentally the children are taught facts concerning the structure, habits, food, and haunts of birds, beasts, and insects. Sold by all booksellers or sent by mail postpaid on receipt of price LEE AND SHEPARD Publishers Boston KINDERGARTEN JREASURES MOTHER-PLAY AND NURSERY SONGS By FRIEDRICH FROEBEL Translated from the German by Miss Jarvis and Miss Dwight Edited by ELIZABETH P. PEABODY Quarto Boards $2.00 " It is a large quarto in form, and is filled with illustrations and music. It is charmingly adapted for mothers who wish to develop their children's facul- ties in the highest and best manner. It commences with songs appropriate for the first movements of the little limbs, and pictures the play that accom- panies the music. It carries on the delightful process in harmony with the growth of the child, making the limbs, the features, the senses, birds and animals, and the simple sports of children the teachers in this system of train- ing, the inspiration for the bright nursery songs. The process is pleasantly illustrated in the pictures, the quaintness and simplicity of the German sketches adding to the attraction ot the text. Wise are the mothers who bring up their children with ' Mother-Play ' for a teacher, and fortunate the children who enjoy such instruction; for self-respect and politeness, kindness and gen- erosity, rhythmical motion, music and poetry grow with their growth, and strengthen with their; strength." Providence Journal. REMINISCENCES OF FRIEDRICH FROEBEL By BARONESS B. VON MARENHOLZ-BiiLOW Translated by Mrs. Horace Mann With a sketch of the life of Friedrich Froebel by Miss Emily Shirreff xamo. Cloth $1.50 " A most delightful work: one that possesses all the absorbing interest of a first-class German romance, while it presents pencil sketches and reminis- cences connected with the distinguished author of the kindergarten system that most beautifully illustrate the honesty, simplicity, and earnestness of his lovely character, which so admirably combined the sterner elements of indomi- table perseverance with the tender, loving nature of a child. The kindergar- ten has been adopted by the civilized world, and the name of Froebel has become immortal. Attached to these ' Reminiscences' is a sketch of the life of Froebel, by Emily Shirreff, president of the Froebel Society of London." HOW SHALL MY CHILD BE TAUGHT? Practical Pedagogy or the Science of Teaching* By Mrs. LOUISA PARSONS HOPKINS super- visor in Boston public schools Cloth $1.50 " The author of this excellent work, in the body of the book, answers very satisfactorily the question, ' How shall my child be taught? ' Mrs. Hopkins has had a large and very successful experience in the training of children, and her work and its' results are sufficient proof that children love to learn, that they are eager for knowledge, and that, with proper methods, based upon correct principles, they will learn, and will accomplish a wonderful amount of work. An essay by Thomas W. Higginson in which he indorses the authoress' methods, and pronounces a high encomium upon her work, is em- bodied in the book. This book is worthy of careful study by every primary teacher who seeks to employ approved methods in her work with young children." School Teacher. Sold by Alt booksellers or sent by mail postpaid on receipt of price LEE AND SHEPARD Publishers Boston p OPULAR * ^ HOME AND * READING* [ * * SCHOOL BY POPULAR AUTHORS JANE ANDREWS' BOOKS THE SEVEN LITTLE SISTERS WHO LIVE ON THE ROUND BALL THAT FLOATS IN THE AIR New edition, with an introduction by LOUISA PARSONS HOPKINS Illustrated School edition cloth 50 cents Library edition cloth 80 cents THE SEVEN LITTLE SISTERS PROVE THEIR SISTERHOOD (Former title EACH AND ALL) Illustrated School edition cloth 50 cents Library edition cloth 80 cents FEN BOYS WHO LIVED ON THE ROAD FROM LONG AGO TO NOW 20 illustrations Cloth 80 cents GEOGRAPHICAL PLAYS FOR YOUNG FOLKS AT SCHOOL-AND AT HOME Price each play in paper 15 cents postage paid i United States 2 Europe 3 Asia 4 Africa and South America 5 Australia and Isles of the Sea 6 The Commerce of the World The above bound in one volume Cloth $1.00 postage paid GRADED SUPPLEMENTARY READING For use in schools By Professor TWEED, late Supervisor of Boston Public Schools 12 parts ready: Nos. i, 4, 7 and 10, ist year primary; Nos 2, 5, 8 and n, 2d year primary; Nos. 3, 6, 9 and 12, 3d year primary In brown paper covers 4 cents each; by mail 5 cents The four parts for each year bound together in boards 20 cents each First year primary in one volume boards 20 cents Second year primary in one volume boards 20 cents Third year primary in one volume boards 20 cents HISTORICAL READINGS YOUNG FOLKS' HISTORY 0^ THE UNITED STATES By THOMAS WENTWORTH HIGGINSON With over 100 illustrations $i.a YOUNG FOLKS' BOOK OF AMERICAN EXPLORERS By THOMAS WENTWORTH HIGGINSON Illustrated $1.20 HANDBOOK OF ENGLISH HISTORY Based on Guest's " Lectures on English History, ".and brought down to the year 1880 With a Supplementary Chapter on the English Literature of the igth Century By F. H. UNDERWOOD, LL.D. With maps, chrono- logical tables etc. School edition 90 cents YOUNG PEOPLE'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND By GEORGE MAKEPEACE TOWLE Illustrated School edition 60 cents YOUNG PEOPLE'S HISTORY OF IRELAND By GEORGE MAKEPEACE TOWLE With introduction by JOHN BOYLE O'REILLY Illustrated School edition 60 cents HEROES OF HISTORY By GEORGE MAKEPEACE TOWLE Illustrated Vasco de Gama: his Voyages and Adventures School edition 60 cents Pizarro: his Adventures and Con- quests School edition 60 cents Magellan : or The First Voyage Round the World School edition 60 cents Marco Polo: his Travels and Adven- tures School edition 60 cents Raleigh: his Voyages and Adven- tures School edition 60 cents Drake the Sea King of Devon School edition 60 cents THE STORY OF OUR COUNTRY By Mrs. L. B. MONROE 80 cents Net Prices Ten per cent additional by mail or express prep lid LEE AND SHEPARD Publishers Boston TEE UNO SHEPARD'S "HUSSICS FOR L POPULAR * * * y HOME ^ SCHOOL' Price 30 cents net By mail 35 cents FOR THIRD, FOURTH AND FIFTH YEARS IN SCHOOL Miss West's Class in Geography By Miss SPARHAWK Lessons on Manners By Miss WIGGIN Natural History Plays By LOUISA PARSONS HOPKINS Young Folks' Pictures and Stories of Animals Pictures and Stories of Quadrupeds y M Pictures and Stories of Birds ''"*' Pictures and Stories of Fishes and Reptiles SanbOffl Pictures and Stories of Bees and other Insects Pictures and Stories of Sea and Kiver Shells With 500 illustra- Pictures and Stories of Sea-urchins and Corals tlons I. Simple Poems and Easy Rhymes ) Edited by Protessc. II. Select Poetry for School and Home > CAMPBELL Paper 200. III. Choice Poetry for School and Home ) net, boards 300. net A Kiss for a Blow By HENRY CLARKE WRIGHT Child's Book Of Health By Dr. BLAISDELL FOR FOURTH AND FIFTH YEARS IN SCHOOL Robinson Crusoe Arranged for Schools by W. T. ADAMS Arabian Nights' Entertainments (Selections) Arranged for Schools by Dr. ELIOT, formerly Superintendent Boston Schools Stories from American History By N. S. DODGE The Boston Tea-Party and other Stories of the Revolution Relating many Daring Deeds of the Old Heroes By H. C. WATSON FOR FIFTH AND SIXTH YEARS IN SCHOOL Noble Deeds of Our Fathers as told by Soldiers of the Revolution gathered around the Old Bell of Independence By H. C. WATSON The Flower People (Child's Talk with the Flowers) By Mrs. HORACE MANN The Nation in a Nutshell By GEORGE MAKEPEACE TOWLE Snort Studies of American Authors By T. W. HIGGINSON These books arc well made, good print and paper, strongly bound in boards, with many illustrations, and of an exceedingly interesting character They are in use for supplementary reading in hundreds of schools in various parts of the country New volumes will be added to this list from time to time, the object being to furnish good reading for home and school at a low price For other supplementary readings see the page headed " Popular Reading for Home and School by Popular Authors " LEE AND SHEPARD Publishers Boston UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW DEC 7 1'V OCT 29 1917 AUG JUN 22 30m-6,'14 UbUlO / *** n